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THE 
 
 FARMER'S DICTIONARY: 
 
 A VOCABULARY 
 
 OF THE TECHNICAL TERMS RECENTLY INTRODUCED INTO AGRI- 
 CULTURE AND HORTICULTURE FROM VARIOUS SCIENCES, 
 AND ALSO A COMPENDIUM OF 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMIIG: 
 
 THE LATTER CHIEFLY FROM THE WORKS OP THE REV. W. L. 
 
 RHAM, LOUDON, LOW, AND YOUATT, AND THE 
 
 MOST EMINENT 
 
 AMERICAN AUTHORS. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 D. P. GARDNER, M.D., 
 
 HONOBATIT MEMBER OF SEVERAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 N E W - Y O R K : 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 82 CLIFF STREET. 
 
 1849. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by 
 
 Harper & Brothers, 
 In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 
 
5V// 
 
 Or 
 
 X 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Farmer's Dictionary was undertaken originally for 
 the purpose of supplying a want long felt by the editor, in 
 common with the agricultural community, of a short expla- 
 nation of the many technical terms introduced into the works 
 written on farming. Much opposition has arisen to the use 
 of technical words in these productions, and our journals are 
 full of complaints, from respectable men, against the innova- 
 tion. If, however, words having so precise a meaning, and, 
 in many instances, conveying so much information, be dis- 
 carded, what shall be substituted in their place ? It is obvi- 
 ously impossible for every writer who has occasion to use 
 the terms hybrid, hydrogen, or eremacausis, to explain in de- 
 tail what these mean ; and if the attempt were made, our 
 treatises would present the most tiresome examples of tau- 
 tology. Each farmer may satisfy himself with a set of arbi- 
 trary terms, which convey all the information he desires ; but 
 they will not answer if he wishes to impart that inforination 
 to others. There is, perhaps, no greater drawback to the 
 advancement of our art than the indefinite words used among 
 us — words which are often peculiar to a small district, and 
 which are used to designate a variety of objects in different 
 parts of the country. We find one writer using the word 
 " withers" for the shoulders of an animal, another for the 
 womb. 
 
 The friends of agricultural improvement, and especially 
 our journalists, should use all exertions to establish a suitable 
 nomenclature. The art has arrived at that stage that this is 
 the greatest object to be accomplished. It will open to the 
 practical man the extensive information of the scientific world, 
 and will enable the theorist to study his generalizations by 
 consulting the works of the true farmer. I have not, in at- 
 tempting to carry out my original design of preparing a 
 vocabulary, thought it advisable to insert every provincial 
 phrase, but have taken only those words in common use 
 among farmers, and which have become somewhat fixed by 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 being frequently introduced into essays. I have thought it 
 useful, when words were occasionally met with a strange 
 signification, to omit them as an error in language ; nor has 
 it appeared conformable with my object to introduce the well- 
 known words of our language which have a place in the 
 common dictionaries. In this compilation I am necessarily 
 under infinite obligations to others, especially to Loudon, 
 Rham, Youatt, Stephens, Johnson, Deane, Young, Buel, Arm- 
 strong, Ellsworth, Colman, Low, Brande, Clater, &c., &c., 
 and our journalists. My task has not been, however, with- 
 out labour; for I could find no vocabulary such as that I 
 desired to produce already in existence, to serve me as a 
 model ; and if any merit should be awarded me for this un- 
 dertaking, it may be claimed on the ground that the Farm- 
 er's Dictionary is the first book of its kind. This will also, 
 I trust, avert much of the criticism to which I know the work 
 is obnoxious. So much for my design, and the manner in 
 which it has been accomplished. 
 
 In addition to the vocabulary, my friends have suggested 
 the introduction of short and practical essays on the opera- 
 tions of farming ; and these have been introduced the more 
 readily, from the facility with which they were procured from 
 the works of the Rev. W. L. Rham, one of the best practical 
 writers of Britain, and others, as Loudon and Low, of great 
 merit, and but little known in the United States. In this part 
 of the work, care has been taken to edit the essays so as to 
 make them of practical value in this country. To the jour- 
 nalists of the United States I am also deeply indebted for the 
 matter introduced, and for which I have uniformly given 
 them credit. 
 
 To most of the crops raised in the United States, an Ajj- 
 pendix has been made of the composition of the ashes, and 
 remarks offered on the special manures. This has been 
 done in consideration of the existing desire for information 
 on the topic, and the impression that the most suitable ma- 
 nures for plants are discoverable by a study of their ashes. 
 The best theories of the chejnical school of agriculture are 
 also introduced. In this part of the work, I am indebted to 
 the labours of Chaptal, Davy, Braconnot, Saussure, Berthier, 
 Berzelius, Sprengel, Hermbstaed, Paycn, Johnston, Boussin- 
 gault, Dumas, Thaer, Liebig, Mulder, Fowncs, Fresenius, 
 Will, Hertwig, Kane, Shephard, and other chemists. 
 
 D. P. Gardner. 
 
THE 
 
 FARMER'S DICTIONARY. 
 
 ABO 
 
 ABATTOIR. A building for the 
 slaughtering of animals. 
 
 ABDOMEN. The region of the 
 body containing the stomach, intes- 
 tines, liver, spleen, &.c. In insects it 
 is the third division of the trunk, in 
 spiders the second. 
 
 ABIES. The Fir genus of trees. 
 See Pmus. 
 
 ABNORMAL. Irregular or unu- 
 sual: applied to deviations from the 
 ordinary development of parts of an- 
 imals or plants. 
 
 ABORTION. Miscarriage. In 
 veterinary surgery, miscarriage, slip- 
 ping, slinking, casting, or warping, all 
 meaning the expulsion of the young 
 at so early a period of pregnancy as 
 to render it impossible for it to live. 
 The immediate causes appear to be 
 the death of the fetus, or derange- 
 ment in the functions of the womb or 
 its dependencies, arising from some 
 external cause or causes operating 
 on tlie mother. Among these causes 
 may be reckoned too much or too 
 little food, producing fullness or ema- 
 ciation ; sudden fright or sympathy 
 with certain smells or sights, sucli as 
 the smell or sight of blood, of bones, 
 of horns, and particularly of the abor- 
 ted fetus of another animal. Acci- 
 dents, also, such as falls, bruises, 
 over- driving, or fatigue, and the like, 
 may frequently bring on abortion. 
 
 The signs of approaching abortion 
 are, great languor, uneasiness, and 
 restlessness, sometimes a discharge 
 of bloody matter, and the sudden fill- 
 ing of the udder, similar to the signs 
 of approaching delivery. 
 
 Abortion in the Marc. — Abortions 
 very frequently happen among mares. 
 This often arises in consequence of 
 over-exertion during the latter period 
 of pregnancy. Mares are liable, also, 
 very frequently, to various accidents 
 A2 
 
 ABO 
 
 in their pastures, which may be the 
 cause of their slipping their foal, such 
 as kicks, tumbling into holes and 
 ditches, over-exerting themselves to 
 get over fences, and the like. On 
 this account, when a mare is near 
 her time, she should be kept by her- 
 self, in some convenient place. But 
 there is another, and, we suspect, a 
 very general cause of these accidents 
 in mares ; we mean a stinting of them 
 in their food, either in quantity or 
 quality. It appears, indeed, that some 
 imagine that the mare, when she is 
 in foal, may be turned out almost any- 
 where ; but this opinion is ill-found- 
 ed ; for, although she does not require 
 to be kept so high in condition as 
 when she is at hard work, yet she is 
 not to be turned out into a pasture 
 where she may be in a manner starv- 
 ed : but how often do we see the 
 mare in foal on the worst piece of 
 ground in the whole farm, exposed, 
 during the rigorous winter season, to 
 endure the cold, as well as to put up 
 with scanty food ? On the other hand, 
 when the mare is not worked at all, 
 and indulged with too high keep, she 
 is almost equally in danger of abor- 
 tion, her high condition having a ten- 
 dency to cause inflammation and oth- 
 er disorders ; and these, deranging the 
 reproductive organs, frequently pro- 
 duce miscarriage. It would seem, 
 then, that moderate exercise and diet 
 are best suited as means to avoid the 
 misfortune of the premature exclu- 
 sion of the foal. 
 
 Abortion in the Cow. — Abortion oc- 
 curs oftener in the cow than in all 
 other domestic animals put together. 
 Perhaps it is one of the greatest an- 
 noyances the proprietor of cows has 
 to encounter. The causes are fre- 
 quently involved in obscurity ; but it 
 may be mentioned that an extremely 
 
ABO 
 
 hot and foul cow-house will now and 
 then produce alwrtion. and similar to 
 those in maros. Anythini,' wliatov- 
 er, indeed, that seriously affects the 
 health of the animal in general, or 
 the state of the reproductive origans 
 in particular, may do so. But abortion 
 occurs again and again when no such 
 causes as those enumerated can be 
 traced. The disease, if such it may 
 be called, as we think it may, is even 
 said to be infectious. No sooner does 
 it show itself in one animal than it is 
 seen in another and another, till it 
 has spread over the most part of the 
 cow-house. Some say this is to be 
 attributed to the odour arising from 
 the things evacuated. Possibly it 
 may be so ; there can be no great 
 harm, however, in acting as if we 
 were assured that the mischief has its 
 origin in the source so commonly sup- 
 posed, provided we do not shut our 
 eyes to any other which accident or 
 investigation may reveal. In the 
 mean time, the number of abortions 
 may be diminished by carefully avoid- 
 ing all those causes which are known 
 to be capable of producing it. Let the 
 cows be regularly fed ; let their food 
 be good, and in proper quantities ; let 
 them have water as often as they will 
 take it ; avoid sudden exposure to 
 cold or heat ; and, above all, let the 
 cow-house be well ventilated. Pro- 
 hibit all manner of rough usage on 
 the part of those who look after the 
 cows, whether they be pregnant or 
 not. If any of them accumulate flesh 
 too rapidly, gradually reduce their al- 
 lowance ; and, on the other hand, if 
 any become emaciated, discover the 
 cause and remedy it, always by slow 
 degrees. Sudden changes in the mat- 
 ter or mode of feeding should also be 
 avoided. The same sort of diet does 
 not agree equally well with all the 
 cows, and this, in general, is indica- 
 ted by undue relaxation or constipa- 
 tion of the bowels ; this should be 
 watched, and removed at once. At- 
 tention to these, and many other mi- 
 nor circumstances, will amply repay 
 the proprietor for the little additional 
 trouble. 
 It is a remarkable feature in the his- 
 G 
 
 ABO 
 
 tory of this complaint, that those an- 
 imals that have once miscarried are 
 particularly liable to do so again at ' 
 the same period of their succeeding 
 pregnancy. Greater care is therefore 
 recpiisite to guard against those caus- 
 es which do, or are supposed to excite 
 it. The treatment of abortion, when 
 it does take place, differs not from 
 that adopted in cases of parturition, 
 only that the cow which miscarries 
 should be removed, with all that be- 
 longs to her, from among pregnant 
 cows. 
 
 If the signs of approaching abortion 
 be discovered early, the accident may 
 sometimes be prevented. If the cow 
 is in good condition, then immediately 
 let it be bled to the extent of five or 
 six quarts, and the bowels opened 
 with half a pound of Epsom salts, two 
 ounces of Glauber's, or three or four 
 ounces of castor oil, administered in 
 a quart of gruel ; but if the cow is in 
 very poor condition, and the miscar- 
 riage is anticipated from her having 
 been exposed to cold, avoid bleeding, 
 and give her a warm gruel drink, with 
 an ounce of laudanum in it. If after 
 this abortion does take place, let her 
 be kept in a comfortable place by her- 
 self; and if the after-birth has not 
 passed off. let no injudicious and un- 
 necessary administration of violent 
 forcing medicines be given. Nature, 
 with a little assistance, is generally 
 equal to the perfect restoration of the 
 animal. 
 
 Abortion hi the Sheep. — Ewes are 
 subject to abortion, in consequence 
 of the numerous accidents they are 
 liable to. A pack of hounds in pursuit 
 of a hare got among a flock of sheep 
 belonging to a farmer, and so hurried 
 and alarmed them, that thirty out of a 
 flock of two hundred ewes premature- 
 ly dropped their lambs. It is the same 
 in sheep as in the other cases of do- 
 mestic animals ; scarcity of food, and 
 exposure to severe cold, having a 
 great tendency to make the ewes pre- 
 maturely drop their lambs, or produce 
 them weakly and crippled at the full 
 time ; and although there may be a 
 little danger in giving too much food, 
 such as allowing them to feed all the 
 
ABS 
 
 •winter on turnips, the danger is tri- 
 fling compared witli the starving sys- 
 tem.— (.V;7/fr.) 
 
 ABORTIVE. Deficient. A com- 
 mon term in botany, and signifying 
 the absence of stamens or pistils, 
 whereby fruit cannot be produced ; 
 but also used to designate the partial 
 or complete obliteration of any other 
 organ, as the leaf, petals, carpels, dec. 
 
 ABRAXAS. A genus of butterfly 
 (Lepidopterous) insects of the family 
 of geometers ; one of which, the A. 
 grossidariata, is the well-known goose- 
 berry moth, the caterpillar of which 
 destroys the leaves of currant and 
 gooseberry bushes. 
 
 ABS C E S S. A gathering or tu- 
 mour containing pus ; it is the result 
 of accidents or impaired health ; and 
 is only of moment when it atTects 
 internal organs or is produced near 
 joints. Abscesses in joints, especial- 
 ly the hock joint of the horse, oft- 
 en produce incurable lameness, and 
 those of internal organs destroy life 
 by enfeebling the system. Superfi- 
 cial abscesses are to be opened freely 
 at their lowest point when the pus is 
 well formed ; and poultices are to be 
 applied to encourage the disciiarge : 
 the wound must be kept clean, and 
 dressed daily. It is advisable to hind- 
 er the formation of the abscess by low 
 diet, and scarifying the part with a 
 lancet ; but this is only serviceable in 
 the first stages. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. In vetcrbmry 
 medicine, drugs that are given inter- 
 nally for the purpose of neutralizing 
 any acid which forms in the stomach 
 and bowels, in consequence of impair- 
 ed digestion. Prepared chalk is gen- 
 erally used for this purpose ; or car- 
 bonate of soda. Those medicines are 
 likewise termed absorbents which 
 are applied externally for absorbing 
 moisture. Starch, calamine, flour, 
 and the like, are employed in this way. 
 They are sometimes dusted between 
 folds of the skin when galled, and raw 
 from friction, blisters, or grease. 
 They are likewise useful in canker 
 of the horse's foot, foul in the foot of 
 cattle, foot-rot in sheep, and sores 
 between the toes of dogs ; and they 
 
 ABCr 
 
 are beneficial in some forms of 
 mange, in slaying bleeding, and as- 
 sisting the cure of a wounded joint. 
 
 Absorbents. In physiology, a 
 class of vessels whose office is to 
 convey the product of digestion and 
 the residue of nutrition into the cir- 
 culation, to be mixed with and repair 
 the waste of the blood. They are 
 divided into lacteals and lymphatics. 
 The former are all situated in the cav- 
 ity of the abdomen ; and by extreme- 
 ly minute mouths, opening on the in- 
 ner surface of the stomach and intes- 
 tines, they receive the nutritious por- 
 tion of the food, and carry it to a ves- 
 sel which runs along the left side of 
 the spine, and which, in its turn, 
 empties itself into the left jugular 
 vein. 
 
 The lymphatics are distributed over 
 every portion of the frame. The uses 
 of the lymphatics are to remove the 
 residue of nutrition ; and, when the 
 supply of food is deficient, to remove 
 such portions of the body as can be 
 spared and converted into blood. The 
 lymphatics ultimately empty their 
 contents into the same vessel as the 
 lacteals, and they follow, in their dis- 
 tribution through the body, the same 
 course as the veins. In the horse 
 they are liable to a disease termed 
 farcy ; and in all animals they are 
 frequently inflamed in the neighbour- 
 hood of a sore. 
 
 ABSORBENT SOILS. Soils in 
 such a state of improvement, or of so 
 good a quality as to absorb moisture 
 from the air. 
 
 ABSORPTION. The imbibition 
 
 I of fluids. In plants this takes place 
 
 ! chiefly by the swelling terminations 
 
 i of the rootlets (the spongioles). In 
 
 i very damp weather, leaves and the 
 
 green stems also absorb moisture 
 
 from the air. Fluids and gases only 
 
 can be absorbed, no insoluble matters 
 
 entering plants. Absorption in ani- 
 
 mals is carried on by the lacteals and 
 
 ' lymphatics. 
 
 ABSTERGENTS. Medicines used 
 ! for resolving tumours. They are usu- 
 ally stimulating. 
 
 I ABUTMENT. The solid part of a 
 1 pier from which an arch springs. 
 
ACI 
 
 ACI 
 
 ACACIA. Spinous leguminous 
 trees, with small flowers collected in 
 spikes or heads ; they are usually of 
 small size. Two or three insig- 
 nificant species belong to the United 
 States. The locust is often improp- 
 erly called by this name. 
 
 ACARl. The family of mites. 
 ACCIPITRKS. The order of birds 
 containing the hawks, eagles, and 
 similar birds of prey. 
 
 ACCLIMATE. To accustom or 
 mure animals or vegetables to a par- 
 ticular climate. 
 
 ACER. The generic name of the 
 maples. 
 
 ACERANS. A family of wingless 
 insects without antennaj. 
 
 ACEROSE. In botany, leaves 
 which are thin and sharp, such as 
 those of the pine-trees. 
 
 ACETABULUM. In anatomy, 
 acetahvlum signifies the cavity of the 
 hip joint. In entomology, it is the 
 socket on the trunk in which the leg 
 is planted. 
 
 ACETARIOUS PLANTS. Salad 
 plants. 
 
 ACETATES. Salts containing 
 acetic acid, of which the acetate of 
 lead or sugar of lead is the most im- 
 portant in the arts. 
 
 ACETIC ACID. See Vinegar. 
 ACHENIUM, AKENIUM. A small 
 bony fruit, containing a single seed, 
 which does not adhere to the shell or 
 pericarp, nor open when ripe. 
 
 ACHLAMYDEOUS. Plants which 
 have neither calyx nor corolla, and 
 whose flowers are consequently des- 
 titute ofa covering, or naked. 
 
 ACICULAR. Sharp, like a needle. 
 ACIDS. For the most part, sharp, 
 sour bodies, which redden litmus, and 
 combine with metallic oxides or bases 
 to form salts. Many are, however, 
 destitute of sour taste. They are di- 
 vided into organic and inorganic : the 
 latter constitute the mineral acids. 
 The organic acids are divided into 
 vegetable and animal acids. The fol- 
 lowmg are interesting in agriculture : 
 Mineral Acids. 
 The sulphuric. See Sulphur. 
 Muriatic. See Chlorine. 
 Silicic. See Sand. 
 Phosphoric. See Phoaphorui. 
 8 
 
 Vegetable Acids. 
 
 Nitric. See Silrogen. 
 Acplic. See Vinegar. 
 Carbonic. See Carbon. 
 Tannic. See Tannin. 
 Gnllic. See Tannin. 
 I'russic. See Hydrocyanic acid. 
 Humic. See Humus. 
 
 Oxalic acid in the free state is found 
 in the hairs of the Ciccr arictinum, or 
 chick pea. It is very common in com- 
 bination with potash, in sorrels, docks, 
 rhubarbs, &c., and with lime in lich- 
 ens. It is a very soluble, crystalline, 
 colourless solid, of intense sourness, 
 and highly poisonous. The composi- 
 tion is C; O3 -f HO, the HO (water) 
 being replaced by bases. A solution 
 is used as a test for lime, which it 
 precipitates from its solutions as a 
 white, insoluble oxalate of lime. 
 
 Tartaric acid. Combined with pot- 
 ash, it abounds in the juice of the 
 grape, and is also found in tamarinds, 
 bilberries, &c. It is a white, crys- 
 talline bodv, of the composition Cg 
 H4 Oi -\- 2 HO, and is bibasic. The 
 racemic acid is isomeric. A solu- 
 tion precipitates potash in the form 
 of the white crystalline bitartrate 
 (cream of tartar). 
 
 Benzoic acid gives an aroma to 
 many balsams, sweet-scented grass, 
 &c. Its formula is Cu H., O3 + HO, 
 and it is considered an hydrated oxyde 
 of benzoyl, or Bz. O -f HO, 
 
 Citric acid. This is the sour prin- 
 ciple of lemons, cranberries, cherries, 
 gooseberries, &c. It is a very solu- 
 ble, crystalline solid, of the composi- 
 tion Ci; H.^ Oji -f 3 HO ; but the crys- 
 tals contain 1 and 2 atoms of water 
 of crystallization besides. 
 
 Malic acid is the acid body of un- 
 ripe apples, pears, plums, &c. In the 
 insulated condition, it is a deliques- 
 cent crystalline substance of intense 
 sourness, composed of Cs H^ O3 -+- 
 2 HO. 
 
 Besides these, all oily bodies con- 
 tain one or more acids. See Oils. 
 
 The animal acids are enumerated 
 under that head. The acids in plants 
 are, for the most part, combined with 
 bases : potash and lime are the most 
 common ; but magnesia, soda, alu- 
 mina, and iron are also found. Oc- 
 
ACU 
 
 casionally they are united with vege- 
 table alkalies. 
 
 As food, the acids are not of nauch 
 moment ; they do, however, serve to 
 sustain the heat of the body by fur- 
 nishing carbon for the respiratory 
 function. 
 
 ACINACIFORM. Of a curved fig- 
 ure, like the cimeter. 
 
 ACINUS. The small and separate 
 carpels of a compound succulent fruit. 
 ACOXITINE. The poisonous al- 
 kaloid of Monk's-hood. 
 
 ACORN. The fruit of the oak. 
 That of the live oak and other species 
 is sweet and agreeable : it is an ad- 
 mirable food for pigs, and in England 
 commands 37V cents the bushel. 
 
 AC0TYLED(3NS. Plants desti- 
 tute of seed-lobes, the cryptogamia 
 of Linnaeus, including fungi, mosses, 
 sea-weeds, ferns. 
 
 ACRE. A standard land meas- 
 ure. The imperial acre is subdivided 
 into 
 
 4 roods, each rood 40 perches. 
 160 perches, 16 feet and a half 
 each. 
 4840 square yards, 9 feet each. 
 43,560 square feet, 144 inches 
 
 each. 
 174,240 squares of six inches each, 
 36 inches each. 
 6,272,640 inches, or squares of one 
 inch each. 
 From this table the farmer can 
 readily discover how many plants can 
 he set in the acre, according as they 
 are one yard, one foot, &.C., apart 
 each way. 
 
 ACROGENS. The same as cryp- 
 togamia or acotyledons. 
 
 ACRID. A biting, nauseous taste, 
 often producing blistering, belonging 
 to many poisonous plants. 
 ACROLEIN. See Glycerine. 
 ACROSPIRE. The young up- 
 ward shoot of germinating seeds. 
 ACRYDIUM. A genus of locusts. 
 ACTINOLITE. A variety of horn- 
 blende. 
 
 ACTINOMETER. An instrument 
 to measure the intensity of the sun's 
 rays. 
 
 ACULEATE. Furnished with 
 prickles. 
 B 
 
 AGA 
 
 ACULE ATES. The insects of the 
 bee and wasp kind, furnished with 
 stings. 
 
 ACUMINATE. Tapering to a 
 point. 
 
 ADDUCTORS. Those muscles 
 which draw the parts to which they 
 are attached together : they are op- 
 posed to the abductors. 
 
 ADEPS. Lard. 
 
 ADI ANTUM. A genus of elegant 
 ferns : the fructification is in short 
 marsjinal lines. 
 
 ADIPOSE. Fatty, as the adipose 
 tissues. 
 
 ADNATE. Adhering, growing, or 
 attached to the surface. 
 
 ADVENTITIOUS. Occurring in 
 an unusual manner, as when a bud 
 arises from the root of a plant. 
 
 ADULARIA. A brilliant crystal- 
 line feldspar. 
 
 AERATING. Introducing air or 
 gases. 
 
 ESTIVATION. The manner in 
 which the parts of the flower bud are 
 folded together. 
 
 yETHEOGAMOUS PLANTS. 
 The cryptogamia. 
 
 AETHER. See Ether. 
 
 AETIOLOGY. The study of the 
 causes of disease. 
 
 AFFINITY. In natural history, 
 the close resemblance of animals or 
 plants in their organization. 
 
 Affinity. In chemistry, the force 
 which combines dissimilar bodies to- 
 gether in precise proportions. See 
 Atom. 
 
 AFTER-GRASS. The second crop 
 of grass from lands mowed the same 
 year. 
 
 AFTER-MATH. The second mow- 
 ing of permanent meadows the same 
 year. It is free from flower stems, 
 and often much more nutritious than 
 the first crop ; but it is customary to 
 feed it off' by sheep or cattle instead 
 of cutting. 
 
 AGAMOUS. Cryptogamic plants. 
 
 AGARICUS. A genus of mush- 
 rooms distinguished by plaits or gills 
 under the cap, which are arranged 
 nearly parallel. Several are nutritious 
 and of a delicate flavour, as A. cam- 
 pestris (the common mushroom), chaU' 
 9 
 
AGE 
 
 tarcUus, delkiosus, cinnamomcus, ■pra- 
 tcnsis, vwlaccus. The poisonous 
 kinds have usually a narcotic or acrid 
 odour. 
 
 AGAVE. The Mexican aloe. The 
 juice yields pulque, and a good hemp 
 is made from the leaves. 
 
 AGE OF ANIMALS. For that of 
 the horse, see Horse. 
 
 Age of Neat Cattle. — The age of 
 cou's, oxen, and bulls is known by the 
 teeth and horns. At the end of about 
 two years they shed their first fore- 
 teeth, which are replaced by others, 
 larger, but not so white ; and before 
 five years all the incisive teeth are 
 renewed. These teeth are at first 
 equal, long, and pretty white ; but as 
 the animals advance in years, they 
 wear down, become unequal, and 
 black. When three years old, neat 
 cattle also experience a considerable 
 change in the structure of their horns, 
 after which period these appendages, 
 like the second or permanent teeth, 
 preserve the same character. Du- 
 ring the first year of the animal's age, 
 two small, smooth, pointed, and neat- 
 ly-formed horns make their appear- 
 ance, attached to the head by a kind 
 of button. This conformation con- 
 tinues during the first three years, 
 after which the button moves from 
 the head, being impelled by a horny 
 cylinder. Thus the horns continue 
 growing as long as the animal lives, 
 as is indicated by the annual joints, 
 which are easily distinguished in the 
 horn, and by which the age of the 
 creature may be easily known, count- 
 ing three years for the point of the 
 horn, and one for each of the joints 
 or rings. Dishonest dealers some- 
 times obliterate these rings by shaving 
 or filing the horns, in order to conceal 
 the age of the beast. — (Johnson.) 
 
 Age of Sheep. — The age of these 
 animals is known by their having, in 
 their second year, two broad teeth ; 
 in their third year, four broad teeth ; 
 in their fourth year, six broad teeth ; 
 and in their fifth year, eight broad 
 teeth before ; after which none can 
 tell how old a sheep is while its teeth 
 remain, except by their being worn 
 down. 
 10 
 
 AIR 
 
 About the end of one year, rams, 
 wethers, and all young sheep lose the 
 two fore-teclli of the lower jaw ; and 
 tliey are known to want tiie incisive 
 teelh in the upper jaw. At eighteen 
 months, the two teeth joining to the 
 former also fail out ; and at three 
 years, being all replaced, they are 
 even and pretty white ; but as these 
 animals advance in age, the teeth 
 become loose, blunt, and afterward 
 black. 
 
 AGI, or AGY. Chilian pepper, 
 Capsicum baccalum. 
 
 AGlSTMEiNT. Payment for pas- 
 turage on another's lands. 
 
 AGRICULTIKE. The whole art 
 and science of husbandry. For the 
 history, see Loudon'' s EncycJopcvdia of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 AGRIMONY. The genus Agri- 
 monia, perennial, unimportant weeds 
 of small size. 
 
 AGRIONTD.E. The family of in- 
 sects called dragon flies (Libellula, 
 Agrion). 
 
 AGRONOMY. The cultivation of 
 land, agriculture. 
 
 AGROSTIS. The genus of bent 
 grasses. They grow chiefly in wet 
 places, and flower late ; most are 
 perennial, stoloniferous, or creeping, 
 and are therefore difficult to extir- 
 pate, and unsuited to rotations. The 
 Agrostcs stricta is the red top, or herd 
 grass. A. stolonifera is Richardson's 
 florin, and, when grown in rich, wet 
 pastures, is very superior. 
 
 AIGRETTE. The down or pap- 
 pus of the seeds of compositae. 
 
 AIR. Any gas, but usually the at- 
 mosphere, which see. 
 
 AIRA. The genus of hair grasses. 
 They are perennial, usually grow in 
 wet places, and are of little moment 
 in agriculture. 
 
 AIR CELLS. In plants, enlarged 
 cavities in the cellular tissue, to pro- 
 duce buoyancy in aquatic plants. In 
 birds, membranous cavities commu- 
 nicating with the lungs, and traver- 
 sing all parts of the bird, even to the 
 interior of the bones and quills. In 
 some insects the air vessels are en- 
 larged into cells. 
 
 AIR PLANTS. Those which grow 
 
AIR 
 
 without striking their roots into the 
 soil. They usually derive sustenance 
 from other plants. 
 
 AIR PU.MP. A machine for remo- 
 ving the air out of a vessel. The 
 principle of this important philosoph- 
 ical instrument is very simple, and 
 may be easily comprehended from a 
 brief explanation. The essential part 
 ,| of the machine con- 
 
 ,11 sistsofan exhaust- 
 
 IQ /^^ ing syringe (a), 
 a\ I formed of a tube 
 
 j / I I o"" barrel of brass, 
 
 •' ^^^~'/ —'-y closed at one end, 
 ^ with the exception 
 
 of a small orifice, to which a valve 
 (A), opening inward, is attached. An 
 air-tight piston is worked up and 
 down in the barrel by a rack and pin- 
 ion turned by a winch. The piston 
 has also an orifice with a valve (c), 
 which opens upward, or in the same 
 direction as the valve of the tube. 
 The syringe communicates, by means 
 of a small pipe {d) fitted into the open- 
 ing at its lower extremity, with a ves- 
 sel (e) called the receiver, from which 
 the air is to be extracted. 
 
 The receiver is placed on a brass 
 plate ( f, g), over a small hole, into | 
 which Ihe other end of the pipe is in- 1 
 serted ; and, in order that the contact , 
 maybe air-tight, the edge of the glass I 
 is previously rubbed with lard or some [ 
 unctuous matter. I 
 
 Suppose the piston at the bottom [ 
 of the tube. As it begins to be drawn j 
 up, the valve c of the piston is imme- 
 diately shut by the pressure of the ex- 1 
 terior atmosphere, so that no air can | 
 enter the barrel, and a perfect vacu- 
 um would be left under it, were it not 
 that the valve at the bottom of the 
 barrel is forced open by the pressure 
 of the air in the receiver, which rush- 
 es into the barrel till its density be- 
 comes the same both in the receiver 
 and barrel. When the piston has been 
 drawn to the top of the barrel, the 
 whole of the air which occupied the ; 
 barrel has been removed, and the re- 
 ceiver and barrel are now both filled 
 with the air which was previously , 
 contained in the receiver alone. — I 
 {Brande's Encyclopedia.) 1 
 
 ALG 
 
 I AIR VESSELS. Spiral vessels, 
 tracheae. 
 
 j ALATE (froma/a, a?nV). With 
 i lateral expansions, winged. 
 ! ALBUMEN. One of tlie important 
 ' azotized principles of animals and 
 plants. In the solid state it consti- 
 tutes the principal component of 
 membranes, and in the fluid form is 
 found in the serum of blood and the 
 white of egg. The juice of all plants 
 contains a small quantity. In the 
 moist state it is readily putrescible, 
 and coagulates at about 180^ Fahren- 
 heit ; but when dry it is a transpa- 
 rent, brittlfe substance, which resists 
 decay. For its composition, see Pro- 
 tein. 
 
 Albumen, in botany, is the fleshy, 
 mealy, or horny substance forming 
 the substance of the seed, and lying 
 between the embrvo and testa. 
 
 alburnum". The sap wood. 
 The ascending sap rises along its 
 pores. It is usually of a different 
 colour, and much more perishable 
 than the heart wood. 
 
 ALCOHOL. Spirit of wine. It is 
 formed daring the vinous fermenta- 
 tion. The pure spirit has a specific 
 gravity of .792, and consists of d He 
 0:. It is present in brandy, whiskey, 
 and strong spirits to the extent of 
 fifty per cent., twenty-five per cent, 
 in strong wines, ten per cent, in ci- 
 der and ales, and six per cent, in beer. 
 It is of great use in the laboratory as 
 a solvent of resins, &c., and for the 
 hot flame it produces when burned in 
 lamps. 
 
 ALDER. Shrubs of the genus ^Z- 
 nus, which is closely allied to the 
 birch. The common swamp alder is 
 the A. scrrulata. The A. glauca (black 
 alder) is used by dyers for the produc- 
 tion of a black. 
 
 ALE. A strong beer made from, 
 light malt. 
 
 ALE-HOOF. Ground ivy. 
 
 ALEMBIC. A retort with a move- 
 able cover or cap. 
 
 ALEXANDERS. An umbelliferr 
 ous plant, formerly cultivated like 
 celery. 
 
 ALG-E. The family of sea- 
 weeds and fresh- water weeds (^Con,' 
 11 
 
ALL 
 
 ferva). They are cellular and crypto- 
 gamic. 
 
 ALIMENTARY CANAL. The 
 passage from the mouth through the 
 stomach and intestines. 
 
 ALITKUNCK, ALITRUNCUS. 
 In entomology, the posterior segment 
 of the thorax of an insect, to which 
 the abdomen is alhxed, and which 
 bears the legs, properly so called, or 
 the two posterior pairs, and the 
 wings. 
 
 ALIZARINE. The red colouring 
 principle of madder. 
 
 ALKALI, ALCALI. A term ori- 
 ginally applied to the ashes of plants, 
 now generally used to designate pot- 
 ash, soda, lithia, and ammonia, which 
 are also termed vegetable, mineral, 
 and volatile alkali. These substan- 
 ces have certain properties in com- 
 mon, such as neutralizing and form- 
 ing salts with the acids, reddening 
 several vegetable yellows, and chan- 
 ging some blues to green, and ready 
 solubility in water. Lime, baryta, 
 strontia, and magnesia have been 
 called alkaline earths, from their an- 
 alogous action on vegetable colours. 
 Lithia is also one of the alkalis. A 
 singular class of bodies have been dis- 
 covered in vegetables, which have 
 been termed alkalis, or alkaloids, 
 chiefly in consequence of their pow- 
 er of saturating, and forming detinite 
 salts with the acids. Morphia, quin- 
 ia, &c., are substances of this descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 ALKALIMETER. A graduated 
 glass tube employed in determining 
 the quantity of real alkali in commer- 
 cial potash and soda, by the quantity 
 of dilute sulphuric acid of a known 
 strength which a certain weight of 
 these saturates. 
 
 ALKANET. Anchusa tincloria. 
 The root of this plant, which is a na- 
 tive of the warmer parts of Europe, 
 contains a red resinous colouring 
 matter, which it imparts to alcohol 
 and oils ; it is used to tinge some 
 ointments, especially lip-salves, of a 
 red colour. 
 
 ALLANTOIS. A membrane at- 
 tached to the extremity of the ali- 
 mentary canal in the fetal calf and 
 12 
 
 ALM 
 
 other animals. It contains the allan- 
 toic fluid. 
 
 ALLSPICE. The pimento. 
 
 ALLUVIUM, ALLUVION. A soil 
 formed by the deposites of ancient 
 rivers, or washed from hill-sides by 
 floods. The character of the soil dif- 
 fers with the country through which 
 the flood has passed ; hut it is al- 
 ways rich, because it contains matter 
 finely divided, and much organic re- 
 mains. It is not to be confounded 
 with diluvium, which signifies an an- 
 cient gravel. 
 
 ALMOND. Amygdalus argentea 
 and nana. The silver and dwarf al- 
 mond ornamental slirubs. 
 
 ALMOND-TREE. Amygdalus com- 
 munis. Varieties : bitter, sweet ten- 
 der shell, sweet hard shell, long fruit, 
 and peach-almond of large size. The 
 tree is of small size, bears an abun- 
 dance of flowers, and may be grown 
 advantageously south of Maryland. 
 
 Propagation. — All the species and 
 varieties are propagated by seeds, 
 budding, grafting, layers, and occa- 
 sionally they will produce suckers, 
 which may be successfully planted 
 out. "When stocks for budding or 
 grafting upon are wanted, or new va- 
 rieties desired, these are obtained by 
 sowing the fruit stones, though they 
 may be budded or grafted on mussel- 
 plum stocks. 
 
 The stones of the last season's 
 produce should be sown in October, 
 upon a bed of light, rich soil, about 
 three inches apart, and covered four 
 inches deep with fine soil. This is 
 indispensable ; for when the soil is 
 left in lumps, the shoots are often 
 forced into a crooked direction, and 
 this causes the trunk to be deform- 
 ed, and unfit to become a fine tree. 
 "When the surface of the seed-bed 
 has been smoothed, a covering of rot- 
 ten tanner's bark or leaf mould, to 
 the depth of two inches, must be laid 
 upon it, which being light, prevents 
 the fruit-stones from being damaged 
 by any severity of winter. At the be- 
 ginning of May this covering of bark 
 or leaves must be raked clean off the 
 bed. The stones might be reserved 
 till spring, and be sown at the end of 
 
ALM 
 
 Marcli, but the plants do not come so 
 certainly as when sown in autumn. 
 An additional advantage of an au- 
 tumn sowing is, that the plants come 
 np about six weeks or two months 
 earlier than those sown in spring ; 
 consequently, the plants become vig- 
 orous and well rooted the first year, 
 and thereby not liable to be thrown 
 out of the ground by thaws succeed- 
 ing frost in the following winter. 
 
 During summer, care must be ta- 
 ken to pull up all weeds when very 
 young ; for if they be allowed to get 
 strong before pulling out, tliis opera- 
 tion is apt to injure the roots of the 
 almond plants. 
 
 When almond stones have been 
 sown in spring, it will be necessary, 
 at the approach of the succeeding 
 winter, to have the beds covered 
 with rotten tanner's bark, or leaf 
 mould, scattering it an inch deep or 
 more among the plants : a cover- 
 ing which will tend to prevent the 
 plants being injured or thrown out 
 by frost. 
 
 In the second spring after the sow- 
 ing, the plants should he taken up, 
 carefully preserving all the fibrous 
 roots : a care which, as they are but 
 sparingly produced, will be essentially 
 necessary. The plants must be trans- 
 planted in rows, two feet apart row 
 from row, and a foot and a lialf dis- 
 tant in the rows. Here they may be 
 trained to form standards, half stand- 
 ards, or dwarfs, and be regulated and 
 prepared either ibr wall training or 
 shrubbery plantations. For i)oth pur- 
 poses, attention will be requisite du- 
 ring summer and wniter to thin out 
 the branches, reserving only a suita- 
 ble number for the future limbs of the 
 tree, and these so far apart that they 
 may not, in any future stage of growth, 
 be liable to rub against each other, 
 which standard trees would be liable 
 to ; for if this be not avoided, gum 
 would be exuded at such injured 
 parts, and the speedy decay of the 
 tree be the consequence. 
 
 Almond plants intended for train- 
 ing against walls should have some 
 stakes fixed in the ibrm of a trellis, 
 to which the branches should be se- 
 
 ALU 
 
 cured in a proper form, so that they 
 may be suited to the position of the 
 wall on their final removal. — {Miller's 
 DicUonan/.) 
 
 ALOES. The dried juice, or an 
 extract of numerous species of Aloe, 
 particularly the Aloe spicata. The 
 plants inhabit arid countries in the 
 tropics, and have long, rather fleshy 
 leaves, and a liliaceous inflorescence 
 arranged in spikes. 
 
 The drug is a nauseous, bitter, and 
 warm purgative. It is administered 
 to horses in balls of six to eight 
 drachms. 
 
 ALOPECURUS. The genus of 
 fox-tail grasses ; they resemble the 
 cat's-tail. Many are of great agricul- 
 tural value. See Grasses. 
 
 ALPACA. The Llama, or Peru- 
 vian sheep. It is cultivated in the 
 Andes of Peru lor its long fleece, and 
 as a beast of burden. The flesh is 
 also good. These animals are of the 
 
 same family as the camel, and are ex- 
 tremely hardy and abstemious. Their 
 wool is largely imported into England 
 from Peru. 
 
 ALTERATIVES. Medicines 
 which improve the health without 
 any active effects. 
 
 ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY 
 The system in which one part of the 
 farm is in pasture and part arable ; 
 and these are changed every few 
 years. 
 
 ALUDEL. An implement used in 
 sublimation, and resembling an alem- 
 bic. 
 
 ALUM. The sulphate of alumina 
 and potash. The powder is a pow'er- 
 ful styptic, and used to arrest bleed- 
 ing. In lotion it is astringent and 
 13 
 
AMI 
 
 ANA 
 
 stimulating. "Wlien burned, the pow- 
 der becomes caustic. 
 
 Tlie lotion may be made with six to 
 eight drachms of alum to a quart of 
 water. It is used for grease, cracks 
 in the heels of horses, and ulcers 
 after the inflammation is subdued. 
 
 The alum is used by dyers, but the 
 solution of acetate of alumina is su- 
 perior for most i)urposes. 
 
 ALUMINA. Pure base of clay, 
 argil. It is a scsquioxide of alumi- 
 nium, white, insoluble ; but it possess- 
 es a great affinity for water. In the 
 crystalline state it forms the sap- 
 phire and emerald. It is a feeble 
 base, uniting with acids. The hy- 
 drated silicate of alumina forms the 
 bulk of clav. 
 
 ALUMLNIU.M. The metallic base 
 of alumina. 
 
 ALVEOLATE. Covered with lit- 
 tle pits ; honey-combed. 
 
 ALVINE. Relating to the bow- 
 els. 
 
 AMALGAM. A compound of mer- 
 cury with a metal. 
 
 AMANITA. A genus of poisonous 
 mushrooms. 
 
 AMAUROSIS. Total blindness, 
 without loss of brilliancy in the eye. 
 
 AMBLE. The same as the pace 
 in horsemanship. 
 
 AMBUSTION. A scald or burn. 
 
 AMELIORATING CROPS. Root 
 crops, clovers, and grasses, fed on 
 the land. 
 
 AMENDMENTS. Sand, marl, and 
 other substances applied in large 
 quantities to amend the tilth. 
 
 AMENTUM. The catkin ; a de- 
 ciduous spike, such as that of wil- 
 lows, poplars, dec. Trees with this 
 inflorescence are called amentaceous, 
 and usually contain much potash in 
 their ashes. 
 
 AMENTABOLIANS. Insects 
 which do not undergo metamorpho- 
 ses. 
 
 AMERICAN BLIGHT. The wool- 
 ly or mealy aphis. Aphis lanigcra, 
 also called Erwsoma mali : it is very 
 destructive to apple and pear trees in 
 England. See Insects. 
 
 AMIDOGENE. A theoretical ba- 
 sis of ammonia, composed of N Hj : 
 14 
 
 its compounds with metals are term- 
 ed amides, or amidides. 
 
 AMIDINE. The soluble, internal 
 portions of the starch globules. 
 
 AM.MONIA. Volatile alakli, spir- 
 its of hartshorn. See Nttro^cti. 
 
 AMMONIACAL GAS. The gas- 
 eous state of pure ammonia before it 
 is dissolved by water, in which it is 
 extremely soluble ; it is also rapidly 
 absorbed by charcoal, clays, rust, dec. 
 
 A.MMONTUM. A hypothetic base 
 of ammonia, consisting of N H4. The 
 oxide of ammonium is the common 
 base, as found in the salts of ammo- 
 nia, and consists of N H4 0. 
 
 AMNION. The delicate membrane 
 which surrounds the fetus in utero : 
 it contains the amniotic fluid, or li- 
 quor amnios. 
 
 AMNIOS. The fluid within the 
 nucleus of the young seed, on which 
 the embryo feeds. 
 
 AMORPHOUS. Without regular 
 figure or form. 
 
 AMPHIBOLE. A variety of horn- 
 blende. 
 
 AMPHITROPAL. In botany, an 
 embryo which is turned round in the 
 albumen, or curved upon itself in 
 such a manner that both its ends are 
 presented to the same point. 
 
 AMPLEXICAUL. Clasping or 
 embracing the stem. 
 
 AMYGDALUS. The generic name 
 of the peach and almond. 
 
 AMYGDALOID. Rocks in which 
 other minerals are imbedded, pudding- 
 stone. 
 
 AMYGDALIN. A white, sweet- 
 ish, soluble matter in bitter almonds, 
 changeable into oil of bitter almonds 
 by the action of emulsin. 
 
 AMYLACEOUS. Starchy, full of 
 starch. 
 
 AMYLIN. Pure starch. 
 
 ANAL GLANDS. Glands for the 
 secretion of various substances, sit- 
 uated near the anus. 
 
 ANALYSIS The separation of 
 the components of any substance. It 
 is quanlUatitc when the amount of 
 each ingredient is to be known, quali- 
 tative when the nature only. 
 
 Analysis of soils is of no value un- 
 less rigorously performed with per- 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 
 feet means. It is best, however, for ' 
 agricultural purposes, to discover the 
 presence or absence of a given sub- 
 stance, as lime or bone earth, rather 
 than enter into the complete solution 
 of the substance. The ordinary means 
 flf distinguishuig the components of , 
 a soil is given under Soils. The | 
 following, from Boussingault, is of a ; 
 higher character : | 
 
 In examining a soil, attention ought | 
 to be directed, 1st, to the sand ; 2d, to ] 
 the clay ; 3d, to the humus which it ] 
 contains. It would farther be useful 
 to inquire particularly in regard to 
 certain other principles which exert '■ 
 an unquestionable inlluence upon ve- 
 getation, such as certain alkalme and 
 earthy salts. 
 
 Vegetable earth dried in the air 
 until it becomes quite friable may 
 nevertheless still retain a considera- 
 ble quantity of water, and which can 
 only be dissipated by the assistance 
 of a somewhat high temperature. It 
 is therefore proper, in the first in- 
 stance, to bring all the soils which it 
 is proposed to examine comparative- 
 ly, to one constant degree of dryness. 
 The best and quickest way of drying 
 such a substance as a portion of soil, 
 is to make use of the oil bath ; a quan- 
 tity of oil contained in a copper ves- 
 sel is readily kept at an almost uni- 
 form temperature by means of a lamp. 
 A thermometer plunged in the bath 
 shows the degree to which it is heat- 
 ed : the substance to be dried is put 
 into a glass tube of no great depth, 
 and sufficiently wide ; or into a por- 
 celain or silver capsule, if the quan- 
 tity to be operated upon be somewhat 
 considerable : these tubes or vessels 
 are placed in the oil so as to be im- 
 mersed in it to about two thirds of 
 their height. For the desiccation of 
 soils, the temperature may be carried 
 to 150^ or 160^ C. (334= or 352= F.). 
 The weight of the vessel is first ac- 
 curately taken, and a given weight of 
 the matter to be dried is then thrown 
 into it, after which it is exposed to 
 the action of the bath. If we oper- 
 ate upon from GOO to 700 grains, the 
 drying must be continued during two 
 or three hours ; the weight of the 
 
 capsule with its contents, after hav- 
 ving been wiped thoroughly clean, is 
 then taken. It is placed anew in the 
 bath, and its weight is taken a sec- 
 ond time after an interval of fifteen 
 or twenty minutes ; if tlie weight has 
 not diminished, it is a proof that the 
 drying was complete at the time of 
 the first trial. In the contrary case, 
 the operation must be continued, and 
 no drying must be held terminated un- 
 til two consecutive weighings, made 
 at an interval of from fifteen to twen- 
 ty minutes, show anything more than 
 a very trifiing difference. Davy points 
 out another and much more simple 
 method, which, although far from ac- 
 curate, may nevertheless suffice in 
 many general trials. The soil to be 
 dried is put into a porcelain capsule 
 heated by a lamp, and a thermome- 
 ter, with whicii the mass may be stir- 
 red, is placed in its middle, and shows 
 the temperature at each moment. 
 Lastly, in many circumstances the 
 marine bath may suffice. In drying, 
 the main point is to do so at a known 
 temperature, and one which may be 
 reproduced ; for the absolute desicca- 
 tion of a quantity of soil could not be 
 accomplished except at a heat close 
 upon redness, and this would, of 
 course, alter or destroy the organic 
 matters it contains. 
 
 The organic matters contained in 
 ordinary soils consist in part of pie- 
 ces of straw and of roots, which are 
 usually separated by sifting the earth 
 through a hair sieve ; the gravel and 
 stones which the soil contains are 
 separated in the same way. 
 
 The earth sifted is now washed. 
 To accomplish this, it is introduced 
 into a matrass, with three or four 
 times its bulk of hot distilled water ; 
 the whole is shaken well for a time, 
 the matrass is left to stand for a mo- 
 ment, and then the liquid is decanted 
 into a wide porcelain capsule. The 
 washing is continued, fresh quanti- 
 ties of water being added each time, 
 until the whole of the clay has been 
 removed, which is known by the fluid 
 becoming clear very speedily ; the 
 sand which remains is then washed 
 out into another capsule. The argil- 
 15 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 laceous particles, or the clay and all 
 the matters held in suspension in the 
 water, are tlirowii upon a lilter and 
 dried ; the desiccation is completed 
 by the same process, and under the 
 •ame circumstances as that of the 
 •oil had been. The sand is, in like 
 nanner, dried with the same care. 
 
 If we would ascertain the nature 
 and quantity of the soluble salts, the 
 whole of the water used in the wash- 
 ing must be put together and evapo- 
 rated, which may be done upon a 
 sand bath. The evaporation is push- 
 ed to dryness, and the salts that re- 
 main, having been previously weigh- 
 ed, are thrown into a small platinum 
 capsule, in which they are heated to 
 a dull red by means of a spirit-lamp, 
 in order to burn out the organic salts, 
 and thus distinguish, by means of a 
 subsequent weighing, between them 
 and the inorganic salts. 
 
 The sand may be silicious or cal- 
 careous. The presence of carbonate 
 of lime is readily ascertained by treat- 
 ing it with an acid wiiich will form 
 a soluble salt with lime, such as hy- 
 drochloric, nitric, or acetic acid. Ef- 
 fervescence shows the presence of 
 a carbonate, the quantity of which 
 may be estimated by weighing the 
 sand dry before and after its treat- 
 ment with the acid, particular care 
 being, of course, taken to wash the 
 remaining sand well before setting it 
 to dry. Tiiis, however, is an opera- 
 tion of little use ; the great object is 
 to ascertain the quantity of sandy 
 matter. Had we a particular inter- 
 est in ascertaining the presence and 
 estimating the quantity of the earthy 
 carbonates contained in a sample of 
 soil, it would be advisable to make a 
 special inquiry, inasmuch as the fine- 
 ly-divided calcareous earth being car- 
 ried off along with the clay in the 
 course of the washing, the sand ob- 
 tained never contains the whole of 
 the carbonate of lime. 
 
 The argillaceous matter procured 
 by the washing is far from being pure 
 clay ; it contains a quantity of ex- 
 tremely fine sand, particles of calca- 
 reous earth, and if the soil contain 
 humus, the more delicate particles 
 16 
 
 of this substance will also be inclu- 
 ded. 
 
 To determine the quantity of hu- 
 mus, recourse is generally had to its 
 destruction by heat. A known weight 
 of dried earth is heated to redness in 
 a capsule, and constantly stirred for 
 a time, and when no more of those 
 brilliant points or sparks, which are 
 indications of the combustion of car- 
 bon, are observed, it is set to cool, 
 and then weighed. This is the meth- 
 od which has been generally followed 
 by Davy and others. It would be 
 difficult to find a method more con- 
 venient than this, but it is, unfortu- 
 nately, very inaccurate. Soils dried 
 at a temperature at which organic 
 matter, such as humus, &c., begins 
 to change, still retain a considerable 
 quantity of water in union with the 
 clay. This water is disengaged at 
 the red heat required for the combus- 
 tion of the organic matters ; and as 
 their quantity is estimated by the loss 
 of weight on the subsequent weigh- 
 ing, it is obvious that the loss from 
 the dissipation of water is added to 
 that which proceeds from the de- 
 struction of the humus. It is un- 
 doubtedly to this cause of error that 
 we must ascribe the large proportions 
 of humus mentioned in the soils ex- 
 amined by Thaer and Einhoff; it is 
 therefore better to restrict the exam- 
 ination to the determination of the 
 presence or absence of humus than 
 to attempt to ascertain its quantity 
 by so imperfect a method. 
 
 Priestley and Arthur Young were 
 already aware that a more delicate 
 operation was required to determine 
 the quantity of humus. They recom- 
 mend calcination of the soil in a close 
 vessel, and that the gaseous products 
 should be collected. This mode of 
 proceeding, however, would have but 
 slight advantages over that which I 
 have just criticised, inasmuch as the 
 volume of gas collected varies with 
 every diflerence of heat employed. 
 
 The only method, in my opinion, 
 which we have of learning the quan- 
 tity of humus, of organic debris, 
 which is contained in a sod, is that 
 of an elementary analysis. It is by 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 burning a known quantity of earth 
 thoroughly dried by means of the ox- 
 yde of copper, aided by a current of 
 oxygen, that the carbon and hydrogen 
 may be determined. But the most 
 important point of all is to ascertain 
 the amount of azote included in the 
 organic remains of the soil ; and we 
 have, happily, precise means in our 
 elementary analysis of ascertaining 
 the quantity of azote from which the 
 amount of azotized organic matter 
 may be accurately inferred. 
 
 It may be very useful to determine 
 the presence or absence of carbonate 
 of lime in a soil ; this knowledge 
 would, of course, guide us in our ap- 
 plications of lime, marl, &c. Two 
 modes may be employed for this pur- 
 pose ; 1st, the soil may be treated by 
 nitric acid slightly diluted with water. 
 Any etfervescence will denote the 
 presence, in all probability, of carbon- 
 ate of lime. I say in all probability, 
 because the disengagement of car- 
 bonic acid gas under such circum- 
 stances generally indicates the pres- 
 ence of carbonate of lime ; it is not, 
 however, a special character, because 
 the disengagement may be due to the 
 presence of any other carbonate. It 
 is well to boil the acid solution upon 
 the sample of soil that is analyzed ; 
 the part which is not dissolved is 
 thrown upon a filter and washed with 
 distilled or rainwater boiling hot. 
 Into the clear filtered liquor which 
 results from all the portions of water 
 used in the washing, a little ammonia 
 is added ; if any precipitate falls, it 
 is collected upon a filter and washed : 
 to the new liquors obtained by this 
 washing, a solution of oxalate of am- 
 monia is added. If there be any lime 
 present, it is thrown down in the 
 state of oxalate, and the liquor, hav- 
 ing been left at rest for five or six 
 hours, becomes completely clear ; the 
 addition of a few drops of the solu- 
 tion of oxalate of ammonia to this 
 clear fluid satisfies us whether the 
 whole of the lime has been precipita- 
 ted or not. The oxalate of lime is 
 received upon a filler, washed, and 
 dried ; it is then thrown into a plati- 
 num capsule along with the piece of 
 B2 
 
 filtering paper upon which it was col- 
 lected, and is heated to a dull red, un- 
 til the paper of the filter is complete- 
 ly consumed and no farther trace of 
 carbon appears ; the capsule is then 
 taken from the fire, or from over the 
 spirit lamp, and cooled ; when cold, 
 the matter which it contains is moist- 
 ened with a concentrated solution ot 
 carbonate of ammonia. 
 
 The matter is then dried, great 
 care being taken that nothing is lost 
 by particles flying out, and the cap- 
 sule is again heated to a dull red ; 
 when cold, it is weighed accurately, 
 and the quantity of matter contained 
 then becomes known. This matter 
 is carbonate of lime, 100 of which 
 represents 56-3 of lime and 43-7 of 
 carbonic acid. I have said that in 
 arable soil other carbonates may be 
 met with besides that of lime ; calca- 
 reous soils, for example, very com- 
 monly contain carbonate of magne- 
 sia. If we would ascertain the quan- 
 tity of this earth, the mode of pro- 
 ceeding which I have just particular- 
 ly indicated enables us to do so ; we 
 have but to evaporate the liquid from 
 which the oxalate of lime was depos- 
 ited, and then to calcine the product 
 of the evaporation in a platinum cap- 
 sule. Any nitrate of magnesia which 
 may exist there will be decomposed 
 at a dull red heat, as well as any ox- 
 alate of ammonia which may have 
 resulted from anmionia added in ex- 
 cess. By treating the residue of the 
 calcination with water, we obtain the 
 magnesia, which, being washed, has 
 only to be calcined, and its weight 
 ascertained by weighing. 
 
 2. If we would be content with a 
 simple approximation, we may judge 
 of the quantity of calcareous carbon- 
 ate contained in a vegetable soil by 
 measuring the quantity of carbonic 
 acid which we obtain from it. We 
 counterpoise upon the scale of a bal- 
 ance a vial containing some diluted 
 nitric acid ; we weigh a certain quan- 
 tity of the earth to be analyzed, and 
 this is added by degrees to the acid. 
 If the earth contains carbonates, ef- 
 fervescence ensues. The liquid is 
 shaken with care, and having waited 
 17 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 a few minutes in order to let the car- 
 bonic acid whicli is mixed with the 
 air of the vial escape, the vial with 
 its contents is ajrain put into the bal- 
 ance. If there has been no disen- 
 gagement of carbonic acid, it is clear 
 that, to restore the equilibrium, it will 
 be sufficient to add to the opposite 
 scale the weight of the earth which 
 was put into the vial ; whatever is 
 wanting of this weight represents 
 precisely the weight of carbonic acid 
 which has been disengaged. Presu- 
 ming this acid to have been combi- 
 ned with lime, the weight of the cal- 
 careous carbonate can be calculated 
 exactly. 
 
 Sulphate of lime is an occasional 
 constituent of soils ; to ascertain its 
 presence and quantity, the following 
 is the method of procedure : 
 
 The earth, well pulverized, is first 
 roasted for a considerable time in a 
 crucible or platinum capsule until all 
 the organic matter is completely de- 
 stroyed ; it is advisable to operate on 
 about 100 grammes, or about 32 oun- 
 ces troy of soil. After this operation, 
 the matter is boiled in four or five 
 times its weight of distilled water for 
 some time, water being added to re- 
 place that which is dissipated by 
 evaporation ; we then filter, rewash, 
 and having added all the liquors, we 
 evaporate in a capsule until the vol- 
 ume of the lifjuid is reduced to a few 
 drachms. To the liquid thus concen- 
 trated we add its own bulk of alcohol. 
 If the solution contains sulphate of 
 lime, it will be deposited, and the de- 
 posite being received upon a filter 
 and washed with weak alcohol, its 
 weight is taken after having been 
 dried and calcined. This salt is fre- 
 quently seen deposited in the form of 
 fine colourless needles on the cooling 
 of the sufliciently concentrated solu- 
 tion ; but the addition of alcohol is 
 always useful, because the sulphate 
 of lime, which is not very soluble in 
 water, is altogether insoluble in weak 
 spirits, which, on the contrary, dis- 
 solves certain alkaline and earthy 
 salts whose presence would interfere 
 with the accuracy of the result. 
 
 It may be matter of great moment 
 18 
 
 to determine the existence and the 
 quantity of phosphates contained in 
 a soil destined for cultivation. Al- 
 though the search for phosphoric acid 
 may perhaps require a certain famil- 
 iarity with chemical analysis, I shall 
 nevertheless indicate the method of 
 procedure. It is much to be desired 
 that enlightened agriculturists should 
 not remain strangers to manipula- 
 tions of this kind. 
 
 The soil to be analyzed must be de- 
 prived of all organic matters by cal- 
 cination. After having reduced it to 
 a very fine powder, it is to be boiled 
 for about an hour with three or four 
 times its weight of nitric or hydro- 
 chloric acid. The solution is then 
 diluted with distilled water, and filter- 
 ed ; the matter which remains upon 
 the filter is generally silica or alumina 
 which has escaped the action of the 
 acid. After having reduced the wash- 
 ings by evaporation, and added them 
 to the acid liquor, ammonia in solu- 
 tion is poured in. Taking the sim- 
 plest instance, the precipitate which 
 lalls upon the addition of this alkali 
 may contain, 1st, phosphoric acid in 
 union with the peroxide of iron and 
 lime ; 2d, oxide of iron and of man- 
 ganese ; 3d, silica. This precipitate, 
 which is usually of a gelatinous ap- 
 pearance, is received upon a filter, 
 well washed and dried, when the pre- 
 cipitate is readily detached from the 
 filter. It is thrown into a platinum 
 capsule which is raised to a white 
 heat, after which the weight of the 
 residue is taken. The precipitate af- 
 ter calcination is thrown into a small 
 glass matrass, and dissolved by hot 
 hydrochloric acid. If there is any sil- 
 ica undissolved, its quantity is merely 
 estimated if it be very small ; if it be 
 a larger quantity, it is to be collected 
 upon a filter and weighed. To the 
 new acid solution about three times 
 its weight of alcohol is added ; the 
 mixture is shaken, and pure sulphuric 
 acid is then instilled drop by drop un- 
 til there is no longer any precipitate. 
 The precipitate is sulphate of lime, 
 which is thrown upon a filter, where 
 it is washed with diluted alcohol ; it 
 is then dried, calcined, and the weight 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 of the sulphate of lime obtained per- 
 mits us to calculate that of the lime 
 which formed part of the precipitate 
 thrown down by the ammonia in the 
 first instance. 100 of sulphate of lime 
 are equivalent to 41-5 of pure lime. 
 
 The alcoholic liquor is concentra- 
 ted in order to expel the spirit ; as it 
 is acid, it is saturated with ammonia 
 until a slight precipitate begins to be 
 formed, which is not redissolved upon 
 shaking the mixture. A few drops 
 of the hydrosulphate of ammonia are 
 then added, upon which the iron and 
 the manganese fall in the state of sul- 
 phurets. As a part of the metals has 
 been precipitated in the state of ox- 
 ide by the ammonia added in the hy- 
 drosulphate, it is well to digest for 
 eight or ten hours, because the hy- 
 drosulphate of ammonia always ends 
 by changing the metals present into 
 sulphurets, which being washed, 
 dried, and reduced to the state of 
 oxides by calcination in a platinum 
 capsule, are weighed. 
 
 If the first ammoniacal precipitate 
 did not contain phosphoric acid, its 
 weight ought to be reproduced by 
 adding that of the hme to that of the 
 metallic oxides proceeding from the 
 calcination of the sulphurets. Any 
 loss which is noted after this, is due, 
 if the process has been well conduct- 
 ed, to phosphoric acid, which had not 
 been collected, but which has remain- 
 ed in the state of phosphate of ammo- 
 nia in the liquid treated by the hydro- 
 sulphate. To determine with pre- 
 cision the presence of phosphoric 
 acid, the liquid in question must be 
 evaporated to dryness, and the resi- 
 due heated strongly in a platinum 
 capsule. After the dissipation and 
 decomposition of the ammoniacal 
 salts, there remains watery phos- 
 phoric acid, distinguishable by its 
 powerful acid reaction, its sirupy con- 
 sistence, and its fixity. 
 
 By way of example, I shall give the 
 results obtained in an analysis of this 
 kind : 
 
 From the acid liquor, ammonia threw down 
 of: grs. troy. 
 
 Phosphates and metallic oxides . . t>'lll2 
 These gave of sulphate of lime . . b'dS 
 E luivalent to lime .... 3'612 
 
 Hydrosulphate of ammonia caused a pre- 
 cipitate, which, calcined, gave of me- 
 tallic oxides Ifi20 
 
 Lime and metallic oxides together . 5-2:t3 
 Difference due to phosphoric acid . 2'7a9 
 
 The analysis for phosphoric acid 
 may be simplified by employing a pro- 
 cess conceived by M. I3erthier, and 
 which is founded ujjon the strong af- 
 finity of this acid for the peroxide of 
 iron, and the insolubility of the phos- 
 phate of the peroxide of iron in dilute 
 acetic acid. If to a fluid containing at 
 once phosphoric acid, lime, peroxide 
 of iron, alumina, and magnesia in so- 
 lution, ammonia be added, the precipi- 
 tate will contain the whole of the phos- 
 phoric acid. The acid will be in great 
 part combined in the state of phos- 
 phate of iron, if the peroxide of iron 
 be in quantity more than sufficient to 
 neutralize it : a condition which must 
 be frequently expected in an arable 
 soil ; however, to make sure of this 
 point, it is well to add a certain quan- 
 tity of the peroxide of iron to the soil 
 which is to be analyzed. Besides the 
 phosphate of iron, the precipitate may 
 contain phosphate of lime, phosphate 
 of alumina, and certainly ammoniacal 
 magnesian phosphate. Finally, with 
 these phosphates will be found asso- 
 ciated alumina and oxide of iron, the 
 latter especially, if it has been intro- 
 duced in excess. The precipitate, col- 
 lected upon a filter and washed, must 
 then be treated with dilute acetic acid, 
 which will dissolve the lime, the mag- 
 nesia, and the excess of the oxides of 
 iron and alumina ; and there will re- 
 main phosphate of iron or phosphate 
 of alumina, because the latter salt is 
 as insoluble as the former in acetic 
 acid. Whenever the precipitate in 
 question, therefore, leaves a residue 
 which is insoluble in vinegar, the 
 presence of phosphoric acid may be 
 inferred ; this residue may consist of 
 basic phosphates of iron or alumina, 
 or of a mixture of the two salts, and 
 no great error will be committed if 
 one hundred parts of this residue, cal- 
 cined, be assumed as representing 
 fifty of phosphoric acid. 
 
 'i'he presence of silica in the pre- 
 cipitate insoluble in acetic acid may, 
 19 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 however, lead to error. To make 
 sure that the precipitate is formed by 
 a phosjiiiatc, it must be rcdissolved in 
 hydroc'iilorio acid, and the acid solu- 
 tion evaporated to dryness, so as to 
 render the silica which may e.vist in 
 it insoluble. 13y treating the resi- 
 due with hydrochloric acid again, the 
 phosphates alone will be dissolved. 
 The presence of phosphoric acid may 
 otherwise be determmed by treating 
 the phosphate of iron in solution in 
 the way which I have already indi- 
 cated. 
 
 From what precedes, it must be ob- 
 vious that the most carefully conduct- 
 ed chemical analysis of a soil only 
 leads us to the discovery of certain 
 principles which exist in very small 
 quantity, although their action is un- 
 questionably useful to vegetation. As 
 to the determination of the relative 
 quantities of sand and loam, this rests 
 upon simple washing ; and a chemist 
 would spend his time to very little 
 purpose in seeking, by means of ele- 
 mentary analyses, to determine the 
 precise composition of these substan- 
 ces. The finest part, carried off by 
 the water, will always show proper- 
 ties analogous to those of clay ; the 
 sand, which is generally silicious, will 
 exhibit the characters of quartz ; and 
 the calcareous fragments which are 
 mixed with it will exhibit those that 
 belong to carbonate of lime. It will 
 be sufficient, then, in connexion with 
 the mineral constitution of arable 
 soils, to expose very briefly the gen- 
 eral properties of clay or loam, of 
 quartz, and of carbonate of lime, sub- 
 stances, in fact, which form the bases 
 of all arable lands. Pure clay, com- 
 posed of silica, alumina, and water, 
 does not contain these substances in 
 the state of simple mixture. The in- 
 quiries of M. Berthier have satisfac- 
 torily shown that clay is a hydrated 
 silicate of alumina. When we re- 
 move a portion of the alumina from 
 clay, for example, by treating it with 
 a strong acid, the silica which is set 
 at liberty will dissolve in an alkaline 
 solution, which would not be the case 
 were the silica present in the state 
 of quartzy sand, however fiue. 
 20 
 
 Pure clays are white, unctuous to 
 the touch, stick to the tongue when 
 dry, and when breathed upon, give 
 out an odour which is well known, 
 and is commonly spoken of as the 
 argillaceous odour. Tiiis property of 
 dry clay to adhere to the tongue is 
 owing to its avidity for water. It is 
 known, in fact, that dry clay, brought 
 into contact with water, first swells, 
 and finally mixes with it completely. 
 Duly moistened, it forms a tough and 
 eminently plastic mass. Exposed to 
 the air, moist clay, as it dries, shrinks 
 considerably ; and if the drying be 
 rapid, the mass cracks in all direc- 
 tions. It is to an action of this kind 
 that we must ascribe the cracks and 
 deep fissures which traverse our clay- 
 ey soils in all directions during the 
 continuance of great droughts. 
 
 The constitutional water of clays 
 is retained by a very powerful affin- 
 ity, and does not separate under a red 
 heat ; pure clay has a specific gravity 
 of about 25 ; but the weight is fre- 
 quently modified by the presence of 
 foreign matter, for it contains sand, 
 metallic oxides, carbonate of lime, 
 carbonate of magnesia, and frequent- 
 ly even combustilile substances, from 
 bitumen to plumbago, all of which ad- 
 mixtures of course modify the prop- 
 erties which are most highly esteem- 
 ed in clays, such as fineness, white- 
 ness, iniusibility, &c. 
 
 Quartz is abundantly distributed 
 throughout nature, and is met with in 
 very different states : in the form of 
 transparent colourless crystals, con- 
 stituting rock crystals, as sand of dif- 
 ferent fineness ; finally, in masses, 
 constituting true rocks. . Quartz is 
 the silica of chemists, and a com- 
 pound, according to them, of oxygen 
 and silicon, in the proportion, Berze- 
 lius says, of 100 of the radical to 108 
 of oxygen. 
 
 Silica, in a state of purity, occurs 
 in the form of a white powder, and 
 having a density of 2-7. It is infusi- 
 ble in the most violent furnace ; but 
 it not only melts in the intense heat 
 which results from the combustion 
 of a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen 
 gas, but it is even dissipated in va- 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 pour. As generally obtained, silica 
 is held insoluble in water ; still, when 
 in a stale of extreme subdivision, it 
 is soluble ; and then its insolubility is 
 probably not so absolute as is gener- 
 ally supposed, for M. Payen has found 
 notable quantities in the water of the 
 Artesian well of Crenelle, and in that 
 of the Seine. Silica exists especially, 
 in very appreciable quantity, in cer- 
 tain hot springs, where the presence 
 of an alkaline substance favours its 
 solution ; the water of the hot springs 
 of Reikuni in Iceland contain about 
 j-g^th parts of its weight of silica; 
 and the thermal spring of Las Trin- 
 cheras, near Puerto Cabello, depos- 
 ites abundant silicious concretions. 
 The water of this latter spring, which 
 is at the temperature of 210° Fahren- 
 heit, besides silica, contains a quan- 
 tity of sulphureted hydrogen gas, and 
 traces of nitrogen gas. Rock crystal, 
 when colourless and transparent, may 
 be regarded as pure silica ; in the va- 
 rieties of quartz which mineralogists 
 designate as chalcedony, agate, opal, 
 &c., the silica is combined with dif- 
 ferent mineral substances, particular- 
 ly oxide of iron and of manganese, 
 alumina, lime, and water. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, considered as 
 rock, belongs to every epoch in the 
 geological series, and frequently con- 
 stitutes extensive masses. When 
 pure, it is composed of lime, 563 ; car- 
 bonic acid, 437 ; and its density is 
 then from 27 to 29. It dissolves 
 with effervescence, without leaving 
 any residue in hydrochloric or nitric 
 acid. Exposed to a red heat, its 
 acid is disengaged, and quick-lime re- 
 mains. Carbonate of lime is insolu- 
 ble in water, but it dissolves in very 
 considerable quantity under the influ- 
 ence of carbonic acid gas. When 
 such a solution is exposed to the air, 
 the acid escapes by degrees, and the 
 carbonate is deposited, by which 
 means those numerous deposites of 
 carbonate of lime are produced which 
 we see constituting tufas and stalac- 
 tites. The solubility of carbonate of 
 lime in water acidulated with carbon- 
 ic acid enables us to understand how 
 plants should meet with this salt in 
 
 the soil, inasmuch as rainwater al- 
 ways contains a little carbonic acid. 
 
 The mineral substances whi(;h we 
 have now studied, taken isolatedly, 
 would form an almost barren soil ; 
 but, by mixing them with discretion, 
 a soil would be obtained presenting 
 all the essential conditions of fertil- 
 ity, which depend, as it would seem, 
 much less on the chemical constitu- 
 tion of the elements of the soil than 
 on their physical properties, such as 
 their faculty of imbibition, their den- 
 sity, their power of conducting heat, 
 &c. It is unquestionably by study- 
 ing these various properties that we 
 come to form a precise idea of the 
 causes which secure or exclude the 
 qualities we require in arable soils 
 This has been done very ably by .M 
 Schubler ; and his admirable papei 
 will remain a model of one applica- 
 tion of the sciences to agriculture.* 
 
 The researches of M. Schubler were 
 directed to the mineral substances 
 which are generally found in soils, 
 viz. : 1st. Silicious sand ; 2d. Calca- 
 reous sand : 3d. A sandy clay con- 
 taining about xnths of sand ; 4th. A 
 strong clay containing no more than 
 about Xflths of sand ; 5th. A still 
 stronger clay containing no more 
 than about ygth of sand ; 6th. Near 
 ly pure clay ; 7th. Chalk, or carbon- 
 ate of lime in the pulverulent state ; 
 8th. Humus ; 9th. Gypsum ; 10th. 
 Light garden earth, black, friable, 
 and fertile, and containing, in 100 
 parts, clay 52-4, quartzy sand 365, 
 calcareous sand 1-8, calcareous earth 
 20, humus 7-3 ; 11th. An arable soil 
 composed of clay 51-2, silicious sand 
 427, calcareous sand 04, calcareous 
 earth 2-3, humus 34; and, 12th. An 
 arable soil taken from a valley near the 
 Jura, containing clay 333, silicious 
 sand 630, calcareous sand 12, calca- 
 reous earth and humus 12, loss 1-3. 
 
 The object of these inquiries was 
 to ascertain, tst. The specific grav- 
 ity of soils ; 2d. Their power of re- 
 taining water ; 3d. Their consist- 
 ency ; 4th. Their aptitude to dry ; 
 
 * Schubler, Annals of French Agriculture, 
 ▼ol. xl., p. 122, 2d series. 
 
 21 
 
ANA 
 
 ANB 
 
 5th. Their disposition to contract 
 while drying ; Gth. Their hygrometric 
 force ; 7th. Their power of absorbing 
 oxygen ; 8th. Their faculty of retain- 
 ing heat ; and, 9th. Their capacity to 
 acquire temperature when exposed 
 to the sun's rays. 
 
 Specijic Gravity of Soils. — The 
 weight of soils may be compared in 
 the dry and pulverulent state, or in 
 the humid state ; or the specific grav- 
 ity of the particles which enter into 
 their composition may be determined. 
 This last information is easily obtain- 
 ed by the following method : Take 
 a common ground stopper bottle ; 
 weigh it, stoppered and full of distil- 
 led wafer ; let it then be emptied, in 
 order that a known quantity of the 
 soil, in the state of powder and quite 
 dry, may be introduced into it. A 
 quantity of water is now poured in, 
 and the vial is shaken to secure the 
 disengagement of all air bubbles ; the 
 vial is then filled with distilled water, 
 and, when the upper part has become 
 clear, the stopper is replaced ; the 
 vial is then wiped dry and weighed 
 again. The difference between the 
 weight of the vial full of water plus 
 that of the matter, and the weight of 
 the vial containing the matter and 
 the water mixed, gives the weight of 
 the water displaced by this matter. 
 Thus: 
 
 Weight of the vial full of water . . . 60-0 
 
 Weight of the matter 240 
 
 8?0 
 Weight of the vial containing the min- 
 gled earth and water 74'4 
 
 Difference of water displaced .... 9(5 
 
 which is the weight of the volume of 
 water equal to that of the matter in- 
 troduced into the vial ; we have, con- 
 sequently, for the specilic gravity of 
 the earth f!^ =25, the weight of the 
 water having been taken as 1. 
 
 This number represents the mean 
 specific gravity of the isolated parti- 
 cles of the powder which has been 
 examined ; but we must not, from 
 this density, pretend to deduce the 
 weight of a particular volume of soil 
 — a cubic foot or a cubic yard, for in- 
 stance : we should come to far too 
 high a number. The weight of a 
 22 
 
 given volume of earth must be deter- 
 mined immediately by ramming it 
 into a mould or measure of a known 
 capacity. 
 
 From M. Schiibler's experiments 
 it appears, 1st. That silicious and cal- 
 careous sandy soils are the heaviest 
 of any ; 2d. That clayey soils are of 
 least density ; 3d. That humus or 
 mould is of much lower density than 
 clay ; 4th. That a compound soil be- 
 ing generally by so much the heavier 
 as it contains a larger proportion of 
 sand, and so much the lighter as it 
 contains a larger quantity of clay, of 
 calcareous earth, and of humus, it is 
 possible, from the density of a soil, 
 to infer the nature of the principles 
 which prevail in it. In the course of 
 his experiments, M. Schubler found 
 that artificial mixtures always gave 
 higher densities than those that ought 
 to have resulted from the several den- 
 sities of each of the sorts of substance 
 which formed the mixture. 
 
 ANASARCA. A dropsy in the cel- 
 lular tissue of the limbs. 
 
 ANASTOMOSING. Growing to- 
 gether, uniting. 
 
 ANASTOMOSIS. The interlacing 
 and union of small veins or arteries 
 proceeding from different parts. 
 
 ANATROPOUS. A very common 
 kind of embryo, produced by one side 
 of the ovule growing upon itself, 
 while the other remains immoveable, 
 till, at last, that part of the ovule 
 which was originally next the apex 
 is brought down to the hilum, the 
 base of the nucleus in such cases 
 being at the apex of the ovule. The 
 common apple, and the greater part 
 of plants, offer an example of this. 
 
 ANBURY. In farriery, a spongy, 
 soft tumour, commonly full of blood, 
 growing on any part of an animal's 
 body. Substances of this kind may 
 be removed either by means of liga- 
 tures being passed round their bases, 
 or by the knife, and the subsequent 
 application of some caustic, in order 
 to effectually destroy the parts from 
 which they arise. 
 
 Anbuky, Amhury, Club-root : fingers 
 I and toes. A swelling formed on the 
 1 roots and ground-stems of cabbages, 
 
ANB 
 
 ANE 
 
 radishes, turnips, &c., by the maggot 
 of a weevil. 
 
 The maggot found in the turnip an- 
 bury is the larva of Curculio plcuro- 
 stigma of Marsham, and Rhi/)ich(e>ius 
 sulctcollts of Gyllenhal. " I live bred 
 this species of weevil," says Mr. Kir- 
 by, " from the knob-like galls on tur- 
 nips, called the anbury, and I have 
 little doubt that the same insects, or 
 a species allied to them, cause the 
 clubbing of the roots of cabbages." 
 Marsham describes the parent as a 
 coleopterous insect of a dusky, black 
 colour, with the breast spotted with 
 white, and the length of the body one 
 line and two thirds. 
 
 The general experience of farmers 
 and gardeners upon the subject testi- 
 fies that the anbury of the turnip and 
 cabbage usually attacks these crops 
 when grown for successive years on 
 the same soil. This is precisely what 
 might be expected ; for the parent in- 
 sect always deposites her eggs in 
 those situations where her progeny 
 will find their appropriate food ; and 
 in the fragments of the roots, &c., of 
 preceding crops, some of these em- 
 bryo ravagers are to be expected. 
 That they never attack the plants 
 upon a fresh site is not asserted : 
 Mr. Marshall's statement is evidence 
 to the contrary. But it is advanced 
 that the obnoxious weevil is most 
 frequently to be observed in soils 
 where the turnip or cabbage has re- 
 cently and repeatedly been cultiva- 
 ted. Another general result of ex- 
 perience is, that the anbury is most 
 frequently observed in dry seasons. 
 This is also what might be anticipa- 
 ted, for insects that inhabit the earth 
 just beneath its surface are always 
 restricted and checked in their move- 
 ments by its abounding in moisture. 
 Moreover, the plants actually affected 
 by the anbury are more able to con- 
 tend against the injury inflicted by 
 copious supply. In wet periods, also, 
 the affected plants show less the 
 extent of the injury they have sus- 
 tained, for their foliage does not 
 flag. 
 
 In considering the best modes of 
 preventing the occurrence of the dis- 
 
 ' ease and of palliating its attacks, it 
 I is apparent tliat any addition to the 
 soil that renders it disagreeable to 
 the weevil will prevent the visits of 
 this insect. The gardener has this 
 in his power with but little difficulty, 
 for he can keep the vicinity of his cab- 
 bage, cauliflower, and broccoli plants 
 sprinkled with soot, powdered tobac- 
 co, or other offensive matters. 
 
 ANCHUSA. See Alkanet. 
 
 ANCHYLOSIS. A stiff, immovea- 
 ble joint. 
 
 ANCIPITOUS. Having two edges. 
 
 ANDES GRASS. Arena elatwr. 
 Tall meadow oat ; a perennial grass ; 
 flowers in May, and ripens its seeds in 
 July. It is hardy, early, and makes 
 good hay. It is difficult to root out, 
 and lasts a long time. A clay loam is 
 the best soil. Sow two and a half to 
 three bushels with oats. 
 
 ANDROCEUM. The male parts 
 of the flower. 
 
 ANDROGYNOUS. Hermaphro- 
 dite : a union of both sexes. 
 
 ANDROPORUM. An elevation in 
 the middle of a flower, formed in part 
 by the union of the filaments of the 
 stamens. 
 
 ANELLIDES, ANELLATA. The 
 class of articulated animals formed 
 of ring-like segments, as the earth- 
 worms. 
 
 ANELYTROUS. Without elytra 
 or wing cases. 
 
 ANEMOMETER. (Gr. ai'f//of, the 
 2cind, and fzcrpov, measure.) An in- 
 strument for measuring the force or 
 velocity of the wind ; a wind gauge. 
 
 Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of 
 a glass tube, bent into the form of the 
 letter U, and open at both extremi- 
 ties. One of the extremities, A, is 
 also bent round to the 
 horizontal direction, 
 in order that the 
 wind may blow into 
 it. The tube being 
 partially filled with 
 water and exposed 
 to a current of air, the 
 water in the branch 
 at which the wind en- 
 ters is depressed ; for 
 example, to B, and consequently ri- 
 23 
 
ANG 
 
 ANN 
 
 ses in the other branch to C; and 
 the difierence at C, of the levels at 
 which it stands in the two branch- 
 es, is ihe hciffht of a coliiiiin of wa- 
 ter, tiie weigiit of which forms a 
 counterpoise to the force of the wind. 
 Tlie relative velocities of the wind 
 are thus ascertained, the variation of 
 the velocity being nearly proportion- 
 al to tlie square root of the resist- 
 ance. The bore of the tube is di- 
 minished at the bottom to check the 
 undulations of the water caused by a 
 sudden gust of wind. Various other 
 contrivances have been proposed, of 
 which one of the simplest is to ex- 
 pose a flat board of given dimensions 
 to a current of wind, and observe to 
 what extent it will force back a spring 
 attached to it, and resting against an 
 immoveable obstacle. — (Brandc.) 
 
 ANEMOSCOPE. An instrument 
 showing the direction of the wind ; a 
 weathercock. 
 
 ANEURISM. In farriery, a throb- 
 bing tumour, produced by the dilata- 
 tion of the coats of an artery in some 
 part of the body of an animal Aneu- 
 risms in the limbs may be cured by 
 making an incision, exposing the ar- 
 tery, and tying it above and below 
 the tumour with a proper ligature. 
 
 ANGINA. In farriery, a name 
 sometimes applied to the quinsy, or 
 what in animals is termed anticor ; 
 sore throat. 
 
 ANGIOSPERMOUS. Having the 
 seeds enclosed within a covering or 
 pericarp. 
 
 ANGLE BERRY. In farriery, a 
 sort of fleshy excrescence, to which 
 cattle and some other animals are 
 subject under diflerent circumstan- 
 ces, and are supposed to proceed 
 from a rupture of t!ie cutaneous ves- 
 sels, which give vent to a matter ca- 
 pable of forming a sarco7na, or fleshy 
 excrescence. They frequently ap- 
 pear upon the belly and adjacent 
 parts, hanging down in a pendulous 
 maimer. 
 
 AN GUST ATE. Narrow, dimin- 
 ishing rapidlv in breadth. 
 
 ANGUSTURA BARK. The bark 
 of the Ciisparia fcbrijnga of South 
 America : used as a tonic. 
 24 
 
 ANHYDRITE. Anhydrous gyp- 
 sum. 
 
 ANHYDROUS. Without water ; 
 a chemical term to express the en- 
 tire absence of water in a salt or acid 
 subslanof. 
 
 ANI^"'VL. Any object capable of 
 voluntary motion ; a function de- 
 pendant on the nervous system, 
 which is peculiar to animals and ab- 
 sent in plants. 
 
 ANIMAL ACIDS. Acids existing 
 in animals, or produced froin their 
 tissues. The principal are the oily 
 acids, choleic, lactic, and uric, which 
 
 ANIMALCULES. Infusorials. 
 
 ANIMAL MANURES. See Urme, 
 Miumre. 
 
 ANIMAL POISONS. The bites 
 of venomous reptiles, rabid dogs, the 
 contagious diseases produced by de- 
 caying meat, cheese, infected cattle, 
 glanders, are all called animal poi- 
 sons. They usually produce great 
 prostration, and call for the use of 
 ammonia and stimulants. 
 
 ANIONS. See Electrode. 
 
 ANISE SEED. PimpincUa amsvm. 
 The aromatic seeds of a well-known 
 umbelliferous plant. The oil is a 
 grateful aromatic to the stomach. 
 
 ANISOTOMID.E. A family of co- 
 leopterous insects, having monili- 
 form or beaded antennae, sub-elon- 
 gate, slender at the base, gradually 
 increasing towards the apex, with a 
 terminal club-shaped multiarticulate 
 joint ; palpi various, generally fdi- 
 form ; head small and ovate ; body 
 convex, never linear. 
 
 ANKER. A small wine barrel of 
 10 gallons, or 8^ imperial measure. 
 
 ANNOTTA, ARNOTTA. Roucon. 
 A red dye, obtained by fermenting the 
 pulp of the seeds of the Bixa orcUana, 
 a tree of the West Indies. In the 
 dairy a colouring matter is used un- 
 der this name, which is manufactured 
 from madder or carrots. 
 
 ANNUALS. Plants which perfect 
 seeds in one year and die, as wheal, 
 rye, &c. 
 
 ANNULUS. An organ resembling 
 a ring, as the collar which surrounds 
 the stem of some mushrooms. 
 
ANT 
 
 ATR 
 
 ANODE. The way by which elec- 
 fricity enters substances throui^h 
 vvliicii it passes: opposed to cathode, 
 tlie road or way by wliich it pocs out. 
 
 ANODYNE. A driia; which allays 
 pain, as opium, camphor, henbane, 
 ike 
 
 AXON A. The custard apple-trees. 
 The cherimover is of tliis i^enus. 
 
 ANTACIDS. Medicines which 
 neutralize the acid of the stomach in 
 disf'asp, as chalk, carbonate of soda. 
 
 ANTENNA, Avtew^e. The hair- 
 like, jointed organs on the heads of 
 insects. They are very moveable, 
 and are supposed to be organs of sen- 
 sation. 
 
 ANTEPECTL'S. In insects, the 
 under side of the main trimk, in which 
 the first pair of legs is inserted 
 
 ANTS. The family Fonmcida, 
 hymenopterous insects. They are 
 injurious to meadows by their hills, 
 and also devour fruits. The anthill 
 is readily destroyed by digging it up 
 in the depth of winter and scattering 
 the earth ; the exposure will thus de- 
 stroy the entire cidony. 
 
 ANTHELMINTICS. Drugs which 
 are used to destroy intestinal worms. 
 Turpentine, wormseed oil, pink-root, 
 and aloes are the most important. 
 
 ANTHER. The bilobate organ, 
 containing pollen, situated at the 
 summit of the filament, the two con- 
 stitiitmg the male organ, or stamen 
 of [dants. 
 
 ANTHODIUM. A head of flow- 
 ers, as in the thistle or sunflower ; 
 a capitulum. 
 
 ANTHOZANTHU.M. A genus of 
 grasses, of wliich A odoratum is the 
 sweet-scented vernal grass. See 
 Grasses. It is an annual, and of lit- 
 tle importance. 
 
 ANTIDRACHIIJM. The forearm. 
 
 ANTICLINAL AXIS. The line 
 lying between strata which dip in op- 
 posite directions. 
 
 AXTICOR. An inflammation of 
 the throat and gullet in horses, at- 
 tended with fever and prostration ; a 
 kind of quinsy. 
 
 ANTIDOTE. A remedy against 
 Q poison. 
 
 ANTIMONY. The sulphuret ; a 
 
 black metallic drug, used in the dis- 
 eases of cattle as an alterative in 
 skill diseases. An ounce is given to 
 a horse. 
 
 ANTIMONY TARTRATE. See 
 Tartar Emetic. 
 
 ANTIPHLOGISTIC. Remedies 
 opposed to an inflammatory state. 
 
 ANTISEPTICS. Substances 
 which prevent putrefaction. 
 
 ANTISPAS.MODICS. Remedies 
 which cure spasms or cramps, as 
 opium, camphor, asafcetida, &c. 
 
 A-NTITROPAL. When in a seed 
 the radicle of the embryo is turned 
 to the end farthest away from the 
 hilum. This, although a compara- 
 tively unusual position of parts, is 
 nevertheless the normal position, if 
 the e.xact nature of the development 
 of an ovule is rightly understood. 
 
 ANTRUM. A cavity. 
 
 AORTA. The great arterial ves- 
 sel which issues from the left ventri- 
 cle of the heart, and by its branches 
 distributes blood to every part of the 
 body. 
 
 APATITE. A greeni.sh, crystal- 
 line mineral found in primary rocks, 
 consisting of a phosphate and silicate 
 of lime. It is found in the Eastern 
 and Northern States, hut only in small 
 quantities. In Spain and Norway 
 large quantities are developed. It 
 has been spoken of as a manure in 
 the place of hones. 
 
 APERIENTS. Gentle purgatives. 
 
 APETALOUS. Without corolla. 
 
 APEX. The summit. 
 
 APHANTPTERA. An order of 
 apterous insects, with rudimentary 
 elytra, and undergoing a change of 
 form. The flea {Pulex irritans) is of 
 this kind. 
 
 APHIS, APHIDES (pi). A fami- 
 ly of hemipterous insects, common- 
 ly called " plant-lice," inhabiting trees 
 and plants, and living on their juices ; 
 remarkable for the anal saccharine 
 secretion, but more especially for a 
 peculiarity of their generative econo- 
 my, particularly described by Bonnet, 
 and which consists in the first fecun- 
 dation of the female influencing not 
 merely the ova immediately develop- 
 ed thereafter, but those of the females 
 25 
 
APP 
 
 resulting from that development, even I 
 to the ninth generation, which are ; 
 successively impregnated and pro- 
 ductive without any intercourse with 
 the male insects. Certain coleopter- 
 ous insects which prey upon and keep 
 in check the aphides, are termed aph- 
 idiphatri and aphidivora (^ayu, leal, 
 voro, ideroiir). For a figure, see In- 
 sects. Aphides are very numerous 
 in species, most plants having a dif- 
 ferent kind. They are readily de- 
 stroyed hy fumigations with tobacco, 
 Cayenne pepper, or sulphur, a solu- 
 tion of whale-oil soap, or water-slack- 
 ed lime sprinkled upon them. 
 
 APHYLLUS. Leafless, without 
 fully-developed green leaves. 
 
 APIARY. A bee-house. 
 
 APIS. The generic name of the 
 
 bee. 
 
 APOCARPOUS. When the car- 
 pels of a fruit do not adhere together. 
 
 APOCRENIC ACID. See Humus. 
 
 APOPLEXY. The staggers. See 
 Horse, Sheep, Ox. 
 
 APOPHY'SIS. A protuberance, 
 process, or projection. In anatomy, 
 restricted to processes of the osseous 
 system. 
 
 APOSEPADINE. A white crys- 
 talline body obtained from decayed 
 chcGsc 1 
 
 APOTHECIUM. The shield of 
 
 lichens. , j 
 
 APPETITE. Want of appetite . 
 and voracious appetite are important 1 
 symptoms in the di-'eases of horses | 
 and cattle ; e.\ercise, change ot sta- I 
 ble. ventilation, and a new kind of | 
 food and gentle purgation should be ' 
 tried for the first; the second may 
 arise from worms, and should be in- 
 vestigated. 
 
 APPLE. The cultivated fruit of 
 the Pyrus mains, or crab ; the tree be- 
 longs to the natural family Rosacea. 
 The apple, like most other hardy 
 trees, may be propagated by seeds, 
 cuttings, suckers, layers, or ingraft- 
 ing ; by seeds for obtaining new va- 
 rieties, and by the other modes for 
 extending the number of such as are 
 in esteem. 
 
 The following kinds are of differ- 
 ent values, but ripen at different 
 i6 
 
 APP 
 
 times, and represent the best set in 
 cultivation. 
 
 Summer Apples, ripening from July 
 to September : 
 Eaklv H.\Rvest, Princes Yellow 
 Harvest, July Pippin.— Frmt medium 
 size ; bright straw colour ; flavour 
 fine : ripe in July and August 
 
 E.\kly Red Jlne.\ting, Red Mar- 
 craretle. Strawberry. — Rather small ; 
 very rich and fine : ripe in August. 
 
 yuM.MER QuuEN, Early Queen. — j 
 Fruit large and oblong ; "striped with 
 red on a yellow ground ; high fla- 
 voured and fine : ripe in August. 
 
 Summer Peafmain, American Sum- 
 mer Pearmaut, Early Summer Pear- 
 jnam.— Too well known to need any 
 I description : ripe in August. 
 I Williams Apple — A beautiful 
 I fruit, of medium size and oblong 
 1 form ; colour deep red ; flavour live- 
 I ly and very pleasant. First of Au- 
 gust. A native of Roxbury, Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 Maiden's Blush— One of the hand- 
 somest fruits in the country. Size 
 large, roundish shape ; skin pale 
 greenish-vellow, tinged with a blush ; 
 excellent" for table use, drying, or 
 cooking : ripe in August and Septem- 
 ber. 
 
 Autumn Apples. 
 ! Porter Apple.— Fruit large; ob- 
 ! long shape ; skin bright yellow, with 
 I a red blush : ripe in October, and 
 I commands the highest price in the 
 I Boston market. 
 
 I Fall Pippi.n, Gulden Pippin, Hol- 
 land Prppm, Col ben's Fall Pippin, 
 i Vandine — Of all fall apples, this 
 ; stands at the head of the list. Fruit 
 ' large, and of a roundish oblong form ; 
 i skin smooth and yellowish green, tin- 
 ged with orange ; flesh tender, with 
 1 rich juice : ripe in October, and keeps 
 i till January and February. 
 I Seek-no-farther, Raniho, or Ro- 
 i „,aniic.— This fruit is much cultiva- 
 1 ted about Philadelphia. Shape flat, 
 1 resembling the Vanderveerc, but is a 
 i better fruit ; skin pale yellow, streak- 
 ed with red ; flesh tender and spright- 
 ! Iv during the fall : is both a fall and 
 ! winter apple. 
 
APPLE. 
 
 Stroat, Siraut. — A fine fall apple, 
 'introduced by the late Judge Biiel, of 
 Albany : in use from September to 
 December. 
 
 Winter and Spring Apples. 
 
 Esopus Spitzenburg. — Fruit large 
 and oval shape ; colour red, covered 
 with light yellow spots ; flesh of the 
 finest flavour for dessert or cooking, 
 and keeps till February. 
 
 Baldwin, Baldwin Pippin. — In the 
 Boston market this fruit has long 
 brought the highest prices. Colour 
 bright red, tinged with yellow ; flesh 
 juicy, rich, sweet, and most agreea- j 
 ble flavour: ripe in November, and 
 keeps till March. 
 
 Bell-flower. -^ A beautiful fruit, 
 long celebrated about Philadelphia as 
 their finest winter fruit : ripe in Oc- 
 tober, and keeps till March. 
 
 Blue Pearmain. — A well-known 
 fruit about Boston. Large size ; col- 
 our red, covered with a blue bloom ; 
 flavour delicious, and keeps till Jan- 
 uary. 
 
 HUBBARDSTON NoNESUCH. A mOSt 
 
 popular new fruit, lately brought out 
 in Massachusetts, often commanding 
 $5 per barrel in the Boston market : 
 ripe in November, and keeps till Feb- 
 ruary. 
 
 Ladv Apple, Pommc d'Api. — Fruit 
 small ; of pale yellow colour, deeply 
 tinged with red on one side ; flesh 
 crisp and pleasant : ripe in Novem- 
 ber, and keeps till April. 
 
 Monstrous Pippin, Gloria Mundi, 
 Ox Apple. — Fruit of enormous size, 
 sometimes weighing 28 ounces ; of a 
 pale yellowish-green colour ; spright- 
 ly flavour : ripe in October, and keeps 
 till January. 
 
 Newton Pippin. — Of this most val- 
 uable api)ie there are two varieties, 
 the yellow and the green ; no differ- 
 ence in quality ; keeps till May, and 
 retains its flavour ; the most valuable 
 variety tor shipping to Europe. 
 
 Rhode Island Greening. — Fruit 
 large ; skin greenish yellow ; flesh 
 slightly acid and of fine flavour : keeps 
 from November till April. 
 
 RiBsTON Pippin, also called Formo- 
 sa Pippin, and Glory of York. In 
 
 England esteemed very highly ; me- 
 dium size, and globular form ; colour 
 yellow, mottled with red next the 
 sun : keeps till February. 
 
 RoxBURv Russeting. — A fine old 
 native of .Massachusetts ; fruit large 
 and of a slightly flattened form ; col- 
 our brownish-yelhiw russet, with an 
 occasional blush ne.xt the sun ; skin 
 rough : keeps well till June and July. 
 Raised in great quantities near Bos- 
 ton for exportation, &c. 
 
 SwAAR Apple. — A celebrated win- 
 ter fruit in some parts of New- York ; 
 of fine flavour ; skin greenish-yel- 
 low, tinged with a blush : keeps till 
 March. 
 
 Wine Apple, Hay's Winter, Large 
 Winter Red, Fine Winter. — A beauti- 
 ful fruit, highly esteemed in the Phil- 
 adelphia market : keeps till February. 
 
 Hollow-core Pippin. — A new va- 
 riety raised in Jefferson county, Ohio. 
 It resembles the yellow Newton pip- 
 pin in its fine flavour : keeps till April 
 and .May. 
 
 Ohio Pearmain. — A new and beau- 
 tiful variety in Ohio ; good size ; stri- 
 ped red and yellow ; quality excel- 
 lent : keeps till .May. 
 
 Cider Apples. 
 
 Harrison and Camfield. — Both 
 long raised in the neighbourhood of 
 Newark, New-Jersey, and Hugh's 
 Virginia Crab, much cultivated in 
 Pennsylvania and Ohio, are decidedly 
 the most valuable varieties for cidei 
 to be found in the country. 
 
 In the west and other portions of 
 our vvidely-e.\tended country many 
 new varieties of choice apples are 
 constantly coming into use. The 
 above are varieties found at most of 
 the nurseries in the Eastern States. 
 
 Besides these, there are a large 
 quantity cultivated throughout the 
 country of every shade of merit. The 
 Newton pippin, Baldwin, Rhode Isl- 
 and greening, and Roxbury russet- 
 ing are the most valuable for expor- 
 tation, both on account of their fla- 
 vour and hardihood. They ccmmand 
 from ©9 to §15 the barrel in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 Directions for ■planting and mana- 
 27 
 
APPLE. 
 
 fring apple orchards, chiefly from Ken- 
 rick : 
 
 " The seeds of the apple should be 
 sown in autumn in a rich soil. When 
 the young plants appear in spring, 
 they should be carefully thinned to 
 the distance of 2 inches asunder, and 
 kept free from weeds till of sutficient 
 size to be removed. 
 
 " At I or 2 years of age they are 
 taken up, their tap-roots shortened, 
 that they may throw out lateral roots ; 
 they are transferred to the nursery, 
 set in rows about 4 feet asunder, and 
 at 1 foot distance from each other in 
 the row, in a rich and loamy soil. In 
 the summer following they are inoc- 
 ulated, or they are ingrafted or in- 
 oculated the year following. 
 
 "Size and age for transplanting to 
 the Orchard. — An apple-tree, when 
 finally transplanted to the orchard, 
 ought to be at least 6 or 7 feet high, 
 with branches in proportion, and full 
 2 years from tiie bud or graft, and 
 thrifty. Apple-trees under this size 
 belong properly only to the nursery. 
 
 " Distance. — The distance asunder 
 to which apple-trees should be finally 
 set, when transplanted to the orchard, 
 depends upon the nature of the soil, 
 and the cultivation to be subsequent- 
 ly given. If the soil is by nature ex- 
 tremely fertile, 40 feet distance may 
 be allowed, and even 45 and 50 feet 
 in some very extraordinary situa- 
 tions ; for before the trees become 
 old, they will completely shade the 
 ground. If, however, the soil is not 
 very extraordinary by nature, or so 
 rendered by art, this distance would 
 be too great : for the trees would be- 
 come old, and their growth would be 
 finished before the ground could be 
 covered by their shadow : 30 feet only 
 may therefore be allowed in land usu- 
 ally denominated of good quality, and 
 but 20 to 25 feet in land of ordinary 
 quality. But where economy of time, 
 of land, and of all things else is con- 
 sulted, but one half this distance will 
 answer for a series of years. 
 
 "The quincunx mode is recom- 
 mended for close arrangement, and 
 short-lived trees may be set in the 
 intervals. 
 28 
 
 " The period of growth, or the dura- 
 tion of the apple-tree, is comparative- 
 ly limited ; this is sufficiently evident 
 from the perishable nature of its tim- 
 ber. 
 
 " Soil and Situation. — A rich soil, 
 rather moist than dry, is that adapted 
 to the apple-tree. 
 
 " On such a soil, whether on the 
 plains, or in the valley, or on the 
 sides and summits of our great hills, 
 and even in situations the most ex- 
 posed, the apple-tree will flourish. 
 
 " Management of the Land. — If the 
 ground intended for the orchard can- 
 not conveniently be kept wholly in a 
 state of cultivation during the first 
 years, a portion, at least, ought to be. 
 
 " A strip of land to each row of 8 
 or 10 feet in width, well manured, 
 may be kept cultivated, and the vege- 
 tables which may here be raised will 
 amply repay the expense and labour 
 bestowed during the first 4 or 5 years. 
 After this, if Uie trees have grown 
 well, as they probably must liave 
 done, cultivation at a distance in the 
 intervals becomes even more impor- 
 tant than within the limited distance 
 of a very few feet from the trunk of 
 the tree ; for, on examination, it will 
 be found that the small fibres or 
 spongelets, by which alone the tree 
 derives all the nourishment it re- 
 ceives from the earth, are now re- 
 mote l>om the trunk of the tree ; they 
 are now to be found seeking food be- 
 yond the limits of its shade, and it 
 becomes necessary that the whole 
 grouncl should be kept in a high state 
 of cultivation for the 4 or 5 following 
 years. After tliis period it may oc- 
 casionally be laid to grass, which, 
 however, should be broken up at fre- 
 quent intervals, the land being always 
 kept in good heart. 
 
 ''Pruning. — if the branches of a 
 young tree, issuing at and above the 
 requisite height, be made, by pruning, 
 to diverge from the trunk in every di- 
 rection above the horizontal, and the 
 interior of these be carefully kept 
 from any interference with each oth- 
 er for a few years, little pruning will 
 ever afterward be necessary. 
 
 " Heavy pruning is seldom neces- 
 
APPLE. 
 
 sary or advisable ; but when, as in 
 the case of grafting, or of heading 
 clown for a new growtii, it becomes 
 unavoidable, it should always be per- 
 formed in that interval lietween the 
 time the frost is coming out of the 
 ground in sprmg and the opening of 
 the leaf 
 
 " For that moderate pruning, which 
 alone is generally needful, June and 
 July, and during the longest days of 
 sunmier, is the very best time ; for 
 wounds of all kinds heal admirably at 
 this period, the wood remaining sound 
 and bright ; and even a tree debarked 
 at this season recovers a new bark 
 immediately. 
 
 " Trees ought not to be pruned in 
 February and March, at the time the 
 frost is coming out of the ground. 
 This is the season when most trees, 
 and particidarly the vine and sugar- 
 maple, bleed most copiously and in- 
 juriously. It causes mveterate cank- 
 er, the wounds turn black, and the 
 bark, for perhaps several feet below, 
 becomes equally black, and perfectly 
 dead in consequence of the bleed- 
 ing." 
 
 Mr. Pell, who has an orchard of 
 20,000 Xewton pippins, has succecd- 
 Cvl, by the following method, in indii- ' 
 cing the trees to bear crops every ' 
 year : 
 
 " Three years ago in April, I \ 
 scraped all the rough bark off from 
 several thousand trees in my orchani. 
 and waslied the trunks and limbs 
 within reach with soft soap, trimmed 
 out all the branches that crossed j 
 each other early in June, and paint- i 
 ed the wounded part with white-lead i 
 to keep out moisture, then split open 
 the bark by running a sharp-pointed ■ 
 knife from the ground to the first set 
 of limbs in the latter part of the 
 same month, wiiich prevents tlie tree | 
 from becoming bark-bound, and gives ; 
 the inner wood an opportunity of ex- j 
 panding. In July I placed one peck 
 of oyster-shell lime around each tree, 
 and left it piled about the trunk un- 
 til November, during which three 
 montlis the drought was e.vcessive. 
 In November the lime was dug in 
 thoroughly. The following year 
 C3 
 
 (1842) I collected from those trees 
 1700 barrels of fruit, some of which 
 was sold in New-York for S4 per 
 barrel, and others in London for 89. 
 After gathering the fruit in October, 
 I manured the same trees with sta- 
 ble manure, and covered it imme- 
 diately with earth. Strange as it 
 may appear, this year they are lit- 
 erally bending to tiie ground with the 
 finest fruit I ever saw. The other 
 trees in my orchard, not treated as 
 above, are barren, next year being 
 their bearing year." 
 
 Fruit for exportation and spring 
 use must be allowed to rij)en well, 
 be plucked with the hand, and care- 
 fully exposed on the barn floor to dry 
 for 15 to 20 days ; they should then 
 be placed in clean barrels, and stored 
 in a dry cellar not subject to frost. 
 In shipping, they should never be 
 jolted. They should be placed be- 
 tween decks, in an airy situation. 
 Fruit grown in dry seasons always 
 keeps best. 
 
 The products of the apple-orchard 
 are so numerous that there is no lo- 
 cality in which it may not be made 
 profitable. Not only does tiie Iruit 
 ctmimand a good price, but ciJer and 
 vinegar are easily obtained, while 
 hogs flourish on the fallen fruit, de- 
 stroying, at the same time, the Iruit 
 caterpillar. The pomace, or refuse 
 of the cider-mill, is very acceptable 
 to cows and swine, or contributes to 
 enrich the manure heap. See Cuter. 
 
 Indeed, the value of apples as food 
 for hogs is little appreciated ; but 
 there is abundant evidence furn.shed 
 by practical men that they are almost 
 as valuable as potatoes. The flesh 
 is very firm and fine in swine thus 
 fattened. 
 
 Insects. — Numerous insects affect 
 the apple and pear tree, either bo- 
 liiig tiie trunk, destroying the young 
 leaves, or inhabiting the fruit. The 
 fruit caterpillar {Torlrix pomonana) 
 causes the fall of many apples before 
 the ripening season. The moth [Jig-. 
 /), whose eggs produce the destruc- 
 tive worm, is to be seen in the even- 
 ings of June and July flying about the 
 trees, or on the wmdows of the house. 
 29 
 
APPLE 
 
 Its outer winjs are marked with 
 gray and brown lines arran<red in del- 
 icate waves, with one larf,'e brown 
 spot on each, siirrouiulod with a yel- 
 low maririn ; the head and lliorax are 
 brown ish-<,'ray, strijjcd ; the under 
 wings and abdomen are of a satin 
 orange colour. Tiiey deposite an 
 egg on several young fruit, and pre- 
 fer early varieties. A worm is pro- 
 duced in 4 days, which enters the ap- 
 ple, eating towards the core, and 
 finally through the fruit. In three 
 weeks or more the caterpillar (a) es- 
 
 capes, but before this the apple usu- 
 ally falls to the groimd, and it seeks 
 a shelter among tlie rough hark of 
 the tree or oilier suitable place to 
 spin a cocoon (c). Tlie chrysalis, or 
 grub (il), is of a mahogany colour ; it 
 remains concealed until tlie next 
 spring before leaving its nest as a 
 moth. It is stated by European wri- 
 ters that there is another moth, wliich 
 produces two generations annually, 
 m the spring and fall. 
 
 Smoking the trees during the ap- 
 pearance of the moth with tobacco, 
 
 pitch, and other pungent vapours, is 
 used with some success. The col- 
 lection of fallen fruit once or twi.ce a 
 day secures the worm, which may 
 be destroyed ; but they instinctively 
 leave the apple soon after its fali. 
 Rags, or straw bands tied around the 
 stem, serve as a decoy to the cater- 
 pillar to form his cocoon under their 
 shelter. The figures from Kollar rep- 
 resent this troublesome insect, which 
 infests pears and other fruits like- 
 wise : it is the codling moth of Euro- 
 pean writers. 
 
 ■The caterpillars which exist in 
 such large quantities in webs at the 
 junction of the branches, and devour 
 the spring foliage of apples and most 
 trees, are the larva? of the Clissio- 
 campa 7icus/ria, Americana, and other 
 species ; they are readdy destroyed 
 by either collecting the nests and 
 burning them, or by applying a sponge 
 dipped in strong hartshorn, a solution 
 of sulphuret of lime, or any other 
 powerful poison. They are called 
 lackey or tent caterpillars by Euro- 
 pean writers. 
 
 The Cankerwoem, green looper cat- 
 80 
 
 crpillar. destructive to the buds of ap- 
 ples and other trees, is the larva of 
 the Geomcira Irumata (or Phalaena), 
 the winter moth. The figure repre- 
 sents (a) the male, and (i) the female 
 
 moth. The male is winged, but the 
 female crawls only ; she may be seen 
 ascending the trunk of trees in the 
 fall to deposite her eggs in the au- 
 tuinnal buds : and is of an ash-gray 
 colour. The caterpillars are at first 
 gray, but afterward light green ; tlrey 
 devour flowers, leaves, and fruit ; 
 and when they take up their abode 
 on any part, construct a small web 
 
AJ'R 
 
 or cell for protection. Abont May ' 
 tliey bi>gin lo Iciivo the tree, desceiul- 
 iti;: liy a iliread to the soil ; here they 
 hiiry themselves lo become puppa;, 
 an 1 reappear as moths from August 
 to Xoveiiiher. The destruction of 
 the female moths is attempted by 
 fastening strips of paper smeared > 
 with tar round tlie trunk, which ar- [ 
 rests their ascent. Kollar rccom- ' 
 mends the construction of a box 
 around the lower part of the trunk, 
 covered on all sides with a projecting 
 top, to be kept smeared vvitii tar. The 
 caterpillars are also fumigated with 
 tobacco, &c., sinoke. Other geome- 
 ters also infest fruit trees. 
 
 Apple-borer. The Saperda bivit- 
 cafa. Say. See Boras. 
 
 The Appi.E-wEEvrL, Curculio {An- 
 thoiwinus) pomoiuni, is of a grayish 
 
 colour, deposites her eggs in the 
 flower buds in spring; the grub is 
 small, wiiite, with a black head, it be- 
 coming yellow. The flowers and fruit 
 are destroyed by them. The curcu- 
 lio may he shaken from the tree in 
 spring, and destroyed by chickens. 
 '1 he trees are also subject to aphides, 
 American blight, other caterpillars, 
 (Sec. 
 
 APRICOT. (Armeniaca vulgaris.) 
 The following remarks are by Mr. 
 Pell: 
 
 "This fruit does exceedingly well 
 when budded towards the end of Ju- 
 ly, on plum stocks two years old. 
 The peach answers very well like- 
 wise When three years old, I set 
 them out in a very rich black mould. 
 I tind they do much better under 
 glass than in the open air. In either 
 case they should be disbudded in the 
 month of May, and all the superflu- 
 ous shoots taken cff In November 
 they should be shortened to sixteen 
 laches ; by so doing lue trees will be 
 
 AR..\ 
 
 kept vigorous and healthy. Their 
 principal enemies are the cur(-uiius, 
 wasps, and flies, which may he kept 
 off l)y means of nets."' 
 
 The Moorpark and Turkey are both 
 esteemed varieties, as also the fol- 
 lowing : breda, gold blotch, musk 
 Schuylers, orange, peach, and violet. 
 Lindley recommends grafting on the 
 mussel plum stock, 'i'he position o. 
 the tree ought to be sheltered and 
 late. It answers admirably in the 
 South, where it is grown as a stand- 
 ard, but in New- York it requires a 
 warm wall. 
 
 APRIL. This is the great month 
 for plougiiing and seeding crops in 
 the North ; the land should be pre- 
 pared for potatoes, beets, and root 
 crops, as well as corn. Tobacco seed 
 is sown early, and farther south the 
 young plants of cotton and sugar- 
 c-ane are hoed and weeded. The gar- 
 den and orchard are to be closely at- 
 tended to. 
 
 APTERANS, APTERA. Wing- 
 less insects. 
 
 APYREXIA. The cool or quiet 
 stage of intermittent fevers. 
 
 AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid, usu- 
 allv dilute. 
 
 AQUA REGIA. A mixture of ni- 
 tric and muriatic acids. 
 
 AQUA TIC PLANTS. Such as 
 grow submerged 
 
 AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The fluid 
 in the anterior chamber of the eye 
 
 ARABLE LAND, so called 'from 
 the Latin word arare, '■ to plough."' is 
 that part of the land v.bich is chiefly 
 cultivated by means of the plough. 
 
 Land in general is divided into ara- 
 ble, grass land, wood land, common 
 pasture, and waste. 1 he first of these 
 is by far the most important in agri- 
 culture. In this article we shall brief- 
 ly explain the princ-iples on which are 
 founded the most improved methods 
 of cultivating arable land, by which 
 the natural produce of the soil is great- 
 ly increased, and many productions 
 are obtained in perfection which are 
 foreign to the soil and climate. 
 
 1 . We shall consider the nature and 
 properties of various soils. 
 
 2. The best modes of preparing and 
 
 81 
 
ARABLE LAND. 
 
 improving the natural soil, so as to 
 increase its produce. 
 
 3. The most advantageous succes- 
 sion of crops, so as to obtain the 
 greatest returns with the least dimi- 
 nution of fertility. 
 
 1. Soils. — When the surface of the 
 earth is penetrated, we generally find 
 that the appearance, texture, and col- 
 our vary at different depths. There 
 is a layer of earth nearest the surface, 
 of greater or less thickness, which 
 covers the more solid and uniform 
 materials which lie below it. This 
 may be particularly observed wherev- 
 er there are natural or artificial exca- 
 vations or pits. A distinct line, near- 
 ly parallel to the surface, generally 
 marks the depth of the upper soil, and 
 separates it from the subsoil. The 
 soil is more or less composed of mi- 
 nute parts of various kinds of earth, 
 mixed with animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances in different states of decom- 
 position ; and to these, in a great 
 measure, it owes its colour, w-hich is 
 generally darker than that of the sub- 
 soil. Except where iron, peat, coal, 
 or slate abound in the soil, a dark 
 colour is an indication of correspond- 
 ing fertility. The rich soil of gardens 
 long cultivated and highly manured is 
 nearly black. As the soil is the bed 
 in which all vegetable productions are 
 to be reared, and in which they are to 
 find their proper nourishment, its tex- 
 ture and composition become objects 
 of great importance to the cultivator ; 
 and, without a competent knowledge 
 of these, no practical rules can be laid 
 down or depended upon. 
 
 All soils are composed of earthy 
 and metallic oxides, saline substan- 
 ces, vegetable and animal matter, and 
 water. The earths are chiefly clay 
 or alumina, flint or silica, and lime. 
 
 Magnesia, barytes, and other earths 
 are occasionally met with, but in so 
 few instances that they may be omit- 
 ted in the list. 
 
 Of the metals, the most abundant 
 is iron in the state of peroxide. The 
 other metals are rarely found near the 
 surface. 
 
 Saline substances form a small part 
 of a soil, but an important one. 
 8S 
 
 Potassa exists in almost every ve- 
 getable, soda in a few, and ammonia 
 is produced by the decomposition of 
 animal matter ; but, from its volatile 
 nature, it is not long retamed in the 
 soil, except when it forms a fixed 
 compound with other substances. 
 
 The vegetable acids, as a general 
 rule, are perhaps limited to small por- 
 tions of acetic acid in combination 
 with some base, as lime or potash. 
 
 The mineral acids arc found united 
 with earths and alkalies, in the statu 
 of neutral compounds. 
 
 These saline substances have a 
 powerful effect on vegetation ; and a 
 knowledge of their proportions in the 
 soil, and of their various qualities, is 
 indispensable in order to modify or 
 correct their action by other substan- 
 ces for which they have an affinity. 
 
 Water, in a state of combination, 
 or of mere mechanical diffusion, is 
 essential to the growth of all plants : 
 without it and atmospheric air there 
 is no lite, either animal or vegetable. 
 
 The Earths. — Clay is called alumina 
 because it is obtained in its purest 
 state from alum, in which it is com- 
 bined with the sulphuric acid : it is 
 the basis of all strong and heavy soils. 
 When clay is minutely divided, it is 
 easily suspended in water ; when 
 dried slowly, and stirred while dry- 
 ing, it becomes a fine powder, soft 
 to the feel ; and when kneaded with 
 water, a tough, ductile mass, easily 
 moulded into hollow vessels which 
 retain liquids. This property of being 
 impervious to water gives the specific 
 character to clay as an ingredient of 
 the soil. In a pure and unmixed state 
 it is absolutely barren. When clay is 
 heated to a great degree it parts with 
 the water combined with it ; it is then 
 said to be baked, as we see in bricks. 
 It is no longer diffusible in water. 
 
 Silica, or the earth of flints, suffers 
 no change in water. It consists of 
 crystals, or fragments of very hard 
 stone, forming gravel or sand accord- 
 ing to their size ; and the finest sili- 
 cious sand, when examined with a 
 magnifying glass, has the appearance 
 of irregular fragments of stone wjih- 
 out any cohesion between them. 
 
ARABLE LAND. 
 
 Silicious sand holds water in its in- 
 terstices by simple cohesive attrac- 
 tion in proportion to its fineness. It 
 lets water pass through it rapidly, ei- 
 ther by filtration or evaporation. Its 
 use in the soil is to keep it open, to 
 let the air and water, as well as those 
 other substances on which the growth 
 of plants depends, circulate through 
 it. Unmixed, it dries so rapidly that 
 no vegetation can continue in it, un- 
 less a constant supply of moisture be 
 given by irrigation. A small addition 
 of clay much improves light sands. 
 
 Lime in its pure state is familiar 
 to every one as the basis of the mor- 
 tar used in building. It is produced 
 by burning marble, chalk, limestone, 
 or shells with a great heat. In the 
 stones which are formed principally 
 of lime it is comi)ined with some acid, 
 most generally carbonic acid, which 
 separates from it by the operation of 
 burning, in the form of an air or gas, 
 hence called fixed air, from its being 
 thus /an/ in a stone. These stones, 
 of various degrees of hardness, are 
 now ail classed under the name of 
 carbonates of lime. 
 
 Lime unites readily with water, 
 which it also absorbs from the atmo- 
 sphere. It then becomes slacked. By 
 uniting with carbonic acid, it returns 
 to Its fbrmer state of carbonate, with 
 this difference, that, unless much wa- 
 ter he present, it remains a fine im- 
 palpable powder. Pure lime is solu- 
 ble in water, though sparingly ; a pint 
 of water cannot dissolve more than 
 about twenty grains : the carbonate 
 is not soluble in water. Carbonate of 
 lime has a powerful effect on the fer- 
 tility of a soil, and no soil is very pro- 
 ductive without it. It is consequently 
 used extensively as an improver of 
 the soil, otherwise called a manure ; 
 but its use in this respect, and the 
 mode in which it acts, will be given 
 in the articles Mwcre and Lime. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, as an earth, is 
 neither so tenacious as clay nor so 
 loose as sand. In proportion to the 
 fineness of its particles, it approaches 
 the one or the other; when the parts 
 are large and hard, it takes the name 
 of limestone or calcareous gravel. 
 
 Its distinguishing feature is its sol. 
 ubility in acids, which it neutralizes, 
 depriving them of their noxious qual- 
 ities in the soil. A proper mixture 
 of these three earths, in a due state 
 of mechanical division, forms a soil 
 well fitted to the growth of every 
 species of plants, especially those 
 which are cultivated for food ; and 
 nothing more is required than a prop- 
 er climate as to heat, a proper degree 
 of moisture, and sufficient nourish- 
 ment, to make all the plants generally 
 cultivated thrive most luxuriantly in 
 such a mi.xture. which is usually call- 
 ed a loam. 
 
 But there are some soils which, be- 
 sides a proper mechanical texture and 
 mi.xture of earths, contain a large pro- 
 portion of a natural manure, which 
 renders them extremely fertile. This 
 is a substance produced by the slow 
 decay of animal and vegetable mat- 
 ter. It can be separated from the 
 other parts of the soil, and has been 
 accurately analyzed and described by 
 many of the most experienced chem- 
 ists, particularly by Fourcroy. Davy, 
 Chaptal. and Theodore de Saussure. 
 (See Rccherchcs Chimiqucs sur la Ve- 
 gitation, Paris, 1804, 8vo.) This 
 substance has been called vegetable 
 mould; but, as this is not a very dis- 
 tinct term, we shall, after Thacr and 
 other eminent writers on agriculture, 
 adopt the name of humus when speak- 
 ing of it. Humus is a dark, unctuous, 
 friable substance, nearly uniform in 
 its appearance. It is a compound of 
 oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitro- 
 gen, which are the elements of all an- 
 imal and vegetable substances. It is 
 the result of the slow decomposition 
 of organic matter in the earth, and is 
 found in the greatest abundance in 
 rich garden mould, or old. neglected 
 dunghills. It varies somewhat in its 
 qualities and composition, according 
 to the sub.stances from which it has 
 been formed and the circumstances 
 attending their decay. 
 
 Besides the four essential elements 
 in its composition, it also contains 
 other substances in smaller quanti- 
 ties, viz , phosphoric and sulphuric 
 acids combined with some base, and 
 89 
 
ARABLE LAND 
 
 also earths and salts. It affords tbod 
 to plants. It is diminished by the 
 process of vegetation, and wasted by 
 being carried into the ocean by the 
 waters, or it is carried into the atmo- 
 sphere by the agency of the oxygen 
 of the air, which converts it into gas- 
 eous matter, chiefly carbonic acid. 
 
 Humus, in tiie state in wiiicb it is 
 usually found in the eartii, is not sol- 
 uble in water, and we might have 
 some difficulty in comprehending how 
 it enters into the minute vessels of 
 the roots of plants ; but here the ad- 
 mirable provision of nature may be 
 observed. Humus is insoluble and 
 antiseptic ; it resists farther decom- 
 position in itself, and in other sub- 
 stances in contact with it. It re- 
 mains for a long lime in the eartli un- 
 impaired ; but no sooner is it brought 
 into contact with the atmosphere by 
 the process of cultivation, than an 
 action begins. Part of its carbon, 
 uniting with the oxygen of the atmo- 
 sphere, produces carbonic acid, wliich 
 the green parts of plants readily ab- 
 sorb ; while its hydrogen, with the 
 same, forms water, without which 
 plants cannot live ; and in very warm 
 climates, where this process goes on 
 more rapidly, the moisture thus produ- 
 ced keeps up vegetable life when rains 
 and dews fail. The residue becomes 
 a soluble extract, and in that stale is 
 taken up readily by the fibres of the 
 roots. Hence we see the great impor- 
 tance of frequently stirring the sur- 
 face of the earth between vegeta- 
 bles. 
 
 We can now readily understand 
 the great importance of humus, and 
 of those rich manures which are 
 readily converted into it, when not 
 immediately absorbed by plants. But 
 it has still another property, highly 
 important to fertility : it renders stiflT 
 clays porous, and consolidates loose 
 sands. It does so more than lime or 
 any other earth. Hence a soil with 
 a considerable portion of humus is 
 much more fertile than the quantity 
 of alumina or of sand in its compo- 
 site jn would lead one to expect, as 
 we shall see when we come to the 
 analysts of soils of known fertility ; 
 8i 
 
 and we see the great advantage of 
 animal and vegetable manures, not 
 only as nourishment to vegetables, 
 but as mechanical improvers of the 
 texture of soils. 
 
 The greatest enemy of humus is 
 stagnant water : it renders it inert 
 and astringent, as we see in peat ; 
 and soils abounding with vegetable 
 matters, from which water is not 
 properly drained, become sour, as is 
 very justly said, and produce only 
 rushes and other useless and unpal- 
 atable plants. The remedy is simple 
 and obvious : drain well, and neutral- 
 ize the acid with lime or marl ; by 
 these means abundant fertility will 
 be restored. 
 
 In very light soils humus is seldom 
 found in any quantity, being loo much 
 exposed to the air, and rapidly de- 
 composed ; the extract is washed 
 through them by the waters, and, as 
 they waste manure rapidly, they are 
 called hungry. Such soils are very un- 
 profitable until they are improved and 
 consolidated by clay or marl, which 
 makes them retain their moisture. 
 
 With calcareous earths humus acts 
 well, provided they are pulverized 
 and of sufficient depth. 
 
 In order to ascertain the probable 
 fertility of a soil, it is very useful to 
 analyze it, and find out the propor- 
 tion of its component parts. To do 
 this with great accuracy requires the 
 knowledge of an experienced chem- 
 ist. See Analysis. 
 
 Mr. Thaer has given a classifica- 
 tion of soils of known qualities, which 
 we think worthy of notice. It is as 
 follows : 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ._ ^ 
 
 -*J 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 jh' ^ 
 
 |i 
 
 2 1 1 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 '•" t 
 
 '•^ £ 
 
 s'.^ i 
 
 i. i_ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 c 
 
 w C. 
 
 
 "~r 
 
 1 1 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 ~~*yi 
 
 TTm 
 
 loo 
 
 2 
 
 i Firsiclass of strong J 
 
 SI 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 »y. 
 
 98 
 
 3 
 
 ( wheat soils . . \ 
 
 79 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 6>J 
 
 96 
 
 4 
 
 
 40 
 
 2-2 
 
 36 
 
 4 " 
 
 90 
 
 S 
 
 ( Rich light sanil ia I 
 \ n:i:ur;il grass . ) 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 ? 
 
 6 
 
 Rich barley land 
 
 •20 
 
 67 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 78 
 
 7 
 
 Onod whe.it land ■ 
 
 r,S 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 77 
 
 8 
 
 Wheat land . 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 75 
 
 9 
 
 Do. . 
 
 HO 
 
 38 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 I>o 
 
 48 
 
 .10 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 65 
 
 11 
 
 r>9 
 
 68 
 
 .30 
 
 <c J 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 1-: 
 
 Good o.nrley land . 
 
 .38 
 
 00 
 
 w'^ 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 Do. second quality 
 
 33 1 fi.T 
 
 'r C 
 
 •3 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 Do 
 
 S8 1 70 
 
 ■~ 3 
 
 .2 
 
 40 
 
 1.'^ 
 
 Oat land . 
 
 irtV.^ T.=i 
 
 'c ^ 
 
 ll.< 
 
 ■ ?/0 
 
 16 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 18,g| 80 
 
 > 
 
 IM 
 
 20 
 
ARABLE LAJN'D. 
 
 Below this are very poor rye lands. 
 
 Ill all these soils tlie depth is sup- 
 posed the same, and the quality uni- 
 form to the depth of at least 6 inch- 
 es ; the subsoil sound, and neither i 
 too wet nor too dry. 
 
 Xos. 1, i. and 3 are alluvial soils, 
 and, from the division and the inti- 
 mate union of the humus, are not so 
 heavy and stiffas the quantity of jlay J 
 would indicate. 
 
 No. 4 IS a ricdi clay loam, neither 
 too heavy nor too loose : a sod ea- 
 sily kept in heart by judicious culti- j 
 vation 
 
 Xo. 5 is very light and rich, and 
 best adaped tor gardens and or- | 
 cliards, hut not for corn ; hence its ] 
 comparative value can scarcely be 
 given. 
 
 rs'os. 6, 7, and 8 are good soils ; 
 the quantity of carbonate of lime in ' 
 Xo. 8 compensates for the smaller i 
 portion of humus. Tiiis land requires 
 manure, as well as the others below. [ 
 In those from No. 9 downward lime | 
 or marl would he the greatest iin- ' 
 provement. Xos. 15 and 16 are poor 
 light soils, rccpiiring clay and mucii 
 manure ; but even these lands will 
 repay the cost of judicious cultiva- 
 tion, and rise in value. : 
 
 The last column, of comparative 
 value, is the result of several years' 
 careful valuation ofthe returns, after 
 labour and seed had liecn deducted. 
 
 Few old sods contain more than 4 
 or 5 per cent, of humus, even when 
 in very good heart; and 2 per cent., 
 with a good loamy texture, will ren- ' 
 der a sod lit for corn with judicious 
 cultivation. The texture is of most 
 importance, as may be seen by com- 
 paring Xos. 7 and 8 with X'o. 6. If 
 this is of good quality, dung will soon 
 give the proper supply of humus. ' 
 
 The depth of the soil and the na- 
 ture of the subsoil greatly affect its 
 value. However rich it may be, if 
 there is only a thin layer of good soil 
 over a sharp gravel or a wet clay, it 
 can never bo very productive : in the 
 first case, it will he parched in dry 
 weather : and in the latter, convert- 
 ed into mud by every continued rain. 
 If the subsoil be loam, six inches of, 
 
 good soil will be sufficient. With a 
 foot of good soil, the subsoil is ol' lit- 
 tle consequence, provided it be dry, 
 and the water can find a ready outlet. 
 The exposure, with respect to the 
 sun, and the declivity ofthe ground, 
 are very important circumstances, 
 and equivalent to an actual differ- 
 ence in the climate. A gentle de- 
 clivity towards the south, and a shel- 
 ter against cold winds, may make as 
 great a difference as several degrees 
 of latitude. 
 
 2. CfLTIV.iTIOV OF THE SoIL. The 
 
 better the soil, the less cultivation it 
 requires to produce tolerable crops ; 
 hence, wliere the land is very rich, 
 we find in general a slovenly culture ; 
 where the ground is less productive, 
 more labour and skill are applied to 
 compensate for the want of natural 
 fertility. The simplest cultivation is 
 that of the spade, the hoe, and the 
 rake, and on a small scale it is the 
 best ; but spade husbandry cannot 
 be carried to a great extent without 
 employing more hands than can be 
 spared from other occupations. The 
 jjlough, drawn l)y oxen or horses, is 
 the chief instrument of tillage, and 
 has been so in all ages and nations 
 of which we have any records. Its 
 general form is familiar to every one, 
 and requires no minute description. 
 The various kinds of ploughs in use 
 at difierent times, and the improve- 
 ments which have been made and 
 are attempted daily, will be noticed 
 in a separate article (see Plough). 
 Suffice it to say, at present, that a 
 plough should, as much as possible, 
 imitate ihe work done with a spade. 
 It should cut a slice from the land 
 l)y its coulter vertically, and by the 
 share horizontally lift it up, ami turn 
 it quite over by means ofthe mould- 
 board ; and the art ofthe ploughman 
 consists in doing this perfectly, and 
 with such a depth and width as 
 suit the soil and the intended pur- 
 pose. In tenacious soils the slice 
 will be continued without breaking, 
 especially if bound by the fibres and 
 roots of plants ; the whole surface 
 will be turned over, and the roots 
 exposed to the air. It is of great 
 85 
 
ARABLE LAND. 
 
 consequence that each slice be of the 
 same width ami thickness, and the 
 sides of it perfectly straight and par- , 
 allcl. Tlie plane of the coulter must 
 be perfectly vertical, and that of the ; 
 share horizontal, in order that the 
 bottom of the furrow may be level, 
 without hollows or balks, which are 
 irregularities produced by the rising 
 or sinking of the plough, or inclining 
 it to either side. There are various 
 modes of ploughing land, either quite 
 Hat, or in beds or stitches — that is, 
 in portions of greater or less widtli, 
 with a double furrow between them, 
 somewhat like beds in a garden. 
 Sometimes two ridges are set up 
 against each other, which is called 
 ridging or banting ; the land then is 
 entirely laid in high ridges and deep 
 Jurrows, by which it is more exposed 
 to the influence of the air, and kept 
 drier: this is generally done before 
 winter, especially in stiff, wet soils. 
 Sometimes two or more ridges are 
 made on each side, forming narrow 
 stitches. When the ground is to be 
 ploughed without being laid in stitch- 
 es, and all tiie ridges inclined one 
 way, the mould-board of the plough 
 is shifted at each turn from one side 
 to the other. The double mould-board 
 plough of Barnaby and Mooers docs 
 this effectively. When gjass land or 
 stubble is ploughed, care must be ta- 
 ken to bury tbe grass and weeds com- 
 pletely, and the slice cut off by the 
 plough must be turned over entirely, 
 which is best done by making the 
 width of the furrow greater than the 
 depth. When the grass and weeds 
 are rotten, and the ground is plough- 
 ed to pulverize it, a narrow, deep fur- 
 row is best ; the earth ploughed up 
 is laid against the side of the prece- 
 ding ridge, which forms a small fur- 
 row between the tops of the ridges, 
 well adapted for the seed to lodge in 
 and to be readily covered with the 
 harrow. 
 
 Nothing has divided both practical 
 and theoretical agriculturists more 
 than the question whether the land 
 should be ploughed deep or shallow; 
 but a very slight attention to the pur- 
 puses for which laud is ploughed, and 
 
 as 
 
 to the nature of the soil, will readily 
 reconcile these apparently contradic- 
 tory opinions. A deep, ricii, and stiff 
 soil can never be moved too much 
 nor too deep : deep ploughing brings 
 up rich earth, admits tlie air and 
 water readily, and gives room for 
 the roots to shoot, while the rich 
 compact soil affords moisture and 
 nourishment. Wherever trees are to 
 be planted the ground should be stir- 
 red as deep as possible, even in a poor 
 soil : for grass and corn, this is not 
 always prudent ; their roots seldom 
 go above three or four inches deep, 
 and if they find suflicient moisture 
 and hurnus, they require Utile more 
 depth. 
 
 V\'henever the soil below a certain 
 depth is of an inferior quality, there 
 can be no use in bringing it up ; and 
 where the soil is light and porous, 
 the bottom had much better not be 
 broken. 
 
 The great object in ploughing land 
 is to divide it, expose every part of 
 it to the influence of the elements, 
 and destroy every plant or weed but 
 those which are sown in it. To do 
 this perfectly requires several plough- 
 ings. 
 
 Where the soil is good, with a po- 
 rous subsoil, the greatest care should 
 be taken not to go too deep ; but 
 where the subsoil is compact and im- 
 pervious to water, but not wet for 
 want of outlet or draining, it is use- 
 ful to stir the soil to a great depth, 
 but without bringing it to the sur- 
 face, which may be done by a plough 
 without a mould-board following a 
 common plough in the same furrow. 
 This is an excellent mode of drain- 
 ing, and, at the same time, keeping 
 a reservoir of moisture, which in dry 
 weather ascends in vapours through 
 the soil and refreshes the roots. 
 
 The mode in which the soil is pre- 
 pared most perfectly for the recep- 
 tion of the seed is best shown by fol- 
 lowing the usual operations on fal- 
 lows : After the harvest, the plough 
 is set to work and the stubble plough- 
 ed in. The winter's frost and snow 
 mellow it, while the stubble and weeds 
 rot below'. lu spring, as soon as ths 
 
ARABLE LAND 
 
 weather permits, it is ploughed again, ' 
 the lirst ridjjcs being turned over as 
 they were belore ; tliis completes the i 
 decomposition of the roots and weeds. 
 It is then stirred with harrows or oth- 
 er instruments, which tear up the 
 roots which remained, and some of 
 these, not being easily destroyed, are 
 carefully gathered and burned, or put 
 in a heap to ferment and rot, a por- 
 tion of quickhme being added. An- I 
 oVlier ploughing and stirring follows, '. 
 at some interval, till the whole ground 
 is mellow, pulverized, and free from 
 weeds ; manure is put on, if required, 
 and immediately spread and ploughed 
 in : the land is then prepared for the 
 seed. I 
 
 Various instruments have been in- ' 
 vonted to stir the earth and mix it 
 wiihovit so often using the plough, 
 and also to loosen and separate roots 
 and weeds ; of these the principal 
 are the cultivator or scarifier, which 
 enters but a few inches into the 
 ground, and moves a great surface 
 by means of iron teeth of various 
 constructions. 
 
 This instrument divides the soil, 
 but does not turn it over ; it is well 
 calculated to destroy roots and weeds, 
 and let in the air ; but, evidently, is 
 only adapted to tolerably loose and 
 mellow soils, where there are no 
 large stones. 
 
 AN'hen the soil turned up by the 
 plough is in large, hard lumps, a roll- 
 er, sometimes with spikes in it, is 
 drawn over the land to break the 
 clods ; but this is seldom necessary 
 except where very stifTsoils have been 
 ploughed when too wet. and the ridges 
 have dried, and been ploughed again 
 in dry weather. Deep wet clay soils 
 should be carefully watched, to know 
 Avhen is the proper time to plough 
 them. Nothing pulverizes them like 
 frost ; and if they are kept from wet 
 by careful draining and numerous 
 water-furrows in autumn, they will 
 be loose and friable in spring ; tiiey 
 had better not be touched than work- 
 ed when too wet. On light soils the 
 plain roller is used to advantage to 
 produce firmness, without which the 
 plough cannot so well turn the ground 
 
 over completely, but merely pushes 
 it to the right and left. 
 
 The iniluence of the atmosphere 
 on the soil, and the increased fertili- 
 ty produced by pulverizing and stir- 
 ring heavy lands, has led to the no- 
 tion adopted by Jethro Tiill, that la- 
 bour might entirely supersede the 
 necessity of manure ; hence the ori- 
 gin of the horse-hoeing husbandry, 
 which at one time was so highly 
 thought of as to be called, by way of 
 distinctiiui, the neio husbandry. 
 
 There are some soils which are 
 so mixed with pebbles and stones 
 that the foregoing observai ions will 
 scarcely be applicable, and the in- 
 struments must be adapted to their 
 texture. The only inconvenience 
 found from tiiem in good soils is that 
 they occupy the room of better earth, 
 and wear out the instruments used, 
 which, in consequence, are made 
 stronger and blunter. When there 
 is a crop to be mown with the scythe, 
 the stones must be removed from the 
 surface. 
 
 "When the land has been duly pre- 
 pared, the seed is sown. This is 
 done sometimes before the last 
 ploughing, but then the manure 
 should have been ploughed in be- 
 fore ; for, except in planting the po 
 tato, which is not a seed, but a bull), 
 ' the manure should always be deeper, 
 and not in contact with the seed. 
 When the seed is ploughed in, the 
 furrow should not be above two or 
 three inches deep and eight or nine 
 v,-ide ; and it is only in particular 
 soils that this mode is to i)e recom- 
 mended. Tlie most common method 
 is to sow the seed on the land after 
 the last ploughing, and draw the har- 
 rows over to cover it. When the 
 land has been well ploughed, the seed 
 will mostly fall in the small furrows 
 made by two adjoining ridges, and 
 rise in reaiular rows ; but by far the 
 most perfect way is to sow it at a 
 regular depth, by means of a ma- 
 chine, and in rows at regular distan- 
 ' ces. See Drill. 
 
 The proper season for sowing each 
 kind of gram, the choice of seed, and 
 ^ other particulars, will be given under 
 87 
 
ARABLE LAND. 
 
 the name of the difTorent seeds usu- 
 ally sown. As a general rule, it may 
 be observed, that the smaller the 
 seed, the Jess it must he covered, 
 and clover or grass seed is not usu- 
 ally harrowed in, but only pressed in 
 vviih ihe roller. 
 
 3. Sltckssion of Crops, or Rot.\- 
 TioNs. — It has been found by expe- 
 rience that, besides the general ex- 
 haustion of huniu.s, each kind of crop 
 has a specific effect on the sod. so 
 that no care or manure can make the 
 same ground produce equal crops .)f 
 the same kind of grain for any length 
 of time without the intervention of 
 other crops. Whether this be owing 
 to any peculiar nourishment neces- 
 sary to each particular kind of plants, 
 or because plants not indigenous de- 
 generate in a foreign soil, the fact is 
 certain with respect to most crops 
 usually raised, and particularly red 
 clover. This points out the advan- 
 tage of varying the crops, according 
 as they are found to succeed best 
 after each other. In general, all 
 kinds of grain succeed best after a 
 crop which has been cut before the 
 seed has ripened or the stem is dried 
 up. Those plants which have a na- 
 ked s'.em with few leaves thrive best 
 after leguminous plants, which have 
 more succulent stems and more 
 leaves, and which bear their seeds 
 in pods, as pease, beans, tares, or 
 vetches ; or after esculent roots, 
 which sirike deep into the gro:ind. as 
 carrots, parsnips, beet-roots, and tur- 
 nips. Fr(un this circumstance, con- 
 firmed by universal experience, the 
 different systems of rotation have 
 had their origin, taking the nature of 
 the soil into consideration. 
 
 The Norlolk rotation is, 1. Tur- 
 nips, well manured ; 'Z. Barley ; 3. 
 Clover ; 4. ^^"lleal : by which a suf- 
 ficiency of food for sheep and cattle 
 is obtained without natural pastures, 
 and the land, manured every fourth 
 year at least, is kept in a regular 
 state of progressive improvement 
 
 A very comuion rotation in Scot- 
 land is, fallow, wheat, clover, or 
 grass, fed one, two, or three years; 
 liien oats, pease, or beans, and w heat 
 38 
 
 again, if the land is clean and in good 
 heart ; for there is no rule better es- 
 tablished than that of never allowing 
 the soil to be exhausted beyond a 
 certain point, where manure and til- 
 lage can readily recruit it. The 
 greedy cultivator is sure to pay dear- 
 ly in the end for every crop lorced 
 from the land unreasonably. 
 
 The Flemish husbandry proceeds 
 much on this principle. The great- 
 est attention is paid to manuring and 
 weeding. Much more manual labour 
 is bestowed, and tlie crops seem 
 nuire certain, varied, and abundant. 
 That it is not unprofitable, w-e may 
 conclude from the wealtli of the peas- 
 ants, the comfort of the labourers, 
 and the sleek appearance of the cat- 
 tle. From the very interesting ac- 
 count of Flemish agriculture in the 
 work of Mr. Van Aeli)roek, of Ghent, 
 we learn with what great care the 
 soil is cultivated in Flanders. After 
 ploughing lands, every intervening 
 furrow is deepened and cleared with 
 the spade, the earth being thrown 
 over the bed sow n. Liquid manure, 
 chiefly the urine of animals and drain- 
 ings of dunghills, is carefully col- 
 lected, and is carried on and distribu- 
 ted over the poor light soils by means 
 of water-carts, before sowing, and 
 again when the crop is come up. By 
 this means such lands are made to 
 yield crops of rape seed, clover, lu- 
 cern. flax, and corn, equal in luxu- 
 riance to those on the richest soils. 
 Fallows are rendered unnecessary by 
 the careful destrucl.on of weeds; in 
 short, it is a garden culture on an ex- 
 tended scale. All the land is in till- 
 age, except where rivers occasion- 
 ally overflow, and render the mead- 
 ows rich and profitable. The cattle 
 are mostly kept in stables, and fed 
 with green food cut and brought to 
 them,, by which means one acre of 
 clover, lucern.or other artificial grass 
 will maintain five times as many 
 beasts, or more, as an acre of the 
 best pasture. But the greMt objtct 
 is to increase manure, especially in a 
 liquid slate, which is care.ully pre- 
 served in reservoirs, without loss or 
 waste, till wanted for the land. This 
 
ARB 
 
 AKO 
 
 pvptpm is also followed in Switzer- 
 
 l.uul 
 
 In llolstein, on moderately good 
 soil, they adopt the following course : 
 1. Oats, on newly l)roken-i!p grass 
 land ; 2. A fallow to destroy grasses 
 and weeds, and aeeeierate the de 
 composition of their roots ; 3. Wheat, 
 with or without manure, according 
 to the state of tiie land ; 4. Beans, 
 barley, or oats ; 5. Wheat, manured, 
 unless it has been done for the beans 
 the year before : 6. Grass seeds pas- 
 tured for three years or more, when 
 the rotation begins again. 
 
 We have now given a brief outline 
 of the manner in wliich aralde land 
 may be cultivated and improved. If 
 we should be asked whether so much 
 attention and labour upon land of a 
 proper quality will be repaid by the 
 value of tlie produce, we shall an- 
 swer, without any hesitation, in the 
 affirmative, provided the cultivator 
 is [)ossessed of knowledge, judgment, 
 and experience, and devotes all his 
 time to the superintendence of his 
 farm. — (IV. L. Rham.) 
 
 ARAC.E, AROID.E. The natural 
 family of plants, including the arum, 
 Indian turnip, and skunk cabbage. 
 
 AIIACHNIDANS, ARACHNIDA. 
 A class of apterous, spider-liko con- 
 dylopes, having the head confluent 
 with the chest, and the body, conse- 
 quently, consisting of but two seg- 
 ments, with eight legs, smooth eyes, 
 and the sexual orifices situated on 
 the thorax, or anterior part of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 ARATION. Ploughing. 
 
 ARBOR. The principal spindle or 
 axis of a machine. 
 
 ARBORESCENT. Inclining to, 
 or becoming woody. 
 
 ARBORrCULTURE. The culti- 
 vation of trees. 
 
 ARBORETUM. A place for the 
 cultivation of trees. 
 
 ARBOR VIT.E. rhuja occidcnta- 
 lis. A well-known coniferous ever- 
 green, of small size, but very duralde. 
 It abounds in the Northern States, 
 ap'J has oeen much recommended as 
 a l'3dge. Tiie jilants are best rai.?ed 
 fiora seed. Tliere is a species from 
 
 China mnch admired in the shrub- 
 beries of Rnrope. 
 
 ARBUSTUM. An orchard or vine- 
 yard. 
 
 ARBUTUS. A genus of handsome 
 evergreen shrubs of the natural fam- 
 ily Ericaceae. The fruit is succulent, 
 but austere, and in the A. uncdo a 
 beautiful object. The Arlnitus nn- 
 drachnc is the most admired of this 
 genus. Tlie A. vra vrsi yields a use- 
 ful medicine. They are much cul- 
 tivated as shrubbery plants in Eu- 
 rope, and belong to the first class for 
 beauty. 
 
 ARCESTHIDA. A small succu- 
 lent cone, as the juniper berry. 
 
 ARCHIL. A purple dye-stuff pro- 
 cured from the Rocclla tinclona and 
 fudformis, lichens growing on the 
 rocks of the Canary Islands. 
 
 ARCHITRAVE. The chief beam 
 or structure resting immediately upon 
 the columns of an edifice, the lowest 
 member of the entablature ; also call- 
 ed the epistvlium. 
 
 ARCUA'rE. Bent like a bow. 
 
 ARECA. An East Indian palm, the 
 nut of which is chewed with the betel. 
 
 ARENACEOUS. Sandy, relating 
 to sand. 
 
 AREOL-E. In entomology, the 
 small spaces between the nervures 
 of the wings. 
 
 AREOMETER. An instrument for 
 taking specific gravities. See Hi/- 
 drometcr. 
 
 ARGIL, ARGILLACEOUS. Clay, 
 clavey. 
 
 ARILL.^, ARIL. ARIEL. Amem- 
 branous prolongation of the placenta 
 over a seed, as the mace of the nut- 
 meg. 
 
 AR.M OF A HORSE. The upper 
 part of the fore legs. 
 
 ARMILLA. The coloured circle 
 of the lower end of the fore leg, above 
 the tarsus of birds. 
 
 ARMY A^'OR.M. Sec CoHun, Dis- 
 eases of. 
 
 ARNOTTO. See Annolta. 
 
 AROMA, AROMATIC. A plea.?- 
 ant spicy odour, usually due to a vol- 
 atde oil. 
 
 AROMATIC HEED. Acorns rala- 
 mus. Sweet Hag, a common indige- 
 89 
 
ARR 
 
 XRT 
 
 nous wafer plant, the rhizome of 
 which is of a spicy odour. It is the 
 Calamus oromaticus of the druggists. 
 
 ARPENT. The French acre of 
 51,691 sqare feet. 
 
 ARRACACHA. The South Amer- 
 ican name for an umbelliferous plant, 
 the Arracacia escuknla of botanists, 
 whose flcsliy sweet roots are cultiva- 
 ted in Columbia and Jamaica, in the 
 mountainous parts of those countries, 
 in the same way as parsnips and car- 
 rots in Europe. The roots are of 
 large size, and in quality are, when 
 cooked, between a sweet chestnut 
 and a parsnip. Attempts to intro- 
 duce it into common European cul- 
 tivation have uniformly failed. — 
 {Brandc.) 
 
 ARRACK. A whiskey of unpleas- 
 ant odour, obtained by distilling the 
 liquor of the fermented mush of rice. 
 It is sometimes applied to other spir- 
 ituous liquors. 
 
 A R R O W-G R A S S. The genus 
 Trigluchin. They are small marsh 
 grasses, perennial, and flowering in 
 July ; some grow on salt marsh. 
 They are eaten bv cattle. 
 
 ARROW-HEAD. Sagntaria sa- 
 gittifolia. A common indigenous, 
 perennial, tuberose plant, with ar- 
 row-shaped leaves, growing in brooks. 
 It is cultivated by the Chinese for its 
 roots, whicli are mealy. 
 
 ARROW-ROOT. Marnnta anai- 
 dinacea. A herbaceous plant of the 
 family Canna;, with fleshy peretmial 
 roots, readily propagated by root-cut- 
 tings, which should be set a foot to 
 eighteen inches apart, in drills. It is 
 cultivated in Bermuda, the West In- 
 dies, and Florida. The roots are dug 
 when a year old, washed, beaten into 
 a pulp, then mixed with water, and 
 agitated ; the struigy parts are then 
 se|)aratcd by the hand. The starch, or 
 ur'oic-rool, remains suspended in the 
 water ; this is next strained through 
 a linen cloth, and then allowed to set- 
 tle, by which the starch subsides, and 
 the water is removed : it is washed 
 a second time, and dried. Arrow- 
 root is a nearly pure starch, of agree- 
 able flavour, but little nutrition. Good 
 potatoes, rasped into a pulp and treat- , 
 40 
 
 ed the same way, produce a starch, 
 which is often used to adulterate the 
 genuine article. 
 
 ARROW- WOOD. Vihirnum den- 
 latum. A small shrub with straight, 
 stiff branches and blue berries : the 
 wood is said to have been used by 
 the Aborigines for arrows. 
 
 ARSENIC. Arsenious acid, white 
 oxide of arsenic. ' A violent irritant 
 poison, used injudiciously to destroy 
 rats, and as an application to ulcers. 
 The safest antidote is the recently- 
 prepared hydrated oxide of iron : by 
 precipitating a solution of per-nitrate 
 of iron by solution of potash. Lime- 
 water is much less certain. 
 
 ARTEMISIA. The genus of 
 wormwoods. 
 
 ARTERIOTOMY. The opening 
 of an artery to let blood. 
 
 ARTE R Y. The vessels which 
 convey red blood are so called. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS, or fount 
 ains, are those springs or wells which 
 constantly overflow their summits. 
 
 ARTHRODIC. An articulation of 
 bones, in which the head of one is 
 received into a shallow cavity of the 
 other, so as to permit considerable 
 motion. This is the case with the 
 upper arm and shoulder. 
 
 ARTICHOKE. Ci/nara scolyrmis. 
 A plant having the appearance of a 
 gigantic thistle, cultivated for the 
 flower-head, which is cut before flow- 
 ering, boiled, and served with butter. 
 They are propagated by seed and ofT- 
 sets. If by the former, sow the seed 
 m rows, a foot apart, as soon as the 
 frost is out of the ground. Thin the 
 plants to a foot apart in the row, 
 and, in the fall of the year, put out 
 the plants in clunips of four in rows, 
 three feet apart, and the rows six 
 feet asunder. They will produce 
 their fruit tlie next year. When 
 winter approaches, earth the roots 
 well up, and, before the frost sets in, 
 cover all well over with litter fiom 
 the yard or stable. Open at the 
 breaking up of the frost ; dig all the 
 ground well between the rows ; lev- 
 el the earth down from the plants. 
 You will find m;iny young ones, or 
 offsets, growing out from the sides ; 
 
ART 
 
 ASH 
 
 pull these off, and, if you want a ne\r 
 plantation, put them out as you did 
 tlie original plants : they will bear, 
 though later than the old ones, that 
 same year. By great care, they may 
 be made to bear three years. 
 
 ARTICHOKE, Jkrusai.em. HcU- 
 anthus iuhcio.ius. A small sunflower, 
 with nutritious tubers. It yields 
 from 150 to 200 bushels of roots, less 
 in size than potatoes ; the lops, cut 
 before flowering, also produce abun- 
 dant fodder. Hogs root up the tu- 
 bers greedily, and thrive well upon 
 them. When steamed or boiled, they 
 are palatable. It is one of the plants 
 found by Boussingault to draw its 
 nitrogen almost entirely from the 
 air ; hence it is recommended as an 
 ameliorating crop, when turned in 
 before the tubers are formed. 
 
 It is usually propagated by sets 
 from the roots in April, grows in any 
 moist soil, especially such as is sandy 
 and light : the cultivation is the same 
 as for the potato. When raised for 
 its tuber, it is liable to become 
 troublesome, from the germinating 
 power of even the smallest pieces 
 left in the soil. It keeps in the ground 
 all winter, or may be preserved un- 
 der sand. In the .Middle States it 
 thrives well. It is extensively used 
 in France as provender for cattle, 
 hogs, &.C., and is equal to potatoes in 
 nourishment. 
 
 ARTICULATA, ARTICULATES. 
 A term applied by Cuvier to a primary 
 division of the animal kingdom, char- 
 acterized by an external skeleton in 
 the tbrm of a series of rings artic- 
 ulated together and surrounding the 
 body ; by an internal gangliated ner- 
 vous system, the ganglions being ar- 
 ranged symmetrically along the mid- 
 dle line of the body, and by having 
 distinct respiratory organs. Insects 
 and various worms are of this order 
 
 ARTICUL.\TED. Jointed In 
 botany it signities a slight connexion, 
 such as tint of the leal with the stem 
 in exogens, which allows ihera to fall 
 ortwhen dead. 
 
 ARTICLLATION. The connex- 
 ion of the bones of the skeleton by 
 joints. 
 D8 
 
 ARUM. The genus of the Indian 
 
 turnip. 
 
 ARUNDO. The reed plants. Sev- 
 eral species, growing on sand, bind it 
 together : aruiidinaceous, reed-likc. 
 
 ARVICOLA. The genus of liold- 
 mice. 
 
 ASAFCETIDA. A fetid gum res- 
 in obtained Irom the root of the Ferula 
 asiiJiE/ida, whence it exudes, by in- 
 cision, in the form of a milky juice, 
 which, when dried by exposure to 
 the sun, acquires a mottled appear- 
 ance and pink colour. It is a native 
 of the south of Persia, and is used in 
 medicine as a stimulant and antispas- 
 modic in hysteric and nervous disor- 
 ders, and in spasmodic cough, asth- 
 ma, and flatulent colic. 
 
 ASCARIS, (pi.) ASCARIDES. In- 
 testinal worms. See Worms. 
 
 ASCI. Little membranous bags 
 containing sporules. Ascidium, tlie 
 leaf-pitcher. 
 
 ASCITES. Dropsy of the belly. 
 
 ASH-TREE. Fraxinus cxcclawr. 
 European ash, a handsome tree, with 
 valuable timber. The weeping ash 
 is a variety. This tree is a native 
 of America, hut not very abundant. 
 The white ash (F. acuminala) is a val- 
 uable and common tree of the United 
 States. A sweet gum (inaiuta) exudes 
 tVom many species, especially from 
 the F. ornus of Italy, and commands 
 a high price at the druggists as a lax- 
 ative medicine. 
 
 ASHES. The incombustible part 
 of animal and vegetable substances. 
 In agriculture several varieties are 
 used, which will be briefly described. 
 
 Wood ashes are most abundant from 
 leaves, bark, and joung twigs. The 
 composition differs wiih the tree and 
 soil. The following analyses from 
 Sprengel will serve as a general guide : 
 
 
 Red 
 BeecU. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 .S...U11 
 
 Kir. 
 
 l-Mili Vme. 
 (Hi-rtli.rr.) 
 
 .Silica . 
 
 ^■ii 
 
 ■W-JJ 
 
 (jd'J 
 
 7-.<U 
 
 Al.iii.ina . . 
 
 2:« ) 
 
 
 
 
 Ovide 1)1" Iron . . 
 
 3-77 S 
 
 8-14 
 
 17-03 
 
 11-10 
 
 OxiileorMan^nese 
 
 3-,-«) 
 
 
 
 2-7."» 
 
 !.,.,« . r . 
 
 2.i-yO 
 
 17-38 
 
 23-18 
 
 13-60 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 5-0l> 
 
 1+1 
 
 alii 
 
 ■•-:« 
 
 P..t;i»l. . . . 
 
 ii-ll 
 
 I6-.'0 
 
 •2-iU 
 
 14-10 
 
 Soila . 
 
 3:JJ 
 
 6-7i 
 
 ■2-i-2 
 
 20-75 
 
 Sulphuric Acid . 
 
 7-M 
 
 3-36 
 
 2-2:1 
 
 3-4.1 
 
 Plio.pliuric Acid 
 
 b-Hl 
 
 !•<« 
 
 2-7.'i 
 
 0-<.10 
 
 (.;l,l,.r,,.e . . 
 
 184 
 
 3 41 
 
 C-.n 
 
 
 
 CarLouic Acid . . 
 
 noo 
 
 i:-37 
 
 .11, 1- 
 
 1 7.r.o 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 11)0 
 
 HIM 
 
 41 
 
ASHES. 
 
 Ashes are used with advantage to 
 every crop, but t'is[)cc;ially a^ a dress- 
 in;: to that intended for ^namiiicous 
 plants and llie cereaiia; but turni|)s, 
 potatoes, ilie wiiite field carrot. and ev- 
 ery crop, ha.s been beneliled by them. 
 The application should differ with 
 the object in view ; six bushel-s are 
 enouj;h to advance a clover or lucern 
 crop in the spring, but 15 to 20 bush- 
 els are sown as a dressing for an an- 
 nual crop, as grain, barley, &c. Large 
 doses should not be applied to the 
 land with seed or upon young growth, 
 as the carbonate of potash present 
 sometimes injures them. They tell 
 best on land rich in vegetable mat- 
 ter, upon which the potash and soda 
 acts. On clayey soils ashes general- 
 ly ])roduce more rapid effects than 
 on lighter kinds. 
 
 The action of all ashes is twofold, 
 partly due to the solui)le portions, 
 and partly to the insoluble. The 
 chloride of sodium, or common salt, 
 the carbonate and sulphate of potash, 
 are soluble, and produce immediate 
 effects on the crop; but the phos- 
 phates and silicates, as well as car- 
 bonate of lime, require time to dis- 
 solve and benefit the crop. Hence 
 it has been observed that some lands 
 are permanently improved by ashes, 
 and some crops immediately benefit- 
 ed, as the leguminous plants. — {Sprcn- 
 gel.) In those soils which already 
 contain much alkali, as the detritus 
 of primitive and transition coun- 
 tries, seashores, lands near salt 
 springs, the soluble parts of ashes 
 will be of little moment ; and the 
 leached remains may be altogether 
 superior, for few soils contain so 
 much phosphoric acid as not to be 
 improved by an addition as manure. 
 
 Leached, or Washed Wood Ashes. — 
 Where wood ashes are washed for 
 the manufacture of the pot and pearl 
 ash of commerce, this insoluble por- 
 tion collects in large quantities. It 
 is also present in the refuse of the 
 soap-makers, where wood ash is em- 
 ployed for the manufacture of soft 
 soap. The composition of this insol- 
 uble matter varies very much, not 
 only with the kind of wood from 
 
 ^9 
 
 which the ash is made, but also with 
 
 the icntpentiurc it is allowed to attain 
 in burning. The former fact is illus- 
 trated by the following analysis, made 
 by Berlhier, of the insoluble matter 
 left by the ash of five different spe- 
 cies of wood carefully burned by him- 
 self: 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 _j 
 
 -i -Z ^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 .M 
 
 _i 
 
 fc 
 
 "i 
 
 ?£ 
 
 S 
 
 
 o 
 
 1-2 
 
 C2 
 
 i£ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Silica 
 
 3* 
 
 ■i-O 
 
 bb 
 
 130 
 
 4-tj 
 
 ft-8 
 
 Lime 
 
 64-8 
 
 Sl-8 
 
 bi-Z 
 
 •:7-2 
 
 42-3 
 
 42-6 
 
 .M^snesia . 
 
 OH 
 
 2-2 
 
 3-0 
 
 8-7 
 
 10-5 
 
 7-0 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 .—.~ 
 
 01 
 
 0•.^ 
 
 22-:: 
 
 01 
 
 1-5 
 
 Oxide of Mans-inese 
 
 
 
 0-li 
 
 3-5 
 
 b-:^ 
 
 0-1 
 
 45 
 
 I'liosf.lioric A>:lJ . 
 
 0-8 
 
 2S 
 
 4-3 
 
 1-p 
 
 1-0 
 
 n-7 
 
 Carbonic Acid 
 
 39* 
 
 :irt-8 
 
 31-0 
 
 21-.T 
 
 .3S-0 
 
 32-9 
 
 Carbon . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-S 
 
 
 
 
 'jy-b 
 
 ITO 
 
 itm 
 
 IIJI) 
 
 yy7 
 
 luo 
 
 The numbers in these several col- 
 umns differ very much from each 
 other ; but the constitution of the in- 
 soluble part of the ash he obtained 
 probably differed in every case from 
 that which would have been left by 
 the ash of the same wood burned on 
 the large scale, and in the open air. 
 This is to be inferred from the total 
 absence of potash and soda in the 
 lixiviated ash, while it is well known 
 that common li.Kiviated wood ash con- 
 tains a notable quantity of both. This 
 arises from the high temperature at 
 which wood is commonly burned, 
 causing a greater or less portion of 
 the potash and soda to combine with 
 the silica, and to form insoluble sili- 
 cates, which remain behind along 
 with the lime and other earthy matter 
 when the ash is washed with water. 
 It is to these silicates, as well as to 
 the large quantity of lime, magnesia, 
 and phosplioric acid it contains, that 
 common wood ash owes the more 
 perma7icnt effects upon the land, which 
 it is known to have produced. When 
 the rains have washed out, or the 
 crops carried off the more soluble 
 part from the soil, these insoluble 
 compounds still remain to exercise 
 a more slow and enduring influence 
 upon the after-produce. 
 
 Stdl, from the absence of this sol- 
 uble portion, the action of lixiviated 
 wood ash is not so apparent and en- 
 ergetic, and it may therefore be safe- 
 ly added to the land in much larger 
 quantity. Appliea at the rate of two 
 
ASHES. 
 
 tons an acre, its effects have been 
 observed to cominue for rifteeii or 
 twenty years. It is most benelicial 
 upon clay soils, and is said especial- 
 ly to promote the growtli of oats. 
 
 Kelp is the name given to the ash 
 left by sea-weeds when burned. As 
 a natural mixture, which can be ob- 
 tained at a cheap rate, and has been 
 proved to be useful to vegetation in 
 a high degree, it is very desirable 
 that accurate experiments should be 
 instituted with the view of determin- 
 ing the precise extent of its action, 
 as well as the crops and soils to which 
 it can be most advantageously and 
 most economically applied. 
 
 Like wood ashes, kelp varies in 
 composition with the species and age 
 of the sea-weeds from which it is 
 prepared, and like them also, it con- 
 sists of a soluble and insoluble por- 
 tion. Two samples, analyzed by Dr. 
 Ure, consisted of 
 
 ! though the variable proportion of its 
 i constituents will always cause a de- 
 gree of iHH-ertainty in regard to the 
 j action of the ash of marine plants, 
 yet if the quantity of chloride ol po- 
 tassium It contains be, on an average, 
 nearly as great as is stated above in 
 the analysis of Gay Lussac, kelp will 
 I really be the cheapest form in which 
 I we can at present apply potash to the 
 land. 
 
 StiatL- Ashes. — The ashes obtained 
 by burning the straw of oats, barley, 
 wheat, and rye contain a natural 
 mixture of saline substances, which 
 is exceedingly valuable as a manure 
 to almost every crop. The propor- 
 tion of the several constituents of 
 this mixture, however, is diflerent, 
 according as the one or the other 
 kind of straw is burned. Thus, 100 
 parts of each variety of ash, in the 
 samples analyzed by Sprengel, con- 
 sisted of 
 
 SolaO:c FufliuH. 
 
 Carbonate of Sod-i, with 
 Sulphuret of Sodiun; 
 SulpliHte of Soda . 
 Common Salt . 
 CUloride of Potassium ; 
 
 JnsolubU Portion. 
 Carbonate of Lime 
 Silica . . . . 
 Alumina and Oxide of < 
 Iron . . . ] 
 Gypsum 
 SulpUur and toss 
 
 Besides these constituents, how- 
 ever, the soluble portion contains io- 
 dide of potassium or sodium in va- 
 riable quantity, and the insoluble 
 more or less of potash and soda in 
 the state of silicates and phosphates. 
 
 Kelp may be applied to the land in 
 nearly the same circumstances as 
 wood ash, but for this purpose it 
 would probably be better to burn the 
 sea-weed at a lower temperature than 
 is usually employed. By this means, 
 being prevented from melting, it 
 would be obtained at once in the 
 state of a fine powder, and would be 
 richer in potasU and soda. 
 
 It might lead to important results 
 of a practical nature were a series of 
 preci.\e experiments made with this 
 finely-divided kelp as a manure, es- 
 pecially in inland situations ; for 
 
 Heisker. 
 
 Rona. 
 
 Gay Lus<ac. 
 
 P(ita«h 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Barley. [Wheat. 
 
 11) e. 
 
 tt.pe. 
 
 
 l.VJ 
 
 :5-4 
 
 06 
 
 1-.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8n 
 
 5o 
 
 
 
 Soda . 
 
 trace 
 
 0-9 
 
 08 
 
 0-4 
 
 11-2 
 
 80 
 
 19-0 
 
 
 Lime . 
 
 2-« 
 
 10-5 
 
 6-8 
 
 li-4 
 
 16-9 
 
 < .n«0 
 
 Magnesia . 
 
 0-4 
 
 1-4 
 
 0-9 
 
 OM 
 
 31 
 
 36-5 
 
 
 Silica . 
 
 80-0 
 
 T.'S-S 
 
 SIS 
 
 Hi-: 
 
 2-1 
 
 53 
 24* 
 
 W-0 
 lO-O 
 
 
 O.xide of Iron . 
 0.xiile of Manga- ) 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 
 0-J 1 
 0-3' 
 
 2'5 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 8-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pliospboric Acid 
 
 0-2 
 
 3-3 
 
 4-8 
 
 1-8 
 
 9-9 
 
 9-0 
 
 10-0 
 
 
 
 Sulphuric Acid . ■ 
 
 1.4 
 
 2-i 
 
 1-0 
 
 61 
 
 l:!-3 
 
 
 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 ()-l 
 
 1-3 
 
 0-9 
 
 0-h 
 
 11-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbouic Acid . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 11-0 
 
 C-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 T" 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii;<i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The most striking differences in 
 the above table are the comparative- 
 ly large quantity of potasii in the oat 
 straw ; of lime in that of barley ; of 
 phosphoric acid in that of wheat ; of 
 sulphuric acid in that of rye, and 
 of all the saline substances in rape 
 straw. These differences are not to 
 be considered as constant, nor will 
 the numbers in any of the above col- 
 unms represent correctly the com- 
 position of the ash of any variety of 
 straw we may happen to burn, l)ut 
 they may be safely depended upon as 
 showing the general composition of 
 such ashes, as well as the general 
 differences which may be expected 
 to prevail among them. 
 
 That such ashes should prove use- 
 ful to vegetation might be inferred, 
 not only from their containing many 
 43 
 
ASHES. 
 
 saline substancps which ave known 
 to act beneficially when applied to 
 the land, but from the fact that they 
 have actually been obtained from 
 vegetable substances. If inorganic 
 matter be necessary to the growth 
 of wheat, then surely the mixture of 
 such matters contained in the ash of 
 wheat straw is more likely than any 
 other we can apply to promote the 
 growth of the young wheat plant. A 
 question might even be raised wheth- 
 er or not, in some soils rich in vege- 
 table matter, the ash alone would not 
 produce as visible an effect upon the 
 coming crop as the direct application 
 of the straw, either in the dry state, 
 or in the form of rotted farmyard 
 manure ; and this question would 
 seem to be answered in the affirma- 
 tive by the result of many trials of 
 straw ashes which have been made 
 in England. In that country the ash 
 of five tons of straw has been found 
 superior in efficacy to ten tons of 
 farmyard manure. This is perfectly 
 consistent with theory; yet, as vege- 
 table matter appears really essential 
 to a fertile soil, and as the quantity 
 of this vegetable matter is lessened 
 in some degree by every corn crop 
 we raise, it cannot be good husband- 
 ry to manure for a succes.sion of ro- 
 tations with saline substances only. 
 The richest soil by this procedure 
 must ultimately be exhausted. On 
 the other hand, where much vegeta- 
 ble matter exists, and especially what 
 is usually called men vegetable mat- 
 ter, it may be an evidence of great 
 skill in the jiractical farmer to apply, 
 for a limr, the ashes only of his straw, 
 or soiTie other saline mixture to his 
 land. 
 
 The practice of burning the stubble 
 on a winoy day has been found in 
 Yorkshire to produce belter clover, 
 and to cause a larger return of wheat ; 
 for this purpose, however, the stub- 
 ble must he left of considerable length. 
 In Germany, rape straw — which the 
 above tal)le shows to be so rich in 
 saline and earthy matter, and there- 
 fore exhausting to the land — is spread 
 over the tield and burned in a similar 
 manner. The destruction of weeds 
 44 
 
 and insects which attends this prac- 
 tice is mentioned as one ol its col- 
 lateral advantages. 
 
 It is not advisable, as I have al- 
 ready said, wholly to substitute the 
 ash for the straw in ordinary soils, 
 or in any soils for a length of time ; 
 yet that it may be partially so sub- 
 stituted with good effect, or that 
 straw ashes will alone give a large 
 increase of the corn crop, and there- 
 fore should never be wasted, is shown 
 by the following comparative experi- 
 ments, conducted, as such experi- 
 ments should be, during an entire ro- 
 tati(m of four years. The quantity 
 of manure applied, and the produce 
 per imperial acre were as follows : 
 
 C *>!* C to 
 
 I8>i cwt. ifilg cwt. 
 :iO>£ bush, riwa^ bush. 
 ■;0.wt. 21 LWt. 
 38 btish. ]40 bush. 
 
 The kind of soil on which this ex- 
 periment was made is not stated, but 
 it appears to show, as we should ex- 
 pect, that the effects of straw ash 
 are particularly exerted in promoting 
 the growth of the corn plants and 
 grasses which contain much siliceous 
 matter in their stems ; in short, of 
 plants similar to those from which 
 the ash has been derived. 
 
 Theory nf Ihe action of Straw Ash. — 
 That it should especially promote 
 the growth of such plants appears 
 most natural if w'e consider only the 
 source from which it has been ob- 
 tained, but it is fully explained by a 
 farther chemical examination of the 
 ash itself The soluble matter of 
 wood ash, in general, contains but a 
 small quantity of silica, while that 
 part of the straw ash which is taken 
 up by water contains very much. 
 Thus a wheat ash, analyzed by Ber- 
 thier, contained of 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Soluble salts " . . 19 
 
 Insoluble matter . • .81 
 100 
 and that which was dissolved by wa- 
 ter consisted of 
 
ASHES. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Silica 35 
 
 Chlorine 13 
 
 Potash and soda ... 50 
 
 Sulphuric acid .... 2 
 
 Too 
 
 Sn that it was a mixture of soluble 
 silicates and chlorides with a little 
 sulphate of potash and soda. These 
 soluble silicates will find an easy ad- 
 mission into the roots of plants, and 
 will readily supply to the young stems 
 of the corn plants and grasses the 
 silica which is indispensable to their 
 healthy growth. 
 
 Turf or peat ashes, obtained by the 
 burning of peat of various qualities, 
 are also applied with advantage to 
 the land in many districts. They con- 
 sist of a mixture in which gypsum is 
 usually the predominating useful in- 
 gredient, the "alkaline salts being 
 present in very small proportion. 
 Tlie following table exhibits the com- 
 position of some varieties of ashes 
 from the peat of Holland and from 
 the heath of Luneburg, examined by 
 Sprengel : 
 
 
 Dutch Ashes 
 
 Lunebnrs Ashes 
 
 
 (gray) 
 
 
 (reddish). 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 ■S i? 
 
 M ^ 
 
 -3^ 
 
 Producing lit- 
 
 
 
 S"^ 
 
 
 £ S 
 
 tle effect. 
 
 
 .S ^ 
 
 
 > 5 
 
 
 
 
 a T 
 
 — C" 
 
 •* g" 
 
 U c- 
 
 
 Silica . 
 
 471 
 
 55-H 
 
 704 
 
 31-7 
 
 43-3 
 
 Alumina . 
 
 ■Jo 
 
 3-5 
 
 41 
 
 51 
 
 97 
 
 Oxide of Iron . 
 
 6li 
 
 5-4 
 
 41 
 
 17-7 
 
 9-3 
 
 Do of Manganese 
 
 1-0 
 
 4-3 
 
 0-2 
 
 o-.-> 
 
 3r, 
 
 Lime . 
 
 13-rt 
 
 8-fi 
 
 Rl 
 
 31-9 
 
 71 
 
 M tgnesla . 
 
 4-H 
 
 1-C 
 
 3-9 
 
 1-0 
 
 4 6 
 
 Potash 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-2 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 .^— 
 
 Soda . 
 
 1-0 
 
 3-9 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-1 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Sulpliuric Acid . 
 
 7-2 
 
 6-4 
 
 3-4 
 
 6-2 2 
 Pho3.ofLime 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 •2-0 0-8 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-2 2 
 Common Salt 
 
 riilorine . 
 
 1-2 3-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-1 01 
 
 Carbonic Acid . 
 
 41 6-4 
 
 5-5 
 
 4-4 12-0 
 
 Clianed Turf . 
 
 li-t; — - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOtlO 1000 
 
 i(MO 
 
 lOO-Oi IIHJO 
 
 In the most useful varieties of 
 these ashes it appears, from the above 
 analyses, that lime abounds, partly 
 in combination with sulphuric and 
 phosphoric acids, forming gypsum 
 and phosphate of lime, and partly 
 with carbonic acid, forming carbon- 
 ate. These compounds of lime, there- 
 fore, may be regarded as the active 
 ingredients of peat ashes. 
 
 Yet the small quantity of saline 
 matter they contain is not to be con- 
 
 sidered as wholly without effect ; for 
 the ashes are often applied to the 
 land to the extent of two tons an 
 acre, a quantity which, even when 
 the proportion of alkali does not ex- 
 ceed one per cent., will contain 45 
 lbs. of potash or soda, equal to twice 
 that weight of sulphates or of com- 
 mon salt. To the minute quantity 
 of saline matters present in them, 
 therefore, peat ashes may owe a por- 
 tion o) their beneficial influence, and 
 to the almost total absence of such 
 compounds from the less valuable 
 sorts their inferior estimation may 
 have in part arisen. 
 
 In Holland, when applied to the 
 corn crops, they are either ploughed 
 in, drilled with the seed, or applied 
 as a top-dressing to the young shoots 
 in autumn or spring. Lucern, clo- 
 ver, and meadow grass are dressed 
 with it in spring at the rate of 15 to 
 18 cwt. per acre, and the latter a 
 second time with an equal quantity 
 after the first cutting. In Belgium 
 the ashes are applied to clover, rape, 
 potatoes, flax, and pease. In Lune- 
 burg, the turf ash which abounds in 
 oxide of iron is applied at the rate of 
 3 or 4 tons per acre, and by this 
 means the physical character of the 
 clay soils, as well as their chemical 
 constitution, is altered and improved. 
 
 In England peat is in many places 
 burned for the sake of the ashes it 
 yields. The soil from beneath which 
 the turf is taken abounds in lime, 
 and the ashes are said to contain 
 from one fourth to one third of their 
 weight of gypsum. They are used 
 largely both in Berksliire and Hamp- 
 shire, and are chiefly applied to green 
 crops, and especially to clover, at ihc 
 rate of 50 bushels. 
 
 Coal ashes are a mixture of which 
 the composition is very variable ; 
 they consist, however, in general, of 
 lime, often in the state of gypsum, of 
 silica, and of alumina, mixed with a 
 quantity of bulky and porous cinders 
 or half-burned coal. The ash of a 
 coal from St. Etienne, in France, af- 
 ter all the carbonaceous matter had 
 been burned away, was found by Ber- 
 tUier to consist of 
 
ASI 
 
 ASP 
 
 per rent. 
 
 Alumina, insoluble in acids . 62 
 
 Alumina, soluble .... 5 
 
 Lime 6 
 
 Magnesia 8 
 
 Oxide of Manganese ... 3 
 
 Oxide and Sulpliuret of Iron 16 
 
 ioo 
 
 Such a mixture as this would no 
 doubt benotit many soils by the alu- 
 mina, as well as by ihe lime and mag- 
 nesia it contains ; but in coal ashes 
 a small quantity of alkaline matter, 
 chiefly soda, is generally present. 
 The constitution of the ash of our 
 best coals, therefore, may be con- 
 sidered as very nearly resembling 
 that of peat ash, and as susceptible 
 of similar applications. When well 
 burned, it can, in many cases, be ap- 
 plied with good effects as a top-dress- 
 ing to grass lands which are over- 
 grown with moss, while the admix- 
 ture of cinders in the ash of the less 
 perfectly burned coal produces a fa- 
 vourable physical change upon strong 
 clay soils. 
 
 Cane Ashes. — I may allude here to 
 the advantage which in sugar-grow- 
 ing countries may be obtained from 
 the restoration of the cane ash to 
 the fields in which the canes have 
 grown. After the canes have been 
 crushed in the mill, they are usually 
 employed as fuel in boiling down the 
 sirup, and the ash, which is not un- 
 frequently more or less melted, is, I 
 believe, almost unilormly neglected ; 
 at all events, is seldom applied again 
 to the land. According to the prin- 
 ciples I have so often illustrated in 
 the present lectures, such procedure 
 must sooner or later exhaust the soil 
 of those saline substances which are 
 most essential to the growth of the 
 cane plant. If the ash were applied as 
 a top-dressing to the young canes, or 
 put into the cane holes near the roots 
 — having been previously mixed with 
 a quantity of wood ash, and crushed if 
 it happen to have been melted — this 
 exhaustion would necessarily take 
 place much more slowly. — (Johnson.) 
 
 ASILL'S. A Linnaean genus of 
 dipterous insects, in which the mouth 
 is furnished with a horny, projecting, 
 46 
 
 straight, two-valved sucker, and gib- 
 bous at the base : antenna; filiform, 
 approximate, of two articulations ; 
 body oblong and conical in shape. 
 The insects of this genus prey on 
 other insects, especially those of the 
 dipterous and lepidopterous orders. 
 
 ASPARAGIN. The white crys- 
 talline principle found in the juice of 
 the asparagus, supposed to be a di- 
 uretic. It is resolved, by boiling in 
 water with magnesia, into ammonia 
 and as par lie acid. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officina- 
 lis. A perennial plant growing on 
 sandy meadows near the sea. The 
 young shoots (torus) form an esteem- 
 ed vegetable, and are susceptible of 
 high cultivation. They may be raised 
 from roots or seed. The seed is sown 
 in April, in rich soil an inch deep, in 
 rows eighteen inches apart, and the 
 ground kept clean. In two or three 
 seasons the roots will be large enough 
 to transplant to permanent beds. The 
 new plantation is made in March or 
 April ; the ground must be light, deep, 
 and rich, and well dug. The beds are 
 made six feet wide, with alleys of two 
 feet between them ; three rows of 
 root-stools are placed in each bed, at 
 the depth of six inches and distance 
 of a foot. Every spring the bed is 
 forked or loosened, and a dressing 
 of well-rotted stable manure mixed 
 with the upper soil. The roots send 
 up abundant shoots when kept moist 
 with water during the season, if suf- 
 ficient rain does not fall. A sprink- 
 ling of salt with the manure is a very 
 great improvement. Indeed, in Spain, 
 asparagus is cultivated in beds sub- 
 ject to inundations of the sea. All 
 animal manures increase the growth. 
 To enlarge the size of the shoot, they 
 place, in Germany, small flower pots 
 or other tubular vessels over the earth 
 as soon as the shoot appears ; it grows 
 into these, and, being deprived of light, 
 remains white and tender, attaining 
 the size of the vessel in some cases. 
 Sixteen rods of bed will yield 200 to 
 300 heads a day during the season. 
 The beds last, with management, a 
 long term of years ; indeed, some are 
 known forty years old. 
 
ASP 
 
 To force Asparagus. — Such plants 
 must be inserted in hot-beds as are 
 five or six years old, and appear of 
 sufficient strength to produce vigor 
 ous shoots ; when, however, any old 
 natural ground plantations arc intend- 
 ed to be broken up at the proper sea- 
 son, some of the best plants may be 
 selected to be plunged into a hot-bed, 
 or any spare corner of the stove i)ark- 
 beds. The first plantation for forcing 
 should be made about the latter end 
 of September : the bed, if it works 
 favourably, will begin to produce in 
 the course of four or five weeks, and 
 will continue to do so for about throe, 
 each light producing in that time 300 
 or 400 shoots, and atfording a gather- 
 ing every two or three days. To 
 have a regular succession, therefore, 
 a fresh bed must be formed every 
 three or four weeks, the last crop to 
 be planted in March or the early part 
 of April : this will continue in pro- 
 duction until the arrival of the nat- 
 ural ground crops. The last-made 
 beds will be in production a fortnight 
 sooner than those made about Christ- 
 mas. 
 
 The bed must be substantial, and 
 proportioned to the size and [lumber 
 of the lights, and to the time of year, 
 being constructed of stable dung or 
 other material. The common mode 
 of making a hot-bed is usually follow- 
 ed. It is the best practice to plant 
 the asparagus in mould laid upon the 
 tan, which, or some other porous 
 matter, is indispensable for the easy 
 admission of the heat from the linings. 
 The bed must'be topped with six or 
 eight inches of light, rich earth. If a 
 small family is to be supplied, three 
 or four lights will be sufficient at a 
 time ; for a larger, six or eight will 
 not be too many. Several luindred 
 plants may be inserted under each, as 
 they may be crowded as close as pos- 
 sible together; from 500 to 900 are 
 capable of being inserted under a 
 Ihree-ligiit frame, according to their 
 size In planting, a furrow being 
 drawn the whole length of the frame, 
 against one side of it the first row or 
 course is to be placed, the crowns 
 upright, and a little earth drawn on 
 
 ASP 
 
 to the lower ends of the roots ; then 
 more plants again in the same man- 
 ner, and so continued throughout, it 
 being carefully observed to keej) them 
 all regularly about an inch below the 
 surface : all round on the edge of the 
 bed some moist earth must be bank- 
 ed close to the outside roots. 
 
 If the bed is extensive, it will 
 probably acquire a violent heat ; the 
 frames must therefore be continued 
 off until it has become regular, oth- 
 erwise the roots are liable to be de- 
 stroyed by being, as it is technical- 
 ly termed, scorched or steam- scalded. 
 When the heat has become regular, 
 the frames may be set on, and more 
 earth be applied, by degrees, over the 
 crowns of the plants, until it acquires 
 a total depth of five or six inches. 
 The glasses must be kept open an 
 inah or two as long and as often as 
 possible, without too great a reduc- 
 tion of temperature occurring, so as 
 to admit air freely and give vQut to 
 the vapours, for on this depends the 
 superiority in flavour and appearance 
 of the shoots The heat must be kept 
 up by linings of hot dung, and liy cov- 
 ering the glasses every night with 
 mats, &LC. The temperature at night 
 should never be below 50°, and in 
 the day its maximum at 62°. In 
 gathering, for which the shoots are 
 fit when from two to five inches in 
 height, the finger and thumb must be 
 tiirust down into tiie earth, and tiie 
 stem broken offal the bottom. This 
 excellent vegetable possesses some 
 diuretic properties. Its juice contains 
 a peculiar crystallizable substance, 
 which was discovered by Vauquelin 
 and Robiquet, and named by them 
 Asparagm. 
 
 ASPARAGUS STONE. A variety 
 of apatite. Sec A putite. 
 
 ASPEN. Populus trcmula and 
 tremuloides, species of the great ge- 
 nus of poplars, remarkable for their 
 lightness and shade. The timlier is 
 white, soft, and readily decays. 
 
 A S P E R G 1 L L U M. One of the 
 commonest mildew plants. See Mil- 
 dew. 
 
 ASPIDIOTUS. A genus of insects 
 resembling the bark-Iice, or scale in- 
 M 
 
ASS 
 
 AST 
 
 sects, and of the same habits and 
 family. They are found on the ole- 
 ander, rose, bay, cactus, and other 
 plants. 
 
 ASPHODEI-E.E. The family of 
 plants to which the onion iiehings. 
 
 ASS. A well-known and useful do- 
 mestic animal, whose services might 
 be rendered even still more useful for 
 various purposes of husbandry if he 
 were properly trained and taken care 
 of 
 
 He is extremely hardy, both with 
 regard to the quantity and quality of 
 his food, contenting himself with the 
 most harsh and disagreeable herbs, 
 which other animals will scarcely 
 touch. In the choice of water he is, 
 however, very nice, drinking only of 
 that which is perfectly clear, and at 
 brooks with which he is acquainted. 
 Animals of this sort require very 
 little looking after, and sustain lal)()nr, 
 hunger, and thirst beyond most oth 
 ers. They are seldom or never sick, ! 
 and endure longer than most other 
 kinds of animals. They may be made 
 useful in husbandry to plough light 
 lands, to carry burdens, to draw in 
 mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or 
 any other similar purposes. They 
 are also very serviceal)le in many 
 cases for their milk, which is excel- 
 lent for those who have suffered from 
 acute diseases, and are much weak- 
 ened. They are used for the purpose 
 of breeding mules. 
 
 The structural difference between 
 the horse and the ass is trifling : in 
 all essential points the organization 
 is the same ; and, with the exception 
 of the lengthened ears of the ass, 
 their form, size, and proportions in a 
 wild state, they dither but little ; con- 
 sequently, they possess conditions 
 more favourable to the multiplication 
 of species than those afforded by any 
 other nearly allied animals. The ass 
 is, properly speaking, a mountain ani- 
 mal ; his hoofs are long, and furnish- 
 ed with extremely sharp rims, leav- 
 ing a hollow in the centre, by which 
 means he is enabled to tread with 
 more security on the slippery and 
 precipitous sides of hills and precipi- 
 ces. The hoof of the horse, on the 
 4a 
 
 contrary, is round, and nearly flat 
 underneath, and we accordingly lind 
 that he is most serviceable in level 
 countries ; and, indeed, experience 
 has taught us that he is altogether 
 unfitted for crossing rocky and steep 
 mountains. As, however, the more 
 diminutive size of the ass rendered 
 him comparatively less important as 
 i a beast of burden, the ingenuity of 
 mankind early devised a means of 
 remedying this delect, by crossing 
 the horse and ass, and thus procu- 
 ring an intermediate animal, uniting 
 the size and strength of the one with 
 the patience, intelligence, and sure- 
 footedness of the other. 
 
 The varieties of the ass, in coun- 
 tries favourable to their development, 
 are great. In Guinea the as^es are 
 large, and in shape even excel the 
 native horses. The asses of Arabia 
 (says Chardin) are perhaps the hand- 
 somest animals in the world. Their 
 coat is smooth and clean ; they carry 
 the head elevated, and have fine and 
 well-formed legs, which they throw 
 out gracefully in walking or gallop- 
 ing. In Persia, also, they are finely 
 formed, some being even stately, and 
 much used in draught and carrying 
 burdens, while others are more light- 
 ly proportioned, and used fur the sad- 
 dle by persons of quality, frequently 
 fetching the large sum of 400 livres, 
 and, being taught a kind of easy, am- 
 bling pace, are richly caparisoned, 
 and used only by the rich and luxu- 
 rious nobles. With us, on the con- 
 trary, the ass, unfortunately, e.xliibits 
 a stunted growth, and appears rather 
 to vegetate as a sickly exotic than to 
 riot in the luxuriant enjoyment of life 
 like the horse. 
 
 The diseases of the ass, as far as 
 they are known, bear a general re- 
 semblance to those of the horse. As 
 he is more exposed, however, and left 
 to live in a state more approaching to 
 that which nature intended, he has 
 few diseases — (Jolmson.) 
 
 ASTRINGENT. In farriery, a 
 term applied to such remedies as 
 have the property of constringing, or 
 binding the parts, as oak bark, sugar 
 of lead, &c. 
 
ATO 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. The bulk ot air ' 
 which surrounds our globe, supposed 
 to reach forty-five miles above its sur- [ 
 face. It is the receptacle of every | 
 volatile substance rising from the i 
 earth ; but, in virtue of its peculiar i 
 composition, vapours and gases dil'- 
 fuse themselves throughout the mass i 
 with great rapidity, so that the com- 
 position of the whole is maintained ; 
 nearly uniform at all times and places, j 
 Its chemical composition is 79 parts 
 nitrogen, 20 8 oxygen, 4 to 6 parts in , 
 ten thousand of carbonic acid, about 
 one part in sixty thousand of ammo- 
 nia, according to Liebig, besides mi- j 
 nute quantities of various vapours, ; 
 microscopic seeds, and saline mat- j 
 ters. Water, in the form of vapour, 
 is also an important constituent, fluc- 
 tuating in quantity with the tempera- 
 ture of the air, and increasing as the ; 
 warmth. In the development of plants 
 the air is as important as the earth, ' 
 indeed more so, since many vege- 
 tables can live suspended, without 
 contact with the earth, while none ! 
 can exist without a full supply of air. , 
 The loosening of soils is in a great 
 measure beneficial from the intro- 
 duction of air. The various ingre- 
 dients enumerated have not an equal 
 importance in agriculture ; for the ni- 
 trogen is almost inactive ; the oxy- 
 gen is the great agent of destruction 
 as regards plants, causing the decom- 
 position of all vegetable structures ; 
 the carbonic acid and ammonia are 
 the great sources of food, and al- 
 though they are present in minute 
 proportions, they are abundantly dis- 
 tributed for the purposes of vegeta- 
 tion. For the history of these gases, 
 see them severally. 
 
 ATOM. In chemistry, the ultimate 
 particle of a body, which combines 
 with other atoms. Theoretically, 
 these are of a determinate magni- 
 tude in every case. The figure of 
 the atom is not worthy of consider- 
 ation, some supposing it spherical, 
 others elipsoidal. Atoms are simple 
 or elementary when they cannot be 
 separated by chemical forces, and 
 compound when they are liable to de- 
 composition. Chemical compounds 
 E 
 
 ATO 
 
 consist of a definite number of atoms, 
 bound together by chemical force or 
 affinity ; but the value of this force is 
 different in different compounds. In 
 consequence, however, of the union 
 of atoms in invariable weights, deter- 
 mined by experiment, each chemical 
 body has attached to it a distinct pro- 
 portional weight, termed its atomic 
 weight, equivalent, or combining num- 
 ber. The study of these is the es- 
 sential of all chemical inquiries : it is 
 this remarkable adherence to a pre- 
 cise weight in all cases of combina- 
 tion which gives exactness to our in- 
 vestigations, and forms the difference 
 between a mere mixture and chem- 
 ical union. The following are the 
 atomic weights or proportionals of 
 the various elementary bodies inter- 
 esting to agriculture : 
 
 Hydrogen (H.) . . . . 1- 
 
 Oxygen (0.) 8- 
 
 Nitrogen (N.) 14- 
 
 Carbon (C.) 6- 
 
 Sulphur (S.) 16- 
 
 Phosphorus (P.) . . . .31- 
 
 Chlorine (CI.) 35-5 
 
 Silicon (Si.) 22- 
 
 Potassium (K.) . . . .39- 
 
 Sodium (Na.) 23- 
 
 Calcium (Ca.) 20-5 
 
 Magnesium (Mg.) . . . 12-7 
 Aluminium (Al.) .... 13-7 
 
 Iron (Fe.) 27- 
 
 Manganese (Mn.) . . . 27-7 
 
 These are on the basis that hydro- 
 gen is 1-, and may be understood by 
 the following case : Water is a com- 
 pound of one atom of hydrogen and 
 one atom of oxygen ; and, supposing 
 a given quantity weighs nine grains, 
 we know, by the laws of chemical 
 combinations, that it contains one 
 grain of hydrogen and eight grains 
 of oxygen ; or, if the weight of water 
 be other than nine grains, these con- 
 stituents are united in the rigorous 
 proportion of 1 to 8. 
 
 Another scale is constructed on 
 the basis of oxygen as 100. In this 
 the equivalent numbers are altered, 
 but not their proportions. 
 
 Chemical combinations are not, 
 however, always in the simple ratio 
 49 
 
ATO 
 
 of one atom of each component, but 
 are often in highei ratio, as 1 to 2, 3, 
 4, 5, 6, 7, or 2 to 3, 5, 7, &c. Those 
 are, for the most part, less permanent 
 than the simpler compounds. 
 
 Tiie atomic weight is not only fixed 
 for the first product of two element- 
 ary bodies, but for all other second- 
 ary, tertiary, or quaternary com- 
 pounds resulting therefrom. Thus, 
 ammonia consists of one atom nitro- 
 gen (14) and three atoms of hydrogen 
 (3), and its equivalent is therefore 17. 
 Bemg a strong alkali, it combines 
 with many substances, and always in 
 the proportion of 17. 
 
 In the above table, the letters in 
 parentheses designate the signs or 
 symbols used in chemistry for the va- 
 rious bodies against which they are 
 set. Whenever any of Iheni are used 
 alone it always means one atom : 
 thus, N, C, H, mean one atom of ni- 
 trogen, carbon, hydrogen. In com- 
 plicated bodies, as oxalic acid, a for- 
 mula is written with the symbols, 
 and numbers set against each to des- 
 ignate the number of atoms, thus : 
 (HO, C.2 O3) ; or, sometimes, (H-|-0, 
 2 C-|-3 O), the parentheses indicating 
 an intimate union ; or one of the 
 components of a complex bodv, thus : 
 ;2 C + 3 0) + (Ca + O) + 2 (H +0) 
 means a compound consisting of ox- 
 alic acid, which is the first term, uni- 
 ted to lime, which is the second, uni- 
 ted to two atoms of water, which is 
 the last term, the whole formula rep- 
 resenting the exact composition of 
 oxalate of lime. Whenever the pa- 
 rentheses enclose a formula, and any 
 figures are placed without it, the fig- 
 ure represents the number of atoms 
 of the compound, thus : (S-|-3 O) is 
 sulphuric acid ; 2 (S-f 3 O) is two at- 
 oms of sulphuric acid ; 3 (S-|-3 0) 
 three atoms, &c. The use of sym- 
 bols greatly reduces the labour of 
 writing and reading chemical pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY. The theory 
 of Dr. Dalton, that chemical union 
 takes place only in definite atoms. 
 See Atom. 
 
 ATOMIC WEIGHT. The equiva- 
 lent or combining weight. See Atom. 
 50 
 
 AUG 
 
 ATROPIA The poisonous alka- 
 loid of the deadly night-shade. 
 
 ATROPHY. In farriery, a mor- 
 bid wasting and emaciation, attended 
 with a great loss of streagth in ani- 
 mals. 
 
 ATTRACTION. In physics, the 
 force which draws bodies together ; 
 it is usually, if not always, of electri- 
 cal origin. Attraction is divided into 
 mechanical, as gravity and cohesion ; 
 and chemical, as alfinity ; the first 
 being the force tending to unite mass- 
 es and similar particles, the latter the 
 force producing chemical union. In 
 chemistry it is so far supposed to be 
 an electrical effect, that one of the 
 atoms or groups of every compound 
 is supposed to bain an opposite state 
 of electricity from the other, and they 
 are respectively termed the electro- 
 negative and electro-positive ele- 
 ments or components. Acids, oxy- 
 gen, chlorine, are electro-negative 
 bodies ; metallic oxides electro-posi- 
 tive. Chemical attraction acts only 
 at insensible distances, and is assist- 
 ed by heat, solution, and minute di- 
 vision ; it is, indeed, frequently de- 
 stroyed by the hardness and insol- 
 ubility, as well as gaseous form, of 
 bodies. 
 
 AUCHEXIA. The region of the 
 neck,^ in mammals, below the nape. 
 
 AUGER, BORING. An implement 
 for boring into the soil. An auger of 
 the above kind, when made of a large 
 size, and with different pieces to fix 
 on to each other, may be very useful- 
 ly applied to try the nature of the 
 under soil, the discovering springs, 
 and drawing off water from lands, 
 &c. In order to accomplish the first 
 purpose, three augers will be neces- 
 sary : the first of them about three 
 feet long, the second six, and the 
 third ten. Their diameters should be 
 near an inch, and their bits large, 
 and capable of bringing up part of 
 the soil they pierce. An iron handle 
 should be fixed crossways to wring it 
 into the earth, from whence the in- 
 strument must be drawn up as often 
 as it has pierced a new depth of about 
 six inches, in order to cleanse the bit 
 aiid examine the soil. — {Jo.knson.) 
 
AUG 
 
 AUG 
 
 AUGER. DRAINING. An instru- 
 ment employed fur the purpose of 
 boring into the bottoms of drains or 
 other places, in order to discover and 
 let off water. It is nearly similar to 
 that made use of in searching for 
 coal or other subterraneous minerals. 
 Tiie auger, shell, or wimble, as it is 
 variously called, for excavating the 
 earth or strata through which it pass- 
 es, is generally from two and a half 
 to three and a half inches in diam- 
 eter ; the hollow part of it is one foot 
 four inches in length, and construct- 
 ed nearly in the shape of the wimble 
 used by carpenters, only the sides of 
 the shell come closer to one another. 
 The rods are made in separate pieces 
 of four feet long each, that screw into 
 one another to any assignable length, 
 one after another, as the depth of the 
 hole requires. The size above the 
 auger is about an inch square, unless 
 at the joints, where, for the sake of 
 strength, they are a quarter of an 
 inch more. 
 
 There is also a chisel and punch, 
 adapted for screwing on, in going 
 through hard gravel or other metal- 
 lic substances, to accelerate the pas- 
 sage of the auger, which could not 
 otherwise perforate such hard bod- 
 ies. The punch is often used, when [ 
 the auger is not applied, to prick or 
 open the sand or gravel, and give a 
 more easy issue to the water. The 
 chisel is an inch and a half or two ! 
 inches broad at the point, and made ; 
 very sharp for cutting stone ; and the 
 punch an inch square, like the other 
 part of the rods, with the point sharp- 
 ened also. 
 
 As it is remarked by Johnstone, in 
 his account of Elkington's mode of 
 draining, to judge when to make use 
 of the borer is a difficult part of the 
 business of draining. Many who have 
 not seen it made use of in draining 
 have been led into a mistaken no- 
 tion, both as to the manner of using 
 it and the purposes for which it is ap- 
 plied. They think that if, by boring 
 indiscrimmately through the ground 
 to be drained, water is found near 
 enough to the surface to be reached 
 by the depth of the drain, the proper 
 
 direction for it is along these holes 
 where water has been found, and thus 
 make it the first implement that is 
 used. The contrary, however, in 
 practice, is the case, and the auger 
 IS never used till after" the drain is 
 cut, and then for the purpose of per- 
 forating any retentive or impervious 
 stratum lying between the bottom of 
 the drain and the reservoir or strata 
 containing the spring. Thus it great- 
 ly lessens the trouble and expense 
 that would otherwise be requisite in 
 cutting the trench to that depth to 
 which, in many instances, the level 
 of the outlet will not admit. The 
 manner of using it is simply thus : In 
 working it, two, or, rather, three men 
 are necessary ; two stand above, on 
 each side of the drain, who turn it 
 round by means of the wooden hin- 
 dles, and when the auger is full they 
 draw it out ; and the man in the bot- 
 tom of the trench clears out the earth, 
 assists in pulling it out, and directing 
 it into the hole ; and he can also as- 
 sist in turning with the iron handle 
 or key, when the depth and length of 
 rods require additional force to per- 
 form the operation. The workmen 
 should be cautious, in boring, not to 
 go deeper at a time, without drawing, 
 than the exact length of the shell, 
 otherwise the earth, clay, or sand 
 through which it is boring, after the 
 shell is full, makes it very difficult to 
 pull out. For this purpose, the exact 
 length of the shell should be regular- 
 ly marked on the rods, from the bot- 
 tom upward. Two flat boards, with 
 a hole cut into the side of one of 
 them, and laid alongside of one an- 
 other over the drain in the time of 
 boring, are very useful for directing 
 the rods in going down perpendicu- 
 larly, for keeping them steady in bo- 
 ring, and for the men standing on 
 when performing the operation. 
 
 AUGUST. In this month the 
 stacking of hay and other crops har- 
 vested is to be attended to. Root 
 crops have been laid up, and the land 
 cleared of weeds. Turnips for an af- 
 ter crop may be sown, if the weather 
 be not too dry. Buddingmay be done 
 with advantage. Preparations are to 
 51 
 
AVE 
 
 BAG 
 
 be made for collecting cotton. The 
 tobacco crop begins to ripen i)y the 
 end of the month. Rice is cut. 
 
 AURELIA, AURELTAN. The 
 pupa or nymph of the higher in- 
 sects. 
 
 AURICLE. The external ear. 
 The venous chambers of the heart. 
 
 AURICULAR. Appertainmg to 
 the ear. 
 
 AURICULATE. When the base 
 of a leaf is lobed on each side the 
 midrib. 
 
 AUSCULTATION. The exami- 
 nation of the sounds within the body 
 to detect diseases, &,c. 
 
 AUTOPSY. Examination by the 
 eye. It is generally used to desig- 
 nate examinations of the body after 
 death, for the discovery of the causes 
 of disease. 
 
 AVENA. The generic name of a 
 family of grasses, of which the A. 
 sativa, oats, and A. elattor, Andes 
 grass, are best known. Several spe- 
 cies, as the A. flavcsccns and pubcs- 
 cens, are found in English meadows, 
 and the latter is well worthy of cul- 
 tivation ; it is the downy oat grass of 
 agriculturists. 
 
 AVENUE. Any broad, gravelled, 
 or properly-made road, bordered by 
 trees. A side road, or approach to 
 a house. 
 
 AVERRUNCATOR. In arbori- 
 culture, an instrument for cutting off 
 the branches of trees, consisting of 
 two blades fixed on the end of a rod, 
 one of which has a moveable joint, 
 which, by means of a line fixed to it, 
 operates like a pair of scissors. In 
 the improved forms of tliis instru- 
 ment, the point on which the moving 
 or cutting blade turns, instead of be- 
 ing confined to a circular opening, 
 works in a longitudinal one ; in con- 
 sequence of which, instead of a crush- 
 ing cut, like that produced by com- 
 mon hedge shears, a draw cut is form- 
 ed, which leaves the section from 
 which the branch or shoot has been 
 amputated as clean as that produced 
 by a pruning knife. 
 
 AVERSE, AVERSUS. Turned 
 back. 
 
 AVES. See Ornithology. 
 53 
 
 AVLVRV. A place to keep bird-s 
 in. Green-houses are usually se- 
 lected. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS. A weight hav- 
 ing sixteen ounces to the pound, in 
 distinction to Troy weight, which has 
 only twelve. The following is a tab- 
 ular view of this weight : 
 
 16 drams make 1 ounce. 
 
 16 ounces 
 28 pounds 
 
 4 quarters 
 20 cwt. 
 drs. ozs. 
 
 16= 
 
 256= 
 
 7,168= 
 
 1 pound. 
 1 quarter. 
 1 cwt. 
 1 ton. 
 
 lbs 
 
 I qrs. 
 28= 1= cwt. 
 
 1 = 
 
 16=r 
 
 448= 
 
 28.672= 1,792= 112= 4= I ton. 
 573,440=35,840=2240=80=20=1 
 
 5760 Troy grains make 1 pound 
 Troy, and 7000 Troy grains 1 pound 
 Avoirdupois ; hence 175 pounds Troy 
 are equal to 144 pounds Avoirdupois. 
 
 AWN. The stiff beard or bristle 
 of some grasses, arista. 
 
 AWNING. A covering of some 
 kind of cloth, to protect plants, dec, 
 from sun or rain. 
 
 AXIL, AXILLA. The armpit. 
 Tlie angle between a leaf and the 
 stem. Buds placed here are termed 
 axillary. 
 
 AXIS, AXLE-TREE. The spindle 
 or central rod around which parts of 
 machinery, &,c., revolve or are de- 
 veloped. 
 
 AZALEA. A genus of small or- 
 namental shrubs with large, trumpet- 
 shaped flowers, of the family of the 
 honeysuckles. 
 
 AZOREAN FENNEL. Anethum 
 azonc.um. A kind of fennel 
 
 AZOTE. Nitrogen. 
 
 B. 
 
 BACCA. A berry. 
 
 BACCIFEROUS. Bearing berries, 
 as the currant. 
 
 BACK. The spine. The back of 
 a horse should be straight, in order 
 that it may be strong ; when it is hol- 
 low, or what is termed backed, the 
 animal is generally weak. 
 
 BACK, SORE. A complaint which 
 is very common to young horses when 
 
BAL 
 
 BAL 
 
 they first travel. To prevent it, their 
 hacks should be cooled every time 
 tliey are baited, and now and then 
 washed with warm water and wiped 
 dry with a linen cloth. The best cure 
 for a sore back is a lotion of 1 drachm 
 of sugar of lead with 1 pint of vinegar 
 and water. 
 
 BACK SINEWS, SPRAIN OF 
 THE. This is often occasioned by 
 the horse being overweighted, and 
 then ridden far and fast, especially if 
 his pasterns are long ; but it may oc- 
 cur from a false step, or from the 
 heels of the shoes being too much 
 lowered. Sprain of the back sinews 
 is detected by swelling and heat at 
 the back of the lower part of the leg, 
 puffiness along the course of the sin- 
 ews, extreme tenderness so far as 
 the swelling and heat extend, and 
 very great lameness. 
 
 The first object is to abate the in- 
 flammation, and this should be at- 
 tempted by bleeding from the plate 
 vein, by means of which blood is 
 drained from the inflamed part ; next, 
 local applications should be made to 
 the back of the leg, in the form of 
 fomentations of water, sufEciently 
 hot, and tVequenlly repeated ; at the 
 same time, as much strain as possible 
 should be taken from the sinew, by 
 putting a high calkin on the heel of 
 the shoe. 
 
 BACK-RAKING. An operation 
 in farriery, by which hardened fa;ces 
 are withdrawn from the rectum. 
 
 BACON. See Hog. 
 
 BAGGING. A mode of reaping 
 corn or pulse with a hook, in which 
 the operator effects his object by stri- 
 king the straw, or haulm, mstead of 
 drawing the hook through it ; in oth- 
 er words, it is separating the straw, 
 or haulm, from the root by chopping, 
 instead of bv a drawing cut. 
 
 BAKING OF LAND. Clayey 
 lands, when ploughed wet, become 
 incrusted or baked : seed cannot 
 break through the crust, and should 
 be again sown. 
 
 BALANCE FOR ANALYSIS. 
 This important instrument may be 
 considered as consisting of an inflex- 
 ible rod, or lever, called the beam, 
 E 2 
 
 1 furnished with three axes ; one, the 
 I fulcrum or centre of motion, situated 
 j in the middle, upon which the beam 
 turns, and the other two near the ex- 
 ' tremities, and at equal distances from 
 the middle ; these last are called the 
 points of support, and serve to sus- 
 ! lain the pans or scales. The points 
 of support and the fulcrum should be 
 in the same right line. The arms of 
 \ the lever being equal, it follows that, 
 I if equal weights be put into the scales, 
 no efiect will be produced on the po- 
 sition of the balance, and the beam 
 will remain horizontal. 
 [ If a small addition be made to the 
 I weight in one of the scales, the hori- 
 zontality of the beam wdl be disturb- 
 ed, and after oscillating for some time, 
 it will, on attaining a state of rest, 
 fonn an angle with the horizon, the 
 extent of which is a measure of the 
 delicacy or sensibdity of the bal- 
 ance. 
 
 What we have now stated will 
 serve to dlustrate the principle of the 
 balance. Its mode of construction 
 will be best understood by a dia- 
 gram : 
 
 One of the best form is here repre- 
 sented. The parts are all so arran- 
 ged that it can, at pleasure, be lifted 
 off the points of support. This is ef- 
 fected by aid of the two uprights, 
 which are elevated by a small lever 
 at the bottom. The scale pans are 
 made of brass or platma. 
 
 In order to try the goodness of a 
 pair of scales, the scales should be 
 taken off the beam to ascertain if the 
 53 
 
DAL 
 
 liAK 
 
 beam balances without them ; they 
 should then be put on agam and after- 
 ward reversed, or each scale hung 
 on the end of the beam opposite that 
 which it before occupied. Equal 
 weights should then l»c put into the 
 opposite scales, and these should, in 
 like manner, be reversed or changed ; 
 and if the beam maintains its hori- 
 zontal position under all these chan- 
 ges, it may be relied on as being good 
 and perfect. The pivots or fulcrum 
 upon which the beam turns ought to 
 be sharp, or kuife-edgcd, as it is term- 
 ed, and they should be of steel well 
 hardened, as well as the interior of 
 the ring in which they move : this 
 confines the fulcrum to a minute line, 
 and prevents friction. In beams for 
 nice purposes, the pivots ought not 
 to be too much elevated above the 
 centre of gravity ; lor, althougli this 
 centre will generally be found an inch 
 or two below the pivots in strong 
 warehouse beams, in order to bring 
 them to a speedy equilibrium, by 
 which time is saved, yet, for accurate 
 weighing, the nearer the centre of 
 gravity is brought into the straight 
 line that would connect the tops of 
 the two scale eyes and the under 
 side of the pivot the better, although 
 such a beam will occasion great loss 
 of time by its vibrating a long time 
 before it becomes stationary. 
 
 BALL, or BOLUS. In farriery, a 
 well-known form of medicine for 
 horses or other animals, which may 
 be passed at once into the stomach. 
 They should be made of a long, oval 
 shape, and about the size of a small 
 egg, being best conveyed over the 
 root of the tongue by the hand. This 
 method of admmistering medicines is 
 preferable, in most cases, to that of 
 drenches. I subjoin the recipes for 
 a few of those balls most commonly 
 used by the farmer : 
 
 jMild Physic Ball. 
 
 Barbadoes aloes . . 6 drachms. 
 Powdered ginger . . 2 " 
 Castile soap ... 2 '* 
 Oil of cloves ... 20 drops. 
 Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to 
 
 form a ball. 
 
 54 
 
 Strong Physic Ball. 
 Barbadoes aloes . . 8 drachms. 
 Ginger, powdered 2 " 
 
 Castile soap ... 2 " 
 Oil of cloves ... 20 drops. 
 Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to 
 
 form a ball. 
 Calomel Ball for a Horse. 
 
 Calomel 1 drachm. 
 
 Aloes, powdered . . 6 " 
 Ginger, powdered . 2 " 
 Castile soap ... 2 '• 
 Oil of Cloves ... 20 drops. 
 Sirup of buckthorn sufficient to 
 
 make into a ball. 
 
 Diuretic Ball. 
 
 Castile soap .... 4 ounces. 
 Nitre, powdered . . 2 " 
 Spirit of turpentine . 4 " 
 Anise seed powder and treacle suf- 
 ficient to make into eight balls. 
 
 Cordial Ball. 
 Cummin seed, powdered 4 ounces. 
 Anise seed, powdered . 4 " 
 Caraway seed, powdered 4 " 
 Ginger, powdered . . 2 " 
 Honey sufficient to make into balls 
 the size of a hen's egg. 
 
 BALM. The plant Melissa offici- 
 nalis, of a pleasant aromatic odour ; 
 its medicinal virtues are trifling. 
 
 BALSAMS. Exudations from cer- 
 tain trees of a resinous nature. 
 
 BANANA. A tall herbaceous, en- 
 dogenous plant, the Musa sapientum 
 of botanists, having broad convex 
 lea^'es with fine oblique veins, and 
 growing in a tuft from the top of a 
 stem formed by the union of the broad 
 bases of the leaves. The fruit ri- 
 pens in succession in large clusters 
 weighing many pounds. It is of the 
 same nature as the plantain. It is a 
 native of the West Indies, where it 
 contributes essentially to the food of 
 
 ill dflSSGS 
 
 BANKS OF RIVERS. See Em- 
 bankmcnt. 
 
 BANNER, \^XILLUM. The up- 
 per petal of pea flowers. 
 
 BARB. A general name for horses 
 imported from Barbary. The barb, 
 one of the most celebrated of the Af- 
 
BAR 
 
 BAR 
 
 rican racers, is to be met with through- 
 out Barbary, Morocco, Fez, Tripoli, 
 and Bornou. It seldom exceeds four- 
 teen hands and a half in height. The 
 countenance of the barb is usually 
 indicative of its spirit, and the facial 
 line, in direct contradiction to that of 
 the Arabian, is often slightly rounded ; 
 the eyes are prominent ; the ears, 
 though frequently small and pointed, 
 are occasionally rather long and 
 drooping ; the neck is of sufficient 
 length ; the crest is generally fine 
 and not overladen with mane ; the 
 shoulders are llat and oblique ; the 
 withers prominent, and the chest al- 
 most invariably deep ; the back is 
 usually straight ; the carcass mod- 
 erately rounded only ; the croup long, 
 and the tail placed rather high ; the 
 arms and thighs being commonly 
 muscular and strongly marked ; the 
 knee and hock are broad and low- 
 placed ; the back sinews singularly 
 distinct and well marked from the 
 knee downward ; the pasterns rather 
 long, and the feet firm, and but mod- 
 erately open. 
 
 The barb requires more excitement 
 to call out his powers than the Ara- 
 bian ; but when sufficiently stimula- 
 ted, his qualities of speed and endu- 
 rance render him a powerful antago- 
 nist, while the superior strength of 
 Lis fore hand enables him to carry 
 tin- greater weight of the two. The 
 (Jodolphin barb, which was imported 
 from France into England at the con- 
 clusion of the last centur\', about 25 
 years after the Darley Arabian, w-as 
 one of those most worthy of note. 
 The former appears to have rivalled 
 the latter in the importance of his 
 get. He was the sire of Lath, Cade, 
 Babraham, Regulus, Bajazet, Tar- 
 quin, Dormouse, Sultan, Blank, Dis- 
 mal, and many other horses of racing 
 note ; and, without doubt, the English 
 blood-breeds were more indebted to 
 the Darley Arabian and the Godol- 
 phin barb than to all the other East- 
 ern horses which had previously en- 
 tered the country. — {Blame's Eiicyc. 
 Rural Sports, p. 243.) 
 
 BARBERRY BUSH. Bcrhcris vul- 
 garis. An indigenous thorny shrub, 
 
 bearing bunches of pale yellow droop- 
 ing flowers in May, which are suc- 
 ceeded by oblong scarlet berries, ri- 
 pening in September. Sharp, three- 
 cleft thorns rise at the base of each 
 leaf-bud. The barberry makes good 
 hedges. It may be propagated by 
 seed, or by layers, which should re- 
 main two years before they are re- 
 moved. The gross shoots, if the 
 shrub stands singly, should be pruned 
 away, and it will fruit better. The 
 berries are gratefully acid, and the 
 juice, when diluted with water, may 
 be used as lemonade in fevers. The 
 fruit, made into conserve, is good. 
 It is also excellent as a pickle and 
 preserve. 
 
 There is no good reason for sup- 
 posing that this bush produces mil- 
 dew in wheat. It is very liable to 
 rubigo, a parasitical fungus, but not 
 the uredo of grain. The root con- 
 tains a good yellow dye, and is emetic. 
 
 BARILLA. The ashes of sea-shore 
 plants, containing about 20 per cent, 
 of soda. The cheap manufacture of 
 soda has nearly destroyed the culti- 
 vation of barilla plants. It is used to 
 manufacture hard soaps. See Soda. 
 
 BARK. The rind or covering of 
 the woody parts of a tree. The bark 
 of trees is composed of three distinct 
 layers, of which the outermost is 
 called the epidermis, the next the pa- 
 renchyma, and the innermost, or that 
 in contact with the wood, the cortical 
 layer. The epidermis is a thin, trans- 
 parent, tough membrane ; when rub- 
 bed offit is gradually reproduced, and 
 in some trees it cracks and decays, 
 and a fresh epidermis is formed, push- 
 ing outward the old : hence the rea- 
 son why so many aged trees have a 
 rough surface. The parenchyma is 
 tender, succulent, and of a dark green. 
 The cortical layer, or Hber, consists 
 of thin membranes encircling each 
 other, and these seem to increase 
 with the age of the plant. The liber, 
 or inner bark, is know^n by its white- 
 ness, great flexibility, toughness, and 
 durai)ility : the fibres in its structure 
 are ligneous tubes. It is the part of 
 the stem through which the juices 
 descend, and the organ m which the 
 55 
 
b.\Jl 
 
 generative sap, from whence all the 
 other parts originate, is received from 
 the leaves. The bark in its intersti- 
 ces contains cells, which are filled 
 with juices of very varying qualities : 
 some, like that of the oak, remarka- 
 ble for their astringency ; others, like 
 the cinnamon, abounding with an es- 
 sential oil ; others, as the Jesuits' 
 bark, containing an alkali ; some mu- 
 cilaginous, many resinous. 
 
 M. Saussure found in 100 parts of 
 the ashes of the barks of various trees 
 the following substances : 
 
 Soluble sitlts . 
 Earthy phosphates 
 Eartliy carbouates 
 Silica .... 
 Metallic oxides . 
 
 Poplar 
 
 From this analysis the farmer will 
 see that the earthy and saline ingre- 
 dients of the bark of forest trees must 
 be considerable fertilizers : it is only 
 to the slowness with which refuse 
 tanner's bark undergoes putrefaction 
 that its neglect by the cultivator must 
 be attributed. It might certainly, 
 however, be mixed with farm-yard 
 compost with very considerable ad- 
 vantage ; and in its half putrefied, or 
 even fresh state, it produces on some 
 grass lands very excellent effects as a 
 top dressing ; and in instances where 
 carriage is an object, even its ashes 
 would be found, from the quantity of 
 earthy carbonates and phosphates 
 which they contain, a very valuable 
 manure. 
 
 The different uses of barks in tan- 
 ning and dyeing are numerous and 
 important. The strength or fineness 
 of their fibres is also of consequence : 
 thus woody fibres are often so tough 
 as to form cordage, as exemplified in 
 the bark of the lime, the willow, and 
 the cocoanut ; the liber of som»trees, 
 as, for example, the lime and the pa- 
 per mulberry, is manufactured into 
 mats ; and it is scarcely requisite to 
 refer to hemp and flax for spinning 
 and weaving. The bark of the oak 
 is used for affording tannic acid in the 
 manufacture of leather. The follow- 
 ing table of Davy will show the rela- 
 tive value of different kinds of bark 
 56 
 
 BAR 
 
 to the tanner; it gives the quantity 
 of tannic acid afforded by 480 lbs. of 
 different barks in that chemist's ex- 
 periments : 
 
 Avcrape from the entire bark of lbs. 
 
 Middle-sized oak, cut in sprin? . . 29 
 
 , cut in autumn . . 21 
 
 Elm 13 
 
 Common willow (large) . . . .11 
 
 Ash 16 
 
 Beech 10 
 
 Sycamore H 
 
 Lombardy poplar 15 
 
 Birch 8 
 
 Blackthorn 16 
 
 White interior cortical layers of oak bark 72 
 
 The difference of seasons makes a 
 considerable variation in the produce 
 of tannic acid : it is the least in cold 
 springs. The tannic acid most abounds 
 when the buds are opening, and least 
 in the winter ; 4 or 5 lbs. of good oak 
 bark, of average quality, are required 
 to form 1 lb. of leather. 
 
 Cork is the bark of a species of 
 oak ( Quercus suber) Which grows abun- 
 dantly in the south of Europe. 
 
 The Quercitron bark is the produc- 
 tion of black oak {Quercus tincioria). 
 
 BARK CLEANING. Fruit-trees 
 sometimes become infested with li- 
 chens or moss ; the rough bark offers 
 an asylum for grubs, eggs, and cater- 
 pillars, all which injure, and often 
 destroy the tree. To prevent these, 
 the bark should be scraped in the 
 spring with an old hoe or cooper's 
 knife, and afterward washed with 
 strong lye, brine, whale oil soap dis- 
 solved in water (1 lb. to 3 gallons), 
 lime-water, soft soap, &c. 
 
 BARK-BOUND. Trees, the bark 
 of which appears stretched over the 
 wood, and which does not split off 
 kindly, are said to be bark-bound. 
 Cutting a slit through it from the 
 branches to the root relieves the 
 tree, and, when the wound is kept 
 clean from insects, does good. It 
 should be done in March or April, 
 when frosts are over. 
 
 BARKING IRONS. Instruments 
 for removing the hprk of oak ana 
 other trees. They consist of a blade 
 or knife for cutting the bark, while 
 yet on the trunk, across at regular 
 distances, and of chisels or spatulae, 
 of different lengths and breadths. 
 
BAR 
 
 for separating the bark from the 
 wood. 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. The oper- 
 ation of stripping off the bark or rind. 
 It is common to perform the opera- 
 tion of oak-barking in the spring 
 months, when the bark, by the rising 
 of the sap, is easily separated from 
 the wood. This renders it necessa- 
 ry to fell the trees in these months. 
 The tool commonly made use of in 
 most countries is made of bone or 
 iron. If of the former, the thigh or 
 shin bone is preferred, which is form- 
 ed into a two-handed instrument for 
 the stem and larger boughs, with a 
 handle of wood fixed at the end. The 
 edge being once given by the grind- 
 ing stone, or a rasp, it keeps itself 
 sharp by wear. 
 
 The cutters should be provided with 
 ripping saws, widely set, with sharp, 
 light hatchets, and with short-handled 
 pruning hooks. The barkers are pro- 
 vided with light, short-handled ashen 
 mallets, the head being about eight 
 inches long, three inches diameter in 
 the face, and the other end blunt, 
 somewhat wedge-shaped ; with sharp 
 ashen wedges, somewhat spatula- 
 shaped, and which may either be 
 driven by the mallet, or, being formed 
 with a kind of handle, may be pushed 
 with the hand. 
 
 The large pieces are set up on end, 
 or they are formed into small pyrami- 
 dal stacks. Due attention must be 
 paid to turning the bark according to 
 the state of the weather. Good hay 
 weather is good barking weather. 
 It is chiefly by the high brown colour 
 of the inner rind, and by its astrin- 
 gent effect upon the palate when 
 tasted, that the tanner or merchant 
 judges of its value. If these proper- 
 ties be lost through neglect, or by the 
 vicissitudes of the weather, themner 
 bark becomes blanched, or rendered 
 white. 
 
 After it is in a proper state, that 
 is, completely past fermentation, if it 
 cannot conveniently be carried off 
 the ground and housed, it must be 
 stacked. An experienced husband- 
 man who can stack hay can also stack 
 bark ; but it may be proper to warn 
 
 BAR 
 
 him against building his stack too 
 large, and to caution him to cover it 
 well. 
 
 BARK LICE. Scale insects. In- 
 sects of the genus Coccus, many of 
 which yield a rich dye, as the C. cacti, 
 or cochineal of Mexico. They are of 
 an oval or roundish form, and small in 
 size, rarely exceeding one fourth of 
 an inch. They infest the young bark 
 commonly, but are also found on the 
 leaves and roots of some plants. The 
 female undergoes no winged trans- 
 formation, but the male does. In the 
 spring the lice are found like dead 
 shields on the young branches, ar- 
 ranged in rows ; under these appa- 
 rently inanimate bodies the eggs of a 
 new generation are concealed, which 
 shortly put on life, and come forth 
 of the oval figure of the family ; they 
 insert their slender beaks into the 
 young bark or leaves, and begin to 
 draw the sap with such activity that 
 it drops from them and the punctures 
 to the ground, attracting ants to as- 
 cend the tree. After a season, the 
 cocci attach themselves to some spot 
 on the bark, and emit downy threads 
 to make fast. Here a transformation 
 ensues, which gives wings to the 
 male, and only a new coat to the fe- 
 male. After a time, differing with 
 the species, the male comes forth re- 
 •duced in size, but the female is sta- 
 tionary. Impregnation ensues, her 
 body swells, the eggs are placed un- 
 der her, she dies, and the crust of her 
 body forms their winter protection. 
 But in some varieties two generations 
 appear in one year. The apple-tree 
 louse hatches from the end of May to 
 the middle of June : they are whitish ; 
 in ten days they fasten themselves, 
 and begin to throw out bluish down ; 
 and there appears two broods in the 
 year. 
 
 They are destroyed by birds of the 
 icren genus, ichneumon flies, and by 
 washing the bark early in June. See 
 Bark Cleaning. When they infest the 
 roots, applications must be made to 
 those parts. 
 
 BARK MILL. See Mill. 
 
 BARK, SPENT, from the tanners, 
 forms a good manure whea rotted 
 67 
 
BAR 
 
 with farm-yard manure, or made into 
 a compost with lime, &c. It is also 
 used for hot-hods. 
 
 BARK 8T(3VE. A glazed house 
 for tropical plants, heated by bark 
 beds. 
 
 BARLEY. Hordcum distichum. It 
 is readily distinguished from other 
 grain by its pointed extremities, and 
 by the rough appearance of its outer 
 skin. 
 
 Fig 
 
 BAH 
 
 Botanists place barley in the fam- 
 ily of the (jramiiic(E,a.n(i Linnaeus has 
 classed it in the second order of his 
 third class {Triandria digijma), having 
 three stamina and two styles in the 
 flower. 
 
 Of all the cultivated grains, barley 
 is perhaps that which comes to per- 
 fection in the greatest variety of cli- 
 mates, and is, consequently, found 
 over the greatest extent of the habi- 
 1. 
 
 a. Winter barley. 
 
 b. The same, witli part of the seed pulled off the rachis. 
 
 c. A side view of the last, to show the shape of the rachis. 
 
 d. The three perfect grains adhering together by the base, as pulled off the rachis 
 58 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 table world. It bears the heat and 
 drought of tropical regions, and ri- 
 pens in the short summers of those 
 which verge on the frigid zone. In 
 genial climates two crops of barley 
 may be reaped in the same year : one 
 in spring, from seed sown the prece- 
 ding autumn, and one in autumn from 
 a spring sowing. 
 
 Agricultural writers in general 
 have distinguished the different spe- 
 cies of barley, either from the time 
 of sowing them, into winter barley 
 and spring barley, or, from the num- 
 ber of rows of grains in the ears, into 
 six-rowed, four-rowed, and two-row- 
 ed or flat barley. Another distinction 
 may be made between those which 
 have the corolla strongly adhering to 
 the seed and those in which it separ- 
 ates from it, leaving the seed naked, 
 from which circumstance these are 
 called naked barleys. There seem, 
 in fact, to be only two very distinct 
 species of barley generally cultiva- 
 ted : one which produces three per- 
 fect flowers, and as many seeds uni- 
 ted at the base, at each joint of the 
 rachis, or middle of the ear, alternate- 
 ly on each side (Fig. 1) ; and another, 
 in which the middle flowret is perfect 
 and the two others barren, forming a 
 flat ear, with only one row of grains 
 on each side, as spring barley {Fig. 
 2). The first species has sometimes 
 the middle flowret small or abortive, 
 and consequently only four rows of 
 grains, giving the ear a square ap- 
 pearance ; but that this is only an 
 occasional deviation is proved by its 
 returning to the perfect ear with six 
 rows, in rich soils and under proper 
 cultivation. 
 
 In some varieties of both kinds the 
 seeds stand more apart from each 
 other, and at a greater angle with the 
 rachis ; the ear is also shorter, giv- 
 ing it the appearance of a bat or fan, 
 whence it has been called Battledore 
 barley ; it is also known by the name 
 of Sprat barley. In others the co- 
 rolla separates from the seed when 
 ripe, and the awns fall off: these are 
 the naked barleys. Each of these 
 has been in repute at different times. 
 
 Winter barley is mostly sown in 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 a. An ear of common spring barley. 
 
 b. The same, with the grain partly pulled off. 
 d. The single grain, with the remnant of the 
 
 two abortive flowers. 
 
 those countries where the winters 
 are mild and the springs dry, as in 
 the south of France, Italy, and Spain, 
 or in those where the snow lies deep 
 all the winter, and where the sun is 
 powerful immediately after the melt- 
 ing of the snow in spring. In cli- 
 mates where the winter consists of 
 alternate frost and thaws, and the 
 early part of spring is usually wet, 
 the young barley is too apt to suf- 
 fer from these vicissitudes, and the 
 spring-sown barley gives the more 
 certaui prospect of a good crop ; but 
 59 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 the grain of the latter is seldom so 
 heavy as that wliich has stood the 
 winter. 
 
 The Siberian barley, a variety of 
 which, with naked seeds, has been 
 highly extolled by foreign agricultural 
 writers, especially by Thaer, under 
 the name of Hordeum coclcste, seems 
 to be a superior sort in rich soils, not 
 only for its heavy and nutritious grain, 
 in which particulars it is said to ap- 
 proach to the quality of rye, but also 
 for its succulent stems and leaves, 
 which make it by far the best sort to 
 sow for the purpose of green food for 
 cattle and sheep ; and if fed off early 
 the roots will, in a rich soil, shoot out 
 an abundance of fresh stems, and pro- 
 duce a good crop of grain at harvest. 
 
 The barley most commonly culti- 
 vated is that which has only two 
 rows. It is almost universally sown 
 in spring. 
 
 Particular varieties have been in 
 great repute at different times, when 
 first introduced, and then seem to 
 have degenerated and lost their su- 
 periority. Of this kind is the Molda- 
 vian barley. This barley was much 
 sought after some years ago ; and 
 lately the Chevalier barley {Fig: 3), 
 so called from the gentleman who 
 first brought it into notice. It is said 
 that, having observed an ear of bar- 
 ley in his field greatly superior to the 
 rest, he carefully saved the seed, and 
 cultivated it in his garden till he had 
 a sufficient quantity to sow it in a 
 field. It has since been extremely 
 multiplied and diffused through the 
 country. Some eminent maltsters 
 and brewers have declared that it 
 contains more saccharine matter than 
 any other sort ; and the trials hither- 
 to made have convinced many agri- 
 culturists that it is not only heavier 
 in the grain, but also more produc- 
 tive. In 1832, Mr. Coke, of Norfolk, 
 who was always foremost in all agri- 
 cultural experiments and improve- 
 ments, sowed a considerable portion 
 of land with this barley, and the re- 
 sult is said to have been perfectly 
 satisfactory. In the j^ear 1833 the 
 writer of this article sowed two acres 
 of Chevalier barley in the same field 
 60 
 
 FHg.3. 
 
 [Chevalier Barley.] 
 with some of the best of the common 
 barley. The soil was poor, hght sand, 
 but in good order, and very clean. 
 The produce of the whole was nearly 
 the same, four quarters per acre ; but 
 the Chevalier barley weighed 57 lbs. 
 per bushel, while the common weigh- 
 ed only 52. This gives the farmer 
 an advantage of nearly ten per cent. 
 The sample was very fine, and the 
 whole that he could spare was eager- 
 ly purchased by his neighbours, for 
 seed, at his own price. It is long in 
 the ear and very plump, and the plants 
 
BAKLEV 
 
 tiller* 30 much, that half a bushel may 
 be saved per acre in the seed. This 
 is probably owing to its grains being 
 all perfect, and vegetating rapidly. 
 The straw, like that of the other long- 
 eared barleys, appears weak in pro- 
 portion to the ear : it is said also to 
 be harder, and not so palatable to cat- 
 tle. These are circumstances which 
 experience alone can ascertain. That 
 hitherto it has had a decided superi- 
 ority over the common sorts, no one 
 who has tried it fairly in well-pre- 
 pared land seems to deny ; but un- 
 less great care be taken in cultiva- 
 ting picked parcels for seed, selecting 
 the finest ears and plumpest grain, it 
 will probably share the fate of its pred- 
 ecessors — degenerate, and lose its 
 reputation. Might not the cultivation 
 of the various kinds of grain purpose- 
 ly for seed be more generally prac- 
 tised, and form a distinct branch of 
 agriculture ? Thus the good qualities 
 of any grain might be perpetuated, 
 new varieties might be produced, and 
 the defects corrected by cultivation, 
 as is the case with horticultural 
 plants. 
 
 The sprat or battledore barley ( Fig. 
 4), also called Putney barley, from 
 having been once extensively cul- 
 tivated near that place, is in much 
 esteem in Germany. It is the Hor- 
 dcum Zeocriton ; also called German 
 rice, or rice barley, not from any re- 
 semblance it bears to rice, but be- 
 cause, when deprived of its skin and 
 made into pot barley, it swells by 
 boiling, and makes a good substitute 
 for rice in broths and puddings. 
 
 All kinds of barley require nearly 
 the same soil, and, whether they are 
 sown before winter or in spring, the 
 ground must be well prepared, and 
 the soil pulverized by repeated plough- 
 ings and harrowings, or by the opera- 
 tion of those instruments which have 
 been invented for this especial pur- 
 pose, in order that the fibres of the 
 roots, which are very minute and del- 
 icate, may penetrate the soil easily in 
 search of nourishment. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 ' A plant IS said to tiller when it produces 
 several stems from the crown of the root at the 
 ■urface of the (oil. 
 
 F 
 
 [Sprat (or Battledore) Barley.] 
 
 The soil can scarcely be too dry 
 on the surface at the time of sowing ; 
 and, provided a few showers supply 
 the moisture necessary to make the 
 seed vegetate and spring up, there is 
 DO great danger to be apprehended 
 from too dry weather. Barley has 
 been known to grow and ripen when 
 not a single shower refreshed the soil 
 from the day it was sown to that in 
 which it was reaped. 
 
 The quantity of barley sown for- 
 merly was four bushels per acre ; 
 but if the land is duly prepared and 
 the seed good, from two to three 
 bushels are an ample allowance, espe- 
 cially if sown by the drilling machine. 
 
 The proper time for sowing barley 
 depends much on the season and the 
 61 
 
liAlM.EV 
 
 state of the land. The best practical 
 rule is, to sow as soon in March as 
 the ground is dry. The early-sown 
 crops are in general the heaviest, es- 
 pecially the sorts which ripen later : 
 they require less seed, having more 
 time to tiller before the hot weather 
 draws up the stems. There are, how- 
 ever, seasons when the later-sown 
 crops are the best. A good rule is to 
 sow a quick-growing sort when the 
 sowing is unavoidably deferred, and 
 in this case more seed must also be 
 allowed. 
 
 The depth at which the seed should 
 be deposited depends on the nature 
 of the soil and on the season. Win- 
 ter barley need only be slightly cov- 
 ered, and will tiller astonishingly in 
 good light soils. But in stiff soils the 
 seed, buried deep, may have much 
 difficulty in germinating, the air not 
 having sufficient access, and the first 
 shoot not being able to pierce the 
 compact soil above it. As a general 
 rule, a depth of one inch and a half 
 is most likely to enable the seed to 
 sprout well, and give a sufficient hold 
 of the land by the roots to avoid the 
 danger of lodging. After sowing bar- 
 ley it is useful to pass a light roller 
 over the land, across the beds, if 
 there are any, to press the earth on 
 the seed, and prevent too great evap- 
 oration of the moisture. When the 
 plants begin to tiller, another rolling, 
 and in some cases a slight harrow- 
 ing, to loosen the surface and thin 
 out the plants where they grow too 
 close, are very useful. This also is 
 the best time to sow clover and grass 
 seeds, if not done with the first roll- 
 ing. After this no attention is re- 
 quired to the crop till harvest, unless 
 some docks or tliistles should make 
 their appearance, which must then be 
 carefully pulled up. 
 
 The practice of sowing clover, rye 
 grass, or other seeds with the barley, 
 is almost universal, and is considered 
 as one of the great modern improve- 
 ments in agriculture. There is no 
 doubt a great advantage in having a 
 profitable and improving crop to suc- 
 ceed the barley without farther till- 
 age ; and clover prepares the land 
 63 
 
 admirably for wheat. Still there are 
 some doubts whether this be profita- 
 ble in all cases. Tliere are seasons 
 when the clover materially injures 
 the barley by its luxuriance ; and in 
 wet seasons at harvest it is very dif- 
 ficult to dry the straw sufficiently, 
 mixed as it is with the succulent 
 stems of the clover, or to prevent its 
 heating in the stack. The clover, as 
 far as the barley is concerned, may 
 be looked upon as a weed, which, like 
 all other weeds, must take a part of 
 the nourishment from the crop, and 
 check its tillering. If the clover is 
 sown late among the barley, the dan- 
 ger is less. It will not be able to 
 grow so high as to do much injury, 
 but the fear of losing the plant of clo- 
 ver makes most farmers prefer sow- 
 ing it soon after the barley. 
 
 In Flanders, clover is seldom or 
 never sown with barley, but chiefly 
 with rye ; but they sow a species of 
 white carrot instead in the sandy 
 soils. These push out very little of 
 the green top, but shoot their fibres 
 downward, which form the rudiments 
 of the carrot. After harvest, the 
 ground is well harrowed, and water- 
 ed with liquid manure. The carrots, 
 which could scarcely be observed 
 above ground, soon spring up, and a 
 good crop is secured before winter, 
 extremely useful for feeding cattle 
 and swine, and greatly increasing the 
 urine of cows and bullocks, the fa- 
 vourite manure for light soils in that 
 country. 
 
 As soon as the ears of the barley 
 begin to droop and lose their purple 
 hue, acquiring a light straw colour, 
 before the grain is quite hard, it should 
 be reaped. This is usually done by 
 mowing it with a scythe, having a 
 cradle fixed to it so as to lay the 
 swathe regularly ; but where there is 
 a sufficient supply of labourers, at 
 reasonable wages, it is far more prof- 
 itable to have it reaped with the sick- 
 le, or, what is better, with the Hai- 
 nault scythe, a short, broad scythe, 
 used with one hand, while a light 
 hook is held in the other to lay the 
 straw even, so as to be readily tied 
 up into sheaves. A little practice 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 enables a man to reap twice as much 
 corn in the same time with this in- 
 strument as with the reaping hook. 
 Binding into sheaves is a great ad- 
 vantage ; much less corn fs shed, 
 which, in the common method of ra- 
 king into heaps, often amounts to 
 more than would fully sow the same 
 extent of land. The sheaves set up 
 on end are in less danger from the 
 weather, and when the stack is budt 
 all the ears may be laid inward and 
 much grain saved, which, if on the 
 outside, would soon be the prey of 
 birds : smaller stacks may be made, 
 and the danger of heating entire- 
 ly avoided. The stacks should be 
 built on frames, supported by stone 
 or cast-iron pillars, with Hat caps on 
 them to keep out vermm ; and, in 
 large stacks, it is useful to have a 
 kind of open cage in the middle, to 1 
 allow the admission of air to the cen- 1 
 tre. This dries the grain better than | 
 a kiln, and when the stack is proper- ■ 
 ly thatched with straw, the crop may 
 be considered as safe till it is carried 
 into the barn to be thrashed. 
 
 Barley requires care in thrashing, 
 to break off all the awns close to the 
 grain. A thrashing machine does not 
 accomplish this perfectly by only once 
 passing the straw through the roll- 
 ers ; it is consequently usually put 
 
 through a second time, especially if 
 it has not been tied into sheaves. It 
 is often necessary, after the barley 
 is thrashed, to effect this by another 
 operation, which is called hummeliyig, 
 for which purpose several different 
 kinds of instruments are used. A sim- 
 ple one consists of a cylinder com- 
 posed of small bars of iron, and placed 
 on an axis, which is rolled backward 
 and forward over the grain ; or, 
 I where a thrashing machine is used, 
 a plate of iron, perforated like a nut- 
 meg grater, is fixed to the inside of 
 I the drum in which the beaters re- 
 [ volve, and the awns are effectually 
 ! broken off by this rough surface 
 
 The diseases to which barley is sub- 
 ject while growing are those which 
 attack all other grain — the smut, the 
 burned ear, blight, and mildew ; but 
 it is less liable to these than wheat. 
 The greatest enemy is a wet harvest. 
 It is so apt to germinate with the 
 least continuance of moisture, that, 
 even before it is reaped, it often ex- 
 hibits an ear in full vegetation, every 
 grain having sprouted (see fissure) 
 It is then of little value, and even 
 when this is checked by dry weather 
 or in the kiln, the grain is so impaired 
 as to be fit only to feed fowls and 
 pigs. A strong plant of clover, by 
 keeping the wet longer about the bar- 
 
 tPremature germination of an ear of barley.] 
 
 63 
 
bAii 
 
 BAR 
 
 ley, often contributes to increase tliis 
 evil, as lias boon hinted before. 
 
 The principal use of barley in this 
 country is to convert it into malt for 
 brewing and distilling. The best and 
 heaviest grain is chosen for this pur- 
 pose, and, as it must have its germi- 
 nating power unimpaired, the least 
 discoloration, from rain or heating in 
 the stack, renders it suspected, and 
 consequently not so saleable. It is, 
 however, still fit for being ground 
 into meal for feeding cattle and pigs. 
 
 The produce of barley, on land 
 well prepared, is from 30 to 50 bush- 
 els and more per acre, weighing from 
 45 to 55 lbs. per bushel. It is said 
 to contain 65 per cent, of nutritive 
 matter ; wheat contains 78 per cent. 
 A bushel of barley weighing 50 lbs. 
 therefore contains about 32 lbs. of 
 nutriment, while a bushel of wheat 
 weighing 60 lbs. contains 47 lbs. 
 Good oats weighing 40 lbs. contain 
 about 24 lbs. of nutritive substance, 
 so that the comparative value of 
 wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding 
 cattle, may be represented by 47, 32, 
 and 24, the measure being the same. 
 The experiments on which this cal- 
 culation is founded were carefully 
 made by Einhof, and confirmed, on a 
 large scale, by Thaer, at his estab- 
 lishment at Mijgelin, the account of 
 the results being accurately kept. 
 
 On all pood loamy soils barley is a 
 more profitable crop than oats, and 
 is supposed to exhaust the soil less. 
 On stiff, cold clays it does not thrive 
 so well, and there oats are to be pre- 
 ferred. In some districts, where the 
 best barley is grown, the farmers sel- 
 dom sow oats, and many prefer buy- 
 ing them for their own u.se, with the 
 additional expense of market and car- 
 riage. 
 
 Barley in its green state makes ex- 
 cellent spring food for milch cows ; 
 it comes in early, and greatly increas- 
 es the milk. It is also very good for 
 horses, provided it be given sparing- 
 ly at first, as it purges them ; but af- 
 ter a little time, when the stomach 
 becomes accustomed to it, it increas- 
 es their flesh and condition wonder- 
 fully, and is much more wholesome 
 
 than the usual spring physic, as it an- 
 swers the purpose of gently clearing 
 the intestines without any risk of ir- 
 ritation. For sheep it is more nour- 
 ishing than rye, and comes earlier ; 
 when fed off quite close in April, it 
 will spring up again, and, on good 
 land, produce a fair crop of grain. 
 
 M. Theodore de Saussure has care- 
 fully analyzed the ashes produced by 
 burning barley and its straw, and we 
 shall close this article with the re- 
 sult of his experiments. — {Recherches 
 Chimiqucs sur la Vegetation, Paris, 
 1804.) 
 
 The grain reduced to ashes with its 
 skin gave, out of 100 parts, 18 of ash- 
 es, which contained : 
 
 Potass .... 
 
 Phosphate of potass 
 
 Sulphate of potass 
 
 Muriate of potass 
 
 Earthy phosphates 
 
 Earthy carbonates 
 
 Silica 
 
 Metallic oxides . 
 
 Loss 
 
 18 
 9-2 
 15 
 025 
 
 32-5 
 
 
 35-5 
 0-25 
 2-8 
 100 
 
 1000 parts of the straw produced 42 
 of ashes, containing : 
 
 Potass . 
 
 Sulphate of potass 
 
 Muriate of potass 
 
 Earthy phosphates 
 
 Earthy carbonates 
 
 Silica 
 
 Metallic oxides . 
 
 Loss 
 
 16 
 35 
 05 
 
 7-75 
 125 
 57 
 5 
 225 
 100 
 These products no doubt vary in 
 different soils ; but the proportion of 
 silica in the straw and in the skin of 
 barley is remarkable. This barley 
 grew in a chalky soil. — ( W. L. Rham.) 
 BARLEY, POT. Barley of which 
 the outer husk or skin has been re- 
 moved. 
 
 B A R L E Y, P E A R L. The small 
 round kernel which remains after the 
 skin and a considerable portion of the 
 barley have been ground off. 
 
 BARLEY GRASSES. Grasses of 
 the genus Hordcum. They are coarse, 
 and of little moment in agriculture. 
 BARM. Leaven, yeast. 
 
BARN. 
 
 BARN. A building in wliieh prod- 
 uce is stored to protect it from the 
 weather and keep it in safety. In all 
 countries where the climate does not 
 permit the corn to be thrashed in thc 
 field and immediately put into a gran- 
 ary, it is necessary to protect it 
 from the weather ; and the most ob- 
 vious method is, to hare capacious 
 buildings for that purpose. Accord- 
 ingly, all well-appointed farms hare 
 one or more of these buildings, which 
 formerly were made of such dimen- 
 sions as to be capable of containing 
 the whole produce of tlie farm, wheth- 
 er hay, corn, or straw. A great sa- 
 ving has been effected by the mode 
 of stacking hay and corn in the open 
 air, protected only by a slight cover- 
 ing of thatch. In consequence of 
 this improved practice, modern barns 
 are made of smaller dimensions, and 
 their principal use is to contain the 
 wheat in the straw which is intended 
 to be thrashed out immediately ; so 
 that if the barn is capable of contain- 
 ing a thrashing floor and as much 
 wheat in the sheaf as is usually put in 
 a single stack, it answers all tiie pur- 
 poses of a larger barn ; and thus the 
 expense of the farm buildings is great- 
 ly diminished. 
 
 The principal use of a barn being 
 to thrash the corn in, its construction 
 must be adapted to the mode in which 
 that operation is performed. As many 
 smaller seeds, such as clover and the 
 grasses, cannot so well be thrashed 
 by a machine, a floor, upon which 
 they may be thrashed with the flail, 
 is an indispensable appendage to a 
 farm ; and the barn is the most con- 
 venient place to have it in. This floor 
 is commonly placed in the middle, 
 with its length equal to the width of 
 the barn. It also allows the wagons 
 or carts, when loaded with the prod- 
 uce of the harvest, or of the corn 
 taken from a stack, to be drawn over 
 it and unloaded immediately in the 
 barn. For this purpose, large double 
 gates are placed at each end of the 
 floor, of such dimensions as to allow 
 a loaded wagon to be drawn m on 
 one side, and, when unloaded, taken 
 out at the other. When the width 
 F •: 
 
 of the barn is not sufllcienl for the 
 length of the floor, a porch is added 
 on one side, or both, and in these the 
 gates are placed. Those parts of the 
 barn which are on one side of the 
 thrashing floor are called the bays, 
 and in these the corn is placed till it 
 is thrashed. Where there are porch- 
 es, the roof of the barn is generally 
 brought down to the line of the porch ; 
 and thus convenient sheds are formed 
 on each side. One of the defects of 
 this construction is, that the drawing 
 of loaded wagons on the floor mate- 
 rially injures it, even where the pre- 
 caution is taken of spreading straw 
 over it. In consequence of this, many 
 barns have been constructed without 
 the large gates, and the corn is thrown 
 from the wagon outside, through an 
 opening called a pitch hole, into the 
 barn. This has the inconvenience of 
 loss of time, and the risk of damaging 
 the corn in showery weather. The 
 best plan, therefore, is to have a 
 passage for the wagons under the 
 roof, at the end of the barn, where 
 they can with ease and safety be un- 
 loaded ; and if a thrashing machine 
 is used, a floor raised about seven 
 feet above the ground will contain 
 the machine at one end, and the un- 
 thrashed corn at the other ; the low- 
 er part may be appropriated to va- 
 rious useful purposes ; that part which 
 IS immediately under the machine 
 receives the corn and straw after 
 they are separated, and contains the 
 winnowing machine. (See Fig. I.) 
 A, the place for unloading the corn ; 
 B, a floor seven feet from the ground, 
 on wliich the wheat in the straw is 
 stored ; C, the place of the thrash- 
 ing-machine at the end of the floor ; 
 
 D, a chamber under the floor, into 
 which the thrashed corn and the 
 straw fall, and the corn is winnowed ; 
 
 E, the shed for the horses to work 
 under ; F, a place under the floor, in 
 which agricultural implements are 
 kept : it may be converted into a sta- 
 ble. Double gates at each end of A 
 will shut the whole up ; or the end B 
 may be closed by a partition with 
 double doors in it. The windows are 
 latticed. 
 
 65 
 
In this case the seeds may be 
 thrashed on the raised floor, which 
 must be made stronj^ and well joint- 
 ed, to prevent the dust beating 
 through, and steadied by pillars or a 
 partition below. In small farms, 
 where there is no thrashing machine, 
 this construction is not so advanta- 
 geous, the raised floor being unneces- 
 sary ; still, it would be better not to 
 draw the wagons on the floor. The 
 thrashing floor may be placed at one 
 end of the barn, the wagons unloaded 
 at the other, and the corn deposited 
 between them. 
 
 A common thrashing floor is usu- 
 ally from eighteen to twenty feet 
 long, and from twelve to fourteen 
 wide ; the size must depend on the 
 number of men who thrash at the 
 same time, this operation being more 
 rapidly performed by three or four 
 men, beating in regular time, than if 
 they worked separately. 
 
 Thrashing floors are usually made 
 of stone, brick, oak, or tempered 
 earth. The first are the most dura- 
 ble, and where stone can be obtained 
 at a reasonable price, they are, in the 
 end, the cheapest ; but they are apt 
 to bruise the corn, and on that ac- 
 count are not so generally adopted. 
 Brick floors have tlie same inconve- 
 nience, besides that of readily imbi- 
 bing moisture, and making the grain 
 feel cold and damp, which diminishes 
 the value of the sample. Earthen 
 floors, when carefully laid, and the 
 materials well incorporated, are both 
 66 
 
 cheap and durable, provided the soil 
 on which they are laid is dry natural- 
 ly or made so artificially. But earth- 
 en floors have always the mconve- 
 nience of wearing into dust of a gritty 
 nature, which, mixing with the corn, 
 deteriorates it, and renders it less fit 
 to be ground into fine flour. Hence, 
 in spite of the first cost and frequent 
 repairs, wood floors are preferred. 
 Some nicety is required in laying 
 floors, that they may not be subject 
 to rapid decay, owing to the confine- 
 ment of moist air below them. The 
 planks should be two inches and a 
 half thick, the edges well joined by 
 doicdling, or •ploughing and tong^ieing. 
 Dowells are pins of half an inch di- 
 ameter and six inches long, driven 
 three inches deep into holes of the 
 same diameter in the edge of the 
 planks, and received into correspond- 
 ing holes in the adjoming planks, so 
 as to keep them close together and 
 their surfaces even. Ploughing and 
 tongueing is done by means of a 
 groove in each edge, into which a 
 slip of lath is driven, half in each 
 groove. This produces the same ef- 
 fect of joining the planks close, be- 
 sides completely preventing any dust 
 from passing between the joints. 
 The planks are driven close by means 
 of wedges, and are laid on sleepers, 
 to which they are fastened by a few 
 iron spikes driven into each, and 
 which rest on a foundation of brick- 
 work, so that the floor is eight or ten 
 inches from the ground. This inter- 
 
BARN. 
 
 val has been sometimes filled up with 
 stones or gravel, under the idea of 
 preventing the nestling of rats ; but 
 this is not a good practice. A free 
 current of air under the floor is the 
 only method of securing it from damp, 
 and consequent dry rot. This should 
 be provided by means of openings 
 through the walls or under the sills. 
 Iron gratings will keep out the rats ; 
 but even should they find their way 
 under the floor, they must be huuted 
 out and destroyed by dogs. 
 
 The outer walls of barns are built 
 of stone or brick, or consist only of 
 wood. 
 
 The roof of a barn should be con- 
 structed according to the approved j 
 rules of carpentry, so as to produce I 
 the greatest strength with the small- j 
 est quantity of timber. This is a | 
 point seldom attended to by country 
 carpenters, who imitate the old roofs, 
 in which strong beams, resting on 
 the walls horizontally, generally bear 
 the whole weight of the roof without 
 regard to the advantage gained by 
 proper trussing. Even in the most 
 temporary shed the strength may be 
 greatly increased by using the mate- 
 rials judiciously. It is usually shin- 
 gled. The common covering in Eng- 
 land is thatched straw, which has the 
 great inconvenience of affording shel- j 
 ter for rats, who soon nestle in it, 
 and are not easily driven out. 
 
 The more the air circulates the I 
 better the corn is preserved. Barns ! 
 should, therefore, have numerous 
 openings, and the wheat, when put ! 
 
 into them, should not be pressed 
 down close to the walls, as recom- 
 mended in many agricultural works, 
 but so placed as to allow the air, to 
 circulate freely. In this manner, it 
 will keep well, without acquiring the 
 close and musty smell which so much 
 deteriorates that long kept in a barn. 
 Hay is now seldom put into a close 
 barn, experience having shown that 
 it keeps much better in the open air 
 in ricks. But where a considerable 
 quantity of hay is tied up in trusses 
 for the market, it is extremely useful 
 to have a building with a roof to pro- 
 tect them from the wet, and to load 
 the carts under shelter. For this 
 purpose, a kind of barn is contrived, 
 which some call a Dutch barn, but 
 which may very properly be called a 
 skeleton barn, being the frame of a 
 barn witliout the boarding. The an- 
 nexed figure will convey a better idea 
 of it than any description. At the 
 time of haymaking, this barn is ex- 
 tremely useful to draw a load of hay 
 in suddenly on the appearance of a 
 shower ; and hay put into either side 
 will be preserved as well as in a stack. 
 But for this purpose another building 
 is in use in Holland, to which the 
 name of Dutch barn is more appro- 
 priate, and of which we also annex a 
 figure. This consists of a roof sup- 
 ported by strong poles, like masts, 
 A A, on which it can be raised or 
 lowered at will. The usual form is 
 that of a pentagon ; the poles are at 
 the angles, and kept upright by means 
 of a strong still on a brick foundation, 
 
 67 
 
13AK 
 
 BAR 
 
 30 
 
 S4 
 
 16. . 
 
 8 - 
 
 and pieces, B, acting as spurs, framed 
 into the poles. The roof is light and 
 covered with thatch. At each angle 
 is a strong block of wood, with a 
 round hole in it, sufficient to let the 
 poles pass through ; these blocks are 
 kept at any desired height by means 
 of iron pins passed through 'holes 
 made in the poles, and on which the 
 blocks rest. To raise the roof, a 
 small jack is used, an instrument well 
 known by its use in raising heavy 
 wagons when the wheels are taken 
 oft". This is placed on an iron pin at 
 some distance below the roof, and the 
 corners are raised gradually, one after 
 the other, at opposite angles, the pins 
 being moved each tune one hole high- 
 er. The chief use of this Dutch barn 
 is to contain hay, which may be pla- 
 ced in safety, in any small quantity, 
 as soon as made, the roof being raised 
 as the quantity increases, and grad- 
 ually lowered as it is taken off for the 
 cattle, which is always from the top. 
 In small dairy farms in Holland, this 
 building is found so useful that few 
 68 
 
 are without one. Four posts are 
 quite enough. 
 
 BARN 0^yL. This bird is a val- 
 uable destroyer of rats, mice, and 
 small vermin. 
 
 BAROMETER. Of all the mete- 
 orological instruments the barometer 
 is the most useful to the cultivator. 
 Although its principal object is to in- 
 dicate the pressure of a column of air, 
 the variations of this same pressure 
 are so intimately connected with di- 
 vers other atmospheric phenomena, 
 that one can almost daily recur to its 
 indications with profit. 
 
 The barometer in its simplest form 
 is a tube curved into a siphon {Fig. 1), 
 closed at the upper end, with a pear- 
 shaped enlargement at the lower end, 
 completely void of air, and partly fill- 
 ed with mercury. When the tube is 
 placed in a perpendicular position, the 
 metal, after some oscillations, settles 
 itself at a height which represents the 
 weight of the atmosphere, and which 
 varies more or less, according as that 
 weight augments or diminishes 
 
BARUMETEIl. 
 
 Pig. I. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 A 
 
 By an ingenious mechanism, Tor- 
 ricelli adapted to the siphon barome- 
 ter a dial {Fig. 2), upon which a nee- 
 dle indicates the movements of the 
 mercury. This instrument, which is 
 quite common, can nevertheless be 
 consulted with advantage. 
 
 The barometer ( Fig. 3) presents this 
 difference from the preceding, that 
 the tube, instead of being recurved, 
 plunges perpendicularly into a basin 
 partly filled with mercury. It is fix- 
 ed to a scale, graduated on one side 
 in inches and tenths. 
 
 The mercury in the barometer is 
 seldom to be seen so low as 28 inch- 
 es, or higher than 30^^. It indicates 
 as follows : 
 
 31 inches . . Very dry weather, hard frost. 
 
 30J . . . . Settled fair, settled frost. 
 
 30 ... . Fair, frost. 
 
 29i . . . . Changeable. 
 
 29 ... . Rain, snow. 
 
 28i .... Much rain, much snow. 
 
 28 ... . .Stormy weather. 
 
 The straight barometer is better 
 than the weather-glass. In mount- 
 ains the mercury never reaches 30J^ 
 inches, but remains alwavs at a dis- 
 
 tance below, proportionate to the 
 height of the place above the level of 
 the sea. In foretellmg changes of 
 weather, the act of falling or rising in 
 the mercury is better than an inspec- 
 tion of its height. The following rules 
 by Mr. Walker are as good as any 
 extant : 
 
 1. The barometer rising, may bo 
 considered as a general indication that 
 the weather, comparatively with the 
 state of it at the time of observation, 
 is becoming clearer. 
 
 2. The atmosphere apparently be- 
 coming clearer, and the barometer 
 above raui, and rising, show a dispo- 
 sition in the air for fair weather. 
 
 3. The atmosphere becoming clear, 
 and the barometer above changeable, 
 and rising, indicate fair weather. 
 
 4. The atmosphere clear, and the 
 barometer near fair, and rising, de- 
 note continued fair weather. 
 
 5. Our prognostic of the weather 
 is to be guided relatively, thus : if, 
 notwithstanding the sinking of the 
 barometer, little or no rain follow, and 
 it afterward rise, we may expect con- 
 tinued dry weather. 
 
 6. If, during a series of cloudy, 
 rainy weather, the barometer rise 
 gradually, though yet below rain, es- 
 pecially if the wind change from the 
 south or west towards the north or 
 east points, clear and dry weather 
 may be expected. 
 
 7. The weather for a short period, 
 viz., from morning until evening, may 
 commonly be foretold with a consid- 
 erable degree of certainty. If the ba- 
 rometer has risen during the night, and 
 is still rising, the clouds are high and 
 apparently dispersing, and the wind 
 calm, especially if it be in or about 
 the north or east points, a dry day 
 may be confidently expected. The 
 same rule applies for predicting the 
 weather from evening till morning. 
 
 8. The barometer should be ob- 
 served occasionally thrice in the day, 
 or oftener when the weather is 
 changeable, in order to notice wheth- 
 er the mercury be stationary, rising, 
 or sinking ; for, from this circum- 
 stance, together with the direction of 
 the wind and the apparent state of 
 
 69 
 
BAR 
 
 the air at the time, is information to 
 be collected, and a continuance of the 
 same, or a sudden change of the 
 weather, to be foreseen. 
 
 Lastly, observe always, the higher 
 the mercury shall stand in the scale 
 in each instance, and the more regu- 
 larly progressive its motion sliall be, 
 the stronger will be the indication ; 
 likewise, the more the wind inclines 
 towards the north or east points, the 
 greater will be the disposition in the 
 air for fair w-eather. The indications 
 of rainy weather will obviously be 
 the direct reverse of those rules which 
 predict fair weather. Frost is indi- 
 cated in winter by the same rules 
 that indicate fair weather; the wind 
 being in or about the north or east 
 points, and the thermometer sinking 
 towards 30. A fall of snow seldom 
 comes without a previous frost of 
 some duration, and is indicated by 
 the sinking of the barometer, espe- 
 cially if the mercury be below change- 
 able, and the thermometer at or near 
 the freezing point. When the tem- 
 perature of the air is about 35, snow 
 and rain sometimes fall together ; at 
 a warmer temperature than 35 it sel- 
 dom snows, or rains at a colder tem- 
 perature. Thunder is presaged by 
 the same rules which indicate rain, 
 accompanied by sultry heat, the ther- 
 mometer being up to 75. Storms, 
 hurricanes, and high winds, are indi- 
 cated by the barometer falling sud- 
 denly, or sinking considerably below 
 much rain. The barometer is known 
 to be rising or sinking by the mercu- 
 ry having either a convex or concave 
 surface, or by the perceptible rise or 
 descent of the mercury, if at the time 
 of observation the barometer be gen- 
 tly rapped. If at any time the weath- 
 er should differ widely from the in- 
 dications of the barometer, it maybe 
 presumed, as it is sometimes known 
 to happen, that a particular spot is 
 affected by local circumstances. Af- 
 ter a long-continued series of wet 
 weather, we may, when the weather 
 becomes fine, expect an uninterrupt- 
 ed continuance of dry weather. If, 
 after a long series of wet weather, 
 the barometer rise above changeahlc, 
 70 
 
 BAR 
 
 and the wind veer steady to the north 
 or east points, a continued duration of 
 fair weather may be expected. Slow 
 and progressive variations in the 
 barometer, with a fixed and steady 
 state of the wind, indicate permanen- 
 cy with the change. The barometer 
 standing at or above fair, denotes 
 generally fair weather, although the 
 atmosphere wear at the time an un- 
 favourable aspect. 
 
 The greater coincidence there is of 
 the circumstances enumerated in the 
 rules above mentioned, the stronger 
 may our confidence be in the expec- 
 tation of fair weather ; and in the 
 continuance of it when present, by 
 the barometer, while high, remaining 
 stationary, or varying but little, and 
 the state of the atmosphere and di- 
 rection of the wind disposed to be set- 
 tled. In this variable climate there is 
 no reliance to be placed on any rules 
 beyond those above mentioned, for in- 
 dicating the weather for any length of 
 time together, or for any distant pe- 
 riod. Combined with a careful exam- 
 ination of the direction of the wind, 
 and the amount of vapour in the air, 
 barometrical observations become a 
 valuable means of forming an opinion 
 on the state of the weather a few 
 hours in advance. 
 
 BARRAS. The resin which flows 
 from the bark of fir-trees. 
 
 BARREL. An English beer meas- 
 ure of thirty-four gallons. In the 
 Southern States, a measure of corn 
 equal in the ear to ten bushels, or five 
 bushels shelled. A barrel of flour con- 
 tains 196 pounds. 
 
 BARREN FLOWERS. Those 
 which contain stamens only ; they 
 are easily known by the absence of 
 the swelling under the (orarium) flow- 
 er. By high cultivation flowers be- 
 come barren, and contain no stamens : 
 when these bear fruit, it is without 
 seeds ; hence the well-known seedless 
 varieties of orange, grape, &c. 
 
 BARREN LAND. In agriculture, 
 land in which the plants general- 
 ly cultivated do not prosper or arrive 
 at maturity. This barrenness may 
 arise from various causes. The tex- 
 ture of the soil may be such that the 
 
BARREN LAND. 
 
 moisture essential to vegetation can- 
 not be retained, or that the fibres of 
 the roots cannot penetrate in search 
 of food. The first is the case in loose 
 silicious sands, the second in rocks 
 and indurated clays. It is seldom 
 that either of these soils can be ren- 
 dered productive, so as to repay the 
 expense of cultivation, unless under 
 particular circumstances. The most 
 barren sands will become productive 
 by irrigation, and in that case the la- 
 bour api)licd to improve their texture, 
 by the admixture of more tenacious 
 earth, may be occasionally repaid. 
 The vine may be made to grow in the 
 fissures of the hardest rocks, where 
 the climate is favourable ; and ter- 
 races may be formed, by which the 
 soil brought on may be retained ; but, 
 in general, loose sands and rocks ought 
 to be left to their natural state of bar- 
 renness. 
 
 We shall endeavour to give, as 
 briefly as possible, an outline of the 
 various means by which even the 
 poorest soils may be rendered capa- 
 ble of adding something to the gen- 
 eral stock of food. The question as 
 to the policy of cultivating such lands 
 is not here considered. Our object 
 is to show how barren lands may be 
 improved whenever such improve- 
 ment may be deemed expedient. 
 
 Some lands are barren in conse- 
 quence of noxious ingredients in the 
 soil, which, by their chemical action 
 on the food of plants, or on their mi- 
 nute fibres, prevent their growth and 
 render them sickly and abortive. 
 These, having been ascertained by 
 careful analysis, must be deprived of 
 their noxious qualities by chemical 
 means, one of the most obvious of 
 which is liming. Nature has supplied 
 a general and complete antidote to 
 acid combinations, in lime, one of the 
 most abundant mineral productions. 
 There are few bad soils which lime 
 will not improve. The most com- 
 mon substances found in barren soils 
 are different combinations of metals, 
 principally iron, with sulphur and 
 acids ; quicklime either decomposes 
 all these or renders them innocuous. 
 Another substance is tannin, or the 
 
 astringent principle, which is of vege- 
 table origin, and, by preventing the 
 solubility of vegetable fibres, trans- 
 forms them into an inflammable sub- 
 stance well known by the name of 
 peat or moss. This, likewise, is 
 readily corrected by the same means. 
 But the different substances of which 
 a soil is composed may be perfectly 
 innocuous to vegetation, and yet the 
 barrenness may not be the less, if the 
 supply or circulation of moisture be 
 deficient or excessive. This must, 
 therefore, be the first consideration, 
 before any improvement is attempt- 
 ed ; and if sufficient moisture cannot 
 be supplied, or superfluous removed, 
 all other attempts will only be lost 
 labour. In tropical climates, irriga- 
 tion is the chief source of fertility ; 
 and the most expensive works have 
 been constructed, both in ancient and 
 modern times, to supply the land with 
 water as occasion requires. In north- 
 ern and moister climates, the founda- 
 tion of all improvements in the soil is 
 a proper outlet to superfluous water. 
 These two subjects will l)e treated 
 in the articles Irrigation and Drain- 
 ing. 
 
 Supposing, then, that the moisture 
 has been regulated, and that the land 
 is to be brought into cultivation, the 
 first thing to be done is to remove ob 
 structions and impediments, whether 
 they be rocks, stones, trees, or shrubs, 
 or only the heath and coarse grasses 
 which generally cover waste lands. 
 Rocks may be quarried or blown, and 
 so may stones too large to be remo- 
 ved whole, and the fragments will 
 often be useful in building the neces- 
 sary farm offices, or making fences to 
 divide the land into fields of conve- 
 nient dimensions, and especially to 
 keep ofl" animals from destroying the 
 crops. A simple method of getting 
 rid of large stones is to dig a deep 
 hole by the side of them, as near as 
 possible, and roll them in, so that 
 they may be buried at least two feet 
 below the surface. If the nature of 
 the stones is lamellated, and they 
 will split, wedges of iron driven into 
 holes made in the direction of the 
 layers readily divide them into flat 
 71 
 
BAKUEN LAND. 
 
 pieces pxtrciricly (!()nveniont for use. 
 A very powerful wcd^e for tins pur- 
 pose is an iron cylinder cut through 
 the axis into two pieces, between 
 which a thin iron or steel wedge is 
 inserted ; a hole is bored in the stone 
 of a diameter eipial to that of the 
 cylinder, and when this cylinder and 
 wedge are put into it, the wedge is 
 driven in with repeated smart strokes 
 of a hammer. Several such wedges, 
 placed in a line, will split large mass- 
 es of the hardest granite, and, next to 
 gunpowder, are the most efficacious 
 instruments for that purpose. Trees 
 
 must be grubbed up by the roots ; and 
 it saves labour to cut the roots below 
 the ground while the tree is standing, 
 and draw the tree over by means of 
 ropes fixed to the top ; the stem be- 
 comes a lever, by which the roots 
 are more easily drawn out. Useless 
 slirubs are readily cut down, and 
 serve for fuel ; their roots are seldom 
 difficult to grub up ; a simple and 
 powerful instrument for this purpo.-sc 
 is a very strong iron three-pronged 
 fork, having the prongs twenty inches 
 long, and a strong ashen handle, 
 twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it, 
 
 -:^^e3r^^ 
 
 to the end of which a rope is fasten- 
 ed ; this is driven obliquely under the 
 roots, and, by means of a log as a 
 fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled 
 down by the ropes. 
 
 There are two methods by which 
 the heath and grass of the surface 
 may be got rid of: by mowing them 
 close to the ground and ploughing in 
 the roots, or by paring the surface 
 and burning it. Each mode has had 
 its strenuous advocates, and has been 
 alternately praised and reprobated. 
 A little consideration will soon settle 
 this point. If the soil consists of clay 
 or loam containing the yellow ore of 
 iron, and if the ashes, after the sods 
 have been burned in heaps, are of a 
 72 
 
 bright red colour, the efiect of burn- 
 ing the surface will be generally ad- 
 vantageous, even where the soil is 
 already deficient in vegetable matter ; 
 for the fire will do more good in cor- 
 recting the crude qualities of the soil 
 than the small quantity of vegetable 
 matter which is dispersed would have 
 done had it been decomposed in the 
 most favourable manner ; and the 
 tough roots which are reduced to 
 ashes would have taken a very long 
 time to decay, and would have been 
 a constant impediment to the plough. 
 But if the soil is a sharp sand, and 
 the ashes are white and loose, burn- 
 ing destroys the small portion of ve- 
 getable matter in the soil, without 
 
BARREN LAND. 
 
 compensating the loss by any advan- 
 tage, and in this case burning the sur- 
 face is inexpedient. The grass must 
 be ploughed in, and not too deep at 
 first, that it may soon rot ; a coating 
 of lime ploughed in will accelerate 
 the decay of the grass. This kind 
 of soil requires the addition of veue- 
 table and animal matter to supply the 
 humus in which it is deficient, and 
 
 SaB 
 
 the principal attention must be direct- 
 ed to this object. 
 
 When the surface is very uneven, 
 so as to form hillocks and hollows, in 
 which water is apt to stagnate, lev- 
 elling is a necessary process. If the 
 soil is loose and sandy, it may be 
 very expeditiously levelled by an in- 
 strument in use in Flanders, which 
 they call a molkbart. It is a large 
 
 wooden shovel, shod with iron, hav- 
 ing a long handle ; about the middle 
 of this shovel, which is convex at the 
 bottom, are two hooks, one on each 
 side, to v.hich chains are fixed, which 
 unite at the bar to which the traces 
 of a horse or horses are to be attach- 
 ed : a rope fixed to the end of the 
 handle completes the instrument. A 
 man accustomed to the use of it 
 raises the handle, and the shovel en- 
 ters the ground, and is filled by the 
 horse gomg on. By depressing the 
 handle, the load is made to slide on 
 the rounded bottom of the shovel till 
 it arrives at the place where it is to 
 be deposited. By letting the handle 
 go, retaining the rope, the whole is 
 upset instantly, turning over on the 
 edge ; the handle strikes on the bar, 
 and the load is left behind in a heap. 
 By puhing the rope the whole instru- 
 ment resumes its original position, 
 and is brought back to the place from 
 which the earth is to be taken again, 
 without any loss of time or the slight- 
 est stoppage of the horses. About 
 five cwts. of loose earth may be thus 
 G 
 
 moved at each time. By means of 
 this machine the small fields in Flan- 
 ders are raised about two feet or 
 more in the centre, and the ground 
 laid convex, sloping in every direc- 
 tion to let the water run off. 
 
 The land being now enclosed, fen- 
 ced, and drained where requisite, ob- 
 stacles to the plough removed, and 
 in a tolerably level state, it remains 
 only to consider how it may be most 
 advantageously cultivated, so as in 
 the end to repay the first and great 
 outlay. Some lands which have lain 
 waste for ages for want of a proper 
 spirit of enterprise are found to con- 
 sist of a tolerable depth of moderate- 
 ly fertile earth. These must be treat- 
 ed like a garden newly formed, and 
 trenched as deep as possible ; mere 
 exposure to the air and frost will oft- 
 en make them highly productive, and 
 in this case the only caution neces- 
 sary is not to exhaust them at first. 
 It is too common an error with those 
 who have made a great outlay to be 
 impatient, and expect too rapid a 
 replacement of the capital laid out. 
 73 
 
BARREN LAND. 
 
 This makes them sow grain crops in 
 preference to roots and legumes ; and 
 as fresh eartli is generally very pro- 
 ductive, especially in straw, they im- 
 agine the land to be of a better qual- 
 ity than it really is, and soon exhaust 
 it, by which they lose infinitely more 
 in the end than if they began with 
 roots and green crops, and raised a 
 quantity of manure by the stock fed 
 on them. Lime excites new land 
 wonderfully, and no manure is more 
 active, provided there be vegetal)Ie 
 matter in the soil, or added at the 
 same time. Bone-dust will raise a 
 better crop of turnips than lime alone, 
 and is chiefly of use in raising the 
 first crop of turnips. It should there- 
 fore be used sparingly, unless obtain- 
 ed cheap, and only on light loams or 
 sands. Mixed with ashes in a heap, 
 and allowed to heat, it becomes much 
 more efficacious. 
 
 Nothing has so rapid an effect in 
 removing sterility as the free use of 
 the urine of cattle, and the draining 
 of dunghills, collected and allowed to 
 ferment in covered tanks ; but this 
 can only be obtained by keeping cat- 
 tle stalled and fed with provender 
 brought to them. This is the great 
 secret of the fertility of the once poor 
 barren heaths of Flanders. In differ- 
 ent situations it may not be practica- 
 ble to procure sufficient manure, at 
 least at first, and the progress will he 
 much slower. In this case the seeds 
 of rye, tares, beans, buckwheat, and 
 other succulent plants must be sown, 
 and the crop ploughed in when in blos- 
 som : potatoes and other roots may 
 be raised, to be consumed by cattle 
 and swine, in sheds built for the pur- 
 pose near at hand, and every means 
 that ingenuity can devise must be re- 
 sorted to in order to make as much 
 manure as possible. This is not to be 
 applied to the land at once, but mixed 
 up in heaps with parings of the sur- 
 face, with the ashes of roots burned, 
 and with lime, and when thoroughly 
 incorporated by frequent turning, mix- 
 ing, and repealed watering with li- 
 quid manure, a good coat should be put 
 on the land at once, as far as it will 
 go ; for one acre brought into a tol- 
 74 
 
 erably fertile state will repay the cost 
 better than many imperfectly impro- 
 ved ; and by proceeding gradually in 
 this way, more land will be brought 
 into a state fit for cultivation at the 
 end of a few years, and at less ex- 
 pense, than could have been done by 
 beginning with too much at first. 
 
 "\Vliat has been said of poor land, 
 or sandy loam, is applicable to every 
 kind of unproductive soil, difference 
 of composition and texture being kept 
 in view. Poor, wet, stiff lands must 
 be divided by deep ditches, ploughed 
 in high ridges, and be as much as pos- 
 sible exposed to the wind and frost : 
 grasses must be sown sucii as suit 
 the soil. Paring and burning the sur- 
 face are here generally useful in the 
 first instance, and may sometimes he 
 repeated with advantage. Such soils, 
 in the end, are best calculated for per- 
 manent meadows ; but it is essential 
 to get them into a sound and fertile 
 state by tillage and manuring, and by 
 clearing them of all the roots and 
 seeds of weeds before they be laid 
 down with grass seeds, which must 
 therefore be done with a first crop 
 after a clean fallow, or, which is still 
 better, without any crop of corn at 
 all. and kept free from coarser grasses 
 by hand-weeding. Inoculating grass 
 is by far the readiest way of produ- 
 cing a permanent sward. See Grass 
 Lu7id. 
 
 There is another kind of barren soil, 
 which extends over large tracts, well 
 known by the name of peat, or moor. 
 This, being chiefly composed of ve- 
 getable matter, is too loose in its tex- 
 ture foranyvigorousvegetation ; but, 
 besides, it is of an insoluble, astrin- 
 gent nature, highly unfit for the in- 
 crease and nourishment of plants. 
 Moors being generally situated in val- 
 leys between mountains, draining off 
 the superfluous water is the first and 
 indispensable operation before any 
 improvement of them can be thought 
 of. The next thing is to compress 
 the soft soil into a more solid state, 
 and for this purpose any kind of earth 
 or gravel is useful by its mere me- 
 chanical pressure. The surface may 
 be burned in sods, and the ashes will 
 
BAR 
 
 BAR 
 
 groatly improve the remainder. Lime, 
 marl, and sliells are the specific cor- 
 rectors of the quality and texture. By 
 the help of these, tlie soft mass is 
 gradually condensed, and a more com- 
 pact soil formed. Tlie great ohject 
 is to prevent the ahsorption of too 
 much moisture by the still unconsol- 
 iilated mass, which is effected by cut- 
 ting numerous and deep ditches in 
 every direction, with proper outlets 
 kept carefully open, at the same time 
 guarding against the opposite extreme 
 of drying this spongy substance too 
 much. If it is dry at top, and moist, 
 but not boggy, a foot below the sur- 
 face, it will be in the best state to im- 
 prove and consolidate. It is surpri- 
 sing how soon a peat moss, of little 
 more solidity than a bog, can be ren- 
 dered perfectly firm, and bear even 
 loaded wagons on its surface. It 
 often happens, where there is a com- 
 mand of good water which can be 
 brought above the level of the old peat 
 moss, that it may be converted into 
 a most productive water meadow. 
 All that is required is, that the upper 
 soil, artificially produced, be not bro- 
 ken through, and that the bottom be 
 well drained. The great value of the 
 peat and muck as a manure is a stim- 
 ulus to the ditching. 
 
 We have only given brief hints and 
 outlines to those who may be inclin- 
 ed to render lands productive which 
 have hitherto been barren. The cer- 
 tain cost and probable improvement 
 must be well calculated and compa- 
 red to avoid disappointment and loss. 
 As these depend on the peculiar cir- 
 cumstances of each case, it is impos- 
 sible to give any general idea of them ; 
 but, by beginning on a small and ex- 
 perimental scale at first, and proceed- 
 ing cautiously, new modes of lessen- 
 ing the expense of many of the oper- 
 ations will be suggested, errors will 
 be avoided, and some certain practi- 
 cal ground of calculation will be ob- 
 tained. — {W. L. Rh(im.) 
 
 BARROW. In agriculture, a 
 mound of earth, sometimes called 
 pies, or camps, under which potatoes 
 or other roots are stored for protection 
 from frost. They are usually made 
 
 by excavating the ground, which 
 should be high and dry, about one foot 
 and a half deep, from four to five 
 wide, and of a length proportionate 
 to the number of bushels to be stored. 
 The earth dug out is thrown evenly 
 on both sides the hole. Before sto- 
 ring, a layer of straw is put down by 
 some farmers ; but this is unnecessa- 
 ry : the potatoes, &c., are next piled 
 up in a rounded form, with the great- 
 est height, of three or four feet, in the 
 middle of the mound ; straw is laid 
 over them, and the dry earth of the 
 excavation piled on from two to two 
 and a half feet, and flattened with the 
 spade. Round the barrow a ditch is 
 dug, deeper than the floor within, to 
 drain off water. Whatever is stored 
 should be sound, and previously well 
 aired. Where the crop is large a 
 number of barrows are made. They 
 should be placed in a northeastern 
 exposure, for it is not frost that is 
 injurious to vegetables so much as 
 sudden thaws, produced by the direct 
 rays of the sun. In taking out pota- 
 toes, &c., for the market or use, if 
 they be found frozen, thaw in spring 
 water before selling. 
 
 {In machines.) Barrows are light 
 carriages to be moved by the hand. 
 When furnished with a wheel they 
 are termed wheelbarrows, and are of 
 many forms. 
 
 BARS. In farriery, those portions 
 of the crust or hoof of horses that 
 are reflected inward, and form the 
 arches situated between the heels 
 and the frog. 
 
 Bars of a Horse's Mouth. — The 
 fleshy rows that run across the upper 
 part of the mouth, and reach almost 
 to the palate. They form that part 
 of the mouth on which the bit should 
 rest, and have its effect. 
 
 BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of 
 shoe, which is sometimes of necessi- 
 ty used to' protect a tender frog from 
 injury, the hinder part of the shoe be- 
 ing thickened and hollowed over the 
 frog ; but unless it is made exceed- 
 ingly heavy it will soon be flattened 
 down, and in the mean time it will 
 most injuriously press upon the heels. 
 
 BARYTA. The oxide of barium, 
 75 
 
BAT 
 
 BEA 
 
 an alkaline earth closely resembling 
 lime, but not very abundant. Many 
 of its salts are isomorphous with those 
 of lime. 
 
 BASALT. A rock of groat hard- 
 ness and volcanic origin, containing 
 iron, lime, and sand. It does not dif- 
 fer from trSp except in colour, and 
 occasionally in putting on the colum- 
 nar form. The Palisades of the 
 Hudson are a range 40 miles long of 
 this rock. 
 
 BASE. In chemistry, a term used 
 to designate those substances which 
 readily combine with acids, as alka- 
 lies, metallic oxides, &:c. In general 
 terms, all substances which readily 
 combine with others. 
 
 BASE. In architecture, a pedes- 
 tal. 
 
 BASIL. A fragrant, aromatic, her- 
 baceous plant, the Ocymum hasilicum, 
 a native of India, whose leaves are 
 much used in cookery for the purpose 
 of giving a savoury flavour to dishes. 
 
 Basket, a vessel made of in- 
 terwoven twigs of willow, osier, birch, 
 splits of white oak, or of straw, grass, 
 or rushes. 
 
 BASS. The inner bark of the lime 
 or linden tree {I'dia glabra), used by 
 gardeners to bind plants, and, in the 
 form of mats, to protect trees, frames, 
 &c. 
 
 BASSORIX. A peculiar gum, re- 
 sembling gum tragacanth ; insoluble, 
 but swelling in water. It is sometimes 
 called Cekasin. 
 
 BATH. In chemistry, sand, wa- 
 ter, or oil heated in a metallic vessel 
 for the purpose of communicating a 
 steady and regulated heat to ciiemi- 
 cal vessels in distillation, drying, or 
 evaporation. 
 
 BATRACHIANS, BATRACHIA. 
 (Gr. (SiiTpaxoc, a frog.) An order of 
 Reptilia, including the frogs and toads, 
 and all reptiles which, like them, have 
 naked skins and external bfanchiee in 
 the early stage of existence ; those 
 batrachia which retain the gills or gill- 
 apertures throughout life are called 
 " perennibranchiate," or " amphib- 
 ious." 
 
 BATTATAS. A name for the 
 sweet potato. 
 
 BATTENS. Slips of wood two to 
 four inches broad. 
 
 BAULK. A piece of whole timber 
 squared. In ploughing, stri[)S of un- 
 ploushed land between furrows. 
 
 BAI'ME'S AREOMETER, or HY- 
 DRO.METER. A hydrometer, the 
 of which is pure water at 68° Fahr., 
 and the 15° the density of a mixture 
 of 15 parts common salt and 85 parts 
 water, by weight. See Hydrometer. 
 
 BAY. The term for a colour in- 
 clining to chestnut. In reference to 
 a horse, this colour has various shades, 
 from the very light bay to the dark 
 bay, which approaches nearly to the 
 brown ; but it is always more gay 
 and shining. There are also coloured 
 horses that arc called dappled bays. 
 Bay horses have black manes, which 
 distinguish them from the sorrel, that 
 have red or white manes. There are 
 light bays and gilded bays, which are 
 somewhat of a yellowish colour. The 
 chestnut bay is that which comes near- 
 est to the colour of tfie chestnut. 
 
 BAY. A common name for the 
 laurels, especially Lauras nobilis. 
 Bay-berry is the Ni/rica cerifera. 
 
 BAY OF A BARN. The place 
 where the mow is stored. 
 
 BAY SALT. Salt made by evap- 
 orating sea water in the sun. The 
 best is from Turk's Island. It is pre- 
 ferred for putting up pork and provis- 
 ions. 
 
 BEAGLE. The old hare-hound, 
 now becoming superseded by the har- 
 rier. 
 
 BEAK. Rostrum, the prolonged or 
 sharp termination of a fruit. 
 
 BEAM. A stout, horizontal tim- 
 ber used to resist or sustain weight. 
 
 BEAM OF A PLOUGH. The up- 
 per shaft to which the irons are fasten- 
 ed. It should be of good ash or oak. 
 
 BEAM-TREE. Pyrus aria. A 
 small tree with tough wood. 
 
 BEANS. Plants belonging to the 
 natural family LcgumhioscE. Two 
 genera are commonly included under 
 this name, Vtcia and Phascolus, of 
 w'hich several species and numerous 
 varieties are cultivated. The genus 
 Phaseolus produces generally run- 
 ners, or pole beans, but this depends 
 
BEANS. 
 
 Early Mazasjan. 
 Broad Windsor. 
 Sword Loner Pod. 
 
 much on soil, for the Ph. nanus is a 
 busli bean. Tlie Vicia faba is the pa- 
 rent of many varieties known under 
 the general title of English dwarfs. 
 English dwarfs : varieties : 
 
 I Green Nonpareil. 
 Horse. 
 Heligoland. 
 
 Of these, all but the last two are 
 cultivated in the garden, and the 
 horse and Heligoland in the field. 
 They are sown as soon as the frost 
 is out of the ground, for the late 
 plants are destroyed by heat before 
 they bear well. 
 
 AH the varieties thrive best on 
 strong clay soils, heavy marls, and 
 deep loams of a moist description. 
 In such soils the produce is some- 
 times 30 to 60 bushels per acre, but 
 an average crop on moderate land is 
 about half that quantity. On very 
 rich land beans have produced extra- 
 ordinary crops by being sown broad- 
 cast and very thick, the stems being 
 brought up to a great height in fa- 
 vourable seasons. A small field of 
 very rich land, in the county of Sus- 
 sex, England, was sown in the year 
 1832 with four bushels of the small 
 tick bean, which came up so thick 
 that the proprietor thought of thin- 
 ning out the plants by hoeing, but he 
 was advised to see what the produce 
 would be. and when they were thrash- 
 ed out there were eighty-one bushels 
 of beans. He had the ground accu- 
 rately measured, and it was found to 
 be one acre and twenty-nine perches, 
 which makes the crop above sixty- 
 eight bushels per acre. 
 
 Beans are propagated by seed, 
 which may be sown broadcast, drill- 
 ed, or dibbled ; if sown broadcast, 
 three or four bushels of seed per 
 acre will be required, which should 
 be ploughed or harrowed in ; if drill- 
 ed, two or two and a half per acre 
 will be sufficient. Beans are tolera- 
 bly hardy, and will bear moderate 
 dry frosts, but they suffer much from 
 alternate frosts and thaws. 
 
 The following, from the late Judge 
 Buel's agricultural tracts, gives all the 
 necessary information on the culture 
 and produce of this valuable crop : 
 
 " Field Culture, of Beans. — Beans 
 may be cultivated in drills or in hills. 
 They are a valuable crop, and with 
 good care are as profitable as a wheat 
 crop. They leave the soil in good 
 tilth. The China bean, with a red 
 eye, is to be preferred. They ripen 
 early, and are very productive. I 
 cultivated beans the last year in three 
 different ways, viz., in hills, in drills, 
 and sowed broadcast. I need not 
 describe the first, which is a well- 
 known process. I had an acre in 
 drills, which was the best crop I ever 
 saw. My management was this : On 
 the acre of light ground, where the 
 clover had been frozen out the prece- 
 ding winter, I spread eight loads of 
 long manure, and immediately plough- 
 ed and harrowed the ground. Drills 
 or furrows v>ere then made with a 
 light plough, at the distance of two 
 and a half feet, and the beans thrown 
 along the furrows about the 25th of 
 May, by the hand, at the rate of at 
 least a bushel on the acre. I then 
 gauged a double mould- board plough, 
 which was passed once between the 
 rows, and was followed by a light, 
 one-horse roller, which flattened the 
 ridges. The crop was twice cleaned 
 of weeds by the hoe, but not earthed. 
 The product was more than forty-eight 
 bushels by actual measurement." 
 
 A sprinkling of three or four bush- 
 els of gypsum is advantageous. 
 
 The beans are collected with a 
 plain scythe or sickle before they are 
 fully ripe, but turned yellow. In this 
 way loss by scattering seed is avoid- 
 ed. The whole is cured by exposure 
 in swarth and cock, and made into 
 light stacks, until the time serves for 
 thrashing. The beans are obtained 
 either with the flail, treading out, or 
 passing through the thrashing ma- 
 chine, set sufficiently coarse for the 
 purpose. If the straw, or haulm, be 
 well cured, it answers as good coarse 
 Ibod for cattle and pigs during the 
 winter. 
 
 Beans are also raised in Germany 
 for soiling, and cut during the sum- 
 mer season when in pod. They are an 
 exceedingly acceptable food, and may, 
 by proper management in sowing 
 77 
 
BEANS. 
 
 several lots at difTeicnt times, be kept 
 in cutting order for three months. 
 The Heligoland, horse, and English 
 tick hcaii are the favourites for field 
 culture. 
 
 Value of Beans. — This crop is not 
 so extensively cultivated as it de- 
 serves. In common with other legu- 
 minous crops, it is of advantage in 
 opening the soil by its long roots, in 
 absorbing much of its food from the 
 atmosphere, and leaving the soil in ad- 
 mirable tilth, iireparatory to a grain or 
 tobacco crop ; but tlicse good points 
 are insignificant in comparison with 
 the great value of beans and pease as 
 food for horses, sheep, and, indeed, 
 all animals. 
 
 The proportion of nutritive matter 
 in beans, compared wilh other grain, 
 is, according to Einhof, 
 
 Or in a Bu.-sliel. 
 about 47 Its. 
 " 39 
 " 33 
 " 23 
 " 45 
 " 49 
 " 54 
 
 Not only is there so great a propor- 
 tion of nutritive matter, but that pres- 
 ent is remarkably rich in the azotized 
 or flesh-making ingredients, often as 
 much as twenty to thirty per cent, of 
 casein being present in .seeds grown 
 on a rich soil. Von Thaer, as the 
 result of his comparative estimate, 
 obtained by feeding cattle, gives to 
 field beans a value equal to one third 
 of rich wheat and two thirds of In- 
 dian corn or barley. In feeding, it is 
 best to crush or grind the beans and 
 pease. 
 
 Kidney beans, or French beans 
 {Phascolus vulgaris). Of the dwarf 
 kidney, the varieties are 
 
 
 
 By weight. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 
 74 per cent. 
 
 Rye 
 
 
 70 
 
 Barley- 
 
 
 . 65 " 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 . 58 
 
 Beans 
 
 
 . 68 
 
 Pease 
 
 
 . 75 " 
 
 Kidney 
 
 beans 
 
 . 84 
 
 Early China. 
 Early Cluster. 
 Early Dun-coloured 
 Early Half Moon. 
 Early Mohawk. 
 Early Rachel. 
 Early St. Valentine 
 Early Yellow 
 Weeks. 
 
 Red Cranberry. 
 
 Warrington.or Marrow. 
 
 Refugee, or Thousand 
 to One — good fur pick- 
 ling or laying down in 
 salt. 
 
 Rob Roy. 
 Six Large While Kidney, 
 or Royal Dwarf. 
 
 The pole, or runners, are varieties 
 of the Fh. iimeiisis and muliijlorus. 
 They are 
 78 
 
 Saba, or Carolina. Red Cranberry. 
 
 Dutch Case Knife. White Cranberry. 
 
 Largo White Lima. White Dutch Run- 
 Speckled Prolific Lima, ners. 
 Asparagus, or Yard Scarlet Runners. 
 Long. London Ilorlicultural. 
 
 A choice new variety, under the 
 name of turtle-soup bean, has been 
 recently cultivated with great suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Nearly all of these are confined to 
 tlie garden except the refugee and 
 C'liina, the cultivation of which last 
 is similar to that already detailed for 
 beans. I therefore only introduce 
 such observations as belong to garden 
 culture. 
 
 The soil for them may be anything 
 rather than wet or tenacious ; for in 
 such the greater part of the seed de- 
 cays without germinating, while those 
 plants which are produced are con- 
 tracted in their produce. A very 
 light mellow loam, even inclining to 
 a sand, is the best for the earliest 
 sowings, and one scarcely less sili- 
 cious, though moister, is preferable 
 for the late summer crops ; but, for 
 the later ones, a recurrence must be 
 made to a soil as dry as for the early 
 insertions. For the early and late 
 crops, a sheltered border must al- 
 ways be allotted, or in a single row 
 about a foot from a south fence, other- 
 wise the situation cannot be too open. 
 
 Dwarfs. — The sowing commences 
 with the year. I'hey may be sown 
 towards the end of January, in pots, 
 and placed upon the flues of the hot- 
 house, or in rows in the mould of a 
 hot-bed, for production in March ; to 
 be repeated once every three weeks, 
 in similar situations, during Februa- 
 ry and March, for supplying the table 
 during April, May, and June. At the 
 end of March and April a small sow- 
 ing may be performed, if fine open 
 weather, under a frame without heat, 
 for removal into a sheltered border 
 early in May. During May, and thence 
 until the first week in August, sow- 
 ings may be made once every three 
 weeks. In September, forcing re- 
 commences : at first, merely under 
 frames without bottom heat, but in 
 October, and thence to the close of 
 the year, in hot-beds, &c., as in Jan- 
 
BEANS. 
 
 uary. Sowings, when a removal is 
 intended, should always be perform- 
 ed in pots, the plants being less re- 
 tarded, as the roots are less injured, 
 than when the seed is inserted in 
 patches or rows in the earth of the 
 bed. It is a good practice, likewise, 
 to repeat each sowing, in the frames 
 Without heat, al'ter the lapse of a week, 
 as tbe first will often fail, when a sec- 
 ond, although after so short a lapse 
 of time, will perfectly succeed. In 
 every instance, the seed is buried one 
 and a half or two inches deep. The 
 rows of the main crops, if of the 
 smaller varieties, may be one and a 
 half; if of the larger, two feet apart, 
 the seed being inserted, either in 
 drills or by the dibble, four inches 
 apart ; the plants, however, to be 
 thinned to twice that distance. 
 
 If any considerable vacancy occurs, 
 it may always be filled by plants care- 
 fully removed by the trowel from 
 where they stood too thick. A gen- 
 eral remark, however, may be made, 
 tliat the transplanted beans are nev- 
 er so productive or continue so long 
 in bearing (although sometimes they 
 are earlier) as those left where rais- 
 ed. The rows of the earlier crops 
 ire best ranged north and south. The 
 seed inserted during the hottest pe- 
 riod of summer should be either 
 so iked in water for five or six hours, 
 htii in damp mould for a day or two, 
 or the drills be well watered previous 
 to sowing. The only after-cultiva- 
 tion required is the destruction of 
 weeds, and earth to be drawn up 
 round the stems. 
 
 The pods of both species are al- 
 ways to be gathered while young; 
 by thus doing, and care being had not 
 to injure the stems in detaching them, 
 the plants are rendered as prolific and 
 long-lived as possible. 
 
 Rmuiers. — As these are more ten- 
 der, and the seed is more apt to de- 
 cay than those of the dwarfs, no 
 open ground crop must be inserted 
 before the close of April, or early in 
 May, to be continued at iiiter\'als of 
 four weeks through June and July, 
 which will ensure a supply from the 
 middle of this last month untd Oeto- 
 G2 
 
 ber. Some gardeners force them in 
 a similar manner to the dwarfs ; they 
 certainly require similar treatment ; 
 but they will endure a higher temper- 
 ature by a few degrees. They are so 
 prolific, and such permanent bearers, 
 that three open-ground sowings of a 
 size proportionate to the consump- 
 tion will, in almost every instance, be 
 sufficient. , 
 
 The runners are inserted in drills, 
 either singly, three feet apart, or in 
 pairs, ten or twelve inches asunder, 
 and each pair four feet distant from 
 its neighbour. The seed is buried 
 two inches deep and four inches apart 
 in the rows, the plants being thinned 
 to twice that distance. If grown in 
 single rows, a row of poles must be 
 set on the south side of each, being 
 fixed firmly in the ground ; they may 
 be kept together by having a light 
 pole tied horizontally along their tops, 
 or a post fixed at each end of a row, 
 united by a cross-bar at their tops ; a 
 string may be passed from this to 
 each of the plants. If the rows are 
 in pairs, a row of poles must be placed 
 on each side, so fixed in the ground 
 that their summits cross, and are tied 
 together. They are sometimes sown 
 in a single row down the sides of bor- 
 ders, or on each side of a walk, hav- 
 ing the su[)port of a trellis-work, or 
 made to climb poles which are turn- 
 ed archwise over it. 
 
 As the plants advance to five or 
 six inches in height, they should have 
 the earth drawn about their stems. 
 Weeds must be constantly cleared 
 away as they appear. When they 
 throw up their voluble stems, those 
 that straggle away should be brought 
 back to the poles, and twisted round 
 them in a direction contrary to that 
 of the sun : nothing will induce them 
 to entwine in the contrary direction, 
 or from left to right. 
 
 For the production of seed, forty or 
 fifty plants of the dwarf species will 
 be sulficient for a moderate-sized fam- 
 ily, or thirty of the runner. They 
 must be raised purposely in May, or 
 a like number from the crop in that 
 month may be left ungathered from ; 
 for the first pods always produce the 
 79 
 
liKA.XS. 
 
 finest seed, and ripen more perfect- 
 ly. In autumn, as soon as the plants 
 decay, they must be pulled, and, when 
 thoroughly dried, the seed beaten out 
 and stored. — {G. W. Jolmso^i's Kitch- 
 en Garden.) 
 
 The bean, as an esculent vegeta- 
 ble, is wholesome and nutritious in a 
 fresh state, and may be readily pre- 
 served for winter store or sea voy- 
 ages by salting in casks. For this 
 purpose, the large, flat-podded, Dutch 
 
 white runner is preferred. In Hol- 
 land and Germany, where large quan- 
 tities are salted in almost every fam- 
 ily, a machine is used for cutting them 
 expeditiously, which greatly resem- 
 bles a turnip-slicer, and may, with 
 a slight alteration, be used also for 
 slicing cabbages when making the 
 national German preparation of sour 
 krout (sauer kraut). It consists of a 
 wheel or disk (see ^^-r^re). A, in which 
 two or four knives are set at a small 
 
 angle with the plane of it, so as to 
 shave otC a thin slice obliquely from 
 the beans, which are held in a box, C, 
 with several partitions, in which they 
 are kept upright, so as to slide down 
 in proportion as they are cut : thus 
 80 
 
 six or eight beans are sliced at once, 
 and very rapidly, merely by turning 
 the handle, 13, and supplying the box 
 with beans in succession. A much 
 more economical means would be to 
 throw the beans into a hopper hold- 
 
BEA 
 
 BEE 
 
 ing two or three pecks. The sliced 
 heans fall on the table below, and are 
 immediately put in a cask with alter- 
 nate layers of salt. "When the cask 
 is full and well pressed down, a board 
 and heavy weight are placed on them. 
 As the beans ferment, the liquid pro- 
 duced is poured off, fresh salt added 
 to the surface, and a linen cloth press- 
 ed close to keep out air ; afterward 
 the top of the cask and its weight are 
 returned, and the whole kept for use. 
 They are washed in fresh water wlien 
 used, and form a wholesome vegeta- 
 ble dish in winter. 
 
 BEAXS, DISEASES OF. The dis- 
 eases are the rust, or mildew, which 
 is a minute fungus that grows on the 
 stems of leaves, attributed to cold 
 fogs and frequent sudden transitions 
 of weather, and the black dolphin or 
 fly, also called the collier, an aphis of 
 a bluish colour : it is devoured by 
 lady-birds {Coccinella septctnpunctata, 
 and other species). For the mildew 
 no remedy has yet been found. "When- 
 ever it has attacked the plants, gen- 
 erally before the^ods are filled, the 
 best method is to cut dou-n the crop 
 in its green state ; and if it cannot be 
 consumed in the farm-yard, to plough 
 it into the ground, where it will de- 
 cay rapidly, and be an excellent ma- 
 nure for the succeeding crop of wheat. 
 If allowed to stand, the crop will not 
 only be unproductive, but the weeds 
 will infest the ground, and spoil the 
 wheat crop by their seeds and roots, 
 which will remain in the soil. When- 
 ever the tops of the beans begin to be 
 moist and clammy to the feel, it is 
 the forerunner of the aphis. They 
 should then be immediately cut off, 
 and this, if done in time, may save 
 the crop from the ravages of the in- 
 sects ; but the most eflectuai way to 
 prevent any disease from attacking 
 the plants in their growth is to have 
 the ground in good heart, and well 
 tilled ; to drill the beans at a suffi- 
 cient distance between the rows to 
 allow the use of the horse-hoe, and 
 thus to accelerate the growth of the 
 plants, and enable them to outgrow 
 the effect of incipient disease, which 
 seldom attacks any but weak plants. 
 
 BEANS, SOUTHERN. Several 
 varieties are cultivated in Virginia, 
 Georgia, and Southern States, under 
 the name of pease, as cow pea, corn- 
 field pea, Indian pea, <Scc. They are 
 hardy, grow on stiff lands, and ame- 
 liorate their condition ; planted with 
 corn, they twine about the stem with- 
 out hinderance to it. On rich soils 
 they run too much to leaf; but in 
 poorish clay may be cultivated as a 
 field-crop without support, if in a 
 well-drained situation. The yield is 
 large, and the bean agreeable to 
 horses and all animals. The green 
 plant is occasionally turned in as a 
 fallow crop. 
 
 BEAR BERRY. The Arctostaph- 
 yhis {arbutus) uva ursi. A small ever- 
 green shrub of northern America and 
 Canada, used as an astringent and 
 tonic. 
 
 BEARD. The awn of barley, &c. 
 
 BEARER. In building, any upright 
 which supnorts timbers. 
 
 BEAR'S FOOT. The hellebore. 
 
 BEASTS. In farming, neat cattle. 
 
 BEDS. In geology, seams of stra- 
 ta, as coal beds. 
 
 BED STRAW. The Galium ve- 
 rum, yellow goose-grass, a perennial 
 weed, the juice of which is acid, and 
 sometimes used to curdle milk in the 
 place of rennet. 
 
 BEECH. Fagus sylvatica, var. 
 Americana, white beech, and F.ferru- 
 ginea, red beech, are handsome Amer- 
 ican trees, especially the latter, which 
 is the larger, and more like the Euro- 
 pean tree. The wood is firm, but li- 
 able to insects ; the bark yields suffi- 
 cient tan for leather ; but the mast, 
 or nut, is the most valuable, from the 
 excellent oil it contains, which is ex- 
 pressed in Europe for table use. Hogs 
 fatten more rapidly upon beech mast 
 than any other common food ; the fat 
 is, however, oily. The beech prefers 
 rich alluvial soils, and yields a large 
 amount of potash in its ashes. The 
 timber cut in the sap is said to be the 
 most durable. 
 
 BEER. The fermented infusion 
 
 of malt, flavoured with hops. But 
 
 other sweet infusions, treated in the 
 
 same way, or without hops, are also 
 
 81 
 
DEES. 
 
 termed beers, as persimmon bP(»r,sas- I and industry. Natural History.— 
 safras liquorice, and sarsaparilla root There arc three orders of bees in 
 5egr. ' each hive ; the queen (u), drone (i), 
 
 BEES. Avis mcllifica. A familiar j and labourint^ bee (c) ; there is but 
 insect, much admired for its instinct ! one queen, distinguished by a longer 
 
 body and greater size than all the 
 other inhabitants ; she is the only fe- 
 male in the hive, and is, therefore, 
 watched with great interest by the 
 others, who attend her in her duties, 
 and live only in peace while assured 
 of her presence. The drones are the 
 males : they are larger and nearer 
 spherical than the labourers, and 
 without stings. After their duty is 
 performed in autumn, the drones arc 
 expelled from the hive by the labour- 
 ers, and killed or driven abroad to die. 
 There are from 300 to 1000 drones in 
 the hive. The labourers form the 
 rest of the inhabitants, and vary in 
 number from 5000 to 20,000. They 
 are smaller than the rest, armed with 
 a sting, and neuter in sex, or, more 
 correctly, they are females in which 
 the ovaries are undeveloped. The 
 neuters divide themselves in compa- 
 nies to carry on the business of the 
 hive ; some collecting honey, others 
 building the comb, and another body 
 nursing the young. The bees which 
 go abroad seek for three distinct kinds 
 of matter, viz. : honey, farina or bee 
 meat, and propolis. The first, which 
 also contains more or less wax, is 
 obtained from flowers, and in part 
 converted into wax by the insect it- 
 self The farina is stored up in cells 
 as food for the young, and is of a 
 whitish colour, altogether differing 
 from hone*'; propolis is a resinou* 
 8«t 
 
 exudation gathered from difTerent 
 trees, as the black gum, wherewith 
 the bee closes crevices in the hive 
 and stops the cells of the young. As 
 soon as flowers begin to expand, the 
 labourers and queen bee are aroused 
 from the lethargy of winter and re- 
 commence the labours of the hive. 
 The queen lays about 50 eggs a day, 
 for six or eight weeks : these are all 
 neuters. Having finished this depos- 
 ite, she then lays the eggs of drones, 
 and lastly, those for queens. At this 
 season she produces but one egg a 
 day ; the number of queen eggs va- 
 ries from 3 to 20 ; they are deposited 
 in large conical cells called royal 
 cells. The working community in 
 the mean time introduce food into 
 each cell, taking care to furnish the 
 future queens with regal fare, differ- 
 ent from that of the neuters. In 
 three days the eggs are hatched and 
 produce a worm, which feeds upon 
 the bee bread stored- in its cell, and 
 at the end of a few days spins itself 
 a web and enters upon a series of 
 transformations, ending, in 21 days 
 from the deposite of the egg, in the 
 production of a young bee ; this eats 
 its way through the propolis that clo- 
 ses its cell, and is nourished by the 
 nursing bees until it is strong enough 
 to enter on the labours of the hive. 
 In due time tiie queen eggs are con- 
 1 Ttftd into bees. As soon as the 
 
BEES. 
 
 old queen perceives evidence of this, 
 she becomes uneasy, and communi- 
 cates her apprehension to tiie neu- 
 ters, many of which share in her 
 anxiety : thus she collects many faith- 
 ful followers, and leaves the hive, 
 carrying ofT the Jirst swarm, which is 
 always led by the old queen. The 
 first young queen now comes forth, 
 and quickly discovers the cells of her 
 sisters, which she attempts to de- 
 stroy, but is hindered by the bees ; 
 whereon she runs to and fro among 
 the hive and succeeds in carrying off 
 another swarm. After this, the next 
 queen usually succeeds in destroying 
 her rivals, and remains in the old hive. 
 The first swarm may be known by 
 the presence of drones in June, soon- 
 er or later, according to the season. 
 This is the swarming season, and 
 measures are now to be taken to re- 
 cover the bees and form new hives. 
 The two swarms come out at in- 
 tervals of a few days ; occasionally 
 there are more, but they are not suf- 
 ficiently numerous to form a new 
 hive, and should be returned. The 
 bees come out in large numbers, and 
 make their way to an adjoining bush 
 or tree, where they accumulate in a 
 dense cluster, usually on one branch. 
 The loaded brancli is now to be care- 
 fully cut without disturbance, and the 
 whole swarm laid upon a white cloth, 
 or a table, on the ground, and a hive 
 inverted over tlie bees ; if everything 
 is favourable, the swarm enters the 
 new hive, and may be removed in a 
 few hours to the stands ; but this is 
 not always the case, for should there 
 be more than one queen present, the 
 swarm is kept in great turmoil, and 
 battles ensue until the number is re- 
 duced to one ; but in these conflicts it 
 sometimes occurs that all the queens 
 are killed, and the young swarm re- 
 turns to the parent hive to wait for a 
 new sovereign. The skUful apiarian, 
 therefore, always takes care, before 
 hiving a s%varm, that the queen is 
 present, and only one, removing ev- 
 ery other and putting her to death 
 instantly. In the swarming season, 
 certain ancient practices prevail, of 
 beating iron pans, shouting, blowmg 
 
 trumpets, and throwing sand into the 
 air, intended as a means of frighten- 
 ing the bees and hindering thern from 
 flying too far from the hive ground ; 
 but it is unnecessary if sufficient 
 shrubs be in the neighbourhood. The 
 hive in which the new swarm is re- 
 ceived should be provided with cross 
 sticks in the upper part, to afford 
 them a starting point for their archi- 
 tecture ; it should be without chinks 
 or crevices, lor these have to be fill- 
 ed by the colony with propolis, and 
 cause a waste of time ; moreover, to 
 give them a fair start, they should be 
 fed with sirup for a few days. The 
 labourers begin at the roof with their 
 comb, arranging a number of different 
 parallel structures in the direction 
 marked out by the sticks introduced. 
 The cells have an hexagonal section 
 and are prismatic in form, so arran- 
 ged as to admit of the introduction of 
 honey until full, when they are sealed 
 with wax: in the lower division of 
 the hive, the cells for eggs are arran- 
 ged ; these are filled with the farina, 
 or bee bread. About August, the 
 bees of the preceding year die, the 
 drones are expelled, and the hive is 
 fully under the control of the new 
 generation ; honey is stored as long 
 as flowers are abundant, and where 
 buckwheat and clover abound this 
 takes place into October. As soon, 
 however, as flowers become scarce, 
 the colony begins to consume its own 
 sweets, and should be supplied with 
 sirnp. The position of the apiary 
 should be sheltered from the great 
 heat of the day, and rapid alternations 
 of temperature ; they love plenty of 
 free air, but should not be liable to 
 chilly winds. In the winter they 
 should be removed to a dry cellar, 
 lest, being tempted by an occasional 
 gleam of sunshine, they leave the 
 hive and suffer death. The temper- 
 ature should be above the freezing 
 point. As then they require less food 
 to sustain life, it is advisable, also, to 
 keep the hives covered with straw, 
 &e., provided always there be a free 
 drangiit of air, for an entire colony is 
 frequently suffocated by stopping up 
 the door of tlie hive. The hivea 
 83 
 
BEES 
 
 should not be taken out until the 
 wealher is becoming settled and flow- 
 ers are expanded. 
 
 The quality of the honey made de- 
 pends upon tlic food supplied. Many 
 plants are reputed to yield poisonous 
 honey, as the dwarf and great laurel 
 {Kalmia anguftlifoHa and latifolia), the 
 mountain laurel {Rhododendron 7naxi- 
 mus), the moor wort {Andromeda ma- 
 riana), wild honeysuckle {Azalea niidi- 
 flora), Jamestown weed {Datura stra- 
 monium), &c. 
 
 Fruit-trees, the linden, tulip-tree ; 
 varieties of clover, especially white 
 clover; aromatic herbs, as thyme, 
 mint, and marjoram ; turnip, mustard, 
 and cabbage blossoms, are extremely 
 grateful ; buckwheat imparts a harsh 
 taste. Water is also relished by these 
 insects, so that they prefer a position 
 near a limpid rill. It is also advised 
 by some to place a vessel of water 
 near their hive, into which floating 
 sticks should be introduced to serve 
 them as standing places to drink from. 
 
 The quantity of honey varies with 
 the season and the size of the swarm. 
 Thirty pounds is a good yield where 
 the bees are not destroyed ; of this, 
 from a pound to a pound and a half 
 will be wax. 
 
 The honey is removed with or with- 
 out the destruction of the insects; 
 the latter method is accomplished by 
 suffocating the colony with the fumes 
 of burning sulphur, but is rarely prac- 
 tised in the United States, and is, 
 moreover, without economy. 
 
 Partial deprivation with tiie com- 
 mon barrel hive is performed about 
 the beginning of September. Having 
 ascertained the weight of the hive, 
 and, consequently, the quantity of 
 honey-comb which is to be extracted, 
 begin the operation as soon as even- 
 ing sets in, by inverting the full hive 
 and placing an empty one over it ; 
 particular care must be taken that 
 the two hives are of the same diam- 
 eter, for if they difler in their dimen- 
 sions it will not be possible to effect 
 the driving of the bees. The hives 
 being placed on each other, a sheet 
 or large table-cloth must be tied round 
 them at their junction, in order to 
 84 
 
 prevent the bees from molesting the 
 operator. The hives being thus ar- 
 ranged, beat the sides gently with a 
 stick or the hand ; but particu.ar cau- 
 tion must be used to beat it on those 
 parts to which the combs are attach- 
 ed, and which will be found parallel 
 with the entrance of the hive. Tlie 
 ascent of the bees into the upper hive 
 will be known by a loud humming 
 noise ; in a few minutes the whole 
 community will have ascended, and 
 the hive with the bees in it may be 
 placed upon the pedestal from which 
 the full hive was removed. The hive 
 from which the bees have been driven 
 must then be taken into the house, 
 and the operation of cutting out the 
 honey-comb commenced. Having ex- 
 tracted the requisite quantity of comb, 
 this opportunity must be embraced of 
 inspecting the hive, and of cleaning it 
 of any noxious matter. In cuttmg 
 the combs, however, particular atten- 
 tion should be paid not to cut into two 
 or three combs at once, but, having 
 commenced the cutting of one, to pur- 
 sue it to the top of the hive ; and this 
 caution is necessary for two reasons : 
 if you begin the cutting of two or 
 three combs at one time, were you 
 to abstract the whole of them, you 
 would, perhaps, take too much ; and, 
 secondly, to stop in the middle of a 
 comb would be attended with very 
 pernicious consequences, as the hon- 
 ey would drop from the cells which 
 have been cut in two, and then the 
 bees, on being returned to their native 
 hive, might be drowned in their own 
 sweets. The bees, also, in their re- 
 turn to their natural domicil, being 
 still under the impression of fear, 
 would not give so much attention to 
 the honey which flows from the divi- 
 ded cells ; and, as it would fall on the 
 board, and from that on the ground, 
 the bees belonging to the other hives 
 would immediately scent the wasted 
 treasure, and a general attack on the 
 deprivated hive might be the conse- 
 quence. The deprivation of the hon- 
 ey-comb being effected, the hive may 
 be returned to its former position, 
 and, reversing the hive which con- 
 tains the bees, and placing the depri- 
 
BEE 
 
 vated hive over it, they may be left 
 in that situation till morning, when 
 the bees will be found to have taken 
 possession of their native hive, and, 
 if the season proves tine, may replen- 
 ish what they have lost. 
 
 BEES, DISEASES OF. In the 
 spring they are subject to a dysen- 
 tery, known by the abundance of ref- 
 use, and an odour of putrefaction 
 within the hive, which should smell 
 like wax. It is said that a little bran 
 dy added to their sirup food cures 
 this complaint. They are also at- 
 tacked by a louse, which makes them 
 irritable, but which may be removed 
 from their bodies by brushing them 
 with the feather of a pen. 
 
 BEE HIVE. The dwelling of 
 the bees. The simplest form is a 
 small barrel of four gallons, or the 
 hollowed part of the trunk of a tree. 
 or a thimble of rye straw holding 
 about three pecks, and of a conical 
 figure. Whatever the structure, it 
 should be tight, solid, and dry, and so 
 arranged as to admit of inspection. 
 There is no subject on which so much 
 ingenuity has been expended as the 
 construction of beehives, the object 
 being the separation of honey with- 
 out disturbance to the labourers. The 
 annexed is as good as any of these 
 improved hives, as it has the follow- 
 ing recommendations: 1st. It is ca- 
 pable of enlargement or contraction ; 
 2d. May be opened without disturb- 
 ance, for cleaning, taking honey, &c. 
 It is known as the section hive, and 
 consists of two, three, four, or more 
 trays of similar size, fitting one above 
 the other, as C C D {Fig. 1). These 
 trays may be fourteen inches square 
 and five deep (Fig. 2), the uppermost 
 being provided with a cover to keep 
 off rain. Through the bottom of each 
 tray or box, slits, or holes about three 
 fourths of an inch large, are perfora- 
 ted, the number being such that the 
 bees may pass readily into an upper 
 compartment to manufacture. The 
 apertures, C C, repre.sent doors for 
 the bees, as well as windows through 
 which to examine their work, and 
 should be covered when not used. D 
 is the entrance first used, until the 
 IT 
 
 BEE 
 
 bees are settled in the upper divis- 
 ions. The compartments are fasten- 
 ed together temporarily by buttons, 
 and should be made tight by cement 
 or coarse wax. To use this hive, the 
 doors are all closed but the lower- 
 most, into which the bees enter ; they 
 ascend from tray to tray, until they 
 reach the uppermost, and here begin 
 their work upon sticks properly pla- 
 ced ; or, instead of making this divis- 
 ion open, there are placed over the 
 chinks jars, small boxes, or other re- 
 ceptacles, into which the honey is to 
 be collected : the bees work in these 
 As soon as they are engaged, an upper 
 door can be opened for their accom- 
 modation, and the progress of the 
 work can be watched through proper 
 openings of glass, and byremoviPEf the 
 top. As soon as these boxes are filled, 
 they can be taken out by passing a 
 sharp knife between the lowest edge 
 85 
 
BEE 
 
 Biid the bottom of the division. The 
 hccs arc now occupit'd in the com- 
 partment brhiw, and, should the sea- 
 son be propitious, may also fill that 
 with honey. Under tiiese circum- 
 stances, it will be advisable to lift up 
 the hive, after closing the doors, and 
 add another tray beneath. If this 
 hive be sufficiently enlarged in spring, 
 the young bees can be prevented from 
 swarming, or the fresh swarm can 
 be separated with the upper divisif)ns, 
 and carried to a new stand. The 
 hive should be kept perfectly clean, 
 and free from insects, and every crev- 
 ice tight. 
 
 BEES, INSECTS THAT INJURE. 
 They are troubled with a louse (Brau- 
 la ccera) of the size of a flea, and re- 
 sembling the Hippobosca. These pro- 
 duce great uneasiness. They may be 
 removed by brushing a feather over 
 the bees infested. The most impor- 
 tant enemy is, however, the Miller, 
 or Honey-comb Moth (Galleria cereana), 
 the caterpillar of which, of a dirty 
 white colour {Fig. 1) and brown head, 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Caterpillar on a piece of lionej-comb. 
 
 eats the honey-comb. The caterpillar 
 grows to twelve lines' length, protects 
 itself from the stings of the bees by a 
 tubular web, and eats only at night. 
 It is changed to a brown grub in ten 
 to twenty-eight day^, and the moth in 
 fourteen more days, two generations 
 occurring in the year. One moth 
 appears in the spring, the other gen- 
 eration in July. The male {Fig. 2) is 
 Bnialler than the female {Fig.'i); he 
 
 BEE 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 is of a clay yellow above, and yellow- 
 ish brown on the abdomen ; the col- 
 our of the upper wings ash-gray ; the 
 under wings lighter, and of a brown- 
 ish tint. The female has a rusty 
 brown back and head ; the under 
 wings almost white ; she lays her 
 eggs in the dirt, at the lower part of 
 the hive, and in chinks, from whence 
 the young crawl into the hive. The 
 miller and its caterpillars are to be de- 
 stroyed by repeatedly inspecting the 
 hives in spring, and clearing them 
 out. Hives are also constructed with 
 inclined or wire gauze bottoms, from 
 which all the feculent matters of 
 the bees fall, so that the miller can- 
 not lay her eggs ; for she will not ven- 
 ture within the hive. Ants, spiders, 
 and wasps are also very destructive 
 to hives. 
 
 BEE-STING. The bee leaves its 
 sting in the wound. It should be ex- 
 tracted, and the part rubbed with soap 
 and a little dilute spirit of hartshorn 
 (ammonia). 
 
 BEET. A plant of the genus Beta, 
 in the natural order Chenopodea of 
 Jussieu. 
 
 There are two distinct species of 
 beet commonly cultivated, each con- 
 taining several varieties ; the one call- 
 ed Beta cicia or hortensis, producing 
 succulent leaves only ; the other, the 
 Beta vulgaris, distinguished by its 
 large root. The cicla is chiefly cul- 
 tivated in gardens as a culinary ve- 
 getable, and forms one of the princi- 
 pal vegetaides used by agricullural la- 
 bourers and small occupiers of land in 
 many parts of Germany. France, and 
 Switzerland. A variety known by the 
 name of Swiss chard i)r()duccs numer- 
 ous large, succulent leaves, which 
 have a very solid rib running along 
 the middle. The leafy part, being 
 stripped off and boiled, is used as a 
 substitute for greens and spinach, and 
 
 86 
 
BEET 
 
 the rib and stalk are dressed like as- 
 paragus ; they have a pleasant, sweet 
 taste, and arc more wholesome than 
 the cabbage tribe. In a good soil the 
 produce is very abundant ; and if cul- 
 tivated on a large scale in the field, 
 this species of beet would prove a val- 
 uable addition to the plants raised for 
 cattle. 
 
 The second species, the Beta vul- 
 garis, or beet-root, has been long cul- 
 tivated in gardens, especially that va- 
 riety called the red beet. It thrives 
 best in a rich, light, dry soil, and, from 
 the length of its tap-root, requires a 
 considerable depth. The white beet 
 is an excellent root, and is preferred 
 by many to the larger and more com- 
 mon intermediate varieties. It has 
 been lately in great repute in France 
 and Belgmm for the manufacture of 
 sugar. 
 
 The common field beet for cattle 
 has been long known in Germany. 
 The German name is mangold u-urzcl, 
 or mangold root, but it is commonly 
 pronounced mangel icurzcl. 
 
 The improved variety of this beet, 
 which grows to a very large size in 
 good soil, has a red skin, and, when 
 cut through, appears veined with red 
 in concentric circles. The principal 
 part of the root rises often a foot ! 
 and more above the ground, and the 
 leaves, which are large and succulent, 
 spring from the crown of the root. 
 There is a limit, however, beyond 
 which the root does not improve in 
 quality as it increases, and the roots 
 of a moderate size contain more sac- 
 charine and nutritive matter in the 
 same bulk than the larger. This is 
 particularly the case with those vari- 
 eties from which sugar is extracted. 
 The soil best adapted for the beet- 
 root is a deep, sandy loam, naturally 
 rich. The application of liquid ma- 
 nure during the growth of the plant 
 greatly increases the roots ; but it is 
 also said to make them more watery, 
 and for the sugar beet it is not recom- 
 mended. It has been clearly demon- 
 strated that azotized manures dimm- 
 ish the sugar of beets. The seed, 
 which should be ch(jsen from the 
 most perfect plants, is sown ia May, 
 
 at four to five pounds the acre ; it 
 should be steeped three or more days 
 in water before planting. It is found 
 by experience that those plants of 
 beet which grow from seed sown 
 where they are to remain have larger 
 roots, in general, than those which 
 are transplanted ; the seed is there- 
 fore usually drilled, or dibbled, in 
 rows, from twenty-four to thirty inch- 
 es distant ; the seeds are put in about 
 an inch deep, and when they are dib- 
 bled the holes are about four inches 
 asunder, and two or three seeds are 
 put in a hole. After they come up 
 and are out of danger of frost or in- 
 sects, they are thinned out so as to 
 leave the plants a foot asunder. If 
 the ground be well prepared there is 
 little fear of the plants not coming up, 
 or of their being destroyed by the fly, 
 as is too often the case with turnips. 
 A sprinkling of liquid manure along 
 the rows, about the time that the 
 plants first appear above ground, will, 
 in general, secure an abundance of 
 them ; and this may be done with 
 much less trouble than would be im- 
 agined by those who have never prac- 
 tised it. It requires only a water-cart, 
 with a large cask and two leathern 
 hose, kept at a proper distance from 
 each other by a stick between them, 
 so that they may pour the liquid ma- 
 nure over two rows at once. If the 
 field be not above a mile from the 
 tank, a man and horse will water two 
 acres in a day ; and if the distance is 
 half a mile, four acres ; the expense 
 will be amply repaid in the crop. 
 
 On a very large scale this may not 
 be so practicable ; but wherever a 
 field of beets is nqar the home-stall, it 
 should never be omitted ; the evident 
 advantage of it will soon remove any 
 objection arising from trouble or ex- 
 pense. When the plants are three 
 inches above ground, and thinned, 
 tiie intervals between the rows may 
 be stirred with the plough, grubber, 
 or horse-hoe, and the intervals from 
 plant to plant in the row with the 
 hand-hoe. The ground cannot be 
 kept too fine and open, provided the 
 soil be not extremely porous, and the 
 weather very dry. It is a common 
 87 
 
BEET. 
 
 practice to throw the earth from the 
 rows against tlie roots ; but the most 
 experienced cuUivaiors do not ap- 
 prove the method ; on the contrary, 
 they recommend drawing the earth 
 from the plants, or at least laying the 
 whole ground level, ^\'here the soil 
 is naturally rich and deep, the drills 
 may be made on the level ground ; 
 but if the sod is shallow, or the sub- 
 soil of a barren nature, it is best to 
 raise small ridges, as is done for tur- 
 nips, and bury the dung under them, 
 by which means the roots have more 
 room to strike downward. As soon 
 as the outer leaves begin to droop, 
 they may be gathered and given to 
 cattle, but a tuft should be left in the 
 centre to carry on the vegetation, or 
 else the roots will not increase. This 
 practice of gathering the leaves is 
 strongly recommended by some, and 
 they assert that the root does not suf- 
 fer in the least, although the leaves 
 are reproduced ; but here we would 
 give this caution, founded on experi- 
 ence and observation. The drooping 
 leaves, if not gathered, will decay and 
 fall off; they have performed their 
 office, and therefore to gather them 
 before they wither is a real economy ; 
 but to strip off fresh and growing 
 leaves must injure the plant, and the 
 juices required to replace them are so 
 much taken from the growth of the 
 roots. "When fodder is very scarce, 
 this may be a sacrifice worth making ; 
 but if the object is to reserve the roots 
 for winter food, the leaves should re- 
 main on the plant as long as they look 
 fresh and growing, until near the time 
 of taking uj) the whole crop ; the top 
 may then be cut off an inch above the 
 crown of the root, and will be excel- 
 lent food for the cows and pigs. 
 
 The roots are generally taken up 
 and stored for winter some time be- 
 fore there is any danger of consider- 
 able frost, the top having been remo- 
 ved. The roots are then either stack- 
 ed in a barn or root-house, with al- 
 ternate layers of straw, and the sides 
 and top protected from the frost by 
 straw placed all round, in which way 
 they wdl keep well and fresh till 
 spring ; or they are placed in trench- 
 88 
 
 es two feet deep and six feet wide, 
 with a layer of straw at the bottom 
 and against the sides : they are heap- 
 ed up in these trenches to the height 
 of three feel above the ground, form- 
 ing a ridge at top, and then covered 
 all over with straw, over which the 
 earth taken out of the trench is spread 
 and made smooth, sloping like the 
 roof of a house. A small trench is 
 dug all round this heap, with a prop- 
 er outlet to prevent, any water from 
 soaking in; the heaps. are made of 
 any length, according to the quantity 
 of roots to be stored, and the two ends 
 are secured with straw and covered 
 with earth like the sides. When it 
 is required to take out the roots for 
 use, an opening is made at the end, 
 a sufficient quantity is taken out, and 
 the end is secured again with straw 
 and earth as before. When the roots 
 have been put in dry, and some time 
 has been allowed for a slight fermen- 
 tation, and the steam produced has 
 been allowed to escape before the 
 heap was finally covered in, they will 
 come out quite fresh and juicy till late 
 in spring ; but if the proper precau- 
 tions are neglected, they will often rot 
 or become musty, and then the cattle 
 will not readily eat them. There are 
 few crops so valuable for winter food 
 for cattle as the beet. 
 
 " Expense of an Acre of Sugar Beets. 
 Use of an acre of land well prepared for 
 beets, and manured or managed in the 
 
 previous crop $12 00 
 
 Ploutjhing 4 00 
 
 Cnliivating, horse cultivator and hand, 
 
 2 hours 50 
 
 Twice more before sowing . . . 1 GO 
 Seed, S2 25 ; sowing with a machine, 
 
 73 cents 3 00 
 
 First hoeing 4 00 
 
 Second hoeing, thinniug, and transplant- 
 ing, to supply deficiencies . . 4 90 
 Ilneing again, and loosening the ground 
 
 with machines . . . . . 2 00 
 Harvesting 9 00 
 
 $39 50 
 
 " Make the rows two feet four inch- 
 es apart, and then a cultivator can be 
 used in hoeing. If the beets stand one 
 foot apart in the rows, and weigh two 
 and a quarter pounds each, the yield 
 will be twenty tons. In rich ground, 
 at that distance, a great number will 
 
BEE 
 
 BEE 
 
 weigh loar or five pounds each ; twen- 
 ty tons is a good crop, probably a large 
 crop, but not extremely large, for in 
 some cases twenty-five or thirty tons 
 to the acre have been raised in this 
 country. At the above expense of 
 $39 50 to the acre, with a yield of 
 twenty tons, the cost would be two 
 dollars per ton. We make this esti- 
 mate to show how cheap beets may 
 be raised under favourable circum- 
 stances, such as good land at a fair 
 price, convenient machinery and im- 
 plements, and the most prudential 
 management in the culture, with la- 
 bour at a moderate price, and a fa- 
 vourable season." — ( Cultivator.) 
 
 It is said that cows fed entirely 
 on beets become too fat, and give 
 less milk ; but this would be no objec- 
 tion with the cow-keepers, who unite 
 the fattening of their cows with the 
 milking, and like to have tliem ready 
 for the butcher as soon as they are 
 nearly dry. For bullocks they are 
 excellent : for horses, Swedish tur- 
 nips are preferable. The proportion- 
 al value of hay, potatoes, Swedish tur- 
 nips, and beets, in feeding cattle, ac- 
 cording to Einhof, whose statements 
 Tnaer has found to agree with his ex- 
 periments, is as follows : 18 tons of 
 mangel wurzel are equal to 15 tons 
 of ruta baga, or 7\ tons of potatoes, 
 or 3| tons of good meadow hay, each 
 quantity containing the same nourish- 
 ment ; but the roots may be grown 
 upon less than an acre, whereas it 
 will take two or three acres of good 
 meadow land to produce the equiva- 
 lent quantity of hay ; and of all these 
 root crops, the least exhausting for 
 the land is the beet. The white beet 
 has been chiefly cultivated for the ex- 
 traction of sugar from its juice. It 
 is smaller than the mangel wurzel, 
 and more compact. We have given 
 it to cattle, and are satisfied with the 
 result ; but we have not made suffi- 
 ciently accurate experiments to de- 
 cide which sort is the most advanta- 
 geous. The crops vary from GOO to 
 1200 bushels. The beet, especially 
 the white Sicilian, is better than man- 
 gel wurzel. They are improved l)y 
 steaming, but must be fed up in two 
 H 2 
 
 or three days, or they ferment. Seed 
 plants are set out in May and gatlier- 
 ed in September. It will probably be 
 found that the nature of the soil will 
 make the scale turn in favour of the 
 one or the other ; but for the manu- 
 facture of sugar, the smaller beet, of 
 which the roots weigh only one or 
 two pounds, are preferred by Chap- 
 tal, who, besides being a celebrated 
 chemist, was also a practical agricul- 
 turist, and a manufacturer of sugar 
 from beet root. 
 
 BEET SUGAR. This manufac- 
 ture sprung up in France, it having 
 been found that from the juice of the 
 beet root a crystallizable sugar could 
 be obtained. We here give a brief 
 account of the process : The first op- 
 eration is to clean the roots ; some 
 effect this by washing, but Chaptal 
 prefers scraping and paring them 
 with a knife, although by this means 
 one sixth part of the root is wasted, 
 as the scrapings mixed with earth 
 cannot be safely given to cattle, and 
 even the pigs eat but little of it ; but 
 it adds to the manure, and is there- 
 fore not altogether lost. Six tons of 
 beet root are thus reduced to five, 
 which are next to be rasped and re- 
 duced to a pulp. This is done by a 
 machine consisting of a cylinder of 
 tinned iron, two feet in diameter, and 
 eighteen inches in the axis, on which 
 it is turned by machinery. On the 
 circumference of this cylinder are 
 fixed, by means of screws, ninety 
 narrow plates of iron, rising three 
 fourths of an inch from the surface 
 and parallel to the axis, at equal dis- 
 tances all round ; the outer or pro- 
 jecting edges of these plates are cut 
 into teeth like a saw ; a slanting bo.x 
 is fixed to the frame on which the 
 axis of the cylinder turns, so that the 
 roots may be pressed against these 
 plates. The cylinder is made to re- 
 volve rapidly, and the roots are thus 
 scraped, the pulp falling into a vessel, 
 lined with lead, placed below. When 
 two such cylinders are made to re- 
 volve 400 times in a minute by a suf- 
 ficient power, whether water, wind, 
 or horses, two and a half tons of roots 
 are ground down in two hours. It is 
 80 
 
BEET SUGAR. 
 
 necessary that this operation should 
 proceed rapidly, or else iht; pulp ac- 
 quires a dark colour, and an incipient 
 fermentation takes place, which great- 
 ly injures tlio future results. As the 
 pulp is ground it is put into strong 
 canvass bags, and placed under a 
 powerful press to squeeze out the 
 juice. The residue is stirred, and 
 subjected to a second and third jjress- 
 ure, if necessary, till every particle 
 of juice is extracted. As the liquor 
 is pressed out it runs into a copper 
 until it is two thirds filled. The 
 strength is ascertained by Bauine, 
 which shows the specific gravity of 
 the liquid. The fire is now lighted, 
 and, by the time the copper is full, 
 the heat should be raised to 178° of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer, but no 
 higher. 
 
 in the mean time, a mixture of lime 
 and water has been prepared by grad- 
 ually pouring as much water upon 10 
 pounds of quicklime as will make the 
 mixture of the consistency of cream. 
 This is poured into the copper when 
 the heat is steadily at 178^, and is 
 well mixed with the juice by stirring 
 it. The heat is then increased till 
 the mixture boils, when a thick and 
 glutinous scum rises to the surface. 
 As soon as clear bubbles rise through 
 this scum, the fire is suddenly put out 
 by water poured on it, or by a proper 
 damper. The scum hardens as it 
 cools, and the sediment being depos- 
 ited, the liquor becomes clear and of 
 a light straw colour. The scum is 
 then carefully taken off with a skim- 
 mer having holes in it, and is put into 
 a vessel till such time as the liquor 
 remaining in it can be pressed out. 
 A cock is now opened about five inch- 
 es above the bottom of the boiler, 
 and all the clear liquor is drawn off. 
 Another cock lower down lets out the 
 remainder until it begins to appear 
 cloudy : what still remains is after- 
 ward boiled again with what is ex- 
 tracted by pressure from the scum. 
 The clear liquor is now subjected to 
 evaporation in another boiler, which 
 IS wide and shallow. The bottom is 
 ^ut slightly covered with the juice at 
 (^rst, and it boils rapidly. As the wa- 
 90 
 
 tor evaporates, fresh juice is let in. 
 When a certain degree of inspissa- 
 tion or thickening has taken place, so 
 as to show five or six degrees of 
 strength on Baumo, animal charcoal 
 is gradually added till the liquor ar- 
 rives at 20 \ One hundred weight of 
 charcoal is required for the juice of 
 two and a half tons of beet, which is 
 now reduced to about 400 gallons. 
 The evaporation by boiling continues 
 till the saccharometer marks 2.5 ■-, and 
 a regular sirup is obtained. This is 
 now strained through a linen bag, 
 and the liquor is kept flowing by 
 means of steam or hot air, and assist- 
 ed by pressure. In two or three hours 
 all the clear sirup will have run 
 through. 
 
 The sirup thus prepared is again 
 boiled and skimmed until it is suffi- 
 ciently concentrated, which is known 
 in the following manner : The skim- 
 mer is dipped into the sirup and drawn 
 out ; some of the thick sirup which 
 adheres to it is taken between the 
 thumb and forefinger, and held there 
 till the heat is reduced to that of the 
 skin ; the finger and thumb are sep- 
 arated, and if the sirup is of a proper 
 strength, a thread will be drawn out, 
 which snaps, and has the transparen- 
 cy of horn, or, rather, barley sugar : 
 this is called the proof. The fire is 
 then put out and the sirup is carried 
 to the cooler, which is a vessel ca- 
 pable of containing all the sirup pro- 
 duced by four operations or boilings. 
 Here the sugar is to crystallize ; as 
 soon as this commences, the whole is 
 well mixed and stirred, and, before 
 it becomes too still", earthen moulds, 
 of the well-known sugar-loaf shape, 
 and of the size called great banlards, 
 are filled with the crystallizing mass, 
 of which a little at a time is poured 
 into each. When they are full, they 
 are carried to the coolest place on 
 the premises. As the crystallization 
 goes on, the crust formed on the top 
 is repeatedly broken, and the whole 
 is stirred till the crystals are collected 
 in the centre : it is then allowed to go 
 on without farther disturbance, in 
 three days it is so far advanced, that 
 the pegs which were put into the 
 
BEE 
 
 BEN 
 
 holes at the point of the moulds may 
 be removed and the molasses al- 
 lowed to run out. In a week this is 
 mostly ran off White sirup is now 
 pull red on the top of the moulds, 
 wlitch filters through the mass and 
 carries part of the colouring matter 
 with it. The process that follows is 
 exactly that in common use in refi- ; 
 ning West India sugars. . 
 
 Although most of the operations 
 are nearly the same as those by which 
 the juice of the sugar cane is pre- 
 pared for use, much greater skill and 
 nicety are required in rendering the 
 juice of the beet root crystallizable, 
 on account of the smaller quantity ; 
 of sugar that it contains. But when 
 this sugar is refined, it is impossible : 
 for the most experienced judge to 
 distinguish it from the other either 
 by the taste or appearance. Five 
 tons of clean roots produce about 4ir 
 cwt. of coarse sugar, which give 
 about 160 lbs. of double-retined su- i 
 gar, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump sugar : 
 the rest is molasses. The dry resi- , 
 due of the roots, after expressing the 
 juice, consists chiefly of fibre and mu- 
 cilage, and amounts to about one 
 fourth of the weight of the clean roots 
 used. It contains nearly all the nu- 
 tritive part of the root, with the ex- 
 ception of 4^ per cent, of sugar, which 
 has been extracted from the juice. | 
 Two pounds of this dry residue and 
 half a pound of good hay are consid- 
 ered as sufficient food for a moderate- 
 sized sheep for a day, and will keep 
 it in good condition, and cattle in 
 proportion. | 
 
 By allowing the juice of the beet 
 root to undergo the vinous fermenta- . 
 tion, and by distilling it, a more prof- 
 itable result will be obtained in a very ' 
 good spirit. A kmd of beer may also 
 be made of it, which is said to be 
 pleasant in warm weather and whole- 
 some. ! 
 
 Another mode of making sugar 
 from beet root, practised in some 
 parts of Germany, is as follows, and 
 is said to make better sugar than the 
 other process. The roots, having 
 oeen washed, are sliced lengthways, 
 Btrung on packthread, and hung up 
 
 to dry. The object of this is to let 
 the watery juice evaporate, and the 
 sweet juice, being concentrated, is 
 taken up by macerating the dry sli- 
 ces in water. It is managed so that 
 all the juice shall be extracted by a 
 very small quantity of water, which 
 saves much of the trouble of evapo- 
 ration. Professor Lanipadius obtain- 
 ed from 1 10 pounds of roots 4 pounds 
 of well-grained white powder sugar, 
 and the residuum afforded 7 pints of 
 spirit. Achard says that about a ton 
 of roots produced 100 pounds of raw 
 sugar, which gave 55 pounds of re- 
 fined sugar and 25 pounds of treacle. 
 This result is not very different from 
 that of Chaptal. 
 
 The manufacture of beet sugar in 
 the United States cannot be made 
 profitable, but may be useful in fami- 
 lies, as the remaining mush is so val- 
 uable for cattle and pigs. They may 
 be cultivated between 39 and 44 de- 
 grees north advantageously. 
 
 BEETLE. A common term used 
 to designate the larger CoUoptcra, 
 with hard wing cases. See Insects. 
 
 BEETLE. A large mallet used to 
 drive stakes, &c. ; it is furnished 
 with two or more handles, so as to 
 be driven by several persons. 
 
 BELLADONNA. The deadly night 
 shade, Atropa belladonna. 
 
 BELT. Trees arranged for shel- 
 ter. Belting in the West is the prac- 
 tice of chopping away the bark of a 
 tree around the stem to the extent of 
 some inches. The wound should 
 pass freely into the sap wood, other- 
 wise the tree will not be killed. 
 
 BELVIDERE. A small place at 
 the top of a house for a lookout. 
 
 BEN NUTS. The seeds of an 
 Arabian plant called Moringa aptera ; 
 they yield an oil called oil of ben, 
 and have been employed m syphilitic 
 diseases. 
 
 BEN, OIL OF. The expressed 
 oil of the nut of the Moringa aptera. 
 This oil is remarkable for not becom- 
 ing rancid by age ; and as it is per- 
 fectly insipid and inodorous, it is used 
 for extracting the fragrance of cer- 
 tain flowers, such as jessamin, or- 
 ange, &.C. The same tree furnishes 
 91 
 
BEN 
 
 BET 
 
 the Lignum ncphriticum, supposed to 
 be useful in certain affections of the 
 kidneys. 
 
 BENE. The Sesasum orientale. 
 
 An annual plant of the family Big- 
 noniacccB. It is successfully cultiva- 
 ted south of Pennsylvania. The seeds 
 abound in oil, which is readily ex- 
 pressed. They are very nutritious, 
 and eaten by the Italians roasted, 
 boiled, and made into flour resem- 
 bling buckwheat. The oil is good, 
 and may be substituted for common 
 olive oil. The seed is sown in drills 
 three or four feet apart, in April. The 
 plant grows like cotton, and attains 
 the height of four or tive feet, bearing 
 numerous seed-vessels, full of the 
 small seed, which is not larger than 
 flaxseed. The crop ripens gradually, 
 and is taken in September; 15 to 20 
 bushels are given per acre, from which 
 40 to 50 gallons of oil maybe obtain- 
 ed. The oil may be sold for 81 to 
 $1 25 the gallon. Negroes are fond 
 of the seeds in any form. The ex- 
 pressed oil-cake would be admirable 
 food for fattening boss and cattle. 
 
 BENOT. A double mould-board 
 plough. 
 
 BENT GRASS. The genus Je'os- 
 tis, the stem of which is much bent, 
 and inclined to become creeping and 
 subterranean. Creeping grasses are 
 best exterminated from arable lands 
 by heavy liming and the introduction 
 of two or three crops of corn, or such 
 other plants as are frequently tilled, i 
 
 9i 
 
 BENTS. Withered grass stems 
 remaining in the pasture after the 
 seeds have dropped. 
 
 BENZAMIDE. A compound of 
 benzoyl and amidogene. 
 
 BENZOIC ACID. A vegetable acid 
 found in balsams and some grasses. 
 
 BENZOIN. The concrete exuda- 
 tion of the Styrax benzoin of the East. 
 It is a resin combined with benzoic 
 acid. 
 
 BENZULE, BENZOYL. The hy- 
 pothetical radical of benzoic acid and 
 other compounds, formula Ch Hj O^ 
 =Bz. 
 
 BERBERRY. See Barberry. 
 
 BERGAMOT. The Ckrus berga- 
 viia. Cultivated in the south of Europe 
 for the fragrant oil of the rind of its 
 fruit. The oil is volatile, and consists 
 of IOC 8H. It is a species of lemon, 
 and might be introduced into Flori- 
 da. 
 
 The Mentha citrata, a common spe- 
 cies of mint, easily cultivated, yields 
 an oil nearly as fragrant as the ber- 
 gamot. 
 
 BERMUDA GRASS, DOUB 
 GRASS. Cynodon dactylon. Atall, re- 
 pent grass, flourishing on sandy lands, 
 and an object of cultivation in the 
 South. It affords abundant pasturage 
 for sheep, and binds together the loose 
 soil. The levees of the Mississippi are 
 planted with it. Many distinguished 
 farmers on the south shores of the 
 Mississippi speakhighly of this grass; 
 it is, however, difficult to eradicate. 
 Mr. Afileck considers it most nutri- 
 tious, and in his latitude (Washing- 
 ton, Miss.) it yields three cuttings, or 
 from "five to eight tons of hay per 
 acre from a moderately good mead- 
 ow." It is destroyed by frost and 
 propagated by roots, as it does not 
 ripen seeds in his localitv. 
 
 BERRY, or BACCA.' In botany, 
 a fruit filled with pulp, in which the 
 seeds are imbedded, as the currant, 
 gooseberry, &c. 
 
 BETEL. The leaf of an acrid nar- 
 cotic pepper, chew^ed by the natives 
 in the East Indies. 
 
 BETULA. The generic name of 
 the birch family. The populi/uha 
 (white), exceUa (yellow) rubra (red). 
 
BIL 
 
 BIR 
 
 and lenta (black or cherry), are all 
 fine trees, especially the red, the tim- 
 ber of which is much used for cabi- 
 net purposes ; and the black or cher- 
 ry, which has the colour of mahog- 
 any, and is both used here and ex- 
 ported to Europe. B. ■papyracea, or 
 paper birch, yielded the bark for the 
 canoes of the Indians. The wood of 
 all is durable, and less affected by 
 changes of temperature than most 
 timbers. The juice of the European 
 B. alba is sweet and easily ferment- 
 ed •, it forms their birch wine. Va- 
 rious parts of the plant are ])ut to a 
 variety of economical uses ; the bark 
 forms paper, vessels, &c. ; the twigs, 
 brooms and rods, while the leaves 
 are considered good fodder. 
 
 BEVEL. An instrument to take 
 angles. 
 
 BEVEL GEER. In mechanics, 
 a species of wheel- work, in which the 
 axles of two wheels working into 
 each other are neither parallel nor 
 perpendicular, but inclined to one an- 
 other in a certain angle. Wheels of 
 this kind are also called conical, be- 
 cause their teeth may be regarded as 
 cut in the frustum of a cone. 
 
 B I. From biSy twice, a common 
 prefix to words meaning two, or 
 twice, as bi-partite, bin-oxide. 
 
 BIBULOUS. Absorbent. In chem- 
 istry, blotting paper is often termed 
 bibulous paper. 
 
 BIENNIAL. This term is usual- 
 ly applied to plants which grow one 
 year and flower the next, after which 
 they perish. Many biennials, if sown 
 early in the spring, will flower in au- 
 tumn and then perish, thus actually 
 becoming annuals. 
 
 BIESTINGS. The first milk after 
 calving. 
 
 BIFURCATE. Two-pronged, or 
 forked. 
 
 BIGNONIAS. The trumpet flow- 
 ers. Bignonta radicans, and other 
 shrubby climbing plants, belong to 
 this handsome genus. 
 
 BIGG. A winter barley. 
 
 BIIvH. Acomtum ferox. A very 
 poisonous Eastern monkhood. 
 
 BILABIATE. Two-lipped, or pe- 
 talled, applied to flowers. 
 
 " BILBERRY. Whortleberry. 
 
 BILE. The secretion of the liver. 
 It is intended, according to Liebig, 
 to prepare certain portions of matter 
 to furnish fuel for the maintenance 
 of the animal heat ; any interruption 
 in its production is attended with 
 great lassitude, sickness, fever, and 
 yellowness of the eyes and skin. 
 Moist, marshy places, and food rich 
 in oil, as butter and fat, produce bil- 
 ious attacks. Calomel is the best 
 medicine in these cases, 10 grains at 
 first, and more if it does not quickly 
 relieve. Fall and spring are the sea- 
 sons most obnoxious to bilious at- 
 tacks in new countries. Sometimes 
 biliary calculi or stones are form- 
 ed. 
 
 The composition of the bile is very 
 complex, according to the analyses of 
 some physiologists. Liebig, howev- 
 er, regards it as a natural soap, near- 
 ly consisting of choleate of soda. 
 
 BILL. A hatchet with a curved 
 point. 
 
 BILLET. A small log or block of 
 wood. 
 
 BIN. A box for corn, oats, &c. 
 
 BIND- WEED. A common name 
 for most climbing plants, but espe- 
 cially directed to the convolvulaceous 
 species. 
 
 BINES. Running stems. 
 
 BiOGELLATE. When an insect's 
 wing is marked with two eye-like 
 dots. 
 
 BIPINNATE. Leaves that are 
 doubly pinnate ; in which the second- 
 ary stalks or petals are pinnated. 
 
 BIRCH. See Betvla. 
 
 BIRD. The preservation of birds 
 as a means of destroying insects has 
 lately attracted some attention. It 
 is proposed to destroy the hawk tribe 
 only, leaving crows, ravens, sparrows, 
 wrens, bluebirds, and all others ; for, 
 although many of these occasionally 
 take seed and injure fruit, they, for 
 the most part, live on insects and 
 small vermin, and the I'armer is much 
 more assisted by their labours than 
 injured by their depredations. Mr. 
 Swainson remarks that whereas nu- 
 merous crops are devastated by in- 
 sects, no one has ever heard of such 
 93 
 
BIT 
 
 BLA 
 
 evils being brought about by birds. 
 To the apiarian the bee martin is, 
 however, an unquestionable source of 
 annoyance, although the same bird 
 and all the genus are destructive to 
 other insects. 
 
 BIRDLIME. A glutinous sub- 
 stance extracted by boiling the bark 
 of the holly-tree ; a similar substance 
 may be obtained from mistletoe, from 
 the young shoots of elder, and some 
 other plants. 
 
 BIRD PEPPER. The small pep- 
 per, Capsicum haccatum, growing on a 
 shrub : it yields the hottest Cayenne 
 pepper. It is cultivated in Florida 
 and the Indies. 
 
 BIRD'S FOOT TREFOIL. A Eu- 
 ropean genus (Lotus) of small clovers, 
 growing in pastures, and preserving 
 their verdure in the hot weather from 
 their long roots. They are inferior to 
 clover, and, with the exception of L. 
 villosus, which is an object of cultiva- 
 tion in France upon light soils, are nev- 
 er raised artificially. There does not 
 appear to be any true species of this 
 genus in the United States, and its in- 
 feriority to clover does not make it 
 desirable to introduce them. 
 
 BIRD'S CHERRY. The Prunus 
 padus. A small, wild cherry, indige- 
 nous in England. 
 
 BIRD'S MOUTH. In building, an 
 interior angle or notch, cut across 
 the grain at the extremity of a piece 
 of timber for its reception on the 
 edge of another piece ; as a rafter, 
 for instance, is received on a pole 
 plate. Bird's mouth signifies, also, 
 the internal angle of a polygon, its 
 external angle being called a bull's 
 nose. 
 
 BIRD'S NEST. Indian pipe. Mo- 
 notropa uniflora. 
 
 BISEXUAL. In plants, having 
 stamens and pistils in the same flow- 
 er. 
 
 BISHOPING. A cant word for 
 disguising the age of a horse. 
 
 BISON. Bee Buffalo. 
 
 BISTORT. The Polygonum his- 
 torta. An acrid plant when fresh. 
 
 BISULCATE. ^^'ith two fissures, 
 two-hoofed. 
 
 B I T. The iron part of the bri- 
 94 
 
 die, which goes into the mouth of a 
 horse. 
 
 BITTER AL.MOND. A variety of 
 the almond of a bitter taste. 
 
 BITTER PRINCIPLE. An obso- 
 lete term in chemistry, signifying that 
 the dried juice of a plant contained a 
 bitter ingredient. The bitterness does 
 not depend upon any general princi- 
 ple, but upon a particular body, some- 
 times present in no other plant, as 
 quinine, strychnine, &c. 
 
 BITTERN. The residue after 
 evaporatmg sea water and removing 
 the salt. It contains sulphate of mag- 
 nesia and chloride of magnesia, as 
 well as small quantities of soda, pot- 
 ash, and bromides. It would unques- 
 tionably be a valuable manure, and 
 should be tried in small quantities 
 wherever the opportunity offers. 
 
 BITTER SPAR. Crystallized dol- 
 omite. Carbonate of lime and mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 BITTER SWEET. An extensive 
 genus (.So/awMm), the berries of which, 
 of a red and dark colour, are very 
 poisonous. 
 
 BITUMEN. A mineral pitch. Sev- 
 eral varieties, as petroleum, asphal- 
 tum, mineral tar, and naphtha, are dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 BIXA. The genus yielding the B. 
 orellana or arnotta. 
 
 BLACK. As a colour for horses*, 
 this is not preferred : there are said 
 to be fewer good animals of this colour 
 than any other. It is supposed that 
 those of a high gloss and white legs 
 are the best kind. 
 
 BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE. 
 This term is generally used to indi- 
 cate the Rubrus villosus, or common 
 erect, and R. tnvialis, creeping dew- 
 berry. The fruit is wholesome, and 
 commands a good price in cities, so 
 that near Boston they are cultivated. 
 It makes excehent jain and preserves, 
 as well as a good wine. The tall 
 bramble is a good adjunct to the com- 
 mon rail fence in arable land ; but its 
 decaying branches injure meadows. 
 In other parts of the field they are a 
 serious nuisance, especially the creep- 
 ing plant, and require grubbing for ex- 
 termination, followed by a sufficient 
 
BLA 
 
 BLA 
 
 ploughing to break up the smaller 
 roots. The roots are astringent. 
 
 BLACKBIRD. Notwithstanding 
 his occasional depredations, he is a 
 valuable friend to the farmer, by the 
 destruction he makes among insects. 
 The most common species is the 
 Qiiisralis rersicoloi-. 
 
 BLACK CANCER. The decayed 
 blotches on turnips. 
 
 BLACK DOLPHIN. The dark- 
 coloured aphis, which injures beans, 
 pease, cabbages, and numerous garden 
 vegetables. Dusting with lime is a 
 very valuable remedy, as well as cut- 
 ting off the infested stems, when it is 
 practicable, and burning them. 
 
 BLACK DYES. The substances 
 used in dyeing blacks are logwood, 
 weld or woad, fustic, suinach, gall- 
 nuts, and oak apples, with copperas 
 or sulphate of iron ; but any other 
 astringent may be introduced. The 
 finest blacks are first dyed of a deep 
 blue. 
 
 BLACK FLY. The small black 
 beetle {HalUca ncmorum) whicli infests 
 cruciferous plants, and especially the 
 turnip. See Insects. 
 
 BLACK GU.M. Xyssa multijlora. 
 A tree sometimes attainmg fifty to 
 seventy feet, and twenty inches in di- 
 ameter. It grows south of Philadel- 
 phia. The wood is solid, and little 
 liable to split ; hence it is used for 
 naves or hubs, and in ship-building for 
 the caps of masts. The berries are 
 dark, and relislied by birds. The X 
 aquatica, or tupelo, is less in size, and 
 grows as far as New-Hampshire. It 
 is valuable as a dense wood, and used 
 by carriage-builders. 
 
 BLACK LEGS and BLACK MUZ- 
 ZLE. See Shccfi, Diseases of. 
 
 BLACK OATS, are more hardy, 
 and ripen earlier than the common 
 grain. Thev are otherwise inferior. 
 
 BLACK THORN. The European 
 sloe {Prunus spinosa). Sometimes the 
 Crateegus flava is called by this name 
 in America. 
 
 BLACK TWITCH, or COUCH. | 
 Agroslis alba. Marsh couch grass, j 
 
 BLACK WALNUT. See Walnut. 
 
 BLACK WASH. A lotion of cal- ! 
 omel and limewater. I 
 
 BLACK WATER. See Sheep. 
 BLADE. A shoot or spire of grass, 
 wheat, &c. 
 
 BLADE BONE. The scapula, or 
 broad bone of the shoulder. 
 
 BLAIN. Infan-iery, inflammation 
 of the tongue, a disease in cattle, 
 which frequently affects them in the 
 spring of the year or beginning of 
 summer. The disease is neither so 
 frequent nor so fatal in the horse 
 as it is in cattle ; but it does some- 
 times occur, and the nature of it is 
 frequently misunderstood. The horse 
 will refuse his food, hang his head, 
 and a considerable quantity of ropy 
 fluid will be discharged from the 
 mouth. On examining the mouth, 
 the tongue will be found considerably 
 enlarged, and, running along the side 
 of it, there will be a reddish or dark- 
 ish purple bladder, which sometimes 
 protrudes between the teeth. The 
 neighbouring salivary glands are en- 
 larged, and the discharge of saliva is 
 very great, while the soreness of the 
 swelled and blistered part causes the 
 horse obstinately to resist every mo- 
 tion of the jaws. The cure is very 
 simple : the bladder must be deeply 
 lanced from end to end ; there will 
 not be any great flow of blood This 
 will relieve or cure the horse in twen- 
 ty-four hours. If he can be spared 
 from his work, a dose of physic will 
 remove the stomach affection and any 
 sliglit degree of fever that may have 
 existed. If the disease is neglected, 
 the swelling will at length burst, and 
 corroding ulcers will eat deeply into 
 the tongue, and prove very difficult to 
 heal. — {Clatcr's Farriery). 
 
 BLANCHING. In gardening, 
 the whitening of the stems, stalks, or 
 leaves of plants, by tying them togeth- 
 er, or earthing them up so as to ex- 
 clude the light, and thus to diminish 
 the intensity of tlieir native proper- 
 ties and make them sweet. 
 
 BLAST. A flatulent disease of 
 sheep. 
 
 BLASTEMA. The embryo. 
 
 BLASTING. The art of removing 
 portions of rock by the explosion of 
 gunpowder. For this purpose, a cy- 
 lindrical hole is made in the rock in a 
 95 
 
BLE 
 
 BLE 
 
 direction correspondinfj with the stra- 
 ta, and of greater or less depth, ac- 
 cording to the material. Tiie diame- 
 ter varies from one to one and a half 
 inches, as tlie rock is harder. Into 
 this is next placed a charge of pow- 
 der occupying ahoiit one third of the 
 depth, and furnished with a tin tuhe 
 containing the fuse or slow match. 
 After the powder, small pieces of rock 
 or paper are rammed, and then sand 
 is driven in, to fill the hole, and the ex- 
 tremity of the fuse lighted ; the work- 
 man retires to a place of safety, and 
 allows the explosion to take place. 
 In this way houlders, which impede 
 cultivation, and are too large to be 
 lifted away, may be broken up, and 
 the fragments removed for fences, «&c. 
 Stumps of large trees may also be 
 torn up by blasting, the charge being 
 contained in a tin case, and inl:rodu- 
 ced beneath the stump ; or the wood 
 maybe bored with an inch auger, and 
 the charge inserted into the wood it- 
 self. 
 
 BLATTA. The cockroach genus. 
 
 BLAZE. A white mark or star in 
 the face of a horse or other animal. 
 
 BLEACHING. This process con- 
 sists in a series of operations, by 
 which the natural colours of various 
 substances are discharged so as to 
 Avhiten them. It is effected either 
 by the action of various solvents, aid- 
 ed by exposure to light, air, and moist- 
 ure, upon the bleaching ground, or by 
 the aid of chlorine. Cotton is more 
 easily bleached than linen, in conse- 
 quence of its being originally whiter, 
 and having a less powerful attraction 
 for the colouring matter. In bleach- 
 ing these goods upon the old princi- 
 ple, warm water is first liberally ap- 
 plied to remove the weaver's paste 
 or dressing ; they are then bucked, or 
 boiled in a weak alkaline lye ; and 
 after having been well washed, are 
 spread out upon the grass, so as to be 
 freely exposed to the joint agencies 
 of light, air, and moisture ; the buck- 
 ing and exposure are alternately re- 
 peated, as often as necessary ; the 
 goods are soured, that is, immersed in 
 water slightly acidulated by sulphuric 
 acid ; lastly, they are very thoroughly 
 96 
 
 washed and dried. By these opera- 
 tions the texture of the goods is, to a 
 certain extent, impaired, and much 
 time is required to complete the pro- 
 cess, which, also, cannot be carried 
 on in the winter months. But the 
 exposure upon the bleaching ground 
 is now, to a great extent, discontinu- 
 ed ; and the same effect is obtained, 
 after the process of bucking, by the 
 action of weak solutions of chlorine, 
 or of chloride of lime, which, if skil- 
 fully used, can scarcely be said to in- 
 jure the goods more than the long- 
 continued exposure. The theory of 
 bleaching has not been satisfactorily 
 developed ; but, from such experi- 
 ments as have been made in refer- 
 ence to it, it appears to be a process 
 of oxidation, and to depend upon some 
 peculiar influence of nascent oxygen 
 upon the colouring matter. 
 
 The colour of manufactured wool 
 depends partly upon its own oil, and 
 partly upon the applications made to 
 it in the loom. These are got rid of 
 in the fulling-mill by the jonu action 
 of fullers' earth and soap ; the cloth 
 is then well washed and dried, and is 
 tolerably white ; if the slight yellow 
 tint which it retains is objectionable, 
 it is prevented by adding a little stone 
 blue to the washing water, or by ex- 
 posure to the fumes of burning sul- 
 phur ; this latter method, however, 
 gives it a harsh feel, and if afterward 
 soaped, its yellowishness returns. 
 
 The colour of raw silk depends up- 
 on a natural yellow varnish, which is 
 got rid of by boiling it in wliite soap 
 and water, and by repeated rinsings. 
 Certain articles of wove cotton, such 
 as stockings, are bleached as usual, 
 and finished by the action of sulphu- 
 rous acid, or the fumes of burning sul- 
 phur. Straw is also whitened by a 
 similar operation ; and hence bleach- 
 ed straw hats are apt to have a disa- 
 greeable sulphurous smell. 
 
 BLEACHING POWDER. Chlo- 
 ride of lime. 
 
 BLEEDING. An operation fre- 
 quently necessary in the disorders of 
 different kinds of cattle, particularly 
 horses. Such horses as stand much 
 in the stable, and are full-fed, require 
 
BLI 
 
 DLI 
 
 bleeding more than those which are | BLIND, jMOOX. Cloudiness of 
 in constant exercise ; but especially , the eye, ending in cataract, 
 when their eyes look heavy and dull, j BLINDNESS. A deprivation or 
 or red and inflamed ; and when they | want of sight, originating from vari- 
 look yellow, and the horse is inflamed ous causes ; a complaint more fre- 
 in his lips and the inside of his mouth ; quent in horses than in neat cattle or 
 or when he seems hotter than usu- sheep. 
 
 al, and mangles his hay. These in- j Bli>idness tn horses may be discern- 
 dications not only show that bleed- j ed by the walk or step "being uncer- 
 ing is required, but hkewise lower ; tain and unequal, so that they dare 
 diet. The spring is the common sea- 1 not set down their feet boldly; but 
 son for bleeding horses ; but period- , when they are mounted by an expert 
 ical bleeding should never be prac- 1 horseman, the fear of the spurs will 
 tised. In summer it is often neces- frequently make them go resolutely 
 sary, to prevent fevers, always choos- ! and freely, so that their blindness can 
 ing the cool of the morning for the , hardly be perceived. Another mark 
 operation, and keeping them cool the by which horses that have lo.st their 
 remaining part of the day. Some \ sight may be known is, that when 
 farriers bleed horses three or four i they hear anybody enter the stable, 
 times a year, or even oftener, by way j they prick up their ears, and move 
 of prevention, taking only a very them backward and forward in a par 
 small quantity at a time, as a pint or ticular manner. 
 
 a pint and a half. There is, howev- 1 Blindness in Sheep. — A complaint 
 er, this inconvenience from frequent that sometimes occurs in these ani- 
 bleeding, that it grows into a habit, mals from their being much exposed 
 which, in some cases, cannot be easi- to either great dampness or long-coa- 
 ly broken off without hazard ; and, tinned snows. 
 
 besides, horses become weak from j BLINKERS. The leathers attach- 
 frequent bleeding. The vein in the ed to the bridle of carriage-horses to 
 neck is usually opened, but that un- ' direct their sight forward, 
 der the eye or in the leg is better, BLISTERING. In farriery, the 
 when the inflammation is near those ! operation of stimulating the surface 
 parts. I t'i some part of the body of an ani- 
 
 BLEMISH. In farriery, any kind ' mal, by means of acrid applications, 
 of imperfection in a liorse or other j so as to raise small vesications upoa 
 animal. it- It is frequently employed for the 
 
 In horses, blemishes consist of bro- j purpose of removing local affections 
 ken knees, loss of hair in the cutting ; of different kinds, such as hard, indo- 
 places, mallenders and sallenders, j lent tumours. 
 
 cracked heels, false quarters, splents, { BLISTER FLY. The bright 
 or excrescences which do not occa- green and golden fly usually employ- 
 sion lameness ; and wind galls and ed is the CaiUhans vesicatona, im- 
 bog spavins, where they prevail to ported from Europe ; but there are 
 
 several insects indigenous which pos- 
 
 any great degree. 
 
 In forestry, the knots on the out- 
 side of trees, and shakes internally, 
 are termed blemishes. 
 
 BLIGHT. A general term for the 
 diseases of trees and crops, whether 
 produced by temperature, moisture, 
 insects, or parasitic fungi. See Rust, 
 Mildcic. Smut. Plant Lice, &c. 
 
 BLIGHT, AMERICAN. The Eri- 
 
 sess equal power, as the potato flies 
 (C. vitata and cincrca) and the black 
 cantharis (C atrata). 
 
 The potato flies are seen in Au- 
 gust, morning and evening, among 
 the foliage of the potatoes ; the head 
 is red, and the back black, with a yel- 
 low stripe ; and in the cinerea the 
 whole is black, with a gray hair, or 
 
 osoma (aphis) lanigera, or woolly plant i down. The wing cases (elytra) are 
 
 lice; they infest the apple and pear i hard. They are shaken off the vines, 
 
 tree occasionally. : killed by being thrown in hot water, 
 
 1 97 
 
BLO 
 
 and then dried in the sun. When 
 well dried, tliey keep for years in 
 closed bottles. 
 
 BLISTER LIQUID. A liquid com- 
 posed by adding a gallon ofspirit of tur- 
 pentine to a pound of powdered flies, 
 and macerating llie whole for a month. 
 •when the clear liuid will form a strong 
 liquid blister. If so powerful an ex- 
 ternal stunulanl be not required, this 
 liquid may be diluted with an equal 
 part of spermaceti oil. 
 
 BLISTER OliNTMENT. One 
 ounce of powdered blistering flies ; 
 four ounces of lard. One ounce of 
 this, well rubbed in, is sufficient to 
 blister a horse's leg. 
 
 BLOOD. The fluid which circu- 
 lates through the body, giving nour- 
 ishment to all parts. It consists of 
 albumen, fibrin, red globules, fatty 
 matters, water, and saline substan- 
 ces. As a manure, its importance 
 depends on the large quantity of am- 
 monia it exhales. It is always pref- 
 erable to use it in compost, with ash- 
 es, charcoal, fine earth, and vegeta- 
 ble matters. Its effects are principal- 
 ly stimulant when used alone. The 
 composition of blood is nearly identi- 
 cal with that of flesh. 
 
 BLOOD-i^OOT. Sanguinaria Can- 
 adensis. This root is of a red colour. 
 
 BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a pop- 
 ular term for that red appearance 
 which the eye exhibits when inlia- 
 med. The best treatment is to bathe 
 the eye with a lotion composed of one 
 drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of 
 zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water. 
 
 BLOOD SPAVIN, or BOG SPAV- 
 IN. In farriery, a swelling of the 
 vein that runs along the inside of tiie 
 hock of the horse, forming a soft tu- 
 mour in the hollow part, often attend- 
 ed with weakness or lameness of the 
 hock. Clater {Farriery, p. 272) says, 
 a blister is the proper application. 
 
 BLOOM, or BLOSSOM. The flow- 
 er, in the most perfect state, consists 
 of an outer green envelope {the calyx), 
 in the interior of which are the col- 
 oured leaflets {petals), surrounding 
 a number of thread-like bodies {the 
 aiamens), and containing a central 
 body or pistil. Of these parts, the 
 98 
 
 BLU 
 
 stamens and pistils are essential, al- 
 though ihey do not always grow in 
 the same flower. The calyx and pe- 
 tals {corolla) serve only to protect the 
 inner organs from rain, which de- 
 stroys their function when excessive. 
 Other plants, however, have none of 
 the envelopes, but are furnished with 
 especial means of preserving the sta- 
 mens. The name of a plant is, for 
 the most part, known by the figure 
 of its blossoms. Large numbers of 
 genera possess flowers of the same 
 kind, and are constituted into Natu- 
 ral families ; as the Caryophyllaceaj, 
 with flowers like the pink ; Rosaceaj, 
 with flowers like the single rose ; 
 Crucifera;, with flowers like the rad- 
 ish ; Umbelliferag, with flowers like 
 the parsnip, &c. 
 
 BLOW FLY. The Musca cama- 
 ria. It deposites eggs upon meat, 
 which in a few hours become mag- 
 gots, and hasten the decay rapidly ; 
 gauze cloths are used to keep them 
 off; salt or Cayenne pepper serves 
 as a preventive, by indisposing the 
 fly to lay eggs on surfaces smeared 
 with thein. 
 
 BLOWN. In farriery, a diseased 
 slate of the stomach and bowels of 
 cattle, caused by the sudden extrica- 
 tion of air in large quantities from 
 some of the grosser kinds of green 
 food. See Horcn. 
 
 BLUBBER. The cellular sub- 
 stance in which whale oil or fat is 
 stored. It is often used with advan- 
 tage in composts of ashes and peat, 
 and yields ammonia during decay. 
 
 BLUEBIRD. Sylva smlis. A 
 familiar insectivorous bird that should 
 be encouraged on farms. 
 
 BLUE DYES. These are indigo, 
 Prussian blue, logwood, bilberry, mul- 
 berries, elder-berries, privet-i)erries, 
 and some other berries whose juice 
 becomes blue by adding a little alkali. 
 Indigo, Prussian blue, and logwood 
 are principally used, and are prepared 
 for the purpose. When the berries 
 are used, one pound is boiled in water 
 and mixed witli one ounce of alum, 
 of copperas, and of blue vitriol, and 
 the stuffs passed through sufficiently 
 ] often to acquire a proper colour. 
 
13 01 
 
 I]U.\ 
 
 BLUE GRASS. The valuable per- 
 ennial Kentucky grass, or Poa pra- 
 ten.iis, is considered the best indige- 
 nous grass of the United States. It 
 forms a thick, dense sward, yielding 
 a fair amount of very nutritious hay. 
 It is adapted especially for permanent 
 hillside meadows, growing well in a 
 drained soil. Half a bushel of seed 
 is sown either with a fall crop or with 
 oats in spring : it is customary to mix 
 clover or timothy with it, which fur- 
 nishes grazing sooner, and preserves 
 the young grass. In two years it 
 takes entire possession, and forms a 
 close mat of delicate herbage. It 
 flourishes well in New- York State and 
 far to the south. In Kentucky they 
 sometimes grow it in wood land as 
 well as in open pasture. The wood 
 blue grass is a variety (P. sylvestris). 
 
 There is another grass {Poa com- 
 pressa), also called blue grass, and 
 common in the Northern States ; but 
 it is scanty, and very inferior to the 
 rich Kentuckv kind. 
 
 BLUE STONE and BLUE VIT- 
 RIOL. The sulphate of copper. It 
 is used as a caustic to sores, and as 
 a steep for wheat, to save it from 
 smut. 
 
 BOG. This term is commonly used 
 in agriculture to designate a hole or 
 morass containing much vegetable 
 mud or muck ; often the deposites are 
 extensive, and many feet deep. A 
 peat bog contains peat chiefly. 
 
 When bogs become consolidated 
 or compressed, they are called peat 
 mosses. See Peat. 
 
 BOG EARTH. This earth often 
 contains twenty or thirty per cent, of 
 vegetable matter, and when well bro- 
 ken with lime, and by exposure to air, 
 forms a rich soil. 
 
 BOIL, or, commonly, BILE. A 
 tumour containing matter, or pus. It 
 is the result of local inflammation. 
 It should be brought to a head by 
 poultices of flour or linseed, and, 
 when soft and fluctuating, opened 
 freely with a lancet. The wound 
 should be kept clean, and closed with 
 sticking plaster, or protected by a rag. 
 
 BOILING POINT. The tempera- 
 ture at which fluids boil. Thus, wa- 
 
 ter at 212"^, alcohol 176-, oil of tur- 
 pentine 310^, tuther 'JG^, mercury 
 6G2^ Fahrenheit. 
 
 BOLE, or BOLL. A Scotch meas- 
 ure of four bushels. 
 
 BOLE OF TREES. The trunk. 
 
 BOLETUS. Fungi, forming fleshy 
 masses, attached to the trunks of 
 trees, and filled with holes on the 
 lower side. One species, B. bovinus, 
 is said to be eaten by cattle. The B. 
 iff7iarius and fomentarius, dried and 
 prepared with saltpetre, forms the 
 German tinder, or amadou. 
 
 BOLTER. A sieve used to sep- 
 arate bran from flour or meal, urged 
 by machinery in grist mills. For 
 coarse purposes, wire-work is some- 
 times used ; but bolting cloths for 
 flour are of linen or hair, and of sev- 
 eral degrees of fineness. 
 
 BOLT-HEAD. A glass vessel, or 
 flask, used in the laboratorv. 
 
 BOLTING FOOD. This is a prac- 
 tice which brings about indigestion in 
 animals as well as in men, and must 
 be hindered by feeding the animal 
 separately, and at shorter intervals, 
 and using chopped food or meals. 
 
 BOLUS. See Ball. 
 
 BO.MB AX. A genus of large trees 
 producing a short cotton. 
 
 BON'ES. The frame-work of the 
 higher animals. Bones consist of 
 fifty-six per cent, mineral, and the 
 rest gelatinous and destructible mat- 
 ter. The mineral portion contains, 
 on an average, fifty per cent, of phos- 
 phate of lime, or bone earth ; of this, 
 twenty-four per cent, is phosphoric 
 acid, and the rest lime. The destruc- 
 tible animal matter is partly removed 
 by long boiling, and used as a size. 
 
 The value of bones as manure ari- 
 ses from the combination of animal 
 matter and phosphate, but is chiefly 
 due to the latter. They are applied 
 usually in coarse powder, ground at 
 suitable bone mills, which are now 
 to be found near all our large cities. 
 The price in Baltimore and New- 
 York is forty cents the bushel. Some- 
 times, pieces, or broken bones, from 
 half an inch to an inch long, are used 
 as a permanent dressing. 
 
 The amount of dust to be applied 
 99 
 
DON 
 
 per acre is ten or twenty bushels for 
 five years' rotation, or, in composts, 
 two or four bushels annually. The 
 effects are most remarkable on sandy 
 and light soils ; but all lands are im- 
 proved by it when the addition is in- 
 dicated. The test, when bones are 
 necessary, is easily discovered ; for 
 soils which produce defective grain 
 are always much benefited by them. 
 
 The value of bone dust arises from 
 the fact that all seeds contain a large 
 quantity in their ashes, and the soil 
 is naturally but poorly supplied. Seed 
 crops are well known to exhaust 
 lands rapidly, and chiefly because they 
 remove the bone earth or phosphates 
 of the soil. Those lands which are 
 well furnished with this substance 
 naturally produce rich clover and 
 wheat : such are marls, some second- 
 ary limestones, and stiff clays, and 
 show less the application of bones. 
 
 The dust is to be scattered with 
 seed, and not ploughed in deep ; for it 
 has a tendency to sink naturally, and 
 as it is very slowly dissolved by rain 
 water, it should not be placed out of 
 the reach of plants. Compared with 
 farm-yard manure, one bushel is 
 equivalent to three cart loads, wher- 
 ever it is well applied. 
 
 All plants, the shells of lobsters 
 and eggs, and the fine shell marl of 
 ponds contain bone earth ; and in 
 Spain a mineral is extensively found 
 consisting of nearly pure phosphate 
 of lime ; but the principal source is 
 from bones. Guano often contains 
 twenty-five per cent, of phosphates. 
 The action of this substance, in what- 
 ever combination it may exist, is al- 
 ways the same. 
 
 Bones which have been boiled be- 
 fore grinding are very little mferior 
 to the recent, except when applied to 
 very poor soils, where the putrescent 
 animal matter is required. Recent 
 bones are best for turnips, cabbages, 
 and similar crops ; but the boiled va- 
 riety answers for grass, grains, pease, 
 beans, &c., the manure being adapted 
 for every crop cultivated for seeds. 
 
 BONES, DISSOLVED. For the 
 purpose of obtaining the full action 
 of bone dust in the shortest time, it 
 100 
 
 DON 
 
 is dissolved in oil of vitriol (sulphuric 
 acid) or in muriatic acid. The strong 
 acids are used for this purpose at the 
 rate of fifty to sixty pounds of acid 
 to two bushels of dust. The acid 
 should be slightly diluted if it black- 
 ens the bones. They should be stir- 
 red with a wooden stick, and the op- 
 eration conducted in a large crock 
 of coarse earthen-ware. The great 
 causticity of the acid renders it a 
 nice process. The solution should 
 be taken up with fine soil or mould, 
 and one half applied to an acre as a 
 top dressing, care being always taken 
 that before use it has lost its acid 
 qualities. 
 
 In this way a soluble phosphate of 
 lime and sulphate of lime are formed : 
 the latter remains at the bottom of 
 the vessel, and is a fine plaster of 
 Paris ; it should be stirred up with 
 the mixture when the soil is added. 
 When fresh bones are used, the gel- 
 atin also thickens the solution. This 
 preparation of bones is now superse- 
 ding the common application in Eng- 
 land and Scotland for turnips. When 
 employed, it should be sown with the 
 seed, or used as a top dressing to 
 y»ung plants. It will be found an 
 admirable ingredient for composts in- 
 tended to bring forward seed crops. 
 
 BONE EARTH. Phosphate of 
 lime chiefly. 
 
 BONE MILL. The following ac- 
 count of a mill for breaking bones into 
 small fragments is from Mr. Rham : 
 
 The mill to break and grind bones 
 consists of two iron or steel cylin- 
 ders, with grooves running round 
 their circumference, the projections 
 being cut so as to form strong teeth. 
 These turn upon one another by 
 means of machinery, so that the 
 teeth of one run in the groove be- 
 tween the teeth of the other, as may 
 be seen in the annexed cut. 
 
 The bones put in the hopper, O, are 
 seized by the teeth of the two upper 
 cyUnders, and broken in pieces, which 
 fall in betw-een the lower pair, where 
 they are reduced to a smaller size. 
 From these they fall on a slanting 
 board, D, and slide into the wire cyl- 
 inder. AH the smaller pieces pass 
 
BONE MILL 
 
 a! 
 
 Side elevation. 
 
 through the interstices of the wire ; 
 those which have not been sufficient- 
 ly broken come out at the end, and 
 are returned into the upper hopper. 
 Where a machine of this description 
 I 2 
 
 can be attached to a water or wind 
 mill, or to a steam-engine, the bones 
 are broken at a small expense ; when 
 horses are used the expense is great- 
 er ; and a hand mill can only be of 
 101 
 
use where there is a great super- 
 abundance of manual lal)our, and only 
 a small quantity of bones required. 
 
 A A is the frame of a bone mill 
 strongly fixed to the floor ; B, the 
 axis of the machinery, which is turn- 
 ed by the lever G C, to which the 
 power is applied ; E E is a horizon- 
 tal wheel with bevelled teeth moving 
 a vertical wheel, F, on the axis of 
 which one of the cylinders with 
 grooves and teeth is fixed. At the 
 other end of the axis is a smaller 
 wheel, G, turning a similar one, H, 
 on the axis of the other cylinder, ma- 
 king the toothed surfaces turn to- 
 wards each other, and thus crushing 
 between them the bones which the 
 hopper, O, supplies. Another pair of 
 cylinders, similar to the first, but with 
 smaller teeth, are turned by means of 
 the intermediate wheel, I, working in 
 the wheel, L, fixed to the axis, on 
 which is a larger \\heel, M, working 
 in a pinion which turns the cylindri- 
 cal sieve, N. The arrows indicate 
 the direction of the motion. 
 
 BONE SPAVIN. A disease of the 
 hock joint in horses, brought on by 
 over exertion. While forming there 
 is continued lameness. Blisters and 
 rest sometimes effect a perfect cure. 
 Spavined horses are useful for slow 
 work ; they are most inconvenienced 
 in the act of rising. 
 
 BORAGE. Burago officinalis. A 
 rough weed growing two feet high. 
 It is used as a fallow crop in Ger- 1 
 many, and, according to Lampadius, 
 contains nitre. It seems to be admi- 
 rably adapted for this purpose. 
 
 BORAX. Borate of soda, used as 
 a flux in welding steel, &c. 
 
 BORDER. In gardening, the edg- 
 es of beds. They are frequently well 
 trenched and manured, so as to be 
 made the richest parts of the garden ; 
 hence, when we are directed to plant 
 in borders, it is usually meant that 
 deep, good soil, and free space are re- 
 quired. 
 
 BORECOLE, or KALE. A species 
 of winter cabbage with divided leaves 
 and open heads. The principal varie- 
 ties are, Grcm Srolch Kale, German 
 Curled, Purple, Jerusalem, CcEsarean 
 108 
 
 BOR 
 
 Kale, and Thousand-headed Callage. 
 The last two grow to four feet, and 
 yield large numbers of sprouts. 
 
 The seed is sown in May : plants 
 are set out in .July. 'J'hey will be 
 found best after slight frost, and may 
 be kept like cabbages during wmter. 
 The stocks, in spring, send out abun- 
 dant tender shoots. An ounce of 
 prime seed will yield nearly four 
 thousand plants. They are so infe- 
 rior to other plants of the cabbage 
 kind as to be scarcely worth cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 BORERS. Beetles and other in- 
 sects, the worms of which -burrow 
 into the bark, wood, or roots of trees. 
 There is a large number of genera 
 and species, some peculiar to one tree 
 or shrub, others common to several. 
 The perfect beetle is usually seen in 
 June and July, either about the trunk, 
 or searching for food in flowers, iS:c. 
 Their place while buried in the tree 
 is known by the holes they leave 
 through the bark. They reside often 
 two years in this way as worms and 
 grubs. 'VMiere woodpeckers are en- 
 couraged in orchards, the trees are 
 kept pretty free from their ravages ; 
 but in New-England they do much 
 damage, and are sought for, and de- 
 stroyed by iron wires, small augers, 
 and other direct means. Catching 
 the mature beetle is much more ad- 
 vantageous, and taking care to have 
 the bark well cleaned, and washed 
 with whale oil soap, lime-water, 
 pitch, strong lye, &c., at the time 
 the eggs are deposited in July. The 
 eggs are usually deposited on the 
 trunk near the ground. 
 
 Many of the borers belong to the 
 Capricorn family, having long anten- 
 n£e. The fol- 
 lowing figures 
 represent two 
 common bo- 
 rers. A, the 
 female apple- 
 tree borer. B, 
 the peach-tree 
 borer. 
 
 The locust, ^ Apple tree Borer 
 
 and all the vari- (Supcvda buuuna). 
 eties of pine and fir trees, are severely 
 
BOX 
 
 BOT 
 
 B. Peach tree borer {S:geria cxitiosa). 1, female 
 
 infested with peculiar borers. These 
 also deposite their eggs about July. 
 
 BORING. In draining, rods are 
 frequently thrust into the subsoil for 
 the purpose of ascertaining the nature 
 of the earth, or the existence of wa- 
 ter or springs. See Auger. 
 
 BOS. The generic name of rumi- 
 nating quadrupeds, having the char- 
 acters of the ox and buffalo. The or- 
 igin of the domestic ox is unknown. 
 
 BOTANY. That department of 
 knowledge which investigates the 
 forms, varieties, and functions of 
 plants in a natural state. It is de- 
 rived from SoTavT}, an herb. 
 
 Structural botany, or Organogra- 
 phy, details the figures of the differ- 
 ent parts of plants, both internal and 
 external. We learn from this de- 
 partment that the interior of vegeta- 
 bles is either made up of small cells, 
 resembling the cavities of the honey- 
 comb (cellulares), or consist also of 
 tubes and veins, as the higher plants 
 (vasculares). The cells are destined 
 either to store up starch, wood, res- 
 ins, or other products of vegetation ; 
 the tubes to convey sap and fluids. 
 In a complete system of organogra- 
 phy, the minutest shades of difference 
 between leaves, roots, &c., are detail- 
 ed with uninteresting prolixity. 
 
 Physiological botany teaches the 
 
 use of the leaf, root, flower, seed, &c. 
 
 It will be fully illustrated under the 
 
 various parts of the plant. 
 
 Descriptive botany is that portion 
 
 C, male; 3, case in which the pupa (4) is enclosed. 
 
 of the science which is devoted to de- 
 scribing and recognising plants. In 
 this there are two methods of proce- 
 dure, the Linnaean and Jussieuan : 
 the former is the simplest, the latter 
 the most perfect, and will be intro- 
 duced in the cases of the leading agri- 
 cultural families, as the bean tribe, 
 cabbage tribe, &c. 
 
 To understand Linnasus's classifi- 
 cation, it is necessary to state thai 
 perfect flowers consist of four parts : 
 1st, an external green or coloured 
 wrapper seen on the bud, called the 
 calyx, consisting of one or more leaf- 
 lets ; 2d, an inner similar system 
 of flower petals, called the corolla ; 
 3d, a number of thread-like bodies 
 carrying a head ; these are the sta- 
 mens, the head being called the an- 
 ther ; 4th, a central thread-like body, 
 single, or divided into several parts, 
 called the pistil, whereof the extrem- 
 ity is the stigma. The pistil is only 
 tlie upper part of the young fruit, or 
 ovarium. In all these points there is 
 much diversity : sometimes neither 
 calyx nor corolla is present ; again, 
 the" stamens, which are also consid- 
 ered the male organs of the flower, 
 may be in one plant, and the pistil, 
 [ or female organ, in another, or in dif- 
 I ferent parts of the same plant. It is 
 ' well known that unless the yellowish 
 ' dust, or pollen, given off by stamens 
 j can reach the stigma, no seeds are 
 ! formed, and that fruit is only produ- 
 1 ced in female plants, or such as con- 
 103 
 
LOTANY. 
 
 tain the pistils. Linncciis divided the I These divisions are also called 
 vegetable world according to the I classes and orders, the first being 
 number of stamens and pistils in the | constructed from the number and po- 
 flower; so that, to know to w^tiat sition of the stamens, the orders by 
 tribe a specimen belongs, we have j the number, ttc, of the pistils. Ev- 
 enly to count these parts, and search ] ery plant, therefore, belongs to a 
 for the name in the proper works un- i class and order, unless it be diaecious. 
 der the general division ascertained. | The classes are as follows : 
 
 Class. 
 I. 
 TI. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIU. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 Styled. 
 
 1 stamen ... Monaudria. 
 
 2 stamens Diandria. 
 
 Triandria. 
 
 Tetrandria. 
 
 Penlandna. 
 
 Hexandria. 
 
 Heptaiidria. 
 
 Octandria. 
 
 Enneandria. 
 
 Decandria. 
 
 Dodecandria. 
 
 Icosandria. 
 
 Polyandria 
 
 Didjiiamia. 
 
 Tetradynamia. 
 
 10 " 
 
 12 to 19 stamens 
 
 20 or more stamens, inserted into the calyx 
 
 20 or more stamens, inserted into the receptacle 
 
 2 long and 2 short stamens 
 
 4 long and 2 short stamens 
 
 stamens united into a tube Monadelphia. 
 
 stamens united into two parcels by filaments Diadelphia. 
 
 stamens united by their filaments into several parcels . . . Polyadelphia, 
 
 stamens united by their anthers into a tube Syiigeuesia. 
 
 stamens united with the pistil ........ Gynandria. 
 
 stamens and pistils m separate flowers, but on the same plant . . Moncecia. 
 stamens and pistils in separate flowers and on separate plants, one 
 
 male, the other female ........ 
 
 stamens and pistils, separate in some flowers and united in others, ) p i 
 
 either on one plant or on two j olyganna. 
 
 stamens and pistils not clearly developed Cryptogamia. 
 
 Diaecia. 
 
 The orders are as follows : 
 
 1 style or stigma . 
 
 2 styles or stigmas . 
 
 3 " " 
 
 4 " " . 
 
 5 " " . 
 
 6 " " 
 
 7 " " . 
 
 8 " " . 
 
 9 " " 
 10 " " 
 12 " 
 
 . Monogynia. 
 . Digynia. 
 . Trigynia. 
 . Tetragynia. 
 . Peutagynia. 
 . He.\agynia. 
 . Heptagynia. 
 . Octagynia. 
 . Enneagynia. 
 . Decagynia. 
 . Dodecagynia. 
 . Polygynia. 
 
 More than 12 styles 
 
 Besides these, which are ascertain- 
 ed by simple enumeration of the 
 styles, Linnaeus divided some of the 
 classes below the thirteenth into pe- 
 culiar orders. Thus, 
 
 The orders of the class Didynamia 
 are two : 1st. Gymnospermia, in which 
 the seed vessel or ovary is divided 
 into four lobes, each giving one style 
 or pistil, and containing one seed ; 
 2d. Angiospcrma, with a perfect ovary, 
 two-celled, and many-seeded. 
 
 In class fifteenth, Tetradynamia, 
 the orders are : 1st. Siliquusa, plants 
 with long pods, as the cabbage ; 2d. 
 miiculosa, Willi short pods. 
 104 
 
 Class nineteenth, Syngenesia, is 
 divided into five orders : 1st. Polyga- 
 mia (cgualis, each flower of the col- 
 lection is furnished with stamen and 
 pistil ; 2d. Pohjgamia siiperflua, the 
 florets round the circumference or 
 disc hermaphrodite, but the central 
 female only ; 3d. Polygamiafrustranca, 
 the disc florets hermaphrodite, the 
 central steril ; 4th. Poli^gamia ncccs- 
 sarla, the florets of the rays or cir- 
 cumference male, those of the centre 
 female ; 5th. Polyganiia scgregata has 
 several florets, either simple or com- 
 pound, but with a proper calyx, in- 
 cluded within one general calyx. 
 
 Class twenty-third, Polygamia, is 
 divided into two orders, as the plants 
 are monaecious or diacious. 
 
 In Cryptogamia there are five or- 
 ders, which are, how'ever, in no way 
 connected with the female organs : 
 1st. Filices, or ferns ; 2d. Musci, or 
 mosses ; 3d. Hcpatica, or liverworts ; 
 4th. Alg(e, or sea-weeds ; and, 5th. 
 Fungi, or mushrooms. 
 
 To discover the name of any plaut, 
 
BOT 
 
 BOU 
 
 or ascertain if it agrees with a par- 
 ticular description, the first step is to 
 learn how many stamens it contains ; 
 this gives us the class. Under this 
 head, in the Flora {Eaton s, Torrafs, 
 or any other dictionarij of plants), we 
 find a certain number of' orders : the 
 place of the plant among these is 
 known by examining the pistils. 
 Thus we have reached the class and 
 order under which will he arranged 
 a description of all the known or com- 
 
 mon genera ; these are to be read 
 carefully, each point of structure be- 
 uig compared with the specimen ; 
 thus the genus is known, and under 
 this the species are found, which usu- 
 ally differ in the form of the leaf and 
 stem. 
 
 The following general view of the 
 vegetable kingdom is an introduc- 
 tion to the natural ystem of Jus- 
 sieu, improved by Dr. Lindley and 
 others : 
 
 According to their Fruits and Flowers. 
 
 I. Having flowers and sexes (Phaneroga- \ 
 mous) ..... ( 
 
 (a). Least number of seed lobes (Co- [ 
 ti/ledons) 2 . . . ) 
 
 Class 1 . Dicotyledons (2 seed lubes always) or 
 2. Gymnosperms (seeds naked) or 
 
 (i). Least number of seed lobes, 1 J or 
 
 Class 3. Monocotyledons (Iseed lobe) or 
 
 (c). Acotyledons ... or 
 
 Class 4. Rhizantks .... or 
 
 II. Having neither flowers nor sexes . ! 
 
 Class 5. Cryptogamic plants 
 
 BOTRYOIDAL. From .3orpff, a 
 bunch of grapes. In botany, any flow- 
 ers, &c., clustered together. 
 
 BOTS. A family ^of two-winged 
 or dipterous insects, the larvje or 
 maggots of which infest the intes- 
 tines, wounds, &c., of domestic ani- 
 mals. The maggots are whitish and 
 conical, of half an inch or more in 
 length, and adhere with great force 
 to the maw of horses, &c. They are 
 taken into the stomach in the form 
 of eggs, which the insect lays on the 
 knees {Gastcrophilus egui) and other 
 parts of the animal, which, being bit- 
 ten off, are swaUowed, and developed 
 in the body. The animal attacked 
 looses appetite, becomes restless, 
 bites his sides, coughs, becomes stiff 
 in the neck, staggers, breathes with 
 difficulty, and may die in the worst 
 stages. 
 
 They are to be hindered by order- 
 ing the groom to remove the eggs 
 in the fall, as soon as they are laid. 
 It is also advisable, as a preventive, 
 to administer, in the spring, a quart 
 of milk with a good dose of molasses, 
 and, shortly after, a quarter of a pound 
 
 According to their Development. 
 ' Theirstems (axis) increasing symmetrically 
 i n density and breadth, as well as in length 
 (Pleurogens). 
 
 Stem in concentric bauds {Exogens). 
 
 Veins of leaves netted. 
 
 Veins of leaves netted or forked. 
 
 j Stem a confused mass of cellular tissue and 
 
 ( wood. 
 r Veins of leaves parallel, and not netted. 
 T Vegetation like mushrooms. 
 r Fungoid flowers. 
 
 ( The stems, or axis, increasing by simple 
 
 ( elongation, or irregular expansion. 
 r Acrogens. 
 
 of Glauber salts, by which the bots 
 are pretty freely evacuated. 
 
 Sheep are pestered with a hot fly 
 {Cephalemyia oris), which deposites its 
 eggs in the nostrils ; the worms 
 hence crawl into the upper parts of 
 the nose and produce great irritation. 
 
 BOTTOM. In horsemanship, en- 
 durance. 
 
 BOTTOM HEAT. In horticul- 
 ture, heat produced by fermenting 
 dung, leaves, bark, &c., applied under 
 beds of earth, &c., for raising or 
 forcing plants requiring a temperature 
 higher than that of the air. 
 
 BOUND. In veterinary medicine, 
 a term applied to the bowels, to indi- 
 cate want of natural action ; to the 
 skin or hoof, to indicate tightness or 
 constriction. A tree is said to be 
 bark bound when the bark cracks 
 and is constricted. 
 
 BOULDER. A massive rock, dis- 
 similar from the adjacent rocks in 
 mineral character, and supposed to 
 have been transported by great floods, 
 icebergs, &c. 
 
 BOUT. In ploughing, one course 
 of the plough. 
 
 -^ 105 
 
it 11 A 
 
 BRA 
 
 BOWEL DISEASF.S. Tiio most 
 prominent arc inflammations. These 
 are of two kinds, of the interior and 
 of the outer membrane of the intes- 
 tines. The first is produced by bad 
 food, inattention to diet, and is at- 
 tended with a hot skin and purging ; 
 the animal is in some degree weak- 
 ened, but may be restored l)y the use 
 of moderate bleeding ; gruel is also 
 administered with soothing medi- 
 cines and astringents : it is seldom 
 fatal. The second kind (peritonitis) 
 is extremely violent ; it is brought on 
 by sudden application of cold, when 
 heated, to the stomach, as in passing 
 a small stream in winter, &c. In 
 farriery it is called the red colic, and 
 is often fatal in twenty-four hours. 
 The animal paws violently, is ex- 
 tremely sensitive over the stomach, 
 struggles, groans, lies on his back, is 
 costive, the legs and flanks are cold, 
 he shivers involuntarily, and sweats. 
 These violent symptoms soon sub- 
 side, and he becomes so weak and 
 anxious as scarcely to stand. As 
 soon as the disease appears, copious 
 bleeding must be had to produce al- 
 most fainting, blistering fluid must 
 be well rubbed over the skin of the 
 stomach, and Glauber salts given. 
 He should be kept quiet, and clothed. 
 This treatment will soon show its 
 good effects, after which he must be 
 fed scantily, and kept warm and cpiiet. 
 
 BOX DRAIN. A drain with square 
 sides, presenting the section of a box : 
 it is usually of tiles or bricks. 
 
 BOX-TREE. The Buzus scmpcr- 
 virens and bukarica produce the dense 
 yellow wood used by engravers, and 
 also for making rules, combs, but- 
 tons, flutes, &c. The best wood is 
 obtained from Southern countries, as 
 Spain and Turkey. The dwarf box 
 is a variety of B. scmpcnnrens. 
 
 BOX OF WHEELS. The iron 
 cylinder in which the axis turns. 
 
 BRACCATE. Bracca, breeches. 
 In ornithology, when the feet are con- 
 cealed by long feathers descending 
 from the tibia>. 
 
 BRACHALYTRA from (Spaxvc, 
 short, and e/.vrpov, shealh). The name 
 of an extensive group of coleopterous 
 lOG 
 
 insects, including all such as have the 
 elytra so short as not to exceed one 
 third the length of tlie abdomen. 
 
 BllACHINUS. A genus of coleop- 
 terous insects, now the type of a fam- 
 ily (Brachmidcc), including those sin- 
 gular beetles which, from their defen- 
 sive anal explosions, are termed 
 " bombardiers." 
 
 BRACHIUM. The lower portion 
 or forearm of the fore extremities. 
 
 BRACT. In botany, the small 
 leaflet situated under the flower. 
 The flowers of grasses, sedges, &c., 
 are bracts which receive the names 
 of glumes and paleae. 
 
 BRAIRD. In Scotch books, the 
 starting of young seedlings. 
 
 BRAKE. An implement to bruise 
 flax and hemp. The wooden pincers 
 used by coopers and others. The 
 snaffle used with horses. A large 
 harrow. 
 
 BRAMBLE. The genus Rubrus. 
 See Blackberry. 
 
 BRAN. The outer membrane of 
 wheat, &,c., rubbed off in the mill. 
 When first used, bran produces a lax- 
 ative effect on horses and other ani- 
 mals. For milch cows and calves it is 
 an admirable fodder, in consequence 
 of the large amount of bone earth it 
 contains ; it is fattening, as it yields 
 four per cent, of oil. As a general 
 article of food, Boussingault makes 
 nine pounds equal ten pounds of prime 
 hay. The quality of bran will, how- 
 ever, differ with the economy of the 
 miller. From good wheat, w ell bolt- 
 ed, there should not be more than 
 seven per cent, of bran. 
 
 BRAND IN CORN. See Burned 
 Ear. 
 
 BRANDY. Liquor distilled from 
 the dregs of wine : it contains fifty per 
 cent, alcohol ; the colour is fictitious, 
 as the spirit is nearly transparent. 
 Burned sugar is the usual colouring 
 matter. 
 
 BRASSICA. The generic name 
 of the cabbage, rape, broccoli family ; 
 they belong to the Crucifercz of Jus- 
 sieu, and Tetradijnamia siliquosa of 
 Linnajus. 
 
 BRAWN. The salted and pre- 
 pared flesh of the wild boar. 
 
BKE 
 
 BREAD. There are three varie- 
 ties extensively used in the United 
 Stales, wheat, corn, and brown or 
 Graham bread. Wheat bread is leav- 
 ened, or rendered light and spongy by 
 yeast, which is worked into the dough, 
 and connmiinicates to the starch of 
 the flour, at a temperature above 60^ 
 Fahr., a fermentation called the pan- 
 ary fermentation, in which sugar and 
 alcohol are formed in small quantity, 
 and the gluten of the flour diminishes 
 even to two per cent. In these chan- 
 ges, carbonic acid gas is given off, 
 and, rising through the dough, pro- 
 duces the cellular texture. When 
 the process goes on too long, vinegar 
 is produced, and the dough becomes 
 sour. The heat of the oven stops the 
 panary fermentation, and hinders far- 
 ther change. Town bakers, by using 
 every expedient to accumulate gas in 
 their loaves, produce a spongy, taste- 
 less bread. 
 
 Corn bread contains no gluten, and 
 will not rise with yeast. It is mere- 
 ly mixed with enough water to be al- 
 most as soft as sticking paste, and 
 baked at once. 
 
 Graham bread is commonly bread 
 containing a little bran, but some- 
 times bi-carbonate of soda and salt 
 are added. 
 
 BREAD FRUIT. Artocarpus insi- 
 
 aa. A tree of the Eastern Archipel- 
 ago, now cultivated in the W^est In- 
 dies also, the fruit of which, cut into 
 slices and roasted, resembles bread, 
 and is much used as a substitute. 
 
 BRE 
 
 BREAD ROOT. The I'soralia es- 
 culcnta, and other species, indigenous 
 in Missouri and throughout the West. 
 The roots are eaten boiled and raw 
 by the Indians. They are of a tena- 
 cious, solid structure, and insipid. 
 
 BREAKING. The education of 
 horses and other animals. It should 
 not commence too young, or they 
 want spirit ; or too late, or they be- 
 come unmanageable. 
 
 BREAKING UP. The ploughing 
 of leys. 
 
 BREASTING. Breasting up a 
 hedge is cutting the face of it on one 
 side, so as to lay bare the principal 
 upright stems of the plants. 
 
 BREASTPLATE. A strap run- 
 ning across the chest of the horse, to 
 hold the saddle tight. 
 
 BREAST PLOUGH. A large 
 spade or shovel, the handle of which 
 is furnished with a cross-piece, 
 against which a man presses, and 
 drives the implement forward through 
 peat or turf, cutting off long slices. 
 It is used chiefly in paring turf to be 
 burned for improvement. 
 
 BRECCIA. A conglomerate form- 
 ed with angular fragments of stones. 
 Some are calcareous, others silicious. 
 
 BREECH WOOL. The coarse 
 short wool of the breech of common 
 sheep. 
 
 BREECHING, or BREECHIN. 
 That part of the horse's harness at- 
 tached to the saddle, and hooked on 
 the shafts, which enables him to push 
 back the cart or other machine to 
 which he is harnessed. 
 
 BREED. A variety among ani- 
 mals. 
 
 BREEDING. The following is 
 from Mr. Rham : 
 
 Breeding is the art of multiplying 
 the domestic animals rapidly, and, at 
 the same time, improving their quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Any breed of animals will perpetu- 
 ate itself, provided there is a suffi- 
 ciency of proper food for them ; and 
 the varieties found in a wild state 
 must depend in some degree on the 
 climate and the products of the coun- 
 try in which they are found. Care 
 and domestication also produce va 
 107 
 
BREEDING. 
 
 rieties whit-li arc much more useful 
 or profitable thcin the wild breeds ; 
 and in the selection of the best indi- 
 viduals to propagate a useful race, 
 and in the rearing of the young, con- 
 sist the art of the breeder. 
 
 "Without entering into particulars, 
 which vary with every species of 
 animal, and with the different varie- 
 ties of the same species, we shall lay 
 down certain principles which expe- 
 rience has proved to be correct, and 
 which, being attended to, will greatly 
 promote the improvement of all the 
 different animals usually bred for the 
 use of man, whether for his suste- 
 nance or for his pleasure. The first 
 thing which is to be kept in view is the 
 chief purpose for which the animal is 
 reared, whether for labour, strength, 
 or for speed ; whether merely for a 
 supply of animal food, or to produce 
 the raw materials of manufacture. In 
 each of these cases distinct qualities 
 are required, and it is seldom that 
 two of these objects can be combined 
 in the greatest perfection. 
 
 Having then determined the pui*- 
 pose for which any species of domes- 
 tic animal is designed, every quality 
 must be attended to which furthers 
 this view ; and, except under very 
 peculiar circumstances, the animals 
 intended to keep up the stock by their 
 produce must be chosen with those 
 qualities in the greatest perfection 
 which are essential to the end. In all 
 animals a perfect conformation of the 
 bodily frame is essential to the due per- 
 formance of the vital functions. The 
 skeleton of the animal should there- 
 fore be as perfect as possible. The 
 capacity of the chest, and the healthy 
 nature of the lungs, are points which 
 must never be overlooked, whatever 
 may be the purpose for which the 
 animal is bred ; for although a defect 
 may be in some measure counteract- 
 ed by a judicious choice of the indi- 
 vidual coupled with the defective an- 
 imal, it is only where there is no al- 
 ternative or choice that any defect in 
 the bodily frame of an animal kept 
 for breeding should be overlooked. 
 In spite of every care, the defect will 
 appear in the offspring ; sometimes 
 108 
 
 not till after several generations. If 
 it were possible to find individuals 
 without fault or defect, no price would 
 be too great for them ; and for those 
 that have been carefully selected for 
 several generations, it is real econo- 
 my to give a very liberal price. In 
 horses bred for racing or for the 
 chase experience has fully proved the 
 truth of this rule ; and no one who 
 pretends to breed race-horses would 
 breed from a mare which had a nat- 
 ural defect, or a horse whose whole 
 pedigree was not free from fault. For 
 mere swiftness, the shape of the ani- 
 mal, whether horse or greyhound, 
 must combine strength with great 
 activity. The chest must be deep, 
 the lungs free, and the digestive, or- 
 gans sound but small, to add as little 
 weight to the body as is consistent 
 with the healthy functions of nature. 
 The legs should be long and slender, 
 and the bones compact and strong ; 
 but the principal thing to be attended 
 to is the courage, and no quality is 
 so hereditary. A horse or hound of 
 a good breed, if in health, will die of 
 exertion sooner than give up the 
 chase. Any defect in courage in an 
 animal intended for great occasional 
 exertion renders him unfit to be se- 
 lected to continue an improved breed ; 
 and, whatever may be his pedigree, 
 he has degenerated. 
 
 With respect to animals whose 
 strength and endurance are their 
 most desirable qualities, a greater 
 compactness of form is required, a 
 greater capacity of the digestive or- 
 gans, and, according to the climate 
 to which they may be exposed, a 
 more suitable covering. Whether it 
 be to ward of!' cold or great heat, a 
 thick covering of hair is equally ser- 
 viceable in both cases. Hardiness 
 of constitution is hereditary, like oth- 
 er qualities ; and the manner in which 
 the young are reared tends greatly to 
 confirm or diminish this. An animal 
 of which the breed originally came 
 from a warm climate, like a tender 
 exotic plant, wants artificial warmth 
 for the healthy growth of its limbs ; 
 while the indigenous and more hardy 
 breeds may be left exposed to the 
 
BREEDIXG. 
 
 elements. An abundance of whole- 
 some food and pure water is essen- 
 tial to the healthy state of every ani- 
 mal, as well as exercise proportioned 
 to its strength. These are circum- 
 stances which it is obvious must be 
 carefully attended to. There are 
 others, the result of long experience, 
 which are equally necessary to be 
 known, but which are not so obvious. 
 These vary according to the species 
 and variety of the animals bred, and 
 it is seldom that the same breeder is 
 equally successful in rearing different 
 species of animals. 
 
 In the animals selected to breed 
 from, there are points, as they are 
 called, which are peculiar conforma- 
 tions, some of which are connected 
 with the natural formation of the 
 skeleton, and others appear to be the 
 result of an association derived from 
 the known qualities of certain indi- 
 viduals. That high withers and a 
 freely-moving shoulder-blade in a 
 horse are connected with his speed, 
 is readily perceived, and that the 
 length of the muscles of the quarter, 
 and the manner of their insertion, 
 should affect his power, is equally 
 evident ; but it is not so apparent 
 that the manner in which the ears 
 are placed on the head, the shape of 
 the nose or jaw, and the insertion 
 of the tail higher or lower, has an im- 
 portant effect on the value of the an- 
 imal, independently of any arbitrary 
 idea of beauty. A breeder who should 
 not attend to these circumstances in 
 the animals chosen to perpetuate the 
 breed would tind, to his cost, that it 
 is more than mere taste which has 
 determined these points. It is the 
 result of observation and experience 
 that certain breeds are invariably 
 distinguished by certain peculiarities, 
 and that these are almost as invaria- 
 bly connected with good qualities, ap- 
 parently quite independent of the 
 parts on which these points appear. 
 
 There is an indication of the dispo- 
 sition of an animal in the eye, in the 
 shape of the head, and in the manner 
 in which it is carried, which seldom 
 deceives an experienced judge. He 
 will not risk introducing a vicious or 
 
 . .K 
 
 : sulky disposition into his breed, which 
 might counterbalance all the good 
 qualities the animal might possess, 
 and introduce a greater hereditary 
 i fault than any imperfection of form. 
 I But nothing is so deceitful as the 
 prejudices which exist with respect 
 I to peculiarities and colours. In some 
 ' countries no ox or cow would be 
 ' thought good of its kind that was not 
 red or brown without spots ; in oth- 
 I ers a certain portion of white is es- 
 ! sential. This is owing to the common 
 ' colour of the breeds most esteemed 
 I in each country. Tlie reason of the 
 i prejudice is the association of the 
 I colour with some defect, and those 
 i who breed for profit by sale must be 
 i ruled by the taste of their customers. 
 ' The rational mode of proceeding is 
 to be well acquainted with the anat- 
 , omy of the kind of animal which we 
 : make the subject of our attention ; to 
 learn by experience what are the pe- 
 culiar qualities of the different breeds, 
 ; distinguished by any particular fea- 
 i ture, and whether these qualities 
 have any apparent connexion with 
 I the peculiarity in make or colour. 
 ' We may then be guided by the knowl- 
 edge thus acquired in our choice of 
 individuals to perpetuate the breed, 
 and not only preserve the useful qual- 
 ; ities which they already possess, but 
 gradually improve them. No greater 
 i mistake can be committed than that 
 of making what are called violent 
 crosses, such as coupling a very spir- 
 ited male with a sluggish female, an 
 animal with large bones with one of 
 very slender make, a long-limbed 
 I animal with a compact one. By such 
 i crosses the first produce has often 
 appeared much improved ; but nature 
 IS not to be forced, and if the breed 
 is continued, innumerable deformi- 
 : ties and defects are certain to follow, 
 [ The safe way is, to choose the ani- 
 I mals as nearly alike in their general 
 I qualities as possible, taking care that 
 j where there is a defect in one it ex- 
 i ist not in the other, which would in- 
 ; fallibly perpetuate it. A defect can 
 j never be remedied by means of an- 
 j other of an opposite kind, but, by 
 I great attention, it may be diminished 
 109 
 
BREEDING. 
 
 gradually, and at last disappear en- 
 tirely. This refers, however, to de- 
 fecls, not to peculiar qualities. Cows, 
 for example, may produce either milk 
 or fat in abundance from similar food ; 
 and a breed of cow which secretes 
 too much fat, so as to be deficient in 
 the milk necessary to rear the calf, 
 may be improved by selecting such 
 as give more milk, and by crossing 
 the breed with these ; but we must 
 be careful not to choose individuals 
 •which differ much in sliape from the 
 breed to be improved. Every at- 
 tempt to unite opposite qualities is 
 generally attended with a bad re- 
 sult. If a breed has too great an 
 aptitude to fatten, so as to endanger 
 the fecundity of the mother or the 
 health of the offspring, the only rem- 
 edy is to diminish the oily nature of 
 the food ; and if, on the otlier hand, 
 a difficulty is found in fattening cows 
 which are of a peculiarly good breed 
 for the dairy, the loss on the old cow 
 sold half fat will have been amply 
 repaid by the milk she has given ; 
 and the bull-calves which are not 
 wanted to rear for bulls, if they are not 
 profitable to fatten as oxen, must be 
 fatted off young and sold for veal. 
 But it is not a necessary consequence 
 of an abundant produce of milk that 
 the cow, when dry, will not fatten 
 readily, although a great propensity 
 to fatten renders the breed less fit 
 for the dairy. The Ayrshire, which 
 are good milkers, fatten well when 
 dry, and tiie oxen of that breed are 
 as kind feeders as any. 
 
 Many breeders have an idea that 
 coupling animals which are nearly 
 allied in blood produces a weak race ; 
 others consider it as a prejudice, and 
 among those who held the latter 
 opinion was the famous breeder 
 Bakewell. Without deciding tliis 
 point, we should recommend avoid- 
 ing too near a relationship, provided 
 individuals equally perfect can be 
 found of the same breed more dis- 
 tantly related. Every individual has 
 some peculiar defect, and his de- 
 scendants have a tendency to this 
 defect. If two immediate descend- 
 ants are coupled, this defect will 
 110 
 
 probably be confirmed ; whereas by 
 uniting the descendants of different 
 individuals the defect of either of the 
 parents may never break out ; but 
 sooner than retrograde by coupling 
 an inferior animal with one in an im- 
 proved state, we should not liesitate 
 to risk the consequences supposed to 
 arise from what is called breeding in 
 and in, that is, coupling animals near- 
 ly related in blood, especially if only 
 on one side, such as the produce of 
 the same male by different females, 
 or of a female by different sires. 
 
 The qualities which distinguish 
 animals in which the muscles and 
 bones are required to be much exer- 
 cised, as dogs, horses, and working 
 oxen, are very different from those 
 of animals destined to accumulate 
 mere tender flesh and fat for human 
 food. In the former there must be 
 spirit, activity, and quick digestion ; 
 in the latter, indolence and proneness 
 to sleep are advantageous. In the 
 first, the lungs must play with ease, 
 and the muscles be strong, and not 
 encumbered with fat. In the second, 
 the lungs must be sound, as they are 
 essential to all the secretions, and 
 the digestive power must be good, 
 but slow. The food must not be ac- 
 celerated through the bowels by ex- 
 ercise, but the absorbent vessels of 
 the intestines must draw all the nonr- 
 isiiment from the digested food. The 
 more the muscles are impeded with 
 fat, the better the animal will repay 
 the food given him. To choose an 
 animal to breed from whose produce 
 shall get fat readily, we must attend 
 to this part of the constitution, and 
 care little about spirit and activity. 
 The tendency to secrete bone, and 
 those parts which are called offal by 
 the butchers, as being of inferior val- 
 ue, is a defect. Good flesh and fat 
 are the great objects. 
 
 The manner in which the more sol- 
 id parts of the body are formed, and 
 the greater consumption of food, in 
 proportion to the increase of weight 
 which takes place in young animals, 
 while bones and horns are grov^ing, 
 prove that it is much more expensive 
 to produce bone than flesh, and mus- 
 
BRLIEDLNG. 
 
 cular fibre than fat. Hence it is ev-| 
 ident that the greater profit is in fat- 1 
 tening annuals that have finished their i 
 growth ; and also that there is a su- ; 
 periority in those breeds which have 
 small bones and no horns. This is j 
 an important point to be attended to j 
 by a breeder, as is also the time when j 
 the bony secretion is completed. A | 
 breed of animals that will cease to 
 grow, or have attained their full size . 
 of bone at an early age, will be much ■ 
 more profitable to the grazier than one 
 of slower growth. It is in this respect 
 chiefly that certain breeds of sheep 
 and cattle are so far superior to oth- 
 ers. The principles which apply to 
 cattle are equally applicable, mutatis 
 mutandis, to sheep. In no case are 
 strong bones or horns of much im- 
 portance to the sheep in its domestic 
 state. The principal objects are wool 
 and flesh, which appear to be depend- 
 ant on distinct and, perhaps, incom- 
 patible qualities. The attempt to 
 unite the two is perhaps the reason 
 why the Spanish breed, which has 
 been improved when transported into 
 Saxony, has degenerated in England, 
 so that even its crosses are not in re- 
 pute. It is a matter of mere calcula- 
 tion, whether sheep kept for their 
 wool chiefly are more profitable than 
 those which give an increase of meat 
 at the expense of the quality of the 
 wool. A breeder of sheep who at- 
 tends only to the quality of the wool 
 will not have his attention taken off 
 from the main object by any deficien- 
 cy in the carcass, or the disposition 
 of the animal to increase in flesh and 
 fat. It is possible that mixed breeds 
 may be more profitable than the pure. 
 Fine wool may not repay the breeder 
 and rearer of sheep so well as mod- 
 erate wool and good meat. But the 
 principle we contend for is that of 
 producing the most perfect animal of 
 any one variety existing, by correct- 
 ing individual defects gradually, and 
 avoiding fanciful crosses, which may 
 destroy in one generation all the ad- 
 vantages obtained in a great many. 
 Hence it is a matter of great impor- 
 tance to consider well the qualities of 
 the individuals with which you begin 
 
 your improvement, and to know that 
 
 these qualities have existed in their 
 progenitors, and are not merely acci- 
 dental. If crossing appear necessa- 
 ry, let it be done very gradually and 
 cautiously. No experienced breeder 
 would ever expect to improve the 
 fleece of a sheep of the Leicester 
 breed or the carcass of the Merino by 
 a direct cross between these two 
 breeds. The offspring would most 
 probably lose all the good qualities 
 for which each hreed is noted, and 
 produce a mongrel breed worth little 
 in comparison. But a cross of Meri- 
 noes with South Downs, or Leicester 
 with Costwold, might produce new 
 and useful breeds, and these, carefully 
 selected, as has been done, have pro- 
 duced mixed breeds, which by great 
 attention may become very valuable. 
 
 ■\Mien it is determined what breed 
 of animals you wish to perpetuate and 
 improve, the individuals which are to 
 be the parents of the stock cannot be 
 too carefully selected. The more 
 nearly they are alike in form, colour, 
 and exterior appearance, the more 
 likely they are to produce a distinct 
 race. They should neither be above 
 nor under the usual size. They should 
 be of such an age as to have entirely 
 ceased growing, and be arrived at 
 perfect maturity ; and, whatever may 
 be their good qualities, they should 
 not be selected, if they are the prod- 
 uce of very aged parents, at least on 
 the female side. 
 
 In horses and horned cattle many 
 breeders prefer a male rather less in 
 size than the female, and pretend that 
 the fuetus has more room to develop 
 its members in what they term a roomy 
 female. There may be some truth in 
 this, but equality of size, or rather the 
 due proportion established in nature, 
 seems most likely to produce a well- 
 formed offspring. Any considerable 
 deviation from this is generally at- 
 tended with defect. Nothing is more 
 common than for a country gentle- 
 man who has a useful, favourite mare, 
 not particularly well bred, when any 
 accident has rendered her unfit for 
 work, to have her covered by some 
 very high-bred stallion, expecting to 
 111 
 
BRE 
 
 BRE 
 
 Iiave a very superior foal. Sometimes 
 
 lliis succeeds, but in genera! it ends 
 in disappointment, especially if tlie 
 mare be small. A much more certain 
 way is to choose a half-bred stallion, 
 nearly of the size of the mare, and 
 having those good points which the 
 mare already possesses. In this case 
 there is every probability of rearing a 
 well-proportioned and useful animal, 
 instead of a cross-made one, as the 
 breeders call them, probably from the 
 very circumstance of these crosses not 
 succeeding in general. We advert to 
 this as a fact which many of our read- 
 ers may know from experience. 
 
 To give in a few words the rules 
 which result from what we have very 
 brietly stated : 
 
 Choose the kind of animal which 
 you wish to breed from, having dis- 
 tinguishing qualities ; keep these con- 
 stantly in view, and reject all individ- 
 uals in which they are not as perfect 
 at least as in the parents. Select the 
 most perfect forms, and let the de- 
 fects be corrected gradually. Have 
 patience and perseverance, and avoid 
 all attempts at any sudden alteration 
 by bold crosses. If possible, breed 
 two or more famdies of the same 
 kind, keeping them distinct, and only 
 occasionally crossing the one with the 
 other. In this manner a very impro- 
 ved breed may be produced. The near- 
 er you approach to perfection, the 
 more ditficult will be the selection, | 
 and the greater the danger of retro- j 
 grading. Hence in very highly bred 
 stocks it is often almost impossible to 
 keep up the perfection of the breed, 
 and a fluctuation in the quality of the 
 produce will take place. The more 
 improved the breed is, therefore, the 
 greater attention must be paid in the 
 selection of those which are to con- 
 tinue it. And for want of this, al- 
 most every breed, however reputed 
 it may have been at one time, grad- J 
 ually degenerates, and loses its great i 
 superiority. I 
 
 As every farmer and occupier of 
 land is more or less a breeder, if he 
 be only a breeder of pigs, these ob- 
 servations may be useful. In the ar- j 
 tides on each particidar species of j 
 112 
 
 animal, these general principles are 
 applied, and more particular direc- 
 tions are given. 
 
 BREEDIXG IN AND IN. This 
 is very injurious ultimately both in 
 animals and man. 
 
 BREEDING PONDS. Ponds for 
 raising j-oung fish ; they should have 
 shallows with reeds and sedges. Pike 
 and pickerel are in the habit of devour- 
 ing the spawn when they can reach It. 
 BREEZE FLIES. The bot flies, 
 JSslridcB. 
 
 BREWING. The making of beer. 
 This consists of the following opera- 
 tions : 1st. The malt, properly ground 
 or crushed, is put into a large tub 
 with a false bottom, perforated by nu- 
 merous holes, and furnished with a 
 faucet. Over the malt, water, heated 
 from 170= to 185°, is poured, and the 
 whole well stirred or mashed together 
 for some time. It is then allowed to 
 settle, and the infusion drawn off into 
 another tub. If two varieties of beer, 
 ale and small beer, be desired, this 
 first portion is kept separate, other- 
 wise it is mixed with the second 
 infusion. The second mash-water 
 should be nearly 200° Fahrenheit. 
 Four bushels of malt are treated to 
 one and a half barrel, or fifty-one gal- 
 lons of water, each mashing. The 
 second infusion, after standing to set- 
 tle, is also drawn off, and the two to- 
 gether form the sweet wort. 
 
 2d. The worts, mixed or separate, 
 and even mixed with a third int'usion, 
 are next transferred to the boiler, and 
 hops added. The amount of hops de- 
 pends partly on the taste and partly 
 on the strength of the beer ; for com- 
 mon beer four pounds to the four bush- 
 els will answer. For the strongest 
 ales as much as twenty-eight pounds 
 are used. This mixture is boiled an 
 hour and a half or more, until the 
 fluid begins to assume a bright colour. 
 3d. It is then drawn oil" into cool- 
 ers, or at once into the fermenting 
 tuns. When cooled to about 60° 
 Fahrenheit, two pounds of fresh yeast 
 are added to every thirty-four gallons 
 of wort, and the tun kept at the same 
 temperature. As soon as fermenta- 
 tion is fairly established, and its first 
 
Bill 
 
 BRI 
 
 violence somewhat subsided, the li- 
 quor is transferred to suitable casks, 
 the bunghole of which is left open as 
 long as yeast is cast up, and afterward 
 securely fastened. As soon as the 
 beer or alcoholic fermentation ceases, 
 vinegar begins to form, and the w'hole 
 sours. 
 
 A wort may be prepared from any 
 sweet juice or germinated seed, and, 
 treated in the same way, will make 
 beer. The strength of ales depends 
 on the large quantity of sugar in the 
 wort. Porters are coloured by brown 
 malt, molasses, &c. Numerous bit- 
 ters, many very injurious, as Cocculus 
 Indicus, are used instead of hops. 
 
 BRICKS. Blocks of burned clay 
 eight inches long, four wide, by two 
 and a half deep. Larger moulds are 
 made for particular purposes. Build- 
 ings have been recently erected of 
 unburned bricks, which appear to be 
 cheap, substantial, and durable when 
 protected on the outside by cement 
 or mortar. The following account 
 of the method employed in Geneva, 
 New- York, gives all the necessary 
 details : 
 
 The materials are two parts clay, 
 one sand, with straw and water, as in 
 ordinary brick-making. It is well 
 trodden or worked by oxen until 
 sticky. With the materials for one 
 thousand bricks three hundred pounds 
 of straw are mixed. The bricks are 
 moulded with an ordinary wooden 
 frame, of the size intended for the 
 wall, so as to form it one brick deep. 
 For a building thirty feet in height, 
 bricks eighteen inches square, and six 
 deep ; for lower cottages, twelve inch- 
 es square will answer. The mould is 
 dipped in water, sanded, and then fill- 
 ed with clay, and struck with a piece 
 of wood. The fresh-made brick should 
 be sanded if the day be hot. They are 
 set flat on the dry ground on boards, 
 and towards night the sets are cov- 
 ered with boards. The next day they 
 are set on end, with spaces between 
 the bricks, and after four days of fine 
 weather they are piled up with air 
 spaces, and covered with boards. In 
 a fortnight they are ready for use. 
 
 The foundations are set in stone or 
 
 K2 
 
 burned bricks, two feet above the 
 
 earth, and the first course of blocks put 
 down in water-liine. Interior parti- 
 tions are put up with bricks of the ordi- 
 nary size. Windows and doors should 
 not be fixed permanently at once, but 
 left until the building is well set. Fix- 
 tures to the wall are fastened into 
 timbers introduced during the build- 
 ing. Fire-places m.ust be of burned 
 brick. The roof must project suffi- 
 ciently to keep water from running 
 into the materials. 
 
 A coating of water-lime or cement 
 completes the building, which is said 
 to be warm and perfectly free from 
 dampness, and very much cheaper 
 than wood. " A house in Geneva, 
 New- York, twenty-one by twenty- 
 seven feet, and two stories high, cost 
 less, when completed, than four hun- 
 dred dollars."' For a fuller account, 
 see the Home Missionary for Septem- 
 ber, 1844. 
 
 BRICK EARTH. Any stiff clay, 
 containing fifty to seventy per cent, 
 of real clay, and the rest sand : the 
 latter of these answers also for tiles. 
 It is either blue or red. 
 
 BRIDLE. A contrivance made of 
 straps or thongs of leather, and pie- 
 ces of iron, in order to keep a horse 
 in subjection, and direct him in trav- 
 elling. The several parts of a bridle 
 are the bit or snaffle ; the head-stall, 
 or leather from the top of the head to 
 the rings of the bit ; the fillet, over 
 the forehead and under the fore-top ; 
 tlie throat-band, which buckles from 
 the head-band under the throat ; the 
 nose-bands, going through the loops 
 at the back of the head-stall, and buck- 
 led under the cheeks ; the reins, or 
 long thongs of leather that come from 
 the rings of the bit, and which, be- 
 ing cast over the horse's head, the ri- 
 der holds in his hands. 
 
 BRIMSTONE. Roll sulphur, made 
 by melting and casting common sul- 
 phur. vSee Sulphur. 
 
 BRINING GRAIN. Grain and the 
 seeds of grasses, &c., are often pre- 
 pared, before sowing, by being intro- 
 duced into a strong brine, which may 
 be heated to 150° Fahrenheit, or even 
 higher. The brine is made by adding 
 113 
 
BKr 
 
 BRO 
 
 common coarse or refuse salt to \va- 1 
 ter until it is strong enough to float j 
 an egg. The brined seed is afterward 
 dusted with ncwly-slackcd lime, and 
 sown. The great benefit is the de- 
 struction of the seeds of smut, rust, 
 mildew, and other blights : when heat 
 is added, the eggs of many insects 
 are also killed. Stale urine is also 
 used with great effect in the same 
 way, as well as strong wood-ash lye. 
 The plan of brining is extensively 
 resorted to throughout England and 
 Scotland with great success ; indeed, 
 so beneficial does small doses of salt 
 appear, that on the seashore, and on 
 farms where refuse salt is used, smut 
 is almost unknown. A solution of one 
 pound of salt to one gallon of water is 
 recommended as a wash or sprinkling 
 for plants infested by mildew and oth- 
 er fungi by the late Mr. Cartwright. It 
 is, however, injurious to some vege- 
 tables. Brining has been often found 
 to save a field from rust and smut 
 when all other grain was infested. 
 
 BRISTLES. The stiffhair of hogs. 
 Independently of their economical val- 
 ue, they constitute a manure as good 
 as old woollen rags, containing, in- 
 deed, the same substances, and yield- 
 ing ammonia by decay. Wliere they 
 can be had in sufficient quantities, 
 one half to three fourths of a ton is a 
 heavy manuring for five years for hops, 
 turnips, cabbages, tobacco, hemp, flax, 
 wheat, corn, and rich plants gener- 
 ally. The same applies to all kinds 
 of waste hair or wool. 
 
 BRITISH GUM. Starch heated to 
 600' Fahrenheit, by which it becomes 
 brown and soluble in cold water. 
 
 BRITTLE HOOF. An aftection 
 of the horse's hoof, very common, es- 
 pecially in summer, in England, from 
 bad stable management. A mixture 
 of one part of oil of tar and two of 
 common fish oil, well rubbed into the 
 crust and the hoof, will restore the 
 natural pliancy and toughness of the 
 horn, and very much contribute to the 
 quickness of its growth. — {Youatl on 
 the Horse.) 
 
 BRIZA. The generic name of 
 the quaking grass (B. media). It is a 
 poor perennial grass. 
 114 
 
 BROAD-CAST SOAVING. The 
 distribution of seed or manures over 
 land by casting with the hand or by 
 a maciiine. The sower carries a bas- 
 ket on tlie left arm, and throws with 
 his right hand as he walkes along be- 
 tween the lands or ridges of the field, 
 sowing one half its width in going, 
 and the other half in returning on the 
 other side. Small seeds are usually 
 cast with some earth. It requires ex- 
 perience and good ploughing to seed 
 well, for unless the ridges between 
 each furrow are well marked, so as 
 to present grooves to receive seed, 
 they will not grow in rows ; but when 
 the furrows are nicely laid the plants 
 appear as regularly as if drilled. Of 
 late it has been customary to dispar- 
 age sowing by broad-cast, in conse- 
 quence of the waste of seed, the ten- 
 dency to weeds in the ground, and 
 the difficulty of exterminating them. 
 To avoid these evils, drills are intro- 
 duced. The broad-cast method is cer- 
 tainly altogether inapplicable to tur- 
 nips or any other crop requiring hoe- 
 ing, or liable to destruction from 
 weeds, and is now seldom practised in 
 such cases ; but wheat, grains, grass- 
 es, fallow crops, &c., are thus sown 
 most readily and very effectively. 
 Machines for broad-casting are of lit- 
 tle utility where the farmer has a lit- 
 tle experience. 
 
 BROCCOLI. An improved variety 
 of cabbage, the flower buds of which 
 are eaten. It differs from the cauli- 
 flower only in the looseness of the in- 
 florescence. The varieties are nu- 
 merous, the early white and white 
 cape being best ; but the purple cape 
 is the only kind much cultivated. The 
 seeds of the last are sown towards 
 the end of May in the Middle States, 
 and later in the South ; for winter 
 supplies later sowmg will be neces- 
 sary. An ounce of seed produces 
 3000 to 4000 plants. Transplant in 
 July, or when the plants are large 
 enough, into very rich, dunged, and 
 mellow earth ; plant 18 to 24 inches 
 apart each way ; moisten the earth 
 frequently with fluid manure : hoe 
 and keep clean during their growth. 
 They will be in season in September 
 
BRO 
 
 BRO 
 
 and October. For winter kintls, it will 
 be necessary to take plants up as 
 soon as slight frosts appear, lay them 
 in light soil, and place them in frames, 
 to ripen during winter and early 
 spring. In tlie Southern -Slates the 
 winters are mild enough to allow of 
 their growth abroad. 
 
 BROKEN KNEES. See Horse, 
 Diseases of. 
 
 BROKEN WIND. Prof. Youatt 
 attributes this incurable nuisance in 
 horses to stuffing them with too much 
 coarse provender, and working soon 
 after meals. Horses are granivor- 
 ous, and should rest at least one hour 
 after food, be fed three times daily, 
 and not once or twice. 
 
 BROMINE. An elementary brown 
 fluid, of a rile odour {Spuuog), extract- 
 ed from salt-water and sea-weeds. 
 It is very similar to chloriiie in its 
 properties ; hitherto used only by Da- 
 guerrian artists. Its scarcity makes 
 it very expensive. 
 
 BROMUS. A genus of grasses, of 
 which B. secalinvs, common cheat, or 
 chess, is most famous. Many species 
 exist in America, but they are not of 
 value in permanent meadows. 
 
 BRONCHIA, i^poyxo^, the throat.) 
 The ramifications of the windpipe in 
 the lungs. 
 
 BRONCHITIS. Inflammation of 
 the bronchia. See Horse, Diseases of. 
 
 BRONCHOTOMY. The operation 
 of openins the trachea low down. 
 
 BROOD-MARES. Mares should 
 not breed till three years old. When 
 taken care of they bear twenty years. 
 They heat in spring, and carry young 
 about eleven months. May is the 
 best month for covering. 
 
 BROOM. The European shrub 
 Spartium scoparium, which bears 
 bright-yellow papilionaceous flowers, 
 and is hence cultivated in shrubber- 
 ies. It is used also as a cover for 
 game and shelter to young planta- 
 tions. iS. jnncenm, Spanish broom, 
 is prettier, and fragrant. 5. mono- 
 spermnm bears white flowers. These 
 are common, except the last, through- 
 out the United States. 
 
 BROOM-CORN. The Sorsrhum 
 saccharatum. Another plant, the S. 
 
 dora, is the Indian millet. The cul- 
 tivation of broom-corn for the manu- 
 facture of brooms and for seed is of 
 great profit in the Yalley of the Con- 
 necticut, Mohawk, and in New-.Jer- 
 sey. It would be still more profita- 
 ble in the South, as in these localities 
 the frost sometimes hurts the plants 
 before the seed ripens. 
 
 The best variety is the New- Jer- 
 sey, which yields upward of 1000 lbs. 
 of broom, and much seed, per acre. 
 The North River yields 720 lbs. The 
 pine-tree variety is earliest, but small 
 and thin. The seed crop averages from 
 50 to 80 bushels. The best alluvial 
 soils are chosen, and well manured. 
 The seed is planted in May. at the rate 
 of a tea-spoonful to the hill, the hills 
 being three feet by eighteen inches 
 apart, so as to allow the cultivator to 
 run between the rows. The hills are 
 dunged with old compost immediate- 
 ly before sowing. It is hoed or work- 
 ed three times, like corn. Seven to 
 ten plants are left in the hill ; the 
 thinning takes place at the first hoe- 
 ing. The crop is harvested at the 
 first frost. The stems are bent, or 
 partly broken 2.V feet from the ground, 
 and left to dry for a few days ; the 
 stalks are next cut. at six or eight 
 inches from the brush. The produce 
 is next dried in the barn on scaffolds, 
 or in any convenient way. The best 
 broom is cut when of a yellowish 
 green. The seed is removed by pull- 
 ing the panicles or brooms through a 
 scraper, which tears them ofl^. Mr. 
 Allen, of Massachusetts, who has had 
 much experience in this matter, rec- 
 oiiunends the following contrivance : 
 
 The lower board rests on the barn 
 floor; the upper is moveable by a 
 hinge, and can be set at any height ; it 
 is intended to grasp the three upright 
 rods, B ; the central is of stout iron, 
 the side ones of elastic steel. The 
 115 
 
BllU 
 
 panicles are forced down between 
 these rods, and tlicn pulled towards 
 A ; thus the seed is torn ofT, and slides 
 down the ui)pcr hoard into the barn. 
 
 The seeds are worth twenty-five to 
 thirty cents the bushel, and arc con- 
 sidered equal to oats. The broom 
 sells at from four to six cents the 
 pound. It is a very profitable crop, 
 and will remain so, from the large 
 exportations of brooms. The large 
 quantity of seed it produces consti- 
 tutes it a very exhausting crop. 
 
 BROOM GRASS, or STRAW. 
 The genus Andropoiron, so called from 
 the little tufts of hair or beards on 
 their flowers. They are not introdu- 
 ced into culture, and have little eco- 
 nomical value. 
 
 BROWN DYES. The common- 
 est are the decoctions of oak bark, 
 common bastard marjoram, walnut 
 peels, horse-chestnut peels, and cate- 
 chu. Oak bark and walnut (English 
 walnut is best) give dyes without 
 mordants, but are brightened by al- 
 um. Catechu (1 lb.) combined with 
 blue vitriol (4 oz.) gives a bronze 
 when used in a boiling solution. The 
 tints of brown are, however, so nu- 
 merous, that it is more common to 
 use madder as a basis for the red 
 tints, fustic for the yellows, and use 
 solution of iron and copper as mor- 
 dants, and even a gall-nut hath after- 
 ward, to reach the proper shade. 
 
 BROWSE. The young branches 
 of trees, shrubs, &c. {v.) To feed. 
 
 BRUCHUS. A Linnaean genus 
 of coleopterous insects, of the tribe 
 Hhyncophora, now the type of a fam- 
 ily {Bruchula-), with the following 
 characters : upper lip distinct ; head 
 produced anteriorly into a broad, flat- 
 tened snout ; palpi filiform ; antenna 
 filiform or serrate ; eyes notched ; 
 wing-sheaths not covering the ex- 
 tremity of the body. The insects of 
 this family deposite their eggs in the 
 young grains or seeds of legumin- 
 ous plants ; the time of the hatching 
 of the eggs is when the seeds have 
 approached to maturity, and then the 
 larvae begin to feed voraciously upon 
 them. One species, the Bruchus gra- 
 narius, infests our pease ; and the rav- 
 IIG 
 
 BUG 
 
 ages of this insect and the Bruchvs 
 pisi have been so extensive as to call 
 for legislative interference. 
 
 BRUCIA. A vegetable alkaloid, 
 simihir to strychnine, and poisonous. 
 
 BRUMALIS. (Bruina,ici?t(er.) Ap- 
 pertaining to winter. 
 
 BRYONY. Bryonia dioica. K climb- 
 ing herb, of a poisonous nature. 
 
 BUCK. The male of deer, rab- 
 bits, &c. 
 
 BUCK-BEAN. Menyanthcs trifoli- 
 ala. A swamp plant, with handsome 
 flowers and bitter leaves. The latter 
 are used as a substitute for hops, and 
 are a mild tonic. 
 
 BUCK-EYE. Two western trees 
 bear this name, the Pavia lutea and 
 Ohiocnsis; they belong to the same 
 family as the horse-chestnut. They 
 are wholly ornamental, the wood be- 
 ing of no value as timber. 
 
 BUCK-THORN. The Rhamnus ca- 
 tharticus. A prickly shrub, suitable for 
 hedges. It is indigenous in New- 
 York, and easily cultivated by seeds, 
 slips, or suckers. The berries are ca- 
 thartic and griping. The R. infecto- 
 rius, a similar shrub, produces the fa- 
 mous French or Persian yellow ber- 
 ries used in dyeing. It might be read- 
 ily cultivated south of Maryland, as it 
 grows in Provence. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. The grain pro- 
 duced by the Polygonum fagopyrum 
 (rt), tartaricum (b), and a few other 
 species. In the United States the 
 first only is cultivated ; but it is said 
 a new wild Italian species yields more 
 abundantly. The seeds are small, 
 dark, and angular. From twenty to 
 thirty bushels are obtained from the 
 common kind per acre. Buckwheat 
 is usually sown on rocky places or 
 poor soils, of a silicious or calcare- 
 ous nature ; but it grows well nearly 
 anywhere. It may be sown in May 
 for a full crop ; or immediately after 
 wheat, rye, or oats, for a fall crop ; or 
 still later, to be fallowed in the fall. 
 From 1 to U bushels are necessary to 
 the acre. It soon starts in a dry, 
 warm soil ; flowers in July or earlier, 
 and continues producing flowers for 
 some time. As it is a native of Per- 
 sia, the least frost is injurious ; it 
 
BUG 
 
 7^y , ~-Ki.- 
 
 should therefore be cut early in Oc 
 tober, or at the end of September. 
 As the seeds scatter, some recom- 
 mend pulling by the roots ; but a cra- 
 dle-scythe answers every purpose. In 
 consequence of the succulence of the 
 stems, it requires to be sweated in 
 cock ^vhen dried for fodder, and 
 should be threshed as early as con- 
 venient. The stalk, well cured, is a 
 good rough fodder, and forms a valu- 
 able addition to the cattle-yard. ]\I. 
 Antoine has shown, on the most au- 
 thentic data, that it is very superior 
 to common straw, and of half the 
 value of prime hay. 
 
 As a fallow crop, it is very valua- 
 ble, from the size (2 feet) if attains 
 on poor sands, and the ease with 
 which it ferments and yields food to 
 the next crop. The flowers are 
 sought by bees, but form a dark, rath- 
 er harsh honey. It is also cut in 
 flower for soiling milch cows, and is 
 very good mixed with clover, but too 
 much is apt to produce drowsiness. 
 Poultry and all cattle eat the seeds or 
 meal. It is rather superior to oats, 
 as the following composition shows ; 
 
 Woody fibre 25 
 
 Starch 50 
 
 Albumen, &,c 145 
 
 Oil 04 
 
 Salts 1-5 
 
 Water 160 
 
 TocT 
 
 BUD 
 
 Its ashes sometimes contain an 
 exoess of potash salts, sometimes of 
 lime, thaee being isomorphous. 
 
 The scods are ground into meal 
 for making buckwheat cakes, which 
 are highly relished throughout the 
 country. In Germany malt is made 
 with them, and beer and spirits. 
 Birds, especially pheasants, are very 
 fond of them. The Maine farmer 
 recommends the cultivation of buck- 
 wheat to destroy couch grass ; the 
 first crop is to be ploughed in when 
 flowering, and another seeded upon 
 it at once ; from the last, grain may 
 be collected. 
 
 Some species of polygonum yield 
 good yellow dyes, as the Siberian ; 
 others, as the bistorta, are acrid and 
 poisonous. 
 
 BUD. The growing point of a 
 branch, consisting of young unex- 
 panded leaflets or flower petals. 
 Winter buds contain a small store of 
 starch and albumen at their base to 
 sustain the leaflets in spring. Flower 
 buds are usually developed on spurs or 
 in the axils of leaves, while leaf buds 
 are seen on the vigorous shoots. All 
 buds are in contact with the inner 
 bark of trees, and with the young 
 wood, from which latter they derive 
 sap for development. Adventitious 
 or latent buds are such as break out 
 from the bark of trees without hav- 
 ing any external sign or eye ; they 
 are, however, marked on willows by 
 roughnesses on the bark, in other 
 trees by knaurs. In all that respects 
 structure and function, the eyes ot 
 potatoes, dahlias, the bulbs of tulips, 
 onions, and all seeds are perfect buds, 
 tliese different parts being modifica- 
 tions of the same general plan. 
 
 The development of lower buds in 
 trees or branches is readily effected 
 by cutting away the upper, which, as 
 they are more excitable, usually take 
 the first start, and, using all the sap, 
 hinder the growth of the lower eyes. 
 
 BUDDING. The insertion or in- 
 oculation of the buds of one tree into 
 the branches or stock of another. 
 The buds are to be taken from the 
 year's shoot about midway, and from 
 a healiiiy, full-bearing "tree. The 
 117 
 
BUD 
 
 BUF 
 
 time is from July to September, 
 as soon as buds are well formed. 
 The incision into the slock is through 
 the bark down to the new wood and 
 in the form of a T; this can be made 
 with any knife, but the following is 
 called a buddinc knife : 
 
 The bark must be raised at the an- 
 gles, and should separate readily from 
 the wood. The bud is cut along with 
 a b abouthalf an inch of bark 
 (a), and slightly into the 
 wood, so that the part im- 
 mediately below the eye 
 may be so furnished, and 
 not hollow. The wood re- 
 moved is only to ensure 
 the heart of the bud, and as little as 
 possible is left in the insertion. The 
 part above the eye is then cut straight 
 (i), and the bud introduced between 
 the lips of the wound on the stock, 
 down to the new wood, and pushed 
 in firmly, the upper cut part corre- 
 sponding very nicely with the hori- 
 zontal incision. A bass riband, a 
 strip from the shuck of corn, or any 
 other bandage that does not hold wa- 
 ter, is then cast round the stock two 
 or three times above the bud, and 
 gradually brought round so as to bind 
 the insertion tightly, except over the 
 eye. The riband must be loosened 
 in two or three weeks if the bud 
 swells, so as to give room for growth. 
 Spring budding is also practised, the 
 winter's bud of a tree being inserted 
 at the time of sap rise ; the only dif- 
 ference in this case is, that the inci- 
 sion is inverted thus J^, and care is to 
 be taken that the bud has been cut a 
 few days, so as to be rather behind 
 the vegetation of the stock. 
 
 The stock or branch after budding 
 is to be lopped down by a clean trans- 
 verse cut at about three buds above 
 the insertion, all the lower buds being 
 removed. In spring, or when the in- 
 sertion starts, it is to have full room, 
 and as it gathers strength, the upper 
 natural shoots from the buds left are 
 to be pruned, and finally cut altogeth- 
 er away towards midsummer, if the 
 msertion has taken well. 
 118 
 
 Budding is practised to secure 
 choice varieties of fruits, to mix or- 
 namental kinds on the same tree, and 
 to improve shrubbery. But the pro- 
 cess is seldom successful unless the 
 stock and variety are of the same 
 species or nearly allied. The only 
 difhculty in the way is the entrance 
 of rain water into the wound of the 
 stock ; to hinder this effectively, it is 
 well to add a little cement of tallow 
 and wax over the incision, or to use 
 bass dipped in such a mixture while 
 warm. 
 
 In the dahlia, orange, and some 
 other trees cultivated for dwarfs, the 
 bud is inserted on a piece of the root 
 instead of a stock ; this is, however, 
 termed grafting, as it is introduced in 
 the cleft fashion. 
 
 BUFFALO. The American buffa- 
 lo or bison (Bos Amcricanus), once in- 
 habiting the central portions of the 
 United States, are now driven be- 
 yond the Mississippi. They are found 
 in immense flocks, and are very timid 
 and retired, except in the rutting sea- 
 son, when the bulls become fierce and 
 pugnacious. Tlie animal is remark- 
 able for a hump on the back between 
 the shoulders, for a long mane, broad 
 chest, and great strength of head and 
 neck. The buffalo breeds readily with 
 domestic oxen, but the young of the 
 bull buffalo is too large for the pelvis 
 of the common cow ; hence the mix- 
 ture can only be made by crossing 
 the wild cow by the domestic ox. 
 Captain Jenkins, of Missouri, has sev- 
 eral half-breeds of this kind, which 
 promise to be capital draught ani- 
 mals, large, heavy, hardy, and easily 
 sustained. 
 
 The skin is handsome, black, and 
 glossy, and a considerable article of 
 trade. The hide, tanned, is said to 
 be softer, thicker, and less pervious 
 to water than the ox hide. 
 
 BUFFALO BERRIES. The fruit 
 of the Shcphardia (or Hippophcc) argcn- 
 tea, silver-leafed shephardia. A hand- 
 some, thorny, small tree of Missouri. 
 It is diaecious, the fruit scarlet, of the 
 size of currants, in profuse clusters. 
 It is said to be rich in flavour, and ex- 
 cellent for pies and preserves. 
 
BUR 
 
 BUS 
 
 BUFFALO GRASS. A Western 
 indigenous grass of small size, form- 
 ing a delicate mat. and growing on 
 dry, gravelly soils. The s^ama grass 
 is sometimes called by this name. 
 
 BUG. A common word, meaning 
 any insect, hut properly applied only 
 to the bedbug (Cimex Icctularius), 
 which is the upe of an extensive 
 family of filthy insects which accumu- 
 late from neglect of cleanliness and 
 laziness. Solutions of corrosive sub- 
 limate in water, ointments with the 
 same poison, and fumigations with 
 tobacco are used with success in de- 
 stroying these insects. Boiling wa- 
 ter poured into the crevices of beds, 
 and repeated every week during 
 spring, is very efficacious. 
 
 BUHR-STONE. The mill-stone for 
 flouring ; it possesses great hardness 
 with little brittleness, is cellular, of a 
 bluish gray, and feebly translucent. 
 The best kind has a texture nearly 
 half cellular, and is entirely silicious ; 
 the pieces or panes of rock are bound 
 together by hoops of iron when set 
 up for use. The great and valuable 
 supply of buhr-stone is from near Par- 
 is in the lacustrine deposite, above the 
 gypsum. It is the latest rock forma- 
 tion known. 
 
 Buhr-stone has been discovered in 
 Georgia, near the South Carolina 
 boundary, about forty miles from the 
 sea. It lies above shell limestone. 
 
 BULB (from 3o?.6oc). A rounded 
 body, having the properties of a bud, 
 usually growing in the ground, but 
 sometimes produced by the flower 
 stalk. Bulbs are lumcated, as the 
 onion, and squamous or scaly, like the 
 lily. Many bulbs, when cut down 
 through the centre, and planted in 
 pieces, produce several plants. On- 
 ions are cultivated in this way in 
 Russia. The adjectives bulbous, hul- 
 bosus, are formed from bulb. The 
 fleshy, solid root-stock of orchis is 
 not a bulb, hut cormus. 
 
 BULBODIU.M. An underground 
 stem resembling the root-stock. 
 
 BULL. The excellence of the bull 
 should be well considered in breedinii. 
 
 BULLACE. A wild plum of alight 
 colour. 
 
 BURDOCK. Arctium lappa, and 
 bordana. Troublesome, long-rooted 
 weeds, difficult to eradicate. Their 
 medicinal (pialities are imaginary. 
 BURNED CLAY. See Clai/. 
 BURNED EAR. The disease pro- 
 duced in grain by the Urcdo carho. It 
 resembles smut, but does not attack 
 the interior of the seed. It is most 
 common on heavily-dunged lands in 
 moist situations. Bnmng, especial- 
 ly in a brine containing a little blue 
 vitriol, is efficacious in destroying its 
 effects on grain. 
 
 BURNET SALAD. Potcnum stni- 
 guisorba. It grows on the poorest 
 calcareous soils, and is perennial. It 
 may be propagated by cuttings or 
 seeds. The leaves taste and smell 
 like cucumbers ; hence its use in 
 salads. It is relished by sheep. 
 
 BURNS. A lotion of clear lime- 
 water and linseed oil applied with a 
 rag, and cautiously guarding from ex- 
 posure to air, dust, or to injury, by a 
 bandage, is the best treatment. 
 
 BURSA MUCOSA. Small bags 
 contaming a fatty mucus, situated be 
 tween the joints in all animals. 
 
 BUSH. Any shrub which natural- 
 ly throws out branches near or under 
 ground. Wild bushes are destroyed 
 by grubbing, by cutting down during 
 summer, or by tearing up with oxen. 
 July is the best month for cutting 
 thein down. 
 
 BUSH DR.'VINING. Placing bush- 
 es in the water-way of drains : the 
 tops should be against the current. 
 It answers well enough for twelve or 
 more years, but is not so permanent 
 as other means. 
 
 BUSH HARROWING. Drawing 
 a bush attached to a chain over bro- 
 ken lands or seeded fields ; or, when 
 a weight is used, and tborny branch- 
 es, it is sometimes employed to scar- 
 ify meadows and prune the grass 
 roots. An old gate may be used as 
 a frame, or the more substantial con- 
 ' trivance figured on the next page. 
 ! BUSHEL. A measure containing 
 4 pecks, 8 gallons, or 32 quarts. It 
 should contain 80 pounds of water, 
 or 2218192 cubic inches of capacity, 
 I to constitute an imperial bushel. Tho 
 113 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 old Winchester bushel contained only 
 2150 42 cubic inches. 
 
 BUSTARD. Oils tarda. A large 
 gallinaceous fowl indigenous to Eu- 
 rope and Asia, often weighing twen- 
 ty-five to twenty-seven pounds, and 
 of delicious flavour. It has not yet 
 been domesticated. 
 
 BUTTER. The preparation of 
 butter is an important part of rural 
 economy. Butter is the fat or oleagi- 
 nous part of the milk of various ani- 
 mals, principally of the domestic cow. 
 The milk of the cow is composed of 
 three distinct ingredients : the curd, 
 the whey, and the butter ; the two 
 first form the largest portion, and the 
 last the most valuable. The compar- 
 ative value of the milk of different 
 cows, or of the same cows fed on 
 different pastures, is estimated chief- 
 ly by the quantity of butter contained 
 in it ; and in this respect some breeds 
 of cows are far superior to others. 
 The union of the component parts of 
 milk is chiefly mechanical, as they 
 separate by subsidence according to 
 their specific gravities, the cream be- 
 ing the lightest, and the curd the 
 heaviest ; the curd, however, re- 
 quires a slight cliemical change for 
 its separation from the wliey, which, 
 at the same time, produces a peculiar 
 acid, called the lactic acid. From the 
 moment that milk is drawn from the 
 cow it begins to be affected by the 
 air and changes of temperature, and 
 circumstances almost imperceptible 
 to our senses will materially affect 
 its quality ; hence the importance of 
 extreme care and attention in every 
 step of the process of the dairy, es- 
 pecially in making butter. 
 
 The cows should be milked in the 
 cool of the morning and evening ; 
 120 
 
 they should not be n)ueh driven im- 
 mediately before milking, and it is 
 best to bring them to tlie place of 
 milking some time before the opera- 
 tion begins. In some situations it is 
 better to milk them in the pastures, 
 and carry the milk home ; in others, 
 to drive the cows gently to the cow- 
 stall. In mountainous countries the 
 first mode is generally adopted, be- 
 cause the cows are apt to leap down 
 steep places, and shake the milk in 
 their udder more than is done by car- 
 rying it in the pail. 
 
 As the slightest acidity or putres- 
 cence immediately causes an internal 
 chemical action in milk, it is of the 
 greatest importance that the place 
 where the cows are milked, and the 
 persons employed, should be of the 
 greatest purity and cleanliness. The 
 milking house should be paved with 
 stone or brick, and no litter or dung 
 be permitted to remain in it. It 
 should be w^ashed out twice a day, 
 immediately before each milking, 
 which, besides en.suring cleanhness, 
 produces a refreshing coolness high- 
 ly useful to the milk. The teats of 
 the cows should be washed clean 
 with water and a sponge. The ves- 
 sels into which the milk is drawn 
 from the cow should be made of very 
 clean wood ; they should be scalded 
 immediately after having been used, 
 and then exposed to the air, so as to 
 be perfectly dry by the next time of 
 using them. Tin vessels are prefer- 
 able to wood, because they are not 
 so easily tainted, and are more easily 
 kept clean. Where these are used 
 they should always be kept bright, by 
 which means the least speck of dirt 
 is immediately discovered. 
 
 The milk, as soon as it is brought 
 
BUTTEH. 
 
 into the dairy, is strained through a 
 fine sieve or cloth, in order to remove 
 any extraneous matter, and it is then 
 poured into shallow pans or troughs. 
 The best pans are of iron, carefully 
 tinned. Such pans are cool in sum- 
 mer, and in winter allow of the appli- 
 cation of heat, which is often very 
 useful to make the cream rise. When 
 leaden troughs are used, they are 
 generally fixed to the'wall, and have 
 a slight inclination towards one end, 
 where there is a hole with a plug in 
 it, by drawing which the thin milk is 
 allowed to run off slowly, leaving the 
 cream behind, which runs last through 
 the hole into the pan placed under to 
 receive it. The milk in the pans, or 
 troughs, is generally four or five inch- 
 es in depth, which is found most con- 
 ducive to the separation of the cream. 
 The place where the milk is set should 
 have a thorough draught of air, by 
 means of opposite windows. The 
 sun should be carefully excluded by 
 high buildings or trees, and the floor, 
 which should always be of brick or 
 stone, should be continually kept 
 moist in summer, that the evapora- 
 tion may produce an equal, cool tem- 
 perature. A small stove in winter is 
 a great advantage,, provided smoke 
 and smell be most carefully avoided, 
 and the temperature be accurately 
 regulated by a thermometer. All 
 these minutiae may appear superflu- 
 ous to those who have no practical 
 knowledge of the dairy ; and many 
 dairymen, who cannot deny the truth 
 of what we have stated, may excuse 
 their deviation from these rules by 
 saving that good butter is made with- 
 out so much care and trouble. This 
 may be true ; but they cannot ensure 
 good butter at all times ; and when 
 cleanliness and order are brought to a 
 regular system the trouble disappears. 
 When' the milk has stood twelve 
 hours, the finest parts of the cream 
 have risen to the surface, and if they 
 are then taken off by a skimming 
 dish, and immediately churned, a very 
 delicate butter is obtained ; but, in 
 general, it is left twenty-four hours, 
 when the cream is collected by skim- 
 ming, or the thin milk let off by ta- 
 L 
 
 ' king out the plug m the trough. All 
 the cream is put into a deep earthen 
 jar. Stone-ware is the best. .More 
 cream is added every day, till there is 
 a sufficient quantity to churn, which, 
 in moderate dairies, is every two 
 days. It is usual to stir the cream 
 often, to encourage a slight acidity, 
 by which the process of churning is 
 accelerated. This acidity is some- 
 times produced by the addition of 
 vineg:ar or lemon juice ; but, howev- 
 er this may facilitate the conversion 
 of the cream into butter, we would 
 not recommend it, as the quality is 
 decidedly injured by it, especially 
 butter which is to be salted. It has 
 been asserted by some authors that 
 butter will not separate from the but- 
 ter-milk until acidity is produced, and 
 no doubt there is more or less of 
 lactic acid in all butter-milk ; but per- 
 fectly fresh cream, which has stood 
 only one night, and is churned early 
 next morning, will generally produce 
 excellent butter in a quarter of an 
 hour or twenty minutes in summer, 
 and no acid taste can be discovered 
 in the butter-milk. That the state 
 of the atmosphere with respect to 
 temperature has a powerful influence 
 on the making of butter, is a well- 
 established fact. 
 
 The common method employed to 
 separate the butter from the thinner 
 
 ' portion of the cream is by strong 
 agitation. The common instrument 
 is the churn, which is a wooden cask 
 rather wider at bottom than at the 
 top, covered with a round lid with a 
 hole in the centre. Through this 
 hole passes a round stick, about four 
 feet long, inserted in the centre of a 
 round, flat board with holes in it ; 
 the diameter of this board is a little 
 less than that of the top of the churn. 
 
 \ Various improvements have been 
 made on this machine. The cream 
 should not fill above two thirds of the 
 churn. By means of this stick, held 
 in both hands, and moved up and 
 down, the cream is violently agitated, 
 passing through the holes in the board 
 and round its edge every time the 
 stick is raised or depressed, and thus 
 
 , every portion is brought into contact 
 121 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 with the air. In the course of an 
 hour's churning, more or less accord- 
 ing to circumstances, small kernels 
 of butter appear, which are soon uni- 
 ted by the pressure of the board 
 against the bottom of the churn, and 
 form a mass of solid butter. The 
 butter is collected with the hand, and 
 placed in a shallow tub for the next 
 operation. The butter-milk is set 
 aside for the pigs, or for domestic 
 use. The butter is still mixed with 
 some portion of butter-milk; but much 
 of its quality for keeping depends on 
 the perfect separation. The most 
 usual way is to spread it thin in a 
 shallow tub, beating it with a flat 
 •wooden spoon, and washing it repeat- - 
 edly with clear spring water until all 
 milkiness disappears in the water 
 •which is poured ofT. Some experi- 
 enced dairymen pretend that the but- 
 ter is deteriorated by much wash- 
 ing, and, therefore, express the but- 
 ter-milk by simply beating the butter 
 •with the hand, kept cool by frequent- 
 ly dipping it in cold water, or with a 
 moist cloth wrapped in the form of a 
 hall, which soaks up all the butter- 
 milk, and leaves the butter quite dry. 
 This operation requires the greatest 
 attention, especially in warm weath- 
 er ; and no person should work the 
 butter who has not a very cool hand. 
 The less it is handled the better, and 
 therefore a wooden spoon or spatula 
 is much to he preferred. The pres- 
 ence of any curd renders butter liable 
 to putrefaction, and is, to a great ex- 
 tent, the cause of the unpleasant taste 
 of that made carelessly in summer. 
 
 The greatest portion of the butter 
 that is made, especially at a distance 
 from large towns, is immediately salt- 
 ed and put into casks, which usual- 
 ly contain fifty-six pounds, and are 
 called firkins. The quality of the salt 
 used is of great importance ; if it be 
 pure, the butter will keep its flavour 
 for a long time ; but when it is im- 
 pure, and contains hitter and deliques- 
 cent salts, the butter soon becomes 
 rancid. The Dutch are very particu- 
 lar in this point. They use a kind of 
 salt which is made by slow evapora- 
 tion, and perfectly crystallized. The 
 122 
 
 salt is intimately mixed with the but- 
 ter. From three to five pounds are 
 sufficient for a firkin of fifty - six 
 pounds. The following mixture has 
 been found superior to salt alone in 
 curing butter : half an ounce of dry 
 salt, pounded fine, two drachms of su- 
 gar, and two drachms of saltpetre, for 
 every pound of butter. It is used in 
 Goshen, Orange county, New-York. 
 The casks are made of clean white 
 wood. They are carefully washed 
 inside with strong brine made hot, 
 and rubbed over with salt. The but- 
 ter, being quite dry, is pressed close 
 into the cask, a small layer of salt 
 having been first put on the bottom. 
 Every addition is carefully incorpora- 
 ted with the preceding portion. If 
 there is not a sufficient quantity to 
 fill the cask at once, the surface is 
 made smooth, some salt is put over 
 it, and a cloth is pressed close upon 
 it to exclude the air. When the re- 
 mainder is added at tlie next churn- 
 ing, the cloth is taken off, and the 
 salt which had been put on the sur- 
 face carefully removed with a spoon. 
 The surface is dug into with a small 
 wooden spade, and laid rough, and 
 the newly-salted butter is added and 
 incorporated completely. This pre- 
 vents a streak which would other- 
 wise appear at the place where the 
 two portions are joined. When the 
 cask is full, some salt is put over it, 
 and the head is put in. If the butter 
 is well freed from all the butter-milk, 
 and the salt mixed with it quite dry, 
 it will not shrink in the cask, and it 
 will keep its flavour for a long time. 
 Should there be an appearance of 
 shrinking, the cask must be opened 
 and melted butter poured round it, so 
 as to rill up the interstices between 
 the butter and the cask ; in this w-ay 
 it will not suffer in its quality. There 
 is a mode of preserving butter for do- 
 mestic use without salt, in the follow- 
 ing manner : the butter is set in a 
 clean pan over the fire and melted 
 very gently ; it is not allowed to boil, 
 but is heated very nearly to the boil- 
 ing point. Experience has shown 
 this lieat to be attained when the re- 
 . flection of the white of the eye is dis- 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 tinctly seen on the surface of the but- 
 ter on looking down into the pan. All 
 the watery particles are then evapo- 
 rated, and the curd, of which a por- 
 tion always remains in the butter, 
 and which is one cause of its becom- 
 ing rancid, falls to the bottom. The 
 clear butter is poured into an earthen 
 vessel and covered over with paper, 
 and a bladder or a piece of leather is 
 tied over the jar to exclude the air. 
 When it is cooled it much resembles 
 hog's lard. It has lost some of its 
 flavour, but it is much superior to salt 
 butter for culinary purposes, and es- 
 pecially for pastry. 
 
 The Devonshire method of making 
 butter differs materially from the 
 common process which we have de- 
 scribed, and is peculiar to that coun- 
 ty. The milk, instead of being set 
 for the cream to rise, is placed in tin 
 or earthen pans holding about eleven 
 or twelve quarts each. Twelve hours 
 after milking, these pans are placed 
 on a broad iron plate, heated by a 
 small furnace. The milk is not al- 
 lowed to boil, but a thick scum rises 
 to the surface. As soon as small 
 bubbles begin to appear where a por- 
 tion of this is removed with a spoon, 
 the milk is taken off and allowed to 
 cool. The thick part is taken off the 
 surface, and this is called clouted 
 cream. It is a sweet, pleasant sub- 
 stance, more solid than cream, but 
 not so solid as butter, and is consid- 
 ered as a dainty by all those who have 
 been early accustomed to it. A very 
 slight agitation converts it into real 
 butter, after which it is treated ex- 
 actly as we have before described. It 
 does not keep well. It does not ap- 
 pear that there is any peculiar advan- 
 tage in the Devonshire method. 
 
 Another method of making butter, 
 which is more generally adopted, is 
 to churn the milk and cream together. 
 In the Dutch method the milk is put 
 into deep jars in a cool place, each 
 meal, or portion milked at one time, 
 being kept separate. As soon as 
 there is a slight appearance of acidi- 
 ty, the whole is churned in an upright 
 churn, which, from the quantity of 
 milk, is of very large dimensions. 
 
 The plunger is therefore worked by 
 machinery moved by ahorse, or some- 
 times by a dog walking in a wheel, 
 which he turns by his weight. When 
 the butter begins to form into small 
 kernels, the contents of the churn are 
 em[)tied on a sieve, which lets the 
 butter-milk pass through. The but- 
 ter is then formed into a mass, as de- 
 scribed before. This, from Professor 
 Trail's experiments, is the most eco- 
 nomical method, as the quantity of but- 
 ter is great and the butter-milk rich. 
 
 In Scotland the following method 
 is pursued : the milk is allowed to 
 cool for six hours, and then put into 
 a clean vat. As long as it remains 
 sweet, more milk may be added, but 
 not after any acidity is produced. It 
 is then covered and allowed to get 
 sour, till it coagulates at the top ; this 
 coagulum is called the lappa; Avhich 
 must not be broken till the butter is 
 churned. When the clotted milk is 
 put into the churn, warm w^ater is 
 added so as to raise the temperature 
 to 70^ or 80=, the whole being grad- 
 ually stirred in. When this is prop- 
 erly conducted, the butter-milk will 
 be very pleasant and wholesome, with 
 a sub-acid taste, the whey and curd 
 not being separated from each other 
 for some time after. The butter is 
 said to be fully equal to that made 
 from cream alone. — (Quarterly Jour- 
 nal of Agriculture, Dec., 1834.) 
 
 The quality of the butter depends 
 on some very minute circumstances, 
 which escape the notice of all super- 
 ficial observers. The smallest parti- 
 cle of putrescent matter accidentally 
 added, and even mere effluvia, give 
 a turn to the chemical action going 
 on from the moment the milk is ex- 
 posed to the air, and they taint the 
 cream more or less. The quantity 
 of pure cream which rises when the 
 milk is set in the pans, as well as its 
 quality, is infhienced by these circum- 
 stances. When the milk curdles be- 
 fore the cream is separated, it is al- 
 most impossible to prevent some por- 
 tion of the curd being mixed with the 
 butter. In its perfectly fresh state 
 the taste is not affected by this ; but 
 the butter will not keep fresh above 
 123 
 
BUT 
 
 twenty-four hours, and when salted 
 soon becomes rancid. Thus a great- 
 er quantity is produced, but of inferior 
 quality. When cheese is made of 
 the milii from which the cream has 
 been taken, it will be found most 
 profitable not to attempt to take off 
 all the cream by repeated skimming ; 
 for more will be gained in the better 
 quality of the cheese than by an in- 
 crease in the quantity of the butter 
 at the expense of the quality. 
 
 It is an acknowledged fact that, 
 such are the niceties of the dairy, 
 great experience alone can ensure a 
 produce of superior quahty, and this , 
 experience would be more readily 
 acquired if the circumstances were | 
 accurately observed and noted. We i 
 would recommend to those who have | 
 extensive dairies to mark by the ther- 
 mometer the temperature of the milk 
 and cream in the different stages of j 
 the process, occasionally to test the 
 acidity of the butter-milk by means of i 
 alkalies, and to note any peculiarity ] 
 in the atmosphere by an electronic- j 
 ter. A few observations carefully : 
 noted, repeated, and compared would 
 throw more light on the true causes [ 
 which favour or oppose the produc- ; 
 tion of good butter than all the guess- 
 es that have hitherto been made. 
 
 The quality of the butter depends 
 materially on the nature of the pas- 
 ture. The best is made from cows 
 fed in rich, natural meadows. Cer- 
 tain plants which grow in poor and 
 marshy soils give a disagreeable taste 
 to the butter. When cows are fed 
 with cut grass in the stable, the but- 
 ter is inferior, except in the case of 
 some artificial grasses, such as lu- 
 cerne. Turnips and other roots given 
 to cows in winter communicate more 
 or less of a bad taste to butter, which 
 is corrected in some degree by means 
 of a small quantity of water and salt- 
 petre added to the milk ; and also, it 
 is said, by giving salt to the cows 
 with their food. But there is no but- 
 ter made in winter equal to that which 
 is made where the cows are fed en- 
 tirely with good meadow hay, especial- 
 ly of the second crop, called after-math 
 hay, which contains few seed stalks. 
 121 
 
 BUT 
 
 According to the accounts of the 
 produce of butter from different coun- 
 tries and various breeds of cows, we 
 may state that, on an average, four 
 gallons of milk produce sixteen oun- 
 ces of butter ; and to make the feed- 
 ing of cows for the dairy a profitable 
 employment, a good cow should pro- 
 duce six pounds of butter per week 
 in summer, and half that quantity in 
 winter, allowing from six weeks to 
 two months for her being dry before 
 calving ; that is, one hundred and 
 twenty pounds in twenty weeks after 
 calving, and eighty pounds in the re- 
 mainder of the time till she goes dry ; 
 in all, about two hundred pounds in 
 the year. If she produces more, she 
 may be considered as a superior cow ; 
 if less, she is below par. To produce 
 this quantity the pasture must be 
 good, and we must allow three acres 
 to keep a cow in grass and hay for a 
 year, which is not very far from the 
 mark. 
 
 An inferior kind of butter is made 
 in some cheese dairies from the oily 
 portion of the milk skimmed from the 
 whey, which is set in pans, like milk, 
 after the cheese has been made. It 
 is totally unfit for salting and keeping. 
 It is known by the name of whey but- 
 ter.— {W. C. Kham.) 
 
 BUTTERFLY. Insects of the ge- 
 j nus Papilio (Lin.) in the imago state, 
 i Many of them are produced from the 
 j caterpillars most injurious to culti- 
 I vated plants and trees, as the goose- 
 berry and cabbage butterflies. 
 1 BUTTERNUT. A tree of the wal- 
 j nut genus, Juglans cinerca. It is dif- 
 ! fused throughout the United States. 
 The wood is of a reddish colour, 
 1 light, soft, but very durable, and not 
 liable to attacks from insects. It is 
 highly esteemed for turnings in the 
 Eastern States, and is abundantly 
 used for panelling for carriages, and 
 ; building generally. The inner bark 
 is cathartic, and a decoction is used 
 } by housewives. 
 ■ BUTTERS, VEGETABLE. The 
 solid oils of the cocoa, nutmeg, palm, 
 chocolate. &c., are so called. 
 : B U T T N-\\' O O D. False syca- 
 more. The Platanus occidenlalts, west- 
 
CAB 
 
 CAB 
 
 em plane-tree, the largest, and one of 
 the handsomest trees of America. It 
 reaches its full dimensions only in the 
 rich alluvion of the middle Western 
 States, on the banks of the Ohio. 
 The wood is soft, and decays rapidly 
 when exposed, but is serviceable for 
 sheltered carpentry. The tree in the 
 Northern Slates has been much in- 
 jured by early frosts and insects. 
 
 BUTTS. The short ridges which 
 are made by the plough in the cor- 
 ners of irregular fields. 
 
 BUTYRIC ACID. An oily vola- 
 tile acid found in rancid butter, and 
 having a rancid smell ; it is soluble 
 in water, alcohol, and ether : boils at 
 212 . It consists of Cs Hju On HO 
 (ch). It is formed by the oxidation 
 of the component of butter called 
 butyrine, and yields by distillation 
 from lime butryone, a neutral vola- 
 tile liquid. 
 
 BUXUS. The generic name of the 
 box plants. See Box-tree. 
 
 BYRE. A cow-shed for feeding, 
 &c. 
 
 BYSLINS. The first milk of the 
 cow after calving. 
 
 BYSSUS. A general name for the 
 thread-like mould of cellars and cav- 
 erns of vegetable origin. They be- 
 long to many genera, and to the fami- 
 ly of fungi. 
 
 C. 
 
 CABBAGE. The varieties of 
 cabbage, coleworts, broccoli, are all 
 derived, by cultivation, from the 
 Brassica olcracea, a sea-shore plant, 
 indigenous to Europe. It belongs 
 to the cruciferous family of Jussieu, 
 and Tetradynamia siliqunsa of Lin- 
 naeus. 
 
 In agriculture, they may be divided 
 into three classes : 1st. Those that 
 form heads. 2d. Those that grow 
 erect without forming heads. 3d. 
 Those that are napiform, as KoJd 
 rabe. 
 
 Of Cabbages which form Heads. — 
 These may be divided into early, 
 midsummer, and autumn kinds. Of 
 the first, the early dwarf, early York, 
 early sugar loaf, early imperial are 
 the best. The midsummer kind are 
 L2 
 
 the large York, large sugar-loaf, Ber- 
 gen, drumhead, flat Dutch, and the 
 autumn, the late glazed red, and the 
 varieties of Savoy. The seeds, in 
 ordinary culture, are sown in April ; 
 but for early crops they are sown in 
 September, and covered by a frame 
 during winter ; or in a frame in Feb- 
 ruary, care being taken to supply 
 light and air without admitting frost. 
 An ounce of seed yields from 3000 to 
 4000 plants. In the garden, where a 
 succession is required, seeds must be 
 sown every two weeks from Februa- 
 ry to May. The seeds start in a 
 week, and are fit to transplant in six 
 or seven weeks. There is, however, 
 no advantage in transplanting too 
 soon, as the young plants are very 
 liable to be destroyed by the cutworm 
 and insects during June and early in 
 July. They are set in rows 16 inch- 
 es to 2 feet apart, allowing sutficient 
 room for hoeing, ploughing, &c. The 
 Bergen are set 30 inches apart. It 
 is economical to place an extra plant 
 between each, to be cut for collards. 
 At this rate, the acre contains about 
 6000 plants. The soil must be very 
 fine, and well dunged, for no vegeta- 
 ble is more improved by putrescent 
 manures. In planting, it is necessa- 
 ry to use a trowel to open the ground, 
 and not a stick to ram a hole. The 
 process of dipping the roots in a sem- 
 ifluid mass of fine earth and water, 
 with half a pound in four gallons of 
 crude nitre, and of whale-oU soap, is 
 highly recommended as ensuring a 
 vigorous start for the plants, and be- 
 ing very serviceable in keeping off 
 worms. A bucket with this mixture 
 can be readily carried by the planter. 
 The ground must be ploughed, hoed, 
 or thoroughly stirred three tunes du- 
 ring their growth, weeds being de- 
 stroyed, and the soil kept fine. Du- 
 ring a dry season they require water- 
 ing, and will be much benefited by 
 the use of fluid manures. The soil 
 they most relish is a moistish loam, 
 made very rich with putrescent ma- 
 I nures. Extensive fields of cabbages 
 are cultivated near New- York city ; 
 the early kinds and large Bergen, 
 \ Savoy, and red being most preferred. 
 125 
 
CAB 
 
 CAB 
 
 The following is an estimate of the 
 expense, by Mr. Wyckoff, for an acre : 
 40 loads street manure, SU) ; labour 
 in distributing, 83 ; ploughing, har- 
 rowins, and hoeing, S9 ; or in all, §28. 
 The field contained 6000 plants, and 
 3000 heads sold in market realized 
 S66. As soon as frosts set in the 
 cabbages must be put up for protec- 
 tion. This is done by burying them 
 up to the head in a dry, warm situa- 
 tion, stripping off decayed or broken 
 open leaves, and packing them close- 
 ly together, taking care that they are 
 free from moisture. A low shed is 
 then to be formed over them with 
 straw, pine brush, boards, <kc., so as 
 to keep out the sun and frost, at the 
 same time that air circulates freely. 
 In the depth of winter it may be neces- 
 sary to place straw around the sides 
 of the shed ; or, the cabbages being 
 cut, may be stored in a root cellar. 
 
 Nutritious Value. — Cabbages are 
 seldom raised as food for stock in 
 the United States, although it is com- 
 mon enough to throw to hogs, &c., 
 the under leaves which have begun 
 to decay. In Germany and France 
 they are extensively used as fodders. 
 Two general kinds are employed, 
 the open-leaved and hearted : of the 
 first kind, according to Antoine's ta- 
 bles, 541 pounds are equal to 410 of 
 green clover, or 100 of grass hay ; 
 but the hearted cabbage, according 
 lo Boussingault, is much more valua- 
 ble, 370 pounds being equal to 100 
 l)Ounds of hay. The amount of food 
 procured from some of the cow cab- 
 bages is immense, often amounting 
 during the year to upward of 100,000 
 pounds of leaves the acre. 
 
 Specific jSIanures. — The cabbage 
 family are especially improved by 
 well-decayed manures and by gyp- 
 sum, or particularly by solutions of 
 crude nitre and Glauber salts, one 
 pound in about four gallons of wa- 
 ter, applied by a flowering-pot, when 
 transplanted ; and subsequently they 
 will be found of the greatest utility. 
 
 Seeds. — To obtain fine seeds, put 
 
 out some of the heads which have 
 
 been kept through winter ; as soon 
 
 as the weather permits, thin down 
 
 126 
 
 the flower-stems to a few at the sides. 
 Take care to keep the varieties sep- 
 arate, or they become mixed and 
 spoiled. 
 
 ! It should be remarked of the cab- 
 j bage stems kept over till spring, that, 
 if they be set out, numerous eyes will 
 develop, which afibrd early greens, 
 and may be kept bearing a long time 
 by hindering them from seeding. 
 1 2d. Of the open-leaved Varieties. — 
 The principal varieties cultivated in 
 Europe are the tree, or thousand- 
 headed ; the cow cabbage, or Caesa- 
 1 rean cole ; the Jersey cole ; the Wo- 
 burn kale, and Poiiou cabbage. They 
 are sown in autumn in beds, planted 
 out from November to February, are 
 ready for plucking in April, and con- 
 I tinue to afford leaves for forage du- 
 ' ring the summer, the stems running 
 j up to six and more feet. They stand 
 ! the winters of France, and might be 
 grown in the .Middle and Southern 
 : States. It may be very questionable 
 — when the rich land necessarj', and 
 ! the labour of cultivation are consider- 
 : ed — whether they will be ever grown 
 ' in the United States. 
 j 3d. Of napiformCabhages. — Several 
 j hybrid varieties between the turnip 
 ! and cabbage have been produced ; 
 I these either have a swollen root and 
 cabbage head, as the Kohl rabe, or they 
 I produce a turnip-like head. They 
 j are little cultivated, and resemble 
 turnips, but are much less infested 
 by insects. 
 
 CABBAGE, DISEASES OF. 
 Clubbing of the roots arises from 
 worms, and is produced by growing 
 them too long in one locality. See 
 Anbury. Cabbage lice are the same 
 as bean lice. See Aphis. They are 
 destroyed by infusion of tobacco, 
 lime dust, salt. Worms of various 
 kinds infest the leaves ; the leaves 
 should be stripped off and burned, or 
 soot, tobacco, lime, &.C., used to de- 
 stroy them. Cutworms are caught 
 before sunrise, and should be de- 
 stroyed, or the foregoing noxious 
 substances should be worked in about 
 the roots with a trowel. Slugs are 
 to be similarly treated. 
 
 CABBAGE, PREPARED. Saucr 
 
OAC 
 
 CAP 
 
 kraut. This is prepared in the fol- 
 lowing manner : the cabbages are 
 sliced thin by hand, or by a machine. 
 The bottom of a cask, of which the 
 head has boon taken out, is covered 
 with salt, and a layer of thin-sliced 
 cabbage, six inches thick, is laid over 
 it ; on this a quantity of salt is spread, 
 and another layer of cabbage, mixed 
 with some juniper berries and whole 
 pepper ; and thus salt and cabbage 
 alternately until the cask is filled. A 
 round board is then put into the cask, 
 so as nearly to fill it, and on this a 
 heavy weight of stone or metal is 
 laid. As the cabbage ferments and 
 sinks, the cask is filled up with fresh 
 salt and cabbage. After some time 
 the expressed juice is poured o(f, 
 some water, with salt dissolved in it, 
 is poured over, and changed until it 
 ceases to rise with a scum and fetid 
 smell ; the cabbage is then in a fit 
 state to be kept. A cloth is laid over 
 it, and over this the round board and 
 weights. When any portion is taken 
 out for use, a sufficient quantity of 
 brine is allowed to remain over the 
 mass to exclude the air, and the 
 cloth, board, and weights are replaced 
 as long as any cabbage remains. 
 This saucr kraut, when washed with 
 soft water, and stewed with bacon 
 or salted meat, is a very wholesome 
 dish, and much relished by those who 
 have been early accustomed to it. 
 In long voyages it has been found to 
 he an admirable preservative against 
 the sea-scurvy. 
 
 CABBAGE TREES or PALMS. 
 Palm-trees which, like the palmetto, 
 form edible buds, which are used as 
 food. 
 
 CACHECTIC. A bad state of 
 body, bringing about boils, skin dis- 
 eases &c 
 
 CACHMERE GOAT. The Cach- 
 mere goat is a native of Persia. 
 There are many varieties, differing 
 in colour and in the quality of the 
 fleece ; the principal points of the 
 most approved breeds are large ears, 
 limbs slender, and, above all, the 
 wool or hair being straight, silky, and 
 white. 
 
 They have been successfully intro- 
 
 duced into France by M. Ternoaux, 
 and also into England by C. T. Tow- 
 er, of Essex, who purchased four, 
 two males and two females, of M. 
 Terneaux, of Paris. The soil on 
 which they were kept in England was 
 moist, and the situation much ex- 
 posed ; they have, nevertheless, con- 
 tinued in liealth and multiplied rapid- 
 ly, his flock increasing from four to 
 twenty-seven in six years ; the fe- 
 males producing every year a kid, 
 and sometimes twins. They breed 
 very early, often bearing young be- 
 fore they are twelve months old. 
 They show no impatience of the cold, 
 and are very healthy, requiring only 
 an occasional shelter in very rough 
 weather. In spring, summer, and 
 autumn they graze like sheep, and 
 during winter are fed with hay and 
 refuse vegetables. The shawls made 
 in England from the produce of Mr. 
 Tower's goats will, for fineness of 
 texture, vie with those brought from 
 Persia. There is no doubt that it 
 may be successfully introduced into 
 this country. Being remarkably tame, 
 they can be kept in flocks at as little 
 expense and trouble as the common 
 goat or sheep ; they eat almost every- 
 thing, even potato tops, weeds, and 
 bushes of all kinds, taking but little 
 from the pastures that other animals 
 would feed on. We hope some of 
 our enterprising farmers will turn 
 their attention to this animal by im- 
 porting it, as it can be easily obtain- 
 ed, and, no doubt, wdl bear the trans- 
 portation and change of climate with 
 very little risk. 
 
 CACTUS. A tribe of fleshy plants, 
 some of which are celebrated for 
 their splendid flowers and pleasant 
 acid fruit resembling the gooseberry. 
 
 CADUCOUS. Deciduous, falling 
 off, temporary. 
 
 CESAREAN OPERATION. The 
 removal of a foetus from its mother 
 by cutting mto the womb. 
 
 C A F FEIN. A slightly bitter, 
 white, silky principle obtained from 
 coffee, tea, guarana, and pauUinia. 
 It is the same as theme. Liebig finds 
 it to consist of Cg Hs N: O O-HO. 
 He has shown that it may act as food 
 127 
 
CAL 
 
 in increasing the amount of bile form- 
 ed, by furnishing nitrogen thereto. 
 To the same end asparas^mc and theo- 
 bromine, analogous principles, are 
 also destined. 
 
 CALAMINE. A powdery mineral, 
 sold by druggists as an absorbent for 
 ulcerous sores and extensive burns. 
 It is an impure carbonate of zinc, 
 prepared by roasting. An ointment 
 made with lard is sometimes used to 
 promote the healing of sores. 
 
 CALANDRA. The genus of wheat 
 weevils. See Wheat. 
 
 CALCARATE (from calcar, a 
 spur). Flowers having a spur like 
 the larkspur are so called. The spur 
 is also called a nectar htm by Linnsus. 
 
 CALCAREOUS. Containing car- 
 bonate of lime, as calcareous marl, 
 soils, sand, &c. See Lime. 
 
 CALCINATION. The burning of 
 substances to ashes. 
 
 CALCIUM. The metallic base of 
 lime, which is an oxide of calcium. 
 Its equivalent is 20, and tlierefore 
 lime is 28. A few electro-negative 
 bodies, as sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, 
 form salts directly with the metal, 
 and are called sulphuret, chloride, 
 fluoride of calcium. See Lime. 
 
 CALC SPAR. Crystallized car- 
 bonate of lime. 
 
 CALCULUS. Any solid, stony 
 concretion formed in the bladder, 
 gall-duct, (Stc. 
 
 CALEFACIENT. Medicines that 
 produce the sensation of warmth, as 
 alcohol, are so called. 
 
 CALENDAR. A monthly record. 
 
 CALF. The young of the cow. 
 Calves dropped in March and April 
 are best for raising. If they are to 
 be kept, they should run with the 
 cow, in a meadow, for three to six 
 weeks, and afterward be fed on but- 
 ter-milk with meal, and separated into 
 a good meadow. Those which are 
 to be slaughtered are generally re- 
 moved from the cow at once, put up 
 into a small enclosure and feeding 
 stall, and supplied with milk and 
 messes of meal until fat. The males 
 are castrated at thirty days for steers ; 
 the operation is very simple, one inci- 
 sion being made on each side the bag. 
 128 
 
 CAL 
 
 CALF, DISEASES OF. These 
 are principally : 
 
 1. Nnvcl III. — The best treatment 
 for this dangerous disease is, 1st, to 
 administer two or three doses (each 
 about a wine-glassful) of castor oil ; 
 and, 2dly, cordials, which may be 
 made of two drachms of caraway 
 seeds, two of coriander seeds, and 
 two of powdered gentian ; bruise the 
 seeds, and simmer them in beer or 
 gruel for a quarter of an hour : give 
 these once or twice a day. 
 
 2. Constipation of the Bowels. — For 
 this, doses of castor oil, of two or 
 three ounces, are the best remedy. 
 
 3. Diarrhcca, or Scouring. — The 
 farmer may rely on the following mix- 
 ture. Let him keep it always by him , 
 it will do for all sucking animals : 
 
 Prepared chalk . . 4 ounces. 
 Caneha bark, powdered 1 " 
 Laudanum .... 1 " 
 
 Water 1 pint. 
 
 Give two or three table-spoonfuls, ac- 
 cording to the size of the animal, two 
 or three times a day. 
 
 4. Hoose, or Catarrh. — Good nurs- 
 ing, bleeding, and then a dose of Ep- 
 som salts, with half an ounce of gui- 
 ger in it. — (Youatt on Cattle.) 
 
 CALKERS, or CALKINS. The 
 parts of a horseshoe turned down- 
 ward. 
 
 CALLUS. AVhen the bone of an 
 animal is broken by accident, nature 
 restores the union by depositing a 
 quantity of bony matter around the 
 loose extremities, and thus fixing 
 them. This deposite is called a cal- 
 lus ; it is absorbed after the limb is 
 re-established. 
 
 CALOMEL. The sub-chloride of 
 mercury. An admirable medicine, 
 producing an increased secretion of 
 bile and purgation. In bilious at- 
 tacks, a dose of ten grains is one of 
 the best medicines. It is a compo- 
 nent of many cattle medicines (see 
 Ball), in the dose of one drachm for 
 a horse. 
 
 CALORIC. This name is given 
 to the cause of heat, which is un- 
 known. Calorific, capable of produ- 
 cing heat, as the calorific rays of the 
 sun, which are found in the red aud 
 
CAM 
 
 CAN 
 
 orange parts of the spectrum lormcd 
 by flint glass. 
 
 CALVING. The act of bringing 
 forth a calf. Tiie cow should not 
 be disturbed, and have comfortable 
 quarters. A warm drink is usual- 
 ly given afterward, containing meal. 
 She should be kept quiet, and rather 
 underfed for a few days. 
 
 CALX. An old term for any earthy 
 body produced bv burning. 
 
 CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS. 
 The Carolina allspice : a fragrant 
 shrub, with moroon-coloured flowers. 
 
 CALYX (from Ka?.v^, a cup). The 
 outer green case of flowers. It pro- 
 tects the internal parts. It is col- 
 oured in plants like tulips, hyacinths, 
 &c. 
 
 CAMBIUM. A gummy fluid form- 
 ed in spring in our forest-trees. It 
 affords the materials out of which 
 the new wood and bark are partly 
 made, and disappears in a short time. 
 
 CAMELLIA. A genus of ever- 
 green shrubs, of which the C japon- 
 ica produces beautiful flowers, now- 
 diversified by cultivation. It requires 
 a green-house for successful gi-owth, 
 but may be grown out of doors, near 
 a south wall, covered with glass and 
 matted during severe weather. It is 
 propagated by cuttings, layers, and 
 grafts. Flowers from Januar>- to 
 March in the house. The C. oleifera 
 is much cultivated by the Chinese for 
 its oil, obtained by pressing the seeds. 
 
 CAMOMILE. The Anthemis no- 
 bilis furnishes the drug of this name. 
 It is exotic, but grows readily in the 
 Middle States. The plant is peren- 
 nial and hardy, yielding three or four 
 crops of flowers, which are bitter 
 and tonic. It grows on poor, dry 
 lands ; is propagated by seeds, root 
 cuttings, and layers. An infusion is 
 very nauseous to many insects. 
 
 CAMP. A mould in which to keep 
 potatoes, roots, &.C., during winter. 
 See Barrow. 
 
 CAMPANULATE. Bell-shaped : 
 applied to flowers of that figure, as 
 the Canterbury hell. 
 
 CAMPHOR. A solid essential oil, 
 consisting of C^o, Hn-|-2 HO. It 
 is a nervous sedative, soothing pain. 
 
 It is obtained in the crude slate by 
 distilling the twigs, roots, &c., of 
 several plants, chiefly the Laurus 
 camphora and Dryobalanops camphora, 
 trees of tropical Asia. It is purified 
 by sublimation in Europe and Amer- 
 ica. Michaux is disposed to believe 
 that the Laurus camphora, a large 
 evergreen, might flourish in Florida. 
 Camphor is peculiarly disagreeable 
 to the insects which infest cloth and 
 woollen goods. The solution in al- 
 cohol is the commonest form of the 
 medicine. A solution in oil is an 
 admirable embrocation to painful 
 sprains, rheumatisms, &:c. 
 
 Camphor is found in numerous 
 herbs, especially peppermint, rose- 
 mary, thyme, lavender, &c. The 
 quantity is, however, too minute to 
 yield a commercial supply. 
 
 CANADA THISTLE. Carduus ar- 
 ve7isis. Its perennial roots render it 
 a great nuisance. The introduction 
 of two-hoed or worked crops, with 
 much tillage, is the most eflectual 
 remedy. Large doses (thirty bush- 
 els) of salt, or a heavy liming (one 
 hundred bushels), on 
 a clean fallow is 
 much reputed as a 
 means of clearing 
 lands of weeds and 
 insects. 
 
 CANARY 
 GRASS. Phalaris 
 Canariensis. An an- 
 nual grass, yielding 
 the canary seeds for 
 birds. The seeds are 
 sown as soon as the 
 frost is out of the 
 ground : they require 
 a good dry loam. In 
 September the plants 
 are fit to cut. The 
 heads are exposed to 
 the air in heaps for 
 some time, to assist 
 the thrashing. The 
 yield is from twen- 
 ty-five to forty bush- 
 els ; the straw is 
 poor and scanty. 
 
 CANCELLATE. Full of cells ; as 
 the ends of the long bones. 
 
 129 
 
 
CAP 
 
 CAP 
 
 CANCER. A malignant tumour, 
 at first hard and painful, afterward 
 ulcerous, attacking glands chiefly. 
 The only remedy is extirpation, which 
 should be done as soon as its nature 
 is discovered. Cancer of the eye is 
 common in cattle. 
 
 CANDLE. The best mixture for 
 dip and mould candles is equal parts 
 of sheep and beef fat. Lard must 
 be avoided. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE. 
 Myrica ccrifera. Abounds through 
 the United States. The berries are 
 boiled in water, and the wax rises 
 to the top : it is excellent for can- 
 dles. The labour is said not to be 
 repaid by the profits of their collec- 
 tion. 
 
 CANIS. The generic name of the 
 dog species. See Dog. 
 
 CANKER. A disease of the bark 
 of old trees, or such as are in a 
 bad situation. It is sometimes at- 
 tended with an exudation of fluid, at 
 others not. The bark gradually dies, 
 falls off, and the wood becomes dry 
 and dead. Judicious pruning, an 
 application of resinous grafting ce- 
 ment to all wounds, and tillage about 
 the roots, are necessary. Young 
 trees planted in old, cankered or- 
 chards, are soon infected. 
 
 CANKER IN HORSES. The 
 separation of the hoof from the fleshy 
 parts of the leg, attended with a dis- 
 eased growth. Pressure and caus- 
 tics are necessary, with rest, for a 
 cure. 
 
 CANKER-\VORM. The caterpil- 
 lars which infest and devour the buds 
 of fruit-trees, especially those of the 
 Gcometra brumata. See Apple Can- 
 ker-icorm. 
 
 CANNABIS SATIVA. Hemp, 
 which see. 
 
 CANTER. An artificial pace to 
 which horses are broken. It is con- 
 sidered much less fatiguing than the 
 trot. 
 
 CANTHARIDIS. The blistering 
 fly, which see. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC. Indian rubber. 
 
 CAPERS. A prickly shrub of 
 southern France and Italy, the Cap- 
 paris spinosa. The young buds are 
 130 
 
 daily stripped offand cast into strong 
 vinegar slightly salted, to produce 
 the commercial capers. They re- 
 ceive a greenish tint from the use of 
 copper sieves in separating the dif- 
 ferent-sized pickled buds for sale. 
 The plant would grow well south of 
 Maryland. It is highly ornamental 
 for green-houses. 
 
 CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 
 Some fluids rise in fine glass tubes 
 much higher than their level. This 
 elevation is said to be owing to ca- 
 pillary attraction. It occurs to great- 
 er extents as the tubes are finer, and 
 is an affinity exerted by the sides of 
 the glass upon the fluid. The cause 
 has been shown to be electrical, and 
 to depend upon the electrical condi- 
 tions of the tube and fluid. If there 
 be no affinity, the fluid sinks. The 
 minute tubes of plants assist in draw- 
 ing up the sap by this attraction. 
 
 CAPILLARY VESSELS (from 
 capillus, a hair). The minute ves- 
 sels which exist over every part of 
 the bodies of animals and plants. 
 
 CAPITUIAJi\I. That species of 
 inflorescence in which the flowers 
 are grouped together into a head, as 
 in clovers. 
 
 CAPON. A male bird that has 
 been castrated : it is increased in 
 size therehv. 
 
 CAPRIFICATION (from caprifi- 
 cus, a inldjig). The practice of prick- 
 ing the green fig with a piece of 
 stick touched with olive oil, to hasten 
 the maturity. It is regularly observ- 
 ed in the culture of the Levant figs. 
 
CAR 
 
 CAR 
 
 CAPROIC ACID. One of tlic 
 rancid acids of butter, having the 
 smell of goats. Capric acid is very 
 similar. 
 
 CAPSICUM. The generic name 
 of the Red pepper, which sec. 
 
 CAPSULE. In botany, a dry, 
 membranous seed-vessel, generally 
 splitting spontaneously into several 
 parts, or valves. In chemistry, a thin 
 porcelain, Wcdgewood ware or me- 
 tallic basin for evaporating lluids. 
 
 CAPUT MORTUUM. Anoldterm 
 designating the dregs left in any 
 chemical process. 
 
 CARAWAYS. The seeds of Ca- 
 rum cariii. They should be free from 
 dust, and strongly aromatic. Are 
 used in confections and medicine. 
 They are grateful to the stomach, 
 and slightly stimulant. The seeds 
 are sown in drills six inches apart, 
 in April. The land must be good, 
 rich loam. The plants must be weed- 
 ed and hoed when young. They 
 flower in June, and the seeds ripen 
 in autumn. The roots are perennial, 
 and yield well for three years. As 
 much as twenty hundred weight of 
 seed is taken from an acre in good 
 tilth. They are an exhausting crop. 
 Near London, coriander, cara\vays, 
 and teazles arc sometimes sown to- 
 gether, twelve pounds of each being 
 used. The coriander is cut in July, 
 the caraway in July next year, and 
 the teazles in August. 
 
 CARBON. An elementary body, 
 found pure in anthracite and the dia- 
 mond, and nearly pure in lamp-black 
 and charcoal. It combines readily 
 with oxygen, and burns, forming car- 
 bonic acid when air is abundant. Its 
 ctjuivalent is 6. It forms about half 
 of the dry substance of all animal and 
 vegetable bodies, and hence the char- 
 ~-al they yield when heated in closed 
 
 ssels. 
 
 CARBONATES. Minerals or salts 
 
 ^ntaining carbonic acid. These are 
 all readily known by the effervescence 
 they produce when thrown into strong 
 acids. Tlie principal native carbon- 
 ates are marble, limestone, and chalk, 
 which are carbonates of lime. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID. The gas form- 
 
 ed by burning charcoal in the open air. 
 It is also given out from fermenting 
 beer, &c., and putrefying bodies. It 
 is colourless, heavy, incapable of sus- 
 taining combustion, sufibcating, and 
 solui)lc in water. It is formed of 1 
 atom of carbon (6) and 2 of oxygen 
 (16), and unites with oxides in the 
 proportion of 22. The air contains 
 4 to 6 parts in 10,000. Fertile soils 
 containing vegetable matter give it 
 off during its decay. It is one of the 
 principle articles of vegetable food : 
 from the carbonic acid they obtain the 
 carbon of their wood, sugar, and oth- 
 er principles. Light decomposes it 
 in plants, and a part of its oxygen is 
 thrown out by the leaves. 
 
 The dissolved carbonic acid in rain 
 and spring water is invaluable in 
 the sod, serving to disintegrate hard 
 rocks, and dissolve minerals neces- 
 sary for plants. It is this gas that 
 gives sprightliness to beer, soda wa- 
 ter, and Champagne. 
 
 CARBONIC OXIDE. An inflam- 
 mable gas consisting of 1 atom car- 
 bon and 1 oxygen. 
 
 CARBONIFEROUS. Relating to 
 coal. Coal bearing. 
 
 CARBURETS. Compounds in 
 which carbon is united with a metal 
 or other body. Plumbago, cast iron, 
 are carburets of iron. 
 
 CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 Marsh gas, and the gas used for light- 
 ing cities. 
 
 CARCINOMA. A cancerous tu- 
 mour. 
 
 CARDAMOMS. The seeds of the 
 Alpinia cardamomum of the East In- 
 dies. They are aromatic. 
 
 CARDIAC (from KapSca, the heart). 
 Relating to the heart. 
 
 CARDOON. The Cynara cardun- 
 cidus. The stalks of the blanched 
 inner leaves are used as salad, in 
 soups, &c. The seed is sown in 
 April, in rich earth ; it requires near- 
 ly a month to start ; the plants 
 must be thinned to five inches apart. 
 Transplant in June, and allow four 
 feet each way ; dress each plant like 
 celery. As they grow, tie up the 
 •leaves, and earth up several times ; 
 they may thus be obtained two feet 
 131 
 
CAR 
 
 high. They are to be taken up du- 
 ring winter, like celery. They are 
 in perfection from autumn through 
 the winter. An ounce of seed pro- 
 duces GOO young plants ; for seeds 
 protect the plant, without any blanch- 
 ing, through the winter, and it will 
 flower in the following July. 
 
 CARDUUS. The generic name of 
 numerous thistles. 
 
 CAREX. The genus of sedges and 
 rushes. 
 
 CARIES. Mortification or ulcera- 
 tion of any bone. It gradually pro- 
 duces the destruction of the part, and 
 can only be arrested by scraping out 
 every diseasedtportion. 
 
 CARMINATIVE. Any medicine 
 that dispels flatulency and relieves 
 the uneasiness of the stomach. The 
 best are caraways, ginger, anise seed, 
 cardamoms, especially as tinctures, 
 or dissolved in alcohol. 
 
 CARNIVORA. The race of ani- 
 mals that live on animal food. 
 
 CAROB, A tree cultivated in 
 Southern France for the pods it pro- 
 duces. These contain a reddish pulp 
 of a sweet, amylaceous nature, and 
 are a foot long. They are used as 
 food for men and horses. 
 
 CAROTID ARTERY. The large 
 arteries that carry red blood to the 
 head. There is one on each side the 
 neck, known by its strong pulsa- 
 tions. 
 
 CARPEL (from Kop-uoc, fruit). 
 Each division or cell of a fruit is a 
 carpel. The number of carpels, or 
 carpellary leaves, is as the number of 
 divisions m the pistil, which is the 
 uppermost part of the carpel. 
 
 CARROT. The Daitcus carota im- 
 proved by tillage, of the natural fam- 
 ily UmbellifercB. The carrot requires 
 a deep, dry, sandy loam, which should 
 be prepared by subsoiling ; they are 
 also much improved by humus in the 
 soil, and come best after a crop to 
 which a heavy manuring has been 
 given. The best field kinds are the 
 white, the long red, the Altringham, 
 and the orange ; of these the white 
 is most prolific and valuable. The 
 amount of seed is three to five pounds 
 the acre ; it must be steeped well, or 
 132 
 
 CAR 
 
 kept in moist mould until it has ger- 
 minated, and sown in drills one inch 
 deep and one foot apart. For a full 
 crop, April is the time of planting ; 
 but a fair yield can be obtained by 
 sowing immediately after wheat, or in 
 June. The plants must be well work- 
 ed, weeded, and thinned out to five 
 inches ; but it is erroneous to pull the 
 leaves for fodder. In October, or 
 when the ground is beginning to 
 freeze, they can be raised by turning 
 the earth from the roots by a plough, 
 and drawing them b}^ hand. They 
 are to be topped, and stored in the 
 cellar, or a proper barrow or camp ; 
 they will keep well till spring. A 
 good crop is 600 bushels ; but 400 is 
 more common. There is no peculi- 
 arity in garden culture, except that 
 the early orange must be sown soon- 
 er ; the long orange is the best fall 
 crop. 
 
 Expeyise of Cultivation. — Colonel 
 Meacham, who succeeded in obtain- 
 ing 1000 bushels of carrots per acre 
 for several years, estimates the ex- 
 pense per acre at S35. This culture 
 adapts the land admirably for wheat 
 or barley. 
 
 Value as Food. — It is extensively 
 used in England, and to some extent 
 in the Eastern and Northern States, 
 as horse fodder, and is well adapted 
 to oxen, hogs, &c. The carrots should 
 be boiled or steamed, or, if given 
 raw, sliced with a vegetable cutter. 
 According to Antoine's tables, 276 
 pounds equal 100 of hay (see Fod- 
 ders) ; they make twice as good fod- 
 der as turnips, and nearly equal to 
 potatoes. Carrots and hay are a 
 good fodder for horses, or, when 
 given alone, about fifty pounds pre- 
 pared will be necessary each day. 
 They are very fattening. 
 
 Special Manures. — The ashes of the 
 carrot are, per cent., potash and so- 
 da, 45 ; lime, 10 ; sulphuric acid, 2-7 ; 
 phosphoric acid, 514. It is, there- 
 fore, remarkable for its affinity for 
 alkalies. Hence, ashes, common salt, 
 and gypsum are eminently useful as 
 manures. An abundance of well- 
 rotted leaves and muck should he 
 added. 
 
CAR 
 
 Seeds. — These are procured by set- 
 ting out fine roots in the spring. 
 
 CART. Tlic one-horse two-wheel- 
 ed carriage of husbandmen. They are 
 considered superior to the wagon by 
 Scotch farmers. A cart load is gen- 
 erally about thirty to thirty-five bush- 
 els of manure. Mr. Rham remarks : 
 "For agricultural purposes, various 
 kinds of carts have been invented. 
 The capacious tumbril for carting 
 earth and dung, with broad wheels to 
 prevent their sinking in soft ground, 
 is too generally known to require de- 
 scription. The best constructed carts 
 have iron axles with the ends or arms 
 turned smooth, and very slightly con- 
 ical. The boxes in the naves of the 
 wheels, which receive the arms, are 
 made of cast iron, and ground smooth, 
 so as to require only a small quantity 
 of grease or oil to make the wheels 
 run easily, without allowing any play 
 or side motion. It is usual to give 
 the axle a bend at the place where it 
 enters the wheel, by which means 
 the planes of the wheels are made to 
 diverge from each other, and give 
 more room for the body of the cart ; 
 but this is decidedly wrong. It is 
 clearly proved that the draught is 
 least when the arms are quite hori- 
 zontal ; and if tlle^vheels are slightly 
 dished, that is, if the spokes are driv- 
 en into the nave obliquely, so as to 
 throw the rim a little beyond the per- 
 pendicular, the lower part of the 
 spokes in each wheel will slightly di- 
 verge, and give greater steadiness 
 to the whole. When the axle is bent, 
 the rim of a broad-wheeled cart must 
 be slightly conical, in order that it 
 may rest ilat on the gi'ound ; and it 
 is easily proved that in this case the 
 load is dragged on the road at every 
 revolution, along a space equal to the 
 difference between the greater and 
 lesser circumference of the rim of 
 the wheel, giving unnecessary work 
 to the horses, and greatly injuring 
 the roads. The light Scotch cart, 
 drawn by one horse, is justly consid- 
 ered as the most advantageous for 
 transporting earth, lime, or dung, es- 
 pecially in hilly countries. It is low 
 and short, so that the horse draws 
 M 
 
 UAS 
 
 very near the centre of gravity, and 
 there is little power lost by obliquity. 
 The loads may be so adjusted as to 
 bear more or less on the horse, ac- 
 cording to the declivity ; and expe- 
 rience has proved that more weight 
 can be transported by a given number 
 of horses, when each is attached to 
 a single Scotch cart, than when three 
 or four draw together, except it be on 
 very level and hard roads, or when 
 the horses move at a quick pace. 
 The objection made to single-horse 
 carts, tliat each requires a man to 
 drive it, is obviated in .Scotland, 
 where the horses are trained to fol- 
 low each other, and one man can at- 
 tend to several carts and horses." 
 
 CARTHAMIJS. See Saffloiccr. 
 
 CARTILAGE. The same as gris- 
 tle. It is almost identical in compo- 
 sition with skin, and yields, when 
 perfectly dry, eighteen per cent, of 
 nitrogen. Liebig regards it as pro- 
 tein, combined with ammonia. 
 
 CARYA. The generic name of 
 the Hickory. 
 
 CARYOPHILLOUS. Flowers like 
 the ■p'mk and clove are so called. 
 
 CASCARILLA BARK. A drug 
 having tonic and aromatic quahties. 
 
 CASEOUS. Relating to caseum. 
 
 CASEUM. Pure curd of milk. It 
 is also found in beans, pease, and le- 
 guminous plants, and in small quan- 
 tity in most seeds. It differs from 
 albumen and fibrin only in not being 
 coagulated by heat, and containing 
 more sulphur. Cheese is caseum, for 
 the most part ; like other protein bod- 
 ies, it is capable of sustaining life. 
 When moist, it decays and putrefies 
 like animal matter, but is preserved 
 when dry, or prepared with salt. 
 
 CASSAVA. The starch obtained 
 from the roots of the Jatrophamanihot 
 of the West Indies. See Tapioca. 
 
 CASTANEA. The generic name 
 of the chestnut-tree. 
 
 CASTOR-OIL PLANT. The Ri- 
 cinus communis, commonly called Pal- 
 ma Chrtsli from the leaves. In the 
 East Indies it is a tree, but becomes 
 an annual in the United States, and 
 is cultivated as far north as New- 
 Jersey, and abundantly in the West. 
 133 
 
Cat 
 
 The seeds are sown in hills like corn, 
 and hoed until they arc two feet high. 
 The time of sowing is in April and 
 May: the ground must be rich. The 
 seeds are enclosed in capsules at the 
 summits, and are easily thrashed out. 
 The crop is stated at twenty to twen- 
 ty-five bushels the acre. The oil is 
 separated in two different ways : 1st. 
 By boiling the bruised seeds enclosed 
 in a bag. and skimming off the oil as 
 it rises, and, finally, pressing the bag. 
 2d. By heating the seeds in iron trays 
 slightly, so as not to char, pressing 
 under a screw, collecting the oil, 
 and boiling in water, taking care to 
 separate all the white parts, and re- 
 serving the pure limpid oil only. This 
 is placed in barrels. The seeds yield 
 about one fourth of their weight of 
 good oil. The price fluctuates con- 
 siderably. 
 
 CASTOR OIL. An admirable 
 purge for animals, especially calves : , 
 four to six ounces is enough for a 
 strong ox. It is now used for burn- 
 ing and machinery, as well as for can- 
 dles, when prepared by the separa- 
 tion of the fluid parts from the stearin. 
 
 CATALPA. The Bignoma calalpa, 
 a middling-sized tree, nearly fifty feet 
 high, growing in the Middle States 
 and South, remarkable for its large 
 flowers and leaves. The wood is du- , 
 rable, and makes good posts and fen- 
 ces, and is said, by Dr. G. B. Smith 
 and others, to be more lasting than 
 locust or mulberry. It grows very i 
 rapidly. 
 
 CATARACT. In farriery, a dis- 
 ease in the eyes of horses, in which 
 the crystal! ne humour is rendered 
 opaque, and the vision impeded or 
 destroyed. The only certain method 
 of cure in these complaints is to re- 
 move the lens by means of extract- 
 ing or couching. By the first-men- 
 tioned operation, an incision is made 
 into the eye through the white mem- 
 brane, and the opaque lens taken out ; 
 by the second, it is depressed by the 
 point of a couching needle thrust into 
 the eye, and, being carried to the low- 
 er part of the chamber of the eye or 
 vitreous humour, it is left there to be 
 absorbed. The first operation is the ^ 
 134 
 
 CAT 
 
 more effective, but the more hazard- 
 ous of the two, owing to the inflam- 
 mation which succeeds. The second 
 is tedious and sometimes fails, but it 
 is less free from the risk of inflam- 
 mation. 
 
 CATARRH. A cold. The irrita- 
 tion of the mucous membrane of the 
 nostrils. 
 
 CATCH-DRAINS. The lower 
 Qitches of irrigated lands, which re- 
 ceive the water that has flowed over 
 their surface, and return it to the 
 stream. 
 
 CATECHU. A drug of a very as- 
 tringent or binding nature. It is also 
 used in dj'eing browns and in tanning. 
 
 CATERPILLAR. The worm, or 
 larva, which is hatched from the eggs 
 of butterflies and moths. They are 
 peculiarly obnoxious, from feeding on 
 the leaves, fruit, and bark of trees. 
 The most effective method of exter- 
 minating them is to keep the tree 
 regularly cleaned by washing with 
 lye, brine, soft soap, and removing 
 every appearance of cocoon or net- 
 work about the branches. The ap- 
 plication of strong hartshorn to the 
 caterpillar nests is practised by Mr. 
 Pell with great success. Lime is also 
 very hurtful to them. Caterpillars, 
 after a season, depending on their 
 species, either spin a cocoon and re- 
 tire therein to change into a grub, or 
 burrow into the earth or trees, and 
 undergo a transformation therein. 
 The grub changes in spring to a but- 
 terfly or moth, which lays some five 
 hundred eggs, which in a few days 
 become caterpillars : thus, in three 
 generations, if untouched, thirty mill- 
 ion worms are produced. 
 
 CATHARTICS. Medicines pro- 
 ducing increased defecation. Aloes, 
 castor oil, senna, jalap, Glauber 
 salts, Epsom salts, calomel, are the 
 principal cathartics. They should be 
 used very sparingly, as they produce 
 habitual costiveness after a time. 
 
 CATKIN. A pendulous spike of 
 flowers, which falls after a season, as 
 in the willow. Amcnluin is the more 
 common designation. 
 
 CATSUP. Mushroom catsup is 
 readily made by placing a bushel or 
 
CAT 
 
 more prime mushrooms in a tub with 
 sufficient salt, to cover them slightly, 
 and adding water enough to cover the 
 whole. The brine becomes black and 
 well-liavoured in a week, when the 
 mushrooms must be thoroughly press- 
 ed, and the whole liquor bottled and 
 sealed. It is improper to add pepper 
 or spices. 
 
 CATS-TAIL GRASS. An Eng- 
 lish name for timothy and other grass- 
 es of the genus I'licum. 
 
 CATTLE. In its most extensive 
 sense, the word cattle denotes all the 
 larger domestic quadrupeds which are 
 used for draught or food. In the usu- 
 al acceptation of the word, it is confi- 
 ned to the ox, or what are called black 
 cattle, or horned cattle. But as many 
 varieties are not black, and several 
 have no horns, the name of neat cat- 
 tle is more appropriate. The rearing 
 and feeding of cattle are very impor- 
 tant branches of agricultural industry. 
 Much of the success of a farmer de- 
 pends on the judicious management 
 of live stock, without which his laud 
 cannot be maintained in a proper state 
 of fertility. The breeding and fatten- 
 ing of cattle are generally distinct oc- 
 cupations. It is of tlie greatest im- 
 portance to the breeder, as well as to 
 the grazier, to ascertain the qualities 
 of each different breed of cattle, to de- 
 termine which is best suited to his 
 purpose, and which will bring him the 
 greatest profit. 
 
 The different British and Irish 
 breeds have been generally distin- 
 guished from each other by the length 
 of the horn. The long-horned breed 
 is supposed by many to be indigenous. 
 Others consider the middle horned as 
 the old breed. The former was chief- 
 ly found in a district of Yorkshire call- 
 ed Craven, and was greatly improved 
 by the skill of Robert Bakewell, of 
 Dishley Farm, in liCicestershire, and 
 hence they are called the Dishley 
 breed. The distinguishing characters 
 of this breed are, Ictng horns growing 
 downward from the side of the head, 
 and ending in straight points parallel 
 to the jaw. In order to give an ade- 
 quate idea of the qualities of this im- 
 proved breed, we must consider what 
 
 CAT 
 
 breeders and graziers call the fine 
 points of an ox. These are certain 
 forms and appearances, which are ei- 
 ther anatomically connected with a 
 perfect conformation of the body, and 
 especially of the organs of respiration 
 and of digestion, or which are con- 
 stantly associated with the peculiar 
 qualities of certain breeds, so as to be 
 proofs of their purity. Of the first 
 kind are, a wide chest, well-formed 
 barrel, strong and straight spine, hip- 
 bones well separated, and length of 
 quarter, all which can be proved to 
 be essential to the perfect functions 
 of the body. Small and short bones 
 in the legs give firmness without un- 
 necessary weight. A thick skin, well 
 covered with hair, ensures proper 
 warmth, and its soft, loose feel indi- 
 cates a good coat of cellular substance 
 underneath, which will readily be fill- 
 ed with deposited fat. All these are 
 indispensable points in an ox which 
 is to be profitably fatted, and, what- 
 ever be the breed, they will always 
 indicate superiority. Other points, 
 such as colour, form of the horns, 
 shape of the jaw, and setting on of 
 the tail, with other particulars, are 
 only essential in so far as experience 
 has observed them in the best breeds, 
 and as they are indications of pure 
 blood. Tiie eye is of great impoi-- 
 tance ; it should be lively and mild, 
 indicating a healthy circulation, with 
 a gentle and almost indolent temper. 
 An animal that is not easily disturbed 
 will fatten rapidly, while one that is 
 restless and impatient will never ac- 
 quire flesh. Among the ancients, a 
 deep dewlap was considered as a 
 great beauty in an ox. In some of 
 our best breeds there is scarcely any. 
 The rump of the Freyburg cows rises 
 high towards the tail, while a straight 
 back, from the neck to the tail, is in- 
 dispensable in a well-bred British ox. 
 Having established a breed which 
 has many superior qualities, attention 
 is paid to maintain its purity ; and to 
 those who cannot ascertain the pa- 
 rentage, certain marks are satisfacto- 
 ry proof of |)urity of blood. The new 
 Leicester oxen were noted for the 
 smallness of the bone and their apti- 
 135 
 
CATTLt;. 
 
 tude to fatten {Fig. 1). Their flesh 
 was fine-grained, the fat being well 
 intermixed in the muscles. At the 
 time when Bakewell died, about 1795, 
 no other breed could be brought into 
 competition with his improved long- 
 horns. But whether his successors 
 have not paid the same attention to 
 keep up the qualities of the breed, or 
 it has degenerated in comparison, 
 they have since lost much of their rep- 
 utation, and the short-horned breed 
 has now the superiority. Good long- 
 horned cattle are, however, occasion- 
 ally seen in the midland counties. 
 One defect of the breed was, that the 
 cows gave but little milk ; and this 
 may be the reason for now preferring 
 the short-horns. The Teeswater or 
 Holderness breed of cattle {Fig. 2) 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 was produced by the importation of 
 cows from Holstein or Holland, and 
 careful breeding and crossing. They 
 now much excel the original stock. 
 Tlie principal improver of the Tees- 
 water breed was Mr. Charles Collins. 
 By his care a breed has been produ- 
 ced which is unrivalled for the dairy 
 and for fattening readily. Almost ev- 
 136 
 
 erygood breed now in existence tra- 
 ces its pedigree to his bulls, especial- 
 ly one of the fiist he used, called Hub- 
 back. The famous ox exhibited thir- 
 ty years ago, under the name of the 
 Durham ox, was of this breed. By 
 careful crossing with a Galloway cow, 
 an improved breed was produced, 
 which was in such repute that, at a 
 sale of Mr. Collins's stock of short- 
 horns, October 11, 1810, a famous 
 bull, called Comet, sold for 1000 guin- 
 eas, and 48 lots of bulls, cows, and 
 calves realized £7115 17^. — {Library 
 of Useful Knowledge, " Cattle," page 
 233.) The short-horned cattle {Fig. 3) 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Sliort-liorn (Diirliam). 
 
 are mostly light coloured, some quite 
 white, but most are speckled with red 
 and white, without any large, distinct 
 spots. The horns are very short. In 
 the cow, the points turn inward to- 
 wards each other. Some of the finest 
 bulls have merely a tip of a horn 
 standing out from each side of the 
 forehead. In the carcass they have 
 every point which we have before 
 enumerated as essential to perfection. 
 From numerous importations of 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 Durhams, this breed is now diffused 
 into many parts of the United States, 
 especially New-York, Pennsylvania, 
 and Kentucky. 
 
 ' Besides the two breeds above men- 
 tioned, there are several in great re- 
 pute in particular districts, which al- 
 most dispute the superiority with the 
 short-horns. Of these, the Devon- 
 shire breed is the handsomest. The 
 colour of this breed is invariably red, 
 with a very fine head, small bone, 
 and glossy hide. The oxen, although 
 not so heavy as some, are the best 
 for the plough on light lands ; they 
 walk nearly as fast as horses, and 
 will work almost as well in pairs. 
 The cows (FiiT- 4) are good milkers, 
 
 any deficiency m quantity being made 
 up by the richness of the cream. The 
 oxen fatten readily, and their flesh is 
 of the best quality. 
 
 It is supposed that the fine oxen 
 of New-England are derived from this 
 breed. 
 
 The Sussex breed is only dislin 
 guished from the Devon by being 
 rather stronger, and not so fine in 
 the head and horn. 
 
 The Herefordshire breed is larger 
 and heavier than cither of the prece- 
 ding, the horns longer, and more 
 turned outward ; the colour is red, 
 but the belly and the face are gener- 
 ally white, and there is often a white 
 stripe along the back. This breed has 
 many excellent qualities, and fattens 
 well ; the cows {Fig. 5) are of use for 
 
 the dairy, but yield only a small quan- 
 tity of milk. The Herefordshire oxen 
 are i)est suited to the rich pastures 
 of their native county, where they 
 grow to a great size, and increase 
 fast. These are the principal Eng- 
 lish breeds. 
 
 The principal indigenous Scotch 
 breeds are the "West Highland, the 
 Galloway, the Angus, and the Shet- 
 land. There is a doubt whether the 
 Ayrshire {Fig. 6) should be classed 
 
 among the pure Scotch cattle. Their 
 great resemblance to the short-horn 
 in all but the size leads one to suppose 
 that they are a cross of a smaller 
 breed by a short-horn bull, but they 
 M2 
 
 have very good qualities, and are ex 
 cellent for the dairy or for stalling. 
 
 A great many cattle are bred it 
 the various islands which lie on th( 
 western coast of Scotland. They arf 
 137 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 mostly of a small, black breed, called 
 Kyloes. They are very hardy, and, 
 when brought into good pasture, fat- 
 ten rapidly, and produce the finest 
 and best-flavoured beef They are 
 found in the greatest perfection in 
 the Isle of Skj-e, and are sent annu- 
 ally in large droves from their native 
 islands, and dispersed through Scot- 
 land and England. If they do not 
 produce so great a ■weight of beef as 
 many other breeds, they always bring 
 the highest price in the market, and 
 require but a very short time to get 
 fat. The Galloway is a peculiar 
 breed, which has many good quali- 
 ties : it has no horns ; the body is 
 compact, and the legs short ; and few 
 breeds can vie with the Galloway 
 oxen and heifers in aptitude to fatten. 
 There is a peculiar roundness in all 
 the parts of the body, which makes 
 the animal look well in flesh even 
 when he is lean. The skin is loose, 
 and the hair soft and silky to the 
 touch. They are mostly black, but 
 some are of a dun colour, which shows 
 a connexion between this breed and 
 the polled Suffolk ; it is only the col- 
 our which distinguishes them. Many 
 of the Galloway heifers are spayed, 
 and get very fat at an early age. The 
 Galloway cows are not very good 
 milkers, in which respect they differ 
 from the Suffolk, but their milk is 
 very rich. 
 
 The Angus doddie is also a polled 
 breed, and has been long in repute. 
 It is probably a variety of the Gallo- 
 way, to which it bears a strong re- 
 semblance, but it has been found in 
 Angus from time immemorial. 
 
 These are the principal breeds of 
 cattle in Britain. By selecting those 
 which are best suited to each situation 
 and pasture, the industrious farm- 
 er may add considerably to his prof- 
 its, and, at the same time, enrich his 
 land with the manure. In purchas- 
 ing cattle, it is very necessary that 
 the age should be readily ascertained: 
 the surest mode of doing this is by 
 examming the teeth. A calf has 
 usually two front teeth when he is 
 dropped, or they will appear a day or 
 two after his birth ; in a fortnight he 
 138 
 
 will have four, in three weeks six, 
 and at the end of a month eight. 
 After this, these milk-teeth, as they 
 are called, gradually wear, and fall 
 out, and are replaced by the second 
 and permanent teeth. At two years 
 old the two middle teeth are replaced ; 
 the next year there will be four new 
 teeth in all ; at four years there are 
 six permanent teeth, and at five the 
 whole eight are replaced. The milk- 
 teeth do not always fall out, but are 
 sometimes pushed back by the sec- 
 ond set ; and in this case they should 
 be removed with an instrument, as 
 they impede ma.stication and irritate 
 the mouth. After six years old the 
 edges of the teeth begin to wear flat, 
 and as they wear off the root of the 
 tooth is pushed up in the socket, and 
 the width of the teeth is diminished, 
 leaving interstices between them : 
 this begins in the middle teeth, and 
 extends gradually to the corners. 
 At ten years old the four middle 
 teeth are considerably diminished, 
 and the mark worn out of them. Af- 
 ter fifteen years of age few cows can 
 keep themselves in condition by pas- 
 turing, but they may continue to give 
 milk, or be fattened by stalling and 
 giving them ground food. Horned 
 cattle have rings at the root of their 
 horns, by which the age may also be 
 known. The first ring appears at 
 three years of age, and a new one is 
 formed between it and the scull ev- 
 ery year after. But this mode of 
 ascertaining the age is not so sure 
 as by the teeth, deception being much 
 easier by filing off the rings. 
 
 In order to learn by experience 
 what breed of cattle is most profita- 
 ble, it is very advantageous to weigh 
 them occasionally and note their in- 
 crease. Experience has shown the 
 proportion between the saleable quar- 
 ters and the offal in different states 
 of fatness, and tables have been con- 
 structed by which the nett weight 
 is found by mere inspection. Multi- 
 plying the live weight by 605 gives 
 a near approximation to the neat 
 dead weight in an ox moderately fat 
 and of a good breed. When an ox 
 is fat, his weight niay be very nearly 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 guessed by measuring: his girth im- 
 mediately behind the fore legs, and 
 the length from the tip of the shoul- 
 der to the perpendicular line which 
 touches the hinder parts, or to a wall 
 against wiiich the animal is backed. 
 The square of the girth in inches and 
 decimals is muliipHed by the length, 
 and the product multiplied by the de- 
 cimal -238. This gives the weight 
 of the four quarters in stones of four- 
 teen pounds. This rule is founded 
 on the supposition that there is a 
 certain proportion between the nett 
 weight of the quarters and that of a 
 cylinder, the circumference of which 
 is the girth, and the axis the length, 
 taken as above. The proportion has 
 been ascertained by observation and 
 repeated comparison. The measure- 
 ment will, at all events, indicate the 
 proportional increase during the pe- 
 riod of fattening. 
 
 Cattle are not subject to many dis- 
 eases if they have plenty of food and 
 good water, and are kept clean. Air 
 is essential to them ; and although 
 cows will give more milk, and oxen 
 will fatten better when kept in warm 
 stalls in winter, they are both less 
 subject to diseases when tliey are 
 kept in open yards, with merely a 
 shelter from the snow and rain. 
 
 The most economical mode of 
 feeding cattle is evidently by allow- 
 ing them to seek their food on com- 
 mons and uncultivated pastures, but 
 it is only in particular situations that 
 it is the most advantageous. Cattle 
 fed on commons add little to the 
 stock of manure, except when they 
 are kept in the yards or stalls in win- 
 ter ; even then their dung is of little 
 value if they are merely kept alive 
 on straw or coarse hay, as is gener- 
 ally the case where the stock is kept 
 on commons or mountains in sum- 
 mer. When they feed in enclosed 
 and rich pastures, their dung falling 
 in heaps on the grass does more harm 
 than good. The urine fertilizes the 
 soil in wet weather when it is dilu- 
 ted, but in dry weather it only burns 
 up the grass. If we calculate what 
 would be the amount of dung collect- 
 ed if the cattle were kept in yards or 
 
 stables, and fed with food cut for 
 them and brought there, and also the 
 loss of grass by treading on the pas- 
 tures, we shall have no doubt wheth- 
 er the additional labour of cutting the 
 grass and bringing it home daily is 
 not amply repaid by the saving ; but 
 if we also take into account tlie va- 
 riety of artificial grasses, pulse, and 
 roots which may be grown with ad- 
 vantage on land unfit for permanent 
 grass, and the quantity of arable land 
 which may thus be kept in the high- 
 est state of cultivation, we shall be 
 convinced ttiat the practice of those 
 countries where the cattle are con- 
 stantly kept at home is well worthy 
 of imitation. It may be of use to the 
 health of the animals to be allowed 
 to take a few hours' air and exercise 
 in a pasture near the stable, but there 
 is no advantage in their having any 
 grass crop there ; on the contrary, 
 the barer of grass the surface is, the 
 better. They will relish their food 
 better wiien they are taken in after a 
 few hours' fasting. A bite of fresh, 
 short grass might, on the contrary, 
 give them a dislike to their staler 
 food. When cut grass is given to 
 cattle in the stalls, it is best to let it 
 lie in a heap for at least twelve hours 
 before it is given to them. It heats 
 slightly, and the peculiar odour of 
 some of the plants, which oxen and 
 cows are not fond of, being mixed 
 with that of the more fragrant, the 
 whole is eaten without waste. Ex- 
 perience has shown that many plants 
 which cattle refuse in the field, where 
 they have a choice, have nutritious 
 qualities when eaten mixed with oth- 
 ers in the form of hay. There are 
 few deleterious plants in good grass 
 land or meadows, and these are read- 
 ily distingni-shed and weeded out. 
 
 The amount of hay, or its equiva- 
 lent, necessary to sustain oxen is 
 about two per cent, of their weight 
 daily ; when fattening, four per cent. 
 is often given. The accumulation is 
 seldom more than two and a half 
 pounds daily in fattening. 
 
 The quantity and quality of the 
 dung of cattle which are stalled and 
 well fed are so remarkable, that its 
 139 
 
CAT 
 
 CAT 
 
 value makes a considerable deduc- 
 tion from that of the food given, es- 
 pecially of green food, such as clover, 
 lucern, and every kind of leguminous 
 plant : we shall not be far wrong if 
 we set it at one fourth. This sup- 
 poses a suflicientquantily of straw for 
 litter, and an economical collection 
 of the liquid parts in proper reser- 
 voirs or tanks. In order to make the 
 feeding of cattle advantageous, the 
 buildings must be conveniently placed 
 with respect to the fields from which 
 the food is to be brought. Aloveable 
 sheds, with temporary yards, which 
 can be erected in different parts of a 
 large farm, according as different 
 fields are in grass or roots, are a great 
 saving of carriage, both in the bring- 
 ing of food to the cattle and carrying 
 the dung on the land. A clay bottom 
 should be selected, in a dry and rath- 
 er high spot, if possible. But if per- 
 manent buildings for cattle, con- 
 structed of rough materials and 
 thatched with straw, were erected 
 in the centre of about forty acres of 
 arable land, in different parts of a 
 large farm, it would probably be a 
 great saving in the end. 
 
 Good water is most essential to 
 the health of cattle, and that which 
 has been some time exposed to the 
 air seems the best for them. When 
 they are fatted in stalls on dry food, 
 they should always have a trough of 
 water within reach. A piece of rock- 
 salt to lick, or some salt given with 
 their food, is highly conducive to 
 their health, and will restore their 
 appetite when it begins to flag. Rub- 
 bing the hide with a wisp of straw 
 or a strong brush, as is done to hor- 
 ses, may appear a useless labour, but 
 it is well known that there is no bet- 
 ter substitute for that exercise which 
 is essential to health. Where labour 
 is not regarded, as is always the case 
 when the owner of the cattle attends 
 upon them himself, the curry-comb 
 and the brush are in regular use, and 
 the advantage derived from the use 
 of them is undeniable. 
 
 Where the farmer distils a spirit 
 from his grain, it is a great advan- 
 tage to have a distillery attached to 
 140 
 
 his establishment, especially in a re- 
 mote situation ; and not only is the 
 fattening of cattle on the refuse of 
 the distillation a source of profit, but 
 the manure extends fertility around. 
 The produce in spirits and in cattle 
 is easily transported to a great dis- 
 tance, and almost the whole of what 
 is produced by the land returns to it 
 in the shape of manure. The same 
 may be said of the manufacture of 
 sugar from beet-root, which has been 
 lately so much extended in the north 
 of France. 
 
 CATTLE, DISEASES OF. See 
 Ox. 
 
 CATTLE, NATIVE. Much dis- 
 cussion exists as to the propriety of 
 importing cattle from abroad, or un- 
 dertaking an improvement of the na- 
 tive. The fine steers of New-Eng- 
 land are said to be descended from 
 the Devon stock, and retain many of 
 their traits, while they are improved 
 in milking qualities; but most of the 
 other native stock is small, and infe- 
 rior to the choice English breeds. 
 But the size is probably due to the 
 carelessness with which they are 
 treated, and argues no inherent de- 
 fect, in proof of which it may be sta- 
 ted that the New-York butchers pre- 
 fer native animals for the shambles ; 
 and many instances may be quoted 
 of cows yielding as much milk as 
 even the Durham breed. The estab- 
 lished foreign breeds are already 
 brought up to a state of excellence, 
 while our cattle are unimproved, and 
 tlie occasional existence of fine ani- 
 mals is enough to guarantee high 
 perfection when they shall be regu- 
 larly bred. See Breeding. 
 
 Since, however, so many Durham 
 bulls have been introduced into New- 
 York, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky, 
 it is very useful to obtain a cross 
 with the native cow to increase the 
 milking and fattening qualities, and 
 also to advance in the process of 
 improvement by using the best for- 
 eign blood ; at the same time, a per- 
 manent and extensively diffused 
 choice breed cannot be expected un- 
 til our own stock are looked to in 
 part at least : this is the proper way 
 
CAU 
 
 of securing a race suited to our cli- 
 mate and pasture. To attain this ob- 
 ject, the prominent agricultural so- 
 cieties have ofTered prizes at their 
 fairs for improved native stock. 
 
 CAUDATE (from cauda, a tail). 
 Furnished with a tail-like appendage. 
 
 CAUDEX. The body of a root. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. An improved 
 cabbage, the flowers of which form 
 a mass of great delicacy. The va- ^ 
 rieties cultivated in the United States | 
 are the early white, late white, and pur- | 
 j)le. Sow the seed in September in 
 clean, rich soil, prick out in five 
 weeks, and set in another bed four 
 inches each way. As soon as the , 
 weather is cold, set a frame about 
 the seedlings, and in winter protect 
 with dung outside, &c., so as to keep ■ 
 out frost, but let in plenty of air and 
 light. Early in March set out under 
 hand frames, or in pots in the green- 
 house. "When the weather is set- ; 
 tied, put out, with balls of earth at- 
 tached, in the richest spot, two and a 
 half feet each way. They must be 
 hoed, earthed up. and watered, if ne- 
 cessary. Trim off the outer leaves 
 as the cauliflower forms ; they will 
 be mature in June. This is the best 
 way, but plants may be sown in hot- 
 beds in February, or even in May, in 
 the open air. They are, however, in- 
 tolerant of cold and heat, and form 
 small hearts during the summer. 
 Those planted in May flower in Oc- 
 tober. An ounce of good seed yields 
 from three to four thousand plants. 
 Cauliflowers left for seed must be 
 kept away from any other cabbage 
 variety, and the seeds collected as 
 rapidly as they ripen. 
 
 CAULLS (from Kav7.or). A stem. 
 From this word comes cauliferous. 
 
 CAUSTIC. Any application that 
 destroys the flesh or skin to which 
 it is applied. The most powerful 
 caustics are lunar caustic (nitrate of 
 silver), red precipitate (nitrate of mer- 
 cury), caustic potash: blue stone is 
 also used. Sometimes a solution of 
 blue stone or lunar caustic is applied 
 to stimulate an ulcer or slowly re- 
 move excessive growth. Caustics 
 are chiefly used to subdue irregular 
 
 CED 
 
 growths of flesh, and to destroy ul- 
 cers. 
 
 CAUSTIC, LUNAR. Nitrate of 
 silver, sold in sticks, ready for use as 
 a caustic ; when used in solution, ten 
 grains are mixed with an ounce of 
 water. 
 
 CAUTERY, or ACTUAL CAU- 
 TERY. The application of a red-hot 
 iron to a diseased part, as fungous 
 growths, &c. It is too often used 
 injudiciously. 
 
 CAVIARE. The salted roe of the 
 sturgeon, prepared and dried. It is 
 an unwholesome food used in Russia. 
 
 CEDAR. There are two species 
 of Cuprcssus known in the forests of 
 the United States under the names 
 of black cedar, or cypress (C. disti- 
 cha), and the white cedar ( C. thyoides). 
 They both yield good timber. 
 
 The C. disticha is abundant in the 
 swamps of Virginia and the South, 
 and forms the only tree in immense 
 swamps on the Mississippi. In these 
 localities it often rises 130 feet, and 
 attains 30 to 40 feet girth at the earth, 
 running up like a cone. The wood 
 is extremely durable, and in high re- 
 pute for shingles and posts. It is fell- 
 ed in winter, and allowed to dry thor- 
 oughly before being split. The trees, 
 which grow, in a great measure, in 
 water, have light barks, and are call- 
 ed ichife cypress, while those of drier 
 soils are caUed black cypress, and yield 
 a firmer and more resinous wood. 
 
 The u-hite cypress, C. thyoides, is ev- 
 ergreen, grows seldom 70 feet high, 
 and is about three feet in diameter. 
 It is abundant in New-Jersey, Mary- 
 land, and Virginia, but not farther 
 south. It inhabits salt and other 
 marshes in dense forests. The wood 
 is light, soft, of a rosy colour, aromat- 
 ic, easily worked, and very durable. It 
 is used by turners, and forms the most 
 valuable shingles, sometimes called 
 juniper shingles, which last 35 years. 
 
 CEDAR OF LEBANON. Abies 
 cedrus. A tree of immense dimen- 
 sions, value, and beauty, native on 
 the Lebanon Mountains. It is natu- 
 , ralized in Europe, and is a splendid 
 ornament in English parks. The 
 wood. is very durable. It may be cul» 
 141 
 
CEL 
 
 CEX 
 
 tivated with ease in the United States 
 as an ornament. 
 
 CEDAR, RED. The Juni perils Vir- 
 giniana is so called ; it is found on 
 the sea-coast from Maine to ilie Gulf 
 of Mexico ; attainin<r, in the South, 
 40 feet, but is small inland. It is ev- 
 ergreen and ornamental. The wood 
 is very dural)le, lij,'lit, and odorous, 
 red in colour, but scarce in quantity : 
 the best is from Florida. 
 
 CELERY. The improved small- 
 age, or Apium frravcolens. Several 
 varieties are cultivated ; the lohite 
 solid is the best for the table, the red 
 solid for cooking ; NorlVs giant, ncic 
 white, lion\s paw, and cclcriac {A. ra- 
 paceum) are also raised ; the last pro- 
 duces a root like the turnip, which is 
 sliced, and eaten with vinegar. Ear- 
 ly celery may be raised from seeds 
 60wn in a cold bed, like cabbages. 
 The general crop is sown in March 
 or April, in a rich border, protected 
 from great heat. The drill is the best, 
 run six inches apart. Transplant, 
 when three inches high, into rich 
 soil, and after a month into trench- 
 es dug one spade deep, ten inches 
 wide, and four feet apart. Place at 
 the bottom of each trench three inch- 
 es of rotten dung, and mix it well 
 with the soil ; leave the earth taken 
 out piled up between the trenches, to 
 be afterward fdled in as the plants 
 grow. Trim the roots and side leaves 
 of the celery before setting in the 
 trench, and place them four to six 
 inches apart. Sometimes two or 
 more rows are planted in one wide 
 trench. As the plants grow in the 
 trenches, hoe them, and when well 
 grown to one foot high i)egin to earth 
 in ; this must be done wlien the soil 
 is dry. Place a board against the 
 plants, and throw in soil enough to 
 reach nearly to the central b\id ; do 
 this on each side and along the row. 
 Earth up every two weeks, as the 
 celery grows, taking care to collect 
 together the leaves each time. When 
 blanched for thirty inches it is fit for 
 Use. Late winter celery may be put 
 in trenches in August, and earthed in 
 October. Market gardeners plough 
 out their trenches, increasing tlie dis- 
 143 
 
 tance between them. One ounce of 
 seed yields upward of ten thousand 
 plants. The winter store is kept in 
 sand, and covered with straw ; sud- 
 den liiawing destroys the celery. If 
 the wiiole root is taken up uncut, 
 the stump, after cutting off the head, 
 will again sprout in a warm cellar, 
 and yield a second supply of small, 
 hut very sweet and tender celery. 
 Seeds are readily obtained by leaving 
 a few plants in the seed-bed, which 
 will flower in July, and bear an abun- 
 dance of seeds in umbels. 
 
 CELL. In physiology, the mi- 
 nute cavities in plants and mem- 
 branes : the size ditlers from the one 
 thousandth to the one hundredth of 
 an inch. It may contain air, or fluids 
 and solids. The cell is the first struc- 
 ture of all membranes, but subse- 
 quently it may be converted into a 
 tube. They are originally spherical, 
 but become changed by pressure into 
 cubes, dodecahedrons, and other fig- 
 ures. 
 
 CELLULAR TISSUE. The mem- 
 brane or tissue in plants and ani- 
 mals which consists of cells contain- 
 ing gas chiefly, as the pith. It exists 
 between all muscles, and under the 
 skin in animals. 
 
 CEMENT. A Mortar, which see. 
 
 CEMENTATION. A process of 
 making steel, by surrounding plates 
 of iron with charcoal powder and 
 heating to a high point. 
 
 CENTIGRADE. A division into 
 one hundredths, as the centigrade 
 thermometer. 
 
 CENTIPEDE. Creeping, wing- 
 less insects with many feet ; they at- 
 tack the dead roots of plants. 
 
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY. An 
 imaginary point in the centre of any 
 mass which has the same weight ot 
 matter arranged on at least two sides. 
 When any substance is balanced on 
 a jioint, as the finger, the centre of 
 gravity lies immecliately above that 
 point. In falling to the earth, all sub- 
 stances take such a path that the 
 centre of gravity descends in a 
 straight line. No object can remain 
 firm except a line drawn from the 
 centre of gravity to the earth fall 
 
CHA 
 
 GIIA 
 
 within its base ; the instant it falls 
 on the outside the body tumbles over. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL (fVum ccntnim, 
 the centre, and/u^;o, 1 retreat). Used 
 in botany to describe an inflorescence 
 in which the uppermost or central 
 flowers bloom first. 
 
 CENTRIPETAL (from centrum 
 and pctro, I seek). That inflorescence 
 in which the outermost or lowest 
 buds develop first ; it is the most 
 common. 
 
 CEPHALIC (from /ce^a?.;/, a head). 
 Relating to the head. 
 
 CERACEOUS (from c^ra, wax). In 
 botany, waxv. 
 
 CERASIN. The gum of the cher- 
 ry and other trees, which does not 
 dissolve, but swells in water ; it is 
 the same as bassorin. 
 
 CERATE. An ointment contain- 
 ing wax. 
 
 CEREALIA. A term applied to 
 wheat, barley, rye, oats, corn, millet, 
 or grain plants. 
 
 C E R I N. That portion of wax 
 which dissolves in boiling alcohol. 
 
 CERUMEN. The wax formed in 
 the ears of animals. An accumula- 
 tion produces deafness, that may be 
 partly cured by syringing the ears 
 with tepid water. 
 
 CERUSE. White-lead, which see. 
 
 CERVICAL (from cervix, the neck). 
 Belonging to the neck. 
 
 CESPITOSE, CESPITOSUS 
 (from cespcs, a turf). Producing 
 many stems from one root. 
 
 CHAFF. The husks of grain or 
 straw cut in small pieces. 
 
 CHAFF ENGINES. The English 
 name for Straw-cutters, which see. 
 
 CHALCEDONY. A semi-transpa- 
 rent, silicious mineral, usually milky 
 and nodular. 
 
 CHALDRON. A measure of 36 
 bushels, heaped. 
 
 CHALK. A geological formation 
 abounding in Europe, but absent in 
 the United States. It belongs to the 
 uppermost portions of the secondary 
 formation, and consists of a large pro- 
 portion of carbonate of lime. 
 
 CHALYBE.\TE. Medicines or 
 mineral waters containing iron : they 
 are tonic. 
 
 CHAMOMILE. Anthemis nobilis. 
 The flowers are used in medicine as 
 a bitter ; or an extract is made of 
 their boiled liquor. See Camomile. 
 
 CHAMPIGNION. The French 
 name for mushrooms ; also the Aga- 
 ricas orcades, an English species, 
 tougher, but more highly flavoured 
 than the common mushroom ; it is 
 good when dried, and used in powder 
 as a condiment, or made into catsup. 
 
 CHANGE OF SEED. Practical 
 men have discovered that highly im- 
 proved seeds, especially of wheat, 
 corn, &c., brought from a distance, 
 gradually deteriorate if the soil is un- 
 suited. Thus, the white May wheat 
 becomes red on the red soils of Vir- 
 ginia ; the delicate six weeks' corn 
 of Canada becomes a three months' 
 hard corn in the South. General 
 Harmon has shown that many of the 
 choicest English wheats produce im- 
 perfect grain in New-York ; and it 
 must be evident that whatever im- 
 provement, in plants and seeds has 
 been attained by high culture, will be 
 lost unless that culture is maintained. 
 Instead, therefore, of changing seed, 
 it is best to improve our own, and 
 keep the land up to the proper tilth ; 
 and if we introduce new varieties, to 
 take care to introduce, also, high cul- 
 ture. Seeds of the same state, or a 
 similar soil and climate, deteriorate 
 less rapidly than foreign grain. By 
 changing seed and always buying 
 choice kinds, fine grain may be ob- 
 tained for one or two seasons, even 
 from indifferent lands. 
 
 CHARCOAL. Vegetable matter 
 burned in a place without access of 
 air. Near large cities a strong vine- 
 gar (pyroligneous acid) is made from 
 green wood, by distilling it in iron 
 vessels ; fine charcoal remains in the 
 vessel, and is thus obtained for com- 
 bustion. On the farm, the produc- 
 tion of charcoal must be on a cheaper 
 and more wholesale scale. Logs of 
 wood are piled either horizontally or 
 vertically into a dome-shaped mass, 
 a chimney being left in the centre 
 about four or five inches square, and 
 the rest covered close with sods and 
 earth a foot deep, so that no smoke can 
 113 
 
CII.V 
 
 escape through it ; a small flue or i 
 channel for air may also be left along 
 the ground, under the wood, on the 
 windward side, and passing to the 
 central chimney : this is the simplest 
 construction. Sometimes a pit or | 
 walled space is used, in which the 1 
 wood is laid, flues being sunk to con- ! 
 vey air to the bottom, and a central ' 
 chimney left, the top being covered 
 with earth, ashes, or cinders. The 
 kiln is fired by placing in the central 
 chimney leaves, straw, or twigs well 
 lighted, and allowing the draught to 
 remain open until the upper logs of 
 wood are well fired, afterward closing 
 the under flue. As soon as the flame 
 dies away, the wood being red-hot j 
 above, close the top of the chimney 
 and let the fire smoulder. It requires 
 from six to ten days to burn a kiln, 
 and constant attention must be paid. 
 Hard wood requires most time. The . 
 average yield is 16 per cent, of coal, 
 but hard woods, well burned, some- 
 times furnish 25. Box, lignum vitcc, 
 mahogany, chestnut, and oak yield 
 most. In this process, nearly all the 
 carbon of the wood is left, the oxygen 
 and hydrogen uniting in combustion 
 to form water, and the object in view 
 is to keep out atmospheric air, which 
 would cause the combustion of the 
 carbon also. 
 
 Properties. — Charcoal possesses 
 many remarkable properties. 1st. It 
 has the power ofremoving fetid smells 
 from water, meats, and manures ; 
 hence it is used in disinfecting priv- 
 ies and manures. 2d. It removes the 
 colour of many fluids, and is used in 
 clarifying juices and solutions, espe- 
 cially in refining sugar. 3d. It is re- 
 markably porous, and absorbs from 
 the air and other media, gases : 1 
 cubic inch of fresh box-wood was 
 found by .Saussure to absorb and con- 
 dense 90 of ammoniacal gas, 35 of car- 
 bonic acid, 9i of oxygen, and 7^ of 
 nitrogen : this property gives it great 
 value in putrescent composts, and as 
 a manure. 4th. Charcoal is nearly 
 unchangeable in common air at the 
 ordinary temperature, but burns, 
 when heated to redness, into carbon- 
 ic acid, if abundance of air be present. 
 
 CHA 
 
 5th. Being a very bad conductor of 
 heat, it is used to line refrigerators 
 and small ice-houses. 
 
 As a Manure. — Charcoal, in small 
 lumps or coarse powder, has been 
 highly recommended of late as a top 
 drcss"ing. About 40 bushels the acre, 
 over grass lands, or among young 
 plants, as turnips, has been known 
 to produce a heavy increase. Its 
 success will, however, depend upon 
 the goodness of the soil, and its 
 wants. Wherever an increased sup- 
 ply of ammonia from the air is want- 
 ing, the charcoal does good. The 
 fresh -burned article also contains 
 much sahne matter, soluble in water. 
 The best, and perhaps only advisable 
 way of using it, is to compost the pow- 
 der with night soil, urine, blood, and 
 other putrescent bodies ; it tends to 
 dry up the fluids, and retains the am- 
 monia formed during their decay. 
 Such composts added to the soil, re- 
 tain their virtue much longer than 
 the bodies when used alone. The 
 charcoal yields to roots of plants the 
 gases it has absorbed. But it has 
 been shown by numerous gardeners 
 that charcoal powder, kept moist with 
 rain water, is a good soil for many 
 flowers, and capable of sustaining 
 vigorous vegetation, and that slips 
 take root readily in it. Besides its 
 absorbent action, charcoal will loosen 
 tough soils and increase their warmth 
 by its black colour : it adds to the 
 tilth by giving greater porousness. 
 
 Great dijiculti/ has been found in 
 obtaining powdered charcoal ; this 
 is readily obviated by crushing the 
 lumps in a rough bark mill, which 
 every farmer can set up with an old 
 stone, turning around a post and 
 pressing on a few flag-stones. See 
 Mill. 
 
 CHARCOAL. AXIMAL. BONE 
 BLACK, IVORY BLACK. These 
 terms are used chiefly to indicate 
 bones charred by heat. It is prepa- 
 red extensively for sugar refiners, be- 
 ing much more valuable in remo- 
 ving colours than common charcoal. 
 Sometimes it is made by placing 
 bones in an open iron vessel and 
 heating until they are sufticientlv 
 
Giii: 
 
 CUE 
 
 black ; hut the most economical way- 
 is to introduce crushed bones into 
 iron retorts and distillinff ; l)y this 
 means a strong Iclid ammonia is ol)- 
 tained from them, which is very val- 
 uable in the arts, and the bones yield 
 more bone black. Common animal 
 charcoal contains 80 to 85 per cent, 
 of phospliate of lime and mineral 
 matter. Tiie refuse of the sugar re- 
 fuiers is a very valuable manure, and, 
 mixed with composts, much superior 
 to the recent bone black, from the 
 mixture of blood and other putres- 
 cent matters used. In France it is 
 so highly esteemed, that purchases 
 are made in New-York city for ex- 
 portation to Havre, and the refuse 
 is imitated by artificial mixtures of 
 powdered charcoal and bullocks' 
 blood. It is of great service in pro- 
 ducing vigorous growth, strong plants, 
 and fine seeds. From 150 to 200 
 pounds, in compost, are suflicient for 
 an acre of land in high order : in gar- 
 dens more is used. 
 
 CHARD. A variety of Beet, which 
 see. 
 
 CHARLOCK. Several weeds of 
 the Cruciferous family ; difficult to 
 extirpate except by mowing before 
 they llowcr. They are annuals. 
 
 CHARRING. Burning so as to 
 produce a crust of charcoal. It is a 
 good way of preserving the butts of 
 posts inserted in the ground or wet 
 places. 
 
 CHASE. A row of trees or hedge 
 plants. 
 
 CHAT POTATOES. A term in 
 England for the small, imperfect po- 
 tatoes, fit onlv for liogs. 
 
 CHEAT, or CHESS. The Bromus 
 fccalinus (see Bromus). Supposed to 
 be degenerate wheat by the ignorant. 
 It is a troublesome grass, only to be 
 extirpated by cleaning the grain thor- 
 oughly of the chess seeds. It is 
 called Darnel occasionally in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 CHEESE. In making cheese 
 there are certain general principles 
 which are essential, hut slight varia- 
 tions in the process produce cheeses 
 of very different qualities ; and al- 
 though the most important circum- 
 N 
 
 stance is the nature of the pasture on 
 which the cows are fed, yet much 
 depends on the mode in which tho 
 different stages of the fabrication are 
 managed ; and hence the great supe- 
 riority of the cheeses of particular 
 districts or dairies over those of oth- 
 ers, without any apparent difference 
 in the pasture. By skill and great 
 attention excellent cheeses are made 
 in places where the pastures are not 
 considered so well adapted to pro- 
 duce milk of a proper quality ; and in 
 those countries where the cows are 
 chiefly kept tied up in stalls, and are 
 fed with a variety of natural and ar- 
 tificial grasses, roots and vegetables, 
 superior cheese is often made. 
 
 The first process in making cheese 
 is to separate the curd from the whey, 
 which may be done by allowing the 
 milk to become sour ; but the cheese 
 is inferior in quality, and it is diffi- 
 cult to stop the acid fermentation and 
 prevent its running into the putrefac- 
 tive. Various substances added to 
 milk will soon separate the curd from 
 the whey. All acids curdle milk. 
 Muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is used 
 with success for this purpose in Hol- 
 land. Some vegetables contain acids 
 which readily coagulate milk, such as 
 the juice of the fig-tree, and the flow- 
 ers of the Galium verum, or yellow 
 lady's bed straw, hence called cheese- 
 rcnnct. Where better rennet cannot 
 be procured, they may be substituted 
 tor the most natural curdler of milk, 
 which is the prepared stomach of a 
 sucking calf This rapidly coagu- 
 lates the milk ; and the only difficul- 
 ty is in keeping it from putrefaction, 
 which begins from the instant the 
 stomach is taken from the calf The 
 preparation of the rennet, as it is call- 
 ed, IS a most important part of the 
 process of cheese-making. The fol- 
 lowing may be considered as the sim- 
 plest, and perhaps the best. As soon 
 as a sucking calf is killed the stom- 
 ach should be taken out, and if the 
 calf has sucked lately, it is all the bet- 
 ter. The outer skin should be well 
 scraped, and all fat and useless mem- 
 branes carefully removed. It is only 
 the inner coat which must be prc- 
 115 
 
CHEESE. 
 
 served. The coagulated milk should 
 be taken out and examined ; and any 
 substance besides curd loiiiid in it 
 should bo carefully removed. The 
 serum left in it should be pressed out 
 with a cloth. It should then be re- 
 placed in the stomach with a large 
 quantity of the best salt. Some add 
 a little alum and saltpetre ; others 
 put various herbs and spices, with 
 the view of giving the cheese a pe- 
 culiar flavour, but the plain, simple 
 salting is sufficient. The skins, or 
 veils, as they are called, are then put 
 into a pan, and (-overed with a satu- 
 rated brine, in whicli they are soaked 
 for some hours ; but there must be 
 no more liquor than will well moisten 
 the veils. They are afterward hung 
 up to dry, a piece of flat wood being 
 put crosswise into each to stretcli 
 Ihein out. They should be perfectly 
 dried, and look like (jarchment. In 
 this state they may be kept in a dry 
 place for any length of time, and are 
 always ready for use. In some places, 
 at thi' time of making cheese, a piece 
 of a veil is cut off and soaked for 
 some hours in water or whey, and 
 the whole is added to ihe warm milk. 
 In other places, pieces of veil are put 
 into a linen bag and staked in warm 
 water, until the water has acquired 
 sufficient strength, whicli is proved 
 by trying a portion of it in warm milk 
 The methoil employed in Sw tzerland 
 is as follows : A dry veil is taken and 
 exammed ; it is scraped wiili a knite, 
 and where any veins or pieees of 
 tough iiiembrdiie ajjpear they are re- 
 moved 1 he whole surface is exam- 
 ined and w.ished carelully, if any 
 dust or tiirt h.is adhered to it ; but, 
 otherwise it is only wijied with a 
 cloth. -A haiidl'ul of salt is then put 
 into it, and the edges ol the veil are 
 folded over and secured with a wood- 
 en skewer stuck thnujgh it. In this 
 state it forms a ball of about three 
 inches' diameter, and is laid to soak 
 twenty-four hours in a dish contain- 
 ing aliout a quart of clear whey, which 
 has been boiled, and all the curd 
 taken out. The next day the veil is 
 well squeezed, and pui into fresh 
 whey, the first infusion being put 
 146 
 
 into a proper vessel ; the second is 
 afterward mixed with it and bottled 
 for use. Half a pint of this liquor, of 
 a proper strength, is sufhcient to cur- 
 dle forty gallons of milk. Experience 
 alone enables the dairyman to judge 
 of the strength of his rennet ; for this 
 purpose he takes in a Hal ladle some 
 milk which has been heated to about 
 95^ of Fahrenheit, and adds a small 
 measure of rennet By the rapidity 
 with which it curdles, and the form 
 of the flakes produced, he know.- its 
 exact strength, and puts more or less 
 into the caldron in which the milk is 
 heated for curdling. A simple instru- 
 ment might easily be invented by 
 which the exact degree of strength 
 might be ascertained, and a rule giv 
 en to guide the less experienced ; but 
 as long as a man feels a superiority 
 ac()uired by exierience alone, he is 
 not likely to encourage any contri- 
 vance which would place others on a 
 level with himstdf From this cause 
 even the thermometer has .lOt been 
 introduced generally into any great 
 dairy, nor have any certaui rules been 
 given to ascertain the exact heat le- 
 quired in the milk, when the reniiei 
 is added, to form the best curd. 
 
 There are different kinlsofrhees*'. 
 accor'ling to the mode of preparing 
 it ; soft and rich cheeses are not in- 
 tended to be kept long ; hard and dry 
 cheeses are adapted to be kept and 
 stored for provisions. Of the first 
 kind are all cream cheeses, and those 
 soft cheeses called Bath and Yo.k- 
 shire cheeses, which are s 'Id as soon 
 as made, and if kept too long become 
 soft and putrid. Stilton and Gruyere 
 cheeses are intermediate; Parme- 
 san, Dutch, Cheshire, Gloui-ester- 
 shire, and snnilar cheeses are in- 
 tended for longer keeping. The 
 poorer the cheese, the longer it will 
 keep ; and all cheese that is well 
 cleared from whey and sufficiently 
 salted will keep for years The 
 small Dutch cheeses called Edam 
 cheeses are admirably adapted lor 
 keeping, and form an important arti- 
 cle in the victualling of snips. 
 
 The Gruycrc and Parmesan cheeses 
 only differ in the nature of the milk, 
 
CllLLiyE. 
 
 and in the dectree of heat given to 
 tlie curd in diflerent parts of ihe pro- 
 cess. Gniyere clieese is entirely 
 made from new milk, and Parmesan 
 fuom skinnned milk. In the first no- 
 thing is added to give flavour ; in the 
 latter saflYon gives both colour and 
 flavour : tiie process in both is ex- 
 actly similar. A large caldron in 
 the shape of a bell, capable of hold- 
 ing from 60 to 130 gallons of milk, 
 hangs from an iron crane over a 
 hearth where a wood fire is made. 
 The milk, having been strained, is 
 put into this caldron, and heated to 
 nearly blood heat (95^ to 100 ). It 
 is then turned off the fire, and some 
 rennet, prepared as stated above, is 
 intimately mixed with the warm milk 
 by stirring it with a flat wooden 
 skimming dish, which is turned round 
 in the milk. A cloth is then laid over 
 the caldron, and in half an hour, more 
 or less, the coagulum is formed. 
 This is ascertained by pressing the 
 skimming dish on the surface, when 
 the whey will appear on the part 
 pressed. If it is longer than an hour 
 m coagulating, the milk has been too 
 cool, or the rennet not strong enough. 
 The weather has a great influence on 
 the process of the dairy, and there is 
 much yet to be learned by accurate 
 observations with meteorological in- 
 struments. When the curd is prop 
 erly formed, it is cut horizontally in 
 thin slices by the same skimming 
 ladle. Each slice, as it is taken off, 
 is placed along the side of the cal- 
 dron which is nearest to the opera- 
 tor ; by this means every portion of 
 the curd rises successively to the 
 surface, and is sliced thin. The 
 whole is then well stirred, and the 
 caldron replaced over the fire. A long 
 staff, with a small knob of hard wood 
 at the end, and which has smaller 
 cross pieces or sticks passed through 
 holes in it at right angles to each 
 other near the end, is now used to 
 stir and break the curd, and the heat 
 is raised to about 135". The caldron 
 is again swung off the fire, and the 
 curd is stirred with the staff, which 
 is moved round with a rejiuhir rota- 
 tory motion. Alter fatirnng in this 
 
 manner nearly an hour, the curd is 
 found divided into small dies about 
 the size of a pea, which fi-el elastic 
 and rather tough under the finger. 
 The whey, of which a portion is re- 
 moved occasionally, now floats at 
 top, and the curd is collected in the 
 bottom by giving a very rapid rota- 
 tory motion to the contents of the 
 caldron by means of the staff. A 
 cloth is now introduced into the bot- 
 tom, and all the curd collected over 
 it ; it is raised by the four corners, 
 and laid on an instrument like a small 
 ladder, which is placed across the 
 mouth of the caldrnn. The whey 
 runs out through the cloth, which is 
 a common cheese-cloth woven with 
 wide interstices ; and the curd in the 
 cloth is placed in a shape or hoop 
 made of a slip of wood four inches 
 and a half wide, the two ends of 
 which lie over each other, so that 
 the diameter can he increased or 
 lessened. A cord fixed to one end 
 of the hoop is passed with a loop over 
 hoops on the outer surface of the 
 other end, and prevents the ring from 
 opening more than is required. The 
 curd is pressed into this ring with the 
 hands, and the ends of the cloth are 
 folded over it. A round board, two 
 inches thick, and strengthened by 
 cross pieces nailed on it, is placed 
 over the curd, and the press let down 
 upon it. 
 
 The cheese-press is a simple long 
 board or frame forming a lever, load- 
 ed at one end and moving in a frame 
 at the other.; it is lifted up by an- 
 other lever connected with it, and let 
 down on a strong stick, which stands 
 with its end on the centre of the 
 board last mentioned. The weight 
 is thus easily removed or replaced. 
 The hoop containing the cheese is 
 placed on a similar board, and from 
 it the table of the press slopes to- 
 wards a wooden trough, which re- 
 ceives the whey as it runs out. In 
 an hour after this the curd is ex- 
 amined ; the edges, which are press- 
 ed over the ring, are pared off, and 
 the parings are put on the centre of 
 the cheese ; a fresh cloth is substi- 
 tuted, and the whole cheese is turned. 
 117 
 
CHEESE. 
 
 The ring, which opens readily by un- 
 hooking the cord, allows tiie clieesp 
 to come out, and is put on again and 
 tightened. This is repeated two or 
 three times in the day. In the even- 
 ing, a small portion of finely powder- 
 ed salt is rubbed on each side of the 
 cheese, and it remains in the press 
 till the next morning. It is now 
 again rubbed with salt, and placed 
 on a shelf with a loose board under 
 it. The wooden ring remains on the 
 cheese for two or three days, and is 
 Ihen taken off. This is the whole 
 process. 
 
 During the next six or eight weeks 
 the cheeses are turned and wiped 
 every day, and a small quantity of 
 fine salt is sifted on the surface and 
 rubbed in with the hand until it will 
 take no more. The cheese-room is 
 always very cool, and little light is 
 admitted. A free circulation of air 
 is essential. The cheeses are in per- 
 fection in about six months, and will 
 keep two years. A quantity of elas- 
 tic fluid is disengaged in the ripening, 
 and forms those round cells which 
 are a peculiar feature in these chees- 
 es. The smaller and rounder the 
 cells, the better the cheese is reck- 
 oned. They should contain a clear 
 Bait liquor, which is called the tears ; 
 when these dry up, the cheese loses 
 its flavour. These particulars will 
 give any one unacquainted with the 
 dairy a tolerable notion of the pro- 
 cess of cheese-making in general. 
 
 In Cheshire the making of cheese 
 is carried on in great perleclion, and 
 the greatest pains are taken to ex- 
 tract every particle of whey. For 
 this purpose, the curd is repeatedly 
 broken and mixed, the cheeses are 
 much pressed, and placed in wooden 
 boxes which have holes bored into 
 them. Through these holes sharp 
 skewers are stuck into the cheese in 
 every direction, so that no particle 
 of whey can remain in the curd. The 
 elastic matter formed also escapes 
 through these channels, and the en- 
 tire cheese is a solid mass without 
 holes, which in this cheese would be 
 looked upon as a great defect. The 
 salt is intimately mixed with the 
 118 
 
 curd, and not merely rubbed on the 
 outside. This checks internal fer- 
 mentation, and prevents the forma- 
 tion of elastic matter. 
 
 Gioucestcr and Somersetshire chees- 
 es are similarly made, with this dif- 
 ference, that the curd is not so often 
 broken, or the cheese skewered, and 
 a portion of the cream is generally 
 abstracted to make butter. After 
 the curd has been separated from the 
 whey and is broken fine, warm water 
 is poured over it for the purpose of 
 washing out any remaining whey, or 
 perhaps to dissolve any portion of 
 butter which may have separated be- 
 fore the rennet had coagulated the 
 milk ; for although cream adds to the 
 richness of cheese, butter tends to 
 make it rancid. 
 
 Stil(on cheese is made by adding 
 the cream of the preceding evening's 
 milk to the morning's milking. The 
 cream should be intimately incorpo- 
 rated with the new milk ; great at- 
 tention should be paid to the tem- 
 perature of both, and much of the 
 quality of the cheese depends on this 
 part of the process. To make this 
 cheese in perfection, as much de- 
 pends on the management of the 
 cheese after it is made as on the 
 richness of the milk. Each dairy 
 has some peculiar method which is 
 considered best ; and it is certain that 
 there is the greatest difference be- 
 tween cheeses made in contiguous 
 dairies. The rennet should be very 
 pure and sweet. When the milk is 
 coagulated, the whole curd is taken 
 out, drained on a sieve, and very mod- 
 erately pressed. It is then put into 
 a shape in the form of a cylinder, 
 eight or nine inches in diameter, the 
 axis of which is longer than the diam- 
 eter of the base. When it is suffi- 
 ciently firm, a cloth or tape is wound 
 round it to prevent its breaking, and 
 it is set on a shelf It is occasional- 
 ly powdered with flour, and plunged 
 into hot water. This hardens the 
 outer coat, and favours the internal 
 fermentation, which ripens it. Stil- 
 I ton cheese is generally preferred 
 I when a green mould appears in its 
 . texture. To accelerate this, pieces 
 
CHEESi:. 
 
 of a mouldy cheese are sometimes 
 inserted into lioles made for the pur- 
 pose by the scoop called a tastc7; and 
 wine or ale is poured over for the 
 same purpose ; but the best cheeses 
 do not require this, and are in per- 
 fection when the inside becomes soft 
 like butter, without any appearance 
 of moulduiess. In making very rich 
 cheeses, the whey must be allowed 
 to run otf slowly, because, if it were 
 forced rapidly, it might carry otf a 
 great portion of the fat of the cheese. 
 This happens more or less in every 
 mode of making cheese. To collect 
 this superabundant butter, the whey 
 is set in shallow pans, as is done 
 with milk when butter is made ; and 
 an mferior kind of butter, called ichcij 
 hiiitei\ is made from the cream or fat 
 skimmed off. 
 
 Cheeses are frequently coloured, a 
 practice which probably arose from 
 the notion of making the cheese look 
 richer ; but now it deceives no one. 
 Yet if some cheeses were not colour- 
 ed, they would not be so marketable, 
 owing to the association that subsists 
 between the colour and the qualify 
 of the cheese. The substance used 
 for colouring is most commonly ar- 
 notto, which is ground fine on a 
 stone, and mixed with the milk at 
 the time the rennet is put in. The 
 juice of the orange carrot and the 
 flower of marigold are also used for 
 this purpose. This last gives a more 
 natural tint than the arnotto, which 
 is too red. 
 
 Dutch cheeses are made in a very 
 similar manner to the Gloucester 
 cheeses, but the milk is generally 
 curdled by means of muriatic acid or 
 sjiirits of salt ; and great care is ta- 
 ken to prevent fermentation, and to 
 extract the whole of the whey. For 
 this purpose, the curd is repeatedly 
 broken and pressed ; and before it is 
 made up into the round shape in 
 which it is usually sold, the broken 
 curd is well soaked in a strong solu- 
 tion of common salt in \\-atcr. This 
 diffuses the salt throughout the whole 
 mass, and eflectually checks ferment- 
 ation. When the clieeses are finally 
 pressed, all the whey which may re- 
 N 2 
 
 main is washed out with the brine ; 
 salt is likewise rubbed over the out- 
 side, and they are set to dry on 
 shelves in a cool place. The flavour 
 of the cheese is perhaps impaired by 
 the stoppage of the fermentation ; 
 but it never heaves, and it acquires 
 the valuable quality of keeping well 
 even in warm climates. From the 
 place where this cheese is commonly 
 made, it is known by the name of 
 Edam cheese. A finer cheese is 
 made at Gouda and other places, by 
 iinitating the process in making Gru- 
 yere cheese ; but this cheese is al- 
 ways full of small cavities, and will 
 not keep so long as the Edam. The 
 little clieeses made from cream and 
 folded in paper, called Neufchaicl 
 cheeses, can be easily imitated, being 
 nothing more than cream thickened 
 by heat, and pressed in a small mould. 
 They undergo a rapid change, first 
 becoming sour and then mellow, in 
 which state they must be eaten. 
 
 The green Swiss cheese, common- 
 ly called Schabziegcr, is made in the 
 canton of Glarus, and is by many 
 persons highly esteemed. The curd 
 is pressed in boxes with holes to let 
 the whey run out ; and when a con- 
 siderable quantity has been collected, 
 and putrefaction begins, it is worked 
 into a paste with a large proportion 
 of a certain dried herb reduced to 
 powder. This herb, called in the 
 country dialect Zieger kraut (curd 
 herb), is the Melilotus officinalis, which 
 is very common in most countries, 
 and has a peculiar aromatic flavour 
 in the mountains of Switzerland The 
 paste thus produced is pressed into 
 moulds of the shape of a common 
 flower-pot, and the putrefaction be- 
 ing stopped by the aromatic herb, it 
 dries into a solid mass, which keeps 
 unchanged for any length of time. 
 When used it is rasped or scraped, 
 and the powder, mixed with fresh 
 butter, is spread upon bread. It is 
 either much relished or much dis- 
 liked, like all those substances which 
 have a peculiar taste and smell. 
 
 \^'hen a cheese which has been 
 much salted and kept very dry ig 
 ; washed several times in soft water, 
 149 
 
CllEtSK. 
 
 and then laid in a clolh moistened 
 with wine or vinej^ar, it gradually 
 loses its saltness, and from being 
 hard and dry becomes soft and mel- 
 low, provided it be a rich cheese. 
 This simple method of improving 
 cheese is worth knowing. It is gen- 
 erally practised in Switzerland, and 
 cheeses are kept stored there for 
 many years ; if they were not very 
 salt and dry, they would soon be the 
 prey of worms and mites. A dry 
 Stilton cheese may thus be much im- 
 proved. 
 
 CHEESE, EXPORTATION OF. 
 The exportation of cheese to Eng- 
 land is becoming very heavy ; 179.389 
 cvvt. were imported into Great Brit- 
 ain in 1844, nearly one third being 
 from the United States. The cheese 
 to imitate is the Cheshire, but if Stil- 
 ton could be produced it would pay 
 a heavy profit. 
 
 CHEESE-CLOTH. A coarse open 
 cloth or towel placed inside the vat ; 
 it should be wrung out in boiling wa- 
 ter after use, and dried. 
 
 CHEESE, CONNECTICUT. The 
 following account from the American 
 AgricuUiLrist gives the process for 
 the preparation of a very excellent 
 cheese : 
 
 " On a farm capable of supporting 
 twelve cows, two cheeses of about 
 10 lbs. each may daily be made, in 
 the months of May, June, and July. 
 The evening's milk is kept untouched 
 till the next morning, when the cream 
 is taken off and put to warm in a brass 
 kettle, heated in order to bring it to 
 the temperature of new milk from the 
 cow. The cows being milked early 
 in the morning, the morning's new 
 milk and the night's milk prepared 
 as above are put into a large tub to- 
 gether, with the cream. Then a por- 
 tion of rennet, which has been soak- 
 ed in water milk-warm the evenmg 
 before, and sufficient to coagulate the 
 milk, is put into the tub, after which 
 it is covered up warm and left to 
 stand about half an hour, or till co- 
 agulated, at which time it is turned 
 over with a bowl to separate tlie 
 whey from the curd, and broken soon 
 after with the hand and bowl in very 
 150 
 
 small particles ; the whey being sep- 
 arated by standing some time, is ta- 
 ken from the curd, which smks to the 
 bottom. The curd is then collected 
 into a part of the tub, and a board is 
 placed thereon which weighs from 
 60 to 120 lbs., to press out the whey. 
 When it is getting into a more solid 
 state, it is cut and turned over in sli- 
 ces several times to extract all the 
 whey, and then weighted as before. 
 These operations may occupy about 
 an hour and a half. It is then taken 
 from the tub and broken very small 
 by the hand, or cut very fine by a 
 cheese knife, and put into a cheese 
 vat, enlarged in depth by a hoop to 
 hold the quantity, it being more than 
 the bulk when finally put to the press. 
 The side is pressed well by hand, and 
 with a board well weighted placed at 
 the top. The cheese is thus drained 
 of its whey, then snifted out of the 
 vat, having a cloth first spread on the 
 top of it, and reversed on the cloth 
 into another vat, or even into the 
 same, which, however, must be al- 
 ways fresh scalded, and thus made 
 warm before the cheese is returned 
 into It. The top part is now broken 
 down to the middle, has salt mixed 
 with it, is reversed as before, then 
 pressed by hand, weighted, and has 
 the remaining whey extracted. This 
 done, the cheese is again reversed 
 into a scalded warm vat, with a cloth 
 beneath the cheese ; a hoop is also 
 put round the upper edge of the 
 cheese and within the sides of the 
 vat, the cheese being first enclosed 
 in a cloth, and the edge of it put with- 
 in the vat. Finally, it is put into a 
 press of thirteen p5unds weight and 
 pressed very hard. In four hours it 
 is shifted and turned, and after four 
 hours again treated in the same man- 
 ner. After this it is taken out and 
 carried to the drying-room, and turn- 
 ed every day until it grows hard." 
 
 CHEESE-KEEPING. The ripen- 
 ing of cheeses is all important in 
 impfoving their flavour. A constant 
 temperature of from 50^ to 65° Fah- 
 renheit is the proper degree, but this 
 can only be attained in caverns and 
 cellars built for the purpose. Cheea- 
 
cHn 
 
 CITE 
 
 PS are kept well when covered with 
 a cotton cloth and whitewashed. 
 
 CHEESE MAGGOT. Tlie larva 
 of a dipterous fly {Piophila casci) found 
 in decaying cheese. 
 
 CHEESE MITES. Minute, wing- 
 less insects {Arams siro) with eight 
 legs. Their introduction into chees- 
 es is very mysterious, as they appear 
 when no wounds are to be seen on 
 the outside. 
 
 CHEESE, PINE.\PPLE. The fol- 
 lowing is the plan of Mr. Davenport, 
 of New-York, who received the prize 
 of the Annerican Institute: 
 
 " In all cases the milk and rennet 
 should he sweet. When the curd is 
 properly produced, break it up very 
 line, cook it well, but not to overheat. 
 Season w-th clean pure salt. Put 
 the cheese or curd into the press or 
 mould, which is of pineapple shape, 
 with a neck, and open in the centre, 
 and fastened together by clamps or 
 
 ' clasps. Fill the mould full, also the 
 neck, and |)ress with a round follow- 
 er to lit the neck. Keep it in the 
 press twenty-four hours, take the 
 cheese out and cut off the neck, and 
 sear it over ; then dip it in hot whey 
 to form a hard rind, and draw over 
 them tightly a net with interstices of 
 a diamond shape, which forms the 
 indenture. Suspend them from the 
 neck, and keep them so for four weeks ; 
 then take them out of the nets, and 
 set them on trenches on shelves, and 
 in three months they are cured and 
 fit for market. Pack them in cases 
 of ten each, with partitions between 
 them." 
 
 CHEESE PRESS. The most 
 common kind is described in the ar- 
 ticle Cheese. Numerous improved 
 machines occur, but the followmg. by 
 Baird, is in all respects equal, if not 
 superior, to the rest, and extensively 
 used in the English cheese counties. 
 
 151 
 
CHE 
 
 CHL 
 
 " The form containing the curd is ] 
 put on the bottom plate, a, and the 
 top phite, B, is made to descend and ! 
 press on it. There are two ways of 
 doing this : one quick and easy, until 
 the resistance becomes great ; and 
 the other slower, but more power- 
 ful, and used for tlie conclusion of 
 the operation. On tlie axis, c, of tlie 
 ■wheel, D, there is a pinion of eight 
 teeth (not seen in the engraving) 
 which works in the rack, r. On the 
 axis, E, there is another pinion of 
 eight teeth (concealed by the other 
 parts), which acts in the wheel, d, of 
 twenty-four teeth. This axis, e, may 
 be turned by the winch handle, h, 
 three turns of which will make the 
 rack descend through a space corre- 
 sponding to eight of its teeth. In 
 this way the plate, b, may be lower- 
 ed to touch the cheese, and to com- 
 mence tlie pressure ; but when the 
 resistance becomes considerable, the 
 second method of acting on the rack 
 must be resorted to. On the axis, e, 
 besides the pinion before mentioned, 
 there is a fixed ratchet wheel, f ; the 
 lever, i, forked at the end, which 
 embraces f, is also placed on this 
 axis, but turns freely round it. In 
 the forked part of f there is a ratchet 
 or click, G (better seen at g *), which, 
 turning on the pin, k, may be made 
 to engage in the notches of the ratch- 
 et wheel, F. By means of this ar- 
 rangement, when I is raised up, and 
 G engaged in f, the axis, e, and its 
 pinion will be turned round with great 
 power on depressing the end, i, of the 
 lever ; and by alternately raising and 
 depressing i, any degree of pressure 
 required may be given to the cheese ; 
 after which, if it be wished to con- 
 tinue the pressure, and to follow 
 the gradual shrinking of the cheese, 
 the lever is to be raised above the 
 horizontal position, and the weight, 
 w, hung on, which will cause it to 
 descend as the cheese yields. By 
 inserting the pin, p, this effect may 
 be discontinued, and the farther de- 
 scent of B prevented." — • {Highland 
 Soc. Trans., vol. x., p. 52.) 
 
 CHEIROPTERA (from xeiP> '^^ 
 ha7id, and nrepov, a wing). Animals of 
 152 
 
 the hat kind, whose wings are mem- 
 branous, stretched from the hand and 
 arm to the hind legs and side of the 
 body. Bats are, for the most part, 
 insectivorous, and therefore worthy 
 of preservation bv farmers. 
 
 CHELOXIAN.S (from x'^'>-<^vv, « 
 tortoise). All tortoises, turtles, &c., 
 which are covered with a double 
 shell. 
 
 CHEMISTRY {Chama, Arh., to 
 burn). The science which investi- 
 gates the nature of matter, and the 
 laws which govern the movements 
 of its atoms. The inanimate and ani- 
 mate world are the scenes of its re- 
 searches. The miner, dyer, and man- 
 ufacturer owe their success to chem- 
 istry, and the farmer is destined to 
 be more benefited by this science 
 than other professions. The soil, 
 plants, and manures are all topics of 
 chemical examination, and, without 
 knowing their nature, no person can 
 practice agriculture except by guess, 
 and in an empirical way. 
 
 It is a subject of immense extent, 
 and in this work I have confined my- 
 self to the practical points. See An- 
 alysis, Affinity, Atom, Oxygen, Carbon, 
 Ammonia, Phosphorus, &.C. 
 
 CHENOPODIACE/E. A family of 
 plants, of which the Chcnopodmm is a 
 genus. They are herbaceous, grow- 
 ing on very rich lands, have a solita- 
 ry carpel, stamens of the same num- 
 ber as the divisions of the calyx, with- 
 out bracts or petals. The wormseed 
 {Ch. anthdminticum) is the only me- 
 dicinal species. Beets, spinach, and 
 goose foot belong to this family ; the 
 leaves, and indeed the whole plant, 
 are mucilaginous, and may be eaten 
 as food when not unpleasant to the 
 palate. 
 
 CHERIMOYA. The fruit of the 
 Anond chcrimolia, a tree of tropical 
 America. 
 
 CHERRY. Prunus cerasus. The 
 tree grows well in the United States, 
 and prefers a deep loam in a free ex- 
 posure. The wood is firm, and used 
 for cabinet purposes. The stocks 
 are raised from seed, and budded or 
 grafted : for dwarfs, the morello stock 
 is preferred. The stock may be bud- 
 
CilERKV. 
 
 dedthe first year, and will bear in the 
 fifth. They may be trained as espa- 
 liers or left as standards. The fol- 
 lowing are select varieties : 
 
 D.ivenport's Early Bl.^ck, Neio 
 May Duke. — This variety is consid- 
 ered as one of the finest and most 
 productive of early cherries known, j 
 The fruit is of medium size, heart- | 
 shaped, of a dark, glossy black col- \ 
 our : flesh firm, and of a pleasant, 
 sub-acid flavour. It ripens a week : 
 or ten davs earlier than the May 
 Duke. 
 
 May Dl'ke, Earhj Duke, Holman's 
 Duke, June Duke. — Fruit roundish, 
 and grows in clusters ; skin very 
 dark red ; flesh soft and juicy : ripe 
 in June. 
 
 American Amber, Early Amher, 
 Neio Honey. — Fruit beautiful, and of 
 medium size ; dark pink or amber 
 colour ; flesh rich, sweet, and fine ; 
 ripe in June. 
 
 Elton.— This excellent variety was 
 raised by Mr. Knight in 1806 ; the 
 tree is very vigorous and productive ; 
 the fruit is j^elty large, heart-shaped ; 
 pale glossy yellow in the shade, but 
 marbled with bright red next the sun ; 
 flesh firm, sweet, and rich : ripens 
 soon after the May Duke. 
 
 F L o R E N c E. — A very fine heart- 
 shaped cherry, of a yellow amber col- 
 our, marbled with bright red in the 
 shade, bright red next the sun ; flesh 
 tolerably firm, juicy, rich, and sweet : 
 ripe end of June and in July. 
 
 Ambree de Choisv. — A middle- 
 sized, roundish fruit, highly deserving 
 of cultivation ; skin transparent, red, 
 mottled with amber ; flesh amber 
 coloured, tender, and sweet. It bears 
 well as a standard, and ripens its fruit 
 in June. 
 
 Knight's Early Black. — Colour 
 rich, dark hue ; flesh firm, juicy, and 
 sweet : ripe in June. 
 
 0.x Heart, i/armo?i's Heart, White 
 Bigarrcau. — Fruit large, heart-sha- 
 ped ; colour pale yellow and white, 
 mottled with red ; flesh white, firm, 
 and well flavoured : ripe in June. 
 
 Manning's Black Bigarreau. — A 
 new variety from the nursery of the 
 late R. Manning, of Salem, Mass. 
 
 Fruit large, flesh sweet, and of pe- 
 culiarly fine flavour : ripe in July. 
 
 Yellow Spanish, Graffion, Impe- 
 rial, White Orleans, Turkey Bigar- 
 reau. — Fruit very large, heart-shaped ; 
 amber colour, red next the sun ; flesh 
 firm, sweet, and fine flavoured ; one 
 of the very best varieties ; tree an 
 abundant bearer : ripe in July. 
 
 Black Eagle. — A handsome va- 
 riety ; fruit of globular form ; skin 
 dark purple ; flesh tender, rich, and 
 of fine flavour : ripe in July. 
 
 Blatk Tartarian, Black Russian, 
 Ronald's Large Black Heart. — Large, 
 heart-shaped, and of very superior 
 quality ; colour dark shining purple 
 or black ; flesh firm, purple, and 
 sweet ; tree very productive : ripe in 
 June. 
 
 Elkhorn, Black Ox Heart, Large 
 Black Bigarreau. — Fruit large, and 
 heart-shaped ; an excellent variety 
 for market : ripe second and third 
 weeks in July. 
 
 Archduke, Royal Duke, Portugal 
 Duke. — A large, globular-formed red 
 cherry ; like the .May Duke, it grows 
 in clusters, but the tree grows more 
 vigorously than that variety, and 
 yields an abundance of fruit, which 
 hangs a long time on the tree, im- 
 proving in flavour in July. 
 
 Napoleon Bigarreac. — One of the 
 finest varieties ; fruit white, with red 
 spots ; size large, flesh white, solid, 
 and sweet : ripe in July. 
 
 "White Bigarreac. — One of the 
 largest and finest varieties. Fruit 
 heart-shaped ; skin yellow, with a red 
 cheek ; flesh firm and fine flavoured ; 
 ripe in July. 
 
 Late White Heart. — Middle size, 
 pleasant flavour, valuable as a late 
 variety : ripe the last of August. 
 
 White Tartarian. — An elegant 
 fruit ; pale yellow, approaching to 
 amber next the sun ; fine flavour, 
 and a good bearer : ripe in July. 
 
 Downer's Late Red, Downer's Fa- 
 vourite. — Fruit large and round ; col- 
 our light red, flesh firm and fine : ripe 
 after most other varieties are gone 
 
 MoRELLo, English Morello. — Fruit 
 of medium size, round ; of a dark- 
 red colour, nearly black at maturity ; 
 153 
 
cur: 
 
 flesh deep red, tender, juicy, and 
 blended with an agreeable acid ; ri|)c 
 in July, and bangs some time on tlu> 
 tree. This variety is excellent for 
 preserves and lor brandy. 
 
 The fruit appears on spurs pro- 
 duced on branches two and three 
 years old ; the spurs are formed year 
 by year along the bearing branches : 
 the morello on the last year's shoots, 
 and seldom on that three years old. 
 Ch(?rry-trees, unless topped, become 
 very liigh, and require 30 to 40 feet 
 between them. 
 
 Diseases. — Exudation of gum is 
 cured by improving the soil, and pru- 
 ning less carelessly. The aphis, of a 
 green colour, is often troublesome, 
 causing the leaves to curl, and pro- 
 ducing, according to some naturalists, 
 hottey dew. Fumigations with tobac- 
 co* sulphur, and pepper are recom- 
 mended, as well as washing by a gar- 
 den engine, and throwing up tobacco 
 infusion. The red spider is removed 
 by the same means. It is, however, 
 a healthy tree, and less subject to 
 disease than many others. The trunk 
 is sometimes attacked by borers. 
 
 CHERRY, WILD. Pninus Vir- 
 giniana. This tree is found as far 
 north as Maine, but reaches perfec- 
 tion in rich lands in the Middle States, 
 especially Pennsylvania ; and also in 
 Virginia and Ohio. Trees have been 
 measured 100 feet high and 16 in 
 girth. The wood is brown, bright, 
 and, near branches, well marked. Ii 
 is much used for cabinet purposes, 
 and is durable. The fruit is small 
 and bitter, but flavoured like ratatia, 
 from the presence of oil of bitter al- 
 monds, and is sometimes mixed with 
 morello cherries for the manufacture 
 of cherry brandy and cordials. The 
 young tree is an excellent stock for 
 budding or grafting. The bark, infu- 
 sed in water, forms a popular tonic 
 and nervous remedy. For other va- 
 rieties, see Primus. 
 
 CHERT. A silicious mineral re- 
 sembling flint. 
 
 CHERVIL. ChccropkyUum sati- 
 vum. A pot-herb resembling pars- 
 ley, used by the French and Dutch in 
 soups and as salads. The seeds are 
 154 
 
 CUE 
 
 sown in spring, in drills eight inches 
 apart, the plani.s thinned to eight inch- 
 es apart, and ke|)i free of weeds. It 
 flowers in the fall. 
 
 CHES.SEL. The cheese vat. It 
 is made of white oak, bound by iron 
 hoops, and perforated with holes to 
 allow the whev to drain out. 
 
 CHEST FOrNDER. An irrita- 
 tion or inflammation of the mem- 
 branes in the chest. See Horse. 
 
 CHESTNUT. The American 
 chestnut {Castanea Americana) very 
 nearly resembles the famous Europe- 
 an tree {Castanea vesca), except in its 
 altitude and the size of the fruit. The 
 European, also called the Spanish or 
 Italian chestnut, is of immen.se size 
 and longevity, trees being known 
 which have a girth of 60 feet. The 
 wood, except in very old trees, is ad- 
 mirable, being more durable than oak 
 in moist situations. The bark is also 
 used in tanning. It prefers a dry, 
 loose soil, abounding in silicious mut- 
 ter and potash. 
 
 The European variety is easily rais- 
 ed from seed, grows rapidly, and bears 
 in seven years. The fruit is five limes 
 larger than that of ours, and com- 
 mands a good price in the market. 
 Chestnuts are used boiled, roasted, 
 and raw. In Southern France, Italy, 
 &c., they constitute the bread of a 
 large population. Michaux gives the 
 following directions for the cultiva- 
 tion of the chestnut : 
 
 " After the ground has been care- 
 fully loosened with the plough and 
 harrow, lines are drawn six feet 
 apart, in which holes about a foot in 
 depth and diameter are formed, at the 
 distances of four feet. A che.stnut is 
 placed in each corner of the hole, 
 and covered with about three inches 
 of earth. As the soil has been thor- 
 oughly subdued, the nuts will spring 
 and strike root with facility. Early 
 in the second year, three of the young 
 plants are removed from each hole, 
 and only the most thriving is left. 
 The third or fourth year, when the 
 branches begin to interfere with each 
 other, every second tree is suppress- 
 ed. To ensure its success, the plan- 
 tation should be begun in March or 
 
CHI 
 
 April, with nuts that have been kept 
 in the cellar during the winter, in sand 
 or vegetable mould, and that have al- 
 ready becrnn to germinate."' 
 
 CHEWING THE CID. The an- 
 imals which chew the end are term- 
 ed by naturalists Ruminants, and in- 
 elu<le the ox, deer, camel, and slie(>p. 
 They are furnisiied with four pouches 
 or stomachs ; the grass gathered on 
 the field is swallowed and reaches 
 the first pouch, is moistened by wa- 
 ter from the second, and afterward 
 moulded into round balls, which are 
 thrown up into the mouth and leis- 
 urely chewed, and re-swallowed into 
 the third stomach, to be digested in 
 the fourth. Such animals are essen- 
 tially herbivorous, and require rest 
 during rumination. Any interference 
 with this process is a sign of disease. 
 
 CHIASTOLITE. A mineral re- 
 sembling soap-stone. 
 
 CHICA. A red colour obtained by 
 boiling the leaves of the Bifr/wnia chi- 
 ca, straining, and allowing to cool, 
 when it settles as an insoluble red 
 matter. It is permanent, insoluble 
 in water, but soluble in oils and lyes. 
 The Indians use it to anoint their bod- 
 ies. It mav be useful in the arts. 
 
 CHICKEN. See Poulinj. 
 
 CHICK PEA. An exotic, legu- 
 minous annual, resembling the vetcii : 
 the Cicer aricfrniim o\'hoia.nists. They 
 have been raised m the Middle States 
 with success. It is the Gaibanza of 
 Spain, and Poiscluca of thv French, 
 and reputed as the most delicious pea. 
 The ground dry pea is also used in 
 soups, and the roasted grain is said 
 to be a good substitute for coffee. It 
 prefers a rich, sandy loam, is grown 
 in rows, does not climb, attains the 
 iieight of about eigiiteen inches; the 
 pods contain two peas, and the yield 
 i.s small. As they come to most per- 
 fection in the South, they must be 
 sown in June in the Middle States. 
 
 C H I ( M) 11 Y. Cichormm intyhus. 
 An indigenous perennial plant, with 
 fine blue composite flowers. (<Sef 
 
 The following is from Mr. Rham : 
 " It has a fusiform root like a car- 
 rot, from the crown of which large 
 
 CHI 
 
 and succulent leaves spread out, with 
 deeply-indented edges. The whole 
 plant is bitter and aromatic. It is fre- 
 quently used as a salad, especially 
 when blanched. For this purpose, 
 the roots are taken up in the end of 
 autumn ; they are then placed in sand 
 or liijht mould, in a cellar from which 
 the light is excluded, the leaves hav- 
 ing been cut ofTpreviously within half 
 an inch of the crown. Fresh, slender 
 leaves soon grow out of the root, and, 
 being deprived of light, they are much 
 more delicate and tender than those 
 which grow in the open ground. The 
 bitterness, also, is thus lessened, and 
 they form a very pleasant winter sal- 
 ad, which, from the long, slender, and 
 matted state of the leaves, the French 
 call bar be dc capucin (monk's beard). 
 It is pleasanter to the taste than com- 
 mon endive. 
 
 " The luxuriant growth of the leaves 
 of the chicory, and their speedy re- 
 production after they have been cut, 
 suggested tlie more extensive culti- 
 vation of this phint ;is fond for f-attle 
 and sheep, who arc fond of the h-aves. 
 M. Crelte de Panuel, who (uiltivated 
 it near Paris in a rich soil, produced 
 extraordinary crops. The first year 
 he cut it only twice, but afterward 
 four and five times in a year : it pro- 
 duced more green food than any oth- 
 er plant cultivated lor this purpose 
 Arthur Young was so struck, with it 
 155 
 
cm 
 
 cm 
 
 that he strongly recommended it to 
 the notice of British agriciilturists ; 
 and in the qtioiies sent to various 
 parts of tlie cotnitry l)y the Board of 
 Agriculture, one was whether cliico- 
 ry was cultivated in the district as 
 groon food for cattle. But, notwith- 
 staiuiing its abundant produce, it has 
 not been found so much superior to 
 other green food as to make its culti- 
 vation general. Some accurate ex- 
 pernnents on a large scale were made 
 in France, at the national farm of 
 Rambouillet, to ascertain the value 
 of chicory compared with lucern and 
 other green food. The chicory was 
 declared inferior, giving a disagreea- 
 ble taste to milk and butter when 
 cows are kept upon it. For sheep it 
 is very good, and a small portion mix- 
 ed with their other food may probably 
 be a preservative against the rot. 
 
 " Chicory is now chiefly cultivated 
 in Belgium and Germany, for the pur- 
 pose of preparing from tlie root a pow- 
 der which can be substituted for cof- 
 fee. This has become a very consid- 
 erable article of commerce. 
 
 "To have the roots in perfection, 
 the seed should be sown, or, rather, 
 drilled, in April, like that of the car- 
 rot. If sown sooner, they are ajit to 
 run to seed. The land should be rich, 
 deep, and light. The plants should be 
 thinned out to six inches in the rows, 
 and most carefully weeded. In Sep- 
 tember the leaves should be finally 
 gathered and the roots taken up, 
 which may be done with a common 
 potato-fork. They are then cleaned 
 by scraping and washing, split where 
 they are thickest, and cut across in 
 pieces about two or three inches long. 
 These pieces are dried by means of 
 a slow oven or a kiln. Some nicety 
 is required in drying, to prevent the 
 root from being scorched, and to keep 
 the proper flavour. In this state it is 
 sold to the merchants, packed in bags. 
 It is afterward cut or chopped into 
 small pieces, roasted exactly as cof- 
 fee, and ground in a mill. Chicory is 
 said to exhaust the soil, and to require 
 fresh ground to prevent its degenera- 
 ting. Unless the soil is rich and light, 
 the roots will not come to a good size 
 156 
 
 in one season, and old roots become 
 tough and stringy. It is only the young 
 roots that are fit to be prepared for 
 commerce. They lose a great por- 
 tion of their weiglit in drying. The 
 best preparation of tlie land for chic- 
 ory is grass or clover, 'i'lic manure 
 should be laid on before it is jilough- 
 ed up in autumn, which will acceler- 
 ate the decomposition of the roots. 
 The land should be ploughed very 
 deep in spring, and laid light ; the sur- 
 face harrowed fine, and the chicory 
 seed drilled in rows twelve inches 
 apart, and rolled. Liquid manure 
 spread over the ground will much 
 accelerate the growth of the plants, 
 which must be thinned out like tur- 
 nips or carrots, to six or eight inches 
 from plant to plant." 
 
 About thirteen pounds of seed are 
 used to the acre. 
 
 CHIGOE, or CHIGGER. An apter- 
 ous minute insect, which abounds in 
 southern and tropical America. It 
 penetrates the skin of the foot, grow- 
 ing to some size, and producing in- 
 tolerable itching. Unless destroyed 
 by tobacco juice, or picked out with 
 a needle, it finally brings about ulcer- 
 ations. 
 
 CHILIAN CLOVER. The Alfal- 
 fa. It is common lucern. 
 
 CHINE. The back bone. 
 
 CHINQUAPIN. Casfanea pumila. 
 A small tree and bush seldom found 
 north of Delaware. The fruit is small 
 and like a chestnut. It is seldom 
 wood is obtained lYom the chinqua- 
 pin : what there is is very durable. 
 In neglected new lands in Virgmiait 
 is a great nuisance. 
 
 CHINTZ, or CHINCK BUG. The 
 following is from Mr. Pleasants of 
 Virginia : 
 
 "The chinck bug is a much more 
 formidable enemy with us than the 
 wheat worm, or even the Hessian 
 tly. They (the chinck bugs) attack 
 both corn and wheat crops, the lat- 
 ter in May, the former generally in 
 the month of June. They continue 
 to injure the wheat by extracting the 
 sap as long as there is a particle of 
 it in the stalk. The consequence is, 
 %vhere they are numerous, the grain, 
 
CHI, 
 
 CHU 
 
 when harvested, is nearly worthless 
 and the straw vastly injured. By the 
 time the wheat is cut, the bugs (then 
 flies) take wing, and immediately 
 spread over the neighbouring corn- 
 fields, concealing themselves under 
 the blade slips, under the roots, tkc, 
 where they dcposite millions of eggs, 
 which are hatched in eight or ten 
 days, and continue through rapidly 
 succeeding generations to prey upon 
 the sap as long as anything green re- 
 mains upon the stalk, finally taking 
 shelter for the winter under the bark 
 of stumps and logs, under large clods, 
 &c., to be ready for the work of de- 
 struction the next season. "When 
 first hatched, they are very small, and 
 red as cochineal. They grow very 
 rapidly, and in a week attain half the 
 size of a bedbug; in a week more, 
 they acquire wings, fly, and spread 
 themselves over the field, depositing 
 their eggs generally. They are, in 
 the last state, about twice the size of 
 a flea, have white wings, and tl.eir 
 bodies being dark, have a speckled 
 appearance. I have been thus minute 
 in describing these insects, because I 
 observe they have never been seen 
 in Maryland." Their destruction is 
 attempted by running ditches across 
 the field, filled «ith straw, and, as 
 soon as the bugs are seen thereon, 
 setting fire to it. The bugs come 
 from forests, and are destro3-ed by 
 occasionally burning the dry leaves. 
 
 CHIVES, or GIVES. Allium schct- 
 twprasum. A small species of onion 
 growing in tufts. It is propagated 
 by dividing the roots, set out in May 
 and June eight inches apart, and eight 
 or ten offsets together. Keep free 
 from weeds. The leaves may be used 
 for soups. In the fall, as soon as the 
 tops die, dig the chives and store for 
 winter. 
 
 CHLORINE (from ;f/l«j30f, green). 
 A green - coloured elementary gas, 
 produced artificially. It is pungent, 
 poisonous, and of great chemical ac- 
 tivity. It exists only in combination 
 in nature : equivalent 35 45. When 
 combined with metals the substances 
 are called Chlondcx, as chlonde of 
 sodium (common salt), chloride of hy- 
 O 
 
 j drogen (muriatic acid). The latter is 
 a powerful acid, much used in the 
 j arts, and known under the name of 
 spirits of salts. Chlorine also unites 
 with lime and soda, forming feeble 
 compounds, the chlorides of lime and 
 soda ; these, especially tlie former, 
 I are extensively used in bleaching, 
 ! from the continual escape of the chlo- 
 ' rine. They are also disinfecting for 
 the same reason. Chlorides are oft- 
 en erroneously called Muriates. Chlo- 
 rine unites with five equivalents of 
 oxygen, and forms the Chloric Aad. 
 One of its salts, the chlorate of pot- 
 ash, is of great value in the arts 
 
 CHLORITE. A mineral of a green- 
 ish colour, common in slates, &c. It 
 is chiefly a silicate of magnesia and 
 iron. 
 
 CHLORO. In chemistry, a prefix 
 to substances containing chlorine, as 
 chloro-carbonic acid, iScc. 
 *CHLOROPIiYL (from;tlwpor and 
 (pv?./.ov, a leaf). The green colouring 
 matter of leaves. It closely resem- 
 bles wax, and is converted in the fall 
 into a true yellow fat. The presence 
 of chlorophyl is essential to the 
 healthy functions of the leaf, which 
 ceases to absorb carbonic acid from 
 the air when yellow or red. The au- 
 tumnal tints of leaves depend on a 
 change of this colouring matter, the 
 yellow being called Zanlhophyl, and 
 the red Erythrophyl. Chlorophyl is 
 also called chromule by some authors. 
 The tints of many flowers depend 
 upon its compounds, which assume 
 every variety between reds, yellows, 
 and greens. Chlorophyl has been 
 very recently shown to be analagous, 
 in its phvsical characters, with indigo. 
 
 CHLORURETS. The old name 
 for Chlorides. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. A preparation 
 made by triturating the roasted cocoa 
 beans at a temperature of 130= Fah- 
 renheit, and mixing with cinnamon, 
 cloves, vanilla, or other spices. 
 
 CHOKE DAMP. The suffocating 
 vapour existing in the bottom of wells, 
 cess-pools, and mines of wood coal. 
 It is an air containing much carbonic 
 acid, and may destroy life. Free 
 exposure to pure air and artificial 
 157 
 
CHU 
 
 warmth are the means to be used in 
 restoring persons overcome with this 
 va|)our. 
 
 CHOLESTERINE ((romxo7.v, hilc, 
 and rrrmp, suet). A fatty matter re- 
 sembling spermaceti, found in the bile 
 and biliary concretions. 
 
 CHOLEICACID. Liebig regards 
 the animal matter of the bile as cho- 
 leic acid, the secretion being a soap 
 formed by its union with soda. Cholic 
 and choloidic acids are separated by 
 alcohol and other solvents, and are of 
 secondary consequence. Redtenba- 
 cher has recently discovered tu-cnty- 
 mx per cent, of sulphur in choleic acid. 
 
 CHONDRINE. Gristle, or carti- 
 lage. It consists of protein with wa- 
 ter, or, according to Liebig, protein 
 -|-20, -|-4 water. 
 
 CHORD. A straight line drawn 
 between the two extremities of the 
 arc of a curve. The chord of an arch 
 is its span. 
 
 CHOROID MEMBRANE. The 
 membrane of the eye within the white 
 coat. 
 
 CHROMATIC (from A'P"^«'. col- 
 our). In optics, relating to colour. 
 
 CHRONIC (from .ypoi'Of, time). 
 Diseases which are slow in their prog- 
 ress are called chronic. 
 
 CHRYSALIS. The grub or inac- 
 tive state of changeable insects. The 
 terms pupa and aurealian are synony- 
 mous. Some are enclosed in cocoons, 
 others are destitute of covering, and 
 buried in the earth or in trees. Moths 
 usually have rounded and butterflies 
 angular chrysales. 
 
 CHURN. The barrel in which the 
 butter of milk is separated. The 
 fommon plunging churn is described 
 in the article Butter. Another form 
 is a barrel with paddles moving upon 
 a central axis, which is turned by a 
 handle on the outside. Churns are 
 moved by horse or dog power, water, 
 and even steam-engines. A simple 
 plan is to affix the rods of several 
 plunging churns to a cross-bar attach- 
 ed to a lever, one end of which is fast- 
 ened to a wall or tree by a moveable 
 joint ; by moving the free end of the 
 lever, all the sticks are raised or de- 
 pressed together, and thus four or 
 158 
 
 CIC 
 
 more churns are set in action by one 
 person. The French use a churn 
 made of tin, which being placed in a 
 tub of warm water, can be warmed 
 directly, and be made to yield butter 
 in from ten to twelve minutes. 
 
 CHURNING. From a series of 
 experiments made for the Highland 
 Agricultural Society, it appears that 
 temperature of 50° or 55° Fahrenheit 
 is the best for the process (with 
 cream), and about two hours' work. 
 If the churning be continued after the 
 formation of butter it becomes soft, 
 and sometimes looses its colour. 
 When the whole milk is used it should 
 be warmed to 65° Fahrenheit. As 
 this point is easily managed in sum- 
 mer as well as in winter, it is best to 
 use the entire milk. An additional 
 argument is, that more butter is ob- 
 tained, Mr. Ballantyne having shown 
 that more than five per cent, is ob- 
 tained m summer from milk than 
 cream. 
 
 CHYLE. The milky fluid result- 
 ing from digestion. It is almost iden- 
 tical with milk, and owes its white 
 colour to fat suspended in it. The 
 chyle is carried directly into the veins, 
 and serves to repair the blood em- 
 ployed in maintaining the functions 
 of the bod^. It is alkaline, and con- 
 tains albumen and fibrin. 
 
 CHYLIFICATION. The produc- 
 tion of chyle. 
 
 CHYME. The solid parts result- 
 ing from digestion, which are first 
 Avhite from admixture with chyle, but 
 ultimately become converted into fec- 
 ulent matter. Chyme is slightly acid, 
 from the presence of lactic acid. 
 
 CICADA. A genus of insects re- 
 lated to the grasshopper and locust, 
 but inhabiting trees ; they make a 
 shrill sound. The dry fly of the 
 South is a species (C. cankularts). 
 The cicada;, by puncturing trees and 
 allowing their sap to exude, do much 
 harm ; the C. or>ii produces, in this 
 way, the manna of the druggists, by 
 wounding the Fraxinus ornus, or 
 manna ash-tree. The seventeen- 
 year locust is the C. septendecim. 
 
 CICATRIX. The scab of a wound 
 in the act of healing. 
 
i;iD 
 
 CICHORIUM. The generic name 
 of a number of composite plants, of 
 which the C. intyhus is chic-ory or 
 succory, and C. endira, endive. 
 
 CIDER. The fermented juice of 
 apples. The Harrison, Newark 
 Sweeting, Hugh's Virginia Crab, and 
 Granniwinkle are the best cider ap- 
 ples ; but any fruit serves that is 
 well flavoured and becomes sweet in 
 the pomace. The apples should be 
 ripe, mashed well in a mortar or mill, 
 and the crushed mass kept until thor- 
 oughly sweet (from two to six days) : 
 it is then placed m a frame surround- 
 ed by straw and put under the press. 
 The juice should be put in barrels, in 
 a cool place, to ferment, and as soon 
 as the feculent matter (pulp) contain- 
 ed in it has overflown (about four 
 days), it should be racked or decant- 
 ed into a clean cask furnished with 
 a vent peg, bunged up, and placed in 
 a cool cellar. It is advisal)le to se- 
 cure the decanted cider from becofn- 
 ing sour and running into vinegar, by 
 burning a little sulphur in the new 
 cask immediately before pouring in. 
 Tiie liquor will be fit for bottling in 
 February. Some persons add sugar 
 and spirits to the cider, but they tend 
 only to increase its intoxicating ef- 
 fects. Old cider, made without such 
 addition, contains from seven to nine 
 per cent of alcohol. 
 
 By allowing the juice to remain in 
 
 CI\ 
 
 the first cask it speedily becomes 
 sour, and vinegar is lapidly formed as 
 long as air finds access. As soon as 
 the juice is intenselysour, bung up ibe 
 barrel, or the acetic acid evaporates, 
 and only a flat water is left behind. ' 
 
 The refuse pomace is sometimes 
 moistened with water, and pressed 
 again to form water cider. It is eat- 
 en by hogs and cows while fresh ; or, 
 if in great excess, may be carried to 
 the farm-yard to add to the manure 
 heap. Every part of the apparatus 
 must be kept clean by washing with 
 hot water and scrubbing. 
 
 CIDER MILL. Several contri- 
 vances are used for the purpose o-f 
 crushing the apples ; a larjre trunk of 
 a tree, hollowed, serves for a small 
 family, the fruit being beaten by a 
 wooden beetle. The following are 
 more elTective mills : Fig. 1 pre'sents 
 compartments for varieties of aa- 
 Fi^. 1. *^ 
 
 pie ; the large millstone, a, is drawn 
 around in the groove and crushes ev- 
 ery particle of fruit. Fig 2 is a mill 
 of similar construction, but more sub- 
 stantial ; b is the swinging tree. 
 
 f^^^ 
 
 Another irtill, figured under the ar- 
 ticle Crushers, is also used for this 
 purpose. The mill {Fig. 2) above 
 would be of great service on the farm 
 to crush corn, roots, bones, charcoal, 
 &c., as well as fruit. 
 
 CILIA (from cihum, the eyelash). Mi- 
 
 nute hairs on the margins of leaves, 
 angles of the bodies of insects, &c. 
 Cii'iiite is a derivative. 
 
 CI.MEX. The general term for in- 
 sects resemliling the bedbug 
 
 CINEREOUS (from cinis, ash). 
 Ash coloured. 
 
 159 
 
cm 
 
 CINNAMON Laurus annamo- 
 tnum. This is a small tree, from 
 twenty to thirty feet hij^li. iiidiucnotis 
 to Coylon and the Eastern islands, 
 but cultivated in Cayenne, Egypt, 
 and Brazil. The spice consists of" 
 the inner hark of the branches ; its 
 flavour is due to an essential oil ea- 
 sily distilled. 
 
 ClNyl'EFOIL. Several species 
 of l\)tciiiilla with yellow flowers are 
 so called. They are weeds, the roots 
 of which are astringent. 
 
 C 1 11 C I N N A T E. In botany, the 
 manner in which the buds of ferns 
 and some other plants are folded, re- 
 sembling a crosier. 
 
 CIRCULATION. In physiology, 
 the route which the fluids or blood 
 of animals and plants lake through 
 the system. It differs with the spe- 
 cies of animals, but is nearly uniform 
 in the highest classes. 
 
 Tke circulation of the blood in man 
 and quadrupeds may be said to com- 
 mence on the right side of the heart, 
 from whence it is driven along the 
 ■pulmonary arteries into the structure 
 of the lungs; being here changed by 
 the action of air, the bright crimson 
 blood is conveyed by the pulinotiary 
 vans into the left side of the heart, 
 and thence driven by its contraction 
 along the aorta and throughout the 
 body in the sy.stem of vessels called 
 arteries. The arterial blood ultimate- 
 ly reaching the skin and membranes, 
 moves through them and becomes of 
 a dark colour ; in this state it enters 
 the vcinx, and is conveyed back to the 
 heart qgain to pass through the same 
 course. The circulation in the lungs 
 is termed the lesser or pulmonic cir- 
 culation ; that through the body, the 
 systemii. circulation. The object of 
 thK movement is to supply every part 
 with its proper nourishment. The 
 force which accomplishes it is the 
 chemical action taking place in the 
 minute or capillary vessels. See Dr. 
 Draper's work on Vegetable Chemistry. 
 
 CIRCULATION IN PLANTS. 
 Fluid entering the roots of plants 
 rises by capillary action along the 
 cellular tissue or new wood in trees, 
 and diffuses itself over the leaves ; 
 160 
 
 CLA 
 
 here a chemical change occurs, and 
 it is driven along the under side of the 
 leaf to the space between the bark 
 and new wood, where the changed 
 fluid or sap diffuses itself and sup- 
 plies the young buds, and also de- 
 scend-s to the roots, forming new 
 wood and rootlets in its passage. 
 The force producing this circulation 
 is. like the former, due to chemical 
 changes m a great measure. 
 
 CIRRUS. A tendril. 
 
 CITRIC ACID. The sour princi- 
 ple of lemons. See Acids. 
 
 CITRON. A variety of lemon, the 
 fruit of which is much larger and with 
 a thicker rind, used for preserving ; 
 the pulp is less, and acid as in the 
 lemon. 
 
 CITRUS. The generic name of 
 the orange, lemon, and lime tree. 
 
 CLARIFICATION. The process 
 of clearing or refining fluids, by which 
 they are freed from sediment. The 
 white of egg, the clear portions of 
 blood, clay, and charcoal powder are 
 the best clarifiers. 
 
 CL.A.RY. A species of sage {Sal- 
 via sclarea). It is seldom cultivated 
 in the United States, being inferior 
 to that aromatic herb. 
 
 CLASPERS. Tendrils. 
 
 CLASS. A general division of nat- 
 ural objects. 
 
 CLA V ATE (from clava, a club). 
 Club-shaped. A descriptive term in 
 botany. 
 
 CLAVICLE. The collar bone. 
 
 CLAY. The earth which is form- 
 ed from the decomposition of slates, 
 shales, and minerals containing much 
 alumina. It is a hydrated silicate of 
 alumina, usually coloured red or blue 
 by metals, hut sometimes, as in pipe 
 clay and porcelain clay, of its natural 
 white or gray colour. It is very plas- 
 tic, adhesive, and tenacious of water, 
 so that in soils containing seventy 
 per cent, it is almost impossible to 
 produce a good Ullage. 11 also pos- 
 sesses the properly of forming feeble 
 combinations with the ammonia of 
 the air or soil. Clay soils, when 
 manageable, are usually fertile, from 
 the presence of other minerals occur- 
 ring in them, so that in practice it is 
 
CJ-A 
 
 customary to value soils by the pro- 
 portion of this earth. 
 
 Chemically, the alumina is a feeble 
 base, uniting with acids, and is found 
 as a phosphate and sulphate, as well 
 as silicate. Clay can hardly be said 
 to furnish food to plants directly, but 
 is of consequence in giving texture 
 and absorbency to soils. 
 
 CLAY, BURNED. See Clay Soils 
 and Turf. 
 
 CLAYING LANDS. This is the 
 spreading of clay over soils which are 
 too sandy. It is an important remedy 
 for loose lands ; but the expense is 
 too heavy to justify the practice, ex- 
 cept in garden culture. The clay 
 should be carried on in the fall, to 
 mellow during winter; 100 or more 
 loads to the acre will be necessary 
 for a good result : the addition is per- 
 manent. If marl can be obtained, it 
 is very preferable. 
 
 CLAY SOILS. A clay soil con- 
 sists of a large proportion of alumina 
 united to silica of various degrees of 
 fineness. When the sand is very 
 fine, and intimately mixed with the 
 alumina, the clay, although stiff in 
 appearance, is fertile in proportion to 
 the humus which it contains, or which 
 is artificially added to it. It then 
 forms that class of rich wheat soils 
 which produce many successive abun- 
 dant crops without change or manure. 
 It has a strong afiinity for water, 
 which prevents the plants that grow 
 in it being injured by drought ; and 
 it has a sufficient degree of porous- 
 ness to allow superfluous moisture to 
 percolate v.ithout making it too soft. 
 All that is required for such a soil is 
 a porous substratum of rock or grav- 
 el ; and where this is not the case, 
 sufficient under-drains must be made 
 to produce the same effect. Clay 
 soils are of a compact nature, which 
 retains the water ; hence they require 
 expensive draining and manuring to 
 render them productive. This has 
 made lighter soils, which are more 
 easily worked, to be generally pre- 
 ferred, although naturally less adapt- 
 ed to the growth of wheat ; and the 
 mode of cultivation of the light soils 
 has advanced more rapidly towards 
 O 2 
 
 CLA 
 
 perfection than that of the clays ; yet 
 the latter will undoubtedly repay the 
 outlay best when once they are 
 brought to a certahi state of improve- 
 ment. When clay soils are well 
 drained, and when the effect of nox- 
 ious salts has been removed by liming, 
 burning, and frequent stirring, it wdl 
 be found that a much smaller (juantity 
 of manure will produce a more cer- 
 tain return in grass or corn than on 
 any light soil. The great difficulty is 
 to choose the time when stiff clays 
 are to be worked ; and here it may 
 be observed that ploughing some- 
 times does more harm than good. 
 When clay is wet, especially in the 
 beginning of summer, and it is plough- 
 ed in the regular process of fallow- 
 ing, the tough, moist slice cut out by 
 the plough is set on edge, and the 
 sun bakes it into a hard mass like 
 brick. In this state it is not im- 
 proved by exposure to the air, which 
 cannot penetrate this hard substance. 
 It would be much better to plough 
 out deep water-furrows with a plough 
 made on purpose, and wait until tiie 
 moisture is reduced by gradual per- 
 colation and evaporation, so that the 
 plough should raise a slice ready to 
 break and crumble as it is turned 
 over. This should be done imme- 
 diately before winter, and then the 
 frost will so divide and mellow the 
 soil that, provided it he kept free 
 from superfluous water by under- 
 drains and water-furrows, it will have 
 the appearance of the finest mould 
 wlien worked with the harrows in 
 spring. To plough it again would be 
 to spoil all. It should have received 
 the necessary manuring in autumn, 
 and be ready for the seed to be sown 
 on this pulverized surface. The 
 horses which draw the harrows or 
 the sowing machines should be made 
 to walk in the furrows, which should 
 afterward be deepened out with a 
 plough constructed for the purpose. 
 A free course and outlet sliould be 
 formed (or all surface water ; for no 
 maxim is more true than this, that 
 slifT clays are never injured by a con- 
 tinuance of dry weather, unless they 
 were in a wet state immediately be- 
 IGl 
 
CLAY SOILS. 
 
 fore. The dryest clay contains suf- 
 ficient water to siii)|)iy the roots of 
 plants for a long tnne ; but wet clay, 
 in drying and slirndcing, destroys the 
 texture of the roots l)y meclianical 
 pressure. Tiiis may be of use when 
 weeds are to be eradicated, and in 
 that case a different mode of proceed- 
 ing may be rccommerulcd ; but when 
 good seed is sown the clay should be 
 in such a state as to crumble under 
 the harrows. Experience has taught 
 the ploughman that clay soils should 
 be laid m round lands or stitches ; 
 and much of the produce of a tieJd 
 depends on the skill with which this 
 is done. It is not only the surface 
 which should lie in a rounded form, 
 but the bottoms of the furrows should 
 lie in a regular curve, without small 
 ridges or inequalities between them, 
 so that, when heavy rains penetrate 
 through the whole thickness which 
 the plough has raised, the water may 
 find its way into the intervening fur- 
 rows without being retained by the 
 small ridges left by an unskilful 
 ploughman. The slightest inclina- 
 tion of the plough to either side 
 makes an inclination in the bottom 
 of the furrow. An inequality in the 
 depth does the same. The usual 
 method is to increase the depth of 
 the ploughing from the crown of the 
 stitch to the outer furrow. If the 
 land has been cross-ploughed or drag- 
 ged level before the last ploughing, 
 this may answer the purpose ; but if 
 the stitches are only reversed, and 
 the centre of the new stitch is to be 
 where the water-furrow was before, 
 it requires twice ploughing to bring 
 the stitch to its proper form ; and this 
 is not always done, for fear of tread- 
 ing the land too much. Hence it is 
 always preferable, where it can be 
 done, to lay the land flat by cross- 
 ploughing and harrowing before it is 
 raised in stitches. The narrower the 
 stitches are the dryer the land will 
 lie. The most convenient width is 
 five bouts, as it is called, that is, five 
 furrows on each side of the centre, 
 which, allowing nine inches for each 
 furrow, makes seven and a half feet, 
 leaving eighteen inches for a water 
 162 
 
 furrow, which is deepened into a nar- 
 row channel in the middle. 
 
 "\\'e have been thus particular in 
 describing the management of clay 
 land, because it seems not so gener- 
 ally understood, and there is great 
 room for improvement in the com- 
 mon modes of cultivation. Fallow- 
 ing for wheat is the old system on 
 clay soils, and continues to be so in 
 nine farms out of ten ; but it often 
 happens that, in a wet season, the 
 whole advantage of the repeated 
 ploughings is entirely lost : the land 
 sown with wheat is neither enriched 
 nor improved by all the tillage be- 
 stowed upon it, and it is as full of 
 weeds as it was when first broken up 
 from the preceding stubble. The bet- 
 ter system is to clean the land well 
 in summer, after it has borne a crop, 
 and to lay it up high and dry for the 
 winter, having given it the proper li- 
 ming ; to sow it with oats and grass 
 seeds in spring, keep it in grass as 
 long as is convenient, and break it 
 up in autumn. Wheat may then be 
 sown ; or it may have the benefit of 
 another winter's frost, and corn may 
 be drilled in spring. Clay land will 
 bear a repetition of the same crops 
 much oftener than lighter lands ; but 
 every scientific agriculturist knows 
 the advantage of varying the produce 
 as much as possible, making plants 
 of different families succeed each 
 other. The cereal grasses are of 
 one family, which is the reason why 
 wheat, barley, oats, rye grass, &c., do 
 not succeed so well after each other 
 as after leguminous plants or clover, 
 and that turnips, besides cleaning the 
 land by the repeated hoeings given 
 them, are so good a preparation for 
 corn. A good rotation for stiff clays 
 is yet a desideratum in agriculture ; 
 and although we will not affirm that 
 fallows can be entirely dispensed 
 with, we are persuaded that they 
 might be separated by much larger 
 intervals than is usually done ; and 
 if advantage is taken of early sea- 
 sons, most lands may be kept clean 
 by what is called a bastard fallow 
 immediately after harvest, without 
 losing a crop. We will go farther, 
 
CLAY SOILS 
 
 and assert that, instead of three 
 crops in four years, which is the com- 
 mon method, and an improvement on 
 the old system of two crops and a 
 fallow, five might easily be obtained, 
 especially if clovers are considered 
 as crops. For example: L Oats or 
 barley ; 2. Clover ; 3. Wheat ; 4. Tri- 
 folium cut in May, and succeeded by 
 spring rye, cabbages, or potatoes. At 
 ail events, the trifolium or winter rye 
 may always be had in the year in 
 which the land is to be cleaned by 
 repeated ploughings, as they may be 
 cut early in summer, and leave ample 
 time for the operations. 
 
 The most profitable management 
 of a stiff, wet clay soil, after thorough 
 draining it, is to cultivate it on the 
 convertible system, that is, to have 
 it three years in grass and three 
 years under the plough, unless a per- 
 manent and good sward can be ob- 
 tained upon it, in which case it will 
 give the surest return by remaining 
 iii grass. A preliminary course of 
 cropping', with ample manuring, will 
 so much improve the texture of the 
 surface that a much better herbage 
 will grow upon it ; and when this is 
 well established, it may be left so 
 until it degenerates. 
 
 The effect of burned clay as a ma- 
 mire has been highly extolled, and 
 not without some reason in particular 
 situations. Clay by burning alters its 
 nature : it becomes insoluble in wa- 
 ter, and loses its attraction for it ; it 
 then resembles silicious sand, and 
 may greatly improve a very strong, 
 retentive clay, tempering it and ren- 
 dering it more porous. To burn clay, 
 it is dug out in lumps and dried ; 
 heaps are made of these at regular 
 distances in a field, vrilh a small cav- 
 ity in the centre, into which dry brush- 
 wood is introduced. This being light- 
 ed, the fire is allowed to burn very 
 slowly, and the smoke kept in by add- 
 ing a sod wherever it bursts out. 
 When the heap is once burning, more 
 clay may be added, even without be- 
 ing dry, and the combustion goes on 
 without other fuel. It must be so 
 managed as to bake the clay without 
 oeating it too much ; and when the 
 
 heaps are cooled and opened, the 
 whole should appear pulverized, and 
 of a red colour if oxide of iron exists 
 in the soil. A coat two or three inch- 
 es thick spread over a field, and 
 ploughed in, will greatly improve its 
 texture ; but sufficient animal or ve- 
 getable manure must be added to 
 make it fertile. 
 
 An improved method of burning 
 clay has been adopted in Northum- 
 berland. Instead of building a kiln, 
 gratings or arches of cast iron are 
 used to form a vault or funnel for the 
 fuel, and over this funnel the clay is 
 built. The grated arches are made 
 about two feet and a half long, two 
 feet diameter, and about fourteen 
 inches high. One grating is to be 
 filled with brush-wood, stubble, or 
 any other cheap fuel, and the clay, as 
 it is dug, built upon it to a convenient 
 height, leaving small vacancies, or 
 hormg holes, to allow the heat to 
 penetrate to the middle and outer 
 parts of the clay. When a sufficient 
 quantity is built upon the first gra- 
 ting, another is added at either end, 
 or at both, filled with similar fuel, and 
 the clay built upon them as before. 
 This process is continued until ten, 
 twelve, or a greater number of the 
 gratings have been used, when one 
 end is built up or covered with clay, 
 and at the other, under the last gra- 
 ting, a fire is made of coals or fagot- 
 wood. The end at which the fire is 
 made should face the wind if possi- 
 ble, and if the process has been prop- 
 erly conducted the clay will be effec- 
 tually burned. By commencing with 
 a centre grating in the form of a cross 
 (see Fig.), the workman may build 
 
 1S3 
 
CLI 
 
 CLO 
 
 from four ends in the place of two ; 
 tliis contrivance will afford a facility 
 in the work, and have a draft of wind 
 at two entrances. 
 
 CLEANING. The after-birth of 
 cows, ewes, 6:c. 
 
 CLEARING LANDS. The remo- 
 val of obstructions to tillage. Much 
 information on this subject Avill be 
 found in tlie article Barren Lands. 
 The heavy operation is the removal 
 of trees. Two methods are in com- 
 mon use : either to cut a ring of bark 
 and wood out around the trunk, at a 
 foot or two from the ground, and kill 
 the tree, or to cut it down altogether 
 during the early summer, and leave 
 the trunk to dry on the ground. In 
 the first case, grasses, and, indeed, 
 corn can be cultivated among the 
 dead trees, and thus the land is made 
 to produce sooner ; but there is risk 
 from the fall of limbs. The dead for- 
 est can be burned during summer, 
 the ashes serving to enrich the land 
 for some time. When the trees are 
 felled they are divided into lengths 
 of twelve feet or more, and drawn 
 out of the cleared space, or split and 
 burned, a suitable amount of fence- 
 rails being obtained. In both these 
 operations the stumps remain to dis- 
 figure the land ; it has therefore been 
 proposed to draw the trees down by 
 a strong chain made fast to their up- 
 per limbs, and pulled by oxen or a 
 windlass. This will scarcely answer 
 with large trees, unless the roots are 
 cut through by an axe. The cultiva- 
 tion of cleared lands is necessarily 
 very imperfect ; corn, tobacco, hemp, 
 and cotton are found the best crops. 
 
 CLEAVAGE OF MINERALS. 
 Minerals which have a regular crys- 
 talline form can only be split or cleav- 
 ed with ea.se in planes corresponding 
 to their sides ; hence, to discover the 
 shape of the crystal, the mineral is 
 split. 
 
 CLEFT GRAFTING. See Graft: 
 
 CLEFTS. In farriery, cracks in 
 the heels of horses. 
 
 CLEVIS. The draught iron of the 
 plough. 
 
 CLIMATE. The temperature and 
 164 
 
 liability to winds, rain, &c., of any 
 place. Those places always enjoy 
 the mildest climates which are situ- 
 ated near seas, lakes, or large bodies 
 of water ; they also receive most 
 rain. Climate exerts the most im- 
 portant effects on plants, so that they 
 refuse to grow at places very remote 
 from their original stations ; but by 
 long-continued attention, and the use 
 of seeds obtained from the highest 
 limits, a few have been naturalized 
 even far north. One very interesting 
 result takes place in the cultivation 
 of plants in the extreme limits of 
 their zone. They usually bear fruit 
 much sooner (in annuals), and the 
 fruit is increased in delicacy and pulp. 
 This is true of staple crops also, 
 which are better in their most north- 
 ern positions than in the original 
 place of growth, as cotton, hemp, and 
 flax. But the rule does not apply to 
 oily or saccharine plants ; and many 
 annuals become perennials in north- 
 ern positions. 
 
 CLINANTHIUM. The flat sur- 
 face in which many composite flow- 
 ers are arranged, as the sunflower. 
 
 CLINKSTONE. A hard, slaty 
 mineral. 
 
 CLOACA. The common cavity 
 in which the intestines and urinary 
 apparatus terminate in fish, birds, 
 reptiles, and some larger animals. 
 
 CLOD-CRUSHERS. See Roller. 
 
 CLOTHING HORSES. It keeps 
 the coat fine, and in northern lati- 
 tudes is very useful in preserving 
 health. 
 
 CLOUD. A mass of vapour, simi- 
 lar to a fog, suspended in the air. The 
 height varies with the density, but 
 seldom exceeds two miles. Clouds 
 differ in form, transparency, &c., ac- 
 cordmg to the amount of vapour of 
 water they contain and the wn)d 
 which drives them. Meteorologists 
 divide them into three classes: 1st. 
 Cirrus, which is a light, branching 
 cloud ; 2d. Cumulus, a conical mass 
 of clouds; 3d. iSVra/us, which consists 
 of horizontal layers. Every variety 
 occurs, compounded of these primarj 
 forms. 
 
 Clouds owe their origin to a par 
 
CLO 
 
 CLO 
 
 tial condensation of the vaponr of 
 water, wliifh air naturally contains. 
 The condensation is produced by cold 
 and the operation of winds blowini,' 
 in directions contrary to one another. 
 CLOUTED CREAM. The clout- 
 ed cream of Devonshire is a well- 
 known delicacy. It is made by heat- 
 ing the milk on the hearth, or by 
 means of a stove, to a degree a little 
 below the boiling-point, when the 
 clouted cream rises to the top like a 
 thick scum, and is taken off when 
 cooled. This cream being merely 
 stirred briskly with the hand or a 
 
 I stick, is converted into butter. It is 
 I universally admitted that the butter 
 I thus produced is inferior to tliat 
 which is made from the cream which 
 has risen slowly and spontaneously, 
 and in all the largest and best dai- 
 ries in the vale of Honiton the cream 
 is never clouted, except to be eaten 
 in that state as a luxury. 
 
 CLOVER. A name given to dif- 
 ferent species of trifolium. Dutch 
 clover is T. repcns ;{b) purple clover 
 is T. pratense ,-(a) cow grass, or per- 
 ennial clover, is T. 7nedtum..{d) 
 Its abundant produce, its destruc- 
 
 tion of annual weeds, which it smoth- 
 ers by its broad foliage, and especially 
 the beauty of the wheat sown after 
 it, recommend it as an indispensable 
 part of an improved rotation of crops. 
 There are various kinds of clover, 
 which all go under the botanical name 
 of trifolium, from the three leaves 
 which grow together, or, rather, the 
 form of the leaf, which has three 
 heart-shaped parts. They are an- 
 nual, biennial, or perennial plants. 
 The annual clovers, with the excep- 
 tion of the Trifolium incarnalum {Tre.- 
 jlc incarnat ox farouchc),{c) introduced 
 from the south of France, are not so 
 generally cultivated as the biennial, 
 which produces a greater crop, and 
 being sown along with the spring 
 grain, comes up the first year under 
 its shade, and gives two full crops in 
 the second. In good land it will some- 
 times stand another year, but it falls 
 
 off in quantity; 
 and unless other 
 artificial grass- 
 es or perenni- 
 al clovers have 
 been sown a- 
 mong it, to fill 
 up the places 
 where the bien- 
 nial clover has 
 failed, it is sel- 
 dom profitable 
 to allow it to 
 remain on the 
 ground more 
 than one year 
 after that in 
 which it is sown. It should be 
 ploughed in in the fall in clay lands 
 for a spring crop, but if fallowed ear- 
 ly, wheat can be grown on the fresh 
 ley. 
 The most approved variety of the 
 16.) 
 
CLOVER. 
 
 biennial clovers is the common red 
 or broad clover {Tnfolium ptatcnse), 
 which is usually sown wilh barley or 
 oats, or sometimes among wheat or 
 rye in spring, at the rate of ten to 
 thirteen pounds of clover seed. Clo- 
 ver is often perennial. The time for 
 cutting is when the flowers are just 
 expanded ; the hay is more abundant 
 and better by upward of ten per cent. 
 The first crop is generally mown and 
 made into hay. In this process great 
 care is taken not to i)reak off the 
 tender leaves of the plant in drying; 
 the swarth is not shaken out as is 
 done with meadow grass, but merely 
 turned over ; and if the clover can 
 be dried and put in a stack without 
 any shaking, it is so much the more 
 valuable. When clover is soaked 
 with rain, no hope of an improvement 
 in the stack must induce the farmer 
 to carry it together so long as the 
 least moisture remains. If it be al- 
 lowed to stay in the field till perfectly 
 dry, even when it has been soaked 
 repeatedly and is nearly black, and 
 is then trod hard in a rick with a 
 sprinkling of salt over each layer, it 
 will be readily eaten by cattle in win- 
 ter, and be far more nutritious than 
 that which, having been stacked in a 
 moist state, will infallibly come out 
 musty. A very good method in those 
 seasons when a continuance of dry 
 weather cannot be reckoned upon — 
 particularly when the second crop is 
 cut in September — is to take advan- 
 tage of two or three dry days to cut 
 the clover, and turn it as soon as the 
 dew is completely dried off the upper 
 side ; the next day do the same, and 
 in the evening carry the green, dry 
 clover and lay it in alternate layers 
 with sweet straw, so as to form a 
 moderately-sized stack. A ferment- 
 ation will soon arise, but the dry 
 straw will prevent all danger from 
 too much heating, and, acquiring the 
 flavour of the clover, will be eaten 
 with avidity by the cattle. To those 
 who make clover hay for the use of 
 their own stock in winter, we recom- 
 mend this as preferable to the com- 
 mon method, even when there is less 
 danger from the weather. The pro- 
 166 
 
 cess of curing by sweating is very 
 well adapted to clover. 
 
 It is usual to sow timothy in a 
 small proportion with clover seed, 
 especially where clover, having been 
 often repeated on the same land, is 
 apt to fail. 
 
 The most profitable use of clover 
 is to cut it green for horses and cat- 
 tle. With a little management, green 
 food may be given to all the stock 
 from the first day of April to October. 
 
 The land which has borne clover 
 is in a very good state for producing 
 corn or wheat. In the regulai: Nor- 
 folk rotation, clover should recur 
 I every fourth year ; but after a few 
 rotations this is found to be too quick 
 ! a recurrence, and other grass seeds 
 ! or pulse are substituted. The Flem- 
 ish do not sow clover again on the 
 same ground sooner than in eight or 
 ten years. 
 
 The white or Dutch clover (Trifo- 
 lium repens) is a perennial, which 
 grows rapidly, and fonns excellent 
 pasture ; but its bulk is not sufficient 
 to make it profitable to mow for hay. 
 It is excellent for sheep, which thrive 
 well upon it. A liglit, calcareous 
 soil is best adapted for white clover, 
 but it also grows well on heavy land, 
 provided the bottom be sound and 
 dry. 
 
 Another perennial clover, called 
 cow grass {TrifoUum medium), is 
 found in all rich meadows : it is oft- 
 en sown in conjunction with the 
 white clover in laying down arable 
 land to grass. The lesser yeUow 
 trefoil (Tnf'olivm minvs) and the hop 
 trefoil ( Trifolium procumbcns) are also 
 valuable varieties found in good pas- 
 tures. 
 
 The only annual clover which is 
 cultivated is the French clover {Tri- 
 folium incarnaliim) mentioned be- 
 fore. It is a most valuable addition 
 to the plants usually sown for fodder, 
 from the short time in which it ar- 
 rives at perfection if sown in spring; 
 so that, where clover has failed, this 
 may be sown to fill up the bare pla- 
 ces. Its principal use is to raise 
 very early food for ewes and lambs, 
 which it does with very little trouble 
 
CLO 
 
 CLO 
 
 or expense. Immediately after har- 
 vest the stubble is scarified and har- 
 rowed, so as to raise a mould ; the 
 trifolium is sown at the rate of six- 
 teen to twenty pounds per acre, and 
 well rolled in. It springs up and 
 stands the winter well, and with the 
 first genial weather in sprmg it grows 
 rapidly. It makes excellent hay, and 
 what is left produces seed most abun- 
 dantly in the end of May or beginning 
 of June, being off the ground in good 
 time to plough the land and clean it 
 for turnips. It is far superior to stub- 
 ble turnips as an intervening crop, 
 and more rapid in its growth than 
 tares. On light land a crop of buck- 
 wheat is readily obtained alter it. It 
 has the property of smothering an- 
 nual weeds by its rapid growth, and 
 for this reason is not so well adapt- 
 ed for sowing with other crops. The 
 Italian rye grass {LoUum pcrcnnc) 
 may be sown with it, and will grow 
 as rapidly. After the tnfolmm has 
 been cut, this will continue and give 
 an excellent second crop 
 
 In France and m the United States 
 plaster is considered as a specitic ma- 
 nure for clover. It is sown by hand 
 over tho plant in spring, and in some 
 situations the advantage is evident, 
 in others scarcely observable. The 
 quantity used is about one bushel to 
 the acre. 
 
 On good land an acre of clover will 
 produce as much as three tons and a 
 half of dry hay ; that is, two tons 
 the first cutting, and one and a half 
 the second. Greater crops are ob- 
 tained on very highly manured land. 
 The value of a ton of clover hay to 
 feed horses with is about fifteen or 
 twenty per cent, more than good 
 meadow hay. 
 
 When clover is intended to be left 
 to ripen its seeds, it should be mown 
 early, or fed off by sheep in May. 
 The first crop is seldom free from 
 various seeds of other plants which 
 rise among the clover : by feeding it 
 down or mowing it these are destroy- 
 ed, and the clover, which grows more 
 rapidly than most other plants, ri- 
 ses again without any mixture of 
 weeds. When the blossom is thor- 
 
 oughly withered, and the seed is 
 nearly ripe, the clover is mown and 
 left to dry on the ground without 
 much shaking. In very dry weather 
 it may be housed or stacked in a 
 week ; but the process is much re- 
 larded by showers. It is well knuwn 
 that the subsequent stock suffers if 
 the clover is allowed to stand for 
 seed. As the calyx of the fiower of 
 clover envelops the seed closely, it is 
 difficult to separate them. There are 
 various machines for this purpose, 
 one of which consists of two fine- 
 rodded hurdles, made to rub on each 
 other while the heads pass between 
 them. I'he principal clover mill for 
 separating the seed is by J. Ritten- 
 house, price sixty dollars. Clover is 
 generally thrashed on the floor, but if 
 the heads, after being separated from 
 the haulm, are put together in a heap 
 and pressed, a slight fermentation 
 takes place, and this makes the calyx 
 brittle, so that it breaks into dust, 
 and the seed comes out readily ; it is 
 then easily cleared by the fan. The 
 yield is four to five bushels the acre. 
 
 When the seed is not intended for 
 the market, the trouble of clearing it 
 from the husk may be saved, espe 
 cially in the Trifolium incarnaium 
 It will grow as well when sown with 
 the husk as when cleaned, and it is 
 easy to find the proportion required 
 to be sown in that state by allowing 
 fur the weight of the husk. 
 
 CLOVER, VARIETIES. Numer- 
 ous plants are more or less cultiva- 
 ted resembling clover, hence some 
 confusion has arisen in the popular 
 names. Thus, the Chilian clover is 
 lucern. Bokhura clover is sweet clo- 
 ver {Mcliloli/s major) ; it is a coarse 
 plant, rising to six and ten feet, but 
 if cut four or five tiiTies in the season, 
 when about two feet high, it yields 
 an immense quantity of good herbage 
 for soiling. 'Jlie seed should be sown 
 in spring in drills eighteen inches 
 apart. It should be kept free from 
 weeds when young, thinned out by 
 the hoe, and cut close to the ground. 
 It is perennial, and will stand the 
 winters of Virginia, and probably of 
 Penn.sylvania. The mature stems 
 1G7 
 
clo 
 
 make good hemp when rotted and 1 
 broken. Two pounds of seed the 
 acre is al)undanlly cnoush. 
 
 "Mr. James Gowcii, who resides at 
 Mount Airy, near Philadelphia, has 
 been much in the practice of keep- 
 ing up a considerable stock of uncom- | 
 raoiily line cattle, and soiling them in 
 sunm'ier upon lucern, rye, and red 
 clover. He has raised patches of the 
 melilotus, and from his observation 
 says, 'there is no grass or plant I 
 have yet seen that all'ords to me such 
 promise as the sweet-scented or Bok- 
 hara clover.' " — {Cultivator, Novem- 
 ber, 1842.) 
 
 CLOVER, GIGANTIC. The 
 same as Bokhara clover. 
 
 CLOVER, ALSIKE. TrifoUum hj- 
 bridum. A supposed hybrid between 
 the white and common red clover. 
 It is very hardy, withstanding tiie 
 winters of Sweden, perennial, but 
 runs close to the ground, and is only 
 fit for pastures, es()ecially for sheep. 
 Numerous small species of trifolium, 
 medicago, melilotus, and other legu- 
 minous plants are known vulgarly 
 under the names of yellow, sweet, 
 &c., clovers, but they are scarcely 
 worthy of attention to the cultiva- 
 tor. 
 
 CLOVER, MACHINE FOR 
 GATHERING. A simple contri- 
 vance for gathering the seed heads 
 is much used, and is figured below. 
 It is of wood, but the teeth may be 
 made of wrought iron, and the wheels 
 removed with advantage. It is drawn 
 by one horse, and managed by a boy. 
 The hand gatherer (a) is used for 
 emptying the barrow, or for collect- 
 ing pease, beans, &.c. 
 
 CLOVES. The unexpanded blos- 
 soms of an Eastern tree, the Eugenia 
 caryophyllata. They contain an oil 
 higldy aromatic, and grateful to the 
 stomach in minute quantities. It is 
 a tropical production. 
 168 
 
 COC 
 
 CLUPEA. The generic name of 
 tlie herring and shad fishes, ancho- 
 vies, sprats, &c. : most of the species 
 are migratory. 
 
 CLUSTER. A bunch. A raceme 
 in botany. 
 
 COAGULATION. The formation 
 of a solid body of a jelly-like charac- 
 ter. 
 
 COAL. Numerous varieties ex- 
 ist : that of Pennsylvania and Wales 
 (Eng.) is anthracite, difficult of com- 
 bustion, producing no flame, but in- 
 tense heat : it is nearly pure carbon. 
 Bituminous coal, such as that of Vir- 
 ginia and Ohio (Liverpool coal), con- 
 tains hydrogen as well as carbon, 
 and gives off gas and flame in burn- 
 ing. Wood coal resembles charred 
 wood, and shows the marks of wood : 
 it produces much light. 
 
 All coal is of vegetable origin, be- 
 ing, indeed, the remains of plants and 
 trees. The chief beds of it are ar- 
 ranged in a curved form ; hence the 
 term coal basins. This variety lies 
 above the old red sandstone, and is 
 covered with sandstones and con- 
 glomerates. It is, therefore, a sec- 
 ondary formation, and, according to 
 the New-York geologists, does not 
 exist in this state. 
 
 COAL TAR. A tary fluid of a 
 complicated nature, produced during 
 the distillation of bituminous coal for 
 gas. It is a cheap and excellent 
 paint for iron- ware, railings, &c , 
 and has latterly been used on wood- 
 work. It preserves the timber, but 
 it is doubtful whether the colour may 
 not prove injurious by causing warp- 
 in?. 
 
 COBBLES. Small round stones. 
 COCCINELLA. The generic 
 name of the lady-bird insects. They 
 are of great service to the farmer and 
 orchardists in destroying plant lice 
 {Aphides), on which they prey. 
 
 COCCULUS INDICUS. A poi- 
 sonous Eastern berry used in medi- 
 cine ; it is sometimes employed, to 
 cause intoxication, in beer, or thrown 
 into fish ponds to stupily fish, which 
 can be caught by the hand while suf- 
 i feriug from its effects. The poison- 
 ^ ous principle is picrolojcia. 
 
 \ 
 
coc 
 
 GOF 
 
 COCCUM. Adry elastic seed cov- 
 ering. 
 
 COCCUS. Tiie bark lice or scale 
 insect family. See Bark Lice. 
 
 COCCYX. The termination of 
 tlie spinal column. 
 
 COCHLXEAL. The Coccus cadi, 
 a Mexican insect. The fine article 
 should be of a grayish exterior, and 
 the lines of the body clearly defined. 
 The brilliant scarlet of cochineal is 
 fixed in dyeing by a mordant of alu- 
 mina and solution of tin, and bright- 
 ened by cream of tartar. 
 
 C O C H L E A T E (from cochlea, a 
 shell). Twisted like some shells. 
 
 COCK-CHAFFER. See Insects. 
 
 COCKLE. The weed Asrrostem- 
 ma githago, which grows amid wheat, 
 and whose black seed impair the col- 
 our of flour if not well separated by 
 screening. It is an annual, to be de- 
 stroyed only by a succession of fod- 
 der crops cut for soiling before flow- 
 er, or by clean fallows. 
 
 COCK'S-FOOT GRASS. The or- 
 chard grass. See Grasses. 
 
 COCOA GRASS. Dr. Cartwright 
 thus writes in the American Agricul- 
 turist : 
 
 " There is a repent pla'nt called the 
 cocoa in Louisiana and .Mississippi, 
 which, instead of running on the sur- 
 face of the earth, runs down into it 
 to the depth of four or five feet, and 
 horizontally a little under the sur- 
 face, mole fashion, and at short in- 
 tervals throwing up a bunch of thick, 
 coarse grass. A better idea of this 
 plant can be formed by calling it a 
 subterraneous strawberry. It bears 
 nuts under ground the size of straw- 
 berries. Their bitter taste distin- 
 guishes them from the nut grass, 
 called sweet cocoa. The bitter cocoa 
 grows so fast, that double the num- 
 ber of labourers are required to culti- 
 vate the lands infested by it. All 
 those who, ignorant of this pernicious 
 repent, have purchased cocoa lands, 
 have paid dearly for the want of a lit- 
 tle practical information, as they are 
 nearly all bankrupt. Many have 
 wisely abandoned their cocoa planta- 
 tions. No means have been discov- 
 ered of extirpating this pernicious 
 P 
 
 repent when it once gets fixed in the 
 soil."' 
 
 It certainly would be exterminated 
 by hoed crops, or long-rooted peren- 
 nial plants, as clovers. ISotwith- 
 standing its vivacious nature, it is a 
 grass of great value to the grazier 
 and sheep raiser. It is somekmes 
 called nut grass. 
 
 COCOON. The web which cov- 
 ers the chrysalis of an insect. 
 
 CCELIAC (from koi/mc, hollow). 
 Relating to the belly or abdomen. 
 
 COFFEE. The berries of the 
 Cojfcca Arabica, a tropical shrub. 
 The coffee plant thrives between 
 the tropics in situations where the 
 mean and nearly constant tempera- 
 ture is between 22° and 26^ C. (71-5=" 
 and 80^ F.). 
 
 Coffee is rarely sown in a nursery ; 
 the seeds are made to germinate still 
 surrounded by their natural pulp, and 
 wrapped up in leaves of the banana. 
 The young plants, after seven or 
 eight days of germination, are put 
 into the ground. In the Valley d'Ara- 
 gua an acre of ground of good quality 
 is generally laid out with about 1040 
 plants. The coffee plant flourishes 
 in the course of the second year ; 
 when left to grow unimpeded, it will 
 attain a height of from 23 to 26 feet, 
 but it is seldom allowed to grow so 
 high, its upward progress being check- 
 ed by pruning. The planters of ^"en- 
 ezuela generally keep it at a height 
 of from five to six feet. The shrub 
 receives the care of the planter du- 
 ring the first two years ; the ground 
 must be kept free from weeds, and 
 the giowth of parasites must, above 
 all, be prevented. To thrive, the cof- 
 fee plant requires frequent rains up 
 to the time of flowering. The fruit 
 bears a strong resemblance to a small 
 cherry, and is ripe when it becomes 
 of a red colour, and the pulp is soft 
 and very sweet. As the berries nev- 
 er ripen simultaneously, the coffee 
 harvest takes place at different times, 
 each requiring at least three visits 
 made at intervals of from five to six 
 days. A negro will gather from ten 
 to twelve gallons of fruit in the course 
 of a day. 
 
 169 
 
COF 
 
 COF 
 
 Two beans are found in the inte- | 
 rior of each berry ; in order to free 
 these from the pulp which surrounds 
 them, they are passed through a kind 
 of mill, and the coflee is steeped in 
 water for twenty-four hours in order 
 to free it from the mucilaginous mat- 
 ter which adheres to it : it is then 
 dried by being spread out upon a floor 
 under a shed. In the coflee planta- 
 tions of Venezuela which I visited, I 
 saw them proceed in another way : 
 the berries were exposed to the sun 
 upon a piece of ground somewhat in- 
 clined, and spread out to about three 
 inches in thickness ; the pulp soon 
 enters into fermentation, and a very 
 distinct vinous odour is exhaled, and 
 the juice altered either flows away 
 or dries up ; at the end of a fort- 
 night or three weeks the berries are 
 all dry and shrivelled, and they then 
 undergo two triturations, one to ob- 
 tain the seeds or beans, the other to 
 detach a thin pelUcle which surrounds 
 them. Three bushels of berries will 
 yield from 85 to 90 pounds of mar- 
 ketable coffee. 
 
 During the destruction of the sugary 
 matter contained in the pulp of the 
 berry, a considerable quantity of spir- 
 it is produced and dissipated. M. 
 Humboldt, struck with the readiness 
 with which the berry of the coffee 
 plant runs into fermentation, express- 
 es his surprise that no one ever 
 thought of obtaining alcohol from it. 
 In an old work, however, I find the 
 following passage ■. "The inhabitants 
 of Arabia take the skin which sur- 
 rounds the coffee bean, and prepare it 
 as we do raisins ; they form a drink 
 with it for refreshment during the 
 summer."* This vinous liquor ap- 
 pears to enjoy all the exciting prop- 
 erties which are esteemed in the in- 
 fusion of coffee. 
 
 The cofl^ee plant continues to pro- 
 duce to the age of forty to forty-five 
 years ; it bears to a considerable ex- 
 tent even in the third year. Some 
 shrubs yield from 17 to 22 pounds of 
 dry coflee beans ; but this is a very 
 large quantity. An acre of land in 
 the Valley d'Aragua, planted with 
 about 1040 shrubs, will yield about 
 170 
 
 940 or 950 pounds, which is at the 
 rale of somewhat less than one pound 
 per shrub. 
 
 Coffee contains the same active 
 principle as tea, coffeine, but in less 
 proportion ; the researches of differ- 
 ent chemists have also shown the 
 presence of a particular acid called 
 coffeic acid, of fatty matters, a vola- 
 tile od, a colouring matter, albumen, 
 tannin, and alkaline and earthy salts. 
 — {Boussiuiraidl.) 
 
 COFFEE-TREE. The Gymnocla- 
 dus Canadensis. A leguminous tree, 
 the beans of which have been slight- 
 ly used for coffee ; they are nutri- 
 tious, but rather sickening, and are 
 said to destroy flies with great cer- 
 tainty when a decoction is exposed 
 in proper places. The foliage of the 
 tree is like that of the black walnut. 
 
 The tree often attains 60 feet, and 
 15 inches diameter ; it has few branch- 
 es, and those thick : its presence is 
 said to indicate the richest soils. The 
 wood is rosy, compact, and as dura- 
 ble as the locust, and like it, contain- 
 ing very little sap wood. 
 
 COFFER DAM. In architecture 
 and bridge-building, a case of piling, 
 water-tight,' fixed in the bed of a riv- 
 er for the purpose of laying the bot- 
 tom dry for a space large enough to 
 build the pier on. CotTer dams are 
 formed in various ways, either by a 
 single enclosure or a double one, 
 with clay or chalk rammed in be- 
 tween the two to prevent the water 
 from coming through the sides. They 
 are also made either with piles only, 
 driven close together, and sometimes 
 notched or dovetailed into one an- 
 other ; or, if the water is not very 
 deep, by piles driven at a distance of 
 five or six feet from each other, and 
 grooved in the sides with boards let 
 down between them in the grooves. 
 In order to build in coffer dams, a 
 very good natural bottom of solid 
 earth or clay is required ; for though 
 the sides be made water-tight, il'the 
 bed of the river be of a loose con- 
 sistence, the water will ooze up 
 through it in too great a quantity to 
 
 * Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, vol. 
 xxiii., p. 214. 
 
 { 
 
COL 
 
 permit the operations to be carried 
 on. It is almost needless to remark 
 that the sides must be very strong 
 and well braced in the inside to re- 
 sist the pressure of the ambient wa- 
 ter. — {Hnltoii's Tracts, vol. i.) 
 
 COFFIN BONE. The bone which 
 lies encircled within a horse's hoof". 
 
 COHESION. The force which 
 binds together similar particles ; it 
 is supposed to be electrical. The 
 strain which any wood or metal bears 
 is a measure of its cohesion. 
 
 "The following is a tabular view 
 of the absolute cohesion of the prm- 
 cipal kinds of timber employed in 
 building and carpentry, showing the 
 load which would rend a prism of an 
 inch square, and the length of the 
 prism which, if suspended, would be 
 torn asunder by its own weight : 
 
 Teak 12,915 lbs. — 36,049 feet 
 
 Oak 11,880 —32,900 
 
 Sycamore . . . 9,630 — 35,hll0 
 
 Beech 12,225 — 38,940 
 
 Ash 14,130 — 42,080 
 
 Elm 9,720 — 39,050 
 
 Memel fir ... . 9,540 — 40,500 
 
 Norway fir . . . 12,346 — 55,500 
 
 Larch 12,240 —42,160 
 
 "The metals differ more widely from 
 each other in their cohesive strength 
 than the several species of wood or 
 vegetable fibres. According to the 
 experiments of Mr. George Rennie 
 in 1817, the cohesive power of a rod 
 an inch square of different metals, in 
 pounds avoirdupois, with the corre- 
 sponding length in feet, is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Ca-st steel . . . 134,256 lbs. — 39,455 feet 
 Swedish malleable 
 
 iron 72,064 — 19,740 
 
 English ditto . . 55,672 — 19,740 
 
 Cast iron .... 19,096 — 6,110 
 Cast copper . . . 19,072 — 5,093 
 Yellow brass . . 17,959 — 5,180 
 Cast tin ... . 4,736 — 1,496 
 Cast lead. . . . 1,824 — 346" 
 {Brande's Encycl.) 
 
 COKE. The cinder of bituminous 
 coals after being heated for gas. 
 
 COLCHICUM. Colchicum offici- 
 nale. Meadow saffron, a bulbous plant, 
 growing freely in moist, sandy loams. 
 The bulb and seeds are of the high- 
 est value as a medicine in gout and 
 rheumatism. In large doses it is 
 poisonous. 
 
 COM 
 
 COLE. See Colza. 
 
 COLEOPTERA (from Kn-Xto<:, a 
 sheath, and Trrepov, a wing). Insects, 
 the outer wings of which are hard or 
 horny, the inner wings being large 
 and very delicate. Borers, lady-birds, 
 curculios, &c., belong to this race. 
 The hard outer wings are called ely- 
 tra. 
 
 COLEWORT. See Cabbage. 
 
 COLIC. In common parlance, an 
 irritation of the stomach or intes- 
 tines, causing pain, and readily alle- 
 viated by a slight purge or by lauda- 
 num. 
 
 COLLAPSE. A loss of strength. 
 
 COLLAR BLADE. The haims. 
 
 COLLEY. The Scotch sheep 
 dog. 
 
 COLLIQUATIVE. An excessive 
 evacuation, diminishing the strength. 
 
 COLLUM. The point where the 
 roots diverge from the stem of plants. 
 
 COLLYRIUM. An eye-wash. 
 
 COLOCYNTH. The pulp of the 
 Cucumis colocynth, a plant similar to 
 the cucumber, bearing round fruit of 
 great bitterness and purgative pow- 
 er. The cultivation is similar to that 
 of melons. 
 
 COLON. The large intestines. 
 
 COLOPHONY. The dark resin 
 remaining after the distillation of the 
 spirit from rosin. 
 
 COLT. A young horse, ass, &c. 
 
 COLT'S FOOT. A vile perennial 
 weed. 
 
 COLUMBARIUM. A pigeon- 
 house. 
 
 COLZA. Two or more varieties 
 of plants of the open cabbage kind 
 {Brassica arvensis and campestris) are 
 cultivated under this name in Ger- 
 many and France. They are usually 
 sown in drills, but sometimes broad 
 cast for eating off in the fall. The 
 most common object in the cultiva- 
 tion of colza is the seed, which yields 
 a coarse oil like rape, and is obtained 
 by pressure. The cake is very simi- 
 lar to that from rape, and used like 
 it for fodder and manure. The treat- 
 ment is precisely similar to rape, 
 which see. 
 
 CO.VLV (from keu, to lie down). A 
 propensity to sleep, amounting to a 
 171 
 
COM 
 
 CON 
 
 disease or stupidity. Comalusc is a 
 derivative. 
 
 COMBINATION. In chemistry, 
 the chemical union of atoms, wliere- 
 by the sensiljle properties of the com- 
 bining parts are altered. It takes 
 place in niathemalical proportions. 
 See Atom. 
 
 COMBUSTION. Burning. The 
 chemical change of a body, attended 
 with lieat or light. For combustion, 
 the body must be surrounded with a 
 medium which enters, in part, into 
 the change, such as oxygen, chlorine, 
 &c. 
 
 COMFREY. The Symphytum offi- 
 cinale, a rough perennial plant, with 
 coarse, rough leaves and large roots. 
 
 The American Agriculturist thus 
 writes : 
 
 " We learn by the Portsmouth 
 Journal that Mr. Robinson is of 
 opinion, from an imperfect experi- 
 ment made by him on a small patch 
 of ground, that he will be able next 
 year to gather, at two cuttings, eight 
 tons of leaves of the comfrcy root to 
 the acre, which, he says, is excellent 
 food for stock. The root is consid- 
 ered very nutritious for man or beast ; 
 and Mr. Rich, of Troy, N. H., asserts 
 that it can be harvested every two 
 or three years, and will yield over 
 2000 bushels per acre. We should 
 think it advisable to try the experi- 
 ment of a rod or two square of grow- 
 ing comfrey in this vicinity. It is 
 cultivated by transplanting the roots, 
 which grow wild in the fields, to any 
 ground deep ploughed and well pul- 
 verized." 
 172 
 
 COM.MISSURE. In anatomy, a 
 junction or union. 
 
 C O M O 8 E. Ending in a tuft or 
 brush, like the top of a tree. 
 
 COMPASy. An instrument used 
 by mariners and surveyors to obtain 
 the bearing of any place. The essen- 
 tial part is a magnetic needle, which 
 plays over a card marked into the 
 points of the compass. The follow- 
 ing figure gives the full divisions : N 
 signifies north, S south, E east, W 
 west, and b by or towards. 
 
 v^ »/> "^ « 4; .^ 
 
 COMPOSIT.E. Plants like the 
 sunflower, dandelion, lettuce, &;c., 
 the flowers of which are grouped to- 
 gether on a flattish surface. They 
 are very numerous, and form the 
 Syngcncsia of Linnaeus. Few are cul- 
 tivated ; most are valueless weeds ; 
 but chamomile, wormwood, and a 
 few others yield bitter medicines. 
 Their ashes abound in potash. 
 
 COMPOST. Any compound of 
 manures, usually of vegetable matter 
 for the most part. See Peat, Lime, 
 Ves'c tabic Matter, &.e. 
 
 COMPRESSIBILITY. This qual- 
 ity depends on the natural pores of 
 bodies, which enable the solid parts 
 to approach nearer under great force. 
 
 CONCAVE. Having a hollowed 
 surface. Concave surfaces in mir- 
 rors produce a magnifying effect, and 
 condense heat and light. 
 
 CONCEPTACLES. The seed 
 cases of ferns, lichens, &c. 
 
 CONCHOID (from Koyxn, a shell). 
 Like a shell. The name of a curve. 
 
 CONCRETE (from concresccre, to 
 coalesce in one mass). In architecture 
 and engineering, a mass composed of 
 
cox 
 
 cox 
 
 stone chippings or ballast cemented 
 together tlirough the medium of lime 
 and sand, usually employed in ma- 
 king foundations where the soil is 
 of Itself too light or boggj-, or other- 
 wise insufficient for the reception of 
 the walls. The essential quality of 
 concrete seems to be, that the mate- 
 rials used should be of small dimen- 
 sions, so that the cementing medium 
 may act in every direction round 
 them, and that the latter should on 
 no account be more in quantity than 
 is necessary for that purpose. Ar- 
 chitects and engineers have much 
 varied the proportions of lime and 
 sand used. If the lime, which should 
 be fresh and ground to powder, be 
 good stone lime, it will bear three or 
 four times its measure by bulk of 
 sand. These and the ballast or gal- 
 lots, as the stone chippings are called, 
 should be thoroughly turned over and 
 mixed together. If the foundations 
 be wet, the mixture will want very 
 little if an}" water ; indeed, some- 
 times the ballast only is wetted, and 
 then covered over with the lime and 
 sand. It is then filled into the bar- 
 rows, and run on to be dropped from 
 a stage into the foundations. This 
 latter operation should be performed 
 at as great a height as possible above 
 the level of the trench, in order that 
 the whole of the different particles 
 of the composition may be compress- 
 ed together so as to occupy the least 
 possible space. The stones employ- 
 ed should not exceed the size of a 
 common hen's egg. The mass very 
 quickly sets and becomes extremely 
 hard. On the top of it, which is kept 
 as level as possible, a tier of stone 
 landings is laid, and very often 
 throughout the length a chain of tim- 
 ber is buried in the footings, whose 
 durability is requisite only while the 
 work is settling; over the landings 
 and timber thus laid, the latter, it is 
 to be observed, occupying but a very 
 small portion of the thickness of the 
 footings, and quite buried in them, 
 the walls are carried up. — (See Daty 
 OH Artificial Foundations, and Tottcn 
 on Mortars, Cements. &.C.) 
 
 CONDENSATION. The render- 
 
 ing a body more dense, most com- 
 monly applied to the conversion of 
 vapour into the fluid form. 
 
 CONDENSER. Any machine by 
 which the compression of gas, &c., 
 can be effected. 
 
 CONDITION. In horsemanship, 
 the health and good appearance of a 
 horse or other animal. 
 
 CONDUCTOR. In physics, any 
 substance which allows the passage 
 of heat, light, or electricity is said to 
 conduct it. 
 
 CONDYLE (from kov6v, a cup). 
 The rounded ends of the long bones. 
 
 CONFERVA. An extensive fam- 
 ily of small water weeds, forming the 
 green slime on stagnant waters. 
 They nourish innumerable insects 
 and animalcules. 
 
 CONGELATION. The act of 
 passing into the state of ice or other 
 solid forms from the fluid. 
 
 CONGESTION. In farriery and 
 medicine, an increased accumulation 
 of blood or other fluid in any part. 
 It is to be relieved by bleeding, cup- 
 ping, leeches, or counter irritation. 
 
 CONGLOMER.VTE. In geology, 
 a compound stony mass containing 
 pebbles, &c., cemented together by 
 iron, calcareous or other matter. 
 
 CONIC. Relating to a cone, small- 
 er at one end than the other. 
 
 CONIFER-E. Trees bearing 
 cones, as the pines, firs, cedars, &,c. 
 The wood of all is useful, and they 
 grow usually upon poor soils. 
 
 CONTROSTERS. A tribe of birds 
 with strong conical bills, as crows 
 and finches. 
 
 CONIU.M. The genus containing 
 hemlock, which see. 
 
 C O N N I V E N S. In botany, any 
 covering or arrangement by which 
 the parts of a plant or flower are hid- 
 den ; as the flowers of the fig by the 
 connivent receptacle. 
 
 CONSERVATORY. In horticul- 
 ture, a glazed structure, in which 
 exotic trees and shrubs are grown 
 in a bed or floor of soil. It is distin- 
 guished from an orangerv' by its hav- 
 ing a glazed roof, while that of the 
 latter is opaque ; and from a green- 
 house, by tlie plants being planted in 
 
 17a 
 
CON 
 
 COP 
 
 the free S(«I, and thus growing np 
 from the floor, wliile in the green- 
 house the plants are grown in pots 
 placed on shelves, or on a stage or 
 series of shelves rising one above 
 another. Above a century ago, for 
 example, in the time of Evelyn, the 
 term conservatory was applied to 
 those garden buildings now called 
 orangeries, and in modern horticul- 
 ture employed only for the preserva- 
 tion of exotic plants, such as orange- 
 trees, &c., which are in a dormant 
 state during winter. The green- 
 house and the modern conservatory 
 were then not in existence. They 
 are exclusively employed for the 
 preservation of plants which are in a 
 growing state during the winter. The 
 largest conservatory in the world, at 
 the present time (1841), is that erect- 
 ed at Chatsworth in Derbyshire, for 
 palms and other tropical plants, which 
 covers above an acre of ground, and 
 is sixty feet high.— (Brande's Ency- 
 clopedia. ) 
 
 CONSTIPATION. Costiveness, 
 want of regular evacuations from the 
 bowels. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. The general 
 strength and liability to disease of 
 any person or animal. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR. Any muscle 
 which has the power of closing the 
 openings of the body. 
 
 CONTRACTION OF THE 
 HOOF. In farriery, a distorted 
 state of the horny substance of the 
 hoof in cattle, producing all the mis- 
 chiefs of unnatural and irregular 
 pressure on the soft parts contained 
 in it, and, consequently, a degree of 
 lameness which can only be cured by 
 removing the cause. Contraction of 
 the hoof rarely happens, however, 
 except to those animals whose hoofs, 
 for the convenience of labour, are 
 shod. — {Johnsoji.) 
 
 CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY, 
 or MIXED HUSBANDRY. A term 
 implying frequent change in the same 
 field from tillage crops to grass, and 
 from grass back to tillage crops ; an 
 alternation of wheat, rye, &.C., with 
 root and grass crops. 
 
 CONVOLVULACE.E. A family 
 174 
 
 of plants, including the bind weed, 
 sweet potato, and jalap. The stems 
 are commonly twining, and the large 
 roots purgative ; the flowers are oft- 
 en beautiful and large. 
 
 CONVULSIONS.' An unnatural 
 action of the muscular system pro- 
 duced by a derangement of nervous 
 power. Staggering is a convulsion 
 originating in an excess of blood be- 
 ing diverted to the head, and is re- 
 lieved by bleeding ; the use of hot 
 baths to the lower extremities is also 
 useful. Worms frequently produce 
 convulsions. 
 
 COOLER. The large vats of brew- 
 ers are so called. 
 
 COOMB. A measure of four 
 bushels. 
 
 COOP. A cage for poultry, of bas- 
 ket-work or laths. 
 
 COPAL. A resinous body which 
 forms an excellent varnish when dis- 
 solved in linseed oil, and mixed with 
 turpentine. 
 
 COPING. The top course of a 
 wall, usually of stone, and wider than 
 the wall, to save it from rain. 
 
 COPPER. A red ductile metal, 
 remarkable for its conducting power. 
 The sulphate, or blue vitriol, is used 
 as a caustic in farriery, in dyeing, and 
 sometimes as a steep to kill insects 
 and parasites, &c., on wheat and 
 grain. A solution of blue vitriol, at 
 the rate of one ounce to enough wa- 
 ter to thoroughly soak a bushel of 
 wheat, is esteemed the most certain 
 preventive to smut, rust, and mildew, 
 and has been long used in Germany, 
 Switzerland, and the northeast of 
 France. The black oxide is of great 
 service in analysis. 
 
 COPPERAS. Green vitriol, sul- 
 phate of iron. Blue copperas is sul- 
 phate of copper, or blue stone. 
 
 COPPICE. A young wood. Wood 
 cut every few years. 
 
 COPROLITE (from /coTrpof, excre- 
 ment, and 7udoQ, a stone). The fos- 
 sils resembling cones, which are 
 found in the ancient calcareous for- 
 mations, and shown by Professor 
 Buckland to be the petrified excre- 
 ments of former animals. They have 
 1 been discovered in the green sand of 
 
COR 
 
 New-Jersey. Liebig called the atten- 
 tion of farmers to coprolites as a ma- 
 nure containing sixteen to twenty 
 per cent, of bone earth. 
 
 CORALS. The calcareous basis 
 of some marine animals. Coral sand 
 has been used freely in France in the 
 same way and with similar eflects as 
 marl. It may contain two per cent, 
 of bone earth. 
 
 CORDATE. In botany, heart- 
 shaped. Like the heart on playing 
 cards. 
 
 CORD. A measure for wood, equal 
 to four feet high and wide, and eight 
 feet long. 
 
 CORD GRASSES. Coarse, salt- 
 marsh grasses, of the genus Spartma. 
 
 CORDIAL. A stimulating, sto- 
 machic medicine. 
 
 COREOPSIS. A yellow compo- 
 site garden flower, the fresh flowers 
 of which yield a yellow dye. 
 
 CORIANDER. The Cormndrium 
 sativum, an umbelliferous plant culti- 
 vated for its aromatic seeds, which 
 are used in confectionery and medi- 
 cine. The soil must be dry. " The 
 sowings are generally performed in 
 April in drills eight inches apart, and 
 half an inch deep ; the plants to re- 
 main where sown. The only culti- 
 vation required is to thin them to 
 eight inches' distance, and to have 
 them kept clear of weeds throughout 
 their growth. They will perfect their 
 seed in early autumn, being in flower 
 during June." 
 
 CORK. The bark of the Spanish 
 oak, Alcornoque {Quercus subcr). It 
 would flourish wherever the live oak 
 grows, but requires a dry granitic soil, 
 and might be made a source of great 
 profit to the Southern States. The 
 tree is evergreen, not very large (six- 
 ty-five feet), yields fine sweet acorns, 
 and begins to supply good cork at 
 forty years. The cork is stripped 
 every eight or ten years afterward. 
 It is taken in July, a perpendicular 
 cut being made the length of the 
 trunk, and a circular one above and 
 below, down to the new bark, but not 
 into the young wood. The tree of 
 100 years furnishes from 200 to 400 
 pounds of cork. The young oak 
 
 COR 
 
 plantations are set with vines, which 
 last for twenty-five years. 
 
 CORMUS. The solid swelling be- 
 neath the stem of some plants. See 
 Bulb. 
 
 CORN. In Europe, wheat, or a 
 mixture of pease, beans, and oats. 
 
 CORN, BROOM. See Broom Com. 
 
 CORN, INDIAN. Zea mays. An 
 annual cereal plant of great impor- 
 tance to American agriculture. 
 
 Varieties. — These may be divided 
 into two classes : 1st. Table corn. 
 2d. Field corn. 
 
 The esteemed table corns are. Ear- 
 ly Golden Sioux, Canadian, Early 
 Tuscarora, and Sweet Corn. The 
 White Hominy and Dutton also an- 
 swer for late sorts when green. 
 
 Field Corn. — The varieties are 
 very numerous, and designated by 
 the number of rows, the colour and 
 shape of the grain. The clear white 
 or yellow is always preferred ; a long 
 heavy grain, large ear, small cob, and 
 those of early maturity. The favour- 
 ite northern varieties are of the Si- 
 oux kind, of a yellow gourd-seed 
 grain, the Dutton, and several kinds 
 of flint and Canadian corn. In the 
 Middle States the yellow gourd-seed 
 and Virginia white gourd-seed, of 
 twenty-four to thirty-six rows, are 
 chiefly cultivated. 
 
 Other Varieties. — A small corn (Zca 
 caragua) is used for parching ; it is 
 called pop corn and Valparaiso. 
 
 Baden, or Tree Corn. — This created 
 much attention at first, and is worthy 
 of cultivation, but with that care 
 which was taken in its production. 
 Mr. Baden's account is from the New- 
 England Farmer, and is a lesson on 
 the improvement of any variety of 
 grain or plant. 
 
 " I have the pleasure to say that I 
 have brought this corn to its high 
 state of perfection by carefully se- 
 lecting the best seed in the field for a 
 long course of years, having especial 
 reference to those stalks which pro- 
 duced the most ears. When the corn 
 was husked, 1 made are-selection, ta- 
 king only that which appeared sound 
 and fully ripe, liavmg a regard to the 
 deepest and best colour, as well as to. 
 173 
 
CORN, INDIAN 
 
 the size of the cob. In the spring, be- 
 fore shelling the corn, I examined it 
 again, and selected that which was 
 the best in all respects. In shelling 
 the corn, I omitted to take the irreg- 
 ular kernels at hotli the large and 
 small ends. I have carefully follow- 
 ed this mode of selecting seed corn 
 for twenty-three years, and still con- 
 tinue to do so. When I first com- 
 menced, it was with a common kind of 
 corn, for there was no other in this 
 partofthe country. If any other per- 
 son undertook the same experiment, 
 I did not hear of it ; I do not believe 
 others ever exercised the patience to 
 bring the experiment to the present 
 state of perfection. At first I was 
 troubled to find stalks with even two 
 good ears on them ; perhaps one good 
 ear and one small one, or one good 
 ear and a ' nubbin.' It was several 
 years before I could discover much 
 benefit resulting from my efTorts ; 
 however, at length the quality and 
 quantity began to improve, and the 
 improvement was then very rapid. 
 At present I do not pretend to lay up 
 any seed without it comes from stalks 
 which bear four, five, or six ears. I 
 have seen stalks bearing eight ears. 
 One of my neighbours informed me 
 that he had a single stalk with ten 
 perfect ears on it, and that he intend- 
 ed to send the same to the museum 
 at Baltimore. In addition to the num- 
 ber of ears, and, of course, the great 
 increase in quantity unshelled, it may 
 be mentioned that it yields much 
 more than the common corn when 
 shelled. Some gentlemen, in whom 
 I have full confidence, informed me 
 that they shelled a barrel (10 bushels 
 of ears) of my kind of corn which 
 measured a little more than six bush- 
 els. The common kind of corn will 
 measure about five bushels only. 1 
 believe I raise double, or nearly so, 
 to what I could with any other corn 
 I have ever seen. I generally plant 
 the corn about the first of May, and 
 place the hills five feet apart each 
 way, and have two stalks in a hill. 
 
 " Early last spring I let George 
 Law, Esq., of Baltimore City, have 
 some of this seed corn ; he sent it to 
 17G 
 
 his friend in Illinois, with instructions 
 how to manage it. A few weeks since 
 he informed me that the increase was 
 120 bushels to the acre ; that there 
 was no corn in Illinois like it, and 
 that it produced more fodder than any 
 other kind. I have supplied many 
 friends with seed corn, but some of 
 them have planted it with other corn, 
 and will, I fear, find it degenerate. 
 
 " I have lately been inquired of if 
 this corn was not later than any oth- 
 er kinds. It is rather earlier, cer- 
 tainly not later. Corn planted in moist 
 or wet soils will not ripen so quick as 
 that planted on a dry soil. In the for- 
 mer there will be found more damp- 
 ness in the cob, although the kernel 
 may appear ripe in both. In the two 
 last years, the wet seasons have in- 
 jured much corn that was early loft- 
 ed or housed." 
 
 Culture of Indian Corn, by Judge 
 Buel. — " The soils adapted to the cultxire 
 of Indian corn are such as are perme- 
 able to heat, air, and the roots of the 
 plant, and embrace those denomina- 
 ted sandy, gravelly, and loamy. Corn 
 will not succeed well on grounds that 
 are stiff, hard, or wet. The roots 
 grow to as great length as the stalks, 
 and the soil must be loose to permit 
 their free extension. 
 
 " The manures jiscd are generally 
 yard and stable dung, and plaster of 
 Paris (sulphate of lime). The first 
 ought to be abundant, as upon the 
 fertility which it induces depends the 
 profit of the crop. Long or unfer- 
 mented manure is to be preferred. It 
 decomposes as the wants of the plant 
 require it ; while its mechanical op- 
 eration, in rendering the soil light and 
 porous, is beneficial to the crop. It 
 should be equally spread over the 
 whole surface before it is ploughed 
 under. It then continues to afford 
 fresh pasture to the roots till the corn 
 has matured, and is, in its place, to 
 benefit the succeeding crop. If put 
 into the hills, the roots soon extend 
 beyond its influence; it does not so 
 readily decompose, and the subse- 
 quent crop is prejudiced from its par- 
 tial distribution in the soil. In a ro- 
 tation of four or five years, in which 
 
CORN, INDIAN, 
 
 this crop receives the manure, twen- 
 ty-five or thirty ordinary loads may 
 be applied to one acre with greater 
 profit than to hcu or three acres. Ev- 
 ery addition tells in the product ; and 
 there is scarcely any danger of ma- 
 nuring too high for this favourite crop. 
 Gypsum is applied broad-cast before 
 the last ploughing or harrowing, or 
 strewed on the hills after hoeing. I 
 pursued the first method, at the rate 
 of a bushel to the acre. 
 
 " The best preparation for a corn crop 
 is a clover or other grass lay, or lea, 
 well covered with long manure, re- 
 cently spread, neatly ploughed, and 
 harrowed lengthwise of the furrow. 
 A roller may precede the harrow with 
 advantage. The time of performing 
 these operations depends upon the 
 texture of the soil and the quality of 
 the sod. If the first is inclining to 
 clay, or the latter tough or of long 
 continuance, the ploughing may be 
 performed the preceding autumn ; 
 but where sand or gravel greatly pre- 
 ponderate, or the sod is light and ten- 
 der, it is best performed in the spring, 
 and as near to the planting as conve- 
 nient. The harrow, at least, should 
 immediately precede planting. All 
 seeds do best when put into the fresh- 
 stirred mould. Stiff lands are me- 
 liorated and broken down by fall 
 ploughing, but light lands are rather 
 prejudiced by it. When corn is pre- 
 ceded by a tilled crop, the ground 
 should be furrowed, and the seed de- 
 posited in the bottoms of the furrows. 
 Where there is a sod, the rows should 
 be superficially marked, and the seed 
 planted upon the surface. Where the 
 field is flat, or the subsoil retentive 
 of moisture, the land should be laid in 
 ridges, that the excess of water which 
 falls may pass off in the furrows. 
 
 " The time of planting must vary in 
 different districts and in different sea- 
 sons. The ground should be suffi- 
 ciently warmed by vernal heat to 
 cause a speedy germination. Natu- 
 ral vegetation affords the best guide. 
 My rule has been to plant when the 
 apple is bursting its blossom buds, 
 which has generally been between 
 the 1 2th and 20th of Mav. 
 
 " Preparation of the Seed. — The en- 
 emies to be combated are the wire- 
 worm, brown grub, birds, and squir- 
 rels. Of these, the first and last two 
 prey upon the kernels, and against 
 these tar offers a complete protection. 
 I soak my seed twelve hours in hot 
 water, in which is dissolved a few 
 ounces of crude saltpetre. When the 
 corn has been thus soaked, I take for 
 each half bushel of seed half a pint of 
 tar, put it into an iron vessel with 
 water, and heat it till the tar is dis- 
 solved, when it is turned upon the 
 seed in steep. The mass is well stir- 
 red, the corn taken out, and as much 
 plaster added as will adhere to the 
 grain. This impregnates and partial- 
 ly coats the seed with the tar. The 
 experience of years will warrant me 
 in confidently recommending this as 
 a protection for the seed. 
 
 ^^Thc manner of planting is ordinari- 
 ly in hills, from two and a half to six 
 feet apart, according to the variety 
 of corn, the strength of the soil, and 
 the fancy of the cultivator. The usu- 
 al distance in my neighbourhood is 
 three feet. Some, however, plant in 
 drills of one, two, and three rows, 
 by which a greater crop is unques- 
 tionably obtained, though the expense 
 of culture is somewhat increased. 
 
 " Thcguantityof seed should be dou- 
 ble, and may be quadruple of what is 
 required to stand. It is well known 
 that a great difference is manifest in 
 the appearance of the plants. Some 
 appear feeble and sickly, which the 
 best nursing will not render produc- 
 tive. The expense of seed and the la- 
 bour of pulling up all but three or four 
 of the strongest plants in a hill, it is 
 believed, will be amply remunerated 
 by the increased product. If the seed 
 is covered, as it should be, with fine 
 mould only, and not too deep, we may 
 at least calculate upon every hill or 
 drill having its requisite number of 
 plants. 
 
 " The after culture consists in keep- 
 ing the soil loose and free from weeds, 
 which is ordinarily accomplished by 
 two dressings, and in thinning the 
 plants, which latter may be done the 
 first hoeing, or partially omitted till 
 177 
 
CORN, INDIAN? 
 
 the last. The practice of ploughing 
 among corn and of making large liills 
 is justly getting into disrepute ; for 
 the plougli bruises and cuts the roots 
 of the j)lants, turns up the sod and 
 manure to waste, and renders the 
 crop more liable to suffer by drought. 
 The first dressing should be perform- 
 ed as soon as the size of the plants 
 will permit ; and the best implement 
 to precede the hoe is a corn-harrow, 
 adapted to the width of the rows, 
 which every farmer can make. This 
 will destroy most of the weeds and 
 pulverize the soil. The second hoe- 
 ing should be performed before or as 
 soon as the tassels appear, and may 
 be preceded by the corn-harrow, a 
 shallow furrow of the plough, or, what 
 is better than either, by the cultiva- 
 tor. A slight earthing is beneficial, 
 providing the earth is scraped from 
 the surface, and tlie sod and manure 
 not exposed. It will be found bene- 
 ficial to run the harrow or cultivator 
 a third, and even a fourth time, be- 
 tween the rows, to destroy weeds and 
 loosen the surface, particularly if the 
 season is dry. 
 
 " In harvesting the crop, one of three 
 modes is adopted, viz. : 1. The corn is 
 cut at the surface of the ground when 
 the grain has become glazed or hard 
 upon the outside, put immediately into 
 stocks, and, when sufficiently dried, 
 the corn and stalks are separated, 
 and both secured. 2. The tops are 
 taken off when the corn has become 
 glazed, and the grain permitted to re- 
 main till October or November upon 
 the butts. Or, 3. Both corn and stalks 
 are left standing till the grain has fuh 
 ly ripened, and the latter become dry, 
 when both are secured. There are 
 other modes, such as leaving the butts 
 or entire stalks in the field after the 
 grain is gathered ; but tliese are so 
 wasteful and slovenly as not to mer- 
 it consideration. The stalks, blades, 
 and tops of corn, if well secured, are 
 an excellent fodder for neat cattle. 
 If cut, or cut and steamed, so that 
 they can be readily masticated, they 
 are superior to hay. Besides, their 
 fertilizing properties as a manure are 
 greatly augmented by being fed out 
 178 
 
 in the cattle-yard, and imbibing the 
 urine and liijuids wiiicii always there 
 abound, and which are lost to the 
 farm, in ordinary yards, without an 
 abundance of dry litter to take them 
 up. By the first of these methods the 
 crop may be secured before the au- 
 tumnal rains ; the value of the fodder 
 is increased, and the ground is clear- 
 ed in time for a winter crop of wheat 
 or rye. The second mode impairs the 
 value of the rorage, requires more la- 
 bour, and does not increase the quan- 
 tity or improve the quality of the 
 grain. The third mode requires the 
 same labour as the first, may improve 
 the quality of the grain, but must in- 
 evitably deteriorate the quality of the 
 fodder. The corn cannot be husked 
 too promptly after it is gathered from 
 the field. If permitted to heat, the 
 value of the grain is seriously im- 
 paired. 
 
 ''Sowing Seed. — The fairest and 
 soundest ears are either selected in 
 the field, or, at the time of husking, a 
 few of the husks being left on, braid- 
 ed, and preserved in an airy situation 
 till wanted for use. 
 
 " In making choice of sorts, the ob- 
 ject should be to obtain the varieties 
 which ripen early and aflx)rdthe great- 
 est crop. I think these two proper- 
 ties are best combined in a twelve- 
 rowed kind which I obtained from 
 Vermont some years ago, and which 
 I call Button corn, from the name of 
 the gentleman from whom I received 
 it. It is earlier than the common 
 eight-rowed yellow, or any other field 
 variety I have seen, and, at the same 
 time, gives the greatest product. I 
 have invariably cut the crop in the 
 first fourteen days of September, and 
 once in the last week in August. The 
 cob is large, but the grain is so com- 
 pact upon it that two bushels of sound 
 ears have yielded five pecks of shell- 
 ed grain, weighing 62 lbs. the bushel. 
 
 "/« securing the fodder, precaution 
 must be used. The butts become wet 
 by standing on the ground, and if pla- 
 ced in large stacks or in the barn, the 
 moisture which they contain often in- 
 duces fermentation and mouldiness. 
 To avoid this, I put them first in 
 
CORN, INDIAN 
 
 stacks so small that the whole of the 
 butts are exposed upon the outer sur- 
 face ; and, when thoroughly dry, they 
 may be taken to the barn, or left to 
 be removed as they are wanted to be 
 fed out, merely regarding the propri- 
 ety of removing a whole stack at the 
 same time. 
 
 One ploughing (suppose a clover lay) 
 
 Harrowing and planting 
 
 Two hoeings, 4 days and horse team 
 
 Harvesting, two days . 
 
 Cutting and harvesting stalks 
 
 Rent ■ . 
 
 I Acre of In- 
 
 $2 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 3 75 
 1 50 
 1 50 
 5 00 
 
 $15 75 
 
 "(i) The following table exhibits 
 the dilTerence in product of various 
 methods of planting, and serves also 
 to explain the manner in which large 
 crops of this grain have been obtained 
 I have assumed in the estimate that 
 each stock produces one ear of corn, 
 and that the ears average one gill of 
 shelled grain. This is estimating the 
 product low ; for while I am penning 
 this (October), I find that my largest 
 ears give two gills, and 100 fair ears 
 half a bushel of shelled corn. The 
 calculation is also predicated upon the 
 supposition that there is no deficien- 
 cy in the number of stocks, a contin- 
 gency pretty sure on my method of 
 planting. 
 
 L An acre in hills, 4 feet apart 
 each way, will produce . 
 
 2. The same, 3 by 3 feet 
 
 3. The same, 3 by 2J feet . 
 
 4. The same, in drills at 3 feet, 
 
 plants 6 stalks, one inch 
 apart in the drills . 
 
 5. The same in do., 2 rows in 
 
 a drill, 6 inches apart, and 
 the plants 9 inches, and 3 
 feet 9 inches from centre 
 of drills, thus . 
 
 Hills, bush. qts. 
 
 2,722 42 
 4,840 75 
 5,808 93 
 
 29,040 113 14 
 
 30,970 120 31 
 
 6. The same in do., 3 rows in 
 a drill, as above, 3 feet 
 from centre of drills . 43,560 170 5 
 
 "The fifth mode I have tried. The 
 ground was highly manured, the crop 
 twice cleaned, and the entire acre 
 gathered and weighed accurately the 
 same day. The product in ears was 
 103 baskets, each 84 lbs. nett, and 65 
 
 lbs. over. The last basket was shell- 
 ed and measured, which showed a 
 product on the acre of 1 18 bushels 10 
 quarts. I gathered at the rate of 
 more than 100 bushels the acre from 
 four rods planted in the third method 
 last summer, the result ascertained 
 in the most accurate manner. Corn 
 shrinks about 20 per cent, after it is 
 cribbed. The sixth mode is the one 
 by which the Messrs. Pratt, of Madi- 
 son county, obtained the prodigious 
 crop of 170 bushels per acre. These 
 gentlemen, I am told, are of opinion 
 that the product of an acre may be 
 increased to 200 bushels. 
 " Cutting the Stalks. — Forafewyears 
 past I have not cut my corn-stalks un- 
 til the corn was harvested, guessing 
 that it was a course preferable to the 
 one commonly pursued in this part of 
 the country, of topping the stalks 
 while in a green state. But for the 
 purpose of settling this point more 
 clearly, and with as little trouble as 
 the case would admit, I selected, 
 about the 5th of September, a row of 
 corn in a field of about five acres, in- 
 tending to take one that would aver- 
 age in quality equal to the field 
 throughout, that I might, at the same 
 time, be able to ascertain, with tol- 
 erable certainty, the product of the 
 whole field. The manure having been 
 spread on the surface of the ground, 
 and harrowed in lengthwise of the 
 furrows, and the corn planted across 
 I the furrows, made it apparently less 
 I difficult to select an average row. 
 . On this row I cut the stalks from half 
 I the hills ; beginning at one end, and 
 I cutting the first hill, then leaving the 
 I next uncut, and so proceeding alter- 
 nately, cutting one, and leaving the 
 next uncut, through the row. I had 
 intended to confine the experiment to 
 this row, but finally was led to extend 
 it so far as to include four rows ; and, 
 numbering them agreeably to the or- 
 der in which they were standing in 
 the field, this row may be called No. 
 2. There were ninety-two hills in 
 the row, and the stalks were cut from 
 forty-six hills, all of them in the man- 
 ner that is here termed jointing, i.e., 
 cut off betweeu the ear and the first 
 179 
 
CORN, INDIAN. 
 
 joint above tlie ear. I Ihoiight they 
 were somewhat more ripe than is 
 usual at tlie tiino of cutting; a few 
 of them were nearly dry. The soil 
 was a sandy or gravelly loam, ancient- 
 ly covered with pine, oak, and chest- 
 nut. In hoeing the com, no hills 
 were made, but some care was taken 
 that the surface of the ground should 
 remain as level as possible through 
 the season. 
 
 "My estimate of the number of hills 
 on an acre was made in the following 
 manner ; and, if I am wrong in my 
 calculations, I shall be corrected by 
 some of your readers. 
 
 " In an area of 200 feet square (or 
 40,000 square feet), there were sixty- 
 two rows, with fifty-four hills in a 
 row, making 3348 hills. This is equal 
 to 3646 hills per acre, each hill occu- 
 pying nearly twelve square feet of sur- 
 face. There were about four stalks 
 of corn in a hill. In estimating bush- 
 els, I have allowed the lawful weight 
 of fifty-six pounds to the bushel. 
 
 " At the time of harvesting, the corn 
 was husked in the field. The forty- 
 six hills from which the stalks had 
 been cut gave forty-eight and a half 
 pounds of ears ; and the forty-six hills 
 on which the stalks had not been cut 
 gave sixty-two pounds of ears. The 
 number of ears in the two cases was 
 about the same ; those from the un- 
 cut hills were evidently the best filled 
 out and the most hale ; on a large 
 proportion of them the kernels were 
 so closely wedged in as to make it 
 difficult to bend the ear at all with- 
 out breaking it. There was very lit- 
 tle mouldy corn in either case ; a few 
 ears were gathered, mostly from the 
 cut stalks, but the whole quantity 
 was so small as to make it question- 
 able whether cutting the stalks had 
 much effect in this particular. 
 
 " Both parcels were carefully laid 
 aside in a dry chamber for about sis 
 or eight weeks, at the expiration of 
 which time they were again weighed, 
 and the parcel of ears from the uncut 
 hills had lost in drying about two per 
 cent, more than the other, affording 
 some evidence that the sap continued 
 to circulate for a greater length of 
 ISO 
 
 time in the uncut than in the cut 
 stalks. Theuncuthilis gave 42 pounds 
 8 ounces dry shelled corn, equal to 14 
 ounces 12} grains per hill, or 60 bush- 
 els and eight pounds per acre. The 
 parcel from the cut hills gave 33 
 pounds 7 ounces, equal to 11 ounces 
 10 grains per hill, or 47 bushels and 
 18 i)ounds per acre, making a loss of 
 12 bushels and 46 pounds per acre by 
 cutting the stalks ; conclusive evi- 
 dence that, while the sap is in circu- 
 lation, nature does not assign the 
 stalks an unprofitable office. The 
 product of this whole row, taken to- 
 gether, cut and uncut hills, was equal 
 to 53 bushels and 41 pounds per acre. 
 
 "The product of row No. 3, taken 
 by itself (containing ninety-two hills, 
 on one half of whicli the stalks were 
 cut on the same day the others were), 
 would not show the practice of cut- 
 ting stalks quite so destructive in its 
 effects as that exhibited in row No. 2. 
 Its whole produce was 77 lbs. 9 oz. 
 dry corn, equal to 55 bushels and 10 
 pounds per acre, or 1 bushel and 25 
 pounds per acre more than row No. 2. 
 
 " Not satisfied with resting the ex- 
 periment here, I gathered the corn 
 on rows Nos. 1 and 4, i. e., the rows 
 each side next adjoining Nos. 2 and 
 3, and on which none of the stalks 
 had been cut. These rows, taken 
 together, contained 186 hills, and 
 their product of dry shelled corn was 
 171 lbs. 13 oz., equal to 14 oz. 12^ 
 grs. per hill, or 60 bushels and 8 
 pounds per acre, precisely the same 
 average yield as tliat part of row No. 
 2 on which the stalks had not been 
 cut. This exact coincidence, howev- 
 er, I think, may be numbered among 
 those cases which rarely happen. 
 
 " The difference between the two 
 rows on which half the stalks were 
 cut and the two rows on which none 
 of the stalks were cut was 5 bushels 
 38} pounds per acre. If this differ- 
 ence arose from cutting half the 
 stalks (and I know of no other rea- 
 son), then cutting the whole would 
 have reduced the crop 11 bushels and 
 21 pounds per acre, or from 60 bush- 
 els and 8 pounds to 48 bushels and 
 43 pounds per acre. 
 
CORN, INDIAN. 
 
 " To recapitulate, row No. 2, on which the 
 experiment was commenced, taken by itself, 
 is as follows, viz. : 
 40 hills, on which the stalks had 
 
 not been cut, gave 42 lbs. 8 
 
 oz. dry shelled corn, equal to, 
 
 per acre ... 60 bush. 8 lbs. 
 
 46 hills, from which the stalks 
 
 had been cut, gave 33 lbs. 7 
 
 oz. dry shelled corn, equal to, 
 
 per acre . . . 47 " 19 " 
 
 Loss by cutting- the stalks, per 
 acre . . . . 12 " 46 " 
 
 The four rows, taken together, stand as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Nos. 1 and 4, on which no 
 stalks were cut, gave an av- 
 erage of, per acre . . 60 bush. 8 lbs. 
 Nos. 2 and 3, from which half 
 the stalks were cut, gave an 
 average of, per acre . 54 " 25.V " 
 Loss by cutting one half the 
 
 stalks, per acre, . . 5 " 3Si " 
 
 On cutting all the stalks, would 
 make a loss equal to, per acre 11 " 21 " 
 
 " The difference in the result of the 
 two cases is 1 bushel and 25 pounds 
 per acre ; or in the two experiments 
 (if it may be so termed) there is an 
 average loss, by cutting the stalks, 
 of 12 bushels 5 j pounds per acre ; a 
 loss quite equal to all the expense 
 of hoeing and harvesting, especially 
 when we consider that in hoeing the 
 labour of making hills was dispensed 
 with. 
 
 " If I had cut all the stalks, and ob- 
 tained a crop of forty-eight bushels to 
 the acre, the very fact of having forty- 
 eight bushels would, I think, be con- 
 sidered by farmers generally, in this 
 section of the country, as proof posi- 
 tive that the stalks were cut without 
 injury to the crop. Or, if I had gone 
 one step farther, and made large hills 
 at an additional expense of one dollar 
 per acre, and thereby reduced the 
 crop to forty-five bushels per acre, 
 the forty-five bushels would be con- 
 sidered sufficient proof that making 
 hills (which, by-the-way. are usually 
 made equally large and high on wet 
 or dry land, without regardto soil or 
 situation) was labour well laid out ; 
 for although you occasionally give 
 us a large corn story, swollen a little, 
 perhaps, by guessing it off in baskets, 
 yet, judging from what we see and 
 know about raising corn, we call for- 
 ty-five bushels per. acre a. good crop. 
 
 " A measured bushel from the cut 
 hills weighed 57 lbs. 6 oz., one pound 
 less than from the uncut, the shrink- 
 age being very near equal to the 
 whole loss in weight. 
 
 " If this experiment is a fair test, it 
 seems that about twenty 'per cent., or 
 one fifth part of the crop, is destroyed 
 by cutting the stalks in the xcay they are 
 usually cut. If farther experiment 
 should establish this fact, I think 
 there are few farmers that will hesi- 
 tate long in deciding which is the 
 most valuable, one acre of corn or 
 five acres of top stalks. But this 
 twenty per cent, is not saved at the 
 expense of losing the stalks ; they 
 are worth as much, and, I think, more, 
 all things considered, after the corn 
 is harvested, than they are gathered 
 in the usual way. If, after being 
 bunched up in a green state, they heat 
 or become mouldy (a case of frequent 
 occurrence), they are utterly worth- 
 less, except it be for manure ; I know 
 of no animal that will eat them. But 
 after they have once been dried by 
 the frost and wind, a subsequent mod- 
 erate degree of niouldiness seems to 
 be no injury. 
 
 " The course which I have pursued 
 with them, and for the present I know 
 of no better, has been as follows ; In 
 the first place, they are cut off near 
 the ground, and for this purpose a 
 short scythe is found the most con- 
 venient instrument. The expense 
 of cutting in this manner, however, 
 is but a mere trifle, if any, more than 
 cutting the stub stalks in the spring, 
 and may, with propriety, be entered 
 as an item of expense against the 
 next crop, for which it is preparing 
 the ground. After cutting, they are 
 gathered into bunches of suitable 
 size for binding, and three good 
 sheaves of rye straw, if wet, will be 
 sufficient to "bind a ton. In gather- 
 ing them up and laying in bunches, 
 an active boy will do as much as a 
 man. In this way, the whole ex- 
 pense of gathering, binding, and load- 
 ing will not exceed 75 cents per ton. 
 As they are very bulky, for want of 
 barn room, I have them stacked near 
 the barn-yard ; and I think I may 
 181 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 safely say that my cattle eat more 
 pounds of stalks from an acre gather- 
 ed in this way than tliey would from 
 the same acre if gathered in the usual 
 way. It may be objected to this, that 
 they are not as good and nourishing 
 as others : as to that matter, I am 
 not able to say ; but, if the cattle are 
 good judges in the case (and I think 
 they ought to be admitted as such), 
 they are quite as good and quite as 
 nourishing, for they are eaten appa- 
 rently with quite as good a relish. 
 In addition to this, they are obtained 
 without breaking off ears or breaking 
 down hills in hauling out, occurren- 
 ces quite frequent in the other case. 
 They also furnish more than double 
 the quantity of bedding for the yard, 
 an item of no small moment in the 
 list of ' creature comforts ' during 
 our cold winters. And last, though 
 not least, they make more than double 
 the quantity of manure, the value of 
 which will "be duly appreciated by ev- 
 ery good farmer without argument. 
 It may be said that the butt stalks 
 can be gathered after harvest, and 
 furnish the same quantity of litter and 
 manure as in this case. That is true ; 
 but the expense of gathering both 
 parts in that way, from the butts be- 
 ing so short and inconvenient to bind, 
 would be three times as much as it is 
 to gather them whole. Thus, view- 
 ing the subject in various points, I 
 think this method of managing corn- 
 stalks is much better than the old 
 one ; and that a little observation and 
 experience will convince the most 
 skeptical that this branch of agricul- 
 ture is not yet brought to a state of 
 perfection ; that there is yet room 
 for improvement." — {Farmers In- 
 structer.) 
 
 Much discussion has arisen on the 
 Northern and Southern plan of cuUi- 
 vating corn : the first in hills of three 
 to five stems, the other in rows five 
 feet wide ; and also on the propriety 
 of hilling or planting level. The 
 Northern method is best, as the yield 
 shows, so far as closer planting is 
 concerned ; but the height of the 
 plants is very different, so that the 
 close planting of the North can hard- 
 182 
 
 1y be imitated. As to the planting 
 in drills, with water-furrows between 
 them, the propriety of this method 
 depends on the nature of the soil, for 
 stiff clays must be so managed, oth- 
 erwise the heavy rains would destroy 
 the crop ; but in light soils a level 
 surface is most advantageous. 
 
 For the value of maize as food, see 
 the articles Fodder and Food. 
 
 CORN FOR SUGAR. The stems 
 of corn, as they begin to turn in colour, 
 contain, according to some writers, 
 twelve to fourteen per cent, of sugar 
 in the juice, if the ears have been re- 
 moved as fast as they appear. The 
 juice is expressed precisely as from 
 the cane, and treated in the same 
 way ; perhaps it requires more rapid- 
 ity of movement. Six per cent, of 
 sugar is sometimes obtained from 
 the juice, and from 300 to 500 pounds 
 the acre. The question of economy 
 is the only one which embarrasses 
 the public : this has been settled ad- 
 versely, so far as regards the country 
 in which the sugar cane grows, by 
 Messrs. Tillotson, of Louisiana, but 
 is open for the Western and Middle 
 States, and in places where corn 
 sells at a low price and sugar is at 
 eight cents the pound ; we therefore 
 introduce Messrs. "Webb and Mapes's 
 account, from the Hon. H. C. Ells- 
 worth's report : 
 
 " Remarks on the Manufacture of Corn 
 
 Sugar, by William Webh, of Wtl- 
 
 nungton, Delaware. 
 
 " In common with many others, I 
 
 have felt considerable interest in the 
 
 plan for extending the cultivation of 
 
 sugar in temperate climates, and have 
 
 made many experiments, first upon 
 
 the beet, and recently upon maize or 
 
 Indian corn, in the hope of discover- 
 
 i ing some mode by which the desired 
 
 j end might be attained. 
 
 I " The results from the latter plant 
 
 1 have been extremely encouraging. 
 
 I The manufacture of sugar from it, 
 
 ! compared with that from the beet, 
 
 \ offers many advantages. It is more 
 
 I simple, and less liable to failure ; the 
 
 machinery is less expensive, and the 
 
 i amount of fuel required is less by one 
 
CORN FOR SUGAR. 
 
 half. The quantity of sugar produced 
 on a given space of ground is greater, 
 besides being of better quality. An 
 examination into the nature and pro- 
 ductive powers of these two plants 
 will show that no other results could 
 have been reasonably expected. It 
 is a well-established fact, that every 
 variety of production found in plants 
 is derived from the sap. It is also 
 ascertained that the principal sub- 
 .stanee found in the sap or juice of 
 many vegetables is sugar ; therefore, 
 the amount of saccharine matter pro- 
 duced by any plant of this description 
 may be estimated from an analysis 
 of the fruit, seed, &c., of such plant, 
 when ripe. The grain yielded by 
 corn, and the seed from beet, in the 
 second summer of its growth, are 
 nothing more than this sap or juice 
 elaborated by the process of vegeta- 
 tion, and presented to our view in 
 another form. 
 
 " Now, as it is contrary to the econ- 
 omy of nature to suppose that there 
 should be any loss of nutritive mat- 
 ter in this change of sap into seed or 
 grain, does it not follow that there 
 must be the same difference in the 
 quantity of sugar produced by the two 
 plants as there is between the nutri- 
 tive properties of beet seed and corn I 
 
 " The juice of maize contains sugar, 
 acid, and a gummy, mucilaginous 
 matter, which forms the scum. From 
 the experiments of Gay Lussac, The- 
 nard, Kirchoff, and others, it is pro- 
 ved that starch, sugar, and gum are 
 extremely similar in composition, and 
 may be as readily converted into each 
 other by chemical processes as they 
 are by the operation of nature. For 
 example ; starch, boiled in diluted 
 sulphuric acid for thirty-six hours, is 
 converted into sugarof greater weight 
 than the starch made use of 
 
 "This result goes to show that ev- 
 ery pound of starch found in the seed 
 of a plant has required for its produc- 
 tion at least one pound of sugar in 
 the form of sap. If it be objected 
 that this deduction is too theoretical 
 to be admitted, it may be an.swered, 
 that experiment, so fa- as it has gone, 
 has fully attested its correctness. 
 
 " The raw juice of maize, when 
 cultivated for sugar, marks 10 ' on the 
 saccharometer, while the avf^rage of 
 cane juice (as I am informed) is not 
 higher than 8°, an^ beet juice not 
 over 3°. 
 
 " From 9| quarts (dry measure) of 
 the former I have obtained 4 pounds 
 6 ounces of sirup, concentrated to 
 the point suitable for crystallization. 
 The proportion of crystailizable sugar 
 appears to be larger than is obtained 
 from cane juice in Louisiana. This 
 is accounted for by the fact that our 
 climate ripens corn perfectly, while it 
 but rarely, if ever, happens that cane 
 is fully matured. In some cases the 
 sirup has crystallized so completely, 
 that less than one sixth part of mo- 
 lasses remained. This, however, only 
 happened after it had stood from one 
 to two months. There is reason to 
 believe that, if the plant were fully 
 ripe, and the process of manufacture 
 perfectly performed, the sirup might 
 be entirely crystallized without form- 
 ing any molasses. 
 
 " This perfection in the manufac- 
 ture cannot, however, be attained with 
 the ordinary apparatus. Without any 
 ' other means for pressing out the 
 I juice than a small hand mill, it is ini- 
 j possible to say how great a quantity 
 of sugar may be produced on an acre. 
 " The experiments have been direct- 
 ed more to ascertain the saccharine 
 quality of corn-stalk than the amount 
 a given quantity of ground will pro- 
 duce ; but the calculations made, from 
 trials on a small scale, leave no room 
 to doubt that the quantity of sugar 
 will be from 800 to 1000 pounds. This 
 amount will not appear unreasonable 
 when it is considered that the juice 
 of corn is as rich as that of cane, and 
 ' the weight of green produce at least 
 equal. 
 
 " Mr. Ellsworth, in one of his pub- 
 lications, states, as the result of ac- 
 tual weighing and measuring, that 
 corn, sown broad-cast, yielded five 
 pounds of green stalks per square 
 foot ; this is at the rate of 108i tons 
 to the acre. 
 
 " My attention w-as first directed to 
 i maize as a material for sugar by ob- 
 183 
 
CORN FOR SL'CAR. 
 
 Berving that, in some stalks, the juice 
 was extienich' sweet, while in others 
 it was weak and watery. On exam- 
 ination, it appeared that the latter 
 had borne large and perfect ears of 
 grain, while on the former these were 
 either small in size or entirely want- 
 ing. The natural conclusion from 
 this observation was that, if the ears 
 were taken off in tlieir embryo state, 
 the whole quantity of saccharine mat- 
 ter produced by the process of vege- 
 tation would be preserved in the stalk, 
 from which it might be extracted 
 when the plant was matured ; but 
 the idea occurred too late in the sea- 
 son to test it by expermient. A few 
 stalks, however, were found, which, 
 from some cause, had borne no grain ; 
 these were bruised with a mallet, and 
 the juice extracted by a lever press. 
 Some lime was then added, and the 
 desiccation, evaporation, &c., began 
 and finished in a single vessel. By 
 these simple means sugar of a fair 
 quality was produced, which was sent 
 to the horticultural exhibition of our 
 society in 1810. 
 
 " I have since been informed, by 
 Mr. Ellsworth, that Mons. Pallas, of 
 France, had discovered, in 1839, that 
 the saccharme properties of maize 
 were increased by merely taking off 
 the ear m its embryo state. An ex- 
 periment, however, which I instituted 
 to determine the value of this plan 
 resulted in disappointment : the quan- 
 tity of sugar produced was not large 
 enough to render it an object. The 
 reasons of this failure will be suf- 
 ficiently obvious on stating the cir- 
 cumstances. It was found that ta- 
 king the ear off a large stalk, such as 
 is produced by the common mode of 
 cultivation, inflicted a considerable 
 wound upon the plant, which injured 
 its health, and, of course, lessened 
 its productive power. It was also 
 found that the natural disposition to 
 form grain was so strong that sev- 
 eral successive ears were thrown out, 
 by which labour was increased and 
 the injuries of the plant multiplied. 
 Lastly, it appeared that the juice 
 yielded from those plants contained 
 a considerable portion of foreign sub- 
 184 
 
 stance not favourable to the object in 
 view. Yet, under all these disadvan 
 tages, from one hundred to two hun 
 dred pounds of sugar per acre may be 
 obtained. 
 
 " The manifest objections detailed 
 above suggested another mode of cul- 
 tivation, to be employed in combina- 
 tion with the one first proposed ; it 
 consists simply in raising a greater 
 number of plants on the same space 
 of ground. By this plan all the un- 
 favourable results above mentioned 
 were obviated, a much larger quan- 
 tity of sugar was produced, and of 
 better quality. The juice produced 
 bv this mode of cultivation is remark- 
 ably pure and agreeable to the taste. 
 Samples of the sugar yielded by it 
 are now in the Patent Office, with a 
 small hand mill by which the stalks 
 were crushed. Some of the same 
 kind was exhibited to our agricultu- 
 ral society in October, 1841, accom- 
 panied with an answer to an invita- 
 tion from its president. Dr. J. W. 
 Thompson, to explain the mode of 
 culture and process of manufacturing 
 the sugar. The molasses, after stand- 
 ing, as before mentioned, from one to 
 two months, became filled with small 
 crystals, which, on being drained, ex- 
 hibited a peculiar kind of sugar ; the 
 grain is small, and somewhat inferior 
 in appearance, but still is as sweet 
 and agreeable to the taste as can be 
 desired. A small sample of this su- 
 gar I have brought for your inspec- 
 tion. This product, from what was 
 thought to be molasses, is a new and 
 I unexpected discovery, and discloses 
 I an important fact in the investigation 
 I of this subject. It shows the supe- 
 ' rior degree of perfection attained by 
 the corn plant, compared with the 
 cane, in any part of the Union. It is 
 ' generally understood that the latter 
 cannot be fully matured in any except 
 ' a tropical climate, and ihe proportion 
 ' of molasses obtained from any plant 
 is greater or less according to the im- 
 maturity or perfection of its growth. 
 The sweetness of the corn-stalk is 
 a matter of universal observation. 
 Our forefathers, in the revolutionary 
 ; struggle, resorted to it as a means to 
 
CORN FOR SUGAR. 
 
 furnish a substitute for West India I 
 sugar. They expressed the juice, ] 
 and exerted their ingenuity in efforts 
 to bring it to a crystalUzed state ; 
 but we have no account of any suc- 
 cessful operation of the kind. In 
 fact, the bitter and nauseous proper- 
 ties contained in the joints of large 
 stalks render the whole amount of 
 juice from them fit only to produce 
 an inferior kind of molasses. I fuund, 
 on experiment, that, by cutting out 
 the joints, and crushing the remain- 
 ing part of the stalk, sugar might be 
 made, but still of an inferior quality. 
 The molasses, of which there was a 
 large proportion, was bitter and dis- 
 agreeable. 
 
 " From one to two feet of the lower 
 part of these stalks was full of juice ; 
 but the balance, as it approached the 
 top, became dryer, and afforded but 
 little. From the foregoing experi- 
 ments, we see that, in order to ob- 
 tain the purest juice, and in the great- 
 est quantity, we must adopt a mode 
 of cultivation which will prevent the 
 large and luxuriant growth of the 
 stalk. 
 
 "As we are upon the threshold of 
 this inquiry, many other improve- 
 ments may be expected in the mode 
 of operation ; for example, it may be 
 that cutting off the tassel as soon as 
 it appears on the plant will prevent 
 the formation of grain, and prove a 
 preferable means for effecting that 
 object. 
 
 " On the whole, there appears am- 
 ple encouragement for perseverance. 
 Every step in the investigation has 
 increased the probabilities of success, 
 no evidence having been discovered 
 why it should not succeed as well, if 
 not better, on a large scale, than it 
 has done on a small one. 
 
 " 1. In the first place, it has been sat- 
 isfactorily proved that sugar of an ex- 
 cellent quality, suitable for common 
 use without refining, may be made 
 from the stalks of maize. 
 
 "2. That the juice of this plant, 
 when cultivated in a certain manner, 
 contains saccharine matter remark- 
 ably free from foreign substances. 
 
 " 3. The quantity of this juice (even 
 
 Q3 
 
 supposing we had no other evidence 
 about it) is sufficiently demonstrated 
 by the great amount of nutritive grain 
 which it produces in the natural course 
 of vegetation. It is needless to ex- 
 patiate on the va^advantagcs which 
 would result fronnhe introduction of 
 this manufacture into our country. 
 
 " Grain is produced in the West in 
 such overflowing abundance that the 
 markets become glutted, and induce- 
 ments are offered to employ the sur- 
 plus produce in distillation. This bu- 
 siness is now becoming disreputable. 
 The happy conviction is spreading 
 rapidly, that the use of alcohol, as a 
 beverage, instead of conducing to 
 health and strength, is the surest 
 means of destroying both. Some oth- 
 er production, therefore, will be re- 
 quired, in which the powers of our 
 soil may be profitably employed. This, 
 it is hoped, will be found in the busi- 
 ness now proposed. Instead of dis- 
 tilleries, converting food into poison, 
 we may have sugar-houses, manufac- 
 turing at our doors an article of uni- 
 versal demand, not merely useful, but 
 necessary, furnishing as it does one 
 of the most simple, natural, and nu- 
 tritious varieties of human suste- 
 nance found in the whole range of 
 vegetable production. 
 
 " It is said that the general use of 
 sugar in Europe has had the effect to 
 extinguish the scurvy and many oth- 
 er diseases formerly epidemical. It 
 may be doubted whether a tropical 
 country can ever furnish a great 
 amount of exports, except through 
 the means of compulsory labour. It 
 appears, then, highly probable, that if 
 the inhabitants of temperate countries 
 wish to continue the use of sugar, they 
 must find some means to produce it 
 themselves. The beet appears to suc- 
 ceed well in Europe, and the manu- 
 facture from it is extending rapidly ; 
 but there is no hazard in making the 
 assertion that Indian corn is far bet- 
 ter adapted to our purpose. The fol- 
 lowing mode of cultivating the plant 
 and making the sugar is the best that 
 can now be offered. The kind of soil 
 best adapted to corn is so well under- 
 stood, that no directions on this point 
 1S5 
 
CORN FOR SUGAR. 
 
 are necessary, except that it should 
 be rich — the richer the better ; if not 
 naturally fertile, manure must be ap- 
 plied, either ploughed in or spread 
 upon the surface, or used both ways, 
 according to the aMlity of the owner. 
 Nothing can form ^)etter preparation 
 for the crop than a clover sod well 
 turned under and harrowed fine im- 
 mediately before planting. 
 
 " Select for seed the largest and best 
 ears of any variety of corn not dispo- 
 sed to throw up suckers or spread out 
 in branches ; that kind most produc- 
 tive in the neighbourhood will be gen- 
 erally the one best adapted to the pur- 
 pose. The planting should be done 
 with a drilling machine. One man, 
 with a pair of horses and an instru- 
 ment of this kind, will plant and cov- 
 er, in the most perfect manner, from 
 ten to twelve acres in a day; the 
 rows (if practicable, let them run 
 north and south) two and a half feet 
 apart, and the seed dropped sufficient- 
 ly thick in the row to ensure a plant 
 every two or three inches. A large 
 harrow, made with teeth arranged so 
 as not to injure the corn, may be used 
 to advantage soon after it is up. The 
 after culture is performed with a cul- 
 tivator, and here will be perceived 
 one of the great advantages of drill- 
 ing : the plants all growing in lines, 
 perfectly regular and straight with 
 each other, the horse-hoe stirs the 
 earth and cuts up the weeds close by 
 every one, so that no hand hoeing 
 will be required in any part of the cul- 
 tivation. ' It is part of the system 
 of cane-planting in Louisiana, to raise 
 as full a stand of cane upon the ground 
 as possible, experience having proved 
 that the most sugar is obtained from 
 the land in this way.' As far as my 
 experience has gone, the same thing 
 is true of corn. This point must 
 therefore be attended to, and the de- 
 ficiencies, if any occur, made up by 
 timely replanting. 
 
 " The next operation is taking off the 
 ears. Many stalks will not produce 
 any ; but, whenever they appear, they 
 must be removed. It is not best to 
 undertake tbis work too early, as, 
 when the ears first appear, they are 
 186 
 
 tender, and cannot be taken off with- 
 out breaking, which increases the 
 trouble. Any time before the forma- 
 tion of grain upon them will be soon 
 enough. 
 
 " Nothing farther is necessary to be 
 done until the crop is ready to cut for 
 grinding. In our latitude, the cutting 
 may commence with the earlier va- 
 rieties about the middle of August. 
 The later kinds will be ripe in Sep- 
 tember, and continue in season until 
 cut offby the frost. The stalks should 
 be topped and bladed while standing 
 in the field. They are then cut, tied 
 in bundles, and taken to the mill. 
 The top and blades, when properly 
 cured, make an excellent fodder, rath- 
 er better, it is believed, than any hith- 
 erto used ; and the residuum, after 
 passing the rollers, may easily be dried 
 and used in the same way : another 
 advantage over the cane, which, af- 
 ter the juice is expressed, is usually 
 burned. 
 
 " The mills should be made on the 
 same general principle employed in 
 constructing those intended for grind- 
 ing cane. An important difference, 
 however, will be found both in the 
 original cost and in the expense of 
 working them. Judging from the 
 comparative hardness of the cane and 
 corn-stalk, it is believed that one 
 fourth part of the strength necessary 
 in the construction of a cane mill will 
 be amply sufficient for corn, and less 
 than one fourth part of the power will 
 move it with the same velocity. It 
 maybe made with three upright wood- 
 en rollers, from twenty to forty inch- 
 es in length, turned so as to run true, 
 and fitted into a strong frame-work, 
 consisting of two horizontal pieces, 
 sustained by uprights. These pieces 
 are mortised to admit wedges on each 
 side the pivots of the two outside roll- 
 ers, by which their distances from the 
 middle one may be regulated. The 
 power is applied to the middle roller, 
 and the others are moved from it by 
 means of cogs. In grinding, the stalks 
 pass through on the right side of the 
 middle cylinder, and come in contact 
 with a piece of frame-work called the 
 dumb returner, which directs them 
 
CORN FOR SUGAR. 
 
 backward, so that they pass through 
 
 the rollers again, on the opposite side 
 of the middle one. The modern im- 
 proved machine is made entirely of 
 iron, three horizontal rollers, arran- 
 ged in a triangular form, one above 
 and two below ; the cane or stalk 
 passes directly through, receiving two 
 pressures before it escapes. The low- 
 er cylinders are contained in a small 
 cistern which receives the juice. The 
 latter machine is the most complete ; 
 the former the least expensive. These 
 mills may be moved by cattle ; but, 
 for large operations, steam or water 
 power is preferable. When the ver- 
 tical cylmders are turned by cattle, 
 the axis of the middle one has long 
 levers fixed across it, extending from 
 ten to fifteen feet from the centre. 
 To render the arms firm, the axis of 
 this roller is carried up to a consid- 
 erable height, and oblique braces of 
 wood, by which the oxen or horses 
 draw, are extended from the top of 
 the vertical axis to the extremities of 
 each of the arms. When horizontal 
 cylinders are propelled by animal 
 power, the upper roller is turned by 
 the cogs at one end, which are caught 
 by cogs on a vertical shaft. It is said 
 that, in the West Indies, the purest 
 cane juice will ferment in twenty 
 minutes after it enters the receiver. 
 Corn juice has been kept for one hour 
 before boiling without any apparent 
 injury resulting ; but so much delay 
 is not desirable, as it may be attend- 
 ed with bad effects. 
 
 "The process which has been em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of maize 
 sugar is as follows : The juice, after 
 coming from the mill, stood for a short 
 time to deposite some of its coarser 
 impurities. It was then poured off, 
 and passed through a flannel strainer, 
 in order to get rid of such matters as 
 could be separated in this way. Lime- 
 water, called mill\ of lime, was then 
 added, in the proportion of one or two 
 table-spoonfuUs to the gallon. It is 
 said by sugar manufacturers that 
 knowledge on this point can only be 
 acquired by experience ; but I have 
 never failed in making sugar from 
 employing too much or too little of 
 
 the lime. A certain portion of this 
 
 substance, however, is undoubtedly 
 necessary, and more or less than this 
 will be injurious, but no precise di- 
 rections can be given about it. The 
 juice was then placed over the fire, 
 and brought nearly to the boiling 
 point, when it was carefully skim- 
 med, taking care to complete this op- 
 eration before ebullition commenced. 
 It was then boiled down rapidly, re- 
 moving the scum as it rose. The 
 juice was examined from time to 
 time, and if there was any appear- 
 ance of feculent particles, which 
 would not rise to the surface, it was 
 again passed through a flannel strain- 
 er. In judging when the sirup is suf- 
 ficiently boiled, a portion was taken 
 between the thumb and finger, and 
 if, when moderately cool, a thread 
 half an inch long could be drawn, it 
 was considered to be done, and pour- 
 ed into broad, shallow vessels to crys- 
 tallize. In some cases, crystallization 
 commenced in twelve hours ; in oth- 
 ers, not till after several days ; and 
 in no case was this process so far 
 completed as to allow the sugar to be 
 drained in less than three weeks from 
 the time of boiling. The reason why 
 so great a length of time was re- 
 quired I have not yet been able to 
 discover. There is no doubt that 
 an improved process of manufacture 
 will cause it to granulate as quickly 
 as any other. 
 
 " Enough has been said to enable 
 any one so disposed to manufacture 
 sugar from maize. 
 
 " As to the profits of the business, 
 I shall make no positive assertions ; 
 experience on the subject is yet too 
 limited to warrant them ; and, as all 
 the facts in relation to it are now be- 
 fore the public, every one interested 
 can draw his own conclusions. It is 
 said, by those acquainted with the 
 cultivation of the cane, that that bu- 
 siness cannot be carried on profitably 
 on less than one hundred acres in 
 crop, and that attempts on a small 
 scale will be certain to fail, with a 
 great loss of time and labour. How 
 far this may be apphcable to corn re- 
 mains to be seen. 
 
 187 
 
CORN FOR SUGAR. 
 
 '■'■ Some comparison between the 
 cultivation of cane and that of corn 
 may perhaps be interesting. 
 
 "The cane lands in Louisiana are 
 redeemed to agriculture by strong 
 embankments along the river, and by 
 numerous ditches, which extend back 
 into the swamp to a considerable dis- 
 tance beyond the line of cultivation. 
 The ground is still farther divided, by 
 smaller ditches, into lots of from one 
 to two acres in extent. It is ex- 
 tremely rich and productive, but the 
 expense of draining and keeping up 
 the embankments must be consider- 
 able ; this forms the first dilTerence to 
 be noted in the culture of the two 
 plants under consideration. 
 
 " The best season for planting cane 
 in Louisiana is in the fall, which is 
 also the time of harvest, when labour 
 is the most valuable, and the greatest 
 exertions are required to secure the 
 crop before it is destroyed by frost. 
 
 " But the most striking diffeience 
 will be found in the cost of seed, and 
 in the labour of planting. The cane 
 is propagated by layers ; these are 
 partly furnished from the tops of the 
 plants when cut for grinding, but are 
 principally ratoons. Of the latter, it 
 requires the produce of one acre to 
 plant three. The grain from one acre 
 of corn will be sufficient for planting 
 forty acres ; therefore, the difference 
 in the expense for seed will be as one 
 to thirteen. 
 
 " In planting cane, furrows are 
 made with the plough from two and 
 a half to three feet apart ; in these 
 the layers are placed in a double row, 
 and the earth drawn over them with 
 hoes to the depth of three or four 
 inches. 
 
 " In the spring, before the plants are 
 up, this covering is partly scraped off, 
 so as to leave them buried from one 
 to two inches. From this account, 
 it is evident that no more manual la- 
 bour will be required to drill fifty 
 acres in corn than to plant one acre 
 in cane. The labour of cultivating 
 the latter plant during its growth is 
 also greater, but this may be balan- 
 ced by the extra work required to 
 take off the embryo ears from the 
 183 
 
 corn. When cultivated in the mode 
 recommended, the stalk of corn is 
 soft, remarkably heavy, and full of 
 juice from bottom to top. The 
 amount of power required for grind- 
 ing them must be much less than is 
 necessary for cane, or, what is the 
 same thing, an equal power will do it 
 witli greater rapidity. The average 
 yield of cane, in Louisiana, is one 
 thousand pounds of sugar and forty- 
 five gallons of molasses per acre. 
 From the above comparative state- 
 ment, it would appear that one half 
 this amount of crop from corn would 
 be equally, if not more profitable. 
 
 " I wih only add, in conclusion, that 
 whether or not the sugar from the 
 corn-stalk may soon become an arti- 
 cle of profitable export, its manufac- 
 ture in the simplest form will enable 
 every family to supply tliemselves 
 with this article for common use, 
 now become so much a necessary of 
 life, and thus save a considerable bill 
 of expense yearly paid for foreign 
 sugars." 
 
 Mr. Mapes's Account. — "You re- 
 quest to know the best method of 
 crystallizing corn sirup, and I know 
 of no more ready method to afford 
 the information required than to de- 
 tail the entire mode which should be 
 pursued for its manufacture : 
 
 " 1st. To cut the cane as ripe as pos- 
 sible, but before any acetic acid is 
 formed ; litmus paper, touched to 
 the fresh-cut cane, will turn red if 
 acid. 
 
 " 2d. Express the juice without loss 
 of time, as everj' moment after cut- 
 ting will deteriorate its quality. 
 
 " 3d. A smallquantity of clear lime- 
 water (say one quart to a hundred 
 gallons of juice) should be added the 
 moment it is expressed, unless the 
 juice shows acidity with litmus pa- 
 per ; in that case, no lime should be 
 used, but a solution of sal soda, or 
 soda ash, should be added, until it is 
 precisely neutral. 
 
 " 4th. When the juice is neutral (free 
 from excess of acid or alkali) it should 
 be evaporated in such an apparatus 
 as would finish its charge in 30 min- 
 utes ; if the boiling power is too amall* 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 good crystallization cannot possibly 
 be obtained. 
 
 "The whole time occupied from the 
 cutting of the cane to finishina: its 
 boiling should not exceed one hour. 
 
 "5th. To know u-hcn the boiling isfiii- 
 ished, place a thermometer in the ket- I 
 tie, and continue to evaporate until } 
 it stands at 230^ Fahrenheit. If, 
 when placed to run off after cooling, 
 It should be found too freely boiled, 
 the next time boil to 240% or, if too 
 light to run off, to 238=', and so on. 
 
 " 6th. The kettle or boiler should be 
 so arranged that the moment it is 
 done its charge should be thrown 
 into a cooler capable of holding a 
 number of charges. The first charge 
 should be left in the cooler, with stir- 
 ring, until the second charge is thrown 
 in ; then with an oar scrape the crys- 
 tals found on the side and bottom of 
 the cooler loose, and gently stir the 
 whole mass together (the less stirred 
 the better) ; so continue, at the let- 
 ting in of each charge, to stir gently ; 
 and when all is in the cooler, let the 
 whole stand until it cools down to 
 175= ; then fill out into sugar moulds 
 of a capacity not less than 14 gal- 
 lons. When cooled in the mould 
 sufficient (say fourteen hours), pull 
 the plug out of the bottom of the 
 mould, and insert a sharp point near- 
 ly as large as the hole, some six inch- 
 es ; withdraw the point, and stand 
 the mould on a pot to drip. 
 
 "7th. If the sugar is intended to be 
 brown, leaving it standing on the spot 
 for a sufficient length of time, in a 
 temperature of 80^, will run otf its 
 molasses, and leave it in a merchant- 
 able shape ; it will probably require 
 twenty days ; it can then be thrown 
 out of the moulds, and will he fit for 
 use. When moulds cannot be ob- 
 tained, conical vessels of wood or 
 metal, with a hole at the apex, will 
 answer equally well. 
 
 "The above description will be suf- 
 ficient for any operator if strictly fol- 
 lowed ; but should any of your friends 
 wish to make the experiment on a 
 large scale, or to produce white in- 
 stead of brown sugar at a single op- 
 eration, they had better see me per- 
 
 sonally before commencing, as the 
 kind of kettle, and many otlier minor 
 particulars, will be important. The 
 above description, however, is fully 
 sufficient for the use of the farmer. 
 If the juice of corn-stalks be manu- 
 factured with the rapidity named in 
 the former part of this letter, no clari- 
 fication will be necessary, and scum, 
 which may rise during the boiling, 
 can be taken off with a skimmer ; 
 but in the large icaij both clarifica- 
 tion and filtration would be requisite, 
 as in large operations every part of 
 the kettle cannot be got at to skim. 
 Since I last saw you I have made 
 some experiments on the corn-stalk ; 
 and if your statements are correct as 
 to the quantity of juice which can be 
 obtained from the acre, then there 
 can be no doubt of its entire supe- 
 riority over the sugar-cane. I fear, 
 however, that the enthusiasm of those 
 who made the experiments you spoke 
 of has led them into errors. It is 
 true that the juice of the corn-stalk, 
 grown with a view to sugar making, 
 will yield a juice at 10'' Beaume. I 
 have arrangements to try the experi- 
 ments fully in the coming summer, 
 and when done will communicate the 
 result." 
 
 CORN FOR SOILING, or HAY. 
 Corn sown broad-cast or in close 
 drills has been much used of late for 
 soiling ; it is cut from four to six 
 weeks old, and is relished by cattle 
 when mixed with other fodders. It 
 should be gradually introduced into 
 their food, lest it produce scouring. 
 An acre thickly set produces upward 
 of SIX tons of dry fodder, and much 
 more, according to some farmers. It 
 is readily cured for hay by sweating 
 in cocks, but cannot be dried enough 
 by spreading in swarth only. As hay, 
 it is nearly equal to fine grass, and 
 readily eaten. 
 
 j Corn is remarkably free from de- 
 structive diseases ; the smut masses 
 j which affect the stems are seldom 
 sufficiently abundant to destroy the 
 crop ; the caterpillars that prey on 
 '■ the leaves occasionally destroy a 
 few young plants ; the cutworm, in 
 rich soils, is the severest enemy. 
 189 
 
COR 
 
 The young stems are occasionally 
 infested with a caterpillar of a yel- 
 lowish colour, with a black head and 
 smooth, the larva of the Gortyna zcce, 
 or spindle-worm : they destroy the 
 plants wiiich they infest, but the 
 numbers are usually limited. 
 
 CORN, SPECIAL MANURES. 
 Poudrette, guano, and stable ma- 
 nure, composted with lime and bone 
 dust, are the great fertilizers for this 
 grain. It pre-eminently requires pu- 
 trescent matter and bone earth, with- 
 out which last the seeds are imper- 
 fect. The ash of Indian corn shows 
 how much phosphoric acid it con- 
 tains. {Analyzed by Lctellier.) 
 Potash and soda .... 30-8 
 Lime and magnesia . . . 18 3 
 
 Phosphoric acid 50' 1 
 
 Silica, <Stc 8 
 
 i¥o¥ 
 
 A special mixture or compost of 
 poudrette or stable manure, bone 
 earth, and ashes would be very val- 
 uable. 
 
 CORN, MEASURING THE 
 BULK. The foUowmg rule for this 
 purpose is given by William Murray. 
 It is not to be regarded as strictly ac- 
 curate, but an approximation : 
 
 " Having previously levelled the 
 corn in the house, so that it will be of 
 equal depth throughout, ascertain the 
 length, breadth, and depth of the 
 bulk ; multiply these dimensions to- 
 gether, and their products by 4 ; then 
 cut off one figure from the right of this 
 last product. This will give so many 
 bushels, and a decimal of a bushel of 
 shelled corn. If it be required to find 
 the quantity of ear corn, substitute 8 
 for 4, and cut oflTone figure as before." 
 
 CORN LAWS. The exportation 
 of grains to England having much in- 
 creased, the following tables of the 
 tariff will be useful to many farmers : 
 
 " According to the English Corn 
 Law Act existing in 1842, corn in- 
 spectors are appointed in 287 tow-ns, 
 to transmit returns to the Board of 
 Trade, who compute the average 
 weekly price of each description of 
 grain, and the aggregate average price 
 for the previous six weeks, and trans- 
 mit a certified copy to the collectors 
 190 
 
 COR 
 
 of customs at the different outports. 
 The aggregate average regulates the 
 duty on importation according to the 
 following scale : 
 
 " If imported from any ForeignCountry. 
 
 " Wheat. — Whenever the average 
 price of wheat, made up and publish- 
 ed in the manner required by law, 
 shall be for every quarter 
 
 £. t. d. 
 
 Under 51 j., the duty shall be for every 
 
 quarter 10 
 
 51s. and under 52y 19 
 
 52^. — tbs 18 
 
 55s. — 56* 17 
 
 50^. _ 57, 16 
 
 57s. — 58* 15 
 
 58s. — 59* 14 
 
 59s. — 60i 13 
 
 60s. — 61s 12 
 
 61s. — 625 110 
 
 62s. — 63s 10 
 
 63s. — 64s 9 
 
 64s. — 65s 8 
 
 65s. — 60s 7 
 
 66s. — 69s 6 
 
 69s. — 70s 5 
 
 70s. — 71s 4 
 
 71s. — 72s 3 
 
 72s. — 73s 2 
 
 73s. and upwaid 10 
 
 " Barley. — Whenever the average 
 price of barley, made up and publish- 
 ed in the manner required by law, 
 shall be for every quarter 
 
 £. s. d. 
 Under 26s., the duty shall be for every 
 
 quarter 0110 
 
 26s. and under 27s 10 
 
 27s. — 30s 9 
 
 30s. — 31s 8 
 
 31s. — 32s 7 
 
 32s. — 33s 6 
 
 33s. — 34s 5 
 
 34s. — 35s 4 
 
 35s. — 36s 3 
 
 36s. — 37s 2 
 
 37s. and upward 10 
 
 "Oats. — Whenever the average 
 price of oats, made up and published 
 in the manner required by law, shall 
 be for every quarter 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Under 19s., the duty shall be for eveiy 
 
 quarter 080 
 
 19s. and under 20s 7 
 
 20s. — 23s 6 
 
 23s. — 24s 5 
 
 24s. — 25s 4 
 
 25s. — 26s 3 
 
 26s. — 27s 2 
 
 27s. and upvsrarJ .... ..010 
 
 *' Rye, Pease, aiid Beans. — Whenev- 
 er the average price of rye, or of pease, 
 or of beans, made up and published 
 
COR 
 
 in the manner required by law, shall 
 be for every quarter 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Under 30*., the duty shall be for every 
 
 quarter 11 6 
 
 30«. and under 33j 10 6 
 
 33*. — Zis 9 6 
 
 ZAs. — 35s 8 6 
 
 35s. — 36s 7 6 
 
 36s. — 37s 6 6 
 
 37s. — 38j 5 6 
 
 38s. — 39s 4 6 
 
 39s. — 40s 3 6 
 
 40s. — 4Is 2 6 
 
 41s. — 42s 16 
 
 42s. and upward 10 
 
 " Wheat Meal and Flour. — For every 
 barrel, being 196 lbs., a duty equal in 
 amount to the duty payable on 38i 
 gallons of wheat. 
 
 " Oatmeal. — For every quantity of 
 18U lbs., a duty equal in amount to 
 the duty payable on a quarter of oats. 
 
 "Maize or Indian Corn, Buckwheat, 
 Bear or Bigg. — For every quarter, a 
 duty equal in amount to the duty pay- 
 able on a quarter of barley." — {John- 
 sun'' s Encyclopedia.) 
 
 CORN, EGYPTIAN. See Egyp- 
 tian Corn. 
 
 CORN MOTHS. See Grain 
 Weevils. 
 
 CORN SALAD. Fedia oUtoria . 
 Lamb lettuce. It is a mucilaginous, 
 pleasant herb, esteemed for the early 
 period it is found in market. Sow 
 the seed in drills six inches apart ; 
 weed carefully. The seeds are small 
 and light ; one pound serves for a 
 quarter of an acre. They are sown in 
 August or September, on clean, rich 
 land, covered with straw duruig cold 
 weather, and brought out at the ear- 
 liest period in spring. It might be 
 advantageously cultivated for soiling, 
 either sown late for spring or very 
 early for summer ; or it may be rais- 
 ed as a summer salad by sowing in 
 March. 
 
 CORN-SHELLER. See Sheller. 
 
 CORNEA. The transparent mem- 
 brane in front of the eye. Any opa- 
 city injures vision ; it should be care- 
 fully treated by bleeding and blisters. 
 
 CORNS, IN HORSES' FEET. 
 This disease is produced by some hard 
 substance pressing on the sole at the 
 quarters, as from shoes left on till the 
 heels become buried in the hoof ; the 
 
 COR 
 
 fibrous substance which lies betweeh 
 the sensible foot and the absolute 
 horny hoof becomes inflamed by the 
 pressure, and the inflammation pro- 
 duces a hardness of the spot, similar, 
 if I may so express it, to a knot in a 
 piece of soft timber. Palliate the evil 
 as well as you can by keeping the 
 hoof constantly pared away between 
 the corn and the ground, hut do not 
 wound in your vain endeavours to cut 
 it out ; avoid the hot irons, &c. ; let 
 a bit of sponge be softly put in, mere- 
 ly to keep out gravel and keep the 
 spot moist ; and when the season ar 
 rives, turn the horse out without any 
 shoes into a soft, marshy place, 
 where his feet must be in a constant 
 moist state for three months at least ; 
 by that time the hoof will be altogeth- 
 er renewed, the diseased part will 
 have grow^n out, and if there is no 
 new injury, there will be no new 
 corns. — {E. Maunscll.) 
 
 COROLLA. The coloured part of 
 flowers, usually. If there be no green 
 calyx, the coloured envelope is called 
 a perianthium. The corolla is either 
 in one piece, or monopctalous, or in 
 many, poli/petalous. The leaflets or 
 parts are also called petals. Many 
 natural famdies are easily determined 
 by the figure of the corolla, as the 
 Convolvulaceffi, Salviaceae, Rosaceae, 
 &c. See Botany. 
 
 CORONET BONE. The second 
 of the consolidated phalanges of the 
 horse's foot. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. A 
 white crystalline salt, the chloride of 
 mercury. It is a fearful poison, one 
 to three grains producing death. The 
 antidote is, abundance of white of egg 
 given internally. A weak solution is 
 occasionally used to destroy vermin 
 and preserve wood, but it is too dan- 
 gerous to be trifled with. 
 
 CORRUGATE. To wrinkle. The 
 folds on the skin of some animals are 
 called corrugations. 
 
 CORTICAL (from cortex, the 
 bark). Relating to the bark. 
 
 CORUNDUM. A class of extreme- 
 ly hard crystalline minerals, compo- 
 sed of nearly pure alumina, as the 
 sapphire, ruby, and emery, 
 
 191 
 
COT 
 
 COT 
 
 CORVUS. The generic name of 
 the crow and raven. They are om- 
 nivorous or carnivorous. 
 
 CORYMB. A hunch of flowers, 
 the lowest llowcr stalks of which rise 
 as hijih as the uppermost. 
 
 CORYZA. A running from the 
 nose. 
 
 COSMOGONY (from Koa/xoi, icorld, 
 and yovof, birlk). The speculations 
 concerning the origin of the earth. 
 
 COSTATE (from cos/a, a rib). Rib- 
 bed. In botany this term is used to 
 designate the bundles of woody fibre 
 in leaves, also called nerves and 
 veins. The numerals arc often prefix- 
 ed, as tricosiate, with three ribs. 
 
 COSTIVENESS. Want of proper 
 motion in the bowels. Glauber salts, 
 Epsom salts, and aloes are useful 
 purges. 
 
 COTTAGE. A small, low resi- 
 dence, often highly adorned, or ornee. 
 The following from Mr. Ellsworth's 
 Reports on building cheap Cottages 
 will be valuable : 
 
 " After selecting a suitable spot of 
 ground, as near the place of building 
 as practicable, let a circle of ten feet 
 or more be described. Let the loam 
 be removed, and the clay dug up one 
 foot thick, or, if clay is not fbund on 
 the spot, let it be carted in to that 
 depth. Any ordinary clay will an- 
 swer. Tread this clay over with 
 cattle, and add some straw cut six 
 or eight inches long. After the clay 
 is well tempered with working it with 
 the cattle, the material is duly pre- 
 pared for the making of brick. A 
 mould is then formed of plank, of the 
 size of the brick desired. In England 
 they are usually made eighteen inch- 
 es long, one foot wide, and nine inch- 
 es thick. I have found the more 
 convenient size to be one foot long, 
 seven inches wide, and five inches 
 thick. The mould should have a 
 bottom. The clay is then placed in 
 the moulds in the same manner that 
 brick moulds are ordinarily filled. A 
 wire or piece of iron hoop will an- 
 swer very well for striking offthe top. 
 One man will mould about as fast as 
 another can carry away, two moulds 
 being used by him. The bricks are 
 192 
 
 placed upon the level ground, where 
 they are suffered to dry two days, 
 turning them up edgewise the sec- 
 ond day, and then packed up in a 
 pile, protected from the rain, and left 
 to dry ten or twelve days, during 
 which time the foundation of the 
 building can be prepared. If a cellar 
 is desired, this must be formed of 
 stone or brick, one foot above the 
 surface of the ground. For cheap 
 buildings on the prairie, wood sills, 
 twelve or fourteen inches wide, may 
 be laid on piles or stones. This will 
 form a good superstructure. Where 
 lime and small stones abound, grout 
 made of those materials (lime and 
 stones) will answer very well. 
 
 " In all cases, however, before 
 commencing the walls for the first 
 story, it is very desirable, as well in 
 this case as in walls of brick, to lay 
 a single course of slate ; this will in- 
 tercept the dampness so often rising 
 in the walls of brick houses. The 
 wall is laid by placing the brick length- 
 wise, thus making the wall one foot 
 thick. Ordinary clay, such as is used 
 for clay mortar, will suffice, though 
 a weak mortar of sand and lime, 
 when these articles are cheap, is rec- 
 ommended as forming a more adhe- 
 sive material for the plaster. The 
 wall may safely be carried up one 
 story, or two or three stories ; the 
 division walls may be seven inches, 
 just the width of the brick. The 
 door and window frames being in- 
 serted as the wall proceeds, the build- 
 ing is soon raised. The roof may 
 be shingles or thatch : in either case 
 it should project over the sides of the 
 house, and also over the tico ends, at 
 least two feet, to guard the walls from 
 vertical rains. The exterior wall is 
 plastered with good lime mortar, and 
 then with a second coat pebble- 
 dashed. The inside is plastered with- 
 out dashing. The floor may be laid 
 with oak boards, slit, five or six inch- 
 es wide, and laid down without joint- 
 ing or planing, if they are rubbed over 
 with a rough stone after the rooma 
 are finished. Doors of a cheap and 
 neat appearance may be made by ta- 
 king two single boards of the length 
 
COTTAGE. 
 
 or width of the doors ; placing these 
 vertically, they will till the space. 
 Put a wide batten on the bottom and 
 a narrow one on the top, witli strips 
 on the side, and a strip in the middle. 
 This door will be a batten door, but 
 presenting two long panels on one 
 side and a smooth surface on the 
 other. If a porch or veranda is 
 wanted, it may be roofed with boards 
 laid with light joints and covered 
 with a thick paper dipped in tar, and 
 then adding a good coat, after sprink- 
 ling it with sand from a sand-box or 
 other dish with small holes. 
 
 '• Houses built in this way are dry, 
 warm in winter and cool in summer, 
 and furnish no retreat for vermin. 
 Such houses can be made by com- 
 mon labourers, if a little carpenter's 
 work IS excepted, in a very short 
 time, with a small outlay for mate- 
 rials, exclusive of floors, windows, 
 doors, and roof 
 
 " The question will naturally arise. 
 Will the wall stand against the rain 
 and frost ' I answer, They have 
 stood well in Europe, and the Hon. 
 Mr. Poinsett remarked to me that he 
 had seen them in South America, af- 
 ter having been erected three hun- 
 dred years. Whoever has noticed 
 the rapid absorption of water by a 
 brick that has been burned, will not 
 wonder why brick walls are damp. 
 The burning makes the brick porous, 
 while the unburned brick is less ab- 
 sorbent ; but it is not proposed to 
 present the unburned brick to the 
 weather. A\'hoever has erected a 
 building with merchantable brick will 
 at once perceive the large number of 
 soft and yellow brick, partially burn- 
 ed, that it contains, brick that would 
 soon yield to the mouldering in- 
 fluence of frost and storms. Such 
 brick are, however, placed within, 
 beyond the reach of rain, and always 
 kept dry. A good cabin is made by 
 a single room twenty feet square. A 
 better one is eighteen feet v.-ide and 
 twenty-four feet long, cutting ofT 
 eight feet on one end for two small 
 rooms, eight feet by nine each. 
 
 " How easily could a settler erect 
 6uch a cabin on the Western prairie, | 
 R 
 
 j where clay is usually found about fif- 
 
 jteen inches below the surface, and 
 
 , where stone and lime are often both 
 
 ; very cheap. The article of brick for 
 
 1 chimneys is found to be quite an 
 
 item of expense in wooden houses. 
 
 , In these mud houses no brick is 
 
 ^ needed, except for the top of the 
 
 chimneys, the oven, and casing of 
 
 the fire-place, though this last might 
 
 be well disponed with. A cement, 
 
 to put around the chimneys, or to fill 
 
 any other crack, is easily made by a 
 
 mixture of one part of sand, two of 
 
 1 ashes, and three of clay. This soon 
 
 I hardens, and will resist the weather. 
 
 A little lard or oil may be added, to 
 
 make the composition still harder. 
 
 •• Such a cottage will be as cheap 
 as a log cabin, less expensive than 
 pine buildings, and durable for cen- 
 turies. I have tried the experiment 
 in this city by erecting a building 
 eighteen by fifty-four feet, two sto- 
 ries high, adopting the different sug- 
 gestions now made. Although many 
 doubted the success of the underta- 
 king, all now admit that it has been 
 very successful, and presents a con- 
 venient and comfortable building, 
 that appears well to public view, and 
 offers a residence combining as many 
 advantages as a stone, brick, or wood- 
 en house presents. I will add what 
 Loudon says in his most excellent 
 work, the Encyclopedia of Agriculture, 
 p. 74 and 75 : 
 
 " ' The great art in building an 
 economical cottage is to employ the 
 kind of materials and labour which 
 are cheapest in the given locality. 
 In almost every part of the world the 
 cheapest article of which the walls 
 can be made will be found to be the 
 earth on which the cottage stands, 
 and to make good walls from the 
 earth is the principal art of the rus- 
 tic or primitive builder. Soils, with 
 reference to building, may be divided 
 into two classes : clays, loams, and 
 all such soils as can neither be called 
 gravels nor sands, and sands and 
 gravels. The former, whether they 
 are stifT or free, rich or poor, mixed 
 with stones, or free from stones, may 
 be formed into walls in one of these 
 193 
 
COT 
 
 modes, viz., in the pise manner, by 
 lumps moulded in boxes, and by 
 compressed blocks. Sandy and grav- 
 elly soils may be always made into 
 excellent walls, by ibrming a frame 
 of boards, leaving a space between 
 the boards of the intended thickness 
 of the wall, and filling this with grav- 
 el mixed with lime mortar, or, if this 
 cannot be got, with mortar made of 
 clay and straw. 
 
 " ' In all cases, when walls, either 
 of this class or the former, are built, 
 the foundations should be of stone or 
 brick, and they should be carried up 
 at least a foot above the upper sur- 
 face of the platform. 
 
 " ' We shall here commence by giv- 
 ing one of the simplest modes of 
 construction, from a work of a very 
 excellent and highly estimable indi- 
 vidual, Mr. Denson, of Watcrbeach, 
 Cambridgeshire, the author of the 
 Peasant's Voice, who built his own 
 cottage in the manner described be- 
 low ; 
 
 " ' Mode of building the Mud Walls 
 of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. — After 
 a labourer has dug a sufficient quan- 
 tity of clay for his purpose, he works 
 it up with straw ; he is then provided 
 with a frame eighteen inches in 
 length, six deep, and from nine to 
 twelve inches in diameter. In this 
 frame he forms his lumps, in the 
 same manner that abriekmakerfornis 
 his bricks ; they are then packed up 
 to dry by the weather ; that done, 
 they are fit for use, as a substitute for 
 bricks. On laying the foundation of 
 a cottage, a few layers of brick are 
 necessary, to prevent the lumps from 
 contracting a damp from the earth. 
 The fire-place is lined and the oven 
 is built with bricks. I have known 
 cottagers, where they could get the 
 grant of a piece of ground to build on 
 fur themselves, erect a cottage of 
 this description at a cost of from £15 
 to £30. I examined one that was 
 nearly completed, of a superior o.r- 
 der ; it contained two good lower 
 rooms and a chamber, and was neat- 
 ly thatched with straw. It is a warm, 
 firm, and comfortable building, far 
 superior to the one I live in ; and 
 194 
 
 COT 
 
 my opinion is that it will last for 
 centuries. The lumps are laid with 
 mortar, they are then plastered, and, 
 on the outside, once roughcast, which 
 j is done by throwing a mixture of 
 I water, lime, and small stones against 
 j the walls before the plaster is dry, 
 which gives them a very handsome 
 I a|)pcarancc. The cottage I exam- 
 ; ined cost £33, and took nearly one 
 thousand lumps to complete it. A 
 labourer will make that number in 
 two days. The roofs of cottages of 
 I this description are precisely the 
 same as when built with bricks or 
 with a wooden frame. Cow-house 
 sheds, garden walls, and partition 
 fence are formed with the same ma- 
 terials ; but in all cases the tops are 
 covered with straw, which thethatch- 
 ers perform in a very neat manner.' " 
 COTTON. The hairs surrounding 
 the seeds of several varieties of Gos- 
 syptum, which are cultivated for the 
 staple in the Southern States of 
 America and elsewhere. 
 
 Varieties. — The most common is 
 the green seed {G. hcrbaceum) or up- 
 land cotton. The black seed, or Sea- 
 Island, is of longer and finer staple, 
 and supposed to be a variety of G. 
 arborcum ; it rises often to eighteen 
 feet, and bears well for four or five 
 years. The Nankin is the variety 
 suited for the manufacture of the im- 
 itation nankin. The Mexican and 
 Pettit Gulf are also upland kinds, 
 and in great favour, especially the 
 last ; they are varieties of G. hirsn- 
 tum. Aldridge or Okra cotton is a 
 new Alabama variety, growing with 
 very short stalks, tall, and yielding 
 largely. 
 
 Cultivation. — The following by Dr. 
 Philips, from the American Agricul- 
 turist, gives a full account of the 
 management of the upland cotton : 
 
 " If the land was in corn or cotton 
 the previous year, I run olFtlie rows 
 in the old water furrow with a short 
 plough, this year using two horses to 
 it, and running deep. With a turn- 
 ing plough I then throw to this two 
 furrows, one fnmi each side, intend- 
 ing to reverse the last beds. 
 
 " I leave the ground in this condition 
 
COTTON. 
 
 until a day or two before I wish to 
 plant, and then break out the entire 
 surface between the rows and the 
 balk ; my reason for so doing is, that 
 the cotton plant grows olT faster on a 
 bed of some firnmess; the radicle, or 
 future root, will die oftener on a light 
 surface than when on hard earth, if 
 not so hard that it cannot penetrate ; 
 and by breaking out the middle late it 
 leaves the bed fresh, except a narrow 
 strip on the top, which is cleaned off 
 by planting, which gives the plant an 
 even start with grass and weeds. 
 
 " I begin to plant during the first 
 fine weather after the 20th of March, 
 though usually not before early in 
 April, some of my neighbours even 
 earlier than the 20th some seasons ; 
 I prefer to be a few days later, and 
 have all business well up, than to 
 haste in planting, and probably get a 
 bad stand from cold, and part of the 
 ploughing to be jumped over. 
 
 "I direct the cotton seed to be haul- 
 ed out, and dropped in two or three 
 heap-rows across the rows, at con- 
 venient distances, and in sufficient 
 parcels ; practice gives the hands a 
 pretty correct idea how much is re- 
 quired. I usually measure enough 
 for the first row, or an acre, seldom 
 planting over two bushels myself, and 
 often not over one, especially if the 
 seeds be bought. If the first furrows 
 have been settled by heavy rains, are 
 rough, or have many cotton stalks 
 on the row, an iron tooth harrow 
 should be run over them, drawn by 
 one horse, and with the row ; this 
 cleans off the row, and leaves it in ' 
 fine condition for planting. 
 
 " I Blrike out the furrow for planting 
 with an opener. I am very particular 
 to open the furrows as straight as , 
 possible, if on level land ; or a regu- I 
 lar curve, if on hilly or rolling land. ' 
 The sower now follows with seed in 
 an apron, and scatters them along in 
 the narrow furrow by shaking the ; 
 hand, so as to cause each seed to fall . 
 separate, if possible. This furrow be- 
 ing from one half to three quarters 
 of an inch deep, cannot be covered 
 deep, which would be an injury, seed 
 coming up with more certainty if 
 
 lightly covered, the nature of the 
 seed requiring the leaves, which are 
 folded or rolled up with the radicle, 
 or root, in the centre, to rise up be- 
 fore the plume or future stalk can 
 start. The seed is well covered. 
 
 " I prefer planting about one half 
 the cotton crop some ten days before 
 the remainder, that too much neces- 
 sary work will not be required at the 
 same time ; if a rainy spell of weath- 
 er now, or any other backset should 
 cause detention in working over the 
 first time, grass and weeds will have 
 taken such hold, that the farmer will 
 find as hard work as in fighting fire ; 
 but if only the one half be planted 
 first, the last half will not be pressing. 
 I plant upland at four feet apart be- 
 tween the rows ; 2d low ground at 
 five feet distance. Any farmer will 
 find there is very much to be gained 
 by putting his land in fine order be- 
 fore he plants ; even if a few days 
 later planting than his careless neigh- 
 bour, he will soon overtake him in 
 cleaning his crop ; besides, his crop is 
 not checked in growth ; and he would- 
 do well to so pitch his crop that his 
 corn could get one working before 
 his cotton would require it. 
 
 " Before giving you the cultivation 
 of the plant, I will describe the seed 
 that I have found to be the best, not 
 only in producing, but in gathering 
 the largest weights per hand. The 
 seed is covered with a short, perfectly 
 white furze, called Mexican ; when 
 fresh it is small, but, after being cul- 
 tivated in the United States, it be- 
 comes longer, gradually losing the 
 white fibres, or changing to a germ. 
 The Pettit Gulf seed is the same, only 
 it is careluiiy selected and kept pure 
 by the planters in the vicinity of the 
 gulf hills near Rodney, this part of 
 the Mississippi River being called 
 Pettit Gulf This cotton not only 
 produces more, but the bowls (that 
 contain the cotton and seed) open 
 out wider, and it is therefore easier 
 gathered and picked. 
 
 " Many persons, in circling their 
 
 hilly land, do it a greater injury than 
 
 in ploughing up and down the hills, 
 
 because their furrows being inclined, 
 
 195 
 
COTTON. 
 
 the water has only a longer distance 
 to flow, thus accumulating in quan- 
 tity, velocity, and force ; whereas, if 
 they were correctly run off, the wa- 
 ter should lie in tiic furrow as on 
 level land. In doing tiiis, the curve 
 should be as regular as the nature of 
 the land will permit, for the purpose 
 of admitting the ploughs to be run 
 close up to the plant, which could 
 not be if in a zigzag course. 
 
 " If the cotton seed be moistened 
 and rolled with ashes and earth, so 
 that the lint or furze be compressed, 
 the moisture of the earth being thus 
 brought directly in contact with the 
 hull or seed, it will vegetate earlier, 
 and will require less seed per acre. 
 
 " I throw up my cotton bed as flat 
 as I can to break out deep, and leave 
 the water furrow well open, thus 
 permitting the superfluous water to 
 steep from the bed, and the earth 
 to become warmer, this being ne- 
 cessary to the quick growth of the 
 plant. 
 
 " Cuhivalion. — Implements. — Scra- 
 ping cotton (it is termed shaving by 
 tobacco growers) is merely taking off 
 with a hoe the surface of the hill or 
 bed, so as to leave a clean surface ; 
 unless this be done well, whether i 
 grass or weeds be in sight or not, ! 
 there will be a quantity of them before 
 the crop can be worked over again. 
 
 " A bull-tongue plough is about four 
 inches wide, shaped somewiiat like 
 the shovel plough, and used on the 
 same stock. I use a narrow shovel 
 about six inches wide, also a shovel 
 of the usual width ; the first is used 
 v/hen the crop is young, likewise the 
 bull-tongue. The harrow is a triangu- 
 lar frame of white oak, three by four 
 stuff, with nine iron teeth, straight, 
 twelve inches long, and made of three 
 fourth inch square bars. 
 
 " The sweep is the same described 
 by Dr. Cloud, though I prefer the sem- 
 icircular shape, thus, because it is not 
 
 so liable, in striking a cotton-stalk or 
 stick, to glance off and injure the cot- 
 ton ; it should be made with cutting 
 edge level, and laid with steel, the 
 back edge raised, so that when the 
 earth falls over, it falls to pieces ; the 
 ploughman should carry a file, and be 
 required to keep the sweep sliarp. 
 
 " The double shovel is a plough with 
 two moulds ; I prefer the moulds of 
 a parallelogram shape, and twisted 
 so as to throw the earth all one way : 
 see a cut of the stocking of one in 
 vol. ii., old series, of the American 
 Farmer, for Sept. 1, 1820. 
 
 " The scraper is an implement I have 
 tried to have constructed, so as to 
 shave off the bed each side of the cot- 
 ton plant, leaving four inches or less 
 of the former surface for the hoe 
 hands to clean. I think the difficulty 
 m those formerly used was, want of 
 weight to steady them. 
 
 " Our usual scraping is after the 
 plough, then a turning plough goes 
 ahead with the bar next to the row, 
 throwing the earth from the plant to 
 the middle of the row, and in conse- 
 quence of having to run two or three 
 inches deep, we dare not run near 
 the plant, owing to the bed crumbling 
 down, and the danger of covering the 
 plant by the earth falling from the 
 plough. I am as particular in this 
 part of our labour as is possible, su- 
 perintend it in person all the day, re- 
 quiring of the hands to chop through 
 the row, leaving one or more stalks, 
 and cleaning the side of the plants 
 next to hand, then another stand, of 
 a stalk or more, and so on, thus leav- 
 ing cotton plants about the width of 
 the hoe apart ; if the same hand 
 cleans the whole row, he will come 
 back on the other side, cutting up all 
 but one stalk in each bunch, and 
 cleaning the row next him as before. 
 I usually put two on a row, the best 
 hand chops through the row on his 
 side, the other reduces to a stand a 
 single stalk, and cleans the remain- 
 ing side ; I have now really a double 
 stand, that is, twice as many stalks 
 as I design to remain, thinking it 
 prudent not to reduce to a stand, as 
 casualties and carelessness may by 
 
 196 
 
COTTON. 
 
 chance destroy a stalk or two ; and 
 being not over two or three inches 
 high, and ten to twelve inches apart, 
 they do not injure each other. When 
 I use the scraper, there is so little 
 hoe work, that each hand is required 
 to clean the row at one time by chop- 
 ping through to himself, sweeping off 
 the side of the plants, then with a 
 push of the hoe he cleans the oppo- 
 site side of the stalks, and reduces 
 to a single stalk at the same motion. 
 Our usual work is three quarters of 
 an acre per hand ; but with the scra- 
 per, and earth in the same condition, 
 from one to one and a quarter of an 
 acre is as easily done ; this is when 
 the crop is got into in due time, which 
 I make a point of doing as soon as I 
 have what I consider a full stand up, 
 never waiting for height or age of it, 
 and only wiien too cold. On referring 
 to my farm-book, I find I commence 
 reaping from fifteen to twenty days af- 
 ter sowing, owing to the season, and 
 whether earlier or later sown ; if the 
 seed be sown early, it is the longer 
 period, the earth being cool, and the 
 sun not powerful enough at this sea- 
 son to warm it. 
 
 " As soon as I can return for other 
 business, say in ten to fifteen days 
 at the outside, I throw earth to the 
 plant with the bull-tongue plough, run- 
 ning near and deep, and with any or- 
 dinary attention the plant is moulded 
 well with fine, light earth ; the soon- 
 er this can be done the better, the 
 light earth serving to protect the 
 stem of the plant, the furrow to drain 
 off moisture and loosen the earth, 
 and to give warmth. The plant be- 
 ing thus stinmlated, if the weather 
 be not too cold, will resume its green 
 colour if it has turned yellowish, and 
 commences growing ; the last half 
 of cotton requiring working, and if 
 rain falls about this time, it may not 
 be possible to get into it earlier than 
 ten days, but at all events we should 
 do so some five days before lioe 
 hands go into it to clean with the hoe. 
 The hoe follows this moulding with 
 the bull-tongue, levels the earth 
 around the pluut, and cuts up what 
 grass and weeds there may be pres- , 
 R 2 
 
 ent. This working will take us into 
 May, when our heavy rains are over, 
 and when the plant begins to grow 
 off; if I find the earth to crack or be 
 hard, I follow the hoes, in a few days, 
 with the shovel-plough ; if the plant 
 will bear it, the large shovel, if not, 
 the small one, next to the plant, and 
 break out the entire middle deep and 
 thoroughly. This is the only time I ev- 
 er plough deeper, probably, than two 
 inches after pitching my crop, and I 
 do not use the turning-plough after 
 barring off. If the earth be light and 
 mellow, I use the double shovel- 
 plough, three furrows moulding the 
 plant and sweeping the entire middle. 
 
 " At this second working I reduce 
 to a stand, leaving the stalks about 
 twenty to twenty-four inches in ordi- 
 nary land ; on the richer land, from 
 two feet to thirty or even thirty-six 
 inches. After this working I keep 
 the earth stirred with a cultivator, or 
 sweep, or double shovel, or harrow, 
 keeping the bed of the row or drill 
 free from weeds and grass, throwing 
 a little earth at each working to the 
 plant, but not enough to be called a 
 ridge. 
 
 "I give the crop as many and as 
 frequent stirrings as I am able, sel- 
 dom less than three or four, with the 
 hoe and plough each, making it a 
 pomt to keep the ploughs in advance, 
 unless an unfavourable season, when 
 the earth is rather wet to plough, or 
 grass has grown too fast ; I tlien re- 
 verse it. The object in keeping 
 ploughs and hoes several days apart 
 is to give a chance for grass to die, 
 so that what has not been killed or 
 covered by ploughs can be cut out 
 with hoes. 
 
 " I endeavour to have my land in 
 good order before planting ; plough 
 as deep as my horses can pull the 
 plough, and commence to clean my 
 crop before grass has got started, 
 and by frequent stirring keep the crop 
 entirely under my control. I have 
 tried all the plans (except Dr. Cloud's, 
 and intend to give that a trial) of 
 pkinting and cultivating cotton, and 
 think I can make as much on the 
 same land with those implements that 
 197 
 
COTTOX 
 
 merely stir the surface as others do 
 with the turning or shovel plough, 
 and can, with the same lahour, cer- 
 tainly cultivate more. I cannot per- 
 ceive that any labour will be saved 
 on the same space of land by manu- 
 ring, as the same acre will require 
 the same work ; but the plant, by be- 
 ing warmed with tlie manure, will 
 grow off faster, and if the crop can 
 be ever doubled on an acre, it will re- 
 quire only half the number of acres 
 for cultivation. 
 
 " I may err, as we all are subject 
 to error, especially in being wedded 
 to our peculiar mode of practice ; but 
 I think all practical planters will agree 
 with me that the first, and often 
 the second working of cotton, must 
 be slow and tedious, even should the 
 planting be in May. It is impossible 
 that the plant should grow off until 
 the fine roots or spongioles have 
 formed around the top roots to nour- 
 ish the plant ; in the mean time the 
 fibrous rooted plants are growing ; 
 we must therefore work early, and 
 every one who has followed hands 
 knows there is little dependance on 
 covering grass ; it must be cut up. I 
 therefore think we must scrape. 
 
 " My hoes are home-made, the 
 blade entirely steel ; I have some 
 here that have been used for the past 
 four years, and they have been used 
 for cutting down sprouts as well as 
 cutting up grass and weeds. My fore- 
 man of the crop is furnished with a 
 flat file, and is required to keep the 
 hoes sharp. 
 
 " I now sum up, commence clean- 
 ing the cotton early, clean it well, re- 
 turn as soon as possible, throw earth 
 or mould to the young plant ; if the 
 earth be hard, give a thorough plough- 
 ing ; keep the earth light and mel- 
 low, and the plants clear of grass and 
 weeds. 
 
 " Gathering and Drying. — After my 
 crop has grown so large as to meet 
 in the row, or to be injured by the 
 plough, I have the grass chopped out 
 with the hoe, especially if there has 
 been rain, for then tliere springs up 
 a grass called by the opposite names 
 of sour or saltpetre grass ; not that 
 198 
 
 I fear any injury to the crop, only as 
 furnishing more trash to get into the 
 cotton when gathering, or keeping 
 the earth wet in the mornings b): 
 dews. I forthwith prepare for gath- 
 ering cotton any leisure time, such 
 as making baskets, sacks, cleaning 
 up gin-house, &c. 
 
 " In all this country each hand has 
 a cotton sack and cotton basket for 
 picking ; the first made out of stout, 
 yard-wide Lowell goods, by cutting 
 off one and a third to one and a half 
 yards, doubling, and sewing one side 
 and end. On the open end attach a 
 strip of cotton doubled, long enougli, 
 when over the shoulder, to keep the 
 sack off the ground when standing 
 erect, this is sewed on each side, so 
 as when the right arm and head are 
 passed through, similar to the belt 
 of the bayonet or broadsword, the 
 weight rests on the left shoulder, and 
 the sack against the right hip. When 
 picking, the cotton is placed in this 
 sack until full, which will weigii from 
 fifteen to twenty pounds, and then 
 emptied into the hamper or basket, 
 placed in a central part of the day's 
 picking. This is made of young 
 white oak, some three to five or six 
 inches in diameter, growing in low 
 ground, by cutting of!" a piece about 
 seven leet long, quartering, and then 
 splitting into splits about three quar- 
 ters to an inch wide, and as thick as 
 a case-knife blade, and ribs somewhat 
 thicker. Take, according to size of 
 basket wanted, some 
 fifteen to twenty-two or 
 twenty-three of these 
 ribs, and lay them on 
 the ground crossing 
 each other thus, and 
 commence weaving in the splits as 
 near to the central point as possible, 
 by fastening to the bottom rib first, 
 running over and under until all 
 round ; insert an odd rib, for fifteen 
 or twenty will give an even number 
 of ribs, each long one making, in fact, 
 two, and, if an even number, the 
 splits will round all alike ; but by hav- 
 ing an odd one, the rib that was out- 
 side comes next inside, &c. After 
 the bottom is filled up the size want- 
 
COTTON. 
 
 cd, double the ribs over on tlie bot- 
 tom, press on them with the foot all 
 round until they will assume, more 
 or less, an erect position, then con- 
 tinue around until the proper heigiit. 
 Now double down the rib so as to en- 
 close the last split, and run the end 
 down into splits, so as to make fast. 
 Get out now two pieces of the white 
 oak, about one tiiird of an inch thick, 
 take off the corners with a drawing 
 knife, put one on the inside, the oth- 
 er outside of the last split around the 
 top of the basket, and wrap it well 
 with thin, narrow splits, over and un- 
 der the last split. This basket should 
 do for two seasons ; the bottom of 
 iiiy largest is about twenty-seven 
 inches across, and about two feet 
 liigh, will hold about 150 pounds of 
 cotton, or three bushels of shelled 
 corn in the ear. 
 
 "The next thing is cotton-scaffolds 
 for sunning the cotton ; I only use 
 the shed attached to my gin-house, 
 sixty-two feet lonir and twelve wide. 
 Tiie best made use of by our neatest 
 planters are made of plank, attached 
 with hinges (like a folding-leaf table 
 reversed), and resting on a frame- 
 work, so that at night, or a rain threat- 
 ening, the leaves can be folded up 
 and shelter the cotton. The first of 
 these was described to me ten years 
 ago by the late Mr. William Bacon, 
 who was at that time the most sys- 
 tematic cotton planter 1 knew, a Nor- 
 therner. Other kinds of scaffolds are 
 made by cutting cane about five to 
 six feet long, and weaving together 
 with linn bark, of a tree called here 
 linn or wahoo, and laid cro&swise on 
 stakes and poles. Others split out 
 boards. 
 
 " The gin-house now undergoes a 
 rigid examination. The gin-stand 
 should be sent off to the gin-wright, 
 if necessary ; the band be put in or- 
 der, which should have been well 
 greased and hung up out of the way 
 in the winter ; the running gear train- 
 ed, plummed. and levelled, and the 
 house again thoroughly cleaned out, 
 as it is presumed it was done when 
 the last season's ginning was done. 
 I use a sixty-saw ginstand ; a light 
 
 draught for four mules, the runnintr 
 gear being Pliiladelphia castings fur 
 a twelve-foot wheel, fastened to a 
 wooden wheel by bolts and nuts. I 
 could give you a minute description 
 of number of cogs in wheel, and in 
 spur or trundle-head, size of band- 
 wheel, and speed of the saws ; but, 
 as I purpose to make an examination 
 into tliis matter the ensuing month 
 among my intelligent brethren in the 
 soutliwest part of this state, I will 
 postpone and communicate to you 
 hereafter in the East. 
 
 " To make fine cotton, there is cer- 
 tainly much depending on the gin- 
 stand, the speed, &c., in aid of which 
 there are a variety of improvements, 
 as the flue, false grates, and a thrash- 
 er, thougli of these hereafter ; for the 
 present, I think the flue will entirely 
 supersede all others. As I think of 
 concluding with my last article, and 
 have yet only given you two pages, I 
 will offer some views I have on the 
 handling of cotton, though their cor- 
 rectness is questioned by many ; 
 yet, as account sales are ' stubborn 
 things,' I may be allowed to hold on 
 until there is a demonstration to the 
 contrary. 
 
 " Cotton should be gathered from 
 the field as clean as possible, taken 
 to the scaffolds, and dried until the 
 seed will crack when pressed be- 
 tween the teeth, not crush or mash, 
 but crack with some noise. It 
 should be frequently turned over and 
 stirred (all the trash and rotten pods 
 taken out while this is being done), 
 so as to ensure its drying earlier. 
 
 " If seeds are wanted for planting, 
 gin the cotton immediately, and 
 spread the seed over the floor some 
 five inches thick, until perfectly dry. 
 If the cotton seed be not wanted, 
 pack the seed cotton away into the 
 house, to remain until a gentle heat 
 is discovered, or until sufficient for 
 ginning ; after it has heated until a 
 feeling of warmth to the hand, and it 
 looks as if pressed together, open out 
 and scatter to cool. This cotton will 
 gin faster, have a softer feel, is not 
 so iirittle, therefore not so liable to 
 break by rapidity of gin, and has a 
 199 
 
COTTO.X. 
 
 creamy colour ; the wool has im- 
 bibed a part of the oil that has ex- 
 uded by the warmth of seed, and 
 is, in fact, restored to the original 
 colour ; for the oil being vegetable, 
 it is dissipated by sun and air, and 
 the colour by moisture (of rain and 
 dews) and light. 1 have known of a 
 number of sales made of this descrip- 
 tion of cotton, and even those who 
 are most strenuous against the heat- 
 ing admit it bore a better price. No 
 one supposes if cotton be put up wet, 
 dirty, trashy, with rotton pods, that 
 it is benefited. Having all things 
 ready for picking cotton, I com- 
 mence, as usual, early, as soon as 
 the hands can gather even twenty 
 pounds each. This is advisable, not 
 only in saving a portion of that from 
 being destroyed if rains should fall, 
 which often do at this season (about 
 the middle of August), but for anoth- 
 er reason : passing through the cotton 
 has a tendency to open out to sun 
 and air the limbs that have interlock- 
 ed across the rows, and hastens the 
 early opening. On low grounds, es- 
 pecially, much loss is incurred in 
 some seasons from the want of the 
 sun to cause an expansion of the 
 fibre within the bowl, so as to cause 
 it to open. The bowl is composed 
 of five divisions, in each of which 
 there is a parcel of cotton wool sur- 
 rounding each seed, there being sev- 
 eral in each loch of cotton. When 
 green, these fibres lie close to the 
 seed, and as it ripens, the fibres be- 
 come elastic, the bowl becoming hard 
 and brownish. The Sea Island has 
 only three divisions, as also the Egyp- 
 tian, which is only the Sea Island of 
 the best variety, with black seed, 
 smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres 
 on the small end ; they are both from 
 Pernambuco. Some of the cotton 
 we plant has only four divisions, but 
 I think five generally. 
 
 " There is a peculiar art in gathering 
 the cotton from the iiowl, which, like 
 handling stock, can only be acquired 
 by practice ; many gather equally fast 
 with either hand. The left hand 
 seizes the stem near the open bowl, 
 or the bowl between the two mid- 
 200 
 
 die finger.', the palm of the ham 
 up ; the fingers of the right hand are 
 inserted tolerably low down in the 
 bowl, a finger on each lock of cotton ; 
 then, as the fingers grasp it, there is 
 a slight twisting motion, and a quick 
 pull, which, if done well, will extract 
 the contents, the bowl being open, 
 and the bottom of the locks not gum- 
 my to adhere. There is a vast difler- 
 ence in hands, not the quickest ma- 
 king the best pickers ; a steady, clock- 
 like motion, with some quickness, is 
 necessary to gather fast. A neigh- 
 bour of mine, when a young man, 
 some ten years since, gathered 400 
 lbs., which was at that time the best 
 I had known ; this has been beaten 
 since, by aiding the hand in emptying 
 his sacks, and almost feeding and 
 watering him while at work. 
 
 " After weighing, if the weather be 
 fair, the cotton is consigned to the 
 scaffold, to the care of those who pick 
 out what trash and rotten parts are 
 left. After being dried as said, it is 
 taken into the upper part of the house, 
 and placed over the gin-stand, ready 
 to be turned into the hopper that leads 
 from this place to the gin-stand. My 
 gin-house is 32 by 62, framed, with 
 two floors. Below the first floor is 
 the running gear, where the horses 
 work ; in the second story we weigh ; 
 on a level is the shed lor sunning, 
 fronting the south, in which is the 
 gin-stand at one end, at the other the 
 press. In the garret is carried the 
 seed ; cotton over the gin-stand, and 
 the ginned cotton over the press. 
 
 "I never pick cotton if wet with 
 rain, but attend to other matters. 
 When the weather is good, I strive to 
 keep every one busy that can gather 
 anything like even a half hand's work. 
 All go out after daylight, but not long, 
 I assure you. 
 
 "When I commence ginning, there 
 is a small boy to drive each team, 
 there being four horses or mules, to 
 work in pairs ; one hand at the gin- 
 stand, who is kept pretty busy in put- 
 ting the seed-cotton on to the saws ; 
 another hand is retiuired to push the 
 cotton back from the flue of the gin- 
 i stand, rake cotton into the hopper, 
 
COTTON. 
 
 and clear out seed and motes after 
 the gin drops them. With my gin- 
 stand, I have myself ginned lour bales 
 per day, and averaged over three bales 
 for a week together ; but it requires 
 constant attention. Though the la- 
 bour is light, yet it requires a good 
 hand to perform it. There is much 
 loss-work in this business ; frequent- 
 ly a part of the saws are running 
 tiirough seed, while others are almost 
 choked ; again, the roll is not full ; 
 again too full. In this way my gin- 
 ner, though an excellent servant, and 
 named after Cyrus of yore, is some- 
 times busy ginning out two bales, or 
 even less per day, while I, though 
 naturally lazy, and not disposed to 
 thwart nature in that prerogative, 
 never gin under three bales. The 
 plan is to keep the team steady, and 
 shake the cotton regularly over the 
 roll, so as to keep the roll regularly 
 full. I call the roll the cotton in the 
 gin-stand that is turned over and over 
 by the motion of the saws, from which 
 the saws pull off the article known in 
 commerce as cotton. 
 
 " The next and last thing is haling, 
 which I do by cutting off several pie- 
 ces from a bolt of bagging, about 4 
 feet 6 to 8 inches long, the length of 
 the bale being 4 feet 6 inches ; I then 
 cut out the bed-cloth, so as to have 
 the heading of each end on it, with- 
 out wasting, which is done by split- 
 ting the first end long enough for 
 head, say 2 feet 9 inches to 3 feet, 
 and cut off one piece ; then measure 
 the length of the bale, cut half across, 
 and split the same distance as their 
 end, and cut one end from the bolt 
 (leaving one half attached to the 
 bolt), so as to have both heads on the 
 same side of the cloth, thus : I then 
 
 L 
 
 split in two one of the first-named 
 pieces, and sew on to the side from a 
 to b ; this gives the bed-cloth ; the 
 two pieces each side of the long mid- 
 dle piece, when cotton is pressed 
 down, serve as half the sides of the 
 bale ; the first-named cloth being pla- 
 
 ced on top of the cotton before press- 
 ing, and turned down, is met by these 
 half sides, and, when sewed up, cov- 
 ers the bale ; the bed-cloth is laid 
 smooth and even on the bed-block, 
 and the doors of the press fastened 
 over it, when the press is full ; one 
 of the first cloths cut, called top-cloth, 
 is stretched under follower and on 
 cotton. My press is a single- screw, 
 inside press ; the horse walking ad- 
 joining to the walk of the teams work- 
 ing the running-gear of the gin-stand. 
 The bale is pressed above them on 
 the first floor, and the cotton is put 
 in the press on the upper floor. Four 
 hands, or, rather, three hands and a 
 youngster do the pressing, two get- 
 ting in the box and tramping the cot- 
 ton down, while the youngster throws 
 in the cotton, and the fourth sews in 
 the head, and prepares a bed-cloth. 
 We press 9 to 10 bales a day, aver- 
 aging generally 425 lbs., preferring 
 about tliat weight to any other. 
 
 " After running the press down, one 
 hand is employed in tying, while the 
 two others wind up the rope on a 
 windlass, to make it tight round the 
 bale, having grooves in the bed-block 
 and follower large enough for rope 
 to pass through easily ; one hand has 
 a needle three feet long, either of 
 white oak or iron wire, through the 
 eye of which is passed a piece of 
 twine, the ends tied together ; a loop 
 is formed, the rope passed through, 
 and made fast ; the needle is then 
 passed through the upper groove by 
 one hand, another pulls through the 
 opposite side ; he then returns it be- 
 low ; the hand that ties pulls through, 
 releases the twine, makes a knot in 
 the end of the rope, passes it over 
 the rope attached to the coil, and 
 makes a single knot ; the long end 
 then is passed over a pin in the shaft 
 to which the windlass is attached, 
 then this is turned over and over un- 
 til tight, the rope cut, and passed un- 
 der the rope on the bale, sometimes 
 tied, as if knitting a line on to a fish- 
 ing-hook, and so on until the ropes 
 are all tied. Mine are eight in num- 
 ber ; seven, however, are an abun- 
 dance." 
 
 SOI 
 
COTTON. 
 
 Some planters top the cotton in 1 cases, one extreme produced another. 
 
 August. 
 
 CultivMtion of Sea- Island. — The fol- 
 lowing is by Mr. Spalding, of Sapelo, 
 from the American Agriculturist : 
 
 " The Sea-Island cotton was intro- 
 duced into Georgia from the Baha- 
 mas ; the seed was from a small isl- 
 and near St. Domingo, known as Ar- 
 guilla, then producing the best cotton 
 of the Western world. It in no way 
 resembles the Brazil cotton, which 
 is the kidney-seed kind, introduced 
 some years later, and which, after 
 trial, was rejected in Georgia. This 
 seed came in small parcels from the 
 Bahamas in the winter of 1785. It 
 gradually and slowly made its way 
 along the coast of Georgia, and pass- 
 ed into Carolina, from the year 1790 
 to 1792. The winter of 178G in 
 Georgia was a mild one, and al- 
 though the plants of the Sea-Island 
 cotton that year had not ripened their 
 seed — it being a perennial, and sub- 
 ject only to be killed by frost — it start- 
 ed the next season (1787) from the 
 roots of the previous year, its seed 
 ripened, and the plants became accli- 
 mated. Many changes have come 
 over this seed since that time, from 
 difference of soil, of culture, and lo- 
 cal position ; and, above all,^ from 
 careful selection of seed. But it re- 
 quires to be discovered that what is 
 gained in fineness of wool is lost in 
 the quality and weight of the prod- 
 uct ; for, in spite of a zeal and intel- 
 ligence brought to act upon the sub- 
 ject without parallel, the crops are 
 yearly diminishing, until to grow Sea- 
 Island cotton is one of the most prof- 
 itless pursuits within the limits of 
 the United States. 
 
 "The Culture. — When the Sea- 
 Island cotton seed was introduced in 
 1786, it was planted in hills prepared 
 upon the level field, at five feet each 
 way ; but it was soon learned that 
 of all plants that grow, it is, in its 
 first vegetation and early stage, the 
 most tender, liable to sutler by storms, 
 by wind, by drought, and by excess 
 of rain. The quantity of seed was 
 therefore increased, and the plants 
 multiplied, until, as in most other 
 208 
 
 For many years, however, among 
 experienced planters, the course is 
 to divide their enclosed fields into 
 two portions, the one at rest, the 
 other in culture. 
 
 " Preparing the Land for the Crop. 
 — Early in February, any hands not 
 engaged in preparing the previous 
 crop for market are employed in 
 cleaning up the rested fields, and 
 either in burning off the fennel weeds 
 and grass of the previous year, or in 
 listing them in at five feet apart, to 
 serve as the base of the future ridg- 
 es or bed. There is much difference 
 of opinion upon the subject of burn- 
 ing or listing in ; for myself, I am in- 
 clined to take the first opinion, be- 
 lieving that the light dressing of 
 ashes the field receives from burning 
 of!" is more beneficial to the soil than 
 the decay of the vegetable matter, 
 and renders it less liable to produce 
 what is a growing evil, the rust, a 
 species of blight much resembling 
 the rust or blight upon wheat, and 
 which takes place about the same 
 period, just as the plant is putting 
 out and preparing to ripen its fruit. 
 
 " Ridging. — The land being listed 
 in short lines across the entire field, 
 at five feet apart, the operation of 
 ridging is commenced about the first 
 of March. The ridges occupy the 
 entire surface ; that is, the foot of 
 one ridge commencing where the 
 other ridge ends, and rising about 
 eight inches above the natural level 
 of the land, thus presenting a sur- 
 face almost as smooth, and almost as 
 deeply worked as a garden-bed. This 
 ridging is carried on but a few days 
 ahead of the planting. The ridge, if 
 the operation has been carefully done, 
 is fiom two to two and a half feet 
 broad at top ; it is then trenched on 
 the upper surface with the hoe, six 
 inches wide, and from three to six 
 inches deep, depending upon the pe- 
 riod of planting. 
 
 "Planting. — In the beginning, if 
 the seed is covered more than two 
 inches, the soil will not feel the in- 
 fluence of the sun, and the seed will 
 not vegetate later; that is, in April, 
 
COTTON. 
 
 up 10 the first of May, you must give I 
 from three to four inches of covering 
 to preserve the moisture, or there, 
 too, you fail from an opposite cause, 
 the wind and burnin5 influence of 
 the sun drying' the soil too much for 
 vegetation. In most countries, after 
 sowing the seed the roller is applied ; 
 but in cotton planting, in our ridge 
 liusbandry, the foot, in covering the 
 seed and pressing down the earth, 
 well supplies its place. 
 
 " Quantity of Seed per Acre. — A 
 bushel of seed is generally sown to the 
 acre ; I believe half a bushel is bet- 
 ter ; for where the evil comes, wheth- 
 er the worm, or wind, or drought, or 
 wet, there is no security in the many ; 
 but, on the contrary, where they 
 come up thin, they soon grow out of 
 the way of injury from any enemy. 
 
 "After Culture. — The cultivation 
 of Sea-Island cotton is carried on by 
 the hand hoe, and the quantity al- 
 ways limited to four acres to the la- 
 bourer. The operation of weeding 
 commences as soon as we finish 
 planting, because, in our flat and 
 sandy soils, the grass seed springs 
 with the first growth of the cotton, 
 and by the time we finish planting, 
 say the first of May, what we plant- 
 ed in March requires the hoe. The 
 land is kept in the operation of hoe- 
 ing and weeding, as far as may be, 
 at its original level, the beds neither 
 increased nor diminished, that rains, 
 which generally fall with beating 
 power and in redundant quantity in 
 the month of August, may as little 
 as possible injure the growing plants, 
 which are then in full bearing. The 
 young cotton is thinned out slowly 
 at from six to twelve inches apart on 
 the ridge by the 10th of .June. As 
 soon as the rains commence, which 
 is about the last of July, it is wise to 
 leave nature to lierseif and no longer 
 disturb the soil ; four lioeings, if well 
 done, and the grass well picked at 
 each hoeing, is enough, nor does any 
 after-growth of grass do injury. 
 
 " .\Ianuies and Soiling Stock. — For 
 ten years past great efforts have been 
 made by the Sea-I.<land planters in 
 manuring. Much of the alluvion of 
 
 our salt ri%'ers has been collected, 
 and sometimes placed directly in 
 heaps through the fields at rest, at 
 other times placed in cattle pens, on 
 which cotton seed and all waste ma- 
 terials are strewn, and the cattle 
 pounded upon it. But what is pre- 
 ferred is to pen our cattle near the 
 river at night, and cut salt grass, 
 which covers these alluvion lands, 
 and which is as nutritious as so much 
 clover. Many planters now employ 
 labimrers to cut the grass for horses 
 and cattle from the first of May till 
 the last of November ; the task re- 
 quired is generally a cord of grass to 
 the hand, and this quantity will an- 
 swer tor ten horses, or fifteen head 
 of cattle, for the night. Benefit has 
 resulted from this course in the ratio 
 of the extent to which it has been 
 persevered in. The last year, Mr. 
 Ruffin discovered that all South Car- 
 olina was underlayed by shell marl, 
 at various depths : from my own ob- 
 servation, and inquiries from others, 
 I find the same thing exists in Geor- 
 gia. Great benefits will result from 
 this, I have no doubt, hereafter, de- 
 pending much upon the discretion 
 that is used in the quantity applied, 
 which had better be too little, I think, 
 than too much. 
 
 " Amount of Crop per Acre, and 
 Picking. — It has been stated already 
 that five liundred pounds to the acre 
 are about the medium crop, which, at 
 twenty cents per pound (more than 
 the actual price for the last three 
 years), is to the planter 8100 for gross 
 crop ; and from this hundred dollars 
 is to be subtracted bagging, freight, 
 expenses of sale, clothing for his peo- 
 ple, medical attention, and too ol'ten 
 provisions. Is this man to be envied ! 
 
 '•In picking the Sea-Island cotton 
 
 from the field, the same disproportion 
 
 exist.-i with his interior brethren as 
 
 in the other operations on the crop. 
 
 From the exposure to sea-wind, and 
 
 I the necessity of guarding against ev- 
 
 : ery possible injury to the staple, the 
 
 ; fields have to be picked over every 
 
 two weeks, commencing in August 
 
 ' and ending in December ; so that 
 
 i few planters receive from their peo- 
 
 203 
 
COTTON. 
 
 pie more than twenty-five pounds of 
 cotton per day during the picking 
 season. 
 
 " Preparation for ihe Market. — The 
 Sea-Island cotton is now almost ex- 
 clusively separated from its seed by 
 the foot-gin: two wooden rollers, 
 placed the one over the other in a 
 frame. The rollers are one inch in 
 diameter, about a foot long, and are 
 inserted in an iron journal supported 
 by the frame ; upon this journal a 
 fly-wheel thirty inches in diameter is 
 placed ; the journal, after passing 
 through the fly-wheel, has a crank, 
 to which the treadle worked by the 
 foot is attached : the fly-wheel is to 
 give a circular motion by the tread 
 of the foot. This gin generally sep- 
 arates twenty-five pounds of cotton 
 per day to one hand. The whole la- 
 bour of preparing a bag of three hun- 
 dred pounds of cotton, in sorting the 
 cotton for the gin, in ginning, and in 
 moting after the gin, in again exam- 
 ining it, and in packing, my friend 
 Mr. Seabrook, of South Carolina, puts 
 down at fifty-four days' work. I 
 have estimated it at sixty. Thus a 
 bale of cotton worth §60 has cost, 
 after the cotton has been gathered 
 into the house, sixty days' labour. 
 
 " Locality of Sea-Island Cotton, Ori- 
 ginal Growth of the hands, and Abori- 
 gines. — The Sea-Island cotton of the 
 best quality is grown upon islands 
 bounded by the sea on one side, and 
 to the west by salt rivers and salt 
 marsh. These islands extend from 
 Charleston, in South Carolina, to the 
 River St. John's, in Florida, including 
 the whole coast of Georgia. This 
 space may be considered two hun- 
 dred and fifty miles, between wliich 
 points there is a safe navigation for 
 open boats, and for dragging vessels 
 of one hundred tons' capacity. These 
 islands were originally almost exclu- 
 sively covered with live oak, and from 
 them the navy of the United States 
 has been entirely built. These live 
 oak groves once swarmed w ith Indian 
 tribes, who communed with Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh and General Oglethorpe 
 with confidence and friendship. Ev- 
 erywhere you find barrens scattered 
 204 
 
 through the cotton fields, constructed 
 exclusively of oyster sliells. Indian 
 bones and Indian pottery, and other 
 remains, tell distinctly here, in ages 
 passed, that the red man lived and 
 died. 
 
 " Healthiness of Climate. — Volney, 
 in his American tour, says that 'the 
 climate of this coast is the best in 
 the United States, from Rhode Isl- 
 and south,' and this my own expe- 
 rience confirms ; carrying more men 
 into old age than any other I know 
 of Here, too, has been little change 
 of inhabitants for one hundred years 
 past, the son clinging to the home of 
 his childhood and to the grave of his 
 father." 
 
 The Gin and Wkippcr are concisely 
 described by Mr. Spalding. 
 
 '• The whipper, which is a very ne- 
 cessary instrument in the well pre- 
 paring of cotton, is made of wood, is 
 a long barrel composed of slats or 
 reeds (or it would be better made of 
 wire) six or eight feet in length, and 
 two feet in diameter, with one end 
 closed and the other open, and is sup- 
 ported at the two ends by feet of dif- 
 ferent lengths, so that the barrel, in 
 its horizontal position, declines al)out 
 one foot at the lower end ; a hopper 
 containing about a bushel rests upon 
 the upper side of the barrel, at the 
 upper enclosed end of it. This hop- 
 per lets the cotton that is to be clean- 
 ed fall into the barrel, through v.-hich 
 runs in its whole length a shaft, 
 which is turned by the hand by a 
 crank attached to the shaft at one 
 end. This shaft is intersected by 
 rods which reach to within an inch 
 of the barrel. The cotton, as it falls 
 from the hopper, is whirled round by 
 these rods until it escapes at the low- 
 er end of the barrel, by which time 
 any sand, or dirt, or leaves, or other 
 matter attached to the cotton has es- 
 caped through the spaces intention- 
 ally left between the slats or reeds, 
 which constitute the external rim of 
 this barrel or whipper. This whip- 
 ping was formerly performed as well 
 upon the cotton in the seed as after 
 it was separated from the seed ; but 
 the second operation of the whipper 
 
COTTON. 
 
 has lately been discontinued under a 
 belief that it produced a stringy ap- 
 pearance in the cotton wool. 
 
 " The whipping of cotton at its first 
 gathering, and while attached to the 
 seed, is really beneficial, and should 
 never be omitted. When these op- 
 erations are completed, the harvest 
 may be considered as closed, and the 
 preparation of the cotton for market 
 really begins. Many machines have 
 been designed, and many forms of 
 the same machine adopted, for sep- 
 arating the seed from the Sea-Island 
 cotton, but all of them at last resolve 
 themselves into two wooden rollers 
 turning by opposite movements upon 
 each other. The rollers are from 
 half an inch to an inch in diameter, 
 and revolve from 100 to 500 times 
 in a minute ; the whole resolving 
 itself mto this simple rule, that the 
 smaller the rollers, and the slower 
 they revolve, the cleaner will be the 
 cotton separated from the seed, be- 
 cause, if the rollers are an inch in di- 
 ameter, and, above all, if they revolve 
 with a high velocity, they will take 
 in soft seeds, small seeds, and false 
 seeds, or motes, as they are called, 
 and in crushing them in their passage 
 through the rollers will stain and in- 
 jure the cotton in its appearance. 
 
 " Much money has been spent upon 
 costly machines propelled by horses, 
 by water, or by wind, first in the Ba- 
 hama Islands, and for many years in 
 Georgia and Carolina, but, at last, 
 most of the growers of Sea-Island 
 cotton have returned to their first 
 and most simple machine, to wit, two 
 wooden rollers, kept together by a 
 wooden frame and a square shaft, 
 upon which is fixed a wooden or iron 
 fly-wheel from two to three feet in 
 diameter. The iron cranks which 
 turn the rollers are connected by 
 strips of wood, with a treadle work- 
 ed by the foot ; this treadle runs un- 
 der the machine, and is connected at 
 the farther end of the floor of the 
 house by sockets, within which it re- 
 volves ; the man stands, therefore, 
 in the front of the rollers, with a 
 board between him and the roUers, 
 upon which he holds a large handful 
 
 of seed of cotton, which he presents 
 from time to time to the rollers that 
 are kept in motion by the pressure of 
 the foot upon the treadle ; this la- 
 bour, from habit, becomes easy, as 
 the feet are often changed in the op- 
 eration. The task expected from 
 the labourer with the machine (which 
 costs, when new and complete, ten 
 American dollars) is from twenty-five 
 to thirty pounds per day. Women, 
 from their careful attention in keep- 
 ing the rollers, while ihey revolve 
 upon each other, well supplied with 
 seed cotton, were unquestionably the 
 best ginners, as they are called from 
 the term gin applied to the machine ; 
 but in process of time it began to be 
 believed that the continued motion of 
 the feet produced a relaxed system 
 in women, which was likely to lead, 
 in the end, to abortion or miscar- 
 riage : men have, consequently, been 
 substituted for this work, one which, 
 being within doors, and exercising 
 both hands and feet without very 
 much labour, is preferred by them to 
 any other in the winter. To prepare 
 I the cotton for this ginning, or separa- 
 i tion from the seed, when taken from 
 , the house where it was put from the 
 , field, it is carefully looked over and 
 I separated, or sorted, as it is called ; 
 , the yellow cotton, the motes, any 
 hard cotton that may have passed 
 , through the whipper, are separated 
 from the white ; this is a work of 
 care and attention, and the future 
 [ appearance of the cotton much de- 
 pends upon the manner in which the 
 , work is done. Women are employ- 
 ed in this operation seated upon 
 benches, with tables before them ; the 
 seed cotton is spread in small par- 
 ; eels, taken out of one basket, exam- 
 ined, and turned over to another, into 
 j which the person puts the entire of 
 i her day's labour. The quantity re- 
 quired to be thus examined and 
 cleaned in the day by each one is 
 from sixty to one hundred pounds, 
 j according to the care bestowed upon 
 ! the cotton by the grower ; after this 
 ! sorting it is exposed lightly and short- 
 ' ly to the sun, that it may take off 
 I any dampness the cotton may have 
 205 
 
COTTON. 
 
 acquired in the house ; it is then 
 passed from this drying immediately 
 to the gin, or machine that separates 
 the seed from the wool ; after going 
 through the gin, and being separated 
 from the seed, it is again turned over 
 to the women, who are generally in 
 a large room, well lighted with glass 
 windows. They sit with small ta- 
 bles before them, made either witli 
 open slats, reeds, or wire, when any 
 crushed seeds, and cotton burned or 
 blackened by the former machine, or 
 motes that have escaped the former 
 searches, are removed ; and to have 
 this work well done, thirty pounds is 
 all that is required per day from each 
 woman. After this third operation 
 it is considered ready to be bagged 
 for market. 
 
 " As soon as the attention of the 
 Southern States was called to the 
 profitable cultivation of cotton by a 
 few persons along the shores of Geor- 
 gia and Carolina, the cultivation be- 
 gan to be extended into the interior. 
 The small quantity of cotton that had 
 been grown for domestic uses was 
 exchanged for larger quantities, to 
 be prepared for sale. But the great 
 difficulty to be overcome in the prog- 
 ress to extension was to find out any 
 instrument by wliich the cotton wool 
 could be separated from the seed. 
 
 "By this time various machines 
 had been introduced for ginning the 
 Sea-Island cotton, but all of them end- 
 ed at last in two rollers revolving 
 upon each other, either longer or 
 shorter, and moving with, some more, 
 some less velocity. Those rollers 
 were but badly adapted to the hairy 
 cotton, or second variety, which soon 
 began to obtain the preference, in the 
 interior of Georgia and South Caro- 
 lina, over the first or smooth-leaved 
 variety, and merited to obtain that 
 preference, as giving, when separa- 
 ted from its downy seed, a finer and 
 stronger, although shorter fibre, and 
 as perfecting its fruit sooner, but 
 which it was almost impossible to 
 separate with the rollers, because the 
 down or fur upon the seed retained 
 the seed hanging upon the roller, and 
 denied admission to the rollers of the 
 20G 
 
 fresh cotton in the seed that was of- 
 fered. Many plans were suggested, 
 many substitutes for the rollers de- 
 signed. All succeeded in part, but 
 still they went on slow. Something 
 was desired to do much in a short 
 time ; something that was strong 
 enough to travel about without being 
 broken to pieces, and light enough to 
 move with its moving master. At 
 last such a thing was found in Miller 
 and Whitney's gin, probably not the 
 best machine that could have been 
 designed, but so operative to its end, 
 so efficient to its purpose, that it toolc 
 possession of the whole ground. 
 From thence forward no other ma- 
 chine was sought for, and Miller and 
 Whitney's gin is employed to separ- 
 ate the cotton seed from Virginia to 
 Louisiana, save where the roller gin 
 is used, and its use is now altogether 
 confined to the Sea -Island cotton, 
 whose superior value is supposed to 
 warrant the great increase of labour 
 necessary in that mode of ginning. 
 Miller and Whitney's gin was design- 
 ed by Mr. Whitney, and executed at 
 the plantation of Mr. Miller, sixteen 
 miles above Savannah, about the year 
 1795, and it seems to be derived from 
 two machines already used upon cot- 
 ton, a kind of cylindrical whipper, and 
 the circular cards, before that time 
 introduced in manufacturing cotton, 
 a wooden shaft or roller enclosed 
 within a wooden box. This roller or 
 shaft has, at every inch of its length, 
 a steel blade or saw about a foot in 
 diameter ; above these saws is a box 
 containing the cotton in the seed. 
 The box has the bottom of metal slits, 
 through which the saws pass about 
 an inch, and pulling off the cotton, 
 but sometimes cutting the fibres as 
 it passes. This revolving of the saws 
 carries the cotton in the box gradual- 
 ly round, until the seeds contained in 
 the box are freed of the wool attach- 
 ed to them, when it is emptied of the 
 seed and refilled with fresh cotton : 
 it too often leaves sonne of the fibre 
 behind it, which diminishes the quan- 
 tity as well as injures the quality, so 
 much so that the estimated difference 
 of the products in these two modes of 
 
COT 
 
 COT 
 
 ginning are, with rollers, 300 pounds 
 to the 1000, and 250 pounds to the 
 1000 with Miller and Whitney's gin. 
 This gin having, at last, given a cheap 
 and expeditious mode of taking tlie 
 wool from the hairy American cotton 
 (for a gin that costs ten pounds ster- 
 ling will clean a bale a day with a 
 single horse acting upon the gin, with 
 a band wheel which any man can 
 make lor himself), the cultivation of 
 this description of cotton diverged in 
 all directions around Georgia as the 
 common centre ; it went north into 
 the two Carolinas ; it went west into 
 the hill country of all the Southern 
 States ; it was found capable of ad- 
 justing itself to the soil and climate 
 of the mterior country, which the An- 
 guiUa cotton had not been adapted 
 to; still the fibre of the hairy or short 
 staple cotton is better near the sea 
 than in the interior." 
 
 Diseases of the Plant. — AVet soils 
 are peculiarly injurious, producing 
 rot and rust. 
 
 The rot commences with a black or 
 brown spot on the bowl, which, in- 
 creasing, produces a putrefaction of 
 the whole. It is thougtit to be a fun- 
 gus, and to prevail in old varieties 
 during rainy seasons. 
 
 Rust is a disease of the leaves and 
 stalk. Spots or blotches of a brown 
 colour appear, which cause the parts 
 to dry up and almost crumble away. 
 It is produced by the Urcdo gossypit, 
 according to Dr. Leitner. 
 
 The sore shin is a disease of very 
 young plants in Upper Mississippi, by 
 •which the stems are very much inju- 
 red. 
 
 The louse, or Aphis, is often very 
 destructive ; sprinkling with slacked 
 lime and topping would be serviceable. 
 
 The green caterpillar eats into the 
 bowl, destroying the staple. 
 
 The army worm is another very de- 
 structive insect, of a brown colour 
 striped with white, and devouring the 
 leaves. 
 
 The cotton crop is rendered by 
 these causes very uncertain, and pe- 
 culiarly liable to destruction during 
 wet weather. The introduction of 
 liming is perhaps the best prevent- 
 
 ive, but the large worms can only be 
 destroyed by burning up the bowls or 
 plants infested, so as to iiitidcr the 
 propagation of the creatures. Not- 
 withstanding all these enemies, two 
 million bales were raised in 1S44. 
 
 COTTON SEED. The seeds 
 abound in a mild oil, and are very 
 nutritious. A bushel weighs thirty 
 pounds, and }ields two and one third 
 quarts of oil and twelve and a half 
 pounds fine meal. They are used as 
 food. in the Levant and East. The 
 proportion of oil is great, and readily 
 obtained by pressure ; the cake can 
 afterward be used with success in 
 fattening, and as a manure for new- 
 crops. To some extent, the whole 
 seed is used for cows and fattening 
 in the South, and is said to afford 
 well-flavoured milk. 
 
 COTTON, SPECIAL MANURES. 
 The application of calcareous marls 
 in South Carolina has revived worn 
 lands ; salt, also, in moderate quanti- 
 ties, improves the culture, but bone 
 earth will be the most serviceable. 
 Rich lands, or those well manured, 
 yield the heaviest supplies. By Dr. 
 "Shephard's analysis cotton wool con- 
 tains one percent., and the seed 3 85 
 per cent, of ashes thus constituted • 
 
 Wool. Seed. 
 
 Lime and Magnesia 
 Potash and (Soda?) 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 30-31 — 2y-79 
 
 3109 — 19 40 
 
 12-30 — 45 35 
 
 1-22 — 116 
 
 64-92 93-TO 
 
 COTTON DYEING. Cotton and 
 linen have nearly the same affinity 
 for dyes, and will be introduced to- 
 gether here. Having been bleached, 
 the first step is to prepare them to 
 receive a good stain. Few colours 
 unite at once to form a permanent 
 dye, and madder fret with oil is the 
 
 '■ most permanent. There are five 
 
 ' methods by which cloths are prepa- 
 
 1 red to retain colours. 
 
 1st. Galling. — Gall nuts or sumach, 
 or a mixture, is prepared for this pur- 
 pose. Two or three ounces of galls 
 
 I to one pound of cotton are coarsely 
 powdered, put into a copper contaiu- 
 
 , ing thirty gallons of water for one 
 hundred pounds of cotton, and boiled 
 
 ! until the pieces of gall nut feel pasty. 
 207 
 
COT 
 
 COT 
 
 The fire is removed, and the liquor I 
 passed through a hnir sieve -when 
 mudpratcly cool. A jiortion of the h- 
 quor is tlien drawn into a baih, the 
 yarn or cloth well soal<cd, wrung or 
 pressed out, and spread to dry. Some 
 fresh liquor is then added to the bath, 
 and fresh cotton used. 
 
 When sumach is used, double the 
 weight is added, and the liquor is 
 merely infused in hot water, and not 
 boiled. Where a mixture is used, 
 the galls and sumach are prepared 
 separately and the liquors mixed. 
 
 2d. Aliiming. — This preparation 
 serves for very many colours. Four 
 ounces of clean alum are used for 
 every pound of cotton ; the solution 
 is made in a copper of thirty gallons, 
 at 122° Fahrenheit, that amount of 
 water serving for one hundred pounds 
 of cotton. The cotton is introduced 
 into the liquor when at 98° Fahren- 
 heit, well worked, taken out, and 
 wrung or pressed, being placed to 
 dry in the shade. Cotton usually re- 
 quires a second, and even third im- 
 mersion before it is fully prepared ; 
 it should be kept moist for twelve 
 hours, and dipped only after two or 
 three days from the preceding pro- 
 cess. It must be well washed before 
 colouring to remove any uncombined 
 alum. This is so common a prepar- 
 ation that dyers keep the solution in 
 tuns to be drawn off and warmed 
 when wanted. The mordant is some- 
 times prepared for delicate colours by 
 addingone ounce of carbonate of soda 
 for every pound of the alum. Ace- 
 tate of alumma prepared with sugar of 
 lead, alum, and a little potash, is used 
 to produce fine madder reds, weld 
 yellovv's, and other brilliant colours : 
 it is used cold, and at 4° Baume. 
 
 3d. Mordants. — These are solu- 
 ble mineral bodies which possess a 
 twofold affinity for the staple and the 
 colour. Acetate of alumina, and iron, 
 and solution of tin are the most im- 
 portant. They are applied to certain 
 parts of the cloth to produce peculiar 
 colours, and are also employed in 
 different degrees of strength in-solu- 
 tion for the production of light or 
 deep tints. Thus acetate of iron 
 208 
 
 with madder brings out every shade 
 from pale violet to black. Hence 
 mordants are not only added by bath, 
 but mixed in a paste with starch or 
 gum to hinder them from spreading 
 over the surface of the web. In this 
 way more is used than stains the 
 cloth, and steps are to be taken after 
 the preparation is fixed to remove 
 any part of the mordant that is un- 
 combined ; this is done by scouring 
 in a bath containing fresh cow-dung, 
 which takes off the iron or alumina 
 without allowing it to mix with oth- 
 er parts of the web. The process is 
 called dunging. 
 
 4th. D'ye baths are of two kinds. — 
 Colour baths, which are used to ex- 
 tract the colour, except in the case 
 of madder, which is used in powder. 
 Dye baths are the solutions in wiiich 
 the web or yarn is pressed to attain 
 a stain ; thev usually require a heat 
 of 90= to 100° Fahrenheit, although 
 some are used cold. See the Col- 
 ours. 
 
 5th. Waslmig after Dyeing. — This 
 is a delicate operation, as the uni- 
 formity of tint depends on it. " A 
 well -planned dye-house should be 
 an oblong gallery, with a stream of 
 water flowing in an open conduit in 
 the middle, a series of dash wheels 
 arranged against the wall at one side, 
 and of dyeing coppers, furnished with 
 self-acting winces or reels, against 
 the other. Tiie washing may be done 
 by hand, by the rinsing machine, or 
 dash wheel, according to the stuff; 
 and they may be stripped of the wa- 
 ter either by the jack and pin, by the 
 squeezing roller, or by the press. 
 ^^'ooden pins are placed in some dye- 
 houses on each side the wash cistern 
 or pool. They are somewhat coni- 
 cal, one foot and a half high, three 
 inches and a half in diameter at the 
 base, one inch and a half at the top, 
 and fixed firmly upright, and at a lev- 
 el of about three feet above the bot- 
 tom of the cistern, so as to be handy." 
 — {Ure's Encyclopedia.) 
 
 COTTON "GRASS. Several spe- 
 cies of Eriophoriim have a small cot- 
 tony tuft from their summits. They 
 are of trifling importance. 
 
cow 
 
 COTTON, WILD. The silk weed | 
 {Asdcpias Syriaca). ' 
 
 COTTO>^" WOOD. The Populus 
 CdJiadeyisis. See Poplar. 
 
 COTYLEDON. Tlie seed lobes. 
 Jussieu's followers divide the vegeta- 
 ble kingdom according to the number 
 of parts or cotyledons in any seed. 
 Thus dicotyledons, or plants with two 
 seed lobes, are the ordinary inhabi- 
 tants of the temperate zone. Mono- 
 cotyledons are the palms, grasses, &c., 
 which are most luxuriant in tropical 
 regions, and possess but one seed 
 lobe. Acotylcdons are the same with 
 cryptogamic plants, and contain no 
 apparent cotvledons. 
 
 COUCH GRASS. Several varie- 
 ties of repent grasses, with perennial 
 stems, are so called, as Trttkum rc- 
 pens, Agrostis rcpens, &c. There is 
 but one way to destroy them : hoed 
 crops, thorough ploughing, with a har- 
 row to collect the fragments, and 
 heavy liming or salting. 
 
 COUGH. Horses and cattle troub- 
 led with cough should be sheltered, 
 bran and linseed oil administered, or 
 the bowels moved : bleeding is occa- 
 sionallv necessary. 
 
 COULTER. The knife of a plough. 
 It is also a corruption of cultivator, 
 and used to designate a one-pronged 
 cultivator used in the South. 
 
 COUNTER. The breast of a 
 horse. 
 
 COUPLES. Ewes and lambs are 
 counted bv couples. 
 
 COUPLINGS. Thongs of leather 
 to fasten two bodies together. 
 
 COURT PLASTER. Silk, usual- 
 ly of a black colour, rendered adhe- 
 sive by the following mixture : one 
 ounce of isinglass dissolved in the 
 smallest quantity of water, and half 
 an ounce of benzoin dissolved in al- 
 cohol. This is brushed over ten or 
 twelve times until a sufficient coat is 
 left. 
 
 COVER. Any sheltered place in 
 ■which game can lie hid. 
 
 COVEY. A gang of partridges or 
 other game. 
 
 COW. "Oneof the most useful of 
 the domestic animals : her milk is 
 peculiarly adapted to nourish infants 
 S2 
 
 COW 
 
 and invalids, and requires no prepar- 
 ation to make it palatable or whole- 
 some. In the article Cattle we have 
 given an enumeration of the various 
 breeds of cows, and under Butler and 
 Cheese an account of their principal 
 produce. We shall here confine our- 
 selves to the proper management of 
 a cow, so as to make her most pro- 
 ductive, and to the most common dis- 
 eases to which this animal is subject. 
 " Where only one or two cows are 
 kept, especially where they are to be 
 maintained on a limited portion of 
 [ pasture, it is of great importance that 
 I a good choice be made when they are 
 purchased or reared. Some breeds, 
 I no doubt, are much superior to oth- 
 ! ers ; but, as a general rule, there is a 
 i better chance of having a profitable 
 cow, if she be reared on the land on 
 which she is to be kept. When the 
 common breed of the country is de- 
 cidedly inferior, it may be profitable 
 to bring a cow from a distance, in 
 ; which case it should be from some 
 district of which the pasture is rath- 
 er inferior to that to which she is 
 i brought, or, at least, not better. The 
 best breeds are found in the richest 
 pastures, but they do not thrive on 
 ' worse. On poor land a small active 
 ^ cow will pick her food and keep in 
 ] condition, where a fine large cow- 
 would starve, or, at least, fall off rap- 
 idly. This is particularly the case in 
 the mountains, near the tops of which 
 no domestic animal will live but the 
 goat, and next to it the smallest breed 
 of cows. Where the pastures are poor 
 but extensive, cows give little milk, 
 and the number which can be kept 
 must make up for the produce of 
 each. Where, on the other hand, 
 cows are stalled, and fed on artificial 
 food brought to them in sufficient 
 quantity, large bulky cows give the 
 best return for the food ; at least, this 
 seems to be the opinion of the Flem- 
 ish farmers in general. Where cows 
 pick up the herbage growing by the 
 road-side, in forests, or are teth- 
 ered on a small portion of clover or 
 lucern, a small lean cow is preferred ; 
 and in general the cows commonly 
 met with, and which are bred in each 
 208 
 
COV.' 
 
 district, seem the best adapted for 
 the mode in wliicli they are fed. 
 Whatever be Die breed or quality of 
 a cow, she should always have plen- 
 ty of food, without which no consid- 
 erable produce in milk can be expect- 
 ed. This food should be succulent 
 as well as nourishing, or else fat will 
 be produced instead of rnilk. A cow 
 well fed may be safely milked till 
 within a month of her calving. It is 
 better that she should be dry before 
 the new milk begins to spring in her 
 udder. A little attention will readi- 
 ly prevent her becoming dry too soon, 
 or being milked too long. Heifers 
 with their first calf should be allow- 
 ed to go dry sooner than older cows, 
 because their growth would be impe- 
 ded by the double drain of the milk 
 and the calf It is best to let a heif- 
 er go to the bull when nature prompts 
 her to it, provided she be not less 
 than fifteen or eighteen months old ; 
 for if they are thwarted in their first 
 heat, they are apt to become irregu- 
 lar ever after ; and it is advanta- 
 geous for a cow to calve regularly at 
 the same season of the year. The 
 best time is May, when the grass be- 
 gins to be succulent. In populous 
 places, where veal is considered a lux- 
 ury, the calves are kept and fattened 
 by letting them suck the cows, or by 
 giving them warm milk to drink. 
 Near large towns this is a profitable 
 mode of employing the milk, when it 
 cannot be sold for immediate con- 
 sumption. 
 
 " Her food must be raised in regu- 
 lar succession, and cut for her. The 
 earliest green food is rye, then clo- 
 ver, which may be made so to suc- 
 ceed each other as to give an ample 
 supply. Cabbages, beet root, pars- 
 nips, potatoes, and turnips will con- 
 tinue the supply during winter, and 
 the dung and urine of the cow, care- 
 fully collected, will be sufficient to 
 keep the land in condition. 
 
 " Where cows are allowed to be in 
 the open air, with proper shelter in 
 case of stormy and wet weather, 
 they are subject to few diseases. 
 They must be carefully looked to at 
 the time of calving, but except in ur- 
 210 
 
 COW 
 
 gent cases nature must be allowed 
 to perform her own office. A little 
 common sense and experience will 
 soon teach the possessor of a cow to 
 assist nature, if absolutely necessa- 
 ry ; and in case of difficulties the 
 safest way is to call in an experien- 
 ced person. Drinks and medicine 
 should be avoided ; a little warm wa- 
 ter, with some barley or bean meal 
 mixed with it, is the most comforta- 
 ble drink for a cow after calving. 
 The calf, and not the cow, should 
 have the first milk, which nature has 
 intended to purge its intestines of a 
 glutinous substance which is always 
 foimd in the new-born calf A very 
 common disease with cows is a dis- 
 ordered function of the liver, pro- 
 ducing a yellowish tint in the eyes, 
 and sometimes in the skin. A gen- 
 tle purge, consisting of half a pound 
 of Glauber salts, an ounce of ginger, 
 and two ounces of treacle, with two 
 quarts of boiling water poured over 
 them, may be given when it is milk- 
 warm, and repeated every other day ; 
 keeping the cow warm, if it be in 
 winter, by a cloth over the loins, and 
 in a shed. This will in general re- 
 store her health. The symptoms of 
 a diseased liver or lungs in a cow are 
 leanness, with a staring coat, a husky 
 cough with loss of appetite, a difficul- 
 ty of breathing, and a great diminu- 
 tion in the secretion of the milk. In 
 accidents or acute diseases the at- 
 tendance of the clever veterinary 
 practitioner is indispensable. 
 
 "Attention to food and exercise, 
 giving the first regularly and in mod- 
 erate quantities at a time, and allow- 
 ing the cow to use her own judgment 
 as to the latter, are the great secrets 
 of health ; and a healthy young cow 
 reared at home, or purchased of a 
 conscientious dealer, will probably 
 live to old age without ever having 
 had any disease. A cow is old and 
 unprofitable when she reaches twelve 
 or fourteen years." 
 
 COWAGE. The Dolichos pruricns, 
 the pods of which are set with small 
 bristles, which produce great irrita- 
 tion on the skin. It is an exploded 
 remedy for worms, and exotic. 
 
CRA 
 
 COW-BANE. See Hemlock. 
 
 COWHERD. One who tends 
 cows. 
 
 COWISH, or BISCUIT ROOT. A 
 kind of potato found on the Colum- 
 bia River. 
 
 COW PEA. The Southern bean. 
 
 COWPOX. In farriery, a dis- 
 ease affecting the teats of cows. 
 This disease appears in the form of 
 small bluish vesicles surrounded by 
 inflammation, elevated at the edge 
 and depressed in the centre, and con- 
 taining a limpid fluid. By the use of 
 the virus of this disease has origina- 
 ted the present excellent system of 
 vaccination. 
 
 C O W-TIE . A provincial term ap- 
 plied to a short, thick hair rope, with 
 a wooden nut at one end and an eye 
 in the other, being used for tying the 
 hind legs of the cows while milking. 
 
 COW WHEAT. A very inferior 
 herbage plant of Flanders (Melamp]/- 
 rum pratense), with light yellow flow- 
 ers (see figure). 
 
 CRAB. The European crab-apple 
 is the Fyrus mains ; it is larger and 
 tarter than ours, which is the P. co- 
 ronana, an ornamental tree of fifteen 
 or eighteen feet. The American crab 
 furnishes good stocks for dwarfs, and 
 the fruit makes cider. It would also 
 furnish new varieties if cultivated. 
 
 CRACKS LN THE HEELS OF 
 HORSES. See Horse. 
 
 CRADLE. A frame consisting of 
 five or more long strips of wood, prop- 
 
 erly curved and bound together, to be 
 affixed to a scytlie for cutting wheat, 
 &c. The labourer cuts with a cradle 
 five or six times more than with a 
 sicklo 
 
 CRANBERRY. The Oxycoccus 
 macrocarpus, a bog plant in the North 
 and West, yielding a large, acid, red 
 berry, containing malate of lime. In 
 preserves and tarts it is highly es- 
 teemed, and there is an immense de- 
 mand for shipping and exportation. 
 Tliey are readily cultivated by trans- 
 planting, in spring, the cranberry sods, 
 or selecting plants and transferring 
 them to a hghtsoil, rather moist. The 
 runners can be layered, or seed sown 
 in spring. They grow rapidly, cover- 
 ing nearly everything, and are but lit- 
 tle subject to the attacks of insects. 
 The plants are set about 18 inches 
 apart, in rows, and kept clean at first. 
 
 The yield increases for several 
 years, and becomes as great as 400 
 bushels the acre in five years, al- 
 though 200 are a good average. The 
 fruit is gathered by rakes, which serve 
 to prune the plants at the same time. 
 When the berries are intended for 
 keeping, they should be rolled over a 
 gently inclined plane of wood, to re- 
 move such as are soft or rotten. 
 They keep well for a year in tight 
 casks, filled with water and headed 
 close. A barrel of four bushels in 
 England sells readily for $20. The 
 fresh fruit commands $1 50 the bush- 
 el in New-York. 
 
 Several varieties of tall cranberry 
 are found in the United States ; as 
 the Viburnum oxycoccus, and the Pa.m- 
 bina of Oregon ; but they are not cul- 
 tivated, the first being unfit for the 
 table. 
 
 The English Oxycoccus palustris is 
 said by Nicol to be superior to the 
 American ; it is readily cultivated on 
 the margins of ponds, and might be in- 
 troduced into the United States. 
 
 CRANK. " A mechanical contri- 
 vance for changing a revolving into 
 an alternate motion. An iron axis is 
 bent in some part of its length out of 
 its rectilinear direction. As the axis 
 turns, the bent part describes the cir- 
 cumference of a circle, and gives a 
 211 
 
' CRE 
 
 reciprocating motion to a piston or 
 rod attached to it." 
 
 CRASSA.MENTUM. The clot of 
 blood ; fibrin, with red globules. 
 
 CREAM. The oleaginous part of 
 milk, mixed with some casein. 
 
 CREASOTE (from Kpsar, flesh, au- 
 fw, / save). A colourless, spiritu- 
 ous, and oily liquid obtained from 
 wood tar. It is singularly antiseptic, 
 imparting that property to smoke, 
 wood tar, &:c. It is of great price, 
 and used chieflvto subdue toothache. 
 
 CREMOC ARPIUM. A two to five 
 celled inferior fruit, cells one-seeded, 
 indehiscent, dry. When dry, separa- 
 ting from a common axis, as in the 
 Umbel! ifcr<x. ' 
 
 CRENATE. The edges of leaves, 
 which are divided into curved notch- 
 es, are called crenate. 
 
 CREPITUS. A crackling noise 
 produced by pressing cellular tissue 
 containing air. 
 
 CRESS. Lepidium sativum. A 
 small salad herb similar to mustard. 
 It is sown thickly in drills and cut in 
 the first leaf For a supply, sow 
 every week in good, clean ground. 
 
 CRESS, INDIAN. Tropccolum ma- 
 jus ; Common nasturtium. A brill- 
 iant yellow-flowered climbing plant, 
 the fruit of which resembles capers. 
 Sow in April, in good, strong soil and 
 open situation ; put out in rows, al- 
 lowing three inches between each : 
 set sticks for them to climb. They 
 flower in June and July. The fruit, 
 which is admirable for pickling, is ta- 
 ken when full sized, but green, about 
 August. They are put in vinegar or 
 a suitable pickle as soon as gathered. 
 They require little attention when 
 once fairly started. 
 
 CRESS, WATER. Nasturtium of- 
 ficinale. A creeping, amphibious per- 
 ennial, indigenous in England. It is 
 of an agreeable flavour, and relish- 
 ed for breakfast. It is cultivated on 
 clear streams one or two inches deep, 
 with a sandy or gravelly bed. The 
 plants are set along the stream in 
 rows about 18 inches apart. They 
 grow readily, and bear cutting very 
 often. If planted near a spring head, 
 they live through winter and remain 
 213 
 
 CRO 
 
 for many years, affording a greai 
 quantitv of salad. 
 
 CRETACEOi:S {froxacreta, chalk). 
 Of the nature of chalk. 
 
 CRIB. A feeding-stall, or store- 
 house for corn. 
 
 CRIB BITING. A habit in horses 
 proceeding from derangement of the 
 stomach usually. Straps are used 
 to hinder it, but if the top of the man- 
 ger be furnished with a roller turn- 
 ing on its axis, they will not be able 
 to bite much of it away. 
 
 CRICK. A common term signify- 
 ing inability to move the muscles of 
 the part, as the neck. 
 
 CRICKET. A family of insects 
 resembling grasshoppers, but with 
 less perfect wings. The Gryllotalpa 
 brevipennis burrows like a mole, and, 
 with other kinds, lives on the tender 
 roots of grasses, &c. They do injury 
 to melons, pumpkins, &c., and some- 
 times accumulate in old meadows so 
 as to require extermination. Several 
 Acheta, as the A. nigra and ahhrcvia- 
 ta, are abundant, dwelling among 
 grass. They are only to be destroyed 
 by liming, fallows, and hoed crops. 
 
 CRINOIDEANS. A nearly extinct 
 race of crustaceous sea animals re- 
 sembling a lily. The fossils abound in 
 some limestones, as thatof Lockport. 
 
 CRISTATE (from Kspa^, a horn). 
 Having the appearance of a horn, or 
 crest. 
 
 CROP OUT. In geology, the ex- 
 posure of rocks above the suiface. 
 
 CROPPING. Gathering a crop. 
 Cutting the ears of anixirals, as dogs. 
 
 CROP, ROTATION OF. See Ro- 
 tation. 
 
 CROPS. The produce of the field. 
 
 CROSS BREED. The young of 
 animals of different breeds. Some- 
 times called a cross. 
 
 CROSS FURROW. A water-fur- 
 row running across the ridges or 
 lands. It is often deepened with a 
 spade, and opened with a double- 
 mould-board plough. 
 
 CROTALUS. A genus of snakes, 
 including the C. horridus, or rattle- 
 snake. They are all furnished with 
 1 a rattle, and their wounds are ex- 
 1 tremely dangerous. An instant ex- 
 
CRO 
 
 CRU 
 
 cision of the part is the most certain 
 remedy. Spirits of hartshorn and 
 wine are necessary to save the pa- 1 
 tient from sinking. 
 
 CROTON OIL. An extremely ac- 
 tive purge, obtained from the seeds of , 
 the Crolon tiglium, an Eastern shnil). j 
 
 CROUP. An acute inflanmiation \ 
 of the throat and windpipe, attended 
 with a shrill wheezing and suffoca- 
 tion, occurring in children. It runs 
 its course rapidly, and must be treat- 
 ed with decision. Bleeding, leeches, 
 external irritations, and large doses 
 of calomel are most successful. Hogs 
 are subject to this disease, and are I 
 to be treated similarly, blood being \ 
 drawn freely from the neck, by cut- [ 
 ting to the jugular vein. j 
 
 CROW. Con-US corone. Too well , 
 known to require description. The 
 crow is a remarkably intelligent and 
 suspicious bird, but easily domestica- 
 ted, and may be rendered useful on 
 the farm. He destroys insects, mice, 
 rats, and small vermin, but, unfor- 
 tunately, also delights in chickens, 
 eggs, and corn. His suspicious na- 
 ture renders it an easy matter to keep 
 him from fields by scarecrows and 
 moveable objects. Corn steeped in 
 stupifying drugs, as hellebore, or in 
 tar and nitre, either destroy him or 
 are rejected. Martins are well known 
 to annoy the crow. Buffon prescribes 
 two curious methods of destroying 
 them : 1st. By wrapping a piece of 
 paper in the form of a long cone, 
 smearing the interior with birdlime, 
 and placing a piece of meat in the 
 bottom : the crow, reaching after it, 
 fits the cone to his head, and become*, 
 blinded ; in this dilemma he flies ' 
 straight upward into the air, until, 
 becoming fatigued, he alights nearly 
 at the spot whence he had flown, 
 and may be shot. The second meth- 
 od is that of pinning a live crow to 
 the ground by the wings, stretched 
 out on his back, and retained in this 
 posture by two sharp, forked sticks. 
 In this situation, his loud cries at- 
 tract other crows, who come sweep- 
 ing down to the prostrate prisoner, 
 and are grappled in his claws. In 
 this way each successive prisoner 
 
 may be made the innocent means of 
 capturing his companions. 
 
 CROWSFOOT. Several species 
 of ranunculas, which are acrid and 
 poisonous. 
 
 CROWS' NET. A net made of fine 
 packthread, used chiefly for catching 
 wild fowl, but which may be employ- 
 ed on newly-sown fields to entrap 
 crows, pigeons, and other birds that 
 destroy grain, or in stubble, where 
 this is sufficiently long to conceal 
 the network. 
 
 CROWN OF A LAND. The cen- 
 tral part of the ridge. 
 
 CRUCIBLE. A chemical vessel 
 used to expose bodies to a strong 
 heat. For coarse purposes, the Hes- 
 sian crucible, made of sand and clay, 
 is used. Porcelain crucibles are ne- 
 cessary for finer work, and where 
 the platinum will not answer, but are 
 destroyed by fixed alkalies. The 
 platinum crucible is the finest, from 
 the ease with which it may be clean- 
 ed and managed, but is unfit for the 
 treatment of lead, arsenic, mercury, 
 and a few other metals which alloy 
 with platinum. A black-lead crucible 
 is used for coarse work, and resists 
 a stronger heat than the Hessian. 
 
 In delicate operations the platinum 
 crucible is placed within another of 
 coarse porcelain, or in a muffle. 
 
 CRUCIFORM, or CRUCIFER- 
 OUS PLANTS. Cruciferce (from 
 crux, a cross). Plants which have a 
 flower consisting of four petals, ar- 
 ranged as a Maltese cross, as the 
 cabbage, cress, turnip, mustard, rad- 
 ish, &.C. They require rich land, are 
 wholesome, abound in pungent oil, 
 and when grown for seed are ex- 
 tremely exhausting. They are es- 
 sentially sulphur and potash, or soda 
 plants. 
 
 CRUOR. The clot of blood. 
 
 CRUPPER. The horse's rump; 
 the leather harness which passes un- 
 der the tail. 
 
 CRURAL (from cms, the thigh). 
 Belonging to the thigh or leg. 
 
 CRUSHERS FOR GRAIN, &c. 
 Mortars, mills on the same princi- 
 ple as the coffee mill, bark mills, and 
 grooved rollers running into one an- 
 813 
 
cue 
 
 cue 
 
 other (Fig.), are variously used to 
 crush corn, corn cobs, and roots. 
 
 CRUSTACEANS (from cnista, a 
 hard covering). A tribe of animals 
 like crabs, lobsters, &c., with a crust, 
 and destitute of vertebrae. The crust 
 contains fourteen per cent, of phos- 
 phate of lime; the rest, carbonate of 
 lime and animal matter. 
 
 CRYPTOGAMIA (from kpvktoc, 
 concealed, and yafio^, marriage). An 
 immense tribe of plants, which have 
 no flowers or apparent sexual organs, 
 but produce sporules or minute seeds 
 in cases on their sides, backs, or on 
 stalks. Ferns, mosses, fungi, sea- 
 weeds, lichens, and the minute para- 
 sites which infest plants and dead 
 wood, as rust, mildew, rubigo, &c., 
 are of this tribe. 
 
 CRYSTAL (from KpvaTa2.?iog, ice). 
 Any transparent solid with a natural 
 and regular geometrical figure. 
 
 CRYSTALLINE LENS. The 
 lens of the eye, which refracts light, 
 so as to produce clear vision. It is 
 situated internally, behind the aque- 
 ous humour. 
 
 CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus. 
 A pleasant but indigestible edible. 
 The varieties are numerous, but the 
 early frame, early green cluster, long 
 prickly, and long green are most cul- 
 tivated. The West Indian gherkin 
 is another species. 
 214 
 
 As the cucumber grows so freely 
 in the United States, the process of 
 forcing is much more attended to for 
 early supplies than m Europe. 
 
 Forcing. — Begin ten weeks before 
 the fruit is wanted. The short prick- 
 ly, long green, and white-spined are 
 preferred. Seed should be two or 
 three years old. Sow in pots placed 
 over a warm bed. Water with tepid 
 water, and take care that chilled air 
 does not enter the frame. When the 
 second leaves are expanded, trans- 
 plant into larger pots ; place three 
 together. Carry, when one month 
 old, to the fruiting-bed. The fruiting- 
 bed is made on a dry spot, with fresh 
 dung, well turned and forked, and 
 four feet high. As soon as the bed 
 is settled, and in regular fermenta- 
 tion, add six inches of fine mould, 
 and if it remains mellow it will an- 
 swer, but if fire-fanged or caked, 
 more will be necessary. Hill the 
 mould to within eight inches of the 
 glass frame, and set three plants from 
 the pots in it, transplanting with the 
 ball of earth : these are enough for 
 one frame. Water with warmed wa- 
 ter, and darken until they are well 
 rooted. The temperature is kept 
 from 70° to 80° Fahrenheit, the steam 
 being allowed to escape when it rises. 
 As the heat lessens, add fresh dung 
 outside, cutting away the old. Form 
 
cue 
 
 CUL 
 
 a bank two feet wide and a foot high 
 against the back of the frame. Give 
 the plants air whenever an opportu- 
 nity offers. Water in the morning. 
 Sometimes water in which guano or 
 bird dung has been steeped is used. 
 As the roots enlarge, add fresh, good 
 mould. 
 
 Stop the growth of the stems by 
 pinching off the buds at two joints, 
 and in this way keep stopping the 
 lateral shoots : this strengthens the 
 plant and causes it to perfect fruit 
 early. ]Mind that some female flow- 
 ers are left, or such as have solid 
 swellings under the blossom, for these 
 only bear fruit. Abercrombie thinks 
 it advisable to pluck the male blos- 
 som and shake it over the female, for 
 the purpose of securing a fall of pol- 
 len or farina. The fruit is fit to cut 
 16 to 20 days after settmg, and by 
 care may be obtained in succession 
 for two months. 
 
 Common Cultivation. — Sow in May 
 in slight hollows, four feet apart ; 
 manure the seed beds well with rot- 
 ten dung ; eight or nine seed to the 
 hill. Leave three plants in the hill ; 
 hoe and earth up ; cut away weeds ; 
 a little water in dry weather does 
 good. The soil should be light and 
 mellow. Pickling cucumbers may be 
 planted in July. Select the finest for 
 seed. The fruit is sometimes made 
 to grow in cylindrical moulds of pot- 
 tery. 
 
 Insects injurious to the Cucumber, 
 Melon, 4-c. — The striped bug. Gale- 
 ruca vilata. It eats the young foliage 
 and flowers ; it is yellow, striped with 
 black. 
 
 The Flea Beetle. Haltica pubesccns. 
 A small, black, active coleopterous in- 
 sect, which destroys the small plants. 
 
 The Squash Bug. Coreus Iristis. A 
 large angular hemipterous insect with 
 brown upper wings and orange belly, 
 collecting in groups under the fruit, 
 and destroying the leaves and fruit 
 of all tlie cultivated cucurbitacecB. 
 
 The black Worm. The larva of a 
 coccinella ; it cuts down the young 
 plants, and can only be caught m the 
 morning, as it retires into the earth 
 during the heat of the day. 
 
 Several species of aphis annoy the 
 plants. The large insects must be 
 caught in nets or with the hand ; soot, 
 tobacco water, solution of whale oil 
 soap ; infusion of wormwood. May- 
 weed, pennyroyal ; and slacked lime, 
 are all used with advantage. Placing 
 hens or turkeys with young broods in 
 a coop, and allowing the chickens to 
 run among the vines, is an admirable 
 expedient. All the foregoing insects 
 infest melons, cucumbers, and squash- 
 es also. 
 
 CUCUMBER-TREE. Some mag- 
 nolias are so called. 
 
 CUCUMIS. The generic name of 
 the cucumber, melon, &c. 
 I CUCURBITACE-E. A family of 
 plants, mostly vines, monoecious, with 
 mferior fruit, inhabiting warm coun- 
 tries. The melon, pumpkin, cucum- 
 ber, gourd, squash, colocynth, and bry- 
 ony are common examples. 
 I CUD. In cattle, the food in the 
 ' first stomach, which is to be chewed 
 over again and passed into the third 
 to be digested. 
 
 CULEX. A genus of insects in- 
 cluding the gnat (C pipiens) and sim- 
 ilar creatures : it is the type of the 
 Culicidce, which contains moschetoes, 
 &c. 
 
 CULINARY VEGETABLES. 
 Plants cultivated in gardens, and 
 sometimes in fields, for culmary pur- 
 poses. They may be classed as leaf 
 plants, such as the cabbage tribe, spi- 
 naceous plants, salads, pot and sweet 
 herbs ; stalk plants, such as aspara- 
 gus, tart rhubarb, sea kale, &:c. ; 
 roots, such as the turnip, carrot, po- 
 tato, 6iC. ; seeds, such as the pea and 
 bean ; fruit, such as the cucumber, 
 pumpkins, squashes, &c. ; and the 
 entire plants, such as the onion, leek, 
 mushroom, &c. They may be other- 
 wise arranged, as the cabbage fami- 
 ly ; the leguminous family ; esculent 
 roots ; spinaceous plants ; alliaceous 
 plants ; asparaginous plants ; aceta- 
 rious plants ; pot herbs, sweet herbs, 
 plants used in tarts and confection- 
 erv, and edible fungi. 
 
 GULLET. Pounded glass. It is 
 : used in glass-making, for scouring pa- 
 [ per, and as a manure. It consists of 
 215 
 
CUL 
 
 silicate of soda and lead, and is prob- 
 ably over-estimated as a manure. 
 
 CULM. Stems wliich, like the 
 straw of grain, sustain the flowers at 
 a distance from the leaves. It is also 
 used as a synonyrae for anthracite in 
 England. 
 
 CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. The 
 cerealia and grasses. 
 
 CULTIVATOR. The same as a 
 horse hoe. Cultivators consist of 
 one hoe or tine, or many. They are 
 used to loosen the soil in drill hus- 
 bandry, and pass where the plough 
 would be too cumbrous. They also 
 destroy weeds by scraping them from 
 the surface and cutting their roots. 
 The tines are of every form, either 
 curved forward like a claw, made 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 CUL 
 
 like a double mould-board in minia- 
 ture, long and sharp, or like sharp 
 hoes, according to the objects of the 
 farmer. The frame on which they 
 are fastened is like a triangular har- 
 row, and capable of being widened 
 at pleasure. The several kinds of 
 tines should be purchased with the 
 frame, so as to be inserted into the 
 mortices when wanted. 
 
 BcnienCs and Van Bergen's culti- 
 vators are well known in the Nor- 
 thern States. In Virginia, a strong 
 one-tine, or coulter, is used to prepare 
 new land. The following figures rep- 
 resent simple hoes and the most im- 
 proved ; they are all without patent, 
 being English or Scotch implements. 
 
 In Fig. 1 the hoe is intended for 
 
 cutting and scraping in a narrow! nips: the wheel regulates the deptn 
 space, as between carrots or pars- j of the hoe. Fig. 2 is used to scrape 
 
 a wide surface, and is valuable in 
 weeding ; the iron blade (b) inclines 
 downward, so as to cut the soil. 
 These can be made in any village. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents Weir's admirable 
 cultivator of nine coulters, or hoes ; 
 it may be used to stir the soil or to 
 open drills. The beam (a) moves on 
 the support (c), so as to regulate the 
 depth of the hoes. 
 
 Wilkie's horse hoe and drill har- 
 row {Fig. 4) is also a favourite im- 
 plement ; the first three hoes are so 
 fixed as to open drills, and the tinee 
 316 
 
 behind scrape the soil to a depth reg- 
 ulated by the grading of the front 
 wheel. 
 
 Finlaysotis cleaning cultivator or 
 harrow"(F/>. 5) is entirely of iron ; it 
 has the following advantages : 
 
 " 1. From the position in which 
 the tines are fixed, their points (a, a, 
 a, a, a) hanging nearly on a parallel 
 to the surface of the land, it follows 
 that this implement is drawn with the 
 least possible waste of power. 3. 
 From the curved form of the tines, 
 all stubble, couch, &,c., that the tines 
 
CULTIVATOR. 
 
 may encounter in their progress 
 through the soil is brought to the 
 
 surface and rolled up to the face of 
 the tines, when it loses its hold, and is 
 
 thrown off (at h, b, b, b, b), always re- 
 lieving itself from being choked, how- 
 
 ever wet or foul the land. 3. The 
 mode by which this harrow can be 
 
 so easily adjusted to work at any 
 depth required renders it of great val- 
 ue; this is done as quick as thought 
 T 
 
 by moving the regulator (c) upward 
 or downward between the lateral 
 spring (d, c) ; and by each movement 
 217 
 
CUL 
 
 CUP 
 
 npward into the openings (/, g, h, r, k) 
 the fore tines (/, /, /, /) will be allow- 
 ed to enter the soil about an inch and 
 a half deeper by each movement into 
 the different spaces, until the regu- 
 lator is thrown up to e, when the 
 harrow is given its greatest power, 
 and will then be working at the depth 
 of eight or nine inches. Also, the 
 axletree of the hind wheels is moved 
 between o and p, a space of seven or 
 eight inches, by a screw through the 
 axletree, which is turned by a small 
 handle (q), so that the hind part of 
 the harrow, by this simple mode, is 
 also regulated to the depth at which 
 it is found necessary to work. 4. 
 When the harrow is drawn to the 
 head or foot lands, the regulator is 
 pressed down to d, and the fore wheel 
 (to) is then allowed to pass under the 
 fore bar (n), by which the nose of 
 the harrow is lifted, and the points 
 of the fore tines (/, I, I, I) will then 
 be taken two or three inches out of 
 the soil, which affords the means of 
 turning the harrow with the greatest 
 facility. 5. Being made of malleable 
 iron, its durability may be said to be 
 endless ; whereas, if made of wood, 
 the priine cost would be entirely lost 
 at the end of every five or six years. 
 Lastly, the mode of working is so 
 easy, that any boy of ten or twelve 
 years of age is perfectly qualified to 
 manage it." 
 
 Cultivators are occasionally called 
 grubbers, scarifiers, harrows, &c., ac- 
 cording to the figure of the tines. 
 
 Several broad share cultivators for 
 Indian corn, beans, &c., have been 
 recently brought out by Mr. Langdon, 
 which clean a large surface, and, at 
 the same time, pulverize the soil 
 without penetrating deep enough to 
 disturb the growing roots. They re- 
 semble double mould-board ploughs. 
 
 CULVERT. " An arched channel 
 of masonry built beneath the bed of 
 a canal, for the purpose of conduct- 
 ing water under the canal. If the 
 water to be conveyed has nearly the 
 same level as the canal, the culvert 
 is built in the form of an inverted si- 
 phon, and acts on the principle of a 
 ■water pipe. This word also signifies 
 218 
 
 any arched channel for water under 
 ground." 
 
 CUMIN. Cuminum cyminum. A 
 plant cultivated in Sicily for its bitter 
 aromatic seeds : used in confections, 
 and to flavour cheese. It is umbel- 
 liferous ; requires a dry, rich soil ; 
 bears the second year, and does not 
 differ in its management from cori- 
 ander. 
 
 CUNEATE, CUNEIFORM (from 
 cuneus, a wedge). Used in botany, 
 to describe any surface which is an- 
 gular, with the length considerably 
 exceeding the width. 
 
 CUPEL. " A shallow earthen ves- 
 sel, somewhat of a cup shape, gener- 
 ally made of bone earth. It is used 
 in the assays of the precious metals, 
 which are fused upon a cupel with 
 lead. Cupellation means the refining 
 of gold or silver upon a cupel.'''' 
 
 CUPPING. In this operation a 
 cup-shaped glass is used, into which 
 the large flame of a spirit lamp is 
 momentarily introduced, so as to ex- 
 pel a great part of its air by dilata- 
 tion ; it is then instantly applied to 
 some part of the body, which is for- 
 ced into it by the external pressure ; 
 and on removing the glass a circular 
 red mark is left, from the propulsion 
 of the blood in the small vessels of 
 the part : this is called dry cupping. 
 It is generally followed up by making 
 a number of incisions in the part by 
 means of an instrument called a scar- 
 ificator, from which the blood oozes, 
 and from which a considerable por- 
 tion may be drawn by again applying 
 the cupping glass. Cupping, when 
 well performed, is not a very painful 
 or disagreeable operation, and is an 
 excellent mode of local blood-letting. 
 When the operator is not dexterous, 
 it is not only painful, but often dan- 
 gerous in its consequences. The 
 bleeding may generally be easily stop- 
 ped by a piece of lint or soft rag ; 
 but this should be looked after. — 
 {Brands' s Encyclopedia.) 
 
 CUPULIFERxE {from cupa, a cup). 
 A natural order of arborescent or 
 shrubby exogenous plants, inhabiting 
 all temperate and some hot climates. 
 They are distinguished by their amen- 
 
CUR 
 
 CUT 
 
 taceons flowers and peculiarly veined 
 leaves from all European trees ; and 
 from other plants by their apetalous 
 calyx, fruit enclosed in a husk or cup ; 
 and by their nuts, which contain but 
 one cell and one or two seeds. This 
 order comprehends the oak, hazel, 
 beech, chestnut, and hornbeam, well- 
 known valuable forest trees. 
 
 GURACOA. A liqueur which de- 
 rives its name from the island of Cu- 
 racoa : it is prepared in great per- 
 fection by the Dutch. It derives its 
 flavour from Seville orange peel, with 
 a small quantity of cinnamon and 
 mace. 
 
 CURCULIO. A general term in 
 the United States for the coleopter- 
 ous insects which devour fruits, or the 
 larvae of which do so. They are par- 
 ticularly destructive to plums, apri- 
 cots, and peaches, as well as nuts. 
 The introduction of poultry into the 
 orchard, especially hens in coops with 
 broods, hogs, paving the ground, sha- 
 king the trees, and other expedients, 
 are used. Destroying every fruit 
 which they cause to fall is useful. 
 But suitable attention to the trees, 
 scraping, cleaning with suds, solution 
 of soft soap and whale oil soap, are 
 quite effective. See Insects. 
 
 CURD. The coagulum of milk. 
 
 CURL. A disease of potatoes, 
 which see. 
 
 CURRANT. The white and red 
 are improved varieties of Ribes ru- 
 brum, the blacks from R. nigriiin. 
 The most esteemed kinds are the 
 Dutch red and white, white crystal, 
 f Champagne, and black Naples. It is 
 propagated by slips, layers, suckers, 
 grafting, and seeds. A warm, loamy, 
 rich sod is best ; they thrive in free 
 exposures. They bear on two and 
 three years' spurs ; in pruning, cut 
 down new shoots to within three 
 eyes of the starting place. They 
 should be kept open, suckers remo- 
 ved, and not be allowed to branch 
 too low : four feet apart is a good 
 distance for bearing shrubs. The 
 i currant is very healthy, but subject 
 to many caterpillars, aphides, &c., 
 which must be destroyed by slacked 
 lime, and keeping the branches clean 
 
 by a syringe. The fruit makes admi- 
 rable jellv, wine, and is readily kept. 
 
 CURRYING. The preparation of 
 leather by which it is polished and 
 rendered soft. See Tanniiiff. 
 
 CUSCUTA. The generic name of 
 the dodders. 
 
 CUSPIDATE (from ciispis, apoint). 
 Pointed, a term used in descriptive 
 botany. 
 
 CUSTARD APPLE. A West In- 
 dian fruit, the Anona reticulata. 
 
 CUT. An incision, best treated 
 with sticking-plaster only. 
 
 CUTANEOUS (from cutis, the 
 skin). Relating to the skin. 
 
 CUTICLE. The external delicate 
 membrane of the true skin ; the epi- 
 dermis of plants. 
 
 CUT WORM. This name is ap- 
 plied to any caterpillar dwelling in 
 the earth, which eats or cuts away 
 young plants of cabbage, corn, beans, 
 &c. They are naked, of a greasy 
 appearance, and ashy green ; are only 
 seen above ground before sunrise or 
 in cloudy weather. They abound in 
 lands which are rich, and have re- 
 mained in grass or clover for a long 
 time, and are referred chiefly to the 
 genus Agrostis, especially A. sujfusa, 
 latens, teltfera, but are also the worms 
 of other genera. The moths are 
 large, and of various shades of pink 
 and brown : they are formed in July 
 and August 
 
 Means of destroying them. — Soak- 
 ing seeds does no good in this case. 
 Working soot, tobacco, ashes, lime, 
 and other noxious substances into 
 the soil around the plants answers 
 on a small scale. Picking them be- 
 fore sunrise is recommended, but is 
 very tedious ; young chickens would 
 assist. Wrapping the leaves of oth- 
 er plants about young cabbages, &c., 
 has also answered. But when the 
 soil is infested with these creatures, 
 it is best to add a good salting of 15 
 or 20 bushels the acre, or 50 bush- 
 els of fresh lime ; expose it to frost 
 in the fall, and give the worms no 
 rest bv frequent stirring of the earth. 
 
 CUTTING. When a horse cuts 
 or wounds one leg with the opposite 
 foot. The best remedy is to put on 
 219 
 
CYN 
 
 DAI 
 
 the cutting foot a shoe of even thick- 
 ness from heel to toe, not projecting 
 in the shghtest degree beyond the 
 crust, and the crust itself to be rasp- 
 ed a little at the quarters. This shoe 
 should only have one nail on the in- 
 side, and that almost close to the toe. 
 — {Library of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 CYAIsiTE (from Kvavor, blue). A 
 massive and crystallized mineral. It 
 has a pearly lustre, is translucent, 
 and of various shades of blue : it is 
 a silicate of alumina, with a trace of 
 oxide of iron. Only found in primi- 
 tive rocks. 
 
 CYANOGEN (from Kvavoc, blue, 
 and yiyvofiai, I form). A gas which 
 burns with a blue flame, the bicarburet 
 of nitrogen ; it is a compound radi- 
 cal, forming acids with oxygen {cyan- 
 ic) and hydrogen {hydrocyanic or prus- 
 sic). The gas is poisonous : it com- 
 bines directly with many metals, 
 forming cyanides. 
 
 CYANURIC ACID. A product of 
 the action of heat on urea, formu- 
 la C„ Nb Ofi. 
 
 CYCADE.E (from Cycas, a genus 
 of plants). A small family of dwarf 
 palms which are gymnospermous. 
 The Cycas circinalis yields sago. 
 
 CYCLOSIS (from kvkIoc, a circle). 
 A circulation of the elaborated sap in 
 the higher plants in delicate anasta- 
 mosing vessels. The latex circula- 
 tion. 
 
 CYDONIA. The generic name of 
 the quince-tree. 
 
 CYLINDER (from kv7uv6u, I roll). 
 A solid, the height of which exceeds 
 the diameter, which is constant ; it 
 offers a circular section at every part 
 when made at right angles to the axis. 
 As stacks are often nearly cylindrical, 
 their contents may be discovered by 
 the formula for a cylinder : the solid 
 contents are equal to the height mul- 
 tiplied into the area of the base or 
 section. 
 
 CYME. An inflorescence: the 
 flower stems spring from one part, but 
 are afterward variously subdivided. 
 
 CYNARACE.^. Plants like the 
 artichoke, thistle, &c., with the flow- 
 ers included in a scaly capilulum, also 
 called a cynaroccphalas. 
 220 
 
 CYNIPS. A genus of hymenop 
 terous insects without stings. They 
 insert their eggs in parts of living 
 trees, causing tumours, of which the 
 gall nut is a specimen. 
 
 CYNOSURUS. A genus of grass- 
 es, of which the C cristatus is con- 
 sidered a good sheep grass. See 
 Grasses. 
 
 CYPERACE.E (from Cypcnis, a 
 genus). The tribe of plants consist- 
 ing of rushes, sedges, and other marsh 
 grasses without nodes or joints. 
 They are of trifling value ; the Cype- 
 rus csculentus of Italy furnishes a 
 sweet nut or tuber. 
 
 CYPRESS-TREE. Cupressus 
 sempervirens. A hardy shrub, a na- 
 tive of the Levant, growing from fif- 
 teen to twenty feet high, which 
 throws out yellow blossoms in May. 
 Its wood is red, very hard, and sweet- 
 scented. It likes a good soil. Its 
 wood, from being sonorous, is used 
 for harps, violins, and other musical 
 instruments. Worms never attack 
 it.— {Phillip's Shrub., vol. i., p. 188; 
 M'Culloch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 CYPRESSES, AMERICAN. See 
 Cedar. 
 
 CYPSELA (from Kv\pElr], a bee- 
 hive). A one-celled, one-seeded, in- 
 dehiscent fruit. An Achenium. 
 
 CYSTIC (from Kvang, a bag or blad- 
 der). Appertaining to the bladder. 
 Cystic oxide, a rare ingredient in uri- 
 nary calculi. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACTYLIS. A genus of grasses, 
 of which D. glomerata, orchard or 
 cock's-foot, is the only important spe- 
 cies. See Grasses. 
 
 DAIRY. " The name usually given 
 to the place w-here the milk of cows 
 is kept and converted into butter or 
 cheese. 
 
 "A dairy-house should be situated 
 on a dry spot somewhat elevated, on 
 the side of a gentle declivity, and on 
 a porous soil. It should be on the 
 west or northwest side of a hill if 
 possible, or, at least, sheltered from 
 the north, east, and south by high 
 trees. In some countries where there 
 are natural caverns with an opening 
 
DAIRY. 
 
 to the west, and springs of water at 
 hand, the best and coolest dairies are 
 thus prepared by nature. Artificial 
 excavations in the sides of freestone 
 roclvs are sometimes formed for the 
 purpose of keeping milk. Where no 
 such natural advantages exist, the 
 requisite coohiess in summer, and 
 equal temperature in winter, which 
 are essential in a good dairy, may be 
 obtained by sinking the floor of the 
 dairy some feet under ground, and 
 forming an arched roof of stone or 
 brick. In cold climates flues around 
 the dairy are a great advantage in 
 winter ; and an ice-house in warm 
 summers is equally useful. But these 
 are only adapted to those dairies 
 which are kept more as a luxury than 
 as an object of profit. Coolness is 
 also produced by the evaporation of 
 water, an abundant supply of which 
 is essential to every dairy. It is also 
 a great advantage if a pure stream 
 can be made to pass through the dai- 
 ry, with a current of air to carry off 
 any eflluvia, and keep the air contin- 
 ually renewed. 
 
 " As the milk suflers more or less 
 from being agitated, or too much 
 cooled, before it is set for the cream 
 to rise, the cow-house or milking- 
 place should be as near as possible 
 to the dairy, or, rather, it should be 
 under the same roof The milk may 
 then be brought immediately from 
 the cows without being exposed to 
 the outer air. The dairy-house should 
 consist of three distinct apartments 
 below, with lofts and cheese-cham- 
 bers above. The principal place is 
 the dairy, properly so called, sunk 
 two or three feet below the level of 
 the ground, with a stone or brick 
 bench or table round three sides of it 
 to hold the milk pans. This table 
 should be a little below the level 
 of the outer soil. Airholes covered 
 with wire should be made in the walls 
 a little above, and on the opposite 
 sides of the dairy ; and they should 
 have shutters sliding over them to 
 open or shut, according to the weath- 
 er. The floor should be of stone or 
 paving tiles, sloping gently towards 
 a drain to carry olflhc water. Great 
 T 2 
 
 care should be taken that no water 
 stagnates in this drain, which must 
 be kept as clean as the floor of the 
 dairy, and not communicate with any 
 sink, but run out into the open air : a 
 declivity from the dairy is essential 
 for this purpose. If this cannot be ob- 
 tained, it must run into an open tank, 
 and the water be regularly pumped 
 out. The windows of the dairy should 
 be latticed. Glazed windows may be 
 added for the winter, but they should 
 always be open except in very hot or 
 very cold weather. There may be 
 shutters to close entirely, but this is 
 not essential. If the windows are 
 made like Venetian blinds, the light 
 will be excluded without excluding 
 the air. The utmost purity must be 
 maintained in the air of a dairy ; 
 nothing should enter it that can pro- 
 duce the slightest smell. No cheese 
 or rennet should be kept in it ; and 
 particularly no meat, dressed or un- 
 dressed. Even the dairy-maid should 
 avoid remaining longer in it than is 
 necessary, and should at all times be 
 extremely clean in her person. 
 
 " The next important place is a kind 
 of wash-house, in which there is a 
 chimney where a large copper kettle 
 hangs on a crane to heat water in, or 
 milk when cheese is made. Where 
 wood is scarce, and pit-coal is the 
 common fuel, a copper may be set in 
 brick-work with a grate under it. In 
 this place all the utensils of the dairy 
 are kept, and scalded with boiling 
 water every day. It should have an 
 outer door, which may be to the south, 
 and benches outside, on which the 
 pails and other utensils may be set 
 to dry and be exposed to the air. 
 Between the last two apartments 
 may be another communicating with 
 ! both, and forming a kind of vestibule, 
 where the churnmg may take place ; 
 and over them a cheese-room and 
 lofts, or any other useful chambers. 
 A veranda round the dairy is very 
 convenient, or on three sides at least. 
 j It shades from the sun, and adds to 
 the warmth in winter ; and the uten- 
 sils may be dried and aired under it 
 even in rainy weather. The foUow- 
 I ing description of a cow-house and 
 221 
 
DAIRV^. 
 
 dairy under one roof combines all 
 that 13 useful, wilh considerable neat- i 
 ness internally and externally : It is I 
 a building about sixty feet long by I 
 thirty vide, with a veranda running ; 
 round three sides of it. The dairj- 
 room is sunk below the level of the j 
 soil, and is paved with brick. The 
 sides are covered with tiles, and the , 
 arched roof with hard cement. The 
 cow-house has a broad passage in the 
 middle, and the cows stand with their 
 heads towards this passage, which is , 
 paved with clinkers or bricks set on 
 edge. Their tails are towards the 
 wall, along which runs a broad gut- 
 ter sunk six or eight inches below the 
 level of the place on which the cows 
 stand. This gutter slopes towards 
 a sink covered with an iron grate, 
 which communicates by a broad arch- 
 ed drain with a vaulted tank, into 
 which all the liquid flows. The gut- 
 ter is washed clean twice a day be- 
 fore the cows are milked. The cows 
 stand or he on a sloping brick floor, 
 and have but a small quantity of litter 
 allowed them, w'hich is removed every 
 day and carried to the dung-heap or 
 to the pig-sties, to be more fully con- 
 verted into dung. Whenever the lit- 
 ter is removed, the bricks are swept 
 clean ; and in summer they are wash- 
 ed with water. The manner in which 
 the cows are fastened is worthy of 
 notice : Two slight pillars of strong 
 wood are placed perpendicularly about 
 two feet distant from each other, so 
 that the cow can readily pass her 
 head between them. On each of 
 these is an iron ring, which runs free- 
 ly up and down, and has a hook in its 
 circumference : two small chains pass 
 from these hooks to a leather strap, 
 which buckles round the neck of the 
 cow. Thus the cow can rise and lie 
 down, and move forward to take her 
 food, which is placed in a low man- 
 ger before the two pillars ; but she 
 cannot strike her neighbour with her 
 horns. The mangers or troughs are 
 of wood, or of bricks cemented to- 
 gether, and are kept as clean as all 
 the rest of the cow-house. In Swit- 
 zerland the cow-houses are similar, 
 but there is also a rack, the back of 
 222 
 
 which towards the passage shuts up 
 with a board on hinges. The Dutch 
 mode supplies more light and air to 
 the middle passage ; and as the food 
 is given frequently and in small quan- 
 tities, there is very little waste. The 
 following cuts will give a tolerable 
 idea of the whole arrangement. The 
 food is brought in carts, which are 
 driven at once between the cows. 
 What is not wanted immediately is 
 stored above, whence it is readily 
 thrown down before the cows. Thus 
 much trouble is saved, and one man 
 can feed and attend to a great many 
 cows. From November till iMay the 
 cows never leave the cow-house. In 
 summer, when the cows are out, if 
 they are in adjacent pastures, they 
 are driven home to be milked ; but 
 if the pastures are far otf, which is 
 sometimes the case, they are milked 
 there, and the milk is brought home ; 
 but this is not thought so good for 
 the butter, which is then always 
 churned from the whole milk, with- 
 out letting the cream rise. The finest 
 and best flavoured butter is always 
 made from the cream as fresh as pos- 
 sible ; and to make it rise well, the 
 milk should be set as soon as it is 
 milked, and agitated as little as pos- 
 sible. The greatest quantity is sel- 
 dom obtained when the quality is the 
 finest. When great attention is paid 
 to the quality, the milk is skimmed 
 about si.x hours after it is set ; and 
 the cream taken ofl'is churned by it- 
 self The next skimming makes in- 
 ferior butter. These particulars are 
 mentioned to show the necessity 
 there is of having the dairy as near 
 as possible to the cow-house. 
 
 ♦■ The utensils of the dairy, such as 
 pails, churns, vats, &c., are usually 
 made of white wood, and are easily 
 kept clean by scalding and scouring. 
 Leaden troughs are used in large dai- 
 ries ; and if they are kept very clean 
 by careful scouring, they answer the 
 purpose better than wood. They 
 may be so constructed that the milk 
 may be let off gently before the cream, 
 which is collected by itself. This 
 saves all the trouble of skimming. 
 Brass pans have the advantage of 
 
DAIRY. 
 
 A, A, A. passage throug-h the cow-house and dairy, ten feet wide, paved with bricks set on 
 edge, or Dutch clinkers. Tlie food is brought in this passage in a small cart and distributed to 
 tlie cows. 
 
 B, part of the above passage closed in with doors, and forming a vestibule to the dairy. 
 
 C, dairy-room, in which only milk, cream, and butter are kept. It is sunk three feet under 
 the level of the cow-hou«e, and covered with a brick arch ; it has one latticed window, and sev- 
 eral ventilators on a level with the place on which the milk vessels are set. 
 
 D, the room where the utensils are sculded, and where cheese is made ; in one corner is a 
 fire-place, with a large kettle or a copper set. 
 
 E, stairs to srn up to the cheese-mom M and loft N. 
 
 F, calf-pens, in which the calves are tied up to fatten, so that they cannot turn to lick them- 
 selves : a small trough witii poumlod chalk and salt is (ilaced in each |<en. 
 
 G, tlic place for Ihe cows without partitions ; each cow is tied to two poslsby two small chains 
 and two iron rings, which run on the posts. The chains are fastened to a broad lenthei strap, 
 wh;ch is buckled round th ■ iierk of each cow. II, H, two sinks, with iron gratings over them, 
 lu catch the urine from the gutters 1, I, which run ail the length of the cow-house on each side. 
 
 223 
 
DAIRY. 
 
 K, the urine tank, vaultfd over wiih a door L, to clean it out, and a pump to pump up the liquid 
 manure. O, O, in the section, are places where the green food or roots are deposited for the 
 day's consumption. P, a hayloft. 
 
 being readily warmed on a chafing- 
 dish in winter. In Devonshire, tin 
 or brass pans are frequently used 
 instead of earthen-ware. Although 
 there is sonao danger in the use of 
 brass utensils, very little attention 
 will obviate it. It only requires that 
 they should be kept bright, in which 
 case the smallest speck of oxide or 
 verdigris would be perceptible. In 
 Holland the milk is invariably carried 
 in brass vessels. Cast-iron pans have 
 been invented, which are tinned in- 
 side. They are economical, but there 
 is nothing better or neater than well- 
 glazed white crockery-ware, of the 
 common oval form. Some recom- 
 mend unglazed pans for summer, but 
 they are difficult to keep sweet, as 
 the milk insinuates itself into the 
 pores, and is apt to become sour 
 there. 
 
 The most common use of cows is 
 to supply butter and cheese (see Butler 
 and Cheese), and sometimes to fatten 
 calves for the butcher ; but the most 
 profitable dairy is that which supplies 
 large towns with milk. In these dai- 
 ries the system is different. The 
 cows are mostly kept in stalls, and 
 fed with food brought to them. Some 
 dairymen possess several hundred 
 cows, and the arrangement of their 
 establishments is worthy of notice. 
 The cows are bought before or after 
 they have calved. They are seldom 
 allowed to go to the bull, but are kept 
 as long as they can be made to give 
 milk by good feeding. When they 
 are dry, they are often already suffi- 
 ciently fat for sale, or, at all events, 
 they soon fatten, and are sold to the 
 butcher. A succession of cows is 
 thus kept up, new ones arriving as 
 others are sold oflT. The cows are 
 milked twice a day ; and as it is 
 well known that the last drop of milk 
 is the richest, they are sure to be 
 milked quite dry, an essential thing 
 in a dairy. When there is more milk 
 than there is a demand for, it is set, 
 and the cream is sold separately, or 
 made into butter ; but this is seldom 
 done to any extent. The cows are 
 S24 
 
 fed on every kind of food that can 
 increase the milk : brewers' grains 
 and distillers' wash are preferred, 
 when they can be obtained. The 
 grains are kept in large pits, pressed 
 close, and covered with earth, under 
 which circumstances they will remain 
 fresh a long time. Turnips and beet 
 root are used in large quantities, but 
 hay is given sparingly. The cows 
 are generally placed in pairs, with a 
 partition between every two pair. 
 Each cow is fastened to the corner 
 of the stall, where she has a small 
 trough with water before her : thus 
 they cannot gore each other with their 
 horns. The great dairies are kept 
 very clean ; but the liquid manure, 
 which would be so valuable for the 
 market gardens, is lost, and runs ofi". 
 In Belgium the urine would be con- 
 tracted for at the rate often dollars 
 per cow per annum, which, in a dairy 
 of six hundred cows, would pay a 
 good interest for the money expend- 
 ed in constructing large vaulted cis- 
 terns under each cow-house. 
 
 There is no chance of profit in a 
 dairy of which the farmer or his wife 
 is not the immediate manager. The 
 attention required to minute particu- 
 lars can only be expected in those 
 whose profit depends upon it. A 
 proper attention to keeping correct 
 accounts of every expense will con- 
 vince any one of this truth. In a 
 dairy farm the great difficulty is to 
 feed the cows in winter. It is usu- 
 ally so arranged that the cows shall 
 be dry at the time when food is most 
 scarce, and they are then kept on in- 
 ferior hay, or straw, if it can be pro- 
 cured. It is a great improvement in 
 a dairy farm if it has as much arable 
 land attached to it as will employ 
 one plough, especially if the soil be 
 light ; but the mode of cultivating 
 this farm must vary from that of 
 other farms, since the food raised for 
 the cows must be a principal object. 
 Corn is a secondary object ; and the 
 cultivation of roots and grasses must 
 occupy a great portion of the farm. 
 When the grasses degenerate, a crop 
 
DAI 
 
 DEC 
 
 or two of corn is taken, and the ro- 
 tation is chiefly roots, corn, and grass 
 cut for hay until it wears out. If 
 the roots are well manured, the land 
 keeps in excellent heart. The old 
 pastures are kept for summer feed- 
 ing. Where there is no arable land 
 near a dairy farm, it deserves mature 
 consideration whether it will be ad- 
 vantageous or not to allow some of 
 the pasture to be ploughed up. It is 
 often a dangerous experiment where 
 the soil is naturally heavy. Arable 
 land laid down to grass for the pur- 
 pose of the dairy seldom produces 
 fine-flavoured butter or good clieese ; 
 but clover-hay is excellent for young 
 stock, or to fatten otf the old cows. 
 Lucern is reckoned to make cows 
 give very good milk ; nothmg, how- 
 ever, can equal a rich old pasture, as 
 all dairymen agree." 
 
 The following estimates from Col- 
 man's Report on the Agriculture of 
 Massachusetts give the yield, expen- 
 ses, and profits of the dairy : 
 
 "In Tyringham, the average yLeld 
 of a cow is reckoned at, new milk 
 cheese 283 pounds, and butter at the 
 same time 57 pounds. A dairy of 
 twenty-eight cows gave 7912 pounds 
 of new milk cheese, and 1600 pounds 
 of butter. A large amount of pork 
 was fattened on this farm, but it is 
 difficult to say what portion of it is 
 to be credited to the dairy. 
 
 " In Shefiield, the average product 
 of twenty-eight cows was 394 pounds 
 of new milk cheese, and 50 pounds 
 of butter each. 
 
 " The product of a cow is thus sta- 
 ted by the excellent manager : 
 
 " Cow, Cr. 
 400 lbs. new milk cheese, at 8 cts . $32 00 
 Calf (kiUed at 3 days old) .... 1 00 
 
 50 lbs. butter, at 16 cts 8 33 
 
 Whey and butter-milk to make 100 
 
 lbs. pork 8 00 
 
 $49 33 
 Cow, Dr. 
 Winter keepin? . . . . $12 00 
 Oae acre of land, costing $50, 
 
 will pasture the cow . . 3 50 
 SaltSocts., 3bush. ofbran.SS 3 25 
 Interest on the value of cow, 
 
 at $25, 10 per ct. ... 2 50 
 Labour of milking, making 
 
 butter, cheese, &c. . . . 4 00 25 25 
 
 Balance in favour of cow . . $24 Oct" 
 
 DAMSON. A small variety of the 
 
 Plum. 
 
 DANDRUFF. Scales of skin, which 
 are brushed otT readily. 
 
 DAPPLE. Marked with various 
 colours. 
 
 DARNEL. Several grasses are 
 so called. The Cheat of the United 
 States goes under this name in Eu- 
 rope ; but it is principally applied to 
 the Lolium temulcntum, a trouble- 
 some weed. 
 
 DARTARS. In farriery, a sort 
 of scab or ulceration taking place on 
 the chin, to which lambs are subject. 
 
 DATE. The fruit of a palm {Phoe- 
 nix dacli/lifcra), remarkable for its nu- 
 tritious ness, and as aflx»rding food to 
 entire populations. 
 
 DATURA. The generic name of 
 the thorn apple or Jamestown weed, 
 a poisonous plant. 
 
 DAUCUS. The generic name of 
 the Carrot. 
 
 DEAD TOPS. The dead sum- 
 mits or branches of old trees. They 
 should be cut at a sound place, and 
 the wound covered with grafting wax 
 or clay. 
 
 DEAFNESS. A defect in hearing. 
 It is sometimes remedied by syrin- 
 ging the tube of the ear with tepid 
 water, by which a quantity of hard- 
 ened wax is washed out. 
 
 DEAL. Pieces of sawed pine or 
 fir wood, three inches thick, nine 
 wide, and twelve feet long. 
 
 DEBRIS. In geology, mineral 
 rubbish worn from a rock or forma- 
 tion. 
 
 DECAGON (from dena, ten, and 
 yuvia, an angle). Any solid having 
 ten sides and angles. 
 
 DECANDRIA (from 6eKa, ten, and 
 avrip, a male). The class of plants 
 having ten stamens. 
 
 DECANT. To pour ofl" the clear 
 fluid after a precipitate subsides. 
 Hence Decantation. 
 
 DECAPODS (from 6eKa, ten, and 
 Tzov^, a foot). Crabs with ten feet. 
 Animals like the cuttle-fish, with ten 
 tentacula, wherewith they walk. 
 
 DECAY. The destruction of or- 
 ganized bodies by natural causes. 
 The products depend on the presence 
 225 
 
DEC 
 
 DEF 
 
 or deficiency of aii . In tlie first ease, 
 tlie process is called Ercmacausis ; in 
 the second, Fermentation, which sec. 
 
 DECIDUOUS. Parts which fall 
 off, such as hairs, horns, leaves, &c. 
 
 DECOCTION. Any mixture which 
 has been boiled. 
 
 DECOMPOSITION. In chemis- 
 try, the separation of the parts of any 
 compound, whether mineral or or- 
 ganic. Electricity and heat are the 
 principal forces used by chemists for 
 this purpose, and they are capable of 
 disturbing most combinations. Chem- 
 ical affinity, or the attraction which 
 one form of matter has for another, 
 is also an agent of decomposition. 
 Thus oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) has 
 a powerful attraction for water ; if 
 it be dropped on the human hand a 
 blister is instantly produced, and the 
 part blackens. This decomposition 
 is owing to the greater affinity of the 
 acid for water than the flesh of the 
 hand. In the same way some min- 
 erals act on each other, producing 
 change of composition, or decompo- 
 sing them. Decompositions may be 
 expected if one of the ingredients is 
 of a volatile or gaseous nature, or if 
 the agent added forms with one of 
 the original components a product 
 which is insoluble in water. Thus 
 sulphuric and oxalic acid decompose 
 every solution of lime, because they 
 form insoluble salts with lime. Car- 
 bonic acid, in its salts, is decomposed 
 by every fixed acid, because it is gas-- 
 eous. Lime, potash, and soda de- 
 compose most salts of ammonia, be- 
 cause the latter is volatile. 
 
 DECOMPOSITION OF FORCES. 
 A problem in physics, in which it is 
 desired to know in how many differ- 
 ent directions several forces have 
 acted to produce a given result. 
 
 DECOMPOSITIOxN OF LIGHT. 
 The separation of a beam of light 
 by means of a prism of glass, into the 
 seven colours, red, orange, yellow, 
 green, blue, indigo, violet, which are 
 hence called the primary colours, 
 light being the result of their mix- 
 ture. 
 
 DECORTICATION (from de,from, 
 and cortex, bark). Talcing off the bark. 
 826 
 
 Scraping the bark, and even partially 
 removing it during the active growth 
 (June), has been found to invigorate 
 trees. It is often resorted to in bark- 
 bound trees which bear little fruit. 
 Care must be taken not to wound the 
 new Vv'ood or expose the sap. 
 
 DECOY. "A device by which 
 aquatic birds, chiefly ducks, are enti- 
 ced from a river or lake up a narrow, 
 winding canal or ditch, which, grad- 
 ually becoming narrower, at last ter- 
 minates under a cover of network, of 
 several yards in length. The birds 
 are enticed by the smoothness of the 
 turf on the margin of the canal, 
 which tempts them to leave the wa- 
 ter, and begin to dress their plumage. 
 When so engaged at some distance 
 up the canal, they are suddenly sur- 
 prised by the decoy man and his dogs, 
 who have been concealed behind a 
 fence of reeds ; and having again ta- 
 ken to the water, they are driven up 
 by the dogs till they enter within the 
 network which terminates the decoy, 
 and are then easily caught." 
 
 DECREPITATION. A chemical 
 term signifying crackling, and used 
 to describe the sound made by nitre, 
 salt, sulphate of potash, and other 
 salts, when thrown into the fire. 
 
 DECUMBENT. In botany, incli- 
 ned downward. 
 
 DECURRENT. In botany, a leaf, 
 a part of the lamina of which is at- 
 tached to the stalk of the plant. 
 
 DECUSSATE. To cross and in- 
 termingle, in anatomy. 
 
 DEER. The common species is 
 the Ccrvus Virginianus of naturalists ; 
 it is diffused throughout the United 
 States as far north as Canada. The 
 moose (C alecs) is the largest spe- 
 cies of the deer; it inhabits swamps, 
 and is confined to the most northern 
 parts of the States, and to Canada. 
 The reindeer (C. tarandus) is remark- 
 able for its immense horns, its value 
 to the inhabitants of the highest lat- 
 itudes, docility, and abstemiousness. 
 It is rarely seen in the States except 
 in Maine. Some other species are 
 found far in the nortliM^est. 
 
 DEFLAGRATION. A chemical 
 term, meaning very rapid combustion, 
 
DET 
 
 DEW 
 
 as when nitre is thrown on red-hot 
 coals. 
 
 DEFLECTION. A terra in optics. 
 When a thin opaque body is placed in 
 the course of a ray of light, the ray 
 is bent out of its straight direction. 
 The phenomenon is also called dif- 
 fraction. 
 
 DEGLUTITION. The act of swal- 
 lowing. 
 
 DEHISCENT. A botanical term 
 signifymg the bursting open, when 
 dry, of seed vessels. 
 
 DELIQUESCENT. Saline sub- 
 stances which absorb so much moist- 
 ure from the air as to become fluid 
 are called deliquescent. 
 
 DELPHINIA. A vegetable alka- 
 loid from Stavesacre, or Delphinium. 
 
 DELPHINIC ACID. An oily acid, 
 obtained from whale oil, having a 
 rancid smell. 
 
 DENDROMETER (fromtJei'dpov, a 
 tree, dLadfiETpov,ameasure). An instru- 
 ment like an immense pair of com- 
 passes, to measure the height and 
 the girth of trees, for estimating the 
 amount of timber. 
 
 DENTATE (from dens, a tooth). 
 Toothed. 
 
 DENTIROSTERS. Birds having 
 a tooth-like notch on each side of the 
 upper mandible. They are very ra- 
 pacious. 
 
 DEOBSTRUENT. A medicine 
 given to remove any obstruction in 
 the bowels, &c. 
 
 DERBYSHIRE SPAR. Fluor 
 spar, or fluoride of calcium. 
 
 DESPUMATION. The act of 
 skimming the scum from any heated 
 fluid. 
 
 DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLA- 
 TION. The heating of bones, wood, 
 coal, &c., in iron vessels, at a high 
 temperature, to produce peculiar sub- 
 stances. From green wood, vinegar 
 and wood tar ; from bones, impure 
 ammonia ; from coal, gas, coal tar, 
 &c. 
 
 DETERGENTS. Medicines which 
 remove imparities and cleanse sores. 
 
 DETONATION. In chemistry, ex- 
 plosions on a small scale 
 
 DETRITUS. The broken and 
 pounded remains of rocks. 
 
 DEUTOXIDE, BINOXIDE. A 
 compound acting as a base, which 
 contains two atoms of oxygen 
 
 DEVON CATTLE. Esteemed for 
 draught. See Cattle. 
 
 DEW. The deposite of water from 
 the air produced by cold ; it becomes 
 frost when the cold is below 32° Fah- 
 renheit. As soon as the sun sets, the 
 heat imparted to the earth begins to 
 fall by radiation into space ; if clouds 
 be present, the heat is mostly return- 
 ed again ; if in a clear sky, it is lost, 
 and the earth's surface chilled. The 
 cold of the surface chills the air lying 
 above it, and causes a deposite of its 
 water ; hence the dew. Those bod- 
 ies which cool quickest receive most 
 dew; black soils more than light-col- 
 oured ; rough surfaces more than pol- 
 ished. Dew, therefore, only falls on 
 clear nights, and frost observes the 
 same rule. When the atmosphere is 
 loaded with water, the cooling of a 
 few degrees is sufficient to form dew ; 
 hence most falls near rivers and 
 streams. 
 
 DEW POINT. The temperature 
 at which dew falls. It is a very im- 
 portant fact in meteorology, and ea- 
 sily ascertained. Place in a clean 
 wine-glass, half full of water, a little 
 ice, untd a mist of dew is seen on the 
 outside ; remove the ice without wet- 
 ting the surface, plunge a thermome- 
 ter into the water, and observe the 
 temperature as the mist disappears : 
 the degree marks the dew point. 
 This is the simplest way, and as 
 good as any. The difference in de- 
 grees between the air and dew point 
 IS called the drying power, and shows 
 how much more moisture the air will 
 take. When they agree, the air is 
 tilled or saturated with moisture. The 
 amount of water in the atmosphere is 
 connected with the probability of rain, 
 the growth of plants, the occurrence 
 of mildew, rust, &c., and should be 
 measured by the farmer on important 
 occasions as a means of ascertaining 
 its relation to these pomts. 
 
 DEWBERRY. The creeping 
 blackben-y, which see. 
 
 DEWLAP. The fold of skin be- 
 low the neck of cattle. 
 
 ssa 
 
DIA 
 
 1)113 
 
 DEXTRINE. Soluble starch, re- 
 Bcmbling gum, but having the prop- 
 erty of turning the plane of polariza- 
 tion to the right ; hence its name. 
 The descending sap and cambium 
 contain much dextrine. It consists 
 ofCi.Hu On. 
 
 DIACHYLON. A common and 
 useful sticking plaster for wounds, 
 made of litharge and resin spread on 
 linen. 
 
 DIADELPHIA, DIADELPHOUS 
 (from 6ic, twice, and ade7.(pLc, a brother- 
 hood). A Linnajan class, in whicli the 
 stamens are bound together into two 
 parcels. 
 
 DIAGNOSIS (from SiaytruaKu, 
 to discern). The determination, by 
 symptoms, of one disease from an- 
 other. 
 
 DIAMETER. The measure across 
 a circle or other regular figure. 
 
 DIAMOND. A rare gem, of or- 
 ganic origin, consisting of pure car- 
 bon, and crystallized in octohedrons, 
 dodecahedrons, and other derivative 
 forms. The hardest bodv in nature. 
 
 DIANDRIA, DIANDROUS (from 
 6lc, twice, and avjjp, a man). Plants 
 with two stamens. See Botany, 
 
 DIAPHANOUS (from 6ia, and (pa- 
 ivu, to shi7ie). Translucent : not quite 
 clear like glass. 
 
 DIAPHORESIS (from 6ia <popeu, I 
 carry through). Sweating, or perspi- 
 ration ; hence diaphoretics, medicines 
 which produce sweating. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM (from 6ia, and cjipaT- 
 Tu, I divide). Any substance which 
 divides a cavity. Thus, the muscle 
 which lies between the chest and ab- 
 domen is a diaphragm ; the matter 
 dividing the cells of shells ; the disks 
 which are inserted into microscopes 
 are also called diaphragms. Septum 
 is synonymous. Diaphragmitis is an 
 
 inflammation of the diaphragm in an- 
 imals. 
 
 DI ARRHCEA (from diappecj, Ifoio 
 through). Looseness of the bowels. 
 Chalk and binding medicines are rem- 
 edies. See Horse, O.r, Sheep. 
 
 DIASTASE (from 6ia, and larrnii, I 
 set). A condition in the decay of fibrin 
 and other protein compounds, which, 
 acting like a ferment, converts solu- 
 tion of starch into sugar. 1 part of 
 changed protein converts 2000 of 
 starch. It occurs in malting and ger- 
 mination. The existence of diastase 
 as a separate body is unknown, its ef- 
 fects being the result of change, and 
 not due to the presence of any specif- 
 ic agent. Its property is destroyed 
 by a boiling heat. 
 
 DIATHERMAL (from 6ia, and 
 ^epfiT], heat). Bodies which allow ra- 
 diant heat to pass through them, as 
 rock salt. 
 
 DIATHESIS (from (haneriiiv, I dis- 
 pose). A predisposition to a partic- 
 ular class of diseases. 
 
 DIBBLE. An instrument to make 
 holes in the soil for the insertion of 
 transplanted vegetables, sowing large 
 seeds, onions, &c. It is commonly 
 no more than a rod, with a spade han- 
 dle, the lower part or point shod with 
 iron, and sharp. A man, carrying 
 one in each hand, walks backward, 
 dibbling a hole riglit and left, at suit- 
 able distances ; 3000 holes can be 
 made thus in a day. The following 
 is a simple and effective contrivance 
 used for beans, potatoes, &c. ; it is 
 so arranged that the side rods, point- 
 ed with iron {a, a), run a mark or drill, 
 into which the dibble afterward runs. 
 Several wheels may be fitted to one 
 axis, and thus a great deal of labour 
 done. It is adapted to light, mellow 
 soils ; and the saving of seeds and la- 
 
 S38 
 
DIF 
 
 DKi 
 
 bour soon pays for the machine. A 
 number of these wheels drawn by a 
 horse has been recently introduced. 
 
 DICHOTO.MOUS (from 6ic, twice, 
 and TEfivu, I cut). Bifurcate. It is 
 used in natural history to indicate 
 a division into two parts, especially 
 when it is repeated several times, as 
 in some stems. 
 
 DICHROIS.M (from dig, and jpwua, 
 colour). Bodies which exhibit two col- 
 ours, as they are examined by reflect- 
 ed o) refracted light. Dichromatic 
 is a derivative 
 
 DICOTYLEbONS (from 6ic, and 
 KOTv7.i]6uv, a seed lobe). One of the 
 great divisions of the vegetable king- 
 dom, including most plants and trees ; 
 of temperate climates. They bear 1 
 seed with two lobes, like the bean, 
 have leaves freely veined, and the 
 trees grow with a conical trunk. The 
 term is synonymous with cxogens. 
 
 DIDELPH YS (from 6ig, and dtAcpvr, 
 icomb). A genus of animals resem- 
 bling > the opossum and kangaroo, 
 which bring forth minute young, and 
 afterward nourish them in an exter- 
 nal pouch. Marsupials. 
 
 DIDYNAMOUS (from Sir, and 6v- 
 vafiig, power). Flowers with four sta- 
 mens, two being longer than the rest. 
 See Botani/. 
 
 DIETETICS (from Siairaeiv, to 
 nourish). The study of varieties of 
 food. See Fodder. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL THERMOME- 
 TER. A thermometer with two 
 bulbs, invented to measure differ- 
 ences in temperature, but seldom 
 used. 
 
 DIFFRACTION. See Deflection. 
 
 DIFFUSION OF GASES. Pene- 
 tration of gases. The expression of 
 a phenomenon which occurs when 
 one gas is set free into another. 
 They mutually expand or diffuse into 
 one another, so as to produce, in time, 
 an equal mixture. The rapidity of 
 diffusion differs with different gases. 
 By reason of this law, noxious va- 
 pours rising from the earth are pres- 
 ently diluted into the atmosphere. 
 The composition of the air is the re- 
 sult of the diffusion or admixture of 
 the several gases it contains. This 
 U 
 
 passage takes place through all po- 
 rous vessels, tissues, &c. In virtue 
 of this property, gases are said to act 
 as a vacuum towards each other. 
 
 DIFFUSUS. Spreading : used in 
 botany. 
 
 DIGESTER. A strong iron or 
 copper pot, the lid of which fits steam- 
 tight, and either screws on or is press- 
 ed by clamps, and is furnished with a 
 safety-valve. It is used for boiling or 
 digesting substances at a heat great- 
 er than boiling water, and is especial- 
 ly useful for extracting jelly and glue 
 from bones, skins, horns, &,c. 
 
 DIGESTION. In physiology, the 
 change through which food passes in 
 the stomach for the production of 
 chyme. Food received into the stom- 
 ach is speedily attacked by a peculiar 
 fluid therein, the gastric, which has 
 the power of rendering soluble the in- 
 soluble parts : this it effects by pro- 
 ducing a change nearly resembling 
 fermentation. The gastric juice is a 
 portion of the membrane of the stom- 
 ach in a peculiar state of change, re- 
 sembling diastase, and supposed to 
 owe its power to a principle called 
 pepsin, but being in reality active only 
 because in a state of change. The 
 food acted on by this agency is con- 
 verted into a pasty mass called chyme ; 
 this, passing into the bowels, is sep- 
 arated into a fluid part, chyle, which 
 is absorbed by the veins and absor- 
 bents of the intestines, and reaches 
 the blood to add to that fluid. There 
 j is reason to believe that starchy and 
 saccharine bodies are converted into 
 lactic acid, and in part into oils, by 
 digestion. The remaining thickened 
 chyme, receiving several excretiuns, 
 becomes mere feculent matter. The 
 process of digestion requires from one 
 to four hours, according to the food. 
 Raw substances are digested more 
 rapidly than boiled, fresh than salt. 
 It is best conducted when the body 
 and mind are in a state of rest. 
 
 DIGESTION IN CHEMISTRY. 
 The exposure for a long time of any 
 substance to the action of water or 
 a solvent at a gentle heat. 
 DIGGING. See Spade. 
 DIGITALIS. The generic name 
 229 
 
DIS 
 
 DIS 
 
 of the foxglove (Z>. purpurea), a poi- 
 sonous sedative. 
 
 DIGITATE. In botany, any leaf 
 divided into several segments origi- 
 nating in a common centre. 
 
 DIGYNIA (from die, and yvvri, a 
 tooman). Flowers with two styles. 
 See Botany. 
 
 DILL. Anethum graveolens. An 
 umbelliferous plant, the seeds of 
 which are esteemed as a medicine. 
 They contain dill oil, which, being 
 distilled, is used in solution in water 
 for the gripes of infants. It is an an- 
 nual, requiring a dry, rich soil. Sow 
 in drills in March or April, keep clear 
 of weeds, thin out to ten inches ; they 
 fruit in September. Fresh seed must 
 be used for planting. The leaves are 
 sometimes used like parsley. 
 
 DILUENTS. Any fluid, as water, 
 which dilutes. 
 
 DILUVIUM, DILUTION. Accu- 
 mulations of gravel found upon the 
 ordinary rocks in manv places. 
 
 DINGLE. A small" vallev. 
 
 DICECIA, DIOICA (from 'du. tivice, 
 and oiKia, house). Flowers, the sta- 
 mens and pistils of which are on dis- 
 tinct plants, as the hop, hemp, &c. 
 
 DIOPTRICS (from (ha, and otvto- 
 uai, I see). That part of optics which 
 investigates the passage of light 
 through glasses, &c. 
 
 DIOSOOKEA. The generic name 
 of the yam See Sweet Potato. 
 
 DIPLOE (Greek). The cellular 
 layer between the outer and inner 
 layers of the scull bones. 
 
 DIPPLE'S ANIMAL OIL. A fe- 
 tid oil obtamed by the distillation of 
 bones, used as an antispasmodic. 
 
 DIPSACUS. The generic name 
 of the teasel. 
 
 DIPTERA, DIPTERANS (from 
 dif, ticice, and irrepov, a icing). Flies 
 or insects with two wings only. They 
 are furnished with a sucker. 
 
 DISCUTIENT (from discutio, I de- 
 stroy). Any application which has the 
 property of resolving or hindering the 
 formation of tumours or boils. 
 
 DISEASES. See them, or Ox, Horse, 
 IShcep. 
 
 DISK, Any flat, round body : 
 hence discoid. In botany, any space 
 230 
 
 existing between the insertion of the 
 stamens and the ovary. 
 
 DISPERSION OF LIGHT. Its 
 
 separation into the colours by a prism. 
 
 DISSEPIMENTS. The dividing 
 
 membranes formed in ovana by the 
 
 union of the sides of two carpels. 
 
 DISTEMPER. Frequently used in 
 the same sense as disease, but is par- 
 ticularly applied to cattle. In racing 
 stables it is the distinguishing name 
 for epidemic catarrh or influenza in 
 horses. Bleeding in the early stage 
 is recommended, and it is important 
 that the bowels should be evacuated 
 and sedative medicines given. (See 
 Horse). In dogs, distemper is one of 
 the most fatal diseases ; a little emet- 
 ic powder (three grains of tartar emet- 
 ic and one-grain of opium) is recom- 
 mended to be given. — {Clater's Far., 
 p. 392). 
 
 DISTICHOUS (from 6ic, and otikoc, 
 a row). Two rows of seeds, leaves, 
 &c.. arranged side by side. A term 
 of frequent use in descriptive botany. 
 DISTILLATION. A chemical pro- 
 cess, whereby the more volatile parts 
 of a mixture are separated by heat. 
 It is conducted in a still of metal, 
 usually copper, except where a great 
 heat is necessary, as in destructive 
 distillation, when iron is used. Earth- 
 en-ware and glass are used for many 
 chemical distillations. Vessels of this 
 kind are called retorts or alembics. A 
 retort is of the figure of a large in- 
 verted comma ; if there be an aper- 
 ture over the bulb fitted by a stopper, 
 or to receive a tube, it is termed a 
 tubulated retort. (See Retort.) An 
 alembic consists of two parts, an up- 
 per cap, which carries the tube, or 
 beak, along which the distilled fluid 
 passes, and a lower vessel to contain 
 the matter for distillation. The cap 
 is well luted or fastened before use. 
 The heat employed is regulated to 
 the purposes of the operator. If the 
 object be to separate alcohol from wa- 
 ter, the heat must not rise above the 
 boiling of alcohol (176°). As the va- 
 pour rises, it is at first cooled along 
 the tube, or beak, of the retort, and 
 flows down it into the receiver ; but 
 the tube becoming heated, steps must 
 
DOD 
 
 DOG 
 
 be taken to produce the condensa- 
 tion. This is managed in the labora- 
 tory by keeping pieces of wet rag on 
 the tube, or by passing it through an- 
 other larger tube of metal which is 
 cooled by a stream of water. In lar- 
 ger operations, the still beak enters 
 another long tube, which winds sev- 
 eral times in a bucket of water, and 
 is thus kept cool, the water being oc- 
 casionally renewed. 
 
 Distillation is employed to separate 
 alcohol, ether, vinegar, and other 
 products from mixtures ; to obtain 
 the essential oil of plants ; and when 
 much heat is used, to separate gas 
 from coal ; tar and vinegar from green 
 wood ; hartshorn from bones, whale- 
 bone shavings, &c. When a distilled 
 product is re-distilled, it is said to be 
 rectified. 
 
 DITCH. A trench cut in the 
 ground, usually round the fences of a 
 field. Trenches of this kind are form- 
 ed differently in various localities, but 
 they should always be made so as to 
 keep the water in them as pure as 
 possible. 
 
 DIURESIS (from 6ia, and ovp^u, to 
 make water). Excessive urination : 
 hence Diuretics, medicines causing 
 urination, as nitre, juniper berries, 
 turpentine, cubebs, &c. See Ball. 
 
 DIVARICATE. To spread out 
 widely. 
 
 DIVERGENT. Branches separa- 
 ted by an angle. 
 
 DIVISIBILITY. In chemistry, the 
 extent to which pieces of matter may 
 be divided is extraordinary ; thus, in 
 gilding, the thickness of gold on a 
 surface is often as little as 110,000th 
 part of an inch. But matter is not 
 infinitely divisible. 
 
 DOCK. Troublesome, long-root- 
 ed, perennial plants, of the genera 
 Rumex, Tussilago, &c. See Weeds. 
 
 DODDER. A weed consisting of 
 thread-like stems, which bind togeth- 
 er the plants among which it grows. 
 It is occasionally destructive to small 
 crops, such as flax. 
 
 DODECAHEDRON (from dcjSeKa, 
 twelve, and eS/ja, a seat). A solid 
 of twelve sides. In crystallography 
 there are two varieties : the rhombic 
 
 and angular dodecahedron, according 
 to the figure of the sides. 
 
 DODECANDRIA (from 6u<hKa, 
 twelve, and afr/p, male). The class of 
 plants containing twelve stamens. 
 See Botany. 
 
 DOE. The female of the fallow 
 deer. 
 
 DOG. A genus of animals (Ca«(>), 
 including innumerable varieties. The 
 farmer requires a good rat and ver- 
 min dog, of which the varieties of 
 terrier are the best ; a house-dog, as 
 the Newfoundland, bull-dog, or mas- 
 tiff; and herd-dogs, as the sheep- 
 dog, the Scotch sheep-dog, or the 
 Spanish shepherd's dog. The last is 
 said to be the most manageable and 
 trusty, as it is the strongest, being 
 nearly as large as a Newfoundland ; 
 but the instinct of the Scotch animal 
 cannot be readily surpassed. Hunting 
 and coursing dogs are merely useful 
 for pleasure, but of these the pointer 
 is an animal of rare instinct, and can 
 be taught to equal the best sheep- 
 dogs in caring for flocks. 
 
 Fig. 1 is the Scotch shepherd's dog, 
 or colly Characters ears partly 
 
 erect, head rather pointed, shaggy 
 coat, and thick tail. To this animal 
 large flocks are safely intrusted with- 
 out any shepherd. He is also capable 
 of managing cattle with great nicety. 
 Fig. 2, the English sheep-dog, is 
 larger. His colour is usually white 
 
 and black, with half-pricked ear:j. He 
 is an excellent cattle and farm dog. 
 
 Dogs should be kept clean and fed 
 with wholesome food, under which 
 circumstances they are very healthy. 
 Worming is an absurd and useless 
 custom. The mange in dogs is the 
 231 
 
DOO 
 
 DRA 
 
 result of unclean) iness, and resem- 
 bles itc'i. It sliould be treated with 
 tar ointioent mixed with sulphur. 
 
 Madm^s. — Symptoms: at first the 
 dog lose.s spirits, neglects his food, 
 retires from his master, does not 
 bark, but murmurs, is irritable, his 
 ears and tail droop, he seems drow- 
 sy, in two or three days his tongue 
 lolls out, he froths at the mouth, the 
 eyes are heavy, he runs along pant- 
 ing, and in two or three more days 
 dies. Any animal bitten should in- 
 stantly have the part cut out, the 
 wound being allowed to bleed for a 
 short time. 
 
 Distemper is very contagious, usu- 
 ally commences with a cold, is fol- 
 lowed by fits or diarrhoea, great loss 
 of strength, and frequently death. 
 Treatment: first give emetics, and 
 then a large spoonful of salt dissolved 
 in water ; if looseness comes on, give 
 chalk in powder mixed with water. 
 A blister on the head is used when 
 the animal is very stupid and liable 
 to fits. The food should be good. 
 
 Other diseases are treated like 
 those incident to sheep. 
 
 DOG'S-TAIL GRASS. Cynosu- 
 rus cristatus. See Grasses. 
 
 DOG'S-TOOTH GRASS. Doub 
 grass. See Benmida Grass. 
 
 DOGWOOD. Connis Florida. A 
 small tree, remarkable for its flower- 
 like involucrum. It is found from 
 Massachusetts to Florida, usually on 
 the borders of woods. The bark is 
 medicinal and used as a febrifuge. 
 The heart wood, of a deep brown 
 colour, is hard, heavy, and compact. 
 Its chief use is for the cogs of wheels, 
 points of harrows, and similar purpo- 
 ses : the size is not sufficiently large 
 for other objects. 
 
 DOLERITE. A trap rock, con- 
 sisting of augite and feldspar. 
 
 DOLOMITE. Magnesian marble, 
 or granular limestone containing 
 magnesia. 
 
 DOLPHIN, BLACK. The Aphis 
 of beans, cabbages, &c. See Black 
 Dolphin. 
 
 DOOB, or DOUB GRASS. Cyno- 
 don dactylon. A perennial, creeping 
 grass of great value, acclimated in 
 232 
 
 the Southern States, and of celebrity 
 among the Hindoos. It flowers in 
 August, but does not always perfect 
 seed. It is propagated from roots. 
 This is also called Bermuda or Brah- 
 ma grass. See Bermuda Grass. 
 
 DORSAL. Belonging to the back. 
 
 DOVE. See Piecon. 
 
 DOVE-COTE. ^See Pigeon-house. 
 
 DOWNS. Elevated, open mead- 
 ows. 
 
 DRAGON FLY. The common 
 name for Libcllulas, Agrions, and oth- 
 er neuropterous insects. They are 
 devourers of insects, and therefore 
 friends of the farmer. 
 
 DRAGON'S BLOOD. A blood-red 
 resin imported from India, and used 
 to colour varnishes. 
 
 DRAINAGE. " As a certain quan- 
 tity of moisture is essential to vege- 
 tation, so an excess of it is highly 
 detrimental. In the removal of this 
 excess consists the art of draining. 
 
 " Water may render land unproduc- 
 tive by covering it entirely or partial- 
 ly, forming lakes or bogs ; or there 
 may be an excess of moisture dif- 
 fused through the soil and stagnating 
 in it, by which the fibres of the roots 
 of all plants which are not aquatic 
 are injured, if not destroyed. 
 
 '' From these different causes of in- 
 fertility arise three different branches 
 of the art of draining, which require 
 to be separately noticed. 
 
 " 1. To drain land which is flooded, 
 or rendered marshy by water coming 
 over it from a higher level, and hav- 
 ing no adequate outlet below. 
 
 " 2. To drain land where springs 
 rise to the surface, and where there 
 are no natural channels for the water 
 to run off. 
 
 " 3. To drain land which is wet from 
 its impervious nature, and where the 
 evaporation is not sufficient to carry 
 off all the water supplied by snow and 
 rain. 
 
 " The first branch includes all those 
 extensive operations where large 
 tracts of land are reclaimed by means 
 of embankments, canals, sluices, and 
 mills to raise the water ; or where 
 deep cuts or tunnels are made through 
 hills which formed a natural dam or 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 barrier to the water. Such works 
 are generally undertaken by associa- 
 tions, few individuals being possess- 
 ed of sufficient capital, or having the 
 power to oblige all whose interests 
 are affected by the draining of the 
 land to give their consent and afford 
 assistance. 
 
 " All these operations require the 
 science and experience of civil engi- 
 neers, and cannot be undertaken 
 without great means. The greater 
 part of the lowlands in the Nether- 
 lands, especially in the province of 
 Holland, have been reclaimed from 
 the sea, or the rivers which flow"ed 
 over them, by embanking and drain- 
 ing, and are only kept from floods by 
 a constant attention to the works 
 originally erected. 
 
 "Where the land is below the level 
 of the sea at high water, and without 
 the smallest eminence, it requires a 
 constant removal of the "-vater which 
 percolates through the banks or ac- 
 cumulates by rains ; and this can 
 only be effected by sluices and mills. 
 The water is collected in numerous 
 ditches and canals, and led to the 
 points where it can most convenient- 
 ly be discharged over the banks. The 
 mills conuiionly erected for this pur- 
 pose are small wind-mills, which turn 
 a kind of perpetual screw made of 
 wood several feet in diameter, on a 
 solid axle. This screw fits a semi- 
 circular trough, which lies inclined at I 
 an angle of about 30" with the ho- ' 
 rizon. The lower part dips into the i 
 water below, and by its revolution 
 discharges the water into a reservoir ! 
 above. All the friction of pumps, and 
 the consequent wearing out of the 
 machinery, is thus avoided. If the 
 mills are properly constructed they re- 
 quire little attendance, and work night 
 and day whenever the wind blows. I 
 " In hilly countries it sometimes 
 happens that water, which runs down 
 the slopes of the hills, collects in the 
 bottoms where there is no outlet, and 
 where the soil is impervious. In that 
 case it may sometimes be laid dry by 
 cutting a sufficient channel all round, 
 to intercept the waters as they flow 
 down, and to carry them over or ; 
 U2 
 
 through the lowest part of the sur- 
 rounding barrier. If there are no 
 very abundant springs in the bottom, 
 a few ditches and ponds will suffice 
 to dry the soil by evaporation from 
 their surface. We shall see that this 
 principle may be applied with great 
 advantage in many cases where the 
 water could not be drained out of 
 considerable hollows if it were allow- 
 ed to run into them. 
 
 " When there are different levels at 
 which the water is pent up, the drain- 
 ing should always be begun at the 
 highest, because it may happen that 
 when this is laid dry the lower may 
 not have a great excess of water. 
 At all events, if the water is to be 
 raised by mechanical power, there is 
 a saving in raising it from the highest 
 level, instead of letting it run down 
 to the lower, from which it has to be 
 raised so much higher. 
 
 " In draining a great extent of land, 
 it is often necessary to widen and 
 deepen rivers, and alter their course ; 
 and not unfrequently the water can- 
 not be let off without being carried, 
 by means of tunnels, under the bed 
 of some river, the level of which is 
 above that of the land. In more con- 
 fined operations, cast-iron pipes are 
 often a cheap and easy means of ef- 
 fecting this. They may be bent in a 
 curve, so as not to impede the course of 
 the river or the navigation of a canal. 
 " The draining of land which is ren- 
 dered u-et by springs arising from under 
 the soil is a branch of more general 
 application. The principles on which 
 the operations are carried on apply 
 as well to a small field as to the great- 
 est extent of land. The object is to 
 find the readiest channels by which 
 the superfluous water may be car- 
 ried off; and for this purpose an accu- 
 rate knowledge of the strata through 
 which the springs rise is indispen- 
 sable. It would be useless labour 
 merely to let the water run into drains 
 after it had sprung through the soil 
 and appears at the surface, as igno- 
 rant men frequently attempt to do, 
 and thus carry it off after it has al- 
 ready soaked the soil. But the origin 
 of the springs must, if possible, be 
 233 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 detected ; and one single drain or 
 ditch, judiciously disposed, nnay lay 
 a great extent of land dry if it cuts 
 off the springs before they run into 
 the soiL Abundant springs which 
 flow continually generally proceed 
 from the outbreaking of some porous 
 stratum in which the waters were 
 confined, or through natural crevices 
 in rocks or impervious earth. A 
 knowledge of the geology of the coun- 
 try will greatly assist in tracing this, 
 and the springs may be cut off with 
 greater certainty. But it is not these 
 
 Fi. 
 
 main springs which give the greatest 
 trouble to an experienced drainer ; it 
 is the various land-springs, which are 
 sometimes branches of the former, 
 and often original and independent 
 springs arising from sudden varia- 
 tions in the nature of the soil and sub- 
 sod. The annexed diagram, repre- 
 senting a section of an uneven sur- 
 face of land, will explain the nature 
 of the strata which produce springs. 
 " Suppose A A a porous gravel 
 through which the water filtrates 
 readily ; B B a stratum of loam or 
 
 clay impervious to water. The wa- 
 ter which comes through A A will 
 run along the surface of B B towards 
 S S, where it will spring to the sur- 
 face and form a lake or bog between 
 S and S. Suppose another gravelly 
 or pervious stratum under the last, 
 as C, C, C, bending as here represent- 
 ed, and filled with water running; into 
 it from a higher level ; it is evident 
 that this stratum will be saturated 
 with water up to the dotted line E, F, 
 F, which is the level of the point in 
 the lower rock, or impervious stratum, 
 D, D, where the water can run over 
 it. If the stratum B B has any crev- 
 ices in it below the dotted line, the 
 water will rise through these to the 
 surface, and form springs rising from 
 the bottom of the lake or bog ; and 
 if B B were bored through and a pipe 
 inserted rising up to the dotted line, 
 as c, 0, the water would rise and stand 
 at o. If there were no springs at 
 S S, the space below the dotted line 
 might still be filled with water rising 
 from stratum C, C, C. But if the bo- 
 ring took place at G, the water would 
 not rise, but, on the contrary, if there 
 ■were any on the surface, it would be 
 carried down to the porous stratum 
 C, C, C, and run off. Thus in one sit- 
 uation boring will bring water, and 
 in another it will take it off. This 
 principle being well understood will 
 greatly facilitate all drainmgs of 
 234 
 
 springs. Wherever water springs, 
 there must be a pervious and an im- 
 pervious stratum to cause it, and the 
 water either runs over the impervi- 
 ous surface or rises through the crev- 
 ices in it. When the line of the 
 springs is found, as at S S, the obvi- 
 ous remedy is to cut a channel with 
 a sufficient declivity to take off the 
 water in a direction across this line, 
 and sunk through the porous soil at 
 the surface into the lower impervious 
 earth. The place for this channel is 
 where the porous soil is the shallow- 
 est above the breaking out, so as to 
 require the least depth of drain, but 
 the solid stratum must be reached, 
 or the draining will be imperfect. 
 It is by attending to all these circum- 
 stances that Elkington acquired his 
 celebrity in draining, and that he has 
 been considered as the father of the 
 system. It is, however, of much 
 earlier invention, and is too obvious 
 not to have struck any one who seri- 
 ously considered the subject. In the 
 practical application of the principle, 
 great ingenuity and skill may be dis- 
 played, and the desired effect may be 
 produced more or less completely, 
 and at a greater or less expense. 
 The advice of a scientific and prac- 
 tical drainer is always well worth the 
 cost at which it may be obtained. 
 
 " When there is a great variation in 
 the soil, and it is difficult to find any 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 main line of springs, it is best to pro- 
 ceed experimentally by making pits a 
 few feet deep, or by boring in various 
 parts wbere water appears, observing 
 the level at which the water stands 
 in these pits or bores, as well as the 
 nature of the soil taken out. Thus 
 it will generally be easy to ascertain 
 whence the water arises, and how it 
 may be let off. When there is a 
 mound of light soil over a more im- 
 pervious stratum, the springs will 
 break out all round the edge of the 
 mound ; a drain laid round the base 
 will take offall the water which arises 
 from this cause, and the lower part 
 of the land will be effectually laid dry. 
 So, likewise, where there is a hollow 
 or depression of which the bottom is 
 clay, with sand in the upper part, a 
 drain laid along the edge of the hol- 
 low, and carried round it, will prevent 
 the water running down into it and 
 forming a marsh at the bottom. 
 
 " When the drains cannot be carried 
 to a sufficient depth to take the water 
 out of the porous stratum saturated 
 with it, it is often useful to bore nu- 
 merous holes with a proper auger in 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 
 ■C'&S-A 
 
 ditch (h, h) across it and sinking holes 
 into the subsoil. One of these holes 
 is shown in Ftg. 2 (a, b), and the man- 
 ner in which it conveys the surface 
 water away. The bottom of the 
 drains is sometimes choked with 
 loose sand, which flows up with the 
 water, and they require to be cleared 
 repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after 
 the first rush is past, and the water 
 
 the bottom of the drain through the 
 stiffer soil, and, according to the prin- 
 ciple explained in the diagram, the 
 water will either rise through these 
 bores into the drains and be carried 
 off, and the natural springs will be 
 dried up, or it will sink down through 
 them as at G, in the section, if it lies 
 above. This method is often advan- 
 tageous in the draining of peat bogs, 
 which generally lie on clay or stiff 
 loam, with a layer of gravel between 
 the loam and the peat, the whole ly- 
 ing in a basin or hollow, and often on 
 a declivity. The peat, though it re- 
 tains water, is not pervious, and 
 drains may be cut into it which will 
 hold water. When the drains are 
 four or five feet deep and the peat is 
 much deeper, holes are bored down 
 to the clay below, and the water is 
 pressed up through these holes, by 
 the weight of the whole body of peat, 
 into the drains, by which it is carried 
 off. The cuts, Figs. 2 and 3, repre- 
 sent a common case of this kind ; h, h 
 (3) are the sides of a hill ; the swampy 
 lot below is filled with springs, which 
 are, however, drained by running a 
 
 rises slowly and regularly. The sur- 
 face of the peat being dried, dressed 
 with lime, and consolidated with 
 earth and gravel, soon becomes pro- 
 ductive. If the soil, whatever be its 
 nature, can be drained to a certain 
 depth, it is of no consequence what 
 water may be lodged below it. It is 
 only when it rises so as to stagnate 
 about the roots of plants that it is 
 235 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 hurtful. Land may be drained so 
 much as to l)e deteriorated, as expe- 
 rience has shown. 
 
 " When a single large and deep 
 drain will produce the desired eflect, 
 it is much better than when there are 
 several smaller, as large drains are 
 more easily kept open, and last long- 
 er tlian smaller ; but this is only the 
 case in tapping main springs, tor if 
 the water is ditlused through the sur- 
 rounding soil, numerous small drains 
 are more effective : but as soon as 
 there is a sufficient body of water 
 collected, the smaller drains should 
 run into larger, and these into main 
 drains, which should all, as far as is 
 practicable, unite into one principal 
 outlet, by which means there will be 
 less chance of their being choked up. 
 WTien the water springs into a drain 
 from below, it is best to fill up that 
 part of the drain which lies above 
 the stones or other materials which 
 form the channel, with solid earth 
 well pressed in, and made impervious 
 to within a few inches of the bottom 
 of the furrows in ploughed land, or 
 the sod in pastures ; because the 
 water running along the surface is 
 apt to carry loose earth with it, and 
 choke the drains. When the water 
 comes in by the sides of the drains, 
 loose stones or gravel, or any porous 
 material, should be laid in them to the 
 line where the water comes in, and a 
 little above it, over which the earth 
 may be rammed in tight, so as to al- 
 low the horses to walk over the drain 
 without sinking in. 
 
 " It sometimes happens that the 
 water collected from springs, which 
 caused marshes and bogs below, by 
 being carried in new channels, may 
 be usefully employed in irrigating the 
 land which it rendered barren before ; 
 not only removing the cause of bar- 
 renness, but adding positive fertility. 
 In this case the lower ground must 
 have numerous drains in it, in order 
 that the water let on to irrigate it 
 may not stagnate upon it, but run olT 
 after it has answered its purpose. 
 
 " The third branch in the art of drain- 
 in ff is the removal of water from imper- 
 vious soils which lie flat, or in hollows, 
 2:3G 
 
 where the water from rain, snow, or 
 dews, which cannot sink into the soil 
 on account of its impervious nature, 
 and which cannot be carried olT by 
 evaporation, runs along the surface 
 and stagnates in every depression. 
 This is by far the most expensive 
 operation, in consequence of the num- 
 ber of drains required to lay the sur- 
 face dry. It requires much skill and 
 practice to lay out the drains so as 
 to produce the greatest effect at the 
 least expense. There is often a layer 
 of light earth immediately over a sub- 
 stratum of clay, and after continued 
 rains this soil becomes filled with 
 water, like a sponge, and no healthy 
 vegetation can take place. In this 
 case numerous drains must be made 
 in the subsoU, and over the draining 
 tiles or bushes, which may be laid at 
 the bottom of the drains, loose gravel 
 or broken stones must be laid to with- 
 in a foot of the surface, so that the 
 plough shall not reach them. The 
 water will gradually sink into these 
 drains and be carried ofT, and the 
 loose wet soil will become firm and 
 dry. In no case is the advantage of 
 draining more immediately apparent. 
 The average depth is 30 inches. 
 
 " It is very seldom that a field is ab- 
 solutely level ; the first thing, there- 
 fore, to be ascertained is the greatest 
 inclmation and its direction. For this 
 purpose, there is an instrument essen- 
 tial to a drainer, with which an accu- 
 rately horizontal line can be ascer- 
 tained, by means of a plummet, a 
 bricklayer's level, or a spirit level. 
 A sufficient fall may thus be found or 
 artificially made in the drains to car- 
 ry off the water. The next object 
 is to arrange drains so that each 
 shall collect as much of the water in 
 the sod as possible. Large drains, 
 except as main drains, are inadmis- 
 sible. The depth should be such 
 only that the plough may not reach it, 
 if the land is arable, or the feet of 
 cattle tread it in, if it be in pasture. 
 All the drains which are to collect 
 the water should lie as nearly at 
 right angles to the inclination of the 
 surface as is consistent with a suffi- 
 cient fall in the drains to make them 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 run. One foot is sufficient fall for a ' 
 drain 300 feet in length, provided the 
 drains be not more than twenty feet 
 apart. The main drains, by being 
 laid obliquely across the fall of the 
 frround, will help to take off a part of 
 the surface water. It is evident that 
 the drains can seldom be in a straight j 
 line unless the ground be perfectly 
 even. They should, however, never : 
 have sudden turns, but be bent grad- ' 
 ually where the direction is changed. 
 The flatter the surface and the stiffer 
 the soil, the greater number of drains 
 will be required. It is a common 
 practice with drainers to run a main 
 drain directly down the slope, how- 
 ever rapid, and to carry smaller 
 drains into this alternately on the 
 right and left, which they call her- 
 ring-bone fashion. But this can only 
 be approved of where the ground is 
 nearly level, and where there is very 
 little Vail for the main drain. A con- 
 siderable fall is to be avoided as much | 
 as possible ; and every drain should \ 
 lie obliquely to the natural run of the j 
 water. It generally happens that, 
 besides surface water, there are also 
 some land-springs arising from a va- 
 riation in the soil ; these should be 
 carefully ascertained, and the drains 
 should be so laid as to cut them off. 
 " In draining clay land, where there 
 is only a layer of a few inches of 
 looser soil over a solid clay, which 
 the plough never stirs, the drains 
 need not be deeper than two feet in 
 the solid clay, nor wider than they 
 can be made without the sides falling 
 in. The common draining tile, which 
 is a flat tile bent in the form of half 
 a cyUnder, and which can be made at 
 a very cheap rate, is the best for ex- 
 tensive surface draining. In solid 
 clay it requires no fiat tile under it ; 
 it is merely an arch to carry the loose 
 stones or earth with which the drain 
 is filled up. Loose round stones or 
 pebbles are the best where they can 
 be procured ; and in default of them, 
 bushes, heath, or straw may be laid. 
 In grass land the sod may be laid 
 over the drain, after it has been filled 
 up, so as to form a slight ridge over 
 it. This will soon sink to a level 
 
 with the surface. To save the ex- 
 pense of stone or tiles, drains are 
 frequently made si.x inches wide at 
 the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut 
 in the solid clay, two or three inches 
 wide and six deep («), leaving a shoul- 
 der on each side to support a sod, 
 which is cut so as to fit the drain, and 
 rest on the shoulders {h) ; this sod 
 keeps the earth from filling the chan- 
 nel (see Fiff. 4). It is filled up as de- 
 
 scribed before : such drains are made 
 at a small expense, and will last for 
 many years. 
 
 " Where the clay is not sufficiently 
 tenacious, the bottom of the drain is 
 sometimes cut with a sharp angle, 
 and a twisted rope of straw is thrust 
 into it. This keeps the earth from 
 falUng in, and the running of the wa- 
 ter keeps the channel open ; the straw, 
 not being exposed to the air, remains 
 a long time without decaying. It is 
 a common mistake to suppose that 
 in these drains water enters from 
 above ; it rises from below. 
 
 " The best materials for large main 
 drains, where they can be procured, 
 are flat stones which readily split, and 
 of which a square or triangular chan- 
 nel is formed in the bottom of the 
 drain. If the drain is made merely 
 as a trunk to carry off the water, it 
 is best to fill it up with earth, well 
 pressed in, over the channel made by 
 the stones. A very useful draining 
 j tile is used in Berkshire and other 
 ' places, which requires no flat tile un- 
 der it, even in loose soils, because it 
 j has a flat foot to rest on, formed of 
 j the two thick edges of the tile, which, 
 I nearly meeting when the tile is bent 
 round, form the foot. The section of 
 1 the tile is like a horseshoe. It is 
 237 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 well adapted for drains where the wa- 
 ter springs upward, and it is less apt 
 to slip out 01" its place than the com- 
 mon tile. 
 
 "In draining fields it is usual to 
 make the outlets of the drains in the 
 ditch which bounds them. The few- 
 er outlets there are, the less chance 
 there is of their being choked : they 
 should fall into the ditch at two feet 
 from the bottom, and a wooden trunk, 
 or one of stone, should be laid so that 
 the water may be discharged without 
 carrying the soil from the side of the 
 ditch. If there is water in the ditch, 
 it should be kept below the mouth of 
 the drain. The outlets of all drains 
 should be repeatedly examined, to 
 keep them clear ; for wherever wa- 
 ter remains in a drain it will soon 
 derange or choke it. The drains 
 should be so arranged or turned that 
 
 the outlet shall meet the ditch at an 
 obtuse angle towards the lower part 
 where the water runs to. A drain 
 brought at right angles into a ditch 
 must necessarily soon be choked by 
 the deposition of sand and earth at 
 its mouth. The channel or water- 
 way of drains is hable to the inroads 
 of rats, moles, and other vermin ; 
 they may be kept out by inserting 
 occasionally a piece of perforated tin 
 plate, or wire grates. 
 
 " As the draining of wet clay soils 
 is the only means by which they can 
 be rendered profitable as arable land, 
 and the expense is great, various in- 
 struments and ploughs have been 
 contrived to diminish manual labour 
 and expedite the work. Of these one 
 of the simplest is the common mole 
 plough (Fig. 5), which, in very stiff 
 clay, makes a small hollow drain, from 
 
 ^^^\\\ 
 
 Lumbert'a Mole Plough. 
 
 one foot to 18 inches below the sur- 
 face, by forcing a pointed iron cylin- 
 der horizontally through the ground. 
 It makes a cut through the clay, and 
 leaves a cylindrical channel, through 
 which the water which enters by the 
 slit is carried off. It requires great 
 power to draw it, and can only be used 
 when the clay is moist. In meadows 
 it is extremely useful, and there it 
 need not go more than a foot under 
 the sod. Five to ten acres of grass 
 land may easily be drained by it in a 
 day. It is very apt, however, to be 
 filled in dry weather by the soil fall- 
 ing in ; and moles often do much 
 damage to it by using it in their sub- 
 terraneous workings. 
 
 " But draining ploughs have been 
 invented which greatly accelerate the 
 238 
 
 operation of forming drains, by cut- 
 ting them out in a regular manner, 
 when they are immediately finished 
 with the usual tools and filled up. 
 See Drainivg Plough. It has done 
 wonders in some of the wet, stiff soils 
 in Sussex, and is much to be recom- 
 mended in all wet and heavy clays. 
 In stony land it cannot well be used. 
 The subsoil plough, introduced to 
 public notice by Mr. Smith, of Deans- 
 ton, may be considered, in some 
 measure, as a draining plough, for it 
 loosens the subsoil, so that a few 
 main drains are sufficient to carry 
 off all the superfluous moisture ; and 
 it has, besides, the effect of not carry- 
 ing off more than what is superfluous. 
 By means of judicious drains and the 
 use of the subsoil plough the stiffest 
 
DKA 
 
 and wettest land may in time become 
 the most fertile. 
 
 "The tools used in draining are 
 few and simple. Spades, with taper- 
 ing blades of different sizes, are re- 
 quired to difi the drains of the proper 
 width and the sides at a proper an- 
 gle. When the drain begins to be 
 very narrow near the bottom, scoops 
 are used of different sizes, which are 
 fi.ved to handles at various anglcjs, 
 more conveniently to clear the bot- 
 tom and lay it smooth to the exact 
 width of the tiles, if these are used ; 
 for tiie more firmly the tiles are kept 
 in their places by the solid sides of 
 the drain, the less likely they are to 
 be moved. 
 
 Figs. 6, 7, 8, represent three of the 
 most common tools. A heavy plough 
 is first run in the line of the drain and 
 back, unless it be desirable to retain 
 the sod, which must be cut off" with 
 a spade. In the furrow so made a 
 hand enters with the spade a, which 
 is six inches wide at the top, four be- 
 low, and fourteen inches deep ; the 
 spits of earth are thrown to the right, 
 the turf being on the left side. An- 
 other workman follows with b, which 
 is four inches above and two or three 
 below, according to the intended size 
 of the channel of the drain. Lastly, 
 the scoop, c, is used to take out the 
 last portions of earth, and clear away 
 anv rubbish. 
 
 DRA 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fi?. 6. 
 
 Fig.J. 
 
 DRAINING PLOUGH. Several 
 massive ploughs have been construct- 
 ed for the purpose of opening the 
 greater part of the ditch at one stroke ; 
 they are double mould-board ploughs. 
 Figs. 1 and 2 represent two views 
 of Gray's draining plough. In 1 the 
 
 side is figured, and 2 is taken from 
 above, aa are wheels which, with the 
 
 front wheel, regulate the depth of the 
 furrow. A stout coulter, b, is fixed 
 S39 
 
DRE 
 
 before the share to cut the way. 
 Perpendicularly on each side two 
 coulters, c, arc fixed, which cut in an 
 inclined direction to form the sides 
 of the drain : thoy can be set for any 
 required inclination. The earth thus 
 cut is divided by the share, half being 
 forced up each side of the mould- 
 board as the plou<,'li advances. It 
 requires six to eight strong horses to 
 draw it. 
 
 DRASTIC (from dpaariKoc, active). 
 Medicines which act violently. 
 
 DRENCH. In farriery, a large 
 drink or draught of any liquid reme- 
 dy given to an animal, usually by 
 means of a horn properly cut for the 
 purpose. 
 
 A drink is not so portable as a ball ; 
 it is more troublesome to give, and a 
 portion of it is usually wasted. Mr. 
 Stewart strenuously urges the follow- 
 ing propositions : 1. That draughts, 
 particularly when pungent or disa- 
 greeable, are dangerous. 2. That by 
 no care can the danger be altogether 
 avoided. 3. That no draught should 
 be given unless the horse be in dan- 
 ger of dying without it. 4. That the 
 safest way of administering draughts 
 
 DRI 
 
 is to give them when the horse is Ij-- 
 ing. 5. That a draught is seldom or 
 never absolutely necessary but in dis- 
 eases that make the horse lie. 6. 
 That a bottle is a better drenching 
 instrument than a horn. 
 
 DRESSING. In farriery, the ap- 
 plication of plasters, &c., to wounds. 
 The application of manure. 
 
 DRILL. A long, straight line, in 
 which seeds or plants are set. Dnll 
 husbandry is the cultivation of crops 
 in drills instead of broad-cast. 
 
 DRILL MACHINES. Contrivan- 
 ces for the purpose of running: a drill 
 furrow, depositing seed therein, and 
 covering it with earth. They are 
 simple — making one furrow only, for 
 beans, pease, &c. — or compound, ma- 
 king many drills, for wheat, turnips, 
 &c. The principal difficulty in the 
 action of drills is the inequality of the 
 soil. Sometimes a contrivance for 
 the deposite of manures is added to 
 the machine, which becomes a seed 
 and manure dr*l. Adjustments for 
 the width of furrows are also intro- 
 duced in the more complex imple- 
 ments 
 
 Ftg. 1 represents the simplest drill 
 
 barrow, a is the hopper containing 
 seed ; the bottom is closed by a cyl- 
 inder, in which there are holes at 
 proper distances for one or more 
 seeds ; this is made to revolve by 
 a string or strap of leather passing 
 
 from the axis of the wheel to the 
 axis of the cylinder ; c is a coulter 
 which scrapes the furrow, and behind 
 it the seeds are deposited as the cyl- 
 inder turns round. Such a machine 
 has to be used upon land already pre- 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 240 
 
DRILL MACHLXES. 
 
 pared, and is run along the summit 
 of the furrows. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a much more important 
 single drill for beans, &c. It is fur- 
 nished with a circular coulter, c ; a 
 small double-moukl-hoard plough ; a 
 wheel, a, to regulate the depth of 
 furrow ; and an arrangement of le- 
 vers, b, by which the seed-cylinder is 
 thrown out of gearing in a moment 
 by the workman, as the barrow is 
 moving over the butts, &c. The re- 
 volving cylinder, in this case, is mo- 
 ved by an axis furnished with a cog- 
 wheel, set in motion by the wheel 
 itself. It is a very excellent ma- 
 
 chine, and can be used to prepare 
 the soil, or on level ground, without 
 previous ploughing. 
 
 Figs. 3 and 4 represent views of 
 a turnip drill barrow, with a contri- 
 vance for fluid manure, water, &c., 
 to be deposited at the time of sow- 
 ing. The seeds are contained in a 
 cylindrical tin can, furnished with 
 holes at proper distances, b ; this is 
 set in motion by the band running 
 from the wheel, and deposites the 
 seed in a funnel, the front part of 
 which scrapes the drill ; a is the res- 
 ervoir of fluid, which discharges its 
 contents along the tube, d, immedi- 
 
 ately upon the seed sown ; after 
 the stream, the roller, e, serves 
 to cover the seed, and thus com- 
 pletes the operation. Figure 
 4 represents the seed cylinder, 
 funnel, and roller from behind. 
 The stream of fluid manure is 
 necessarily very fine. 
 
 Weir's manuring one-ro\o drill 
 IS figured in 5 and 6. It is a 
 great improvement on the cele- 
 brated Northumberland turnip 
 drill. 
 X 
 
 341 
 
DRILL MACHINES. 
 
 " It has a manure hopper, a, and a 
 seed hopper, b, the same as the oth- 
 er; but the manure, in place of being 
 dropped along with the seed, is de- 
 posited in a deep gutter made by a 
 coulter, c, which goes before ; this 
 manure is covered by a pronged coul- 
 ter, (/, which follows the other ; next 
 comes the coulter which forms the 
 gutter for the seed, c. The seed is 
 thus deposited about one inch above 
 the manure. One roller of the eon- 
 cave kind goes before the machine, 
 and another light one of the common 
 kind follows after it ; or, without at- 
 
 tached rollers, the drill may be affixed 
 to one side of the common roller, be- 
 hind, which roller may prepare one 
 drill and cover the seed sown on an- 
 other each course." 
 
 The deposite of seed in this and 
 the best drills is managed by a re- 
 volving axis, turned by a cog-wheel, 
 which fits into a wheel on the axis 
 of the large wheel,/. 
 
 Morion's grain drill, for three or 
 five furrows, is shown in Ftg. 7. The 
 following is Loudon's account of this 
 machine : 
 
 " It is decidedly the simplest and 
 
 best of grain drills. In this machine 
 three hoppers are included in one 
 box, the seed escaping out of all the 
 three by the revolution of three seed 
 cylinders upon one axle ; and drills 
 of different breadths are produced 
 simply by the shifting of a nut, that 
 fixes a screw moving in a groove in 
 the under-frame, by which the dis- 
 tance between the two outside con- 
 ductors and the central one (which 
 is fixed) can be varied from nine to 
 ten or eleven inches ; and that the 
 two small wheels may always be at 
 the same distances respectively as 
 the conductors, there are two wash- 
 ers (hollow cylinders), an inch iu 
 breadth, on the axle-arms of each, 
 which may be transferred either to 
 the outside or inside of the wheels, 
 so as to make their distances from 
 the outside conductors nine, ten, or 
 eleven inches respectively also. The 
 small wheels may be raised or de- 
 pressed, so as to alter the depth at 
 which the seed shall be deposited, by 
 the action of a wedge, which retains 
 242 
 
 the upright part of the axle in any 
 one of a number of notches, which 
 are made similarly in both, and which 
 are caught by an iron plate on the 
 upper side of the arms which carry 
 the axles. This machine may be still 
 farther improved by increasing the 
 number of conductors to five instead 
 of three, the latter number giving too 
 light work to the horses."' — {Highland 
 Soc. Trans., vol. vii.) 
 
 Cooke's grain drill is seen in Fig. 
 8. It has been long employed with 
 Fig. 6. 
 
DRILL MACHINES. 
 
 success in the light soils of Norfolk 
 and Suffolk, England. On the beam, 
 a, the coulters to prepare drills are 
 arranged, the whole being capable of 
 lateral motion, so as to compensate 
 for irregularities in the motion of the 
 horse. The arrangement by which 
 the grain is conveyed from the hop- 
 per, by small cups fixed on stems, 
 into the funnels, is also seen in the 
 section. The ends of the funnels 
 which deliver seed are free to move 
 a few inches, so as to overcome ine- 
 qualities in the ground. This imple- 
 ment is also arranged as a common 
 horse hoe, or scarifier, by taking off 
 the apparatus for sowing. 
 
 The most important machine of 
 this class is the lever drill, which is 
 calculated to sow at a uniform depth 
 in uneven soils ; it is, however, ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 In the annexed figure (9) the box 
 for sowing manure is not added, as it 
 is in the Northumberland drill. The 
 drill is supported on a frame and two 
 wheels. The box A, which holds the 
 seed, lets it down gradually into a 
 lower part, in which the cylinder, 
 which has the small cups fixed to its 
 circumference, is turned by the wheel 
 D. By means of the lever G this 
 may be raised so that its teeth are 
 freed from those of the wheel E, and 
 the motion of the cylinder is stopped. 
 The coulters which make the drills 
 are each fixed to a lever, at one end 
 of which, B, a weight is fixed to press 
 the coulter into the ground. Each 
 coulter has a separate lever, so that 
 it adapts itself to all the inequalities 
 of the soil. A chain proceeds from 
 the end of each, and may be wound 
 round a cylinder, C, by turning the 
 handles fixed to it at H, where there 
 is also a racket-wheel to prevent its 
 unwinding. The intent of this is to 
 raise all the coulters out of the ground 
 when the drill is not intended to act, 
 or is moved from place to place. 
 When the drill is used, the box A is 
 filled with seed, and the slide in it so 
 adjusted as to supply it regularly ; 
 the lever G, which was fixed down, 
 is raised, and the wheel D connected 
 with the wheel E. As the horses 
 
 proceed the cylinder turns, the cups 
 take up the seed, and throw it into 
 the funnels, K K, which conduct it to 
 the drill behind the coulter. A light 
 harrow or a bush-harrow follows, 
 which covers the seed. In very loose 
 soils the roller completes the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Other forms and modifications of 
 this class of machines exist; thus, a 
 patent was taken out by Mr. Hornsby 
 for a drill to sow at intervals instead 
 of along the whole line. In the Uni- 
 ted States, drills have not been much 
 used ; BemcnVs is similar to the one 
 in Fig. 1, and is somewhat employ- 
 ed for beans. Messrs. Pennock, of 
 Pennsylvania, have a patent for a 
 grain drill of considerable merit and 
 success. 
 
 From the neglect with which such 
 contrivances have been treated, some 
 may suppose that they are not of 
 much value ; this is by no means the 
 case, as the following summary by 
 Mr. Binns shows : 
 
 1. The seed is delivered with reg- 
 ularity. 
 
 2. It is deposited at proper depths. 
 
 3. The weeds, during the growth 
 of plants, are destroyed wuth great 
 facility. 
 
 4. The plants cultivated receive 
 the undivided benefit of the soil and 
 manure, and have not to maintain a 
 constant struggle with weeds. 
 
 5. The land, by the process of hoe- 
 ing, is undergoing preparations for 
 another crop. 
 
 6. The necessity of summer fallow- 
 ing is avoided. 
 
 7. By admission of the sun and air 
 between the rows, a stronger and 
 healthier plant is produced, and of 
 course a heavier crop. 
 
 8. By stirring the soil it is more 
 susceptible of benefit from the atmo- 
 sphere, imbibing more oxygen, and 
 being both warmed and enriched by 
 the sun. 
 
 9. The roots shoot freely in pul- 
 verized soil. 
 
 10. By drilling, the farmer is en- 
 abled to have heavier crops of beans 
 and wheat on light land. 
 
 11. Clover and grass seeds answer 
 
 243 
 
DRILL MACHLNES. 
 
 214 
 
DRY 
 
 DUC 
 
 incomparably better in tlie pulveriza- 
 tion produced by hoeing, independent 
 of the clearness from weeds. 
 
 12. The drills give facility for de- 
 positing smaller portions of manure 
 with greater effect. 
 
 A saving of half the seed is also 
 effected. But, on the other hand, the 
 expense of hoeing wheat, &.c., very 
 much increases the price of cultiva- 
 tion ; although it is, according to the 
 evidence of practical men, repaid by 
 the large increase of crop. 
 
 The soils most benefited by this 
 operation are light, sandy, and calca- 
 reous ; on clays, the treading causes 
 too much stiffening. 
 
 Such crops as beans, pease, cot- 
 ton, turnips, carrots, and beets are 
 now most usually sown in drills with 
 the greatest advantage. Such rough 
 seeds as carrots require to be first 
 well rubbed with sand to remove the 
 spines. 
 
 DRILL ROLLER. A roller fur- 
 nished with a number of sharp rings 
 projecting from tlie surface, which 
 cut the earth and leave drills to sow 
 seeds in : it is only suitable on light 
 soils. 
 
 DROPSY. See Horse, &c. 
 
 DROSO.METER (from 6poao^, dew, 
 and //erpor, a measure). Any arrange- 
 ment for measuring or weighing the 
 quantity of dew falUng at any given 
 time. Dr. Wells's contrivance is the 
 simplest ; he exposed a known weight 
 of dry wool, and afterward weighing 
 it when saturated with dew, obtained 
 a measure of the increase of moist- 
 ure. 
 
 DRUPE. In botany, a one-celled, 
 one or two seeded, fleshy fruit ; as the 
 cherrv, plum, peach. 
 
 DRY DISTILLATION. The same 
 as Destructive Distillation. 
 
 DRYING OIL. This usually 
 means linseed oil which has been 
 boiled with white-lead. It forms the 
 basis of many paints. 
 
 DRY HOT. A rotting or decay of 
 wood, whereby it falls gradually into | 
 powder. It is produced by the action I 
 of numerous parasitical fungi, prob- 
 ably of the genus Sporolrichum. It is 
 Diost usually seen in the new wood, | 
 X Z 
 
 and in damp situations, and may he 
 perfectly prevented by saturating the 
 timber with several metallic solutions, 
 of which blue vitriol (sulphate of cop- 
 per), acetate of iron {pyrolignate), and 
 ; corrosive sublimate are most certain. 
 I Allowing wood to be immersed in a 
 cream of lime, in tar, &c., for some 
 weeks, or perfectly drying and slight- 
 ly charring the timber, is an easy pre- 
 ventive. The methods of preser- 
 vation by using metallic solutions are 
 termed Kyanizing, and are now ac- 
 complished with extensive machines, 
 for the purpose of expediting the pen- 
 etration of the fluid. In these cases 
 the albumen of the wood, which is 
 most liable to change, is disorgan- 
 ized and rendered nearly incorrupti- 
 ble. See Preservation of Timber. 
 
 DRY STOVE. A hot-house, in 
 which the air is kept very dry for trop- 
 ical plants derived from arid climates, 
 as cactuses. 
 
 DUCK. Many species of the genus 
 Anas. The common duck is econom- 
 ical ; one drake serves eight females. 
 The house should be clean and pro- 
 vided with nests. They are very fond 
 of insects, and slugs, toads, &c. The 
 female lays from fifty to sixty eggs 
 during March to May ; she sets a 
 month, and should be sparingly sup- 
 plied with moist food and kept away 
 from disturbance. The young should 
 not be allowed to go to the water at 
 first, but supplied with a little in a 
 hole : the duck must be kept cooped. 
 The ducklings are first to be fed on 
 bread crumbs soaked in milk, and 
 subsequently used to meal and herbs. 
 The feathers are valuable, and should 
 be plucked as soon as the animal is 
 dead : September and October are the 
 best times. It is usual to hatch ducks' 
 eggs under hens, which are better 
 nurses. The Muscovy being larger, 
 is preferred to the common duck by 
 many, hut is not as tender. 
 
 DUCTILITY. The property of be- 
 ing drawn or beaten into a fine film. 
 Gold, platinum, and sdver are the 
 most ductile of metals. 
 
 DUCTS. The tubes or tubular 
 vessels found in the wood, roots, 
 leaves, &c., of plants, which do not 
 245 
 
DWA 
 
 DYN 
 
 contain a fibre cipablo of unrolling. 
 They are marked with dots, bars, &c., 
 and arc probal)ly the channels in 
 which some part of the ascending sap 
 flows. 
 
 DUMOSE (from dumus, a hush). 
 Bushy. 
 
 DUNES. Hillocks of drift sand 
 found on the seacoast of New-Eng- 
 land and elsewhere. They are very 
 destructive to agriculture, and are to 
 be arrested only by growing long-root- 
 ed reed grasses, trees, &c., on them. 
 Species of Arundo and Elymus have 
 thus been made to arrest their ad- 
 vancement towards cultivated lands. 
 
 DUNG. See Farm-yard Manure, 
 Nioht-soil. 
 
 DUODENUM. The intestine im- 
 mediately next to the stomach. 
 
 DURA MATER. The fibrous cov- 
 ering of the brain. 
 
 DURAMEN. The heart wood. 
 
 DURHAM CATTLE. See Cattle. 
 
 DWARF TREES. The art of cul- 
 tivating fruit-trees of moderate or 
 dwarf size in the place of large, nat- 
 ural standards is an important point 
 in horticulture. Dwarfs are procured 
 by grafting on slow-growing, small 
 varieties, as the apple or pear on the 
 quince stock ; by raising seedlings in 
 pots, and transplanting into poor, bar- 
 ren soils, or by causing a branch to 
 take root and allowing it to fruit as 
 early as possible. Lopping off the 
 upright branches is the more common 
 method of hindering trees from grow- 
 ing too lofty. Fancy gardeners often 
 procure ornamental dwarfs of the or- 
 ange by grafting a cutting with flow- 
 er buds on a root and allowing it to 
 fruit. The Chinese are very curi- 
 ous in the cultivation of ornamental 
 dwarfs ; the following is the method 
 employed by them : 
 
 " The extremity of a branch, two 
 or three feet in length, in a fruit or 
 flower bearing state — for example, 
 the points of the branches of a fir- 
 tree bearing cones, or of an elm bear- 
 ing blossom buds— tjeing fixed on, a 
 ring of bark is taken off at the point 
 where it is desired that the roots 
 should be produced. The space thus 
 laid bare is covered with a ball of 
 246 
 
 moist clay, which is kept moist by 
 being covered with moss, which is 
 occasionally watered. In the course 
 of two or three months in some trees, 
 and of a year or two in others, roots 
 are protruded into the ball of clay. 
 The branch may then be cut off be- 
 low the part from whence the roots 
 have been protruded, and the branch 
 being planted in a pot of poor soil, 
 and kept sparingly supplied with wa- 
 ter, it will remain nearly in its pres- 
 ent state for many years, producing 
 leaves, and, perhaps, flowers, annual- 
 ly, but never shoots longer than a few 
 lines." 
 
 DYEING. See Cottoyi Dyeing, and 
 the different colours. 
 
 DYER'S BROOM. See Wood 
 Wa.reyi. 
 
 DYER'S WEED. Weld. 
 
 DYKE. A low earthen wall ; an 
 embankment. In geology, a mass of 
 condensed mineral matter, such as 
 granite, porphyry, basalt, trap, &c., 
 found intersecting strata, and evi- 
 dently produced by injection, in a 
 molten condition, through the strata. 
 They have been formp I during vio- 
 lent earthquakes, ant' are very im- 
 portant as forming an impervious 
 barrier to the drainage of land, and 
 giving rise to springs on hillsides. 
 
 DYNAMICS (from 6vvau.i^, power). 
 The science which examines the laws 
 and conditions of motion, in contra- 
 distinction to mechanics, which in- 
 vestigates the conditions of rest and 
 action of forces not producing mo- 
 tion. 
 
 DYNAMOMETER (from Swafiic, 
 and fiETpov, a measure). An instrument 
 for the purpose of measuring the 
 amount of strength or force exerted 
 in any draught, &c. In ascertaining 
 the draught for ploughs and other 
 agricultural implements, dynamome- 
 ters are now regularly introduced. 
 The commonest is Regnier's, consist- 
 ing of two semi-elliptical bars of steel 
 welded together at the ends, one of 
 which is affixed to the clevis of the 
 plough and the other to the hook of 
 the swinging trees. As draught is 
 made the springs are pulled closer 
 together, and set an index in motion 
 
DYNAMOMETER. 
 
 over a clock face marked into pounds 
 and hundreds. Leroy's implement 
 is a strong spring enclosed in a 
 box of cast iron, and in every re- 
 spect similar to Salter's spring bal- 
 ance. 
 
 The objection urged against these 
 dynamometers is, that the inequali- 
 ties of the soil produces so much vi- i 
 bration in the index that no satisfac- j 
 tory measures can be made. The 
 following contrivance to obviate this | 
 is the best proposed : 
 
 " The improvement consists in the 
 attachment of a small brass pump ! 
 filled with oil, the piston of which j 
 has one or two small apertures, i 
 
 There being no outlet from the pump, 
 it is evident that when any shock oc- 
 curs, caused by a stone, root, &c., 
 the oil having to pass from one side 
 of the piston to the other, the sud- 
 denness is greatly diminished by the 
 resistance, producing a correspond- 
 ing effect upon the pointer, which, as 
 these shocks are rapid, vibrates near- 
 er the actual draught of the machine, 
 which is the object in view, and not 
 the measurement of any impediment, 
 but a mean result of the whole." 
 
 i'Vi,'-. 1 represents an extemporane- 
 ous dynamometer recommended by 
 Mr. Cone, in the American Agricul- 
 turist. 
 
 h is the beam of the plough ; c, 
 common swinging trees ; a is an 
 ordinary steelyard hitched on to the 
 clevis and trees : the end of the yard 
 is fastened to a line which passes 
 from the hook of a common spring 
 balance, d, the other end of which is 
 also attached to another line tied to the 
 left handle of the plough. When the 
 horses pull, the steelyard lies in the 
 line of draught, and therefore draws 
 upon the balance, the sliding rod of 
 which is pulled out to an extent pro- 
 portionate to the draught. 
 
 For the purpose of making uniform 
 implements, Mr. Cone proposes that 
 the steelyard be constructed so that 
 1 lb. shall equipoise 32 lbs. near the 
 point of suspension, as in Fig. 2. 
 Adopting this, the measure of draught 
 is readily made ; for if the spring is 
 drawn out to 10 lbs., we multiply by 
 
 32, and add 10 lbs., so as to make 
 the draught 330 lbs. ; the number of 
 lbs. indicated by the spring is always 
 added to the sum, for that weight 
 would be necessary at the beam end 
 to balance it, and must not be omit- 
 ted. Any steelyard answers ; and we 
 may fa.sten the line at any convenient 
 mark, taking care afterw^ard to mul- 
 tiply the weight on the yard by that 
 on the spring, and adding as many 
 247 
 
EAR 
 
 Ihs. as would be necessary to balance I 
 the steelyard. This is, however, only 
 a coarse measure for the convenience 
 of the farmer, to enable him to ascer- 
 tain the draught of two different 
 ploughs, &c. 
 
 DYSENTERY (from <k>c, difficulty, 
 and evrepa, bowels). A looseness of 
 the bowels, attended with great pain 
 and loss of strength, and endemic. 
 See Horse, Ox. 
 
 DYSPEPSIA (from 6vc, difficulty, 
 and mnTL), I digest). Disordered di- 
 gestion, loss o( appetite, unnatural 
 appetite, &c. It is to be repaired by 
 simple diet, temperance, and exer- 
 cise. 
 
 DYSPNCEA (from dvg, difficulty, 
 and nvEco, I breathe). Difficulty of 
 breathing : a symptom of disease of 
 the chest or heart. 
 
 E. 
 EAR. In a horse, the ears should 
 be small, narrow, straight, and the 
 substance of them thin and delicate. 
 They should be placed on the very 
 top of the head ; and their points, 
 when pricked up, should be nearer 
 together than their roots. When a 
 horse carries his ears pointed for- 
 ward, he is said to have a bold or 
 brisk ear. In travelling, it is consid- 
 ered an advantage when the horse 
 keeps them firm. 
 
 EARS OF GRAIN. The spike 
 of wheat, corn, barley. 
 
 EARTH. In chemistry, those me- 
 tallic oxides which are colourless, 
 nearly or quite insoluble in water, 
 the metallic basis of which is obtain- 
 ed only with difficulty, and rapidly 
 oxidizes, are termed earths. The 
 entire list includes but ten species : 
 lime, magnesia, baryta, strontia, alu- 
 mina, glucina, thorina, zirconia, yt- 
 tria, and silica ; but of these lime, 
 alumina, and silica form the bulk of 
 the soils and rocks of the globe. 
 Magnesia is also rather abundant, 
 but most of the remainder are very 
 rare bodies. With the exception of 
 silica, which is an acid, they are ba- 
 ses. See the eartlis separately. 
 
 EARTHS, PHYSICAL PROPER- 
 TIES OF. The power of absorbing 
 24S 
 
 EAR 
 
 moisture and heat, of transmitting 
 fluids, and drying into dust or a hard 
 mass, are termed the physical quali- 
 ties of soils, and contribute, in a great 
 measure, to their fertility. This sub- 
 ject has been well investigated by 
 Mr. Schubler. 
 
 Capacity for holding Water. — If 
 soils of different kinds be wetted un- 
 til the fluid drops, it will be found 
 that 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 100 of dry sand retain 25 of water. 
 100 of calcareous sand 29 " 
 100 of loamy soil . . 40 " 
 100 of clay loam . . 50 " 
 100 of strong clay . 79 " 
 100 of peat 100 and more. 
 
 Good soils hold from forty to fifty 
 
 per cent, of water. 
 
 Absorbing Poiver. — Soils not only 
 
 hold water, but absorb it from the air 
 
 unequally. Thus, a quantity spread 
 
 out to the same extent, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 of sand, absorbed . of water, 
 of calcareous sand . 3 " 
 sandy loam ... 21 " 
 strong clay ... 30 " 
 garden mould ... 35 " 
 In the same way, they retain moist- 
 ure very unequally, sand losing it 
 four times more rapidly than mould. 
 Absorption of Gases. — A well-tilled 
 soil is continually absorbing from the 
 air gaseous matter, and its fertility 
 is, in a considerable degree, connect- 
 ed with this property. According to 
 Mr. Schubler, mould absorbs eleven 
 times, and clay nine times as fast as 
 sand. 
 
 I Absorption of Heat. — Black, well- 
 
 i tilled, and drained soils become more 
 rapidly heated, and to a greater de- 
 gree than such as are wet, of a light 
 colour, or baked. In the same way, 
 those that heat rapidly, cool rapidly, 
 and are more subject to frosts. By 
 experiments, mould cools in one third 
 the time, and clay in two thirds the 
 time of sand ; so that, if they be 
 equally heated, the sand will be warm 
 for hours after the mould is cold. 
 
 I Hence the latter absorbs dew and con- 
 tracts frost much more quickly than 
 
 , sandy soils. 
 
EBU 
 
 EGG 
 
 Adhesiveness, or the toughness of 
 lands, is of moment in working. Mr. 
 Piisey measured the force necessary 
 to draw the same plough through dif- 
 ferent soils, and found it for a 
 
 peat soil .... 280 pounds, 
 
 sandy loam . . . 250 " 
 
 loamy sand . . . 230 " 
 
 clay loam . . . 400 " 
 
 strong clay . . . 661 " 
 When this is considerable in pomt 
 of expense, it appears that it requires 
 nearly three times as much money to 
 turn a clay as it does a sandy soil. 
 
 The physical qualities, when im- 
 perfect, can be modified. Sand, ve- 
 getable matter, charcoal, and lime, 
 are used to lighten soils ; clay and 
 marls to stiffen those already too po- 
 rous. The character of any field de- 
 pends, in a great measure, upon the 
 subsoil; for upon a very porous sub- 
 soil a stiff clay is good to retain a 
 large quantity of water, whereas very 
 light lands are greatly Improved by 
 an impervious subsoil. 
 
 EARTH E.\TING. Horses and 
 oxen frequently eat a small amount 
 of earth. This, if persevered in, in- 
 dicates disordered digestion. It is 
 supposed by Youatt that the earth 
 may serve as a gentle purge. 
 
 EARTH NUTS. Numerous bulbs 
 are edible, and hence are called earth 
 nuts. The principal is the Pindar, 
 which see. 
 
 EARTH-WORM. Lumbrictts ter- 
 restris. Earth - worms are, on the 
 whole, serviceable to soils, by loosen- 
 ing and perforating them, and are said 
 to injure plants and seeds but little. 
 They indicate rich soil. Salt, applied 
 at the rate often bushels the acre, or 
 a heavy liming, destroys them effect- 
 ually for a season. 
 
 EARTHY MANURES. Marl, 
 lime, clay, and sand are so called. 
 They should rather be termed amend- 
 ments, since they serve to give the 
 soil new mechanical qualities. 
 
 EARWIG. Forficula auricularis. 
 A troublesome insect in Europe, but 
 rare in the United States. 
 
 EBl.'LLITION. Boiling. The 
 boiling point of different fluids is oft- 
 en of great importance. Water boils 
 
 at 212^ alcohol at UG", sulphuric 
 acid at 600^, Mercury at 6G2-, lin- 
 seed oil at 640% oil of turpentine at 
 316^, nitric acid at 248^, and ether 
 at 100-. 
 
 EDULCORATION. A chemical 
 term, meaning the repeated washing 
 by pure water of precipitates or pow- 
 ders until they are freed from soluble 
 impurities. 
 
 EFFERVESCENCE. The dis- 
 turbance made in a fluid by the es- 
 cape of gas. 
 
 EFFLORESCENCE. Some salts, 
 like carbonate of soda or soda ash, 
 by exposure to air lose their trans- 
 parency, and become white, crum- 
 bling into powder. This is termed 
 efflorescence. The same expression 
 also designates the appearance of 
 crystals upon earthy, rocky, or other 
 mineral surfaces. 
 
 EGGS. The white is a solution of 
 albumen with soda, and contains 85 
 per cent, of water ; the yellow con- 
 sists of 28 75 fat, 17 5 albumen, 55 
 salts, and the rest water. They are 
 eminently nutritive. Eggs are pre- 
 served by being packed, with the 
 small end downward, in salt ; they 
 are also dipped into a cream of lime. 
 The box in which they are packed 
 should be turned upside down every 
 two or three weeks, to hinder the 
 yolks from settling. The duty on 
 eggs in England of two cents a dozen 
 may render their exportation profita- 
 ble ; immense numbers are now sent 
 there from France. Eggs are read- 
 ily hatched by artificial heat, and a 
 machine called the " Eccaleobion" 
 has been exhibited for this purpose, 
 in which steam is used. 
 
 EGG PLANT. Solanum melange- 
 na. The purple kind is used for culin- 
 ary purposes, and is much esteem- 
 ed by many persons : the white, bear- 
 ing a fruit very similar to a hen's 
 egg, is ornamental. The seed must 
 be sown in a hot-bed in March, and 
 the plants taken with a ball of earth, 
 and set out in warm weather (April 
 or .May), about two feet apart ; they 
 require a rich, warm soil, and bear, 
 in August and September, fruit often 
 as large as a large muskmelon. The 
 249 
 
ELA 
 
 fruit of the white is usnl in France 
 as food. As they contain an acrid 
 principle, care is taken in the cooking 
 to remove it ; tiiis is done by warm- 
 ing thin slices in water, or allowing 
 it to steep in salt and water over 
 night, draining ofT the fluid, washing 
 well in fresh water, and then frying 
 in batter, &c. An ounce of good 
 seed yields 4000 plants. The ut- 
 most care is necessary to preserve 
 the young plants from being chilled 
 to death in the Northern States: it is 
 altogether a tender vegetable. 
 
 The S. i7isa7iiuni, or downy egg 
 plant, is occasionally cultivated in the 
 United States. 
 
 EGYPTIAN CORN. Sorghum. 
 An annual resembling broom corn, 
 but. producing a large, exposed ear, 
 with small, brown grains, condensed 
 together. It is to be planted and 
 managed like corn, but may be set 
 rather closer. The yield of grain is 
 from 75 to 100 bushels ; it is recom- 
 mended for poultry. The fodder ap- 
 pears to be inferior to that of Indian 
 corn, and, excepting the yield, there 
 does not seem to be anything to in- 
 duce the cultivation. 
 
 ELAIN (from eUiov, oil). The 
 fluid oil existing in fats, &c., which 
 may be separated by pressure, by cold, 
 or by digestmg in seven or eight times 
 its weight of boiling alcohol, which 
 acts upon the fat or tallow in such a 
 way that the elain floats above the 
 alcoholic solution, and the solid, or 
 stearin, sinks below when cold. See 
 Fats. 
 
 ELASTICITY. The power cer- 
 tain bodies possess of returning back 
 to their original bulk or position when 
 bent or compressed. Gases are the 
 most elastic bodies known, fluids the 
 least, and metals difTer exceedingly 
 in this respect. 
 
 Heating metals to a certain point 
 and suddenly cooling by immersion 
 in water imparts elasticity in some 
 cases ; steaming timbers also in- 
 creases the quality, for the time, in a 
 great measure. 
 
 " The principal phenomena of elas- 
 tic bodies are the following ; 1. That 
 an elastic body (the elasUcity being 
 250 
 
 ELD 
 
 supposed perfect) exerts the same 
 force in endeavouring to restore it- 
 self as that with which it was com- 
 l)ressed or bent. 2. The force of 
 elastic bodies is exerted equally in 
 all directions, but the effect chiefly 
 takes place on the side on which the 
 resistance is the least. 3. When an 
 elastic solid body is made to vibrate 
 by a sudden stroke, the vibrations 
 are performed in equal times, to 
 whatever part of the body the stroke 
 may be communicated. Thus, sono- 
 rous bodies always emit sounds of 
 the same pitch ; and the difference 
 of the pitch depends on the greater or 
 less frequency of the vibrations of 
 the sonorous body. 4. A body per- 
 fectly incompressible cannot be elas- 
 tic, therefore bodies perfectly solid 
 can have no elasticity ; and hence, 
 also, the small degree of elasticity 
 belonging to the liquids, which are em- 
 inently incompressible." — (Brandc.) 
 
 ELATER (from e/.arrjp, a Icaper). 
 A genus of spring beetles ; they are 
 vegetable feeders, the larvaj doing 
 occasionally much mischief to garden 
 plants by gnawing the roots. The 
 Elatcr noctducus is our common fire- 
 fly, the E. lineatus the wire-vvorra in- 
 sect. 
 
 ELATERIUM. Momordica clete- 
 riuni. Squirting cucumber. An in- 
 digenous annual vine, bearing a small 
 fruit like the cucumber, the juice of 
 which is a drastic purge. 
 
 ELBOW. The shoulder-joint of 
 cattle. A bend in carpentry. 
 
 ELDER. Two varieties are in- 
 digenous to the United States ; Sam- 
 buciis Canadensis, the common pest 
 of hedge-rows and margins of ponds, 
 and .S'. pubesccns, bearing a red berry, 
 common in the mountains of Penn- 
 sylvania. The black elder is of con- 
 siderable economical value ; the juice 
 of the berries, fermented with sugar, 
 forms an agreeable wine ; adecoction 
 of the fresh leaves is very obnoxious 
 to insects, and may be extensively 
 used in the garden ; it is also offen- 
 sive to moles. Sheep are said to se- 
 lect the leaves as a natural remedy 
 in rot. The plants, which grow from, 
 eight to fifteen feet high, are recom- 
 
ELE 
 
 Er,E 
 
 mended as a cheap hedge. On the 
 other hand, it is a great nuisance on 
 wet lands, from the rapidity of its 
 growth, but may i)e destroyed by cut- 
 ting down two or three times during 
 the summer, and grubbing in the fall. 
 
 ELDER. BOX. A common name 
 for the ash-leaved maple. 
 
 ELECAMPANE, hmla Hdrnivm. 
 A naturalized composite perennial, 
 yielding roots with a bitter, aromatic 
 taste. It is of little importance. 
 
 ELECTIVE AFFINITY. A chem- 
 ical term, meaning the preference ex- 
 erted by a body to combine with an- 
 other in place of one already in union. 
 Thus, potash will unite with sulphu- 
 ric acid, although it be already com- 
 bined with iron ; the iron is separa- 
 ted, and gives place to the potash, 
 wliich is preferred or elected. It is 
 governed by electrical forces, like all 
 other cases of chemical union. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. A peculiar in- 
 fluence or force, which is made evi- 
 dent by attracting light bodies, pro- 
 ducing a spark, or jarring the body of 
 animals. Some consider it material, 
 although its weight cannot be meas- 
 ured ; hence the term imponderable, 
 applied to electricity, light, and heat. 
 
 "This truly extraordinary power of 
 matter, independent of the interest 
 that always belonged to it, has of 
 late years acquired much importance, 
 from its influence over chemical phe- 
 nomena and its connexion with those 
 of magnetism. When a clean glass 
 tube is rubbed with the dry hand, or 
 with a piece of silk, it attracts arrd re- 
 pels any light substances — such as 
 feathers, bran, or little pieces of pa- 
 per — which are brought near it ; a 
 stick of sealing- w^ax rubbed upon dry 
 flannel exhibits the same appearan- 
 ces, and, to a superficial observer, 
 seems to be exactly in the same state 
 as the glass ; and they are said to be 
 electrically excited. But, on more 
 close examination, it is found that 
 when the light bodies are atlractcd by 
 excited glass, they are repelled by exci- 
 ted sealing-wax, andiricc versa, so that 
 the glass and wax are said to be in 
 opposite electric states ; and hence the 
 terms vitreous and resinous, or positive 
 
 and negative electricity. But these 
 two states are always coexistent ; 
 thus, when the glass is rubbed by silk 
 the glass becomes positive, but the 
 silk becomes negative ; and in the 
 case of sealing-wax rubbed by flan- 
 nel, the wax is negative, but the flan- 
 nel is positive. 
 
 " A similar excitation of electrici- 
 ty is seen in an infinity of other ca- 
 ses ; as when we rub a cat's back 
 with the hand, or a piece of silk rib- 
 and is drawn briskly between the fin- 
 gers, or a sheet of paper rubbed with 
 India rubber, or a metal rod with a 
 silk handkerchief. These, and other 
 extraordinary phenomena connected 
 with them, are hypothetically refer- 
 red to the presence of a peculiar form 
 of matter, called the electric fluid; it 
 is supposed to appertain to all mat- 
 ter, but to become evident only when 
 in redundance or deficiency. When 
 glass is rubbed with silk, the equilib- 
 rium of the electric fluid is disturbed, 
 the silk imparts it to the glass ; and 
 hence the former, losing electricity, 
 becomes minus or negative, and the 
 latter, acquiring electricity, becomes 
 plus or positive. This is commonly 
 called ' Franklin's theory,' having 
 been proposed and defended by that 
 celebrated electrician. Others have 
 assumed the existence of two fluids 
 as essential to the explanation of 
 electrical phenomena ; both equally 
 subtile, elastic, and universally diffu- 
 sed, and each highly repulsive as to 
 its own particles, and attractive of 
 those of the opposite kind. Electri- 
 cal quiescence is referred to the com- 
 bination of these fluids and their con- 
 sequent mutual neutralization ; and 
 electrical excitation is the conse- 
 quence of either being free or in ex- 
 cess. It is supposed that they are 
 sejjarated by friction, and by all those 
 other causes which give rise to the 
 appearance of free electricity. Either 
 of these hypotheses may be adopted 
 as facilitating the explanation of elec- 
 trical phenomena, and as conferring 
 meaning (in terms which would oth- 
 erwise be unintelligible: of the two, 
 the sini[)l(>st, or that which refers the 
 piienomena to one fluid, js perhaps 
 
ELECTRICITY. 
 
 tlie most generally applicable. Both 
 are, apparently, equally consistent 
 with facts ; but the existence of any 
 fluid, or form of matter, as the cause 
 of electrical phenomena, is at best 
 extremely problematical. 
 
 " There are two series of distinct 
 phenomena rei)rcsente(l by electrified 
 bodies : the one seems to result from 
 the accumulation of electricity upon 
 the surface of bodies ; they are com- 
 monly included under the term elcctri- 
 cilij of tension, and are well exhibited 
 by the common electrical machine 
 and its prime conductor. It affects 
 all neighbouring bodies ; and they are 
 thrown by it into a polar electrical 
 state, by what is termed induction : 
 it has a tendency to pass off in sparks 
 through the air, or gradually to escape 
 from points. The thumlor-storm fur- 
 nishes a magnificent specimen of this 
 state of electricity. The other state 
 of sensible electricity is that exhibit- 
 ed by electricity in mo/ion ; as when 
 a current of electricity is passing 
 through a w'ire or other conducting 
 medium ; in this case a \ast quantitij 
 of electricity may be concerned in the 
 phenomena without any apparent in- 
 tensity ; but while the current is con- 
 tinuous it produces magnetic phe- 
 nomena of a most extraordinary char- 
 acter ; and when the perfect conduct- 
 or is broken by the intervention of 
 certain other media, they suffer, in 
 some cases, chemical decomposition, 
 and in others become heated, and 
 even ignited. The phenomena of 
 electricity in motion are best exhib- 
 ited by the Voltaic apparatus. 
 
 " In all electrical experiments, re- 
 markable differences are observed in 
 respect to the transfer of the electric 
 fluid through different bodies : some, 
 such as the metals, allow its free and 
 nearly unimpeded passage through 
 their substance ; while others receive 
 and retain it more superficially, such 
 as glass, resin, and other substances 
 which exhibit attractive and repul- 
 sive powers when rubbed. Hence 
 the division of bodies into conductors 
 and non-conductors. 
 
 "Many most important electrical 
 phenomena depend, apparently, upon 
 
 induction, a subject which has been 
 ably studied by Faraday. We shall 
 here enter into such details only as 
 are required to render some of the 
 principal terms employed in discuss- 
 ing electrical phenomena intelligible. 
 "If P-f- represent a metallic sphere 
 in a highly positive -n- r t. 
 electric state, and N @ 
 P a metallic conduct- 
 or in its vicinity in- 
 sulated upon a glass 
 stem, it will be found that the ex- 
 tremity N of N P is negative, while 
 the other extremity, P, is positive, 
 and that these opposite electricities 
 are greatest at the extremities of the 
 conductor, and gradually diminish to- 
 wards the centre line, C, which is 
 neutral. This extraordinary state of 
 excitation in N P is entirely depend- 
 ant upon the proximity of P -}- ; for 
 if P -j- be withdrawn, N P loses all 
 appearance of electricity ; and the 
 degree of excitement in it is directly 
 proportional to the extent to which 
 P 4" is excited, and (within certain 
 limits) to its nearness to N ; so that 
 fluctuations in the electricity of N P 
 will be observed in proportion as P -|- 
 is brought towards or removed from 
 N, provided they are not brought into 
 contact, and that no spark passes. 
 These phenomena have been theoret- 
 ically explained upon the supposition 
 that the free electricity in P -j- dis- 
 turbs the equilibrium of the natural 
 electricity of N P, and, by repelling it 
 from N to P, leaves the former minus 
 and the latter plus. Or, if we assume 
 the existence of two electric fluids, 
 then the free positive electricity of 
 P -\- repels the positive fluid of N P, 
 and attracts its negative fluid, throw- 
 ing it into an electro-polar state. If 
 N P, instead of being insulated, be 
 connected by its extremity, P, with 
 the ground, the accumulation at P 
 is prevented, while N retains its de- 
 ficient or negative state ; or, upon the 
 other theory, the positive fluid at P is 
 neutralized by a supply of negative 
 fluid from the earth ; and if, after 
 having effected this by momentarily 
 touching N P with the finger, we sud- 
 denly remove P -{-, the insulated con- 
 
ELECTRICITY. 
 
 ductor, N P, will be left with an ex- 
 cess of negative electricity. 
 
 " It will be obvious, from the above 
 statement, that when light bodies, es- 
 pecially if they be conductors, are at- 
 tracted by eleetritied surfaces in their 
 vicinity, they are thrown by induc- 
 tion into opposite electrical states ; 
 and when the hand is brought near 
 the excited conductorof the electrical 
 machine, it becomes negative, and 
 remains so until the equilibrium is 
 restored by the passage of a spark ; 
 which phenomenon is supposed to be 
 the result of the combination of the 
 two electric fluids. 
 
 " Many important phenomena of 
 electrical accumulation are 
 explained by reference to the 
 principles of induction, and 
 among them the action of the 
 I.rydcn jar, or vial. A thin 
 i;hiss jar, or bottle, A, is coat- 
 ed inside and out, to within 
 three or four inches of its mouth, with 
 some conducting substance ; tin foil, 
 being especially convenient for the 
 purpose, is generally used ; and a 
 metaUic rod, projecting a few inches 
 from the aperture, and surmounted 
 by a brass ball, B, communicates with 
 the interior coating. 
 
 " When the ball is applied to the 
 prime conductor of the electrical ma- 
 chine, and the outer coating commu- 
 nicates with the ground, the interior 
 acquires a positive and the exterior 
 a negative charge ; and on making a 
 communication by means of a con- 
 ductor between the inner and outer 
 coatings, the electricities are annihi- 
 lated with the production of a bright 
 spark and explosion, and by a most 
 disagreeable sensation, called the 
 electric shock, if the body be made 
 part of the circuit. When several 
 jars are so arranged that their inte- 
 rior and e.xterior coatings are all sep- 
 arately connected, the assemblage 
 constitutes the electrical battery. 
 
 " In the common electrical machines, 
 electricity is excited by the friction of 
 the plate or cylinder of glass upon the 
 cushions or rubbers ; and the glass 
 becomes positive, and communicates 
 the same state to the opposed con- 
 Y 
 
 ductor, generally termed the prime 
 conductor of the machine ; the rubber 
 becomes negative, and is sometimes 
 connected with a second conductor. 
 " The annexed figures represent 
 the two com- 
 mon forms of 
 the electrical 
 machine. The 
 first is the cyl- 
 inder machine, 
 commonly call- 
 ed Nairne's ma- 
 chine. B is the 
 glass cylinder, 
 which is made 
 to revolve upon its axis by the mul- 
 tiplying wheels, F C, the necessary 
 friction for the electric excitation be- 
 ing produced by the cushion and silk 
 flap, D. A A are the positive and 
 negative conductors : the latter, bear- 
 ing the cushion, is adjusted as to its 
 requisite pressure upon the cylinder 
 by the screw at E. The conductors 
 are respectively supported and insu- 
 lated by the glass pillars G G, which 
 should be coated with lac varnish ; 
 and the axis of the cylinder rests upon 
 the pillars H H, which are also of 
 glass. The second figure represents 
 the flatc machine, usually termed 
 Cuthbertson's machine, in which A 
 is the prime con- 
 ductor, borne by 
 a stout glass stem 
 which is attached 
 to the frame of the 
 machine. B B are 
 the upper and low- 
 er pairs of cush- 
 ions, by which, to- 
 gether with the 
 silk flaps, C C,the 
 necessary friction 
 is obtained. E is the disk of plate 
 glass, which is made to revolve upon 
 its axis by the winch F. In this ma- 
 chine, as the cushions or rubbers are 
 not insulated, the negative electrici- 
 ty cannot be separately accumulated 
 or exhibited, as in the cylinder ma- 
 chine. 
 
 " There are many other and highly 
 important causes of electric excita- 
 tion than those above adverted to ; 
 253 
 
ELE 
 
 ELE 
 
 such as contact of diflercnt metals." 
 
 See Galramxm. — {linuidr's Dirt.) 
 
 ELECTKICITV APPLIED TO 
 AGRICT'ETdKE. Much interest lias 
 been taken of lato in the application 
 of this agent to forwarding garden 
 vegetables, and indeed field crops. 
 Two plans are pursued. Wires are 
 
 Wire. 
 
 A number of these, at distances of 
 tvvo to four feet, are arranged through 
 the field, and the grain or plants sown 
 on the soil or in drills. It is stated 
 on good authority that rye, oats, 
 wheat, &c., so treated are singularly 
 developed and advanced in maturity: 
 it may be worthy of trial. In this 
 case the atmospheric electricity is 
 supposed to act. 
 
 The second plan is a galvanic ar- 
 rangement, but may be best intro- 
 duced here. Earge plates of sheet 
 copper and zinc are used, the size 
 depending upon the distance at which 
 they are placed : 18 inches deep and 
 three feet long may be used at a dis- 
 tance of 50 feet ; these are sunk into 
 the soil vertically, excepting three 
 
 supported upon atrellis running north 
 and south, at a height of four or six 
 feet ; at the ends of each trellis they 
 are bent down to the ground and 
 about three inches below it, and are 
 conveyed at this depth through the 
 soil, from one to the other end, so that 
 the wire forms a parallelogram, thus : 
 
 Surface of the earth. 
 
 inches of the top, which is left ex- 
 posed ; from one to the other pass- 
 es a stout copper wire, which is 
 well soldered to both and sustained 
 by a few sticks or a trellis. Such an 
 arrangement may be made to enclose 
 four or five drills of potatoes, carrots, 
 parsnips, &c. The fluid of the earth, 
 acting on the zinc, produces a corro- 
 sion, which gives rite to the galvanic 
 or electric current that traverses the 
 soil, and is said to cause plants to 
 grow very rapidly. This experiment, 
 tried with potatoes by Mr. Ross on 
 Long Island, was very successful, in 
 his opinion ; it is so manageable and 
 cheap as to be worthy of considera- 
 tion to market gardeners. The whole 
 will appear thus : 
 
 Wire supported by sticks above the soil. 
 
 Surface of the soil. 
 
 Zinc plate. 
 
 ELECTRODE (from rjlEKTpov, and 
 6(5of, a way). The surfaces l)v wjiich 
 electricity passes into and out of oth- 
 er media have been called by Mr. 
 Faraday electrodes. The term has 
 also sometimes been derived from 
 j;/l?/crpoi', arnhcr, and eido^., like, and 
 applied to substances wjiich, like am- 
 ber, becoiTie electric by friction. 
 
 E L E C T R 0-D Y NAM I C S ( from 
 riACKTpov, and ih'vnui^, porcer). The 
 phenomena of electricity in motion. 
 2.54 
 
 Copper plate. 
 
 ELECTROLYTE (from v^eKrpov, 
 and ?.v(j, I set free). Sulistanees sus- 
 ceptible of direct decomposition by 
 the action of the electric current : 
 hence, also, the verb electrolyze, i. e., 
 to resolve compounds into their ele- 
 ments by the agency of electricity. 
 Faraday has shown that in many 
 supposed cases of electrolysis the 
 evolution of elements is the conse- 
 <iuence of a secondary action ; tlie 
 sulphur, for instance, which is thus 
 
ELE 
 
 ELE 
 
 evolved at the negative pole from 
 sulphuric acid, is the result of the ev- 
 olution of hydrogen at that pole. In 
 all cases of true electrolytic action, 
 sulphur appears at the anode. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. When 
 a current of electricity is traversing 
 any substance, or when electricity is 
 in motion, magnetism is at the same 
 time developed. This fact was first 
 observed by Professor Oersted of Co- 
 penhagen, and has become the source 
 of an important series of discoveries 
 included under the above term. The 
 excitation of magnetism depends 
 upon quantity of electricity, and is 
 best observed in the wire which clo- 
 ses the voltaic circle, especially of 
 one or more pairs of large plates. If 
 a magnetic needle be brought near a 
 wire through which an electric cur- 
 rent is passing, it will immediately 
 deviate from its usual position, and 
 assume a new one, dependant upon 
 the relative position of the needle and 
 the wire. On placing the electric 
 wire above and parallel to the mag- 
 net, the pole next the negative end 
 of the battery always moves to the 
 west ; and when the wire is placed 
 under the needle, the same pole turns 
 to the east. When the electric wire 
 is on the same horizontal plane with 
 the needle, no declination takes place ; 
 but the magnet shows a disposition 
 to move in a vertical direction, the 
 pole next the negative side of the 
 battery being depressed w'hen the wire 
 is to the west of it, and elevated when 
 it is to the east. 
 
 The magnetic phenomena of a wire 
 transmitting electricity are such as 
 appear to depend upon the circula- 
 tion of magnetism at right angles to 
 
 „ the electric cur- 
 
 TT i -.— t - w rent, so that if N 
 
 s P represent the 
 
 wire transmitting a current of elec- 
 tricity in the direction of the hori- 
 zontal darts, a current of magnetism 
 will be established in the direction 
 of the vertical dart, appearing to 
 move round the axis of the electric 
 current; hence the term vertiginous 
 or rotary magnetism, applied to these 
 phenomena ; and hence the motion 
 
 I of the pole of the magnet round the 
 
 electric wire, or of the electric wire 
 
 round the pole of the magnet, when 
 
 they respectively are so arranged as 
 
 ; to be able to move freely in any di- 
 
 i rection. If a steel needle be placed 
 
 I in contact with the electric wire, and 
 
 parallel to it, it acquires opposite 
 
 magnetisms upon its two sides ; but 
 
 if it be placed at right angles to the 
 
 connecting wire, it becomes polar, 
 
 and permanently magnetic. If the 
 
 electric wire be 
 
 twisted into a 
 
 spiral, and the _ 
 
 steel needle pla- ''"'" '~' "* 
 ced within it (as in the cut), it is 
 retained there, and becomes a more 
 powerful magnet in consequence of 
 the repetitions and direction of the 
 electric and magnetic currents, as 
 will be evident from the annexed fig- 
 ure, where a represents a glass tube 
 with the wire n p conveying the elec- 
 tric current twisted round it, the darts 
 at the ends of which show the ingress 
 and egress of the electricity, and the 
 transverse darts the direction of the 
 magnetic current. If the cylinder 
 round which the wire conveying the 
 electric current is twisted be of steel, 
 it becomes a permanent magnet ; if of 
 pure soft iron, it becomes a temporary 
 magnet, so long as the electric current 
 is in motion, and s and n are 
 powerfully opposed poles. If 
 the bar be bent, as in the an- 
 nexed cut, a powerful horse- 
 shoe magnet is obtained 
 when the ends, p n, of the 
 copper wire twisted round 
 it are connected with the voltaic cir- 
 cle ; and a single pair of plates is suf- 
 ficient for the purpose. 
 
 ELECTROMETER (from ?/?.?«- 
 Tpov, and fxerpov, a measure). An in- 
 strument for ascertaining the pres- 
 
 i\ 
 
 ence and intensity of electric excita- 
 tion. The simplest form of electrom- 
 255 
 
ELE 
 
 eter consists of two very sm.ill pith 
 balls suspended from a small con- 
 ductor by very fine wire or tliread ; 
 upon the principle that bodies simi- 
 larly electrified repel each other, these 
 diverge upon the reception of very 
 minute quantities of electricity. Two 
 thin slii)s of gold leaf are also simi- 
 larly applied ; and, to prevent the in- 
 fluence of the agitation of the air upon 
 them, they are suspended in any con- 
 venient way under a glass shade. 
 The other forms of electrometers 
 generally act upon the same princi- 
 ple, being respectively adjusted to 
 the varying degrees of quantity and 
 intensity. 
 
 ELECTROPHORUS (from vT^ek- 
 Tfiov, and <pepu, I carry). This instru- 
 ment consists of a flat, smooth cake 
 of resin. A, which is rendered nega- 
 tively electrical by friction ; a plate 
 of brass with a glass handle is then 
 placed upon it, and be- 
 comes electropolar by in- 
 duction. The brass plate, 
 having been touched by 
 the finger while lying 
 upon the resin, is afterward lifted off 
 by its glass handle, and gives a spark 
 of positive electricity. The same 
 operation may be indefinitely repeat- 
 ed. This instrument is sometimes a 
 convenient substitute for the electri- 
 cal machine, and is elegantly applied 
 to inflame a jet of hydrogen gas in 
 Volta's inflammable air lamp. 
 
 ELECTROPOLAR. A term ap- 
 plied to conductors, one end or sur- 
 face of which is positive, and the oth- 
 er negative : a state which they com- 
 monly exhibit when under the influ- 
 ence of induction. 
 
 ELECTROSCOPE (homvleKTpov, 
 and oKOTTEu, I see). An instrument 
 for rendering electrical excitation ap- 
 parent by its effects. The gold leaf 
 electrometer and other similar ar- 
 rangements are electroseopes. 
 
 ELECTUARY. Any medicine of 
 a thick or solid consistence, made up 
 with sugar. 
 
 ELEMENTS. In chemistry, bod- 
 ies which have never been decompo- 
 sed or resolved into their components 
 by means we possess. Hydrogen, 
 256 
 
 ELM 
 
 oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, phospho- 
 rus, chlorine, and the metals are the 
 commonest elements. There are 54 
 already known. 
 
 ELEVATION. In architecture, 
 the representation of the vertical view 
 of any building, &c. 
 
 ELLAGIC ACID. The insoluble 
 gray powder which subsides from an 
 infusion of galls ; it is isomeric with 
 gallic acid, C7 H3 O5.— (Pe/ourc.) 
 
 ELM. Ulmus. The principal spe- 
 cies are, the Americana, white ; and 
 fidva, slippery ; the Thomas, U. racc- 
 mosa ; river, nemoralis, and Whahoo, 
 alata, are also indigenous. Mr. Nutt- 
 al mentions a species resembling 
 the sub-evergreen Chinensis, found on 
 the Red River. The Chinese is an 
 ornamental tree, to be had at the nur- 
 series. 
 
 The white elm is found from Nova 
 Scotia to Georgia, delighting in rich, 
 wet lands ; in perfection, it reaches 
 100 feet, with a stem of 4^ feet diam- 
 eter. The bark is gray and deeply 
 furrowed. The tree is of great beau- 
 ty and stateliness, the heart wood 
 dark brown, and ornamental, but so 
 brittle as to be of inferior value. It 
 is used improperly for naves, and oc- 
 casionally in Maine for keels. The 
 bark, soaked in water and pounded, 
 furnishes bass for the bottoms of 
 chairs. 
 
 The slippery, red, or moose elm is 
 commonly diffused, prefers a rich but 
 dry soil ; it may attain 60 feet, by 18 
 or 20 inches in diameter. The wood 
 is of a dull red, and consists in a 
 great measure of heart : it is coarse, 
 and splits, but is highly esteemed for 
 blocks, railings, and building purpo- 
 ses, as it stands moisture tolerably 
 well. The bark is brown, and, boiled 
 in water, yields a nmcilaginous solu- 
 tion used in medicine and as a drink. 
 It resembles the European Dutch elm, 
 but neither this nor the preceding pos- 
 sess the admirable qualities of the U. 
 campeslris of Europe. 
 
 The Whahoo is smaller, and a 
 Southern tree ; the wood is deep 
 chocolate, fine, hard, and durable : it 
 is esteemed for naves. It is remark- 
 able, as well as the Thomas elm, for 
 
EMB 
 
 EMB 
 
 a corky excrescence on the bark. 
 Many of this genus are highly orna- 
 mental, as the white, campcstris, mon- 
 tana, macrophylla, gracilis, effusa, and 
 Chincnsis. 
 
 ELUTIIIATION. The separation 
 of substances by washing them in 
 large quantities of water, so that the 
 heavier particles fall to the bottom, 
 and the lighter ones, remaining some 
 time suspended, are gradually depos- 
 ited in a finely-divided state. 
 
 E L Y M U S. The genus of lyme 
 grasses. They are perennial, large 
 and coarse, mostly water or seashore 
 plants. The E. arcnarms is of ser- 
 vice in binding together loose sea- 
 shore sands, and resisting the en- 
 croachments of the sea. The salt- 
 marsh grasses are frequently of this 
 genus. 
 
 ELYTRUM (from elvrpov, a 
 sheath). The outer hard wings of 
 beetles. 
 
 EMACIATION. The act of be- 
 coming lean. It is a symptom of 
 diseased intestines or stomach, and 
 should be attended to at once when 
 set in ; but a sudden change of food 
 from that which is oily to starchy is 
 attended with considerable falling off. 
 
 EMARGINATE. In botany, notch- 
 ed, having a sharp indentation on the 
 Ipnf (to 
 
 EMASCULATE. To castrate. 
 
 EMBANKMENT. "It is often 
 necessary to raise mounds or dikes 
 along the course of rivers, to keep 
 them within their channels, and pre- 
 vent their flooding the lands which 
 
 lie near them, when the waters rise 
 above their usual level. Those allu- 
 vial lands which lie near the mouths 
 of rivers, and are below the line of 
 high water, cannot be cultivated to 
 advantage unless they are secured 
 from inundation by proper embank- 
 ments ; and as these alluvial depos- 
 ites are generally very fertile, it am- 
 ply repays the expense of construct- 
 ing dikes and keeping them in repair 
 The whole of the provinces of Hoi 
 land and Zealand, and several other 
 districts in the Low Countries, could 
 not be inhabited if the sea were not 
 kept out by strong embankments; 
 and tlie destruction of a dike fre- 
 quently desolates great tracts of coun- 
 try. The art of constructing dikes, 
 and of keeping them in repair, is 
 therefore one of the greatest impor- 
 tance to the proprietors of low lands 
 situated as above described. 
 
 "The first thing to be attended to in 
 forming embankments is to enable 
 them to resist the pressure of the 
 highest floods which are likely to oc- 
 cur, and to prevent the effect of the 
 waves and currents in washing them 
 away. When it is the simple press- 
 ure of a column of water which is to 
 be withstood, a simple earthen bank 
 made of the soil immediately at hand, 
 provided it be not of a porous nature, 
 is sufficient. Its form should be a 
 very broad base, with sloping sides 
 and with a flat top, which may serve 
 as a path, or even a carriage-road, if 
 the bank be of considerable dimen- 
 sions. The side towards the water 
 
 should slope more gradually than to- 
 wards the land, where it may form 
 an angle of 45^ with the horizon. A 
 ditch is usually dug along the inside 
 of the bank, and sometimes on both 
 sides, when the dike is at some dis- 
 tance from the usual channel of the 
 water, and is only a precaution against 
 unusual floods. The inner ditch col- 
 lects the water which is produced by 
 Y 2 
 
 rains or may find its way by filtration 
 through the bank or the soil. 
 
 " To raise these simple dikes, no- 
 thing is requisite but to carry the 
 earth from below, and consolidate it 
 by treading or ramming it in a moist 
 slate, that no interstices be left. But 
 where a considerable river winds 
 through an extensive plain, and is 
 apt to change its bed by the wearing 
 257 
 
EMBANKMENT. 
 
 away of the banks in some places 
 and the deposition of mud in others, 
 more skill and more expensive works 
 are required to keep it within its 
 banks and to prevent the effects of a 
 rapid current in destroying them. In 
 this case strong piles are driven deep 
 into the ground, and, instead of earth- 
 en dikes, stone walls are opposed to 
 the force of tlie water. 
 
 " The embanking of a considerable 
 river often requires the course of the 
 stream to be changed, and instead of 
 the winding course which rivers nat- 
 urally take through plains, straight 
 channels are artificially made for 
 them. At first sight it would seem 
 that a straight channel is the natural 
 course of a stream ; but this is far 
 from being the case : a straight course 
 can never be maintained without ar- 
 tificial means ; water never flows in 
 straight lines, but always in curves. 
 The slightest inequality in the bottom 
 or sides partially obstructs its course, 
 and produces a circular motion in the 
 water ; and this, acting on soft banks, 
 soon hollows them out, which, in- 
 creasing the eddies, accelerates the 
 change in the current. When a river 
 is turned into a new channel, the 
 banks must be strengthened with 
 piles of masonry, and the foundations 
 of the works must be laid below the 
 gravel or stones whicli may have ac- 
 cumulated, that they may not be un- 
 dermined by the percolation of the 
 water. 
 
 " When the dikes are only intended 
 to check the waters at the time when 
 they flow over their natural banks, it 
 is best to raise them at some distance 
 from the river on each side, and par- 
 allel to its course ; because, in sud- 
 den floods, the water, having a great- 
 er space to flow through, will not rise 
 so high, and will sooner recede. The 
 natural banks must be carefully at- 
 tended to in this case, that they may 
 remain nearly the same, without be- 
 ing subjected to that continual change 
 which we have noticed before. Those 
 who have long attended to these 
 changes and their immediate causes 
 will find no difficulty in checking them 
 in the outset by very easy and simple 
 258 
 
 means. Whenever a bank begins to 
 be undermined, a few piles driven in 
 judiciously, and some stones thrown 
 into the river above the place where 
 its banks begin to wear away, will 
 cause a change in the current, and 
 throw it over to the opposite side. 
 Indeed, if this is done injudiciously, 
 the banks opposite will begin to wear 
 away ; but by continued attention, 
 and prevention rather than correc- 
 tion, any river having a moderate cur- 
 rent may be kept within its proper 
 bed. 
 
 " It sometimes happens that rivers, 
 near their mouths, form shallow es- 
 tuaries, and occupy much ground 
 which might be usefully employed. 
 In this case an entirely new outlet 
 may sometimes be made, through 
 which the river may at once dis- 
 charge itself into the sea ; and the 
 whole course will probably be soon 
 filled up by the deposition of soil and 
 mud brought in by the tides ; for it is 
 the current which clears the channel, 
 and when this is taken away the chan- 
 nel soon fills up. In the course of a 
 short time the old mouth of the river 
 will be so filled up as scarcely to ad- 
 mit the tide ; and an embankment 
 across it may lay a large fertile tract 
 of land quite dry. 
 
 " Where embankments are made 
 against the sea, greater skill is re- 
 quired to resist the force of the waves. 
 If there are materials at hand to lay 
 a bank of stones imbedded in clay, 
 with a broad base, and the sides slo- 
 ping very gradually upward, a very 
 safe barrier may be opposed to the 
 waters. It is not the direct impulse 
 which is the most destructive : waves 
 striking against a sloping surface lose 
 their force and rise over it ; but it is 
 in returning that they draw the ma- 
 terials with them, and scoop out the 
 foundations. If the stones are well 
 joined together, the retiring wave will 
 have no effect in loosening them ; but 
 if any one of them can be singly re- 
 moved from its place, they will soon 
 disappear one after another, till a 
 breach is made ; after which a single 
 storm may destroy the whole embank- 
 ment. In various places the ingenu- 
 
EMBANKMENT. 
 
 ity of scientific men has been exer- 
 cised to invent various modes of re- 
 sisting the force of the sea. In some 
 exposed points piers of solid oak have 
 been made, which oppose a smooth 
 surface obliquely to the force of the 
 waves ; in others, rows of piles have 
 been driven in, forming lines at right 
 or oblique angles to the line of the 
 shore, in order to intercept the waves 
 and break their force before they 
 reach the bank. In a place where 
 the rounded stones called shingles 
 were usually thrown up by the waves, 
 and the bottom was a strong clay, 
 their retreat has been intercepted by 
 rows of strong piles driven in a line 
 along and parallel to the shore, and 
 covered with boards nailed to them 
 on the land side. By this means the 
 sea has been made to provide the 
 materials of the embankment, and to 
 lay them down. In one night the 
 shingles have been thrown over the 
 piles, and, being retained by the board- 
 ing, have formed a perfect wall. A 
 second row of piles between the first 
 and the sea, and a third if required, 
 forms a sea-wall which might defy 
 any storms. We mention this as an 
 example of the advantage which may 
 be taken of particular circumstances, 
 by which a great expense may some- 
 times be saved. In other situations, 
 where the shingle is not thrown up, 
 and the wall is not so immediately 
 exposed to the action of the waves, 
 an excellent facing of the wall is made 
 by several rows of piles from five to 
 fifteen feet long, driven along the side 
 of the earthen bank in the form of 
 steps rising above each otlier. These 
 
 piles are driven very close together, 
 and the distance between the rows is 
 about two feet. This interval is filled 
 with stones, and bushes are pinned 
 down over them by means of wooden 
 pins driven horizontally through holes 
 made in the piles. This contrivance 
 effectually prevents the washing away 
 of the bank. 
 
 " Where the land lies very flat for a 
 considerable distance from the shore, 
 it is of advantage to have two com- 
 plete banks, one within the other, so 
 that if the outer bank is broken 
 through, the second will keep back 
 the waters, until the first can be re- 
 paired. The ground between the two 
 lines of banks is usually left in pas- 
 ture. In this case the damage done 
 by an inundation of salt-water will 
 not be so great as if the land were 
 arable ; and unless it remain flooded 
 for a considerable time, the herbage 
 suffers little, if anything, from it. 
 
 " The water which accumulates 
 within the banks and is collected in the 
 internal ditch and those which divide 
 the marshes must be let off" occasion- 
 ally by means of channels and sluices 
 at the time when the tide is out, and 
 the water outside the bank is lower 
 than that which is within it. In small 
 embankments a wooden trunk or pipe 
 may be laid through the bank, with 
 a valve opening outward, by which 
 means the superfluous water may flow 
 out, and none flow back. It is use- 
 ful to carry this trunk a considerable 
 way outside the bank, if it empties 
 itself immediately into the sea, in or- 
 der that it may not be choked up with 
 sand or shingles. Cast-iron pipes art 
 259 
 
EM 13 
 
 EMU 
 
 conveniently used for this purpose, 
 and they may be carried out so far 
 as to empty themselves below low- 
 water mark. But when the embank- 
 ment is very extensive, and there are 
 streams flowing through the part 
 which is embanked, larger flood-gates 
 and more extensive works are neces- 
 sary. These being opened and shut 
 as occasion may require, serve to 
 keep the channel clear, by producing 
 occasionally a considerable rush of 
 water to carry away mud and sand, 
 which would otherwise have accu- 
 mulated at the mouth of it. When 
 the level of the land which is embank- 
 ed is below the usual level of the wa- 
 ters whicli are without, the water is 
 raised by means of engines over the 
 banks, as is tlie case in the fens. 
 
 " In the forming of the banks, where 
 the soil may not be quite impervious 
 to water, it is useful to begin by dig- 
 ging a ditch in the line of the intend- 
 ed bank, of such a depth as to reach 
 an impervious subsoil. This ditch is 
 to be tilled up with clay or tempered 
 earth, and as the bank is raised, the 
 middle of the bank should be com- 
 posed of the same materials, which 
 will thus form a vertical wall, A B, up 
 to the top ; and the more porous earth 
 being heaped up against the sides of 
 this wall will form the slopes of the 
 bank ; thus the whole will be perfect- 
 ly impenetrable to the water. The 
 clay should be well trod in with the 
 
 feet in a moist state, and no pieces 
 of wood, or even straw, should be in 
 it, for a straw may be the cause of 
 the water finding a passage through 
 a bank, and this passage gradually 
 widening will soon produce a hole, 
 which may in the end cause the de- 
 struction of the bank. Moles and 
 worms are great enemies to dikes. 
 260 
 
 In Holland the storks are held in 
 great veneration, and are never mo- 
 lested, because they are supposed to 
 destroy a species of worm which oft- 
 en does great mischief to the dikes by 
 perforating them." — (V^. L. Rham.) 
 
 EMBROCATION (from efiGpexa, I 
 moisten). A spirituous, saponaceous, 
 or oily application rubbed on the skin 
 to relieve pain or numbness. 
 
 EMBRYO (from e/iGpvov, I hud 
 forth). The growing point, eye, or 
 chit of a seed. The young of ani- 
 mals in the act of development, or 
 foetus. 
 
 EMBRYOTOMY (from Eii6pvov, 
 and TEfivu, I cut). The cutting of 
 the embryo or foetus out of the womb 
 in such cases as endanger the life of 
 the parent. 
 
 EMERY. A sand of corundum ot 
 extreme hardness, capable of wear- 
 ing down all minerals and metals ex- 
 cept the diamond. 
 
 EMESIS (from tfiEu, I vomit). The 
 act of vomiting. 
 
 EMETIC. A drug producing vom- 
 iting. Ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, 
 salt, and green vitriol are the com- 
 monest emetics. 
 
 EMETIC, TARTAR. Tartrate of 
 potash and antimony, a white, solu- 
 ble salt, emetic in doses of one to 
 two grains, and purgative and sudo- 
 rific in doses of half a grain. It re- 
 duces the activity of the circulation, 
 and is therefore an admirable febri- 
 fuge. 
 
 EMETINE. The active principle 
 of ipecacuanha. 
 
 EMOLLIENTS. Medicines which 
 soothe and soften any part of the 
 body, as warm water, &c. 
 
 EMPHYEMA (from tv, and nvov, 
 pus). A collection of purulent mat- 
 ter in the chest, produced chiefly by 
 inflammation. 
 
 EMPHYSEMA (from efi(bvaaio, 1 
 inflate). A collection of air in the cel- 
 lular tissue ; hence emphysematous. 
 
 EMPYREUMA (from ifnrvpevu, 1 
 kindle). An odour of burned matter ; 
 hence cmpyreumatic. 
 
 EMULSIN. A modification of al- 
 bumen found in almonds and other 
 seeds, and capable of acting in a pe- 
 
END 
 
 EOC 
 
 culiar manner on amygdalin to pro- 1 
 (luce volatile oil of bitter almonds. 1 
 
 EMULSION. A milky liquid in 
 which an oil is suspended, as in milk. 
 
 E.MUNCTORIES. The vessels of ; 
 tlie skin which exhale perspiration 
 are so called. 
 
 ENAMEL. The hard ivory por- 
 tion of teeth. Glass and oxide of tin 
 fused together. 
 
 ENCRINITES. Fossil crinoideans 
 resembling a lily. 
 
 ENCYSTED (from ei^, in, and kvc- 
 Tic,a.bag). Fluid or other tumours en- 
 closed in a sack of membrane. It is 
 necessary, in removing them, to cut 
 out or destroy the sack also. 
 
 ENDEMIC (from ev, and drj/ioc, a 
 people). A disease or peculiarity be- 
 longing to a particular people or race. 
 
 ENDIVE. Chichonum cndiva. 
 The varieties are the green and 
 white curled, yellow, and broad 
 leaved. The green curled is earliest : 
 sow in April and May, and for gen- 
 eral crops, in June or July, at inter- 
 vals, to suit the table or market. 
 When the seedlings are three inches 
 high, transplant to a good soU, and 
 set a foot apart each way ; tie up to 
 blanch when full-sized. They must 
 be attended to and treated like lettuce. 
 One ounce of seed furnishes four to 
 five thousand plants. It is a bitter 
 salad, used raw, and also in stews : 
 with care it may be preserved like 
 cabbages through the winter. 
 
 ENDOCARP (from ev6ov, within, 
 and Kaprro^, a fruit). The middle 
 part of a fruit : it forms the flesh of 
 the apple, peach, cherry, 6ic. 
 
 ENDOGENS (from evdov, and 
 yeivofiai, I grow). Plants or trees 
 which do not enlarge their trunks by 
 any addition of wood exterior to that 
 existing the year before. One of the 
 great divisions of the vegetable king- 
 dom, including palms, grasses, and 
 numerous bulbous plants. The leaves 
 are furnished with straight veins, the 
 flowers usually divided into three 
 parts or some multiple of that number. 
 
 ENDOPLEURA (from evdov, and 
 7r?.evpa, the side). In botany, the in- 
 ternal integument of a seed. 
 
 E N D O R H I Z .E (from evdov, and 
 
 ^iCa, a root). A term invented by 
 Richard for the embryo of nionocoty 
 ledons, in which the radicle has to 
 rupture the integument at the base 
 of a seed prior to entering into the 
 earth, appearing as if it came from 
 within the mother root. 
 
 ENDOSMOSE (from ev6ov, and 
 uafioc, impdsion). A term invented 
 by Dutrochet to designate the pas- 
 sage of fluids through membranes. 
 Penetration is an analogous term. 
 Whenever two fluids are separated 
 by a membrane or tissue without 
 sensible pores, both of which moisten 
 it, there is a passage of each fluid, 
 one into the other : but this is often 
 with different rapidities, the fluid af- 
 fecting the tissue most passing with 
 the greatest rapidity. The move- 
 ment continues until the mixture on 
 each side is similar. This also oc- 
 curs with gases. It is controlled by 
 electricitv, as Dr. Draper has shown. 
 
 ENDOSPERMIUM (from evdov, 
 and anepfia, seed). A term invented 
 by Richard to denote the albumen of 
 
 seeds 
 
 ENDOSTOME (from ev6ov, and 
 a-rrofia, the mouth). The passage 
 through the inner integument of a 
 seed immediately below the part call- 
 ed the foramen. 
 
 ENDOTHECIUM. The fibrous 
 cellular tissue lining an anther. 
 
 ENEMA. A glyster, an injection 
 thrown up the bowels to produce 
 purging, allay pain, &c. 
 
 ENNEANDRIA, ENNEAN- 
 D R O U S. Having nine stamens. 
 See Botany. 
 
 ENSIFORM. Sword-shaped. A 
 term used in descriptive botany, &c. 
 
 ENTERITIS (from evrepa, the in- 
 testines). Inflammation of the intes- 
 tines. See Horse, Ox, &o. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY (from evtohq, in- 
 sects, and ?.oYoc, a discourse). The sci- 
 ence treating of insects. See Insects. 
 
 ENTOZOA (from evtoc, and (oov, 
 an animal). A tribe of worms, many 
 of which are parasitic to the intes- 
 tines and other parts of animals. 
 
 EOCENE (from iju^, the dawn, and 
 Kaivor, recent). The lowest portion 
 of the tertiary epoch of geologists, in 
 2fil 
 
EllE 
 
 wliich a few recent remains only are 
 found. 
 
 EPIDEMIC (from etn, vpon, and 
 irj/xo^, the people). A disease wliich 
 spreads through a community, a sta- 
 ble, &c. 
 
 EPIDERMIS (from errt.and ihpfia, 
 the skin). A light covering over the 
 skin of animals. The outer mem- 
 brane of plants. 
 
 EPIDOTE. A common fibrous, 
 green, or dark mineral, belonging to 
 primary rocks, containing silica, 37; 
 alumina, 21 ; lime, 15 ; iron, 24 per 
 cent. 
 
 EPIGCEOUS (from em, and y?}, the 
 earth). Growing near the earth, or 
 on the earth. 
 
 EPIGASTRIC (from etvi, and yaa- 
 TTjp, the stomach). Over the stomach. 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS (from em, and yhor- 
 ra, the tongue). A small cartilage at 
 the root of the tongue, which protects 
 the windpipe. 
 
 EPIGYNOUS (from ettl, and ywn, 
 a female). Any part of a flower grow- 
 ing upon the top of the ovarium or 
 fruit. 
 
 EPILEPSY (from fTriAa/zCoFw, / 
 seize vpon). Falling sickness, attend- 
 ed with sudden fits, stupor : it soon 
 becomes periodical, and finally ter- 
 minates life. Bleeding, reduction of 
 food, and care are necessary in full 
 habits, but it frequently arises from 
 injuries on the head. It is a nervous 
 disease, little under control. 
 
 EPIPHYLLUS (from e-l, and (^vl- 
 Tmv, a leaf). Growing on a leaf 
 
 EPISPASTIC (from ETTiaTrau, I 
 draw upon). A blistering drug. 
 
 EPISPERM (from ettj, and axEpfia, 
 a seed). The testa, or outer coating 
 of seeds. 
 
 EQUISETUM. The scouring rush; 
 hence equisetacea. 
 
 EQUIVALENTS. See Atom. 
 
 EREM ACAUSIS (from iipena, slow, 
 and /coiifftf, comlnistion). A term in- 
 vented by Liebig, to express the 
 smouldering, or dry rot, of organic 
 matter freely exposed to the oxygen 
 of the air and merely moistened with 
 water. It is altogether different from 
 fermentation, which requires little 
 air. By eremacausis, acids, as the 
 262 
 
 ESC 
 
 acetic, nitric, &c., are producea. 
 When much nitrogen exists in the 
 decaymg matter, it is called nitrifica- 
 tion, especially if lime or potash be 
 present. The process of eremacausis 
 is much to be preferred to fermenta- 
 tion in the preparation of putrescent 
 manures, for less gaseous matter is 
 formed, and there is less loss ; it is, 
 moreover, the natural decay occur- 
 ring in the soil. See Nitre-Beds. 
 
 ERGOT. A disease of the grain 
 of rye, and sometimes other grains, 
 in which it turns black, and acquires 
 an acrid, fungous taste. It is con- 
 sidered due to an insect or parasitic 
 fungus. The diseased grain is very 
 poisonous, producing a dry gangrene, 
 attended with sloughing of the hoofs, 
 horns, ears, &c., of cattle. It is of 
 great service in medicine as a ute- 
 rine stimulus. 
 
 ERICA. The genus of heaths. 
 Ericacece, a family of shrubby plants, 
 as the heaths, rhododendrons, aza- 
 lias, &c. 
 
 ERINACEUS. A genus of insec- 
 tivorous animals, including the hedge- 
 hog. 
 
 ERIOPHORUM. The genus of 
 cotton grasses. 
 
 ERODED. Gnawed, a descriptive 
 terra in botany and zoology, mean- 
 ing any jagged edge. 
 
 ERRATIC ROCKS. Boulders. 
 
 ERRHINES (from ev, in, and piv, 
 the nose). Bodies which excite snee- 
 zing. 
 
 ERUCA. A larva, or w'orm. 
 
 ERVUM. The generic name of 
 the tare and lentil plants. ' 
 
 ERYSIPELAS (from Epvu,Idraw, 
 and 7rf?Mc, adjoining). An inflamma- 
 tion of the skin, attended with blis- 
 ters and a burning heat ; it indicates 
 a bad, feeble constitution. 
 
 ERYTHRIC ACID (from epv- 
 dpoc, red). The red body produced 
 by acting on uric acid by nitric acid ; 
 it has also been called rosacic acid, 
 Murexidc. 
 
 ESCHAR. A scab, cicatrix. 
 
 ESCHAROTIC (from scxapau, 1 
 scab over). Caustic. 
 
 ESCULENT. Edible plants, 
 roots, &c. 
 
EUP 
 
 EVE 
 
 ESPALIERS. " In horticulture, 
 trees trained by lattice-work or other 
 supports on the borders of beds, or 
 as hedges to enclose plots of ground. 
 They may serve to defend, in a great 
 measure, many tender plants from the 
 inclemencies of wind and weather. 
 The trees chiefly planted for espa- 
 liers are apples, pears, and plums. 
 The principal objects aimed at, how- 
 ever, in espaliers are to expose the 
 foliage and fruit of the plants or 
 trees more perfectly to the light and 
 sun, to prevent the branches from be- 
 ing blown about by the winds, and to 
 economize space by confining them 
 within definite limits." — Loudon. 
 
 ES P A K S ETTE. Sainfoin. 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS. Oils which 
 impart flavour and odour to plants, 
 and are readily volatilized by heat. 
 Many, as peppermint, rose, lemon, 
 &c., are easily distilled by placing the 
 fresh herbs, «Scc., in water and apply- 
 ing heat. 
 
 ETERIO. A compound fruit, the 
 ovaries of which are distinct and in- 
 dehiscent, upon a dry or fleshy re- 
 ceptacle, as the strawberry, rasp- 
 berry, &c. 
 
 ETHER. Commonly this name is 
 applied to a highly volatile, inflam- 
 mable, and aromatic fluid, obtained 
 by distilling equal parts of alcohol and 
 sulphuric acid. 13ut it also repre- 
 sents a class of organic compounds 
 having properties similar to ether and 
 alcohol, and containing a common 
 base or radical. Ethyl or Ethule {G^ 
 H,-,) ; of this common sulphuric ether 
 is an oxide. 
 
 ETIOLATION. Blanching of ve- 
 getables. This is done by excluding 
 light either by earthing, as in the 
 case of celery, or tying up the leaves, 
 as with lettuce, endive, &c. 
 
 EUDIOMETER (from ivdia, calm 
 air, and fxtrpov, a measure). An in- 
 strument for the analysis of air and 
 gases, especially for the determina- 
 tion of the amount of oxygen. Dr. 
 Ure's is the most esteemed. Dr. Hare, 
 of Philadelphia, is the author of a 
 very convenient eudiometer. 
 
 EUPHORBIA. A genus of plants 
 commonly yielding a milky acrid 
 
 juice ; many resemble the cactaccae. 
 Euphorbiacccc, the natural family, in- 
 cluding the euphorbia, crotons, cas- 
 tor-oil. India-rubber tree, &.c. 
 
 EUPION. An inflammable, grea- 
 sy liquid, obtained from tar. 
 
 EUSTACHIAN TUBE. A tube 
 passing from the interior of the ear 
 to the cavity of the mouth ; the stop- 
 page, by disease, is one cause of deaf- 
 ness. 
 
 EVAPORATION. The passage 
 into vapour of fluids or solids. For 
 its production, heat must be absorb- 
 ed ; hence the rapidity of evaporation 
 is proportionate to the heat applied. 
 Water and other fluids evaporatmg 
 from the earth, or any surface, al- 
 ways produce cold by carrying away 
 a part of the heat of the solid ; hence 
 moist soils arc cold. The activity of 
 evaporation is also influenced by 
 winds, which will double the amount 
 of water vaporized in a given time ; 
 hence winds dry rapidly and produce 
 great cold. It is also necessary for 
 free evaporation that the air be not 
 already full of vapour. See Dew Point. 
 When any atmosphere is surcharged 
 with the vapour of a particular fluid, 
 no more can evaporate ; but the va- 
 pours of other fluids rise freely. 
 
 Plants are much affected by evap- 
 oration ; their leaves are always 
 throwing out large volumes of vapour 
 of water, derived from the ascending 
 sap ; in this way their juices are 
 thickened and fitted for nourishment. 
 When the air is too dry, they lan- 
 guish under excessive evaporation ; 
 when it is moist and hot for some 
 days, they become diseased, and smut, 
 rust, and similar fungi attack them 
 very destructively. 
 
 The moisture collected in the air 
 by the evaporation of water from the 
 earth, being cooled by northerly 
 winds, becomes condensed into rain 
 or snow, and falls back to the earth 
 again. See Clouds. 
 
 EVERGREEN. Plants which put 
 out a succession of fresh leaves in- 
 stead of observing periods of rest. 
 They are best set out in the fall or 
 very early in spring. 
 
 EVERLASTENG PEA. Lathyrua 
 263 
 
EXO 
 
 EXT 
 
 latifolius. A perennial plant of the 
 vetch kind, which grows naturally in 
 some places ; is easily cullivated, and 
 annually yields a great burden of ex- 
 cellent provender, and might be cul- 
 tivated to advantage as a green food 
 for cattle on any of the more strong 
 sorfs of soil. 
 
 EXACERBATION. An increase 
 of violence in the symptoms of fe- 
 vers. 
 
 EXCORIATION. A bruise or 
 abrasion of the skin : protection from 
 air by a linen rag, and mild oil lina- 
 menls are most serviceable. 
 
 EXCRESCENCE. Any unnatu- 
 ral growth or tumour. 
 
 EXCRETION. In physiology, the 
 separation of useless or injurious por- 
 tions of matter from the system, as 
 urine, expired air, feces, perspiration. 
 The excretions of plants have called 
 forth much discussion. De Candolle 
 imagined that the inability of plants 
 to grow for a long time on the same 
 spot was due to the deposite of ex- 
 cretions. Mr. Gyde has examined 
 this matter thoroughly, and shown 
 that the excretions are not injurious ; 
 the amount is very small, and iden- 
 tical in composition with the sap ; 
 he also found that a plant might be 
 watered with a solution of its excre- 
 ment with great benefit. 
 
 EXFOLIATION. The separation 
 of diseased bone from that which is 
 sound in the progress of a disease. 
 
 EXHALATION. Evaporation at 
 ordinary temperatures, more espe- 
 cially from a living or solid surface. 
 
 EXHAUSTION. In physics, the 
 removal of air or gases from the in- 
 terior of bodies. 
 
 EXOGENOUS (from ef, outside, and 
 yeivof^ai, I grow). A term applied to 
 those plants a transverse slice of 
 whose stem exhibits a central cellular 
 substance or pith, an external cellular 
 and fibrous ring or bark, and an inter- 
 mediate woody mass, and certain fine 
 lines radiating from the pitK to the 
 bark through the wood, and called 
 medullary rays. They are called ex- 
 ogens, because they add to their 
 wood by successive external addi- 
 tions, and are the same as what are 
 264 
 
 otherwise called dicotyledons. They 
 constitute one of the primary classes 
 into which the vegetable world is di- 
 vided, characterized by their leaves 
 being reticulated ; their stems having 
 a distinct deposition of bark, wood, 
 and pith ; their embryo with two co- 
 tyledons ; and by their flowers usu- 
 ally formed on a quinary type. Our 
 forest-trees and most garden vegeta- 
 bles are of this kind. 
 
 EXORRHIZ.'E (from e^, and /it^'o, 
 a root). Exogenous or dicotyledon- 
 ous plants, the roots of which extend 
 directly from the embryo. 
 
 EXOSMOSE (from e^, and uafioc, 
 ivipulsion). The passage outward of 
 fluids, &c., the reverse oi Endosmose, 
 which see. 
 
 EXOSTOSIS (from cf, and ooteov, 
 a bone). A tumour on a bone. In bota- 
 ny, any knot or tumour on a trunk or 
 large root : the wood is often finely 
 curled. 
 
 EXOTICS. Foreign plants. 
 
 EXPANSION. The increase in 
 dimensions produced by heat. In 
 the arts, it is a serious drawback on 
 perfect workmanship, for beams, me- 
 tallic tires, &c., by tbe constant expan- 
 sions from heat, and contraction by 
 cold, are always acting upon masses 
 of masonry injuriously. Gases ex- 
 pand most rapidly and extensively, 
 fluids next, and metals least. 
 
 EXPECTORANTS, Medicines 
 which assist in throwing off the 
 phlegm of the throat, as ipecacuan- 
 ha, tartar emetic, horehound, squills. 
 They are useful in dry coughs. 
 
 EXPRESSED OILS. Such as are 
 obtained by pressure, as olive, lin- 
 seed, rape, castor, almond, as distin- 
 guished from volatile or essential oils. 
 
 EXTRACT. The solid remaming 
 after boiling down an infusion or de- 
 coction to dryness. The heat used 
 should be from steam. The term 
 extractive is applied to that portion 
 which is of a brown colour, soluble 
 in water, and forms a colouring mat- 
 ter with alum solution. 
 
 EXTRAVASATION. In surgery, 
 whenever blood or other fluids are 
 thrown out from the veins into the 
 skin, brain, or other parts, it is term- 
 
FAL 
 
 ed an extravasation. It frequently 
 arises from a blow. 
 
 EXTRORSAL. Bent or turned 
 from the direct position : a descrip- 
 tive term in botany. 
 
 E X U V I .E. The skins cast by 
 snakes, lobsters, insects, &c., in the 
 chancres they pass through. 
 
 E Y E, I N P L A N T S. The bud, 
 embrvo, or growing point. 
 
 EYE OF THE HORSE. "The 
 eye of the horse appears to be natu- 
 rally more disposed to disease than 
 that of any other animal. The dis- 
 eases of the eye, although few in 
 number, are frequent in their appear- 
 ance, obstinate, and generally baffle 
 all the skill of the veterinarian. The 
 following are the principal : common 
 inflammation, specific ophthalmia or 
 moon blindness, cataract, and gutta 
 Serena or amaurosis. For the last 
 there is no cure. Moon blindness, 
 as it is termed, is brought on in a 
 great measure by close confinement 
 in dark, heated, and unwholesome 
 stables. No specific remedies can 
 be given for these diseases." — {You- 
 att). See Blindness, Cataract. 
 
 EYES IN CHEESE. Putrescent 
 holes or places caused by imperfectly 
 preparing the curd. 
 
 FAGOT. A bundle of small wood. 
 
 FAGUS. The generic name of 
 the beech. 
 
 FALCATE (from falx, a sci/the). 
 Shaped like a scythe : a descriptive 
 term used in botany and zoology. 
 
 FALCO. The genus of hawics. 
 
 FALLOPIAN TUBE. A tube com- 
 municating between the womb and 
 ovarium of the mammalia. 
 
 FALLOW. Originally, this term 
 meant the exposure of the naked 
 soil to rest, after ploughing several 
 times, to destroy weeds and repair 
 its fertility. This practice is now 
 considered almost useless, as requi- 
 ring much time and expenditure oth- 
 erwise better employed. A crop of 
 oats, clover, rye, buckwheat, lucern, 
 lupins, turnips, or other cheap vege- 
 table in flower is now ploughed in, 
 and called a green fallow. In this 
 Z 
 
 FAR 
 
 way land is rapidly improved, espe- 
 ciaily if a liming is given. To turn 
 in heavy herbage the ox-chain is 
 fastened to the clevis and land-side 
 handle of the plough, and this press- 
 ing down the plants, allows them to 
 be buried. 
 
 Green fallowing is the most rapid 
 and cheap method of bringing up poor 
 lands ; it incorporates into the soil 
 the nitrogen bodies wanted for high 
 cultivation, enables the improver to 
 proceed without the expense of cat- 
 tle for raising manure, and saves the 
 time necessary to wait for the ma- 
 nure. The herbage so turned in 
 yields more vegetable mould than it 
 would otherwise form if applied in 
 any other way. Fallows can be made 
 at any time, in summer for a fall 
 crop, or in autumn for spring. 
 
 FAN, WHEAT. The Wi?inowing 
 Machine, which see. 
 FARCY. See Horse. 
 FARDING BAG. The paunch or 
 abomasus of the ox. 
 
 FARINA. The flour or meal of 
 grain. Farinaceous is a derivative. 
 
 FARM. " The first thing to be 
 considered in taking a farm is the 
 capital which the tenant is possessed 
 of, or of which he can procure the 
 use at a reasonable rate. If a man 
 takes a farm without the means of 
 stocking it properly, and is restrained 
 in his first outlay, he will never be 
 able to cultivate it with benefit to 
 himself: he will be obliged to sell his 
 produce at a loss, to over-work his 
 i cattle, and to keep a smaller quanji- 
 I ty of stock, and, consequently, make 
 : less manure than is required to keep 
 j the farm in a productive state. 
 j " When it is ascertained what ex- 
 '' tent of farm may be safely underta- 
 I ken with a given capital, the most 
 important object to be attended to is 
 the condition and fertility of the soil, 
 \ not only with respect to the natural 
 quality "of the land, but the actual 
 state it is left in by the preceding 
 system of cultivation. A moderate- 
 ly fertile soil, in good condition, will 
 give a greater profit for several years 
 than a better soil which is partially 
 exhausted and rendered foul by inju- 
 265 
 
FARM. 
 
 dicious management and over-crop- 
 ping. For this purpose, it is neces- 
 sary to a.sccrtain what has been the 
 state of the crops lor several years 
 before, how the land has been plough- 
 ed, and whether the crops have been 
 heavy with or without manure. In 
 the mean time, the nature of the 
 weeds which abound on the land will 
 give some clew to its state ; and an 
 experienced person will collect from 
 various minute appearances in the 
 soil whether it has been fairly man- 
 aged or exhausted. It is in general 
 more advantageous to take a farm 
 in a district with which you are well 
 acquainted. It will be a great ad- 
 vantage if you have had an opportu- 
 nity of seeing the land at all times, 
 observing it in different seasons and 
 states of the weather, and especially 
 of seeing the crops thrashed out, and 
 ascertaining the quantity of corn 
 which is usually yielded from a cer- 
 tain quantity of straw, for lands very 
 similar in outward appearance will 
 produce a very different return when 
 the crops are thrashed out. A want 
 of attention to these circumstances 
 is the cause that a man who comes 
 from a distant part of the country 
 and takes a farm on his own judg- 
 ment seldom succeeds so well as 
 might be expected, even with a su- 
 perior knowledge of agriculture. He 
 naturally compares the soil with some 
 similar soil which he has been ac- 
 quainted with. If he comes from a 
 district where the soil is sandy, and 
 where clay is in request, he will give 
 the preference to very stiff loams ; 
 if he comes from a cold wet clay, he 
 will prefer the sandy ; and the chan- 
 ces are, that he is mistaken in his 
 judgment, and finds it out when he 
 has already embarked his capital in 
 a losing concern. Next to the na- 
 ture of the soil is to be considered 
 the convenient situation of the farm, 
 the disposition of the fields, and the 
 adaptation of the farm-buildings to 
 the most profitable occupation of the 
 land. The roads, especially those 
 which lead to neighbouring towns, 
 ■whence manure may be obtained, are 
 a most important object ; and if there 
 266 
 
 is water-carriage, it greatly enhances 
 the value of the farm. The roads to 
 the fields, and the distance of these 
 from the farm-yard ; the convenience 
 of having good pasture, or land easi 
 ly laid down to grass, near the home 
 stead, and especially the situation 
 of the farm-buildings with respect to 
 the land, and the abundance of good 
 water, are all circumstances which 
 must be well considered, and which 
 will greatly influence the probable 
 profits, and, consequently, the rent 
 which may be fairly offered. A cen- 
 tral situation is no doubt the most 
 advantageous for the farm buildings, 
 as greatly diminishing the labour in 
 harvest and in carrying out manure. 
 But there may be circumstances 
 which render some spot nearer the 
 extremity of the land more eligible, 
 and it is only when entirely new 
 buildings are to be erected that there 
 is a choice. The old farm buildings 
 are generally in low and sheltered 
 situations, but it is a great inconve- 
 nience to have to carry the manure, 
 which is the heaviest thing carted on 
 a farm, up a steep hill. The best 
 situation is on a moderate slope, 
 neither in the lowest nor highest 
 ground. 
 
 " The yard or yards in a large farm 
 should be sheltered on the north side 
 by the barns, which need not be so 
 extensive as used formerly to be 
 thought necessary. If there is a 
 thrashing machine, a single floor to 
 thrash the seeds upon, and to employ 
 the men occasionally in winter, is 
 quite sufficient. Every farm which 
 is so extensive as to require more 
 than one floor to thrash the corn on 
 ought always to have a thrashing- 
 mill attached to it. See Barn. 
 
 "A small yard, distinct from the 
 other, with sheds for the cattle to 
 shelter themselves under in wet and 
 stormy weather, is a great advantage, 
 and may be added at a trifling ex- 
 pense to any set of farm buildings. 
 The cart-shed should be in the stack- 
 yard, which properly occupies a space 
 north of the barn. There should be 
 a sufficient number of stands with 
 proper pillars and frames to build 
 
FARM. 
 
 stacks on. Each stack should be of 
 such a size as to be conveniently ta- 
 ken into the barn to be thrashed out. 
 The round form, and the square, 
 which becomes nearly round wtien 
 built up, are most convenient. Nine 
 stone or cast-iron pillars, with caps 
 over them, are placed on brick found- 
 ations, and support a strong frame 
 on which the stack is built. In the 
 centre of the stack there is usually a 
 pyramidical open frame, to allow the 
 air to circulate through the stack and 
 prevent the heating of the grain. On 
 each side of the yard should be placed 
 the stables, cow-houses, and feeding- 
 stalls, with a pump of good water 
 near the last, and convenient places 
 to put hay, straw, and turnips in, with 
 a machine to cut them. A great deal 
 of time and labour is saved by a 
 proper arrangement of the different 
 parts of the farm buildings. An un- 
 der-ground cistern near the cow- 
 house and stables, into which the 
 urine and washings of the cow-house 
 may run by means of a sink or drain, 
 is a most useful appendage, which is 
 
 too little thought of in England, 
 whereas it is one of the most indis- 
 pensable parts of a Flemish farm. It 
 supplies a kind of manure which can 
 be applied to the land at all times, 
 which invigorates sickly crops, and 
 may often produce an abundant re- 
 turn, where otherwise there would 
 be a complete failure. There are 
 many plans of farm buildings given 
 in works on agriculture, which com- 
 bine all that is useful on a large scale. 
 Most of these plans have been exe- 
 cuted at a great expense for the farm- 
 ing establi-shments of men of large 
 fortunes. But the proprietor who de- 
 sires to erect buildings most proper 
 for the occupation of his land must 
 study economy, and lay out no more 
 in buildings than is necessary. They 
 should be so substantial as not to re- 
 quire frequent repairs, without un- 
 necessarily increasing the original ex- 
 pense of materials and labour. Light 
 thatched roofs are sufHcient for the 
 sheds and smaller buildings, and even 
 for the cow-houses and stables. 
 " We here give a plan of plain farm 
 
 Buildings for a Farm o/300 acres. 
 
FARM. 
 
 H 
 
 . — — . — . 
 .. — " 
 
 . r 
 
 ^ u 
 
 buildings for the occupation of 200 
 or 300 acres of land, of which two 
 thirds are arable, fit for corn, barley, 
 clover, and wheat. There should be 
 two distinct farm-yards with proper 
 sheds, and in each there should be a 
 cistern for the urine from the stables 
 and the drainings from the dung. 
 
 " These two examples of farm 
 buildings will be sufficient to give 
 some idea of what may be proper for 
 farms of an intermediate size. A 
 principal thing to be attended to is to 
 have plenty of room for cattle ; and 
 where old barns remain much larger 
 than is required, according to the 
 present mode of stacking corn in the 
 368 
 
 yard, they can be very advantageous- 
 ly converted into cow-stalls or ox-sta- 
 bles. 
 
 " WTiere many sheep are kept, it is 
 of great advantage to have a sheep- 
 yard, with low sheds all round, at the 
 time when the ewes lamb, especially 
 when the season is wet and chilly, 
 which hurts them more than a dry 
 frost. The second yard, B, is well 
 adapted for that purpose, and an ad- 
 ditional temporary shed against the 
 partition which divides it into two 
 will convert either division into an 
 excellent sheep-yard. 
 
 " In valuing a farm, the habitation 
 is seldom taken into the account, but 
 
FARM. 
 
 the buildings immediately connected 
 with the cultivation necessarily add 
 to or diminish the price. 
 
 " Farm Accounts. — In proportion as 
 the management of a farm requires 
 more skill, and the various opera- 
 tions become more complicated, so 
 the necessity of great accuracy in 
 the accounts beconies more evident. 
 The manner in which farm accounts 
 should be kept deserves, therefore, 
 particular attention. 
 
 " Many farmers, who are not devoid 
 of intelligence, and who are anxious 
 to ascertain their gain or their loss 
 in cultivating the land which they 
 
 have hired, have no other means of 
 ascertaining this than the balance of 
 their account of receipts and expen- 
 diture. If they have separated the 
 accounts of their private establish- 
 ment from that of their farm, they 
 think that they have done all that is 
 required, and at the end of the year 
 they can tell accurately how- much 
 they have gained or lost by their 
 farm ; but ask them to account for 
 this gain or loss, and they can give 
 no answer. If a tradesman, who has 
 a capital in business equal to that of 
 a farmer of a considerable number 
 of acres, were to keep accounts in 
 269 
 
FARM. 
 
 this manner, and become a bankrupt, 
 no one would bcsitale in sayinj,' that 
 he failed because he kept no regular 
 accounts, llo bad no greater stake 
 than the farmer, and his transactions 
 were perhaps less varied : if he kept 
 no clerk, he should have attended 
 better to the accounts himself The 
 same may be said of the farmer; and 
 if a man who has a floating capital 
 of $10,000 does not think it. worth 
 his while to employ a clerk to keep 
 his accounts, not having time to do 
 so himself, it is no great wonder if 
 he is involved in difficulties. But 
 it may be said that agricultural ac- 
 counts are very simple, and that any 
 one can keep them. So are mer- 
 chants' accounts at tirst sight. No- 
 thing is simpler than to put down 
 what is bought and sold, what is the 
 profit on each transaction, and the 
 sum is the profit of the whole ; but 
 merchants know that to keep this 
 very simple account many books, 
 many entries, many checks, and con- 
 sequently many clerks are required. 
 In a lesser degree this is true in a 
 farm. It is easy to know what is 
 bought and sold, what is expended 
 or produced, but it requires very mi- 
 nute accounts to ascertain what part 
 of the farm gives a profitable return, 
 and what is the cau.se of loss. There 
 may be a profit on the crops and a 
 loss on the stock, or vice versa. The 
 money expended on improvements or 
 adventitious manure may have pro- 
 duced an increase which is propor- 
 tionate to the outlay, and which af- 
 fords a good interest ; but it may 
 also be a decided loss. How is this 
 to be ascertained, except it be by ac- 
 curate accounts 1 In whatever man- 
 ner the accounts are kept, whether 
 by the farmer himself or by a clerk, 
 method is of great importance ; and 
 whatever may be said against it by 
 those who do not know its value, 
 there is no system of accounts which 
 can be compared with the well-known 
 method of double entry. The prin- 
 ciple of this method is so simple that 
 the slowest arithmetician cannot be 
 confused by it, and it is so perfect 
 that no error can escape its scrutiny. 
 270 
 
 As applied to agricultural accounts, 
 which are simple in their nature, it 
 becomes so clear that, if once adopt- 
 ed, it is impossible that it should ever 
 be abandoned. The satisfaction of 
 a perlect proof of the correctness of 
 the accounts is so great that no one 
 who has ever experienced it will be 
 satisfied with any other method. 
 
 " In the accounts of a farm there are 
 many separate items to be taken into 
 consideration. There may be a sep- 
 arate account kept for every field ; 
 there should always be one for every 
 crop of which the rotation consists. 
 There is an account of the labour of 
 men and horses ; of the produce of 
 the dairy ; of the stock purchased to 
 be fattened, or sold again in an impro- 
 ved state. The more subjects there 
 are to furnish items for an account, 
 the more difficult it is to strike a 
 balance, but with a httle attention 
 and perseverance it may be done ; 
 and he who keeps very correct ac- 
 counts will always be the first to dis- 
 cover any impending evil, and to take 
 measures to provide against it. 
 
 "The basis of all the accounts is a 
 daily journal of every transaction, 
 which must be collected from all the 
 labourers and agents employed. M. 
 de Dombasle, at his celebrated farm 
 of Roville, in France, has all his prin- 
 cipal men and apprentices assembled 
 every evening after the day's work 
 is over. Each man gives an account 
 of the work done by him or under 
 his superintendence, which is written 
 down by the clerk. The orders for 
 the next day are then given, and ev- 
 ery one returns to his lodging or his 
 home. In the course of the next day 
 the clerk enters all that is in the 
 journal into a book, where every per- 
 son employed has an account: every 
 field has one ; every servant and do- 
 mestic animal has one ; and every 
 item which can be separated from 
 the rest is entered, both as adding to 
 the account or taking from it. For 
 example, the milk of the cows is en- 
 tered daily ; the quantity of butter, 
 butter-milk, and skimmed milk which 
 it produces is also entered ; and 
 these two accounts check one an- 
 
FAR 
 
 FAR 
 
 Other. Any error is immediately de- 
 tected, and the knowledge of this 
 prevents mistakes. An entry should 
 be made of every particular operation 
 in each field, tliat the farmer may 
 know which is his most profitable 
 land. The number of ploughings, the 
 quantity of manure, the state of the 
 weather, and all other circumstances 
 which may influence the return should 
 be carefully noted, in order that it 
 may he clearly seen whether any ex- 
 periment or deviation from the usual 
 routine is advantageous or otherwise. 
 Thus all real improvements may be 
 encouraged, and uncertain theories 
 detected by the result. 
 
 " The most important circumstance 
 which influences the profits of a farm- 
 er is the cost of his team and the 
 wages of his men. These vary in 
 different situations so much that they 
 greatly influence the price which he 
 can afford to give for the land. In 
 some parts of the country the horses 
 are pampered and kept so fat that 
 they can scarcely do a day's work as 
 they ought ; in others they are over- 
 worked and badly fed. Either ex- 
 treme must be a loss to the farmer. 
 In the first case, the horses cannot 
 do their work, and they consume an 
 unnecessary quantity of provender ; 
 in the other, they are soon worn out, 
 and the loss in horses that become 
 useless or die is greater than the sa- 
 ving in their food or the extra work 
 done by them. A horse properly fed 
 will work eight or ten hours every 
 day in the week, resting only on 
 Sundays ; by a judicious division of 
 the labour of the horses, they are 
 never over-worked, and an average 
 value of a day's work is easily ascer- 
 tained. This, in a well regulated 
 farm, will be found much less than 
 the common valuations give it. There 
 have been printed forms invented, in 
 order to render the accounts more 
 simple, as well as more comprehen- [ 
 sive. Forms may be of use to enter > 
 minute details ; and each superin- i 
 tendent may have a form of entry for 
 the work which he performs or su- 
 perintends ; but the ledger should be 
 kept exactly as that of a mercantile j 
 
 man, and he frequently balanced to 
 ensure correctness. This is a thin<^ 
 which cannot be too strongly recom- 
 mended to young farmers." 
 
 FARM- YARD MANURE. The 
 excrements of cattle mixed with ve- 
 getable litter accumulated in the farm- 
 yard. Stran-, peat, sea-weed, the 
 haulms of crops, leaves, and any or- 
 ganic matter may be added to swell 
 the bulk. It is usual to make the 
 yard somewhat inclined, so that the 
 fluid portions may run into a tank at 
 the bottom. The reservoir should 
 be tight, either of cement or temper- 
 ed clay ; it may be furnished with 
 pumps, to return the fluid over the 
 solid matters several times during its 
 preparation. The dung should be 
 I piled in ridges of five feet high and 
 as many wide, and kept trodden to- 
 gether ; it should not be permitted to 
 heat too much or be kept too wet. It 
 is very much improved by an addi- 
 tion of charcoal, gypsum, and lime, 
 applied occasionally to the layers as 
 they are brought out from the houses. 
 In well-tilled soils twenty to thirty 
 cart-loads the acre are applied for a 
 rotation of three or four years. Corn, 
 wheat, potatoes, or tobacco usually 
 receive the manure. Sandy soils re- 
 quire less manure, but more frequent- 
 ly repeated. 
 
 Farm-yard manure wastes rapidly 
 by exposure and the action of rain, 
 its soluble salts being removed, and 
 the volatile ammoniacal portions ri- 
 sing into the air. Great benefit would 
 be found from the erection of slab or 
 thatched sheds for the protection of 
 the heaps. 
 
 It is of service to all crops, be- 
 cause, being made up of the offal of 
 vegetables and food, it contains all 
 the neces'sary salts and organic mat- 
 ters ; but, in the usual way of prep- 
 aration, it is also the depository of 
 the seeds of weeds and insects, and 
 tends to render the husbandry foul. 
 By preparing with lime, and man- 
 aging it in the dry way, eremacausis 
 is produced, which destroys the seeds 
 and eggs, at the same time that it di- 
 minishes the waste by volatilization. 
 The value of the manure is depend- 
 871 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 ant upon the food used, and the pro- 
 portion of (hinfj: to straw, the litter 
 absorbing tlic lluid parts and runninji 
 into decay, but reducing the vaUie of 
 any given Avcight of the manure. 
 Where animal garbage or fisli can 
 be obtained, the value is much in- 
 creased. (See Manures.) But in the 
 common yard dung the fluid parts 
 are altogether the richest portions. 
 
 Yard manure should be taken out 
 and ploughed as early in the spring 
 as possible, before it is much re- 
 duced by rotting, nor should it be in 
 the soil very long before the seeds, 
 for it wastes away rapidly. Well-rot- 
 ted dung is necessary for particular 
 plants, but is by no means economi- 
 cal. In many cases an application 
 to the hill is best, as in potatoes, tur- 
 nips, corn, and tobacco. 
 
 Soiling is a certain means of in- 
 creasing the quantity of manure at 
 the same time that expenses are less- 
 ened ; it is to be considered an es- 
 sential in good arable husbandry. It 
 is common to keep the horse, cow, 
 and pig dung separate ; but there is 
 little benefit in this. 
 
 Compositioji of Farm-yard Manure. 
 — " The elementary composition of 
 farm dung is a point which is not 
 undeserving of consideration," says 
 Boussingault. " The animals which 
 had produced the dung were thirty 
 horses, thirty oxen, and from ten to 
 twenty hogs. The absolute quantity 
 of moisture was ascertained by first 
 drying in the air a considerable weight 
 of dung, and, after pounding, continu- 
 ing and completing the drying, in vac- 
 uo, at 230° Fahrenheit. 
 
 " The dung prepared in the winter 
 of the year 
 
 SO''} >j)er cent, of 
 22-2 i diT matter. 
 19-6 
 
 1837-8 contained . 
 1838-9 
 In.summer of 1839 
 
 Medium . . 
 
 Water . . 
 
 20-7 
 79-3 
 
 "Analysis yielded the following 
 results : 
 
 Times of preparation. Garb. Hjd. Oxyj:. Azote. Ashes. 
 
 Winter of 1837-8 324 3-8 258 1-7 363 
 
 " 32-5 41 260 1-7 35 7 
 
 " 38-7 4'5 28-7 17 26-4 
 
 Spring of 1838 304 40 19 1 24 381 
 
 1839 400 4-3 27-6 24 25 7 
 
 " " 345 4-3 27-6 20 31-5 
 
 272 
 
 " On the average, farm dung, dried 
 at SSS*^, contains : 
 
 Carbon 35-8 
 
 Hydrogen 42 
 
 Oxygen 258 
 
 Azote 20 
 
 Salts and earths . . . 32-2 
 100-0 
 
 " When moist, its composition is 
 represented by 
 
 Carbon 7'41 
 
 Hydrogen 0-87 
 
 Oxygen 5-34 
 
 Azote 41 
 
 Sails and earths . . 6-67 
 
 Water 7930 
 
 100^ 
 •' The constitution of dung heaps 
 must of necessity vary ; those, how- 
 ever, which have a common origin 
 do not seem to present very great 
 differences in the proportion of their 
 elements. 
 
 '• Excretions of the Horse. — The 
 horse was fed upon hay and oats. 
 The urine and the excrements togeth- 
 er contained 762 per cent, of moist- 
 ure. In twenty-four hours the excre- 
 tions weighed, moist, 342 pounds; 
 dry, 81 pounds. 
 
 " Their composition was found to 
 be: 
 
 In the dry mat*. Moist ditto. 
 
 Carbon 386 »19 
 
 Hydrogen .... 50 1-20 
 
 Oxygen 38-4 8-66 
 
 Azote : 2-7 413 
 
 Salts and earth . . 17-3 4- 13 
 
 Water 17-3 7617 
 
 100-0 1000 
 
 " Excretions of the Cow. — The COW 
 was fed upon hay and raw potatoes. 
 The urine and the excrements to- 
 gether contained 86 4 of moisture. 
 The weight of the excretions, in 
 twenty-four hours, was, moist, 80 5 
 pounds ; dry, 10-9 pounds. 
 
 "Their composition, by analysis, 
 was : 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Carbon 398 
 
 Hydrogen .... 4-7 
 
 Oxygen 35'5 
 
 Azote 2-6 
 
 Salts and earth . . 17-4 
 
 Water .... . 17-4 
 
 1000 
 
 " Excretions of the Pig. — The pigs 
 upon which the observations were 
 made were, from six to eight months 
 old. They were fed upon steamed 
 
 Wet 
 539 
 0-64 
 4-81 
 0-36 
 2-36 
 6644 
 100 00 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 potatoes. The urine and the excre- 
 ments lost, by drying, 8'Z per cent, of 
 moisture. 'J"he average of the ex- 
 cretions yielded by one pig in twenty- 
 four hours was, moist, 91 pounds; 
 dry, 1 6 pounds. 
 " Composition : 
 
 Dr}-- Moist. 
 
 Carbon 36-7 6-97 
 
 Hydrogen .... 48 0-86 
 
 Oxvgen 32 5 5 85 
 
 Azote 3-4 61 
 
 Salts and earth . . 206 8701 
 
 Water .... . 20-6 82-00 
 
 1000 lUO-00 
 
 " The litter that is generally em- 
 ployed is wheat straw. This straw, 
 in the condition in which it is used, 
 contains 26 per cent, of moisture. 
 
 " Its composition is ; 
 
 Dried. rn,iri.-d. 
 
 Carbon 484 358 
 
 IIvdro?en .... 53 39 
 
 Oiygen 38-9 28-8 
 
 A,5ote 04 00-3 
 
 Sails and earth . . 70 52 
 
 Water .... . 70 260 
 
 1000 1000 
 
 " At Bechelbronn each horse re- 
 ceives daily, as litter, 4 4 pounds ; 
 each cow, 6 6 pounds ; each pig, 4-1 
 pounds of straw. 
 
 "To the stables and the cow-houses 
 together are given, every twenty-four 
 hours, 13"-i pounds of straw for thir- 
 ty horses; 198 pounds for thirty 
 horned cattle ; 66 pounds for six- 
 teen pigs ; making 396 pounds of 
 straw, estimated, when dry, at 292-6 
 pounds. 
 
 " The composition of the materials 
 which constitute the dung produced 
 in one day are set forth in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Excretions yielded Weight 
 in 24 hours by when dry-. 
 
 Weight t Elements of the dry matter. 
 
 Water 
 constitu- 
 ting the 
 wet matter. 
 
 state. 1 Carb. ^Hydrog. 
 
 0..ygea[Azo,e.||f;f,,f: 
 
 lbs. 
 Thinv horses .... 24508 
 Thirty horned cattle 32636 
 Sixteen pigs ... .1 26-40 
 Straw used in litter | 29260 
 
 lbs. 1 lbs. , Ib^. 
 
 1028-28' 94-60 1232 
 
 2416-48 130 24 1540 
 
 146-74 1012; 1-32 
 
 396-00 41-66, 1562 
 
 lb?. 1 lbs. lbs. 
 
 8910| 6-60 42-46 
 
 116161 8-58 56-98 
 
 8-58 1 0-88 1 5-50 
 
 113-741 1-10 1 20-46 
 
 lbs. 
 
 783-20 
 
 2089-12 
 
 120-34 
 
 103-40 
 
 " The average or mean composition of this mixture may be taken as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 In the drj- state. | In the wet state. | 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrog. 
 
 O.^ygen. 
 
 Azote. |Salt.^.| Carbon. | Hydrog.j Oxygen. 
 
 Azote. 
 0-4 
 
 Salts. 
 ¥2" 
 
 Water. 
 
 42-3 
 
 50 
 
 36.7 
 
 1-9 |l4-l| 9-4 \ 1-2 1 8 2 
 
 77-6 
 
 
 
 
 That of the resulting Dung. 
 
 
 
 
 35-8 
 
 4-2 
 
 25-8 
 
 2 |32-2 1 7-4 1 0-9 | 5-3 
 
 0-4 
 
 6-7 
 
 79-3 
 
 " On comparing the composition of ' 
 the dung-heap with that of the differ- 
 ent kinds of litter collected in a day, 
 little difference is observed ; the lar- 
 ger quantity of saline and earthy mat- 1 
 ters discovered in the fermented ma- ; 
 nure is readily explained from the ad- j 
 ditions of ashes incorporated with it, : 
 and also by the accidental admixture I 
 of earthy matters proceeding from 
 the sweepings of the court, the earth | 
 adhering to the roots consumed as 
 food, &c. — refuse of ever}' kind, the ■ 
 residue after cleansing the various [ 
 kinds of fodder for tlie stable and 
 stall, &c., all go to the dung-heap. 
 Lastly, and with reference to the ele- 
 ments that are liable to be dissipated 
 in the state of gas, or which may be j 
 changed into water, the azote is pre- j 
 
 cipitated in larger quantity in the pre- 
 pared manure than in the unferment- 
 ed litter and excretions. This is at 
 once seen on comparing the compo- 
 sition of these two products after the 
 saline and earthy matters have been 
 deducted. 
 
 Carb. Hydrog. 0.tyg. Azote. 
 The composition of 
 
 fresh litter is . . . 49-3 5-8 42-7 2 
 That of dung .... 528 6-1 33-1 3.0 
 
 " Dung is, therefore, somewhat 
 richer in carbon than litter, and it 
 contains less oxygen. 
 
 " Fermented dung contains less 
 oxygen than that which comes from 
 the stable ; it ought also to contain 
 less hydrogen ; but this analysis does 
 not proclaim. 
 
 "Azote is, in fact, the element 
 which it is of highest importance to 
 273 
 
FAR 
 
 FAR 
 
 augment and to preserve in dunp;. 
 The organic substances which arc 
 the most advantageous in producing 
 manures are precisely those which 
 give origin, by their decomposition, 
 to the largest proportion of azotized 
 matters, soluble or volatile. I say 
 by their decomposition, because the 
 mere presence of azote in matters 
 of organic origin does not suffice to 
 constitute them manure. While we 
 admit the high importance, indeed 
 tlie absolute necessity of azotic prin- 
 ciples in manures, then, we must not 
 therefore conclude that these princi- 
 ples are the only ones which contrib- 
 ute to fertilize the earth. 
 
 " It is unquestionable that tlie al- 
 kaline and earthy salts are farther 
 indispensable to the accomplishment 
 of the phenomena of vegetation ; and 
 it is far from being sufficiently shown 
 that the organic principles void of 
 azote play a merely passive part 
 when added to the soil. But with 
 few exceptions, the fixed salts, wa- 
 ter or its elements, and carbon, su- 
 perabound in manure. The chemical 
 nature of the salts is the same as that 
 of the fodders used. The element 
 which exists there in smallest pro- 
 portion is azote, which is the one, 
 also, that is most apt to be dissipa- 
 ted during the alteration of the bodies 
 that contain it. For these reasons, 
 azote is really the element whose 
 presence it is of highest moment to 
 ascertain ; its proportion is that, in 
 fact, which fixes the comparative 
 value of different manures. 
 
 " Since it is by undergoing modifi- 
 cation in the course of their decoin- 
 position by putrefaction that those 
 azotized substances which arc fa- 
 vourable to vegetation are developed 
 in quaternary compounds, it will be 
 readily understood that, all things 
 else being equal, a manure which is 
 completely resolved into soluble or 
 gaseous products in the course of a 
 single season will exert, in virtue of 
 this alone, the whole of its useful in- 
 fluence upon the first crop. It is en- 
 tirely different if the manure decom- 
 poses more slowly ; its action upon 
 the first crop will be less obvious, but 
 274 
 
 its influence will continue longer. 
 Tiicre are manures which act, it may 
 he said, at the moment they are put 
 into the ground ; there are others, 
 the action of which continues during 
 several years. Nevertheless, two 
 manures, although acting within pe- 
 riods so different in point of extent, 
 will produce the same final result if 
 they severally contain the same dose 
 of azotic elements, if they are of the 
 same intrinsic value. 
 
 " The durability of manures, the 
 length of time during which they will 
 continue to exert their influence, is 
 a matter of great importance. It oft- 
 en depends on their state of cohe- 
 sion, or on their insolubility, though 
 climate and the nature of the soil 
 have also a marked influence on their 
 decomposition and consequent ef- 
 fects. It is not easy, in the present 
 state of knowledge, to predict with 
 certainty how long the beneficial ef- 
 fects of a given manure will continue 
 to be felt ; but we know well enough 
 what will hasten the decomposition 
 of manure and what will retard this 
 result, and so apportion, as it were, 
 the fertilizing principles among the 
 different crops in the rotation." 
 
 In Switzerland it is common to ap- 
 ply a small quantity of the solution 
 of green vitriol or copperas (sulphate 
 of iron) to the yard manure. One 
 pound of copperas in solution will an- 
 swer for about three hundred weight 
 of the manure. This converts the 
 carbonate into sulphate of ammo- 
 nia, and removes any bad odour. It 
 also improves the quality of the ma- 
 nure very considerably. 
 
 FARRIER. One who shoes hor- 
 ses, or treats their diseases ; the lat- 
 ter department is now coining into 
 the hands of educated men, called 
 veterinary surgeons. 
 
 FARROW. A litter of pigs. 
 
 FASCID. In anatomy, a tendinous 
 expansion Iving between muscles. 
 
 FASCICULUS, or FASCICLE. 
 In botany, an inflorescence in which 
 the flower-stalks of various lengths 
 form a summit somewhat level, and 
 the uppermost buds expand first, as 
 in the sweet William. 
 
FAT 
 
 FAT 
 
 FAT. A solid oil, which combines 
 with soda and forms soap. In tlie 
 body it is stored in cells, in mem- 
 branes existing under the skin, over 
 the intestines and kidneys. The va- 
 rieties in consistence of different 
 fats depends upon the proportion of 
 the stearin and elain they contain ; 
 the former being the solid part, the 
 latter the fluid or oily. They are in- 
 soluble in water, partly soluble in al- 
 cohol, and partly in ether. 
 
 Fats answer, in animals, several 
 important functions. They serve to 
 maintain the warmth, by excluding 
 atmospheric cold ; lubricate joints 
 and tlie spaces between muscles, and 
 afford the means of sustaining ani- 
 mal heat by their consumption in the 
 body during severe weather. In well- 
 fattened animals it is deposited even 
 between the fibres of the muscles. 
 
 Chemically, they are hydro-car- 
 bons, and consist of oily acids com- 
 bined with glycerine. Stearin con- 
 sists of carbon, 79; hydrogen, 11-7; 
 and oxygen, 9 3 per cent., and gives 
 us a fair representation of the com- 
 position of the rest. The fats of ve- 
 getables are identical with those of 
 animals, excepting where a peculiar 
 odorous body is added, as in goat fat, 
 whale oil, &c. For the various in- 
 gredients of fats, see Elain, Stearin, 
 Magarine, Olein, Butter, (fcc. 
 
 The purification of fats for the man- 
 ufacture of soaps and candles is ef- 
 fected by first mincing it in fine pie- 
 ces, melting in warm water, and 
 straining through a sieve. It may 
 be farther purified by remelting in 
 water acidulated with 2 per cent, of 
 sulphuric acid, stirring it constantly, 
 allowing it to cool, and skimming off 
 the tallow, which should be after- 
 ward remelted with an abundance of 
 fresh water. In this way it becomes 
 very white and hard. 
 
 ■ The rancidity of fats and oils is due 
 to the absorption of oxygen from the 
 air and the production of new pun- 
 gent bodies, termed hircic, capric, 
 &c., acids. This is also the reason 
 why butter spoils unless well worked 
 before storage to remove ail the air 
 contamed in it. 
 
 FATTENING ANIMALS. The 
 
 accumulation of tat is unquestionably 
 dependant upon the food in part, but 
 it also depends upon the disposition 
 and management of the animal. A 
 docile breed, as the Durham ox or 
 China hog, is more easily fattened 
 than one that is restless. A dispo- 
 sition to rest and sleep is very neces- 
 sary, and is encouraged by placing 
 the animals in darkened stalls, allow- 
 ing them to be seldom troubled, and 
 supplying rich food often during the 
 day. As the fat accumulates, the 
 skin feels very silky and the animal 
 becomes lethargic ; in this state it 
 should be slaughtered, for otherwise 
 they become liable to sudden death. 
 Great attention is necessary to the 
 cleanliness of the animal, the skin of 
 which should be curried and washed 
 to prevent disease. The food is grad- 
 ually increased in nutritiousness and 
 amount of oil it contains, until the 
 fattening is perfect. It is seldom 
 that the accumulation of weight ex- 
 ceeds two to two and a half pounds 
 the day, notwithstanding the ration 
 is doubled, or three and a half to four 
 per cent, of the weight of the animal 
 given in hay, or its equivalent. Small 
 beasts are fattened more economi- 
 cally than large ones, and unless the 
 skin handles well, or is soft and elas- 
 tic to the touch, the prospects for 
 rapid fattening are not good. The 
 length of time necessary to finish the 
 fattening is four or five months ia 
 oxen, but is less during warm thaa 
 cold weather. 
 
 FATTENING FOOD. The expe- 
 rience of farmers has always been in 
 favour of the doctrine that oily prov- 
 ender IS required to produce fat ; 
 beech -nuts, linseed -oil cakes, and 
 corn enjoy the highest reputation, 
 and are most charged with oil. Lie- 
 big has, however, advanced the doc- 
 trine that farinaceous vegetables, as 
 the potato, carrot, &c., are fattening 
 from the starch they contain ; but al- 
 though this may be true physiologi- 
 cally, yet in ordinary farm manage- 
 ment it is found cheaper and more 
 expeditious to use fodders already 
 containing the fat, rather than to 
 276 
 
F.\i; 
 
 FEE 
 
 wait for the slower transformation 
 out of starch. 
 
 Fattening food should be well pre- 
 pared by grinding, and steaming for 
 hogs. A mush that had become 
 slightly sour was found to fatten more 
 expeditiously by Arthur Young than 
 the fresh food. The following table 
 gives the comparative values of prov- 
 enders for fattening, by showing the 
 amount of oil they contain : 
 
 Indian com . . 9 to 10 percent, of oil. 
 
 Oats 4 to 5 " " 
 
 Wheat . . . 2i to 2i " " 
 
 Bran .... 4 to 5 " " 
 
 Oilcake ... 9 to 10 " " 
 
 Clover hay . . 4 " " 
 
 Meadow hay . . 3A to 4 " " 
 
 Pease andbeans . 2| to 3 " " 
 
 Beech mast . . 15 to 17 " " 
 
 Sunflower seed . 15 " " 
 
 Linseed ... 11 to 22 " " 
 
 Hemp seed . .18 to 25 " " 
 
 Straw .... 1 to li " " 
 
 These numbers are not constant, 
 for the amount of oil depends upon 
 the season, increasing witli the brill- 
 iancy and dryness of the weather. 
 Potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, man- 
 gel wurzel, contain less than one 
 quarter per cent., and are therefore 
 not adapted for fattening alone. 
 
 The same values are true for but- 
 ter and milk, except that oil cake im- 
 parts a bad flavour. Poultry and 
 pigs are now som.etimes fattened in 
 part on animal fat, as cracklings, 
 greaves, &c. One of the most suc- 
 cessful bodies in the list is ground lin- 
 seed meal, but, considering its other 
 qualities, corn is the most esteemed. 
 If the cake or oily seeds are used, it 
 will be necessary to mix meal, oats, 
 or pease with them, to preserve the 
 health of the animal ; tive pounds of 
 cake area sufficient supply for the day. 
 
 FATHOM. A measure of six feet. 
 
 FAUCES. The part of the throat 
 at the root of the tongue. 
 
 FAULT. In geology, an interrup- 
 tion in the continuation of a stratum, 
 the bed having been broken by an 
 earthquake and separated. The crev- 
 ice between the parts is often filled 
 with clay, which forms an impervious 
 barrier to drainage. 
 
 FAUNA. The animals of a coun- 
 try. 
 
 276 
 
 FAUX. The opening or throat of 
 monopetalous flowers, like the snap- 
 dragon, sage, d:c. 
 
 FAVOSUS (from farus, a honey- 
 comb). Marked like a honey-comb. 
 
 FEATHER-BOARDING. Weath- 
 er-boarding, the edges of the boards 
 overlapping. 
 
 FEATHER-GRASS. Slipa pen- 
 nala. A very inferior grass. 
 
 FEATHERS. The covering of 
 birds, answering the purpose and be- 
 ing of the same composition as the 
 hair and fur of animals. Goose- 
 feathers for beds are, in Europe, 
 plucked in the spring, midsummer, 
 and September, each parcel being 
 dried in an oven. If they become 
 foul, it may be remedied by boiling 
 them, enclosed in bags, in an abun- 
 dance of water for a few minutes. 
 The quill is prepared by dipping in 
 a quantity of sand heated to 150" 
 Fahrenheit, and afterward rubbing it 
 strongly with flannel until it becomes 
 clear. 
 
 Waste feathers, as a manure, are 
 precisely of the same value as woollen 
 rags, which see. 
 
 FEBRIFUGE. Any medicine 
 which allays the heat and violence of 
 fevers, as lemonade, Seidlitz pow- 
 ders, tartar emetic, &c. 
 
 FECES. Excrements, dregs. 
 
 FECUIA. Starchv matter. 
 
 FECUNDATION. In horticulture, 
 the act of sprinkling the yellow pow- 
 der {pollen) of the stamens of one 
 flower upon the stigma or female or- 
 ' gan of another, to produce new vari- 
 I eties of seed, is called artificial fecun- 
 dation or impregnation. The late 
 1 Mr. Andrew Knight obtained in this 
 j way many choice fruits. Varieties 
 of plants, especially melons, are fre- 
 i quently injured and lost by planting 
 : ihern near each other, from fecunda- 
 tion arising from the pollen of one 
 kind being carried to another by in- 
 I sects or the wind. Hence annuals 
 i of the same species set out for seed 
 should be placed far apart. 
 
 FEED. The quantity of proven- 
 der or ration allowed a horse, cow, 
 &.C. Growing animals require three 
 per cent. ; working horses, two ; 
 
FEL 
 
 FEN 
 
 milch cows, three ; and Tattening an- 
 imals three and a half to four per 
 cent, of their weight in hay or its 
 equivalent. See Fodder. 
 
 FEELERS. The antenna3 of in- 
 sects, or, according to entomologists, 
 organs fixed to the mouth, used for 
 prehension. 
 
 FELINE ANIMALS. Beasts of 
 the tiger, lion, and cat race. They 
 are carnivorous, furnished with sharp 
 incisor teeth, and retractile claws. 
 
 FELL. The hide of an animal. 
 
 FELLING TIMBER. Much dis- 
 cussion has arisen as to the time of 
 felling timber, some contending for 
 winter, others for summer. Duha- 
 mel, who examined the matter thor- 
 oughly, came to the conclusion that 
 the time of cutting was of little or no 
 importance on the durability of the 
 timber. The rule now established is, 
 that soft woods, as the elm, poplar, 
 maple, willows, are best cut in win- 
 ter, the harder trees in summer, and 
 old trees may be cut at any time. 
 
 FELLINIC ACID. One of the 
 acids found in bile by Berzelius. 
 
 FELLMONGER'S POAKE, or 
 CLIPPINGS. The clippings of skins 
 and the scrapings of leather. It con- 
 tains hair, skin, and lime, and is best 
 introduced into composts to increase 
 the amount of nitrogen. A direct ap- 
 plication is wasteful, for it decays 
 rapidly. 
 
 FELLOES. The curved pieces of 
 wood which form the circumference 
 of wheels : ash is preferred for this 
 purpose. 
 
 FELON, or FETLOW. In farri- 
 ery, a term for a sort of inflammation 
 in animals similar to that of whitlow 
 in the human subject. 
 
 FELDSPAR. A common mineral 
 abounding in granite and transition 
 rocks ; it is crystalline, of a pearly lus- 
 tre, and of various colours, usually 
 of a yellowish or reddish aspect. It 
 is a silicate of potash and alumina, 
 containing from eleven to fourteen 
 per cent, of real potash, and furnish- 
 ing, by slow decay in the soil, that 
 important alkali to plants. Albite is 
 a variety containing soda. An abun- 
 dance of decaying vegetable matter 
 
 A A 
 
 in the soil, or the addition of heavy 
 dressings of lime, assists the disen- 
 gagement of the potash, and thus ad- 
 vances fertility. No soil which con- 
 tains much feldspathic sand can be 
 deficient in potash. 
 
 FEMUR. The thigh bone ; hence 
 Femoral. 
 
 FEN. A boggy or marshy place. 
 See Bog: 
 
 FENCES. Erections to protect 
 land from the trespass of cattle. They 
 are called live fences, or hedges, when 
 made of shrubs. See Hedges. 
 
 ^\'ood, being so common, is usual- 
 ly employed in the United States ; 
 but walls of blasted rock or loose 
 stones are frequently seen. Stumps 
 form an admirable fencing material. 
 Banks of earth, dug from a ditch and 
 covered with sods, or a ditch only, 
 are also used ; in the prairies they 
 would, perhaps, be cheaper than rail 
 fencing. These structures are, how 
 ever, very expensive, and should be 
 diminished by the introduction of the 
 system of soiling. 
 
 Wooden fences are commonly 
 erected in the zigzag direction ; the 
 cross fence, consisting of one piece 
 set slanting upon two others stuck 
 into the ground, and made to cross 
 near the top, is much less permanent. 
 The post and rail is very superior, 
 but more expensive, but, by using pre- 
 served timber, might be made imper- 
 ishable. See Preservation of Tim- 
 ber. Railings are readily rived from 
 straight pine, but look much neater 
 when sawn. In Virginia the law re- 
 quires a fence of ten rails, with ri- 
 ders, which is unnecessarily high ; 
 five rails, with riders, being used in 
 Jersey. The rails are cut twelve feet 
 long. A rod costs from 50 to 70 cents. 
 
 Hurdles, or light moveable fences, 
 consisting of panels, about four feet 
 long and four feet and a half high, are 
 much used in Europe to confine 
 sheep, each panel being furnished 
 with two end pieces long enough to be 
 stuck fast into the earth. They arc 
 tied together, when set up, with 
 wiihes. Sometimes they are made 
 of osier, but usually of any small 
 wood. By means of them, turnips 
 277 
 
FENCES. 
 
 spring rye, &c.., can be depastured. 
 A light post and rail fence may he 
 made moveable l)y furnishing the 
 posts with feet. Light iron and wire 
 hurdles are now introduced in Eng- 
 land, and also iron rods passed 
 through wooden posts for permanent 
 fences. 
 
 Walls are put up at fifty cents to 
 one dollar the rod. The following 
 is from Law : 
 
 " The stone wall may either be form- 
 ed of stones built without cement, or 
 it may be built with mortar like com- 
 mon masonry ; but the last of these 
 methods is rarely practised with the 
 common fences of a farm. The ce- 
 menting of the stones with mortar 
 adds, indeed, to the durability of the 
 wall, but then the expense is too 
 great in common cases. The wall, 
 therefore, for the ordinary purposes 
 of the farm, may generally be built 
 of stones alone, though sometimes 
 with a little mortar, merely for ce- 
 menting the coping, and occasional- 
 ly for pinning or closing the inter- 
 stices of the outside. When stones 
 cannot be obtained, brick may be sub- 
 stituted. 
 
 " The materials for building the dry 
 stone wall, as this kind of wall is 
 termed, may be sandstone, whin- 
 stone, or any other stones of suffi- 
 cient durability. Loose stones taken 
 from the surface, termed land stones, 
 answer sufficiently well, if they be 
 of proper size, and not too much 
 rounded ; but in the latter case they 
 present too smooth a surface, and 
 cannot be kept m their places with- 
 out mortar. 
 
 " The implements to be used in 
 building the dry stone wall are a ma- 
 son's hammer, a spade or shovel for 
 clearing the ground for a foundation, a 
 pick or mattock, and a frame of two 
 upright posts fixed together, so as to 
 correspond with a vertical section of 
 a portion of the wall. 
 
 " The line of the intended fence be- 
 ing fixed upon and marked on the 
 ground, the stones for building should 
 be brought forward, and laid down on 
 both sides, if possible, of the line of 
 fence, but if not, on one side. 
 278 
 
 " Pins being fixed in the centre of 
 the space to be occupied by the wall, 
 the workman proceeds thus : he car- 
 ries his wooden frame to some dis- 
 tance along the line to be built upon ; 
 he sets it perpendicular, which he is 
 enabled to do by means of a plumb- 
 line attached to it. He then fixes 
 another similar frame at the place 
 where the wall is to commence ; he 
 stretches two cords between these 
 two frames on the outside, and as 
 these cords correspond with the out- 
 side of the wall at a given height, he 
 has a guide for building it of the 
 required dimensions. After having 
 built one portion, he uses only one 
 frame, the wall itself serving after- 
 ward the part of a frame ; for the 
 cords being fixed to both sides of the 
 wall, and then attached to the frame 
 which is placed in advance, the work- 
 man has, as before, a guide by which 
 he proceeds in building. 
 
 " The foundation of the wall should 
 be laid on firm ground, and when 
 there is not green sward to build 
 upon, the loose earth should be taken 
 out by the spade, until a solid found- 
 ation is arrived at. In building, the 
 largest and flattest stones should be 
 used for the foundation ; and it is 
 very desirable, if the materials used 
 will allow, to place stones at inter- 
 vals of sufficient size to lie across 
 the breadth of the wall, so as to bind 
 the wall together, and render it more 
 secure. 
 
 " Different kinds of coping may be 
 placed upon the wall to defend it. 
 One of these consists merely of turf, 
 two sods being laid upon the wall, 
 with the earthy sides placed towards 
 each other. Another species of cop- 
 ing consists of large stones, which, 
 being closely built and wedged togeth- 
 er, are cemented by mortar. This is 
 a complete and durable species of 
 coping ; but when it is used, a row 
 of flat stones should be laid on the 
 top of the wall immediately beneath 
 the coping, and made to project a lit- 
 tle on each side of it. 
 
 " A wall, sufficient for the purposes 
 of the farm, may be 32 inches wide 
 at bottom, 16 inches wide at top, and, 
 
FEN 
 
 I'ER 
 
 including the coping, 4^- feet high. 
 Two good cavt-Ioads of stones will 
 suffice for building a yard. 
 
 " When a fence is required within 
 sight of a dwelling, and it is desira- 
 ble for it to be concealed, a deep 
 ditch is sometimes dug, and a fence 
 placed in the bottom of it at such a 
 depth as not to appear above the lev- 
 el of the ground. This is called a 
 sunk fence. Sometimes a wall is 
 built against a perpendicular side of 
 a ditch, and some very light fence is 
 placed obliquely outward near the 
 top of it and level with the ground. 
 This is called a ha-ha fence, a name 
 given to it from the surprise excited 
 in a person unacquainted with it, 
 when he suddenly finds himself on 
 the top of a wall with a deep ditch 
 before him. When it is desired to 
 keep off sheep or cattle from a lawn 
 or pleasure-ground without obstruct- 
 ing the view of the park or the fields, 
 the ha-ha fence is very useful." 
 
 Some persons recommend division 
 fences for every ten acres, but this is 
 ridiculously small, for it is not to be 
 forgotten that the fence requires some 
 room, hinders close ploughing, and 
 this probably reduces the enclosure by 
 one third to one half an acre, which, 
 in a farm of two hundred acres, would 
 amount to ten acres. Thirty or for- 
 ty acre lots, except on small farms, 
 are small enough. 
 
 FENESTRATE. In entomology, 
 the appearance produced by the trans- 
 parent spots on the wings of some in- 
 sects. In botany, the absence of tis- 
 sue between the veins of a leaf 
 
 FExNNEL, COMMON. Meum (ce- 
 niculum. This is a well-known bienni- 
 al plant, cultivated in kitchen gardens 
 as a garnish, and used as a domestic 
 medicine. The taste and aromatic 
 qualities of the garden fennel are well 
 known. The sweet and warm seeds 
 are a common carminative for infants. 
 
 FENNEL, SWEET. Famculum 
 duke. This species of fennel is an an- 
 nual plant, a native of Italy and Por- 
 tugal, where it is cultivated as a pot- 
 herb, as well as for the seeds and the 
 oil which these afford. It is a small- 
 »r plant than the common fennel. The 
 
 stem is somewhat compressed at the 
 base. The fruit is much longer than 
 that ofthecoinmon fennel, being near- 
 ly five lines long, less compressed, 
 somewhat curved, and paler, with a 
 greenish tinge. 
 
 FENUGREEK. Trigonellafmnum- 
 gracum. Fenugreek is a species of 
 trefoil, sometimes cultivated in fields 
 for its seed ; but it yields a very un- 
 certain crop. The stem is a foot 
 high, erect, with round, branched 
 stalks, trifoliate leaves, toothed ; the 
 flowers small and white ; the fruit a 
 sessile, straight, erect, acuminate, 
 flat pod, containing a number of yel- 
 lowish seeds havmg a strong, disa- 
 greeable smell, and an unctuous, far- 
 inaceous, and somewhat bitter taste. 
 These seeds are useful in cataplasms 
 and fomentations. 
 
 FENUGREEK, UUSSIAN. Trig, 
 onella nithenica. A hardy perennial, 
 native of Siberia, with yellow papil- 
 ionaceous blossoms in July and Au- 
 gust. It loves a strong loamy soil 
 and an open situation. It is propa- 
 gated either by parting the roots in 
 spring or from seed. 
 
 FER.MENT. A substance ia the 
 state of decay which is capable of 
 communicating fermentation and sim- 
 ilar changes to other bodies. Fer- 
 ments contain nitrogen, and are pri- 
 marily derived from albumen, fibrin, 
 or casein, which, when moi.st, decay 
 spontaneously. The product of the 
 ferment depends upon temperature, 
 amount of water, access of air, and 
 other conditions. These actions can 
 only originate in organic matter, but 
 ferments act upon inorganic substan- 
 ces, as mixtures of gases, &c. Fer- 
 ments become exhausted in acting 
 upon other bodies, from their own 
 decay. For common ferment, see 
 Yecmt. 
 
 FERMENTATION. When a fer- 
 ment, as yeast, is brought in contact 
 with grape sugar, and several other 
 principles, mixed with water, and at 
 a temperature of 70- or upward, the 
 sugar is changed, and gives off car- 
 bonic acid, alcohol being produced ; 
 this change is attended with consid- 
 erable movement in the mixture, and 
 279 
 
TER 
 
 FER 
 
 is called fermentation. The product 
 of (enncntation is various : \vli(;n alco- 
 hol is foruieil it is called vinous ; when 
 starch is converted into sugar, as in 
 bread-making, saccharine. Lactic acid 
 fermentation is when that substance 
 is produced from sugar ; -putrefactive 
 fermentation, which occurs in dung- 
 hills, takes place when nitrogen is an 
 ingredient in the decaying matter. 
 
 Fermentation is a chemical change, 
 whereby complex organic bodies are 
 converted into more simple forms ; 
 thus, sugar is changed into carbonic 
 acid and alcohol. It differs from 
 crcmacavsis, in the circumstance that 
 oxygen is only absorbed in the begin- 
 ning, and that the changes take place 
 in an abundance of water. The prin- 
 cipal products of fermentation are 
 water, carbonic acid, alcohol, and car- 
 buret of hydrogen. When nitrogen 
 is present, ammonia, with fetid gass- 
 es, containing sulphur and phospho- 
 rus, are also exhaled. The heat is 
 a result of these changes. The de- 
 cay is hastened by warmth and an 
 abundance of yeast ; it is retarded by 
 excessive moisture, and so high a 
 temperature as to coagulate the fer- 
 ments. Those bodies which absorb 
 oxygen rapidly, as green vitriol, hin- 
 der fermentation by intercepting the 
 first change : these are called anti- 
 septics. Mineral acids also destroy 
 the activity of ferments. 
 
 Sugar, starch, woody fibre, &c., 
 cannot ferment spontaneously, for 
 they contain no nitrogen ; thej' are, 
 however, called fermentable. The jui- 
 ces of fruits, trees, canes, &c., rapidly 
 ferment, because, besides sugar, they 
 contain albumen, casein, or fibrin, 
 which, decaying easily, conveys the 
 change to the fermentable matter 
 present ; but their fermentation may 
 be hindered by adding a little lime, 
 boiling down to a sirup, or otherwise 
 coagulating or solidifying the de- 
 structive nitrogen principles. 
 
 In consequence of the continuance 
 of fermentation, irrespective of ac- 
 cess of air, fluids in this state must 
 not be barrelled up tightly, or the car- 
 bonic acid gas may burst the vessel ; 
 but by lowering the temperature to 
 280 
 
 45° Fahrenheit (by placing in a ce^ 
 lar), separating all the yeast, or fu- 
 migating the cask with vapour of sul- 
 phur, it may be considerably or alto- 
 gether arrested. The vinous fer- 
 mentation runs into the acetous if 
 the substances are freely exposed to 
 air, as cider or beer in an open cask. 
 See Beer, Cider. 
 
 FERNS, FILICES. Flowerless 
 plants, with beautifully -developed 
 leaves, bearing their seed-vessels on 
 the lower side. They are crypto- 
 gamia in the system of Linnaeus, and 
 acotyledonous in that of Jussieu. 
 They have little economical value, 
 grow in wet or rocky situations, and 
 serve well enough for packing, in the 
 place of straw, or to increase the 
 amount of yard manure. 
 
 FERROCYANATE OF POT- 
 ASH. A yellow, crystalline salt, also 
 called Prussiate of potash, the solu- 
 tion of which is used as a test for pe- 
 roxide of iron in solution, with which 
 it strikes a beautiful blue, being, in- 
 deed, Prussian blue. It is also used 
 in the laboratory as a test for copper 
 and other metals, and to form various 
 compounds of cyanogen from. 
 
 F £ R R U G I :N" O U S {from ferrum, 
 iron). Containing iron, or of the col- 
 our of rust. Ferruginous waters are 
 also called chalybeates, and much es- 
 teemed as tonics. Ferruginous soils, 
 when friable, are frequently \ery fer- 
 tile and improveable. 
 
 FERRUGO. Also Rubigo, Rust : 
 it is a species of uredo. 
 
 FERRET. A useful animal of the 
 weasel kind ; the Mustelafuro (Fig.) 
 of naturalists. It is domesticated in 
 
 ^^"-^-^-^ 
 
 Europe for the destruction of rats, 
 rabbits, and other small vermin, and 
 might be usefully employed in the 
 United States in granaries. 
 
 " It procreates twice a year, and 
 brings from six to eight young ; smells 
 very fetid. The ferret is very sus 
 ceptible of cold, and must be kept 4k 
 
FET 
 
 FEV 
 
 B box provided with wool or olhor 
 warm materials, and may be fed with 
 bread and milk. Its sleep is long and 
 profound, and it awakes with a vora- 
 cious appetite, which is most highly 
 gratified by the blood of small and 
 young animals. Its enmity to rats 
 and rabbits is unspeakable, and when 
 either are, though for the first time, 
 presented to it, it seizes and bites 
 them with the most phrensied mad- 
 ness. When employed to expel the 
 rabbit from its burrows it must be 
 muzzled, as otherwise it will suck 
 the blood of its victim, and instantly 
 fall into a profound sleep, from which 
 it will awake only to the work of de- 
 struction, committing in the warren, 
 where it was introduced only for its 
 services, the most dreadful waste and 
 havoc. It is possessed of high irri- 
 tability, and when particularly exci- 
 ted, is attended with an odour ex- 
 tremely offensive." — {Loudon.) 
 
 Ferrets are used in granaries and 
 out-buildings to destroy rats. They 
 are muzzled and slipped into the hole, 
 from which they drive the animals, 
 which are then caught by terriers or 
 other vermin dogs. It is customary 
 to hunt in the morning, when the 
 rats are less active and asleep in their 
 holes. 
 
 FESCUE GRASSES. The genus 
 Festuca, containing several valuable, 
 permanent grasses, of which the F. 
 pratoisis, meadow fescue, and dari- 
 ttscula, hard fescue, are the best. See 
 Grasses. The characters of the ge- 
 nus are, triandria, digynia, flowers in 
 panicles, corolla armed, seeds ad- 
 nate ; calyx two-valved, many-flow- 
 ered ; spikelets compressed, round- 
 ish, awnless, or with a terminal awn ; 
 corolla sub-round, upper valve acute, 
 with a sharp bristle at the tip, or mu- 
 cronate, seed growing to the corolla. 
 The vahiable kinds are either indi- 
 genous, or have become naturalized ; 
 all the festucas are nutritious. 
 
 FETLOCK. -'The part of the leg 
 where the tuft of hair grows behind 
 the pastern joint of horses : those of 
 low size have scarcely any tuft. In 
 working horses, which have them 
 large, care should be taken to keep 
 A .\ 'i 
 
 Ihem clean in order to prevent the 
 grease. The fetlock joint is a very 
 complicated one, and from the stress 
 which is laid on it, and its being the 
 principal seat of motion below the 
 knee, it is particularly subject to in- 
 jury. An affection of this part should 
 be well fomented and immediately 
 blistered." — {Clatcr.) 
 
 FEVERS. A disease, one of the 
 most general symptoms of which is 
 increased heat of the body, and often 
 the sensations of heat, dryness, and 
 even burning of the skin are exces- 
 sive, independent of any proportional 
 increase of temperature. Their ori- 
 gin is in the nervous system. In fe- 
 vers there is generally great consti- 
 tutional derangement, unaccompa- 
 nied by local or perceptible organic 
 disease. Fevers generally begin with 
 languor of body and mind ; chilliness, 
 amounting to shivering, though the 
 skin often, at the same tune, feels hot ; 
 the pulse is quicker than it should 
 be ; respiration hurried or laboured ; 
 pains are complained of in various 
 parts, and especially about the head, 
 back, and loins ; the appetite falls off, 
 or there is nausea and vomiting; the 
 mouth is dry ; the bowels generally 
 constipated, and the urine small in 
 quantity and deep in colour. These, 
 which constitute the first stage, or 
 ordinary febrile symptoms, are suc- 
 ceeded by alternate flushings, a quick- 
 er and fuller pulse, rapid alternations 
 of shivering and burning heat, and by 
 mental anxiety and wandering, which, 
 under a great variety of aspects and 
 modifications, constitute the second 
 stage ; they are succeeded by the 
 third stage, in which the leading ap- 
 pearances are a cleaner tongue, a 
 more natural pulse, a moist skin, 
 calm mind, and the urine becomes 
 more copious in quantity, and de- 
 posites a sediment as it cools. The 
 symptoms of fever generally undergo 
 an increase every evening, wliich is 
 called an exacerbation ; and this fluc- 
 tuation often takes place more than 
 once in the twenty-four hours, the 
 violence of the attacks increasing 
 with their occurrence, and forming 
 what is called a continued fever. Af- 
 281 
 
FIE 
 
 FIG 
 
 ter some days, a crisis takes place, ' on an arable farm ; they are seldom 
 that is, the symptoms cither take a less than 20 acres, and in large farms 
 favourable or an unfavourable turn, become 50 or more. 
 If the exacerbation and remission of j FIELD MICE (Avicola agrestis, 
 symptoms are well marked, and oc- i Cuvier, the short-tailed ; Mus sylvati- 
 cur once or oftener in the day, the ! «<s, Linnajus, the long-tailed species), 
 fever is called a remittent ; if the fe- i They are a great nuisance to or- 
 ver leaves the patient after some chards, stripping off the bark near 
 hours' duration, and returns at sta- the ground, and causing the death of 
 
 ted intervals, it is called an intermit 
 tent, as ague. Fevers are also va- 
 riously denominated, according to the 
 prevalent symptoms, as inflammatory, 
 typhus or putrid, nervous fever, &,c. ; 
 or according to cutaneous appearan 
 
 the trees. Tarring the parts is said 
 to protect them ; the introduction of 
 a new ring of sound bark, the two 
 being made to fit closely, after the in- 
 jury, will often save the trees. Crows, 
 hawks, owls, weasles, cats, and ter- 
 
 ces connected with them, such as rier dogs, as well as traps, are often 
 scarlet fever an& yellow fever. [insufficient to subdue these pests. 
 
 In the first stage, sweating med- ; The following method was found very 
 icines and purges, with bleeding, j successful in England after all others 
 are useful ; subsequently, medicines , had failed : pits were dug 18 inches 
 which calm the nervous system are deep,twofeetlong,and ISincheswide 
 used. Calomel, in a dose of 10 grains at the bottom, but with the sides in- 
 for a man, is often useful; but in ' clined, so as to be only 16 inches long 
 fevers attended with great debility, | at the top and nine inches wide. The 
 bleeding is injurious, and stimulants, holes were made 20 feet apart each 
 especially carbonate of ammonia {sal , way, and were so successful that oft- 
 volatile), and wines, are essential. j en 15 mice were taken in one during 
 
 FEVERFEW. Species of Py- a single night: the mice failing in, 
 rethriim ; they are very similar, and ; were unable to escape up the inclined 
 may replace chamomile, especially \ sides. 
 
 the P. parthenium. Several bear or- j FIG. Ficus carica. Upward of 40 
 namental flowers. They occasion- i varieties are published of this fruit ; 
 ally become troublesome perennial ' of these, the Marseilles, early white, 
 weeds, difficult to extirpate, except large white Genoa, purple Genoa, and 
 by repeated harrowings. Brunswick are worthy of cultivation. 
 
 FIBRE, VEGETABLE. See Lig- \ Most of these bear two crops in the 
 
 FIBRIN. The principal constitu- 
 ent of muscles ; it also exists in 
 blood and some vegetables. When 
 pure, it is white, inodorous, and in- 
 soluble, and, if perfectly dry, can be 
 
 season, from August to October. In 
 the Northern States they require pro- 
 tection by glass or matting during 
 winter, but may be cultivated as 
 standards in Virginia and other parts 
 of the South. The Malta is worthy 
 
 kept for any time, but when moist, it of cultivation in the South as a crop, 
 putrefies rapidly. See Protein. i the fruit drying of itself on the tree 
 
 FIBULA. The outer thin bone of if left, and becoming a fine sweet- 
 the fore leg. I meat. Figs are readily propagated 
 
 FIC0IDEJ3. Tropical plants re- j by cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, or 
 serabling the cactuses, inhabiting seeds. The layers will bear in one 
 sandy plains. or two years. As standards, they 
 
 FICUS. The generic name of are planted six to eight feet apart, in 
 the fig; hence _;?cana, resembling the a dry, loamy soil. The fruit is hast- 
 fig. : ened in ripening by pricking with a 
 
 FIELD LARK. All the family of quill dipped in sweet oil, and is pre- 
 larks are devourers of grain, and served for commerce by immersing 
 therefore injurious to the farmer. for a moment in boiling lye. 
 
 FIELDS. The enclosures made , The fig is peculiarly manageable, 
 283 
 
FIL 
 
 FIL 
 
 the size and abundance of the fruit 
 being almost entirely in the hands of 
 the orchardist. By girding the stem- 
 root, pruning, summer pruning the 
 ends of the bearing branches, the 
 abundance and beauty of the fruit are 
 increased. In a stove it may be made 
 to bear through the winter, so as to 
 supply a constant succession. In 
 pruning the ends of branches the 
 juice will escape, unless the twig be 
 lirst pressed between the thumb and 
 finger till the tissues give way, and al- 
 lowing it to wither before removal. 
 Fig-trees are very liable to become 
 iu.vuriant in foliage, bearing little 
 fruit ; this habit cannot bo remedied 
 b}' pruning the branches only, for this 
 is calculated to increase their num- 
 ber ; it is best rectified by training 
 the branches horizontally, or even 
 bending them downward by wires 
 made fast to their extremities and 
 to the ground or stem of the tree. 
 Standards are pruned into a single 
 stem and horizontal branches. The 
 fig is remarkably free from insects. 
 The tree is frequently taken up and 
 laid down under three or four inches 
 of earth for the winter, being set up 
 in April. The wood is extremely 
 hard and durable, being used for pol- 
 ishing metals when charged with em- 
 ery. 
 
 FILARIA. A genus of intestinal 
 worms, resembling a thread in ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 FILATURE. A reel arrangement 
 for raw silk. See Silk. 
 
 FILBERT. Conjlusavellana. This 
 sweet and valuable nut could, with 
 the fig, be readily made an object of 
 exportation, or, at least, raised suffi- 
 ciently to supply the great demand at 
 home. As it is not much known, we 
 insert a description of the best varie- 
 ties : 
 
 1. Red Filbert. — Stem of the fruit 
 red, superior in flavour to the white, 
 but less prolific : requires light loam. 
 
 2. \\'HrrE Filbert. — An abundant 
 bearer and hardy plant. The husk 
 of the fruit is long and tubular, con- 
 tracted near the top, so as to hinder 
 the fruit falling out. 
 
 3. GosFOBD. — An improved hazel, 
 
 the fruit deeply marked and almost 
 conical. 
 
 4. Barcelona, or Large Cob. — A 
 large nut, much esteemed for keep- 
 ing, but often a shy bearer. 
 
 5. The Frizzled Filbert. — The 
 husk is frizzled and ornamental. It 
 is a modern esteemed variety. 
 
 The C. Americana is an indigenous 
 species, bearing a sweet but small nut. 
 The white is the market variety in 
 England, and the Barcelona in Spain. 
 Filberts require a deep, light, but nat- 
 urally fertile soil, without putrescent 
 manures. They should be grown as 
 dwarf standards, set eight feet apart ; 
 the suckers and lower shoots which 
 they constantly throw out should be 
 restrained. They are propagated 
 most readily from suckers, but may 
 be grafted on seed stocks early in 
 April. The amount of fruit yielded 
 depends in a great measure upon pru- 
 ning ; for, naturally, the tree expends 
 itself in producing under-wood. Af- 
 ter raising the standard, with a low 
 stem of twelve to eighteen inches, 
 the branches must be pruned to the 
 horizontal or pendant form : the lead- 
 ing shoots are annually shortened by 
 two thirds ; the front twigs are also 
 summer-pruned, and all the spurs that 
 have fruited removed in the winter 
 or spring. It bears on spurs thrown 
 out from the last year's wood. The 
 fruit is ripe when the husk is turned 
 brown ; if intended for long keeping, 
 the filberts are allowed to hang until 
 fully brown, then dried by exposure 
 to the sun, and placed in barrels with 
 dry sand. An acre yields 800 to 1000 
 pounds of fruit. They bear in the 
 fourth or fifth year. 
 
 The nut is assailed by a curculio 
 in autumn, which may be seen boring 
 the fruit to deposite its egg, and can 
 be destroyed by shaking the tree and 
 allowing chickens to eat the insect 
 when fallen to the ground. 
 
 The filbert and hazel-nut ( C. sylves- 
 tris) are di.stinct species, but by cul- 
 tivation have become nearly mixed. 
 
 FILIFOR.M. Thread-like. 
 
 FILLY. A young mare. 
 
 FILTRATION. The separation 
 of the dear portions of a solution or 
 283 
 
FIR 
 
 PIS 
 
 mixture from tlie precipitate or drccs, 
 by passing tiirough a close tissue. 
 For cheniicai purposes, w/ii/c blotting 
 papci, called jUlcriiifi^ paper, is used, 
 ibldcd into a conical Ibnn, and placed 
 on a funnel. The fluid which runs 
 through is called the filtrate. In quan- 
 titative analysis the filters are weigh- 
 ed before use, and when properly 
 dried with the precipitate, and re- 
 weighed, give the amount of the lat- 
 ter with the best results. Sometimes 
 the paper is burned with the precipi- 
 tate, the known weight of its ash- 
 es being deducted from the whole 
 weight. For common purposes, stout 
 cotton cloth or porous earthen-ware 
 are used. 
 
 FIMBRIATE (from fimbria, a 
 fringe). Any long, fringe-like mar- 
 gin to animal or vegetable organs. 
 
 FIX. The cutting plate fixed be- 
 fore the mould-board of a plough, and 
 answering for a coulter. 
 
 FINCHED. la stock, marked with 
 white streaks. 
 
 FINGER GRASS. Digilaria 
 sanguinalis. An unimportant plant, 
 sometimes erroneously called cocks- 
 foot. See Gra.sscs. 
 
 FINGERS AND TOES. See An- 
 hury. 
 
 Finos, second best wool from 
 Merinos. 
 
 FIORIN. Agrostis stolonifera. A 
 creeping, bent perennial grass. It 
 Avas over-estimated by Richardson, 
 and is unsuited for rotations, from its 
 vivacious nature. See Grasses. 
 
 FIR. The European popular name 
 for the larger pine-trees. See Pine. 
 
 FIRE-BLIGHT, FIRING. When 
 the leaves of a growing plant or tree 
 become brown and dead, either in 
 part or entirely, it is said to be fired 
 or fire-blasted. It is distinctly due 
 to three causes : 1st. When it occurs 
 in the lower leaves of a tall vegeta- 
 ble, the leaves have performed their 
 office, and are no longer supplied with 
 sap, and therefore die ; 2d. It attacks 
 growing leaves in spots or blotches : 
 this is especially the case with to- 
 bacco, hops, &c. In these cases the 
 weather has been wet and moist for 
 some time,and becomes suddenly very 
 284 
 
 hot ; the firing occurs in July and 
 August, during the hottest season. 
 There is no doubt here that the first 
 excess of sap during the wet days 
 has ruptured the skin of the leaf or 
 otherwise disorganized it, and the hot 
 sun dries up the part, causing its 
 death. 3d. The fire-blight of pear 
 and other fruit trees is demonstrably 
 due to numberless aphides, which, 
 suddenly assailing the upper branch- 
 es, destroy the leaves by their punc- 
 tures, which then become brown by 
 the action of the sun. The only re- 
 .source is to prune the branches so in- 
 fested, and destroy them at once. 
 
 FIRE-DAMP. The inflammable 
 gas of bituminous coal-mines. Car- 
 burets of hvdrogen. 
 
 FIRE-FANGED. Dried up. ^^^^en 
 manure, or composts, in which heat 
 is generated, become too hot, the 
 parts assume a baked appearance and 
 ashy colour, and are said to be fire- 
 fanged. The composts should be ta- 
 ken to pieces, mixed with a quantity 
 of moist garden or fine soil, and put 
 up in less heaps. 
 
 FIRE-FLY. Elatcr noctiluca. An 
 herbivorous insect of the click or 
 spring beetle genus. 
 
 FIRING, in farriery, a heathen- 
 ish application of red-hot irons, prac- 
 tised by ignorant and brutal men, for 
 the removal of sprains, &c. Its use 
 almost amounts to a confession of 
 ignorance. 
 
 FIRKIN. A measure of 253S cu- 
 bic inches, or 7^ imperial gallons, be- 
 ing the fourth part of a beer barrel. 
 Butter is packed in barrels called fir- 
 kins, but weighed, not measured. 
 
 FIRLOT. A provincial, Scotch 
 dry measure. The wheat firlot is 
 only yyjths of the bushel ; the barley 
 firlot is nearly H bushel. 
 
 FISH. On the seacoast fish is 
 abundantly used as manure. The 
 most common way is to spread the 
 fish, and plough under in the course 
 of a few days. The application made 
 by the English farmers is from twen- 
 ty-five to forty bushels per acre, but 
 on Long Island much more is employ- 
 ed. This is. however, an extrava- 
 gant way of using them. The best 
 
ris 
 
 FIS 
 
 way is that adopted by Mr. Seely and ; 
 Dr. Akerly on Staten Island, of strew- 
 ing them in layers on compost beds 
 with peat, ashes, slacked lime, char- 
 coal, and vegetable matter. During 
 a few months the animal matter of 
 the fish is decomposed, and con- 
 verted into rich ammoniacal manures 
 without any ofTensive smell, and 
 when it comes to be added to the soil, 
 twenty bushels go farther and do 
 more service than forty otherwise ap- 
 plied. All fish, sea urchins, crabs, 
 shell- fish, &c., are of the greatest 
 use, the animal matter being nearly 
 identical in ultimate composition. 
 
 The fish owes its fertilizing effects 
 to the animal matter and bone earth 
 it contains. The former is precise- 
 ly similar to flesh or blood, consist- 
 ing of 25 per cent, fibrin, the rest 
 being water. 100 pounds in decay- 
 ing produce 2J pounds of ammonia, 
 hence 400 pounds rotted in compost 
 are enough for an acre. It may be ap- 
 plied with seed in drills, broad-cast 
 over grass, wheat, &c. The great 
 effect is due to the ammoniacal por- 
 tion, for it renders the herbage dark- 
 green, and starts it very rapidly. Ar- 
 thur Young mentions several cases 
 where fish caused the straw to grow 
 so rapidly and long as to lodge ; it 
 should, therefore, be applied to well- 
 tilled lands, which yield full grain. 
 The refuse of fish prepared for salt- 
 ing is a valuable manure. 
 
 The refuse blubber, after pressing 
 whale oil, coarse lats, train oil, has 
 been used very successfully in com- 
 posts on lands, but is very inferior 
 to whole fish, which is, indeed, one of 
 the finest manures known. In these 
 cases composts are made with fine 
 earth, coal ashes, or as above. 
 
 FISH-PONDS. Breeding and pre- 
 serving fish in ponds is, in Germany 
 and other states of Europe, an ex- 
 tensive and lucrative employment. In 
 the United States it is a matter of 
 luxury worthy of attention. Feeding 
 or preserving ponds are without any 
 remarkable peculiarity, except suffi- 
 cient depth to allow enough water to 
 remain unfrozen during winter ; by 
 embanking any spring branch such a 
 
 pond can be produced. Breeding 
 ponds are not always so successful ; 
 they should contain shoals for the 
 young, be fed by a pure stream, oft- 
 en of soft water, and running upon 
 a clean bottom ; the shoals should be 
 covered with rushes, and kept free 
 from fowl, eels, and newts. The 
 number of young produced, even by 
 six spawncrs and three or four males 
 to the acre, is such that predacious 
 fish are introduced to thin them ; for 
 this purpose, trout and perch are much 
 better than pike or pickerel, which 
 latter find their way to the shoals and 
 devour the spawn as well as the 
 young. The contents of the breed- 
 ing pond may be let off into a series 
 of feeding ponds lying on a lower lev- 
 el. Perch and trout succeed togeth- 
 er, but not with pike. Carp and tench 
 are very easily raised in the same 
 pond. Mr. Pell has cultivated shad 
 in fresh water, and the flounder has 
 also been naturalized in England. As 
 a matter of course, on the seashore, 
 salt-water ponds and fish can be pro- 
 cured. Pike and pickerel may bo 
 raised and preserved in a series of 
 three or four ponds, being fed upon 
 any small, common fish, which should 
 be replaced as often as they are much 
 destroyed. 
 
 The spawning season is from May 
 to June, according to the fish, and 
 the young should remain until the 
 next year before removal to the sec- 
 ond pond, where they remain two 
 years, and are left to mature in the 
 third. The last pond is often provi- 
 ded with a flood-gate, so that it can 
 be effectually dragged by placing a 
 net in this situation before letting ofi 
 the waters. Another arrangement 
 for securing the large fish only is to 
 give the last pond such a figure as to 
 allow a trap to be placed between two 
 parts, so that all of a certain size are 
 confined above or taken by the trap. 
 The sides of the ponds should be shel- 
 tered by willows, elms, or other or- 
 namental trees. The removal of the 
 fish from one pond to another is 
 made by dragging with fine nets. 
 
 The size of the fish will depend 
 upon the amount left to the acre. In 
 285 
 
FIS 
 
 FLA 
 
 the second or nursing ponds 1000 to [ 
 1200 carp and 1500 tench will be ' 
 enougli per acre, and in tlie third pond i 
 400 to 500 will be enougli : these va- | 
 rieties will inhabit muddy waters. 
 The perch and trout require clear wa- 
 ters ; 600 to the acre is an abun- 
 dance. The varieties of fine bass, 
 especially the Otsego, should be cul- 
 tivated. Eels are worthy of ponds, 
 and can be raised without any diffi- 
 culty. Pike are to be cautiously 6x- 
 cluded from ponds containing any of 
 the foregoing fish, and all breeding 
 places. The tench, carp, gold-fish, 
 and gudgeon are frequently fed with 
 meal, bread, and similar vegetable 
 matters, when raised in small, heav- 
 ily-stocked ponds. One pond answers 
 well enough with all these kinds ex- 
 cept pike and pickerel. 
 
 FISSIPAROUS GENERATION. 
 That kind of generation which exists 
 in polypes, hydras, &,c., in which the 
 parent throws out buds, or gemmules, 
 which grow like itself, and are finally 
 
 FISSIROSTRALS. A tribe of 
 perching birds with a very wide gape, 
 as the swallow. 
 
 FISTULA. " A long, sinous ulcer, 
 often communicating with a larger 
 cavity, and having a small external 
 opening. 
 
 "All animals are liable to fistulas, 
 but the horse more particularly so ; 
 they attack the withers and the poll. 
 They are produced by blows, by brui- 
 ses from the saddle, and whatever 
 causes inflammation ; also by the 
 presence of extraneous substances. 
 
 " In curing this disease, it is requi- 
 site, in the first instance, to ascertain 
 the direction the fistula pursues, and 
 whether it materially interferes with 
 any of the larger blood-vessels, so as 
 to render a full incision into the parts 
 a matter of too much hazard to be 
 attempted. When secure from any 
 danger of this nature, the most effect- 
 ual practice is to lay the fistula, or 
 fistulas, when more than one, so thor- 
 oughly open as to have a complete 
 view of their internal surfaces. It is 
 not, however, necessary in the sim- 
 ple sinus, where the matter is in a 
 286 
 
 healthy state, and requires only a suf- 
 ficient passage, but in cases where 
 the discharge, by having been long 
 detained, indurates and corrodes the 
 contiguous parts ; as the means fully 
 adequate to remove the former avail 
 little in the radical cure of tne latter, 
 a more severe practice, of course, be- 
 comes necessary. 
 
 " When the fistular cavities have 
 been fully laid open by the knife, they 
 should be dressed with powerful caus- 
 tic compositions, until the wound pre- 
 sents a healthy appearance. Clean- 
 liness, with more mild applications, 
 should now be had recourse to, taking 
 care that the wound be not closed be- 
 fore the cavities are properly and uni- 
 formly healed." 
 
 FIXED AIR. Carbonic acid. So 
 called from its fixed condition in 
 chalk, marble, &c. 
 
 FIXED OILS. Such as are not 
 volatile. See Expressed Oils. 
 
 FLAGELLIFORM (from flagel- 
 lum, a whip). A runner, or trailing 
 stem, is so called. 
 
 FLAIL. A wooden implement for 
 threshing grain, consisting of a han- 
 dle, fastened by leather thongs to a 
 moveable stick or swiple. It is a 
 slow means of thrashing grain, and 
 seldom used except for beans, which 
 are rapidly beaten out. 
 
 FLAKE WHITE. Pure white- 
 lead. 
 
 FLAME. The burning gases or 
 vapours given off from fuel. 
 
 FLANDERS HUSBANDRY. 
 " Flanders was remarkable for the 
 cultivation of its soil long before any 
 other country north of the Alps or 
 Pyrenees. This was the natural con- 
 sequence of its commercial prosperi- 
 ty ; and although very little change 
 has taken place, and very few im- 
 provements have been introduced for 
 more than a century, it still ranks 
 foremost among agricultural coun- 
 tries. 
 
 " It is not the richness of the soil 
 which is the cause of the abundant 
 harvests which the Flemish peasants 
 reap, but their indefatigable industry. 
 The greater part of the land in Flan- 
 ders is naturally poor ; and in exten- 
 
FLANDERS HUSBANDRY. 
 
 sive districts, which now have the ap- 
 pearance of the greatest richness at 
 harvest-time, the original soil was 
 once little better than the blowing 
 sands which are met with in the 
 neighbourhood of the sea. Neither 
 is it a genial climate which brings for- 
 ward the fruits of the earth in abun- 
 dance ; for the climate is inferior to 
 that of France or the southern parts 
 of Germany. 
 
 " The soil may be divided into two 
 classes. The tirst consists of the al- 
 luvial clay-loams near the coast ; tiie 
 second, of various sands and light 
 loams which are found in the interi- 
 or. The most fertile is that of the 
 lowlands which have been reclaimed 
 from the sea by embankments : it is 
 chiefly composed of a muddy deposite 
 mixed with fragments of marine shells 
 and fine sea-sand. These lands are 
 called polders, and their great natu- 
 ral fertility causes them to be culti- 
 vated with less art and industry 
 than those lands which are much in- 
 ferior. 
 
 " The cultivation in the polders has 
 nothing remarkable to entitle it to 
 much notice. Barley seems peculi- 
 arly suited to the soil, and very heavy 
 crops of this grain are obtained, es- 
 pecially in those polders which, hav- 
 ing been more lately embanked, are 
 not much exhausted. Eight, and even 
 ten quarters per acre have been ob- 
 tained with little or no manure, and 
 the second crop of barley sown in 
 succession has often been the best. 
 Oats are also very productive and of 
 good quality, from ten to twelve quar- 
 ters per acre. But these heavy crops 
 soon reduce the natural fertility, and 
 after a few years the produce is great- 
 ly diminished, and the land requires to 
 be recruited by manure and cleansed 
 by fallows. The usual rotation of 
 crops in the polders consists of, 1. 
 Winter barley after a fallow ; 2. 
 Beans ; 3. Wheat ; 4. Flax ; 5. Clo- 
 ver ; 6. Potatoes. If the potatoes 
 have a favourable season, and the 
 land can be cleared of weeds, the ro- 
 tation begins again without a fallow 
 year ; but this is seldom the case, 
 and the land is usually fallowed once 
 
 in six years. The crops here men- 
 tioned are occasionally varied accord- 
 ing to circumstances and manure, as 
 well as the small quantity of dung 
 made on the farm will permit. The 
 polder farmer seldom thinks of pur- 
 chasing manure, and even the ashes 
 made by burning weeds are usually 
 sold, to be sent to the poorer sandy 
 soils, where their effects are more 
 perceptible. When the polders have 
 been too much exhausted, they are 
 frequently laid down to grass, and in 
 a few years a very rich pasture is 
 produced. If, instead of sowing only 
 a few refuse hay-seeds from the lofts, 
 proper grass seeds were sown, after 
 land has been cleaned by a fallow, the 
 pasture would much sooner come to 
 perfection, and several years would 
 l)e saved ; but the improved modes 
 of converting arable land into pas- 
 ture, so advantageously practised in 
 the north of England and in Scot- 
 land, are almost entirely unknown in 
 Flanders. The extent of the farms 
 in the polders is from 100 to 250 acres. 
 The farmers in general are in good 
 circumstances, and the buildings sub 
 stantial. 
 
 " In the interior of East and West 
 Flanders the soil varies considerably ; 
 but the principal part is of a sandy 
 nature. The sand, and a heavier 
 loam which scarcely deserves the 
 name of clay, are found much inter- 
 mixed, which is owing to an alterna- 
 tion of layers of sand and loam, which 
 are found by digging to a considera- 
 ble depth. These layers are not of 
 great thickness, and the accidental 
 circumstance of the washing away of 
 the sand in some places and the dep- 
 ositions from the rivers in others 
 easily accounts for this variety. Some 
 of the elevations, which are nowhere 
 considerable, consist of a very poor 
 sand, and suggest the idea of their 
 having once been the sands of the 
 sea blown into hills, as is observable 
 on the coast. These hills, if they 
 may be so called, are naturally so 
 barren, that they were, not very long 
 since, covered with heath, or at best 
 planted with fir-trees ; but they have 
 gradually been cultivated and impro- 
 287 
 
FLANDERS III.SBANDKV, 
 
 ved, and only a few remain in their 
 original stale of heath or wood. 
 
 " The poorer sands have heen 
 brought into cultivation chiefly by 
 the persevering industry of small pro- 
 prietors and occupiers. Without an 
 abundance of manure nothing can be 
 effected there, and, consequently, ev- 
 ery attention is paid to the procuring 
 and collecting of it. The first pro- 
 cess is always to trench the ground 
 deep with the spade, and level it by 
 means of the mollebaert, an instru- 
 ment peculiarly Flemish, of which a 
 drawing and description are given in 
 the article Barren Land. The next 
 step is to procure liquid manure, 
 which consists of the urine of cows 
 and horses, the drainings from dung- 
 hills, and the emptyings of privies. 
 The numerous towns and villages 
 which are scattered over Flanders, 
 and the canals which intersect the 
 country in all directions, facilitate 
 the collecting and transporting of 
 manure. A regular trade is carried 
 on in everything which can enrich 
 the land ; nothing which can be of 
 any use for this purpose is lost or 
 wasted. In every farm there is a 
 large vaulted cistern, in which the 
 liquid manure is collected, and where 
 it is occasionally stirred to excite fer- 
 mentation, and make it more effica- 
 cious when it is carried upon the land. 
 
 " Experience has taught that ma- 
 nure put on light land in a liquid state 
 is much more immediately effective 
 than when the solid dung is ploughed 
 in, but that its effects are also much 
 less durable. This has led to the 
 practice of frequently renewing the 
 manure, and pouring the liquid over 
 the growing crops as a top-dressing. 
 Considerable care is required to give 
 the proper quantity, and to regulate 
 the strength according to circum- 
 stances ; for too great a dose might 
 destroy the crop, or produce great 
 luxuriance on the leaf at the expense 
 of the fruit or seed. The urine and 
 other hot substances impregnated 
 with saline particles are, therefore, 
 diluted, if the weather is dry, before 
 they are used, or they are poured 
 over the soil some time before the 
 388 
 
 seed is sown, that they may sink in 
 and be more diffused. 
 
 " At a distance from large towns 
 it would be impossible to obtain the 
 requisite quantity of manure, and, 
 accordingly, it is made on the farm. 
 The cattle are the principal source 
 of the supply ; but every expedient 
 is resorted to in order to increase the 
 quantity and improve the quality. 
 Every kind of vegetable or animal 
 matter is carefully collected, and 
 made to undergo the putrefactive 
 fermentation by being mixed with 
 others already partially decomposed. 
 Nothing excites heat and putrefaction 
 more than urine when it is poured 
 over substances subject to decompo- 
 sition. In every farm-yard there is 
 a cavity or pit into which the objects 
 to be acted upon can be thrown, and 
 into which the urine or drainings of 
 the dunghill can be made to flow ; by 
 frequently moving and stirring the 
 mass, the decomposition goes on rap- 
 idly, heat is evolved, and the fibres 
 and dried juices of vegetables are 
 decomposed, and become soluble in 
 water, in which state their effect on 
 vegetation is greatest. The place in 
 which this is going on is called in 
 French a croupissoir, and in Flemish 
 a smoor hoop. It is generally thought 
 most advantageous that the manure 
 should be ploughed into land in an 
 active state of fermentation ; and in 
 order to secure this, it is in some 
 places laid on the land in heaps, and 
 each heap is moistened with urine. 
 This soon renews the fermentation ; 
 and as soon as the heap begins to 
 heat it is spread out, and the manure 
 is immediately ploughed under. 
 
 " When the supply from the yard 
 and from the vaulted cistern, together 
 with what can be purchased, is not 
 suflicient, recourse is had to the ref- 
 use cakes of colza from which the 
 oil has been pressed out. These are 
 dissolved in urine, or in water, and 
 put into the cistern to decompose. 
 When it is in a proper state, it is 
 used chiefly on the land on which flax 
 is intended to be sown, as it is a very 
 rich manure, and perfectly free from 
 the seeds of noxious weeds. 
 
FLANDERS HUSBANDRY. 
 
 " In the tillage of the land the Flem- 
 ings use few and very simple instru- 
 ments. The common plough for light 
 lands is a small, light foot-plough, so 
 called from a piece of wood inserted 
 in the beam, which is somewhat in 
 the shape of a foot, or, rather, of the 
 wooden siioe in common use in Flan- 
 .ders. It has no wheels, and is drawn 
 by one or two horses. It is the pa- 
 rent of the Rotherham plough, from 
 which most of the improved ploughs 
 for light soils are derived. It is the 
 most perfect plough for light sands, 
 acting like a shovel at the fore part 
 of the turn-furrow, which is concave, 
 and completely turns over the soil. 
 
 " An instrument peculiarly Flem- 
 ish is the traincau. This is a wooden 
 frame of a triangular shape, covered 
 with boards, which is drawn over the 
 ground to smooth the surface and 
 press HI the seed. Tiie harrows in 
 common use are also triangular, and 
 made entirely of wood ; the pins are 
 driven obliquely, and point forward, 
 so as readily to'enter into the ground 
 when the harrows are drawn by the 
 angle. The blunt end of the pins 
 projects about an inch or more on the 
 side from which they are driven in : 
 thus, by reversing the instrument, a 
 shuhter degree of harrowing is giv- 
 enT^'hioh has an effect intermediate 
 between that of the harrows and the 
 traineau. 
 
 " The mollebaert. another Flemish 
 instrument for levelling ground, has 
 been already noticed. The Hainault 
 scythe and hook are generally used 
 for reaping corn. The instrument is 
 held in the right hand and the hook 
 in the left : by a swing of the arm 
 tlie corn is cut close to the ground 
 towards that wliich is standing ; the 
 hook collects it and rolls it up into a 
 slieaf, which is taken up by means of 
 the leg and the scythe, and laid down 
 to be tied. It is better than a fag- 
 ginghook, and does the work more 
 easily. These are the only instru- 
 ments in common use which differ at 
 all from those of other countries. 
 None of the more complicated modern 
 inventions have been introduced, nor 
 would they be readily adopted, how- 
 
 E 3 
 
 ever ingenious or useful they might 
 be ; for an adherence to old estab- 
 lished methods, and a repugnance to 
 what is new, are nowhere so firmly 
 rooted as among the Flemish peas- 
 antry. 
 
 " The most important instrument 
 in Flemish agriculture is the spade, 
 which is used to a much greater ex- 
 tent than in England, and in some in- 
 stances is the only instrument of till- 
 age. The trenching spade is made 
 light and long, and is well adapted to 
 the loose sandy soils. The first step 
 to improvement is generally a com- 
 plete and deep trenching; and in the 
 Waes district a sixth part of the 
 whole farm is trenched every year ; 
 and where this is not done, the inter- 
 vals between the stitches in which 
 the land has been ploughed are dug 
 out with the spade a foot or sixteen 
 inches deep, and the earth thrown 
 evenly over the beds in which the 
 seed has been sown. By shifting 
 these intervals a foot every year, the 
 whole of the land which lies in stitch- 
 es six feet wide is dug, and the upper 
 and under soil mixed regularly. This 
 process is extremely useful in produ- 
 cing an even crop, especially of flax, 
 the roots of which strike deep. 
 
 "The rotations adopted in light 
 sands and loams are various. In the 
 poorest and least improved, buck- 
 wheat, rye, and oats are the chief 
 crops, with potatoes and clover, 
 which require more manure. Every 
 crop is manured except buckwheat, 
 which grows well in the poorest soils, 
 and becomes too luxuriant to give 
 much seed in rich and highly manured 
 lands. Bones have not been introdu- 
 ced except by way of experiment ; 
 but when their value on light soils 
 shall be more generally known, espe- 
 cially in raising turnips, there is no 
 doubt but they will be extensively 
 used. This may lead to the folding 
 of sheep to eat them on the land, and 
 thus introduce an important improve- 
 ment into Flemish husbandry. 
 
 " On the better kinds of light soils, 
 
 which are not well adapted for wheat, 
 
 the usual course is, 1st, rye, with 
 
 turnips in the same year after the rye 
 
 2.S9 
 
FLANDERS IIUSBANDUY. 
 
 IS cut ; 2d, oats ; 3d, l)uck\vlu>at ; 4th, 
 potatoes or cariols ; Gtli, rye and tur- 
 nips ; Gtli, llax ; 7lli, clover. 
 
 " \\'1k'ii llic sand hcconies a good 
 liglit loam, vviicat is introduced in the 
 rotation, after potatoes or after clo- 
 ver : the latter is thought the best 
 practice, as the roots of the clover 
 both enrich and consolidate the soil. 
 
 " Rye recurs more frequently than 
 ■would be thought prudent if it were 
 not for the turnips sown after it, 
 which seem to correct the effect pro- 
 duced on the soil by the seeding of 
 the rye ; so that rye and turnips are 
 sometimes followed by rye, in which 
 clover is sown in the next spring. 
 Thus rye and turnips may alternate 
 in light lands, as beans and wheat 
 sometimes do in rich heavy clays. 
 The turnips are never eaten on the 
 land where they grow, but are al- 
 ways drawn and housed in the end 
 of September, the green tops being 
 cut off and given to the cows and 
 pigs, and the roots stored in dry cel- 
 lars. The land is then immediately 
 ploughed after some dung has been 
 put on ; and if oats are the next crop, 
 which are sown in spring, it remains 
 so all winter. 
 
 " \Mien the land is of a better qual- 
 ity, although still in the class of light 
 loams, wheat recurs more frequently, 
 and the rotation is varied as follows : 
 rye and turnips, potatoes, wheat, 
 rye and turnips, oats, llax, clover, 
 wheat. If the soil is fit for barley, 
 this grain is substituted for rye. 
 Carrots are frequently sown in the 
 barley, and also in the flax : they 
 strike deep into the rich light earth, 
 but come to no size while the princi- 
 pal crop is on the ground. As soon 
 as this is taken ofi', the land is har- 
 rowed and carefully weeded by hand ; 
 liquid manure, diluted if the weather 
 is dry and warm, is spread over the 
 surface, and in a short time the car- 
 rots throw out their green tops and 
 swell in the ground : by the end of 
 September a considerable crop of 
 them may be dug up. The best va- 
 riety for this puri)0se is a large white 
 carrot, which rises some inches out 
 of the ground : it has been lately 
 
 brought into notice in England, and 
 \\ dl, no doubt, soon be more gener- 
 ally cultivated. There is another 
 variety, which is yellow, and also at- 
 tains a good size ; but it is inferior 
 to the first in good ground. The 
 quantity of roots raised for the winter 
 provision of the cattle is considera- 
 ble, and forms a very important part 
 of the husbandry of Flanders, where 
 all the cattle are constantly kept in 
 the stables in winter, and, except 
 where there are natural pastures, in 
 the summer also. 
 
 " Flax is everywhere a most im- 
 portant croj), for it much exceeds all 
 other crops in value. Where it can 
 be raised of a tolerable quality, every 
 other crop has a reference to this ; 
 and the rotation is arranged accord- 
 ingly. There is no country where 
 more attention is paid to flax than 
 in Flanders, especially in the neigh- 
 bourliood of Courtray. The land is 
 brought into the highest state of rich- 
 ness and cleanness before flax is 
 sown in it ; and the most abundant 
 manuring with rape-cake and urine 
 is thought essential to raise this crop 
 in perfection. 
 
 "On the heavier loams, colza or 
 rape is an important crop for the seed, 
 from which the oil is expressed. It 
 is sown in a bed in July or August, 
 and planted out in rows two feet apart 
 in October. The seed ripens early in 
 the next summer, and a good crop of 
 turnips may be had after it. The 
 summers being in general warmer 
 and drier than in England, the Flem- 
 ish farmer is enabled to thrash out 
 his rape-seed on a cloth in the field 
 soon after the stems have been cut 
 and laid gently on the ground to dry 
 the pods. Any delay in this opera- 
 tion would cause a great loss : with 
 every care and attention, much seed 
 is always scattered in harvesting, be- 
 cause the pods do not ripen equally, 
 and some will have shed their seeds 
 before others are sufficiently ripe to 
 be gathered. 
 
 " Potatoes were introduced into 
 Flanders about the year 1740, and, 
 from being at first only cultivated as 
 a rarity, soon became an important 
 
FLA^■DERS HUSBANDRY. 
 
 part of the food of men and beasts. 
 There is nothing pecuhar in the Flem- 
 ish moile of cultivating this useful 
 root. The sets are planted with a 
 blunt dibble : sometimes they are laid 
 in the furrows and covered with the 
 plough ; they are always earthed up 
 round the stems, sometimes by a 
 plough with a mould-board on each 
 side, but generally by hand with a 
 broad hoe. The manure usually i)Ut 
 on the land in which potatoes are to 
 be set is double the quantity used for 
 a corn crop ; and a good soaking of 
 the soil with urine is thought to in- 
 vigorate the growth of the plant 
 greatly. The produce, however, is 
 not much more abundant than it is 
 usually in those parts of England 
 where potatoes are raised in consid- 
 erable quantities in the fields — about 
 300 bushels on an acre. There is 
 a small yellow potato in Flanders, 
 \vhich is excellent when boiled, and 
 which grows well in a stiff loam, but 
 it is not so productive as the large 
 cattle potato. 
 
 " The cultivation of the sugar beet 
 has been resumed lately, after it had 
 been entirely abandoned. There are 
 now several considerable manufac- 
 tures of beet-root sugar ; but it is not 
 a favourite culture with the farmers, 
 not even for their cattle, as it is too 
 long on the ground. They prefer 
 turnips and carrots, which can be 
 raised on the same land which has 
 borne another valuable crop the same 
 year. 
 
 " In the heavier loams, which are 
 chiefly to be met with in West Flan- 
 ders and about Alost, the following 
 rotation is adopted : flax, clover, bar- 
 ley or oats, beans, wheat, rye and 
 turnips, potatoes, colza and carrots, 
 fla.x ; or flax, colza, wheat, rye and 
 turnips, oats, clover, wheat, rye. 
 
 '• Beans are not a favourite crop, 
 and are not carefully cultivated. They 
 are sometimes sown very thick, mix- 
 ed with pease and tares, to be cut up 
 in a green state for the cows and 
 pigs ; and in this way they produce 
 a great quantity of green food, and 
 clean the ground by excluding the air 
 and smothering the weeds. On a 
 
 farm of thirty-six bonniers, in a very 
 good Ijamy soil near Courtray, the 
 land was divided into six equal parts 
 of six bonniers each, and the crops 
 were distributed as follows : 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Carrots. 
 
 T3„.,„c 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 1 
 
 Rye 
 
 and 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Colza. 
 
 " The manure used for these crops 
 was partly dung from the yard and 
 cows" urine, but chiefly the sweep- 
 ings of the streets and the emptyings 
 of privies from Courtray. 
 
 " In a very rich loam, not far from 
 Ypres, the following crops were no- 
 ticed in regular rotation; 1, turnips 
 with chicory and carrots ; 2, oats ; 3, 
 clover ; 4, wheat ; 5, flax ; 6, wheat ; 
 7, beans ; 8, wheat ; 9, potatoes ; 10, 
 wheat; 11, oats. All these crops are 
 of an exhausting nature, and it re- 
 quires a very rich soil, aided by abun- 
 dant manuring, to bear this rotation 
 for any continuance ; but each of 
 these crops had a good portion of 
 manure. 
 
 " Great attention is paid to prepare 
 the land so as to secure a good crop 
 from a small quantity of seed. The 
 seed usually sown in Flanders is 
 about one third less than in England, 
 even when the seed is drilled, which 
 it never is in Flanders. The ground 
 is rendered mellow and rich by the 
 tillage and the liquid manure ; and 
 the seed, which has been carefully 
 selected, is covered by earth spread 
 over it with the spade : it is after- 
 ward rolled or trod in with the feet. 
 Every grain vegetates ; and should 
 there be any slowness in the growth, 
 the urine-tank supplies an excellent 
 stimulant. It is in the springing of 
 the blade, after the farina in the seed 
 is exhausted, that the liquid manure 
 291 
 
FLA 
 
 FLA 
 
 seems to produce the greatest effect. 
 When tlie stem is shot up, it may, 
 perliaps, too much cncouraj^e the in- 
 crease of green leaves, and tlierehy 
 hinder the formation of the (lower 
 and the seed : experiments made 
 with hquid manure lead to this con- 
 clusion. 
 
 " There are some very rich pas- 
 tures in Flanders about Furncs and 
 Dixmudc, where excellent butter is 
 made. A great many beasts are fed 
 in the summer, and a moderately- 
 sized ox, turned out in good condition 
 in April or May, will fatten on an 
 acre of land by August or September. 
 Tlie best cows and oxen are of the 
 Dutch breed ; those which are bred 
 in Flanders are inferior. The butter 
 about Dixmudc is churned from the 
 cream only, although the most com- 
 mon practice is to churn the whole 
 milk after it has stood some time and 
 begins to be acid. It is always set 
 in shallow pans immediately after 
 milking, and left so twelve hours. 
 The cream is then skimmed off, or 
 the whole milk is poured into deep 
 vessels till it is fit to be churned. 
 The churning is performed in a bar- 
 rel-churn or a plunge-churn : in ei- 
 ther case, in the larger dairies, it is 
 moved by a horse, which turns a 
 wheel connected with the churn. 
 
 " The breed of horses in Flanders 
 is large and heavy, but deficient in 
 activity and clumsy in form. The 
 mares were once in repute for heavy 
 carriages, but at present, an equipage 
 drawn by Flanders mares would be 
 an object of wonder, if not of ridicule. 
 Many horses have been imported into 
 England from Flanders as cart-hor- 
 ses ; but they were preferred chiefly 
 on account of the price at which they 
 could be obtained, and of the a[)pa- 
 rent bulk of them. 
 
 " The Flemish sheep are coarse in 
 the wool, and much mferior in the 
 carcass to the Leicester or South- 
 Down. Some good sheep have been 
 imported, which may much improve 
 the native breeds. The pigs are as 
 badly shaped as can well be imagined, 
 long in the neck and head, and high 
 on their legs. They are badly fed 
 292 
 
 when young, and fatten slowly, al- 
 though in time they acquire consider- 
 able weight. A better breed has been 
 introduced, which will soon super- 
 sede the old. 
 
 " The farm-buildings are very good 
 and convenient in general. The farms 
 are small, compared with those in 
 other countries ; 120 acres are consid- 
 ered a very considerable occupation. 
 In the M'aes country, where the 
 spade is extensively used in the cul- 
 tivation of the land, the farms are 
 very small, fifty acres being among 
 the largest, and the average is not 
 above filteen. A farm of this descrip- 
 tion requires only one horse to cart 
 the manure and plough the land ; four 
 or five cows are the usual comple- 
 ment, with two or three pigs. The 
 cows are fed on clover in summer, 
 and on barley or oats cut green ; in 
 winter, on potatoes, beet root, tur- 
 nips, and carrots, which are chopped 
 up together and boiled in a copper. 
 This is given milk-warm three times 
 a day, and is called brassin ; when 
 grains can be procured from the brew- 
 ers, they are added to the mess. The, 
 cows never move from their stalls : 
 after having had three or four calves, 
 a cow is generally fattened and sold 
 off; and a young heifer, of which a 
 couple are reared every year, supplies 
 her place."— (M^. L. itham.) 
 
 FLATULENCY. A diseased col- 
 lection of gases in the stomach or 
 bowels ; change of food, slight pur- 
 ging, and tonics are best to remove it. 
 
 FLAX. Linum usita/issimvm (a). 
 An annual of the cruciferous family, 
 the stems of which, when turning 
 yellow, yield the finest staple, and a 
 coarser article when ripe. The per- 
 ennial flax (L. pcrcnnc) is coarser, 
 but sometimes cultivated (h). The 
 seeds, usually called linseed, yield 
 the valuable oil of that name by press- 
 ure, and are, when bruised and boil- 
 ed, one of the richest fattening fod- 
 ders for cattle. The cake, after press- 
 ing for oil, is also a rich provender, 
 scarcely equalled by any other for fat- 
 tening. An acre yields six to twelve 
 bushels of seed and 400 pounds of 
 flax, the former worth §1 25 to §1 GO 
 
FLA 
 
 FLA 
 
 tlie bushel, and the lint eight to ten 
 cents tlie pound. 
 
 It requires a mellow, rich soil, full 
 of vegetable matter, ploughed deep ; 
 two bushels of seed are sown to the 
 acre, and slightly covered with a bush 
 harrow ; when the object is to obtain 
 fine green flax, but half a bushel will 
 answer for seed only, and one and a 
 half for coarse flax and seed. Sow 
 early in May, and for the flnest staple 
 gather just after flowering, when the 
 stems are yellow ; for seed when 
 dry : the amount of coarse stems is 
 often very great, producing as much 
 as half a ton of flax and tow to the 
 acre. The plants should be weeded 
 when three inches high. The follow- 
 ing view of the profit is from the Cul- 
 tivator, vol. i. : 
 
 " In 1835, Major Kirby, of Brown- 
 ville, sowed six acres, partly upon 
 stubble and partly upon green sward, 
 with one ploughmg— half a bushel of 
 seed to the acre. The ground was 
 well stocked with Canada thistles, 
 which throve remarkably ; yet, not- 
 withstanding, the six acres produced 
 him 108 bushels 12 pounds seed, and 
 seven tons and three quarters of 
 dressed flax. The proceeds of the 
 
 crop amounted to $270 
 
 And the culture, pulling, and 
 thrashing — the rotting being 
 done by the manufacturer — 
 
 to about 70 
 
 Leaving a profit of ... . 8200 
 or 33i per acre." 
 B E 2 
 
 For the production of seed the soil 
 must be a very rich wheat land, well 
 broken and manured. It is a very 
 exhausting crop, but if taken when 
 yellow, or belure seed, and the offal 
 and steeping fluid returned, it is not 
 so injurious to lands. Tlie seed con- 
 tains from 11 to 22 per cent, of oil, 
 according to the season and richness 
 of soil. See Linseed. By steeping, 
 and other jireparations, flax is re- 
 duced to 70 per cent, of the weight 
 of the stems, and by hackling, to 50 
 pounds. 
 
 FLAX, PREPARATION OF. 
 " When the flax begins to get yellow 
 at the bottom of the stem, it is time 
 to pull it, if very fine flax is desired, 
 such as is made into thread for lace 
 or fine cambric ; but then the seed 
 will be of little or no value. It is 
 therefore generally left standing until 
 the capsules, which contain the seed, 
 are fully grown and the seed formed. 
 Every flax grower judges for himself 
 what is most profitable on the whole. 
 The pulling tlien begins, which is 
 done carefully by small handfuls at a 
 time. These are laid upon the ground 
 to dry, two and two obliquely across 
 each other. Fine weather is essen- 
 tial to this part of the operation. 
 Soon alter this they are collected in 
 larger bundles and placed with the 
 root end on the ground, the bundles 
 being slightly tied near the seed end ; 
 the other end is spread out that the 
 air may have access, and the rain 
 may not damage the flax. When suf- 
 ficiently dry they are tied more firmly 
 in the middle, and stacked in long, 
 narrow stacks on the ground. These 
 stacks are built as wide as the bun- 
 dles are long, and about eight or nine 
 feet high. The length depends on 
 the crop ; they are seldom made above 
 twenty or thirty feet long. If the 
 field is extensive, several of these 
 stacks are formed at regular distan- 
 ces ; they are carefully thatched at 
 top, and the ends, which are quite 
 perpendicular, are kept up by means 
 of two strong poles driven perpen- 
 dicularly into the ground. Tliis is 
 the method adopted by those who de- 
 fer the steeping till another season. 
 293 
 
FLAX, PREPARATION OF. 
 
 Some carry the flax, as soon as it is 
 dry, under a slied, and take off the 
 capsiilos with tlie seed by ripplmg, 
 vvliich is drawing the flax through an 
 iron comb fixed in a block of wood : 
 the capsules, which are too large to 
 pass between the teeth of the comb, 
 are thus broken oft", and fall into a 
 basket or cloth below. Sometimes, 
 if the capsules are brittle, the seed is 
 beaten out by means of a flat wood- 
 en bat. The bundles are held by the 
 root end, and the other end is laid on 
 a board and turned round with the 
 left hand, while the right hand with 
 the bat breaks the capsules, and the 
 linseed falls on a cloth below. The 
 flax is then immediately steeped, but 
 the most experienced flax-steepers 
 defer this operation till the next sea- 
 son. In this case it is put in barns, 
 and the seed is beat out at leisure in 
 winter. When flax is housed, care 
 must be taken that it be thoroughly 
 dry ; and if the seed is left on, which 
 is an advantage to it, mice must be 
 guarded against, for they are very 
 fond of linseed, and would soon take 
 away a good share of the profits by 
 their depredations. 
 
 " Steeping the flax is a very impor- 
 tant process, which requires expe- 
 rience and skill to do it properly. 
 The quality and colour of the flax de- 
 pend much on the mode of steeping ; 
 and the strength of the fibre may be 
 injured by an injudicious mode of 
 performing this operation. The ob- 
 ject of steeping is to separate the 
 bark from the woody part of the 
 stem by dissolving a glutinous mat- 
 
 ter which causes it to adhere, and 
 also destroying some minute vessels 
 which are interwoven with the longi- 
 tudinal fibres, and keep them togeth- 
 er in a kind of web. A certain ler- 
 mentation or incipient putrefaction is 
 excited by the steeping, which must 
 be carefully watched and stopped at 
 the right time. The usual mode of 
 steeping is to place the bundles of 
 flax horizontally in shallow pools or 
 ditches of stagnant water, keeping 
 them under water by means of poles 
 or boards with stones or weights laid 
 upon them. Water nearly putrid was 
 supposed the most efficacious, and 
 the mud was often laid over the flax 
 to accelerate the decomposition ; but 
 this has been found to stain the flax, 
 so that it was very difficult to bleach 
 it or the linen made from it after- 
 ward. The method adopted by the 
 steepers of Courtray, where steeping 
 flax is a distinct trade, is different. 
 The bundles of flax are placed alter- 
 nately with the seed end of tlie one 
 to the root end of the other, the lat- 
 ter projecting a few inches ; as many 
 of these are tied together near both 
 ends as form a thick bundle about a 
 foot in diameter. A frame made of 
 oak rails, nailed to strong upright 
 pieces in the form of a box 10 feet 
 square and four deep, is filled with 
 these bundles set upright and closely 
 packed. The whole is then immers- 
 ed in the river, boards, loaded with 
 stones, being placed upon the flax till 
 the whole is sunk a little under the 
 surface of the w^ater. The bottom 
 does not reach the ground, so that the 
 
 211 
 
FLAX, PREPARATION OF. 
 
 water flows over and under it. There 
 are posls driven in the river to keep 
 the box in its pkiee, and each steej)- 
 er has a certain portion of tlie bank, 
 which is a vahiable property. Tlic 
 Ihix takes somewhat h)nKer time in 
 steeping in this manner tlian it docs 
 in stagnant and putrid water, and it 
 is asserted by those who adhere to 
 the old method that tiie flax k)ses 
 more weigiit ; but the colour is so 
 much liner, that flax is sent to be 
 steeped in the Lys from every part 
 of Flanders. When it is supposed 
 that the flax is nearly steeped suffi- 
 ciently, which depends on the tem- 
 I)erature of the air, the flax being 
 sooner steeped in warm wcatiier than 
 in cold, it is examined carefully ev- 
 ery day, and towards the latter part 
 of the time several times in the day, 
 in order to ascertain whether the 
 fibres readily separate from the wood 
 the whole length of the stem. As 
 soon as this is the case the flax is 
 taken out of the water : even a few 
 hours more or less steeping than is 
 necessary will make a ditTerence in 
 the value of the flax. If it is not 
 steeped enough, it will not be easily 
 scutched, and the wood will adhere 
 to it. If it has been too long in the 
 water, its strength is diminished, and 
 more of it breaks into tow. The 
 bundles are now untied, and the flax 
 is spread evenly in rows slightly 
 overlapping each other on a piece of 
 clean, smooth grass which has been 
 mown or fed ofT close. Fine weather 
 is essential to this part of the pro- 
 cess, as rain would now much injure 
 the flax. It is occasionally turned 
 over, which is done dexterously l)y 
 pushing a long slender rod under the 
 rows and takmg up the flax near the 
 end which overlaps the next row, 
 and turning it quite over. Thus, when 
 it is all turned, it overlaps as before, 
 but in the contrary direction. It re- 
 mains spread out upon the grass for 
 a fortnight, more or less according to 
 the season, till the woody part be- 
 cofnes brittle and some of the finest 
 fibres separate from it of their own 
 accord. It is then taken up, and as 
 soon as it is quite dry it is tied up 
 
 again in bundles and carried into the 
 barn, to be broken and hackled at leis- 
 ure during tlie winter. 
 
 " In the domestic manufactures the 
 flax is broken or scutched at home 
 wlnni the weather i)revents out-door 
 work. Tlie common brake consists 
 of four wooden swords fixed in a 
 frame, and another frame with three 
 swords, which play in the interstices 
 of the first by means of a joint at one 
 end. Tlie flax is taken in the left 
 hand and placed between the two 
 frames, and the upjier frame is pushed 
 down briskly upon it. It breaks the 
 flax in four places, and by moving 
 the left hand and rapidly repeating 
 the strokes with the right, the whole 
 handful is soon broken. It is then 
 scutched by means of a board set up- 
 right in a block of wood so as to stand 
 steady, in which is a horizontal slit 
 about three feet from the ground, the 
 edge of which is thin. The broken 
 
 Upright board to cIlmt l.iu llax of 
 
 flax, held in handfuls in the left hand, 
 is inserted in this slit, so as to pro- 
 ject to the right, and a flat wooden 
 sword, of a peculiar shajic, is held in 
 the right hand ; with this the flax is 
 repeatedly struck close to the u[)riglit 
 board, while the jiart which lies in 
 the slit is continually changed by a 
 motion of the left hand. This opera- 
 tion beats jfT all the pieces of the 
 wood which s.ill adhere to the fibre 
 without breaking it, and after a short 
 time the flax is cleared of it and fit 
 to be hackled ; but the operations 
 296 
 
FLAX, PREPARATION OP'. 
 
 Fl.il ovlfitd or sciittlier. 
 
 of breaking and scutching are tedious 
 and laborious uiien thus executed by 
 hand. A mill is now used (where 
 large quantities of flax arc required 
 for manufactures), having three flu- 
 ted cylinders, one of which is made 
 to revolve by horse or water power, 
 and carries the other two round. The 
 flax plants are passed between these 
 cylinders while thus revolving, and 
 the stalk, or hooii, as it is technically 
 called, is by this means completely 
 broken without injuring the fibres. 
 The scutching is accomplished in the 
 same mill by means of four arms pro- 
 jecting from a horizontal axle, ar- 
 ranged so as to strike the boon in a 
 slanting direction until the bark and 
 other useless parts of the plant are 
 beaten away. In the last process by 
 which flax is prepared for the spin- 
 ner, the hackling, the instrument em- 
 ployed, called the hackle, is a square 
 piece of wood, studded with rows of 
 iron teeth about four inches long, 
 and disposed in a quincunx order. 
 The fineness of the hackle is chosen 
 with reference to the quality of the 
 
 flax, and hackles differing in this re- 
 s[)ec-t from each other arc used at 
 dinerent stages of the dressing, the 
 coarsest first, and the finest to give 
 the last degree of smoothness and 
 finish to the flax. The operation of 
 hackling is performed by the work- 
 man grasping a handful of flax by the 
 middle, and drawing first one side or 
 end and then the other through the 
 teeth of the hackle, until every parti- 
 cle of extraneous matter is removed, 
 and the whole of the filaments are 
 arranged in distinct, even, and paral- 
 lel fibres." 
 
 The following machine (see Fig.), 
 patented by Mr. Bundy, is of great 
 service in the domestic preparation 
 of flax, and is constructed on the 
 same principle as the implements 
 driven by power. The frame is of 
 wood, and sustains two conical roll- 
 ers, of which A is seen ; B is a beam 
 moving around a joint at C, and car- 
 rying an upper roller, D ; it is eleva- 
 ted by tlie spring E, and pulled down 
 by the treadle F, which is connected 
 to the upper piece by a metallic rod,G. 
 The rollers are commonly grooved, 
 each runs on its own pivot, and H is 
 an iron comb for rippling. When 
 used, a handful of the rotted flax is 
 passed between the rollers and held 
 in both hands ; the foot being now ap- 
 
 296 
 
FLA 
 
 FLE 
 
 plied to the treadle, the upper roller 
 descends and presses on the fibres ; 
 the flax is next drawn to the right 
 and left until sufficiently broken and 
 cleared of liarl ; the foot is then 
 raised and the fibres withdrawn to 
 give place to a new lot. 
 
 Besides the water and dew rotting 
 described, flax is prepared by steam- 
 ing and by boiling in salt water. Boil- 
 ing in lye or in soap and water is 
 also employed, both to prepare the 
 flax and improve the hackled staple. 
 AValer and dew rotting together re- 
 quire about three weeks ; the water 
 should be free from iron, which stains 
 the staple. 
 
 Diseases. — Flax is not very subject 
 to diseases ; mildew and rust some- 
 times assail it in very damp seasons, 
 and on a badly-drained soil ; it is also 
 .preyed upon by a fly, but weeds, and 
 especially dodder, are most injurious 
 to the cultivation. 
 
 FLAX, SPECIAL MANURES 
 FOR. Although a troublesome crop, 
 flax is not severe upon the soil when 
 raised for its fibre only, and, when 
 well prepared, commands a good 
 price. The great requisite for the 
 fibre is a soil rich in decaying vege- 
 table matter, but not rank with nitro- 
 gen. When seed is required, bone 
 earth, and especially the soluble phos- 
 phates in urine and guano, or poultry 
 dung, are extremely valuable. 
 
 By Dr. Kanes's analysis, the stems 
 pulled before seeding contained 
 
 Plant?. Seeds, Leuchtweisa. 
 
 Potash and soda . . 19 60 . . . 26 56 
 
 Lime and magnesia . 20'12 . . . 25"49 
 
 Phosphoric acid . . 10-84 . . . 40-11 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . 2-56 . . . 100 
 
 Sand aad other acids . 46-68 . , . 6'S4 
 
 locT" loo 
 
 From these examinations, the great 
 exhausting power of the seeds, by re- 
 quiring so much phosphoric acid, is 
 explained, as well as the value of the 
 foregoing manures. Gypsum and ash- 
 es are also indicated in the cultiva- 
 tion of the fibre. When the steep- 
 ing is carried on in ponds, the fluid 
 becomes a rich manure for the crop, 
 containing — as has been shown by 
 Dr. Kane — nearly all the nitrogen 
 and most of the saline matters, the 
 
 I prepared flax being nearly pure lig- 
 i nin ; the fluid, therefore, as well as 
 all the waste from hackling and break- 
 ing, should be preserved and used as 
 manure. The waste of linseed cake, 
 or the dung of cattle fattened there- 
 on, is peculiarly appropriate as a ma- 
 nure for a crop of linseed ; and when 
 the oil is drawn on the farm and sold, 
 the cake left contains all the enrich- 
 ing matters of the soil taken up by 
 the seeds. Most plants of the flax 
 family will yield more or less coarse 
 staule 
 
 FLAX, NEW ZEALAND. See 
 New Zealand Flax. 
 
 FLAX, OREGON. Mr. Parker, 
 travelling in Oregon, describes fields 
 of a perennial flax precisely resem- 
 bling the L. perennc {b) ; the roots 
 are so firm that it cannot be pulled, 
 but may be mowed, yielding annual 
 crops. 
 
 FLAX, PURGING. An English 
 weed (L. catharticum), the root of 
 which IS purging. 
 
 FLAXSEED. See Linseed. 
 
 FLAX, FALSE. See Yellow Seed. 
 
 FLAX, TOAD. A weed. The 
 Thesium lunbeltatum. Linaria vulga- 
 ris is also called yellow toad flax. 
 
 FLEAS. A species of the genus 
 Pulex ; they are wingless, but under- 
 go regular transformations. Clean- 
 liness, especially in the removal of 
 old straw and similar bodies in which 
 they harbour, washing the skins of 
 animals, anointing with mixtures of 
 oil and pennyroyal or elder leaves, 
 are effectual means to reduce their 
 numbers. 
 
 FLEABANE. A name given to 
 many weeds, as the erigcrons, inn- 
 las. &c. 
 
 FLEA BEETLE. The genus Hal- 
 tica, species of which infest turnips, 
 cucumbers, &c. 
 
 FLEAM. The knife or lancet used 
 in bleeding cattle and horses. 
 
 FLECKED. Pied, or of mixed col- 
 ours. 
 
 FLEECE. The wool of a sheep. 
 See Sheep and Wool. 
 
 FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. See 
 Flanders Husbandry . 
 
 FLESH. Commonly the mixed 
 S97 
 
FLI 
 
 FT,0 
 
 mnsrlc and fat of animals, but more 
 strictly Itu^ iniisclo or lean only. Loan 
 meat consists of 20 per cent, fibrin, 
 with three per cent, of albiimrn, col- 
 ouring matter, and salts : the rest, 
 77 per cent., h(in<r water : it diflers 
 very little from Idood. Waste llesh 
 or garbage should be added to the 
 compost heap, with lime and earth ; 
 100 pounds yield 3.^ pounds of ammo- 
 nia during decay, and therefore, when 
 composted, 400 pounds will be enough 
 for the acre. 
 
 FLEXIBILITY. The capacity of 
 bending without breakage. It is a 
 relative property, depending upon 
 temperature, thickness, &c. 
 
 FLEXORS. The name of those 
 muscles which produce the flexion 
 or bending of the arm or leg. 
 
 FLEXUOSE. Full of headings to 
 the one side and the other. 
 
 FLIES. Insects furnished with 
 two wings (Diplera), and living by 
 suction, or on animals and meats. 
 Several distinct families exist, viz., 
 the Tachinadcr, which deposite their 
 eggs in caterpillars ; the Sarcophago!, 
 which are viviparous, producing liv- 
 ing maggots, and living on putrid 
 meats. One fly often produces 20,000 
 young. The Stromoxys genus, inclu- 
 ding the sharp stinging horseflies, 
 which lay their eggs in dung ; the 
 Muscadcr, or house and meat flies, 
 which infest butchers' stalls and 
 houses : the latter lay eggs in dung. 
 The house fly is readily destroyed by 
 exposing plates of infusion of quassia, 
 green tea, &c., sweetened, or intro- 
 ducing some active poison, as arse- 
 nic or corrosive sublimate, into mo- 
 lasses and water : they also avoid 
 dark rooms. 
 
 FLIGHTS. The husk or glumes 
 of oats are so called. 
 
 FLINT. A variety of silica, con- 
 taining water and stained with iron, 
 found interstratified with chalk in 
 Europe, but not discovered in Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 FLINT GLASS. A glass com- 
 posed of fine sand and red-lead, hav- 
 ing a high refractive power, and used 
 by opticians. 
 FLITCH OF BACON. The 
 298 
 
 side, or slioulder, and middling to- 
 getlier. 
 
 FLOAT. A raft of timber to bo 
 floated. To cover meadows with wa- 
 ter. 
 
 FLOAT BOARDS. The boards 
 attached to the circumference of an 
 under shot-wheel. 
 
 FLOCCUS. The loose hair at the 
 end of the tail of some animals. 
 
 FLOODGATE. Any contrivance 
 or gate to regulate the flow of water ; 
 a sluice. A common floodgate is de- 
 picted in Irriiraiion. 
 
 FLOODING. See Irri<ration. 
 FLORETS. The flowers of a ca- 
 pitulum. like the sunflower. 
 
 FLORIDA ARROW-ROOT. See 
 Sa^o. 
 
 FLOSS SILK. The silk broken 
 off from cocoons in the filature, which 
 is carded and worked like cotton, for 
 coarse fabrics. 
 
 FLOUR. The meal of wheat, for 
 the most part. The amount of flour 
 made by a variety of grain is a prime 
 consideration, some kinds producing 
 more than others. On an average, 
 a bushel of sixty pounds yields, of 
 family flour, forty-eight pounds ; of 
 pollard, eight pounds ; bran, three 
 pounds, and a loss of about one 
 pound. The finest is that from wheat 
 cut in the dough, which also weighs 
 from three to five pounds more the 
 bushel, is whiter, and softer to the 
 touch. The true value of flour is, 
 however, its gluten, which is the nu- 
 tritious portion. Common kinds rare- 
 ly exceed twelve per cent. ; but of 
 choice kinds, some furnish thirty ; 
 the amount is determined by wash- 
 ing a piece of dough on a fine hair 
 seive until water runs through it 
 without milkiness ; the remaining 
 portion, which is very tenacious, con- 
 sists of impure gluten ; it should be 
 dried at 300, and weighed. There 
 is not a finer flour than that produced 
 from the white flint varieties of 
 wheat, and white May. 
 
 A barrel of flour should contain 196 
 pounds. The sack, which is used in 
 England, contains 280 pounds. 
 
 FLOUR MILL, A HAND. The 
 figure represents a very neat hand 
 
FLO 
 
 FLU 
 
 flour mill, ■which is fully competent 
 to produce fine flour. It is patent- 
 ed by Nichols and Marsh. Price, 840. 
 FLOWER. In botany, the expand- 
 ed bud. For its difTerent parts, see 
 Botany. In descriptions, flowers are 
 divided into apetalous, monopetalous, 
 polypetalous, and composite ; the 
 first includes those without corolla ; 
 the second, consisting of one petal 
 apparently, are, in truth, formed by 
 the union of several, and hence term- 
 ed synpetalous ; this class is subdivi- 
 ded into numerous kinds, as labiate, 
 like the sage flower ; personate, like 
 antirrhinum ; wheel-shape, like borage ; 
 campanulate, like a bell ; hypocraleri- 
 forin, like the tobacco blossom. Pol- 
 ypetalous flowers consist of several 
 distinct petals, and are called rosa- 
 ceous, when like the rose flower : cary- 
 ophyllous, like the pink ; liliaceous, like 
 the lily ; cruciferous, like flax or cab- 
 bages ; papilionaceous, like the pea ; 
 
 orchideous, like the genus orchis, &c. 
 Composite flowers are like the sun- 
 flower, lettuce, thistle, &c. The es- 
 sentia! parts of the flower are the sta- 
 mens and pistils ; if botli are present, 
 it is hermaphrodite ; if one is absent, 
 they are either male or female blos- 
 soms ; and the absence of both con- 
 stitutes the blossom a barren flower. 
 By development, single flowers be- 
 come doui)le, but they also become 
 barren, the stamens being converted 
 into petals. Tlie colour of flowers is 
 very mucli in the hands of the florist ; 
 for, by hybridizing species of differ- 
 ent colours, the seed produced often 
 gives rise to varieties of new tints. 
 
 Flowers, in chemistry, are fine crys- 
 tals, obtained by sublimation. 
 
 FLOWERLESS PLANTS. The 
 cryptogamous plants of Linnaeus ; 
 the acotyledons of Jussieu. 
 
 FLUE. A channel or way along 
 which the smoke or heat of a fire 
 passes. See Hot-house. 
 
 FLUID. A body the particles of 
 which move freely among one an- 
 other, and which transmit pressures 
 equally in all directions. Fluids are 
 divided into elastic and non-elastic, 
 or gaseous and liquid ; the former 
 containing air and vapours, the lat- 
 ter water, &c. 
 
 FLUKE. Dtstoma hepaticum. 
 Gourd-worm. A flat, entozoal worm, 
 infesting the livers of sheep and some 
 other animals ; it is often seen in 
 those wiiich have died of the rot. 
 
 FLUORINE. A hypothetical 
 body, supposed to resemble chlorine, 
 found in fluor spar. With hydrogen, 
 it forms a very corrosive acid, the 
 hydro-fluoric, which acts upon glass, 
 forming fluo-silicic acid, and is a 
 powerl'ul caustic. It exists, in mi- 
 nute quantity, in bones. Its com- 
 pounds are called fluorides. 
 
 FLUOR SPAR. A beautiful crys- 
 talline mineral, abundant in Derby- 
 shire, England, and hence called Der- 
 byshire spar. It is common in New- 
 York and the Eastern States ; con- 
 sists of fluoride of calcium. The 
 mineral is of many colours, and cu- 
 bical or octahedral in form. It is used 
 as a flux, and to procure hydro-fluoric 
 299 
 
FOA 
 
 acid, and has been recommended as 
 a manure. 
 
 FLUTINGS. The grooves of col- 
 umns. 
 
 FLUVIALES. A tribe of water 
 plants, of endogenous structure, near- 
 ly resemhling sca-wceds. Sea wrack 
 {Zostera innrnta) is used, when dry, 
 to stuff cushions and for packing. 
 
 FLUX. In chemistry, substances 
 which arc in themselves very fusible, 
 or which promote the fusion of other 
 bodies. When cream of tartar is de- 
 flagrated with half its weight of nitre, 
 a mixture of charcoal and carbonate 
 of potash remains, which is often call- 
 ed black flux : when an equal weight 
 of nitre is used, the whole of tlie char- 
 coal is burned off, and carbonate of 
 potassa remains, which, when thus 
 procured, is called %chi.te flux. 
 
 Flux, in diseases, any unusually in- 
 creased discharge, as diavrhcea. 
 
 FLY. In agriculture, any winged 
 insect injurious to crops, as the tur- 
 nip, wheat, Hessian fly, &c., for 
 which see the plants respectively. 
 
 Fly. In machinery, an appendage 
 given to machines for the purpose of 
 regulating and equalizing the motion, 
 as in the windlass, jack, pile engine, 
 &c. ; and sometimes for collecting 
 force in order to produce a very great 
 instantaneous impression, as in a 
 coining press. Generally it is form- 
 ed of a heavy disk or hoop, attached 
 to the axis ; sometimes of heavy 
 knobs at the extremities of a bar hav- 
 ing the same position. The fly is of 
 great use in all cases where the pow- 
 er or the resistance acts unequally 
 in the different parts of a revolution. 
 
 FLYING BUTTRESS. A beau- 
 tiful and useful portion of a Goth- 
 ic structure, consisting of arches 
 thrown off from a mass of masonry 
 against a wall, to support it from 
 pressure acting from above, as by the 
 roof 
 
 FLY POWDER. Black suboxide 
 of arsenic, used to kill flies, but dan- 
 gerous, from its poisonous nature. 
 
 FOAL. A young horse. 
 
 FOALIXG. The act of parturi- 
 tion or bringing forth young in the 
 mare. Good feeding and moderate 
 300 
 
 FOD 
 
 exercise are found to be the best pre- 
 ventives against slinking, which is 
 most prevalent when half the time 
 of pregnancy has ela[)scd. If a mare 
 has been regularly exercised, and ap- 
 parently in health while she was in 
 foal, little danger will attend the act 
 of parturition. If there be false pres- 
 entations of the fffitus, or difficulty 
 in producing it, it will be better to 
 have recourse to a well-informed 
 doctor, rather than injure the mother 
 by the violent and injurious attempts 
 which are often made to relieve the 
 animal. As soon as the mare has 
 foaled, she should be turned into 
 some well -sheltered pasture, with a 
 hovel or shed to run into when she 
 pleases ; and as, supposing she has 
 foaled in April, the grass is scanty, 
 she should have a couple of feeds of 
 corn daily. The mare may be put to 
 moderate work a month after foaling. 
 
 FOCAL DISTANCE. In optics 
 the distance between the centre of a 
 lens or mirror and the point into 
 which the rays are collected. 
 
 FOCUS. A point where heat, light, 
 sound, &c., are collected, either by the 
 action of glass or reflecting surfaces. 
 In geometry, certain points in the 
 curves, called conic sections, which 
 are also foci for radiant emanations. 
 
 FODDERS. All substances used 
 as food for animals. In some parts 
 of the United States it is, however, 
 confined to the leaves stripped from 
 corn. Coarse fodders are those which 
 resemble straw, &c., occupying much 
 bulk. 
 
 The comparative value of fodders is 
 a prime question in husbandry, and 
 which can hardly have been said to 
 assume a trustworthy estimate until 
 recently, when careful experiments 
 have been made by Thaer, Raumer, 
 Block, and Boussingault. In the an- 
 nexed table, by the latter, are shown 
 the results obtained by chemical ex- 
 amination and practical feeding. In 
 the first, the amount of nitrogen in 
 100 parts is found, which gives the 
 quantity of fibrin, albumen, and ca- 
 sein, by multiplying by 63 ; thus, in 
 the table, the nitrogen in good hay is 
 1-34 per cent., which is equivalent to 
 
FODDERS. 
 
 Table of the nutritive equivalents of different kinds of fodders. 
 
 
 1 
 
 £. 
 
 l|i 
 
 1" 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 Kinds of Food. 
 
 "H ^ 
 
 tL ^ 
 
 ?r- ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 c? 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Various. 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 a^ 
 
 ill 
 
 
 CH 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 P 
 
 (S 
 
 
 
 3~ 
 
 i 
 
 zi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ordinary- ua'.ur*i meadow Ijay . 
 
 "TFT 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.15 
 
 loo 
 
 "ioo 
 
 loo 
 
 Too 
 
 ~ioo 
 
 ~ioo 
 
 
 Do. of line quality 
 
 
 H.O 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.30 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do. select .... 
 
 
 lti.8 
 
 ■2.40 
 
 QM 
 
 58; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do. freed from woody stems 
 
 
 14.0 
 
 2.44 
 
 ■2.10 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lurern h.ay .... 
 
 
 K.6 
 
 l.6(i 
 
 1.38 
 
 83 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 90, 90Domba8le,Crud. 
 
 Red clover hay, 2d year's growth 
 
 lO.I 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.54 
 
 75' ipo 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 90 
 
 lOC 
 
 
 Red clover cut in flower, green, do. , 
 
 76.0 
 
 
 
 0.64 
 
 Sill 430 
 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 4:5 
 
 
 New wheat straw, crop ISll 
 
 26.0 
 
 0-36 
 
 0.27 
 
 426. 200 
 
 360 
 
 150 1 4oO 
 
 300 
 
 500 Rieder. 
 
 Old whe.it straw 
 
 8.n 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.4y 
 
 ■2.^5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Do. do. lower parts of the stalk 
 
 S.:! 
 
 0.43 
 
 0.41 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do. do. upper part of do. and ear . 
 
 9.4 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.33 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New rye straw . . . . . 
 
 IK.7 
 
 0.30 
 
 21 
 
 479 200 
 
 500 
 
 InO 
 
 666 
 
 
 
 Old do 
 
 
 i:.6 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.42 
 
 •250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oat straw .... 
 
 
 21.0 
 
 0J6 
 
 0.:i0 
 
 383' 200 
 
 ■200 
 
 150 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 400 Schwerte, 
 
 Barley do 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.25 
 
 460 19-3 
 
 180 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 400 do. 
 
 Pea do 
 
 
 8.5 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.79 
 
 64 165 
 
 200 
 
 150 
 
 130 
 
 150 
 
 90 Pohl. 
 
 Millet do 
 
 
 I'.l.O 
 
 0.96 
 
 0.78 
 
 147 
 
 250' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Buckwheat do. . 
 
 
 U.fi 
 
 0.54 
 
 0.48 
 
 ■240 
 
 200! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lentd do 
 
 
 9.2 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.01 
 
 114 160 
 
 200i 
 
 130 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 Vetches cut in flower and dried 
 
 hay 
 
 Potato tops .... 
 
 into j 
 
 11.0 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.14 
 
 10l|_ 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 76.0 
 
 2.30 
 
 0J5 
 
 209 
 
 300 
 
 _. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Field beet leaves . 
 
 
 88.9 
 
 4.50 
 
 0..50 
 
 230 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 Carrot do 
 
 
 70.9 
 
 2.94 
 
 0.S5 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 — _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke stems 
 
 
 ■86.4 
 
 ■2.70 
 
 03- 
 
 311 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 325 
 
 
 I.inie-tree, young shoots . 
 
 
 65.0 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.45 
 
 79 73 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C.-inada poplar do. 
 
 
 62.5 
 
 2.2M 
 
 0.86 
 
 134' 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oak do 
 
 
 57.4 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.92 
 
 1-25 83 
 
 
 
 
 
 ___ 
 
 
 Acacia do. (autumn) . 
 
 
 .T.3.6 
 
 1.56 
 
 0.72 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drum cabbage 
 
 
 9.'.S 
 
 3.70 
 
 0.28 
 
 411 S-V) 
 
 .500 
 
 2.30 
 
 429 
 
 600 
 
 
 Swedish turuip 
 
 
 91.0 
 
 l.»^ 
 
 0.17 
 
 676 r 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 
 Turnip 
 
 
 92.S 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.13 
 
 885 .va 
 
 600 
 
 290 
 
 52n 
 
 4r.o 
 
 
 Fieldheet (IfvW; . 
 Do. white Sileeian 
 
 
 87.x 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.21 
 
 543 366 
 
 400 
 
 250 
 
 460 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 M.6 
 
 1.43 
 
 0.18 
 
 669 366 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tarrots 
 
 
 87.6 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.30 
 
 382 205 
 
 250 
 
 225 
 
 300 
 
 250 
 
 ;',80 Bousaingnult. 
 
 .T.ras.alem artichokes (1839) 
 
 
 7;'.2 
 
 1.60 
 
 0.33 
 
 .348 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 zao do. 
 
 Do. (1S36) .... 
 
 
 7.i.i 
 
 2.20 
 
 0.42 
 
 274 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potatoes (1S38) . 
 
 
 es.'i 
 
 1.50 
 
 0.36 
 
 319 216 
 
 200 
 
 J 50 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 ■350 Boussingault. 
 
 Do. , ISSf!) .... 
 
 
 79.4 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.37 
 
 311 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 Do. after keeping in the pit 
 
 
 76.8 
 
 1.18 
 
 0.30 
 
 3*3 400 • 
 
 — _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cider apjde pulp dried in the air 
 
 
 6.4 
 
 0.63 
 
 0..59 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 — ■— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beet root from the sugar mUl 
 
 
 70.0 
 
 
 
 0.38 
 
 303 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vetches in seed . 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 5.13 
 
 4.37 
 
 26 30 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 40 
 
 
 Freld beans .... 
 
 
 7.9 
 
 S.iO 
 
 .5.11 
 
 23 30 
 
 64 
 
 50 
 
 73 
 
 40 
 
 
 "White peas (dr>-) 
 
 
 8.6 
 
 4.20 
 
 3.84 
 
 27 30 
 
 .54 
 
 48 
 
 66 
 
 40 
 
 
 ■VNTiite haricots . 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 4.30 
 
 4.58 
 
 25 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lentils 
 
 
 9.0 
 
 4.40 
 
 4.00 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Indian com .... 
 
 
 18.0 
 
 2.00 
 
 l.f>t 
 
 70 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 59 Boussingault. 
 
 Buckwhe.at .... 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.10 
 
 55 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barley (1S.16) 
 
 
 13.-2 
 
 2.02 
 
 L76 
 
 65 33 
 
 61 
 
 53 
 
 76 
 
 50 
 
 
 IJarlevmeal. 
 
 
 1S.0 
 
 2.46 
 
 ■2.14 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oats (ISiS) .... 
 
 
 20.8 
 
 2.-20 
 
 1.74 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 60 
 
 
 Do. (lS.Tfi) .... 
 
 
 li.4 
 
 ■2.-22 
 
 1.U2 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. .5 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.00 
 
 S8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \Vheat ri&W. Alsace) . 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 ■2.33 
 
 2.09 
 
 55 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 46 
 
 64 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 16.6 
 
 3.18 
 
 2.65 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Recent Bran 
 
 
 37.1 
 
 •2.13 
 
 1.36 
 
 85 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Some specimens are 
 I twice as rich. 
 
 Ulieat husks or chaff . 
 
 
 7.6 
 
 0.94 
 
 0.85 
 
 135 
 
 160 
 
 _i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rice Piedmont) 
 
 
 13.4 
 
 1J9 
 
 1.-20 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gold of ple.asure seed (Madia) . 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.67 
 
 31i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do. cake 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 .5.70 
 
 6.06 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lin^ee.lrake .... 
 
 
 13.4 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.20 
 
 '2-2 1 42 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cr,l7.a do. . . . . 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 5..50 
 
 4.92 
 
 231 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Madia do 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 5.93 
 
 5.51 
 
 21; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hemp do 
 
 
 .5.0 
 
 4.78 
 
 4.21 
 
 27! 
 
 
 
 
 
 n. 
 
 
 
 
 Poppy do 
 
 
 6.P 
 
 5.70 
 
 5.36 21 
 
 
 
 — - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nt.tdo 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 5.59 
 
 5.24 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beech mast do. . 
 
 
 6.2 
 
 3.53 
 
 3.31 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arachis (Pindars) do. . 
 
 
 6.C 
 
 R.K9 
 
 8.331 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dry acorns .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.80 143 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — — . 
 
 
 Refuse of llie wine-press, air dried . 
 
 4.''.2 
 
 3.31 
 
 1.71 68 
 
 6-: 
 
 
 
 ZIZ 
 
 75 
 
 
 Cc 
 
 301 
 
FODDERS. 
 
 8J nearly of fibrin. The practical 
 values are ascertained by weitrbing 
 the feed and aniiTial, and_ giving 
 enougli of all fodders to maintain 
 him in good condition. They are less 
 Irnc than the tiicorelical or chemical 
 values, because not so well perform- 
 ed ; but the tlieoretical values have 
 t)een fully sustained by subsequent 
 examination. One hundred pounds of 
 ordinary hay are made the standard, 
 other fodders being compared with 
 this in theirpower of sustaining life in 
 animals. The fodders are, however, 
 of different values, im fattening, wool- 
 growing, &c., and are treated of as 
 such under these heads. The dif- 
 ference exhibited in the above valu- 
 ations, by different authors, is, in a 
 great measure, due to variations in 
 the nutritiousness of the provender; 
 thus, straw, pea haulm, &c.. are 
 many times more nutritious when cut 
 greenish than when dead ripe. In 
 the same way, some wheat contains 
 10 and some 30 per cent, of gluten ; 
 and here is a difference of 1 to 3. 
 
 The following articles, used as hu- 
 man food, are equivalent to one 
 hundred of good flour. The term 
 meal is meant to indicate that the 
 substances were perfectly dried and 
 pulverized : the equivalents are con- 
 structed upon the relative amounts 
 of nitrogen in fair samples of each : 
 
 Wheat flour (good (jualitv; .... 100 
 
 Wheat .'.... 107 
 
 Barley meal 119 
 
 Barley 130 
 
 Rye Ill 
 
 Buckwheat 108 
 
 Indian Corn LSS 
 
 Yellow peas 67 
 
 Hor.se-beans 44 
 
 White French beans 56 
 
 Rice 171 
 
 Lentils 57 
 
 White-heart cabbage 810 
 
 Cabbage meal 63 
 
 Potatoes 613 
 
 Potatoe meal 126 
 
 Carrots 757 
 
 Carrot meal 95 
 
 Turnips 1335 
 
 Mealy bananas 700 
 
 Mam hot (casava plant) 700 
 
 Yam (dioscorea) 300 
 
 In the economy of food, not only 
 
 ought a proper selection to be made 
 
 to suit the object of the farmer as 
 
 oily provender for fattening, fodder 
 
 302 
 
 ; rich in gluten for draught animals, 
 
 \ but the greatest attention should be 
 
 paid to warmth, exposure, and the 
 
 losses of free pasturage. See Soiling 
 
 and Food. 
 
 FODDERS, THE TI.ME OF CUT- 
 TING. The old careless practice of 
 allowing corn, wheat, beans, &lc., to 
 stand until dead ripe is giving place 
 to the more rational method of cut- 
 ting when the iierbage is turning yel- 
 low, and the stem is dried an inch or 
 two above the ground. Not only is 
 the grain, whether wheat, oats, or 
 corn, much heavier, but whiter, and 
 preferred, but the straw, haulm, or 
 fodder is increased in value from four 
 to ten times ; thus, while the dry, 
 brown stems of pease are of no val- 
 ue in husbandry, it is the opinion of 
 the best Scotch farmers that the same 
 stems, taken when just yellowed, are 
 twice as valuable as hay ; and chem- 
 ical examination shows this to be a 
 true estimate. Hay cut in flower is 
 worth twenty per cent, more than 
 that cut in seed, and twice as much 
 as that with dry stems : the same is 
 true for clovers, lucern, and all coarse 
 fodders. Straw is obtained nearly as 
 good as hay when cut in the light 
 greenish yellow state ; but when seed 
 grain is wanted, tiie straw must be 
 allowed to drv perfectly. 
 
 FODDERS, THE PRESERVA- 
 TION OF. The preparation of hay 
 will be explained under that head. 
 In putting it up for winter use, there 
 are two plans, either to house it in a 
 barn or stack it. Against the latter 
 considerable prejudice exists, chiefly 
 because of the loss occurring from 
 the exposure of the outer stems. But 
 stacking is a perfect means of pres- 
 ervation, and in all senses equal to 
 storage in a barn, if properly man- 
 aged ; it is only when little stacks, 
 imperfectly covered, and placed on 
 the ground, are used, that the sys- 
 tem is objectionable. The hay, (kc, 
 when stored, should be withered, but 
 not crisp, and thoroughly dry : in 
 putting up, a peck of salt lo the load 
 is of great service in hindering mil- 
 dew and flavouring the hay. Large 
 mows must be provided, with means 
 
FODDERS. 
 
 of ventilation, by having beams or 1 
 rods passing through the barn, unless 
 the hay be well niacie and cured be- 
 fore storage. When well cured, hay | 
 should be of a greenish yellow, fine 
 odour, and altogether free from black- 
 ness or mildew. 
 
 Much advantage is gained by ma- 
 king up stacks of succulent fodders, 
 like buckwheat, Jerusalem artichoke 
 stems, broad-cast corn, clover, pea, 
 and bean stems, with straw, piling 
 one layer on the other ; the fod- 
 der may thus be put up fresher with- 
 out being sun-burned, and the straw 
 is improved, at the same time that 
 heatmg is obviated. Salting, in these 
 cases, is an additional preservative. 
 
 There is no greater injurjto coarse 
 fodders than allowing them to lie in 
 swarth until crisp and black from dry- 
 ing ; their nutritive matter is thus 
 reduced very considerably, and the 
 hay becomes unmanageable. If, from 
 using grass too green, it should heat, 
 the stack must be taken down and 
 freely exposed to the air as soon as 
 the accident is discovered, otherwise 
 it may fire, or, at least, the fodder 
 contracts a pitchy taste disagreeable 
 to cattle. 
 
 FODDERS, THE PREPARA- 
 TION OF. A great deal has been 
 said of late concerning the cooking 
 and steaming of food for horses, oxen, 
 and farm animals. Much is the off- 
 spring of ignorance and superficial ex- 
 amination. The preparation of corn 
 and hard grains, when given to oxen 
 and pigs, by grinding, is unquestiona- 
 bly a matter of great economy, where- 
 by at least one half is saved in the 
 former case. Mechanical reduction 
 by grinding, pounding, cutting, and 
 crushing, is also of great value in 
 other fodders, in roots, succulent 
 stems, and herbs ; but the assertion 
 that the act of steaming, irrespective 
 of the fineness of the food, is of great 
 service, or even that it will pay for 
 fuel in the case of the horse and oxen, 
 is disproved by the examination of nu- 
 merous Scotch farmers and by Bous- 
 singault. Every kind of comminu- 
 tion is valuable, because oxen are 
 incapable of pulverizing grains, and 
 
 horses frequently bolt, or swallow 
 whole, the carrots, beets, parsnips, 
 &c., which it is customary to furnish 
 them. This also refers to sheep. It 
 is true that in winter some httle 
 warmth is obtained from the fluid if 
 given hot, but this is not enough to 
 pay for the trouble. A machine for 
 rasping beets, potatoes, &c., is worth 
 infinitely more than a cooking contri- 
 vance. 
 
 With pigs the matter seems to be dif- 
 ferent ; well-made experiments show 
 that boiling or steaming food hast- 
 ens their fattening ; but this is scarce- 
 1}' understood. Boiling does not de- 
 velop any nutrition ; on the contrary, 
 Dr. Beaumont has shown that diges 
 tion is retarded ; but boiling is of ser- 
 vice where oily food, as Indian corn, 
 linseed, hemp seed, cotton seed, &c., is 
 given, for the heat causes the parti- 
 cles of fat of the meal to form an 
 emulsion with the hot water and gum 
 of the seed, and it is readily taken up 
 by the animal's intestines, whereas 
 oil, in large quantity, is not so read- 
 ily absorbed by the body, but partly 
 rejected. From the same cause, in 
 the last stage of fattening oxen, corn 
 or linseed meal, boiled into a jelly or 
 porridge, will assist fattening, while 
 it is in no way calculated as a regu- 
 lar fodder for draught oxen. In so 
 far as boiling or steaming assists di- 
 gestion, comminutes food, by making 
 It mealy, as potatoes, or produces an 
 emulsion with the oil it contains, so 
 far, and no farther, does it do service 
 on the farm. Practical men state 
 the gain in oily meals, with pigs, at 
 about one third, but not so much, if 
 at all, in coarse fodders. For cook- 
 ing, nothing is superior to Mott's 
 stove, which heats rapidly and econ- 
 omizes fuel. For a steamer, any com- 
 mon kettle, the nozzle of which emp- 
 ties into a box either of thick wood 
 with a tight lid, or into a barrel, will 
 answer ; the barrel may be surround- 
 ed with tow or cloth to keep in the 
 first heat. The figure represents such 
 a contrivance : A is a kettle, com- 
 municating by the pipe, B, furnished 
 with a stop-cock at C, into the box, 
 D, the lid of which overlaps, and is 
 303 
 
FOL 
 
 luaiJe last by hooks, E. It is also 
 furnished with a stop cock, F, below, 
 to let off the condensed water. 
 
 Such a contrivance can be set up 
 in the feeding-house on a table, and 
 easily used, the food being conveyed 
 down an inclined plane to the feed- 
 ing-troughs, or along a hose, if it be 
 fluid. A rapid way to make water 
 boil is to place it in a tube of tinned 
 iron or copper, wound into a spinal 
 form, and running around the fire ; 
 in this way the amount of surface is 
 greatly increased, and the whole 
 brou<:ht near to the fire. 
 
 FGilTUS (from /to, I bring forth). 
 A quickened child in the womb. 
 
 FOG. A collection of vapour near 
 the earth's surface, produced by the 
 cooling of the moisture in the air. 
 Fogs lie in the morning and evening 
 over' damp, ill-drained, or marshy 
 lands, and are unhealthy, producing 
 ague and bilious fevers. 
 
 FOGGE. Long grass and partial- 
 ly cropped grass remaining on mead- 
 ows. Also the grass after a crop. 
 
 FOGGING. An uncommon prac- 
 tice of leaving the grass of upland 
 meadows uncut during the year, and 
 turning cattle and sheep upon it in 
 the fall and winter. 
 
 FOIL. A thin sheet of metal. 
 
 FOLD. A temporary enclosure 
 made with hurdles or rails, to con- 
 fine sheep. A portion may be shel- 
 tered with pine or other branches, 
 and littered with straw. 
 
 FOLDING. The practice of en- 
 closing sheep, cows, &c., in folds, 
 either for the night to manure the 
 land, or on turnips, grass, spring rye, 
 wheat, &c., to eat it regularly and 
 manure at the same time. Folding 
 during summer is wasteful ; for the 
 304 
 
 FOG 
 
 greater part of the urine is lost, and 
 iiiucli of the solid e.\.crement decays 
 and is volatilized or removed by wasli- 
 uig ; driving the cattle to one yard 
 and receiving the dung on stiaw, 
 charcoal, or suitable matters for com- 
 posting it, would be much better econ- 
 omy. On heavy lands, the treading 
 of animals is frequently mjurious du- 
 ring folding. 
 
 FOLIATION, or VERNATION. 
 The manner in which the young 
 leaves are folded in the bud. 
 
 FOLLICLE, or FOLLICULUS. 
 In botany, a one-valved, one cell- 
 ed, many-seeded, superior, dehiscent 
 fruit. 
 
 FOMENTATION. A warm bath- 
 ing applied to a part of the body ; in- 
 fusions of herbs are often used. 
 
 FONTANEL. A small space ex- 
 isting between the bones of the head 
 in the fcEtus. 
 
 P^OOD. A substance which con- 
 tains any of the principles which ex- 
 ist in the body, is digestible, and not 
 combined with a poisonous ingredi- 
 ent. There are three principal vari- 
 eties of food : 1st. That capable of 
 repairing the waste of the flesh or 
 muscle, called Azotizcd food, and es- 
 sential to the strength of animals, 
 ■-id. That which sustains the heat of 
 the body, called non-Azotized food. 
 3d. That which repairs the waste of 
 fat, and called Oleaginous food, the 
 importance of which is inferior to the 
 two former, except for fattening ani- 
 mals. 
 
 I'he azotizcd elements of food, so 
 called from containing azote, or nitro- 
 gen, are fibrin, casein, and albumen ; 
 they go to the repair of muscles, 
 membranes, &c., which, in the active 
 state of the body, are being perpetu- 
 ally consumed. Seeds and meats 
 contain most of these principles ; the 
 former from 10 to 20 per cent., and 
 lean meat 23 to 25 per cent. The 
 richest seeds are beans, pease, wheat, 
 barley, oats, rye, corn. This kind of 
 food is most serviceable for draught 
 animals and such as are used for 
 strength and fleetness. For the com- 
 parative values, see the table in arti- 
 cle Fodders. They are the only class 
 
FOO 
 
 roR 
 
 capable of sustaining life by them- 
 selves. 
 
 Tlie non-azolizcd contain no nitro- 
 gen. Starcli, sugar, and gum are 
 the principal of these ; they are, by 
 digestion, conveyed into the system, 
 and clianged so as to produce the 
 heat vvliich maintains life. E.xposure 
 to cold calls lor a greater consump- 
 tion of these principles than in a 
 warm situation. Potatoes, beets, 
 carrots, and roots generally excel in 
 these principles, but no vegetable 
 fodder is deficient in tliem. These 
 cannot alone sustain life. 
 
 Fatty, or oleaginous food, adds fat 
 to the body, which, in sickness and 
 other circumstances, also contributes 
 to the maintenance of animal heat. 
 They are incapable of sustaining life. 
 See Fattcnhig. 
 
 The food usually consumed is a 
 mixture of these in diflerent propor- 
 tions ; thus, corn meal consists of 9 
 per cent, oil, 12 azotized principles, 
 50 non-azotized, the rest being water, 
 husk, and saline matter ; but the 
 true value of any food is directly as 
 the nitrogen principles it contains. 
 See Fodders. 
 
 Besides these substances, others 
 are in less measure useful as food, 
 viz. : salt, which assists digestion ; 
 jelly, or gelatin, which repairs waste 
 in the cellular tissue ; bone earth (as 
 it exists in the food), which repairs 
 the waste of the bones. Vinegar, al- 
 cohol, the juices of acid fruits, are 
 also food of the non-azotized kind. 
 
 In perfect digestion, these varieties 
 of food are taken up into the system, 
 and the husk, certain useless salts, 
 and water rejected ; but it often oc- 
 curs that the proportion of fat or 
 starchy matters is so great, that much 
 is rejected, unaltered, by the bowels. 
 
 The amount of food necessary to 
 maintain an animal in ordinary exer- 
 cise is rather less than two per cent, 
 of the weight in hay, or its equiva- 
 lent. See Feed. A man requires 45 
 ounces of wheat bread, or 11 of beef 
 or mutton, daily, to maintain strength, j 
 An ox of 1000 pounds requires 20 j 
 pounds of hay, or the loUowing equiv- 1 
 alents : j 
 
 Cc2 
 
 120 lbs. of turnips, 
 115 " straw, 
 75 " carrots, 
 67 " putatnos, 
 
 17 lbs. of clover hay, 
 12 " l,arl<-y, 
 10 " oats, 
 b(!au3. 
 
 The time of I'eeding should be reg- 
 ular : an liour allowed working ani- 
 mals to digest, water given afterward, 
 and changes in the food made occa- 
 sionally, but not suddenly, especially 
 to green fodders. 
 
 FOOD OF PLANTS. Plants re- 
 quire water, carbonic acid gas, oxy- 
 gen, ammonia, or other compounds 
 containing nitrogen and saline mat- 
 ters ; these they derive partly from 
 the air and soil. See t/icfc bodies. 
 
 FOOT. A measure of 12 inches. 
 Horse's foot. See Horse and Shoeing. 
 
 FORAGE. Provender, fodder. 
 
 FORAMEN, In anatomy, a hole 
 or perforation through a bone. 
 
 FORCE. Anything that produces 
 motion or pressure. Mechanical for- 
 ces are those which produce palpable 
 movements, as gravitation, the de- 
 scent of weights upon bodies, &c. 
 Chemical forces are those producing 
 molecular movements, which are 
 only perceptible by their effects ; 
 they are heat, light, tithonicity, elec- 
 tricity ; these, however, occasional- 
 ly give rise to more extensive move- 
 ments. 
 
 FORCEPS. Instruments acting 
 in the same way as pincers. 
 
 FORCING. In horticulture, for- 
 warding the grov.tli of plants, fruits, 
 &c. ; conducted in glazed houses, 
 pits, frames, or in cellars for mush- 
 rooms, celery, endive, &c. Heat is 
 one great essential ; but light and air 
 are also of the first importance to 
 success, except with mushrooms, or 
 in blanching. Forcing houses and 
 frames, therefore, face the south, to 
 receive most light ; but during very 
 cold weather the sudden action of 
 the sun"s iieat is to be guarded against 
 if there be the least frost within the 
 house ; hence, in green-houses for 
 vines and fruits, it is common to cov- 
 er the glass with matting during the 
 depth of winter, to protect the trees 
 from sudden heat. 
 
 FORCING PITS. Pits of brick, 
 masonry, or wood sunk in the earth 
 to contain the fermenting materials 
 305 
 
FOR 
 
 FOU 
 
 to produce bottom heat ; tliey are 
 used like iVames, and in every re- 
 spect resemble tlieui in efTect. The 
 following is a description of the pit 
 of one of the English gardens : " It is 
 four feet deep within ; the lowest ten 
 inches of solid brick-work sunk in the 
 earth ; the remainder is a flue, three 
 inches wide in the clear, carried en- 
 tirely round the pit ; the inner wall 
 of which, forming the sides of the pit, 
 is four-inch work, well bedded in 
 mortar, and pointed, to prevent the 
 steam penetrating ; the outer wall of 
 the flue is also four-inch, but open- 
 work, to admit the steam and that of 
 dung coatings into the flue, the top 
 of which is rendered tight by a cov- 
 ering of tiles, &c. The frame rests 
 on the external wall of the flue. The 
 cavity of the pit, which is kept dry 
 by means of drains, is nine feet two 
 inches long, two feet eight inches 
 wide, and four feet deep. It is filled 
 with broken bricks to within eighteen 
 inches of the top ; then a foot of 
 short cold dung, six inches of very 
 rotten dung, trod down so as to ad- 
 mit half an inch depth of coal ashes, 
 for preventing the intrusion of any 
 worms that may be in the dung, com- 
 plete the structure." See Frame. 
 
 FORCING PUjMP. See Pump. 
 
 FOREST. A natural collection of 
 trees. The principal trees are men- 
 tioned under their respective heads. 
 
 FOREST FLIES. Flies of the 
 genus Hippobosca. 
 
 FORFICULA. The genus of in- 
 sects to which the earwig belongs. 
 
 FORGE. " The workshop in 
 which iron is hammered and shaped 
 by the aid of heat. The term is gen- 
 erally applied to the places in which 
 these operations are carried on upon 
 the comparatively small scale ; the 
 great workshops in which iron is 
 made malleable for general purposes 
 being called shingling mills. A com- 
 mon forge consists of the hearth or 
 fire-place, which is merely a cavity in 
 masonry or brick-work well lined with 
 fine clay or brick, upon which the ig- 
 nited fuel is placed, and upon the 
 back or side of which a powerful blast 
 of air is driven in through the nozzle 
 30G 
 
 of a double-blasted bellows, which, in 
 a connnon forge, is generally worked 
 by a hand lever. Forges are some- 
 times constructed so as to be porta- 
 ble, when the bellows is most con- 
 veniently placed under the hearth : 
 these are used in ships, and for vari- 
 ous jobs on railways, &c." — (Brande.) 
 
 F O R K. The dung and digging 
 fork is in the form of a spade, with 
 three or more flat prongs : it is em- 
 ployed in loose soils much more ex- 
 peditiously than the spade in garden 
 tillage. The hai/, or pitch-fork, for 
 turning hay, grass, or manure, is fur- 
 nished with a long handle and two 
 roundish teeth : sometimes a forked 
 branch is used. 
 
 FORMATION. In geology, a 
 group of deposites or strata apparent- 
 ly referable to a common origin or 
 period. 
 
 FORMICA. The genus of ants, 
 now the tvpe of a tribe, the Formir.ida. 
 
 FORMIC ACID. The fluid eject- 
 ed by ants when irritated contains 
 this acid. The acid is formed by dis- 
 tilling tartaric acid with sulphuric 
 acid and peroxide of manganese, and 
 consists of Cj HO^-f HO. It is high- 
 ly corrosive, acid, and of a peculiar 
 odour ; combines with bases to form 
 formiates, which are very soluble. 
 Formic acid contains a compound 
 radical formyl (Cj H). 
 
 FORMULA. In chemistry, the ex- 
 pression, by symbols, of the composi- 
 tion of any substance, as (EO, FOO3) 
 f(jr formic ether. 
 
 Fossa, in zoology, a depression 
 on a bone. 
 
 FOSSIL. A part or the whole of 
 any animal or plant imbedded in the 
 earth, and more or less converted 
 into stony matter. 
 
 FOSSORES. A group of hymen- 
 opterous insects, which dig or exca- 
 vate cells in wood or earth to depos- 
 ite their eggs. 
 
 FOSSORIAL (from fodio, I dig). 
 Animals which dig their holes, as 
 moles. 
 
 FOUNDATION. In architecture, 
 the lower part of a wall, on which the 
 wall is raised, and always of much 
 greater thickness than such wall. A 
 
FOX 
 
 FRA 
 
 practice has lately been introduced 
 of laying foundations on a bed of 
 Miiat is called concrete, which is a mix- 
 ture of rough, small stones or large 
 gravel stones with sand and stone, 
 lime and water, with just enough of 
 the lime to act as a cementitious me- 
 dium with the best effect. See Co?i- 
 crcte. 
 
 FOUNTAIN. A jet of water or 
 fluid. The simplest way of forming 
 a fountain is to conduct water by a 
 small pipe from a higher elevation, 
 where a tank or other reservoir ex- 
 ists; the open end of the tube below 
 being made tine, the fluid is driven 
 out with a pressure proportionate to 
 the height of the reservoir, and, 
 springing into the air, produces a 
 fountain. Groups of statuary are 
 beautifullv displayed in fountains. 
 
 FOVEATUS, FOVEATE. Hav- 
 ing a depression or pit : applied to the 
 nectar)' of flowers. 
 
 FOVILLA. The yellow^ fluid con- 
 tained in pollen. 
 
 FOWL. See Poultry. 
 FOX. Canis wipes, Lin. The de- 
 struction committed by this animal 
 and his great address in escaping have 
 tasked the farmer's wits to destroy 
 him. Good dogs are unquestionably 
 the best remedy ; but traps of all 
 kinds, baited with flesh, are also ex- | 
 tensively employed. The fox is led | 
 to these by trailing the entrails of a \ 
 sheep or hog from his retreats to the 
 trap. In the same way, the trail may 
 be made to a tree, and the garbage [ 
 left, the farmer ascending a tree in 
 the neighbourhood, and waiting with 
 a gun to shoot the fox. A large trap, ' 
 like the old rat trap, may be fixed in 
 the grass of a field, well hidden, and 
 baited with a fowl. 
 
 FOX EVIL. A disease in which 
 the hair falls out. 
 
 FOXGLOVE. Diiritalis purpurea. 
 An exotic biennial plant, with hand- 
 some flowers, of great value in med- 
 icine as a sedative and diuretic. It 
 is extremely poisonous, but is culti- 
 vated with great care in drills eigh- 
 teen inches apart. The plants should 
 be kept free from weeds, cultivated 
 in a dry soil, and freely exposed to 
 
 the sun. The leaves are collected 
 when full grown, in the second year, 
 and just before flowering ; they should 
 be dried by exposure to the sun, and 
 put up in tinned vessels. The leaves 
 only are valuable. 
 
 FOXTAIL GRASS. Grasses of 
 the genus Pennisetum, formerly He- 
 traria. The mo5t common {P. glau- 
 cum) is the coarse grass that springs 
 up in stubble. None of them, except P. 
 Germanictim, Bengal grass, is worth 
 cultivation, and this is very inferior 
 to the ordinary plants. It is an an- 
 nual, sown in s[)ring, and grows from 
 two to four feet high with tlie flower 
 stems. 
 
 FOXY. Sour or harsh. 
 FRACTURE. In farriery, the 
 breakage of a bone in the body. Frac- 
 tures are called simple when the bone 
 is broken without tearing the mus- 
 cles and passing through the skin, and 
 compound in the latter case. The 
 treatment requires care and atten- 
 tion. The broken ends of the bones 
 are first to be nicely brought togeth- 
 er by the surgeon, and then bound by 
 splints. The splints are usually slabs 
 of wood of a proper length and width 
 to fit the limb, or stiff pasteboard 
 soaked until it bends freely, and ad- 
 justed to the limb ; the splint is bound 
 on by a long riband of cotton. Splints 
 should be sufficiently long to reach to 
 the joints above and below the frac- 
 ture, to restrain their motion. The 
 animal should be bled if feverish, and 
 kept low. It is sometimes necessa- 
 ry to suspend them in the stable, by 
 passing a stout cloth under the body, 
 and fastening its ends to the upper 
 frame-work of the stable. In from 
 three to five weeks the bones are usu- 
 ally reunited. 
 
 FRACTURE. In mineralogy, the 
 appearance of a broken mineral which 
 is not crystalline. It is termed res- 
 inous, choncoidal, vitreous, earthy, 
 &c., according as it resembles that of 
 resin, a shell, glass, or earth. 
 
 FR.\CTURES IN TREES. When 
 they occur in the smaller branches, 
 from excess of iVuit, they readily unite 
 by propping up to the natural posi- 
 tion, if the accident occurs before the 
 307 
 
FRA 
 
 FRI 
 
 fall ; but when the part has a con- 
 siderable diameter, four to six inch- 
 es, it is best to prune it, and cover 
 tlie wound with coal tar or grafting 
 day. 
 
 FK.EXUM {fromfranuin, a bridle.) 
 A membranous fold, which binds 
 down one part of the body to another, 
 especially the tongue to the mouth. 
 
 FRAG ARIA. The generic name 
 of the strawberry. 
 
 FRAME. In horticulture, the ar- 
 rangement in which forcing is usually 
 peribrmed. A frame may be made 
 of stout planks, the back one being 
 two feet deep, the front fifteen inch- 
 es, and the sides sloped ; the width 
 across may be six feet, and the length 
 divided into partitions every three 
 feet ; over each partition a window 
 or sash, capable of being more or less 
 withdrawn, is placed. These frames 
 are set upon the hot-beds of ferment- 
 ing matters, and seedlings, melons, 
 &c., raised in them. 
 
 The heating material, or hot-bed, 
 may be set up on the ground, or in a 
 shallow pit of two feet depth. The 
 advantage of the former is that, as 
 the heat diminishes, the old dung can 
 be cut down and removed, being re- 
 placed by fresh, which supplies new 
 heat, and thus the temperature can 
 be kept up for a long time. A com- 
 mon bed for early vegetables is made 
 by laying down twenty inches to two 
 feet of fresh horse dung, and cover- 
 ing with six to eight inches of fine 
 mould, tan, or compost, putting down 
 the sashes of the frame, and allowing 
 the steam to pass off for three days ; 
 opening the Irame, stirring the soil, 
 and sowing the seeds in drills, or 
 broad-cast. The frame is subsequent- 
 ly to be opened or kept shut, accord- 
 ing to the hardiness of the young 
 plants. Beds made early in tlie sea- 
 son will require a greater depth of fer- 
 menting matter. During cold nights, 
 cover the frames with matting, that 
 no frost may penetrate. It is com- 
 mon to sink small thumb pots, in 
 part, into the hot-bed, instead of sow- 
 ing the seed on mould. 
 
 A cold frame is no more than the 
 foregoing sash placed over a spot of 
 308 
 
 well-tilled, rich soil, which it protects 
 by the glass. It should be exposed to 
 the southwest. Hot-beds and frames 
 should always be placed over a well- 
 drained spot. 
 
 FRA.MING. The rough timber- 
 work of a house. 
 
 FRANKLIATA. Gordonia puhcs- 
 cc7)s. An ornamental tree of (Jeorgia, 
 somewhat resembling the dogwood 
 when in flower. 
 
 FRAXIM'S. Thegenusoftheash. 
 
 FREEM ARTIX. A twin cow calf 
 born with a male calf If it resem- 
 bles the bull it is barren, and is often 
 barren when having the general ap- 
 pearance of a heifer. 
 
 FREEZING. Congelation. The 
 conversion of water into ice. It takes 
 place at 32 '^ Fahrenheit, or below, and 
 is much promoted by a sharp wind, 
 which hastens evaporation. Water, 
 in freezing, expands one ninth, and, 
 if confined, will break open the stout- 
 est vessels. Rocks and the soil are 
 disintegrated by the freezing of wa- 
 ter in them, which, expanding, tears 
 the particles asunder. By freezing 
 some mixtures or solutions, the wa- 
 tery parts may be, in some measure, 
 separated, and the spirituous left un- 
 touched. See Frost. 
 
 FRENCH BEANS. See Beans. 
 
 FRENCH BERRIES. Bernes oj 
 Avignon. The green fruit of the 
 Rhamnus infcctonus, a species of 
 buckthorn, cultivated in France as a 
 yellow dyeing material. It requires 
 a southern climate, and in other re- 
 spects does not differ from the buck- 
 thorn. It may be propagated by cut- 
 tings or seeds. The Persian berries 
 are the finest for colouring. 
 
 FRENCH CLOVER. Lucern. 
 
 FRET, or FRETTE. In architec- 
 ture, a species of ornament consist- 
 ing of one or more small fillets. The 
 section of the channels between the 
 fillets is rectangular. The subjoined 
 
 diagram shows two sorts of simple 
 frets ; but they are often much more 
 complicated. 
 
 FRIABLE. Powdery, mealy, or 
 readily broken into a powder. 
 
FRI 
 
 FRICTION. The resistance of- 
 fered to motion by a rough surface. 
 In mechanics, it is divided into */i- 
 ding, rolling, and pivot friction. Of 
 these, the amount of friction with 
 the same wciglit is twelve to twenty 
 times greater in sliding than rolling, 
 and is intermediate in pivot friction. 
 Friction is diminished hy polish, by 
 reduction of weight, by causing the 
 surfaces to be of dissimilar substan- 
 ces, as metal or wood, and by apply- 
 ing grease in sliding and pivot fric- 
 tion, but not in rolling friction. 
 
 Whenever it is possible to convert 
 a sliding or pivot motion into a roll- 
 ing one, much is gained ; hence the 
 arrangement of friction wheels, which 
 consist of two or more wheels, sup- 
 porting a pivot or axle, and which, by 
 turning, produce a rolling instead of 
 a pivot friction. Friction wheels have 
 been recently introduced into carriage 
 axles ; the axis, instead of playing in 
 the box, is surrounded with small, 
 loose rollers, which revolve with it, 
 reducing the friction to a remarkable 
 extent. 
 
 Rigidity of cordage is also produc- 
 tive, like all kinds of friction, of loss 
 (if power, and is to be guarded against 
 hy using flexible ropes. The amount 
 of friction depends, in a great meas- 
 ure, on the diameter of the wheel 
 over which it passes, the extent of 
 rope in contact, and its tension. When 
 there is more than one fold, it be- 
 comes enormous, so as to be used 
 as a mechanical means for stopping 
 boats, &c. 
 
 FRIEZE. In architecture, the cen- 
 tral portion of the entablature be- 
 tween the architrave and cornice. 
 It is plain in the Tuscan, but adorn- 
 ed in other styles. 
 
 FRIGID ZONE. The space above 
 7GI degrees of north or south lati- 
 tude. It is scarcely occupied by any 
 plants but a few lichens. 
 
 FRINGE-TREE. Chionanthus Vir- 
 ginica. A beautiful ornamental tree, 
 growing wild as far north as Delaware, 
 and bearing white flowers in May. 
 
 FRINGILLID-E {from frmgilla, a 
 chaffinch.) A tribe of birds, of the 
 Passerine family, with stout, conical 
 
 FRO 
 
 bills (conirostres), including the lin- 
 nets, canaries, finches, all of which 
 are devourers of grain. 
 
 FROGS. Amphibious animals, of 
 the genus Rana. The common spe- 
 cies {R. tcmporaria and cscnicnta) are, 
 for the mOBt part, insectivorous. They 
 should not be destroyed by the gar- 
 dener, except when in great numbers, 
 as they clear his garden of slugs, 
 snails, and other small pests. The 
 green frog (escuUnta) is a great del- 
 icacy with some : the flesh of the hind 
 leg is the part eaten. 
 
 FROG OF THE HORSE. A tri- 
 angular portion of horn projecting 
 from the sole almost on a level with 
 the crust, and defending a soft and 
 elastic substance called the sensible 
 frog. The sensible frog occupies the 
 whole of the back part of the foot, 
 above the horny frog and between 
 the cartilages. 
 
 FROG HOPPERS. FROG SPIT- 
 TLE. CUCKOO SPITTLE. Small 
 insects {Ccrcopidida) wiiich inhabit 
 the twigs and branches of plants, 
 from which they extract so nmch 
 juice that the place on which they 
 are collected appears covered with 
 spittle. 
 
 FROND. The leaves of ferns are 
 so called. 
 
 FRONTAL. In anatomy, apper 
 taining to the forehead. 
 
 FRONTLET. In ornithology, the 
 part of the head next the bill, usually 
 covered with bristles. 
 
 FROST. Correctly speaking, frost 
 is ice produced by radiation. Under 
 the article Dciv it has been stated 
 that in bright, clear, calm nights, all 
 objects exposed to the air become 
 cooled by radiation into the sky ; if 
 the temperature falls to 32-, then 
 frost, or pellicles of ice, are produced 
 instead of dew. The word is also 
 used in common to express freezing ; 
 but, in the latter case, the air is 
 usually at or below 32^ Fahrenheit, 
 whereas night frosts often occur in 
 the spring and fall when the air is 
 40 ' to 50 'Fahrenheit. Frosts fall ear- 
 lier on dark, rough lands than those 
 of a light colour and indurated con- 
 dition. 
 
 309 
 
FROST. 
 
 Frosts are most injurious to plants 
 at 50" Fahrenheit, in full vigour of 
 growth ; hence a slight frost in spring 
 usually destroys expanding buds and 
 the young shoots of vegetables. It 
 may act in a variety of ways, but 
 commonly by freezing the sap of the 
 leaves, which produces a disorgan- 
 ization of its tissues. Frosts by ra- 
 diation occur sooner in elevated sit- 
 uations, at a distance from lakes or 
 rivers, than in valleys that are kept 
 moist. Whatever intercepts the 
 clearness of the sky diminishes or ar- 
 rests frosts ; thus, clouds, a large 
 quantity of vapour in the air, smoke, 
 or matting, straw, glass, boards, &c. 
 Hence, gardeners cover tender plants 
 with leaves, straw, pine brushwood, 
 or protect them with mats or glass ; 
 in such cases, the radiation is from 
 the mats, &c., and not from the 
 plants. Watering plants abundantly 
 at nightfall, when the evening ap- 
 pears clear and frost may be appre- 
 hended, is often efficacious ; water- 
 ing before sunrise, after a slight frost, 
 is also valuable, for the vapour of 
 water, in both cases, acts as a cover- 
 ing to the vegetation ; in the even- 
 ing it diminishes radiation ; in the 
 morning it gently warms and thaws 
 the leaves before the destructive ac- 
 tion of the sun can take place. Trees 
 are often preserved by twining a 
 quantity of rope among their branch- 
 es and allowing the ends to dip in wa- 
 ter. On a larger scale, the Indians 
 of Cusco used to burn large quanti- 
 ties of moist straw and leaves at sun- 
 set when a frost was apprehended, 
 and thus, by obscuring the sky, hin- 
 der radiation. During the winter a 
 coating of snow is a remarkable pro- 
 tection to a crop, maintaining it at a 
 regular temperature, while the ex- 
 posed surface would have been much 
 injured by severe frosts. A bed of 
 snow, eight inches thick, frequently 
 measures 10° Fahrenheit at the sur- 
 face and 32° Fahrenheit at the earth, 
 and, being a very bad conductor of 
 heat, changes its lower temperature 
 very slowly. 
 
 Flooding meadows to such a depth 
 that the earth may not be frozen is 
 310 
 
 one of the most certain and elTective 
 means of saving grass and advancing 
 it in maturity for the next spring, the 
 water being withdrawn when the 
 weather has become mild and free 
 from frost ; lands over which fogs 
 lie long are also well protected from 
 early frosts. Exposure has also much 
 influence on the early occurrence of 
 frosts ; lands which receive the 
 least sun and are exposed to chilling 
 winds being visited much sooner than 
 those looking to the south and shel- 
 tered. 
 
 The night frosts produced by radi- 
 ation are very different from the cold- 
 ness of the air in winter. The cold 
 of winter does not act precisely like 
 early frosts ; valleys are sooner affect- 
 ed than hillsides unless they contain 
 water, and this is supposed by Lind- 
 ley to be produced by the descent of 
 cold air from above into them, but 
 is also due to the lesser duration of 
 sunshine. During our winters the 
 sun usually retains much power, so 
 as to produce thawing in places where 
 his direct beams fall ; this effect ta- 
 king place suddenly, and often upoa 
 trees or vegetable structures, is very 
 injurious, so that delicate trees are 
 often destroyed in orchards facing 
 the southeast from this cause, espe- 
 cially in the spring. Sudden thawing, 
 whether taking place on a leaf, tree, 
 or root, is much more injurious than 
 freezing ; for the expansion produced 
 in the gases of the plant causes them 
 to rupture the cells and become mix- 
 ed with the fluids, thus commencmg 
 decomposition. It is a well-known 
 fact that potatoes, &c., may be kept 
 frozen for a year or more without in- 
 jury, if they be thawed gradually by 
 immersion in spring water ; but if 
 they be exposed to a hot sun, or 
 thrown into hot water, they become 
 disorganized, and rot at once. Hence 
 the policy of the gardener and or- 
 chardist is to plant orchards and ex- 
 pose early vegetables and products in 
 such a manner that changes from 
 heat to cold may be gradual, and 
 not sudden. The retardation of flow- 
 ering in a northern situation, in fruit- 
 trees, is amply compensated by the 
 
FRU 
 
 FUM 
 
 greater certainty, so that a north- 1 
 western position is now preferred for 
 an orchard. Gardens in which annu- 
 al vegetables only are raised should 
 haN-e a southeastern exposure. 
 
 The preservation of fruits, roots, &C., 
 depends more on placing them out of 
 the reach of sudden changes of tem- 
 perature than keeping them free from 
 frost ; for if kept frozen, they remain 
 sound all the winter, and are to be 
 thawed slowly, by first immersing in 
 spring water (at 40° Fahrenheit), in 
 the shade ; but in these cases the 
 freezing must have been gradual, and 
 not sudden. See Barrow. 
 
 The spewing of larids. or efHores- 
 cence of ice which occurs on stiff 
 soils during winter, is produced by 
 the thawing of an inch or two of the 
 surface during the winter, and a sud- 
 den frost subsequently : in this way 
 the water confined in the thawed part 
 being converted into ice, and expand- 
 ing, cannot find passage downward, 
 and so is thrown up, along with a 
 portion of earth, above the surface. 
 It does not occur to any extent on 
 well-drained, warm soils, and is fre- 
 quently injurious by casting out the 
 seeds of wheat and winter grains. 
 Drainage, and the use of the strong- 
 rooted wheats, with early sowing, 
 are the preventives. 
 
 The spewing and disintegrating 
 effects of frost on lands are of eminent 
 service, when they are fallow, in pul- 
 verizing the soil and preparing it for 
 the spring crop. Exposing stiff lands 
 to frost by ploughing in the fall is 
 almost an essential condition of good 
 tillage : it is also of great service in 
 destroying the roots of weeds and 
 grubs of worms. 
 
 Porous sandstone rocks are often 
 much disintegrated by the action of 
 freezing water, driven into their pores 
 by rains. 
 
 FRUCTIFICATION. The part of 
 plants destined to produce fruit or 
 sporules. 
 
 FRUIT. In botany, the ovarium 
 arrived at maturity. It is called 
 fleshy or indehisccnt when pulpy, and 
 dehiscent when dry. The divisions 
 within the fruit are termed carpels. 
 
 Commonly it means a fleshy fruit 
 only. Fruits arc rather laxative. 
 
 FRUITING. Bearing Iruit. 
 
 FRUIT LNSECTS. See the fruits, 
 as Apple. Plum, &c. 
 
 FRU.VIEXTACEOUS. Resembling 
 wheat, or made of wheat. 
 
 FRUSTRU.M. The part of a solid 
 cone left after cutting off the top. 
 
 FRUTESCENT. Woodv. 
 
 FRUTEX. A shrub, a small tree, 
 the branches of which start from the 
 soil without any regular trunk. 
 
 FUCUS. A genus of sea-weeds. 
 Fucnid, like a sea-weed. 
 
 FUEL. Substances used to obtain 
 heat are called fuel. The heat pro- 
 duced by burning a given weight of 
 fuel increases with the dryness, so- 
 lidity, and amount of carbon. The 
 immediate effect depends upon the 
 rapidity of burning, which is hastened 
 by a rapid draught of air, long chim- 
 ney, and other means. One pound 
 of bituminous coal will raise 60 lbs. 
 of water from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit. 
 The proportionate values of other 
 kinds of fuel, measured by the same 
 effect, are : 
 
 Dry wood .... 35 pounds of water. 
 
 Common wood . . 26 " " 
 
 Charcoal .... 73 " " 
 
 Pit coal .... 60 " " 
 
 Coke 65 " " 
 
 Peat 30 " " 
 
 Oil, tallow . . . 78 . " " 
 
 Coal gas .... 76 " " 
 
 F U L C R U M. The point about 
 which a lever moves. A prop. 
 
 FULGORA. A genus of insects, 
 the fore part of the head of which is 
 produced into a large hollow recep- 
 tacle. Some are supposed to emit a 
 brilliant light. 
 
 FULGURATION. In chemistry, 
 the sudden brilliancy emitted by gold 
 and silver as it cools from fusion be- 
 fore the blowpipe. 
 
 FULIGINOUS (from fuligo, soot). 
 Sooty, of the colour or appearance 
 of soot. 
 
 FULLERS' EARTH. A clayey 
 mineral, readily miscible with water, 
 used for fulling or cleaning cloth of 
 grease. 
 
 FULLERS' TEASEL. See Teasel. 
 
 FU.MIGATION. The exposure of 
 substances, or the air of a room, to 
 311 
 
FUN 
 
 FUS 
 
 certain vapours, to counteract a dis- 
 ease or to piiriiy. AVaiiii vinegar is 
 commonly employed ; tliorongli ven- 
 tilation is also necessary. Tlie chlo- 
 rine given otr from chloride of lime, 
 or generated by adding muriatic acid 
 to black oxide of manganese, is the 
 best fumigating substance. It has 
 the i)o\ver of neutralizing the most 
 disagreeable odours, but is injurious 
 to health, and must only be used in 
 vacant apartments. 
 
 FU.MITORY. Fumaria officinalis. 
 Cultivated chiefly as a flower : cattle 
 will eat the herbage. 
 
 FUNDI, FUNDUNGI. Paspalum 
 exile. Hungary rice. A gramine- 
 ous annual plant growing 18 inches 
 high, and producing an abundance of 
 minute seeds, which are used in Af- 
 rica as rice. It is sown on dry natu- 
 ral soils in May, and reaped in Septem- 
 ber, the seeds being readily thrashed 
 out. 
 
 FUNGI. The race of mushrooms, 
 toad-stools, blight, rust, &c. They 
 consist of cells only, and produce 
 spores, or seeds, without flowers. 
 Fungi grow, for the most part, on 
 dead or living vegetable matters. 
 Those fungi are poissonous that have 
 a disagreeable narcotic smell. The 
 most important will be found in this 
 book. The word fungoid, like a mush- 
 room, is a derivative. 
 
 FUNGICOLA. A genus of cole- 
 opterous insects dwelling in mush- 
 rooms. 
 
 F U N G I N. The white, tasteless 
 solid remaining after mushrooms 
 have been fully digested in alcohol 
 and in water. It is an azotized mat- 
 ter nearly resembling fibrin, and very 
 nutritious. 
 
 FUNGUS. A mushroom. In far- 
 riery, proud flesh, a fleshy excres- 
 cence growing out of a sore, or about 
 the edges of an ulcer. It should be 
 reduced by the use of caustic. Lu- 
 nar caustic or red precipitate is the 
 best application. 
 
 FUNICULUS. In anatomy, the 
 cord which attaches the foetus to the 
 after-birth, or placenta, also called the 
 umbilical cord. The thread by which 
 tlie seed is fastened to the carpel. 
 312 
 
 FUNNEL. A trumpet-shaped ves- 
 sel open at both ends, used to trans- 
 ler fluids, and especially in chemis- 
 try, to lay filters upon. 
 
 FUNNEL-SHAPED. Infundibuli 
 form, a term descriptive of the figure 
 of some flowers. 
 
 FUR. The skins of animals well 
 covered with hair. The unprepared 
 dry skins are called peltries. 
 
 FURFUR ACEOUS (from furfur, 
 hraji). Resembling bran. 
 
 FURLONG. The eighth of a mile : 
 40 poles. 
 
 FURNACE. In chemistry, a 
 small, moveable vessel of plumbago 
 or fire clay, in which charcoal may 
 be burned for the purpose of distilla- 
 tions, heating lubes, &c. It is usu- 
 ally provided with several parts for 
 the convenience of carrying on the 
 several processes and obtaining a 
 high heat. 
 
 FURRIERS' WASTE. The clip- 
 pings of skins : as a manure it is sim- 
 ilar to old rags. 
 
 FURUNCULUS. A boil. 
 
 FURROW. The movement of the 
 earth produced by the action of a 
 plough : furrow slice is the slip of 
 eartli turned over. 
 
 FURROW, \^'ATER. The fur- 
 row made in ploughed lands to let off 
 surface water. 
 
 F U R Z E. Shrubs of the genus 
 Ulex, the most common of which, V. 
 Europeus, is also called gorse and 
 whin. It is a hardy, leguminous ev- 
 ergreen, growing abundantly on poor 
 lands, and made use offer hedging and 
 coarse fodder in Europe. It grows 
 rapidly, so that it can be cut every 
 four years for fuel, and is so far nu- 
 tritious that horses are often main- 
 tained on furze only ; but, considering 
 the abundance of excellent fodder 
 plants we possess, the introduction 
 of furze is scarcely worthy of thought. 
 As a fencing material, it is objection- 
 able, from the room it requires, but 
 the prickles with which it is covered 
 make it a sure defence. 
 
 FUSIFORM. Spindle-shaped, ta- 
 pering to each end ; a descriptive 
 term in botany. 
 
 FUSION. Melting. In fusion, a 
 
GAL 
 
 great amount of heat becomes latent. 
 The point of fusion difiers extremely 
 in metals, from six hundred to several 
 thousand degrees of Fahrenheit. 
 
 FUSTET. The wood of the Rhus 
 colinus. Young fustic. 
 
 FUSTIC. The wood of the Morus 
 tinctoria, a species of mulberry. It i 
 yields a dingy, yellow orange dye to 
 water ; it imparts permanent colours I 
 to wool when mordanted with alum 
 or a solution of tin. It mixes well 
 with indigo and Saxon blue, forming 
 a green. With copperas it forms ol- 
 ives and browns. Five to six parts 
 of the old wood give a lemon colour 
 to 16 of cloth. The colour is less 
 altered by acids than other yellows, 
 but it is inferior in brightness to weld. 
 The fustic-tree grows naturally in 
 the West Indies and America. 
 
 FUSTIC, YOUNG. A name for 
 the Rhus cotuius, or Italian sumac, 
 which yields a greenish-yellow dye, 
 used in mixtures. 
 
 G. 
 
 GABLE. The triangular piece of 
 wall at the ends of a house, immedi- 
 ately under the roof 
 
 GADFLY, BREEZE. Dipterous 
 insects of the genus JEstrus. These 
 insects nearly resemble the botflies ; 
 they deposite their eggs under the 
 skin of animals, w4iich they pierce, 
 giving considerable pain. The yel- 
 low-eyed forest flies that infest hor- 
 ses in July are of the genus Cnjsops. 
 
 GAGE, GAUGE. In physics, an 
 instrument to measure any result, as 
 wnid-gacre, rain-sas^- 
 
 GALACTOPOIETIC (from yala, 
 milk, and tzouu, I make). Substan- 
 ces which increase the flow of milk. 
 The affixes gala and galacto indicate 
 milk or milky ; as galactmneler. See 
 Lactometer. 
 
 GALANGAL. Ktempfcria galan- 
 ga. A root formerly used in medi- 
 cine, and imported from China. 
 
 G A L B A N U .M. Galbanum offici- 
 nale. An umbelliferous herb of Af- 
 rica. A fetid gum resin exudes spon- 
 taneously from it of antispasmodic 
 propeitif s. 
 
 GALBULA A genus of climbing 
 D D 
 
 GAL 
 
 birds like the kingfishers ; they live 
 in wet forests, and are insectivorous. 
 
 GALBILUS. A fruit of a round- 
 ed form, but with an internal conical 
 arrangement of the carpels ; as that 
 of the savine, junipers, and yew. 
 
 GALEATE. Helmet-shaped. In 
 botany the term is applied to the up- 
 per arched lip of personate flowers. 
 
 GALENA. Sulphuretoflead. An 
 abundant ore of a bright metallic col- 
 our and cubical form. 
 
 GALERUCA. A genus of coleop- 
 terous insects, the type of the Gale- 
 rucnlce, including the Haltica. They 
 are vegetable feeders in the perfect 
 and larva state. The yellow-striped 
 squash beetle (G. vitata) is of this 
 genus. 
 
 GALIUM. A genus of plants, of 
 which cleavers {G. aparine) is a spe- 
 cies. G. verum is used as rennet to 
 curdle milk in cheese-making. The 
 family of plants of which it is the 
 type {Galiacece) includes madder and 
 spurry. The whole family is nutri- 
 tious. 
 
 j GALL. Bile. Ox gall is of great 
 I service for removing oil spots from 
 cloth and carpets, and for fastening 
 ' and brightening colours. The gall- 
 1 bladder is the small sack situated un- 
 : der the liver, and contains gall. It 
 ' communicates with the small intes- 
 I tines by the biliary duct. Gall stones 
 are concretions formed in this blad- 
 I der, which consist, for the most part, 
 i of hardened bile or of cholesterine. 
 i GALLIC ACID. A crystalline, in- 
 odorous substance, slightly soluble 
 : and styptic. It precipitates per salts 
 ' of iron of a black colour. It is form- 
 ; ed by exposing a solution of tannic 
 acid to air, bv which oxygen is ab- 
 sorbed : formula C; K3 Og. Gallic 
 acid IS of little importance, and sel- 
 dom occurs naturally in plants. 
 
 GALLED. Naked, bare. Exco- 
 riations on the skin of animals are 
 often called galls and galled spots. 
 
 GALL-NUTS. Excrescences pro- 
 duced on the leaves and leaf stalks 
 of the Querciis infectoria by an insect 
 (cynips). They are best from the 
 Levant, of a dark colour, heavy, and 
 of the size of a bullet ; but other galls, 
 313 
 
GAL 
 
 GAM 
 
 with a prickly surface, are formed on 
 the Q. cents, &.c. 
 
 Gall-nuts contain tannic acid, yel- 
 low colouring matter, and gallic acid. 
 The decoction produces a variety of 
 coloured precipitates, with reagents ; 
 with solution of tin, a yellow ; alum, 
 a yellow gray ; acetate of copper, a 
 chocolate ; red sulphate of iron, a 
 blue black. They are used in making 
 ink and dyeing. See Tamun. 
 
 GALLINACEOUS. Birds resem- 
 bling the domestic cock ; as turkeys, 
 pheasants, pigeons. 
 
 GALLON. The imperial measure 
 contains 277-274 inches, or 10 pounds 
 of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit. 
 It is equal to four quarts, or eight 
 pints. The old wine gallon contained 
 231 cubic inches ; the beer gallon, 282 
 cubic inches. Each of these stand- 
 ards is used in different states. The 
 half peck is a gallon in dry measure. 
 
 GALLOWAY. A pony of 13 to 14 
 hands. Originally, a small breed of 
 horses. A variety of Scotch cattle. 
 
 GALLOWS OF A PLOUGH. A 
 part of the plough head. 
 
 GALLS. In farriery, wounds pro- 
 duced by the friction of harness. The 
 little tumours formed under saddles 
 are called warbles. Washing the 
 galled places with a solution of sugar 
 of lead, or keeping them clean with a 
 plaster ofcommon ointment, or dress- 
 ing with Turner's cerate, and allow- 
 ing no farther pressure on the part 
 until it is healed, are the proper rem- 
 edies. Wir.dgalls are little tumours 
 about the heels of horses over-driven. 
 
 GALVANISM. That form of elec- 
 tricity produced by the chemical ac- 
 tion of one body on another. A sim- 
 ple galvanic circle or arrangement 
 consists of a metal subject to the ac- 
 tion of the fluid, and a second not in- 
 fluenced thereby, an exciting fluid, 
 with wires, called poles, proceedmg 
 from each metal. The most com- 
 mon materials are zinc, copper, and 
 sulphuric acid diluted with twelve 
 parts water. The acid acts on the 
 zinc only, and the electricity so pro- 
 duced is conveyed along the wires or 
 poles. No galvanism passes until the 
 pules are brought in contact ; any flu- 
 311 
 
 id or body between them, which is an 
 imperfect conductor, is heated or de- 
 composed by the current. A galvan- 
 ic pile consists of a series of the two 
 metals so arranged that the coppers 
 and zincs touch in pairs : two poles 
 at the extremities discharge the elec- 
 tricity produced by the whole appa- 
 ratus. Other metals and fluids are 
 used, as well as peculiar arrange- 
 ments contrived for the production 
 of a continuous current. For the ap- 
 plication of galvanism to agriculture, 
 see Electricity. There are two con- 
 ditions of the galvanic fluid referred 
 to by chemists, i. e., quantity and ten- 
 sion. Quantity is produced by using 
 very large surfaces of metal and 
 strong exciting fluids ; tension by 
 emi)loying numerous pairs. 
 
 GALVANOMETER. "An instru- 
 ment for ascertaining the presence 
 of a current of electricity, especially 
 galvanic or voltaic electricity, by the 
 deviation which it occasions in the 
 magnetic needle. The ^ { 
 simplest form of gal- [ 
 vanometer is a mag- 
 netic needle poised 
 upon a point, and sur- j\ 
 
 rounded by one or 
 more coils of copper wire, covered 
 with silk, the ends, a and A, being ei- 
 ther left free, or terminating in two 
 small copper cups containing mercu- 
 ry, for the convenience of communi- 
 cation with the source of electricity. 
 When this needle is placed parallel 
 to the coil, and in the magnetic me- 
 ridian (as represented in the margin), 
 it immediately deviates when the 
 electric current passes through the 
 coil; and the deviation is either to 
 the east or the west, according to the 
 direction of the current." — (Brande.) 
 
 GAMA GRASS. Tripsacum dac- 
 tyloides. A coarse, perennial, indi- 
 genous southern grass, growing to 
 four or five feet. It is very produc- 
 tive, and may be propagated by seeds 
 or roots. The cultivation is scarce- 
 ly thought advantageous. 
 
 GAMBOGE. The dry juice of the 
 Stalagmites Cambogioides and other 
 East Indian trees. This colour is a 
 gum resin ; it is poisonous, a drastic 
 
GAR 
 
 GAR 
 
 purge and emetic. Water-colour 
 painters employ it extensively. 
 
 GANGLICJN (from jayy/mv, a 
 knot). A natural swelling or enlarge- 
 ment on a nerve. A painful tumour 
 formed on the sheatli of a tendon. 
 
 GANGRENE (from ypaetv, to feed 
 upon). Mortitication. An ulcer which 
 produces the death of the part ; this 
 result is usually the consequence of 
 very feeble health. Nutritious stim- 
 ulants are to be administered. 
 
 GANGRENE IN TREES. A 
 blackening of the inner bark, various- 
 ly produced, leading to the death of 
 the tree unless cut below the disease. 
 
 GANGUE. The mineral in which 
 ores are imbedded, also termed the 
 matrix. 
 
 GAPE. In ornithology, the open- 
 ing between the mandibles. 
 
 GAPES. A disease in young chick- 
 ens and turkeys attended with much 
 gaping. See Puullnj. 
 
 GARDEN. The enclosure allot- 
 ted to the cultivation of culinary 
 plants. Its great productiveness is 
 a lesson in favour of deep spade till- 
 age. Those parts devoted to annu- 
 als should have a southern exposure ; 
 but trees and perennials require a 
 sheltered or northwestern aspect. 
 Plants which flower should be plant- 
 ed far apart. The soil must be well 
 drained. Walls and trellises in gar- 
 dens are of the first importance to 
 shelter vegetables and allow choice 
 trees to be trained. 
 
 GARDEN HUSBANDRY. "This 
 is a branch of horticulture, the object 
 of which is to raise fruits, vegetables, 
 and seeds for profit on a smaller 
 extent of ground than is usually oc- 
 tnipied for the purpose of agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 " The best examples of this kind of 
 industr)' are found among the market- 
 gardeners near populous towns, par- 
 ticularly London, Paris, and Amster- 
 dam. By the application of much 
 manual labour and an abundant sup- 
 ply of manure, they accelerate the 
 growth of vegetables, and produce 
 them more abundantly than where 
 manure is not so easily obtained, or 
 
 where there i.s not so large a demand 
 for the produce. 
 
 " The gardeners near Paris, some 
 of whom have gardens within the out- 
 er walls of the city, are called Marai- 
 chcrs, from the situation of their gar- 
 dens in a low district which was for- 
 merly a marsh (marais). The indus- 
 try of this laborious class is prover- 
 bial. Their whole life is devoted to 
 their gardens. They work the whole 
 day in the greatest heat of the sun, 
 and long before the rest of the inhab- 
 itants awake they are on the way to 
 the market with their produce. The 
 soil in which they raise their vegeta- 
 bles is naturally a poor sand, but by 
 315 
 
GARDEN lir.sBANDKV 
 
 constant manuring it has been con- 
 verted into a very ric'li mould, abound- 
 ing in humus. From its porous nature 
 and the frequent recurrence of dry 
 summers, it would jjroduce little with- 
 out constant and abundant watering. 
 The raising of water from numerous 
 wells dispersed through the grounds, 
 and conveying it to the growing plants, 
 is the most laborious part of the 
 work : during the whole summer this 
 labour is incessant. There are large 
 stone cisterns in whicii the water is 
 allowed to remain, that it may ac- 
 quire the temperature of the air ; and 
 from these it is carried by pipes into 
 various channels which intersect the 
 garden in every direction. These 
 gardeners divide the season into 
 three periods. The first begins in 
 October, when they sow lettuces in 
 a hot-bed, which are pricked out a 
 month after, and planted finally in a 
 sheltered border about the end of 
 January, the ground having been 
 well dug and abundantly manured 
 with very rotten dung taken from the 
 hot-beds. At the same time, they sow 
 radishes and leeks among the lettuces. 
 The radishes are sold by the end of 
 March, the lettuces in May, and the 
 leeks in June. This completes the 
 first season. The ground is now 
 dug again, and manured with fresh 
 long stable-dung, mixed with the 
 earth of which the hot-beds were 
 formed ; in this they plant alternate 
 rows of endive or scarolles (both va- 
 rieties of chicory), and of cucumbers, 
 which produce gherkins for pickling 
 and sauces. The endive is sold in 
 July, and the small cucumbers con- 
 tinue to be gathered till September. 
 In the third season, which is the 
 shortest, another digging and dung- 
 ing is given, after which they sow- 
 radishes and small winter-salad, of 
 which the French have a great vari- 
 ety. Winter endive is also planted 
 for blanching. From this statement 
 it appears that the ground produces 
 a constant succession of culinary 
 vegetables, and that it is manured 
 thrice in the year. The great object 
 is to have a rapid succession, and to 
 allow no plant to occupy the ground 
 316 
 
 long. Cabbages, cauliflowers, aspar- 
 agus, artichokes, and other vrgcta- 
 blcs which remain a long time on the 
 ground, are cultivated at a greater 
 distance from Paris, where the land 
 lets at a lower rate. These plants 
 will bear to be carried to a greater 
 distance than the delicate vegetables 
 which are used chiefly in a raw state 
 as salads. The only perennial plant 
 in the gardens of the Maraichers is 
 sorrel, of which there is a great con- 
 sumption. This is continually dung- 
 ed and watered to accelerate its 
 growth, and is cut many times in the 
 season. It must, however, be allowed 
 that this forcing with manure and 
 water, although it produces large and 
 delicate fibres, does not give the fla- 
 vour which belongs to vegetables 
 grown in common earth, and which 
 have had a more natural growth. 
 
 "The market-gardens near London 
 are on a larger scale, and if they pro- 
 duce fewer salads and pot-herbs, they 
 produce better and more substantial 
 vegetables, and likewise a consider- 
 able quantity of fruit. 
 
 " The best soil is a moist alluvial 
 loam deposited from repeated over- 
 flowings of the Thames, which are 
 now prevented by banks or dikes ; 
 but an increased demand for vegeta- 
 bles has caused much inferior soils 
 to be cultivated as gardens, and in- 
 creased labour and manure have sup- 
 plied the deficiency in natural fertil- 
 ity. The gardeners' year properly 
 begins in autumn, when the land is 
 dug, or, rather, trenched, and well 
 manured. Various vegetables which 
 will be required in winter are now 
 sown, and especially those which are 
 to produce plants to be set out in 
 spring ; spinach, onions, radishes, and 
 winter salads are sown, and when the 
 weather is severe, are protected by 
 a slight covering of straw or mats. 
 In February, the cauliflowers which 
 have been raised in frames or under 
 hand-glasses are planted out. The 
 cabbage plants are pricked out. The 
 radishes, onions, and salads go to 
 market as soon as they are of suffi- 
 cient size, and sugar-loaf cabbages 
 succeed them. As the cauliflowers 
 
GARDEN HUSBANDRY. 
 
 are taken ofT, they are succeeded by ! 
 endive and celery, and the same is 
 the case with the cabbages. Thus 
 there is a constant succession of ve- 
 getables, without one moment's res- 
 pite to tlie jiround, whicli, in conse- 
 quence of continual stirring and ma- 
 nuring, maintains its productive pow- 
 er. Deep trenching in some degree 
 prevents that peculiar deterioration of 
 the soil which would be the conse- 
 quence of the frequent repetition of 
 sunilar plants. This effect is most 
 perceptible when the plants perfect 
 their seed, which is seldom or never 
 allowed to take place in market gar- 
 dens ; but great attention is paid to 
 the species of plants which succeed 
 each other on the same spot. The 
 pruiciple which experience and the- 
 ory unite in establishing, is that of 
 avoiding the too frequent recurrence 
 of plants which belong to the same 
 natural families. The greater vari- 
 ety cultivated in gardens, in compar- 
 ison with the common produce on a 
 farm, enables this principle to be fully 
 acted upon. Those gardeners who 
 overlook this, and repeatedly sow or 
 plant the same kind of vegetables in 
 the same spots, are soon aware of 
 their error by the diminution of the 
 produce, both in quantity and quality, 
 and by various diseases which attack 
 the plants, however abundant may be 
 the food supplied to them or careful 
 the tillage. 
 
 " The principle on which the gar- 
 dens are cultivated is that of forcing 
 vegetation by means of an abundant 
 supply of dung, constant tillage, and 
 occasional watering. The whole sur- 
 face is converted into a species of 
 liot-bed, and crop succeeds crop with 
 a rapidity which is truly astonishing. 
 Those vegetables which arrive at a 
 marketable state in the least time are 
 always the most profitable, and those 
 also for which there is a constant de- 
 mand at all times of the year. Witli 
 an abundant supply of manure, the 
 market gardeners have no fear of ex- 
 hausting the soil, and dissimilar ve- 
 getables may grow together on the 
 same ground. Trees bearing fruit 
 may be planted in rows, especially 
 Dd2 
 
 those of the dwarf kind, and undei 
 them those vegetables which do not 
 require much sun may be raised to 
 advantage. Raspberries, gooseber- 
 ries, and currants are planted in the 
 rows between the trees. These rows 
 being thirty or forty feet apart, leave 
 ample room for vegetables ; but in 
 those gardens where the finest vege- 
 tables are raised, and particularly in 
 those which are appropriated to the 
 growth of seeds, no trees are permit- 
 ted to shade the ground ; even the 
 hedges, if there are any, are kept low 
 and clipped, that they may not give 
 any shade, or harbour small birds. 
 
 " A garden should always be laid 
 out in a regular form, with narrow par- 
 allel beds, and paths between them. 
 One or more roads, of sufficient width 
 to allow a cart to pass, should inter- 
 sect these beds at right angles, for 
 the convenience of bringing manure 
 and taking off the produce. The beds 
 should not be above six feet wide, so 
 that a person may easily pull up 
 weeds or gather the vegetables with- 
 out treading upon the beds. The sur- 
 face soil taken from the paths serves 
 to raise the beds, and in retentive 
 soils may carry off the superfluous 
 water after sudden and violent rains. 
 The whole ground should have been 
 trenched two spits deep or more ; and 
 this trenching should be frequently 
 repeated, to mix the upper with the 
 under part of the soil, and distribute 
 the decomposed dung throughout the 
 whole depth. Thus in time a rich 
 j black mould will be produced, in which 
 I every kind of vegetable will grow 
 I most rapidly. For early plants, and 
 those which are used in winter, and 
 require to be protected from frost, 
 narrow beds are made lying in a di- 
 rection east and west, and sloping to- 
 wards the south, wiln the north side 
 raised high, so that their surface 
 forms an angle of twenty or thirty de- 
 grees with the horizon. This gives 
 the plants a protection from the north 
 winds, and exposes them more to the 
 influence of the sun. In very frosty 
 weather, these beds are covered with 
 mats or loose straw. We do not 
 mention frames covered with glass, 
 317 
 
GARDEN IIUSDANDRV, 
 
 as they belong to a liigher kind of 
 horticulture ; hut a moderate hot-bed 
 made with fresh dung, and covered 
 with mats laid over hoops, is indis- 
 pensalde for the raising of early ve- 
 getables. By these means radishes 
 and various salads may be raised very 
 early in the spring, and sometimes in 
 mild winters, without any interrup- 
 tion during the whole year. 
 
 " An abundant supply of manure is 
 indispensable in a market garden, and 
 this can generally be obtained in large 
 towns at a trifling expense. Tlie 
 neighbourhood of a town is therefore 
 a necessary circumstance towards 
 the production of the crop, as well as 
 its sale. It would be impossible to 
 make a sufEcient quantity of manure 
 by means of the horses which are em- 
 ployed to carry the produce to mar- 
 ket, and the extent of land usually 
 laid out in garden ground could not 
 raise sufficient food for cattle with- 
 out taking up a space which may be 
 more protitably employed. The only 
 animal which can be kept to advan- 
 tage by a gardener is a pig. This 
 animal will live well on the ofTal of 
 vegetables, and the gardens of cotta- 
 gers could not well be kept in a fertile 
 state if it were not for the manure 
 made by the pigs. 
 
 " The market gardeners about Am- 
 sterdam are mostly Jews, and the 
 vegetables which they bring to mar- 
 ket are similar to those of the Lon- 
 don or Paris gardeners ; but they ex- 
 cel particularly in raising cauliflow- 
 ers, large white cabbages for making 
 saur-kraut, French beans, cucumbers, 
 and melons. They also excel in the 
 forcing of early pease and beans, and 
 in the general management of hot- 
 beds. 
 
 "The profits of a garden near a 
 large city, of the extent of 10 or 12 
 acres, are as great as that of a farm 
 of ten times the extent cultivated in 
 the best manner, without the help of 
 purchased manure. But if manure 
 can be obtained at a reasonable rate, 
 as is often the case in great thorough- 
 fares, where many horses are kept 
 for public conveyances, although 
 there be no immediate demand for 
 318 
 
 vegetables, a garden may be very 
 profitably cultivated, entirely for the 
 purpose of raising seeds. The de- 
 mand for seeds of all the most com- 
 mon productions of a garden, and es- 
 pecially of flowers, is very great, and 
 the profit of those who retail them 
 in small quantities is so great that 
 they can aflbrd a liberal price to those 
 who raise them with proper care, so 
 as to keep the varieties distinct. 
 
 " Many plans have been proposed 
 for the distribution of the crops in a 
 garden ; but none of them are suited 
 to every situation. Much depends 
 on the nature of the soil, which may 
 be better suited to one kind of prod- 
 uce than another, and also to the 
 demand far any peculiar class of ve- 
 getables. New sorts may often be in- 
 troduced with advantage. The rais- 
 ing of any useful plant with great 
 care will often give a man a reputa- 
 tion, which makes it advantageous to 
 him to confine himself to these prin- 
 cipally, and raise them in the great- 
 est perfection. An ingenious man 
 will find out what is most for his own 
 advantage ; and, from the list of 
 plants which may be cultivated for 
 ornament or for use, a selection may 
 be made which may be well suited to 
 the situation of the ground and the 
 circumstances of the grower. The 
 practice of the market gardeners may 
 be examined with advantage ; and 
 long experience, with the test of prof- 
 it, will lay down better practical rules 
 than the most plausible theories." 
 
 The implements necessary for gar- 
 den tillage are displayed in Xhe figure; 
 the plough may be used to assist in 
 trenching, and improved drills for 
 sowing ; but the spade, rake, and hoe 
 are the principal tools ; indeed, labour 
 is the great essential in the garden. 
 
 " The application of the garden 
 husbandry must be in the preparation 
 of the soil by deep trenching and dig- 
 ging, carefully drilling or dibbling all 
 the seeds in rows, stirring the soil 
 between the growing plants, and 
 keeping the ground clear of weeds 
 by the hand and the hoe. These last 
 are the most essential part of the 
 cultivation. By daily attention to 
 
GAU 
 
 GAR 
 
 the progress of the plants, and con- 
 tinual assistance at critical periods, 
 sometimes thinning out, and at oth- 
 er times transplanting to produce an 
 equal crop, and treating every plant 
 as if it were a raie plant in a garden, 
 the ground may be made to produce 
 m<ne than double what the niost at- 
 tentive farmer could expect on a lar- 
 ger scale." 
 
 These short rules may be added 
 for garden cultivation : 
 
 1. Regulate the distribution of 
 your plants with respect to shade and 
 sun. Ordinary standard trees should 
 be OK the north and west sides, near 
 or against the wall or fence, so as 
 not to shade too nmch from the sun. 
 
 2. Alternate the crops, and do not 
 plant varieties together, lest the pol- 
 len should mix. 
 
 3. Plant immediately after prepa- 
 ring the soil. 
 
 4. Seeds and young plants require 
 to be kept moist, and with light soil 
 about them. 
 
 5. Stirring the earth about well- 
 set plants is one of the most certain 
 and rapid means of forwarding vege- 
 tables. 
 
 6. Trench the soil over sixteen or 
 eighteen inches deep regularly every 
 four or live years, taking a fifth part 
 annually. 
 
 The following remarks from Judge 
 Buel are concise, and well adapted to 
 farmers : 
 
 " The month of ;\Iay is an impor- 
 tant one in the operations of the gar- 
 den. If not already done, no time 
 should be lost in sowing the seeds of 
 onions, salads, early cabbage, pease, 
 radishes, and in planting some early 
 corn and potatoes. The beet, carrot, 
 parsnip, and summer squash may 
 also be sown. Cabbages for winter 
 use may be sown in time from the 
 20lh to the 30th. As soon as the 
 soil and the season are warm enough 
 to bring up corn, which here is gen- 
 erally from the 15th to the 20th, plant 
 your melons, pumpkins, and cucum- 
 bers, though it will do equally well to 
 plant the latter, for pickles, in the 
 early part of June. The 15th will or- 
 dinarily do for Lima beans, which are 
 
 the best of the bean family. Soak 
 the seed of these in warm water a 
 few hours, and cover them slightly 
 when planted. My practice is to save 
 this crop for winter use. They af- 
 ford a great product. When frost is 
 apprehended the beans are all picked, 
 the unripe ones shelled and dried ; 
 and, if soaked before cooking, are 
 nearly as good as when first gathered 
 from the vines. Perennial products 
 require very little care after they are 
 once established. We will name of 
 fruits, the strawberry, the currant, 
 gooseberry, plum, pear, quince, grape, 
 and, in situations where they will 
 thrive, the apricot and peach. But 
 of fruits we would have none but the 
 best sorts, for the best are as cheap 
 as the worst, are as easily cultivated, 
 and are infinitely more healthy and 
 grateful. These, if well selected, will 
 give a succession of fruit from June 
 to November, and in a preserved state 
 during the year. Plants to begin with 
 will cost from three to five dollars. 
 They may be multiplied by grafting, 
 budding, &c. The trees should be 
 so arranged as to shade as little as 
 possible the grounds that are to be 
 tilled. Half a dozen roots of the pie- 
 plant (rhubarb) will furnish abundant 
 materials for pies and tarts, in no 
 wise inferior to the gooseberry, from 
 April to Jul\% or until the fruit is suf- 
 ficiently advanced to supply its place. 
 These should be planted two feet 
 apart in good soil. A bed of forty by 
 three and a half feet will supply the 
 table with delicious asparagus during 
 a part of April, and the whole of May 
 and June, if kept in good order. For 
 this the ground should be dug deep 
 and made rich. 
 
 "The annual products which go to- 
 wards subsisting a family, and which 
 are seldom produced but in the gar- 
 den, are numerous, as the onion, beet, 
 carrot, parsnij), cabbage, pease, beans, 
 pot- herbs, salads, radishes, squash, 
 cucumber, melon, &c. Some of these 
 are in use most of the season, and 
 most of them afford valuable winter 
 stores." 
 
 GARDEN ENGINE. This is a 
 small forcing pump, fixed in a box, 
 319 
 
CiAR 
 
 CAS 
 
 and sustained on wheels. It is work- 
 ed by the handle, A, and cither used 
 to direct a current of water by the 
 jet, or hose, B, or to water vegeta- 
 
 bles with a rose screwed to the end 
 of the pipe, C. The box is kept full 
 of water. 
 
 GARGET. "In farriery, a disease 
 in the udders of cows, arising from 
 inflammation of the lymphatic glands. 
 It is also a distemper incident to hogs, 
 and which is known by their hanging 
 down their heads, and carrying them 
 on one side, moist eyes, staggering, 
 and loss of appetite. 
 
 In order to remove the disease in 
 cows, where the inflammation is 
 great, the cow should be bled, a dose 
 of physic administered, the udder well 
 fomented, and the milk drawn gently 
 but completely off, at least twice a 
 day." — {Youatt 071 Cattle.) 
 
 GARLIC. The genus Allium, dis- 
 tinguished by a hot, fetid smell. The 
 common cultivated kind is the A. sa- 
 tivum : it is propagated by setting the 
 parted cloves in April, about six inch- 
 es apart, clearing from weeds, and 
 tying up the leaves with bass in June ; 
 in August they are fit to be taken up. 
 Chives and rochambole are of this 
 class of plants. Garlic is an expec- 
 torant in small doses. 
 
 GARNER. A granary. 
 
 GARNET. A common mineral, 
 of a rich colour, containing silica, 42 ; 
 alumina, 20 ; hme, 34 ; iron, 4. Some 
 of the finest crystals are set as jew- 
 els. They are usually found in the 
 primitive and transition rocks. 
 320 
 
 GAS. A general name for all elas- 
 tic aeriform bodies not condensible by 
 ordinary cold. The extraordinary 
 elasticity of gases, the rapidity and 
 regularity with which they expand by 
 heat, and the manner in which they 
 diffuse into one another, are their 
 chief peculiarities. Some have been 
 condensed into fluids and solids by 
 powerful pressure ; but oxygen, nitro- 
 gen, hydrogen, and some others re- 
 sist all mechanical force. The im- 
 ponderables, heat, light, and electri- 
 city, have, how-ever, perfect control 
 over the elastic condition of gases 
 in the presence of chemical bodies 
 with which they can combine. See 
 the particular gases. Gases are read- 
 ily absorbed by porous earths and bod- 
 ies, especially by plants and charcoal. 
 
 GASHOUSE LIQUOR. The fluid 
 which distils over in making gas from 
 bituminous coal. It consists of wa- 
 ter holding in solution carbonate, 
 muriate, and sulphuret of ammonia, 
 with impurities. One hundred gal- 
 lons contain 25 pounds of these salts. 
 This amount may be applied per acre, 
 diluted with five limes its bulk of wa- 
 ter, over the growing crop. Exper- 
 iments made in England on grass- 
 lands are very favourable, it having 
 occasionally trebled the yield. The 
 value of the ammoniacal salts is in- 
 creased by adding a little sulphuric 
 acid to the liquor : the quantity should 
 not be enough to impart a sour taste. 
 The amount of ammoniacal sahs in 
 different specimens is subject to great 
 fluctuation, and depends on the vari- 
 ety of coal used. The liquor maybe 
 added to the compost heap, or, after 
 neutralizing it with sulphuric acid, 
 evaporated nearly to dryness, and 
 left to become dry by exposure to the 
 air. The liquor is very noxious to in- 
 
 GASHOUSE REFUSE. Besides 
 ammoniacal liquor, a mixture of lime 
 and water is used to purify the gas. 
 The refuse lime is strongly impregna- 
 ted with sulphur, and contains car- 
 bonate of lime also. It has been used 
 with good effects as a manure in Eng- 
 land. The dose should not exceed 
 two bushels per acre when applied to 
 
GAS 
 
 fJAT 
 
 a growing crop. Its chief value is 
 as a poison to insects, and for their 
 extermination it may be applied to a 
 short fallow at the rate of ten bush- 
 els or more. A solution would be 
 very serviceable to destroy caterpil- 
 lars in the garden. It acts on plants 
 in the same way as plaster of Paris, 
 and is best adapted to turnips, cab- 
 bages, and leguminous crops. The 
 quantities added in England are oft- 
 en as great as twelve cart-loads to 
 the acre ; but this is monstrous, and 
 the persons applying it are obliged to 
 wait some time before they plough 
 the land, lest it should destroy the 
 next crop. This refuse answers well 
 in composts. 
 
 GASOMETER. A vessel to col- 
 lect gas. 
 
 GAS TAR, or COAL TAR. This 
 is a good black paint for rough work, 
 especially if mixed with oils or grease 
 by heating ; it protects wood very ef- 
 ficiently from wet, and very nearly 
 resembles common tar. It has been 
 imperfectly used as a manure ; the 
 results are uncertain. 
 
 GASTR.EU.M (from yaarrip, the 
 belly). In zoology, the whole under 
 surface of an animal. 
 
 GASTRIC JUICE. The secretion 
 of the stomach, which, by dissolving 
 fibrin, albumen, casein, and nutri- 
 tious matters, has the power of pro- 
 ducing the chyle, which repairs the 
 waste of the body. It contains pep- 
 sin, and is sometimes acid, at others 
 alkaline. 
 
 GASTRITIS. Inflammation of the 
 internal or mucous membrane of the 
 stomach. 
 
 I GATE. The most common de- 
 fects of gates are, 
 
 " 1st. Insufficient height, so that 
 horses and large cattle, when push- 
 ing against the gate, break it, how- 
 , ever strong it is, as the top thereof 
 ' comes in contact with that part of 
 ■ the chest of a horse where the collar 
 goes, and without inconvenience he 
 leans his weight against the opposing 
 bar, which, if a few inches higher, 
 presses against his neck and wind- 
 pipe, and he makes no impressioa 
 upon it. 
 
 " 2d. They are generally hinge- 
 bound, so that, in attempting to lift 
 up the head, which is often required 
 to be done, the ledges and braces are 
 either pulled from the back head or 
 broken therein ; the person lifting the 
 head having a nine feet leverage, 
 which enables him to do this mischief. 
 
 "3d. The places of contact between 
 the brace and the uprights and the 
 ledges are broad, and it being impos- 
 sible to keep those places of contact 
 dry, the parts become prematurely 
 decayed." 
 
 The great points to be attained in 
 a gate are strength, with sufficient 
 lightness, and for these purposes no- 
 thing is better than iron. The^^re 
 represents a field and private gate of 
 a light structure and considerable 
 strength : it is of iron. 
 
 As iron is the best material for the 
 gate, so hewn stone forms the best 
 posts ; when well grouted into the soil 
 with cement, it lasts indefinitely long, 
 and is firm and unyielding. The 
 fastening is a subject for the invent- 
 ive power of the farmer, and must 
 
GEL 
 
 GEO 
 
 differ with the object in view. Tlie 
 sagging of the hciul of the gate may 
 be in part vcmedicd by making the 
 upper timber very wide near the hinge 
 and narrower to the head. 
 
 GATHERING. A common term 
 for an abscess or tumour. 
 
 GATHERING FRUIT. The pres- 
 ervation of fruits for winter use and 
 transportation obliges the orchardist 
 to take great care that in gathering 
 they are not bruised. The hand is 
 the most ready and certain means of 
 doing this ; but there are several ef- 
 fective implements. One of the sim- 
 plest consists of a disk of thin wood 
 set around with wooden teeth, about 
 four inches long, the enclosure hav- 
 ing a diameter of eight or ten inches ; 
 to this is attached a long handle 
 which fits at a considerable angle ; so 
 that, when the gatherer is used, the 
 surface of the disk is nearly horizontal. 
 The fruit is collected by reaching out 
 the handle until the disk is brought 
 under, then raising it so that the stem 
 passes between two of the teeth ; by 
 these the fruit is to be drawn off: it 
 then rests on the disk, and is brought 
 to the ground without any injury. 
 Such an implement may pull six or 
 eight apples each time before being 
 lowered, and is a very expeditious 
 means of collecting fruits. It can be 
 made on the farm in a very short 
 time. 
 
 GAVELKIND. The practice of 
 dividing real estate equally among 
 all the children of the family. 
 
 GAUGING. Ascertainingthecapa- 
 city of barrels, &c., by a gauging rod. 
 
 GAULT. Certain clays and marls 
 lying under the upper green sand in 
 England. 
 
 GEAR, GEARING. Harness, 
 tackle. The apparatus of wheels in 
 a machine. 
 
 GEHLENTTE. A mineral, con- 
 sisting of iron, silica, alumina, and 
 lime. It consists of small gray or 
 yellow crystals. 
 
 G E I N E. The same as humus, 
 geic acid, ulmin, humic acid. See 
 Humus. 
 
 GELATIN. That species of ani- 
 mal matter which forms jelly with 
 323 
 
 water when cold. Isinglass, glue, 
 and size are representatives of this 
 body in different states of purity. It 
 abounds in skin, membranes, horns, 
 and bones, but requires long boiling, 
 at a high temperature, for its extrac- 
 tion. A very dilute solution is pre- 
 cipitated by infusion of galls, the prod- 
 uct being leather. 
 
 Gelatin is not capable of itself to 
 sustain life. Its composition is C13 
 Hio Nj O5, by Mulder. When moist, 
 it runs into the putrefactive decay, 
 yielding a fetid odour, carbonic acid, 
 water, and ammonia. It is a power- 
 ful ammoniacal manure in this state, 
 and is best economized in composts. 
 Unboiled bones owe some part of 
 their effects to the decay of their gel- 
 atin, which is present to the extent 
 of thirty per cent. 
 
 GELDING. A castrated animal. 
 The act of castrating. The most 
 proper seasons are either the early 
 spring months or those of the au- 
 tumn. 
 
 GEMMA. A bud. Hence gemmip- 
 arous, bearing buds, or parts capa- 
 ble of development. 
 
 GENA. In zoology, the cheek, or 
 part of the face between the eye and 
 mouth. 
 
 GENERATION, EQUIVOCAL or 
 SPONTANEOUS. Being produced 
 without known parents. Originating 
 without apparent seed or germs. 
 
 GENESEE OIL. A petroleum 
 found floating on some of the waters 
 of \A'estern New-York, Ohio, Ken- 
 tucky, &c. 
 
 GENICULATE. Bent at a sharp 
 angle, like the flexed knee. 
 
 GENTIAN. A genus of highly or- 
 namental plants ; the roots of some 
 afford fine bitters, especially the Gen- 
 tiana lutea of Switzerland. 
 
 GENUS. Plural, Gcjiera. In nat- 
 ural history, a distinct but lesser 
 family of plants or animals which is 
 grouped under one general name, and 
 contains distinct species. 
 
 GEODES. Mineral masses having 
 a hollow centre. 
 
 GEODESY (from yjj, the earth, and 
 JfliGj, / divide). The measurement 
 of the earth's surface. 
 
GEO 
 
 GES 
 
 GEOLOGY (from 777, and >.oyoq, a 
 discourse). The science which in- 
 vestigates the present appearance of 
 the earth's surface, and the changes 
 to which it has been subjected. The 
 earth's crust is divided into four great 
 divisions: 1st. The primitive period, 
 epoch, or era, consisting of massive 
 crystalline rocks. 2d Tlie transition 
 period and era, containing paving 
 stones with few Ibssils, but stratified. 
 3d. Secondary rocks, less condensed, 
 and containing many fossils. 4th. l 
 The tertiary period, era, or epoch, 
 which consists of stratif arranged in 
 extensive basins, and contains many 
 recent fossils. Besides these, drift 
 materials, called diluvion, and the 
 deposiles of lakes and rivers, termed 
 altuvion, cover extensive tracts. The 
 causes producing change are, for the 
 most part, those now in existence, 
 as winds, the sea, rivers, vegetable 
 and animal growth, volcanoes, ice- 
 bergs, glaciers, bursting of lakes, 
 &c. See the geological terms ; also 
 Springs, Drainage. 
 
 The study of geology is interesting 
 to the farmer in furnishing him with 
 certain rules for drainage, the deter- 
 mination of springs, and of the quali- 
 ty of soils. 
 
 G E O .M E T E R S. Span \vorms. 
 Caterpillars destructive to foliage. 
 
 GEOMETRY. The science of 
 measures. 
 
 GEORGIA BARK. The bark of 
 the Pmckneya pubens, a handsome 
 tree of Florida. 
 
 " The wood of the Georgia bark is 
 soft, and unfit for use in the arts ; 
 but its inner bark is extremely bitter, 
 and appears to partake of the febri- 
 fuge virtues of the Cinchona, for the 
 inhabitants of the southern parts of 
 Georgia employ it successfully in the 
 intermitting fevers which, during the 
 latter part of summer and autumn, 
 prevail in the Southern States. A 
 handful of the bark is boiled in a quart 
 of water till the liquid is reduced one 
 half, and the infusion is administered 
 to the sick From the propr-rties of 
 "*• its bark the Pmckneya has taken the 
 name of Georgia bark. The tree 
 which produces it so nearly resem- 
 
 bles the Peruvian vegetable, that 
 some botanists have included them 
 in the same genus." — {Michaux.) 
 
 GERM. The vital part or em- 
 bryo. 
 
 GERMEX. The seed vessel, ova- 
 rium. 
 
 GERMINATION. The sprouting 
 of seed. For its production, a tem- 
 perature above 60^ Fahrenheit, ac- 
 cess of oxygen, and moisture are ne- 
 cessary ; by hindering any of these. 
 It will not take place, but the seed 
 remains unchanged or rots. In ger- 
 mination moisture is first absorbed, 
 and then oxygen : the latter, acting 
 on the substances of the seed, pro- 
 duces carbonic acid and heat ; starch 
 becomes changed into a saccharine 
 matter, and movements, resembling 
 circulation, occur. The germ, ex- 
 panding in both directions, puts out 
 a root and seed leaves. Whatever 
 hastens these changes assists germi- 
 nation ; hence steeping in warm wa- 
 ter, planting in loose soils near the 
 surface, and securing a high tempera- 
 ture, all advance sprouting. Dark- 
 ness is in some degree favourable to 
 germination. 
 
 GESTATION. The period ani- 
 mals carry young. 
 
 •' According to the observations of 
 M. Teissier, of Paris, in 582 mares, 
 which copulated but once, the short- 
 est period was 287 days, and the 
 longest, 419 ; making the extraordi- 
 nary difference of 32 days, and of 89 
 days beyond the usual term of eleven 
 months. The cow usually brings 
 forth in about nine months, and the 
 sheep in five. Swine usually farrow 
 between the 120th and 140th day, be- 
 ing liable to variations, influenced, ap- 
 parently, by their size and their par- 
 ticular breeds. In the bitch, on the 
 contrary, be she as diminutive as a 
 kitten, or as large as the boarhound, 
 pupping occurs on or about the 63d 
 day. The cat produces either on the 
 55th or 5Gth day. The true causes 
 which abridge or prolong more or 
 less the period of gestation in the fe- 
 males of quadrupeds, and of the in- 
 cubation of birds, are yet unknown 
 to US. 
 
 323 
 
GES 
 
 GTf} 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE PERIOD OF REPRODUCTION AND GESTATION IN DOMESTIC 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Kinds of Animals. 
 
 Proper Age 
 for Uepro- 
 
 Feriod of the 
 Powerof Re- 
 production. 
 
 Numlier of 
 Females for 
 one Male. 
 
 I'eriod of Gestation 
 
 Mare 
 
 Stallion 
 
 Cow 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Tup. 
 
 Sow. 
 
 Boar 
 
 She Goaf 
 
 ile Goat 
 
 She Ass 
 
 He Ass 
 
 She Buffa; 
 
 Bitch 
 
 Dog. 
 
 She Cat 
 
 He Cat 
 
 Doe Rabb 
 
 Buck Rabbi 
 
 Cock 
 
 Turkey, sitting' \ Hen 
 on the eggs of > Duck 
 the ) Turkey 
 
 Hen, sitting on the ( Duck 
 eggs of the J Hen 
 
 Duck . . . . 
 
 Goose . . . . 
 
 Pigeon . . . . 
 
 10 to 12 
 12 to 15 
 10 to 14 
 8 to 10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 10 to 12 
 12 to 15 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 8 to 9 
 5 to 6 
 
 9 to 10 
 5 to 6 
 5 tof) 
 5 to 6 
 
 20 to 30 
 30 to 40 
 40 to 50 
 6 to 10 
 20 to 40 
 
 30 
 12 to 15 
 
 Days. 
 
 322 
 
 240 
 
 146 
 
 109 
 
 150 
 
 365 
 
 281 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 24 
 24 
 26 
 19 
 28 
 27 
 16 
 
 Davs. 
 347 
 
 283 
 154 
 115 
 156 
 
 380 
 
 308 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 27 
 26 
 30 
 21 
 30 
 30 
 18 
 
 Days. 
 419 
 
 321 
 
 161 
 
 143 
 
 163 
 
 391 
 
 335 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 30 
 30 
 34 
 24 
 32 
 33 
 20 
 
 "From some carefully collected and 
 very extensive notes made by Lord 
 Spencer on the periods of gestation 
 of 764 cows, it resulted that the 
 shortest period of gestation when a 
 live calf was produced was 220 days, 
 and the longest 313 days; but he 
 was not able to rear any calf pro- 
 duced at an earlier period than 242 
 
 days. From the result of his ex- 
 periments, it appears that 314 cows 
 calved before the 284th day, and 310 
 calved after the 285th, so that the 
 probable period of gestation ought to 
 be considered 284 or 285 days. The 
 experiments of M. Teissier on the 
 gestation of cows are recorded to 
 have given the following results : 
 
 21 calved between the 240th and 270th day, the mean time being 
 544 — — 270th and 299th — — 
 
 10 — — 299th and 321st — — 
 
 259J 
 282 
 303 
 
 " In most cases, therefore, between 
 nine and ten months may be assumed 
 as the usual period ; though, with a 
 bull calf, the cow has been generally 
 observed to go about 41 weeks, and 
 a few days less with a female. Any 
 calf produced at an earlier period 
 than 260 days must be considered 
 decidedly premature, and any period 
 of gestation exceeding 300 days must 
 also be considered irregular ; but in 
 this latter case the health of the 
 produce is not affected. I will con- 
 clude this article with the remarks 
 of Mr. C. Hilliard, of Northampton, 
 who states that the period of gesta- 
 324 
 
 tion of a cow is 284 days, or, as it is 
 said, nine calendar months and nine 
 days ; the ewe 20 w-eeks ; the sow 
 16 weeks ; the mare 1 1 months. The 
 well-bred cattle of the present time 
 appear to me to bring forth twins 
 more frequently than the cattle did 
 50 years ago. The males of all ani- 
 mals, hares, excepted, are larger than 
 the females. Castrated male cattle 
 become larger beasts than entire 
 males." — {Blaine's Encyc.) 
 
 GIBBOSE. Irregular, humped. 
 
 GIBBOUS. Protuberant, convex. 
 
 GIG. A well-known kind of light 
 carriage drawn by one horse. Gigs, 
 
CJIN 
 
 GIZ 
 
 or gig machines, are rotatory cylin- 
 ders, covered with wire teeth, for 
 teasehng woollen cloth. 
 
 GIL I.. A quarter of a pint. A 
 small valley or brook. 
 
 GILLENIA. One of the species 
 (G. trifoliaia) produces a root which 
 is nearly as valuable as ipecacuanha 
 as an emetic. It is indigenous in the 
 woods of the Middle States. 
 
 GILLS. These organs in fishes 
 answer the purpose of lungs. The 
 plaits under mushrooms of the genus 
 Agarxcits are called gills. 
 
 "G I N. Distilled spirit, flavoured 
 with juniper berries. In machinery, 
 an arrangement for tearing green 
 seed cotton wool from the seeds. It 
 consists of a cylinder closely set with 
 saws, which pass through a grating 
 in an inclined side-hopper, and thus 
 drag off portions of wool, which are 
 conveyed half round the cylinder, 
 and then cleared off by a revolving 
 brush, while the freed seeds slide 
 through to the bottom of the hopper 
 and escape. See Cotton. 
 
 It is also a machine used for rai- 
 sing great weights, driving piles, &c. 
 It usually consists of three long legs 
 or spars, which support a pulley at 
 the top, round which a rope is passed 
 for elevating the weight. 
 
 GINGER. Zingiber officinale. 
 This plant is of the family Scilamina:, 
 a native of Hindostan, but also culti- 
 vated in the West Indies. The root 
 is a rhizome, similar to that of the 
 Jlag ; it is perennial, but the leaves 
 are annual. The root in the West 
 Indies is taken up when a year old, 
 immersed in boiling water to hinder 
 future germination, dried, and sold. 
 Sometimes it is prepared by taking 
 off the outer skin, and in this state 
 is called ichitc ginger. It might be 
 tried in our Southern States ; all that 
 is required is a well-tilled, light soil, 
 with weeding. Probably the roots 
 would not be so large as the Jamai- 
 ca, but, from the high price of ginger, 
 would probably pay well. 
 
 GINGER, WILD. A native spe- 
 cies of the genus Asarum ; it is of 
 little note. 
 
 GINGLYMUS (from yr/y/.v/io^, a 
 
 E E 
 
 hinge). The hinge joint in animals, 
 as the knee and elbow. 
 
 GINSENG. Panax quinqiicfolium 
 (see Fig.). The root is fleshy from 
 
 one to three inches long, and about 
 as thick as a finger, of a yellow col- 
 our, and somewhat resembling in fla- 
 vour liquorice. It is almost desti- 
 tute of medical virtue, but is esteem- 
 ed by the Chinese, and exported for 
 their use ; in 1841 as much as 8-137,000 
 worth was sent out of this country. 
 The plant is an herbaceous perennial, 
 growing abundantly in the hilly and 
 woody regions of the Northern, .Mid- 
 dle, and Western States, whence it 
 is collected with any cultivation. 
 
 GIRDER. In architecture, a prin- 
 cipal beam in a floor for supporting 
 the binding or other joists, whereby 
 their bearing or length is lessened. 
 Perhaps so called because the ends 
 of the joists are enclosed bv it. 
 
 GIRDLING TREES. Cutting a 
 ring out of the trunk of a tree entire- 
 ly through the new wood for the pur- 
 pose of killing it ; the girdling is most 
 effective before the sap rises. Rings 
 of bark, without touching the albur- 
 num, are occasionally taken out of 
 the branches of trees in spring to 
 produce frinting or develop the fruit ; 
 this, though frequently confounded 
 with girdling, is altogether different, 
 and docs not kill the branch, unless 
 too much bark is removed. A ring 
 half an inch wide is enough on a 
 branch two inches in diameter. The 
 sap is hindered from descending by 
 the wound. 
 
 GIZZARD. A strong, muscular 
 325 
 
GLA 
 
 GLU 
 
 stomach in birds, for the purpose of 
 grindiiiir ihoir food with pebbles. It 
 answers tire place of teeth. 
 
 GLABROUS. Smooth. 
 
 GLACIERS. Immense masses of 
 ice produced from the snow of mount- 
 ains occupying the valleys of Switzer- 
 land and countries equally elevated. 
 In geology, the study of glaciers is 
 peculiarly interesting; many are 10 
 to 15 miles long by two broad, and 
 from 300 to COO feet high. 
 
 G L A N D. In anatomy, organs 
 such as the liver, spleen, &c., which 
 consist of an immense development 
 of blood-vessels, and secrete a peculiar 
 fluid, as bile, urine, &c. They are 
 often microscopic, as the mucous 
 glands of the intestines, and Peyer's 
 glands. Sometimes they receive the 
 specific name of the secretion they 
 produce, as mucous glands, sebaceous 
 glands, lymphatic glands, &,c. 
 
 GLAND. In botany, small lumps 
 of vegetable matter near leaves, or 
 oval spots on the trunks of trees ; they 
 are unimportant except as a means 
 of recognising species. 
 
 GLAxNDERS. See Horse. 
 
 GLASS. That used for conserva- 
 tories should be of the greatest clear- 
 ness. Refuse glass, pounded fine, 
 has been used as a manure. The na- 
 ture of the substance differs with the 
 kind of glass, for flint glass is a mix- 
 ture of sand, red-lead, and 14 per 
 cent, of potash. Crown, or window 
 glass, contains soda, with sand and 
 lime. The silicate of potash or soda 
 in these cases is very insoluble, and 
 the effect produced cannot be con- 
 siderable, unless a large dose is add- 
 ed. Pounded feldspar would form as 
 good a manure. The pounded refuse 
 is also used by glass-makers, and 
 called cullct. The finest powder is 
 used in making sand paper. Glass 
 may be converted into soluble sili- 
 cate of potash by fusion with its 
 weight of potash or soda in a cruci- 
 ble. 
 
 GLASSWORT. The species of 
 Salicorma : they grow on salt plains, 
 and yield barilla by combustion. 
 
 GLAUBER'S SALT. Sulphate of 
 soda. A saline purge used lor horses 
 326 
 
 and cattle. The dose is one quarter 
 of a pound or more. 
 
 GLAUCOLITE A mineral, con- 
 taining 4^ per cent, potash, with sil- 
 ica, alumina, and 11 per cent. lime. 
 
 GLAUCOMA (from yT^avKo^, blue). 
 A disease of the eye, in which it be- 
 comes of a bluish colour. 
 
 GLAUCOPIS (from ylavKOc, and 
 uip, an eye). A genus of passerine 
 birds. Some of the species have 
 wattles at the root of the beak. 
 
 GLAUCOUS. Sea-green, like the 
 cabbage-leaf, having a light, bluish 
 tint. 
 
 GLEANING. Collecting the re- 
 fuse of the harvest. 
 
 GLEBE. A tract of land belong- 
 ing to the Church. 
 
 GLENOID (from ylrjvr], a cavity). 
 The articular cavities of bones. 
 
 GLIADINE. A name given by 
 Taddei to the portion of gluten solu- 
 ble in alcohol. Albumen. 
 
 GLIRES. The Linnean name for 
 the Rodentia, from g-/?*, a dormouse. 
 
 GLOBULAR. Spherical. Globose, 
 resembling a sphere or globe. 
 
 GLOBULINE. A rather indefinite 
 term used by botanists to describe 
 spherical particles in plants, whether 
 they be of colouring matter or starch. 
 In physiology, it is the white albu- 
 minous substance forming the interi- 
 or of the blood globules. 
 
 GLOMERATE GLAND. Any 
 gland which discharges at once into 
 a duct without having any cavity. 
 
 GLOMERULUS. A small capitu- 
 lum, usually axillary, an old name 
 for an inflorescence. When many 
 branches terminate by little flower 
 heads. 
 
 GLOSSO (from y/lorra, the tongue). 
 A prefix to muscles, nerves, &c., at- 
 tached to the tongue. 
 
 GLOTTIS. The upper opening of 
 the windpipe. It is protected with a 
 membrane called the epiglottis. 
 
 GLUCINUM. The metallic base 
 of glucina, a rare earth, existing in 
 the beryl, emerald, and euclase. 
 
 GLUCOSE. Grape sugar, starch 
 sugar, sugar of diabetes, of honey. It 
 is difficult to crystallize ; exists in 
 fruits, young stems ; is readily fer- 
 
GLY 
 
 GNE 
 
 mentable ; can be procured from 
 starch by the action of dilute sulphu- 
 ric acid and heat. It differs from cane 
 sugar in containinir more water, the 
 formula being Cu Hu On -{- 3 Aq., 
 when crystallized. 
 
 GLUE. Impure gelatin. It is ob- 
 tained from clippings of skins, hoofs, 
 &c. The refuse and spoiled glue 
 form admirable nitrogen manures, 
 yielding ammonia in decaying ; 100 
 pounds of dry glue yield 9 pounds of 
 ammonia. It has been used on tur- 
 nips, and is well suited for cabbages 
 and plants requiring much putrescent 
 manure. 
 
 GLUME. The husk or chaff of 
 wheat and grain plants. The awn 
 is called an arista. Glunwsus, fur- 
 nished with glumes. 
 
 GLUTEN. The tenacious, semi- 
 transparent residue left on the cloth 
 after washing dougii with water. It 
 is impure fibrin, and contains albu- 
 men. The amount in wheat is a test 
 of its nutritiousness. When moist, 
 gluten putrefies, and has the prop- 
 erty of acting as a yeast or ferment 
 on solutions of glucose. Most seeds 
 contain a proportion of gluten, but 
 wheat the greatest amount : nitrogen 
 manures are said to increase the pro- 
 portion. The macaroni and vermi- 
 celli of Italy are, for the most part, 
 gluten. Dry gluten keeps well. 
 
 GLUTEUS (from y/ovroc, the but- 
 tocks). The name of some of the 
 muscles of the buttocks. 
 
 GLUTINOUS. Adhesive. 
 
 GLYCERIA FLUITANS. "Water 
 fescue, an indigenous grass growing 
 on the margins of lakes and rivers, 
 resembling the water rice. The seeds 
 are eaten in Germany like millet. 
 
 GLYCERINE (from y/.vKoc, su-eet). 
 A gelatinous body of a sweet taste, 
 left in solution in soap-making. It 
 acts as a base in fats and oils, which 
 are, indeed, salts of glycerine, stear- 
 ates, oleates, or margarates of that 
 body. In soap-making the potash or 
 soda combines with the oily acid, and 
 separates the glycerine. Its compo- 
 sition is Cr, H: 65 + Aq., and it near- 
 ly reseml)les gum. Liebig consid- 
 ers it an hydraied oxyde of glijceryle, 
 
 with the latter of which the oily acids 
 are combined in fats. Mulder has 
 recently promulgated a new tlieory 
 with respect to glycerine : he suppo- 
 ses the existence of a compound rad- 
 ical iipi/le = Cs H; ; this forms a 
 protoxide (C:i H; O), called oxide of 
 lipyle, which is the base in neutral 
 fats, and that in saponification it 
 unites with water as it is liberated, 
 forming a compound of 2 atoms of li- 
 pyle with 3 of water. 
 
 Redtenbacher, on tlie other hand, 
 maintains that the base in fats is 
 Acrolein (Co H4 O.;), and that glycer- 
 ine isacrolein, with3 atoms of water. 
 This is the most satisfactory theory 
 at present, for acrolein is a known 
 body, which can be separated from 
 glycerine by heating with phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 The glycerine refuse from soap- 
 making is worthy of attention from 
 farmers ; it is at least as valuable an 
 addition to the compost heap as peat, 
 and much more destructible by fer- 
 mentation and eremacausis. 
 
 GLYCION. Glycyrrhizine. 
 
 GLYCYRRHIZA. The generic 
 name of liquorice. 
 
 GLYCYRRHIZINE. Glycion. 
 Sugar extracted from liquorice and 
 some sweet woods ; it has the pecu- 
 liarity of combining with acids and 
 bases. It is neither crystallizable 
 nor fermentable. 
 
 GLYPH. In architecture, a ver- 
 tical groove. 
 
 GNATHIDIA (from yvado^, a jaw). 
 In ornithology, the lateral parts or 
 rami of the mandible or lower jaw, 
 which are joined to the cranium be- 
 hind, and meet in front at a greater 
 or less angle. 
 
 GNATHOTHECA (from yvadoc, 
 and T^rjKii, a sheath). In ornithology, 
 the horny or cutaneous integument 
 of the beak. 
 
 GNATS. Insects of the family 
 CulicidcE. Their bites are best treat- 
 ed with lard or olive oil, mixed with 
 a little ammnnia. 
 
 GNEISS. A stratified primary 
 
 rock, composed of the same materials 
 
 as granite, but the mica is somewhat 
 
 distributed in layers, which give it a 
 
 327 
 
0X0 
 
 COM 
 
 striped aspect. The gneiss rocks 
 are remarkal)lv rich in metallic ores. 
 
 GNOMON.' The inclined rod or 
 style on a sun-dial, the shadow of 
 which marks the time. Their ele- 
 vation depends upon the latitude. 
 Gnomonks is the art of constructing 
 dials. 
 
 GOAT. Animals of the genus 
 Capra. The following is chiefly from 
 Low : 
 
 " The goat appears to form the con- 
 necting link between the sheep on the 
 one hand, and the antelope tribes on 
 the other. Being the natural inhab- 
 itant of mountainous regions, it is, 
 therefore, in wild, rocky countries 
 that the goat is chiefly reared. Goats 
 are stronger, more nimble, and less 
 timid than sheep, and are more ea- 
 sily supported than any other ani- 
 mals, for there are few herbs which 
 they do not relish ; they will browse 
 on heaths, shrubs, and plants which 
 are rejected by other animals. Goats 
 are more hardy and not liable to so 
 many diseases as sheep. The goat 
 is not well adapted to a country of 
 enclosures, because it feeds upon 
 the twigs of hedges, and escapes over 
 the barriers intended to confine it ; 
 but where there are no young trees 
 to be injured, they may browse at 
 large on the mountain brakes without 
 expense, and in winter, when housed, 
 they are easily supported on straw, 
 cabbage leaves, potato peelings, and 
 such worthless food. 
 
 " It arrives early at maturity, and 
 is very prolific, bearing two, and 
 sometimes three kids at a birth. The 
 period of gestation is five months. 
 The female bears for six or seven 
 years ; the male should not be kept 
 longer than five. In Portugal and 
 some other countries, the goat is 
 used as a beast of draught for light 
 burdens. The hair of the goat may 
 be shorn, as it is of some value, ma- 
 king good linsey. Ropes are some- 
 times made from goats" hair, and are 
 said to last much longer, when used in 
 the water, than those made of hemp. 
 Candles are manufactured from their 
 fat, which, in whiteness and quality, 
 are stated to be superior to those of 
 338 
 
 ' wax ; their horns afford excellent 
 handles for knives and forks, and the 
 skin, especially that of the kid, is in 
 , demand for gloves and other purpo- 
 ' ses. Goats' milk is sweet and nu- 
 tritive. When yielding milk the goat 
 will give, for several months, at the 
 average of two quarts per day. Mr. 
 Pringle, of Kent, in his essay ' On 
 Cottage Management' (Gard. Mag., 
 vol. v.), informs us that two milch 
 goats are equivalent to one small 
 Shetland cow. Cheese prepared from 
 goats' milk is much esteemed in 
 mountainous countries, after it has 
 been kept a proper age." 
 
 The wool of the Cashmere goat is 
 peculiarly silky, and forms an admira- 
 ble material for the manufacture of 
 shawls. 
 
 GOAT'S BEARD. The weed 
 Trapopngon pratensis. Salsify {T. 
 porrifoUus) is sometimes so called. 
 
 GOLD. Gold coin may always 
 be proved, if any counterfeit be sus- 
 pected, by its great gravity of 17157. 
 Pure gold has a specific gravity of 
 19 3 ; the reduced weight of the coin 
 is due to the alloy of copper. Its 
 combining weight is 199 2, and sym- 
 bol Au. (aunwi). Aqua regia is the 
 solvent of gold. 
 
 GOLDEN ROD. SoUdago virgau- 
 rca. A common weed, found on 
 poor, neglected fields. It is said by 
 Bechstein to furnish a valuable yel- 
 low dye. Both the flowers and leaves 
 produce a yellow decoction with 
 water. 
 
 GOLD OF PLEASURE. Came- 
 liua saliva. A cruciferous small an- 
 nual, bearing pale yellow flowers. It 
 is cultivated like flax, prefers a light 
 soil, and will yield two crops in the 
 year : the seeds yield a sweet oil. 
 This name is also improperly given 
 to the Madia, which see. The ca- 
 melina is sowed broadcast, weeded, 
 and hoed, and ripens its seeds in 
 about 90 davs. 
 
 GOLD THREAD. Coptis trifolia. 
 A small evergreen, indigenous to 
 Canada and the Eastern States. It 
 grows in dark, shady, Alpine swamps. 
 The root is tonic. 
 
 GOMPHOSIS. In anatomy, a 
 
GOO 
 
 jiinelion of bones similar to that of 
 Ihp trelh in the jaw-bone. 
 
 (JONIOMETER (from yuvia, an 
 an<rlc, and jierpov, a measure). An in- 
 strument to measure the angles of 
 crystals. 
 
 GONYS. In ornithology, the in- 
 ferior margin of the symphysis of the 
 lower jaw. 
 
 GOOSE. See Poultry. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY. Ribes grossula- 
 ria. In England the gooseberry is 
 esteemed one of their most valuable 
 fruits. In spring it furnishes the 
 earliest as well as the best fruit for 
 tarts and sauces, and can be preserv- 
 ed green as well as ripe for winter 
 use. When ripe, it makes a delicious 
 sweetmeat and wine, and is a favour- 
 ite dessert. 
 
 The following selection is recom- 
 mended : Reds— Old rough red, Mel- 
 ling's crown bob, Farmer's roaring 
 lion. Knight's Marquis of Stafford, 
 Champagne and Capper's top saw- 
 yer : one of the best of the red goose- 
 berries is the Scotch ironmonger ; it 
 is hairy and thin-skinned. Yellows 
 — Hill's golden gourd, Prophet's rock- 
 wood, Hamlet's kilton, Dixon's gold- 
 en yellow, Gordon's viper. Greens 
 — Edward's jolly tar, Massey's heart 
 of oak, Nixon's green myrtle, ear- 
 ly green hairy, Parkinson's laurel. 
 Whiles — Moore's white bear, Cole- 
 worth's white lion, Crompton's She- 
 ba queen, Saunders's Cheshire lass, 
 Wellington's glory. Woodward's 
 whitesmith. Smooth skins become 
 tough in cooking, and should not be 
 selected for that purpose. 
 
 The gooseberry can be raised from 
 cuttings, from suckers, or from seeds ; 
 the former is generally resorted to 
 as being the most expeditious ; and 
 seed is only sown to raise new va- 
 rieties. Cuttings may be planted in 
 the fall, or as early in the spring as 
 the weather will permit. 
 
 The gooseberry requires a deep, 
 moist, and rich soil ; the ground 
 around it should be kept free from 
 grass and mellow. It requires ma- 
 nure in spring. The fruit appears on 
 shoots of the last year, and sjjurs of 
 two or three years, the young shoots 
 E e2 
 
 GRA 
 
 yielding the best. Keeping the bushes 
 free of wood, open at the top, and re- 
 moving all luxuriant shoots from the 
 base, is the pruning necessary. Sum- 
 mer pruning is necessary for fine 
 fruit. 
 
 The fruit is easily kept for tarts, 
 by introducing them into bottles with 
 a little water, healing until steam is 
 produced, and then corking tightly. 
 They may be kept whole by burning 
 a few sulphur matches in a bottle-full, 
 and corking tightly. 
 
 This shrub is much infested by cat- 
 erpillars, insects, and blight ; they 
 are, however, all remedied by full ex- 
 posure to the light, sprinkling with 
 lime, or watering with a solution of 
 tobacco or whale oil soap. 
 
 GOOSEFOOT. The popular name 
 for the genus Chenopodium. They 
 flourish on rank soils and about 
 dunghills. The most important is 
 Ck. anthelminticmn, worm seed. Ma- 
 ny are eaten by animals, and C. al- 
 lium, lamb's quarter, and C. bonus 
 Henricus are used partially as spin- 
 ach. 
 
 GOOSE GRASS. Several species 
 of Galium are so called from being 
 eaten by geese. 
 
 GOSSYPIUM. The generic name 
 of the cotton plant. See Cotton. 
 
 GOULARD'S EXTRACT. A con- 
 centrated solution of sugar of lead in 
 water : it is used diluted to galls and 
 external inflammations. 
 
 GOURD. Cucurbila lagenaria. 
 Calabash. Gourds are annuals read- 
 ily cultivated, requiring a deep soil. 
 Many varieties exist, of which the 
 Patagonian, six feet long, is the most 
 singular. The pulp is very purgative 
 in most varieties. 
 
 GOVERNOR. In machinery, an 
 arrangement for regulating the speed 
 of machines. 
 
 GRACILE, GRACILIS. Slender. 
 
 GRACULA. The genus of jay 
 birds. They arc insectivorous. 
 
 GRADATORY. A term applied 
 to those animals which have legs 
 nearly of the same length, so that 
 they can walk on the four. Birds 
 which have the lower portion of their 
 legs covered with feathers. 
 
 329 
 
GUA 
 
 GHA 
 
 GRADIENTS. On railways, the 
 ascending planes. 
 
 GRADUATED. Marked into reg- 
 ular divisions ; increasing in equal 
 measures. 
 
 GRADUATOR. A vessel or con- 
 trivance for increasing the extent of 
 the surface of evaporation or oxida- 
 tion, as by passing fermenting beer 
 over chips contained in a large tub 
 through which air passes, wliereby 
 the alcohol becomes oxidized, and 
 converted into acetic acid. The pro- 
 cess is called graduation. 
 
 GRAFTING. The propagation of 
 one variety of plant on the stock or 
 root of another. The small branch 
 or scion of the improved kind usually 
 contains three buds, but sometimes 
 less ; it should be selected from a 
 healthy bearing branch, and be of the 
 last year's growth, only three or four 
 buds from the extremity. It should 
 also be rather behind the stock in 
 respect to vegetation, and for this 
 purpose may be kept in moist sand or 
 moss for a few days. When insert- 
 ed, it should be kept bound for four 
 weeks, to be well set, and afterward 
 partially loosened, until it is so firm 
 as not to be blown down by winds. 
 When the scions have taken well, 
 some of the natural buds of the stock 
 should be taken off, but in an old 
 stock it is not well to remove them 
 altogether until the next year. Ex- 
 cept when the scion is grafted on the 
 root, one or more stock buds should 
 be left until it has fairly started, and 
 can consume all the sap rising into 
 the stock. The stock influences the 
 grafted tree in no respect except 
 durability, size, and early maturity. 
 For farther particulars, see the Fmiis. 
 
 The following methods of grafting 
 are from Judge Buel and Professor 
 Lindley : "April is the general sea- 
 son for grafting, though it is some- 
 times performed in March, and some- 
 times omitted till May. The grafts 
 should, however, be cut before the 
 buds begin to swell. The scions are 
 most likely to live if inserted when 
 the sap is circulating freely, for then 
 the wounds soonest heal. 
 
 " The materials and implements 
 330 
 
 required for grafting are, 1. A sharp 
 knife to cut and pare the graft and 
 stalk ; 2. A strong knife and mallet 
 to split the larger stalks, and a small 
 hard wood wedge to put into the cleft 
 while the scion is fitted to its place ; 
 3. Strips of bass matting, or other 
 soft string, to tie around the stalk 
 and graft ; and, 4. Some good graft- 
 ing-wax or prepared clay, to cover 
 over the worked part. If clay is used, 
 it should be previously well beaten, 
 and a portion of fresh horse-dung 
 mixed with it during the operation. 
 A grafting-wax, which we have used " 
 for years with success, is made by 
 mixing and melting together four 
 parts of rosin, two parts of tallow, 
 and one part of bees' wax ; the whole 
 to be afterward incorporated and 
 worked by the hand, like shoema- 
 ker's wax. This may be applied 
 over the grafted part in a thin layer, 
 or first spread on a cloth and then 
 applied in strips of proper size. The 
 wax or clay is applied, 1. To pre- 
 vent the flowing of the sap from the 
 wounds ; 2. The too sudden drying 
 of the wood ; and, 3. The introduc- 
 tion of rain water into the wound or 
 cleft. It is evident, therefore, that 
 whatever sort of coating is adopted, 
 it should be applied without delay, 
 and so as effectually to exclude air 
 and water. 
 
 " The object to be aimed at in the 
 process of grafting, is to bring the 
 inner bark and the sap-wood of the 
 stalk and scion in nice contact, so 
 that the ascending sap of the stalk 
 will pass freely into the sap-wood of 
 the scion, and the descending sap of 
 the scion, which has been elaborated 
 and prepared in the leaves, and which 
 descends through the inner bark, to 
 pass freely into the inner bark of the 
 stalk. This elaborated sap soon hard- 
 ens into wood, and covers and heals 
 the wound. 
 
 " There are more than forty differ- 
 ent modes of grafting. We shall only 
 speak of those which are best adapted 
 to the practice of the orchard and 
 garden. 
 
 " Cleft-grafting (Fig. 1, b) is most 
 practised upon strong stalks, or ia 
 
ORAFTIXG 
 
 F,>. I. 
 
 heading down or regrafting old trees. 
 There are two methods of doing this : 
 one described in the cut, where tlie 
 stalk is first cut off obliquely, and the 
 sloped part is then cut off horizontally 
 near the middle of the slope ; a cleft 
 nearly two inches long is then made 
 with a sharp knife or chisel, in the 
 crown, downward, at right angles 
 with the sloped part, taking care not 
 to divide the pith. The cleft is kept 
 open by the knife or the small wedge ; 
 the scion has its extremity, for about 
 an inch, cut into the form of a wedge : 
 it is left about the eighth of an inch 
 thick on the bark side, and brought 
 to a fine edge on the inside. It is 
 then inserted into the opening prepa- 
 red for it ; and the knife or wedge be- 
 ing withdrawn, the stalk closes firmly 
 upon it. The other and the more 
 common mode is to saw off the stalk 
 horizontally, make the cleft through 
 its centre, and insert either one or 
 two grafts in the outer edges. In 
 both cases the stalk should be tied 
 and covered with the wax or clay. 
 
 " Whip-grafting (Fig. 1, a), or, as 
 it is sometimes called, tongue-graft- 
 ing, is mostly adopted in nurseries, 
 where the stalks are generally small. 
 It is desirable that the stalk and graft 
 should be of nearly similar size. The 
 scion and stalk are cut off obliquely, at 
 corresponding angles, as near as the 
 operator can guess ; then cut off the 
 tip of the stalk obliquely, or nearly 
 horizontally ; make now a slit nearly 
 in the centre of the sloped face of the 
 
 stalk downward, and a similar one in 
 the scion upward. The tongue or 
 wedge-like process, formipg the up- 
 per part of the sloping face of the 
 scion, is then inserted downward in 
 the cleft of the stalk ; the inner barks 
 of both being brought closely to unite 
 on one side, so as not to be displaced 
 in tying, which ought to be done im- 
 mediately, with a riband of bass or 
 other soft string, brought in a neat 
 manner several times round the stalk. 
 The next and finishing operation is to 
 cover the whole wound with the pre- 
 pared wax or clay already described. 
 The French mode of whip-grafting, 
 which is also in common use here, 
 differs froin the English, in their 
 never paring more off the stalk, how- 
 ever large, than the width of the sci- 
 on (Fig. 2, a, b, c, rl). In both, the 
 stalk is sometimes left a few inches 
 above the graft till autumn, to tie the 
 young shoot to, lest it be blown off. 
 
 "Side-grafting {Fig. 1, c) resem- 
 bles whip- grafting, except it is per- 
 formed without taking off the top of 
 the stalk. 
 
 " Shoulder or chink grafting is per- 
 formed with a shoulder, and some- 
 times also with a stay at the bottom 
 of the slope. It is chiefly used for 
 ornamental trees, where the scion 
 and stalk are of the same size {Fig. 
 l,d,e,f). 
 
 '• Crafiing in the root is sometimes 
 performed in nurseries, where stalks 
 are scarce, as described in Fig. 2, e." 
 
 " The season for performing the 
 331 
 
GKA 
 
 f;KA 
 
 operation is, for all deciduous trees 
 and shrubs, the spring, immediately 
 before the movement of the sap. 
 The spring is also the most favoura- 
 ble period for evergreens ; but the 
 sap in this class of plants being more 
 in motion during winter than that of 
 deciduous plants, grafting, if thought 
 necessary, might be performed at that 
 season. 
 
 " Grafting Timber-trees. — The oak, 
 ash, hornbeam, and hazel may be 
 grafted, but there is a little difficulty 
 in grafting some of the hard-wood 
 trees. The lucombe, and other oaks 
 of that kind, require to have the Tur- 
 key oak for a stock ; and the ever- 
 green oaks must have their own spe- 
 cies. The common ash will lake 
 with the omits, and any of the hardy 
 varieties of true ashes, such as the 
 Chinese and entire-leaved. The horn- 
 beam may be used as a stock for Car- 
 pinus oricntalis, and the cut-leaved 
 sort ; but the scions must be from 
 two years' old wood. The purple- 
 leaved hazel may be grafted on the 
 hazel stocks. 
 
 " Grafting by approaeh, or inarch- 
 ing, is a mode of grafting in which, 
 to make sure of success, the scion is 
 not separated from the parent plant 
 till it has become united with the 
 stock. Inarching is chiefly practised 
 with camellias, myrtles, jasmines, 
 walnuts, lirs, &.e., which do not tlour- 
 ish by the common mode of grafting. 
 
 " Grafting herbaceous plants differs 
 in nothing from grafting such as are 
 332 
 
 of a woody nature, excopling that 
 this operation is performed when 
 both stock and scion are in a state 
 of vigorous growth. The only useful 
 purpose to which this mode has been 
 hitherto applied is that of grafting 
 the finer kinds of dahlias on tubers 
 of the more common and vigorous 
 growing sorts. In the Paris gardens, 
 tlie tomato is sometimes grafted on 
 the potato, the cauliflower on the 
 borecole, and one gourd on another, 
 as matter of curiosity. 
 
 " Grafting the herbaceous shoots of 
 woody plants has been extensively 
 employed by French nurserymen, and 
 even in some of the forests of France. 
 The scions are formed of the points 
 of growing shoots ; and the stocks 
 are also the points of growing shoots 
 cut or broken over an inch or two 
 below the point, where the shoot is 
 as brittle as asparagus. The opera- 
 tion is performed in the cleft manner ; 
 that is, by cutting the lower end of 
 the scion in the form of a wedge, and 
 inserting it in a cleft or slit made 
 down the middle of the stock. The 
 finer kinds of azaleas, pines, and firs 
 are propagated in this way, and thou- 
 sands of Pimis larix have been so 
 grafted on Pinus syhestris in the for- 
 est of Fontainebleau. At Hopetoun 
 House, near Edinburgh, this mode of 
 grafting has been successfully prac- 
 tised with Abies Snulhiana, the stock 
 being the common spruce fir." 
 
 GRAIN. The unit of weight. See 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 GRAINS. The fruit or seeds of 
 gramineous plants, with beans, pease, 
 &,c. The weight of wheat and some 
 few other grains is established by 
 statute. Thus, in New-York a bush- 
 el weighs, 
 
 Stindarct. Common Weight. 
 
 Of wheat ... 60 — 55 to 65 
 
 Of rye .... 56 — 46 to 56 
 
 Of barley ... 48 — 44 to 56 
 
 Of oats .... 32 — 28 to 44 
 
 Of Indian corn .56 — 50 to 62 
 
 GRAINS, BREWERS' AND DIS- 
 TILLERS'. The refuse of the mash 
 tub. Brewers' grains are best, as 
 they use barley : distillers employ rye 
 or corn. It is difficult to give any 
 valuation for this kind of food ; but 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 there is no question of the nutritious- 
 ness, as large dairies, near cities, are 
 kept in full vigour and milk h\' them, 
 mixed with cut straw or hay, and pigs 
 rapidly fattened. A milch cow re- 
 quires about one bushel daily. Grains 
 rapidly heat and putrefy if exposed to 
 air and a spring or summer heat, but 
 they may be readdy preserved by the 
 followmg process described by Mr. 
 Youatt : 
 
 " The grains are laid up in pits 
 lined with brick-work, set in cement, 
 from ten to twenty feet deep, and of 
 any convenient size. They are firm- 
 ly trodden down, and covered with a 
 layer of moist earth, eight or nine 
 inches thick, to keep out the rain and 
 frost in winter, and the heat in sum- 
 mer. The grains are, if possible, 
 thrown into the pit while warm and in 
 a state of fermentation, and they soon 
 turn sour ; but they are not liked the 
 worse by cattle on that account ; and 
 the air being perfectly excluded, the 
 fermentation cannot run on to putre- 
 faction. The dairymen say that the 
 slow and slight degree of fermenta- 
 tion which goes on tends to the 
 greater development of the saccha- 
 rine and nutritive principle ; and they 
 will have as large a stock on hand as 
 they can afford, and not open the pits 
 till they are compelled. It is not un- 
 common for two years to pass before 
 a pit of grains is touched ; and it is 
 said that some have lain nine years, 
 and been perfectly good at the expi- 
 ration of that period." 
 
 Grams hare been used as manure 
 with great success. They are best 
 adapted to grass, wheat, corn, and 
 the cerealia generally : 20 bushels to 
 the acre are an abundant application. 
 Mr. Buckland, of Wales, produced 
 two and a half tons of hay off land 
 formerly yielding but half a ton, by a 
 sprinkling of grains only. This re- 
 sult is to be expected, as the husk of 
 barley, dec, contains nearly all the 
 sahne matters of the plant. 
 
 GRAIN WEEVILS. See Wkeat 
 Insects. 
 
 GRAIP. A Scotch name for the 
 various kinds of forks used in hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 ) G R A L L .■£ (from gralLr, stills). 
 I The tribe of long-legged wading birds, 
 as the cranes, flamingo. 
 I GRAMA GRASS. A grass indi- 
 I genous in the West Indies and in Mex- 
 I ico, of small size, growing on poor 
 land, and bearing a very nutritious 
 : grain, which it retains until spring. 
 It is highly recommended for culti- 
 vation in the Southern States. It 
 must not be confounded with the 
 gamma, or buffalo grass. From the 
 description given by Captain Cook, 
 United States Army, it appears to 
 be a stoloniferous grass, and peren- 
 nial. 
 
 GRAMINACE.E. Gramineous 
 plants. Grasses. Endogenous plants, 
 in which the parts of fructification 
 are essentially perfect, although they 
 are in a very unusual state in what 
 may be called their accessory organs. 
 They have neither calyx nor corolla ; 
 but, in lieu of them, imbricated scales, 
 called palea; and glumes ; the latter 
 of which give rise to the name ghi- 
 maceous, often applied to these plants. 
 Corn of all kinds, the bamboo, the 
 sugar cane, many kinds of pasture 
 plants, and reeds, belong to different 
 species of Graminacece. The flinty 
 surface of the stems or straw renders 
 many valuable for domestic use, as 
 for forming the plat from which 
 straw bonnets, &c., are manufactu- 
 red. They constitute the most val- 
 uable family of plants for the suste- 
 nance of men and animals. They are 
 developed from the frigid zone to the 
 equator, increasing in size as they 
 proceed south. 
 
 GRAMME. The unit of French 
 weights, equal to I.5-434: troy grains. 
 The following is their decimal sys- 
 tem : 
 
 Gnunmes. Troy p^iiis. 
 
 ,001 — ,01543 
 
 ,01 = 1,5434 
 
 ,1 = 1,5434 
 
 Milligramme 
 
 Centigramme 
 
 Decigramme 
 
 Gramme . . 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 Ilectograramo 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 Mvnagramme 
 
 = 1,= 15,434 
 
 = 10, = 154,34 
 = 100, = 1543,4 
 = 1000, = 15434 
 = 10000, = 154340 
 
 The gramme equals the weight of 
 
 the hundredth part of a cubic metre 
 
 of distilled water at 32= Fahrenheit. 
 
 The kilogramme is used for heavier 
 
 333 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 weights, and is equal to two pounds, 
 three ounces, and 4-438 drachms av- 
 oirdupois. 
 
 GRANARY. Aplace where wheat 
 or corn is stored ; it should be airy, 
 dry, and so situated as to be out of 
 the reach of vermin. Where the 
 weevil appears, tiie grain, before sto- 
 rage, should be kiln-dried at about 
 180° Fahrenheit. Rats and mice are 
 kept out if the granary be erected on 
 stones or piles of a conical form, and 
 inverted. In Egypt and Sicily corn 
 is stored in deep vaults or cellars 
 made of brick, or cut in the rocks, 
 and covered tightly by a rock with 
 earth piled upon it : in this case the 
 grain must be thoroughly, dried be- 
 fore storage. When the granary is 
 airy, it is advisable to stir the grain oc- 
 casionally, so as to expose it equally. 
 
 GRANGE. A farm-yard with 
 suitable offices. 
 
 GRANITE. A crystalline rock 
 composed of quartz, mica, and feld- 
 spar. The greater the proportion of 
 quartz the better the rock for build- 
 ing purposes, as the feldspar decays. 
 Some granites contain a variety of 
 feldspar which decomposes with great 
 rapidity, so that it is used for making 
 pottery. Granite is supposed by ge- 
 ologists to be of igneous origin ; it ] 
 protrudes through other formations, 
 and also occurs in veins. It is the 
 principal rock of the Primitive series, 
 and its ingredients constitute, in 
 different combinations, most other 
 rocks. The variety called blue gran- 
 ite, Massachusetts granite, or sye- 
 nite, contains hornblende in the place 
 of mica, and is a more valuable build- 
 ing material. When granite is to be 
 worked it should be kept under wa- 
 ter, as it becomes very hard in air. 
 The chemical composition of granite 
 depends upon the proportions of the 
 minerals present. The quartz is sil- 
 ica only ; the feldspar contains from 
 11 to 14 per cent, of potash; the 
 mica from seven to ten of potash. 
 See these minerals. 
 
 GRANIVOR.E. Birds, including 
 the incessores, which eat grain. 
 Granivorons is used to designate 
 grain-eating animals. 
 334 
 
 I GRANULATE (from grayia, a 
 gram). To form into grains, or be- 
 come covered with minute granules. 
 
 GRANULATION. In chemistry, 
 the reduction of metals into smaller 
 parts : it is performed by pouring 
 small portions of the molten matter 
 into water, and sometimes first pass- 
 ing it through a wire sieve. In sur- 
 gery, the production of granules of 
 flesh on the surface of wounds. 
 
 GRAPE. See Viyie. 
 
 GRAPE SUGAR. Glucose. 
 
 GRAPHOMETER (from ypa(j>u, 1 
 icritc, and fisTpov, a measure). A name 
 for the semicircle of land surveyors. 
 
 GRAPHITE. Plumbago, black- 
 lead. The coarse kinds are used in 
 making crucibles. 
 
 GRASSES. The lesser gramina- 
 ceee, which do not bear grains suffi- 
 ciently large for collection as food. 
 Clovers, lucern, and leguminous 
 plants are also improperly included 
 under grasses. 
 
 The true grasses are very numer- 
 ous, but experience has selected 
 some few as worthy of cultivation, 
 from their greater nutritiousness or 
 adaptation to the wants of the farm. 
 These are divided into temporary 
 hay grasses, intended for rotations ; 
 permanent hay grasses ; grasses af- 
 fording hay, but peculiar to certain 
 localities, and pasture grasses. 
 
 The following is chiefly from Lou- 
 don : " Though grasses abound in ev- 
 ery soil and situation, yet all the 
 species do not abound indifierently ; 
 on the contrary, no class of plants is 
 so absolute and unalterable in its 
 choice in this respect. The creep- 
 ing-rooted and stoloniferous grasses 
 will grow readily on most soils ; but 
 the fibrous-rooted species, and espe- 
 cially the more delicate upland grass- 
 es, require particular attention as to 
 the soil in which they are sown ; for 
 in many soils they will either not 
 come up at all, or die away in a few 
 years, and give way to the grasses 
 which would naturally spring up. 
 Hence, in sowing down lands for per- 
 manent pasture, it is a good method 
 to make choice of those grasses 
 which thrive best in adjoining and 
 
 i 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 similarly-circumstanced pastures for 
 a part of the seed ; and to mix with 
 these what are considered the very 
 best kinds. 
 
 " The most important feature in 
 the culture of pasture grasses is mix- 
 ture of sorts. The husbandman who 
 clothes his fields only with rye-grass 
 and clover, employs a limited ma- 
 chinery, the former being unproduc- 
 tive in summer, the latter moderate- 
 ly so in spring ; but when he, for this 
 purpose, uses a variety of plants dif- 
 fermg in their habits of growth and 
 periods of luxuriance, a numerous 
 and powerful machinery is kept suc- 
 cessively in full operation. 
 
 "The effect of a mixture of grasses 
 may be accounted for from some spe- 
 cies putting forth their foliage, and 
 reaching a maximum of produce at 
 different periods from other kinds. 
 From some being gregarious or so- 
 cial, and others solitary, and never 
 producing a close turf, by sowing 
 seeds of several species together, 
 which are dissimilar in their habits 
 of growth, and arrive at a maximum 
 of produce at different periods of sum- 
 mer and autuirin, there is secured 
 throughout the season a succession 
 of fresh herbage, rendered, by the 
 erect and creeping foliage of the dif- 
 ferent species, so dense and abun- 
 dant as greatly to surpass in quanti- 
 ty that obtained from the cultivation 
 of two or three kinds only. 
 
 "New and excellent varieties of 
 many of the grasses, especially those 
 used or fit to be used in the C(m- 
 vertible husbandry, might, no doubt, 
 be obtained by selection and cross- 
 breeding, and it is much to be wished 
 that this were attempted by cultiva- 
 tors. 
 
 " Tall or Half Grasses of temporary 
 Duration. — Tlie most valuable of this 
 division are the biennial, or, as it is 
 commonly but erroneously called, the 
 annual, perennial, and subperennial 
 rye grass (a), the cocksfoot grass (6), 
 and woolly soft grass (c). Where a 
 crop of hay is desired within the 
 year, it is necessary to resort to such 
 grasses as are annuals in the strict 
 sense of the word ; and none can be 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Most vnluiible temporary bay grasses. 
 
 better for this purpose than the com 
 mon oat. Arena sativa, cut and made 
 into hay when it comes into flower. 
 Next in order may be mentioned the 
 other cereal grasses and the annual 
 varieties of Broinus ; the latter, how- 
 ever, are very coarse grasses, though 
 prolific in culm. 
 
 " The biennial rye grass, Lolium 
 perenne var. bienne, is well known as 
 being universally sown, either with 
 or without clover, among grain crops, 
 with a view to one crop of hay in the 
 succeedingseason. It attains a great- 
 er height, and produces a longer, 
 broader spike of flowers than the per- 
 ennial rye grass, and the produce in 
 hay is considered greater than that of 
 any other annual grass equally pal- 
 atable to cattle. It prefers a rich 
 loamy soil, but will grow on any sur- 
 face whatever, not rock or undecayed 
 bog. 
 
 ■' The perennial rye grass {Lolium 
 perenne, Lin., and Loglio vivace, Ital.) 
 differs from the other in being of 
 somewhat smaller growth, and in 
 abiding for several years, according 
 to the variety and the soil and cul- 
 ture. Pacey's and Russell's varieties 
 of rye grass are most esteemed. 
 
 "Many consider this grass coarse, 
 benty, and very exhausting to the 
 soil ; but after all the experiments 
 that have been made on the other 
 grasses, none have been found to 
 equal it for a course of mowing and 
 pasturing for two, three, or seven 
 335 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 years. It is sown in Italy, and es- 
 pecially in Lombardy, and also in 
 France and Germany, along with 
 clover, for the same purposes as in 
 this country ; and, as Von Thaer has 
 remarked, though some have tried 
 other species, both in these countries 
 and in England, they have in the end 
 returned to rye grass. When intend- 
 ed as a pasture grass, if stocked hard, 
 and when for hay, if mown early, the 
 objections to it are removed. — {Code 
 of Afrriculturr.) G. Sinclair says the 
 circumstance of its producing abun- 
 dance of seed, which is easily col- 
 lected, and vegetates freely on any 
 soil, its early perfection and abundant 
 herbage the first year, which is much 
 relished by cattle, are the merits 
 which have upheld it to the present 
 day, and will probably for some time 
 to come contimie it a favourite grass 
 among farmers. But the latter-math 
 is inconsiderable ; the plant impov- 
 erishes the soil in a high degree if 
 not cut before the seed ripens. When 
 this is neglected, the field after mid- 
 summer exhibits only a brown sur- 
 face of withered straws. 
 
 " The cocksfoot grass, orchard 
 grass {Dactylis glomcrata, Linneus), 
 is an imperfect perennial, and grows 
 naturally on dry, sandy soils. This 
 grass may be known by its coarse 
 appearance, both of the leaf and spike, 
 and also by its whitish green hue. 
 
 " One writer says he has cultiva- 
 ted it largely, and i^o his satisfaction, 
 on wet loams on a clay marl bottom, 
 upon wliich the finer grasses are apt 
 to give way in a few years to the in- 
 digenous produce. If sufTered to rise 
 high, it is very coarse ; but, fed close, 
 is a very valuable sheep pasture. He 
 has sown two bushels an acre, and 
 10 lbs. common red clover ; and when 
 the clover wears out, the grass fills 
 the lands and abides well in it. It 
 grows well in winter. It has been 
 found highly useful as an early sheep 
 feed. It is early, hardy, and pro- 
 ductive, but is a coarser plant than 
 rye grass, and requires even greater 
 attention in regard to being cut soon 
 or fed close. It does best by itself, 
 and the time of its ripening being dif- 
 336 
 
 fercnt from that of clover, it does not 
 suit well to be mixed with that plant. 
 The pasturage it affords is luxuriant, 
 and particularly agreeable to sheep. 
 It is cultivated to a great extent, and 
 with astonishing success at Holkham. 
 The quantity of sheep kept upon it, 
 summer and winter, is quite surpri- 
 sing and the land becomes renova- 
 ted by lying two or three years under 
 this grass, and enriched by the ma- 
 nure derived from the sheep. A field 
 in the jjark at Woburn was laid down 
 in two equal parts, one part with rye 
 grass and while clover, and the other 
 part with cocksfoot and red clover ; 
 from the spring till midsummer the 
 sheep kept almost constantly on the 
 rye grass, but after that time they left 
 it, and adhered with equal constancy 
 to the cocksfoot during the remainder 
 of the season. In The Code of Agri- 
 culture (p. 497, 3d. edit.) it is stated, 
 that Sinclair of Woburn considers 
 ' no grass so well suited for all pur- 
 poses as cocksfoot.' 
 
 " The woolly soft grass (Holcus la- 
 natits, Linneus) is an imperfect peren- 
 nial, and rather late flowering grass, 
 of a short, unsubstantial appearance, 
 and found chiefly in poor, dry soils. 
 It is, however, a very common grass, 
 and grows on ail soils, from the rich- 
 est to the poorest. It affords abun- 
 dance of seed, which is light, and 
 easily dispersed by the wind. 
 
 " It was cultivated at Woburn on 
 a strong clayey loam, and the propor- 
 tional value which the grass at the 
 time the seed is ripe bears to the 
 grass at the time of flowering is as 
 eleven to twelve. Young observes 
 of this grass, that it flourishes well 
 on any moist soil, and should be sown 
 chiefly with a view to sheep, for it is 
 not so good for other stock ; many 
 acres of it have been cultivated on 
 his farm for sheep, and it has answer- 
 ed well when kept close fed. 
 
 " Tall or Hay Grasses of permanent 
 Duration. — No permanent grass has 
 been found equal to the rye grass for 
 the purposes of convertible husband- 
 ry, but others have been selected 
 which are considered superior for hay 
 meadows. The principal of these 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 are the fescue, foxtail, and meadow 
 grass. Agriculturists, indeed, are not 
 all agreed on the comparative merits 
 of these grasses with rye grass ; hut 
 there are none who do not consider 
 it advisable to introduce a portion of 
 each, or most of these species along 
 
 Fis- 2 
 
 with rye grass, in laymg down lands 
 to permanent pasture. 
 
 " Of the fescue grass there are 
 three species in the highest estima- 
 tion as meadow hay grasses, viz., the 
 meadow, tall, and spiked fescue (,Fig. 
 2, a, b, c). 
 
 TaJ! hay grasses of 
 
 " The F. pralcnsis (a), or the mead- 
 ow or fertile fescue grass, is found 
 indigenous in the United States, in 
 most rich meadows and pastures, and 
 is highly grateful to every description 
 of stock. It is more in demand for 
 laying down meadows than any other 
 species except the rye grass. 
 
 " The tall or infertile fescue grass 
 {Fcstucaelatior, E. B.,b)is indigenous, 
 and closely allied to the Fcstuca pra- 
 tcnsis, from which it differs in litlle 
 except that it is larger in every re- 
 spect. The produce is nearly three 
 times that of the F. pratensis, and the 
 nutritive powers of the grass are su- 
 perior, in direct proportion, as six to 
 eight. The proportional value which 
 the grass at the time the seed is ripe 
 bears to the grass at the time of flow- 
 ering is as twelve to twenty. The 
 proportional value which the grass of 
 the latter-math bears to that of the 
 crop is as sixteen to twenty, and to 
 the grass at the time the seed is ripe 
 as twelve to sixteen inverse. Curtis 
 observes that, as the seeds of this 
 plant, when cultivated, are not fertile, 
 it can only be introduced by parting 
 F f 
 
 permanent Juration. 
 
 j its roots and planting them out ; in 
 this there would, he says, be no great 
 
 difficulty, provided it were likely to 
 answer the expense, which he is 
 strongly of opinion it would in certain 
 cases ; indeed, he has often thought 
 that meadows would be best formed 
 by planting out the roots of grasses, 
 and other plants, in a regular manner ; 
 and that, however singular such a 
 practice may appear at present, it will 
 probably be adopted at some future 
 period ; this great advantage would, 
 he says, attend it, noxious weeds 
 might be more easily kept down, un- 
 til the grasses and other plants had 
 established themselves in the soil. 
 
 "The spiked fescue grass, or dar- 
 nel fescue grass {Festuca loliacca, 
 Linneus, c), resembles the rye grass 
 in appearance, and the tall fescue 
 grass in the infertility of its seeds. 
 It is considered superior to rye grass 
 either for hay or permanent pasture, 
 and improves in proportion to its age, 
 which is the reverse of what takes 
 place with the rye grass. 
 
 " The meadow foxtail gi^ass (Alope- 
 curus pratensis, d) is found indigenous 
 337 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 in most meadows ; and when the soil ' 
 is neither very moist nor very dry, ; 
 but in good heart, it is very produc- i 
 live. It also does well on water ! 
 meadows. Sheep and horses seem j 
 to have a greater relish than oxen for 
 this grass. 
 
 " In the Woburn experiments, it 
 ■was tried both on a sandy loam and a j 
 clayey loam, and the result gave near- 
 ly three fourths of produce greater 
 from a clayey loam than from a .sandy 
 soil, and the grass from the latter is 
 comparatively of less value, in pro- 
 portion as four to six. The straws 
 produced by the sandy soil are de- 
 ficient in number, and in every re- 
 spect less than those from the clayey 
 loam ; which will account for the un- 
 equal quantities of the nutritive mat- 
 ter afforded by them ; but the propor- 
 tional value in which the grass of 
 the latter-math exceeds that of the 
 crop at the time of flowering is as 
 four to three ; a difference which ap- 
 pears extraordinary, when the quan- 
 tity of flower stalks which are in the 
 grass at the time of flowering is con- 
 sidered. Next to the fescue, this 
 grass is in the greatest reputation for 
 laying down mowing grounds ; but it 
 is, unfortunately, subject to tiie rust 
 in some situations. 
 
 " Of the meadow grass there are 
 two species in esteem as hay plants, 
 the smooth-stalked and roughish. 
 
 " The great, or smooth - stalked 
 meadow grass, the spear grass of 
 some parts of the United States (Poa 
 fraiensis, e), is distinguished by its 
 height, smooth stem, and creeping 
 roots. According to Sole, it is the 
 best of all the grasses : its foliage be- 
 gins to shoot and put on fine verdure 
 early in the spring, but not so soon 
 as some other grasses. Every ani- 
 mal that eats grass is fond of it, while 
 it makes the best hay, and affords the 
 richest pasture. It abounds in the 
 best meadows, and has the valuable 
 property of abiding in the same land, 
 Willie most other grasses are contiti- 
 ually changing. According to some, 
 it delights in rather a dry than a moist 
 soil and situation, on which account 
 it keeps its verdure better than most 
 338 
 
 others in dry seasons ; but it thrives 
 most luxuriantly in rich meadows. 
 
 " By the Woburn experiments, the 
 proportional value in which the grass 
 of the latter-math exceeds that of the 
 flowering crop is as six to seven. 
 The grass of the seed crop and that 
 of the latter-math are of equal value. 
 This grass is, therefore, of least val- 
 ue at the time the seed is ripe ; a loss 
 of more than one fourth of the value 
 of the whole crop is sustained if it is 
 not cut till that period ; the straws 
 are then dry, and the root leaves in 
 a sickly, decaying state ; those of the 
 latter-math, on the contrary, are lux- 
 uriant and healthy. This species 
 sends forth flower stalks but once in a 
 season, and those being the most val- 
 uable part of the plant for the purpose 
 of hay, it will, from this circumstance, 
 and the superior value of the grass 
 of the latter-math, compared to that 
 of the seed crop, appear well adapted 
 for permanent pasture. It was of 
 this grass that the American prize 
 bonnet, in imitation of Leghorn, was 
 made by IMiss "\^'oodllouse. This 
 grass belongs to tiie same genus, and 
 nearly resembles the rich Kentucky 
 blue grass, which seems, indeed, to be 
 only a variety rather less in size. 
 
 " The roughish meadow grass {Foa 
 trimalis, L., /) delights in moist, rich, 
 and sheltered situations, when it 
 grows two feet high, and is very pro- 
 ductive. It is indigenous. The defi- 
 ciency of hay in the flowering crop, 
 in proportion to that of the seed crop, 
 is very striking. Its superior produce, 
 the highly nutritive powers which 
 the grass seems to possess, and 
 the season in which it arrives at 
 perfection, are merits which distin- 
 guish it as one of the most valuable 
 of those grasses which affect moist, 
 rich soils and sheltered situations ; 
 l)ut on dry, exposed situations it is 
 altogether inconsiderable : it yearly 
 diminishes, and ultimately dii^s off, 
 not unfrequently in the space of four 
 or five years. 
 
 " The above are six of the best 
 permanent grasses for either dry or 
 watered meadows. The seeds of the 
 meadow fescue, foxtail, and smooth 
 
GRASSES 
 
 and rougli iivcadow grasses are sown 
 in various proportions with the clo- 
 vers and rye grass. The seeds of 
 the two sorts of meadow grass are 
 apt to stick together, and require to 
 be well mixed with the others before 
 being sown. The tall and spiked fes- 
 cue grasses, having a numher of bar- 
 ren flowers, are not prolific in seeds, 
 and they are therefore seldom to be got 
 at the seed-shops. To this list may 
 be added Andes grass (^Apoia (Fcs- 
 tuca) elatior), which, on strong lands, 
 produces a good crop, and is remark- 
 ably early in the United States : it 
 may be pastured with success, and 
 should be cut before seed, as it be- 
 comes coarse. See Bermuda and 
 Grama Grass. 
 
 " As hay grasses, adapted for par- 
 ticular soils and situations, the cat's- 
 tail or Timothy, floating fescue, flo- 
 rin, and herd's grass, have been rec- 
 ommended ; but it cannot be said 
 that the opinions of cultivators are 
 u nanimous in their favour. Timothy 
 has certainly been found to answer 
 well on moist, peaty soils, and in sev- 
 eral cases florin also. 
 
 "The cafs-tail, or Timothy grass 
 (Phleum ■pratcnsc, L., Fig. 3, a,), is a 
 naturalized plant, and grows both in 
 
 Fii 
 
 dry and moist soils. On moist, rich 
 soils it is a prolific grass, but late ; on 
 dry soils it is good for little, and for 
 cultivation in any way is disapproved 
 of by Withering, Swaine, Curtis, and 
 others, as having no properties in 
 which it i-s not greatly surpassed by 
 the meadow foxtail. 
 
 The Woburn experiments, howev- 
 er, present this grass as one of the 
 most prolific for hay. The compar- 
 ative merits of this grass appear to 
 be very great ; to which may he add- 
 ed the abundance of fine foliage that 
 it produces early in the spring. In 
 this respect it is inferior to Poafer- 
 tilis and Poa angustifolia only. The 
 value of the straws at the time the 
 seed is ripe exceeds that of the grass 
 at the time of flowering in the pro- 
 portion of twenty-eight to ten, a cir- 
 cumstance which raises it above 
 many others ; for from this property 
 its valuable early foliage may be de- 
 pastured to an advanced period of 
 the season, without injury to the crop 
 of hay, treatment which, in grasses 
 that send forth their flowering straws 
 early in the season, would cause a 
 loss of nearly one half in the value 
 of the crop, as clearly proved by for- 
 mer examples ; and this property of 
 . 3. 
 
 the straws makes the plant peculiar- 
 ly desirable for hay. In moist and 
 peaty soils it has in various instances 
 been found highly productive. 
 
 Permanent li.iy grasses requiring peculiar ?oiI?. 
 
 " The floating fescue grass {Festu- 
 cafluitans, b) is found in rich marshes. 
 
 " It is greedily devoured by every 
 description of stock, not excepting 
 339 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 hogs and ducks, and geese eagerly 
 devour the seeds, which are small, 
 but very sweet and nourishing. They 
 are collected in several parts of Ger- 
 many and Poland, under the name of 
 manna-seeds (schu-aden), and are es- 
 teemed a delicacy in soups and gru- 
 els. When ground to meal, Ihey 
 make bread very little inferior to that 
 from wheat. The bran is given to 
 horses that have the worms, but they 
 must be kept from water for some 
 hours afterward. Geese and other 
 water-fowl are very fond of the seeds. 
 So also are fish ; trout, in particular, 
 thrive in those rivers where this grass 
 grows in plenty. It has been recom- 
 mended to be sowed on meadow's that 
 admit flooding ; but Curtis justly re- 
 marks that the flote fescue will not 
 flourish except in land that is con- 
 stantly under water, or converted 
 into a bog or swamp. 
 
 " The water meadow grass {Poa 
 aquatica, c) is found chiefly in marsh- 
 es in the north and in Canada, but 
 will grow on strong clays, and yield, 
 as the Woburn experiments prove, a 
 prodigious produce, flowering from 
 June to September. It is one of the 
 largest grasses, rising to five feet. 
 
 " The florin grass {Agrostis stolonifc- 
 ra, d) is a very common grass, both in 
 wet and dry, rich and poor situations. 
 It is known in the United States as 
 Agrostix drcumbcns, and is a variety 
 oi A. alba. Few plants appear to be 
 more under the influence of local cir- 
 cumstances than this grass. On dry 
 soils it is worth nothing, but on rich, 
 marl soils, and in a moist soil, if we 
 may put confidence in the accounts 
 given of its produce in Ireland, it 
 is the most valuable of all herbage 
 plants. 
 
 " It was first brouglit into notice 
 by Dr. Kichardson in 1809, and sub- 
 sequently extolled, and its culture de- 
 tailed in various pamphlets by the 
 same gentleman. It appears to be 
 exclusively adapted for moist peat 
 soils or hogs. In The Code of Agri- 
 culture it is said, ' On mere bogs, the 
 florin yields a great weight of her- 
 bage, and is, perhaps, the most use- 
 ful plant that bogs can produce." 
 340 
 
 According to Sir H. Davy, the florin 
 grass, to be in perfection, requires a 
 moist climate or a wet soil ; and it 
 grows luxuriantly in cold clays unfit- 
 ted for other grasses. In light sands, 
 and in dry situations, its produce is 
 much inferior as to quantity and qual- 
 ity. He saw four square yards of 
 florin grass cut in the end of January, 
 in a meadow, exclusively appropria- 
 ted to the cultivation of florin by the 
 Countess of Hardwicke, the soil of 
 which is a damp, stiflT clay. They af- 
 forded twenty-eight pounds of fodder, 
 of which one thousand parts aflx)rde(l 
 sixty-four parts of nutritive matter 
 consisting nearly of one sixth of su- 
 gar, and Ave sixths of mucilage, with 
 a little extractive matter. In anoth- 
 er experiment, four square yards gave 
 twenty-seven pounds of grass. Lady 
 Hardwicke has given an account of 
 a trial of this grass, Mherein twenty- 
 three milch cows, and one young 
 horse, besides a number of pigs, were 
 kept a fortnight on the produce of 
 one acre. On the Duke of Bedford's 
 farm, at Maulden, florin hay was pla- 
 ced in the racks before horses, in 
 small, distinct quantities, alternately 
 with common hay ; but no decided 
 preference for either was manifested 
 by the horses in this trial. Fiorin 
 has been tried in the highlands of 
 Scotland, and a premium awarded in 
 1821 for a field of three acres planted 
 on land previously worth very little, 
 at Appin, in Argyleshire. (Highl. Soc. 
 Trans., vol. vi,, p. 229.) Hay tea has 
 also been made from fiorin, and found 
 useful in rearing calves, being mixed 
 with oatmeal and skimmed milk. — 
 (Ibid., p. 233.) 
 
 " There are other species of Agros- 
 tis, as the A. palustris and repcns, and 
 some varieties of the A. stolomfcra, 
 that on common soils are little differ- 
 ent in their appearance and proper- 
 ties from fiorin. On one of these, 
 the narrow-leaved creeping bent {A. 
 stolonifcra var. angustifolia), the fol- 
 lowing remarks are made in the ac- 
 count of the Woburn experiments : 
 ' From a careful exammation of the 
 creeping bent with narrow leaves, it 
 will doubtless appear to possess mer- 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 its well worthy of attention, though 
 perhaps not so great as they have 
 been supposed, if the natural place of 
 its growth and habits be impartially 
 taken into the account. From the 
 couchant nature of this grass, it is 
 denominated couch grass by practi- 
 cal men, and from the length of time 
 that it retains the vital power after 
 being taken out of the soil, it is call- 
 ed squitch, quick, full of life,' &c. 
 
 '• The culture of tiorin is different 
 from that of other grasses. Though 
 the plant will ripen its seeds on a dry 
 soil, and these seeds being very small, 
 a few pounds would be sufficient for 
 an acre, yet it is generally propaga- 
 ted by stolones or root shoots. The 
 ground being well pulverized, freed 
 from weeds, and laid into such beds 
 or ridges as the cultivator may think 
 advisable, small drills an inch or two 
 deep, and six or nine inches asunder, 
 are to be drawn along its surface, 
 with a hand or horse hoe, or on soft 
 lands with the hoe-rake. In the bot- 
 tom of these drills, the florin shoots 
 (whether long or short is of no con- 
 sequence) are laid lengthways, so that 
 their ends may touch each other, and 
 then lightly covered with a rake, and 
 the surface rolled to render it fit for 
 the scythe. In six months the whole 
 surface will be covered with verdure, 
 and if the planting be performed ear- 
 ly in spring, a large crop may be had 
 in the following autumn. Any sea- 
 son will answer for planting, but one 
 likely to be followed by showers and 
 heat is to be preferred. Those who 
 wish to cultivate this grass will con- 
 sult Dr. Richardson's New Essay on 
 Fionn Grass (1813), and also The Far- 
 mers Magazine for 1810-14. Our 
 opinion," says Loudon, "is that nei- 
 ther florin, Timothy, nor floating fes- 
 cue is ever likely to be cultivated in 
 Britain ; though the latter two may 
 perhapssucceed well on the bogs and 
 moist, rich soils of Ireland, where, to 
 second the influence of the soil, there 
 is a moist, warm climate. 
 
 " The preparation of the soil, and 
 
 the sowing of the usual meadow 
 
 grasses, ditfer in nothing from those 
 
 of clover and rye grass already given. 
 
 Ff2 
 
 " Grasses chiefly adapted for Pastu- 
 rage. — In treating of pasturage grass- 
 es, we shall make a selection of such 
 as have been tried to some extent, 
 and of which the seeds are in the 
 course of commerce. On soils in 
 good condition, and naturally well 
 constituted, no better grasses can be 
 sown for pasturage than those we 
 have described as tall grasses for hay 
 meadows ; but for early and late pas- 
 turage, and secondary soils, there are 
 others much more suitable. 
 
 " The pasture grasses for early pas- 
 turage on all soils are the A7ithoxa7i- 
 thum odoratum, Holcus odoratus, Avena 
 pubcsceiis, and Poa annua. 
 
 "The pasture grasses for late herb- 
 age on all soils are chiefly the dif- 
 ferent species of Agrostis (bents) 
 and Phlcum (cat's-tail). 
 
 " The pasture grasses for poor or 
 secondary soils are the Cynosurus 
 cristatus, Festuca duriuscula and ovi- 
 na, Poa comprcssa, cristata, and angus- 
 tifolia. 
 
 " The grasses that afford most nu- 
 tritive matter in early spring are the 
 meadow foxtail grass and the vernal 
 } grass ; the former has been already 
 i mentioned as one of the best hay 
 grasses. 
 
 " The sweet-scented vernal grass 
 (Anthozanthum odoratum. Fig. 4, a) is 
 common in almost all pastures, and 
 is that which gives the fragrance to 
 natural or meadow hay. It is chiefly 
 valuable as an early grass ; for, though 
 it is eaten by stock, it does not ap- 
 pear to be much relished by them. 
 From the Woburn experiments, it ap- 
 pears that the smallness of the prod- 
 uce of this grass renders it improper 
 for the purpose of hay ; but its early 
 growth, and the superior quantity of 
 nutritive matter which the latter-math 
 affords, compared with the quantity 
 afforded by the grass at the time of 
 flowering, cause it to rank high as a 
 pasture grass on such soils as are 
 well fitted for its growth, lands that 
 are deep and moist. 
 
 " The downy oat grass (Aveva pu- 
 
 bescens, h), according to the Woburn 
 
 experiments, possesses several good 
 
 qualities, which recommend it to par- 
 
 341 
 
GRASSES. 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 E;irly pa? 
 
 ticular notice ; it is hardy, early, and 
 more productive than many others 
 which affect similar soils and situa- 
 tions. Its growth, after being crop- 
 ped, is tolerably rapid, although it 
 does not attain to a great length if 
 left growing ; like the Poa pratcrisis, 
 it sends forth flower stalks but once 
 in a season, and it appears well cal- 
 culated for permanent pasture on 
 rich, light soils. 
 
 " The annual meadow grass (Poa 
 annua, c) is the most common of all 
 grasses, and the least absolute in its 
 habits. It is almost the only grass 
 that will grow in towns. Though 
 an annual grass, it is found in most 
 meadows and pastures perpetually 
 flowering, and affording an early 
 sweet herbage, relished by all stock, 
 and of as great importance to birds 
 as wheat is to man. It hardly re- 
 quires to be sown, as it springs up 
 everywhere of itself. However, it 
 may not be amiss to sow a few pounds 
 of it per acre wherever perpetual pas- 
 ture (not hay) is the object. 
 
 " The fine bent grass {Agrostis vul- 
 garis, d) is one of the most common 
 grasses, and, according to the \Vo- 
 burn experiments, one of the earliest. 
 The A. paluslris is nearly as early in 
 producing its foliage, though both 
 flower late, and neither is very pro- 
 lific either in bulk or nutritive matter. 
 A- striata is the herd's grass of Vir- 
 ginia and the South. 
 342 
 
 " The narrow - leaved meadow 
 grass {Poa angustifolia, e), though it 
 flowers late, yet is remarkable for 
 the early growth of the leaves. Ac- 
 cording to the Woburn experiments, 
 the leaves attain to the length of more 
 than twelve inches before the middle 
 of April, and are soft and succulent ; 
 in May, however, when the flower 
 stalks make their appearance, it is 
 subject to the disease termed rust, 
 which affects the whole plant, the 
 consequence of which is manifest in 
 the great deficiency of produce in the 
 crop at the time the seed is ripe, be- 
 ing then one half less than at the 
 time of the flowering of the grass. 
 Though this disease begins in the 
 straws, the leaves suffer most from 
 its effects, being, at the time the seed 
 is ripe, completely dried up : the 
 straws, therefore, constitute the prin- 
 cipal part of the crop for mowing, 
 and they contain more nutritive mat- 
 ter, in proportion, than the leaves. 
 This grass is evidently most valuable 
 for permanent pasture, for which, in 
 consequence of its superior, rapid, 
 and early growth, and the disease 
 beginning at the straws, nature seems 
 to have designed it. The grasses 
 which approach nearest to this in re- 
 spect of early produce of leaves, are 
 the Poa fcrtiUs, Lfactylis glomerata, 
 Phleum pratensc, Alopccurus praten- 
 sis, Avena elatior, and Broinus littore- 
 us, all grasses of a coarser kind. 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 " The best natural pastures, exam- 
 ined carefully during various periods 
 of the season, were found by Sinclair 
 to consist of the following plants : 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis, Avcna clatior, 
 Dactylis plonicrata, Loliuiii perenne, 
 Festuca pratensis, llromus arvensis, 
 
 Phleuni prateiise, Poa iiniiua, 
 
 Aiithroxauthum odora- Avcua piateiii-is. 
 turn, 
 
 " These afTord the principal grass in 
 the spring, and also a great part of 
 the summer produce : 
 
 Aveiia flavcscens, Poa pratensis, 
 
 Hijrdeum pratense, Holcus lanatus, 
 Cvnosurus cristatus, Tnfoliuni pratense, 
 Festuca diiriuscula, Trifulium repcns, 
 Poa lrivi;ilis, Lathyrus pratensis. 
 
 "These yield produce principally in 
 summer and autumn : 
 Achillea Millefolium, Agrostis stoloniferaand 
 Triticum repens, p.ilustris. 
 
 '■The above mixture, sown at the 
 rate of four or five bushels to the 
 acre, on well-prepared soil, without 
 corn or other crop of any kind, could 
 hardly fail of producing excellent pas- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 ture in the following year, and for an 
 indefinite period. The best time for 
 sowing is July or August, as spring- 
 sown seeds are apt to sufTer with the 
 droughts of June and July. Fifteen 
 of the above sorts are to be had from 
 the seed shops ; and all of them may 
 be gathered from natural pastures, oi 
 bespoke from collectors. 
 
 " Of late pasture grasses, the dif- 
 ferent species of cat's-tail {Phleum) 
 and bent grass (Agrostis) are the 
 chief, and especially the Timothy and 
 fiorin grass. The grasses, Davy ob- 
 serves, that propagate themselves by 
 stolones, the different species of 
 Agrostis, supply pasture tliroughout 
 the year, and the concrete sap stored 
 up in their joints renders them a 
 good food even in winter. 
 
 " Of pasture grasses for inferior 
 soils, one of the most durable is the 
 dog's-tail grass {Cijnoc^urus crista- 
 tus, also called Eleusine Indica, Fig 
 5, a). This is a very common grass 
 . 5. 
 
 Pasture grasses 
 
 on dry, clayey, or firm surfaces. It 
 is one of the best grasses for parks, 
 being highly relished by the South 
 Down sheep and deer. 
 
 "The hard fescue grass {Festuca 
 duriuscula, b) is one of the best of the 
 dwarf sorts of grasses. It is grate- 
 ful to all kinds of cattle ; it is pres- 
 ent in most good meadows and pas- 
 tures, and, with F. ovina, is the best 
 for lawns. 
 
 " The Festuca glabra (c) and hordei- 
 
 for inferior soils. 
 
 formis (d) greatly resemble the hard 
 fescue, and may be considered equal- 
 ly desirable as pasture and lawn 
 grasses. 
 
 " The yellow oat grass (Avcna fla- 
 vcscens) is very generally cultivated, 
 and appears, from the Woburn ex- 
 periments, to be a very valuable grass 
 for pasture on a clayey soil. 
 
 " Of pasture grasses for inferior 
 soils and upland situations, one of 
 the principal is the Festuca ovina, or 
 343 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 Fig. 0. 
 
 Pasture grasses for poor uplands. 
 
 sheep's fescue grass f F;>. 6, a). This 
 grass is pecuharly adapted for hilly 
 sheep pastures. It is a low dwarf 
 grass, but relished by all kinds of cat- 
 tle. According to Sinclair's expe- 
 rience, ' on dry soils that are incapa- 
 ble of producing the larger sorts, this 
 should form the principal crop, or, 
 rather, the whole ; for it is seldom or 
 never, in its natural state, found in- 
 timately mixed with others, but by 
 itself 
 
 " The Poa alpina (4), Alopecurus al- 
 j)inus, and Aira cczspitosa (c), Briza 
 media {d) and minima, and Agroslis 
 humilis and vulgaris, are all dwarf 
 mountain grasses, well adapted for 
 hilly parks or lawns." 
 
 The Bermuda grass, which grows 
 so luxuriantly in the West and South, 
 is propagated by roots only, as it does 
 not flower in the latitudes where it 
 is cultivated. 
 
 " On the culture of these grasses 
 it is unnecessary to enlarge, as it 
 must obviously be the same as that 
 of rye grass or any of the others. 
 
 " The chief difficulty is to get the 
 seed in sufficient quantity, for which 
 a good mode is to contract with a 
 seedsman, a year beforehand, for the 
 quantity wanted. With all the pas- 
 ture grasses, except the last class, 
 we should recommend at least half 
 the seed to be that of the perennial 
 rye grass ; and we think it should 
 344 
 
 also form a considerable part of the 
 seeds used in laying down all mead- 
 ows, except those for the aquatic or 
 stoloniferous grasses. These, if they 
 thrive, are sure to choke and de- 
 stroy it. 
 
 " The formation of grassy surfaces, 
 by distributing pieces of turf over 
 them, has long been practised in gar- 
 dening, in levelling down raised or 
 filling up hollow fences, and in other 
 cases of partially altering a grassy sur- 
 face." It is called inoculating grass. 
 
 Nutriliousncss and yield of Grasses. 
 — Mr. Sinclair, under the directions 
 of the Duke of Bedford, established 
 a long course of experiments to de- 
 termine these points. These re- 
 searches are now of no value in re- 
 spect to the comparative nutritious- 
 ness, but are worthy of attention as 
 giving the comparative yield on cer- 
 tain soils. The nutritiousness of 
 grasses does not depend on the mat- 
 ters extractive by boiling, for fibrin 
 and albumen are insoluble in water. 
 Grasses do, however, differ consid- 
 erably in this respect, as is shown by 
 the ultimate analysis of some authors, 
 which give 11 and ] 5 per cent, of 
 nitrogen in different specimens. The 
 former will represent seven, and the 
 latter 9| per cent, of azotized or tiesh- 
 making constituents. Tlie table op- 
 posite is mostly from Sinclair ; the 
 greater part of the grasses are either 
 
GRASSES. 
 
 fc .2 
 
 s 5 M = 
 
 
 .§§ 
 
 &> 
 
 C o C-8 M W)i 
 
 ■2S^-Si''sE'^ 1?'= "a 
 
 I III 5.illilis> I- III i I 
 
 ■<t--«!0 O CS <! ■«;o-«!KO&) <! <'S > W<EaS-<W«! W KK*! ■< & 
 
 m 
 
 O 2 
 
 S = 
 
 f- o 
 
 ■< c 
 b: 
 
 a Z 
 
 o - 
 
 £^ 
 
 B < 
 
 2 ° 
 
 a 2: 
 
 Z O 
 
 U IS 
 
 E = S S 5 E I 
 
 rsi»:-_i H siSE = w^ = 
 
 : I ^ j-l" »■ I i_li if I"- i -^i"! ~ 
 
 *Sau3M0[J 
 JO amtx 
 
 •^-N-^E t^ '-^n'-JT- 
 
 *~i T^ "^ "^ *^ "-a ^ •-; "^ "-^ < "^ *-i'-i'~i »^ <I 
 
 •raqam "inSisfj 
 
 
 __^» "'^ ti| {jSj ,>,i5« 
 
 
 fisi- 
 
 
 
 5S ='=;i = 5 "BboSeSS-c^ 
 
 345 
 
tJRASS J, AND 
 
 indigenous or cultivated in the United 
 Stales. 
 
 Ail ttiese grasses are perennial in 
 a good soil, and a rich, permanent 
 meadow for grass or pasture should 
 contain several kmds. Tlie amount 
 of cured hay produced will be about 
 one fifth of the grass cut. For far- 
 ther particulars, see the Grasses 
 themselves. 
 
 Specific Manures. — Grasses are re- 
 markable for the amount of alkali 
 (potash or soda) they contain, and if 
 allowed to run to seed, are also rich 
 in bone earth. Sprengel found in 1000 
 pounds of rye grass hay 
 
 Potash and soda 12"75 lbs. 
 
 Lime and maijnesia .... 8 15 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 350 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid "25 " 
 
 Silica 27-70 " 
 
 Chlorine, iron, &c '40 " 
 
 52-75 
 
 This specimen must have been 
 made from grass before flowering. 
 From this composition, we learn that 
 fresh ashes (leached ashes on sandy 
 soils), bone earth, gypsum, and occa- 
 sional top-dressing, with air-slacked 
 lime, are appropriate manures. Ni- 
 trogen manures, applied to grass 
 crops, are, in some measure, wasted 
 from their exposure. Soluble silicate 
 of soda and potash has been used on 
 grass with advantage. The green 
 marl of New- Jersey will, in part, an- 
 swer this purpose on stiff soils. 
 
 GRASS LAND. " This may be 
 divided into water meadows, upland 
 pastures, and artificial grasses. The 
 first are treated of under Irrigation : 
 the nature and management of the 
 last two we shall here briefly de- 
 scribe. Upland pastures are portions 
 of land on which the natural grasses 
 grow spontaneously, varying in quan- 
 tity and quality with the soil and sit- 
 uation. The plants which form the 
 natural sward are not confined to the 
 family of true grasses, but many oth- 
 er plants, chiefly with perennial roots, 
 form part of the herbage. In the rich- 
 est soils the variety is exceedingly 
 great. When a sod is taken up, and 
 all the plants on it are examined, the 
 species will be found more numerous 
 than we should have believed possi- 
 346 
 
 ble ;* and in the same ground the 
 plants will vary in different years, so 
 as to induce one to conclude, that, 
 like most other herbaceous plants, 
 the grasses degenerate when they 
 have grown for a long time on the 
 same spot, and that a kind of rota- 
 tion is established by nature. It is 
 chiefly in those pastures where the 
 grasses are allowed to grow till they 
 form their seed that this is observa- 
 ble ; for when they are closely fed, 
 and not allowed to shoot out a seed 
 stem, they are less subject to degen- 
 erate and disappear. This may be a 
 reason why experienced dairymen 
 are so unwilling to allow their best 
 pastures to be mown for hay. They 
 pretend that the feed is deteriorated 
 in the next year, and tliat inferior 
 grasses are introduced which injure 
 the quality of their butter and cheese. 
 Close feeding is always considered 
 as the most advantageous, both to 
 the cattle and the proprietor. 
 
 '• The only way m which a pasture 
 distant from cities can be profitable, 
 is by feeding stock ; and its value is 
 in the exact proportion to the num- 
 ber of sheep or cattle which can be 
 fed upon it in a season. Extensive 
 pastures are often measured only by 
 their capacity in this respect. 
 
 " When a pasture is naturally rich, 
 the only care required is to stock it 
 judiciously, to move the cattle fre- 
 quently from one spot to another 
 (for which purpose, enclosures well 
 fenced are highly advantageous), and 
 to eradicate certain plants which are 
 useless or noxious, such as docks 
 and thistles, alder, broom, briars and 
 thorns, which, not being touched by 
 the cattle as long as they have better 
 food, would increase and overrun the 
 ground, and take up a space which 
 would be more profitably occupied by 
 good herbage. The dung of the cat- 
 tle, also, when left in heaps as it is 
 
 * In a sod of grass the following plants were 
 found : Plantago lanceolata, Agrostis capillaris, 
 Avena flavesceas, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca 
 duriuscula, Poa annua, Cynosurus cristatus, 
 Trifoliuin repens, Crepis tectorum, Achillea 
 millefolium, (Jalium verum, Hypocha:ris radi 
 cata, Hiaracium pilosella, Thymus serpyllum 
 — (Curtis on Grasses.) 
 
GRASS LAND. 
 
 dropped, kills the grass and introdu- 
 ces coarse and less palatable plants. 
 All that is required in rich pastures 
 in which cows and oxen are led, and 
 which are properly stocked, is, to 
 prevent the increase of the coarser 
 and less nutritive plants. Weeding 
 is as important in grass as in arable 
 land ; and if it is neglected, the con- 
 sequence will soon be observed by 
 the inferior quality of the feed. The 
 urine of the cattle is the manure 
 which chiefly keeps up the fertility 
 of grass land ; and although in hot 
 and dr}" weather it frequently burns 
 up the grass where it falls, when it 
 is diluted by showers, the improved 
 appearance of the surface shows that 
 its effect has not been detrimental. 
 To enrich poor meadows there is no 
 manure so effective as diluted urine, 
 or the drainings of stables and dung- 
 hills. 
 
 " When pastures are poor, and the 
 herbage is of a bad quality, the cause 
 is to be sought for in the soil. A 
 poor arid soil is not fitted for grass, 
 nor one which is too wet, from the 
 abundance of springs and the want 
 of outlet for the water. These de- 
 fects can only be remedied by expen- 
 sive improvements. A soil which is 
 too dry may be improved by cultiva- 
 tion and judicious manuring ; but for 
 this purpose it must be broken up 
 and treated for some time as arable 
 land ; and it may be a question wheth- 
 er or not the expense of improving 
 the soil will be repaid by the supe- 
 rior quality of the pasture when it is 
 again laid down to grass. In gen- 
 eral, the poor light soils, if they are 
 worth cultivation, answer better as 
 arable land, especially where the root 
 husbandry is understood. The low 
 wet day soils may be converted into 
 good pastures by draining them well ; 
 and the improvement thus produced 
 is so great, that judicious draining in 
 such soils is the most profitable in- 
 vestment of capital. 
 
 " When old meadows have been 
 neglected, or too often mown, with- 
 out being recruited by manure or ir- 
 rigation, they are often overrun with 
 moss or rushes, and produce nothing 
 
 but a coarse grass. In that case, 
 besides draining it, if required, the 
 land must be broken up and undergo 
 a regular course of tillage, until the 
 whole of the old sward is destroyed 
 and a better collection of grasses 
 cover its surface. If this be done 
 judiciously, the pasture will not only 
 be greatly improved in the quality, 
 but also in the quantity of the grass. 
 There is a natural prejudice againist 
 the breaking up old grass land ; this 
 has arisen from the improper manner 
 in which it is frequently effected. 
 The sward, when rotten, is a pow- 
 erful manure, and produces great 
 crops of corn. These tempt the 
 farmer to repeat the sowing of corn 
 on newly broken up lands. The fer- 
 tility is reduced rapidly ; and when 
 grass seeds are sown after several 
 crops of corn, the soil has been de- 
 prived of a great portion of the hu- 
 mus and vegetable matter which is 
 essential to the growth of rich grass. 
 The proper method of treating grass 
 land, broken up to improve it, is to 
 take no more corn crops than will 
 pay the expense of breaking up, cart- 
 ing lime, or other substances upon 
 it to improve the soil, and to lay it 
 down to grass again as soon as the 
 old sward is fully destroyed. 
 
 " If the soil be fit for roots, no bet- 
 ter crop can be sown to prepare for 
 the grass seeds, which should be 
 sown without a corn crop, except 
 where the sun is powerful, and the 
 seed is sown late in spring ; but 
 autumn is by far the best season for 
 sowing grass seeds for permanent 
 pasture. Turnips of an early kind 
 may be sown in .May, and fed off 
 with sheep in August or September; 
 and the ground being only very slight- 
 ly ploughed, or, ratlier, scarified and 
 harrowed fine, the seeds may be 
 sown and rolled in. The species of 
 grasses sown must depend on the 
 nature of the soil ; but it is impossi- 
 ble to be too choice in the selection. 
 That mixture of chaff and the half- 
 ripe seeds of weeds, commonly called 
 hay seeds, which is collected from 
 the stable lofts, should be caiefuUy 
 rejected, and none but seeds ripened 
 347 
 
GRASS LAND. 
 
 and collected on purpose should be 
 sown. The Tnfnlium rcpens (white 
 clover), the Tnfolutm medium (cow 
 grass), Mcdicago lupinula (trefoil), Lo- 
 liutn jicrcnne (rye ^rass), the poas and 
 festucas, are the best kinds of grass- 
 es. A very easy way of obtaining 
 good seed is to keep a piece of good 
 meadow shut up from the cattle ear- 
 ly in spring, carefully weeding out 
 any coarse grasses, and letting the 
 best arrive at full maturity ; then 
 mow and dry the crop, and thrash it 
 out upon a cloth. This will give the 
 best mixture of seeds ; but some of 
 the earliest will have been shed, and 
 these should be collected separately, 
 or purchased from the seedsmen. 
 Before winter the ground will already 
 be covered with a fine green, if the 
 seed has been plentiful. The quan- 
 tity per acre of the mixed seeds should 
 not be less than 30 or 40 pounds to 
 ensure a close pile the next year. If 
 the soil is not naturally rich, liquid 
 manure, or urine, diluted with wa- 
 ter, should be carried to the field in 
 a water-cart, and the young grass 
 watered with it ; this will so invig- 
 orate the plants, that they will strike 
 and tiller abundantly. They should 
 be fed off by sheep, but not too close. 
 The tread of the sheep and their urine 
 will tend to make the pile of grass 
 close, and the year after this the new 
 pasture will only be distinguished 
 from the old by its verdure and fresh- 
 ness. 
 
 "The fertility produced by grass 
 which is fed by cattle and sheep has 
 given rise to the practice of convert- 
 ing arable land to pasture for a cer- 
 tain time in order to recruit its 
 strength. The old notion was that 
 the land had rest, which by a confu- 
 sion of ideas was associated with the 
 rest of the labourers and the horses. 
 The land, by being in grass, has much 
 vegetable matter added to it from the 
 fibres of the roots which die and de- 
 cay, as well as from the other parts 
 of the grass, which draw nourishment 
 from the atmosphere and impart it to 
 the roots. Thus, in time, an accumu- 
 lation of humus IS formed ; and when 
 the land is ploughed, the rotting of the 
 318 
 
 sward greatly increases it Every 
 species of plant thrives well in this 
 improved soil ; and the vigour of the 
 growth is ascribed to the recruiting 
 effects of rest, by a fancied analogy 
 with the animal muscle, which is in- 
 vigorated by occasional inaction. 
 
 " But it is well known that land 
 which has been some years in grass 
 is improved in fertility. The con- 
 vertible system of husbandry takes 
 advantage of this fact ; and all its art 
 consists in reproducing a good pas- 
 ture without loss of time, after hav- 
 ing reaped the benefit of the fertility 
 imparted to tlie land during three or 
 four years when it was m grass. 
 Good pasture is very profitable ; so 
 are good crops : by making the one 
 subservient to the other, the farmer 
 who adopts the convertible system is 
 enabled to have a better profit than 
 those who adhere to a simple rota- 
 tion of annual crops. 
 
 " When an arable field is sown with 
 the seeds of grasses and other plants 
 which give herbage for cattle, it is 
 called an artificial meadow, and the 
 various plants which are raised are 
 all called artificial grasses, although 
 many of them have no botanical title 
 to the name of grass, such as clover, 
 sainfoin, lucern, and many others, 
 which produce the best pastures and 
 the finest hay. 
 
 " In laying dow^n a field to grass 
 for a very few years, the mode of 
 proceeding is somewhat different 
 from that which is recommended for 
 producing a permanent pasture. Glo- 
 verin this case is always a principal 
 plant, both the red and the white ; 
 these, with annual or perennial rye 
 grass, are sown with a crop of oats, 
 &c., in spring, and begin to show 
 themselves before harvest. The 
 grasses are often mown the first 
 year after they are sown, on account 
 of the abundance and value of the red 
 clover, but the best farmers recom- 
 mend depasturing them with sheep, 
 to strengthen the roots and increase 
 the bulk. Various circumstances, 
 such as a greater demand for clover 
 hay, or for fat cattle, may make mow- 
 ing or feeding most profitable ; but 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 wlicn there is not a decided advan- 
 tage in making hay, feeding should 
 always be preferred. At all events, 
 the great object of the farmer should 
 be to have his land in good heart and 
 tilth, and free from weeds, when the 
 grass is sown. If his grass be good, 
 he is certain of good crops after it, 
 with little trouble or manure." 
 
 The seeds to be sown on an acre, 
 when the land is laid down to grass, 
 are as follows : Red clover, eight 
 pounds ; Timothy, two pecks ; Ken- 
 tucky blue grass, five pounds ; white 
 clover, six pounds, or orchard grass, 
 two pecks ; rye grass, two pecks, 
 may be introduced. This is for a field 
 intended to remain four or five years 
 in grass. 
 
 " The introduction of artificial 
 meadows in districts where the soil 
 seemed not well adapted for pasture 
 has greatly increased the number of 
 cattle and sheep reared and fattened, 
 and has caused greater attention to 
 be paid to the means of improving 
 the breeds of both. Thus a double 
 advantage has arisen : the public is 
 benefited by an increased supply, and 
 the farmer is rewarded by an addi- 
 tional source of profit. 
 
 " In the neighbourhood of large 
 towns there are many meadows, 
 which, without being irrigated, are 
 mown every year, and only fed be- 
 tween hay harvest and the next 
 spring. These require frequent ma- 
 nuring to keep them in heart, and with 
 this assistance they produce great 
 crops of hay every year. Sometimes 
 the meadows are manured with sta- 
 ble dung which has been laid in a heap 
 for some time, and been turned over 
 to rot it equally. This is put on soon 
 after the hay is cut, and the rains 
 wash the dung into the ground ; but 
 if a very dry and hot summer follows, 
 little benefit is produced by the dung, 
 which is dried up, and most of the 
 juices evaporated. A better method 
 is to make a compost with earth and 
 dung, and, where it can be easily ob- 
 tained, with lime. The best earth is 
 that which contains most vegetable 
 matter ; and as many of these mead- 
 ows are on a stiff clay soil, which re- 
 Ge 
 
 quires to be kept dry by open drains 
 and water furrows, the soil dug out 
 of these and carted to a corner of the 
 meadow makes an excellent founda- 
 tion for the compost. It is sometimes 
 useful to plough furrows at intervals 
 to take off the superfluous surface 
 water in winter ; the earth thus rais- 
 ed by the plough is excellent to mix 
 in the compost ; having been turned 
 over with dung, sweepings of streets, 
 or any other manure, so as to form a 
 uniform mass, it is spread over the 
 land in winter ; and in spring a bush- 
 harrow is drawn over the meadow, 
 and it is rolled with a heavy roller. 
 When the meadow is moss bound, or 
 of a light soil, it may be dressed with 
 the clod crusher (roller) or with a 
 weighted harrow. All this compost 
 is soon washed into the ground, and 
 invigorates the roots of the grass. It 
 is better to put on a slight coating of 
 this compost every year than to give 
 a greater portion of manure every 
 three or four years, as is the practice 
 of some farmers. The grazing of 
 cattle has generally been a more prof- 
 itable occupation than simply tilling 
 the land. The capital required is con- 
 siderable, but the current expenses 
 are not great. Thegrazier is not sub- 
 ject to such total fadures as the farm- 
 er of arable land is in his crops. With 
 a little experience and prudence, he 
 can always reckon on a certain re- 
 turn. An acre of good grazing land 
 is supposed to produce 200 pounds of 
 meat in the year. By uniting the 
 raising of corn and the grazing of cat- 
 tle and sheep, the greatest profit is 
 probably obtained, and this is the 
 great argument in favour of the con- 
 vertible system of husbandry." 
 
 The foregoing is principally from 
 the Rev. W. L. Rham. 
 
 GRASSHOPPERS. The popular 
 name of the genus Gryllus, or lo- 
 custs. They are, for the most part, 
 devourers of herbage, numerous spe- 
 cies living on grass and the leaves of 
 trees. The method of destroying the 
 common meadow grasshoppers is, to 
 manure the grass immediately alter 
 cutting, and while the young insects 
 are abundant, with air-slacked lime, 
 349 
 
GRA 
 
 gas-house liquor, salt, a watering of 
 whale oil soap, and similar bodies, 
 taking care not to destroy the herbage. 
 
 GRAYWACKE. Gray rock. An 
 old geological term for the gray tran- 
 sition rocks ; as gneiss, mica, slate, 
 &c. 
 
 GRAVEL. A geological forma- 
 tion or soil, consisting of rolled peb- 
 bles, loosely interspersed, more or 
 less abundantly, in a sandy or clayey 
 medium. It is of every degree of 
 fineness, chemical composition, and 
 value in farmmg. Those gravels 
 containing silicious pebbles chiefly, 
 and of a Targe size, are nearly unfit 
 for tillage, and the value increases 
 with the presence of slates, gran- 
 ites, hornblende, mica, marl, and clay. 
 They are usually very porous, drain- 
 ing water off rapidly, and cannot be 
 of much value, unless incumbent on 
 a subsoil that holds water at some 
 little depth. If the gravel be fertile, 
 it is usually warm and best adapted 
 for roots. Stiff marls, burned clay, 
 and an abundance of vegetable mat- 
 ter are to be used as manures. 
 
 Gravel is well adapted for forming 
 walks in gardens and the surface of 
 roads. 
 
 GRAVEL. In farriery, the forma- 
 tion of hard calculi or stones in the 
 bladder, or of a sandy sediment. 
 
 GRAVEOLENT. Fetid, having a 
 strong odour. 
 
 GRAVES, GREAVES. Mem- 
 branous matter left as refuse by the 
 tallow-melter ; it is used for feeding 
 dogs, and given to poultry. Graves 
 contains a large amount of fat, and 
 is admirably adapted for fattening 
 hogs, &c. ; it has been used, also, as 
 a manure ; 200 pounds interspersed 
 in stable manure may be added to 
 the acre ; but the most economical 
 plan will be to compost it in the nitre 
 bed. It is a nitrogen manure, 100 
 pounds yielding about 13 pounds of 
 ammonia, and being equal, in this 
 respect, to 1^ tons of farm-yard ma- 
 nure. The presence of sulphur and 
 phosphorus, besides bone earth, also 
 constitute it a manure applicable to 
 all rich crops ; as corn, wheat, to- 
 bacco, dec, the only consideration 
 350 
 
 GRA 
 
 being the economy of using so high- 
 priced an article. See Manures. 
 
 GRAVID. Pregnant. 
 
 G R A V I M E T E R (from gravis, 
 heavy, and fterpov, a measure). See 
 Hydrometer. 
 
 GRAVITATION, GRAVITY. 
 The tendency that masses have to 
 approach each other ; also called at- 
 traction of gravitation. The gravity 
 of a body is therefore the attraction 
 it extends towards other bodies ; it 
 increases with the bulk, density, and 
 nearness of bodies, being directly as 
 their density and mass, and inverse- 
 ly as the squares of their distances. 
 Weight, and the descent of all bodies 
 towards the earth's surface, is an ef- 
 fect of the earth's gravity, or terres- 
 trial gravitation. 
 
 GRAVITY, SPECIFIC. The ra- 
 tio of the weight of any solid or liquid 
 to the weight of an equal bulk of pure 
 water at 62' Fahrenheit. The spe- 
 cific gravity of gases is the ratio to 
 the weight of an equal volume of air 
 at the same temperature. If the sol- 
 id be lighter than water, the measure- 
 ment is made more indirectly. 
 
 How taken. — The specific gravity 
 of solids is taken by first weighing a 
 piece in air, and then weighing it im- 
 mersed in pure water, and dividing 
 the weight in air by the loss of weight 
 in water. Fluids are examined either 
 by filling a bottle known to contain 
 precisely 1000 grains of pure water, 
 up to a certain mark, and setting 
 down the weight, irrespective of that 
 of the bottle, as the specific gravity. 
 This is called the 1000 grain bottle. 
 Or an instrument called a hydrometer, 
 gravimeter, or areometer is immersed 
 in the fluid, and sinks to a certain 
 mark, which indicates the specific 
 gravity or density (see Hijdrometcr). 
 The gravity of gases is taken by first 
 exhausting a glass vessel of air by 
 the air pump, and then introducing 
 the particular gas, the weight of 
 which, irrespective of the glass, will 
 be the second proportional of the fol- 
 lowing series : As the weight of air 
 is to that of the gas, so is 1 to the 
 specific gravity of the gas ; that is, 
 the weight of the gas divided by that 
 
GRA 
 
 GRA 
 
 of the air gives the specific gravity. 
 This operation is, however, of great 
 delicacy, for the gases must be per- 
 fectly dry. 
 
 The following numbers indicate 
 the specific gravities of several use- 
 ful bodies : 
 
 Acid, muriatic . . . r200 
 
 , nitric I 271 
 
 , , strongest . 1583 
 
 , sulphuric . . . 1850 
 
 Alcohol, absolute . . . "97 
 Ammonia, solution . . 0875 
 
 Butter 0-943 
 
 Copal 1-045 
 
 Diamond 3521 
 
 jEther 0-632 
 
 Fat of beef 0-923 
 
 Glass, crown .... 2520 
 
 Marble . . . 
 
 Metals ; 
 
 Copper . . . 
 
 Gold . . . 
 
 Cast iron . . 
 
 Lead . . . 
 
 Mercury . . 
 Sheet platina 
 
 Potassium . . 
 
 Silver . . . 
 
 Steel . . . 
 Tin 
 
 2-760 Zinc 
 
 Milk .... 
 Nitre . . . 
 Oil, turpentine 
 
 , almond . 
 
 , hemp . . 
 
 , linseed 
 
 , olives . 
 
 , rape . . 
 
 Granite 2613 
 
 Gvpsum 2 288 
 
 Honey 1-450 
 
 Indigo 1-009 
 
 Ironstone 3 573 
 
 Ivory 1-825 
 
 Lard 0-947 
 
 Limestone 2366 
 
 GRAY DYES. These are usual- 
 ly light blacks. Ash gray is given to 
 30 lbs. wool by 1 lb. gall nuts, h lb. 
 crude tartar, and 2^ lbs. green vitriol. 
 Proceed as in dyeing blacks, in 80 
 lbs. water. Pearl graij, prepare the 
 first bath with sumach, with half log- 
 wood. Fustic gives a yellowish or 
 brown gray. 
 
 GRAZIER. A person engaged in 
 raising and fattening cattle. For the 
 practice of this business in the East- 
 ern and sea-board States, great judg- 
 ment is now become necessary, from 
 the facilities for grazing enjoyed by 
 the Western States. The following, 
 chiefly from the " Complete Grazier,''^ 
 is worthy of attention : 
 
 " A man should know how beasts 
 ought to be formed ; should have a 
 quick eye for selecting tiiose with a 
 frame that is likely to produce weight ; 
 and a hand that should feel the known 
 indication of the probability of soon 
 becoming fat. 
 
 " An acre produces from 200 to 
 300 pounds of flesh annually in good 
 grass. In the opinion of the most 
 intelligent graziers, in stocking enclo- 
 sures, the cattle should be divided in 
 the following manner : Supposing 
 four fields, each containing a nearly 
 equal quantity of land, one of them 
 should be kept entirely free from 
 stock until the grass is got up to its 
 
 2-716 
 
 8-900 
 
 19 301 
 
 7-24S 
 
 11 352 
 
 13-598 
 
 22-069 
 
 0-865 
 
 10-510 
 
 7-816 
 
 7-291 
 
 7-191 
 
 1032 
 
 1-900 
 
 0-870 
 
 932 
 
 0926 
 
 0-940 
 
 0-915 
 
 0-913 
 
 O.I, ivhale 0-923 
 
 Slate, draw-ng . . . 2110 
 
 Spermaceti 0943 
 
 Sugar 1606 
 
 Sulphur 1-990 
 
 Wax 0-96t 
 
 Woods : 
 
 Apple 0-793 
 
 Ash 0-845 
 
 Beech 852 
 
 Box 1328 
 
 Campeachy 913 
 
 Cedar 0-596 
 
 Clieiry-tree .... 0-715 
 
 El)ony 1 331 
 
 Elm 0-671 
 
 Pine 0-550 
 
 Lignum vitae .... 1333 
 
 Poplar 0-383 
 
 Yew 0-783 
 
 full growth, when the prime or fat- 
 ting cattle should be put into it, that 
 they may get the best of the food ; 
 the second best should then follow ; 
 and after them either the working or 
 store stock, with lean sheep to eat 
 the pastures close down ; thus ma- 
 king the whole of the stock feed over 
 the four enclosures in this succession : 
 
 '< No. 1. Clear of stock, and reserv- 
 ed for the fattening beasts. 
 
 " No. 2. For the fattening beasts, 
 until sent to No. 1. 
 
 " No. 3. For the second best cat- 
 tle, until forwarded successively to 
 Nos. 2 and 1. 
 
 " No. 4. For stores and sheep to 
 follow the other cattle ; then to be 
 shut up until the grass is again ready, 
 as at No. 1, for the fattening beasts. 
 
 " By this expedient the fattening 
 cattle will cull the choicest parts of 
 the grass, and will advance rapidly to- 
 wards a state of maturity ; for they 
 should always have a full bite of 
 short and sweet grass, and with such 
 cattle the greatest care should be ta- 
 ken not to overstock the enclosures. 
 It is also advisable to divide the fat- 
 tening enclosure by fences, so as to 
 confine the beasts within one half of 
 it at a time, and to allow them the 
 other half at the other, so that they 
 may continually have fresh pasture. 
 
 " Shade and pure water are essen- 
 351 
 
ORE 
 
 ORE 
 
 tially necessary, and where there are 
 no trees, rubbing-posts should be set 
 up to prevent the cattle from making 
 that use of the gates and fences. In 
 marsh land, which is chiefly divided 
 by ditches, this, indeed, should never 
 be neglected, as it is materially con- 
 ducive to their comfort." 
 
 GREASE. For carts, a mixture 
 of tar with refuse lard, butter, or fat 
 is commonly employed. Twenty 
 parts plumbago powder and eighty fat 
 form a good grease for this purpose. 
 
 GREASE IN HORSES. See Horse. 
 
 GREAVES. See Graves. 
 
 GREEN CROPS. Such crops, 
 roots, &c., as are fed off the land or 
 used in soihng, before becoming ripe 
 and fit for storage. When ploughed 
 into the ground, they form green fal- 
 lows. 
 
 GREEN DYE. This is produced, 
 in all its shades, by using a bath of 
 blue, and then yellow. 
 
 GREEN FALLOW. Green crops 
 ploughed into the soil. 
 
 GREEN GRASS. Probably Poa 
 angustifolia. An early and late pas- 
 ture grass, much esteemed in the 
 Eastern States. It bears water well, 
 but is occasionally subject to rust. 
 See Grasses. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. A conservato- 
 ry. This should be distinguished 
 from a hot-house, in which artificial 
 heat is used. It is covered with 
 glass either on one or both sides ; if 
 on one only, that should have a 
 southern aspect. Plants are stored 
 here in pots or frames, fruit-trees 
 trained against the wall, and the roof 
 partially covered with grape-vines. 
 They are used to protect tender 
 plants from winter, and advance the 
 ripening of fruits. An Orangery is a 
 place of deposite for orange and oth- 
 er trees set in pots, which produce 
 their shoots in summer, and are then 
 transferred to the open air. It does 
 not always have a glass roof, but is 
 frequently a pit dug in the soil on a 
 hill-side, and covered, the south side 
 of which only is glazed. In very se- 
 vere weather the glass of the green- 
 house may be covered with mats. 
 
 GREEN MANURES. • Manures 
 352 
 
 ploughed into the land in a fresh or 
 green state, especially green fallow 
 crops. The principal plants used for 
 this purpose are clover of various 
 kinds, buckwheat, grasses, oats, rye, 
 tares, various beans, lupins, spurry, 
 borage, and turnips running to flower : 
 young Indian corn, mustard, and, in- 
 deed, nearly all herbage the seeds of 
 which are not too expensive, have 
 been proposed. 
 
 But there are two points worthy 
 of consideration in the use of these 
 plants : 1st. That some improve the 
 soil much more rapidly than others, 
 viz., clovers, grasses, spurry, and 
 buckwheat. 2d. That an excess of 
 green matter turned into the soil is 
 disadvantageous, bringing on a ten- 
 dency to mildew ; it is best, there- 
 fore, to scatter lime over a green fal- 
 low, harrow it in, and sow the seed 
 within a few weeks, unless the soil 
 is very stiff; for the gaseous matter 
 given out by the decomposition of 
 the manures will be serviceable to 
 plants, and should not be lost. In 
 stiff soils make the fallow in the fall. 
 
 By this means lands are very rap- 
 idly brought up if they are merely 
 deficient in vegetable matter; the ex- 
 pense is also much less than by the 
 accumulation and spreading of other 
 manures. Sea-weeds, weeds cropped 
 from the soil, &c., are also called 
 green manures when ploughed into 
 the soil in the fresh state. Some 
 writers use the term green manure 
 for long or unfermented dung. 
 
 GREEN SAND. New-Jersey marl. 
 One of the upper secondary depos- 
 iles of geologists, consisting, for the 
 most part, of a sandy formation, the 
 grains of which are, however, much 
 softer than those of common sand, 
 and consist of silicate of iron chiefly ; 
 they are of several colours, from 
 greenish gray to deep green and olive. 
 It is extensively developed in the 
 United States, being found in the val- 
 ley of the Connecticut, southeastern 
 portion of New-Jersey, Delaware, 
 and Virginia. 
 
 Some portions of this deposite con- 
 tain from 7 to 12 per cent, of potash 
 combined with the silicate of iron. 
 
GUI 
 
 This is particularly the case with 1 
 that in Monmouth and Burlington 
 counties, New-Jersey, and Newcastle 
 county, Delaware. Numerous pits 
 are, therefore, opened for the purpose 
 of reaching this deposite, called Marl, 
 •which has been found, in many instan- 
 ces, to produce remarkable fertility 
 when applied at the rate of 200 to 
 300 bushels on stitf clayey lands. In 
 selecting specimens, we are to exam- 
 ine the amount of green sands in it, 
 the fertility depending upon them ; for 
 the clay, common sand, and other im- 
 purities are of little importance. The 
 richest kinds are of a deep green in- 
 ternally, sometimes with an olive 
 tint, but the exterior becomes gray- 
 ish and covered with a slight efflores- 
 cence ; it is also readily crushed. 
 The following analysis of a specimen 
 from Monmouth county will give the 
 particulars of its composition per 
 cent. : 
 
 Silica 50-00 
 
 Alumina 7'00 
 
 Protoxide of iron .... 22-00 
 
 Potash 11 00 
 
 Lime 100 
 
 Magnesia a trace 
 
 Water 9 00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The potash here is combined with 
 silica, but their union is readily de- 
 stroyed by the carbonic acid of the 
 soil, which rapidly forms carbonate 
 of potash. 
 
 This manure is peculiarly applica- 
 ble to grass, oats, wheat, corn, and 
 the Cerealia generally ; it will also be 
 serviceable to roots growing on a 
 stiffish soil. It may not, however, 
 pay the expenses of long transporta- 
 tion, a small quantity of ashes repla- 
 cing it in the compost heap. 
 
 GREENSTONE. A species of 
 trap consisting of feldspar and horn- 
 blend. It is a fused and intruded rock. 
 
 GREEN VITRIOL. Sulphate of 
 protoxide of iron. It is styptic, emet- 
 ic, and much used in dyeing and ink- 
 making. 
 
 GREYHOUND. A coursing dog, 
 remarkable for his swiftness and 
 symmetry. 
 
 GREYWACKE. Gramcacke. 
 
 GRIP. A small drain. 
 G Q 2 
 
 GUA 
 
 GRIPES. Colic. See Horse and 
 Ox. 
 
 GRIT. A hard sandstone, usually 
 coarse, used for mill-stones and pave- 
 ments. 
 
 GROATS, or GRITS. Oats pre- 
 pared by hulling. 
 
 GROIN. In architecture, the junc- 
 tion of two arches. 
 
 GROSSULARIA. The generic 
 name of the currant and gooseberry. 
 
 GROUND-BAIT. Balls made of 
 grain, graves, bran, lentils, mixed 
 with clay, and thrown in those parts 
 of a pond or river where angling is 
 carried on. 
 
 GROUND-CHERRY. Several va- 
 rieties of Physalis, a weed. 
 
 GROUND-NUT. Apios tuherosa. 
 A leguminous plant, with a perennial 
 root, bearing small tubers of one half 
 an inch, which are esculent. It is 
 indigenous in the Middle States, and 
 has been recommended for culture. 
 For the common ground-pea, see Fin- 
 dars. 
 
 GROUNDSEL. The genus Scne- 
 cio : composite plants, annual, bitter, 
 and purgative. 
 
 GROUT. In building, mortar made 
 fluid with water. Plaster used for 
 finishing walls. Mortar used in fixing 
 foundations. 
 
 GRUBBER. A strong hoe for 
 tearing up the roots of shrubs and 
 trees. 
 
 GRUBS. Worms, maggots. The 
 pupa of earth worms. They often 
 infest new lands, and are to be rem- 
 edied by heavy liming, a dose of salt 
 of fifteen bushels to the acre, and 
 frequent stirring and exposure of the 
 soil to frost. 
 
 GRUID.E. Birds which wade like 
 the crane {^rus). 
 
 GRYLLID.E. A family of locusts, 
 resembling the Grijllus. 
 
 GUAIACUM. A resin obtained 
 from the Guaiacum officinale, a West 
 Indian tree. It is little used in medi- 
 cine for rheumatism. 
 
 GUANO. The changed dung of 
 sea-fowl, of a brown colour and urin- 
 ous smell, collected on islands off the 
 coast of Peru and Southwestern Af- 
 rica. Its composition differs : thus, 
 353 
 
CUANO. 
 
 by my analysis, made for tlie Ameri- 
 can Agricultural Association of New- 
 York, the Peruvian contains, 
 
 Uric acid 10-5 
 
 Ammonia 190 
 
 Phosphoric acid 14-0 
 
 Linic and magnesia 16'U 
 
 Salts of soda and potash .... 60 
 Oxalic acid, with carbonic and mu- 
 riatic acids 13'0 
 
 Water 13 
 
 Sand 20 
 
 Volatile and organic matters . . . 6"5 
 
 10000 
 
 The African, from Ichaboe, 
 
 Ammonia 135 
 
 Humic acid 4 
 
 Phosphates 250 
 
 Oxalic. &c., acids 20 
 
 Salts of soda, &c 70 
 
 Water and volatile matter .... 27-5 
 
 Sand 3.0 
 
 umio 
 These examinations indicate fair 
 samples : the African seldom con- 
 tains uric acid, and is therefore infe- 
 rior, especially in the permanence of 
 its effects. Uric acid, in its decay, 
 produces carbonates of ammonia. 
 The African is, however, most solu- 
 ble, and acts rapidly. The speci- 
 mens are to be valued by the amount 
 ofammonia they yield in decay. Gua- 
 no sells at from $35 to $50 the ton, 
 and is now somewhat extensively 
 used. 
 
 The African being soluble to the 
 extent of 40 percent., is better adapt- 
 ed for watering plants, and where 
 very rapid growth is wanted. The 
 Peruvian, on the other hand, acts for 
 a longer time, and is better calculated 
 for crops which continue to grow vig- 
 orously during many weeks. The 
 two will probably produce very sim- 
 ilar effects for one crop ; but the Pe- 
 ruvian is much more active on the 
 second crop. 
 
 Crops to which it may he applied. — 
 It is hardly necessary to slate that 
 the apphcation may be made to ev- 
 ery crop, for experiments are already 
 multiplied with nearly every common 
 plant or tree : to enumerate a few is 
 sufficient. Wheat, corn, grass, the 
 cerealia, sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee, 
 apple, pear, and other fruit trees, flow- 
 ers, cabbages, turnips, and other cru- 
 ciferous plants ; the experiments are 
 354 
 
 fewest on leguminous plants. But 
 the etrect of guano will not be equal 
 on all ; for those plants requiring 
 most stable manure, such as tobacco, 
 turnips, and corn, are more benefited 
 than grass, oats, or such as require 
 less, the chief effect of the manure 
 being due to the quantity of the am- 
 monia it contains. The reason gua- 
 no is serviceable to all plants ari- 
 ses from its containing every saline 
 and organic matter they require as 
 food. 
 
 Kinds of Soil to which it may be 
 applied. — It is used beneficially on 
 all soils ; for, as it contains every 
 element necessary to plants, it is in- 
 dependent of the quality of the soil — 
 one great point being attended to, that 
 the land be in good tilth; for other- 
 wise the tender roots of the vegeta- 
 ble find an obstruction to free growth, 
 and are crippled. Poor, well-tilled 
 soils exhibit most increase by guano, 
 for in them some essential to the 
 growth of plants is more likely to be 
 absent. 
 
 Amount to be applied. — On wheat 
 250 pounds per acre will be an aver- 
 age for a fair soil, 300 pounds per 
 acre for one that is poor, and 200 for 
 a good soil. Corn, potatoes, turnips, 
 cabbages, and garden vegetables will 
 require 300 pounds on fair lands ; but 
 the amount may be diminished by 50 
 pounds if two applications are made 
 instead of one. For grass, rye, and 
 oats 200 pounds will be enough. 
 
 Time and Mode of Application. — 
 Seeds may be prepared by soaking in 
 a solution of a quarter of a pound of 
 guano to the gallon of water, and this 
 will answer for a first manuring, if 
 they are left sufficiently long to ex- 
 hibit signs of germination. Wheat and 
 other small grains should be steeped 
 in this solution about sixty hours, 
 corn about one hundred hours. Thus 
 steeped, the seeds of smut will also 
 be destroyed. Half the quantity to 
 be used when the plant has fairly 
 started, and is in second leaf. By 
 this timely addition, the eflfects of 
 many insects are avoided, and the 
 seedling at once takes on a robust 
 habit. The remaining half should be 
 
GUD 
 
 applied to the small grain crops when 
 they are throwing out new stems, or 
 tillering ; to corn, as the tassel ap- 
 pears, or at the second hoeing, and 
 so with other hoed crops. This ap- 
 plication should be made, therefore, 
 at the latest period of working, and 
 as nearly before flowering as practi- 
 cable. The guano should be sowed 
 with a mi.xture of fine soil, gypsum, 
 or charcoal, to give it bulk, and di- 
 vide the particles. No lumps should 
 be thrown among the plants, for they 
 burn them ; and where an extensive 
 application is to be made, it is better 
 to screen the manure and pound the 
 lumps. In sowing, reach the soil, if 
 possible, for it is unserviceable to 
 sprinkle it on the plants, and frequent- 
 ly destroys them. Select a season 
 when the land is wet or moist, or 
 when rain may be expected, for in 
 dry weather the guano does not an- 
 swer well, or even does injury. But 
 if the crop suits, always prefer ma- 
 nuring the plant or hill ; do this while 
 hoeing ; less guano is thus used, and 
 more certain effects result. One ta- 
 blespoonful to the hill of corn, tobac- 
 co, potatoes, &.C., is an abundance for 
 each application. If a solution be 
 preferred, mix one pound in ten gal- 
 lons of water, and water sparingly 
 with this on the soil, and not o?i the 
 plants, at the limes before mentioned, 
 taking care to stir up the insoluble 
 portion when applied. For this pur- 
 pose, the African variety wall be most 
 suitable ; or, where rapid growth is 
 wanted, irrespective of seed, the clear 
 solution may be applied, the insolu- 
 ble matter (phosphates, &c.), being 
 reserved for wheat and corn. Guano 
 may be composted with common soil, 
 or anything but lime and unleachcd 
 ashes, for these liberate the free am- 
 monia, and thus diminish the effects 
 of the manure. 
 
 Value, compared with other Ma- 
 nures. — So far as the experiments in 
 England and Scotland may be addu- 
 ced, one cwt. of guano is equal to 
 about five tons of farm-yard manure 
 on an average ; but it is much high- 
 er for turnips than for grass, &c. 
 GUDGEONS. " In machinery, the 
 
 Gtrsi 
 
 pins inserted in the extremities of a 
 shaft, or the axle of a w-heel, on which 
 it turns, and which support the whole 
 weight. In order to diminish friction, 
 gudgeons are made as small as pos- 
 sible in diameter, leaving, however, 
 sufficient strength to support the 
 weight. They are frequently formed 
 of cast iron, on account of its cheap- 
 ness ; but wrought iron of the same 
 dimensions is considerably stronger, 
 and will support a greater load." 
 
 GUINEA CORN. Egyptian corn 1 
 Indian corn. 
 
 GUINEA FOWL. See Poultry. 
 GUINEA GRASS. JAMAICA 
 GRASS. Panicum polygamum. A 
 valuable perennial grass, thus denom- 
 inated, as it was first discovered on 
 the coast of Guinea. It was brought 
 to Jamaica, where it is now exten- 
 sively cultivated, and forms the means 
 by which so much cattle is raised 
 there. It grows from four to six feet 
 high. Cattle eat it, both in a fresh 
 and dry state, with great avidity. 
 
 " In spring," says Mr. Lawrence, 
 of South Carolina, " I procured from 
 Jamaica three half pints of Guinea 
 grass seed, which I planted in the 
 drills of one fourth part of an acre of 
 very indifferent land ; the seed sprung 
 up and soon covered the ground with 
 grass four feet high and upward. Be- 
 ing desirous of saving as much seed 
 as possible, I cut one bundle of grass 
 for the horses : they ate it all with 
 great avidity. 
 
 " In August I took one of the grass 
 roots and divided it into twenty- 
 eight parts, which were immediate- 
 ly replanted ; every part took root, 
 and the whole are now growing very 
 finely and seeding. I am of opinion 
 this grass will make the best pasture 
 i we can wish for. From former ex- 
 ! perience, I have reason to believe the 
 I Guinea grass is perennial. It is ea- 
 sily managed, requires but one good 
 hoeing, after which it will take care 
 ' of itself" 
 
 GUINEA PEPPER. Common red 
 pepper. Capsicum annuum. 
 
 GUINEA PIG, or CAVY. Cavia 
 cobaija. A small rodent animal of six 
 J or seven inches in length, light colour, 
 353 
 
oi:m 
 
 GYP 
 
 and herbivorous ; a native of South 
 America. It is considered a delicacy 
 in Italy ; the skin is also valuable. 
 The female brings forth from ten to 
 fourteen young at a litter, carries 
 young three weeks, and bears every 
 two months in warm weather. 'J'hey 
 are very cleanly, and cannot endure 
 cold. 
 
 GULA. The region of the throat 
 nearest, the lower jaw. 
 
 GUM. A concrete juice, the prod- 
 uct of most vegetables. There are 
 many varieties, all reducible to two 
 kinds : soluble, or true gums, which 
 dissolve in water, forming mucilage, 
 and are insoluble in alcohol ; and in- 
 soluble, or tragacanth gums, which 
 soften and swell in water, but are not 
 soluble. It consists of Ci.o Hio Om, 
 and is readily converted into grape 
 sugar by the action of dilute sulphu- 
 ric acid. It is an aliment similar to 
 sugar and starch, serving to sustain 
 animal heat, and probably to produce 
 fat. It so nearly resembles starch 
 that has been heated until slightly 
 brown, that the difference between 
 them in physical qualities is scarce- 
 ly apparent. The yolk of wool is 
 sometimes called gum. See Yolk. 
 
 Fruit-trees often exude gum : this is 
 considered a disease, and may arise 
 from the punctures of insects ; but, 
 according to some, is also an indica- 
 tion of a poor soil, requiring putres- 
 cent manures. Various names, as 
 Bassortn, Arabin, Ccrasin, &c., are 
 given to specimens of gum from dif- 
 ferent trees. 
 
 GUM RESIN. A concrete juice, 
 obtained in various ways from plants, 
 partly soluble in water, and partly in 
 alcohol, as gamboge, aloes. 
 
 GUNNEY BAGS. Coarse. sack- 
 cloth, made in the East Indies for 
 packing. 
 
 GUTTA SERENA. Blindness 
 without loss of transparency in the 
 eye. 
 
 GYMNOCARPI (from yv/ivoc, na- 
 ked, and KapTToc, a fruit). The second 
 division of Persoon's Fungi, including 
 those that have their sporules in an 
 exposed dilated membrane or hyme- 
 nium, as Agancus, Boletus, Helvella. 
 356 
 
 GYMNOSPERMIA, GYMNO- 
 SPERMS (from yvfivo^, and oTzepfia, a 
 seed). Plants having naked seeds ; at 
 present this feature is said to be pe- 
 culiar to the Conifer a and Cycadcce. 
 Linnffius erroneously made it an order 
 of Didijnamia. The seeds of gymno- 
 sperms are, in truth, situated in car- 
 pels imperfectly closed, the aggregate 
 of which forms the cone. 
 
 GYNANDRIA (from yvvrj, a wom- 
 an, and avr]p, a man). A Linnsean 
 class, in which the stamens and pistil 
 are consolidated into a column. It 
 consists principally of the Orchidacea. 
 
 GYNOPHORE (from yvvt], and 
 (pepu, I bear). The stalk on which 
 some ovaria are elevated, as in the 
 passion flower. 
 
 GYPSUM. Native sulphate of 
 lime, found chiefly in the tertiary and 
 new red sandstone. It occurs crys- 
 talline, fibrous, and massive. Com- 
 mon plaster of Paris consists of lime, 
 33 ; sulphuric acid, 46 ; and water, 
 21 per cent. ; it is soluble in 400 parts 
 water. By heating to redness, the 
 water is partly driven off, but the sul- 
 phate is unchanged ; the heated or 
 boiled plaster is used as cement for 
 plastering and moulding ; it is objec- 
 tionable in agriculture, from setting 
 as a hard crust upon moist stems or 
 leaves. The ground plaster is used 
 extensively in husbandry, and is very 
 advantageous to clovers, beans, lu- 
 cern, and leguminous crops generally ; 
 on turnips and cabbages it is also ser- 
 viceable. The dose is from one to 
 five bushels, scattered broad-cast in 
 the morning or evening upon growing 
 plants soon after cropping, &c. It 
 does not seem to answer on natural 
 meadows, cerealia, umbelliferous, or 
 chenopodaceous plants, or on wet 
 places, very poor lands, or near the 
 seacoast. It is most serviceable on 
 new and manured soils. 
 
 Gypsum powder is extensively 
 used in composts in stables, putres- 
 cent manures, and urine tanks, as it 
 absorbs and fixes some portion of 
 the volatile ammonia, converting it 
 into the sulphate ; it is not, however, 
 so good for these purposes as green 
 vitriol. 
 
IIAC 
 
 Gypsum undoubtedly acts chiefly 
 by supplying plants with sulphur, as 
 was suggested by Davy. M. Boussin- 
 gault, however, seems to believe that 
 it does no more good than the same 
 amount of mild lime. It is not of 
 itself a specilic manure for all soils, 
 but is serviceable from the general 
 poverty of lands in sulphur. Ashes 
 of peat and other plants contain from 
 three to fi%'e per cent, of sulphate of 
 lime. 
 
 GYRATE. Twisted round in cir- 
 cles. Gyrate (Estivation. 
 
 GYRI (from joipof, a circle). The 
 annular series of scales on the tails 
 of some quadrupeds. 
 
 GYROGONITES. Fossil seed- 
 vessels of Characea. 
 
 H. 
 
 HABITAT. In natural history, 
 the natural abode of animals, plants, 
 &c. 
 
 HACK. The roadster, or horse 
 of all work. 
 
 HACKBERRY, HAGBERRY. 
 Cellis crasstfolia. A tree chiefly 
 abundant in the central Western 
 States, also called hoop-ash. In Del- 
 aware and the Middle States it is not 
 a large tree, but in Ohio sometimes 
 attains eighty feet. The wood is 
 white, but soft, light, and decays rap- 
 idly : it is used for fences in Ohio 
 and Kentucky. The Indians use it 
 for baskets. It is of very rapid 
 growth. 
 
 HACKLE. A board set with iron 
 spikes for pulling to pieces hemp or 
 flax. An artificial fly used by an- 
 glers. 
 
 HACKMATACK. The American 
 larch. There are two species {Larix 
 ■pcndula and L. microcarpa). They are 
 principally found in Canada and New- 
 foundland, but exist scattered in the 
 Northern and Eastern States. They 
 are so nearly alike as to be consider- 
 ed varieties, attain 100 feet height by 
 three diameter, are straight, and pro- 
 duce strong and durable timber su- 
 perior to the European larch or any 
 American pine. They are esteemed 
 admirable timber in Canada, and used 
 in Mame for ship knees. They are 
 
 HAL 
 
 very similar in habits and appearance 
 to the European larch. 
 
 H.E.MATITE. Iron ore. 
 
 H-EMATOSIN (from uiiMa, blood). 
 The red colouring matter of blood. 
 
 H.^MATOXYLIN (from (li,ua, 
 and ^vlov, wood). The red dye ex- 
 tracted from logwood. 
 
 HAEMORRHAGE (from di/ia, and 
 payTj, rent). A flow of blood, either 
 from an accident or from a full state 
 of body. In the case of wounds, if 
 severe, it may proceed from a torn 
 artery that should be tied with a lig- 
 ature. Constitutional ha3morrhages 
 require blood-letting and a low diet. 
 
 HEMORRHOIDS. Piles. As- 
 tringent ointments are useful in com- 
 mon cases. 
 
 HAIL. Atmospheric water con- 
 gealed into lumps of some size, often 
 measuring an inch across. It is al- 
 together different from snow, in oc- 
 curring during the spring and sum- 
 mer. Hail is produced only during 
 violent winds, which carry a great 
 deal of moisture into the upper re- 
 gions of the air, where it becomes 
 solidified by extreme cold. In Eu- 
 rope losses from hail can be met by 
 insurance in companies founded in 
 the same way as those against fire. 
 
 HAINHAULT SCYTHE. See 
 ScT/lhe. 
 
 HAIR. Slender tubes of animal 
 matter analogous to horn. It is an 
 admirable non-conductor of heat. 
 
 Refuse hair ranks as a manure 
 with skin or glue, producing the same 
 results by decay : woollen rags are the 
 most familiar kind used in this way. 
 
 HAIRS. In botany, transparent 
 tubes of cellulose inserted into the 
 epidermis ; they are totally dissimi- 
 lar from animal hairs, in containing 
 no nitrogen. Cotton is an instance 
 of hairs attached to seeds. 
 
 HAIR GRASS. The genus Aria. 
 
 HALCYONID-E. A family of fis- 
 sirostral birds, of which the kingfish- 
 er is the type. 
 
 HALESIA. The snow-drop tree 
 
 (H. tctraptcra) ; ornamental trees of 
 
 South Carolina, introduced into the 
 
 I shrubberies of the Middle States. 
 
 I HALHYDRATES. Salts in which 
 
 357 
 
HAR 
 
 liAR 
 
 the combined water of the acid be- 
 comes a component of the salt. 
 
 H A I. O G E N (from a?.f, a sail)- 
 Bodies which unite directly with met- 
 als, without any previous oxidation, 
 and form salts, as chlorine, sulphur, 
 fluorine : their compounds are term- 
 ed Haloid salts. 
 
 HALTICA. A genus of small 
 coleopterous insects, remarkable for 
 their readiness in leaping. The tur- 
 nip flea is a familiar species. 
 
 HAM. The thick part of the leg. 
 See Hog. 
 
 HAMES. The wooden or iron col- 
 lar pieces to which the traces are at- 
 tached. 
 
 HAMMER BEAM. A horizontal 
 timber from or near, but above the 
 foot of a rafter, acting as a tie. 
 
 HAMSTER. Muscricctus. A kind 
 of rat found in the north of Europe, 
 which makes extensive stores of food. 
 
 HAND. A measure of four inch- 
 es, used in estimating the height of 
 horses. The fore leg of a horse or 
 other animal. 
 
 HARD WATER. Water contain- 
 ing salts of lime, especially gypsum. 
 It is softened by adding a little soda- 
 ash or ammonia. 
 
 HARICOTS. See Beans. 
 
 HARE. The genus Lc;>us, herbiv- 
 orous rodents, often a great annoy- 
 ance to farmers. They are readily 
 taken in traps. 
 
 HARL. The refuse skin of flax 
 and hemp. 
 
 HARNESS. The gearing of hor- 
 ses. It should fit well, or galls are 
 produced. The harnessing of steers 
 has been recommended to obtain more 
 effective labour. 
 
 HARRIERS. A breed of dogs used 
 for hunting hares. 
 
 HARPALUS. A genus of prcda- 
 ceoHs coleopterans. 
 
 HARROW. The common form 
 of this implement is a triangle or 
 rhomboid, set with straight iron spikes 
 four or more inches long ; these tear 
 the surface recently ploughed, pul- 
 verizing the lumps, and covering seed 
 slightly. The frame is of ash or oak, 
 but sometimes of iron. Other har- 
 rows, with curved teeth, for tearing 
 358 
 
 out and carrying along weeds, are 
 also used, called extirpators, or scar- 
 ifiers. See Cultivator. The expand- 
 ing harrow, in which the distance of 
 the bolts of the frame can be set ac- 
 cording to circumstances, is a conve- 
 nient instrument. 
 
 The following, from Mr. Geddes, is 
 thought an excellent instrument. The 
 
 'il|i!| I i '111 
 
 sketch is on a scale of one fourth of 
 an inch to the foot : 
 
 " Description. — Timber, three inch- 
 es square. 
 
 " The side pieces should enter the 
 centre pieces so that the acute angle 
 will contain thirty-five degrees ; or 
 the bevel may be found by laying a 
 carpenter's square on a board, and 
 measuring on one side of the corner 
 three inches, and on the other two 
 inches and one twelfth of an inch ; a 
 line drawn through these points will 
 make a triangle, having the smaller 
 angle, that is, the angle at the point 
 where the three inches reached — the 
 angle required. 
 
 " The tenons should enter the cen- 
 tre pieces only one inch, the mortice 
 and tenon being cut square with the 
 centre pieces, as shown in the en- 
 graving. If this joint is well made, 
 the bolt passing through both sticks 
 will keep the timber in place perfect- 
 ly, the side pieces have each three 
 bolts, X, X, X, passing through the 
 middle, to prevent their splitting. The 
 back hinge is made of Swede's iron, 
 bolted, at A, B, C, D, E, F, on the tim- 
 ber with half inch bolts. These bolts 
 
HAR 
 
 HAR 
 
 should be well made, and have large I nowed and stored in granaries, and 
 
 heads on the lower end, as ifanything 
 breaks, it probably will be these bolts 
 
 " The forward hinge is made with 
 Swede's iron, and bolted on the top 
 of the timber, with three bolts in each 
 side of the hinge. 
 
 " The hook plays freely in an eye 
 
 the straw is reserved till winter, when 
 it forms the chief fodder of liorses 
 and cattle. In tiiese regions the har- 
 vest is a continued feast ; no unge- 
 nial weather disappoints the hopes of 
 the husbandman ; but in northern 
 climates, where the harvest is later, 
 
 on the end of a rod, made of round I and cold rains and storms are fre- 
 
 iron, five eighths of an incii in diame- 
 ter, which runs through both hinges, 
 having a washer, nut, and spring key 
 behind the back hinge. The eyes in 
 the hinges should be the thickness of 
 the iron above the timber, conse- 
 quently the rod running through the 
 eyes will be that much above the 
 timber. 
 
 " The hinges should be four and a 
 half feet apart from centre to centre. 
 
 " The centre pieces should be one 
 inch apart. 
 
 " The side pieces should be twelve 
 or thirteen inches apart in the clear, 
 measuring square across. 
 
 " The four teeth in the centre pie- 
 ces require to be made straight on 
 one side, instead of having the point 
 in the centre, as their places are near 
 the sides of the timber. 
 
 " The teeth should be seven eighths 
 of an inch square, and thirty to the 
 harrow." 
 
 The common bueh harrow, con- 
 sisting of a bundle of bushes fastened 
 
 quent in autumn, the ingenuity is oft- 
 en taxed to save the corn from being 
 entirely spoiled, after it has been sev- 
 ered from the ground ; roomy barns 
 are erected to secure it in the straw 
 till it can be thrashed. 
 
 " To lessen the casualties of har- 
 vest, the experienced husbandman 
 endeavours to arrange the time of 
 sowing each kind of grain so as to 
 ensure its coming to maturity in a 
 regular succession. Thus he has 
 more time to attend to the precau- 
 tions of which experience has taught 
 him the utility ; and if the duration 
 of harvest is longer, there is less dan- 
 ger of all his crops being spoiled by 
 a wet season. 
 
 " It was long the custom through 
 the whole of the north of Europe to 
 store all the produce of the farm into 
 barns, especially the corn ; and it was 
 thought that as soon as the sheaves 
 were collected under a roof all dan- 
 ger was past. The increase of the 
 produce raised on most lands by an 
 improved system of agriculture gave 
 
 to an iron chain, or woven mto an 
 
 old gate or wooden frame, is much rise to the practice of stacking corn 
 used for rubbing seeds into the soil. [ in the open air, and securing it by a 
 When the shrubs are thorny, it an- 1 covering of thatch. It was soon 
 swers to scarify natural meadows af- [ found that the grain thus stored in 
 ter manure is applied. The Fig. on p. ; the straw was better preserved than 
 120 represents a simple bush harrow, j that which was in the barn ; and the 
 
 HARTSHORN SPIRIT. Solution 
 of ammonia. See Nitrogen. 
 
 HARVEST. "In those southern 
 climates where the heat and want of 
 moisture are not too great for the 
 
 mvention of stone or cast-iron pillars 
 as supports for the frames on which 
 the grain was stacked, not only se- 
 cured it from the depredations of ver- 
 mm, but kept it in a much drier state 
 
 growth of corn, the only care of the I tlian when the stacks were made on 
 farmer is to procure hands sufficient ! the ground. This was a great im- 
 
 to reap it. The heat of the sun and 
 air soon dry the straw and harden the 
 grain. A spot is levelled in the field, 
 and the corn is thrashed out imme- 
 diately, either by the tread of cattle 
 driven over it, or by the flails of nu- 
 merous thrashers. The corn is win- 
 
 provement ; and now, in the best- 
 managed farms, the only barns re- 
 quired are those in which the corn is 
 thrashed ; and if there is sufficient 
 room to hold the contents of ono 
 stack of the usual dimensions, it is 
 all that is absolutely required. 
 
 359 
 
HAR 
 
 HAW 
 
 " It may be admitted as a general i pointing downward, will not long re- 
 Tule in reaping, to cut the straw as tain the wet. 
 
 near to the ground as possible : this 
 is best done by an instrument called 
 a cradle scythe, which mows the straw, 
 and collects it so as to be readily 
 gathered into sheaves. 
 
 " The Hainault scythe has a very 
 short handle, and is used with one 
 hand, while the other collects the 
 straw into a sheaf by means of a large 
 hook at the end of a wooden rod. It 
 is a most useful instrument, and great- 
 ly preferable to the fagging-hook ; it 
 cuts more straw at each stroke, and 
 is less fatiguing to the reaper, be- 
 cause his position is nearly upright 
 when he uses it. In many places it 
 is not usual to tie up any corn into 
 sheaves, except rye, wheat, and beans. 
 Barley and oats are usually mown, 
 raked into heaps, and carried into the 
 stack or barn when dry, like hay ; but 
 this is a slovenly practice, which 
 should not be recommended. With 
 good tillage and proper manuring the 
 straw of barley and oats will be strong, 
 and of sufficient length to require be- 
 ing tied up into sheaves ; and much 
 less of the grain is shaken out and 
 lost in this way than by the usual 
 method. 
 
 " In rainy seasons it frequently 
 happens that the sheaves remain a 
 long time in the field before they are 
 sufficiently dry to be carried and 
 stacked. If the ears are not secured 
 from the wet, they become soaked, 
 and the grain sprouts in the ear. 
 This is a great loss ; for sprouted 
 grain is very inferior, and can only 
 be sold at a low price. A little atten- 
 tion will often prevent the bad effisct 
 of rains. In some places six or eight 
 sheaves are set up in a circle, with 
 the butt-ends diverging, so as to admit 
 the air to circulate among them ; a 
 sheaf is opened by spreading out the 
 ears, and is placed, inverted, over the 
 ears which lean against each other, 
 forming a truncated cone. Thus the 
 butt-end of the top sheaf is the only 
 part in which the rain can lodge ; 
 and the first sunshine will soon dry 
 this : the rain runs off the sides of 
 the inverted sheaf, and the ears, 
 360 
 
 " When the stack is building, the 
 butts of the sheaves are placed out- 
 ward, and project gradually over the 
 sides of the frame, and over one an- 
 other, so as to build the stack in the 
 form of a bowl, with a cone or pyra- 
 mid over it, according as the frame 
 is round or square ; this is carefully 
 thatched with straw, and the outer 
 surface is cut smooth by means of 
 shears. This not only saves all the 
 ears which chance to lie outward, 
 and which would have become the 
 prey of birds, but it also prevents the 
 rain from beating into the stack and 
 injuring the corn. It may then be 
 considered as safe. 
 
 "Where there are no raised frames, 
 and the stack is built on the ground, 
 or on a bottom made of fagots to 
 keep it dry, a belt of plastering or 
 stucco is sometimes laid, a foot wide, 
 round the stack, about 18 inches from 
 the ground, after the surface has been 
 cut quite smooth and even. This 
 contrivance is intended to prevent 
 the rats from lodging in the stack, 
 and it is very effective. A frame 
 made entirely of iron, and supported 
 upon iron columns, has lately been 
 invented. It may readily be taken to 
 pieces and put together again when 
 it is wanted. The advantage of it 
 is, that it is cheaper and more easily 
 moved than any other, and it is very 
 convenient for a temporary purpose." 
 —{W. L. Rham.) 
 
 HASTATE. A descriptive term in 
 botany : shaped like the old halbert. 
 HATCHEL. A carding-comb or 
 hackle. 
 
 HAUGH. Meadow or pasture land. 
 HAUSTELLATES. Insects fur- 
 nished with a proboscis for suction. 
 HAWK. The genus Falco. They 
 prey upon birds. IMartens and crows 
 are remarkable enemies to the hawk . 
 species. 
 
 HAULM. The stalks of pease and 
 beans, chiefly. 
 
 HAWTHORN. Mcspilus oxyacan- 
 tha. This thorny shrub or small tree 
 is also called whitethorn, May, and 
 quickset. It is abundantly used in 
 
HAY 
 
 HAY 
 
 England as a hedge plant ; with prop- 
 er trimming it forms a dense growth, 
 and its thorns protect the plant from 
 destruction by cattle. Tlie seeds of 
 the previous year are kept in wet 
 sand during the winter, and sown in 
 spring in drills in a light soil to pro- 
 cure plants. The seedlings may be 
 set out in two years, and by a little 
 care will form a hedge in three to 
 five more. Many native thorns would 
 answer equally well. 
 
 HAY. Grass or clovers cut and 
 cured for cattle. Well-cured meadow 
 hay, seasoned with one peck of salt 
 to the load, is the standard of fodder 
 for cattle and horses ; about 30 lbs. 
 daily is allowed as suitable' food for 
 a horse or ox in work. Boussin- 
 gault found that the average amount 
 of flesh-making food in good meadow 
 hay was 7 per cent., but that after- 
 math sometimes contained as much 
 as 12, and hay from wet places as 
 little as 6 per cent. There is a prej- 
 udice against after-math, probably ari- 
 sing from its being cured in an infe- 
 rior manner to grass of the first crop. 
 Mow-burned hay is pecuUarJy inju- 
 rious to horses. 
 
 It is the result of the experience 
 of many French farmers that grass 
 and clover are much more nutritious 
 wlien given in the green state than 
 when dry, if the same amount of food 
 be contained in both parcels, or omit- 
 ting the water. The conversion of 
 these and other herbs into hay is at- 
 tended with a fermentation which 
 reduces the amount oi flesh substance 
 tliey contain. 
 
 Horses require as much water as 
 hay when fed on it only ; but the prac- 
 tice is beginning to be extended of 
 steeping the hay in water for an hour 
 before feeding, by which animals are 
 induced to feed much cleaner. Hay 
 tea is made by introducing the hay 
 into hot or boiling water, but this 
 does not seem to be better than mere- 
 ly saturating it with fluid by steeping, 
 and giving the water, as well as the 
 hay, to the animals. 
 
 Large quantities of hay are shipped 
 from the Northern and Northwestern 
 States for the South ; it is pressed by 
 Hii 
 
 screws into trusses, and bound with 
 cords and slips of wood. 
 
 HAY-MAKING. The first point 
 IS the proper season to cut the grass 
 or clover ; this would seem, in the 
 case of some grasses, to be a doubt- 
 ful question, as the quantity is very 
 much increased when the crop is in 
 seed ; but usually the rule is to cut 
 when in full flower; by this means 
 more and better hay is obtained, and 
 the soil is less exhausted. 
 
 There are two ways of making hay : 
 1st. By laying the swath to dry thor- 
 oughly, turning it during the day, or 
 even tedding or spreading it abroad 
 thinly. This is, towards evening, 
 collected in small cocks ; these are 
 spread out the next day into wind- 
 rows and turned, again put up into 
 larger cocks towards night, and ex- 
 posed the third day before being ta- 
 ken to the mow or stack. By this 
 means the grass is thoroughly dried, 
 but the plan is very tedious and un- 
 successful where succulent plants 
 like clover are to be made into hay. 
 
 The second and approved plan is to 
 allow the swath to be turned and 
 withered, piling the grass, &c., in 
 smaU cocks of 200 lbs. by midday, if 
 cut before breakfast ; in this situa- 
 tion a sweating process or fermenta- 
 tion occurs, attended by heat and an 
 exudation of moisture, which tends 
 to cure the hay rapidly. The next 
 morning, the cocks should be exam- 
 ined, and if the heat is abated the 
 grass may be tedded for a short time, 
 and carried to the stack or barn by 
 noon. It is here to be stacked with 
 from one to three pecks of salt to the 
 ton, will heat again slightly, but, if not 
 too green, cures beautifully, affording 
 very fine hay. Some farmers prefer 
 putting it in stack with strata of good 
 straw, especially in the case of clo- 
 ver ; heat is thus avoided and the 
 straw enriched as food ; it also saves 
 some of the salt. 
 
 By this process, broad-cast corn 
 and other green, succulent stems can 
 be cured, if sufficient time be given 
 them to sweat. 
 
 Hay is often put up into tempora- 
 ry stacks, and removed after a few 
 361 
 
HAY 
 
 HAY 
 
 days, or at a convenient season, into 
 larger masses : in Enf^land the stack 
 often contains forty or more tons ; it 
 is carefully thatched, and portions 
 cut out by a Inife for use. Tlie cu- 
 bic yard of stacked hay weighs ICO 
 to 180 lbs., and, when old, 200 lbs. 
 
 After-math is usually depastured, 
 the manure dropped answering to ad- 
 vance the next crop if properly scat- 
 tered. In some parts of France and 
 Germany the green grass is thrown 
 into pits with one bushel of salt to 
 the load, and allowed to ferment ; it 
 is afterward closed in with boards, 
 and earth placed upon them ; thus a 
 kind of sour kraut hay is formed, 
 which, it is said, cattle prefer. 
 
 HAY-MAKING MACHINES. An 
 instrument to scatter, or ted, is much 
 used in Europe : it consists of a frame 
 of many spokes supported on an axle 
 •with two wheels ; the frames carry 
 curved teeth like rakes, and revolve 
 with the wheels ; the rakes carry for- 
 ward the hay and scatter it thorough- 
 ly. It is drawn by a horse. 
 
 The Horse Rake is a large rake 
 made of wood, and six to ten feet 
 long, before which a horse is hitched ; 
 it is furnished with a couple of han- 
 dles behind to enable a man to lift it 
 up when necessary. 
 
 Revolving Hay Rakes are made on 
 various plans, of which the following 
 appears the simplest. 
 
 This rake consists of two heads, A, 
 A, and two sets of teeth, B. B ; the 
 heads being connected together by 
 connecting rods, C, C, and end bars, 
 D, D. The end bars also form a 
 groove in which the slide pin (K, in 
 the end view) moves from one head 
 to the other every time the rake re- 
 volves. The horse is attached to the 
 rake by hooking the trace chains, G, 
 H, into staples driven into the under 
 side of the cross bar, F, F. The 
 rake is held by the teeth, which serve 
 for handles when they are up, and 
 for teeth when on the ground. 
 
 HAY PRESS. The following is 
 a convenient form ; it is sometimes 
 called Lampman's press. 
 
 It consists of four upright posts 
 strongly framed together, within 
 which is a chamber of stout plank 
 of the size of the intended bundle of 
 hay. The press is firmly fixed be- 
 tween the lofts of a barn, the hay be- 
 
HED 
 
 ing thrown in above, and the horse 
 power applied to the sweep (8) and 
 screw (6) below. The sides of the 
 chamber are opened to remove the 
 pressed hay by doors hung upon roll- 
 ers (18), and the upward pressure of 
 the screw is resisted by a strong cap 
 (4), which is pushed backward or for- 
 ward at pleasure. 
 
 HAY KNIFE. It consists of a 
 stout blade furnished with a handle 
 at right angles, or, in another form, 
 of a blade somewhat like a spade, the 
 handle being above, and the cut made 
 by pressing downward. 
 
 HAY STACK, or RICK. See 
 Stack. 
 
 HAY TEA. The infusion made 
 by pouring boiling water over hay ; it 
 is said to replenish the udders of 
 cows, cause horses to stale freely, 
 and to be verv nutritious. 
 
 HAZEL. See Filbert. 
 
 HEADING TREES. The opera- 
 tion of cutting down the stem or 
 main shoot, to diminish the height 
 and cause the tree to throw out hori- 
 zontal or bearing limbs. 
 
 HEAD LANDS. The places 
 where the plough turns in ploughing. 
 
 HEART. The central hollow 
 muscle which receives the blood and 
 drives it over the system. 
 
 HEART WOOD. The central, 
 old, and coloured wood of trees : it is 
 the most durable. The duramen. 
 
 HEAT. See Caloric. 
 
 HEATH. Waste lands covered 
 with heath plants, species o{ Erica. 
 
 HEAVY SPAR. Sulphate of ba- 
 rytes ; it has a specific gravity of 4 1 
 to 4 6, and is used to adulterate 
 white-lead. 
 
 HECKLE. An instrument for sep- 
 arating the fibres of flax. See Flax. 
 
 HECTIC FEVER. A fever oc- 
 curring in debilitated persons. 
 
 HEDGE. A row of small trees or 
 shrubs, properly pruned, and serving 
 as a fence between fields. The haw- 
 thorn, Virginia thorn, holly, buck- 
 thorn, Osage orange, red cedar, ar- 
 bour vitae, form good hedges, espe- 
 cially the first four ; the honey locust, 
 privet, pyrus japonica, elder, and oth- 
 er plants are also occasionally used. 
 
 HED 
 
 The young plants, at two to three 
 years old, are to be removed from the 
 nursery to the hedgerow, either in the 
 fall or early spring, the tops being 
 pruned away. The line of hedge 
 should be first well ploughed and pre- 
 pared ; it will be of service to enrich 
 it with well-rotted peat, mould, or 
 manure ; it may be two feet wide, 
 and if the soil is not very well drained, 
 a ditch, one foot deep, may be dug on 
 each side, and the earth cast up on the 
 middle. The plants are to be weed- 
 ed, and pruned in the fall to one third 
 their height, and afterward managed 
 by foreshortening untd of sufficient 
 height and bushy ; they may be placed 
 in quincunx order, and somewhat in 
 clined across the ground of the hedge. 
 While young, the plants are to be 
 protected from cattle by fencing. Old 
 hedges which have become too tall, 
 or show little verdure, may be re-es- 
 tablished by cutting a part of the 
 main stems to the soil, and allowing 
 the stools to throw up new shoots. 
 In this kind of trimming, the stems 
 are to be cut upward with the bill, 
 and not downward, for, in the latter 
 case, the stem is often split ; water 
 lodges and rots it, in some measure. 
 
 Worn-out hedges do not succeed 
 if replanted with the same trees ; a 
 new line must be chosen or new trees 
 used. In repairing gaps, it is often 
 necessary in an old hedge to plant 
 dissimilar shrubs, or to cut out the 
 soil with a spade and introduce some 
 that is new. 
 
 There is a method of repairing 
 hedges which is called plashing. It 
 consists in cutting half through some 
 of the stems near the ground, and 
 then bending the upper parts down in 
 a horizontal or oblique position, keep- 
 ing them so by means of hooked sticks 
 driven into the bank. Thus a live 
 hedge is made, which fills up the gaps 
 in the same manner as a dead hedge 
 would have done, and the bent stems 
 soon throw out shoots. If the stems 
 are young, and not above the thick- 
 ness of a finger, an excellent hedge 
 may be thus formed, which, when 
 clipped, wdl be close and perfectly 
 impervious ; but the work is gen- 
 363 
 
HEL 
 
 erally done in a very injudicious man- 
 ner. When a hedge is plashed which 
 has been long neglected, the thick 
 stems which are hacked through, 
 leaving only a small portion of the 
 under bark uncut, have an unsightly 
 appearance, and seldom throw out 
 shoots near the bottom, where they 
 are most wanted. To plash a young 
 hedge, by merely bending the twigs, 
 is an excellent practice ; but when 
 the stems are thick and old, the only 
 remedy is to cut them down, or make 
 an entirely new bank well planted 
 with quick. 
 
 Hedges are highly ornamental and 
 durable, lasting, with care, for fifty 
 or more years ; they require clipping 
 in spring, and, when well established, 
 are a perfect protection ; they are 
 particularly worthy of attention to 
 the prairie farmers. Fruit-trees, es- 
 pecially cherries, grapes, and plums, 
 may be made use of as mere parti- 
 tions between fields, when trained on 
 espaliers. Hedges are also various- 
 ly curved and bent over, or breasted 
 for ornamental purposes. 
 
 Instruments used in hedging. — A 
 small hoe is necessary for weeding, 
 a hooked knife to trim short branch- 
 es ; sometimes large shears are used, 
 and a bill or small axe to cut the 
 larger branches. 
 
 HEDGEHOG. The name of a 
 genus of useful insectivorous mam- 
 mals (Erinaceus), of service to the 
 farmer by destroying worms, slugs, 
 and insects. They hibernate durmg 
 cold weather in holes dug in the 
 earth. 
 
 HELIOTROPE. A pretty flower. 
 A silicious mineral of a green colour 
 with red spots ; bloodstone. 
 
 HELIX (from t?j^, a %rhorl). A 
 genus of shell animals, including the 
 garden snails ; they are mjurious to 
 herbage, and may be kept off by 
 sprinkling with lime, or destroyed by 
 catching with the hand. 
 
 HELLEBORE. A genus of plants 
 remarkable for their purgative prop- 
 erties. Hellehorus fatidus is a native 
 of the United States ; they are very 
 dangerous and uncertain drugs. 
 
 HELMINTHOLOGY (from Vjuvr, 
 304 
 
 HEM 
 
 a worm, and 'Xoyo^, a discourse). The 
 history of worms of various kinds. 
 
 HELOPID.^^. A family of hetero- 
 meran, coleopterous insects. Some 
 of the species infest the bark and 
 roots of trees. 
 
 HELVE. A handle. 
 
 HE.MATIN. Synonyme of Hcema- 
 toxylin. 
 
 HEMATITE. Synonyme of Ha- 
 matite. 
 
 HEMATOSIN. Synonyme of Ha- 
 matosin. 
 
 HEMELYTRA (from vfiiavc, half, 
 and e'AvTpov, a sheath). The wings 
 of hemipterous insects : the upper 
 wing-cases, half of which only is co- 
 riaceous, the rest being delicate. 
 
 HEMEROBIANS (from iifiepa, a 
 day, and (3^o(:, life). Short-lived in- 
 sects of the neuropterous class, re- 
 sembling the May fly ; they lay their 
 eggs on plants, and the larva; devour 
 plant-lice, and thus subserve the pur- 
 poses of the orchardist. 
 
 HEMIGAMOUS. A descriptive 
 term in essays on grasses, meaning 
 that one of two florets in a spikelet 
 is neuter. 
 
 HEMIPTERA (from rjiiLavg, and 
 TTTepov, a wing). Insects having four 
 wings, the upper pair of which is 
 only half coriaceous, or which are 
 half horny and half membranous ; 
 they are haustellate. The larvae have 
 six feet, and resemble the imago ; 
 after a few moultings they increase 
 in size and acquire wings. 
 
 HEMLOCK. Comum tnaculatuin. 
 An umbelliferous plant, with peren- 
 nial roots, flowering in July ; branch- 
 es much spread and dotted ; leaves 
 very compound. It is narcotic, and 
 often injures cattle. 
 
 HEMLOCK-TREE. Ahics Cana- 
 densis. It grows abundantly in the 
 northern portions of the United States 
 and the British Provinces. It is a 
 good timber-tree, and often attains 
 very great dimensions. 
 
 HEMP (Cannabis sativa, Fig.). A 
 dioeceous annual of the family Urii- 
 cacetB, cultivated for the large amount 
 of fibre it produces in the year ; the 
 seeds are also serviceable as fatten- 
 ing food, when given in small quanti- 
 
 i 
 
HEMP. 
 
 ty, and yield, by expression, from 25 
 to 30 per cent. oil. The leaves of the 
 plant are poisonous, and a steep made 
 with them is of great use in the gar- 
 den to annoy insects. 
 
 Cukicatio'n. — Hemp requires a rich, 
 deep soil, aboundmg in vegetable mat- 
 ter, a grass ley is admirable; it is to 
 be well plouglied and made fine ; the 
 seed, to the amount of li to 3 bush- 
 els, is commonly sown broad-cast in 
 April and .May, when the frosts have 
 disappeared. The seed is either har- 
 rowed or ploughed in shallow. The 
 hemp is ready for cutting from the 
 middle of August, as soon as the 
 leaves of the male plants turn yellow 
 and drop off. It is cut with a harp 
 hook or short scythe. Half an acre 
 can be cut and an acre scythed in the 
 day by a good hand when it is not 
 overgrown. The cut stalks are even- 
 ly laid on the ground, and require a 
 week of good weather to dry : a show- 
 er is no disadvantage. Some persons 
 pull the hemp, but this is slower work, 
 and produces less perfect lint, while 
 the roots are a great inconvenience. 
 
 The dried plants are next to be tied 
 into sheaves, and put up into a rick 
 to preserve them from the effects of 
 moisture during hot weather. The 
 roof must be closely made of long 
 hemp, the leaves of which are beaten 
 off. Some beat all the leaves off, 
 Hh2 
 
 hut this is unneccssarj' labour, for if 
 the plants are well dried, they will 
 be knocked off in handling. The best 
 time to spread the hemp for dew rot- 
 ting is December, but where the crop 
 is large, a commencement is made in 
 the middle of October. The hemp 
 stems may be kept without injury in 
 stacks for one or two years. Judge 
 Beatty urges that the proper rotting 
 ground is the hemp field, for the la- 
 bour of hauling is much diminished ; 
 the plants manure the land, and it is 
 kept free from the treading of cattle. 
 The u-bUer-rotled is lighter and better 
 than that of autumn ; the hemp is 
 sufficiently rotted when the stems 
 lose their rigid appearance, the bun- 
 dles of fibres begin to be disengaged 
 from the cellular tissue, and the lint 
 begins to separate from the stalk. 
 When ready to he taken up, it should 
 be put in upright shocks of 150 pounds; 
 as soon as it is dried the tops may be 
 bound with a hemp band sufficiently 
 tight to keep out rain. It is now to 
 be broken, frosty weather being best ; 
 this should be completed before the 
 warm weather of spring : 100 pounds 
 per day is fair work with the com- 
 mon brake. Good lands yield from 
 750 to 1000 pounds of hm the acre ; 
 and if it be rotted on them, and no 
 seed taken, seven or ten crops may 
 be taken after one another. For the 
 production of seed, the hemp is sown 
 in drills or hills ; if the latter, they 
 are placed four feet apart ; a dozen 
 seeds are dropped in each hill, and 
 covered an inch. The soil must be 
 very rich, and well prepared ; the 
 ground is to be kept free of weeds at 
 first by the plough, and subsequently 
 by hoeing ; the plants are next to be 
 thinned to four or five when six inch- 
 es high, and again to three in a hill. 
 As soon as the plants are in full blos- 
 som and the farina spread, the males 
 or flowering plants are to be cut from 
 each hill. The seed will be ripe in 
 September, when the plants are to be 
 cut early in the morning, and with- 
 out much jarring, or the seed will be 
 scattered. The plants are taken from 
 the ground when dry and set up in 
 shocks, the butts towards the earth. 
 365 
 
HEMP. 
 
 It should not be allowed to become 
 too wet, but a little moisture assists 
 the closing of the seed. In a week 
 or ten days it may be thrashed, by 
 beating the upper parts of the plant 
 upon a board ; the seeds separate 
 readily, and may be thrashed on the 
 field, for carriage leads to much loss. 
 The stems are of no use for lint, but 
 may be used for charcoal, or burned 
 to ashes as manure. Hemp seed 
 very readily spoils, unless well dried 
 before stored ; it is also much sought 
 after by rats. It is seldom so well 
 kept as to be worth sowing after the 
 first season. The crop of seed is 
 from 20 to 40 bushels, which sells at 
 upward of $1 the bushel. The lint 
 is worth from $90 to $180 the ton. 
 
 Water-rotting hemp is not much 
 practised, from prejudice and from 
 the little demand for it near the coun- 
 try markets, but the offer of the gov- 
 ernment to pay $280 the ton has in- 
 duced many to attempt it. The best 
 place is in running streams, a suffi- 
 cient space or pit being set off for 
 the operation ; it may be planked or 
 bricked, or a frame like that for flax 
 may be used. The dry bundles of 
 hemp are used. The following is 
 Professor Lowe's account of water- 
 rotting : 
 
 "The bunches are generally placed 
 in the pool in rows, crossing one an- 
 other, and pressed down by some 
 heavy substance laid upon them, so as 
 to be kept from rising to the surface, 
 care being, at the same time, taken 
 that they are not so loaded as to be 
 forced down to the bottom. If the 
 weather be warm, four or five days 
 will frequently be sufficient ; if not, 
 two or three more ; but the period is 
 denoted by the stem being so soften- 
 ed that the outside coat shall come 
 easily off. Care must be taken, as 
 in the case of flax, that the putrefac- 
 tive process does not proceed so far 
 as to injure the cortical fibres. The 
 quantity put into one pool may be the 
 produce of an acre. The steep liquor 
 is poisonous ; hot-water rotting, with 
 the use of soap, as in the preparation 
 of flax, is partially used in Europe, 
 and is a great saving in time. 
 366 
 
 " When the hemp is thus steeped, 
 it is. like flax, taken out of the pool 
 and carried away to a plot of sward, 
 on which the plants are spread singly 
 and regularly. 
 
 "The hemp thus spread out lies 
 three, four, or more weeks upon the 
 surface, and is turned over not less 
 than .twice a week. It is thus sub- 
 jected to the farther influence of the 
 rains and dews, and the decomposi- 
 tion of the ligneous part of the stem 
 is promoted. By this process, the 
 stem becomes hard and brittle. 
 
 " When the hemp is seen to be in 
 a state for removal, it is taken from 
 the ground, bound into bunches, and 
 carried home to the barn, where it 
 undergoes the process of bruising by 
 the machine called a brake, as in the 
 case of flax. 
 
 " When thus prepared, it is bound 
 up in bunches, generally weighing a 
 stone each, and carried to market. 
 The hemp which breaks off in the op- 
 eration is technically termed shorts, 
 and is half the value of the long 
 hemp." 
 
 It should be remarked that, with 
 proper care in bleaching, rotting, and 
 raising hemp, a fibre may be obtained 
 capable of being wrought into excel- 
 lent linens. The preparation of the 
 stems by steam is said to give the 
 fibre great delicacy and whiteness ; 
 the waste is also said to make good 
 paper. Hemp is nearly free from 
 diseases. 
 
 The ijistruments used to prepare 
 the staple are similar to those for 
 flax, but larger ; the brake (Fig.) is 
 
 considerably larger, being six or more 
 feet long ; it is made of white oak. 
 The hemp is sold after breaking, the 
 sutching, hackling, &c., being done 
 by the manufacturer 
 
 i 
 
HEN 
 
 HER 
 
 HEMP SEED. It forms an ad- 
 mirable food for birds and poultry in 
 small quantity, and may also be used 
 m fattening animals, when sufficient- 
 ly cheap. The oil is used for soap- 
 making and painting, in varnishes 
 and printers' ink. It is expressed in 
 the ordinary way ; the refuse or cake 
 is as good as oil cake for cattle or 
 manure. A bushel of seed yields 6 
 to 8 lbs. of oil, and 23 of cake. Very 
 rich seeds atford 25 per cent. oil. 
 
 HEMP, SUBSTITUTES FOR. 
 Numerous plants yield a strong and 
 abundant fibre besides hemp, and have 
 been recommended for cultivation in 
 its place. The principal of these are 
 the Chinese nettle {Urtica nicea)\ 
 hemp, or Siberian nettle ( U. cannabi- 
 7ia); golden rod, several varieties of 
 broom plants, sunflowers, okra, aloes, 
 and especially the Yucca filamentosa, 
 which grows abundantly on poor 
 soils in the Carolinas and South. 
 The Sisal hemp is from a Mexican 
 agave ; the A. Americana also furnish- 
 es much fibre when the leaves are 
 prepared ; but, with the exception of 
 some of the nettle plants, none ap 
 proach the hemp in the amount of 
 lint they produce. 
 
 The genus Apocynum yields some 
 good hemp plants, of which A. can- 
 7uihinum, or Indian hemp, is best 
 known. It has a perennial root, and 
 throws up shoots two to four feet tall 
 annuallv- 
 
 HEMP, CHEMICAL COMPOSI- 
 TION OF ITS ASHES. The stem, 
 dried at 212° Fahrenheit, yields 4-54 
 per cent, ash, the leaves 22 per cent. 
 Composition : 
 
 Tlie plant (Kane). Seeds (Leucbtweiss). 
 
 Potash and soda 
 Lime and magnesia 
 Pliosphoric acid . 
 Sul|]huric acid 
 Chlorine, ahimina, 
 sand, and iron . 
 
 •20 
 
 46-93 
 
 3-22 
 
 110 
 
 22-33 
 27-63 
 34-72 
 0-18 
 
 15-14 
 
 j 40-55 . 
 
 IW- 1U(F~ 
 
 From this we gather that hemp is 
 a lime plant, and will be much bene- 
 fited by that manure, and also see 
 why the seed crops are so exhausting, 
 as they draw a large proportion of 
 bone earth from the soil. 
 
 HENBANE. Hyoscyamus 7iigcr. 
 
 This narcotic herb grows to a small 
 extent in Northern New-York. It is 
 biennial, and the leaves are active in 
 the second year of its growth. It is 
 an excellent medicine, and no danger 
 may bo apprehended from animals 
 touching it, as they always avoid the 
 plant. If swallowed by children, an 
 emetic should be instantly given. 
 
 HENTING FURROW. Two fur- 
 rows lying in different directions. 
 
 HEPATIC (from jjirap, (he liver). 
 Relating to the liver. 
 
 IIEPATIC/E. A family of flow- 
 erless plants, resembling mosses, and 
 growing in damp places. 
 
 HEPTANDRIA, HEPTAN- 
 DROUS. Flowers with seven sta- 
 mens. 
 
 HERBACEOUS. Of the succu- 
 lent texture of an annual plant. 
 
 HERBAL. An account of plants ; 
 a collection of plants. 
 
 HERBARIUM. A collection of 
 dried plants. 
 
 HERBIVOROUS. Eating herbs. 
 
 HERD. A number of beasts. 
 
 HERD'S GRASS. Agrostis stricla. 
 The red-top of the North, an indige- 
 nous perennial grass in wet places. 
 See Grasses. 
 
 HERMAPHRODITE. An animal 
 or plant in which there is a real or 
 apparent concurrence of the genera- 
 tive organs of both sexes. It is most 
 common in plants, and is also found 
 among some of the lower inveftebrate 
 animals. In the higher orders it is 
 unnatural. 
 
 HERMETICALLY SEALED. 
 When the glass of a vessel is fused 
 so as to be perfectly closed on all 
 sides. Entirely shut up. 
 
 HERNIA. A rupture or protru- 
 sion of any part of the body, espe- 
 cially of the intestines. It is to be 
 returned to its place, and kept there 
 by bandages and trusses. Hernias 
 often prove fatal. When the intes- 
 tine cannot be returned by the hand, 
 recourse is to be had to an operation, 
 which, however, requires considera- 
 ble skill. 
 
 HERPETOLOGY(from ipKeroc, a 
 reptile). The natural history of rep- 
 tiles. 
 
 367 
 
HERRING. A migratory fish, of 
 the genus Clupea, resembling shad in 
 flavour, but much less in size. 
 
 HESPfJRlDIUM. In botany, a 
 many-celled, few-seeded, superior, 
 indehiscent fruit, covered by a spongy, 
 separable rind ; the cells easily sep- 
 arable from each other, and contain- 
 ing a mass of pulp, in which the seeds 
 are imbedded .- example, the orange. 
 
 HESSIAN CRUCIBLE. A melt- 
 ing-pot made of fine clay and sand ; 
 the small sizes are much used in the 
 laboratory to fuse metals, &c. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY. See Wheat In- 
 
 HETEROCEPHALOUS (from ire- 
 poc, various, and /ce^a?,??, a head). In 
 composite flowers, when some heads 
 contain male, and others female flow- 
 
 HETEROGAMOUS (from trepoc, 
 and ya/iof, marriage). When the 
 spikelets of the same grass contain 
 dissimilar sexes, or when the flower 
 heads of compositae contain florets 
 with different sexes. 
 
 H E T E R O G Y N I A (from erepoc, 
 and yvvrj, a female). A tribe of hy- 
 menopterous insects, as the bee and 
 ant, in which one female is neuter 
 and another fertile. 
 
 HETEROMERANS (from ertpof, 
 and fi7ipoc, a leg). A class of coleop- 
 terous insects, having the first and 
 second pairs of legs with five joints 
 in the tarsus, and the third pair with 
 only four. 
 
 HETEROPTERANS (from [repoc, 
 and TVTepov, a wing). A tribe of he- 
 mipterous insects, in which the upper 
 wing cases terminate abruptly by a 
 membrane. 
 
 HETEROTROPAL (from erepof, 
 and TpetTu, I turn). When the em- 
 bryo of a seed lies across it, but does 
 not point towards its base or apex. 
 
 HEXAGYNIA. With six pistils. 
 
 HEXANDRIA. With six stamens. 
 
 HEXAPODS (from ef, six, and 
 TTODf , a foot). A tribe of wingless in- 
 sects with six feet. 
 
 HIBISCUS. A genus of mucilagi- 
 nous plants of the Malvaceous family. 
 
 HICKORY. Carya. An Ameri- 
 can genus of trees resembling the 
 3G8 
 
 HIP 
 
 walnut. They all produce a hard, 
 compact, but coarse-grained wood, of 
 great strength. The shag-bark (C. 
 alba) and the Southern pecan-nut 
 (C. anguslifolia) produce the best 
 fruit. The hickories do not flourish 
 far North, but require a temperate 
 climate and good soil ; most of them 
 require a moist soil, especially the 
 shell-bark and pecan-nut ; the com- 
 mon hard-bark (C. tomcntosa) is, how- 
 ever, partial to a drained soil. The 
 pig-nut hickory (C. porcina) is the 
 largest variety, often rising to 90 feet, 
 and produces wood equal, if not su- 
 perior, to the other species. 
 
 Hickory wood is very liable to in- 
 sects, and decays soon when exposed 
 to changes of moisture and heat. It 
 is much used for axletrees of car- 
 riages, wooden screws, cogs, handles 
 of various kinds, especially hand- 
 spikes. The young trees form the 
 best hoops for casks. 
 
 The wood forms the best fuel of 
 our forests, from its density. 
 
 HIDE. The strong skin of horses, 
 oxen, &c. Green hides just removed 
 from slaughtered animals are alto- 
 gether superior for the tanner. Dry 
 ing by exposure to the sun, and rub- 
 bing with ashes, or salting, make il 
 more difiicult to thoroughly tan after- 
 ward. 
 
 HIDEBOUND. A condition of the 
 skin of animals when it seems to ad- 
 here to their bones. It is usually 
 the result of want of care, or a symp- 
 tom of disease. Slight purging and 
 alteration of food, with better care, 
 will alter this state. 
 
 HIDE, or HIDE OF LAND. An 
 ancient measure of from 100 to 150 
 acres. 
 
 H I L U M. The scar on a seed, 
 where the funicle is attached, or 
 where it is united with the carpel. 
 
 HIPPOBOSCA. A genus of vi- 
 viparous, two-winged insects, which 
 prey on horses and other animals ; 
 the forest flies are of this race. 
 
 HIPPURIC ACID (from Itvttoc, a 
 horse, and ovpov, urine). An acid exist- 
 ing in combination w'ith soda, in the 
 urine of horses, cows, and persons eat- 
 ing certain vegetables. It is separated 
 
 I 
 
HOC. 
 
 hoc; 
 
 hy muriatic acid, and, when pure, is 
 f'lvstallized in sillcy needles. It is 
 .sli<,rhlly bitter, soluble in hot water 
 and alcoliol. The formula is NCis 
 lis O5 -\- Aq. for the crystals. It is 
 converted by heat into benzoic acid, 
 ammonia, and prussic acid. Any quan- 
 tity of this acid can be formed by ta- 
 king doses of benzoic acid, which be- 
 comes transformed into hippuric. Its 
 compounds with bases are called hip- 
 puratcs. 
 
 HIRCIN. The fluid fat separable 
 from suet, which gives it the peculiar 
 odour resembling the smell of goats. 
 By saponifying, hircic acid may be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 HIRSUTE. Set with stiff hairs. 
 
 HIRUDIN.^. The tribe of leeches. 
 
 HIRUx^DO. The genus of swal- 
 lows. 
 
 HISPID. Set with minute spines, 
 or stiff bristles. 
 
 HISTER, HISTERID.E. A fam- 
 ily of coleopterous insects with live 
 joints on each tarsus, and belonging 
 to the section of Clavicornes. They 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 
 
 are peculiar from the quickness with 
 which they feign death when in dan- 
 ger. 
 
 HIVES. See Beehives. 
 
 H O A R F R O S T. Frost attended 
 with the precipitation of much watery 
 vapour. 
 
 HOARY. In descriptive botany, 
 covered with short hairs, so as to have 
 a white or frosted appearance. 
 
 HOE, HAND. The practice of hoe- 
 ing, though laborious, is eminently 
 useful in pulverizing the soil, admit- 
 tmg air, warmth, and dew. Soils, 
 well broken and rendered fine, are 
 very much more fertile than when al- 
 lowed to bake and become hard. Land 
 siiould be hoed when hard and par- 
 tially dry, especially about young 
 plants. The figure of the hoe is al- 
 tered to suit different tillage. The 
 common hoe and grubbing hoe are 
 familiarly known. Fig. 1 represents 
 the head of the Spanish hoe for weed- 
 ing. Fig. 2 is the thrust hoe, for the 
 same purpose. Fig. 3 is a useful com- 
 pound hoe, the fork of which may be 
 
 ;. Fig. 3. 
 
 -1 
 
 used first on stiff lands, and the blade 
 
 afterward. Some hoes, for weeding 
 
 small plants, are made with the blade 
 
 O cut into two or more 
 
 I teeth : they enable the 
 
 /\/\ gardener to scrape the 
 
 y ^ ^ earth about young plants 
 
 very effectively. 
 
 HOG. " The hog is one of the do- 
 mestic animals which is most widely 
 dispersed through the world, and 
 yields to no other in its usefulness. 
 It lives and thrives on every kind of 
 food, vegetable or animal. It grazes 
 like the ox, and will even eat hay ; 
 and its stomach can digest what few 
 other animals could swallow with im- 
 puiiitv. The sow bears two litters 
 in the year, having from eight to 
 twelve, and even sometimes eighteen 
 or twenty young at a time. No ani- 
 
 mal converts a given quantity of corn 
 or other nutritive food so soon into 
 fat, or can be made fat on so great a 
 variety of food. 
 
 "The food of the hog in a wild state 
 is grass, roots, acorns, beach-mast, 
 and wild fruits. 
 
 " There are many varieties of the 
 domestic hog. The brindle hog most 
 nearly resembles the wild species ; 
 but although the flesh is savoury, he 
 does not fatten so soon, nor is he so 
 profitable as the more indolent and 
 softer-skinned sorts are. The great 
 quality of a hog is his power of di- 
 gestion : the more rapidly he fattens, 
 and the earlier he can be made to in- 
 crease in flesh without increasing in 
 bone, the better is the breed. Some 
 of the small hogs which are brought 
 from Chma are remarkable for this 
 369 
 
HOG 
 
 quality, as well as for their prolific 
 nature ; and when, by judicious cross- 
 ing, the size is increased, they are a 
 very profitable breed. The Chinese 
 pig (Fig. 1) is short in the head, with 
 Fig.l. 
 
 small ears, very wide in the cheek, 
 high in the chine, and short in the 
 leg. When a sow of this breed is 
 hea\7 in pig, her belly generally drags 
 on the ground. The young pigs of 
 the Chinese breed, especially the 
 white variety, are excellent for roast- 
 ers, at three weeks or a month old. 
 They are small and fat, with little 
 bone, and their skin is very delicate. 
 They also make excellent "porkers at 
 about three months old, when kept 
 for some time after weaning on the 
 refuse of the dairy. They may be 
 kept fat from the time they are wean- 
 ed till they are fit to be killed for ba- 
 con ; and although they do not come 
 to a great size, they will pay very 
 well for their food if killed at a twelve- 
 month old. 
 
 " The breed that is nearest to the 
 Chinese is the SnfTolk. They are 
 generally white, with the ears point- 
 ed and rather forward ; they are broad 
 in the chest and loins, short and com- 
 pact : they make fine bacon hogs at 
 twelve or fifteen months old, weigh- 
 ing from twelve to fifteen score when 
 killed. The sucking pigs and pork- 
 ers are also very delicate. The Es- 
 sex breed is mostly Wack and white ; 
 the pure breed, however, is said to 
 be quite black, and is so nearly al- 
 
 lied to the smootli Neapolitan breed, 
 which has scarcely any hair, that we 
 cannot help supposing a consanguin- 
 ity between them. \Mien crossed 
 with the Neapolitan, they produce a 
 breed which fattens at a very early 
 age, and to an astonishing degree. A 
 breed of this cross, carefully select- 
 ed by Lord Harborough, has gained 
 the first prizes for fat pigs at the 
 Smithfield annual Christmas shows 
 for several years past. They were 
 fed extravagantly, no doubt, but at 
 twenty-two weeks old they were so 
 completely covered with fat that their 
 feet were scarcely to be seen ; and 
 if they could stand, which is doubtful, 
 it is certain that they could not walk." 
 Mr. Coleman speaks favourably of a 
 grass breed raised in New- York : 
 " This is a hog, raised with little oth- 
 er feed than clover pasturage for the 
 first six months, of a white colour, 
 with black patches sprinkled over him, 
 long and well formed, of good thrift, 
 and who, with good keeping, at eigh- 
 teen months old is easily brought to 
 400 and 500 pounds weight." 
 
 " The Neapolitan hog is black, 
 without any hair, very plump, with 
 pricked ears. No breed can excel it 
 in the aptitude to fatten. The sows 
 often become so fat on very scanty 
 food, that they will not breed : they 
 are extremely tender, and if they hap- 
 pen to have litters in wmter, it is dif- 
 ficult to save the young pigs from dy- 
 ing in cold nights. A cross of the 
 Neapolitan with some of our hardier 
 breeds greatly improves their useful- 
 ness, without injuring their aptitude 
 to fatten : the best cross is with the 
 Berkshire, which is a well-shaped hog 
 [Fig. 2), with short legs, small ears, 
 broad chines and loins, and good hams. 
 
 " From the prolific nature of the 
 hog, it is not difficult to select the 
 
 370 
 
HOG. .y 
 
 best indivuhials to breed from. In 
 every litter there will be pigs better 
 formed than the iif''><'''alil^y> a"tl by 
 careful selection of these any breed 
 maybe soon much improved without 
 crossing ; but experience teaches that 
 when the sows and boars are too 
 nearly related, the fecundity grad- 
 ually diminishes ; and by continually 
 breeding from the same stock the 
 sows at last produce only two or three 
 diminutive pigs at a litter. Hence 
 the advantage of frecjuent crossing. 
 To restore fecundity no breed is so ef- 
 fectual as the Chinese. A breed com- 
 pounded of the Berkshire, Chinese, 
 and Neapolitan may, by careful se- 
 lection, produce every (juality which 
 can be desired ; numerous litters, 
 early fatting, and fine hogs for bacon 
 at twelve or sixteen months old, are 
 the result of care and judicious breed- 
 ing. Fig. 3 represents the Bedford 
 or Woburn hog. It is large, hardy, 
 and well-formed, generally white, va- 
 riously spotted, with small limbs and 
 head, and fattening rapidly. 
 
 " The black hogs are preferred, on 
 the whole. They are much less sub- 
 ject to diseases of the skin than the 
 white, and the sun affects them less 
 in sunuuer. For sucking pigs or 
 porkers many prefer the white, mere- 
 ly for the appearance, for the black 
 skin is in general the finest. 
 
 " There are some very large 
 breeds, which have been recommend- 
 ed under the idea that, in a large hog, 
 the bone and ofllil are less in pro- 
 portion to the flesh than in a small- 
 er. But these large breeds do not 
 come so soon to maturity. They 
 cannot be profitably put up to fatten 
 till eighteen or twenty months old, or 
 more ; and although some of them 
 may make hogs of thirty or forty 
 score when killed, they are so long 
 fatting, and require so much food, 
 that it is very doubtful whether they 
 pay for it as well as the smaller. For 
 delicate bacon, the hogs killed at a 
 twelve-month old, and weighing ten 
 or twelve score, are much preferred, 
 and we are inclined to think that they 
 -.3. 
 
 are most profitable. When hams are 
 the principal object, the hogs should 
 be killed before they are so fat as 
 they might be ; and the carcass is 
 then cut up and pickled, instead of 
 being converted into dry bacon. To 
 keep hogs profitably, a regular system 
 should be pursued both in the breed- 
 mg and feeding. Proper hog-sties 
 should be constructed with chambers, 
 in which the pigs of different ages 
 and the breeding sows may be kept 
 separate. The food should be pre- 
 pared for them by boiling or steam- 
 ing in an apparatus conveniently pla- 
 ced, and the greatest cleanliness and 
 regularity should be maintained. It 
 Is a great mistake to suppose that the 
 
 hog loves dirt. If he can keep him- 
 self clean he will do so ; and the wal- 
 lowing in the mud is not from a love 
 of dirt, but from a heat and itching in 
 the skin in warm weather, which is 
 relieved by rolling in the cool mud 
 If hogs have plenty of clean straw 
 and clean water they never will be 
 dirty, and nothing makes them thrive 
 so quick or pleases them more than 
 being washed and curried regularly. 
 If the hogs are not closely confined, 
 they will always lay their dung at a 
 distance from the place where they 
 sleep or feed, and in all well-construct- 
 ed sties there should he a small yard 
 to each apartment in which the hogs 
 can deposite their dung. 
 
 371 
 
iKx;. 
 
 *' When a sow is lujar the 1 ime of 
 farrowing, wiiich is four months after 
 she has taken the hoar, she should be 
 put in a sty by herself, with a mod- 
 erate quantity of straw, for if tlicre 
 be too jfreat an abundance she is ai)t 
 to lie down on the young pigs when 
 they bury themselves in the loose 
 straw. Sows, although very careful 
 of their pigs, are very apt to lie on 
 them, especially when any of them 
 are near a wall : to prevent this, it is 
 very useful to have a ledge of wood 
 six inches wide, and six inches from 
 the ground, all round the stye, so that 
 she cannot lie down close to the wall ; 
 and if a young pig should be acci- 
 dentally behind her, he can take ref- 
 uge behind the ledge, and thus es- 
 cape being lain upon. When no pre- 
 cautions are taken, one fourth of a 
 litter is often lost in the first day or 
 two after they are born. Some sows 
 have the unnatural propensity of eat- 
 ing their young pigs as soon as they 
 drop : good feeding will prevent this 
 in some measure, but attention at 
 the moment of farrowing is the sa- 
 fest and surest preventive. When 
 once the young pigs have sucked, 
 much of the danger is past. 
 
 " A sow with many pigs should be 
 well fed ; bran and meal, with milk 
 or whey, are the best food ; grains, 
 where they are at hand, are excel- 
 lent ; and it is useful to let the sow 
 go out to graze in a meadow or clo- 
 ver field for an hour or two every day, 
 shutting up the pigs during that time 
 till they are a fortnight or three weeks 
 old, when they may accompany the 
 sow. A sow will live many years, 
 and bring numerous litters, and the 
 older she is the better luirse she is in 
 general. When a sow has ten or 
 twelve pigs at a litter, and two litters 
 in the year, one in spring and anoth- 
 er in autumn, she is too valuable to 
 be killed, and ought to be kept as long 
 as she will breed. But otherwise it 
 is very profitable to let a young sow 
 have a litter at ten months old, and 
 spay her immediately ; she will then 
 fatten most readily as soon as the 
 pigs are weaned, and the bacon will 
 be as good as that of a maiden pig. 
 372 
 
 Whenever a sow does not bring a 
 sufficient number of pigs, or is not a 
 good nurse, or has overeaten any of 
 her pigs, she should be spayed and 
 lattened immediately. The young 
 I)igs intended to be kept for stores or 
 for porkers are castrated or spayed 
 at a month or six weeks old. The 
 males are then called harrmv pigs, and 
 when fatted make the best bacon. 
 They are usually put up at a twelve- 
 month old, and fatted in three or four 
 months. At first they have potatoes 
 raw or boiled ; pumpkins, artichokes, 
 apples, brewers' grains, are all ex- 
 cellent mixed with bran, or bean meal, 
 or they have dry beans and water. 
 After they are half fat they should 
 have pease meal, corn meal, flax 
 meal, and water, unless in a dairy, 
 where they have the skimmed milk 
 or whey. Hogs fattened on potatoes 
 only do not make so good bacon as 
 those which are fatted on corn. Po- 
 tatoes are an excellent food for store 
 pigs, and may be given boiled and 
 mixed with meal in the early part of 
 the fatting process ; but beans and 
 pease make the firmest flesh, and 
 corn meal the sweetest. Before a 
 hog is killed he is usually fed for 
 some time on corn meal and water 
 alone, given as thick as porridge, and 
 very little, if any water is given to 
 him. This last rule is often carried 
 to too great an extent. Much water 
 will make the food pass through too 
 rapidly, and it will not be digested, 
 but the hog should never sufTer from 
 thirst, or he will not thrive. Before 
 a hog is killed he should be kept with- 
 out food for twelve hours at least ; 
 he may, however, have water. He 
 should be killed without giving him 
 more pain or causing more struggling 
 than is necessary, by a resolute stab 
 with the knife in the lower part of 
 the neck, where the knife may sever 
 the large artery which comes direct- 
 ly from the heart. The blood should 
 be allowed to flow freely till it is all 
 out of the body. The hog, if intend- 
 ed for salt pork, must then be scald- 
 ed with water not quite boiling, and 
 well scraped, to take off the hair with 
 the cuticle ; but for bacon it is best to 
 
HOG. 
 
 singe the hair by burning straw over 
 the body, and tlien scraping the skin. 
 Care must be taken not to allow the 
 .'^kin to be burned so as to crack. The 
 hog is then hung up, and the entrails 
 taken out. Tlie inside of the body 
 is washed clean with a cloth or sponge 
 dipped in water, that no blood may 
 remain, and the next day the hog is 
 cut up. The head and feet are cut 
 off, the chine is taken out, and the 
 upper part of the ribs, with the back 
 bone, are cut out, leaving as much 
 flesh as possible adhering to the fat 
 outside. The small ends of the ribs 
 remain attached to the bacon." 
 
 The preserved flesh of the hog is 
 termed pork when placed in brine, 
 and bacon when dried. The prepara- 
 tion of pork for shipping, especially to 
 England, is a matter of importance. 
 The following is the English method, 
 as published by Messrs. Hitchcock 6c 
 Co. : 
 
 " Pork is cut into four or six-pound 
 pieces, according to the size of the 
 hog. Where the carcass weighs two 
 hundred and fifty and under, it is cut 
 into four-pound pieces ; large hogs 
 are cut into six-pound pieces. The 
 hog is first split through the back 
 bone in half ; then passed to the 
 trimming-block, where the half head 
 and legs axe cut off, the leaf and ten- 
 der-loin taken out, and the whole side 
 split lengthwise through both the 
 shoulder and ham, and as near the 
 centre as is consistent with the prop- 
 er shape and size of the different pie- 
 ces. From the trimming-block the 
 strips pass to the scales, where the 
 weight is ascertained and called to 
 the man at the cutting-block, who di- ; 
 vides each strip into the requisite 
 sized pieces. Both the splitting and 
 piercing require skill and judgment, 
 as much depends upon having the 
 pieces well and sizably cut. From 
 thence it goes to the rubbing-table, 
 where each piece is thoroughly rub- 
 bed in salt in the same manner as in 
 curing bacon. After the salt has been 
 well rubbed in, it is put into pickling 
 tubs, holding from three to five hun- 
 dred pounds, well covered with salt, 
 but no water or brine added. Here , 
 Ii 
 
 I they remain Irom eight to ten days. 
 
 ] It is then taken tothewashing-trougU 
 
 or vat, where each piece is thorough- 
 
 ; ly washed in clean brine, trimmed, 
 
 I and tormented, as the process of try- 
 
 i ing is called, to ascertain that it is 
 
 j properly cured and free from taint. 
 
 It is then messed and weighed, so 
 
 I that the requisite number of pieces 
 
 j shall weigh exactly the number of 
 
 ; pounds for the barrel or tierce. It is 
 
 1 then put up in the proper package, 
 
 and freely salted while packing, and 
 
 , saltpetre added at the rate of a 
 
 I common wineglassful to the hundred 
 
 I pounds. The last layer is pounded 
 
 in by a heavy iron weight, and capped 
 
 with coarse salt. It is then passed 
 
 to the cooper, who puts in the head, 
 
 and puts on to the barrel one, and on 
 
 to the tierce at least three iron hoops 
 
 at each end. The package is then 
 
 filled with clean strong brine, bunged 
 
 tight, branded, and is then ready for 
 
 market. 
 
 " The great utility of this method 
 of curing consists in the certainty ot 
 the meat keeping in good condition 
 for years in any climate. The blood 
 gets all drained out of the meat be- 
 fore it is barreled, and hence one 
 great cause of injury is avoided. I 
 saw pork and beef which had been 
 two years in the barrel, which was as 
 sweet as when first put up, and the 
 brine was perfectly clear. The large 
 hogs, or heavy pork, which is uni- 
 formly cut in six-pound pieces, is 
 packed in tierces, and is then called 
 India or navy pork. The four-pound 
 pieces are put in barrels. 
 
 " A barrel of prime pork should 
 contain from 25 to 30 pieces, cut 
 from the ribs, loins, chines, and belly 
 pieces, all lying between the ham 
 and shoulder, forming what is called 
 the broadside or middle. Three hands 
 and two hind-leg pieces, or three 
 hind-leg pieces and two hands, and 
 fifteen or twenty pieces from other 
 parts of the hog, except no part of 
 the head. The meat must be of prime 
 quality, firm, and well fattened, cut 
 into four-pound pieces, exactly fifty 
 to tlie barrel, and weigh not less than 
 two hundred pounds nett, and must 
 373 
 
HOG. 
 
 have a good capping of St. Ubes, or 
 other coarse salt. This is indispen- 
 sable. Bacon mess,p()rk is so called 
 when the full proportion of prime 
 pieces in prime mess is withheld : 
 there are, therefore, various classes 
 of bacon pork. Tierces contain the 
 same number, that is, lifty pieces of 
 six pounds, and the same rules as to 
 messing are to be observed as in the 
 barrel. The tierces must have not 
 less than three hundred pounds, and 
 well capped with salt. It is usual to 
 put in fifty-two pieces. In bacon 
 mess, the number of prime mess pie- 
 ces should be marked upon the head. 
 No part of the hog's head is allowed 
 in any instance." 
 
 Bacon differs from pork in being 
 dried. The following is the Hamp- 
 shire method, which is in the highest 
 repute in England, and makes the 
 best article ; the ham only is remo- 
 ved from the side, the shoulder and 
 middling being allowed to remain to- 
 gether, and called a side or flitch of 
 bacon : 
 
 " The hair is burned off with light- 
 ed straw, and the cuticle of the skin 
 scraped off. The carcass is hung up 
 after the entrails have been removed, 
 and the next day, when it is quite 
 cold, it is cut up into flitches. The 
 spare ribs are taken out, and the 
 bloody veins carefully removed ; the 
 whole is then covered with salt, with 
 a small quantity of saltpetre mixed 
 with it. Sometimes a little brown 
 sugar is added, which gives a pleas- 
 ant sweetness to the bacon. 
 
 " The flitches are laid on a low 
 wooden table, which has a small 
 raised border all round it. The table 
 slants a little, so as to let the brine 
 run off into a vessel placed under it 
 by a small opening in the border at 
 the lower end. The flitches are 
 turned and resalted every day: those 
 which were uppermost are put un- 
 der, and in three weeks they are 
 ready to be hung up to dry. Smo- 
 king the bacon is no longer so com- 
 mon as it used to be, as simply dry- 
 ing it is found sufficient to make it 
 keep. Those who, from early asso- 
 ciation, like the flavour given by the 
 374 
 
 smoke of wood, burn sawdust and 
 shavings in a smothered fire for some 
 time under the flitches ; when they 
 are quite dry, they are either placed 
 on a bacon-rack for the use of the 
 family, or are packed with wheat 
 chaff into chests till they are sold. 
 
 " The practice of cutting the hogs 
 into pieces and pickling them in a 
 vat, being attended with less trouble, 
 is very generally preferred when there 
 is only a sufficient number of hogs 
 killed to serve the farmer's family ; 
 but flitches of bacon, well cured, are 
 more profitable for sale." 
 
 The common method in the United 
 States is to kill in November to Jan- 
 uary, scald the carcass by immersion 
 in a hogshead of water heated by hot 
 stones, and rub off the bristles and 
 scarf-skin by knives : the chine, head, 
 and feet are also taken off. 
 
 In Virginia the side is cut into a 
 shoulder, taken off as far down as 
 the spare ribs, a middhng and ham ; 
 it is thoroughly salted, one bushel of 
 Liverpool salt serving for 1000 pounds 
 of pork ; this is mixed with one or 
 two pounds of pounded nitre. The 
 pieces are piled in a hogshead, the 
 hams being first put in, the shoulders 
 next, then the middlings, and on top 
 the necks, jowls, heads, &.c. There is 
 an admirable piece, called the round, 
 formed by cutting the neck close to 
 the head, and again off the side by 
 the upper spare rib. The pieces re- 
 main untouched from four to six 
 weeks ; they are then hung on laths 
 across rafters, shank downward, and 
 at least eight feet above the ground 
 in the smoke-house, and a smothered 
 fire made with corn cobs, hickory 
 and oak chips. At first they are 
 smoked three times a day, and later 
 but twice. The laths are moved ev- 
 ery week, so as to bring the different 
 pieces nearest the smoke. As the 
 weather becomes mild, a handful of 
 red pepper is thrown upon the fire 
 occasionally to annoy any insects in 
 the smoke-house. In six weeks or 
 two months the smoking is stopped, 
 the pieces are taken down, rubbed 
 with pounded red pepper, and hung 
 again, shank upward, until dry, till 
 
HOG 
 
 April or May. They are now taken 
 down, exposed to the sun lor a few 
 days, rubbed agahi with red pepper, 
 and if perfectly sound, are ready to 
 be stored ; this is best done in hogs- 
 heads, with fresh ashes, or in a per- 
 fectly dark dry room. Some cover 
 the hams with canvass, and coat it 
 heavily with whitewash, hanging I 
 them up until disposed of Dipping 
 the pieces in hot lye will kill mag- i 
 gots, skippers, and other enemies, ' 
 but the salts being deliquescent, the j 
 bacon remains always damp. There 
 is nothing superior to ashes, for it not 
 only hinders maggots, but keeps the 
 bacon from rats. 
 
 The Westphalian hams enjoy so 
 much reputation, that it may be ser- 
 viceable to give the method of cu- 
 ring ; we also add the most approved 
 English method : 
 
 " The method of curing hams in 
 the most celebrated districts is to 
 rub them very hard with bay or oth- 
 er salt, then leave them on a stone 
 bench, in order that the brine may 
 discharge itself In a few days the 
 rubbing process is repeated, about 
 half an ounce of saltpetre {nitrate of 
 putassa) being added to each ham. 
 "\^"hen they have continued about a 
 week longer on the bench, or in the 
 salting-tub, among the brine, they 
 are commonly hung up to dry in the 
 sides of large open chimneys ; some 
 have them exposed to the smoke of 
 wood, peats, coals, or other sorts of 
 fuel, while others carefully avoid hav- 
 ing them smoked ; and when not sold 
 sooner, they are continued in these 
 situations till the approach of warm 
 weather, when they are packed up in 
 casks with straw, or the chatTof oats, 
 and consigned for sale. Hams lose 
 about 20 per cent, of their weight in 
 drying. 
 
 " Hams may be cured in order to 
 resemble in taste those of Westpha- 
 lia, by the following process : Cover 
 a young ham of pork with dry salt ; 
 let it be for 24 hours to draw off the 
 blood, then wipe it perfectly dry, and 
 take one pound of brown sugar, a 
 quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half 
 a pint of bay salt, and three pints of 
 
 salt ; incorporate these mgrcdienta 
 in an iron pun over the fire, and stir 
 them continually till they acquire a 
 moderate degree of heat. In this 
 pickle the ham must be sutTered to 
 remain for three weeks, frequently 
 turning it, when it should be sus- 
 pended in a chimney for drying by 
 means of smoke from no other but a 
 wood fire. The smoke from oak 
 sawdust or shavings is the best for 
 imparting a fine flavour. This smoke 
 contains imperfectly-formed pyrohg- 
 neous acid, which is the agent that 
 communicates the flavour to the 
 Westphalia hams. In Dumfriesshire 
 the pickle for hams is sometimes 
 made with one half ale, which ren- 
 ders the hams shorter, and adds 
 greatly to the richness of their fla- 
 vour. The imports of bacon and 
 hams into England have greatly in- 
 creased, the duty being reduced to 
 lis. the cwt., or just half of what it 
 was for many years. On those im- 
 ported from British colonies, the duty 
 is 3^. 5(1. On hands in pickle, 6*." 
 
 '• Diseases of Hugs. — The diseases 
 of swine are generally the result of 
 want of care and cleanliness, or arise 
 from injudicious and irregular feed- 
 ing, and from their being kept in loath- 
 some and uncomfortable situations. 
 Is it to be wondered at that they be- 
 come subject to internal and cutane- 
 ous diseases ! Fortunately, they will 
 generally eat even when sick, and 
 salts (one to two oz.), sulphur (two 
 to three drachms), antimony, and 
 such like aperients, may be mixed 
 with their food for measles and simi- 
 lar disorders. If they will not eat, 
 there can, of course, be no cure ap- 
 plied. 
 
 " In swine-pox, sulphur may be 
 administered in small quantities, with 
 treacle, in the wash ; fresh brewer's 
 grains, or pollard, may also be given. 
 But lor cutaneous diseases in gen- 
 eral, an ointment formed of equal 
 parts of mutton suet and tar, with 
 the addition of a little sulphur, will 
 be found beneficial. 
 
 " In cases of surfeit, indigestion, 
 or injury from eating slightly poison- 
 ous matter, swine will refuse their 
 375 
 
iiO(;. 
 
 food, constantly lie down, and have 
 the stoniarli distended. In this case, 
 two heads of garlic, mixed with six 
 oz. of fresh butter, will aflbrd relief, 
 given every six hours. 
 
 "The most formidable of the dis- 
 eases to vvliich swine are liable is 
 inflammation of the lungs and other 
 internal parts ; this disease has been 
 known to destroy a fourth of the hogs 
 in a distillery in the course of a few 
 weeks. The chief indications of the 
 disease will be the distressing cough, 
 the heaving of the flanks, and the re- 
 fusal of all food. Bleeding must be 
 l)romptly resorted to, and moderate 
 purges cautiously administered. The 
 safest aperients are castor oil, or Ep- 
 som salts, after which the following 
 powder may be given : antiiiionial 
 powd., 2 grs., nitre, half a drachm. 
 
 " In cases of murrain, a species of 
 leprosy, which prevails chiefly in hot 
 seasons, the best advice that can be 
 given is to keep the animal cool, and 
 not to suffer any animal food to be 
 given. 
 
 " The health of swine is to be es- 
 timated by their cheerfulness, by the 
 gloss upon their coats, their skin 
 being wholly free from eruption. If 
 pigs snort on being disturbed, it is 
 an excellent sign of sound health and 
 good keep. The state of the excre- 
 ment or digestions will generally in- 
 dicate pretty correctly the thriving 
 condition of the animal ; for, unless 
 these are of a firm consistence, the 
 hog will not fatten rapidly. If store 
 or stock pigs are kept well and in 
 good condition, it will prevent most 
 of the diseases to which the animals 
 are subject, and they will also thrive 
 and fatten at half the expense when 
 shut up for that purpose. From the 
 confinement of the hog, and the na- 
 ture of his food, a description of in- 
 digestion takes place, with cutaneous 
 eruptions." 
 
 HOGSHEAD. An old measure 
 containing 63 wine gallons. A large 
 barrel in which sugar, tobacco, and 
 coarse produce are packed, contain- 
 ing from 10 to 14 cwt. 
 
 HOG'S LARD. The fat from the 
 kidneys, over the chines, intestines, 
 376 
 
 &c., is converted into lard for family 
 use and sale. Being separated from 
 skin and lean, it is to be put into a 
 copper or iron boiler, with water, and 
 melted thoroughly, being constantly 
 stirred with a wooden bat, lest it be- 
 come burned : a handful of salt is 
 added to the 100 lbs., and stirred in ; 
 as soon as it is well boiled it is to be 
 removed from the fire and passed 
 through a colander and closely woven 
 strong cloth into the wooden or earth- 
 en-ware vessels in which it is to be 
 kept. By straining in this way, all 
 the pieces of skin are separated. The 
 cracklings are well pressed in the 
 colander to obtain all the fat. A lay- 
 er of salt may be placed above the 
 top of the cold lard, the vessels closed, 
 and stored in a cool cellar. The 
 cracklings serve to "fatten poultry, or 
 may be kept for domestic soap. ^•-,^ 
 
 Lard consists ^f 38 stearin and 62 
 elain in 100 parts. These are now 
 separated for commercial purposes, 
 the formef resembling spermaceti, 
 aiW making admirable candles, the 
 latter affording the lard oil so exten- 
 sively used for lamps, wool dressing, 
 and maclWnery : it sells at from 75 cts. 
 to $1 the gallon. Indeed, lard itself 
 furnishes a good light when burned 
 in suitable lamps with short wicks. 
 
 From the low price of hogs in the 
 West, it has been found profitable to 
 render the carcass, excepting the 
 hams, into lard ; the lard is subse- 
 quently divided into the oil and stear- 
 in ; these processes are simple, and 
 fully explained by the following pa- 
 per of iMr. Stafford, of Cleveland, 
 Ohio. The skin is removed from the 
 parts steamed. 
 
 " The average Ohio hogs (common 
 breeds) will produce, when tried by 
 steam, 50 per cent, lard, after de- 
 ducting the hams and shoulders. 
 The plan now generally adopted is, 
 not to take out the shoulders ; the 
 sale for them is limited, and price 
 low ; the covering of fat will produce 
 more in lard than the expense of cu- 
 ring would warrant. The mixture 
 of the China and Berkshires, fed upon 
 potatoes or any other vegetable con- 
 taining starch as a principal food. 
 
HOG 
 
 would produce, when very fat, at 
 least 70 per cent., after taking out 
 only the hams. 
 
 •'The steaming apparatus is merely 
 a tub with a false bottom, perforated 
 with holes, lying about two inches 
 above the bottom. The steam is in- 
 troduced between tiie two bottoms, 
 and so entirely separates the fat from 
 the cells in which it was enclosed 
 that no pressing of scraps is neces- 
 sary. The bones, lean, and scrap 
 are left on the false bottom, and the 
 lard floats on the surface. With 
 steam, at a pressure of five lbs. to 
 the inch, it will require from 18 to 20 
 hours to try off a tubful of any given 
 quantity, steam in proportion, of 
 course ; 60 lbs. pressure would do it 
 in one third the time. Tiie great ad- 
 vantage of steam is, the whole of the 
 lard or tallow is produced, and there 
 is no danger of burning either. 
 
 " The quality of the lard is good, 
 but not equal to leaf lard or suet ; the 
 carcass fat does not contain as much 
 of the concrete principle (stearin). 
 Whole hog lard cannot be refined and 
 made hard without a portion of the 
 oil is extracted. I take from 20 to 40 
 per cent, of the oil ; then the balance 
 goes through several washings in 
 pure rain leaUr by steam, after which 
 it is refined lard. Tiie expense is 
 not more than one quarter cent per 
 pound, but it is of more value to us 
 than common lard, as we have a great 
 deal of trouble and expense with it ; 
 and in only extracting a portion of 
 the oil we would lose by it, did it not 
 command a better price in the mar- 
 ket, which it should from its purity. 
 
 " The bones are worth at least 
 half a cent per pound to calcine. 
 From them ivory black is made 
 (worth 2^ cents per pound), by char- 
 ring them in close iron vessels. 
 
 " I used to decompose the lard in 
 acid and neutral salts. When the 
 allinity between the parts is destroy- 
 I'll, I separate them by means of can- 
 vass bags placed in powerful screw- 
 presses. If I wish to make candles 
 of the residue, the pressure is con- 
 tinued until all the oil, by this means, 
 is forced out. The contents of the 
 Ii2 
 
 HOG 
 
 bags are then subjected to the action 
 of a powerful hydraulic press, and the 
 stearin pressed to dryness. 
 
 " To produce the winter oil, we 
 have to expose the decomposed lard 
 to the cold." 
 
 For the purpose of furnishing most 
 oil, the hogs are fed on oil cake, cot- 
 ton-seed cake, flaxseed, beech-nuts, 
 and anything that is full of grease. 
 
 The perfect separation of the stear- 
 in of lard and suet is the subject of 
 several patents, and belongs to the 
 department of manufactures, as the 
 process requires much machinery, 
 and is full of chemical details. 
 
 Oxen and sheep are now steamed 
 in the same way as hogs in the West 
 for their tallow. See Ox. 
 
 HOG-STY. " Much of the profit of 
 breeding and fattening hogs depends 
 on the economy of labour in prepa- 
 ring their food. Any place is often 
 thought good enough to lodge a pig 
 in, and a sty is a word synonymous 
 with a filthy place ; but in every 
 well-arranged farm-yard there should 
 be a convenient place for keeping 
 hogs and feeding them, which may 
 be erected at a small expense, and 
 which will soon repay the outlay. 
 There should be a place to boil and 
 mix the food in, with one or more 
 large coppers, and a steaming appa- 
 ratus. The food should be mixed in 
 square brick tanks sunk in the ground 
 and cemented, that there may be no 
 filtrations. If there is only one tank, 
 there should be a partition in it. 
 From the boiling-house there should 
 be an immediate communication with 
 the feeding-sties, undercover, if pos- 
 sible. Each sty should open into a 
 small yard behind, svhich should com- 
 municate by a door with the princi- 
 pal farm-yard, where the barn is sit- 
 uated, in which the corn is thrashed, 
 and be enclosed with a low wall or 
 paling. There should be separate 
 sties for breeding-sows, for porkers, 
 and for fatting hogs. Not more than 
 three or four of the latter should be 
 in one sty. The food should be given 
 in troughs, in a separate compart- 
 ment from that in which the hogs lie 
 down, and no litter should he allowed 
 377 
 
HOG 
 
 llOL 
 
 Elevutiuu aud Section. 
 
 A, Root-house ; B, boiling and steaming house ; a, steamer ; b, copper ; c, r, steaming ves- 
 sels ; d, d, tanks to mix the food ; C, passage to the sties ; 1, I, feeding-rooms ; 2, 2, sleeping- 
 rooms ; 3, 3, yards. 
 
 there. The floor, which should be 
 of brick or stone, should be frequent- 
 ly washed clean, and the troughs 
 should be cleaned out before every 
 meal. Any of the food left from the 
 last meal should be taken out and 
 given to the store pigs. A very con- 
 venient contrivance for keeping the 
 troughs clean is to have a flap or 
 door, made with hinges, to hang hori- 
 zontally over the trough, so that it 
 can swing, and alternately be fasten- 
 ed by a bolt to the inside or outside 
 edge of the trough. When the hogs 
 have fed sufficiently, the door is 
 swung back, and the trough is easily 
 cleaned out. It remains so till feed- 
 ing time, when the food is poured in 
 without any impediment from the 
 greedy hogs, who cannot get at it till 
 the door is swung back. This sim- 
 ple contrivance saves a great deal of 
 trouble, and is easily adapted to any 
 378 
 
 common sty. It is a great advan- 
 tage to be able to inspect the sties 
 without going into them, and this is 
 effected by placing them under a com- 
 mon roof, which may conveniently 
 be a lean to the boiling-house, or any 
 other building, with a passage be- 
 tween them. 
 
 " The preceding figure will best 
 explain this, and show its superiority 
 over common sties." 
 
 Where the establishment is much 
 larger, a passage may be run entire- 
 ly through the sties, and the feeding 
 troughs be arranged along it ; the 
 food may also be made to pass along 
 a gutter to the various troughs. 
 
 HOLCUS. The genus of soft 
 grasses. See Grasses. 
 
 HOLERACEOUS. Culinary 
 plants, pot-herbs. 
 
 HOLLY. Evergreen shrubs, and 
 small trees of the genus Ilex. The 
 
HOM 
 
 HOO 
 
 prickly Christmas holly, naturalized 
 in Virginia, is the 1. aguifolium ; the 
 native holly of the Middle States, oft- 
 en becoming a tree of 30 feet, is the 
 /. opaca. The prickly holly is much 
 used for hedges in England ; a good 
 bird-lime is prepared from the inner 
 bark. The /. vomitoria, or cassina, is 
 a handsome southern shrub. The 
 decoction of the toasted leaves is the 
 Indian black drink : it is emetic. 
 
 HOLM. A marshy place or island. 
 
 HOLM, or HOLLY OAK. Quer- 
 cus ilex, a European species. 
 
 HOLY GRASS. Holcus odoratus. 
 See Grasses. 
 
 HOMESTEAD. The regular ar- 
 rangement of farm buildings. 
 
 HO.NLMIN Y. Corn, usually of the 
 smaller white flint kinds, bruised in 
 a mill or mortar until the external 
 covering is removed, and then sifted. 
 
 HOMOGAMOUS (from ofiov, to- 
 gether, and ya/xof, marriage). When 
 all the florets contain both sexes. 
 
 HOMOGENEOUS (from ofiov, and 
 yevoc, kijul). Bodies, all the parts of 
 which are similar in composition. 
 
 HOMOLOGOUS (from ofiov, and 
 Aoyoc, ratio). Having the same ratio 
 or proportion. 
 
 HOMOPTERAXS, HOMOPTERA 
 (from ouov, and nrepov, a icing). The 
 name of an order of insects, inclu- 
 ding those in which the wing-covers 
 are of a uniform semi-membranous 
 consistency. Latreille divides this 
 order into the three followmg divi- 
 sions, viz. : 
 
 1. The Cicadarm, having the tarsi 
 three-jointed and the antennae very 
 short, terminated by a line bristle. 
 
 2. The Aphidians, having the tarsi 
 two-jointed and the antennae longer, 
 without a terminal bristle ; contain- 
 ing the families Aphidce and Psyllida. 
 
 3. The Gallmsccta, having the tarsi 
 one-jointed, terminated by a single 
 claw. The males have two wings, 
 and are destitute of a mouth ; the fe- 
 males are wingless, and furnished 
 with a sucker. 
 
 HOMOTROPAL (from ouov, and 
 rpETTG), I turn). In botany, having the 
 same direction as the rest of the 
 plant, or that part to which it belongs. 
 
 HONEY. The fluid stored by bees; 
 it is collected from flowers and hon- 
 ey-dew. The colour and flavour de- 
 pend upon the age of the bees, and 
 their food ; white clover and some 
 aromatic plants of the sage family 
 yield the best. Chemically, it con- 
 sists of glucose, mannite, gum, wax, 
 colouring matter, and albumen. When 
 mixed with water it readily ferments ; 
 a liquor is made in this way called 
 mead. See Bee. 
 
 HONEY-DEW. An exudation of 
 sweet gummy matter from the leaves 
 of plants, especially the oak, beech, 
 linden, and hop. Curtis and Willde- 
 now, with many other naturalists, at- 
 tribute it to the excretions of innu- 
 merable plant lice, Aphidians ; but 
 Sir J. E. Smith and others to the 
 exudation of sap during very moist 
 hot weather, especially when the sky 
 is overcast, hindering evaporation 
 from the leaves. If the honey be 
 washed off by rain or by watering, 
 the plant usually survives ; but if it 
 becomes caked on the leaf by hot 
 weather, it is killed. Bees flourish 
 exceedingly on honey-dew. The 
 plants of a well-drained soil are much 
 less liable to honey-dew than those 
 in damp places. 
 
 HONEY LOCUST. Gledkschia 
 triacanthos. Three-thorned locust. A 
 large leguminous tree. It is very 
 common in the western forests of 
 Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, &.C., on 
 rich bottoms, where it is one of the 
 largest trees. The pods furnish a 
 sweet but nauseous pulp. The wood 
 is porous, but hard ; it is inferior for 
 cabinet purposes, and rarely used, ex- 
 cept for posts and rails. The young 
 plants are recommended by some for 
 hedges, and are to be often pruned : 
 they form a good hedge, but are apt 
 to throw out shoots from their roots 
 to a considerable distance from the 
 stem. 
 
 HONEY-STONE. A rare miner- 
 al, mellate of alumina, belonging to 
 the class of ambers and lignites, found 
 only in Thuringea. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE. Climbing 
 plants of the genus Lonicera, &c. 
 
 HOODED. CucuUate. A descrip- 
 379 
 
HOG 
 
 HOO 
 
 live term in botany, to express the 
 partial covering of a flower, &.C., by a 
 petal or leaf, vvliich is curved over it. 
 
 HOOF. The solid or cloven nail 
 of the feet of cattle or horses ; it re- 
 sembles horn in composition. Hoofs 
 are used in the manufacture of glue 
 and Prussian blue ; scraped into 
 shreds, they form admirable manure, 
 yieldmg 15 per cent, nitrogen in the 
 natural state, or upward of 18 per 
 cent, ammonia during decay. Four 
 hundred pounds in compost will be 
 sufficient for an acre. 
 
 HOOP. The wooden or metallic 
 fastening of casks. Hickory is in 
 the greatest esteem for this purpose ; 
 but young trees of ash, oak, birch, 
 &c., answer well. Several machines 
 have been patented for splitting 
 hoops ; they are, however, expensive. 
 The usual principle is to pass the 
 wood between rollers, which carry it 
 upon a sharp edge that splits it cen- 
 trally ; motion is given to the rollers 
 by horse power. 
 
 HOOVE, or HOVEN. See Ox. 
 
 HOPPER. The receiver of a mill 
 or machine in which the grain, roots, 
 &c., are placed. 
 
 HOP-OAST. A kiln used for dry- 
 ing hops. The floor of the kiln is 
 generally of wire cloth, and the heat 
 is generated in a stove with flues be- 
 low. The hops, after being put on 
 the kiln, are frequently turned, and 
 in general they are rendered suffi- 
 ciently dry in the course of a few 
 hours ; when dried, they are taken to 
 a loft and left to cool for a day or two, 
 and then put into bags, having been 
 previously subjected to the slight ac- 
 tion of the fumes of burning sulphur 
 (sulphurous acid), by which they are, 
 to a certain extent, bleached. This 
 is not to be recommended, for it par- 
 tially destroys the fine odour. 
 
 HOPPLE. A mode of fettering 
 the legs of horses and cattle turned 
 out to graze. 
 
 HOPS. Humuliis lupulus : family 
 Urdcacea. The following is chiefly 
 from Mr. Rham : 
 
 " Hops are extensively cultivated 
 for the flowers, which give flavour 
 and permanence to beer, by being 
 380 
 
 boiled with the wort in brewing 
 They impart a pleasant, bitter, and 
 aromatic flavour, and prevent the too 
 rapid progress of fermentation. Beer 
 which is well hopped will keep long 
 and become very fine, without any 
 of those artificial means of fining 
 wiiich make the common brewer's 
 beer so much inferior in quality to 
 that which is home-brewed. 
 
 "The hop is a slender climbing 
 plant, with a perennial root, which 
 requires careful cultivation. It is 
 very tender, and the produce is pre- 
 carious, sometimes giving a great 
 profit to the grower, and at other 
 times failing altogether. The soil of 
 a hop garden must be rich to a con- 
 siderable depth, or made so artificial- 
 ly. The subsoil must be dry and 
 sound ; a porous rocky subsoil, cov- 
 ered with two or three feet of good 
 vegetable mould, is the best for hops. 
 The exposure should be towards the 
 south, on the slope of a hill, or in a 
 well-sheltered valley. Old rich pas- 
 tures make the best hop gardens. 
 They should be dug two or more spits 
 deep, and the sods buried at the bot- 
 tom, where they will gradually decay 
 and afford nourishment to the slen- 
 der roots of the plants, which strike 
 deep. A very large quantity of the 
 richest rotten dung, at least 100 cu- 
 bic yards per acre, should be well in- 
 corporated with the soil by repeated 
 ploughings, till it is entirely decom- 
 posed, and produces that dark tint 
 which is the sure sign of an abun- 
 dance of humus. The ground should 
 be prepared by laying it up with the 
 spade in high ridges before winter, to 
 expose it as much as possible to the 
 mellowing influence of the frost. A 
 succession of green crops, such as 
 rye, cut green or fed off with sheep, 
 or clover, are an excellent prepara- 
 tion, by cleaning the land. It is bet- 
 ter to be two, or even three years, in 
 preparing the ground and getting it 
 perfectly clean, than to plant the 
 hops in a foul or unprepared soil. 
 
 " The young plants are raised in 
 beds, and may be raised from seed ; 
 but it is more usual to plant the young 
 shoots which rise from the bottom 
 
HOPS. 
 
 of the stems of old plants. Thoy are 
 laid down in the earth till thoy strike, 
 when they are eut off and jilanted in 
 the nursery-bed. Care mu.st he ta- 
 ken to have only one sort of iiops in 
 a plantation, that they may all ripen 
 at the same time ; but where there 
 arc very extensive hop grounds it 
 may be advantageous to have an ear- 
 lier and a later sort in ditTerent divis- 
 ions, so that they may he pieked in 
 succession. The varieties most es- 
 teemed are the grape hop, the white 
 vine, and the golden hop. The 
 ground having been prepared for 
 planting, it is divided by parallel 
 lines, six or more feet apart, and 
 short slicks are inserted into the 
 ground along these lines at si.x feet 
 distance from each other, so as to al- 
 ternate in the rows, as is frequently 
 done with cabbage plants in gardens. 
 At each stick a hole is dug two feet 
 square and two feet deep, which is 
 filled lightly with the earth dug out, 
 together with a compost prepared 
 with dung, lime, and earth, well mix- 
 ed by repeated turning. Fresh dung 
 should never be applied to hops. 
 Three plants are placed in the mid- 
 dle of this hole six inches asunder, 
 forming an equilateral triangle. A 
 watering with liquid manure greatly 
 assists their taking root, and they 
 soon begin to show runners. A stick, 
 three or four feet long, is then stuck 
 in the middle of the three plants, and 
 the runners are tied to these with 
 twine or bass, till they lay hold and 
 twine round them. During their 
 growth the ground is well hoed and 
 forked up around the roots, and some 
 of the line mould is thrown around 
 the stems. In favourable seasons a 
 few hops may be picked from these 
 young plants in the autumn, but in 
 general there is nothing the first year. 
 Early in November the ground is 
 carefully dug witii the spade, and the 
 earth beingturned towards the plants, 
 is left so all the winter. Beets, po- 
 tatoes, &c., are grown in the inter- 
 vals between the plants. 
 
 " In the second year, early in 
 spring, the hillocks around the plants 
 are opened, and the roots examined. | 
 
 The last year's shoots are cut off 
 within an inch of the main stem, and 
 all the suckers quite close to it. The 
 suckers form an agreeable vegetable 
 for the table, dressed like asparagus. 
 The earth is pressed round the roots, 
 and the cut parts covered so as to 
 exclude the air. A pole about twelve 
 feet long is then firmly stuck into 
 the ground near the plants ; to this 
 the runners are led and tied as they 
 shoot, till they have taken hold of it. 
 If, by any accident, the runner leaves 
 the pole, it should be carefully brought 
 back to it and tied till it takes hold 
 again. A stand ladder should be at 
 hand to do this, when the runner has 
 acquired some height. The ground 
 being well hoed and the earth raised 
 round the plants, the produce this 
 year will average fourcwts. per acre, 
 if the season is favourable. 
 
 " Some hop planters plough up or 
 dig the ground before winter ; others 
 prefer doing it in spring, in order not 
 to hasten the shooting, which weak- 
 ens the plants. The same opera- 
 tions of pruning the shoots, manuring, 
 and placing poles, which were per- 
 formed the preceding year, are care- 
 fully repeated. Particular attention 
 is paid to proportion the length of 
 the poles to the probable strength of 
 the runners ; for if the pole is too 
 long, it drawls up the runner, and 
 makes it bear less ; if it is too short, 
 the runners entangle when they get 
 beyond the poles, and cause confu- 
 sion in the picking. In September, 
 the flower containing the seed will 
 be of a fine straw colour, turning to 
 a brown ; it is then in perfection. 
 When it is over-ripe, it acquires a 
 darker tint. No time is now lost, 
 and as many hands are procured as 
 can he set picking. In the picking, 
 the poles are taken down, and the 
 stems cut three feet from the ground ; 
 if they were cut shorter it would 
 weaken the root, by causing it to 
 bleed. The poles are laid sloping 
 over a frame of strong wood, nine 
 feet long and four feet wide, support- 
 ed by legs three feet high ; this is 
 called a bin. A piece of coarse bag- 
 ging is fixed to this frame by hooks, 
 381 
 
HOPS. 
 
 so as to form a bag which does not 
 re<ich the firound. Tlirce men or 
 women, or four boys or girls, are 
 placed on each side oi' the bin, and 
 pick the hops from two poles at a 
 time. Where they are very careful 
 of the quality of ibc hops, they divide 
 them nito three sorts : the green, 
 which are not quite ripe; the light 
 yellow-hrown, which are in perfec- 
 tion ; and the very dark, which are 
 past their prime. The dew should be 
 o(f entirely before they begin ; for 
 otherwise the hops might become 
 musty, or take too long in drying, and 
 lose their fragrance. The hops, when 
 picked, are dried on a cloth in a kiln. 
 When they appear sufficiently dry at 
 bottom, they are turned ; it is, how- 
 ever, thouglit by some hop-driers that 
 the turnnig of the hops is apt to in- 
 jure them, and that it is best not to 
 do so ; but, in order that the upper 
 part may be dried equally with the 
 lower, a wooden cover, lined with 
 tin plates, is let down over the hops 
 on the hair cloth, to vi'ithin a few 
 inches of the surface ; this reverber- 
 ates the heat, and the whole is dried 
 equally. The heat must be carefully 
 regulated, in order that it may not 
 alter the colour. When the leaves 
 of the hops become brittle and rub 
 off easily, they are sufficiently dried. 
 They are then laid in heaps on the 
 floor, where they undergo a very 
 slight heating. As soon as this is 
 observed they are bagged. This is 
 done through a round hole, twenty- 
 five or tliirty inches in diameter, 
 made in the floor of the loft where 
 the hops are laid. Under this hole 
 is a bag, the mouth of which is drawn 
 through the hole and kept open by a 
 hoop, to which it is made fast. The 
 hoop is somewhat larger than the 
 hole, and the bag remains suspended ; 
 a handful of hops is now put into 
 each corner of the bag, and there tied 
 firmly by a cord. A bushel or two 
 of hops are put into the bag, and a 
 man gets into it to tread the hops 
 tight. The bag does not reach the 
 floor below. As the hops are pack- 
 ed by the feet, more are continually 
 added till the bag is full. It is now 
 382 
 
 taken off the hoop, and filled up with 
 the hands as tight as possible. The 
 corners are stuffed as soon as the 
 mouth is partly sewn up, and tied, as 
 the lower corners were ; when sew- 
 ed close and tight, it is stored in a 
 dry place till the hops are wanted for 
 sale. 
 
 " The crop of the third year will 
 average eight cwt. per acre. In some 
 very extraordinary seasons, on good 
 land, fifteen cwt. have been picked 
 per acre : in Flanders, where they 
 manure with urine and the emptyings 
 of privies, this is not an uncommon 
 produce. The plantation lasts fifteen 
 to thirty years. 
 
 "Rape cakes, malt dust, woollen 
 rags, horn shavings, and nitrogen 
 manures are used with good success 
 in hop grounds : bones have been 
 tried, but with an uncertain result. 
 
 " The hop is a dioecious plant (Fig.), 
 i. c, some of the individuals are male 
 plants, and others female, which have 
 
 respectively flowers of a different con- 
 struction and of different habitudes. 
 The male or staminiferous flowers 
 {a), which grow on stalks quite dis- 
 tinct from the female flowers, pre- 
 pare the pollen, or fertilizing dust, 
 and afterward wither away, when 
 this dust has escaped from the an- 
 thers, and been committed to the air, 
 to be by it conveyed to the female 
 flowers. The female flowers are in 
 the form of strobnli (i) or cones, con- 
 sisting of scales, which have at their 
 base the germ of the future seed, and 
 
 i 
 
nor 
 
 ilOK 
 
 which have the liabit of enlarging, as 
 the scales of the fir-conos do, more 
 particularly after the fertilization of 
 the ovule, or future seed, by a quan- 
 tity of the pollen falling upon it. 
 
 " Though the pollen, from its ex- 
 treme lightness, can be wafted to a 
 considerable distance, and some seeds 
 in each cone may be so fertilized, yet 
 it would be well to rear a number of 
 the male plants among the others, or 
 along the hedges of the hop gardens, 
 to ensure the fertilization of all the 
 seeds. But as the farmers observe 
 that the flowers of the male (termed, 
 in Kent, seedling, blmd, or wild hop ; 
 in Sussex, buck or cock hop) wither 
 away, they generally extirpate them 
 at the digging season, as unfruitful 
 cumberers of the ground. That this 
 is an error may be proved in various 
 ways, but an appeal to the result of 
 an opposite practice is the most con- 
 vincing. A bushel of hops, collected 
 from plants of the fourth year, raised 
 from seed, weighed 36 pounds, there 
 being male plants near ; a second in- 
 stance, where the plants were raised 
 from cuttings, weighed thirty-five 
 pounds, while a bushel, grown in a 
 garden where the male plants were 
 always eradicated, weighed only 22 
 pounds. Besides the greater quan- 
 tity of hops thus obtained, the aroma 
 is much greater (the lupulin, on which 
 the aroma depends, is considered by 
 Plancheto be the unappropriated pol- 
 len dust which has alighted on the 
 scale of the females), and the strength 
 of the bitter much greater. The value 
 of a specimen of hops depends upon 
 the amount of lupulin dust it con- 
 tains, and its aroma ; when of the best 
 quality, they command from sixteen 
 to twenty cents the pound. After the 
 period when the males have elabora- 
 ted the pollen, and the strobuli of the 
 females begun to enlarge, the males 
 may be cut down, and the stalks em- 
 ployed to make cordage for hop-bags 
 against the following harvest. In 
 1760 the Society of Arts awarded pre- 
 mium.'5 for cloth made from the hop 
 runner. 
 
 " The poles of oak, ash, larch, and 
 chestnut are the most durable. They 
 
 should be put into a shed during win- 
 ter : where this cannot be done, they 
 are placed on end in the form of a 
 cone, leaning against each other." 
 The hop is very liable to diseases : 
 it suffers from the aphis ; a species of 
 haltica attacks the young plant ; sev- 
 eral moths deposit their eggs upon 
 it : honey-dew is often destructive ; it 
 is also liable to attacks of mildew and 
 fire-blight towards maturity. 
 
 HORDEIN. The impure starch 
 of barley. 
 
 HORDEUM. The genus of barley 
 grasses. 
 
 HORE HOUND. Marruhium vul- 
 garc. A perennial, labiate plant, of 
 a bitter, aromatic taste, used as a 
 popular remedy in colds, and to fla- 
 vour candies. It is readily propaga- 
 ted by dividing the roots. 
 
 HORIZONTAL. Level. A plane 
 parallel to the horizon. 
 
 HORN. Indurated skin, consist- 
 ing, for the most part, of modified al- 
 bumen. It resembles hair in its chem- 
 ical and agricultural properties, and 
 when shaved into thin strips, answers 
 the same purpose as a manure. Horn, 
 whalebone, tortoise-shell, which are 
 all similar, are readily softened by 
 heat or hot water, and are then va- 
 riously cut or moulded into a num- 
 ber of articles, as combs, handles for 
 knives, rings, &c. Digested with wa- 
 ter in an iron cylinder, under press- 
 ure, they are dissolved, and yield glue. 
 
 The horns of oxen and many oth- 
 er animals are only a covering over 
 a bony process rising from the front 
 bone of the head. This bone, called 
 the horn pith, is remarkably porous, 
 and full of blood-vessels, so that, when 
 it is cut or injured, violent haemor- 
 rhage follows, which can scarcely be 
 stopped, except by applying a white- 
 hot iron, or bv pressure. 
 
 HORNBEAM. A tree of the same 
 family as the oak, the Carpinus bet- 
 ulus, of small size, and formerly used 
 as tall hedging. The wood is very 
 hard and durable, and used by turn- 
 ers for cog-wheels, presses, levers, 
 and stout handles. The only Amer- 
 ican species is the C. Americana, wa- 
 ter beech, or hornbeam. It grows oa 
 383 
 
IIOR 
 
 HOR 
 
 the margin of rivers in the Middle 
 States, rising twenty to forty feet. 
 
 The term iiornbcani, or ironwood, 
 is also applied to the Ostrya Vtrfrin- 
 iaca, a tree of twenty to forty feet 
 high, of the same family, found in the 
 Southern States. 'J'he wood is as 
 serviceable as that of the hornbeam. 
 
 HORNBLEND. A dark green or 
 black mineral, massive or crystal- 
 lized in prisms, of glassy lustre, and 
 readily scratched by a knife. It is 
 very abundant in primary, transition, 
 and trap formations, and consists of 
 silica, 46 ; lime and magnesia, 34 ; 
 iron, from 4 to 7 ; alumina, &c., 13 
 per cent. It forms the basis of nu- 
 merous minerals, and is found in sev- 
 eral varieties, as augite, amphibole, 
 pargasite, tremolite, actinolite. 
 
 Hornblend slate and schist are 
 transition rocks, consisting of a mix- 
 ture of hornblend, quartz, and some- 
 times feldspar. A soil formed from 
 these rocks is necessarily rich, from 
 containing lime, magnesia, potash, 
 clay, and sand. The crystals also 
 occur in siennite, or Boston granite. 
 Greenstone, the common ingredient 
 of dikes, is a mixture of hornblend 
 and feldspar, varying but little from 
 trap. Soils rich in hornblend have a 
 greenish colour. 
 
 HORNBUG. The beetles of the 
 genus Lucanus, or stag beetles, espe- 
 cially L. caprcolus. The grubs live 
 in the trunks and roots of old trees. 
 
 HORN DISTEMPER. A disease 
 of the horns of oxen, especially cows, 
 in which an accumulation of pus 
 takes place in the pith ; the treat- 
 ment is, to let it out by boring into 
 the horn, two inches from the head, 
 with a small gimlet. The animal 
 affected first exhibits the signs of a 
 cold, the eyes become dull, the ap- 
 petite diminishes, the creature lan- 
 guishes and lies down ; but it is also 
 occasionally attended with symptoms 
 of diseased brain ; the animal tosses 
 his head and groans much. 
 
 HORN PITHS or FLINTS. 
 These answer in manuring for bones, 
 having a composition nearly identical 
 with bones, namely, gelatin and fat, 
 86 ; bone earth, 54 per cent. : they de- 
 384 
 
 cay more rapidly from their porous 
 structure. They are ditiicult to crush 
 in the common bone mill, but may be 
 broken by a heavy bark mill, or dis- 
 solved in strong acid. They are much 
 used for the extraction of size and 
 glue. 
 
 HORNET. Vespa maculala, the 
 American species. They build a 
 globular nest of a substance like pa- 
 per upon branches of trees, &c. Its 
 sting is painful, but may be allayed 
 by oil, with a little hartshorn. It 
 preys upon fruit, flies, and is very de- 
 structive to bees. The European 
 species is V. crabro. 
 
 HORNSTONE. A flinty mineral. 
 Chert, also, is known by this name. 
 Hornstone is wrought in stones for 
 crushing flints in potteries ; it also 
 forms a good hone. The varieties 
 are variously coloured, gray, white, 
 red, and dark greenish ; it is infusi- 
 ble before the blow-pipe, and contains 
 76 per cent, silica, with 13 alumina, 
 colouring oxide, and water. 
 
 HORSE. " Natural Histcny and 
 Deyitition of the Horse. — The native 
 country of the horse is unknown. 
 From very remote periods he has 
 been found in almost every part of 
 the Old World, but his appearance 
 on the continents and the islands of 
 the New World, whether of the At- 
 lantic or Pacific Ocean, is of com- 
 paratively recent date. Everywhere 
 he is recognised as the most useful 
 of the servants of man, and he yields 
 in intelligence to the dog alone. If 
 he difl'ers in ditTerent countries in 
 form and in size, it is from the in- 
 fluence of climate and cultivation ; 
 but otherwise, from the war-horse, 
 as he is depicted on the friezes of an- 
 cient temples, to the stately charger 
 of Holstein and of Spain, or from the 
 fleet and beautiful Arabian to the di- 
 minutive Shetlander, there is an evi- 
 dent similarity of form and destina- 
 tion which clearly stamps his common 
 origin. 
 
 " He is naturally, and of choice, an 
 herbivorous and granivorous animal. 
 His thin and muscular lips, his firm 
 and compressed mouth, and his sharp 
 incisor teeth, are admirably adapted 
 
HOUSE. 
 
 to seize and to crop the grass ; a 
 provision is given in the structure of 
 some of the bones of the face, by 
 means of which he can comminute 
 and grind down his food as perfectly 
 as in the best-contrived mill. 
 
 " The teeth of the horso require 
 some lengtliened consideration, not 
 only from their admirable adaptation 
 to this purpose, but as indicating, by 
 the various changes which tliey un- 
 dergo, almost beyond the possibility 
 of error, the age of the animal. He 
 may, when young in years, be re- 
 duced nearly to the decrepitude of 
 age by the barbarous usage of those 
 who ought to be his most zealous 
 protectors ; the cavity above the eye 
 may be deepened, the under lip may 
 fall, the limbs may be bowed, and the 
 feet may be battered and distorted, 
 but it is not easy to alter the charac- 
 ter of the teeth. 
 
 " The colt is generally dropped with 
 the first and second molar and grind- 
 ing teeth having forced their way 
 through the gum. When he is about 
 seven or eight days old the two cen- 
 tral front, or incisor teeth, above and 
 below, appear (Fig. a). At the ex- 
 piration of five or six weeks the two 
 next incisors may be seen. At three 
 months they will have overtaken the 
 central ones, and both pairs will have 
 nearly attained their natural level. 
 A third grinder will then have ap- 
 peared ; and a little before or after 
 the eighth month the third nipper, 
 above and below, and on each side, 
 will be seen. The colt will now have 
 his full complement of front or cut- 
 ting teeth. 
 
 " These teeth are beautifully adapt- 
 ed to their purpose. They have in 
 front an elevated cutting edge of con- 
 siderable sharpness. It is formed of 
 enamel, a polished substance almost 
 too hard to be acted upon by the file, 
 which covers the tooth. This eleva- 
 ted edge is bent somewhat inward 
 and over the tooth, so that there is 
 a depression behind it, which gradu- 
 ally becomes stained by the food, 
 and constitutes what is called 'the 
 mark' in the mouth of the colt or 
 horse. 
 K K 
 
 " This elevated edge of enamel, 
 hard as it is, is gradually worn down 
 in the act of nipping and cutting the 
 grass ; and as it wears away, the 
 hollow behind becomes diminished, 
 and is at length totally obliterated. 
 By the degree in which this mark is 
 effaced, the horseman, not only with 
 regard to the first, but the permanent 
 teeth, judges of the age of the ani- 
 mal. This obliteration begins to be 
 manifest at a very early age. At six 
 months it is sufficiently evident in 
 the four central nippers. At a year 
 and a half the mark will be very faint 
 in the central nippers, diminished in 
 the other two, and the surface of all 
 of them will be flattened. 
 
 " At twelve months a fourth grind- 
 er protrudes, and a fifth at the expi- 
 ration of two years. 
 
 " These are all temporary teeth. 
 They were only to last during a very 
 early period of the life of the animal ; 
 and when his jaws were considera- 
 bly expanded, they were destined to 
 give way to another set, larger, firm- 
 er, and "that would probably last du- 
 ring life. The permanent teeth had 
 been long growing in the socket be- 
 neath the temporary ones, and had 
 been pressing upon their roots, and 
 that pressure had caused an absorp- 
 tion of these roots, until at length 
 they lost all hold, and were displaced. 
 
 " When the animal is about three 
 years old the central pair of nippers, 
 above and below, are thus removed, 
 and two fresh teeth, easily distin- 
 guishable from the first by their in- 
 creased size, make their appearance, 
 so that a three-year old colt is easily 
 recognised by these two new and en- 
 larged central nippers. 
 
 " A three-year old colt has his form 
 and energies much more developed 
 than a two-year old one, and is con- 
 siderably more valuable ; therefore 
 some dishonest breeders endeavour 
 to pass him upon the unwary as be- 
 ing a year older than he really is, and 
 they accomplish this in an ingenious 
 but cruel manner. This cannot, how- 
 ever, be effected until a portion of 
 the second year is past, when the 
 permanent teeth below are beginning 
 385 
 
HORSE. 
 
 to press upon the roots of their pred- 
 ecessors, and then the breeder ex- 
 tracts the central milk-teeth. Those 
 below, having no longer anything to 
 resist their progress, grow far more 
 rapidly than they otherwise would do, 
 and the scoundrel gains four or five 
 months in the apparent age of his 
 colt. 
 
 "Can this trickery he detected 1 
 Not always, except by him who is 
 well accustomed to horses. The 
 comparatively slow wasting of the 
 other nippers, the difference of the 
 development of these nippers in the 
 upper and under jaw — for the breed- 
 er usually confines his roguery to the 
 lower jaw, the upper one being com- 
 paratively seldom examined — these 
 circumstances, together with a defi- 
 ciency of general development in the 
 colt, will alone enable the purchaser 
 to detect the attempted cheat. 
 
 " The honest mouth of a three- 
 year old horse should be thus form- 
 ed : the central teeth are palpably 
 larger than the others, and have the 
 mark on their upper surface evident 
 and well defined. They will, how- 
 ever, be lower than the other teeth. 
 The mark in the next pair of nippers 
 will be nearly worn away, and that 
 in the corner nippers will begin to 
 wear (Fig. 3). 
 
 " At three years and a half the 
 second nippers will be pushed from 
 their sockets, and their place gradu- 
 ally supplied by a new pair ; and at 
 four and a half the corner nippers 
 will be undergoing the same process. 
 Thus, at four years old the central 
 nippers will be fully grown ; the next 
 pair will be up. but will not have at- 
 tained their full height ; and the cor- 
 ner nippers will be small, with their 
 mark nearly effaced. At five years 
 old the mark will begin to be effaced 
 from the central teeth, the next pair 
 will be fully grown and the blackness 
 of the mark a little taken off, and the 
 corner pair will be protruding or part- 
 ly grown. 
 
 " At this period, or between the 
 
 fourth and fifth year, another change 
 
 will have taken place in the mouth ; 
 
 the tushes will have begun to appear 
 
 386 
 
 {Fig. 5). There will be two of thcnx 
 in each jaw, between the nippers and 
 the grinders, considerably nearer to 
 the former than the latter, and par- 
 ticularly so in the lower jaw. The 
 use of these tushes in the domestica- 
 ted state of the horse is not evident ; 
 but they were probably designed as 
 weapons of offence in the wild state 
 of the animal. Attempts are too fre- 
 quently made to hasten the appear- 
 ance of the second and the corner 
 teeth, in the same manner as de- 
 scribed with regard to the first, and 
 the gum is often deeply lanced in or- 
 der to hastei^ the appearance of the 
 tush. 
 
 " At six years old the mark on the 
 central nippers will be diminished, if 
 not obliterated. A depression and a 
 mark of rather brown hue may re- 
 main, but the deep blackened hole in 
 the centre will no longer be found. 
 The other incisors will also be some- 
 what worn, and the tush fully de- 
 veloped. 
 
 "At seven the mark on the next 
 pair of incisors will have nearly dis- 
 appeared, and the tush will be round- 
 ed at the point and the edges. 
 
 "At eight the mark will have dis- 
 appeared from all the incisor teeth, 
 and the tush will be evidently rounder 
 and blunter. 
 
 " At this period another piece of 
 trickery is occasionally practised. 
 The breeder had, until the animal 
 was five years old, been endeavour- 
 ing to give him an older appearance 
 than his years entitled him to, be- 
 cause in proportion as he approached 
 the period when his powers were most 
 perfectly developed his value increas- 
 ed ; but now he endeavours to con- 
 ceal the ravages of age. The horse 
 is cast, and with a sharp-pointed steel 
 instrument a little hole is dug on the 
 surface of the corner incisor, to which 
 a red-hot iron is afterward applied. 
 An indelible black mark is thus left 
 on the tooth. Sometimes the roguery 
 is carried farther ; the next tooth 
 is slightly touched with the engraver 
 and the cautery ; but here the dis- 
 honest dealer generally overreaches 
 himself, for the form and general ap- 
 
HORSE. 
 
 pearance of a six-year old horse can 
 rarely be given to one who has passed 
 his eighth year. The eighth year hav- 
 ing passed, it is difheult to decide on 
 the exact age of the horse. The in- 
 cisors of the iii)per jaw are then the 
 best guides. At nine years the mark 
 is said to be worn away from the 
 central teeth ; at eleven, from the 
 next pair ; and at twelve, from the 
 corner ones. The tush likewise be- 
 comes shorter and blunter. 
 
 " There are many circumstances 
 which render a decision as to the 
 age of the horse very difficult after 
 the marks are effaced from the lower 
 incisors, and even before that period. 
 Horses always kept in the stable have 
 the mark much sooner worn out than 
 
 those that are at grass, and it is im- 
 possible to form any calculation at all 
 as to crib-biters. 
 
 " Of the age to which the horse 
 would naturally arrive it is impossible 
 to say anything satisfactory. Many 
 have exceeded thirty, and some of 
 them even forty years ; but, from ill- 
 usage and over-exertion, the majority 
 come to their end before they have 
 seen 15 years." 
 
 " The various progressive changes 
 that take place in the appearance of 
 the teeth of horses at different ages, 
 from a few weeks old (marked a in 
 Fig.) to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12. 
 and 18 years, may be seen in the 
 following dental map, constructed by 
 Mr. Blaine." 
 
 387 
 
HORSE. 
 
 " Tlie Proper Conformation of the 
 Horse. — A very general account only 
 can be given of this, for it varies es- 
 sentially with the breed and destina- 
 tion of the animal. There are some 
 points, however, which are valuable 
 in horses of every description. The 
 head should not be disproportionally 
 large, and should be well set on, i. e., 
 the lower jaw-bones should be suffi- 
 ciently far apart to enable the head to 
 form that angle with the neck which 
 gives free motion and a graceful car- 
 riage to it, and prevents its bearing 
 too heavy on the hand. The eye 
 should be large and a little promi- 
 nent, and the eyelid fine and thin. 
 The ear should be small and erect, 
 and quick in motion. The lop-ear 
 indicates dulness or stubbornness; 
 and when it is habitually laid too far 
 back upon the neck, there is too fre- 
 quently a disposition to mischief 
 The nostril in every breed should be 
 somewhat expanded : it can hardly 
 be too much so in the racer, the 
 hunter, the roadster, and the coach- 
 horse, for this animal breathes only 
 through the nostril, and would be 
 dangerously distressed when much 
 speed is required of him, if the nos- 
 tril could not dilate to admit and to 
 return the air. The neck should be 
 long rather than short. It then ena- 
 bles the animal to graze with more 
 ease, and to throw his weight more 
 forward, whether he is in harness or 
 galloping at the top of his speed. It 
 should be muscular at its base, and 
 gradually become fine as it approach- 
 es the head. The withers should be 
 somewhat high in every horse, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, that of heavy draught, 
 and it does not harm him, for there 
 is larger surface for the attachment 
 of the muscles of the back, and they 
 act at greater mechanical advantage. 
 A slanting direction of the shoulder 
 gives, also, much mechanical advan- 
 tage, as well as an easy and pleasant 
 action, and a greater degree of safe- 
 ty. It must not, however, exist in 
 any considerable degree in the horse 
 of draught, and particularly of heavy 
 draught. The chest must be capa- 
 cious, for it contains the heart and 
 388 
 
 I the lungs, the organs on which the 
 speed and endurance of the horse de- 
 pend. Capacity of chest is indispen- 
 sable in every horse, but the form of 
 the chest admits of variation. In the 
 wagon-horse the circular chest may 
 be admitted, because he seldom goes 
 at any great speed, and there is com- 
 paratively little variation in the quan- 
 tity of air required ; but in other 
 horses the variation is often fearful. 
 The quantity of air expended in a 
 gallop is many times that required in 
 hard work. Here we must have 
 depth of chest, not only as giving 
 more room for the insertion of the 
 muscles on the action of which the 
 expansion of the chest depends, but 
 a conformation of the chest which 
 admits of that expansion. That 
 v/hich is somewhat straight may be 
 easily bent into a circle when greater 
 capacity is required ; that which is 
 already circular admits of no expan- 
 sion. A few words more are all that 
 our limits permit us to add, and they 
 contain almost all that is necessary 
 to be added on the conformation of 
 the horse. ' The loins should be 
 broad, the quarters long, the thighs 
 muscular, and the hocks well bent 
 and well under the horse.' " 
 
 Varieties of the Horse. — All the va- 
 rieties are attributed by naturalists 
 to one common origin, either of Tar- 
 tary or Arabia, the diminutive size of 
 the Shetland, Iceland, and other po- 
 nies being attributed to climate and 
 provender. 
 
 As our breeds are derived from 
 Europe, it being asserted that the 
 wild Mexican and Pampas horses are 
 the offspring of those introduced by 
 the Spaniards and early settlers, it 
 will be well to make some remarks 
 on the original stock. 
 
 William the Conqueror introduced 
 Spanish horses (of Arabian stock) into 
 England. The thorough Arabian w^as 
 introduced in 1121. 
 
 The Arabian horse is of small size, 
 usually of a dark or black colour, fine 
 eye, neat limbs, and amiable disposi- 
 tion ; his form is the model for en- 
 durance and speed. Several Arabi- 
 ans have been introduced into the 
 
HORSE. 
 
 United States, one of which is now 
 
 in Virginia. The figure represents 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 an Arabian brought to Paris by Na- 
 poleon, and now in the Royal Gar- 
 den. 
 
 From this breed the finest horses 
 of Spain, Barbary, France, and Ger- 
 many have been improved. 
 
 The race-horse is a well-marked an- 
 imal, derived from a judicious mix- 
 ture of the Arabian, Persian, and 
 Barbary ; it is, therefore, formed out 
 of Arabian varieties entirely. His 
 figure indicates swiftness, which has 
 even reached four miles in seven and 
 a half minutes in the case of Fash- 
 ion. The same characteristics be- 
 long to the American thorough-bred, 
 which has, indeed, been derived from 
 the best English stock, and crossed 
 with the thorough Arabian. It is the 
 opinion of those best informed, that 
 this breed is now beyond the Arabi- 
 an, and can only be improved by judi- 
 cious selections from the same stock. 
 
 more bone, and shorter in the body 
 than the turf horse. His forehead 
 should be lofty, the shoulder high, but 
 thicker than in the race-horse : a 
 broad chest is indispensable. The leg 
 deeper, but shorter than that of the 
 racer. The foot is all-important ; it 
 should stand upright, or a little out- 
 ward ; the loins must be broad, the 
 thighs muscular, the hocks well bent 
 and under. Dr. Gibson is of opinion 
 that the Irish racer, though not so 
 highly bred, is now a better horse 
 than the English racer : of this stock 
 Harkaway and Skylark, introduced 
 into Virginia, were the finest speci- 
 mens. The horses of Virginia and 
 New-Jersey, gotten by Shark and 
 Tallyho, out of the best common 
 mares, are fine hunters and improved 
 hacks. 
 
 The improved hack; or roadster, is 
 the most important horse. It is now 
 in England of the same breed as the 
 hunter, being preferred rather for the 
 figure than any other quality. In se- 
 lecting breeding stallions and mares, 
 those with high and well-placed shoul- 
 ders, light heads, and moderate necks, 
 with straight legs, and full hunting 
 hind quarters, are selected. Such 
 an animal is safer, and possesses all 
 the bottom of the hunter. These 
 points are well shown in the figure. 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 It is a diflicult thing to place the 
 
 New-Yark trotters ; for while, by their 
 
 speed, they are entitled to the rank of 
 
 See Breeding. The figure represents ' racers, their bottom and figure place 
 
 the characters of the racer remarka- 1 them in the list of roadsters. 
 
 bly well. The Morgan or Goss horse of Ver- 
 
 The hunter is three quarters bred, I mont occupies a position between 
 
 fifteen to sixteen hands high, with the thorough roadster and draught 
 
 K K 2 3S9 
 
HORSE. 
 
 horse. Tliey are fourteen to fifteen 
 hands, bay, sliort and round, small 
 heads, deep cliost.s, fore-legs sot wide 
 apart, stroniLj backs, good wind and 
 bottom. Tliey are spirited, with good 
 action and form, and an admirable 
 roadster and carriage horse. 
 
 The Norman horse, or I'crchcron, is 
 a cross of the .Spanish upon the Flem- 
 ish draught horse. He is remarkable 
 for spirit, liveliness, and draught qual- 
 ities. He averages sixteen hands, 
 head short, jaw heavy, neck short 
 and thick, shoulder oblique, short 
 back, quarters broad, chest deep and 
 wide, legs sliort. It is a very obedi- 
 ent race, bearing great hardships and 
 coarse fare. Mr. Harris, of New- 
 Jersey, has imported a fine pair. The 
 well-known and justly celebrated 
 Canadian horse has all the qualities 
 of the Norman, from which it is de- 
 rived, except the size. This breed, 
 although not so powerful, is much 
 more valuable than the English, 
 Dutch, or Flemish draught horse, for 
 it is a good roadster, carriage, and 
 wagon horse. 
 
 The Clydesdale (Fig. 4) is the best 
 
 English cart-horse, and has much of 
 the qualities of the Norman. It is 
 much lighter than the Suffolk punch ; 
 the chest is broad, shoulder thick and 
 oblique, the back straight and broad. 
 This horse is remarkably true and 
 faithful, with great endurance. It is 
 an admirable plough horse, and often 
 sufficiently lively for the carriage. 
 
 The Conestoga horse of Pennsylva- 
 nia is a good carriage and draught an- 
 imal. 
 
 The heavy English cart and dray 
 horse, although of great power, is not 
 390 
 
 suited to our wants from his extreme 
 slowness. 
 
 Among the different varieties of 
 horse, there is nothing equal in beau- 
 ty, liveliness, and docility to the Shet- 
 land pony, of eight and nine and a 
 half hands high. They are frequent- 
 ly used to draw light carriages. The 
 Welsh pony is occasionally a beauti- 
 ful creature. 
 
 " General Management of Horses. — 
 The foal, as soon as it is dropped, 
 should be turned with its dam into a 
 sheltered and good pasture, in which 
 there is a hovel for occasional retreat 
 from the wind and the rain. Some 
 hay or corn, or both, should be al- 
 lowed, if it is early in the season, or 
 the grass has scarcely begun to shout. 
 There is nothing so detrimental to 
 the colt as insufficient food. It should 
 be regarded as a fundamental princi- 
 ple in breeding, that if the growth is 
 checked by starvation, beauty, and 
 energy, and stoutness will rarely be 
 displayed in after years. 
 
 " In five or six months, according 
 to the growth of the foal, or the con- 
 venience of the farmer, the weaning 
 may take place. The colt should be 
 removed from his former haunts to 
 some distant rick-yard, or confined 
 to a stable until he becomes a little 
 reconciled to the loss of his dam. 
 
 " In the ensuing spring the break- 
 ing may commence ; a process on 
 which will materially depend the tem- 
 per and the value of the horse, and 
 the pleasure of the rider. The foal 
 should be handled and haltered, and 
 led about by the servant who has the 
 chief care of him, and whose con- 
 duct towards him should always be 
 kind. ' The principle,' says the au- 
 thor of ' The Horse,' ' on which the 
 after usefulness of the animal is 
 founded, is early attachment to and 
 confidence in man, and obedience, 
 resulting principally from these.' 
 
 " With regard to the racing colt, 
 the processes of breaking and train- 
 ing are injuriously and cruelly com- 
 pleted in the second year, and thou- 
 sands of horses are irreparably in- 
 jured by this early exaction of labour 
 and speed ; but in the hunter, the 
 
HORSE. 
 
 hackne}', the agricultural, and the car- 
 riage horse, tlie serious part of this 
 business is not entered upon until 
 the third year. 
 
 " .\ horse is well broken vhen he 
 has been taught implicit and cheer- 
 ful obedience to his rider or driver, 
 and dexterity in the performance of 
 his work. A dogged, sullen, spirit- 
 less submission may be enforced by 
 the cruel and brutal usage to which 
 the breaker so frequently has re- 
 course ; but that prompt and eager 
 response to the slightest intimation 
 of the rider's will ; that manifest aim 
 to anticipate every wish, that gives 
 to the horse so much of his value, 
 must be built on habitual confidence 
 and attachment. The education of 
 the horse should be that of a child. 
 Pleasure should be, as much as pos- 
 sible, associated with the early les- 
 sons ; while firmness, or, if need be, 
 coercion, must establish the habit of 
 obedience. 
 
 " The breaking being accomplish- 
 ed, the management of the hftrse will 
 vary according to his breed and des- 
 tination ; but the good usage of our 
 domesticated slaves should be re- 
 garded as a principle that ought nev- 
 er to be violated. The agricultural 
 horse is seldom over- worked, and on 
 large farms is generally well fed : 
 perhaps, in many cases, too much 
 above his work ; this, however, is an 
 error on the right side. A very slight 
 inspection of the animal will always 
 enable the owner to determine wheth- 
 er he is too well or not sufficiently 
 fed. The size of the horse and the 
 nature of the work, and the season 
 of the year, will make considerable 
 difference in the quantity and quali- 
 ty of the food. The following ac- , 
 counts will sufficiently elucidate the 
 general custom : Mr. Harper ploughs 
 seven acres per week, the year 
 through, on strong land, with a team 
 of three horses, and allows to each, 
 weekly, two bushels of oats, with 
 hay, during the winter six months, 
 and during the remainder of the 
 year one bushel of oats per week, 
 with green food. Mr. Ellman allows 
 two bushels of oats, with pease haulm , 
 
 or straw, with but very little hay, du- 
 ring thirty winter weeks. He gives 
 one bushel of oats, with green food, 
 during the summer. There is very 
 little difference in the management 
 of these two gentlemen, and that 
 probably arising from circumstances 
 peculiar to their respective farms. 
 The grand principles of feeding, with 
 reference to agricultural horses, are, 
 to keep the animal rather above his 
 work, to give him good and whole- 
 some food, and. by the use of the 
 nose-bag, or other means, never to 
 let hiui be worked more than four or 
 five hours without being baited. 
 
 " The horse of quick work, the stage- 
 coach horse and the poster, should 
 be allowed as much as he will eat, 
 care being taken that no more is put 
 into the manger than he will readily 
 dispose of. The quantity actually 
 eaten will depend on the degree of 
 work and the natural appetite of the 
 horse ; but it may be averaged at 
 about 66 pounds of cut straw, 17^- 
 pounds of beans, and 77 of oats per 
 week. When the work is unusually 
 hard, the quantity of oats may be di- 
 minished, that of beans increased. 
 
 " During the sporting season the 
 hunter is well fed, and with that kind 
 of food which contains a great pro- 
 portion of nutriment in little com- 
 pass. A small quantity of hay, rare- 
 ly more than eight or ten pounds per 
 day, is allowed, and less than that on 
 the day before work. The quantity 
 of oats may vary from 14 to 16 pounds 
 daily. There is a prejudice in most 
 hunting stables, and probably well 
 founded, against chaff, and it is sel- 
 dom that the beans and oats are 
 bruised. A bran-mash is given after 
 a day of more than usual fatigue, and 
 is serviceable at other times, when 
 there has not been more than ordi- 
 nary work, provided that at least 
 two days are suffered to elapse be- 
 fore the horse is again taken into the 
 field. 
 
 " No horse should be urged on after 
 he has exhibited unequivocal symp- 
 toms of distress, such as a drooping 
 pace, a staggering gait, a heavy bear- 
 mg on the hand, a rapid inspiration 
 391 
 
HOUSE. 
 
 like a hurried sigb, and a peculiar 
 convulsive action of the diaphragm, 
 as though tlie heart were violently 
 beating against the side. The loss 
 of blood, the administration of some 
 cordial medicine, and slow leading to 
 the nearest stable, are the best re- 
 storatives at the moment of distress ; 
 although the cordial would be abso- 
 lutely destructive a few hours after- 
 ward, when inflammation had com- 
 menced. 
 
 " The hunting season having 
 passed, the horse used to be turned 
 into the field as soon as the grass 
 had begun fairly to sprout, and there, 
 with his feed or two feeds of corn 
 daily, and his hovel, into which he 
 might retreat from the sun or the 
 storm, he remained until the middle 
 of June, or the flies began to be troub- 
 lesome. It was delightful to see how- 
 much he enjoyed this short period of 
 liberty ; and well had he earned it. 
 Of late years, however, it has be- 
 come the fashion to confine him to 
 his box, whence he stirs not, except 
 for an hour's walking exercise on 
 the road, until he is taken into train- 
 ing for the next winter's business. 
 
 " Nothing can be so erroneous or 
 cruel as this. There are few horses 
 that have not materially suffered in 
 their legs and feet before the close of 
 the hunting season. There cannot 
 be anything so refreshing to their 
 feet as the damp coolness of the 
 herbage which they tread at that pe- 
 riod ; and there is no physic which 
 so safely and effectually as the spring 
 grass carries off every humour that 
 may be lurking in their frame. 
 
 " The training of the hunter for his 
 work is a simple affair ; it is, by 
 means of exercise and physic, getting 
 rid of all superfluous fat and flesh 
 without debilitating him. The phys- 
 ic is useful ; it is indispensable ; but 
 the chief thing is gradually to accus- 
 tom him to the exertion of every 
 power that he possesses, without too 
 much hurrying his breathing or over- 
 straining or injuring him. 
 
 " The training of the race-horse is 
 of a similar character, but it is far 
 more severe, for his strength, his 
 392 
 
 speed, and his endurance must be 
 tested to the utmost. The hunter 
 has to carry his rider gallantly and 
 well through perhaps a long burst, 
 and if he tires, and the sportsman 
 has the good sense and humanity to 
 cease to urge him on, the greatest 
 evil is some temporary suffering to 
 him, and disappointment to his mas- 
 ter ; but if the race-horse breaks 
 down, or if his capabOities have 
 not been accurately calculated, the 
 most serious loss may be sustained. 
 Thence arises the necessity of strain- 
 ing and of testing every power in the 
 preparation of the turf horse ; and 
 thence, too, it happens, from the 
 strange and impolitic sacrifice of the 
 endurance of the modern racer to 
 speed during short distances, that so 
 many young horses break down and 
 become perfectly useless in their 
 training. 
 
 " The watering of the horse is a 
 very important but disregarded por- 
 tion of his general management. The 
 kind of water has not been sutBcient- 
 ly considered. The difference be- 
 tween what is termed hard and soft 
 water is a circumstance of general 
 observation. The former contains 
 certain saline principles which de- 
 compose some bodies, as in the cur- 
 dling of soap ; and prevent the solu- 
 tion of others, as in the making of 
 tea, the boiling of vegetables, and the 
 process of brewing. It is natural to 
 suppose that these different kinds ot 
 water would produce somewhat dif- 
 ferent effects on the animal frame, 
 and such is the fact. Hard water, 
 freshly drawn from the well, will fre- 
 quently roughen the coat of the horse 
 unaccustomed to it, or cause griping 
 pains, or materially lessen the ani- 
 mal's power of exertion. The racing 
 and the hunting groom are perfectly 
 aware of this, and so is the horse, 
 for he will refuse the purest water 
 from the well if he can obtain access 
 to the running stream, or even the 
 turbid pool, ^^'here there is the pow- 
 er of choice, the soft water should 
 undoubtedly be preferred. 
 
 "The temperature of the water 
 is of far more consequence than 
 
HORSE. 
 
 its hardness. It will rarely harm if i 
 taken from the pond or the running 
 stream, but its cohhiess, when re- 
 cently drawn from the well, has often 
 been injurious. It lias produccul col- 
 ic, spasm, and even death. It should, 
 therefore, be exj)osed for some hours, 
 either in the stable or in some tank. 
 
 " There is often considerable prej- 
 udice against the horse being fairly 
 supplied with water. It is supposed 
 to chill liim, to injure his wind, or to 
 incapacitate him for hard worlc. It 
 certainly would do so if, immediate- 
 ly after drinking his till, he were gal- 
 loped hard, but not if he were sutTer- 
 ed to quench his thirst more frequent- 
 ly when at rest in the stable. The 
 horse that has free access to water 
 will not drink so much in the course 
 of a daj' as another who, to cool his 
 parched mouth, swallows as fast as 
 he can, and knows not when to stop. 
 
 " \^'hen on a journey, a horse may, 
 with perfect safety, be far more lib- 
 erally supplied with water than he 
 generally is. An hour before his 
 work commences he should be per- 
 mitted to drink a couple of quarts. 
 A greater quantity might be probably 
 objected to. He will perform his 
 task far more pleasantly and effect- 
 ively than with a parched mouth and 
 tormenting thirst. The prejudice 
 both of the hunting and the training 
 groom, on this point, is cruel as well 
 as injurious. The task or the jour- 
 ney being accomplished, and the 
 horse having breathed a few min- 
 utes, another quart, or even two, will 
 be delightfully refreshing to him, and 
 will never do him harm. His corn 
 may then be offered to him, which he 
 will readily take ; and, before he has 
 eaten the whole of it, two or three 
 more quarts of water may be given. 
 
 " Towards the close of the day, the 
 speed of the traveller should some- 
 W'hat abate, and the horse should ar- 
 rive at his resting-place as dry and 
 as cool as circumstances will permit. 
 If he is hot, he must be walked about 
 a while, or the perspiration will re- 
 turn in the stable. If he is wet, he 
 must be carefully rubbed dry. The 
 sooner this is done the better; and. 
 
 after lie is clothed, watered, fed, and 
 bedded, he shoukl, as soon as possi- 
 ble, be left to his repose. Professor 
 Stewart, of Cilasgow, has lately pub- 
 lished a very useful work on the ' Sta- 
 ble Economy, or General Manage- 
 ment of Horses.' We abridge his 
 account of ' the kinds of work, and 
 the preparation for them.' 
 
 " Travelling. — The horse should 
 undergo some degree of training as 
 to the pace, the distance, and the 
 burden. When there has been no 
 preparation, the stages must at first 
 be short, and the (lacc gentle. For a 
 journey of 300 miles the horse may 
 travel from twenty to twenty-five 
 miles a day, resting on the Sunday, 
 and doing the work in two stages, at 
 the pace of six miles an hour. This 
 requires a seasoned horse, and the 
 number of working hours per day is 
 about four. 
 
 " Hunting requires speed and 
 stoutness. The pace seldom exceeds 
 twelve miles an hour, and the run is 
 short, soon over, or interrupted ; yet 
 soft, sinking ground, hills, and leaps 
 make this pace severe even on the 
 best horses. The time for prepara- 
 tion varies from two to four months. 
 On the day before work, the horse 
 should have exercise enough to emp- 
 ty the bowels. If he is a good feed- 
 er, he should have no hay within 
 eight hours of starting, nor water 
 within four hours, nor corn within 
 three hours ; but if he has five or six 
 miles to go to cover, these restric- 
 tions are less necessary. The work- 
 ing days will vary according to his 
 condition and the hardness of the 
 running. He may be able to go out 
 every second day, and sometimes not 
 more than once in six or seven. His 
 spirits and appetite, and the state of 
 his legs, will decide this. Even on 
 the blank days some exercise should 
 be taken in order to evacuate the 
 bowels and create an appetite. 
 
 " Coaching. — The horses are best 
 prepared for their work by good feed- 
 ing and gradual increase of speed and 
 distance. The ordinary length of a 
 stage is eight to fourteen miles ; the 
 pace being calculated at from eight 
 393 
 
IIORSK. 
 
 to eleven miles an honr. The mus- 
 cular exertion is severe while it lasts, 
 but it is soon over. The excitement, 
 however, of high keep and excessive 
 exertion gradually wears the horse 
 down, and it is rarely that he contin- 
 ues in a fast coach more than six 
 years. 
 
 " Carting. — Cart-horses usually 
 work from eight to ten hours, six 
 days in the week. The pace varies 
 from two miles to three and a half 
 per hour, and the weight rarely ex- 
 ceeds twenty-four cwt., besides the 
 cart, which probably is seven or eight 
 more. All beyond this in weight or 
 in time of work is cruel. 
 
 " Ploughing. — The average work 
 is about eight hours in the day. The 
 severity of it depends on the pace, 
 the nature of the soil, and the breadth 
 of the furrow-slice. Tiie pace is from 
 two miles to two and a half per hour ; 
 the horse and the man can well sup- 
 port this as long as the ploughing 
 season continues. 
 
 " Diseases of Horses (from Youatt). 
 — It may be readily supposed that the 
 animal doomed to the manner of liv- 
 ing just traced in every variety of the 
 horse, will be peculiarly exposed to 
 numerous forms of suffering. Every 
 natural evil will be aggravated, and 
 many new and formidable sources of 
 pain and death will be superadded. 
 
 "Interest and humanity require 
 that we should become acquainted 
 with the nature, and causes, and rem- 
 edy of the diseases of the horse. Only 
 a slight sketch of them can be given 
 here, but sufficient, perhaps, to enable 
 the owner to recognise their exist- 
 ence, to avoid their causes, or to in- 
 duce him to apply to the proper quar- 
 ter for their removal or alleviation. 
 
 " The principal diseases of the 
 liorse are connected with the circu- 
 latory system. From the state of 
 habitual excitement in wliich the an- 
 imal is kept, in order to enable him 
 to execute his task, the heart and the 
 blood-vessels will often act too im- 
 petuously. The vital fluid will be 
 hurried along too rapidly, either 
 through the frame generally, or some 
 particular part of it, and there will be 
 39-i 
 
 congestion, accumulation of blood in 
 that part, or there will be inflamma- 
 tion, either local or general, disturb- 
 ing the functions of some organ or 
 of the whole frame. 
 
 " Congestion. — Take a young horse 
 on his first entrance into the stables ; 
 feed him somewhat highly, and what 
 is the consequence 1 lie has swell- 
 ings of the legs, or inflammation of 
 the joints, or perhaps of the lungs. 
 Take a horse that has lived some- 
 what above his work, and gallop him 
 to the top of his speed : his nervous 
 system becomes highly excited ; the 
 heart beats with fearful rapidity ; the 
 blood is pumped into the lungs fast- 
 er than they can discharge it : the 
 pulmonary vessels become gorged, 
 fatigued, and utterly powerless ; the 
 blood, arrested in its course, becomes 
 viscid, and death speedily ensues. 
 We have but one chance of saving 
 our patient, viz., the instantaneous 
 and copious extraction of blood ; and 
 one means of preventing the recur- 
 rence of this dangerous state, name- 
 ly, by not suffering too great an ac- 
 cumulation of the sanguineous fluid 
 by over-feeding, and, by regular and 
 systematic exercise, inuring the cir- 
 culatory vessels to prompt and efl?- 
 cient action when thej' are suddenly 
 called upon to exert themselves. The 
 cause and the remedy are sufficient- 
 ly plain. 
 
 " Again, the brain has functions of 
 the most important nature to dis- 
 charge, and more blood flows through 
 it than any other portion of the frame 
 of equal bulk. In order to prevent 
 this organ from being oppressed by 
 a too great determination of blood to 
 it, the vessels, although numerous, 
 are small, and pursue a very circui- 
 tous and winding course. A horse 
 highly fed, and full of blood, is sud- 
 denly and sharply exercised : the 
 course of the blood is accelerated in 
 every direction, and to the brain 
 among other parts. The vessels that 
 ramify on its surface or penetrate its 
 substance are completely distended 
 and gorged with it. Perhaps they are 
 ruptured, and the effused blood press- 
 es upon the brain ; it presses upoa 
 
HORSE. 
 
 the origins of the nerves, on which all 
 sensation and motion depend, and 
 the animal suddenly drops powerless. 
 A prompt and copious abstraction of 
 blood, or, in other words, a diminu- 
 tion of this pressure, can alone save 
 the patient. Here is the nature, the 
 cause, and the treatment of ajmplexy. 
 
 " Sometimes this disease assumes 
 a different form. The horse has not 
 been performing more than his ordi- 
 nary work, or perhaps he may not 
 have been out of the stable. He is 
 found with his head drooping and his 
 vision impaired. He is staggering 
 about ; he falls, and lies half uncon- 
 scious, or he struggles violently and 
 dangerously. There is the same con- 
 gestion of blood in the head, the same 
 pressure on the nervous origins, but 
 produced by a different cause. He 
 has been accustomed habitually to 
 overload his stomach, or he was on 
 the previous day kept too long from 
 his food, and then he fell ravenously 
 upon it, and ate until his stomach 
 was completely distended and unable 
 to propel forward its accumulated 
 contents. Thus distended, its blood- 
 vessels are compressed, and the cir- 
 culation through them is impeded or 
 altogether suspended. T|ie blood is 
 still forced on by the heart, and driv- 
 en in accumulated quantity to other or- 
 gans, and to the brain among the rest ; 
 and there congestion takes place, 
 as just described, and the animal be- 
 comes sleepy, unconscious, and, if 
 he is not speedily relieved, he dies. 
 This, too, is apoplexy; the horseman 
 calls it stomach staggers. Its cause 
 is improper feeding. The division of 
 the hours of labour, and the introduc- 
 tion of the nose-bag, have much di- 
 minished the frequency of its occur- 
 rence. The remedies are plain : 
 bleeding, physicking, and the remo- 
 val of the contents of the stomach by 
 means of a pump contrived for that 
 purpose. 
 
 " Congestions of other kinds occa- 
 sionally present themselves. It is no 
 uncommon thing for the blood to loi- 
 ter in the complicated vessels of the 
 liver, until the membrane of that vis- 
 cus has t>urst, and an accumulation of 
 
 congealed black blood has presented 
 itself It is the same with the spleen. 
 It constitutes the swelled legs to which 
 so many horses are subject when they 
 stand too long idle in the stable. Con- 
 gestion is the source of many of the 
 accumulations of serous fluid in vari- 
 ous parts of the body, and particular- 
 ly in the chest, the abdomen, and the 
 brain. 
 
 " Inflamtnalion is opposed to con- 
 gestion, as consisting in an active state 
 of the capillary arterial vessels ; the 
 blood rushing through them with far 
 greater rapidity than in health, from 
 the excited state of the nervous sys- 
 tem, by which tticy are supplied. 
 
 " Inflammation is either local or dif- 
 fused. It is confined to one organ, 
 or to a particular portion of that or- 
 gan ; or it involves many neighbour- 
 ing ones, or it is spread over the 
 whole frame. In the latter case it 
 assumes the name offerer. Fever is 
 general or constitutional inflamma- 
 tion, and is said to be sympathetic or 
 symptomatic when it can be traced to 
 some local affection or cause, and 
 idiopathic when we cannot so trace 
 it. The truth probably is that every 
 fever has its local cause, but we have 
 not a sufficient knowledge of the an- 
 imal economy to be able to discover it. 
 
 " Inflammation may be considered 
 with reference to the membranes 
 which it attacks. 
 
 " The mucous memhranes line all the 
 cavities that communicate with the 
 external surface of the body. There 
 is frequent inflammation of the mem- 
 brane of the mouth. Blain, or Glos- 
 santhrax. is a vesicular enlargement 
 which runs along the side of the 
 tongue. Its cause is unknown. It 
 should be lanced freely and deeply, 
 and a little aperient medicine admin- 
 istered, iifl/is, or ^a/).«, are smaller en- 
 largements, found more in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the bridle of the tongue. 
 They should never be touched with 
 any instrument : a little cooling med- 
 icine will generally remove them. 
 Lampas is inflammation of the palate, 
 or enlargement of the bars of the pal- 
 ate. The roof of the mouth may be 
 slightly lanced, or a little aperient 
 395 
 
HORSE. 
 
 medicine administered ; but ilie sen- 
 sibility of the nioulli should never be 
 destroyed by the application of the 
 heated iron. Canker and wounds in 
 the mouth, from various causes, will 
 be best remedied by diluted tincture 
 of myrrh, or a weak solution of alum. 
 Foreign bodies jn the gullet may gen- 
 erally be removed by means of the 
 probang used in the hoove of cattle : 
 or the oesophagus may be opened, 
 and the obstructing body taken out. 
 It is on the mucous membranes that 
 poisons principally exert their influ- 
 ence. The yerv is the most frequent 
 vegetable poison. The horse may be 
 saved by timely recourse to equal 
 parts of vinegar and water injected 
 into the stomach, after the poison has 
 been, as much as possible, removed by 
 means of the stomach-pump. For 
 arsenic, hydrated peroxide of iron ; 
 corrosive sublimate, white of eggs. 
 Spasmodic colic is too frequently pro- 
 duced by exposure to cold, or the 
 drinking of cold water, or the use 
 of too much green meat. The horse 
 should be walked about ; strong fric- 
 tion used over the belly, and spirit of 
 turpentine given in doses of two oun- 
 ces, with an ounce each of laudanum 
 and spirit of nitrous a3ther, in warm 
 water or ale. If the spasm is not 
 soon relieved, the animal should be 
 bled, an aloetic ball administered, and 
 injections of warm water with a so- 
 lution of aloes thrown up. This spas- 
 modic action of the bowels, when 
 long continued, is liable to produce in- 
 trosusception, or entanglement, of them, 
 and the case is then hopeless. Su- 
 perpurgation often follows the admin- 
 istration of a too strong or improper 
 dose of physic. The torture which 
 it produces will be evident by the ag- 
 onized expression of the countenance, 
 and the frequent looking at the flanks. 
 Plenty of thin starch or arrow-root 
 should be given both by the mouth 
 and by injection ; and twelve hours 
 having passed without relief being 
 experienced, chalk, catechu, and opi- 
 um should be added to the gruel. 
 Worms in the intestines are not often 
 productive of much mischief, except 
 they exist in very great quantities. 
 306 
 
 Small doses (two drachms) of emetic 
 tartar, with a little ginger, may be giv- 
 en to the horse half an hour before 
 his first meal, in order to expel the 
 round white worm ; and injections of 
 linseed oil or aloes will remove the 
 ascarides, or needle-worms. 
 
 " The respiratory passages are all 
 lined by the mucous membrane. Ca- 
 tarrh, or cold, inflammations of the 
 upper air passages, should never be 
 long neglected. A few mashes or 
 a little medicine will usually remove 
 it. If it is neglected, and, occasion- 
 ally, in defiance of all treatment, it 
 will degenerate into other diseases. 
 The larynx may become the princi- 
 pal seat of inflammation. Laryngitis 
 will be shown by extreme difficulty of 
 breathing, accompanied by a strange, 
 roaring noise, and an evident enlarge- 
 ment and great tenderness of the lar- 
 ynx when felt externally. The wind- 
 pipe mu.st be opened in such case, 
 and the best advice will be necessa- 
 ry. Sometimes the subdivisions of 
 the trachea, before or when it first 
 enters the lungs, will be the part af- 
 fected, and we have bronchitis. This 
 is characterized by a quick and hard 
 breathing, and a peculiar wheezing 
 sound, with the coughing up of mu- 
 cus. Herfe, too, decisive measures 
 must be adopted, and a skilful prac- 
 titioner employed. So should he in 
 distemper, influenza, and epidemic ca- 
 tarrh, names indicating the same dis- 
 ease, and produced by atmospheric 
 influence, varying to a certain degree 
 in every season, but in all character- 
 ized by intense inflammation of the 
 mucous surfaces, and by rapid and 
 utter prostration of strength, and in 
 all demanding the abatement of that 
 inflammation, and yet no expenditure 
 of vital power. 
 
 " Cough may degenerate into in- 
 flammations of the lungs ; or this fear- 
 ful malady may be developed without 
 a single premonitory symptom, and 
 may prove fatal in twenty-four, or 
 even in twelve hours. It is mostly 
 characterized by deadly coldness of 
 the extremities, expansion of the nos- 
 tril, redness of its lining membrane, 
 singularly anxious countenance, con- 
 
HORSE. 
 
 slant gazing at the flank, and an un- 
 willingness to move. A successful 
 treatment of such a case can be found- 
 ed only on the most prompt, and fear- 
 less, and decisive measures. The 
 lancet must be freely used ; counter- 
 irritants must follow as soon as the 
 violence of the disease is in the slight- 
 est degree abated ; sedatives must 
 succeed to them, and fortunate will 
 he be who often saves liis patient af- 
 ter all the decisive symptoms of pneu- 
 monia are once developed. 
 
 " Amongthe consequences of these 
 severe affections of the lungs are 
 chronic cough, not always much in- 
 terfering with the usefulness of the 
 horse, but strangely aggravated at 
 times by any fresh accession of ca- 
 tarrh, and too often degenerating into 
 thick wind, which always materially 
 interferes with the speed of the horse, 
 and in a great proportion of cases 
 terminates in broken wind. It is 
 rare, indeed, that either of these dis- 
 eases admits of cure, nor does that 
 obstruction in some part of the re- 
 spiratory canal, and varying in al- 
 most every horse, which produces 
 the peculiar sound termed roaring. 
 
 " Glanders, the most destructive of 
 all the diseases to which the horse 
 is exposed, is the consequence of 
 breathing the atmosphere of foul and 
 vitiated stables — the winding up of 
 almost every other disease, and in 
 every stage of it most contagious. 
 Its most prominent symptoms are a 
 small but constant discharge of sticky 
 matter from the nose, an enlarge- 
 ment and induration of the glands 
 beneath and within the lower jaw, 
 on one or both sides ; and, before the 
 termination of the disease, cancer- 
 ous inflammation of the nostril on 
 the same side with the enlarged 
 gland. Its contagiousness should 
 never be forgotten, for if a glandered 
 horse is once introduced into a sta- 
 ble, almost every horse in it will soon- 
 er or later become infected and die. 
 
 " The urinary and genital organs 
 are also lined by mucous membranes. 
 'I'he horse is subject to injlammalion 
 of the kidneys from eating musty oats 
 or mow-burned hay, from exposure 
 L L 
 
 to cold, and from injuries of the loins. 
 Bleeding, physic, and counter-irri- 
 tants over the region of the loins 
 should be had recourse to. Diabetes, 
 or profuse staling, is diflicult to treat. 
 The "inflammation that may exist 
 should first be subdued ; and then 
 opium, catechu, and the uva ursi ad- 
 ministered. Inflammation of the blad- 
 der will be best alleviated by mucila- 
 ginous drinks of almost any kind. Li- 
 flammation of the neck of the bladder, 
 evinced by the frequent and painful 
 discharge of small quantities of urine, 
 will yield only to the abstraction of 
 blood and the exhibition of opium. 
 A catheter may be easily passed into 
 the bladder of the mare and the urine 
 evacuated ; but it will require a skil- 
 ful veterinary surgeon to effect this 
 in the horse. ^4 stone in the bladder 
 is readily detected by the practition- 
 er, and may be extracted with com- 
 parative ease. The sheath of the 
 penis often becomes diseased from 
 the presence of corrosive mucous 
 matter : it may easily be removed 
 with warm water and soap. 
 
 " To the mucous membranes belong 
 the conjunctival tunic of the eye, and 
 the diseases of the eye generally may 
 be here considered. A scabby itchi- 
 ness on the edge of the eyelid may be 
 got rid of by a diluted nitrated oint- 
 ment of mercury. Warts should be 
 cut off with the scissors, and the roots 
 touched with lunar caustic. Inflam- 
 mation of the haw should be abated by 
 the employment of cooling lotions, 
 but that useful defence of the eye 
 should never, if possible, be removed. 
 Common ophthalmia will yield as read- 
 ily to cooling applications as inflam- 
 mation of the same organ in any oth- 
 er animal ; but there is another kind 
 of inflammation, commencing in the 
 same way as the first, and lor a whde 
 apparently yielding to treatment, but 
 which changes from eye to eye, and 
 returns again and again, until blind- 
 ness is produced in one or both or- 
 gans of vision. The most frequent 
 cause is hereditary predisposition. 
 The reader cannot be too often re- 
 minded that the quahties of the sire, 
 good or bad, descend, and scarcely 
 397 
 
HOH.SE. 
 
 changed, to his ofTspring. How moon- 
 blindness was first produceil, no one 
 knows ; but its continuance in our 
 stables is to be traced to this cause 
 principally, or almost alone, and it 
 pursues its course until cataract is 
 produced, for which there is no rem- 
 edy. Gutta scrcna (palsy of the optic 
 nerve) is sometimes observed, and 
 many have been deceived, for the 
 eye retains its perfect transparency. 
 Here, also, medical treatment is of 
 no avail. 
 
 " Tlie serous membranes are of 
 great importance. Tlie brain and spi- 
 nal marrow, with the origins of the 
 nerves, are surrounded by them ; so 
 are the heart, the kings, the exterior 
 coat of the intestinal canal, and the 
 testes. 
 
 " Inflammation of the Brain. — Mad 
 staggers falls under this division ; it 
 is inflammation of the meninges, or 
 envelopes of the brain, produced by 
 over-exertion, or by any of the caus- 
 es of general fever, and it is charac- 
 terized by the wildest delirium. No- 
 thing but the most profuse blood-let- 
 ting, active purgation, and blistering 
 the head, will aflbrd the slightest liope 
 of success. Tetanus, or Locked Jaw, 
 is a constant spasm of all the volun- 
 tary muscles, and particularly those 
 of the neck, the spine, and tlie head, 
 arising from the injury of some ner- 
 vous fibril — that injury spreading to 
 the origin of the nerve — the brain be- 
 coming afTecled, and universal and 
 unbroken spasmodic action being the 
 result. Bleeding, physicking, blister- 
 ing the course of the spine, and the 
 administration of opium in enormous 
 doses, will alone give any chance of 
 cure. Epilepsy is not a frequent dis- 
 ease in the horse, but it seldom ad- 
 mits of cure. It is also very apt to 
 return at the most distant and uncer- 
 tain intervals. Falsy is the suspen- 
 sion of nervous power; it is usually 
 confined to the hinder limbs, and 
 sometimes to one limb only. Here 
 bleeding and physicking, and antimo- 
 nial medicines, and blistering of the 
 spine, are the most rational applica- 
 tions, but they too often utterly fail 
 of success. Rabies, or madness, is 
 398 
 
 evidently a disease of the nervous 
 system, and once being developed, is 
 altogether without cure. The utter 
 destruction of the bitten part with 
 the lunar caustic, soon after the in- 
 fliction of the wound, will, however, 
 in a great majority of cases, prevent 
 the development of the disease. 
 
 "Pleurisy, or inflammation of the 
 serous covering of the lungs and the 
 lining of the cavity of the chest, is 
 generally connected with inflamma- 
 tion of the substance of the lungs ; 
 but it occasionally exists independ- 
 ent of any state of the lungs. The 
 pulse is in this case hard and full, in- 
 stead of being oppressed ; the ex- 
 tremities are not so intensely cold as 
 in pneumonia, the membrane of the 
 nose is little reddened, and the sides 
 are tender. It may be of importance 
 to distinguish between the two, be- 
 cause in pleurisy more active purga- 
 tion may be pursued, and the effect 
 of counter-irritants will be greater, 
 from their proximity to the seat of 
 disease. Copious bleedings and sed- 
 atives here also should be had re- 
 course to. It is in connexion with 
 pleurisy that a serous fluid is effused 
 in the chest, the existence and the 
 extent of which may be ascertained 
 by the practised ear, and which in 
 many cases may be safely evacuated. 
 " The heart is surrounded by a se- 
 rous membrane, the pericardium, that 
 secretes a fluid, the interposition of 
 which prevents any injurious friction 
 or concussion in the constant action 
 of this organ. If this friction increa- 
 ses to too great a degree, the action 
 of the heart may be impeded or de- 
 stroyed ; this is dropsy of the heart ; 
 it is difficult to detect, and more dif- 
 ficult to cure. The heart itself is 
 often diseased ; it sympathizes with 
 the inflammatory affection of every 
 organ, and therefore is itself occa- 
 sionally infiamed. Carditis, or in- 
 flammation of the heart, is character- 
 ized by the strength of its pulsations, 
 the tremour of which can be seen, 
 while the sound can be heard at a 
 distance of several yards. Speedy 
 and copious blood-letting will afford 
 the only hope of cure in such a case. 
 
HORSE. 
 
 " Tlie outer coat of the stomach I 
 and intestines is composed of a 
 serous menihrane. the peritoneum, 
 which adds strength and firmness to 
 their textures ; attaches, and sup- 
 ports, and confines them in their re- 
 spective places, and secretes a fluid 
 that prevents all injurious friction be- 
 tween them. This coat is exceed- 
 ingly subject to inflammation, some- 
 what gradual in its approach ; the 
 pulse quickened, but small ; the legs 
 cold ; the belly tender ; there being 
 constant pain, and every motion in- 
 creasing It ; there also being rapid 
 and great prostration of strength. 
 These symptoms will sufficiently 
 characterize peritoneal inflammation. 
 Bleeding, aperient injections, and ex- 
 tensive counter-irritation will aflTord 
 the only hope of cure. 
 
 " The time for caslration varies ac- 
 cording to the breed and destiny of 
 the horse. On the farmer's colt it 
 may be effected when the animal is 
 not more than four or five months i 
 old, and it is comparatively seldom 
 that a fatal case then occurs. For 
 other horses much depends on their 
 growth, and particularly on the de- 
 velopment of their fore quarters. Lit- 
 tle improvement has been effected in 
 the old mode of castrating, except 
 the opening of the scrotum, and the 
 division of the cord by the knife in- 
 stead of the heated iron. 
 
 " Si/novial, or joint membranes, are 
 interposed between the divisions of 
 the bones, and frequently between the 
 tendons, in order to secrete a certain 
 fluid that shall facilitate motion and 
 obviate friction. Occasionally the 
 membrane is lacerated, and the sy- 
 novia escapes. This is termed open- 
 ed joint, and violent inflammation rap- 
 idly ensues. The duty of the prac- 
 titioner is to close this opening, and 
 as quickly as possible. Nothing is so 
 effectual here as the old application 
 of the cautery. A great deal of in- 
 flammation and engorgement is pro- 
 duced around the opening, partially, 
 if not ahogether, closing it, or, at 
 least, enabling the coagulated syno- 
 via to occupy and obliterate it. Per- 
 haps, in order to ensure the desired 
 
 result, the whole of the joint should 
 be blistered ; a bandage should then 
 be firmly applied, and kept on as long 
 as possible. If, after this, there is 
 any escape of the synovia, the cau- 
 tery must again be had recourse to. 
 " The Navicular Disease is a bruise, 
 or inflammation, or perhaps destruc- 
 tion, of the cartilage of the navicular 
 bone, where the flex or tendon of the 
 foot passes over it in order to reach 
 the coftin bone. The veterinary sur- 
 geon can alone ascertain the exist- 
 ence and proper treatment of this dis- 
 ease. Sparin is an enlargement of 
 the inner side of the hock. The 
 splent bones, which support the infe- 
 rior layer of those of the hock, sus- 
 taining a very unequal degree of con- 
 cussion and weight, the cartilaginous 
 substance which unites them to the 
 shank bone takes on inflammation, 
 it becomes bony instead of cartilagi- 
 nous, and the disposition to this change 
 being set up in the part, bony matter 
 continues to be deposited, until a 
 very considerable enlargement takes 
 place, known by the name of spavin, 
 and there is considerable lameness 
 in the hock joint. The bony tumour 
 is blistered, and probably fired, but 
 there is no diminution of the lame- 
 ness until the parts have adapted 
 themselves, after a considerable pro- 
 cess of time, to the altered duty re- 
 quired of them, and then the lame- 
 ness materially diminisheaf and the 
 horse becomes, to a very considerable 
 extent, useful. Curb is an enlarge- 
 ment of the back of the hock, three 
 or four inches below its point. It is 
 a strain of the ligament which there 
 binds the tendons down in their place. 
 The patient should be subjected to 
 almost absolute rest ; a blister should 
 be applied over the back of the tu- 
 mour, and, occasionally, firing will be 
 requisite to complete the cure. Near 
 the fetlock, and where the tendons 
 are exposed to injury from pressure 
 or friction, little bags or sacs are 
 placed, from which a lubricating mu- 
 cous fluid constantly escapes. In the 
 violent tasks which the horse occa- 
 sionally has to perform, these become 
 bruised and inflamed, and enlarged 
 399 
 
HORSE. 
 
 and hardened, and are termed ■wind- 
 galls ; lliey blemish the horse, but 
 are no cause of lameness after the 
 inflammation has subsided, unless 
 they become very much enlarged. 
 The cautery will then be the best 
 cure. Immediately above the hock, 
 enlargements of a similar nature are 
 sometimes found, and, as they pro- 
 ject both inwardly and outwardly, 
 they are termed thorough puis. They 
 are seldom a cause of lameness, but 
 they indicate groat, and perhaps in- 
 jurious exertion of the joint. On the 
 inside of the hock a tumour of this 
 kind, but of a more serious nature, is 
 found. It is one of these enlarged 
 mucous bags, but very deeply seated, 
 the subcutaneous vein of the hock 
 passing over it. The course of the 
 blood through the vein is thus, in some 
 measure, arrested, and a portion of 
 the vessel becomes distended. This 
 is a serious evil ; for, from the deep- 
 seatedness of the mucous bag, it is 
 almost impossible to act effectually 
 upon it. It is termed bog or blood 
 spavin. 
 
 " The cellular tissue which fills the 
 interstices of the various organs, or 
 enters into their texture, is the seat 
 of many diseases. From the badness 
 of the harness, or the brutality of the 
 attendant, the poll of the horse be- 
 comes contused. Inflammation is 
 set up, considerable swelling ensues, 
 and an ulcerative process soon com- 
 mences, and chasms and sinuses of 
 the most frightful extent begin to ap- 
 pear. The withers are probably bruis- 
 ed, and the same process takes place 
 there, and sinuses penetrate deep be- 
 neath the shoulder, and the bones of 
 the withers are frequently exposed. 
 These abscesses are termed poll evil 
 anA Jisivlous withers, and in the treat- 
 ment of them the horse is often tor- 
 tured to a dreadful and disgraceful 
 extent. A better mode of manage- 
 ment has, however, been introduced : 
 setons are passed through the most 
 dependant parts ; no collection of sa- 
 nious fluid is permitted to exist, and 
 milder stimulants are applied to the 
 surface of the ulcer. 
 
 "An abscess of a peculiar charac- 
 400 
 
 ter is found between the branches of 
 the lower jaw in young horses ; it is 
 preceded by some degree of fever. It 
 is usually slow in its progress, but at 
 length it attains a considerable size, 
 including the whole of the cellular 
 tissue in that neighbourhood. There 
 is one uniform mass of tumefaction. 
 This is strangles. Vtvcs appears to 
 be the first stage of this disease. It 
 seems to be an effort of nature to get 
 rid of something which oppresses the 
 constitution, and the treatment of it 
 is now simple and effectual. It is 
 encouraged by fomentations and by 
 blisters : it is punctured as soon as 
 the fluctuation of a fluid within it can 
 be fairly detected, the pus speedily 
 escapes, and there is an end of the 
 matter. 
 
 "To one disease of the absorbent 
 system a brief reference must be 
 made. 
 
 " Farcy. — While the arterial capil- 
 laries are engaged in building up the 
 frame, the absorbents are employed 
 in removing that which not only is 
 useless, but which would be poison- 
 ous and destructive. They take up 
 the matter of glanders and of every 
 ulcerating surface, and they are occa- 
 sionally irritated, inflamed, and ul- 
 cerated, from the acrimonious nature 
 of the poison which they carry. The 
 absorbents are furnished with numer- 
 ous valves ; the fluid is, for a while, 
 arrested by them, and there the in- 
 flammation is greatest, and ulcera- 
 tion takes place. This is the history 
 of the farcy cords and buds. Farcy 
 is a highly contagious disease, wheth- 
 er or not it be connected with glan- 
 ders. It, however, occasionally ad- 
 mits of cure from the application of 
 the cautery to the bud, and the ad- 
 ministration of very small doses of 
 corrosive sublimate, or the sulphate 
 of iron, internally. 
 
 " The skin of the horse is subject 
 to various diseases. Large pimples, 
 or lumps, suddenly appear on the 
 skin, and, after remaining a few days, 
 the cuticle peels off, and a circular 
 scaly spot is left : this is called sur- 
 feit. The cause is obscure, but prin- 
 cipally referable to indigestion. A 
 
HOR 
 
 slight bleeding will always be ser- 
 viceable ; physic rarely does good ; 
 but alteratives, composed of nitre, 
 black antimony, and sulphur, will be 
 very beneficial. Mange is a disease 
 of a different character. It is the 
 curse of the stable into which it en- 
 ters, for it will almost certainly affect 
 every horse. Thorough dressings 
 vpith Barbadoes tar and linseed oil, in 
 the proportion of one of the former to 
 three of the latter, will be the most 
 effectual external application, while 
 alteratives and physic should be giv- 
 en internally. Hulc-bound is a very 
 appropriate term lor the peculiar 
 sticking of the hide to the ribs when 
 a horse is out of condition. The sub- 
 cutaneous adipose matter is all ab- 
 sorbed. The alterative above rec- 
 ommended will be very useful here. 
 Grease is an undue secretion of the 
 fluid which was designed to lubricate 
 the skin of the heels, and that secre- 
 tion being also altered in quality. 
 The hind legs begin to swell, a fluid 
 exudes from the heels, the hairs of 
 the heels become erect like so many 
 bristles, and the skin of the heel is 
 hot and greasy. Soon afterward 
 cracks appear across the heel, they 
 discharge a thick and offensive mat- 
 ter, and then deepen. They spread 
 up the leg, and so does the tumefac- 
 tion of the part. In process of time 
 the skin, inflamed and ulcerated, un- 
 dergoes an alteration of structure ; 
 prominences or granulations appear 
 on it, assuming the appearance of a 
 collection of grapes, or the skin of a 
 pineapple. They increase, and a foe- 
 tid discharge appears from the crev- 
 ices between them. 
 
 " The cause is generally neglect of 
 the horse. He is suffered to stand 
 iu the stable with his heels cold and 
 wet, and this must necessarily dis- 
 pose them to inflammation and dis- 
 ease. 
 
 " In the first stage of grease, bran, 
 or turnip, or carrot poultices will be 
 serviceable, with moderate physic. 
 Then astringents must be employed, 
 and the best are alum or sulphate of 
 copper in powder, mixed with eight 
 limes the quantity of Bole Armenian, 
 Ll2 
 
 HOR 
 
 and sprinkled on the sores. These 
 should be alternated every three or 
 four days. The grapy heels are a 
 disgrace to the stable in which they 
 are found, and admit not of radical 
 cure." 
 
 Wounds in horses seldom heal by 
 first intention ; the lips should, how- 
 ever, be brought together nicely and 
 bound by sticking plaster or a ban- 
 dage ; if suppuration occurs, keep the 
 wound clean by warm water. For 
 the medicines, see Pharmacopaia. 
 
 HORSE'S FOOT. The structure 
 of the feet of horses is much more 
 complex than one might suppose at 
 first sight ; it is contrived so as to 
 furnish an arrangement of springs, 
 whereby the weight of the body in 
 alighting on the hoof is broken, and 
 the animal is enabled to leap from 
 the ground with facility. This struc- 
 ture will be seen in Fig. 1, which 
 Fig: 1. 
 
 f- 
 
 represents a section of the lower 
 part of the leg. a is the coflin bone ; 
 b the navicular, or nut bone ; c the 
 coronary, or little pastern bone ; d 
 is the pastern bone ; e the tendon, 
 or sinew, of the muscle which bends 
 the foot backward ; / is the same 
 tendon sliding over the navicular 
 bone, and g its insertion in the bot- 
 tom of the coflin bone ; h the elas- 
 tic matter of the sensible frog ; i 
 the insensible or horny frog ; k the 
 horny sole covering the sensible parts 
 of the foot ; / the front horn that 
 protects the coffin bone ; m the pro- 
 cess of the coflin bone, to which the 
 extensor tendon, n, is attached, for 
 the purpose of throwing the foot for- 
 ward ; the attachment of the ex- 
 tensor to the coronary bone, to assist 
 401 
 
HOR 
 
 HOll 
 
 in making the spring. From this it 
 will be seen that when a horse is 
 alighting his whole weight is not ex- 
 pended upon an unyielding and hard 
 hoof, but upon a series of bones which 
 participate and divide the shock, re- 
 ducing it to a trifling pressure on each 
 part. It is this complexity of ar- 
 rangements which renders the horse's 
 foot so liable to injuries : when any 
 of the ligamentous connexions or 
 synovial membranes between the 
 bones is irritated it produces lame- 
 ness, which, if not speedily attended 
 to, may become permanent. 
 
 The hoof, or horn, of the foot on 
 the under side is marked by certain 
 projections, which are altered in their 
 form in disease. Fig. 2 represents 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 secrete horn, and produces pus and 
 ulcers in its place ; this is a result 
 of foul stables. But the whole in- 
 sensible sole may become painful and 
 sensitive from bad shoeing, if the 
 shoe fits ill, compresses any part, or 
 duriag the growth of the nail be- 
 comes buried in it. 
 
 HORSESHOE. The best veteri- 
 nary surgeons are unanimous in con- 
 demning the common horseshoe, 
 from its want of width or web, from 
 being usually too wide behind, from 
 the calkins, or turned-up parts at the 
 heels, and from the clinches being 
 driven in too far back towards. the 
 heels, as well as the want of level 
 and irregular figure. According to 
 the practice of Moorcroft and others, 
 the seated shoe of Osmer is the prop- 
 er form. It is shown in the figure, 
 
 a healthy sole : the rounded portions 
 of the hoof, a, a, behind where the 
 nail is curved inward, are called the 
 heels ; between these lies the horny 
 frog, b ; the inflected or bent por- 
 tions of the hoof, c, c, running on the 
 outside the frog, are called the bars ; 
 d d are the angles of the bars, in 
 which corns occur in diseased feet ; 
 in the latter case the frog becomes 
 contracted, and often fissured, pro- 
 ducing pus (thrush) ; the bars are run 
 together, and the heels, instead of 
 being rounded and wide apart, are 
 contracted to a mere slit. The space, 
 e, lying between the front edge of 
 the hoof and the bars in the sole 
 should be broad and concave. When 
 this external covering is removed 
 from the foot, it is found to rest on 
 the sensible sole and frog, both of 
 which, and especially the latter, are 
 highly vascular and sensitive ; they 
 are, indeed, to the hoof what the 
 quick is to the human nail, they se- 
 crete the tough horn to protect them- 
 selves. In disease it sometimes oc- 
 curs that the sensible frog refuses to 
 402 
 
 a being the under or ground side, and 
 b the upper surface. Its peculiarities 
 are, 1st, a flat, wide surface towards 
 the ground, a, d ; this is made true in 
 forging by gauging on a flat iron ; 
 there is no groove or fullering, which 
 only assists the wear ; it is punched 
 with conical holes with square tops, 
 and clinched to the crust by conical 
 nails, e ; the nails are obliquely driv- 
 en outward, and their figure keeps 
 the shoe fast as long as any portion 
 of them remains in place. The up- 
 per surface, b, c, is bevelled in the 
 fore part and sides, but not behind, 
 so as to offer a good support to the 
 heel ; there is no increase of thick- 
 ness, clubbing, or calkings, but the 
 whole shoe is uniformly thick, from 
 one half to five eighths of an inch, 
 and perfectly level. This is regard- 
 ed by Loudon as a perfect shoe. 
 I Calkings may be made where the 
 
IIUR 
 
 HOR 
 
 ground is slippery and much up hill ; 
 and a turn-up in front is also useful 
 in rocky {)laccs. There is a shoe 
 called the bar shoe, which is of an 
 oval figure, the iron heing complete 
 around the heel, curved and thick- 
 ened to suit it ; hut it is seldom used : 
 it answers well to protect a tender 
 frog. In putting on the shoe, all the 
 crust trimmed should he taken quite 
 level, and the shoe never put on hot 
 to make it fit better ; it may be gauged 
 while hot for a minute to enable the 
 smith to cut the crust true, but not 
 clmched while hot. Racing shoes 
 are very light, and of the figure 
 above. 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT. Mscnlus 
 hif-pocastanum. This tree is remark- 
 able chiefly for the beauty of its fig- 
 ure, flowers, and early foliage. The 
 wood is soft and of little value. The 
 nuts contain much nutritious matter, 
 which is combined with a disagreea- 
 ble bitter ; but it is said that pigs eat 
 them when pounded into meal. A 
 writer in the American Farmer says 
 that they are very saponaceous, and 
 will take spots out of linen. The 
 Buckeyes are of this genus, or, at 
 least, of the sub-genus Pavia. 
 
 HORSE DUNG. See Farm-yard 
 Manure. 
 
 HORSE-FLY. Hippobosca, which 
 
 SG6, 
 
 HORSE-HOE. See Cultivator. 
 
 HORSE POWER. In physics, 
 the effect produced by the strength 
 of a horse. James Watt allowed in 
 
 his engine an effect equal to 32,000 
 pounds lifted one foot in a minute ; 
 but from experiments with horses, 
 D'Aubuisson found it was only equal 
 to 16,440 pounds raised one foot in a 
 minute. 
 
 In acrriculturaJ machines, a horse 
 power is a contrivance or gearing to 
 make the labour of horses available in 
 turning thrashing and other machines, 
 where great swiftness is wanted. 
 
 The simplest horse power {Fig. 1) 
 
 is a triangular wooden frame bearing 
 a wheel, the upper axis of which is 
 inserted into the lever, a ; the horse 
 is hitched at b, and, as he walks in a 
 circle, turns the wheel, d, which 
 plays into an endless screw, the 
 end or rod of which, c, is made to 
 revolve rapidly, and may be put in 
 communication with a machine by 
 the hook or by a small roller. The 
 same arrangement, with several ad- 
 ditional wheels to multiply motion, 
 and a crown wheel instead of the 
 endless screw, forms Warren''s horse 
 power {Figure 2), as well as other 
 kinds. 
 
 The old power for thrashing con- 
 sisted of an upright beam, carrying 
 at the top a crown or bevelled wheel 
 of large circumference, and turning a 
 small wheel, which was directly in 
 contact with the thrasher or grinding 
 mill. The horses were attached to 
 
 levers, projecting from the central 
 beam, and below the wheel. This is 
 a simple and very efficient contri- 
 vance. A modification is introduced 
 by Mr. Scripture, who puts no cogs 
 to the wheel, but causes it to turn a 
 roller by friction. 
 
 403 
 
HOR 
 
 TajtliTi's horse power {Fig. 3) is a 
 large wliecl revolving on a short ax- 
 is near to tlie ground. Tlie driver 
 sits on the top of the axis, and the 
 
 HOR 
 
 horses work within the circumfer- 
 ence, being hitched to it. The under 
 side of tlie wheel carries iron tcolh, 
 which play upon a small wheel con- 
 
 nected by a drum with the thrasher. 
 It is readily carried, and set up on the 
 field in a few minutes. 
 
 Gleaso7i's horse power {Fig. 4) is on 
 
 another principle : an endless chain, 
 carrying oaken slats for the horse to 
 tread on, is made to turn a wheel, 
 which carries a drum on the outside 
 of the frame, from which a leathei 
 band communicates with the thrash- 
 er or mill. The horse or mule works 
 within a framing to hinder accidents. 
 Pitt's machine is of this class. 
 
 A very similar contrivance is used 
 for dogs, the machine being reduced 
 to a proper size. In this way churn- 
 ing and other light operations may be 
 conducted. 
 
 These horse powers contain the 
 three principles on which all the rest 
 are constructed. The prices of the 
 powers are from $60 to ^90 for the 
 single horse, and $100 to $120 for 
 two or more horses. 
 
 HORSERADISH. CoMcaria ar- 
 moracia. A cruciferous plant, with a 
 perennial root, used as a condiment 
 404 
 
 for its hot taste, resembling mus- 
 tard. 
 
 The plants are obtained from cut- 
 tings, or otfsets, from the crown of 
 the preceding roots, each cutting hav- 
 ing two eyes : they are set early in 
 spring, in a deep, mellow earth that 
 has been trenched. The soil should 
 be moist and well manured. The 
 sets may be placed in drills, eighteen 
 inches to two feet apart, by six inch- 
 es in the row, and during the first 
 year beets or other plants can be 
 raised in the drill intervals. Weed- 
 ing and hoeing are necessary. The 
 roots will be lit to be taken up in Oc- 
 tober and November of the second 
 i year, when they may be kept for use 
 ] in sand. In taking up the roots the 
 eartli must be thoroughly loosened 
 to obtain the whole, as they are fre- 
 quently two feet deep. Oflsets and 
 broken pieces containing eyes will 
 vegetate the next year, and in this 
 way a bed once established may, by 
 manuring, be kept up for a long pe- 
 riod ; but the best way is to select 
 cuttings for a new bed the next year. 
 HORSE-R.AKE. See Hay-makiiig. 
 HORSE-TAIL. The genera Equi- 
 setum, or scouring rush, and Hippuns, 
 remarkable for the large amount of sil- 
 ica they contain. They grow in rich, 
 wet places, and some varieties are of 
 value in the arts for polishing met- 
 
 HORTICULTURE (from hortus, 
 a garden, and colo, I cultivate). The 
 cultivation of gardens and orchards. 
 See Garden Husbandry. 
 
HOT 
 
 HUM 
 
 HORTUS SICCUS. An herbari- 
 um, a collection of dried plants. 
 
 HOT-BED. See Frame. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. A glazed structure, 
 sufficiently high to allow persons to 
 enter, and with conveniences for the 
 production of artiticial heat. The 
 means of heating are various : some 
 depend upon dung pits constantly re- 
 newed, others upon flues running in 
 the walls, and conveying the hot air 
 of a furnace. Steam is also convey- 
 ed by iron and copper pipes, and made 
 to circulate several times through 
 the house, especially under the beds. 
 Hot water is also conveyed from a 
 boiler round the house and back, so 
 as to maintain a constant circulation, 
 the boiler being provided with a safe- 
 ty-valve. The direct introduction of 
 steam from a boiler through an open 
 pipe is occasionally used as an eco- 
 nomical way of heating the house 
 when the plants are adapted to a very 
 moist air. 
 
 The arrangements of the hot-house 
 are various, according to the object 
 m view. The roof usually sustains 
 grapes ; the highest wall, tigs, apri- 
 cots, early peaches, nectarines, and 
 choice fruits : in the centre is arran- 
 ged a rising frame containing the ex- 
 otics, which require heat during win- 
 ter, or the ground may be used as a 
 place to forward vegetables. The 
 walk is around the central stand. The 
 height and dimensions will depend 
 upon the plants protected. 
 
 HOTTENTOT BREAD. Tamus 
 (Tcstudinaria) clcphantipcs. A South 
 African climbing perennial, produ- 
 cing an immense above-ground tuber, 
 very similar to the yam in flavour. 
 It forms a large portion of the food 
 of the natives. 
 
 HOT- WALLS. Walls in which 
 heat circulates for the advancement 
 of fruit, and ripening of the wood in 
 the fall. They are made by conduct- 
 ing flues from a furnace at various 
 heights, or back and forth, and ter- 
 minating in a chimney ; by enclo- 
 sing steam pipes, or, what is much 
 better, bv building the wail hollow 
 throughout, binding the two sides to- 
 gether occasionally by cross bricks 
 
 ' or stones, and a coping, and passing 
 a large hot-water pipe along the bot- 
 [ tom between the sides : the heat 
 from this rises upward, and produces 
 an equal temperature throughout the 
 wall. 
 
 Hot -walls are much assisted by 
 a moveable arrangement of glazed 
 sashes, which can be set up to pro- 
 tect the trees from frost in early 
 spring, and may be removed during 
 summer. 
 
 Ordinary walls, painted of a dark col- 
 our, and looking to the south, become 
 heated by ten to twenty degrees high- 
 er than the adjacent grounds during 
 summer, and therefore advance the 
 ripening of fruits considerably, espe- 
 cially if all the leaves lying around 
 the fruit be removed, which shade it 
 from the sun or wall. The introduc- 
 tion of reflecting surfaces of white 
 wood or sheet tin, so as to concen- 
 trate light and heat on walls, would 
 i doubtless much advance the maturi- 
 ty of fruits. Such reflectors might be 
 moveable, made very light, and read- 
 ily adjusted to heat any particular 
 wall. 
 
 HOUXD. The dogs of chase are 
 so called. 
 
 HOUND'S TONGUE. The genus 
 Cynoglossum : rough-leaved weeds of 
 little value. 
 
 HOUSELEEK. Exotic plants of 
 the genus Scynpervivum, with succu- 
 lent leaves, which are mucilaginous. 
 
 HOVEL. A shed for cattle, sheep, 
 &c. 
 
 HOVEN, HOOVE. See Oxen, Dis- 
 eases of. 
 
 HUCKLEBERRY. Whortle- 
 berry. 
 
 HUMAN F^CES. See Night-soil. 
 
 HUMATES. Salts of humic acid. 
 See Humus. 
 
 HUMECTATION. Moistening. 
 
 HUMERUS. The upper bone of 
 the arm. 
 
 HU.MIC ACID. See Humus. 
 
 HUMIFUSUS, HUMIFUSE. 
 Spreading over the ground, procum- 
 bent, like the stem of the melon, 
 sweet potatoe, &c. 
 
 HUMILIS. Low, humble, applied 
 to small species. 
 
 405 
 
HUiM 
 
 HUMMELLER. An implement for 
 the separation ol" barley from the 
 glumes or awns. This may he clone 
 by the means described under barley. 
 An instrument extensively used in 
 Scotland is formed of a hollow cyl- 
 inder of staves or metal, in which an 
 axis revolves very rapidly. To the 
 axis is attached three sets of cross 
 pieces of wood, which reach nearly to 
 the cylinder, and are at right angles 
 to it. The barley being slowly ad- 
 mitted by a hopper above, enters the 
 cylinder, where it is beaten rapidly 
 by the cross pieces, and perfectly 
 cleaned of awn by the time it escapes 
 from below. 
 
 HUMMING-BIRD. Birds of the 
 genus Trochilus, remarkable for their 
 minuteness, brilliancy, and rapid 
 flight. They live upon the nectar of 
 flowers and on small insects. 
 
 HUMOUR. In anatomy, fluid se- 
 cretions natural to the eye or other 
 parts of the body. 
 
 HUMUS. The decayed carbona- 
 ceous residue of plants, of a dark- 
 brown or black colour, and mouldy 
 smell. It is called by gardeners vege- 
 table mould, and has received the 
 name of humus, humic acid, humin, 
 humic extract, coal of humus, ulmin, 
 ulmic acid, geine, geic acid, apoth- 
 eme, &c., &c. 
 
 Being vegetable matter in a state 
 of decay, its composition is subject 
 to change ; and hence a great num- 
 ber of bodies will be formed by treat- 
 ing it with re-agents, as potash, soda. 
 But Mulder has recently shown that 
 the various bodies enumerated by 
 other chemists, as well as the crenic 
 and apocrenic acids, are no more 
 than woody fibre, cellulose, starch, 
 gum, sugar, and similar vegetable 
 bodies in a progressive state of de- 
 cay ; that by the absorption of oxy- 
 gen, carbonic acid and water are 
 constantly being formed, and pro- 
 gressively the different products of 
 decay. From Mulder we learn that 
 ulmic or humic acid consists of 40 
 carbon, 14 hydrogen, and 12 oxygen ; 
 crenic acid, C-i H12 Oio ; apocrenic ■ 
 acid, Chs H;2 Oi4, and that the two 
 latter are not, as Berzehus and olh- j 
 406 
 
 HUM 
 
 crs assert, bodies containing nitro- 
 gen, but only that in the soil the 
 apocrenic acid is usually combined 
 with ammonia. Moreover, Mulder 
 failed to discover in the vegetable 
 mould or humus any other organic 
 bodies than humin and its deriva- 
 tives, with cre'.iic acid and its deriva- 
 tives, acting as acids. The bases wiih 
 which apocrenic and humic acid are 
 combined are chiefly lime and am- 
 monia. The humates of lime, pot- 
 ash, and soda existing in the soil are 
 either insoluble or sparingly soluble ; 
 the humate and apocrenate of ammo- 
 nia are soluble, and form a brown so- 
 lution. Woody tissue, straw, leaves, 
 and vegetable rubbish, exposed to air 
 and kept moist, and at a temperature 
 above 60. decay or run into erema- 
 causis, producing at first ulmic, cre- 
 nic, and apocrenic acids ; these will 
 combine with bases present, and still 
 continue to decay, giving out water 
 and carbonic acid. The ammonia 
 present participates in this change, 
 and becomes converted into nitric 
 acid. The rapidity of decay is much 
 hastened by the presence of caustic 
 lime, potash, or soda, or by their car- 
 bonates. If air be not freely admit- 
 ted, then gaseous compounds of hy- 
 drogen, carburet of hydrogen, sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen, &c., are formed. 
 
 From this we learn that humus is 
 vegetable matter in the act of decay, 
 the products of which depend upon 
 the age, exposure to air or water, 
 temperature, and similar conditions. 
 But there is a variety called inert hu- 
 mus, as peat, turf, &.C., which, from 
 the presence of moisture and absence 
 of air, coiTibined with other causes, 
 decays very slowly ; this may, how- 
 ever, be hastened by drying and free 
 exposure to air, by admixture with 
 putrescent bodies, or by the action of 
 lime and bases. The solution of hu- 
 mus, obtained by boiling potash or 
 soda ash with peat, is not strictly a 
 humate of these alkalies. The hu- 
 mic acid can be precipitated by add- 
 ing the strong mineral acids. The 
 portion of humus not soluble in alka- 
 line solutions is called insoluble hu- 
 mus, humin, coal of humus. 
 
HUM 
 
 HUS 
 
 Humus, i. c, vegetable mould, has 
 been highly commended as the food 
 of plants, some people imagining that 
 in the soluble state it entered the 
 root and fed the tissues ; this view, 
 propagated for the purpose of exem- 
 plifying the utility of applying all ma- 
 nures in the state of solution, is a 
 ridiculous absurditij. That solutions 
 of humus find their way into the in- 
 terior of plants, is very true ; but it 
 has never been shown that such so- 
 lution was in any way necessary to 
 vigorous growth. Indeed, plants set 
 in soils containing only insoluble hu- 
 mus (humate of lane) are as healthy 
 and vigorous as those growing un- 
 der the influence of solutions. Nu- 
 merous plants require no humus, as 
 grasses, clovers, various forest-trees ; 
 these, indeed, by their dead leaves 
 and roots, produce and accumulate 
 humus. Charcoal powder, which is 
 insoluble, answers, in many cases, 
 equally well with humus. 
 
 The real utility of humus, irrespect- 
 ive of the ashes which mould con- 
 tains, arises from the following ef- 
 fects : 1st. It is constantly decaying, 
 and thus producing carbonic acid and 
 water, which feed the plant and moist- 
 en the soil. 2d. During decay it con- 
 stantly absorbs nitrogen from the air, 
 which becomes converted into am- 
 monia and nitric acid, and is thus ad- 
 mirably fitted to sustain vegetation. 
 3d. It not only imparts valuable me- 
 chanical qualities to the soil by in- 
 creasing its warmth, porosity, and 
 friability, but the carbonic acid pro- 
 duced, as well as the nitric acid, by 
 acting on the insoluble minerals of 
 the soil, as the silicates of potash, 
 soda, lime, and its bone earth and 
 other phosphates, dissolves or decom- 
 poses them, rendering them food for 
 plants. In this manifold way humus 
 becomes of great utility to culture, 
 but is neither the only manure, nor 
 competent of itself to produce fertil- 
 ity ; for accumulations of humus are 
 by no means desirable : 10 per cent, 
 in the soil is an abundance, and two 
 to three per cent, is quite enough for 
 most plants. Potatoes, the roots, 
 corn, cotton, tobacco, cruciferous 
 
 plants, and wheat, are most partial 
 to this body ; they are all plants de- 
 veloped by culture, and require a sup- 
 ply of food by the roots as well as 
 leaves. Grasses, clovers, and many 
 beans increase instead of exhausting 
 the soil of humus ; hence their utility 
 in rotations. 
 
 The amount of humus in the soil is 
 readily increased by green fallows, by 
 ploughing in straw, prepared peat, 
 and all vegetable rubbish. The great- 
 er part of the solid matter of all pu- 
 trescent manures is humus, decayed 
 wood, the rotten interior of the trunk 
 and branches, &c. 
 
 Humus IS hastened in its decay, and 
 consequently in the several effects it 
 produces, by liming and the use of ash- 
 es, as well as by hoeing and all means 
 that increase the quantity of air ad- 
 mitted to the soil. Indeed, much of 
 the surprising effect that lime often 
 exhibits arises from its action on the 
 vegetable matter in the soil ; even 
 cornstalks and twigs of trees are 
 rapidly reduced by its action when in 
 the earth. 
 
 HUNDRED WEIGHT, or CWT. 
 112 pounds avoirdupois. It is com- 
 mon in the United States to speak of 
 hundreds, or 100 pounds ; and 100 
 pounds is frequently called a hundred 
 weight. 
 
 HUNGER-ROT. Disease occa- 
 sioned in sheep by bad keeping ; star- 
 vation. 
 
 HUNGRY SOIL. Poor, sandy, or 
 gravelly soil, requiring frequent ma- 
 nuring. 
 
 HURDLE. A light, moveable 
 fence of wood, iron, or wire ; it re- 
 sembles a light gate, and is some- 
 times made of osiers, woven like a 
 basket. Hce Fence. Sheep ^Te hurdled, 
 folded, or enclosed on turnips, clo- 
 vers, grass, &c., by means of hurdles, 
 and readily shifted from place to 
 place. The shifting often takes place 
 daily, and if the manure dropped be 
 ploughed in as soon as the shift is 
 made, a considerable economy is 
 practised ; but if it be left to dry and 
 waste, the plan is bad. 
 
 HUSBANDRY. Agriculture. The 
 following short sketch of British hus- 
 407 
 
HUSBANDRY. 
 
 bandry may be found serviceable ; it 
 is by Mr. Rham : 
 
 "The first and most inartificial is 
 that which consists in breaking up 
 portions of pasture land and sowing 
 corn on a sliglit ploughing, which 
 cannot fail to be productive tor some 
 time. Several crops may thus be ta- 
 ken, until the land is so exhausted 
 that the crop no longer repays the 
 seed and labour. To extend this 
 time, experience soon pointed out the 
 crops which succeeded best after each 
 other. Wheat or barley were proba- 
 bly the first crops ; afterward pease, 
 beans, or oats, until the ground, 
 being overrun with weeds, would be 
 left to the renovating effect of time, 
 and a fresh spot would be broken up. 
 
 " The first improvement on this 
 system is that of infield and outfield. 
 The infield is cultivated more care- 
 fully, somewhat like a garden, and 
 all the dung of the cattle is exclu- 
 sively put upon this part. The out- 
 field is a continuation of the first- 
 mentioned system. The infield con- 
 sisted of enclosures or open fields 
 near the dwelling, which it was most 
 convenient to cultivate as arable 
 land. Thus two distinct systems of 
 husbandry were carried on at the 
 same time ; and whatever improve- 
 ments were introduced in the man- 
 agement of the infield, the outfield 
 continued to be managed as it was 
 before. 
 
 "The mode of recruiting lands 
 which had been exhausted by crops, 
 or were overrun with weeds, by 
 means of a fallow, seems to have 
 been introduced into England by the 
 Romans. The alternate crop and 
 fallow seem to have been later intro- 
 duced than a fallow after several 
 crops. The triennial system, which 
 consists of a summer fallow, a win- 
 ter crop, and a spring crop, was prob- 
 ably longer established than any oth- 
 er, and is still the practice in many 
 parts of England. The deteriorating 
 effect of the outfield system would 
 lead to its abandonment as soon as 
 population increased, and with it the 
 want of land for infield. 
 
 " When common fields are divided 
 408 
 
 and enclosed, a better system of hus- 
 bandry geiiprally follows. Clover and 
 turnips are more regularly sown, and, 
 on the light lands, take the place of 
 summer fallow. Clover generally 
 comes after a crop of wheat, in which 
 it was sown the preceding year in 
 spring ; and as most crops succeed 
 well after clover, wheat was usually 
 chosen for the next crop as the most 
 profitable. Thus arose the Norfolk 
 system, without any very sudden de- 
 Iiarture from the old rotations. Two 
 crops raised for the food of animals in 
 four years require more cattle on the 
 farm to expend them profitably ; and 
 thus more manure is made. In the 
 light soils the sheep, when folded on 
 the turnips, not only enrich the land 
 by their dung and urine, but likewise 
 render it more compact by treading 
 it, which is advantageous to the clo- 
 ver and wheat which come after. If 
 the land is a good loam, beans are 
 sometimes sown after wheat, the land 
 having been recruited with manure ; 
 and if the beans are kept clean by 
 hoeing, another good crop of wheat 
 may be obtained after them. Thus 
 arises the improved rotation of tur- 
 nips, barley, clover, wheat, beans, 
 wheat ; after which the land is again 
 cleaned and prepared for turnips with 
 all the manure that can be spared. 
 As in this system there is always a 
 crop with succulent leaves interve- 
 ning between two which have a white 
 straw, it has been called the alternate 
 system of husbandry. These are the 
 most common systems in England. 
 The removal of the fallow year, pro- 
 vided the land be kept clean, is a de- 
 cided step towards improvement ; 
 the best farmers effect this by the in- 
 troduction of artificial grasses and 
 tares fed off by sheep, and especially 
 by sowing every crop in rows and 
 keeping the intervals stirred, which 
 is a partial fallow, without losing a 
 crop. Here TuU's system is intro- 
 duced, which in its complete state, 
 as the author recommended it, was 
 soon abandoned. 
 
 "As the English systems have ta- 
 ken their origin chiefly from the in- 
 field cultivation, so the Scotch appear 
 
HUSDA.NDIIY 
 
 to have arisen from that of the out- 
 field. Fallows were unknown, but 
 the invigorating effect of grass fed off 
 by cattle must soon have been per- 
 ceived ; and, instead of leaving the 
 land to recover slowly by the spon- 
 taneous growth of natural herbage, 
 which on poor land takes a long time, 
 it was obvious that this might be 
 accelerated by sowing grass seeds. 
 Hence the origin of the Scotch con- 
 vertible system of husbandry, which 
 is gaining ground daily, and bids fair, 
 in remote situations, where no ma- 
 nure can be purchased, to be firmly 
 established. The order of the con- 
 version has been somewhat altered 
 from what it was originally. Instead 
 of sowing grass seeds after the land 
 is exhausted, it has been found advan- 
 tageous to accelerate the growth of 
 grass by manuring the crop in which 
 it is sown ; and experience has 
 proved, that the richer the grass is, 
 the more productive are the crops 
 which come after. The grass, in- 
 stead of being a mere substitute for 
 fallowing and manuring, is made high- 
 ly profitable by feeding cattle and 
 sheep ; and the profit of the years 
 when the land rests, as it were, by 
 being depastured, is often as great as 
 that of the years when it is cropped ; 
 and the risk and expenses are much 
 less. The convertible system is not 
 very generally known or adopted in 
 England, and is often confounded 
 with the alternate system. The al- 
 ternate system interposes a green 
 crop between two white-straw crops. 
 On good land the convertible hus- 
 bandry may consist of three or four 
 years' tillage and three years' grass. 
 If the land is not quite clean, a sum- 
 mer fallow on heavy soils, or a tur- 
 nip fallow on light soils, should be- 
 gin the course ; and only one crop 
 should be taken after the fallow in 
 which the grasses are sown, wheth- 
 er it be wheat, corn, barley, or oats. 
 It should he fed off the first year, 
 mown the second, and ied off again 
 in the third ; when it is broken up, 
 oats are usually sown as the first 
 crop in Scotland, then beans, if the 
 land admits of them, and then wheat. 
 
 M M 
 
 If a fallow is mtended, a crop of 
 pease may be sown after the wheat, 
 and then the course begins again, as 
 before, with a clean fallow or with 
 turnips. In this manner the land 
 may be kept clean and continually 
 improve in fertility by means of the 
 cattle which are kept upon it, with- 
 out the aid of any purchased manure, 
 except lime, the expense of which is, 
 in most cases, well repaid by the 
 crop. These are the only regular 
 systems in Britain, and every mode 
 of cultivation and cropping may be 
 reduced to one of them, unless it be 
 capriciously anomalous. 
 
 " \Miat renders the improved sys- 
 tems of British husbandry so supe- 
 rior to that of other nations is the 
 attention paid to the perfection of 
 the different breeds of domestic ani- 
 mals, especially the horse, the ox, 
 and the sheep. In this respect, Brit- 
 ish husbandry surpasses every other. 
 No expense or trouble is spared to 
 improve the qualities of cattle and 
 sheep. It has been objected, that 
 the rewards given by different so- 
 cieties for excessively fat cattle are 
 not judicious, as these animals are 
 never profitable to the feeder. The 
 same might be said of very high-bred 
 race-horses ; they are not so useful 
 as a good hackney or hunter ; but 
 unless some individual animals pos- 
 sess the power, courage, and speed 
 which is the mark of the best blood, 
 it would soon degenerate ; so, like- 
 wise, if some oxen were not occa- 
 sionally fatted to an extraordinary 
 degree, the fatting qualities of the 
 breed could not be proved. A badly- 
 bred ox will never become so fat, 
 whatever food may be given him, as 
 one of a choice breed ; this the breed- 
 ers are well aware of, and never hes- 
 itate to pay a good price for a young 
 bull related in blood to a prize ox." 
 
 HUSK. The dry exterior of 
 fruits. 
 
 HYACINTHINE COLOUR. The 
 colour of the hyacinth gem : a clear 
 reddish-brown. 
 
 HYALITE. A variety of glassy 
 quartz of a gray or yellowish colour, 
 and concretionary. 
 
 400 
 
HYD 
 
 HYD 
 
 HYALOID (from va?uoc, glass). A 
 transparent membrane. 
 
 H YBERNACULUM. The winter 
 leaf-l)ud. 
 
 HYBERNATION. The torpid 
 conciition in which numerous animals 
 and reptiles exist during winter ; 
 they usually retire in a fat state, and 
 become very lean by spring, the fat 
 being consumed in maintaining the 
 temperature necessary to preserve 
 life. 
 
 HYBRID (from Upic, a nmle). 
 The offspring of animals or plants of 
 different species. They are usually 
 barren, as mules, or yield only by 
 connexion with one of the same race 
 as the parents. Much of the im- 
 provement in horticulture has been 
 effected by hybridizing. To perform 
 this, the plants selected should be of 
 near varieties, and of similar quali- 
 ties ; they should also flower at the 
 same period. The flowers on the fe- 
 male plant are to be reduced to a few 
 only, and its situation must be dis- 
 tant from others of the same variety. 
 The stamens of all the flowers are to 
 be cut out by a pair of scissors as 
 soon as the blossom is developed, and 
 before pollen is emitted ; and as soon 
 as the stigma is fully dilated, stami- 
 nate flowers from the male variety 
 are to be brought and shaken over 
 them, care being taken that the pol- 
 len is well scattered over the stigma. 
 The seed germinates readily, and will 
 produce a new variety that may be 
 valuable, and is to be maintained by 
 slips, cuttings, buds, and any other 
 means except by seeds, which are 
 either infertile or defective. This 
 was a favourite method with Mr. 
 Knight. Hybrids are frequently form- 
 ed in gardens by the close neighbour- 
 hood of varieties, the pollen being 
 carried by wind, insects, &c., and 
 they frequently destroy fine seeds. 
 Hence, plants raised for seed should 
 be planted apart, and out of the reach 
 of the pollen of other varieties. Bi- 
 geiicrs, the hybrid offspring of plants 
 of different genera, are very rare. 
 
 HYDATID (from iSaric, a bladder). 
 A race of enlozoic animals resem- 
 bling a .small bladder, and infesting 
 110 
 
 the liver, brain, uterus, and other 
 parts of mammals. See Diseases of 
 Sheep. 
 
 HYDRACIDS. Acids containing 
 hydrogen, as muriatic acid, &c. 
 
 HYDRAGOGUE (from v6o>p, ica- 
 ter, and ayw, / expel). Violent cathar- 
 tics, which cause an expulsion of much 
 fluid. 
 
 HYDRANGEA. A highly orna 
 mental flowering shrub. 
 
 HYDRARGILLITE. A name foi 
 wavellite. 
 
 HYDRATES. Compounds iu 
 which water combines, as an acid in 
 its equivalent of nine, as hydrate of 
 lime, or water slacked lime. 
 
 HY'DRAULIGS (from v6up, and 
 avlo^, a pipe). The science which 
 treats of the movement and mechan- 
 ical effects of water and liquids. 
 
 HY'DRO. A chemical prefix, indi- 
 cating the presence of hydrogen ; as 
 hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydrocar- 
 bon, and hvdriodic. 
 
 HYDROCARBONS. A general 
 term for the oily, waxy, and resinous 
 products of vegetation, which are rich 
 in hydrogen, and often contain hy- 
 drogen and carbon only ; they are 
 also called hydror.arburets, which term 
 includes ethers, alcohols, gaseous 
 compounds of carbon with hydro- 
 gen, naphthas, &c. 
 
 HYDROCELE. A collection of 
 water in the scrotum. 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID. See 
 Chlorine. Muriatic acid. 
 
 HYDROCHLORATES. An old 
 term fur chlorides. 
 
 HYDROCY^\NIC ACID. Prussic 
 acid, a pellucid fluid, of strong odour, 
 one of the deadliest poisons known. 
 Ammonia is the best antidote. It is 
 a compound of one eq. cyanogen and 
 one hydrogen, and produced in the 
 distillation of bitter almonds, peach 
 blossoms. Numerous plants of the 
 rosaceous family contain a portion of 
 it. See Cyanogen. 
 
 HYDRODYNAMICS (from v6up, 
 and dwafiL^, power). The science 
 which shows the methods of applying 
 the properties of fluids to mechanical 
 purposes. 
 
 HYDROFLUORIC ACID. A pun- 
 
HYD 
 
 gent, gaseous aciJ formed of one cq. 
 fluorine, and one hydrogen. See Fin- 
 orinc. 
 
 HYDROGEN. Inflammable air 
 The lightest body in nature : an ele- 
 mentary gas, without oduur or eolour, 
 very inflammable in air, forming ex- 
 plosive eompounds with oxygen. It 
 has little chemical activity alone, and 
 is irrespirable : 100 cubic inches weigh 
 213 grains. Its equivalent is 1 on 
 the hydrogen scale, and 12 5 on the 
 oxygen : symbol H. Hydrogen does 
 not exist uncombined in nature ; but 
 in a compound state, in water, annno- 
 nia, and vegetable products, is large- 
 ly accumulated. It combines with 
 oxygen, forming water, by the aid of 
 heat or electricity. In all its prop- 
 erties hydrogen resembles a metal. 
 It combines with oxygen, chlorine, 
 bromine, &c., in the same way as 
 other metals, and is readily displaced 
 by the greater number, sometimes 
 with the evolution of pure gas, at oth- 
 ers by the simultaneous combination 
 of the liberated hydrogen with oxy- 
 gen, to form water. Its compounds 
 with carbon, forming coal gas and oil 
 gas, are of considerable economical 
 value : these, with sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen, are also thrown out from wet, 
 putrescent manures, stagnant ditch- 
 es, &;c. For other compounds, see 
 the usual names. 
 
 Some writers state that plants pos- 
 sess the property of decomposing wa- 
 ter and appropriating its hydrogen ; 
 but this has never been proved : the 
 decomposition is readily effected by 
 galvanism. Plants contain six to sev- 
 en per cent, of hydrogen in the dried 
 portions without the water, in which 
 there is one ninth by weight : fats and 
 waxes contain ten to thirteen per 
 cent. 
 
 HYDROMETER. Areometer. An 
 instrument to take the specific grav- 
 ity or density of fluids, spirits, &c. 
 It is of great value in testing the 
 strength of spirits, of solutions, of 
 sugar, dyestufTs, &c. The form of 
 the implement, which is made of 
 brass or glass, is shown in the fig- 
 ure. It is sometimes furnished with 
 a series of weights, ^V, which arc pla- 
 
 HYD 
 
 fjlA ced on the short stem, C 
 D, to enable it to sink in 
 different solutions. The 
 stem A B is usually flat 
 and graduated ; the scale 
 depcnduig upon the use, 
 and varying with the ma- 
 ker. Sykes's instrument, 
 which is used for taking 
 the strength of spirits, is 
 furnished with a table. 
 Baume's areometer, or hy- 
 drometer, is extensively 
 used by sugar-makers and 
 manufacturers. It is grad- 
 uated from a central point in the 
 stem, — upward, for fluids lighter than 
 water, and -{- below, for those that 
 are heavier. The (zero) marks the 
 density of distilled water at 58° Fah- 
 renheit, and the downward marks cor- 
 respond to the density of solutions 
 of salt and water, containing for each 
 mark an additional one per cent, of 
 salt ; thus, 5° indicates a fluid of the 
 same density as that produced by 
 mixing 5 parts common salt and 95 
 water. The real specific gravities are, 
 
 F(ir Fluids of lesB gravity. 
 
 0=10000 —11 = 9932 
 
 + 1 = 10066 —12 = 0-9865 
 
 4- 5=10340 —15 = 0-9669 
 
 -1-10=1-0701 —20 = 0-9359 
 
 -f 20= 11515 -25 = 0-9068 
 
 + 30=1-2-159 -30 = 0-8795 
 
 + 40 = 13571 —35 = 0-8538 
 
 -+-50=1-4902 —40 = 0-6295 
 
 + 60=16522 —45=0-8066 
 
 + 70=1-853" —50=0-7849 
 
 -1-76 = 2-0000 —60 = 0-7449 
 
 HYDROPHILID.E. Aquatic, pen- 
 tamerous beetles. They are vegeta- 
 ble feeders. 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA. See X>o^. 
 
 HYDROPHYTES (fromvdwp, and 
 6vrov, a plant). Plants living in fresh 
 water. 
 
 HYDROSTATIC BALANCE. 
 The common balance, furnished with 
 a scale that may be suspended near 
 the beam, and under which a hook is 
 placed to hang any substance to be 
 weighed in water. See Gravity, Spe- 
 
 HYDROSTATIC PRESS. See 
 Press, Hydraulic. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS (from viup, and 
 GTau, I stand). The science which 
 411 
 
II VG 
 
 II VP 
 
 explains the mechanical properties of 
 fluids. 
 
 HVDROSULPIIURIC ACID. Sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. Sec Sul/ihur. 
 Hydrosulphurets are the sulphurets 
 or sulphides of metals and bases. 
 
 HYGEIXE (from vyteia, health). 
 The arts necessary to the preserva- 
 tion of health. 
 
 HYGROMETER (from vypoc, 
 moist, and fierpov, a measure). A con- 
 trivance or implement to measure 
 the amount of moisture or vapour of 
 water in air. Formerly hygrometric 
 substances, as hair, catgut, whale- 
 bone, sponge dipped in pcarlash, &c., 
 were used ; but their indications are 
 of little value. The plan of ascer- 
 taining the deiv point (see) is the sim- 
 plest ; this may be done as directed 
 under dew point, with the hygrome- 
 ter of Professor Daniel, or by a sim- 
 ple implement of Professor Bache, 
 which consists of a small bar of pol- 
 ished steel, in which several perfora- 
 tions are made, at short intervals, 
 large enough to receive the bulb of 
 a small thermometer. When used, 
 one end of the bar is plunged in iced 
 water, the other being sustained in 
 the air : after a short time, dew will 
 be seen to form near the lower parts, 
 and to rise gradually until it attains 
 a stationary point. If the thermom- 
 eter be now placed in the nearest ap- 
 erture, it will indicate the tempera- 
 ture of the dew point, or the hygromet- 
 ric condition of the air. If the place 
 occupied by the dew be situated be- 
 tween two perforations, the thermom- 
 eter may be placed in both, and one 
 half the difference added to the de- 
 gree of the lower, to mark the dew 
 point. 
 
 The real amount of water in a giv- 
 en bulk of air is not measured by any 
 instrument. It is, however, a mat- 
 ter of calculation. From Professor 
 Daniel's table, it appears that at a 
 dew point of 30-' Fahrenheit, there is 
 about 2i grains of water in a cubic 
 foot of air ; at 40^, 3i grains ; at 50°, 
 U grains ; 60°=-6i grains ; 70° Fah- 
 renheit = 8k grains ; at 80° Fahren- 
 heit, Hi grains. 
 HYGROMETRIC, HYGROSCOP- 
 412 
 
 IC. Having the quality of absorb- 
 ing moisture during wet, and partially 
 losing it in dry weather. 
 
 HYGROSCOPE. The hygrometer. 
 
 HYhOBIUS. A genus of tetram- 
 erous beetles, resembling the curcu- 
 lios, and infesting trees. 
 
 HYMENIUM. The gills or porous 
 membranes in which the spores of 
 fungi are placed. 
 
 HY.MEXOPTERANS, HYMEN- 
 OPTERA (from vfir/v, a membrane, and 
 nrepov, a wing). An order of mandib- 
 ulate insects, comprehending those 
 which have four membranous wings 
 with few nervures. Latreille divides 
 this order into the following sections 
 and tribes : 
 
 1. Tcrcbrantia : Abdomen of the fe- 
 males furnished with a saw or borer. 
 
 a. Sccurifera: Abdomen sessile, fur- 
 nished with a saw ; larvee with 
 feet. 
 
 h. Pupivora : Abdomen peduncula- 
 ted, furnished with a borer ; lar- 
 vae footless. 
 
 2 Acidcata : Abdomen of the fe- 
 males armed with a sting. 
 
 a. Hcterogyna : Females wingless. 
 
 b. Fossores: Females winged, wings 
 not folded ; basal joint of poste- 
 rior tarsi simple. 
 
 c. Diploplcra : Females winged, 
 wings folded. 
 
 d. MelUfera : Females winged, 
 wings not folded ; posterior tar- 
 si enlarged, and converted into 
 a poUinigerous organ. 
 
 HYPERSTHENE. A species of 
 mineral resembling hornbiend, with 
 little lime and twenty-four per cent, 
 iron. In some greenstone rocks it 
 takes the place of hornbiend. 
 
 HYPERTROPHY. An unusual 
 increase in size of any organ of the 
 body. 
 
 HYPOCHONDRIUM. The region 
 of the body under the cartilages of 
 the false ribs. The liver lies in the 
 right, and the spleen in the left hyp- 
 ochondrium. 
 
 HYPOCR.ATERIFORM. Salver- 
 shaped. A corolla consisting nearly 
 entirely of a tube. 
 
 HYPOGASTRIC REGION", HY- 
 POGASTRIUM (from vno,under, and 
 
ICR 
 
 ICE 
 
 yaarnp, the slomach). Tlie portion of 
 the abdomen reaching from the low- 
 est parts to near the navel. 
 
 HVPOGENE ROCKS. The crys- 
 talline rocks, both stratified and un- 
 stratified, as granite, gneiss, mica, 
 and hornblend slates. These are 
 cither rocks of fusion (Plutonic), or 
 have been modified by heat {Transi- 
 tion). 
 
 HYPOGYNOUS (from imo, and 
 yvvj/, a female). Stamens, or other 
 organs, attached below the base of 
 the ovarium. 
 
 HYPOMTROUS ACID. A very 
 instable and unimportant acid, com- 
 posed of 1 eq. nitrogen and 3 oxygen. 
 
 HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID. 
 A compound little known, with acid 
 properties ; it has not been isolated, 
 and consists of 1 eq. phosphorus and 
 
 1 oxvgen. 
 HYPOPHYLLUM. A partial leaf, 
 
 clasping the stem, and without lamina. 
 HYPOSULPHURIC ACID. An 
 instable body, not isolated, composed 
 of 2 sulphur, 5 oxygen. Hyposulphu- 
 rous acid is not isolable ; consists of 
 
 2 S-j-2 O. ; its salts, the fu/jwsid- 
 ])hitcs, are of use in photography : 
 they are very readily decomposed. 
 
 H Y P T E N i; S E. The longest 
 side of a right-angled triangle. 
 
 HYPOTHESIS. A speculation 
 not based on facts, but explaining 
 certain phenomena. 
 
 HYSSOP. Hyssopus officinalis. A 
 perennial rooted, labiate plant, of aro- 
 matic and bitter properties. It grows 
 on a dry, light soil, and is propagated 
 by cuttings and seeds. 
 
 HYSTERIA. A nervous com- 
 plaint, attended with convulsions and 
 peculiar flatulency. 
 
 HYSTRICID.E (from hjstrix, a 
 jiorcupine). The family of Rodentia, 
 to which the porcupine belongs. 
 
 I. 
 
 IBEX. A wild goat {Capra ibex) 
 inhabiting the mountains of the Old 
 M'orld, with long horns, marked with 
 knotted ridges. 
 
 ICE. Water congeals at and be- 
 low 32' Fahrenheit, and expands ^th 
 of its volume at 40' Fahrenheit; 
 M M 2 
 
 hence, when freezing occurs in the 
 pores of rocks, the earth, &c., it oft- 
 en produces a disruption of the par- 
 ticles. It is this action that mellows 
 lands ploughed in the fall. 
 
 ICE-HOUSE. A sandy or porous 
 soil is to be preferred ; the place 
 should have a nortiiern aspect, and 
 be protected by trees, a wall, &,c., 
 from the action of the sun. The pit 
 may be conical or rectangular, with 
 sloping sides ; for a family, twelve to 
 fourteen feet depth, and twelve feet 
 square, will be sufficient, but some 
 houses are twenty-four feet deep ; 
 the sides may be bricked and cement- 
 ed, or lined with wooden piles cut 
 from small pines, and set horizontally, 
 as in making a log house, and after- 
 ward boarded ; the framing may rise 
 one or two feet above the ground, and 
 a quantity of earth be rammed against 
 it. At the bottom, a well three or four 
 feet deep, and one third the width of 
 the pit, should be dug, and covered 
 with timbers or an iron grating ; into 
 this the water of the melted ice drains 
 and is removed ; if the soil be po- 
 rous, nothing more is wanting, but if 
 retentive, a drain must be made from 
 the bottom to carry off the water ; 
 this is to be protected with a water- 
 trap to hinder circulation of air. If a 
 sandy bed be supposed to exist at a 
 short depth, it is best to sink the well 
 to it, or, at least, to make an open 
 bore ; unless the water can be drain- 
 ed, the ice will not keep. 
 
 The roof may be a sharp gable or 
 conical, well protected by shingles or 
 thatch ; the door is to be on the north 
 side, and should lead along a short 
 passage to a second inner door. A 
 gutter must be placed around the 
 eaves to carry off every drop of rain. 
 
 The house should be filled in dry, 
 frosty weather ; if of wood, the ice 
 may be thrown directly in, but in 
 stone or brick houses a layer of straw 
 or leaves may be first spread on the 
 bottom. The clearest ice is best ; it 
 should be driven closely together 
 with a rammer, and, as the house fills, 
 straw or leaves may be placed around 
 the sides. If the weather be very 
 cold, water may be thrown over the 
 413 
 
ICE 
 
 ILI 
 
 ice, so as to freeze and consolidate 
 the mass, otherwise the crevices 
 should bo filled with small or broken 
 pieces. If the house has been filled 
 early, it is customary to leave it un- 
 covered until the new year, so as to 
 add to the mass as it settles during 
 February. As soon as the winter is 
 passed, the top should be well cov- 
 ered with dry leaves or straw. A 
 ladder is used to reach the ice, and, 
 placed upon it as soon as necessary, 
 it remains during the season. Snow, 
 well rammed, keeps well, especially 
 if water be frozen amid it. 
 
 Some houses are made with a 
 double lining, the outer being of piles 
 and the inner of plank, the space be- 
 tween them varying from four to 
 eight inches, and filled with pounded 
 charcoal, sawdust, dry tan, or leaves 
 well rammed. In this way a non- 
 conducting pit is made that will keep 
 less quantities of ice very perfectly. 
 Such a house may even be made 
 above ground, if surrounded with a 
 thick mould of earth, and kept free 
 from wet and well drained. 
 
 The uses of such a house are ap- 
 parent : meats, liquids, butter, fruits, 
 are preserved ; but, besides these, in 
 silk raising, it affords the tneans of 
 delaying the hatching ; scions may be 
 kept back, and, above all, the ice is 
 invaluable in the sick-chamber in in- 
 flammations. 
 
 ICE PONDS. Any natural lake 
 or accumulation of clear water will 
 furnish fine ice ; but where that is 
 w'anting, a temporary dam thrown 
 across a spring branch will soon pro- 
 duce a sufficient amount of water. 
 Where the operation of taking ice is 
 carried on on a large scale, the sur- 
 face is cut by a plough of suitable 
 construction, and thus the removal 
 assisted. The Boston dealers take 
 only the transparent ice ; they have 
 any accumulation of snow shaved off 
 by skim-coulters a few days before 
 use, and the thickness of the real ice 
 is rapidly increased afterward. The 
 largest blocks are preferred for sto- 
 rage ; and as they are cut of the same 
 Bize, they can be laid in the house 
 like courses of masonry. 
 411 
 
 ICELAND SPAR. Calcareous 
 spar. 
 
 ICHNEUMON FLIES. Small hy- 
 menopterous insects, which lay eggs 
 in the bodies of aphides, caterpillars, 
 and other insects, and even in the 
 eggs of these ; the young eat and de- 
 stroy the creatures in which the egg 
 is deposited. The Fig. represents a 
 common species {Tragus fulvus). 
 
 ICHOR. A thin, purulent, and 
 acrid discharge. 
 
 ICOSANDRIA, ICOSANDROUS 
 (from eiKoai, twenty, and avrjp, a male). 
 Flowers with 20 stamens. 
 
 ICTERUS. Jaundice ; hence icte- 
 roid, yellowish, like the colour of the 
 skin in jaundice. 
 
 IDIOPATHIC. Independent of 
 other diseases. 
 
 IDIOSYNCRASY. A peculiarity 
 of constitution. 
 
 IDOCRASE. Volcanic garnet. It 
 crystallizes in a square-based prism 
 of a brownish colour, and is found 
 massive. Composition of the Vesu- 
 vian : silica, 35 5; alumina, 33 ; lime, 
 22-25 ; iron, 7 5. 
 
 IGASAURIC ACID. A vegetable 
 acid found in plants yielding strych- 
 nine. 
 
 IGNIS FATUUS. A luminous me- 
 teor seen over marshes ; it consists 
 of marsh gas (light carburetted hy- 
 drogen) inflamed. 
 
 IGNITION (from ignis, fire). Com- 
 bustion, burning. 
 
 ILEUM. The lower portion of the 
 small intestines. 
 
 ILIA. The lower sides of the ab- 
 domen ; hence ihac, iliacus, related 
 to the ihum. 
 
I Ml' 
 
 INC 
 
 ILIAC PASSION. A violent col- 
 ic, in which feculent rnaUer is vom- 
 ited. 
 
 ILIUM. The haunch bone. 
 
 IMAGO. The winged ins'ect. 
 
 IMBRICATED. Overlapping, like 
 the shingles of a roof. 
 
 IMPACT. The concussion of one 
 body on anotiicr. 
 
 IMPENETRABILITY. An es- 
 sential property of matter, whereby 
 one molecule only can occupy a given 
 space at a certain time. 
 
 IMPETUS. The force or momen- 
 tum of a body in motion. 
 
 IMPERMEABLE. Rendered wa- 
 ter-proof; this may be done with cot- 
 ton, silk, or other cloths by satura- 
 ting wiih drying linseed oil ; linseed 
 oil holding in solution India rubber ; 
 a varnish made by dissolving India 
 rubber in naphtha ; by pitch ; a solu- 
 tion of glue applied to cloth, which is 
 afterward dipped in infusion of galls. 
 
 Jinpermcahlc, in physics, also means 
 capable of resisting the passage of 
 gases as well as fluids. 
 
 IMPINGE. To strike upon; a 
 word much used in optics to express 
 the incidence of light. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS. Suitable care 
 should be taken in keeping them free 
 from rust and unnecessary exposure ; 
 parts subject to movements should 
 be kept oiled, and the whole stored 
 in a dry place in the barn. 
 
 IMPONDERABLE. A term used 
 to express light, heat, or electricity, 
 which are destitute of any discovera- 
 ble weight. 
 
 I.MPOSTHUME. An abscess. 
 
 I.MPREGNATION. Conception. 
 In horticulture, the contact of pollen 
 with the stigma is called impregna- 
 tion ; without this, no seed is pro- 
 duced. Arlilicial impregnation is 
 called hybridizing. See Hybrid. By 
 it numerous choice fruits, vegetables, 
 and flowers have been produced. 
 
 I M P R O \^ E M E NT O F LANDS. 
 See Barren Land and Arable Land. 
 
 I.MPROVE.MENT OF PLANTS. 
 The chief means are manuring, care- 
 ful tillage, proper exposure to sun or 
 shade, pruning, summer pruning, hy- 
 bridizing, becuring line seeds. Ira- 
 
 proved varieties are maintained by 
 grafting, slips, parting the roots, and 
 high culture ; without the latter, an- 
 nuals degenerate. Nature often vol- 
 unteers an improvement, which the 
 orchardist should at once avail him- 
 self of by propagation, and by care- 
 fully collecting the seeds. In this 
 way several varieties of wheat, or 
 other plants, sown together occa- 
 sionally, exhibit a new kind, superior 
 to the rest, the seed of which must 
 be carefully separated and sown alone 
 on excellent soils. 
 
 INANITION. A state of languor, 
 emptiness. 
 
 INARCHING. A kind of grafting, 
 in which the scion is not cut from its 
 parent, but the scion and stock are 
 made to come together at a certain 
 place ; they are then both pared down 
 to the new wood, and a tongue made 
 in each wound, so as to enable 
 them to fit closer ; the two are then 
 bound together (the parts being ad- 
 justed) by bass and grafting clay, and 
 supported by a stake driven in the 
 ground. The plants should be sha- 
 ded, most of the buds removed, and 
 the stock headed down nearly to the 
 scion. When the parts are firmly 
 united, which requires three or four 
 months, the scion is cut from its pa- 
 rent. This process is sure, but troub- 
 lesome. The scion may be some- 
 times a slip, the heel of which is kept 
 in water. The operation is perform- 
 ed in April or May, and usually on 
 jessamins, myrtles, camellias, wall- 
 nuts, and firs. 
 
 INCANDESCENCE. A luminous 
 heat. 
 
 INCANUS. Hoary ; covered with 
 a whitish down. 
 
 INCH. The twelfth part of a foot. 
 
 INCIDENCE. The meeting of one 
 body with another. The angle of in- 
 cidence is formed by the direction of 
 the light to a line perpendicular to 
 the plane of the surface on which it 
 falls. 
 
 INCINERATION. Burning to 
 ashes. 
 
 INCISED. Cut with a sharp knife. 
 
 INCI.SIONS IN TREES. Draw- 
 ing a sharp knife through the bark 
 415 
 
IND 
 
 and into the new wood of plum, cher- 
 ry, and oilier trees, is often very ser- 
 viceable when they are i)urk-huund. 
 Jt should he done in summer, and the 
 incision made Irom the branches to 
 the earth. 
 
 INCISOR S. The sharp cutting 
 or nipping teeth placed m front of the 
 mouth of animals. 
 
 LNCO.MBUSTIBLE. Not capable 
 of burning. Cloths and wood are 
 rendered almost incombustible by 
 soaking in a solution of borax, alum 
 s^al ammoniac, phosphate of soda' 
 &c. The metallic salts used in pre- 
 serving timber render it very incom- 
 bustible ; It smoulders, but does not 
 burn with flame. 
 
 INCOMPATIBLES. Substances 
 which cannot exist in solution with- 
 out decomposition. 
 
 INCUBATION. Hatching. This 
 may be done by artificial heat distrib- 
 uted through a chamber by steam • 
 the temperature is about 102 ' Fahren- 
 heit. See Gestation. A contrivance 
 tor artificial hatching, called the Ec 
 caleobion, has been exhibited in New 
 York. 
 
 INCUMBENT. In botany, leaning 
 against. ^ 
 
 INDEHISCENT. In botany, a 
 iruit which does not open when rine 
 as succulent berries ' 
 
 INDIAN BLACK DRINK. See 
 
 Holly. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. See Corn. 
 
 J^Sft^SF^^- Thenasturtion. 
 INDIAN HEMP. See Hemp. 
 
 rSm'^^ MILLET. See Millet. 
 INDIAN PHYSIC. Gdlcmatnfo- 
 liata. An indigenous herb, the peren- 
 nial root of which is a good emetic 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. Caoutchouc, 
 i he dried mdky juice of the Sipho- 
 ma elastica, and other euphorbiaceous 
 trees. It is a compound of 90 car- 
 bon and 10 hydrogen, or C3 H.. India 
 rubber is much used in the laboratory 
 to unite tubes, &c. 
 
 It is dissolved by coal naphtha, 
 lornriing a varnish, which, brushed on 
 cloth, renders it water-proof; two 
 pieces of cloth are used, the varnish 
 rubbed on one, and the other brought I 
 at once into contact ; they adhere 
 416 ' 
 
 INI) 
 
 firmly. Linseed and other fixed oils 
 dissolve a small amount of caout- 
 chouc ; pure ether has the same prop- 
 
 ^Vhen heated to 600% it throws ud 
 
 a vapour, which, by refrigeration, is 
 
 I obtained as a volatile fluid, called 
 
 ^01? .I"''"*'- '^''"^ '^ ^ remarkable 
 sohent of common India rubber res- 
 
 '"'mn?fv 'l^r.»°''!^'' ^"'^ '"^"y oils. 
 
 INDIAN TURNIP. Annatnphul. 
 
 llf .V'^T'"'"- A^-on'monmarsh 
 plant, the bulbous roots of which con- 
 tain much starch, and are occasion- 
 ally eaten, after being dried, but it is 
 I acrid when fresh 
 
 I /.^^^^I«ESTION This is charac- 
 terized by loss of appetite, flatulen- 
 cy, uneasiness over the stomach, ir- 
 regularity of the bowels, and imper- 
 fect dejections. It requires to be 
 treated by exercise, gentle purges 
 change of diet, abstemiousness, and 
 tonics. 
 
 INDICATION. The particular 
 treatment indicated by the symptoms 
 ot a disease. 
 
 INDIGENOUS. Native plants 
 &c., are so called. 
 
 INDIGO. A blue dye-stuff pro- 
 cured from many leguminous plants 
 but chiefly from the Indigofera imcto- 
 ria (Fig.), which is cultivated in the 
 
 East and West Indies, the continent 
 ol America, and the United States, 
 as It yields the largest amount of col- 
 ouring matter. In Guatimala. the 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
l.NDKK) 
 
 shrubby, /. disperma, yielding a supe- 
 rior (lye, is cultivated. Ure, also, 
 states that the /. pscudo tinctoria of 
 tlie East Indies furnishes the best in- 
 digo. The most successful culture of 
 these plants is near the tropics, where 
 the mean temperature reaches 75^^ 
 and 80= Fahrenheit ; but species of 
 indigofera grow to the north of this 
 position. The soil should he light 
 and rich ; the seeds are sown in April 
 in drills, run at distances from 15 to 
 20 inches apart ; they require moist- 
 ure, but should not be planted in an 
 undrained soil. Twelve pounds of 
 seed answer fur the acre. Tlie young 
 jjjants are to be kept free from weeds, 
 tlimned, and hoed up. The plants 
 are cut with a reaping hook near the 
 earth, when about to flower, or as 
 soon as the lowest leaves begin to 
 turn : this period will be in July in 
 South Carolina. A second crop is 
 taken at the end of August, and a 
 third crop in Guatimala and India. 
 The root stems also yield good indi- 
 go a second year in rich soils, but 
 one year is usually the term for suc- 
 cessful cultivation. The first crop is 
 the best. The excellence of the in- 
 digo will depend upon the brightness 
 of the season ; long-continued wet 
 weather produces large plants, but a 
 smaller quantity of die. 
 
 Preparation of Fresh Leaves. — The 
 harvested plants are at once carried 
 to a vat or steeping-tank of wood or 
 masonry ; here they are unmersed in 
 water, being kept imder by weighted 
 boards ; fermentation soon begins, 
 and is allowed to continue about 18 
 hours, during which the colouring 
 matter is extracted from the leaves. 
 The fermenting vat is some 20 feet 
 square, and two to three feet deep, 
 and the bottom set on a level with 
 the top of a second or mashing-tank. 
 As soon as the scum produced in fer- 
 mentation begins to subside, the li- 
 quid should be allowed to flow into 
 the lower vessel. The decanted fluid 
 is of a yellowish tinge ; when in the 
 mashing vessel, it is to be violently 
 beaten with paddles or other means 
 for an hour or more, when the blue 
 begins to form in flocks and precipi- 
 
 tate. At first there is much froth, 
 but this subsides as soon as the flocks 
 become granulated ; the beating is 
 stopped when the granulations occur, 
 and the fluid begins to clear if allowed 
 to stand. If tlie fermentation has 
 been defective, the froth is very abun- 
 dant, and must be allayed by pouring 
 oil over the surface ; if over-ferment- 
 ed, a thick fatty crust covers the li- 
 quid, whicli does not disappear on in- 
 troducing oil. In this ease the beat- 
 ing or churning is to be moderated. 
 The indigo precipitates during 20 
 hours, leaving the water transparent 
 and free from froth. Tlie surface 
 water is now to be drained off by 
 stop-cocks or plugs in the side of tlie 
 vessel. In Central America, the thick 
 semifluid mass of indigo is scraped 
 up and placed on a stout cloth, to 
 drain and dry in the sun, and after- 
 ward cut into small pieces for the 
 market. " Stove-drying is equally ef- 
 fective. When dried, any white ef- 
 florescence that appears should be 
 wiped off. Limewater is sometimes 
 used to assist the precipitation of the 
 indigo ; but it is not advisable, as the 
 colour is injured. 
 
 Preparation of Dried Leaves. — In 
 India the plants are sometimes care- 
 fully dried in the sun, the leaves 
 thrashed from the stems, and stored 
 in barns until enough is accumulated 
 for sale or manufacture. The leaves 
 change, in four or more months, from 
 green to a blue gray in the mass, and 
 then become ready for use. They are 
 placed in the steeping-vat with six 
 times their weight of water, and con- 
 tinually stirred for two hours or more, 
 until the floating leaves sink. The 
 solution is now green, and to be im- 
 mediately run off into the mashing- 
 vat, where it is treated as before. 
 There is no fermentation in this pro- 
 cess. Limewater is sometimes used 
 to hasten the granulation, but is not 
 necessary, except in the case of plants 
 which yield little colour, as woad 
 [Isatis tinctoria). 
 
 In some cases the leaves are pound- 
 ed ; the solution is then strained be- 
 fore beating. 
 
 The product of indigo in South 
 417 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 Carolina and Louisiana avprajes 65 
 pounds the acre: in Guatimala, 112 
 pounds is ol)tainrd on good soils. 
 The low price of labour in India 
 tends to the discouragement of the 
 cultivation of indigo in the United 
 States ; it is, however, raised for 
 plantation purposes. The following 
 is a sketch of the plan in the South 
 for this object, by the Southern Agri- 
 culturist ; it produces an imperfect 
 article, but good enough for the plant- 
 ers" use : 
 
 " Cut the indigo when the under 
 leaves begin to dry, and while the 
 dew is on them in the morning ; put 
 them in a barrel, and fill this with 
 rain water, and place weights on to 
 keep it under water. When bubbles 
 begin to form on the top and the water 
 begins to look of a reddish colour, it 
 is soaked enough, and must be taken 
 out, taking care to wring and squeeze 
 the leaves well, so as to obtain all the 
 strength of the plant ; it must then 
 be churned (which may be done by 
 means of a tolerably open basket, 
 with a handle to raise it up and down) 
 until the liquor is quite in a foam. 
 To ascertain whether it is done 
 enough, take out a spoonful in a 
 plate, and put a small quantity of 
 very strong lye to it. If it curdles, 
 the indigo is cliurned enough, and 
 you must proceed to break the liquor 
 in the barrel in the same way, by ])ut- \ 
 ting in lye (which must be as strong 
 as possible) by small quantities, and 
 continuing to churn until it is all suf- 
 ficiently curdled : care must be ta- 
 ken not to put in too much lye, as 
 that will spoil it. When it curdles 
 freely with the lye, it must be sprin- 
 kled well over the top with oil, which 
 immediately causes the foam to sub- 
 side, after which it must stand till 
 the indigo settles to the bottom of the 
 barrel. This may be discovered by 
 the appearance of the water, which 
 must be let off gradually by boring 
 holes first near the top, and afterward 
 lower, as it continues to settle. When 
 the water is all let off, and nothing 
 remains but the mud, take that and 
 put it in a bag (flannel is the best), 
 and hang it up to drip, afterward ; 
 418 
 
 spreading it to dry on large dishes. 
 Take care that none of the foam, 
 wiiich is the strength of the weed, 
 escapes ; but if it rises too high, sprin- 
 kle oil on it." 
 
 Indigo is found in numerous legu- 
 minous plants besides the indigofera, 
 as the Baplisia ; it also exists in the 
 Polygonum tinclorium, in species of 
 ncrium and isatis. One plan of dis- 
 covering the presence of this colour- 
 ing matter in any leaf is to place it 
 in strong ether until the green is ex- 
 tracted, and it becomes white or of a 
 light yellow ; then expose this freely 
 to the air, and if indigo be present, 
 the colour is changed to blue. 
 
 Chemical Observations and Dyeing. 
 — The lumps sold in commerce for 
 indigo are a mixture of several bod- 
 ies, as gluten, orgliadine, brown, red, 
 and blue colours ; lime, and other 
 mineral substances. The proportion 
 of blue colour varies from 19 to 75 per 
 cent., according to the experiments 
 ofUre, the rich purple, violet-coloured 
 samples being best, and the East In- 
 dian generally superior to the Guati- 
 mala. It is insoluble in water, alco- 
 hol, or dilute acids. The blue indi- 
 go sublimes at 554° Fahrenheit, with 
 a purple smoke, and forms purple, 
 shining scales, but much is destroyed. 
 The sublimed indigo consists of car- 
 bon, 73 1 ; oxygen, 131 ; nitrogen, 
 108 ; hydrogen, 4. Indigogene, of 
 C4.5 His N3 O4 . — (Dumas.) 
 
 Indigo is readilydissolved in strong 
 sulphuric acid, seven to eight times 
 the weight of commercial oil of vit- 
 riol being necessary ; this is called so- 
 lution of indigo, sulphate of indigo, 
 Saxon and chemical blue, and is ex- 
 tensively used for dyeing. It may be 
 prepared in quantity and kept, and is 
 sold at the proper stores. To make 
 it, the acid must be placed in an 
 earthen-ware dish, surrounded with 
 water to keep it cool, and the pound- 
 ed indigo added, with stirring, in small 
 quantities ; when it is dissolved, the 
 whole is covered and left for 48 hours ; 
 it is then mixed with twice its weight 
 of pure water, and bottled. This so- 
 lution contains the indigo, red and 
 brown colours, and gluten, and does 
 
IND 
 
 not produce a clear dye. It may be 
 puritied by adding the solution to a 
 considerable amount of boiling wa- 
 ter, and putting into it wool to mace- 
 rate in the cold for 24 hours. The 
 wool becomes deep blue, and should 
 remain until the liquor is greenish 
 blue ; it is then to be taken out, 
 drained, and washed in a stream of 
 pure water until the fluid ceases to 
 be coloured or acid. The washed 
 wool is next to be placed in a copper 
 full of water, containing two per cent, 
 of pearlash, or carbonate of soda (or 
 three times the weight of indigo), and 
 kept boiling a quarter of an hour ; 
 The pure blue (sulphate and hypo- 
 sulphite of indigo) colours the wa- 
 ter, the wool remaining dyed a dirty 
 brown (indigo red) : the solution may 
 be used as a dye, yielding a bright, 
 good colour, called distilled or soluble i 
 blue. I 
 
 Wools and other textures are first [ 
 boiled in alum before being perma- 
 nently dyed in the soluble blue, the 
 depth of tone being increased by sev- 
 eral applications of alum and immer- 
 sions in the solution ; it also serves 
 to make olives, greens, and other 
 mixed colours. 
 
 Other means of dyeing are exten- 
 sively used, founded on the property 
 of indigo to become s(jluble in alka- 
 line solutions, or limewater, and col- 
 ourless when brought in contact with 
 a deoxydizing substance, as green 
 vitriol, and recovering its hue on sub- 
 sequent exposure to air. The indigo 
 (indigogene) may be thrown down 
 from solution by acids as a white 
 body, of which blue indigo is suppo- 
 sed to be the oxide. The most com- 
 mon means of dyeing is the cold or 
 copperas vat ; this is made as follows : 
 The indigo is well rubbed into a fine 
 paste with water or lye ; it is then 
 stirred into a vat of hot water, and 
 newly slacked lime added ; a solution 
 of green vitriol is then stirred into 
 the preparation. The quantities em- 
 ployed are one pound of indigo, four 
 pounds of lime, and three pounds of 
 copperas The dyeing vat is sep- 
 arate, and furnished witli the result- 
 ing solution, which conlaujs deoxy- 
 
 INF 
 
 dized indigo of a reddish yellow col- 
 our. There is a precipitate left in 
 the preparing vat of sulphate of lime, 
 lime mixed with indigo, brown, and 
 some blue, and peroxide of iron. 
 
 In using this cold vat, cotton and 
 linen are to be first boiled in a weak 
 alkaline lye, and the cloth, whether 
 cotton, wool, or silk, is to be merely 
 I dipped without starring, and allowed 
 ' to remain from eight to ten minutes ; 
 they are hung to drain over the vat ; 
 1 they are then to be exposed to the 
 : air to acquire a blue colour, and dip- 
 ped until the proper tint is obtained. 
 When suitably coloured, they must 
 ; be plunged into a sour bath of very 
 I dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid to 
 remove the lime, and finally rinsed 
 in running water. 
 
 j Boussingault is of opinion that the 
 dye-stuff might be prepared in the 
 beginning from the mash- vat by this 
 process with great advantage. Nu- 
 merous products obtained by the ac- 
 tion of re-agents on indigo are known 
 in chemistry, but are of little impor- 
 tance to us. 
 
 LNDUCTIOX. The process of ar- 
 riving at generalizations, or laws, by 
 a judicious investigation of numerous 
 facts. In electricity, it is the influ- 
 ence one electrified body exerts on 
 another, whereby its nearest surface 
 is made to exhibit a kind of electri- 
 city differing from that of the excited 
 substance. 
 
 INDUMENTUM. The coating of 
 feathers on birds. 
 
 INDUSLE. The cases of certain 
 water insects ; they are silicious, 
 calcareous, or ferruginous. 
 
 INDUSIUM. The thin membrane 
 covering the fruit of some ferns. 
 
 INDU\LE. Organized remains; 
 the withered leaves of monocotyle- 
 donous trees, &c. 
 
 INERMIS. Unarmed; without 
 spines or prickles. 
 
 INERT VEGETABLE MATTER. 
 Peat, tan, &c., which does not readi- 
 ly ferment ; mixture with dung, lime, 
 or ashes reduces it. 
 
 INERTIA. The indifTerence of 
 matter to rest or motion 
 INFIELD. Under improved tillage 
 419 
 
i.\(; 
 
 INS 
 
 and rotations, as distinguislied iVom 
 outfield lands. 
 
 LN'FLAM.MATION. An unnatu- 
 ral increase of circulation, lilood, and 
 lieat in any part. It originates in 
 irritation, colds, contagion, and un- 
 healthy conditions of the nervous 
 system, and may attack any part. It 
 begins with dryness, heat, pain, and 
 tension, which is succeeded hy in- 
 creased vascularity, swelling, and se- 
 cretion, and terminates naturally hy 
 resolution to the primary states, by 
 the adhesion of parts or the forma- 
 tion of pus, ulceration, mortification, 
 and death of the part. 
 
 If the animal be vigorous, it is to 
 be treated by bleeding, purging, blis- 
 ters, and cooling applications. But 
 the inflammations of weakly animals, 
 especially when arising from conta- 
 gion and ending in ulcerations and 
 gangrene, is to be treated by stimu- 
 lants and tonics, of which carbonate 
 of ammonia {sal volatile) and bark are 
 the best. 
 
 INFLATED. Distended like a 
 full bladder, as the carpels of some 
 plants. 
 
 INFLEXED. Bent inward. 
 
 INFLECTION. In optics, the 
 same as diffrfiction. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. The group- 
 ing of flowers on the stems of plants ; 
 the principal forms are the spike, ra- 
 ceme, corymb, umbel, panicle, tliyr- 
 sus, catkin, capitulum. 
 
 INFLUENZA. An epidemic cold, 
 with sore throat and fever, prevail- 
 ing in some springs. 
 
 INFUNDIBULIFORM. Shaped 
 like a funnel. 
 
 INFUSION. A liquor obtained by 
 macerating herbs, &c., in hot or cold 
 water. 
 
 INFUSORIA. The minute ani- 
 malcules of infusions and stagnant 
 waters ; some possess a mineral ca- 
 sing ; and the remains of innumera- 
 ble myriads are found in rocks, such 
 as tripoli, polirsheifer ; hence termed 
 infusorial, or infusory rocks or forma- 
 tions. 
 
 INGLUVIES. The crop of birds. 
 
 INGUINAL. Connected with the 
 groin (ingueti). 
 4^0 
 
 INK. To make black ink of the 
 best quality, take 12 parts gall-nuts, 
 f) of green vitriol, and 5 of gum ; the 
 galls are to be well pounded and 
 boiled, and the other ingredients af- 
 terward added ; 1 gallon of water is 
 used for every pound of galls. Oak 
 bark, logwood, and otiier substances 
 are often used in place of the galls : 
 the quantity must be two or three 
 times greater. 
 
 The indelible ink, for marking lin- 
 en, is a solution of nitrate of silver 
 (lunar caustic). It is used with a 
 clean pen on a place previously soaked 
 with a little salt ; the marking is to 
 be exposed to light to blacken. It is 
 removable by chlorine and ammonia. 
 
 Blue ink is a patent solution of 
 Prussian blue in oxalic acid and wa- 
 ter ; gum is added to make it adhere 
 to paper ; it is perishable, and easily 
 dissolved. 
 
 INJECTION. In farriery, a fluid 
 medicine thrown into any cavity of 
 the body by a squirt or syringe. 
 
 INNER BARK. The liber of bof^ 
 anists, bass. 
 
 INNOMINATUM BONE. The 
 bone of the buttock ; aitch, or adze 
 bone. 
 
 INOCULATION. The introduc- 
 tion under the skin of animals of a par- 
 ticular poison, fluid, or virus, to pro- 
 duce a specific disease, as smallpox. 
 Budding and the transfer of grass 
 turfs are also called inoculation by 
 farmers. 
 
 INORGANIC. Not organic or de- 
 structible by heat, as the ashes of 
 plants, minerals, &c. 
 
 INOSCULATION. The union of 
 the extremities of veins and arteries. 
 
 INSECTIVOROUS. Birds, ani- 
 mals, or reptiles that prey on insects. 
 
 INSECTS. The following brief 
 sketch of Entomology is chiefly by 
 Mr. Swainson, from Loudon's Ency- 
 clopaedia : 
 
 "Insects, above all other animals, 
 are by far the most injurious to the 
 agriculturist, not only from their num- 
 bers, but from their attacking the 
 produce of the earth in all its stages 
 of growth and maturity. 
 
 " Insects are distinguished from 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 worms {Vermes, Lin.) by always liav- 
 iiig feet in their perfect state, as the 
 beetle, butterfly, 6cc. Worms crawl 
 upon their bellies, and have no feet, 
 as the earth-worm, slug, snail, &c. 
 The generality of insects have only 
 six feet (Hexapods) ; but some few, 
 generally called by this name, have 
 a great many, as the wood-louse, cen- 
 tipede, &c. 
 
 " Nearly all insects are oviparous ; 
 that is, produced from an egg. These 
 eggs are seldom found singly. Tiiosc, 
 of some species, are hatclied in a few 
 days, while others remain during the 
 winter, and tlie young do not come 
 forth untd the season at which the 
 leaves of the plants upon which they 
 feed begin to e.xpand. 
 
 " The second state of the insect is 
 called the eruca, or larva. Caterpil- 
 lars are those larvaj which are ex- 
 posed, and feed upon leaves and 
 plants. The larvae of beetles usual- 
 ly live in the earth, in the trunks of 
 trees, or in the substance upon which 
 they feed ; they are generally of a 
 whitish colour, thick and clumsy in 
 form, and are called grubs ; whde 
 the name of maggots is usually given 
 to the larvaj of flies, bees, ants, &c., 
 all of which live in the same confined 
 state as those of beetles. It is in 
 this stage of existence that insects 
 are most voracious, and, consequent- 
 ly, most destructive to plants. 
 
 " When the larva has attained to its 
 full size, it changes into the pupa or 
 chrysalis state. This is done m dif- 
 ferent situations, according to the 
 tribes to which they belong. The 
 chrysalis of butterflies are naked, and 
 are either suspended or attached to 
 trees, branches, walls, &.c. Those 
 of moths are either concealed in a 
 case, like the cocoon of the silkworm, 
 or the caterpdlar undergoes its change 
 in the earth. The period in which 
 insects remain in this state varies 
 according to the species ; but in most 
 cases ihey are inactive and torpid. 
 
 •' The imago, or perfect insect, is 
 produced from the ciirysalis, and is 
 t.'ie only state in which all its parts 
 and members are fully developed. 
 'I'he appearance and economy of per- 
 N .V 
 
 feet insects, in general, is totally dif- 
 ferent from those of the larva; and 
 pupae, and it is only in its final stage 
 of existence that the species can be 
 ascertained. With the exception of 
 such insects as form the aptera of 
 Linnajus, all others are furnished with 
 wings, either four or two in number. 
 Some few exceptions, however, oc- 
 cur to this rule ; the female of the 
 glow-worm and of some few moths 
 are apterous, while many beetles (al- 
 though furnished with hard winged 
 cases) are destitute of real wings. 
 The body is divided into a head, tho- 
 rax or chest, and abdomen : the head 
 sustains a pair of antennas, resem- 
 bling horns, two eyes, often very 
 compound ; the parts of the mouth 
 are a labium, labrum, mandibles, and 
 maxilla;, or jaws ; to the latter are 
 attached the organs of feeling (palpi). 
 
 "The duration of insects is ex- 
 tremely variable : the greatest pro- 
 portion appear to be annuals, emer- 
 ging from the egg and passing through 
 the three stages of their existence 
 within the space of a year. But there 
 are a great number of species, particu- 
 larly among the beetles, which pass 
 three, and even four years in the cat- 
 erpillar state ; and instances are on 
 record of beetles remaining in timber 
 from ten to fifteen years. The greatest 
 proportion of moths are biennial, pass- 
 ing the winter in the chrysalis state, 
 and closing their existence in the suc- 
 ceeding summer. The transitory life 
 of the ephemera is proverbial ; the 
 perfect insect, indeed, exists but for 
 a day, and seems born only to con- 
 tinue its species, yet in the larva state 
 it enjoys a life of one, two, or even 
 three years. 
 
 " Anano-ement or Classification of 
 Insects. — AH insects may be divided 
 into two groups : 1. Apterous insects, 
 having either no metamorpho^s, or 
 only that kind of it the tendency of 
 which is confined to the increase of 
 the number of feet : these, as their 
 name implies, are destitute of wings. 
 2. True insects, or those whose met- 
 amorphosis has a tendency to give 
 wings to the perfect or image slate, 
 but never more than six feet. 
 
 421 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 "True insects are again divisible 
 into two priiiiary groups : the first of 
 these are organized lor mastication 
 in tiicir perfect state, and the second 
 are organized for suction alone. Each 
 of these divisions, according to the 
 system of Macleay, contains five sep- 
 arate orders, the principal characters 
 of which we shall endeavour to naake 
 intelligible in common language. 
 
 " The Mandibula/a, or masticating 
 insects, are furnished with javvs(/ro- 
 pA?) of a horny or membranaceous sub- 
 stance, infinitely diversified in their 
 form and structure. They are divi- 
 ded into the following orders : 
 
 " 1. Trickoptera. — The wings are 
 four, soft, and generally transparent ; 
 the upper pair slightly hairy, and the 
 lower folded when at rest. The in- 
 sects of this order are comparatively 
 iew. The caddy, or cadis worm, is 
 the larva of the spring ^y{Phrijganea), 
 and lives in the water, concealed 
 within a tube of its own construction. 
 
 " 2. HymenopLcra. — The wings are 
 four, clear and transparent. The tar- 
 sus (or outer division of the foot) is 
 composed of five joints, and the body 
 is armed with a sting. The bee, the 
 ant, and the wasp are familiar ex- 
 amples. 
 
 "3. Coleoptera. This well-defined 
 and most extensive order compre- 
 hends all insects known by the name 
 of beetles. They have two wings, 
 concealed beneath a pair of hard 
 wing-cases, which meet close togeth- 
 er in a straight line down the back. 
 There are many tribes of these in- 
 sects, which, both in their larva and 
 perfect state, are extensively injuri- 
 ous to man. 
 
 "4. Orthoptera. — The true wings 
 are but two, very large when expand- 
 ed, and folded lengthwise when at 
 rest. They are covered, either par- 
 tiali^or wholly, by two wing-cases of 
 a thin, tough, and rather opaque sub- 
 stance, somewhat resembling parch- 
 ment, and reticulated with small 
 nerves. The leading characters of 
 this order are exemplified in the Blat- 
 ta, or cockroach, the pest of tropical 
 countries, and frequently troublesome 
 in our kitchens and larders. 
 422 
 
 "5. Neuroptera. — The wings, with 
 very few exceptions, are four in num- 
 ber, clear, transparent, and reticula- 
 ted with numerous areolets, or irreg- 
 ularly square divisions ; the tail of 
 the female is not armed with a sting. 
 Few, if any of these insects may be 
 considered as injurious : some are, 
 indeed, beneficial ; as, from their pred- 
 atory habits, they attack and devour 
 a vast number of smaller insects. 
 This is more particularly the habit of 
 the green dragon fly {Agrwn virgo), 
 which every one may see, during sum- 
 mer, hovering over ponds, and flying 
 about like a hawk in search of its prey. 
 The ephemera, or day-fly, likewise be- 
 longs to this order. 
 
 " The HaustcUata, or suctorial in- 
 sects, likewise contain five orders. 
 Although apparently destitute of jaws, 
 there is every reason to believe that 
 the rudiments of the masticating or- 
 gans exist in these insects, but that 
 they are so slightly developed as to be 
 totally useless, and only discoverable 
 under a very strong magnifier. The 
 suctorial insects in their larva state 
 are mostly furnished with strong and 
 well-defined jaws, and feed voracious- 
 ly upon animal and vegetable bodies ; 
 yet, from the perfect insect being sup- 
 ported by suction alone, it is obvious 
 that in this state they can do no in- 
 jury to the agriculturist. The orders 
 into which they have been divided 
 are these : 
 
 " 1. Lepidoptera. — The wings are 
 four, thin, membranaceous, and cov- 
 ered with a fine powdery substance, 
 which, by the magnifying glass, is 
 shown to consist of minute scales, 
 lying one upon another, like those on 
 fishes. The butterfly and moth tribes 
 are familiar to every one as well- 
 known examples of these insects, the 
 larva of which are called caterpillars. 
 
 " 2. D'lptera. — The wings are two, 
 clear and transparent, like those of 
 the common house-fly. This order 
 is very numerous, and contains many 
 insects which are injurious to vege- 
 tables as larva;, and troublesome to 
 man in a winged state, as the gnat 
 (Cvlcx), whane-fly {Tabanus), crane- 
 fty {Tipula). 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 '• 3. Aplera. — Entomologists of the t ed and flat, is convex and thick ; the 
 
 last century arranged all insects with 
 out wings under this order ; hut it is 
 now restricted, by Latreille and Mac- 
 leay, to such only as have a bivalve 
 articulated sheath to their mouth or 
 rostrum, and no wings, as in the case 
 of the common Ilea. - 
 
 " 4r. Hcniiptira.— Insects of this or- 
 der are furnished with two folded 
 wings, covered by wing-cases, also 
 crossing over each other, of a semi- 
 corneous substance, and which are 
 likewise useful as organs of flight. 
 The tarsi are composed of three, two, 
 or sometimes only of one joint, and 
 the body is much flattened. The va- 
 rious insects commonly called fleld- 
 bugs, which emit a strong and disa- 
 greeable smell when handled, are all 
 arranged under this order. 
 
 Homoptera. — These insects 
 
 wings, also, instead of being folded 
 over each other, are deflexed, and 
 embrace the sides of the body. 
 
 " The ditferent orders of insects 
 we have now enumerated are con- 
 nected by others of an inferior ex- 
 tent, and which are called osculent 
 orders. But a description of these 
 is not essential to our present pur- 
 pose, as they do not contain any de- 
 cidedly injurious insects. 
 
 " Insects injurious to Live Stock. — 
 The horse. The principal foes to this 
 animal are the horse-\)ee{CEstrus eq7ti) 
 and gadfly (CE. hccmorrhoidalis). The 
 first deposites its eggs on such parts 
 of the body as are liable to be licked 
 by the tongue, and the animal thus 
 conveys its enemy into its stomach ; 
 the young larvae are there nourished, 
 and become whitish rough maggots 
 
 have a great resemblance to the last ; j {Fig. 1, c). which are known by the 
 but the body, instead of being depress- | name of bols. They attain their full 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 size about the latter end of May, and 
 are voided about the end of June. On 
 dropping to the ground, they find out 
 some convenient retreat, where they 
 
 deposites its eggs upon the lips, and 
 causes excessive and distressing un- 
 easiness to the animal. The pre- 
 vention of bots belongs to the farm- 
 
 change into a chrysalis, and in six or I er, the cure to the veterinary sur- 
 seven weeks the fly appears. The ! geon. The first may be effected by 
 female (i) is distinguished from the ' watching the animal at the season 
 mal»(rt) by the lenirthencd shape of when the female deposites her eggs 
 her body. The inside of the knee is ' (usually in August and September), 
 chiefly selected for depositing her and should the horse appear much 
 eggs, which will frequently amount ' agitated in its pasture, there will be 
 tol'our or five hundred on one horse, ijood reason to suspect it has been 
 The other species (ffi./ic2morr^oi(/a/;.v, attacked hy the fly; the eggs may 
 Lin.) is still more troublesome ; it , then be removed by the brush and 
 
 423 
 
INSEC'l-S 
 
 currycomb, or by a pair of scissors. 
 When the disease is certain, one of 
 the best methods to destroy the in- 
 sect is to fasten a bag net on the 
 horse, for tiie purpose of catching the 
 excrement, as well as the full-fed lar- 
 vae. By throwing the dung every 
 morning into a deep pit, any larvae 
 that may be enclosed in it will thus 
 be prevented from working their way 
 to the surface when their last trans- 
 formation is about to take place, and 
 their death will cut off a numerous 
 progeny. There are other dipterous 
 insects which feed upon the blood 
 both of horses and cattle ; the most 
 formidable of these are the horse- 
 flies {Tabani, k, I); others, much 
 smaller {Stomoxijs calcitrans), assail 
 him in every situation during sum- 
 mer, and dart their long probosces 
 into his legs and belly. But none are 
 more trying to him than the forest 
 fly {Hippobosca equina, L.), which runs 
 sidewise or backward, like a crab, 
 and shelters itself in those parts least 
 covered by hair : it may, however, be 
 caught by the hand when the animal 
 is in his stall ; but its substance is so 
 hard, that it can only be destroyed 
 by rolling it between the finger and 
 thumb. 
 
 " Horned cattle are likewise sub- 
 ject to the attacks of a peculiar spe- 
 cies of gadfly (GE. hovis, (i,c,/), which 
 causes them great terror and distress. 
 The larva (e) is smooth and fat, and 
 the chrysalis (/) opens by a lid (m) 
 when the insect {<!) emerges from it. 
 The herdsman may know when this 
 insect appears among his flocks, by 
 the agitation they exhibit; the whole 
 herd, with their tails erect, or carried 
 in some grotesque attitude, gallop 
 about and utter loud lowings. "When 
 oxen are employed in agriculture, the 
 attack of this fly is often attended 
 with danger, as they become quite 
 unmanageable, and, whether in har- 
 ness or yoked to the plough, will run 
 directly forward. Their harness at 
 this season should, therefore, be so 
 constructed as to be easily loosened. 
 The eggs are deposited icithin the 
 skin of the animal, and in a wound 
 made by a tube resembling an auger, 
 424 
 
 with which the female is provided. 
 These flies only attack young -and 
 healthy subjects ; but, independently 
 of the terror they create, do not ap- 
 pear to occasion any material injury. 
 " Sheep are also infested by anoth- 
 er species of gadfly (CB. ovis, L., g, h, 
 i), which deposiles its eggs in the 
 inner margin of their nostrils. The 
 moment the fly touches this part of 
 the sheep they shake their heads, and 
 strike the ground violently with their 
 fore feet ; at the same time, holding 
 their noses close to the earth, they 
 run away, looking about them on ev- 
 ery side, to see if the fly pursues: they 
 will sometimes crowd together in a 
 rut or dusty road, with their noses 
 close to the ground. The larvae (i) 
 are white, flat on one side and con- 
 vex on the other ; they inhabit the 
 cavities of the maxillary sinuses, 
 and crawl, when the animal is dead, 
 into those of the horns and frontal si- 
 nuses ; when full grown, they fall 
 through the nostrils, and change to 
 the chrysalis (/;), which produces the 
 fly {g) in about two months. Swine, 
 pigeons, and all kinds of poultry are 
 subject to fleas and lice of various 
 kinds, but never to such a degree as 
 to occasion death. 
 
 '• Fish, in their young or fry state, 
 are the food of the larvae of water- 
 beetles {Dylisci). These insects are 
 frequently seen in great numbers in 
 ponds ; they may be caught by a hand 
 net (made of very small meshes), in- 
 serted beneath the insect, as he re- 
 poses (With his head downward) on 
 the surface, and then suddenly drawn 
 upward. 
 
 " Insects injurious to Vegetables.— 
 The ravages of insects upon plants 
 commence from the time that the 
 seed is committed to the ground, and 
 continue until the produce is gathered 
 into the barn. We have noticed the de- 
 structive insects which are, in a great 
 degree, peculiar to certain plants, 
 as wheat, barley, &c., in a general 
 way ; we shall now enumerate those 
 that infest the grains, clover, pas- 
 tures, cabbages, and fruits, planta- 
 tions, as well as those universal de- 
 stroyers of all vegetables, the wire- 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 worm, tlie plant lice, antl the differ- 
 ent species of crane-fly. 
 
 " Wheat, in every slate, is subject 
 to many insect depredators. Mr. 
 Marsham describes a small grub 
 which eats into the young plant about 
 an inch below its surface, devours the 
 central part, and thus causes its im- 
 mediate death. At a later period this 
 grain is attacked by a fly nearly re- 
 lated to the 3Iosillu$ arcuatus of La- 
 treille. It makes a lodgement in the 
 licart of the principal stem just above 
 the root, which stem it invariably 
 destroys, giving the crop at first a 
 most unpromising appearance. When 
 tiie wheat blossoms, it becomes ex- 
 posed to the attack of a small or- 
 ange-coloured gnat, which deposites 
 its eggs in the centre of the flower. 
 The weevil is destructive to wheat 
 when in the granary, where it feeds 
 both in the larva and perfect state. 
 
 " Rye is subject to the attacks of a 
 small fly {Musca pumilionis), which 
 introduces its eggs into the heart of 
 the shoots, and occasions a loss of 
 from eight to fourteen plants in a 
 square of two feet. No remedy has 
 yet been proposed for this pest, which, 
 if not extensive, may be checked by 
 plucking the injured ears and burn- 
 ing them. 
 
 " Barley, besides other insect foes, 
 has one peculiar to itself, in the shape 
 of a small moth (Tinea hordci, K.). 
 This fly deposites from 20 to 30 eggs 
 on a single grain ; when hatched, 
 each of the larva; disperses, and, se- 
 lecting a grain for itself, enters from 
 without, and lies totally concealed. 
 Should these moths be observed in a 
 granary, the injury may be stopped 
 by carefully covering the grain, leav- 
 ing a few handfuls exposed; upon 
 these the moths will deposite their 
 eggs, and by roasting or destroying 
 this small quantity, the rest may be 
 saved from infection. 
 
 " Oats are subject to few diseases ; 
 but, like all other grain, the plants 
 are liable to be destroyed by that uni- 
 versal devastator, the wire-worm, of 
 which a more particular account will 
 be found in treating of insects uni- 
 versally injurious to vegetables. The 
 N N 2 
 
 chinch bug is often very injurious in 
 the South. 
 
 " The diseases of peas are mil- 
 dew and blight, but these are only oc- 
 casional ; its insect enemies, howev- 
 er, are formidable ; the principal of 
 these is the plant louse (Aphis), one 
 species of which is peculiar to this 
 plant. Beans are exposed to the 
 same injury from another species of 
 aphis of a black colour, which begins 
 at the top of the plant, and multiplies 
 downward. In both cases the most 
 cffectaal remedy is to top the plants 
 at an early period of the infection, 
 and burn the parts so gathered ; this 
 plan is likewise advantageous, as it 
 improves both the quality and quan- 
 tity of the crop. The earlier pease 
 are sown, the better chance they 
 stand of escaping this pest ; or if a 
 small quantity of quicklime is sprin- 
 kled upon them when they are a few 
 inches high, experience has shown 
 that the plants remain uninjured, 
 while the aphis is totally destroyed. 
 
 " Turnips are subject to several 
 peculiar diseases, and are the food of 
 many noxious insects. On the first 
 appearance of the leaves, a whole 
 host of little jumping beetles (Haltica 
 ncmorum), called by farmers the fly 
 and blackjack, attack and devour 
 them, so that the land i« often obli- 
 ged to be resown. Nearly as much 
 damage is sometimes caused by a lit- 
 tle weevil (Cwrcw/zo contractus. Marsh- 
 am), which in the same manner pier- 
 ces a hole in the cuticle : watering 
 with lime water, &c., may serve to 
 check both these evils. 
 
 " The hop is liable to many disea- 
 ses caused by insects. When the 
 plants first emerge above the ground, 
 they are infested by a small beetle 
 (Haltica concinna), vulgarly called the 
 flea. In a more advanced state the 
 tops and branches are devoured by 
 the hop aphis, known to some by the 
 name of the green fly, while at the 
 same period the roots are subject to 
 the attack of the caterpillar of a sin- 
 gular species of moth, named by col- 
 lectors the ghost moth. 
 
 " Clover is very subject to be in- 
 jured by a very small weevil (Apion 
 425 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 flavifcmoratum, K), which at all sea- 
 sons feeds upon the seed of the pur- 
 ple clover, while another species of 
 the same tribe {A. flaripcs) devours 
 that of the white or Dutch clover ; 
 the injury, unfortunately, cannot be 
 known while the plants are growing, 
 as they have then every appearance 
 
 ofbeing perfectly healthy. The young 
 shoots of the purple clover are often 
 devoured by jumping beetles {Haltica, 
 F.). 
 
 " Pastures in general are often de- 
 stroyed, to a very great extent, by 
 the larva or grub of the cockchafer 
 (.Fig- 2, a). 
 
 Fi>. 2. 
 
 " The ravages of the larvae are 
 even exceeded by those of the per- 
 fect insect, which sometimes appears 
 in the country in prodigious multi- 
 tudes, and, like a flight of locusts, 
 devour every green thing on the face 
 of the earth. The eggs of this terri- 
 ble devastator are white, and are de- 
 posited in the ground, where they 
 soon change into a soft whitish grub 
 with a red head, and about an inch 
 and a half long (/)). In this state it 
 continues four years, during which 
 time it commits most destructive rav- 
 ages on the roots, not only of grass, 
 but of all other plants and young trees. 
 "Whole acres of the richest pastures 
 are thus rendered unproductive ; all 
 verdure is lost, and the turf will roll 
 up almost with as much ease as if it 
 had been cut with a spade. The 
 whole of this injury being carried on 
 under ground, admits neither of pre- 
 ventive nor palliative measures ; but 
 the destruction to be expected from 
 the perfect insect may yet be prevent- 
 ed. If the dried and withered turf is 
 now removed, the soil underneath 
 will appear turned into a soft mould 
 for about an inch in depth, like the 
 bed of a garden ; in this will be found 
 the grubs, lying on their backs in a 
 curved position, and vast quantities 
 may be gathered and given to pigs 
 
 and poultry. "When full grown, the 
 larv£E dig in the earth to the almost 
 incredible depth of five or six feet, 
 spin a smooth case, and then change 
 into a chrysalis. In this inactive 
 form they remain until the following 
 spring. 
 
 " The perfect insect or beetle then 
 comes from the ground, and com- 
 mences an immediate attack upon 
 the leaves of all trees. Their num- 
 bers are sometimes immense. The 
 best, and, indeed, the only effectual 
 remedy for the destruction of the 
 perfect insect, is to shake the trees 
 or bushes at noon, when they are ei- 
 ther asleep, or in a state of stupor, 
 and then to. sweep or gather them 
 up. One person in this way has been 
 known to capture a thousand in a day, 
 which, on a moderate calculation, 
 prevented no less than one hundred 
 thousand eggs from being laid. Some 
 judicious farmers plough the ground 
 when they have reason to think it is 
 infested by the grub, and this is gen- 
 erally indicated by the rooks attempt- 
 ing to reach them. They are also 
 greedily devoured by crows and jays, 
 whose sole employment, for nearly 
 three months in the spring of tlie 
 year, is to search for insects of this 
 sort ; and the destruction they cause 
 among them is above all calculation. 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 " Cabbages, ami other esculent ve- 1 different kinds of wliile butterflies 
 getablcs, are well known to be great- (Fig. 3) ; one of these {Pieris brassi- 
 ly injured by the caterpillars of two | cec, c) is much larger than the other ; 
 
 F(>. 3. 
 
 the caterpillar is pale >ellow, with 
 black spots (a) : when full fed, it 
 shelters itself on walls, pales, or 
 trunks of trees, and changes into the 
 chrysalis state (i), in which it still 
 preserves the same cast of colouring. 
 The perfect insect (<:) appears early 
 in spring, and continues until the end 
 of summer. The other species of 
 caterpillar is green (J) ; the chrysalis 
 («) is of the same colour ; and the 
 butterfly (/) is produced about the 
 
 Far. 4 
 
 same time as the preceding. Hand- 
 picking the larva, and searching for 
 the chrysalis, are the only plans of 
 destruction, either for these or the 
 gooseberry and currant caterpillars. 
 " Fruit-trees of all kinds, and their 
 produce, are attacked and devoured 
 by a great variety of insects. We 
 shall, however, advert to those cu- 
 rious, minute insects (Thrips Physa- 
 pus, Fig. 4, /, h) so often seen in flow- 
 ers and blossoms during the spring, 
 
 and which, in their natural size (/), their form cannot be w^ell distinguish 
 
 appear like short black lin<'s. Near- 
 ly all fruit-trees are liable to consid- 
 erable injury from different species 
 of Coccus, or cochineal insects ; they 
 are mostly so small (Fig. 4, a, </), that 
 
 cd without the aid of a magnifying 
 glass ; many of them resemble small 
 scales, or scabs, fixed on the bark and 
 shoots. One is entirely of a brown 
 colour (^Coccus pcrsicorum. a): when 
 427 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 magnified (//), it somewhat resembles 
 the tortoise beetle (Caxsiila, L ), the 
 legs and head being only iliscernilile 
 when the insect is turned on its back 
 (c). Another (C. fvl. ijucrcits, d, c, c) 
 does much injury to tlie oak ; while 
 the C. fagi attacks the twigs of the 
 beech {g), and causes small round 
 excrescences to appear ; these arc, 
 however, very different from the gall- 
 apples of the oak ( /), which are often 
 found of considerable size, and are 
 produced by the C'ynips quercus folii, 
 L. (A), or oak-gall-fly, and always 
 contain either the larva or imperfect 
 insect. The weevils {Curculionidcz) 
 form an exceedingly numerous fami- 
 ly, subsisting principally upon fruit, 
 seed, and grain ; one of these is the 
 nut-weevil ( C. nudum, Fig. 2, e, e), the 
 larvae of which (c, d) are the maggots 
 so frequently found in this fruit. 
 
 " The Aphides, or plant lice, next 
 to locusts, are the most universal 
 devastators ; almost every plant has 
 its peculiar species ; their fecundity 
 is so prodigious, that Beaume has 
 calculated that in five generations 
 one aphis may be the progenitor of 
 5,904,900,000 descendants ; and it is 
 supposed that in one year there may 
 be twenty generations ! Those which 
 attack the different kinds of grain 
 seldom multiply so fast as to be very 
 injurious ; but those peculiar to pulse 
 increase rapidly, and take such pos- 
 session that the plants are greatly in- 
 jured, afid frequently destroyed, be- 
 fore the seeds are matured. 
 
 " These insects are equally injuri- 
 ous in their winged (Fig- 4, 1, magni- 
 fied) and in their larva, or apterous 
 state (m, magnified) ; they are a fa- 
 vourite Ibod of sparrows and other 
 birds, who destroy numbers ; they are j 
 likewise exposed to other deadly and ; 
 cruel enemies ; one of these is a small ; 
 hymenopterous insect, which depos- 1 
 ites its egg in the body. But the most i 
 inveterate and destructive foe to the { 
 plant lice is the lady-bird, or lady-cow , 
 (Coccinella, Lin), which, in its larva i 
 state, feeds entirely upon these in- 
 sects ; and the havoc made among 
 them may be conceived, from the | 
 myriads upon myriads of these little j 
 428 
 
 creatures which are usually seen in 
 years when the plant louse abounds ; 
 every one, probably, destroying tens 
 of thousands. On this account, the 
 lady- bird is the greatest friend to the 
 gardener and Airmer ; and could there 
 be any method devised of increasing 
 these useful insects at will, our hot- 
 houses, gardens, fields, and hop plant- 
 ations would soon be cleared from 
 the ravages of plant lice. The larvie 
 of several bee-like flies {Si/rplui.s) are 
 no less useful in this respect. Their 
 form very much resembles that of the 
 leech, having no apparent head. Some 
 species are green, with a white stripe 
 down the middle ; others brown, va- 
 riegated with darker shades. They 
 are always found upon those plants 
 most infected by aphides, upon which 
 they solely depend for nourishment ; 
 hence they become mo.st beneficial, 
 and should on no account be destroy- 
 ed. As palliative measures, the ap- 
 plication of powdered quicklime may 
 be resorted to, or the infected parts 
 pruned off before the insects greatly 
 multiply. 
 
 "The wire-worm is a name that has 
 been given, without discrimination, 
 to the larva;, or grubs, of various in- 
 sects, totally different from each oth- 
 er ; hence it is, that much confusion 
 and contradiction will be found re- 
 specting it in agricultural books The 
 true wire- worm is the grub of a small 
 beetle {Elalcr segctis), and it derives 
 its name from its slender Ibrm and 
 uncommon hardness. It lives in the 
 larva state nearly five years, during 
 which time it is supported by devour- 
 ing the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and 
 grass, which it attacks indiscrimi- 
 nately, and causes annually a large 
 diminution of produce ; it abounds 
 chiefly in newly broken-up land, and 
 is particularly destructive in gardens 
 recently converted from pasture land. 
 In the larva state it may be decoyed 
 by offering it more tempting food ; 
 but no method has yet been devised 
 for destroying the perfect insect. 
 
 "The grub is a general name for 
 several larvae of crane flies (Tipu- 
 lida), called by the country people 
 long legs, or gaffer long legs 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 " One of the most destructive 
 among these insects to the roots of 
 grass and grain is the Tipiila oleracea. 
 The larva is said, by some authors, 
 merely to loosen the roots by bur- 
 rowing among them ; but others as- 
 sert that it likewise feeds upon the 
 fibres. No effectual remedy has yet 
 been discovered for this evil ; and 
 Steckney observes, that the insect is 
 not killed by lime, even when applied 
 in much larger doses than usual. 
 
 " There are several other species 
 of a large size, as the Tipula crocata 
 {Fig. 5, a), and Tipula nro.?a(c) which, 
 in a less degree, are also injurious to 
 such lands as are moist and humid. 
 
 " Another minute species is partic- 
 ularly destructive, and is generally 
 known as the wheat ^y {Tipula or Ce- 
 cidomyia fritici, d, magnified) ; its his- 
 tory and economy have been ably in- 
 vestigated by Mr. Marsham and Mr. 
 Kirby. The injury first appears in 
 the ear, several of which, on being 
 opened, will be found to contain an 
 orange-coloured powder ; in this are 
 concealed very minute larva?, which, 
 on being magnified, are seen to be 
 thick at one end, extending and con- 
 tracting themselves at pleasure, and 
 frequently jumping half an inch at 
 one spring : they take their station in 
 the longitudinal furrow of the grain, 
 and, by sucking its milky juice, cause 
 it to shrink up, and become what the 
 farmers call pungled: the last sown 
 wheat always appears the most in- 
 fected. In the beginning of June the 
 
 perfect insect (</) may be seen in in- 
 numerable multitudes, flying in the 
 evening in all directions over the 
 corn-fields ; but during the day not 
 one is to be perceived. The female 
 lays her eggs by means of a retractile 
 tube, which encloses a very long and 
 acute sting resembling a hair ; but 
 this can only be distinctly seen when 
 the insect is magnified. The wheat 
 fly would soon become a formidable 
 enemy to mankind, were not its race 
 exposed to an inveterate foe, scarce- 
 ly larger than themselves ; this is 
 the Ichneumon Tipula, the female of 
 which carefully searches out the 
 grubs of the wheat fly, and deposites 
 in each one of her eggs ; these are 
 hatched, and ultimately the larva de- 
 vours the body which gave it life. 
 One ichneumon will thus cause the 
 death of many dozens, and prevent 
 the future multiplication of thou- 
 sands. The only palliative that has 
 been recommended for stopping the 
 progress of this insect originated 
 in Mr. Kirby : this naturalist thinks 
 much benefit would be derived by fu- 
 migating the corn with tobacco and 
 sulphur, when the wind is in a fa- 
 vourable quarter : this must be done 
 as soon as the ear begins to shoot 
 from the leafy stalk. — See Wheat In- 
 sects. 
 
 " Insects iiijurious to Food, Clothing, 
 cj-c. — The cockroach is called by some 
 the black beetle {Blatta oricntalis). 
 Like most of its tribe, it shuns the 
 light, both natural and artificial. It 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 is very abundant, and indiscriminate- 
 ly devours broad, meat, flour, and 
 even clothes. The young arc con- 
 tained in a singular horny case, which 
 is divided into a number of trans- 
 verse partitions or chambers ; it is 
 rather flattened, and quite smooth, 
 except one side, which is toothed. 
 The larva and pupa are both without 
 wings, and generally larger than the 
 perfect insect. 
 
 " The house-cricket {Gnjllus do- 
 ttiest icus, Lin.) is sometimes abun- 
 dant in farm-houses. It devours ev- 
 ery kind of food, and is often found 
 drowned in pans of water, milk, and 
 other fluids ; it is said it will even 
 attack stockings, or linen hung out to 
 dry. Another species is peculiar to 
 pastures, which, in conjunction with 
 the mole cricket, feeds only upon 
 roots. 
 
 " The bacon-grub (Dermeslcs larda- 
 rius, Lin.) is a great pest to the win- 
 ter provisions of the farmer, devour- 
 ing hams, bacon, and all sorts of dried i 
 meats. This is principally done when 
 the insect is in its larva or grub state ; 
 (Fig. 2, /). When full fed it becomes 
 a chrysalis (g), which ultimately chan- 
 ges into a small beetle {h) about a \ 
 third of an inch long, of a dusky 
 brown colour, with the upper half of 
 the wing-cases whitish or ash col- 
 oured, marked with black specks. | 
 The grub, from lying concealed in the ] 
 meat, cannot be effectually removed ; 
 but by watching the time when the 
 perfect insects appear, they may then 
 be destroyed, and a recurrence of the 
 evil in a great measure prevented. 
 
 " Woollen clothing of every de- I 
 scription, furs, are liable to be de- ! 
 voured by the larva;, or caterpillars, 
 of no less than five distinct species 
 of small moths. Most of these en- 
 close themselves in little tubular ca- '> 
 ses of a silky texture, and are so well i 
 disguised externally by fragments of j 
 the stuff they feed upon as often to 
 escape immediate observation. As a 
 preventive, tobacco leaves may be i 
 laid between the folds of garments 
 (in drawers) which are not often used. 
 If there is reason to fear the moths ' 
 are in the house, these garments | 
 430 
 
 1 should be frequently opened, and air- 
 
 ; ed by exposing them to the sun. 
 
 j When furs of any kind are laid by 
 
 I for the summer, they may either be 
 
 I sprinkled with snuff or camphor, and 
 
 Russia leather or tobacco leaves put 
 
 I in the drawer or box. Should the 
 
 I moth actually have got into furs, the 
 
 only way of checking the evil is to 
 
 ; put them into an oven moderately 
 
 heated, and by keeping them in this 
 
 situation a quarter of an hour, every 
 
 j grub will be effectually killed ; the 
 
 degree of heat maybe ascertained, in 
 
 ' the first instance, by putting in some 
 
 common feathers, which should come 
 
 out uninjured. 
 
 "Means of suhduing Insects. — The 
 operations for destroying insects, or 
 counteracting their injurious effects, 
 are various, and in most cases must 
 be regulated according to the species. 
 These we have already pointed out in 
 treating upon the insects themselves, 
 or of the particular plants upon which 
 they feed. It only remains to offer 
 such general rules as are more or less 
 applicable to all destructive insects ; 
 these are of three kinds, preventives, 
 palliatives, and efficient processes. 
 
 " The preventive operations are 
 those of the best culture as relates to 
 the choice of seed or plant, soil, sit- 
 uation, treatment, and climate ; the 
 first four are under the control of 
 man, and an attention to them will 
 undoubtedly lessen the risk of injured 
 crops ; but as regards weather, nei- 
 ther his foresight nor care can avail 
 anything. 
 
 " The palliative operations are nu- 
 merous ; and such as are eminently 
 successful may be considered as effi- 
 cient, inasmuch as it rarely, if ever, 
 happens that any insect can be ex- 
 terminated, even from one district ; 
 its numbers may be diminished, but 
 the species will still remain, although 
 in such small numbers that its oper- 
 ations may escape notice. Most in- 
 sects will be injured, and in part de- 
 stroyed by artificial bad weather, such 
 as excessive waterings, stormy appli- 
 cation of water with a syringe, and 
 shaking the tree or plant : many will 
 thus be bruised, and others that ar9 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 shaken to the ground can be destroy- 
 ed. Insects may be farther injured 
 by watering the plants upon which 
 they feed, either with tobacco or lime- 
 water, solution of whale-oil soap, or 
 by scattering upon the leaves pow- 
 dered quicklime, soot, ashes, salt, ilv-c. 
 The smell of tar is particularly ofRMi- 
 sive to all insects, and the eflects pro- 
 duced by the fumes of tobacco, sul- 
 phur, urine, &,c., are well known. 
 Hot water may be applied with much 
 advantage. Water heated to 120 or 
 130 degrees will not injure plants 
 whose leaves are fully expanded, and 
 it may be increased to 200 for such 
 as are without leaves. 
 
 " Insects may be destroyed in a 
 much more effectual manner by en- 
 ticement, or placing in their way oth- 
 er food as a trap. The late Sir Jo- 
 seph Banks has the merit of having 
 recommended and made known this 
 most efficient method. It simply con- 
 sists in cutting slices of potatoes or 
 turnips, sticking them upon skewers, 
 and then burying them near the seeds 
 sown : the vermin will collect upon 
 them during night, and by examining 
 them every morning, vast numbers 
 may be destroyed ; this plan has been 
 very advantageously tried with the 
 wire-worm, and, no doubt, W'ould be 
 equally beneficial in clearing all crops 
 that are attacked by under-ground 
 feeders. Mr. Kirby states ' that it 
 was very successfully employed to 
 preserve some wheat-fields from the 
 ravages of a small, gray slug, which 
 tlireatened to demolish the plant. 
 Having heard that turnips had been 
 used with success to entice tbe slugs 
 from wheat, he caused a sufficient 
 quantity to dress eight acres to be got 
 together, and then, the tops being di- 
 vided and the turnips sliced, he di- 
 rected the pieces to be laid separate- 
 ly, dressing two stetches with them, 
 and omitting two alternately, till the 
 whole field of eight acres was gone 
 over. On the following morning he 
 employed two women to examine and 
 free from the slugs (which they did 
 into a measure) the tops and slices ; 
 and when cleared, they were laid 
 upon those stetches that had been 
 E E 
 
 omitted the day before. It was ob- 
 served invariably, tbat in the stetch- 
 es dressed with the turnijis no slugs 
 were to be found upon the wheat, or 
 crawling upon the land, though they 
 abounded upon the turnips ; while, 
 on the undressed stetches, they were 
 to be seen in great numbers both on 
 the wheat and on tiie land. The quan- 
 tity of slugs thus collected was near 
 a bushel. 
 
 " The turnip-net is the most suc- 
 cessful expedient that has yet been 
 thought offor the capture and destruc- 
 tion of the little beetles, called by 
 farmers the black jack, and by hop- 
 growers the flea. It consists of two 
 pieces of stout wood, the ends of 
 which, at one extremity, are fixed 
 into a handle in a forked direction ; 
 the other ends are left thick and curv- 
 ed upward, for the purpose of passing 
 the instrument smoothly and easily 
 over the surface of the ground ; to- 
 wards this end, the sticks are con- 
 nected by a cross-bar formed by a 
 thin iron rod, that may be taken on 
 and off at pleasure ; these three sides 
 constitute the frame work for sup- 
 porting a long and ample bag, made 
 of strong, glazed calico. The meth- 
 od of using it is by the operator 
 shoving it before him on the ground, 
 over the tops of the turnips or other 
 plants ; by this means tiie insects that 
 are upon the leaves fall into the bag, 
 which may be occasionally shaken du- 
 ring the process, so as to bring them 
 to the bottom (which is made nar- 
 row), where they will remain. Vast 
 quantities of insects, which, from their 
 smallness and agility, defy hand-pick- 
 ing, will be thus captured. The tur- 
 nip-net may be made either large or 
 small ; perhaps two feet and a half 
 for the side sticks is the best lengtii, 
 ! it being obvious that the wider they 
 are apart, the greater space will be 
 brushed at once. 
 
 j "The lime-duster (F/^. 6) is a recent 
 1 invention by Mr. Samuel Curtis, and 
 has been used by him with great suc- 
 cess in throwing pulverized quick- 
 lime over apple-trees infected by 
 caterpillars and other insects. His 
 orchard, containing many thousand 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 fruit-trees, and occupying fifty acres, 
 had been for many years completely 
 divested of most of their foliage and 
 young fruit in the spring months. 
 A^'ashing the stems and branches with 
 lime and water (as might have been 
 expected) was found ineffectual for 
 the destruction of insects which feed 
 only on the young buds and leaves. 
 The instrument in question consists 
 of a canister twelve inches long, sev- 
 en inches wide at its broadest, and 
 four inches on its narrowest part ; 
 the handle (a) is five inches and a 
 half long. The top of the handle is 
 fitted with a cap (b), which is put on 
 when the lime is to be thrown on low 
 trees ; but when high trees are to be 
 operated upon the cap is removed, 
 and a pole of sufficient length to reach 
 the height required is inserted into 
 the handle. Quicklime pulverized 
 (and often sifted through a fine sieve) 
 is put into the canister, and shaken 
 over the young foliage just as it was 
 expanding. The time for doing tliis 
 is in the dew of the morning, or 
 whenever the leaves are damp ; and 
 if there should be a gentle breeze suf- 
 ficient to carry the dust obliquely 
 through the head of each tree, it is 
 the more quickly performed. Under 
 favourable circumstances of this na- 
 ture, Mr. Curtis says, ' I found that 
 three men, provided with the powder 
 in a large box on a light wheelbar- 
 row, could dress from two to three 
 thousand trees in a day : when the 
 wind changed, I had the trees dress- 
 ed on the other side. Although used 
 ever so freely, no person need fear 
 432 
 
 any injury, from the caustic quality 
 of the lime, on the most delicate and 
 fresh expanded foliage ; it is only prej- 
 udicial to insects of all kutds, and to 
 dead vegetable matter.' {Hort. Trans., \ 
 vol. vi., pt. 2, page 124). We know 
 not whether the lime-duster has ever 
 been tried upon hop plantations in- 
 fected by the green fly or plant louse ; 
 but it appears to us equally well adapt- 
 ed to effect a great destruction among 
 those insects. 
 
 " Grain of all descriptions that is 
 infected by weevils, or by the grubs 
 of other insects, should be spread in 
 the sun, and frequently turned : the 
 warmth will bring the animals out of 
 the grain, and considerable numbers 
 may be destroyed. It has been said 
 that they may be kept away by strew- 
 ing boughs of elder or branches of 
 henbane among the grain, but this 
 wants confirmation. It should be 
 steeped in strong brine. 
 
 " Hand-picking, independent of the 
 foregoing methods, is too tedious and 
 too ineffectual for general adoption 
 in large crops, but is probably the 
 best that can be resorted to in gar- 
 dens or small enclosures. In this 
 way the different esculent vegetables, 
 and the common and low kinds of 
 fruit-trees, as currants, gooseberries, 
 &c., may be cleared of a vast num- 
 ber of caterpillars. 
 
 " Catching the perfect insect is un- 
 doubtedly the most certain plan for 
 preventing a return of the same in- 
 jury the following year, for the death 
 of one female will cut ofTa generation 
 of a hundred larvae ; but from the dif- 
 ficulty that attends an extensive adop- 
 tion of this plan, it is not likely to be 
 much attended to. 
 
 " Worm-like Animals injurious to 
 Agriculture. — Of worms {Vermes, L.), 
 generally so called, there are but few 
 which may be considered as injurious 
 to agriculture. The principal of these 
 are the various species of slug (Arion, 
 F., Limax, L.) and the large and small 
 snails (Helix horlcnsis and nemoralis, 
 L.), mostly found in garden planta- 
 tions. The earth or dew worm (Lmto- 
 bricus terreslris, L.), unless existing in 
 great numbers on a single spot, can- 
 
INS 
 
 LNT 
 
 not be ranked among injurious ani- I 
 mals, notwithstanding the prejudices 
 of farmers and gardeners against 
 them. Without worms, the earth 
 would soon become hard, cold, inca- i 
 pable of receiving moisture, or of ! 
 giving nourishment to roots : they 
 are, in fact, the great promoters of | 
 vegetation, by boring, perforating, and 
 loosening the soil beneath, and by i 
 manuring it above with their excre- j 
 ment, which is thrown up into lumps i 
 called worm casts. Tiie wire-worm ; 
 does not belong to this tribe, but is , 
 the larva of a small beetle already 
 noticed. 
 
 " Worms of the slug kind are with- 
 out shells. There are several spe- j 
 cies, all of which subsist on leaves, 
 ro(Jts, and vegetables. The most 
 common is the Lvmax a^rcstis, of 
 which there are several varieties inju- ^ 
 rious to the agriculturist and garden- 
 er ; they devour the young shoots of 
 turnips, wheat, and, indeed, all kinds 
 of grain, frequently to a ruinous ex- [ 
 tent ; their eggs are small, round, of a 
 semipellucid whiteness, and are de- 
 posited in the earth. The methods of 
 destroying or eradicating the perfect 
 animal have been already described. 
 
 " The shell slug (Teslacellus mangi) 
 is a native of TenerifTe, remarkable 
 for feeding upon earth worms ; and 
 may, therefore, be beneficially intro- 
 duced into such gardens as are over- 
 stocked by that otherwise useful an- 
 imal. It is readily distinguished from 
 all other slugs by having a thin, oval 
 shell affixed to the hinder part of its 
 body. Slugs in general are easily 
 enticed by cabbage leaves, scattered 
 near such garden vegetables as they i 
 appear to injure most. j 
 
 " Snails are slugs covered by a 
 shell. The two species most preju- 
 dicial to cultivated vegetables are 
 the garden snail {Helix aspersa, Gm.), 
 and the variegated snail (Helix nemo- 
 ralis) ; both these seek the same de- 
 scription of food, and are equally in- 
 jurious as slugs, and, like them, may 
 be enticed by cabbage leaves and oth- 
 er juicy vegetable refuse." 
 
 The most important insects are no- 
 ticed under each plant. 
 O o 
 
 INSERTION. In botany, the di- 
 rection in which an organ, as the sta- 
 mens, is attached to the part that sus- 
 tains it. 
 
 INSESSORES (from insideo, I 
 sit). Birds which perch on trees. 
 Pcj'chcTs. 
 
 INSOLATION. Scorched by the 
 sun. 
 
 INSPIRATION. In physiology, 
 the act of inhaling air. 
 
 INSTEP OF THE HORSE. The 
 part of the hind leg reaching from the 
 ham to the pastern joint. 
 
 INSULATION. In electricity, sur- 
 rounded by non-conducting substan- 
 ces, as glass, resin. 
 
 INTEGERRIMUS. With a per- 
 fect edse, or margin, in botany. 
 
 INTEGRANT PARTS. The 
 smallest parts of a body, by the union 
 of which the mass is produced. 
 
 INTEGUMENT. A membranous 
 covering or expansion. It is used in 
 botany for the coverings of seeds. 
 
 INTERCELLULAR SPACES. In 
 botany, the minute spaces existing 
 between the sides of cells. Along 
 these the movement of sap occurs in 
 herbs and the lower plants. In some 
 water plants they are large, to assist 
 natation. 
 
 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT. 
 The effects produced by causing two 
 pencils of light to be reflected or 
 transmitted at very minute intervals 
 or distances from each other, where- 
 by they interfere and produce col- 
 ours. If the light be homogeneous, 
 they produce bright and black bands. 
 
 INTERVAL LANDS. Lands on 
 the margin of rivers. Alluvial lands. 
 
 INTERNODE. The space be- 
 tween two knots, leaves, or leaf 
 buds, in stems. 
 
 INTESTINALIA. Worms inhab- 
 iting the interior of the bodies of an- 
 imals. Entozoa. Those of the in- 
 testines are destroyed by purges and 
 large doses (2oz.) of oil of turpentine. 
 
 INTRADOS. The lower line or 
 curve of an arch. 
 
 INTRORSE. Turned inward. 
 
 INTUSSUSCEPTION. The fold- 
 ing of one portion of the intestines 
 into another. 
 
 433 
 
lOD 
 
 IRO 
 
 INULIN. A variety of starch. 
 It is coloured yellow by iodine. For- 
 mula, C34 H21 0:i. — {Parnei.) 
 
 INUNDATION OF LANDS. 
 Fields are sometimes covered with 
 water in agriculture, especially mead- 
 ows, and in the cultivation of rice. 
 The water is let in by sluices, and 
 allowed to remain for several days 
 or weeks, and, in meadows, during 
 the whole winter. It kills those 
 weeds which are not aquatic, serves 
 to manure the soil, and, in the case 
 of meadows, advances the grass by 
 some weeks, the water protecting it 
 from frost. The lands should be well 
 drained, or on a porous soil ; other- 
 wise the water, sinking, will stag- 
 nate, and become injurious ; it should 
 be perfectly let out by numerous 
 drains. By this practice, meadows 
 have been rendered fertile without 
 other manure for ages. The sedi- 
 ment deposited is sometimes called 
 wiirp, and the inundation warping. 
 
 INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS, 
 INVERTEBRATE. Animals with- 
 out an internal skeleton or back bone 
 (vertebral column), such as crabs 
 (crustaceans), insects (articulata), or 
 shell-fish {molluscans), &c. 
 
 INVOLUCEL, INVOLUCEL- 
 LUM. A small or partial involu- 
 crum surrounding the secondary um- 
 bels, &c. 
 
 INVOLUCRUM. A collection of 
 bracts at the union of several flower 
 stems. A covering of the fructifica- 
 tion of ferns and equisetums In 
 anatomy, a name for the membrane 
 covering the heart (pericardium). 
 
 IODINE (from njdj], violet). An 
 elementary body, of a black colour, 
 found in lustrous scales, converted 
 by a heat of 345° F. into a beautiful 
 violet vapour. It closely resembles 
 chlorine in its chemical characters ; 
 is not found in inland plants, but only 
 in sea-weeds, and such as grow in 
 salt marshes. Its equivaleiit is 126, 
 symbol I. It combines directly with 
 metals, forming iodides. With hydro- 
 gen, it forms hydriodic acid ; with ox- 
 ygen, it forms iodic acid. Iodine, as 
 well as most of its compounds, is 
 poisonous. 
 434 
 
 lOLITE. A dark-blue mineral, 
 massive, and crystallized in six or 
 twelve sided prisms ; found imbed- 
 ded in primary rocks. Composition : 
 silica, 49 17; alumina, 33 10 ; mag- 
 nesia, 11-48; oxide of iron, 4 33. — 
 (Slromeyer.) 
 
 IPECACUANHA. Ccphaclis ipe- 
 cacuanha. A shrubby plant, of (he 
 natural tamily Cinchoniacea, the root 
 of which is extensively used as an 
 emetic. It is a native of tropical 
 America, and especially Brazil, from 
 whence it is exported. In 20 grain 
 doses it is emetic ; but in smaller 
 quantities, expectorant. 
 
 IPOALEA. A genus of plants re- 
 sembling the convolvulus. 
 
 IRIDESCENT. Exhibiting bright 
 colours by reflection. 
 
 IRIS. In anatomy, the coloured 
 membrane of the eye which sur- 
 rounds the pupil, and, by its contrac- 
 tion or dilation, regulates the amount 
 of light entering. 
 
 IRIS. A genus of ornamental 
 flowers, the flag. The /. jlorentina 
 yields the orris root, esteemed for 
 tooth-powder, from its odour resem- 
 bling violets. 
 
 IRISATED. Exhibiting the pris- 
 matic or rainbow colours. 
 
 IRON. A ductile metal, sp. gr. 
 7 78 ; susceptible of magnetism, and 
 taking a high polish. By exposure 
 to damp air, it absorbs oxygen, be- 
 coming rust. Its ores are very nu- 
 merous. Few soils are destitute of 
 some admixture. The ashes of plants 
 are also furnished with a small quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Cast iron contains carbon, sand, 
 and other impurities, w-hich are re- 
 moved, to a great extent, in wrought 
 iron. The former is brittle, harder, 
 and lasts longer when exposed than 
 wrought iron, which is ductile, soft, 
 malleable, and fibrous. 
 
 Steel is a compound of carbon and 
 iron, remarkable for its elasticity and 
 hardness. Iron combines, also, with 
 sulphur and halogen bodies. 
 
 The equivalent of iron is 27- 18, 
 symbol Fe (ferrum). It combines 
 with two proportions of oxygen, and 
 forms, 1st. A protoxide, 1 Fe -j- 1 0= 
 
IRQ 
 
 37 18. This is the black oxide, and 
 exists in green vitriol and the proto- 
 salts of iron, serving as a base. 2d. 
 The peroxide, 2 Fe-f 3 = 78 36. 
 This is the common red or brown 
 oxide ; it is also a base, producing 
 the persalts of iron. Iron is readily 
 dissolved by acids, being lirst oxidi- 
 zed, and then uniting with the acid. 
 The salts of the protoxide are, for the 
 most part, instable, changing to per- 
 oxides when exposed to moist air. 
 
 Iron is discovered in solution by 
 an infusion of gall-nuts, which, soon- 
 er or later, produces a black colour 
 (ink). If the colour arises immedi- 
 ately, the peroxide is present ; if the 
 mixture requires stirring and expo- 
 sure to air, the protoxide is present. 
 
 Many of the compounds of iron are 
 of great interest to the farmer. The 
 protosulphate (copperas) is much used 
 in dyeing, in making ink, and as an 
 emetic. In Switzerland it is added to 
 urine and fluid manures, to fix their 
 ammonia, which it converts into a 
 sulphate. It is also powerfully disin- 
 fecting, removing bad smells. This 
 body is sometimes present in marshy 
 and peaty soils, and makes them per- 
 fectly barren ; they are, however, 
 quickly recovered by liming. The py- 
 rolignate of iron (persalt) is used in 
 dyeing and the preservation of timber. 
 The muriate has the same properties, 
 and is also a medicine. Prussian blue 
 is a sesquiferrocyanide of iron. 
 
 The iron work of the farm should 
 be painted with coal-tar for protec- 
 tion from rust, or kept in a dry place 
 imder cover. Portable fencing, hur- 
 dles, and many other fixtures on a 
 farm are now made of iron, which 
 heretofore were wooden. It is well 
 adapted for the sashes of hot-houses : 
 wire is extensively employed for 
 slight trellises. Wires should be pro- 
 tected from moisture by coal-tar, or 
 other coarse paint. 
 
 IRON PYRITES. Native sulphu- 
 ret of iron ; it forms a mineral often 
 crystallized, of a golden colour. Its 
 presence in soils produces barren- 
 ness, which is soon rectified by li- 
 ming ; it is the origin of most of the 
 sulphur springs. Water flo\nng over 
 
 IRR 
 
 the pyrites decomposes it in part, 
 and becomes tainted with sulphuret- 
 ted hydrogen. 
 
 IRON WOOD. See Homheam. 
 IRRADIATION. The brightness 
 that surrounds luminous objects, and 
 increases their apparent size. 
 
 IRRIGATION. " Of all the sub- 
 stances which concur in the vegeta- 
 tion and growth of plants, water is 
 the most essential ; without moist- 
 ure the seed cannot germinate, nor 
 can the plant receive nourishment. 
 Hence in warm climates, where rains 
 are periodical, and where the soil is 
 dried and parched by a continued 
 evaporation, no verdure exists, ex- 
 cept where springs or rivers supply 
 the waste of moisture. The warm- 
 er the climate, and the more rapid 
 the evaporation, the more luxuriant 
 is the vegetation, provided there be 
 an abundant supply of water. This 
 circumstance has suggested the plan 
 of diverting streams and conducting 
 them in channels to fertilize as great 
 an extent of land as possible. The 
 water used always contains sahne 
 and other matters very necessary to 
 the growth of plants, and which are 
 supplied by irrigation. 
 
 " If water stagnates and is evapo- 
 rated, and the noxious matter held in 
 solution remains in the soil, all the 
 advantage of irrigation is lost, and 
 the better kinds of grasses are suc- 
 ceeded by rushes and coarse aquatic 
 plants, as may be seen in all marshy 
 spots. The circulation of the water, 
 I therefore, appears to be as necessary 
 I as its presence ; and, provided there 
 be a sufficient supply of water of a 
 proper quality, the more porous the 
 soil, and especially the subsoil is, 
 the more vigorous is the vegetation. 
 It is on this principle alone that we 
 can rationally account for the great 
 j advantage of irrigation in those cli- 
 : mates where rain is abundant, and 
 I where the soil, which is most benefit- 
 \ ed by having a supply of water run- 
 I ning through it, is of a nature to re- 
 j quire artificial draining as an indis- 
 pensable preliminary to being made 
 ' fertile by irrigation. By keeping 
 these principles in view, great light 
 435 
 
IRRIUATION. 
 
 will be thrown on the practical part 
 of irrigation, which, having been long 
 established by experience, before 
 these principles were thought of, de- 
 pends not on their correctness, but 
 only confirms their truth. 
 
 " The whole art of irrigation may 
 be deduced from two simple rules, 
 which are. first, to give a sufficient 
 supply of water during all the time 
 the plants are growing ; and, second- 
 ly, never to allow it to accumulate so 
 long as to stagnate. We shall see, 
 hereafter, one apparent exception to 
 this last rule, but it will be readily 
 explained. 
 
 "The supply of water must come 
 from natural lakes and rivers, or from 
 artificial wells and ponds, in which it 
 is collected in sufficient quantity to 
 disperse it over a certain surface. 
 As the water must flow over the land, 
 or in channels through it, the supply 
 must be above the level of the land 
 to be irrigated. This is generally the | 
 principal object to be considered. If 
 no water can be conducted to a reser- 
 voir above the level of the land, it 
 cannot be irrigated ; but there must 
 also be a ready exit for the water, 
 and therefore the land must not be 
 so low as the natural level of the 
 common receptacle of the waters, 
 whether it be a lake or the sea to 
 which they run. The taking of the 
 level is therefore the first step to- 
 wards an attempt to irrigate any ; 
 lands. ' 
 
 " Along the banks of running 
 streams nature points out the decliv- 
 ity. A channel, which receives the 
 water at a point higher than that to 
 which the river flows, may be dug 
 with a much smaller declivity than 
 that of the bed of the river, and made 
 to carry the water much higher than 
 the natural banks ; it may thence be 
 distributed so as to descend slowly, 
 and water a considerable extent of 
 ground in its way to rejoin the streain. 
 This is by far the most common mode 
 of irrigation, and the shape, size, and 
 direction of tlie channels are regula- 
 ted by the nature of the surface and 
 other circumstances, which vary in 
 almost every situation. A few ex- j 
 436 
 
 amples will give to those who are 
 not acquainted with the best modes 
 of irrigating land, a pretty accurate 
 notion of the system. 
 
 " We shall suppose a river to run 
 I with a rapid current between high 
 banks : at some point of its course a 
 portion of the water is diverted into 
 , a canal dug along the bank with a 
 ■ very small declivity. The water in 
 this canal will flow with less rapidity 
 than the river, but will keep the same 
 level as that part of the river where 
 it has its origin. Thus the water 
 may be carried over lands which are 
 situated considerably above the bed 
 of the river farther down. All the 
 lands between this canal and the riv- 
 er may be irrigated, if there is a suf- 
 ficient supply of water. The canal 
 may be carried to a considerable dis- 
 tance from the river. The size of 
 the canal and its declivity depend on 
 the quantity of water which may be 
 inade to flow into it. A dam is often 
 constructed across a stream, in or- 
 der that as much of its water as is 
 possible may be diverted, and the 
 original channel is often laid quite 
 dry, to take advantage of all the wa- 
 ter at the time when it is advanta- 
 geous to irrigate the land. To have 
 an entire command of the water, 
 there are flood-gates on the main 
 channel and on the lesser branches ; 
 by opening or shutting these, the wa- 
 ter may be stopped or made to flow 
 as may be required. It must be re- 
 membered that, to carry water to a 
 considerable distance, and in great 
 quantity, a larger channel and more 
 rapid declivity are required ; and it 
 is a matter of calculation whether it 
 is most advantageous to bring a 
 smaller quantity to a higher point, or 
 a greater abundance somewhat low- 
 er. Having a certain command of 
 water, it may be carried from the 
 main channel by smaller branches to 
 different points, so as to irrigate the 
 whole equally. These branches should 
 be nearly horizontal, that the water 
 may overflow the sides of them, and 
 be equally distributed over the land 
 immediately below. Every branch 
 which brings water over the land 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 should have a corresponding channel 
 below to carry it off; for the water 
 must never be allowed to stop and 
 stagnate. When it has run 15 or 20 
 feet, according to the declivity, over 
 the land situated below the feeder, or 
 the channel which brings the water, 
 it should be collected into a drain to 
 be carried off, unless it can be used 
 to irrigate lands which lie still lower. 
 Finally, it runs back into the river 
 from which it was taken at a lower 
 point of its course. 
 
 "When there is a considerable fall 
 and a sufficient supply of water, a se- 
 ries of channels may be made, so sit- 
 uated below each other that the sec- 
 ond collects the water which the first 
 has supplied, and in its turn becomes 
 a feeder to irrigate the lower parts 
 of the declivity ; a third channel re- 
 ceives the water and distributes it 
 lower down, until the last pours it 
 into the river : this is called catch- 
 work, because the water is caught 
 from one channel to another. This 
 method is only applicable where there 
 is a considerable fall of water and a 
 gentle declivity towards the river. 
 But it must be borne in mind that the 
 water is deteriorated for the purpose 
 of irrigation when it has passed over 
 the land, and that it is not advanta- 
 geous to let it flow over a great ex- 
 tent when a fresh supply can be ob- 
 tained ; but where only a small por- 
 tion of water can be commanded, 
 that must be made the most of; and 
 it will irrigate three or four portions 
 of land in succession without there 
 being any very marked difference in 
 the effect : beyond this it rapidly loses 
 its fertilizing qualities. 
 
 " The general principle of irriga- 
 tion may be described as the supply- 
 ing of every portion of the surface 
 with an abundance of water, and ta- 
 king it off again rapidly. In many 
 situations, the great difficulty in irri- 
 gation arises from the want of a sup- 
 ply of water ; but even then a partial 
 irrigation may be effected, which, al- 
 though not perfect, will have its ad- 
 vantages. A small rill, which is oft- 
 en quite dry in summer, may still, by 
 judicious management, be made to 
 O o2 
 
 improve a considerable portion of 
 land ; its waters may be collected 
 and allowed to accumulate in a pond 
 or reservoir, and let out occasionally, 
 so that none be lost or run to waste. 
 If there is but a small quantity, it 
 must be husbanded and made to flow 
 over as great a surface as possible. 
 If there is water only at particular 
 seasons of the year, and at a time 
 when it would not be of much use to 
 the land, it may be kept in ponds, and 
 it W'ill lose none of its qualities by 
 being exposed to the air. If animal 
 or vegetable matter, in a partial state 
 of decomposition, is added to this wa- 
 ter, it will much improve its quality, 
 and by a judicious distribution of it 
 over the land, a great benefit may be 
 obtained. 
 
 " If there is not a want of water, 
 there may be a want of declivity to 
 enable it to flow off, which, it should 
 always be remembered, is an essen- 
 tial part of irrigation : art may in this 
 case assist nature, by forming a pas- 
 sage for the water, either in its course 
 towards the land to be irrigated, or 
 from it after it has effected its pur- 
 pose. Where there is no natural ex- 
 it — and it might lead to too great an 
 expense to make an artificial one — 
 the water may sometimes be led into 
 shallow ponds, where a great part is 
 evaporated ; or porous strata may be 
 found by boring, into which it can be 
 made to run and be dispersed. Along 
 rivers where the fall is very imper- 
 ceptible, a channel, brought from a 
 considerable distance, may give such 
 a command as to throw the water 
 over a great extent of surface ; and 
 to carry it off, another channel may 
 be cut, emptying itself at some dis- 
 tance below ; so that lands which lie 
 along the banks of a river may be ir- 
 rigated, although they are actually be- 
 low the level of the river, and require 
 banks to protect them from inunda- 
 tion. 
 
 " When the surface to be irrigated 
 is very flat and nearly level, it is ne- 
 cessary to form artificial slopes for 
 the water to run over. The whole 
 of the ground is laid in broad beds, 
 undulating like the waves of the sea. 
 437 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 The upper part of these hods is quite 
 level from end to end, and here the 
 channel, or float, wliich brings the 
 water on, is cut. From the edpe of 
 this channel the jTround is made to 
 slope a foot or two on both sides, and 
 a ditch is cut at the bottom, parallel 
 to the float (Fisr- 3), The whole of 
 the ground is laid out in these beds. 
 All the floats are supplied by a main 
 channel, at right angles to the beds, 
 and somewhat above them, and all 
 the ditches or drains run into a main 
 ditch, parallel to the main float, and 
 below the lowest drain. The course 
 of the water is very regular. As soon 
 as the flood-gates are opened, it flows 
 into all the upper channels, which it 
 fills till they overflow in their whole 
 length. The sloping sides are cov- 
 ered with a thin sheet of running wa- 
 ter, which the lower drains collect, 
 and carry into the main ditch. The 
 upper drains should be puddled, to 
 hinder the water from sinking. 
 
 " Experience has shown that there 
 are particular seasons when the wa- 
 ter has the best efl^ect ; a perfect 
 command of it is, therefore, indispen- 
 sable, and also a regular supply. Du- 
 ring mild frost, when all dry mead- 
 ows are in a state of torpor, and the 
 vegetation is suspended, the water 
 meadows, having a current of water 
 continually flowing over them, are 
 protected from the effect of frost, and 
 the grass will continue to grow as 
 long as the water flows over it. Too 
 much moisture, however, would be 
 injurious, and the meadows are 
 therefore laid dry by shutting the 
 flood-gates whenever the tempera- 
 ture of the air is above freezing. By 
 this management the grass grows 
 rapidly at the first sign of spring. 
 Before the dry upland meadows have 
 recovered the effects of frost and be- 
 gun to vegetate, the herbage of the 
 water meadows is already luxuriant, 
 the effect being due to the tempera- 
 ture of the water, which must be 
 above that of freezing. As soon as 
 they are fed off or cut for the first 
 crop of hay, the water is immediate- 
 ly put on again, but for a shorter 
 time ; for the warmer the air, the 
 438 
 
 less time will the grass bear to be 
 covered with water. A renewed 
 growth soon appears, and the grass 
 is ready to be cut a second time when 
 the dry meadows only give their first 
 crop. Thus, by judicious manage- 
 ment, three or four crops of grass are 
 obtained in each season, or only one 
 abundant crop is made into hay, and 
 the sheep and cattle feed off the oth- 
 ers. The early grass may be fed till 
 the end of April. A short flooding 
 soon reproduces a crop, which is 
 mowed for hay in June ; another 
 flooding gives an abundant after-math, 
 which is either mowed for hay, or 
 fed off by cows, bullocks, and l^rses ; 
 for at this time the sheep, if pastured 
 in water meadows, are very subject 
 to the rot. The value of good water 
 meadows could scarcely be believed 
 by those who are not familiar with 
 them. Where the water is suited to 
 irrigation, they never require manu- 
 ring. The fertility is kept up contin- 
 ually, and the only attention required 
 is to weed out coarse aquatic plants, 
 which are neither nutritious nor 
 wholesome in hay or pasture. 
 
 " The best soil for a water mead- 
 ow is a good gravel. The finest wa- 
 ter meadows on the Avon, in Wilt- 
 shire, where the richest herbage is 
 found, have scarcely any soil at all, 
 but are on a bed of shingle and peb- 
 bles, matted together by the roots of 
 the grass ; which proves to demon- 
 stration that the waters of the Avon 
 contain all the principles essential to 
 rapid vegetation. Great attention is 
 required, and some experience, to 
 irrigate meadows so as to give the 
 greatest profit. 
 
 " In hot weather, when we should 
 imagine that the land must be thirsty, 
 and that too much water cannot be 
 poured over it, much mischief may 
 be done by injudicious flooding. In 
 winter, on the contrary, the land may 
 be covered with water for weeks 
 without injury ; and if an earthy de- 
 posite takes place, the subsequent fer- 
 tility is greatly increased. But this 
 is not properly irrigation ; it is inun- 
 dation ; and the effects depend on 
 entirely different causes. When low 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 meadows are inundated in winter 
 and spring, it is the muddiness of 
 the water which enriches the land ; 
 a fine layer of extremely divided mat- 
 ter is deposited, and when the water 
 subsides this acts as a coat of ma- 
 nure. 
 
 " Water may be carried in small 
 channels through meadows without j 
 being allowed to overflow ; and in 
 this case the effect is similar to that 
 caused by rivers or brooks which 
 wind slowly through valleys, and 
 produce a rich verdure along their 
 course. This is watering, but not 
 properly irrigating. When this is 
 done judiciously, the effect is very 
 nearly the same as when the land is 
 irrigated ; and in hot climates it may 
 be preferable, by giving a constant 
 supply of moisture to the roots while 
 the plants are growing. The great 
 advantage of water meadows is not 
 so much the superior quantity of grass 
 or hay which is obtained when they 
 are mowed, as the early feed in spryig, 
 when all kinds of nutritive fodder are 
 scarce. At that time an acre of good 
 grass may be worth as much for a 
 iiKJuth as a later crop would for the 
 rfinaiiider of the year. When it is 
 intended to form a water meadow on 
 a surface which is nearly level, or 
 where a fall of only two or three feet 
 can be obtained in a considerable 
 length, the whole of the land must be 
 laid in beds about 20 or 30 feet wide, 
 ihe middle or crown of these beds 
 being on a level with the main feed- 
 ers, and the bottoms or drains on a 
 level with the lower exit of the wa- 
 ter, or a little above it. To form 
 these beds most expeditiously, if the 
 ground is already in grass, the sod 
 may be pared oft' and relaid after the 
 beds are formed, by which means the 
 grass will be sooner re-established ; 
 but, except in very heavy soils, where 
 the grass is some time in taking root, 
 the easiest and cheapest way is to 
 plough the land two or three times 
 towards the centre, and dig out the 
 draih with the spade. The earth out 
 of the drains, and that which is taken 
 out of the upper trench or feeder, 
 may be spread over the bed, to give 
 
 it the proper slope. A roller passed 
 over the bed in the direction of its 
 length will lay it even, and the seeds 
 of grasses being sowed over it, the 
 water may be let on for a very short 
 time, to make them spring. As soon 
 as the grass is two or three inches 
 above ground, a regular flooding may 
 be given, and in a very short time the 
 sward will be complete. Instead of 
 sowing seed, turfs of grass cut from 
 old sward may be spread over the 
 newly-formed beds, and they will 
 soon cover the ground. The Italian 
 rye grass grows so rapidly that, if it 
 be sowed as soon as the snow and 
 frost are gone, it will aflbrd a good 
 crop to feed otf in May, or to mow for 
 hay by June, and after that it may 
 be cut repeatedly during the summer ; 
 but where the soil is good and the 
 water abundant, good natural grasses 
 will spring up without much sowing, 
 and soon equal the old water mead- 
 ows. 
 
 " It seems essential to the forma- 
 tion of a good water meadow, that 
 the bottom be porous, and free from 
 stagnant water ; hence under-drain- 
 ing is often indispensable before a 
 water meadow can be established ; 
 and a peat bog, if drained and consol- 
 idated, may have water carried over 
 its surface, and produce very good 
 herbage. If the soil is a very stiflT 
 clay, draining is indispensable, where 
 a water meadow is to be made. The 
 more porous the soil, the less depth 
 of water is required, which is not ob- 
 vious at first sight ; but the clay lets 
 the water run over the surface with- 
 out soaking into the roots, where- 
 as the porous soil is soon soaked to 
 a considerable depth. The water 
 must, therefore, be longer on the 
 clay than on the sand or gravel to 
 produce the same effect. If the wa- 
 ter is properly applied, all kinds of 
 soils may be converted into fertile 
 water meadows. On very stiff clays 
 a coat of sand or gravel, where it can 
 be easily put on, will greatly improve 
 the herbage. It should not be plough- 
 ed in, but laid on the surface, two or 
 three inches thick. 
 
 "The usual time of letting on the 
 439 
 
lUllKJATION. 
 
 water on water mradows is just be- 1 invariably be injured. Small ditches 
 fore spring, and it may continue to or clianncls are usually dug, by which 
 
 flow over the land as long as the 
 frost lasts ; in mild weather it may 
 be turned off during the day and put 
 on again at night, until the frost is 
 gone. The grass will soon begin to 
 grow, and be ready to be fed off. 
 When this is done, the water is im- 
 mediately let on for a short time, and 
 turned off again to allow the ground 
 to dry after a few days' flooding, and 
 the water is let on again at short in- 
 tervals. The warmer the air is, the 
 shorter time must the water be al- 
 lowed to cover the meadows. As 
 soon as the grass is five or six inch- 
 es long it must be left dry entirely 
 till it is mowed or fed off. In sum- 
 mer the floodings must be very short, 
 seldom more than twenty-four hours 
 at a time, but frequent. Thus a great 
 weight of grass may be obtained, year 
 after year, without any manure being 
 put on the land, care being taken that, 
 where the surface is not quite even, 
 the hollows be filled up with earth 
 brought from another place, or dug 
 out of the drain, if that should be par- 
 tially filled up with the soil which the 
 ■water has carried into it. We allu- 
 ded before to a case where water 
 may remain a considerable time on 
 the land without injury ; this is when 
 there are inundations from rivers 
 which rise above their beds in spring, 
 and cover the low meadows which lie 
 along their banks. In this case, the 
 grass, which had not yet sprung up, 
 is protected from the cold ; and if 
 there is a deposite from the water, 
 there is a considerable advantage ; 
 but when it subsides it must be made 
 to run off entirely, without leaving 
 small pools, by which the grass would 
 
 all the water may run off, unless 
 where the subsoil is very porous, or 
 the land is well under-drained, which 
 is seldom the case in these low mead- 
 ows, for the drains would be apt to 
 be choked by the earthy deposite 
 from the water. These inundations 
 can sometimes be regulated by means 
 of dikes and flood-gates, in which 
 case they partake of the advantages 
 of irrigation, and also of that deposi- 
 tion of fertilizing mud which is called 
 warping. See Warpi?!^. 
 
 " The opposite plan (Fi^. 1) will ex- 
 plain what has been said respecting 
 the different modes of irrigating land. 
 A A is a river, which has a consider- 
 able fall, and then flows through a 
 level plain. Channels are cut at B B, 
 where there is a rapid fall over a nat- 
 ural or artificial dam. The channels 
 are carried round a hill, and supply a 
 series of channels, C, C, C, placed 
 below each other, forming catch- 
 work along a declivity. A portion of 
 the water goes on to D, where it sup- 
 plies the feeders of a regular set of 
 ridges, or beds, made as before descri- 
 bed, from which the water returns 
 into the river by a main trench, into 
 which all the drains run. E E repre- 
 sent flood-gates, to direct the water 
 into different channels. 
 
 " On the other side of the river, 
 where the slopes lie somewhat dif- 
 ferently, there are several examples 
 of catch-work, the black lines repre- 
 senting the drains which receive the 
 water after it has flowed over the 
 surface, and carry it into the river be- 
 low. It is evident that all the feed- 
 ers are nearly horizontal, to allow 
 the water to flow over their sides." 
 
 Fig. 2 is the section of calch-work. a, a are the feeders ; b, the diaius ; c, c, c, c, interme- 
 diate channels, which act as feeders and drains. 
 
 ^^,.^^^-~~^,^^^ Fig- 3. ^^..^L^-^-^,^^ 
 
 Ridge-work. 
 Fig. 3 is the section of two adjoining ridges, a, a the feeders ; b, b, b the drains, 
 440 
 

 Figure 4, on the following page, ; c, c, which run down hill ; they are 
 represents a plan of irrigation where stopped at intervals with small banks 
 the soil is very porous and gently of clay or turf, which cause a portion 
 inclined, the supply of water being of the' fluid to shoot out over the land 
 abundant. The flood-gate, a, which and moisten the field. There is no 
 may be replaced by the perforated | catch-work necessary, as the excess 
 trunk of a tree, allows water to flow i of water percolates into the soil, 
 into the upper straight ditch, b, h. The inundation practised in Carolina 
 which is well puddled ; from this the and elsewhere, for the cultivation of 
 water descends into the channels, c, ' rice, is warping, and can hardly be 
 
 441 
 
IKR 
 
 ISO 
 
 a'u}\ 
 
 
 said to be irrigation, iiiasuuifh as the 
 principal object is to kill weeds. 
 
 The Dutch and Germans often dis- 
 tribute fluid manures by a system of 
 irrigated work. "Where a head of 
 ■water is wanting, pumps maybe used 
 to raise it, the fluid running in a gut- 
 ter to the upper ditch. 
 
 Fiff.5. 
 
 Fig. 5 is a simple kind of sluice to regulate 
 the flow of water. 
 
 IRRITABILITY OF PLANTS. 
 Many plants, as the sensitive mimo- 
 sas, exhibit a power of contracting 
 their leaflets upon touch ; this phe- 
 nomenon, the most prominent of 
 those attributed to the irritability of 
 plants, is a mechanical function de- 
 pending upon the action of light. 
 442 
 
 Plants possess no nervous system, 
 and are therefore incapable of volun- 
 tary motion, or any other than chem- 
 ical and mechanical movements. 
 
 IRRITATION. In farriery, an in- 
 creased vascularity of any part, with 
 pain, but not amounting to inflamma- 
 tion. It is treated like inflammation, 
 but by milder means. 
 
 ISCHIUM. The lower portion oi 
 the haunch bone. 
 
 ISCHURIA. Retention of urine. 
 
 ISINGLASS. Pure gdalin obtain- 
 ed from the sounds of flsh ; it is also 
 manufactured from calves' feet, ckc. 
 
 ISNARDIA. A genus of aquatic 
 weeds. 
 
 ISOLATED. In electricity, sur- 
 rounded by non-conductors, as glass, 
 dry silk, resin. 
 
 ISOMERIS.M, ISOMERIC (from 
 laoc, equal, and fxepoc, pari). Com- 
 pounds having the same number of 
 atoms of the same bodies, but exhib- 
 iting dissimilar properties, are called 
 Isomeric. Chemists consider that the 
 difference arises from a distinct group- 
 ing or aggregation of the atoms. 
 Very many organic bodies are isom- 
 eric, as starch {amylln) and dextiine: 
 Ca Hio Oio : cyanic and fulminic acids. 
 
ISO 
 
 ISO 
 
 &c. It is in consequence of the fre- 
 quent isomerism of organic com- 
 pounds that changes so readily occur 
 in them, either in plants, or by the 
 action of ferments. 
 
 I S O M O R P II I S M, ISOMORPH- 
 OUS (from itrof, and fiop(pr}, form). 
 Having the same crystalline form ; 
 this is associated with the same num- 
 ber of atoms, but of unlike elements, 
 and also with similar properties. 
 Thus, alum consists of sulphuric acid, 
 alumina, and potash ; but cither of 
 these bodies may be replaced by cer- 
 tain other isomorpkous bodies ; the 
 sulphuric acid by the selenic, chro- 
 mic, or manganic acids : the last two 
 of these produce a difference of col- 
 our in the crystal, but little else. 
 The alumina may be replaced by per- 
 oxide of iron, sesquioxide of manga- 
 nese, or sesquioxide of chromium ; 
 and the potash, by soda or hyd rated am- 
 monia. Thus, the alum may have none 
 of its primary constituents, but iso- 
 morphous atoms of the same number. 
 Isonwiphis7n, or ttie study of these 
 changes, is of great importance in ag- 
 riculture, for it is found that the same 
 substitution ttikes place in organic 
 bodies. This is not, however, a mat- 
 ter of indifference ; for the presence 
 of soda in grapes, instead of potash, 
 deteriorates their flavour ; lime in 
 the place of potash, in tobacco, in- 
 jures its excellence ; and lime or pot- 
 ash in place of soda, in onions and 
 
 Sulphuric acid is replaced by the 
 telluric, selenic, chromic, and man- 
 ganic acids, none of which, however, 
 are abundant in common soils. 
 
 Phos[)horic acid is isomorphous 
 with the arsenic acid (As O5), which 
 will seldom be found in soils. 
 
 Iron, as the peroxide (Fco O3), is 
 isomorphous with alumina (AI2 O3), 
 oxide of chrome (Cr^ O3), and sesqui- 
 oxide of manganese. These substi- 
 tutions, although of no apparent mo- 
 ment, are continually occurring in 
 plants. 
 
 ISOPYRE. A siliceous mineral 
 resembling obsidian, found in granite, 
 basalt, and primary rocks. 
 
 ISOSCELES (from tcrof, and oktj- 
 ^or, a leg). A name given to the 
 angle two of whose sides are equal. 
 
 ISOTHERMAL (from laoc, and 
 "^epfirj, heat). Having the same aver- 
 age temperature. Geographical lines 
 drawn over the surface of countries, 
 and passing through places having 
 the same average heat, are termed 
 isolhermal lines ; they are very irreg- 
 ular, in consequence of the occur- 
 rence of mountains and large lakes 
 or surfaces of water, which modify 
 the temperature. The terms Isothcr- 
 al and Isochiinenal are used also ; the 
 first, to designate a line showing the 
 places having the same summer heat, 
 and the last, those with the same 
 mean winter temperature. 
 
 According to Humboldt, the iso- 
 
 asparagus, is also injurious to their ! thermal line which corresponds to the 
 mildness. The limit of isomorphous temperature of 32"^ Fahrenheit pass- 
 substitution is a chemical inquiry : so ' es between L'lea, in Lapland, lat. 66'= 
 
 far as we know, there are groups of 
 bodies wiiich can be substituted for 
 one another only ; these have the 
 same amount of oxygen in their com- 
 position. Such groups as are of im- 
 portance to the farmer or gardener 
 arc appended. 
 
 ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS. Pot- 
 ash, soda, hydratcd ammonia (N H4 O, 
 oxide of ammonium), hydrate of lime 
 
 and Table Bay, on the coast of Lab- 
 rador, lat. 54°. The isothermal line 
 of 41° passes near Stockholm, lat. 
 59^°, and St. George's Bay, New- 
 foundland, lat. 48 ^ The line of 50° 
 passes through the Netherlands, lat. 
 51°, and near Boston, in the United 
 States, lat. 42^° ; that of 59° between 
 Rome and Florence, lat. 43°, and Ra- 
 leigh, in North Carolina, lat. 36°. In 
 
 (Ca O, II O). Of this group soda only ; all these cases we see that the iso- 
 replaces potash in cerealia ; but lime, thermal lines, in passing from the 
 ainuionia (or organic alkalies), can western side of the continent of Eu- 
 rcpl. ce potash or soda in plants that rope to tiie eastern coast of America, 
 do i;ol require solul)le silicates, as deviate very considerably towards 
 tobacco, potatoes, &c. | the south, the deviation, lu one case, 
 
 443 
 
IVY 
 
 JKJ 
 
 amounting to 1H° of latitude. In 
 passing over the American continent 
 they again recede to the northward ; 
 and in California, and to the north 
 of that peninsula, along the western 
 side of the continent, the annual tem- 
 perature is nearly the same as under 
 similar latitudes in the west of Eu- 
 rope. From the western to the east- 
 ern side of the old continent, the flex- 
 ure of the isothermal curves and the 
 diminution of the mean annual tem- 
 perature under the same parallels 
 are not less conspicuous. The iso- 
 thermal line of 55° passes through 
 Nantes, lat. 47°, and Pekin, lat. 39 p. 
 Edinburgh and Kasan (in the east of 
 Russia) have the same latitude ; but 
 the mean annual temperature of the 
 former is 48°, while that of the sec- 
 ond is below SS'^." 
 
 ISSUE. In farriery, an artificial 
 ulcer, made by cutting through the 
 skin and inserting a pea or smooth 
 stone in the wound ; it is to be care- 
 fully dressed and washed daily. It 
 is a means of establishing a local ir- 
 ritation to relieve some important 
 organ, as the eye. 
 
 ITALIAN RYE GRASS. LoUum 
 perenne. See Grasses. 
 
 ITCH. A disease of the skin, in 
 which small vesicles are produced in 
 the angles of the body by the irrita- 
 tion of an insect. It is cured by an 
 ointment of sulphur applied daily. It 
 is sometimes called mange in farriery. 
 
 lULUS. The generic name of the 
 gaily worm ; insects with numerous 
 feet (myriapoda). 
 
 IVORY. The compact bony struc- 
 ture of the tusks of elephants ; it con- 
 tains G6 per cent, bone earth and 24 
 gelatin. 
 
 IVORY BLACK. Bone black. 
 
 IVY. Hcdera helix. A hardy ev- 
 ergreen climbing shrub, used for rus- 
 tic coverings : it kills trees. It is 
 readily propagated by cuttings, and 
 once trained to a wall, will hold on 
 by its own branch roots. The Vir- 
 ginian creeper is sometimes called 
 American ivy, but in no way resem- 
 bles true ivy. 
 
 IVY, III I S H ( Canattensis). " A 
 fast-growing climber, with large lobed 
 4i4 
 
 leaves, which soon covers walls and 
 houses. It is propagated by layers, 
 or slips taken off and planted where 
 they are to grow." — {Johnson.) 
 
 J. 
 
 JACK. A general name given to 
 engines for raising heavy weights, as 
 well as some used for turning spits, 
 &c. 
 
 JACKDAW. A species of crow 
 {Corvus moncdula.) 
 
 JACK TIMBERS. Those in a bay 
 of timbers which are shorter than the 
 rest. 
 
 JACOB'S LADDER. Polemojiium 
 ccruleum. A common flower. 
 
 JACOB'S STAFF. Thecross 
 staff used by surveyors in measuring 
 heights and distances. 
 
 JADE. Nephrite. 
 
 JALAP. The root of the Ipomcea 
 jalapa, a convolvulaceous, Mexican 
 plant, which might be readily cultiva- 
 ted in the Southern States. It climbs, 
 and has a perennial root, or tuber, 
 which is large enough for the market 
 in three years. It is a powerful purge, 
 the dose being ten to twenty grains 
 for a man. 
 
 JAMAICA PEPPER. Myrtus pi- 
 mcnta. Allspice, the produce of an 
 evergreen tree of tropical America. 
 The berries are warm and aromatic. 
 
 JAMBS. The sides or posts of 
 any aperture or door which bear the 
 cross piece on which the weight of 
 the wall rests. 
 
 JAMESTOWN WEED. Datura 
 stramonium. A poisonous weed. See 
 Stramonium. 
 
 JASPER. An ornamental and col- 
 oured silicious mineral. 
 
 JATROPA. A genus of euphor- 
 beous, tropical plants, of which the 
 J. Manihot yields a root from which 
 cassava is extracted ; the J. curcas, 
 purging seeds resembling castor oil 
 seeds. 
 
 JAUNDICE. A disease in which 
 the biliary secretion is much changed, 
 the skin coloured yellow, with much 
 lassitude. 
 
 JEFFERSONITE. A kind of au- 
 gite. 
 
 JEJUNUM. The portion of tho 
 
JUJ 
 
 J UN 
 
 Binall intestines next the duode- 
 nmii. 
 
 JELLY. Gelatin with water: ve- 
 getable jelly is pectin. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. See 
 Artichoke. 
 
 JESSAMIN. Jasminum officinale. 
 A climbing shrub, the flowers of 
 which, when distilled with water, 
 yield a penetrating perfume. 
 
 JET. A bituminous coal of fine 
 te.xture, and taking a hiiih jioli-sli. 
 JETERUS. The yellows of plants. 
 JOGGLED JOINTS. Joints of 
 masonry or wood, which are made 
 by indenting the faces and fitting 
 them together. 
 
 JOGGLE PIECE. A truss post, 
 whose shoulders and sockets receive 
 the lower ends of the struts. 
 
 JOHN'S WORT. Plants of the 
 genus Hypericum, especially H. per- 
 foratum, a common weed in mead- 
 ows. Much prejudice exists against 
 it, and, being a perennial-rooted plant, 
 it is not easy of extirpation. A kind 
 of itch, and even inflammation of the 
 stomach, are said to be produced by it 
 in sheep, but salt is said to be a pre- 
 ventive, and the itch is treated with 
 sulphur ointment. 
 
 JOISTS. The timbers to which 
 the flooring is nailed. 
 
 JUBA. The mane, or crest of 
 hair which runs along the back bone 
 of animals. I 
 
 JUDAS-TREE. An ornamental 
 genus (Cercis) of trees, of which the j 
 C. Canadensis, or red bud, is the only | 
 indigenous species. 
 
 JUGAL BONE. The cheek bone. 
 JUGULAR VEINS. The veins 
 running on the sides of the neck, 
 which bring the blood from the head. 
 The external jugular is that from 
 which blood is taken in the horse. 
 
 JUGULUM. The fore part of the 
 neck in animals. 
 
 JUJUBE. Zizyphus vuliraris. The 
 fruit of this shrub, or sma'l tree, re- 
 sembles a small plum, and is edible ; 
 is red, with a coriaceous skin, and of 
 tlie size of a large olive : they are 
 readily dried, and become sweeter. 
 It is a native of Italy and Spain. A ; 
 sirup made from the dried fruit and j 
 P ? 
 
 mixed with gum forms the original 
 jujube paste. 
 
 JULY. In the North, corn, pota- 
 toes, and late crops are tilled for the 
 last time, and white crops and grass- 
 es harvested ; late cabbages set out ;. 
 celery put into trenches, and seeds 
 collected. After harvest, turnips, car- 
 rots, and fall crops are put in : bud- 
 ding is performed on the apple and 
 pear. In the South, cotton and to- 
 bacco receive a last working. It is 
 the great month for working the soil, 
 and destroying weeds and shrubs. 
 
 JUNCACEiE. Thefamilyof 
 rushes. 
 
 JUNE. In the North, potatoes for 
 winter and ruta bagas are set ; sheep 
 sheared. Weeding is very important 
 this month. Fruit-trees are trimmed, 
 and caterpillars destroyed ; late gar- 
 den vegetables, as pease, beans, cab- 
 bages, turnips, melons, are also sown. 
 In the South, this is the month for 
 weeding, hoeing, and working corn, 
 cotton, tobacco, sweet potatoes ; of 
 the last, increase the hills by cuttings. 
 Carrots and other roots for late crops, 
 as well as cabbages, may be sown ; 
 melons require working ; white crops 
 are harvested. 
 
 JUNE BERRY. Mespilus arhorca. 
 Wild pear, service. This tree is found 
 extensively ditrused in the United 
 States, but abounds on the Alleghany 
 Mountains, and the banks of its 
 streams. The fruit is scattered, 
 small, one third to one half an inch 
 across, and pleasant. It is improved 
 by cultivation, and ripens in June. 
 On the streams of the West it some- 
 times grows thirty-five to forty feet 
 high. 
 
 JUNGERMANNIACE-E. A nat- 
 ural family of acrogens, resembling 
 mosses, and growing on the bark of 
 trees, and in moist, shady places. 
 The Hepalictr, or true liverworts. 
 
 JUNIPER BERRIES. Juniperus 
 communis. A bushy evergreen shrub, 
 the berry of which yields an aromatic 
 flavour to gin. The shrubs grow read- 
 ily on the poorest soils : they are of 
 the pine family (conifcra). 
 
 JUNIPERUS. The genus yield- 
 ing the juniper berries. It contains, 
 446 
 
KID KIR 
 
 also, the J. Sahina (savine), J. Virgin- 
 tana (red cedar). 
 
 KALE. A name for some varie- 
 ties of cabbage or borecole. 
 KALE, SEA. See Sea-kale. 
 KALL A contraction for alkali, 
 potash ; also the ashes of salsola kali, 
 or barilla. 
 
 KALIUM. Potassium. 
 KALML\. A genus of handsome 
 flowering shrubs, called American 
 laurels. The leaves and flowers are 
 poisonous, especially to lambs : those 
 poisoned should be drenched with 
 milk and castor oil. 
 
 KAOLIN. Porcelain clay, the fine, 
 white, disintegrated feldspar of some 
 primitive countries. 
 
 KATYDID. A kind of grasshop- 
 per inhabiting trees, the Plalyphylluvi 
 concavum of Harris. 
 
 KEEL. Canna. The two lower 
 petals of papilionaceous flowers are 
 termed the keel. 
 
 KELP. A term used both for sea- 
 weeds and their ashes. See Sea- 
 weeds. The ashes used to be sold 
 for the manufacture of soap and glass, 
 but is now superseded, in a great 
 measure, by manufactured carbonate 
 of soda. 
 
 KENNEL. A hole inhabited by a 
 fox or other animal. A shelter for 
 dogs. It should be kept clean, and 
 the straw changed often. A kennel 
 is also used to designate a collection 
 or pack of hounds. 
 
 KERMES GRAINS. Insects of 
 the genus Coccus, or bark lice, collect- 
 ed from numerous plants, as the oak, I malt, grain, &c 
 &c., and formerly much used for dye- over a wire-work 
 ing a red colour, but to a great ex- 
 tent superseded by cochineal. 
 
 KERMES MINERAL. The hy- 
 drosulphuret of antiinony. 
 KETCHUP. Catsup. 
 KEUPER. The upper portion of 
 the new red sandstone formation. 
 
 KEY. In building, apiece of wood 
 let into another in the contrary di- 
 rection of the grain. 
 
 KEYSTONE. The central stone 
 of an arch. 
 KID. A young goat. The flesh is 
 446 
 
 tender, and much esteemed by some 
 persons. 
 
 KIDNEYS. The reins. The or- 
 gans in which urine is secreted, from 
 whence it flows along tubes (ureters) 
 into the bladder. They are situated 
 in the loins and attached to the spine. 
 KIDNEY BEAN. See Bean. 
 KIDNEY - SHAPED. Reniform, 
 of an oval figure, with one side in- 
 dented, so as to resemble a sheep's 
 kidney. 
 
 KIDNEY VETCH. Anthyllis. An 
 ornamental flowering plant. 
 
 KILLING ANIMALS. It is cus- 
 tomary to keep oxen two days, and 
 smaller animals one day without food. 
 The ox is felled by a blow on the 
 forehead, and his throat immediately 
 cut. The Jews, who eat no meat 
 with blood in it, do not fell the ani- 
 mal, but, having tied it, divide the 
 throat down to the bone. Animals 
 killed by accidents are eaten with 
 propriety, but such as die from dis- 
 ease are unwholesome, and some- 
 times poisonous. A method of kill- 
 ing animals by pithing, or dividing the 
 spinal marrow high in the neck by a 
 sharp knife, is practised in Southern 
 Europe ; the animal falls at once, but 
 the flesh is said not to be free from 
 blood. 
 
 KILLINITE. A greenish lamellar 
 mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, 
 and iron, with six per cent, potash. 
 
 KILN. A furnace. The figure 
 depends on the object in view. 
 
 KILN ASHES. The ashes of the 
 
 wood, straw, &c., used in burning. 
 
 K I L N- DRYING. Drying hops, 
 
 a chamber, or 
 
 heated to 120" 
 
 Fahrenheit and upward by a kiln or 
 
 stove below. 
 
 KILOGRAMME. A French 
 weight, equal to 2 lbs., 3 oz., 5 dwts., 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 KING-POST. The central post of 
 a trussed framing for supporting the 
 tie beam. 
 
 KINIO ACID. The acid with 
 which quina is associated. 
 
 KINO. A dark-brown astringent 
 extract containing much tannin. 
 KIRSCHWASSER. A liquor ob. 
 
KOH 
 
 tained by fermenting cherries witli 
 which the stones are pounded, and 
 distilling the fermented liquid. 
 
 KIT. A pail, or wooden vessel. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. See Gar- 
 aen Husbandry. 
 
 KNAPWEED. The genus of per- 
 ennial weeds Ccntaurca. 
 
 KNAWELL. Sclcranthiis annuus. 
 A weed slightly astringent. 
 
 KNAR S. Knots or excres- 
 cences on tlie bark of some trees, 
 which contam latent buds capable of 
 e.xpanding into branches : those of the 
 olive are used for propagation, being 
 cut with a part of the stem and set in 
 the ground. 
 
 KNEE. In architecture, an artifi- 
 cially or naturally bent piece of timber. 
 
 KNEE-PAN. A small, flat bone 
 (patella) situated before the knee jomt 
 to protect it. 
 
 KNEE GRASS. Rough panic 
 grass. 
 
 KNOLL. A hillock, or small hill. 
 
 KNOPPERN. Gall-like excres- 
 cences of oaks, used for dyeing and 
 tanning. 
 
 KNUT GRASS. Holcus avenace- 
 us, which produces bulbs on its 
 roots. The common weed Polygo- 
 mim avicularc. 
 
 KNOT WEED. A general name 
 for the Pohisonum genus, many of 
 which are very acrid. 
 
 KOHL RABI. A variety of cab- 
 bage, the stalk of which is terminated 
 above by a bulb as large as a turnip, 
 which is solid, and around which the 
 leaves are situated. It requires the 
 same management as cabbages, and 
 yields as much as ruta bagas. Two 
 pounds of seed supply an acre ; it is 
 sown in beds in the fall and planted 
 in spring. The value as food is not 
 given, but it is probably about the 
 same as cabbages, 500 pounds equal- 
 ling 100 of hay, and an ox requiring 
 100 pounds dady. Kohl rabi is cul- 
 tivated in Germany, and recommend- 
 ed lately in England, from its com- 
 parative freedom from the diseases 
 of turnips, as a substitute for that 
 root. It has occupied the attention 
 of some of our fancy gardeners, but 
 is not raised by us as a field-crop. 
 
 LAO 
 
 KRAMERIC ACID. It is obtain- 
 ed from the root of the Kromeria tri- 
 andria, or rhatany. 
 
 KY ANTTE. A silicate of alumina, 
 sometimes coloured by iron and other 
 bodies : it occurs in doubly oblique 
 prisms ; is white, gray, or blue. It is 
 common in primitive formations, and 
 sometimes forms a fine blue stone 
 resembling sapphire, and used by jew- 
 
 KYANIZING. The process of Mr. 
 Kyan for preserving timber by soak- 
 ing it in a solution of corrosive subli- 
 mate : it is now superseded by cheap- 
 er fluids. See Preservation of Timber. 
 
 LABARRAQUE'S DISINFECT- 
 ING LIQUID. A solution of car- 
 bonate of soda charged with chlorine : 
 it answers the same purposes as chlo- 
 ride of lime in disinfecting rooms. 
 
 LABELLUM. The lower petal of 
 a labiate or orchideous flower. 
 
 LABIAT.E. An extensive family 
 of plants, characterized by a two-lip- 
 ped, monopetalous corolla, an irregu- 
 lar number of stamens, and four- 
 lobed ovary. They are mostly herbs, 
 or small shrubs, with highly aromatic 
 flowers and leaves, as the mint, lav- 
 ender, sage, &c. None of them are 
 poisonous. 
 
 LABIUM. A lip, the divisions of 
 some monopetalous flowers. In en- 
 tomology, the moveable organ which 
 is at the front of the head, or face, 
 covering the mouth and representing 
 the upper lip. 
 
 LABORATORY. The workshop 
 of the chemist : chemical manufacto- 
 ries are often improperly so called. 
 
 LABRADORITE, or LABRA- 
 DORE STONE. An iridescent, opa- 
 line variety of feldspar, consisting of 
 silica, 55; alumina, S4 ; lime, 10 25; 
 soda, 3-50, in 100 parts. — {Klaprotfi.) 
 
 LABRU.M. The labium, or upper 
 lip of insects. 
 
 LAC. The dry resinous juice 
 of several trees of Southern India. 
 The trees are wounded by the Coc- 
 cus ficus, a bark louse, parts of which 
 being entangled in the juice, produce 
 a red colour like cochineal. The 
 447 
 
LAC 
 
 LAC 
 
 fresh lac, incrusting twigs of trees, 
 is called stick lac; the resin being 
 separated, pounded, and stirred witli 
 water, yields a red solution, which, 
 when evaporated to dryness, forms 
 lac dye, the insoluble portion being 
 grain lac, and, when melted and run 
 on leaves or wood, shell lac. 
 
 LAC DYE. This is found in small 
 cakes ; it is dissolved in a mixture of 
 3 lbs. tin and 60 muriatic acid. To 
 produce a rich scarlet, the cloth is 
 mordanted with solution of tin. 
 
 LAC, SHELL. This is much used 
 for the best sealing-wax by various 
 manufacturers, and in varnishes. It 
 is rapidly dissolved by strong alco- 
 hol, by dilute muriatic and acetic 
 acids. Laccine and laccic acids are 
 bodies found in lac. 
 
 LACERATED. A botanical term, 
 used to designate a leaf which ap- 
 pears to have been torn. 
 
 LACERTID-E. The famUy of liz- 
 ards. 
 
 LACHRYMAL GLAND. A small 
 conglomerate gland placed in the up- 
 per portion of the outer angle of the 
 eye ; it supplies the eye with moist- 
 ure to lubricate the surface ; an ex- 
 cessive flow produces tears. The 
 lachrymal duct is a small channel 
 from the inner corner of the eye to 
 the inside of the nose. 
 
 LACINLVTE. Fringe-like ; petals, 
 leaves, &c., cut into numerous thin 
 shreds. 
 
 LACQUER. A varnish used to 
 cover brass and other metals, made 
 by dissolving shell lac in alcohol, and 
 colouring with gamboge, saffron, and 
 other bodies. 
 
 LACTARY. A dairy. 
 
 LACTATION. Giving milk, or 
 suckling. 
 
 LACTEALS. Minute vessels run- 
 ning from the interior of the small 
 intestines along the mesentery to the 
 thoracic duct ; they convey the chyle 
 or nutritious portions of digested 
 food. They form the lacteal glands 
 of the mesentery. 
 
 LACTIC ACID. The acid of sour 
 
 milk ; it is also found in digested food, 
 
 and sour starchy substances, saur 
 
 kraut, &c. It is a thick, colourless, 
 
 448 
 
 sour liquid, soluble in water and al- 
 cohol, and coagulates milk : formula 
 Cr, H4 O4. It readily combines with 
 bases, forming lactates. 
 
 LACTINE. Sugar of milk. 
 
 LACTOMETER, or GALACTOM- 
 ETER. " A term applied to a glass 
 tube for ascertaining the proportion 
 which the cream bears to the milk of 
 any particular cow, or the produce 
 of a whole dairy. Lactometers of 
 different kinds have been invented ; 
 the best is called the four or five glass 
 lactometer {Fig.). 
 
 "The principle of the instrument 
 is, that if new milk is poured into 
 glass tubes and allowed to remain, 
 the division between the cream which 
 floats upon the surface of the milk 
 will be so evident that its depth may 
 be easily measured ; and should the 
 milk from any cow produce jnore 
 cream than that of another, the dif- 
 ference will be seen by the divisions 
 or marks on the glass tubes. The lac- 
 tometer consists of four or five glass 
 tubes, about half an inch diameter 
 and 11 inches long, fitted into an up- 
 right mahogany frame ; each tube 
 having a fine line drawn round it 10 
 inches from the bottom ; three inch- 
 es from the line downward it is grad- 
 uated into inches and tenths of inch- 
 es. At milking time each tube is to 
 be filled up to the line with new milk. 
 After standing 12 hours, the quantity 
 of cream which floats upon the sur- 
 face is shown by the scale of inches 
 and tenths ; each division will there- 
 fore represent one per cent, of the 
 whole. 
 
 " If the milk given by a cow at one 
 meal is one gallon, or eight pints, and 
 the thickness or depth of the cream 
 which floats upon it measures 14 di 
 visions, multiply the number of pints, 
 8, by the depth of the cream, 14 ; the 
 
LAC 
 
 result will be that the produce of the 
 cream of that meal is 112, or one 
 pint twelve one hundredths. Care 
 must be taken to fill these tubes as 
 soon as the pail is taken from under 
 the cow, for if any delay takes place 
 some of the cream will have ascend- 
 ed towards the top. The milk should 
 be taken from the middle of the 
 
 LAIR. The resting-place of sav- 
 age animals ; sometimes used, also, 
 for that of oxen and cows. 
 
 LAKES. Pigments obtained by 
 throwing down the colouring matter 
 of vegetable solutions by alum. 
 
 LAMB. For the farmer, late lambs 
 dropped at grass lime are best, as the 
 ewe yields more milk : the teat of the 
 
 pail, which is to be done by dipping a , ewe should be cleared of any tags 
 
 cream-pot below the fwth'"—{Jourii. \ that hinder suckling ; if she does not 
 
 Roy. Inst.) ■ own her lamb, put them together in a 
 
 LACTUCARIUM. The dry juice 1 pen and place a little salt on the lamb ; 
 
 of the wild lettuce (Lacluca virosa) : 
 it is very much like opium. 1 
 
 LACtUGIC ACID. It exists in 
 lactucarium. 
 
 LACUNA. A small pit. The 
 mouth of excretory ducts. 
 
 LACUNOSE. Having little pits, 
 or shallow indentations. 
 
 LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a 
 lake. 
 
 LADDER. A necessary imple- 
 ment on the farm for stackmg, re- 
 pairing, &c. The wall-tree ladder is 
 furnished at the top with two pieces 
 of wood projecting 10 inches, to hin- 
 der it from injuring the trees in pru- 
 ning, nailing, &c. An arrangement 
 of three ladders on a frame, capable 
 of being wheeled along, and in which 
 two of the ladders may be hoisted 
 one above the other, so as to reach 
 to the top of trees, is called an orchard 
 ladder. 
 
 LADY BIRD. A popular name for 
 tiie genus Coccinclla. Most of the 
 species are useful to the farmer by 
 preying on plant lice, or aphides. 
 
 LADY'S MANTLE. Plants of 
 the genus Alchcmilla ; they are slight- 
 ly astringent, but w'holesome. 
 
 LADY'S SLIPPER. Flowers of 
 the genus Cypripedium, of great beau- 
 ty. 
 
 LADY'S TRESSES. Small or- 
 chideous plants of the genus Ncotlia, 
 of no importance. 
 L.EVIS. Smooth. 
 LAGEN.EFORM. Bottle-shaped. 
 LAGOON. A shallow lake, into 
 which the sea flows. 
 
 LAGOPUS. The genus contain- 
 ing the grouse and similar birds feath- 
 ered down to the toes. 
 P p 2 
 
 if she licks it, a good feehng will soon 
 spring up. They are weaned at six 
 to eight weeks ; the rams are gelded 
 at one to three weeks old. By kill- 
 ing lambs at six months, the wool 
 becomes much more valuable. The 
 young ewes should not be put to ram 
 until two years. 
 
 LAMBDOIDAL SUTURE. The 
 line of junction between the bone at 
 the back of the head (occipital) and 
 the side bones (parietal). 
 
 LAMB'S LETTUCE. Corn salad. 
 LAMB SKINS. Their value de- 
 pends on the fineness, brightness, and 
 colour of the wool, black being most 
 esteemed. The skin is extensively 
 employed in making gloves. 
 
 LAMELL.E. The gills of mush- 
 rooms. 
 
 LAMELLICORNS. A division of 
 pentamerous beetles, in which the 
 short antennae are inserted into a 
 deep fossa at the side of the head : 
 the body is ovoid and heavy ; the an- 
 terior part of the head is commonly 
 dilated, and projects ; the mentum is 
 large, covering the labrum or incor- 
 porated with it, and bearing the pal- 
 pi. They are very numerous, feed on 
 excrements, rotten wood, and roots. 
 LAMENESS. " In the horse it 
 is brought on from various causes, 
 sprains, over-exertion, diseases of 
 the foot, &c. The muscles of the 
 shoulder are occasionally sprained, 
 and, in this case, the animal cannot 
 lift his foot without great difficulty ; 
 indeed, he will be observed to drag 
 his toe along the ground. In this 
 case few local measures can be adopt- 
 ed. The horse should be bled from 
 , the vein on the inside of the arm, fo- 
 419 
 
LAN 
 
 LAR 
 
 mentations applied, and a dose of 
 physic given. In this, as in most oth- 
 er cases of lameness, quiet and rest 
 are essential to the restoration of 
 the animal." See Horse 
 
 LAMINA. The flat surface of a 
 leaf. 
 
 LAMIN.'E. A tribe of longicorn 
 beetles, distinguished by a vertical 
 head, filiform palpi, antennae bristly 
 and simple, thorax nearly equal 
 throughout : some species are ap- 
 terous. 
 
 LAMINATED. Rolled or beaten 
 to thin leaves or foil. 
 
 LAMPBLACK. Fine charcoal ob- 
 tained by imperfectly burning resins, 
 &c. 
 
 LAMPYRID.E. A family of soft- 
 skinned, serricorn beetles, a portion 
 of the females of which are phospho- 
 rescent. 
 
 LAMPYRIN-E. A tribe of soft- 
 skinned, serricorn beetles, character- 
 ized by palpi with enlarged termina- 
 tions, a soft, straight, slightly-de- 
 pressed body, by the thorax project- 
 ing over the head, which it partially 
 or wholly covers. 
 
 LANATE, LANATUS. Covered 
 with wool, or having the appearance 
 of wool. 
 
 LANCEOLATE. Lance-shaped, 
 oblong, and gradually tapering to the 
 ends. 
 
 LAND. In agriculture, the bed, or 
 stitch, between two water furrows. 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 The art of laying out grounds : curv- 
 ed lines, clumps of trees, with a rich 
 sward, and shrubberies, are the ele- 
 ments of landscapes ; fences should 
 be sunken so as not to interrupt the 
 view, which should be opened as 
 much as possible, unless unsightly ; 
 in the latter case, a clump or grove 
 of trees may be made to hide the ob- 
 jects. Fountains, terraces, urns, and 
 other objects of art, are introduced as 
 ornaments. A winding stream is 
 a necessary element of extensive 
 grounds. — See Loudon's Encyclopedia 
 of Gardening. 
 
 ■ LANDSLIP, or LANDSLIDE. A 
 quantity of land which has slidden 
 down the side of a hill : it is caused 
 450 
 
 by the undermining of water or by an 
 earthquake. 
 
 LAND SPRINGS. Springs which 
 only come into action after heavy 
 rains : all springs owe their origin to 
 rains. In the case of land springs, 
 the water, when it sinks through the 
 surface, is speedily interrupted by a 
 retentive stratum of clay or rock, and 
 there accumulating, soon bursts out 
 into a spring, which ceases to flow a 
 short period after the cause which 
 gave it birth ; but the water which 
 supplies constant springs sinks deep- 
 er into the earth, and accumulates in 
 rocky or gravelly strata, which be- 
 come saturated with the fluid. 
 
 L A N I A R I E S. Denies laniarii. 
 The dog teeth, or cuspidati, conical 
 teeth at the sides of the jaws, next 
 the incisors. 
 
 LANTANUM. A new metal found 
 in cerite. 
 
 LAPIDEOUS. Like stone, hard. 
 
 LA PILL I. Small volcanic cin- 
 ders. 
 
 LARCH. The European larch 
 {Larix communis) is much cultivated 
 in England for ship-building, bridges, 
 dock gates, and other purposes. The 
 timber is of remarkable excellence. 
 It is a native of the Tyrol, and grows 
 with great rapidity on the poorest 
 soils and in very elevated positions. 
 The bark is nearly as valuable as that 
 of the oak for tanning, and the trunk, 
 w^hen tapped, yields the Venetian 
 turpentine ; there is also a sweet 
 gum obtained from it called Brianvon 
 manna. 
 
 LARCH, AMERICAN. Hack- 
 malac. 
 
 LARD. See Hogs Lard. 
 
 LARK. This genus of birds is 
 granivorous. 
 
 LARKSPUR. The genus Delphi- 
 nium, many of which have handsome 
 blue flowers : these plants are diu- 
 retic and acrid. The D. consolida and 
 staphisagria were formerly used in 
 medicine. 
 
 LARVA. The caterpillar or mag- 
 got state of insect life ; the young of 
 some amphibious animals are also 
 called larvae. 
 
 LARVIPARA. Producing larvae. 
 
LAT 
 
 LARYx\GOTOMY. The opera- 
 tion of making an opening into the 
 larynx ; this is sometimes necessary 
 in eases of t-hoking or severe inflam- 
 mation, where the opening of the 
 larynx, along which air passes, is 
 closed. 
 
 LARYNX. The upper part of the 
 windpipe, formed of cartilage, and ly- 
 ing at the root of the tongue. 
 
 LAST. A quantity, varying in dif- 
 ferent countries, and with respect to 
 various articles. The loliowing quan- 
 tities generally make a last : 12 doz- 
 en of hides or skins ; 12 barrels of 
 meal ; lOV quarters of cole seed ; 10 
 quarters of corn or rape seed (in some 
 parts of England 21 quarters of corn 
 go to a last) ; 12 sacks of wool ; 1700 
 pounds of feathers or flax. 4000 
 pounds is often the amount of a last. 
 
 LATENT HEAT. Heat sup- 
 posed to be present in all bodies, and 
 on which their form depends ; it can- 
 not be felt, but, by a change in the 
 form, is given out, and becomes sen- 
 sible or free heat. Vapours and gas- 
 es contain most, next fluids, and last 
 solids ; so that, by the abstraction of 
 heat, vapours are condensed, fluids 
 freeze, and, by the reverse, solids be- 
 come fluid or gaseous. 
 
 LATERITIOUS (from later, a 
 brick). A deposite of a reddish colour 
 from urine, &c. 
 
 LATEX. The milky or elaborated 
 juices of plants : it circulates in a pe- 
 culiar arrangement of tubes called the 
 laiiciferous vessels, which anasta- 
 mose over the plant. 
 
 LATH. A thin slip of wood, one 
 fourth or three eighths of an inch 
 thick, used in plastering, slating, &c. 
 
 LATHE. A machine for revolving 
 pieces of wood, metal, &c., which are 
 cut with different tools while rotating. 
 
 LATH FLOATED AND SET 
 FAIR. In building, three-coat plas- 
 terer's work, in which the first is 
 called pricking up, the second float- 
 ing, the third, or finishing, is done 
 with fine stuff. 
 
 LATH LAID AND SET. In 
 building, two-coated plasterer's work, 
 e.vcept that the first is called laying, 
 and IS executed without scratchmg. 
 
 LAX 
 
 unless with a broom. When used on 
 walls, this sort of work is generally 
 coloured ; when on ceilings, it is 
 white. 
 
 LATHYRUS. A genus of hand- 
 some climbing, leguminous plants, 
 much cultivated for ornament. 
 
 L ATI CI FERGUS VESSELS. 
 Milk vessels ; they carry the latex. 
 
 L.\UD.\NUM. Opium dissolved 
 in alcohol, tincture of opium. 
 
 LAUREL. Shrubs, or small trees, 
 of the genus haunts ; several are ev- 
 ergreen : they yield aromatic resins 
 and oils. 
 
 LAURINE. A fatty, acrid sub- 
 stance, found in the berries of the 
 common laurel (Laurus communis). 
 
 LAVA. The molten mineral mat- 
 ter which has flowed from volcanoes ; 
 it is very porous. 
 
 LAYER. A sea-weed (Porphrjra 
 laciniata and vulgaris), eaten as a del- 
 icacy when boiled ; sometimes green 
 laver (Ulm latissima) is substituted. 
 
 L.\ VENDER. Lavendula spica. It 
 grows on a poor, light soil, is propa- 
 gated by slips and cuttings of the 
 year's shoots ; these are set in IMay, 
 six inches apart, in a shady border, 
 and transferred by October to the 
 permanent beds, about two feet apart. 
 The ground is stirred in spring, and 
 the flowers gathered early in July ; 
 the beds, with a little care, last a 
 long time. The flowers are distilled 
 for their rich perfume, which is the 
 principal ingredient oi eaude Cologne. 
 
 LAWN. Ground covered with tlie 
 smaller perennial grasses, kept short 
 by mowing, and generally situated in 
 front of a house or mansion. Lawns, 
 when once established, require only 
 to be kept neat by the ordinary rou- 
 tine of rolling, mowing, and sweep- 
 ing, except keeping the surface per- 
 fectly even, by making up small hol- 
 lows with screened mould early in 
 spring. When lawns become worn 
 out, a top-dressing of any finely-divi- 
 ded manure will refresh them ; leach- 
 ed ashes are particularly useful, and, 
 at the same time, an additional quan- 
 titv of grass seed may be sown. 
 
 LAXATIVE. A gently-purging 
 medicine. 
 
 451 
 
LAY 
 
 LLA 
 
 LAXATOR. Any muscle which 
 relaxes the tension of the part into 
 which it is inserted. 
 
 LAX, LAXUS. DifTiise, loose. 
 
 LAY, LEY, LEA. A term applied 
 to land in tlic state of grass or sward. 
 This kind of ground is frequently dis- 
 tinguisiied into such as has been long 
 in the stale of sward, and such as is 
 newly laid down to grass, or into old 
 and new lays. An old lay, fallowed 
 or turned under, yields an admirable 
 preparation for potatoes, corn, wheat, 
 and numerous other crops. The 
 proper method of managing a new 
 lay is of great importance to the 
 farmer, which Young thought should 
 be by keeping it perfectly free from 
 stock for the following autumn and 
 winter after being laid down, when, 
 in the spring, it will afford a growth 
 of young grass highly valuable for 
 s4ieep, with which it should only be 
 well stocked, and kept down then, 
 and during the following summer ; 
 nothing, in his opinion, being more 
 pernicious than mowing a new lay, 
 as directed by certain authors, if it 
 be intended for permanent meadow. 
 
 LAYERING. Propagation by lay- 
 ers, which are short branches of plants, 
 trees, or shrubs. The layer is strip- 
 ped of its lower leaves, a slit made 
 under one of the central buds, and 
 the branch twisted or the bark taken 
 partially off, and then bent and pinned 
 down in the soil by a wooden pin ; 
 the wounded portion is placed from 
 two to six inches under the soil, and 
 covered with line mould and sand ; 
 the end of the branch is trimmed to 
 one or two eyes above the soil ; in a 
 few weeks it will have thrown out 
 roots, and maybe cut away and trans- 
 planted at a suitable time elsewhere, 
 being a new plant. It is a very safe 
 method of propagation, and in some 
 flower plants nearly the only one. It is 
 practised in the summer and autunm, 
 and on the year's shoots in many ca- 
 ses, but usually on two-year shoots. 
 Plants so situated as to render it im- 
 possible to bend their branches to 
 the ground, may nevertheless be lay- 
 ered by having shoots introduced into 
 a i)ot or box of soil elevated to them, 
 452 
 
 and supported in a convenient posi- 
 tion. A piece of bass matting tied 
 around the limb near a crotch may 
 be made to sustain the soil. This is a 
 common practice among the Chinese, 
 who cause branches of trees to root 
 in this manner by partially ringing 
 them, and covering such parts with 
 a ball of clay, which is ke])t moist. 
 
 LAYERS OF ^VOOD. The cir- 
 cular rings of wood or bark produced 
 annually. The number of wood lay- 
 ers in a trunk gives us an idea of the 
 age of the tree. 
 
 LEA. See Laxj. 
 
 LEAD. A soft, inelastic, and duc- 
 tile metal, fusing at 612° Fahrenheit : 
 sp. gr., 11-44. Melted in open ves- 
 sels, it absorbs o.xygen, and becomes 
 converted into massicot, which, being 
 fused, is litharge, the protoxide of 
 lead. The equivalent of lead is 103-73, 
 symbol Pb {Plumbum). The metal, 
 in the form of sheet, is very use- 
 ful for covering buildings and form- 
 ing gutters. From its softness, it is 
 also adapted for pipes, which are 
 quite flexible. Lead cisterns and 
 pipes are objectionable as reservoirs 
 lor rain water. It is used as an al- 
 loy with other metals. Lead is read- 
 ily soluble in nitric acid, and slowly 
 in strong acetic and carbonic acids. 
 Its most important compounds are 
 the carbonate (white-lead) and ace- 
 talc (sugar of lead). 
 
 LEAD, BLACK. Plumbago. A 
 native carburet of iron. 
 
 LEAF. An expansion of cellular 
 tissue and vessels appended to the 
 stem at the nodes ; it receives ves- 
 sels from the new wood on the up- 
 per, and contributes them to the bark 
 from the under surface. Along the 
 upper channels the ascending sap 
 flows, and the elaborated juices leave 
 the leaf by the inferior system, de- 
 scending between the new wood and 
 bark, and organizing new wood for 
 the next year and roots. Leaves are 
 articulated, and fall off entire in ex- 
 ogenous plants, but are expansions 
 of tlie bark, and not articulated in 
 endogens ; hence, when they die, the 
 fragments remain, decaying in the air. 
 The figures of leaves are innumera- 
 
LEA 
 
 LEA 
 
 ble, and furnish the principal means \ 
 of recognising species of plants ; they 
 are also occasionally covered with 
 hairs, glands, prickles, and, for the 
 most part, with minute openings on 
 the under surface, called slomata. i 
 Physiologically, the leaf is not only . 
 the most important portion of a plant, 
 but the only living portion ; the trunk 
 and roots are only fibres extended 
 from the leaves : the fruit and seed I 
 are only modified leaves ; they pro- 
 duce the buds of plants, the great 
 means of propagation ; hence, in the 
 vegetable kingdom, more than half of 
 the known plants are no more than a 
 leaf, or foliaceous organ, as in ferns, 
 lichens, sea-weeds, fungi, and moss- 
 es ; and the leaf alone of many 
 plants is capable of giving rise to a 
 new individual, forming a root, a new ; 
 bud, and ultimately the entire tree or j 
 plant ; thus, the orange, water-cress, j 
 mint, hoya, clinanthus, and other spe- i 
 cies, have been 'propagated by a leaf. | 
 The planted leaf swells at its stalk, ' 
 emits roots, and develops a bud. 
 
 A leaf is a porous or spongy body ; 
 the gases and fluids of the interior of 
 the plant, and the gases and fluids of 
 the air mingle together by chemical 
 laws in its structure ; light, acting 
 on these, produces a change of com- 
 position, and establishes a move- 
 ment. Out of carbonic acid gas and 
 water, light, and the chemical actions 
 of the leaf, evolve sugar, gum, starch, 
 and wood ; these principles, acted 
 upon by other substances present, 
 produce, in part, albumen, fibrin, oils, 
 &c. ; and thus, primarily in the leaf, 
 all the products of vegetation are 
 formed, and hence they l)ecome dis- 
 tributed throughout the whole plant. 
 
 The leaf only, with the green parts, 
 can elaborate sap for the whole ve- 
 getable ; the apparent changes in the 
 ascending sap are an increased den- 
 sity, and the separation of oxygen 
 and nitrogen gases, which escape into 
 the air. Leaves are to be carefully 
 preserved as the elaborating organs 
 of the plant, out of which come 
 growth and vigour. 
 
 L E A F B U D. Tiie collection of 
 small leaves with a central point 
 
 capable of expansion, which is pro- 
 duced at the base or axil of the 
 leaves. In the bark is laid up a de- 
 posite of food for their use in spring, 
 upon which the bud, whether separa- 
 ted to another tree (m budding), or 
 remaining in its native place, feeds 
 while young ; by its expansion, a 
 shoot is formed. Leaf buds perpet- 
 uate all the peculiarities of the tree 
 on which they originated. 
 
 LE.\FLET. The lesser leaves of 
 a compound leaf. 
 
 LEAF MANL'RE. The dead leaves 
 of the forest constitute an admirable 
 manure when rotted in the farm-yard, 
 pig-stalls, or in composts ; they have 
 precisely the value of straw, being 
 very similar in their action. The 
 leaves of oaks and plants growing on 
 a rich soil are better than those of 
 pine, or such as grow on poor lands. 
 They should be collected as early as 
 possible in the fall. If ploughed into 
 the soil directly, they form an excel- 
 lent amendment, but require rather 
 more time to yield vegetable food. 
 In this case, lime should be applied 
 with the leaves. 
 
 LEAF STALK. The petiole. 
 Leaves destitute of stalk are called 
 sessile. 
 
 LEAGUE. The sea league is the 
 one twentieth of a degree, or 345 
 miles. The French posting league is 
 2-42 English miles. 
 
 LEA\-TO. A building whose raf- 
 ters lean or pitch against the wall of 
 another building. 
 
 LEASH. A line to couple dogs. 
 Three head of game. 
 
 LEATHER. Skins of animals 
 preserved by rendering their gelatin 
 insoluble and impermeable to water ; 
 this is called tanning, when a solution 
 of tannin is used, and the product 
 becomes tannogclatin. 
 
 Tau-ed leather is formed by steep- 
 ing prepared skins in potasti liquor 
 and a solution of common salt and 
 alum ; in this way the resulting salt 
 of alumina combines with the gela- 
 tin : glove leather is so formed. 
 Curried leather is smeared with oil 
 while moist, which gradually pene- 
 trates the skin as it dries. A perfect 
 453 
 
LEE 
 
 LE.M 
 
 hide of leather is tested by its section, 
 which should he glistening and mar- 
 bled, without any wiiite streaks, but 
 uniform and compact. See Tanning. 
 
 LEATHER WOOD. Dircapalus- 
 tris. A small indigenous shrub with 
 very flexible branches, and a tough, 
 leathery bark. 
 
 LEAVEN. A piece of sour dough 
 of flour or corn meal, used to make 
 other dough light ; it is well kneaded 
 into it, and produces fermentation, 
 but is altogether inferior to yeast. 
 
 LEDGERS. In building," the pie- 
 ces of timber used in scaffolding 
 which lie parallel to the wall, and 
 horizontal. 
 
 LEECH. Sanguisvga officinalis 
 and medicinalis. They inhabit shal- 
 low brooks and ponds, and are taken 
 by driving a horse or other animal in ; 
 the leeches attach themselves to the 
 legs. They are invaluable in reliev- 
 ing local inflammations by drawing 
 offan excess of blood. 
 
 LEEK. Allium, porrum. This is 
 a biennial of the onion genus, hut 
 without heads ; used in stews, broths, 
 &c. The best variety is the large 
 London. Leeks are obtained by seed, 
 which is sown in a bed early in spring 
 for the first supply, and in April for 
 the crop. The seedlings are trans- 
 planted when six or eight inches 
 high, being previously thinned and 
 weeded, and set in rows ten inches 
 apart, the rows being eight inches 
 distant. The leeks are set deep in 
 holes made by a dibble. The soil 
 must be well watered and loosened. 
 Tlie after-treatment consists of hoe- 
 ing and occasionally cutting away 
 the tops of the leaves to increase 
 the size of the root. The plants are 
 used from June to winter. Seed is 
 obtained by leaving some of the leeks 
 in the seed-bed 8 inches apart, cover- 
 ing with straw in winter, and allowing 
 them to flower in May. The seed clus- 
 ter is to be cut when turned brown, 
 and dried before being thrashed. 
 
 LEES. The dregs or refuse of fer- 
 mented liquors : when rotted, they 
 form good manure, and should, there- 
 fore, be put into the farm-yard or pig- 
 geries. 
 454 
 
 LEGHORN STRAW. It it de- 
 rived from the straw of wheat In 
 Tuscany, the long-awned spring 
 wheat, called marzolano, is cultivate^ 
 on the sandy hills of the Valley of the 
 Arno. The seed is sowa in March 
 very thick, and the plants pulled when 
 the spikes are formed, but before any 
 grain : it is then eighteen inches tall. 
 It is bleached by exposure to air like 
 flax. The portion of straw between 
 the car and uppermost knot is ah that 
 is employed : this is selected, tied in 
 bundles, and carried home. Before 
 use, the straw is bleached by the va- 
 pour of sulphur, either in barrels or 
 appropriate rooms ; the plait is also 
 bleached, and the bonnets are again 
 bleached. English Leghorn is made 
 from rye similarly managed. Both 
 these plants yield better straw than 
 that from grasses. 
 
 LEGUMEN, LEGUME. A pod 
 like that of the pea, bean, &c. A 
 one-celled, one or many seeded, two 
 valved, superior, and commonly de- 
 hiscent fruit. 
 
 LEGUMIN. The casein of legu- 
 minous plants. 
 
 LEGUMINOS^E. An extensive 
 natural family, very important in ag- 
 riculture, from yielding pease, beans, 
 clovers, indigo, &c. The genera are 
 often immense trees in the tropics, 
 as logwood, mahogany, but are usu- 
 ally small herbs in the North. The 
 most remarkable characters are the 
 presence of legumens whh irregular, 
 often papilionaceous flowers. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS CROPS. Crops 
 of clover, beans, tares, lucern, and 
 other leguminosa?. Some writers, 
 however, very improperly allude to 
 root and leaf crops under this term, 
 imagining that all ameliorating crops 
 should be called leguminous, as being 
 distinguished from white or culmif- 
 erous crops, which are also exhaust- 
 
 LEICESTER SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 LEMON. Curvs mcdica. A small 
 tree, native of Asia, but extensively 
 cultivated in tropical America and 
 temperate climates free from heavy 
 frosts. The citron, lemon, and lime 
 are considered only varieties, notwith- 
 
LEN 
 
 LET 
 
 standing their great difference in size 
 and tlie sharpness of the juice. The 
 tree can be cultivated in southern 
 Florida, but requires an orangery 
 northward. 
 
 LEMON, ESSENCE OF. The oil 
 distilled from the peal, mixed with al- 
 cohol. The pure oil is termed the oil 
 of lemo/is. 
 
 LEMON SIRUP. Lemon juice is 
 kept with difficulty in bottles ; made 
 into a strong sirup, it is better pre- 
 served. The fluid sold by this name 
 is only common sirup, acidulated with 
 a little oil of vitriol. 
 
 LENITIVE. Medicines which 
 gently soothe in diseases. A gentle 
 purgative. 
 
 LENS. A thin solid, the faces of 
 which are curved, and the general 
 figure usually circular. The glasses 
 of spectacles are lenses. Those len- 
 ses which have two conve.x or pro- 
 tuberant sides, or one side plane, mag- 
 nify objects, and concentrate the rays 
 of heat to a burning focus ; hence they 
 are termed magnifying or burning 
 glasses. Concave lenses minify, and 
 do not collect heat to a real focus. 
 The name of the lens differs with the 
 figure of the curved surface 
 
 LENTICULAR. Shaped like a 
 double convex lens ; thus (). 
 
 LENTICELLS, or LENTICULAR 
 GLANDS. The small specks or knots 
 on the stems of some trees, from 
 whence, if in the soil, roots would 
 proceed. 
 
 LENTIL. Ercum lens {Fig.). A 
 
 leguminous annual, similar to the 
 vetch. It is much cultivated in France 
 
 and some parts of Germany as food for 
 man. The French have three varie- 
 ties : the small brown, for soups, the 
 yellowish, and the large Provence, 
 with luxuriant straw, and which may 
 be cultivated in the place of tares. 
 
 They are sown on a dry, warm, 
 sandy soil, later than the pea, one to 
 one and a half bushel to the acre, 
 and afterward treated like pease, un- 
 less they be planted for horse prov- 
 ender, when the whole plant is cured, 
 as in the case of tares. The yield is 
 much less than from the latter crop. 
 The lentil is as nutritious as the bean. 
 It contains 22 per cent, of Icgumin 
 (casein), 48 5 of starch, gum, and su- 
 gar, and 2 5 oil. Schwartz states the 
 crop at 39| bushels, of 62i pounds 
 each, to the acre. 
 
 LENTOR (from lentus, clammy). 
 Visciditv, clamminess in fluids. 
 
 LEPIDOPTERA. Insects of the 
 moih and butterfly tribe. See Insects. 
 
 LEPIDOTUS, LEPIDOTE (from 
 /.e-Jic, ascale). Scurfy, scaly. A bo- 
 tanical term. 
 
 LEPIS.M.\. A family of wingless 
 insects, the bodies of which are cov- 
 ered with glistening scales, the feet 
 short. They are very active, and 
 found about old wood, and in dark, 
 mouldy places. 
 
 LEPRA, LEPROSY. A disease 
 of the skin, which becomes rough and 
 covered with scaly patches. Warm 
 baths, sulphur, and, lastly, tar oint- 
 ment, with proper attention to the 
 health, are the best remedies. 
 
 LEPTURA. A genus of longi- 
 corn beetles, of the family Leplundce. 
 '• Head inclined posteriorly behind the 
 eyes, or contracted at its junction 
 with the thorax into a neck ; thora.x 
 conical or trapezoid, narrowed ante- 
 riorly ; elytra becoming gradually nar- 
 rower ; eyes rounded and entire, or, if 
 emarginate, antennae inserted before 
 emargination." 
 
 LETHARGY. Drowsiness, mor- 
 bid desire to sleep. It is sometimes 
 a precursor of apoplexy, and calls for 
 blood-letting if occurring in a full 
 habit. 
 
 LETTUCE. Lactuca saliva. The 
 varieties are very numerous ; the 
 455 
 
LLV 
 
 LEV 
 
 most hardy are tlie large green heatl, 
 cabbage, tennis ball, Kgyj)tian green 
 coss, larged green curled, and .Madei- 
 ra, which may be kept alive through 
 winter if protec-ted by a coating of 
 straw : they are sown in Scpieiiiber. 
 Other esteemed spring kinds are the 
 early Silesia, sugar loaf, Paris loaf 
 coss, pale green, and a later sort, 
 the large summer Silesia. Lettuces 
 in this latitude require to be raised 
 in slightly warmed beds. An ounce 
 of seed produces upward of ten thou- 
 sand plants. It should be sown very 
 thin early in March, and transplanted 
 when about one inch and a half high, 
 as soon as the frost is out of the 
 ground. The soil should be rich and 
 fine, and the plants set a foot apart 
 each way. They must be well wa- 
 tered after transplanting, for the let- 
 tuce is partial to moisture. The 
 plant must be kept weeded and well 
 worked, at least every fortnight ; in 
 this way they will head before hot 
 weather, after which they usually run 
 to seed without heading. The coss 
 lettuces required to be blanched by 
 tying up the leaves with a bass hand- 
 age. Seed plants are procured by 
 allowing fine specimens to flower : 
 the seed sown should be fresh, as it 
 frequently loses its vegetating power 
 after two j'ears. 
 
 LETTUCE. LAMB'S. Corn salad. 
 
 LEVIGATION. The reduction of 
 hard substances, by rubbing or tritu- 
 ration, to fine powder. 
 
 L E U C IN. A white, crystalline 
 body like spermaceti, produced by the 
 action of alkalies or sulphuric acid 
 on protein : formula, Ci^ Hi^ N O4 
 
 LEU CITE. White Vesuvian 
 garnet. It is abundant in some of 
 the Vesuvian lavas, and contains up- 
 ward of 23 per cent, potash, alumina 
 23, silica 54. 
 
 LEUCOL. One of the products of 
 the di.stillation of coal tar. 
 
 LEUCOMA. Opacity of the cor- 
 nea, which becomes whitish. 
 
 LEUCOPHLEGMATIC. A con- 
 dition of the body in which the skin 
 is pale and flabby. 
 
 LEVATOR MUSCLES. Those 
 wOiich raise a limb or part. They are 
 456 
 
 situated in the front portions of the 
 animal. 
 
 LEVEE. A provincial name for a 
 large embankment. 
 
 LEVEL. An instrument for as- 
 certaining the level or the direction 
 of a horizontal line. It is of great 
 utility in drainage, building, and lay- 
 ing out grounds. 
 
 Levels in which the plumb-line 
 forms the essential part are those 
 most usually employed for the com- 
 mon purposes required by bricklayers, 
 masons, carpenters, &c. They are 
 constructed under many difTerent 
 forms, but the general principle is as 
 follows : A frame or board is prepared, 
 having one edge perfectly straight, 
 and an upright line is drawn on the 
 frame at right angles to the straight 
 edge. To some point of this line a 
 thread carrying a plummet is attach- 
 ed ; consequently, when the frame 
 is placed in such a position that the 
 thread of the plummet, hanging free- 
 ly, coincides with the upright line, the 
 straight edge of the frame, which is 
 at right angles, must be horizontal. 
 See Plummet. 
 
 Spirit Level. — By far the most con- 
 venient and accurate level is the spir- 
 it level (/-;-. 1), p,^ , 
 " which is noth- 
 ing more than a 
 glass tube near- 
 ly filled with spirit of wine, the bub- 
 ble in which, when the tube is placed 
 horizontally, would rest indiflerently 
 in any part, if the tube could be made 
 mathematically straight ; but that is 
 impossible to exe- f,g, 2. 
 cute, every tube hav- a h 
 
 ing some slight cur- j^ ^ 
 
 vature." k^^.^: 
 
 The spirit level 
 in surveyors' instru- 
 ments is fixed to a 
 frame carrying a tel- 
 escope or compass ; 
 Figure 2 represents a 
 spirit level mounted 
 on a stafT, for com- 
 mon farm levelling. 
 
 " It is furnished 
 with eyesights, a h, 
 and when in use is 
 
LEVEL. 
 
 placed into a framing of brass, which 
 operates as a spring to adjust it to the 
 level position, (/, by the action of the 
 large-headed brass screw, c. A stud 
 is affixed to the framing, and pushed 
 firmly into a gimlet-hole in the top of 
 the short rod, e, whicii is pushed or 
 driven into the ground at the spot 
 from whence the level is desired to 
 be ascertained. It need scarcely he 
 mentioned that the height of the eye- 
 
 sight from the ground is to be deduct- 
 ed from the height of observation. 
 
 Fijx. 3 represents a useful and very 
 simple form of level. " A slip of 
 wood must be procured, measuring 
 three inches broad by half an inch 
 thick, and sixteen feet nine inches 
 long, which must be cut into foui 
 lengths of five feet three inches, five 
 feet, three feet three inches, and three 
 feet three inches, marked as follows : 
 
 a a, five feet three inches ; h b, five 
 feet ; c d, three feet three inches ; c f, 
 three feet three inches : six thick 
 screw nails are also required, one 
 inch long. .loin c rf and e/ by a screw 
 nail, inserted about two inches from 
 tlie end of each, and exactly one inch 
 from their upper surfaces. From the 
 point i, upon c /, draw a line, meas- 
 uring thirty-six inches, towards/, and 
 exactly one inch distant from the up- 
 per surface, and divide this line into 
 thirty-six parts or inches. It is self- 
 evident that each of these points, 
 when elevated above r d, will show 
 g 'J 
 
 a rise of one in fifteen, twenty, thir- 
 ty-four, &c., as the case may be, pro- 
 vided c d, which should be divided 
 into inches numbered on the upper 
 edge, shall be horizontal ; and e f 
 shall point to a pole or mark as high 
 above the ground as c </ is ; this is 
 effected by fixing b h firmly upon c d, 
 at right angles, and either having a 
 plummet, g, suspended, as in the fig- 
 ure, or a spirit level fixed on the top 
 of c d. I prefer the plummet made 
 of bobbin or small cord, with a pierced 
 bullet at the bottom. The instru- 
 ment is retained in a level or hori- 
 4.57 
 
LEV 
 
 Lie 
 
 zontal position by the assistance of 
 a a, whicli is upon a moveable pivot, 
 made l)y one of the screw nails at k. 
 The distance of « a from A i is imma- 
 terial. A small stoj) is fastened at 
 the back of h h, for the purpose of 
 preventing c / from falling below c d. 
 The rise of a road is shown by look- 
 ing from e towards /; the fall of a 
 road, of course, by looking from /to- 
 wards e, and, if great correctness is 
 required, the observation should be 
 rGvcrscd " 
 
 LEVELLING. The art of discov- 
 ering the level of surfaces, or how 
 high one place is above another ; jt 
 also means, in agriculture, the reduc- 
 tion of hills or mounds to a level or 
 plain surface, which is done by the 
 plough, or the machine figured under 
 the article Barren Soil. 
 
 The level set on a rod (F^o-- 1) in 
 the preceding article is all that is ne- 
 cessary for short distances ; but tel- 
 escopes are used in extensive sur- 
 veys. 
 
 LEVELLING STAVES. Straight 
 rods, six or more feet high, and divi- 
 ded into marks at the inches, which 
 can be distinctly seen at a short dis- 
 tance ; in more delicate observations 
 the stafT carries a moveable sight 
 with a central mark, which is adjust- 
 ed by an assistant, according to the 
 signs of the surveyor, until the level 
 line is reached. 
 
 LEVER. An inflexible bar capa- 
 ble of moving around a prop or ful- 
 crum : the advantage, or leverage, 
 gained depends on the distance at 
 which the power acts from the prop, 
 and weight or resistance. The lever 
 is not only the simplest, but the only 
 true mechanical power. Writers 
 speak of levers of the first, second, 
 and third kinds : in the first, the ful- 
 cnini is between the power and 
 w^eight ; in the second, the fulcrum 
 is at one end and the power at the 
 other, the weight being between 
 them ; in the third, the fulcrum and 
 weight are at the ends, the power 
 intermediate ; in this case there is 
 loss of power, but gain in the rapidi- 
 ty of movement of the weight : the 
 treadle of a lathe is an instance. 
 46S 
 
 LEVERAGE. The advantage 
 gaint^d in power by using a lever. 
 
 LEVERET. A young hare. 
 
 LEVIGATION. The reduction of 
 a solid to an impalpable powder with 
 the assistance of water or other 
 fluids ; this may be done in a mortar 
 or on a slab ; the mixture is after- 
 ward diffused in water, and the light 
 parts, which remain suspended some 
 seconds, poured off and retained, the 
 heavier portions being again tritu- 
 rated. 
 
 LEY. Grass land. 
 
 LEYDEN JAR. See EhctrkUy. 
 
 LIAS. An argillaceous limestone 
 of the secondary rocks ; abundant in 
 Europe, but unknown in the United 
 States. 
 
 LIBELLULINES. A tribe of neu- 
 ropterous insects like the dragon-fly, 
 which are found about water, and 
 prey on other insects. The word Li- 
 bclliila designates a genus of this 
 family. 
 
 LIBER. The innermost bark of 
 trees. 
 
 LICE ON ANIMALS. Nearly all 
 animals are subject to some of these 
 parasites : they are produced from 
 filth,confinement, herding with infest- 
 ed animals ; the creatures affected be- 
 come restless, rub themselves against 
 posts, bite the accessible parts of 
 their skin, and even become subject 
 to skin diseases. The best remedies 
 are, access to water, washing, comb- 
 ing, or currying the hide, anointing 
 with sulphur, mercurial, or whale oil 
 ointment ; decoctions of tobacco, and 
 other narcotic weeds, are also valu- 
 able. 
 
 LICE ON PLANTS. See Aphulcs. 
 
 LICHENIN. The starchy matter 
 of lichens. 
 
 LICHENS. " Plants of a very low 
 organization, which grow on the bark 
 of trees or rocks, when they form a 
 kind of incrustation, or upon the 
 ground, when they consist of irregu- 
 lar lobes, parallel with the earth's 
 surface. Occasionally, in all situa- 
 tions, they are found in a branched 
 state ; but their subdivisions are gen- 
 erally irregular, and without order. 
 Their fructification consists of hard 
 
LIG 
 
 nuclei, called shields, which break 
 through the upper surface of the thal- 
 lus, or main substance of the lichen, 
 are of a peculiar odour and texture, 
 and contain the reproductive parti- 
 cles. Lichens abound in the cold and 
 temperate parts of the world. The 
 greater part are of no known use ; 
 but some, as the reindeer moss (^Ce- 
 7wmyce rangifcnna), the Iceland moss 
 {Cctrana Islandica), and various spe- 
 cies of Gyrophora, are capable of sus- 
 taining life, either in animals or man. 
 The Iceland moss, when deprived of 
 its bitterness by soaking in an alkali, 
 and then boiling, becomes, indeed, a 
 diet recommended to invalids. Oth- 
 ers are used as tonic medicines, as 
 Variolaria faginca and Parmclm pari- 
 etina. Their principal use is, how- 
 ever, that of furnishing the dyer with 
 brilhant colours ; orchall, cudbear, 
 and perolle, with many more, are 
 thus employed." 
 
 LIFTING PUMP. See Pump. 
 
 LIGAMENTS. Elastic fibrous tex- 
 tures uniting the bones together. 
 
 LIGATURE. A bandage. In hor- 
 ticulture, bass is used chiefly for this 
 purpose. In farriery, a ligature is a 
 fine, strong thread of silk, with which 
 blood-vessels, &;c., are tied in opera- 
 tions. 
 
 LIGHT. An imponderable agent, 
 emitted in great brilliancy by the sun : 
 it travels in straight lines at the rate 
 of 192,000 miles the second. The 
 sun's light consists of seven different 
 colours, red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, indigo, violet, which, being uni- 
 ted, make the white light : they may 
 be separated by a prism of glass, or 
 a coloured transparent body. 
 
 Light is a most important agent in 
 the development of plants, the green 
 colour of their herbage being produ- 
 ced by its action ; it appears to be 
 the yellow light that effects this re- 
 sult. Although mould, and some 
 kinds of mushrooms, exist witliout 
 light, the plants usually cultivated 
 cannot exist without its presence ; 
 hence, few plants do well in the shade. 
 The bending of stems towards the 
 light is one of the most curious phe- 
 nomena of vegetation ; it seems to 
 
 LIL 
 
 be produced by the blue and indigo 
 rays. 
 
 A pencil of light is a small beam, 
 the parts of which are divergent. 
 
 LIGHTxMNG. The discharge of 
 electricity from immense surfaces of 
 clouds ; it may occur from one cloud 
 to another, or to the earth ; in the 
 latter case, the highest points and the 
 best conductors receive the stroke. 
 Hence, rods of iron one inch or more 
 thick, and rising four to ten feet above 
 buildings, are used for protection ; 
 the upper ends should be beaten out 
 into several points, and either gilded 
 or covered with platina, and the low- 
 est extremity buried in the earth sev- 
 eral feet, or brought in contact with 
 moisture ; in cities, the iron or lead 
 pipes circulating through the streets 
 form a good point of attachment. In 
 a large building several rods are want- 
 ed. Large trees are admirable con- 
 ductors of lightning, but, as their bark 
 is often torn off violently during the 
 passage of the fluid, it is dangerous 
 to take shelter near them. 
 
 LIGNEOUS- (from lignum, wood). 
 Wood-like. 
 
 LIGNTN. The pure fibre of wood 
 divested of starch and other impuri- 
 ties ; according to Payen, it consists 
 of an investing or cellular matter, 
 cellulose, Ciz Hio Oio, isomeric with 
 starch, the true internal matter, or 
 lignin, being Gis H.m 0;o. Fine linen 
 from hemp or flax is insoluble in wa- 
 ter, decays very slowly, and is con- 
 verted into dextrine by the action of 
 dilute sulphuric acid and heat, and 
 finally into starch sugar. 
 
 LIGNIPEllDOUS INSECTS. 
 Those insects \\hich bore into or oth- 
 erwise destroy wood. 
 
 LIGNITE. A kind of partially- 
 formed coal, in which the woody 
 structure is distinct. It belongs to 
 the secondary formations. 
 
 LIGULA. An appendage of the 
 sheathing petioles of some grasses. 
 The lower lip, or labrum, of insects. 
 
 LIGULATE. Shaped like a rib- 
 and. The outer florets of some 
 composite flowers are called ligu- 
 late. 
 
 LILAC. Syringa vulgaris. A beau 
 459 
 
LIM 
 
 LIM 
 
 tiful ornamental shrub, readily prop- 
 agated in a rich, light soil. 
 
 LlIJACE.i:. A family of endoge- 
 nous plants, remarkable for their brill- 
 iant llowers, including the lilies, hy- 
 acinths, tuberoses, &c. They are 
 characterized by six petals, six sta- 
 mens, superior ovary, anthers burst- 
 ing inwardly. 
 
 LILIACEOUS. Flowers resem- 
 bling the lily. 
 
 LILY. Lilium. Several species 
 produce beautiful flowers. They are 
 propagated by bulbs. 
 
 LILY, DAY. Hcmcrocallis fuha. 
 This has been recommended as a 
 herbage plant. It is perennial, stands 
 the summer well, and cattle are very 
 partial to the leaves. It yields abun- 
 dantly. 
 
 LILY OF THE VALLEY. Con- 
 vallaria majalis. Sheep and cattle 
 browse on it. Propagated by part- 
 ing the perennial root. 
 
 LILY, WATER. Nymphea alba. 
 A beautiful ornament on ponds. 
 
 LILY, THE AMERICAN WA- 
 TER. Nelumbium lutcutn. The sa- 
 cred bean. It bears the largest flow- 
 er in the Northern States. The beans 
 are edible. 
 
 LILY, THE YELLOW WATER. 
 Nupar lutca. Common in ditches and 
 ponds, bearing a yellow flower. 
 
 LI.VIACID.E (from Umax, a slug). 
 The family of slugs and snails. 
 
 LIMB, LI.MBU8. The flat or ex- 
 panded portion of the petal. 
 
 LI.ME. The oxide of calcium ; the 
 latter is a brilliant wiiite metal, known 
 only as a chemical curiosity. Lime, 
 from its great chemical activity, is 
 unknown in nature, but always exists 
 combined, chiefly with carbonic acid, 
 as limestone, chalk, marl, or calcare- 
 ous minerals. It is also combined 
 with sulphuric acid (gypsum), phos- 
 phoric acid (bone earth), and silicic 
 acid. 
 
 The base (quicklime) is separated 
 from the carbonate by a white heat. 
 It is white, caustic, soluble in 500 
 parts water ; specific gravity, 23. 
 The solution is powerfully alkaline, 
 changing vegetable colours, and with 
 an acrid taste. It is much used as a 
 460 
 
 test in the laboratory. The equiva- 
 lent of lime is 28 5, symbol Ca. 
 
 When a small quantity of water is 
 added to the quicklime, it sv^"ells, 
 cracks, becomes hot, falls into pow- 
 der, and absorbs the fluid, combining 
 with it, and forming slacked or hydrate 
 of lime. This contains 24 per cent, 
 water, and is highly caustic. If quick- 
 lime be exposed to the air, so as to 
 become air slacked, it absorbs water 
 and carbonic acid to the extent of 38 
 per cent., about one half becoming 
 carbonate or mild lime, and the rest 
 hydrate. This mixture is slightly 
 caustic. Both the hydrate and air- 
 slacked lime continue to absorb car- 
 bonic acid, and finally become alto- 
 gether mild ; but this is slower in 
 the case of the hydrate. Lime, be- 
 ing an active base, coml)ines readily 
 with nearly every acid, forming a host 
 of salts. Its presence in any solu- 
 tion is made known by the action of 
 dilute sulphuric acid, which precipi- 
 tates if as an insoluble white powder 
 (gypsum). 
 
 LIME IN AGRICULTURE. It is 
 the most important amendment used 
 in farming, and is employed in the 
 state of quicklime, water-slacked, and 
 air-slacked lime, and in quantities de- 
 pending upon the object in view. 
 
 Its uses may be enumerated as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1st. It assists in pulverizing the 
 soil, by acting chemically upon the 
 silicates therein, dissolving out a por- 
 tion of the silica, and liberating pot- 
 ash and soda. It is for this cause 
 that heavy doses of lime tell so well 
 on poor granitic soils. The quick- 
 lime is best for this purpose, plough- 
 ed in thoroughly to a depth of three 
 inches. From 100 to 600 bushels the 
 acre are used ; wet, stiff lands, and 
 those destitute of calcareous matter, 
 requiring most. It should be applied 
 upon a fallow of four to six months, 
 and stirred three times. This large 
 addition shows its effects for many 
 years. It should be made to poor 
 lands to bring them into tilth, or to 
 destroy insects and weeds. Sandy 
 soils should receive much less lime 
 than stiff lands. 
 
LIM 
 
 LIM 
 
 2d. Lime corrects injurious sub- 
 stances in the soil, as sulphate of 
 iron, &c. For this purpose, a heavy 
 dose is required. 
 
 3d. Liinc breaks up or pulverizes 
 stiff clays, improving their texture. 
 For this purpose, a heavy dose of 
 quicklime is most effective. 
 
 4ih. It decomposes inert vegetable 
 matter, as peat, roots, &c. The dose 
 for this purpose may be less than 
 above ; 30 to 100 bushels will be 
 enough, if lime has been previously 
 employed ; but on peat lands, well 
 drained, much more is necessary. 
 
 5th. Lime is found in large quan- 
 tities as an ingredient in leguminous 
 plants, potatoes, and other roots ; 
 hence it may be added as a special 
 manure to such plants, three or four 
 bushels being placed in the manure 
 used for them. 
 
 6th It hastens the decay of stable 
 manure and putrescent substances, 
 and may be sprinkled over them when 
 ploughed into the soil, but not allow- 
 ed to be added for any length of time 
 to heaps of manure, for it drives off 
 any ammonia already formed, and ul- 
 timately reduces the action of the 
 dung. One bushel to three or four 
 loads will be enough. 
 
 A first liming for improvement of 
 barren lands may be heavy ; but if 
 afterward a dose of 20 bushels the 
 acre be added every four or five years, 
 it will save a very heavy addition for 
 some time. Quicklime would be the 
 best to add as an amendment, but it 
 is difficult to handle, from its causti- 
 city, and must never be added to wet 
 soils, lest it convert them into a hard 
 mortar. On the whole, therefore, 
 water-slacked lime is the most useful. 
 Air-slacked hme is used as a top- 
 dressing to meadows, the other being 
 too caustic ; it is also employed to 
 kill and annoy insects, which it does 
 without injury to the plant. It is 
 also added, in doses of a half to one 
 peck, to the roots of fruit-trees, work- 
 ed into the soil. The best kind of 
 lime for the former is that obtained 
 from burned shells, the common lime- 
 stone usually containing magnesia, 
 M'hich, in a caustic state, is injurious 
 Qg2 
 
 j to vegetation, from the slowness with 
 i which it becomes mild, so that it in- 
 ! jures the roots of plants long after 
 I the lime has become quite mild. The 
 ! older limestones, and especially those 
 of a bright white, crystalline appear- 
 ance, form the best lime. 
 
 Lime is also much used in com- 
 posts to pulverize inert vegetable mat- 
 ter, which it does very effectually, 
 converting it in part into humate of 
 lime ; the action of the lime is simi- 
 lar to potash or soda, and termed by 
 1 chemists catalytic, or predisposing. 
 
 Lime-water, and a cream of lime, 
 made by mixing lime with water to 
 the consistence of cream, are much 
 ! used as a steep for seeds, and to wash 
 j the bark of trees, &c., to preserve 
 them from insects ; it is also suppo- 
 sed to preserve timber. 
 
 LLME-KILX. A rough furnace for 
 burning limestone or shells into quick- 
 lime. It is usually of a circular fig- 
 ure, constructed of hard rock or 
 bricks, arched below, and furnished 
 with a moveable grate. The building 
 is six or more feet across, and 15 to 
 20 feet high, the wall being nearly 
 perpendicular. The limestone is bro- 
 ken into pieces of the size of half a 
 brick, and thrown from above, mixed 
 with half or one third part of wood 
 or other fuel, according to the kind 
 of stone used ; this is most conve- 
 niently done when the kiln is erected 
 against a steep hill, so that carts can 
 approach near the mouth to throw in 
 the charge. Before adding the charge, 
 fuel is placed above the grate to en- 
 able the whole to be lighted ; and fresh 
 quantities of limestone, and wood or 
 coal, are added as the first portions 
 burn and settle down. In the com- 
 mon kiln the charge is allowed to 
 burn out, and then drawn when cold 
 by removing the lower grate ; but in 
 the best modern kilns the charge can 
 be partly removed without allowing 
 the fire to die out. Good stone yields 
 about 56 per cent, of lime, but the 
 impure kinds leave more. It should 
 slack into a fine powder with water, 
 or it is impure or imperfectly burned. 
 Shells and limestone, or marl, can 
 be burned in mass by heaping them 
 461 
 
LIM 
 
 LIN 
 
 with fuel and leaving air passages, as 
 in making charcoal. 
 
 LIME, MILD. Carbonate of lime, 
 which possesses little of the action of 
 burned lime. Quicklime returns to 
 this condition in the soil after a time, 
 depending upon the porousness of 
 the earth and amount of vegetable 
 matter it contains. Chalk is much 
 used in England as an amendment ; 
 but with us the reduction of lime- 
 stones to a powder would be much 
 more expensive than beneficial. Marl 
 answers this purpose when rich in 
 calcareous matter ; some sands and 
 gravels are so rich in broken shells as 
 to afford a good calcareous manure : 
 10 to 30 cart-loads are applied. Car- 
 bonate of lime is slowly soluble in 
 water containing carbonic acid. 
 
 LIMESTONE, LIME ROCK. The 
 best for agricultural purposes are the 
 oldest crystalline rocks destitute of 
 magnesia. Limestone formations 
 appear from the earliest transition 
 epoch, in which they constitute hard 
 crystalline marbles, through the sec- 
 ond, and into the tertiary period. 
 They frequently form the richest 
 lands when disintegrated, in conse- 
 quence of the large amount of corals 
 and organic remains they contain, 
 which often yield two per cent, of 
 bone earth : some of the linest wheat 
 soils are of this kind. Calcareous 
 rocks, sands, or gravels are of every 
 colour and admixture ; sometimes 
 flinty, sandy ; at others, aluminous ; 
 but if the carbonate of lime be in any 
 quantity, they are readily recognised 
 by adding a few drops of strong acid, 
 which should produce an evolution of 
 gas or effervescence. 
 
 LLME PLANT. The May apple 
 is sometimes called by this name. 
 
 LIME-TREE. Tilm Europea. The 
 linden, a tree of great beauty, often 
 attaining 90 feet, and bearing a large 
 amount of sweet flowers in spring, 
 which constitute a favourite food of 
 bees. It is propagated with great 
 ease from suckers, layers, seed, and 
 cuttings. The wood is soft, but used 
 in turning, and forms a fine charcoal 
 for gunpowder : the inner bark af- 
 fords the best bass. 
 462 
 
 The linden has been for ages a fa- 
 vourite tree in parks, groves, and 
 avenues of towns ; it is very patient of 
 trimming, and can be cut into arches 
 and other figures. Several varieties, 
 differing consideraoly in height, are 
 known. 
 
 Michaux describes three species of 
 American trees of the genus TUia .• 
 the alba, Americana, or bass wood, and 
 the puhescens, or downy ; they are 
 not of much economical value, the 
 wood being soft and destructible. 
 
 The linden of Europe is frequently 
 planted as an ornamental tree ; in 
 the Northern and Middle States, it is, 
 however, extremely hable to the at- 
 tacks of numerous insects and cater- 
 pillars, and requires much attention 
 to be preserved from destruction. 
 Numerous span and canker worms 
 infest the young buds and foliage ; 
 the use of lime and tobacco washes, 
 or smoke, might diminish the number 
 of these enemies. 
 
 LINACE.E. The family of plants 
 to which flax belongs : they are re- 
 markable for their mucilaginous seeds 
 and tough fibres. 
 
 LINCHPIN. The pin at the end 
 of the axletree to confine the wheel. 
 
 LINDEN. See Lmie-trce. 
 
 LINE ATE, LINEATUS, LIN- 
 EAR. Used in describing leaves, 
 &c., which are narrow and of the 
 same width throughout. 
 
 LINEN. The cloth or texture spun 
 from the fibres of flax. 
 
 LINE OF DIP. In geology, the 
 inclination of strata from the hori- 
 zontal line ; it is estimated in angles, 
 and the direction of the dip towards 
 the point of the compass given. 
 
 LINES. In agriculture, these are 
 of great use to mark out the straight 
 direction of ditches, banks, hedges, 
 &c. In gardening, drills, beds, bor- 
 ders, &c., are made by means of a 
 line. It is usually rolled upon two 
 sticks, which are pointed at the lower 
 ends, and can be fixed into the ground. 
 
 LING. Common heath ( Calluna 
 vulgaris). It grows ver)' abundantly 
 on the barren hill-sides in England 
 and Scotland ; the woody stems 
 make good brooms and fuel, and the 
 
T' 
 
 LIN 
 
 seed nourish grouse and many small 
 animals. 
 
 LINGUA. A tongue. In ento- 
 mology, an organ placed within the 
 labium, and serving the office of a 
 tongue. 
 
 LINGUATE, LINGUATUS, LIN- 
 GUIFOR.VI. A thick leaf, &c., shaped 
 like the human tongue. 
 
 LINLMENT (from lino, I anoint). 
 In farriery, a semitluid omtniciit, or 
 a soapy application to rul> u|)oii pain- 
 ful joints, sprains, tumours, &c. The 
 term is also applied to s|)irituous and 
 other stimulating applications for ex- 
 ternal use. Liniments are intended 
 either to lubricate or to stimulate ; 
 but in either case they can only be 
 regarded as topical applications, their 
 influence not extending beyond the 
 part to which they are applied. In 
 some instances thoy are anodyne, 
 and contain solutions of opium or 
 camphor in oil. 
 
 Linseed oil and lime-water form an 
 admirable liniment for burns. Harts- 
 horn and sweet oil for tumours, to 
 discuss them, or hinder suppuration. 
 Liniments with soap, hartshorn, and 
 camphor, or opium, for stiff and pain- 
 ful joints or sprains. 
 
 LINING. In building, any cover- 
 ing of an interior surface. The li- 
 nings, for instance, or boxings of 
 window-shutters, are the pieces form- 
 ing the backs of the recesses into 
 which the shutters are folded. In 
 doorways, they are the facings on 
 each side the aperture : to sashes, 
 they are the vertical pieces parallel 
 with the surface of the walls. 
 
 LINSEED. The seed of flax. It 
 is used for the extraction of oil, for 
 feeding cattle, and medicinal purpo- 
 ses. The method of raising the crop 
 is detailed in the article on Flax. 
 The composition of the seeds is by 
 no means well known ; they contain 
 from II to 27 per cent, of oil, 22 per 
 cent, of starch, gum, and mucilage ; 
 10 of sugar, and six parts of albumen 
 and fibrin. The oil is extracted by 
 grinding and pressing ; or grinding, 
 heating by steam, and pressing, the 
 hot-drawn oil being, on the whole, 
 best for painters, &e. The produce 
 
 LIN 
 
 of seed is variously estimated at from 
 10 to 30 bushels, according to the 
 richness of the soil ; the latter quan- 
 tity will furnish 385 |)ounds of oil the 
 acre, leaving 69 per cent, of cake or 
 refuse after pressure. The bushel of 
 seed weighs from 50 to 52 pounds, 
 and yields a quarter of oil 
 
 The entire seed, when defective, 
 is sometimes used as provender ; it 
 is exceedingly fattening, and in all 
 respects strong food ; but the meal 
 and cake are belter. The seed are 
 also boiled or steeped in boiling wa- 
 ter for the mucilage they afford ; it 
 is mixed with hay, and used at the 
 rate of three pounds daily for an ox ; 
 rather less meal is necessary, but the 
 refuse cake is more strengthening 
 and economical. 
 
 LINSEED CAKE. The refuse of 
 linseed after expression. According 
 to Payen, it still contains 9 per cent, 
 of fattening matters, and 5 2 per cent, 
 nitrogen ; equal to nearly 32 per cent, 
 of albumen. 22 lbs. are equal, in nu- 
 tritious value, with 100 of prime hay. 
 It is, for the most part, used to fatten 
 cattle ; four or five pounds of the cake, 
 broken into powder, and either boil- 
 ed or steeped in hot water, are mi.xed 
 along with hay and cut straw. The 
 quantity of oil it contains renders it 
 very fattening, at the same time that 
 the albumen makes it strengthening. 
 Some persons use linseed oil with 
 hay and meal, adding a quart of oil to 
 a bushel of bean, oat, or other meal. 
 
 LINSEED JELLY or MUCIL- 
 AGE. This is made by boding six 
 quarts of water on one quart of the 
 seed for ten minutes. It is of great 
 use in the cough of animals, and 
 forms a good provender for calves. 
 
 LINSEED MEAL. Ground lin 
 seed. 
 
 LINSEED OIL. For commercial 
 purposes it is nearly always hot- 
 drawn. It forms a drying oil when 
 boiled with white-lead or sugar of 
 lead, and is much used by painters 
 and others. It is an excellent pur- 
 gative for cattle. Sheep and calves 
 require 2 to 3 oz., oxen 16 oz , and 
 horses 16 to 24 oz. ; but castor oil, in 
 smaller doses, is equally serviceable. 
 463 
 
LIG 
 
 LIT 
 
 LINT. The staple of flax, hemp, 
 and other textile plants. The scra- 
 pings from pieces of linen, of great 
 use in dressing wounds and stopping 
 slight haemorrhages. 
 
 LINTEL. A horizontal timber or 
 stone over a door, window, or other 
 opening, which sustains the weight 
 above. 
 
 LIP. Labcllum. In botany, the 
 divisions of a monopetalous corolla, 
 as the sage, mint, &c. It is divided 
 into an upper and lower lip. 
 
 LIPPED AND HARLED. A wall 
 built without mortar, but afterward 
 having the joints filled with mortar, 
 and the whole rough-cast or harled. 
 
 LIQUEFACTION. Melting, fu- 
 sion, converting bodies into the fluid 
 state, solution. 
 
 LIQUID MANURES. Manures 
 applied in a soluble state, especially 
 stable urine. A watering cart is used 
 to diffuse it. They are especially of 
 servit-e to produce rapid growth in 
 young plants, and serve for steeps. 
 In very dry seasons manures may 
 also be applied in this state ; but 
 when added any length of time be- 
 fore the plants there is a great loss 
 by drainage ; and the expense of ap- 
 plication must always be heavy. The 
 liquid soaked into peat, charcoal, &c., 
 and added, as a top-dressing, during 
 moist or wet weather, appears to be 
 much preferred in the United States, 
 and to be more economical. See 
 Urine. 
 
 LIQUORICE. GhjcyrrUza glabra 
 
 (Fig.). Officinal liquorice. This is a 
 leguminous herb, with perennial 
 roots, which grow to a great length, 
 and contain a peculiar sugar, with mu- 
 cilage. The roots are used in coughs, 
 or an extract, made by boiling, and 
 called Spanish juice, liquorice, Ponte- 
 fract lozenges, &c. It requires a 
 deep sandy loam, and is best propa- 
 gated from root slips containing an 
 eye. The root is raised in the third 
 year, in November, and sold fresh, 
 or made into extract ; the small roots 
 are ground into powder. The ex- 
 pense of digging is considerable. A 
 fair crop is 1800 to 2000 lbs. The 
 root is extensively raised in Italy and 
 Spain, to manufacture into the com- 
 mercial extract (liquorice). It also 
 grows well in England. 
 
 A species of Glycyrrhiza (lepidvta) 
 is indigenous to Missouri, and produ- 
 ces fair roots. 
 
 LIQUORICE SUGAR. See Gly- 
 cyrrhizine. 
 
 LIQUORICE, WILD. Galium cir- 
 cazans. The leaves have the taste 
 of liquorice. 
 
 LIQUOR AMNIOS. The fluid sur- 
 rounding the foetus in its mother's 
 womb. In botany, a fluid contained 
 in the nucleus of the ovule, and sup- 
 posed to nourish the embryo. It is 
 absorbed during the ripening of the 
 seed, sometimes leaving behind a del- 
 icate sack only. 
 
 LIQUOR AMMONLE. Solution 
 of ammoniacal gas in water. 
 
 LIQUOR OF FLINTS. A solu- 
 tion of silicate of potash, made by fu- 
 sing three parts carbonate of potash 
 with one of sand. 
 
 LIRELLA. In lichens, a linear 
 shield, with a furrow in the centre. 
 
 LITHARGE. An impure fused 
 protoxide of lead. It is used for 
 some plasters. 
 
 LITHIA. A rare alkali, resem- 
 bling potash. It corrodes platinum, 
 
 LITHIUM. The metal of lithia ; 
 equiv. 10. Lithia is the protoxide. 
 
 LITHIC ACID. Uric acid. 
 
 LITHOLOGICAL (from lidog, a 
 stone, and /lO^of, a discourse). Re- 
 lating to the structure, characters, 
 &c., of minerals or stones. 
 
 464 
 
LIT 
 
 h\V 
 
 LITHOMARGE. A kind of de- 
 composed clay slate; sp. gr., 2-43: 
 ye'.lowisli-gray or bluish, soft, adhe- 
 sive to the tongue, greasy earthy, 
 opaque, giving a shining streak. A 
 variety consists of scaly, glimmering 
 particles. 
 
 LITHONTRIPTICS (from /uOoc, 
 bnd rpiftcj, I wear awai/). Remedies 
 which are supposed to dissolve stones 
 in the bladder. .Many bodies have 
 been recommended for this purpose, 
 but none have given remarkable re- 
 sults. An abundance of water acid- 
 ulated with carbonic acid is the best. 
 
 LITHOTO.MY (from Z/0of, and 
 Tsuvu, I cut). The operation of cut- 
 ting through the perinccum into the 
 bladder to extract a stone. 
 
 LITHROTRITY (from ?u9oc, and 
 TEipcj, I break down). The operation 
 of introducing an instrument into the 
 bladder through the natural passage, 
 to crush and break to small pieces a 
 stone. 
 
 LITMUS. Turnsole. A blue col- 
 our prepared from a lichen (Rocdla 
 tarlarea), and used in the arts {archil) 
 ami in chemistry. Solution of lit- 
 mus, or paper stained thereby, is of 
 great use m detecting any acidity in 
 a fluid, the blue changing rapidly into 
 red by the acid. Alkaline mixtures 
 restore the paper so reddened. Both 
 blue and reddened litmus paper are 
 extensively used in the laboratory. 
 
 LITRE. The French standard 
 measure of capacity in the decimal 
 system. The litre is a cubic decime- 
 tre ; that is, a cube, each of the sides 
 of which are 3-937 inches ; it con- 
 tains 61 028 English cubic inches, 
 and is, therefore, rather less than our 
 quart. Four and a half litres are a 
 close approach to the imperial gallon. 
 
 LITTER. The straw, weeds, or 
 other dry substances which are pla- 
 ced under horses and cattle in the 
 stables, cow-houses, farm-yards, pig- 
 geries, &c., for the purpose of keep- 
 ing the animals clean and warm, and 
 providing a supply of manure. In 
 this last view, all sorts of dry mate- 
 rials should be carefully collected and 
 stacked up for winter use. 
 
 LITTORAL, LITTORALIS (from 
 
 litus, the seashore). Of the seashore 
 Littoral formations, in geology, are 
 such as have evidently been ancient 
 sea beaches. 
 
 LIVE OAK. Quercus virens. Ev 
 ergreen swamp oak of Florida. 
 
 LIVER. A large gland or viscus, 
 placed, in quadrupeds, on the right 
 side of the body, immediately under 
 the chest, and adjoining the stomach 
 It is saturated with blood-vessels, 
 and separates the bile from blood. 
 The bile is stored up in a small bag, 
 called the gall-bladder, and thrown 
 from hence, during digestion, into the 
 small intestines, to be mixed with the 
 chyme. The function of the liver is 
 of the first consequence to health ; 
 but it is readily impaired, especially 
 in damp, foggy places, subject to ague 
 and bilious fevers. Its action, when 
 insufficient, is rapidly stimulated by 
 the use of calomel. Jaundice and 
 yellowness of the white of the eye 
 indicate disturbance of the liver. 
 
 LIVER OF SULPHUR. A brown- 
 ish substance, of a t'oetid smell. Fu- 
 sed sulphuret of potassium. 
 
 LIVERLEAF, LIVERWORT. 
 Hepatiea Americana. An herbaceous, 
 perennial-rooted plant, of small size, 
 found on the skirts of woodlands. A 
 decoction is used in coughs. 
 
 LH'ERWORTS. The plants re- 
 sembling Marcantia, &c. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. The cattle, hor- 
 ses, sheep, and swine kept on the 
 farm. 
 
 "The live stock on a farm must 
 vary according to circumstances. 
 The number of horses or oxen kept 
 for the cultivation of the land and 
 other farming operations should be 
 exactly proportioned to the work to 
 be done. If they are too few, none 
 of the operations will be performed 
 in their proper time, and the crops 
 will suffer in consequence. If there 
 are too many, the surplus, beyond 
 what is strictly required, is maintain- 
 ed out of the profits of the farm. To 
 have the exact number of animals 
 which will give the greatest profit is 
 one of the most important problems 
 which a farmer has to solve ; what 
 may be very profitable in one case 
 465 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 maybe the reverse in another; and, 
 as a general maxim, it may be laid 
 down, that the fewer mouths he has 
 to feed, unless they produce an evi- 
 dent profit, the less loss he is likely 
 to incur. But this rule admits of 
 many exceptions. It is of great im- 
 portance, in taking a farm, to calcu- 
 late the extent of the arable land, so 
 that it can be properly cultivated by 
 a certain number of pairs of horses 
 or oxen. It is an old measure of 
 land to divide it into so many ploughs ; 
 that is, so many portions which can 
 be tilled with one plough each. When 
 there are several of these, it is useful 
 to have an odd horse over the usual 
 number required for two or three 
 ploughs, to relieve the others occa- 
 sionally. The work is thus done 
 more regularly and with greater ease. 
 Where there are two ploughs, with 
 two horses each, a fifth horse should 
 be kept, and so in proportion for a 
 greater number. The odd horse will 
 always be found extremely useful, if 
 not indispensable, and the expense 
 of his keeping will be amply repaid 
 by the regularity and ease with which 
 the whole work of the farm will be 
 done, and the relief which occasional 
 rest will give to the other horses. 
 
 " The other part of the live stock 
 kept on a farm must depend on vari- 
 ous circumstances. Where there is 
 good grazing land, the profit on the 
 improvement of the live stock, or 
 their produce, is evident and easily 
 ascertained. But where animals are 
 kept upon artificial food, or fatted in 
 stalls, it is often a difficult question 
 to answer whether there is a profit 
 on their keep or not. In most cases, 
 the manure which their dung and lit- 
 ter afford is the chief object for which 
 they are kept. If manure could be 
 obtained in sufficient quantities to 
 recruit the land at a reasonable price, 
 it might often be more advantageous 
 to sell off all the hay and straw of a 
 farm, and to keep only the cattle ne- 
 cessary to till the ground or supply 
 the farmer's family ; but this can 
 only be the case in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of large towns. In 
 the country at a greater distance no 
 466 
 
 manure can be purchased ; it must, 
 consequently, be produced on the 
 farm ; and for this purpose live stock 
 must be kept, even at a loss. The 
 management and feeding of live 
 stock are, therefore, an important 
 part of husbandry. The object of the 
 farmer is, principally, to obtain ma- 
 nure for his land ; and if he can do 
 this, and at the same time gain some- 
 thing on the stock by which it is ob 
 tained, he greatly increases his prof- 
 its. Hence much more skill has been 
 displayed in the selection of profita- 
 ble stock than in the improvement 
 of tillage. Some men have made 
 great profits by improving the breed 
 of cattle and sheep, by selecting the 
 animals which will fatten most read- 
 ily, and by feeding them economical- 
 ly. It requires much experience and 
 nice calculations to ascertain what 
 stock is most profitable on different 
 kinds of land and in various situa 
 tions. Unless very minute accounts 
 be kept, the result can never be ex- 
 actly known. It is not always the 
 beast which brings most money in 
 the market that has been most prof- 
 itable ; and many an animal which 
 has been praised and admired has 
 caused a heavy loss to the feeder. 
 Unless a man breeds the animals 
 which are to be fatted, he must fre- 
 quently buy and sell ; and an accu- 
 rate knowledge of the qualities of 
 live stock, and their value, both lean 
 and fat, is indispensable. However 
 honest, may be the salesman he may 
 employ, he cannot expect him to feel 
 the same interest in a purchase or 
 sale, for which he is paid his com- 
 mission, as the person whose profit 
 or loss depends on a judicious selec- 
 tion and a good bargain. Every farm- 
 er, therefore, should endeavour to ac- 
 quire a thorough knowledge of stock, 
 and carefully attend all markets with- 
 in his reach, to watch the fluctuation 
 in the prices. It will generally be 
 found that the principal profit in feed- 
 ing stock is the manure ; and to this 
 the greatest attention should be di- 
 rected. A little management will 
 often greatly increase both the quan- 
 tity and quality of this indispensable 
 
LOG 
 
 substance, and make all the difference 
 between a loss and a profit in the 
 keeping of stock.'" — (IF. L. Rham.) 
 
 LIXJVIATION. The process of 
 washing out the soluble from the in- 
 soluble portions- of mineral substan- 
 ces, as in making lye ; hence, Uziviiim 
 means a lye or alkaline solution. 
 
 LIZARDS. Lacertiil(P, Lacertians. 
 These reptiles are perfectly harmless, 
 and of great utility to the farmer from 
 the insects which they devour. 
 
 LOAD. A vague measure ; it is 
 better understood when divided into 
 one, two, or three horse loads. A 
 single horse load is generally estima- 
 ted at thirty bushels, one cubic yard, 
 or one ton by weight. 
 
 LOAM. A very vague term, mean- 
 ing a good soil, neither too light nor 
 too stiff, and generally containing a 
 large proportion of vegetable matter 
 and clay. In Prof. Johnston's lec- 
 tures, a loam is represented as a soil 
 containing 30 to 60 per cent, of sand, 
 the rest being clay, limestone, or ve- 
 getable matter : a clay loam contains 
 but 20 to 30 per cent, sand, and a 
 sandy loam upward of 60 per cent, 
 sand. This word is often improper- 
 ly written loom, and applied to a fria- 
 ble rich soil, containing much decay- 
 ing vegetable matter. 
 
 LOBBY. An anteroom or hall. 
 
 LOBATE, LOBED. Divided into 
 large curved segments more or less 
 circular. 
 
 LOBELIA. A genus of plants con- 
 taining many very poisonous species, 
 as the Indian tobacco (L. inflata), 
 which is of use in asthmas, and as an 
 emetic. They are pretty herbaceous 
 plants, with perennial roots, and oft- 
 en cultivated for their beauty. 
 
 LOBLOLLY BAY, or HOLLY 
 BAY. Gordonia laxianlhus. A large 
 Southern evergreen found growing in 
 swamps, producing large white flow- 
 ers. The wood is rosy, but light and 
 brittle ; the bark is extensively used 
 in tanning in the Southeastern States. 
 It very much resembles the magnolia. 
 
 LOBLOLLY PINE. The old field 
 pine {Piniix l(F(1a). 
 
 LOCKED JAW. Tetanus, tris- 
 mus. A consequence of injuries about 
 
 LOG 
 
 the feet, worms, or severe nervous 
 diseases ; the muscles become rigid, 
 and finally locked jaw supervenes. 
 When it arises from a wound or la- 
 ceration, the case is usually hopeless ; 
 when it is a disease {telanus), large 
 doses of opium are found to do most 
 good, with the removal of all causes 
 of irritation. The strength must be 
 sustained by injections of broths and 
 soups. 
 
 LOCKING WHEELS. Hindering 
 the rolling of one or more wheels in 
 descending steep hills. It is done 
 by fastening a chain from the body 
 of the wagon to the spokes of the 
 wheel, or by levers or a drag. 
 
 LOCOMOTION (from loci motio). 
 Change of place. 
 
 LOCULAR (from locus, a place). 
 A cell or division in a fruit ; thus, 
 fruits are unilocular, bilocular, &c. 
 
 LOCULICIDAL. A terra desig- 
 nating the bursting (dehiscence) of a 
 seed vessel along the back suture. 
 
 LOCUSTA. The inflorescence re- 
 sembling the spike, but occurring in 
 grasses, the flowers having no caly- 
 ces, but bracts onlv. 
 
 LOCUST BORER. Clytus pictus. 
 Found on the trees in September ; 
 it is velvet black, adorned with trans- 
 verse yellow bands ; the eggs are 
 snow-white, and deposited in the 
 crevices of the bark : the grubs are 
 soon hatched, and bore into the ten- 
 der wood, where they commit great 
 havoc until the next year. White- 
 washing, washing with whale oil 
 soap solution, spirits of turpentine, 
 and catching the beetles, are to be 
 adopted as preventives, otherwise the 
 trees are rapidlv killed by these borers. 
 
 LOCUST, HONEY. See Honey 
 Locust. 
 
 LOCUSTS. Cicadeee. Insects of 
 the grasshopper family. The per- 
 fect msects are very short-lived, but 
 the larvffi are long-lived ; one species 
 {Cicada scptcndccim) existing in that 
 state in the earth for seventeen years 
 or thereabout. The perfect insect 
 bores the young twigs of trees to de- 
 posite its eggs, and thereby does much 
 mischief to orchards and forests. The 
 harvest, or dry fly, is the C. canicularis. 
 467 
 
LOG 
 
 LCD 
 
 These locusts are in no way simi- 
 lar to the destructive insects which 
 occasionally devastate the east shores 
 of the Mediterranean and Southern 
 Europe {Gnjllus (acri/dium) migrato- 
 rius), producing famine from their 
 ravages on the grain crops, and pes- 
 tilence by the decay of their bod- 
 ies. The immense numbers of this 
 large grasshopper which move for- 
 ward over whole nations is almost 
 incredible ; they appear like dense 
 black clouds, sometimes hundreds of 
 miles in extent, and emit, during 
 flight, a loud, sharp noise. 
 
 LOCUST-TREE. Rohinia fseuda- 
 cacia. Sometimes improperly called 
 the Acacia. This is a highly orna- 
 mental tree of the leguminous family, 
 and of rapid growth while small. The 
 seeds are usually rather imperfect, 
 and the safest method of propagation 
 is by suckers obtained from trees cut 
 down, the soil being ploughed for the 
 purpose of dividing the roots. The 
 seeds propagate more certainly if im- 
 mersed in boiling water before plant- 
 ing. — {Bard). The following particu- 
 lars from Dr. Ackerly may be accept- 
 able : 
 
 " I was led to admire Judge Mitch- 
 ell's nursery of young locust-trees, 
 planted in the spring. 
 
 "The judge took a quantity of 
 seed collected on Long Island, and 
 put it in an earthen pitcher, and pour- 
 ed upon it water near to boiling. 
 This he let stand for twenty-four 
 hours, and then decanted it, and se- 
 lected all the seeds that were any 
 ways swelled by this application of 
 heat and moisture. To the remain- 
 der he made a second libation of hot 
 water, and let it remain also twenty- 
 four hours, and then made a second 
 selection of the swelled seeds. This 
 was repeated a third time on the un- 
 changed ones, when nearly all were 
 swelled, and then he prepared the 
 ground and planted them. He plant- 
 ed the seeds in drills about four feet 
 apart, and in eight or ten days they 
 were all above ground, and came up 
 as regular as beans, or any other 
 seeds that are cultivated in gar- 
 dens. When I saw them, the mid- 
 468 
 
 die of July, they were about a foot 
 high, all thrifty, and of a good colour 
 and condition. 
 
 " It is the judge's intention to 
 leave them in their present situation 
 about three years, .and then trans- 
 plant ; and provided he does not mu- 
 tilate the roots in removing them, 
 they will bear transplanting, live, and 
 thrive, and be the most productive 
 forest-tree that a farm can have. 
 This method of preparing the seeds 
 and planting the locust cannot be too 
 warmly recommended to the farming 
 interest. On Long Island, where 
 fencing timber is growing scarce, the 
 cultivation of the locust-tree is of 
 great moment. In the centre of the 
 island, on and about Hempstead 
 plains, where there is no timber at 
 ail, it must be a most valuable acqui- 
 sition ; and from the trials made in 
 raising it from the seed, all difficulty 
 must be removed to its extensive 
 cultivation. 
 
 "After this account was written. 
 Judge Mitchell transplanted the young 
 trees referred to on a side hill of 
 waste ground, which had lain for many 
 years uncultivated, and his farm was 
 soon improved by the addition of a 
 large grove of valuable locust-trees 
 in the most thrifty condition. 
 
 " When planted out from the nur- 
 sery the young trees must be pro- 
 tected from cattle, which are fond of 
 the buds." 
 
 The locust yields a timber of great 
 solidity and durability ; it is also re- 
 markably tougli, and resists the ac- 
 tion of moisture; hence it is of great 
 value for posts, piles, and shipping. 
 It is somewhat cultivated, and prom- 
 ises, on the prairies, to become ex- 
 tended for its utility for fencing, fuel, 
 and rapid growth. In the northeast, 
 it has been much injured of late by 
 the borer. Besides the borer, the 
 leaves of the tree are sometimes 
 stripped by the ravages of a large 
 green caterpillar, the larva of the 
 Eudamus tilyrus : the perfect insect 
 is seen among the flowers. 
 
 LODGE. A small house situated 
 in a domain ; the house at the en- 
 trance to a park. 
 
LOP 
 
 LOY 
 
 LODICULA. The two minute 
 fleshy hypogynous scales beneath the 
 ovary of grasses. 
 
 LOESS. Alhivial formations. By 
 the English it is often used for a yel- 
 low loam, with chalky concretions. 
 
 LOG. A portion of the trunk of a 
 tree. 
 
 LOGWOOD. Hamatoiylon Cam- 
 peachianum. A small leguminous tree 
 of Central America and the tropics. 
 The central heart wood, deeply stain- 
 ed, from old trees is preferred : the 
 logwood bath is of gi-eat service in 
 the production of black dyes, browns, 
 and reds. 
 
 LOLIU.\L The generic name of 
 rye grass. See Grasses. 
 
 LOMEXTUM. An indehiscent 
 pod resembling a legume, but divided 
 bv membranes between each seed. 
 'LONG-HORNED CATTLE. "A 
 breed of neat cattle now nearly ex- 
 tinct, chiefly distinguished by the 
 length of the horn, the thickness and 
 firm texture of the hide, the length and 
 closeness of the hair, the large size 
 of the hoof, and the coarse, leathery 
 thickness of the neck." — (Johnson.) 
 
 LONGICORXS, LOXGICORNES. 
 Coleopterous insects with long an- 
 tennee, often longer than the body : 
 they are borers. 
 
 LONG! PALPS, LONGIPALPL A 
 family of short-winged beetles, with 
 the maxillary feelers {palpi) almost as 
 long as the head. 
 
 LONG MANURE. Unfermented 
 dung and straw. 
 
 LOOM. A corruption of loam, 
 which see. 
 
 LOOPERS. Caterpillars of the 
 familv Geometers : span worms. 
 
 LOOSENESS. Excessive dis- 
 charge from the bowels, flux, diar- 
 rhoea. See Ox, Horse ; and for the 
 remedies, Fharmacopceia. 
 
 LOOSESTRIFE. Small weeds 
 of the genus Lysimachia ; they are 
 wholesome. The creeping loose- 
 strife, or money wort (L. nummula- 
 na), is said to be a good remedy 
 against insects, when steeped in oil 
 and sprinkled over the granary floor. 
 
 LOPPED MILK. Sour, curdled 
 milk. 
 
 R E 
 
 : LOPPING TREES. The removal 
 of the lateral branches for profit. The 
 I lop of a timber-tree is a subject of 
 bargain witii the purchaser. 
 
 LORE (from lorum, a strap). In 
 ornithology, the space between the 
 bill and the eye, which is bare in 
 some birds, as the great crested 
 grebe, but is generally covered with 
 feathers. In entomology the term is 
 applied to a corneous angular ma- 
 chine observable in the mouth of 
 some insects, upon the intermediate 
 angle of which the mentuni sits, and 
 on the lateral ones the cardines of 
 the maxillare, and by means of which 
 the trophi are pushed forth or retract- 
 ed, as in the hymenopterous insects. 
 
 LOTION. An external wash : it 
 may be evaporating (spirituous) or 
 watery. Indolent sores require stim- 
 ulating lotions ; painful wounds, ano- 
 dyne lotions, &c. Lotions are also 
 used to discuss tumours and inflam- 
 mations near the skin. 
 I LOUSINESS. '-An affection of the 
 j skin, arismg, in cattle, from the irri- 
 j tation of lice or animalculee, which 
 may be distinguished by the naked 
 I eye. Most animals, and even insects, 
 are subject to this annoyance. Lou- 
 siness in live stock is produced by 
 neglect and low keep. The best rem- 
 edy is more attention to cleanliness, 
 with better food. The lice may be 
 killed by a dressing' applied with a 
 brush to the chiefly affected parts, 
 composed of four ounces of black sul- 
 phur, mixed with a pint of train oil, 
 or a small portion of weak mercurial 
 ointment."' 
 
 LOUSE\\"ORT. Pedicularis Cana- 
 densis. An insignificant perennial, 
 herbaceous weed ; the rattle. 
 
 LOYAGE. . Ligusticum lecisticum. 
 A perennial (biennial), herbaceous, 
 disagreeable aromatic plant, of the 
 family Umbelliferce. the seeds of which 
 are used as medicine in flatulence. 
 The seeds grow anywhere on a dry, 
 light soil. 
 
 LOVE APPLE. Tomato. 
 
 LOVE GRASS. A small grass, 
 ornamental, with pretty spikelets. 
 Eragrostis. 
 
 LOY.^ A narrow spade 
 
 469 
 
LUC 
 
 LUBRICATION. Anointing with 
 grease and oils. 
 
 LUCAMA. A Chilian fruit resem- 
 bling, in size and flavour, a peach. 
 
 LrCANIU.E, LUCANINE.S. A 
 family of coleopterous lamellicorn in- 
 sects, of the stag beetle kind (Lm- 
 canus). 
 
 LUCERN. Mcdicago sativa{Fig.). 
 
 Grand trefoil, French clover, alfalfa, 
 Brazilian clover. A perennial, herba- 
 ceous forage plant of the clover family. 
 It forms a very long, vigorous root, 
 and requires a deep, rich soil, with 
 some lime, for cultivation. It is oft- 
 en cut, year by year, for six and ten 
 years, and yields, in three cuttings 
 each season, from six to eight tons 
 of excellent fodder, equal to the best 
 clover. An acre soiled will supply 
 three to four cows during the season. 
 It grows eighteen to thirty inches 
 high, and bears a jnirple flower, and 
 possesses all the good qualities of 
 clover in addition to its preference 
 for a dry, warm climate. Fifteen to 
 twenty pounds of seed are sown 
 broad-cast, with a few oats, early in 
 spring ; but the lucern does not reach 
 perfection until the third year ; the 
 land must therefore be harrowed and 
 rolled to keep down weeds. It is not 
 quite as hardy as clover. The vari- 
 eties of lucern are unimportant. The 
 seed is collected and hay made in the 
 same manner as with clover : but it 
 is best for soiling cut always when 
 470 
 
 LUN 
 
 the flowers first show, as the stems 
 i)ecome rigid. Sometimes the seed 
 is drilled in rows, at nine inches 
 apart, and in this way sooner comes 
 to perfection, and less seed is want- 
 ed. Like clover, it is much benefit- 
 ed l)y plaster of Paris and lime. It 
 will grow even in tropical countries 
 which are not too parched. On lands 
 where it is fully established, the soil 
 should be forked twice a year, after 
 cutting, and a top-dressing applied 
 every second or third season : it must 
 never be depastured ; eighty pounds 
 per day of fresh lucern is enough for 
 a cow, and produces an abundance 
 of milk. 
 
 LUCERN, ASHES OF. One hun 
 dred pounds green yield 2 58 pounds, 
 and one hundred pounds dried 955 
 pounds, consisting of 
 
 Sprtngel. 
 
 Potash 13-40 
 
 Soda 615 
 
 Lime 48-31 
 
 Magnesia 3-48 
 
 Phosphoric acid .... 13-07 
 
 Sulphuric acid 4-04 
 
 Chloun 318 
 
 Silica . 3-30 
 
 Iron, alumina, &c. . . . 0-60 
 95-53 
 
 From this we see why gypsum, lime, 
 marl, and ashes are so serviceable to 
 lucern. Bone-dust and salt are also 
 to be considered as manures for it. 
 
 LUG. A pole of land, 16^ feet ; a 
 vulgar term for the ear of animals. 
 
 LUMBAR, LUMBALIS. Belong- 
 ing to the loins. 
 
 LUMBER. Timber, especially in 
 the rough state. 
 
 LUMBRICUS. The generic name 
 of worms resembling the earth worm ; 
 some species infest the bodies of an- 
 imals. The earth worm, when not 
 too numerous, tend to improve the 
 soil by their castings ; when over nu- 
 merous, they eat the roots of plants, 
 and may be destroyed by a heavy 
 salting (twenty bushels to the acre), 
 or liming, with a surruner fallow. 
 
 LUNAR CAUSTIC, LUNAR 
 CORNEA. Prepared nitrate of silver, 
 sold in thin cylinders, and used as a 
 caustic .- it is one of the best caustics. 
 A solution is very valuable as a lotion 
 in some forms of inflammation. 
 
LUP 
 
 LYC 
 
 LUNATE (from 
 Crescent-shaped. 
 
 LUNATION. The period from 
 one new moon to another, the synod- 
 ic revohition. 
 
 LUNGS. The viscus in which air 
 is received, and the blood changed by 
 its presence. The lights, pulmonary 
 apparatus. The substance of the 
 lungs resembles a fine regular sponge ; 
 they are so light as to float on wa- 
 ter ; the windpipe communicates with 
 every cell throughout the viscus 
 Common air received is changed in 
 the lungs by an absorption of four 
 percent, of oxygen and the substitu- 
 tion of an equivalent of carbonic acid, 
 derived from the blood. This oxy- 
 genation, or aeration of the blood, 
 taking place in the lungs, is one of 
 the great functions on which life de- 
 pends, and cannot be interrupted for 
 a minute without injury or death. 
 By this change, black venous blood 
 is changed into the scarlet arterial 
 fluid, which alone is capable of sus- 
 taining the wants of the body. 
 
 LUNGWORT. Pulmonaria offici- 
 nalis. An exotic, perennial, herba- 
 ceous plant. The whole genus are 
 pretty flowers, and readily propaga- 
 ted by seeds. 
 
 LUNULATE. Crescent-shaped. 
 LUPINE. Lupinus albus. An an- 
 nual leguminous herb {Fig.), cultiva- 
 
 ted in Italy and France to a limited 
 extent for forage and soiling. The 
 
 luna, the moon). I seeds are as large as a pea, and very 
 ] nutritious : they were used as food 
 by the Romans. It grows on poor, 
 dry, light soils, but is finest on rich 
 loams ; the seeds are sown as soon 
 as frost is out of the ground, and the 
 plants blossom in May and June. It 
 is principally raised as a green fallow 
 crop, and ploughed in just before the 
 second flowering. Plants for seed 
 must be mowed when moist, as the 
 pods very readily burst. The lupin 
 IS considered inferior to other legu- 
 mens as fodder, but is valuable for fal- 
 lows, from growing on very poor lands, 
 which it rapidly enriches. Por this 
 purpose, there is no doubt the Com- 
 mon wild blue lupin (L. perennis), 
 turned in the first season, would an- 
 swer equally well. 
 
 LUPININE. A gummy matter of 
 lupins. Lupinitc, a bitter substance 
 extracted from the leaves of the lu- 
 pine. 
 
 LUPULINE. The yellow resin- 
 ous dust hanging about the scales of 
 the hop, on which its flavour and val- 
 ue depend. 
 
 LURCHER. A coursing dog, of 
 the greyhound tribe, with a shaggy 
 coat and pricked ears ; it is very 
 swift and sagacious. 
 
 LURID, LURIDUS. A colour of a 
 pale-yellowish purple, frequently as- 
 sociated with poisonous properties in 
 mushrooms and flowers. 
 
 LUSUS NATURAE. A sport 
 of Nature. Unnatural form in ani- 
 mals. 
 
 LUTE (from lutnni, clay). In chem- 
 istry, pasty matter, used to adapt two 
 vessels, or coat their surfaces from 
 fire. Clay, putty, dough, lime, white 
 of eggs, and melted India rubber are 
 variously used. 
 
 LUTEOLINE. A yellow crystal- 
 line colouring matter of weld. 
 
 LUTESCENT (from luteus, yel- 
 low). Yellowish. 
 
 LUXATION. A dislocation of a 
 joint. 
 
 LYCOPERDON. The genus of 
 pufl!'-ball mushrooms. 
 
 LYCOPODIACE.E. A family of 
 cr\'ptogauuc plants, growing in moist 
 places, and resembling ferns, but with 
 471 
 
MAO 
 
 a higher organization, approaching 
 that of the Comfcnr, or pine-trees. 
 
 LYCOSA. A genus of spiders 
 dwelling in holes on the ground, or 
 in chinks, and pursuing their prey 
 with great activity. The tarantula 
 is of this kind. 
 
 LYE. A fluid saturated with pot- 
 ash or other salts. 
 
 LYME GRASS. See FAymus. 
 
 LYMPH. The fluid of "the lym- 
 phatic vessels. It is slightly milky, 
 but becomes pink on exposure to air, 
 and divides into a clot and fluid part. 
 It is the surplus nutritious fluid re- 
 turned from every part of the body 
 to the blood through the thoraric 
 duct. 
 
 LYMPHATIC GLANDS. In 
 anatomy, small masses formed of 
 contorted lymphatics, found in the 
 groin, axilla, mesentery, &c. 
 
 LYMPHATIC HAIRS. In bot- 
 any, the transparent hairs on some 
 
 LYMPHATIC VESSELS. Minute 
 transparent tubes, found in every part 
 of the body, and discharging their 
 lymph into the thoracic duct. 
 
 LYRATE, LYRATUS. A leaf 
 which is pinnatifid, but with segments 
 larger at the extremity than the foot 
 stalk. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACARONI. The dough of some 
 fine wheats drawn out into tubes. 
 
 MACE. The envelope (anllus) of 
 the nutmeg. It is of a pleasant aro- 
 matic flavour, and contains much but- 
 yraceous oil. 
 
 MACERATION. The softening 
 of animal or vegetable bodies by im- 
 mersion in fluids, either water, alco- 
 hol, ether, &c. 
 
 MACHICOLATED. With para- 
 pets projecting beyond the walls, and 
 supported by arches springing from 
 corbels or consoles. 
 
 MACHINE. In a general sense 
 this word signifies anything which 
 serves to increase or regulate the ef- 
 fect of a given force. Machines are 
 either simple or compound. The sim- 
 ple machines are usually reckoned six 
 472 
 
 MAD 
 
 I in number ; namely, the lever, the 
 wheel and axle, the pulley, the wedge, 
 the screw, and the funicular or rope 
 machine. Compound machines arc 
 formed by combining two or more 
 simple machines. 
 
 MACLAURA. Maclaura aurantica. 
 See Osage Orange. 
 
 MACLE. Dark or black spots in 
 minerals, supposed to arise from in- 
 terruption in crystallization. 
 
 MACULATE, MACULATUS 
 (from macula, a spot). Spotted. 
 
 MADDER. Rubia Unctorum (.Fig). 
 
 An herbaceous perennial of the familj 
 RubiacccB. The following account of 
 its culture by Mr. Bateham is the 
 plan pursued for five years by Mr. 
 Swift, of Erie county, Oliio : 
 
 " Soil and Preparation. — The soil 
 should be a deep, rich, sandy loam, 
 free from weeds, roots, stones, &c., 
 and containing a good portion of ve- 
 getable earth. Alluvial land is the 
 most suitable ; but it must not be wet. 
 If old upland is used, it should receive 
 a heavy coating of vegetable earth 
 (from decayed wood and leaves). The 
 land should be ploughed very deep in 
 the fall, and early in spring apply 
 about one hundred loads of well-rot- 
 red manure per acre, spread evenly, 
 and ploughed in deeply ; then harrow 
 till quite fine and free from lumps. 
 Next, plough the land into beds four 
 feet wide, leaving alleys between 
 three feet wide ; then harrow the beds 
 
MADDER. 
 
 with a fine, light harrow, or rake them 
 by hand, so as to leave them smooth 
 and even with the alleys : they are 
 then ready for planting. 
 
 " Preparing Sets and Planting. — 
 Madder sets, or seed roots, are best 
 selected when the crop is dug in the 
 fall. The horizontal uppermost roots 
 (with eyes) are the kind to be used ; 
 these should be separated from the 
 bottom roots, and buried in sand, in 
 a cellar or pit. If not done in the 
 fall, the sets may be dug early in the 
 spring, before they begin to sprout. 
 They should be cut or broken into 
 pieces, containing from two to five 
 eyes each, i. e., three to four inches 
 long. The time for planting is as 
 early in spring as the ground can be 
 got in good order and severe frosts 
 are over, which, in this climate, is 
 usually about the middle of April. 
 With the beds prepared as directed, 
 stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and 
 with the corner of a hoe make a drill 
 two inches deep along each edge and 
 down the middle, so as to give three 
 rows to each bed, about two feet 
 apart. Into these drills drop the sets, 
 ten inches apart, covering them two 
 inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of 
 sets are requisite for an acre. 
 
 " After Culture. — As soon as the 
 madder plants can be seen, the ground 
 should be carefully hoed, so as to de- 
 stroy the weeds and not injure the 
 plants ; and the hoeing and weeding 
 must be repeated as often as weeds 
 make their appearance. If any of 
 the sets have failed to grow, the va- 
 cancies should be filled by taking up 
 parts of the strongest roots and trans- 
 planting them ; this is best done in 
 June. As soon as the madder plants 
 are ten or twelve inches high, the 
 tops are to be bent down on to the 
 surface of the ground, and all except 
 the tip end covered with earth shov- 
 elled from the middle of the alleys. 
 Bend the shoots outward and inward, 
 in every direction, so as in time to fill 
 all the vacant space on the beds, and 
 about one foot on each side. After 
 the first time covering, repeat the 
 weeding when necessary, and run a 
 single horse plough through the al- 
 ii K -Z 
 
 leys several times to keep the earth 
 clean and mellow. As soon as the 
 plants again become ten or twelve 
 inches high, bend down and cover 
 them as before, repeating the opera- 
 tion as often as necessary, which is 
 commonly three times the first sea- 
 son. The last time may be as late as 
 September, or later if no frosts occur. 
 By covering the tops in this manner, 
 they change to roots, and the design 
 is to fill the ground as full of roots as 
 possible. When the vacant spaces 
 are all full, there will be but little 
 chance for weeds to grow ; but all 
 that appear must be pulled out. 
 
 " The second year keep the beds free 
 from weeds ; plough the alleys and 
 cover the tops, as before directed, two 
 or three times during the season. The 
 alleys will now form deep and nar- 
 row ditches, and if it becomes difficult 
 to obtain good earth for covering the 
 tops, that operation may be omitted 
 after the second time this season. 
 Care should be taken, when covering 
 the tops, to keep the edges of the beds 
 as high as the middle, otherwise the 
 water from heavy showers will run 
 ofT, and the crop suffer from drought. 
 
 '• The third year very little labour 
 or attention is required. The plants 
 will now cover the whole ground. If 
 any weeds are seen, they must be 
 pulled out, otherwise their roots will 
 cause trouble when harvesting the 
 madder. The crop is sometimes dug 
 the third year ; and if the soil and 
 cultivation have been good, and the 
 seasons warm and favourable, the 
 madder will be of good quality ; but 
 generally it is much better in quality, 
 and more in quantity, when left until 
 the fourth year. 
 
 '■'■Digging and Harvesting. — This 
 should be done between the 20th of 
 August and the 20th of September. 
 Take a sharp shovel or shovels, and 
 cut off and remove the tops, with half 
 an inch of the surface of the earth ; 
 then take a plough of the largest size, 
 with a sharp coulter and a double 
 team, and plough a furrow outward, 
 beam deep, around the edge of the 
 bed ; stir the earth with forks, and 
 carefully pick out all the roots, re- 
 473 
 
MADDER. 
 
 moving the earth from the bottom of 
 the furrow ; thon ploiiirh another fur- 
 row beam deep, as before, and pick 
 over and remove the earth in the 
 same manner; thus proceeding until 
 the whole is completed. 
 
 " Washing- and Drying. — As SOOn 
 as possible after digging, take the 
 roots to some running stream to be 
 washed. If there is no running stream 
 convenient, it can be done at a pump. 
 Take large, round sieves, 2J or 3 feet 
 in diameter, with the wire about as 
 fine as wheat sieves ; or if these can- 
 not be had, get from a hardware store 
 sufficient screen-wire of the right 
 fineness, and make frames or boxes 
 about two and a half feet long and 
 the width of the wire, on the bottom 
 of which nail the wire. In these 
 sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of 
 roots at a time, and stir them about 
 in the water, pulling the bunches apart 
 so as to wash them clean ; then, hav- 
 ing a platform at hand, lay them on 
 it to dry. (To make the platform, 
 take two or three common boards, so 
 as to be about four feet in width, and 
 nail cleets across the under side.) On 
 these spread the roots about two inch- 
 es thick for drying in the sun. Carry 
 the platforms to a convenient place, 
 not far from the house, and place 
 them side by side, in rows east and 
 west, and with their ends north and 
 south, leaving room to walk between 
 the rows. Elevate the south ends of 
 the platforms about eighteen inches, 
 and the north ends about six inches 
 from the ground, putting poles or 
 sticks to support them : this will 
 greatly facilitate drying. After the 
 second or third day drying, the mad- 
 der must be protected frotn the dews 
 at night, and from rain, by placing the 
 platforms one upon another to a con- 
 venient height, and covering the up- 
 permost one with boards. Spread 
 them out again in the morning, or as 
 soon as danger is over. Five or six 
 days of ordinarily fine weather will 
 dry the madder sufficiently, when it 
 may be put away till it is convenient 
 to kiln-dry and grind it. 
 
 " Kiln-drying. — The size and mode 
 of constructing the kiln may be va- 
 474 
 
 ! ried to suit circumstances. The fol- 
 lowing is a very cheap plan, and suf- 
 ficient to dry one ton of roots at a 
 time : Place four strong posts in the 
 ground, twelve feet apart one way, 
 I and eighteen the other ; the front two 
 fourteen feet high, and the others 
 eighteen ; put girts across the bot- 
 ! tom, middle, and top, and nail boards 
 perpendicularly on the outside as for 
 a common barn. The boards must 
 be well seasoned, and all cracks or 
 holes should be plastered or other- 
 wise stopped up. Make a shed-roof 
 of common boards. In the inside, 
 put upright standards about five feet 
 apart, with cross-pieces to support 
 the scaffijlding. The first cross-pie- 
 ces to be four feet from the floor, the 
 next two feet higher, and so on to the 
 top. On these cross-pieces lay small 
 poles about six feet long and two 
 inches thick, four or five inches apart. 
 On these scaffolds the madder is to 
 be spread nine inches thick. A floor 
 is laid at the bottom to keep all dry 
 and clean. When the kiln is filled, 
 take six or eight small kettles or hand- 
 furnaces, and place them four or five 
 feet apart on the floor (first securing 
 it from fire with bricks or stones), 
 and make fires in them with charcoal, 
 being careful not to make any of the 
 fires so large as to scorch the mad- 
 der over them. A person must be in 
 constant attendance to watch and re- 
 plenish the fires. The heat will as- 
 cend through the whole, and in ten 
 or twelve hours it will all be suffi- 
 ciently dried, which is known by its 
 becoming brittle like pipe-stems. 
 
 " Breaking and Grinding. — Imme- 
 diately after being dried, the madder 
 must be taken to the barn and thrash- 
 ed with flails, or broken by machin- 
 ery (a mill might easily be constructed 
 for this purpose), so that it will feed 
 in a common grist mill. If it is not 
 broken and ground immediately, it 
 will gather dampness, so as to prevent 
 its grinding freely. Any common 
 grist mill can grind madder properly. 
 When ground finely it is fit for use, 
 and may be packed in barrels like flour 
 for market. 
 
 " Amount and Value of Product, &c. 
 
MAB 
 
 MAG 
 
 — Mr. Swift measured off a part of 
 his ground, and carefully weighed the 
 product when dried, which he found 
 to be over two thousand pounds per 
 acre, notwithstanding the seasons 
 were mostly very dry and unfavour- 
 able. With his present knowledge of 
 the business, he is confident that he 
 can obtain at least three thousand 
 pounds per acre, \\ hich is said to bo 
 more than is often obtained in Ger- 
 many. The whole amount of labour 
 he estimates at from eighty to one 
 hundred days' work per acre. The 
 value of the crop, at the usual whole- 
 sale price (about fifteen cents per 
 pound), is from three hundred to four 
 hundred dollars. In foreign coun- 
 tries it is customary to make several 
 qualities of the madder, which is done 
 by sorting the roots ; but as only one 
 quality is required for the western 
 market, Mr. Swift makes but one, 
 and that is found superior to most of 
 the imported, and finds a ready sale." 
 
 The presence of calcareous matter 
 in the soil is an essential to the pro- 
 duction of good dyeing madder. 
 
 Madder is used in dyeing numerous 
 colours, as black, blue, red, olives, 
 and buffs, and alone forms the rich 
 Turkey reds. It contains several col- 
 ouring principles, the chief of which 
 is, however, Alizarine, an insoluble 
 crystalline, bright red body. 
 
 MADDER, FIELD. Shcrardia ar- 
 vensis. An insignificant weed. 
 
 MADDER, WILD. Ruhia ■pcregri- 
 na. It yields an inferior madder root. 
 
 MADEIRA CIDER. Mix new ci- 
 der with honey until it bears an egg ; 
 boil in a copper for one quarter of an 
 hour, skim, cool, barrel, and bottle in 
 March. It will be as strong as Ma- 
 deira wine in si.x months. 
 
 MADEIRA NUT. The walnut. 
 
 M A D I A. Madia sativa, some- 
 times called Gold of Pleasure, which 
 see. A composite plant inhabiting 
 South America, the seeds of which 
 yield an abundance of good table oil. 
 Boussingault obtained 41 per cent, 
 in an analysis, and 264 per cent, by 
 trie conmion press. It is e.xtensively 
 cultivated in Germany, is a summer 
 crop, maturing in 127 days from seed , 
 
 in Alsace, and yielding 2500 pounds 
 of seeds per acre, or 635 oil, and 1700 
 of excellent oil -cake for fattening 
 stock. 'I'lie soil should be rich and 
 in good tilth, and the seeds sown in 
 drills in spring, and the young plants 
 kept clean from weeds. 
 
 MAGM.\. A thick fluid, or mud. 
 Thick, feculent matters from solu- 
 tions. 
 
 MAGGOT. The larva of dipterous 
 and other insects. The fly in sheep. 
 
 MAGNESIA. An alkaline earth, 
 very similar to lime, sp. gr. 23, the 
 proto.xide of ma<rnc.sium. It is spa- 
 ringly soluble in pure water, but unites 
 freely with most acids. Its equiva- 
 lent is 20 (or magnesium 12, oxygen 8), 
 symbol Mg. O. Calcined magnesia 
 is the true oxide, common magne- 
 sia being the carbonate, or mild mag- 
 nesia. Caustic or calcined magne- 
 sia is much more injurious to plants 
 than lime, from its retaining the caus- 
 tic quality longer, and not uniting 
 with carbonic acid so readily. It also 
 forms a harder mortar with water, 
 and is more apt to cake about the 
 stems and roots of herbage ; but mild 
 magnesia (the carbonate) is of ser- 
 vice to vegetation, being found in the 
 ashes of most plants, in all probabil- 
 ity replacing lime. The carbonate of 
 magnesia is slightly soluble, and, like 
 mild lime, is freely dissolved by wa 
 ter, containing carbonic acid in solu 
 tion. 
 
 The sulphate of magnesia, Epsom 
 salt, is the most important salt. Sil- 
 icates of magnesia are abundant in na- 
 ture, forming serpentine, soapstone, 
 &c. 
 
 MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. 
 Limestone rocks containing magne- 
 sia ; they abound above the coal for- 
 mation. As the magnesia is to be re- 
 garded as injurious when lime is 
 wanted for farming, its amount may 
 be discovered by the following means : 
 Take 100 grains of the rock, add four 
 times its weight of strong muriatic 
 acid, filter the clear solution, and add 
 clear limewater ; it will precipitate 
 all the magnesia as a white powder, 
 which may be collected, dried, and 
 weighed. 
 
 475 
 
MAI, 
 
 MAGNESIUM. The metallic ba- 
 sis of magnesia ; it is bright and 
 white like silver : symbol Mg. ; eq. 
 1269. 
 
 MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A small 
 bar or needle of steel, fully magnet- 
 ized, and suspended or supported so 
 as to move freely over a card divided 
 into the points of the compass. It is 
 much used by surveyors to take down 
 the bearing of the fences and other 
 lines of a farm. 
 
 MAGNETISM. The electric fluid 
 manifesting itself on a metallic body ; 
 iron, cobalt, and nickel are the only 
 magnetic metals. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. A genus of hand- 
 some llowering trees. There are 
 about 15 native species, of which M. 
 grandtfolia, rising 90 feet, is the no- 
 blest. The 31. macrophylla, though a 
 small tree, produces magnificent flow- 
 ers and leaves. The M. glauca is a 
 favourite in Northern shrubberies. 
 
 M.AHALEB. A species of plum 
 or cherry, used as a grafting stock : 
 the fruit affords a violet dye. 
 
 MAIDEN HAIR. Ferns of the 
 genus Adiantum, a beautiful race : 
 the sirup of capillaire is supposed to 
 be made from a species. 
 
 MAIZE. Indian corn. See Corn. 
 MALACODERMS (from fia/MKOi;, 
 soft, and Sepua, skin). A tribe of soft- 
 skinned, serricorn beetles. 
 
 MALARIA. The poisonous exha- 
 lations of stagnant marshes and low 
 new lands, producing bilious fever, 
 agues, and plagues. It is most ac- 
 tive at nightfall and during night, and 
 may be partially avoided by remain- 
 ing at home at these times, and ta- 
 king care to keep the premises warm 
 and dry : the spring and autumn are 
 the worst seasons. Strangers are 
 more liable to the influence of mala- 
 ria than natives. 
 
 MALE FLOWERS. Such as have 
 stamens only, and no ovary or swell- 
 ing under the petals. 
 
 MALIC ACID. The sour princi- 
 ple of apples, oranges, and numerous 
 fruits ; wiien pure, it is intensely sour 
 and crystalline ; combines with ox- 
 ides to form mallates : formula 0$ H^ 
 Oj + 2 H : it is bibasic. By heat- 
 476 
 
 MAL 
 
 ing the hydrated acid, it is converted 
 into maleic acid and fumaric acid. 
 
 MALIGNANT. Rapidly fatal, poi- 
 sonous. 
 
 MALLEABILITY. The property 
 of being extended by hammering, as 
 in the case of gold, copper, silver, 
 platina, iron, &c. 
 
 MALLENDERS. A disease pro- 
 duced in horses by neglect and over 
 work, in which chaps or cracks ap- 
 pear on the inside of the fore legs, 
 near the knees, attended by a dis- 
 charge of a red ichorous fluid ; the 
 sores should be washed with soap 
 and water, and kept clean ; after- 
 ward they are to be dressed with an 
 ointment containing blue vitriol : the 
 animal is also to be kept quiet and 
 purged. 
 
 M A L L W. The genus Malva ; 
 plants usually with perennial roots, 
 and abounding in mucilage : they are 
 eaten by all animals. 
 
 M A L T. Barley which has been 
 prepared or malted, by which sprout- 
 ing is induced, and the grain becomes 
 much sweeter. 
 
 MALTING. The process consists 
 of three steps : 1st, steeping. The 
 good barley is thrown into large 
 wooden cisterns, and covered with 
 water a few inches, being left for 
 48 to 60 hours, or until the grains 
 are soft, but do not yield milk on 
 pressure. 2d, couching. The steeped 
 grain is removed to a floor of stone, 
 and piled in heaps 12 to 16 inches 
 high ; here it first dries, and then 
 heats : roots begin to appear as the 
 heat advances; the couch is spread 
 and made thinner : the time required 
 is from 16 to 20 days, at a tempera- 
 ture of GO- Fahrenheit. Indry weath- 
 er, the couch is watered when too 
 dry. 3d, kiln-drying. As soon as the 
 barley is sufficiently germinated and 
 become dry, it is carried to the kiln 
 to destroy the vegetative power and 
 secure the sugar formed. It is here 
 laid three or four inches deep, and 
 kept at 100- Fahrenheit, till all the 
 moisture is driven off, the malt being 
 repeatedly turned, ^^'hen nearly dry, 
 the heat is raised to 160^ Fahren- 
 heit, until the grains become coloured 
 
MAN 
 
 to suit the beer or market ; the fire 
 is then allowed to die out. The pro- 
 cess requires nearly two days. The 
 malt should he kept in a dry loft un- 
 til wanted : 100 jwunds of good bar- 
 ley will yield 80 of malt. The kiln, in 
 small operations, need be no more 
 than a room with a draught through 
 it, heated by the pipe of a stove. In 
 drying, the small roots break off, and 
 furnish the malt dust. 
 
 MALT DUST. It is sometimes 
 called malt combs, and has been found 
 useful as a manure or a top-dressing 
 when sown over the cereal grasses 
 in the early spring season. 
 
 The proper quantity of dust is, if 
 top-dressed, for wheat, 36 to 40 bush- 
 els ; if drilled with the crop, for bar- 
 ley and turnips, 30 to 34 bushels. It 
 is also eminently calculated for grass 
 lands, and if applied in the latter pro- 
 portion, it will produce a very con- 
 siderable increase of the best feed. 
 Malt dust is also in some places em- 
 ployed in the feeding of milch cows 
 and pigs. 
 
 M A L U S. The generic name of 
 the apple. 
 
 MALVACEAE (from Malca, one of 
 the genera). " A natural order of 
 mucilaginous, exogenous plants, with 
 polypetalous flowers and monadelph- 
 ous stamens. The species are herbs, 
 bushes, or trees, and are found all 
 over the temperate and tropical parts 
 of the world, especially the latter. 
 Their flowers are in many cases large 
 and handsome ; but the order is chief- 
 ly interesting from the Gossypium, or 
 true cotton plant, forming a part of 
 it. Another species is the marsh- 
 mallow, or Allhaa officinalis ; and 
 some yield a fibre fit for manufacture 
 into cordage." — (Lindlci/.) 
 
 MAMMALIA (from mamma, a teat). 
 The highest division of animals, with 
 developed extremities, a vertebral col- 
 umn, and mammsR. 
 
 M A M M A R V. Relating to the 
 
 M A M MILL A R Y. In minerals, | 
 covered with rounded knobs like small 
 teats 
 
 MANDIBLE, MANDIBULA (from 
 mandibiUa, a jaw). In zoology, this I 
 
 MAN 
 
 term is applied to the lower jaw of 
 mammals, and to both jaws of birds 
 (except by Illiger, who restricts its 
 appellation to the lower jaw in this 
 class also). In insects, it is applied 
 to the upper or anterior pair of jaws. 
 
 MANDIBULATES, MANDIBU- 
 LATA. The name of a grand section 
 of insects, including all those which 
 preserve their organs of mastication 
 in their last or perfect state. 
 
 MANDISC. The cassava plant 
 {Janipha manihot). 
 
 MANDRAKE. A fabulous root. 
 
 MANDREL. A revolving shank 
 to which turners affix their work in 
 the lathe. 
 
 MANEGE. The management of 
 horses. 
 
 MANGANESE. A black mineral, 
 the peroxide of manganese. The 
 metal is gray, brittle, and hard ; sp. 
 gr., 8 : not used in the arts. The black 
 oxide is used to obtain oxygen; it 
 consists of Mg. 28 -f- oxygen 16. 
 The protoxide of manganese forms 
 numerous salts, some of which are 
 occasionally present in the ashes of 
 plants, probably as a substitute for 
 iron ; they do not appear to be im- 
 portant. There is also a vmnganic 
 and per manga7iic acid, which are, how- 
 ever, without agricultural interest. 
 
 MANGE. " A skin disease, which 
 attacks several domestic animals, es- 
 pecially the dog, and which is at- 
 tended with an eruption and loss of 
 hair. 
 
 " In the horse it is known to exist 
 by the animal's constantly rubbing or 
 biting himself, so as to remove the 
 hair, and sometimes produce ulcera- 
 tion. The hair of the mane and tail 
 frequently falls off, and small scabs 
 may generally be observed about the 
 roots of those which remain. This 
 disease is seldom met with, except in 
 common stables, where scarcely any 
 attention is paid to the horses, and 
 where their food is of the worst qual- 
 ity : horses highly kept, if not prop- 
 erly attended to, are also subject to 
 this disease, which is very conta- 
 gious. 
 
 " The causes of mange are sud- 
 den charges of temperature, hot sta- 
 477 
 
MAN 
 
 bics, baddiet, joined to want of clean- 
 liness. The perspirable nialter being 
 never properly removed by friction, 
 and being frequently mixed with dust, 
 &.C., completely plugs up the exter- 
 nal exhalants, whereby they become 
 obstructed, and a diseased action 
 takes place. It may also be caused 
 by infectious matter coming in con- 
 tact with the skin ; as when a sound 
 horse rubs himself against the stall 
 in which a" mangy horse has been 
 kept. The principal symptoms are 
 the horse growing very thin with- 
 out any apparent cause, attended 
 with a staring of his coat ; this is 
 soon follovved by eruptions, which 
 discharge a thick yellowish matter, 
 forming a kind of scurf, which peels 
 off, and is succeeded by fresh erup- 
 tions, and the hair falls off. This, 
 though partial at first, soon spreads 
 all over the body, is attended with an 
 itching, and causes the horse to rub 
 against everything he comes near. 
 In this disease, great attention to 
 cleanliness is necessary. 
 
 " In the horse, the following will be 
 found the best remedy. Bleed to the 
 extent of two or three quarts, ac- 
 cording to the constitution of the an- 
 imal, and after first preparing the 
 horse by bran mashes, give the fol- 
 lowing dose of physic : 
 
 Barbadoes aloes 6 drachms 
 
 Powdered ginger 2 " 
 
 Castile soap 2 " 
 
 Oil of caraways 20 drops. 
 
 Honey or molasses, sufficient to form 
 a ball. After which, give the fol- 
 lowing alterative balls : 2 oz. each of 
 powdered black antimony, powdered 
 nitre, flour of sulphur, Castile soap, 
 and anise seed powder, 1 oz. of rosin, 
 added to a sufficient quantity of hon- 
 ey to make eight balls, one to be giv- 
 en every night. 
 
 " The following ointment may be 
 applied externally : 
 
 Black sulphur 8 ozs. 
 
 Strong mercurial ointment . . 2 " 
 
 Soft soap 4 " 
 
 Train oil 1 pint. 
 
 "These ingredients to be well 
 mixed, and one third part carefully 
 rubbed in daily. If the above oint- 
 ment should be found ineffectual, 
 478 
 
 MAN 
 
 four ounces of spirit of tar may be 
 added. 
 
 "Dogs and swine are frequently 
 subject to mange. For the common 
 scabby variety in the dog, the fol- 
 lowing ointment is recommended : 
 
 Powdered sulpliur 4 ozs. 
 
 Muriate of ammonia, powdered . J " 
 
 Venice turpentine J " 
 
 Lard, or other fatty matter . . 6 " 
 Well mixed. 
 
 MANGEL WURZEL, MANGOLD 
 WURZEL. See Beet. 
 
 MANGER. The trough or crib 
 from which animals eat. 
 
 MANGO. " It is a very large fruit- 
 tree, inhabiting the tropical parts of 
 Asia, throughout all which it is as 
 extensively cultivated as the apple 
 and pear trees are in Europe. Old 
 specimens have been seen with a 
 trunk from 10 to 15 feet in circum- 
 ference. The fruit is something like 
 a nectarine, but more compressed, 
 longer, and more curved. It contains 
 a large stone, covered with coarse 
 fibres, which lose themselves in the 
 succulent flesh. The wild and infe- 
 rior varieties of this fruit taste so 
 strongly of turpentine as to be wholly 
 unfit for use by Europeans ; but in 
 the fine varieties this flavour is re- 
 placed by a rich sugary quality, which 
 renders it very delicious. The fruit 
 of the Mangifera Indica, a tree culti- 
 vated in Asia, is also called mango." 
 — (Brandc.) 
 
 MANGOSTEEN. The fruit of the 
 Garcinia mangostana., growing in Ja- 
 va and the Molucca Islands ; it is of 
 the size of an orange, and of a deli- 
 cious flavour. 
 
 MANGROVE. Small trees of the 
 genus Rhizophora, inhabiting the riv- 
 ers and coasts of the tropical world. 
 
 M A N H AD D E N. Clupea manha- 
 den. A migratory fish, resembling 
 the herring, taken in immense quan- 
 tities off the eastern and northern 
 coasts for manure ; they should be 
 made into a compost with earth or 
 peat : some apply them naked to the 
 land. 
 
 MANIOC. Cassava, tapioca. 
 
 MANIPULATION. The opera- 
 tions of the laboratory. 
 
 MANITRUNK, MANITRUNCUS. 
 
iM.W 
 
 The anterior segment of the trunk of 
 insects, on which the head is placed. 
 
 MANNA. A sweet, giinnny exu- 
 dation of the ash (F. ornus) and otli- 
 , er trees, used in medicine as a laxa- 
 - tivc. Manna, dissolved in hot alco- 
 hol, and allowed to cool, deposites 
 a white powder (mannitc) ; this, al- 
 though sweet, is incapable of vinous 
 fermentation. 
 
 MANTEL. In building, the wood, 
 stone, &c., lying from one jamb to 
 the other of the chimney. 
 
 MANTIS. A genus of orthopte- 
 rous insects, with an exposed head, 
 long and narrow body, and wings 
 plaited longitudinally : they are vege- 
 table eaters. 
 
 MANURES. Substances intended 
 to increase the fertility of the earth. 
 They are usually divided into miner- 
 al or fossil, animal, and vegetable 
 manures, as they are derived from 
 these kingdoms ; but in this way we 
 gain no knowledge of their action on 
 the soil or plants. A better division 
 is into Amendments, or such manures 
 as improve the texture of soils, as 
 lime, marl, peat ; Manures supplying 
 elements deficient in the soil, as gyp- 
 sum, bone earth, ashes ; and, third- 
 ly, manures intended to advance or 
 stimulate vegetation, as putrescent 
 animal matters. But the greater num- 
 ber of manures are natural composts 
 that supply everything necessary to 
 the development of plants, in a more 
 or less concentrated form, as stable 
 manure, straw of different kinds, gua- 
 no, night-soil, &c. The manures are 
 treated under their separate heads, i 
 
 In the application of manures in- j 
 tended to remedy a defect in the soil, I 
 as gypsum where sulphuric acid is i 
 absent ; bone earth where phosphor- 
 ic acid is wanting, it may be econom- I 
 ical, by an analysis of the soil, to be j 
 certain that such a deficiency exists, ' 
 otherwise our manures might be bet- ' 
 ter applied elsewhere. But most of 
 our soils require good tillage, amend- 
 ments, and then natural composts to 
 increase the crop ; hence the values 
 of manures in the experience of the 
 farmer does not exactly coincide with 
 the theoretical value, and the amount 
 
 MAN 
 
 of nitrogen or stimulating element 
 they contain is in practice the best 
 criterion of their effects, the soil be- 
 ing in good order and tilth. Hence 
 Boussingault and Payen, practical 
 men, have constructed a table of the 
 value of all maimres, as compared 
 with farm-yard manure, on this basis. 
 The first column gives the kind of 
 manure in its ordinary state, the sec- 
 ond the amount of water it contains, 
 the third and fourth the per centage 
 of nitrogen in the dry and wet states, 
 the fifth and sixth the quality of the 
 manure in the dry and wet states, so 
 far as the effects of the ammonia or 
 nitrogen are concerned, the seventh 
 and eighth columns represent the 
 amount of the manures, respectively, 
 equivalent to 100 lbs. of farm-yard 
 manure, both in the dry and wet 
 states, so far as the nitrogen is con- 
 cerned. Thus we learn that 8 lbs. of 
 linseed oil-cake are equally servicea- 
 ble with 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure 
 in the ordinary state of moisture, &c. 
 (For table, see the following pages.) 
 
 The greatest improvements in ma- 
 nures recently made are their econ- 
 omy for different plants, or the sys 
 tem of special manures referred to 
 under the principal crops in this work, 
 and their application with the seed 
 or on growing plants, by drills and 
 other contrivances. The old method 
 of scattering immense amounts over 
 the soil a long time before the crop 
 is justly considered unprofitable. 
 
 The following table of the weight 
 of a cubic yard of several manures 
 is of some practical value : 
 
 cwts. qr3. lbs. 
 
 Garden mould 19 3 23 
 
 New dung 9 3 18 
 
 Leaves and sea-weed ... 90 3 
 
 Water 15 3 
 
 Compost of dung, with weeds 
 
 and lime 1-J 5 
 
 — See Farm-yard Manure. 
 
 MANURES, ARTIFICIAL AND 
 SPECIAL. These are compounds 
 prepared for sale to farmers, as arti- 
 ficial guano, poudrette, silicate of 
 soda, sulphate of soda, sulphate of 
 ammonia, soda ash, solution of bones, 
 saltpetre, and urate. Special manures 
 are those which are designed to ad- 
 vance particular crops. 
 
 479 
 
MAMKES. 
 
 TAULE OF THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF MANURES, DEDUCED FROM ANALYSES MADK 
 BY MESSRS. PAYEN AND BOUSSINGAULT. 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Qua 
 
 ity «c- 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 lUOt)f matter 
 
 
 ing to 
 
 according to 
 
 
 Kinds of Manure. 
 
 ts 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 stale. 
 
 state. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 
 FHrmyard dung. 
 
 mT 
 
 1-9.') 
 
 0-41 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Average of Bechelbrono. 
 
 Dung wnter 
 
 
 
 
 a'j-6 
 
 1-54 
 
 0-06 
 
 78 
 
 2 
 
 127 
 
 68 
 
 Washed by the rain. 
 
 Whcnt straw 
 
 
 
 
 19-3 
 
 0-30 
 
 0-24 
 
 lo 
 
 60 
 
 6,'H) 
 
 167 
 
 Fresh, of Alsace, 1838. 
 
 Rve straw . 
 
 
 
 
 l'Z-2 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-17 
 
 10 
 
 42-5 
 
 975 
 
 233 
 
 Of Alsace. 
 
 Mem . 
 
 
 
 
 I-2-6 
 
 O-.W 
 
 0-42 
 
 26 
 
 105 
 
 390 
 
 95 
 
 Environs of Paris, 1841. 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 
 
 
 21-0 
 
 0-.3fi 
 
 0-28 
 
 18 
 
 70 
 
 543 
 
 143 
 
 1 
 
 Barlej straw 
 
 
 
 
 n-u 
 
 0-2 ti 
 
 0-23 
 
 13 
 
 57-5 
 
 750 
 
 174 
 
 
 Whrat chiiH- 
 
 
 
 
 7-6 
 
 0-94 
 
 0-85 
 
 48 
 
 212-3 
 
 207 
 
 47 
 
 y Of Alsace. 
 
 Pea straw . 
 
 
 
 
 8-5 
 
 l-9.i 
 
 1-79 
 
 100 
 
 447-5 
 
 100 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 Millet straw 
 
 
 
 
 19-0 
 
 0-9'i 
 
 78 
 
 49 
 
 195 
 
 203 
 
 61 
 
 J 
 
 Buckwlieat straw 
 
 
 
 11-6 
 
 0-54 
 
 0-48 
 
 27 
 
 1-20 
 
 3(il 
 
 83 
 
 
 Lentil straw 
 
 
 
 9-2 
 
 112 
 
 1-01 
 
 67 
 
 250 
 
 174 
 
 40 
 
 
 Dried potato lops 
 
 
 
 13-9 
 
 0-43 
 
 0-37 
 
 22 
 
 92-5 
 
 453 
 
 108 
 
 
 Withered madia stalks 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 0-66 
 
 0-57 
 
 33 
 
 142-5 
 
 295 
 
 70 
 
 Afler seeding. 
 
 Idem turned under while j 
 
 reen 
 
 
 70-6 
 
 1-53 
 
 0-45 
 
 79 
 
 113 
 
 136 
 
 89 
 
 Before seeding. 
 
 Dried broom 
 
 
 
 10-4 
 
 )-37 
 
 1-22 
 
 70 
 
 305 
 
 142 
 
 33 
 
 Stalk and leaves. 
 
 Withered leaves cf beet ro 
 
 ot 
 
 
 88-9 
 
 4-60 
 
 0-50 
 
 230 
 
 125 
 
 43 
 
 80 
 
 Of mangel wurzel 
 
 Do. of potatoes . 
 
 
 
 -f,0 
 
 2-30 
 
 0-55 
 
 117 
 
 137-5 
 
 85 
 
 73 
 
 Withered top and leavea. 
 
 Do. of carrots 
 
 
 
 70-9 
 
 2-94 
 
 0-85 
 
 150 
 
 212-5 
 
 66 
 
 47 
 
 
 Leaves of heather 
 
 
 
 7-0 
 
 1-90 
 
 1-74 
 
 97 
 
 425 
 
 103 
 
 23 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Do. of pear-trees 
 
 
 
 14-5 
 
 lTi9 
 
 1-36 
 
 81-5 
 
 340 
 
 137 
 
 29 
 
 
 Do. of oak . 
 
 
 
 25-0 
 
 1-37 
 
 1-18 
 
 80 
 
 293 
 
 125 
 
 34 
 
 
 Do. of poplar 
 Do. of beech 
 
 
 
 51-1 
 :i9-3 
 
 1-17 
 1-91 
 
 0-54 
 1-18 
 
 66 
 78 
 
 134 
 
 294 
 
 167 
 102 
 
 74 
 34 
 
 > Leaves fallen in autumn. 
 
 Do. of acacia 
 
 
 
 53-6 
 
 166 
 
 0-72 
 
 80 
 
 180 
 
 1-25 
 
 66 
 
 
 Box-tree . 
 
 
 
 59-3 
 
 2-89 
 
 1-17 
 
 147 
 
 293 
 
 68 
 
 34 
 
 Branches and leaves. 
 
 Clover roots 
 
 
 
 9-7 
 
 1-77 
 
 1-61 
 
 90 
 
 402-5 
 
 no 
 
 25 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Fucus digitatus . 
 
 
 
 39-2 
 
 1-41 
 
 0-86 
 
 72 
 
 215 
 
 139 
 
 46 
 
 J 
 
 Idem .... 
 
 
 
 40-0 
 
 1-58 
 
 0-95 
 
 81 
 
 237-5 
 
 123 
 
 42 
 
 > Dried in the air. 
 
 Fucus saccharinus . 
 
 
 
 40-0 
 
 2-29 
 
 1-38 
 
 117 
 
 345 
 
 85 
 
 29 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 75-5 
 
 
 0-54 
 
 
 135 
 
 
 74 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Burned .sea weed 
 
 
 
 3-S 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-38 
 
 20 
 
 95 
 
 488 
 
 103 
 
 
 Oyster sliells 
 
 
 
 17-9 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-32 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 488 
 
 1-25 
 
 
 Sea shells . 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-05 
 
 005 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 3750 
 
 769 
 
 Dried sea shells of Dunkirk. 
 
 Mud of the Morlaix River 
 
 
 
 3-7 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-40 
 
 21 
 
 100 
 
 464 
 
 100 
 
 > Sea sand. 
 
 Trez of Roscofi' roads 
 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-13 
 
 7 
 
 32-5 
 
 1393 
 
 308 
 
 Sea-side Marl . 
 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 0-a2 
 
 0-51 
 
 26-5 
 
 138 
 
 377 
 
 78 
 
 
 Salt cod-fish 
 
 
 
 
 38-0 
 
 10-86 
 
 6-70 
 
 ,537 
 
 1675 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 Cod-fish washed and 
 
 iress 
 
 2d 
 
 
 10-0 
 
 18-74 
 
 16-86 
 
 961 
 
 4315 
 
 10 
 
 3M 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Fir sawdust 
 
 
 
 
 24-0 
 
 0-22 
 
 0-16 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 886 
 
 250 
 
 > Dried in the air. 
 
 Idem . 
 
 
 
 
 24-0 
 
 0-31 
 
 0-28 
 
 15 
 
 57-6 
 
 629 
 
 174 
 
 Oak sawdust 
 
 
 
 
 2rv0 
 
 0-72 
 
 0-54 
 
 36 
 
 133 
 
 2.56 
 
 74 
 
 S 
 
 White lupine seed 
 
 
 
 
 10-5 
 
 4-35 
 
 3-49 
 
 2-23 
 
 872-3 
 
 46 
 
 n\H 
 
 Tuscan, boiled and dried. 
 
 Malt grains . 
 
 
 
 
 6-0 
 
 4-W 
 
 4-51 
 
 251 
 
 1127-6 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 
 Grape husks 
 
 
 
 
 48-2 
 
 3-31 
 
 1-71 
 
 169 
 
 427-6 
 
 57 
 
 23 
 
 
 Oilcake of linseed 
 
 
 
 
 13-4 
 
 6-00 
 
 6-20 
 
 307 
 
 1300 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 
 Do. of colewort . 
 
 
 
 
 10-.-3 
 
 b-M 
 
 4-92 
 
 282 
 
 12-30 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 
 Do. of.-iracliis . 
 
 
 
 
 6-6 
 
 8-89 
 
 8-33 
 
 655 
 
 2083-5 
 
 21 
 
 4H 
 
 
 Do. of madia 
 
 
 
 
 11-1 
 
 6-70 
 
 5-06 
 
 292 
 
 1263 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 
 Do. ofsejanie . 
 
 
 
 
 6-5 
 
 6-93 
 
 5-52 
 
 304 
 
 1378 
 
 33 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 Do. of hemp seed 
 
 
 
 
 5-0 
 
 4-78 
 
 4-21 
 
 245 
 
 1052 
 
 41 
 
 9H 
 
 
 Do. of poppy 
 
 
 
 
 6-0 
 
 6-70 
 
 6-3G 
 
 292 
 
 1340 
 
 .34 
 
 7>3 
 
 
 Do. of beech mast 
 
 
 
 
 6-2 
 
 3-53 
 
 3-31 
 
 181 
 
 838 
 
 56 
 
 12 
 
 
 Do. of walnuts . 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 s-.io 
 
 5-24 
 
 287 
 
 1310 
 
 .33 
 
 73^ 
 
 
 Do. of cotton seed 
 
 
 
 
 U-O 
 
 4 62 
 
 402 
 
 231 
 
 1000 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 
 Cider-apple refuse 
 
 
 
 
 «-4 
 
 0-63 
 
 0-.59 
 
 32 
 
 147 
 
 309 
 
 68 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Refuse of hops , 
 Beet- root refuse . 
 
 
 
 
 730 
 
 2-23 
 
 0-66 
 
 114 
 
 140 
 
 88 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 9-3 
 
 1-26 
 
 1-14 
 
 64 
 
 283 
 
 153 
 
 35 
 
 Dried in the ,iir. 
 
 Idem ... 
 
 
 
 
 70-0 
 
 
 0-38 
 
 64 
 
 85 
 
 
 106 
 
 Fresh from the press. 
 
 
 
 Squeezed beet root 
 
 
 
 
 94 '5 
 
 1-76 
 
 0-01 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 HI 
 
 4137 
 
 Process of Dombasle. 
 
 Pot.ito refuse 
 
 
 
 
 73-0 
 
 1-95 
 
 0-53 
 
 100 
 
 131-5 
 
 100 
 
 76 
 
 
 1*01,-110 juice 
 
 
 
 
 95-4 
 
 8-28 
 
 0-38 
 
 425 
 
 94 
 
 23 
 
 106 
 
 .Settled and decanted. 
 
 AVater of the starch m-anufactory 
 
 99-2 
 
 8-28 
 
 0-07 
 
 425 
 
 17-6 
 
 
 671 
 
 ( From washing in fourvol- 
 f unies of water. 
 Drainings from heap. 
 
 
 Deposite from the water of do. 
 
 80 
 
 1-81 
 
 0-36 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 111 
 
 Idem 
 
 1,1 
 86-9 
 
 1-81 
 2-30 
 
 1-.54 
 0-32 
 
 92 
 117 
 
 384-6 
 80 
 
 
 24 
 126 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Solid cow diing '. 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 Urine of cows . 
 
 
 
 88-3 
 
 3-80 
 
 0-44 
 
 194 
 
 110 
 
 61 
 
 91 
 
 
 Mixed cow dung 
 
 
 
 
 84-3 
 
 2-59 
 
 0-41 
 
 132 
 
 102-5 
 
 7.3 
 
 98 
 
 
 Solid liorse dung 
 
 
 
 
 75-3 
 
 2-21 
 
 0-55 
 
 113 
 
 1-37-5 
 
 88 
 
 73 
 
 
 Horse urine 
 
 
 
 
 79-1 
 
 12-50 
 
 2-61 
 
 641 
 
 632-5 
 
 15K 
 
 15.S' 
 
 The horse drank but little; 
 
 Mixed horse dung 
 
 
 
 
 7.i-4 
 
 3-02 
 
 0-74 
 
 154 
 
 185 
 
 66 " 
 
 64 
 
 the urine was thick. 
 
 Pig dung 
 
 
 
 
 81-4 
 
 3-37 
 
 0-63 
 
 172 
 
 1,37-6 
 
 68 
 
 63 
 
 
 Sheep dung 
 
 
 
 
 ra-o 
 
 2-99 
 
 111 
 
 1.53 
 
 277-5 
 
 65 
 
 36 
 
 
 Goat dung . 
 
 
 
 
 4GO 
 
 3-93 
 
 2-16 
 
 201 
 
 640 
 
 60 
 
 18K 
 
 
 Liquid Flemish manu 
 Idem . . . 
 P.iudrette of Belloni 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-19 
 0-22 
 3-85 
 
 
 47-5 
 55 
 962 
 
 
 210 
 182 
 
 In the normal state. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T?! 
 
 4-40 
 
 225 
 
 44 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 Do. of Montfnucon 
 
 
 
 
 4I-'4 
 
 2-67 
 
 1-56 
 
 137 
 
 390 
 
 73 
 
 25l<< 
 
 
 Urine of public vats 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 17-56 
 
 16-83 
 
 900 
 
 4213 
 
 U 
 
 2''i 
 
 Dried in the stove. 
 
 Idem . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 96-9 
 
 23-11 
 
 0-72 
 
 1133 
 
 179 
 
 8',; 
 
 56 
 
 riiin, ammoniacal. 
 
 480 
 
MANURES. 
 
 TABLE (Continued ) 
 
 Kinds or Manure. 
 
 Ss 
 
 Dry. Wet. 
 
 (Juality ac- 
 cording to 
 state. 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 according to 
 
 state. 
 
 Wet. Dry. Wet 
 
 Animalized black 
 
 Idem from the neiglibourhood > 
 
 of Pans J 
 
 Idem, called Dutch manure 
 Animalized sea weed 
 
 Pigeon's dung 
 
 Quano imported into England 
 
 Idem 
 
 Do. imported into France 
 Silk-worm litter . 
 
 Idem 
 
 Chrysalis of silk-worm 
 Cockchafers 
 Dried muscular flesh 
 Soluble dried blood . 
 Liquid bloud 
 
 Idem 
 
 Blond coa^Iated and pressed 
 
 Insoluble dried blood . 
 
 Dregs from Prussian blue mjxi- 
 
 ulactory . . . • 
 Melter's bones , 
 Fresh bones • • 
 Fat bones, not heated 
 Drega of bone blue . 
 Glue dregs .... 
 Graves .... 
 Animal black of the sugar refiners 
 Sugar reBner's black . 
 Scum from the sugar refinery 
 
 Fijli-h black . 
 
 F-t;liers .... 
 
 * .-.v hair (lock . 
 
 ^^'oAlle^ raga 
 
 H rn sh.-ivings . 
 
 ' > il !ioot .... 
 
 ^^^.od soot .... 
 
 6-:o 
 
 7t« 
 l.i-73 
 3-4S 
 3-71 
 8-99 
 13-93 
 I -1-25 
 le-aO 
 
 etable mould from In 
 
 111^ (terreau) 
 
 0-91 
 5-63 
 
 12-93 
 2-04 
 
 1901 
 1-38 
 8-0-2 
 
 17-til 
 
 15-1-2 
 
 15-73 
 1-59 
 1-31 
 
 071 
 1-03 
 
 I -84 
 1-36 
 2-40 
 8-30 
 6-00 
 540 
 
 13-93 
 3-» 
 3-1:9 
 1-93 
 3-20 
 
 13-04 
 
 1-2-18 
 9-13 
 2-71 
 4-51 
 
 !4-M 
 
 1-31 
 7-02 
 5-31 
 6-2-3 
 0-53 
 3-73 
 
 11-88 
 1-06 
 
 13-75 
 
 6-93 
 1.3-34 
 13-78 
 17-98 
 14-36 
 1-33 
 1-13 
 0-65 
 
 3-23 
 361 
 807 
 
 178-7 
 
 310-: 
 
 340 
 
 600 
 
 2075 
 1247 
 1349 
 3487 
 827 
 823 
 485 
 
 580 
 1128 
 371^ 
 
 1754 
 1326 
 1334 
 
 IS3 
 
 933-3 
 •29693<5 
 
 265 
 3437 
 
 134 
 1733 
 3835 
 3445 
 4495 
 3390 
 
 337-5 
 
 21K 
 31>i 
 
 21K 
 
 i3v; 
 
 1-2>| 
 
 
 29K 
 16>£ 
 
 2")^ 
 
 2K 
 30>^ 
 
 ?« 
 
 Prepared for 11 moDth& 
 Recently made. 
 Made at Lyons. 
 
 ( Dried in stove (fromM^^ 
 
 { .eilles). 
 
 of Bechelbronn. 
 
 In the ordinary state. 
 
 Sifted. 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 As sold. 
 
 From slaughter bouse*. 
 
 From worn-out horses. 
 
 Just out of the press. 
 
 Dried in manufactory. 
 
 Animalized with blood. 
 
 Dried in the air. 
 
 As sold by tlie melters. 
 
 Including 0-10 of Tat. 
 
 As sold by the maken. 
 
 As sent out. 
 
 From Paris. 
 
 5 From the sugar baiery of 
 
 \ Vigneuj. 
 
 Blood, lime, soot. 
 
 Dried in the stove. 
 
 ^lAPLE. Trees of the genus Acer, 
 of which seven are indigenous to 
 America ; they are for the most part 
 natives of the North and Canada, 
 where extensive forests of the sugar 
 maple exist. The wood, though often 
 beautifully ornamental, curled and 
 spotted (bird's-eye maple) from the 
 sugar-maple trees, is soft, and inca- 
 pable of enduring exposure ; it is 
 therefore confined to cabinet uses, 
 and forms excellent fuel, yielding an 
 ash from which four fifths of the pot- 
 ash of commerce is derived. The 
 maples require a deep, light soil, and 
 become fully developed on rich allu- 
 vial plains. 
 
 The white maple (.4. eriocarpum) is 
 a Western tree, ver>' early, and yields 
 a saccharine juice, from which sugar 
 is made in Ohio. The red (A. rubnim) 
 is also sweet, and yields a handsome 
 wood : it flourishes on rich bottoms. 
 The striped or moose wood {A. stri- 
 atum) is confined to the most North- 
 
 em localities, and furnishes excel- 
 lent browse for cattle. The mount- 
 ain maple (.1. viontanum) is a small 
 Northern dwarf, of six or eight feet. 
 ■The sugar maple {A. saccharinum) 
 abounds from 43° to 46° North lati- 
 tude : it often rises to 70 or 80 feet, 
 with a beautiful white bark. The 
 wood is highly ornamental. The 
 trees are tapped with a three-quarter- 
 inch auger early in March, at eighteen 
 to twenty inches from the ground ; 
 two holes are made in each tree, not 
 deeper than two inches within the 
 wood. Tubes of wood are inserted 
 into the holes, which convey the sap 
 to troughs or buckets on the ground. 
 The sap is collected each day, and 
 kept in casks until it can be boiled 
 down. All the arrangements for fin- 
 ishing the work are taken to the su- 
 gar camp, so that the boiling advan- 
 ces nearly as fast as the juice is ob- 
 tained. The boilers are of iron, of 
 fifteen to twenty gallons, and only 
 4S1 
 
MAP 
 
 half filled. The process of boiling is 
 rapid ; and if much scum rises, a little 
 butter or lard is used to hinder it from 
 flowing over : the sirup is sufficient- 
 ly strong when a small portion gran- 
 ulates on cooling. The sirup is pour- 
 ed into granulating moulds, and the 
 molasses drawn oft". 
 
 Great care is necessary as the sir- 
 up approaches the crystallizing point, 
 to prevent burning ii ; as in such a 
 case, instead of sugar, only a black, 
 wax-Uke mass will be produced, bit- 
 ter to the taste, and unfit for culinary 
 purposes. The excellence of maple 
 sugar is in a great degree dependmg 
 on the cleansing of the sirup. To do 
 this effectually, the sirup, after being 
 brought to the proper consistence, 
 should be strained and allowed to be- 
 come cool, when it will be of the 
 thickness of good molasses. Into 
 this some albuminous substance (the 
 whites of eggs are the best, though, 
 where eggs are not to be had, milk 
 will do very well) must be thorough- 
 ly incorporated by stirring, while it 
 is cool, and then, when placed on 
 the fire, suffered to remain entirely 
 at rest until on the point of boiling. 
 The albumen diffused through the 
 mass coagulates by the heat, and 
 rising to the surface, brings up with 
 it all the impurities contained in the 
 sirup. If this operation of cleansing 
 is performed skilfully, the sirup re- 
 maining in the kettle will be pure li- 
 quid, free from specks, and when 
 crystallized will make a beautiful su- 
 gar. The skimming of the sirup 
 should be carefully kept from all ani- 
 mals, for, though nearly all are ex- 
 ceedingly fond of it, it is injurious to 
 all. and fatal to many. Maple sugar 
 is hard, of a light brown, with an aro- 
 matic taste ; it yields the purest re- 
 fined sugar, and is as good as any 
 variety for domestic purposes. 
 
 The sap flows of good quality for 
 six weeks, and afterward the juice is 
 only fit for molasses. A tree some- 
 times yields two gallons daily of sap, 
 containing a quarter of a pound of 
 crystallizable sugar to the gallon. 
 The sap rapidly ferments in warm 
 weather, running into vinegar in three 
 482 
 
 MAR 
 
 or four days. This may be partially 
 averted by adding a little lime-water 
 to the juice. Three persons can 
 manage 250 trees, and may expect 
 1000 lbs. of sugar, or four pounds from 
 each. The sugar yielded from trees 
 previously tapped increases. ; 
 
 In the Western States, sugar is ! 
 made from the black maple {A. ni- , 
 grum), the leaves of which are dark- 
 er than the Northern sugar maple. 
 The white maple, from the quickness 
 of its growth, has been recommend- 
 ed for sugar plantations as far south 
 as North Carolina. 
 
 Marasmus. Leanness., wasting 
 away. 
 
 MARBLE. Limestones with a 
 granular and crystalline appearance ; 
 they are for the most part primary or 
 transition. The colours and varie- 
 gations are adventitious, depending 
 upon the presence of other minerals. 
 Good marble being entirely carbonate 
 of lime, yields 56 per cent, of lime 
 when well burned. 
 
 MARC. The refuse remaining in 
 the press after expression of fruits. 
 
 MARCESCENT. Withering on 
 the stem, like the leaves of endogens, 
 
 MARCH. The third month, in 
 which the soil is yet frozen, hut gar- 
 den operations in frames should be 
 pushed forward, manures collected 
 and carried out, and everything got 
 in readiness for the start of vegeta- 
 tion. In the South, early grains are 
 sowed, and the soil is prepared for 
 the staple crops. 
 
 MARE. Female of the horse. 
 
 MARE'S TAIL. Hippuris vulgaris. 
 A useless weed, growing in wet, 
 sandy places. 
 
 MARGARIC ACID. The acid of 
 margarine, obtained by saponifying. 
 It IS pearly, insoluble in water, but 
 readily in hot alcohol ; fuses at 140°, 
 reddens litmus, and resembles stear- 
 in. It exists in human fat and nu- 
 merous oils : formula, Ces Hoe Og -}- 
 2 H O. 
 
 MARGARINE. The solid, white 
 fat of olive and other oils. A mar- 
 garate of glvcvrine. 
 
 MARGARITIC ACID. One of the 
 fat oils peculiar to castor oil. 
 
MAR 
 
 MARGARONE. A product of the 
 distillation of inargaric and stearic 
 acids ; a white, pearly mass : formu- 
 la, C33 IIm O. 
 
 MARGARYL. A compound rad- 
 ical : formula, C34 H33 O3. 
 
 MARIGOLD. Calendula officinalis. 
 A composite plant, with bright yel- 
 low flowers, partially used in soups. 
 It is an annual, readily propagated by 
 
 MARINE ACID. Muriatic acid, 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 'marine salt. Common salt, 
 chloride of sodium, muriate of soda. 
 MARIOTTE'S LAW, BOYLE'S 
 LAW. The law which expresses the 
 constant relation between the bulk 
 and pressure of a permanent gas, the 
 elasticity or pressure being directly 
 proportional to the density, and in- 
 versely to the bulk. 
 
 MARJORA.M. Origanum. "A ge- 
 nus of well-known, pungent, and 
 gratefully aromatic herbs. The plants 
 are all of easy cultivation ; the shrub- 
 by kinds are increased by cuttings or 
 slips ; the herbaceous species by di- 
 viding at the roots. There are as 
 many as eight species, besides nu- 
 merous varieties. The species gen- 
 erally cultivated are the common or 
 pot marjoram (O. vulgarc), and sweet 
 or summer marjoram (O. majorana), 
 and bastard or winter marjoram (0. 
 heracleoticum). 
 
 " A light, dry, and moderately fer- 
 tile soil is required for their healthy 
 growth ; and if it is one that has not 
 been cropped for a considerable time, 
 it is the more favourable for them. 
 If the soil is wet or rich, they are de- 
 ficient in their essential qualities, and 
 the perennials are unable to with- 
 stand severe weather. The situation 
 cannot be too open. The sweet mar- 
 joram is propagated solely by seeds ; 
 the two perennials by seed, as well 
 as by parting their roots, offsets, and 
 slips of their branches. Sowing may 
 be performed of all the species, from 
 the conclusion of February, if open 
 weather, to the commencement of 
 June ; hut the early part of April is 
 the usual time for performing it. Por- 
 tions of the rooted plants, slips, ikc, 
 
 MAR 
 
 may be planted from February until 
 May, and during September and Oc- 
 tober. 
 
 " The sowing is performed eithei 
 in drills, six inches apart, or broad- 
 cast, in either case the seed being bu- 
 ried not more than half an inch deep. 
 
 " The tops and leaves of all the 
 species are gathered when green, in 
 summer and autumn, for use in soups, 
 &,c. ; and a store of the branches is 
 cut and dried in July or August, just 
 before the flowers open, for winter's 
 supply." — {Jo/utson.) 
 
 ^IARK. The black dot on the cor- 
 ner teeth of the horse when five and 
 a half years old. It is gone, or rased, 
 when he is eight years. 
 
 MARKETS, AGRICULTURAL. 
 " The more numerous markets are in 
 any well-cultivated country, provided 
 they are at a sufficient distance not 
 to interfere with each other, and on 
 different days of the week, the great- 
 er saving there is of time and labour 
 of conveyance. Good roads or nav- 
 igable rivers are of great importance 
 to a market-town ; and if there are 
 mills in the neighbourhood where 
 corn can be ground, they will increase 
 the advantage to the farmer by caus- 
 ing a regular demand above what the 
 immediate consumption of the place 
 may require. 
 
 " The vicinity of a good market, 
 where every kind of agricultural prod- 
 uce will always find purchasers at a 
 fair price, greatly adds to the value 
 of a farm, especially if good roads 
 lead to it ; and the advantage is the 
 greater if it be a populous town, which 
 not only consumes much produce, but 
 from w hich various kinds of manure 
 may be brought by the teams which 
 have carried the produce to market. 
 It is this which so much enhances 
 the rent of land near London and all 
 great cities, and makes the agricul- 
 ture there approach nearer to horti- 
 culture, which entirely depends on 
 extraneous manure " 
 
 MARKING INK. See Indelible Ink. 
 
 MARKING NUT. The seed of 
 the Semicarpus anacardium, a tropical 
 tree, the juice of which stains hnen 
 of an indelible black. 
 
 483 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARL. A mixture of earths con- 
 taining a largo amount of mild lime. 
 It is clayey or arjjillaceous when it 
 has the mechanical characters and 
 touch of clay, sandy when silicious, 
 and calcareous when almost entirely 
 composed of mild lime : it is also 
 shelly when full of fossil shells. There 
 is one feature common to all true 
 marls, viz., effervescence with acids. 
 Marl may be derived from ancient 
 formations, more especially the upper 
 red sandstone, but is for the most 
 part of tertiary origin, or modern, be- 
 ing produced in ponds and rivers flow- 
 ing in limestone countries. The rich- 
 est shell kinds are best, as they con- 
 tain bone earth. The value of marls 
 is precisely as the amount of lime 
 they contain. When very rich, they 
 may be burned for quicklime, which 
 much increases their activity and val- 
 
 ue. Marls seldom contain more than 
 twenty per cent, of carbonate of lime 
 associated with sands or clay. They 
 are applied at the rate of fifteen to 
 thirty wagon loads the acre, and do 
 much good by altering the texture of 
 some soils, as when a clay marl is 
 applied to sandy lands. In some ca- 
 ses one hundred wagon loads have 
 been applied. They are chiefly indi- 
 cated where the soil lacks lime, or 
 may be improved mechanically ; but 
 being, for the most part, mineral com- 
 posts, marls arc usually serviceable, 
 and often extremely beneficial, espe- 
 cially to poor, sandy lands. Shell and 
 coral sands are of the nature of si- 
 licious marls, but more active, from 
 containing organic matter. 
 
 The following analysis, by Spren- 
 gel, gives the composition of sever- 
 al kinds of marl : 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 omposition 
 
 of MarJs from 
 
 
 
 I.uneburg. 
 
 Osna- 
 
 Magde- 
 
 Bruns- 
 
 Wewr- 
 
 Bruns- .: 
 
 
 bruck. 
 
 burg. 
 
 wick. 
 
 marsh, 
 
 wick. 
 
 
 Powdery. 
 
 Stony. 
 
 Clayey. 
 
 Loamy, 
 
 Powdery. 
 
 Stonv. , 
 
 Quartz-sand and silica . 
 
 5-6 
 
 230 
 
 56-4 
 
 734 
 
 78-9 
 
 71 i 
 
 Alumina 
 
 0-4 
 
 10-0 
 
 8-4 
 
 1-9 
 
 31 
 
 4-0 
 
 Oxides of iron 
 
 4-2 
 
 1-9 
 
 6-7 
 
 32 
 
 3-8 
 
 6-5 
 
 Do. of magnesia 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 03 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-3 
 
 11 
 
 Carbonate of lime .... 
 
 85-5 
 
 35 
 
 J8-2 
 
 18-1 
 
 8-2 
 
 133 
 
 Do. of magnesia . 
 
 1-25 
 
 0-9 
 
 ''3-8 
 
 1-5 
 
 30 
 
 2-6 
 
 Sulphuret of iron .... 
 
 
 
 T-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potash and soda, combined with ( 
 silica . . . . . . i 
 
 05 
 
 trace 
 
 1-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 0-9 
 
 0-2 
 
 Common salt . • . . . 
 
 0-03 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 01 
 
 trace 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 006 
 
 0-9 
 
 21 
 
 01 
 
 0-5 
 
 trace 
 
 Phosphate of lime (bone earth) 
 
 23 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-7 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-2 
 
 Nitrate of lime .... 
 
 001 
 
 carbon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Organic matter .... 
 
 0-6 
 
 20-05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 lUO 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 The marls are usually applied on a 
 fall fallow, on the surface, and left to 
 crumble during the winter and spring; 
 they are also applied as top-dressings 
 to meadows. 
 
 The quality of any marl is ascer- 
 tained by weighing 300 grains of 
 strong muriatic acid into a flask, 
 and then 100 grains of the marl, add- 
 ing it to the acid carefully in pow- 
 der ; and weighing again after all ef- 
 fervescence has subsided, the loss 
 in the 400 grains will be carbonic 
 acid, and is about equivalent to the 
 amount of lime in the specimen, in 
 the ratio of 22 gas to 28 lime. Marl- 
 ing is particularly serviceable for clo- 
 4S4 
 
 vers, pease, beans, hemp, and pota- 
 toes. 
 
 i MARMALADE. A sweatmeat of 
 the pulp of fruit, usually of the peel 
 
 j of oranges, 
 
 MARMORATUM, In building, a 
 
 cement of pounded marble with lime. 
 
 MARRAM. The sea reed {Arundo 
 
 I arenaria). 
 
 \ MARROW. The oily fat filling 
 the cavities of the long bones. 
 
 I MARSH. A low, partially flooded 
 tract of land overgrown with coarse 
 grasses and sedges. The herbage of 
 salt marshes is often very good fod- 
 der, and regularly cut for cattle. They 
 
 I are frequently made available by em- 
 
MAS 
 
 oankments and drainage, and consti- 
 tute fertile, wet meadows. 
 
 MARSH MALLOW. AUhcea offi- 
 cinalis. An herbaceous perennial, of 
 the family Malvacat, preferring moist 
 lands, and very readily cultivated by 
 seeds, slips, &c. It is very mucilagin- 
 ous, and is used in coughs as a sirup. 
 MARSH MARIGOLD. Caltha. 
 Ornamental water plants. 
 
 MARSH MIASM. The pestilen- 
 tial emanations from marshes, produ- 
 cing agues and intermittent fevers. 
 
 MARSH MUD. The scrapings of 
 rivers, bogs, and marshes often yield 
 a fertile mud, which may contain 
 much decaying vegetable matter, 
 marl, or other fertilizing bodies. It 
 i.s, therefore, occasionally added to 
 lands with great advantage, especial- 
 ly where there is much difference in 
 the texture of the land and mud. 
 That which is black and foetid will 
 usually be best : admixture with lime 
 will greatly improve it. As much as 
 twenty per cent, of vegetable matter 
 has been found in some specimens, 
 but as the composition is very differ- 
 ent, it is best for the farmer, while he 
 recognises the utility of marsh mud, 
 to make small trials with it first, be- 
 fore going to much expense in cart- 
 ing a quantity out. It may be applied 
 in the natural state, after being ex- 
 posed one winter to frost, or compost- 
 ed with lime, animal matter, &c. 
 Thirty or more loads are applied per 
 acre, and where a different texture is 
 to be given to the land, several hun- 
 dred may be used. The point to be 
 considered is the economy of using 
 such coarse amendments. 
 
 MARSUPIALS. Quadrupeds with 
 an abdominal pouch, in vvhich their 
 young reside, as the opossum, kan- 
 garoo. 
 
 M A R T I \ G A L. A part of the 
 bridle fastened by a thong to the girth, 
 and furnished with two straps carry- 
 ing rings, throuirh which the reins 
 pass. It hinders the horse from toss- 
 ing his head. 
 
 MARUM. Bitter, strong-scented. 
 MASCAGNIN. Native sulphate 
 of ammonia, found in volcanic dis- 
 tricts. ] 
 S s 2 
 
 MAT 
 
 MASH. A mixture in hot water. 
 A soft sort of diet occasionally given 
 to horses. It is prepared by pouring 
 boiling water upon a small quantity 
 of ground malt, bran, or other similar 
 substance, m a pail, so as just to wet 
 it well. After this has been done, it 
 should be well stirred about, till it is 
 thoroughly mixed and sweetish to 
 the taste, when, after becoming luke- 
 warm, it is in a proper state to be 
 given to the animal. It is frequently 
 used after purges to increase their 
 operation, as well as after hard la- 
 bour, and in the time of disease. 
 Mashes are very useful for restoring 
 animals in these circumstances. 
 
 MASONRY. The art of building, 
 especiallv with stones. 
 
 MASSETER. The muscle which 
 moves the lower jaw. 
 
 MASSICOT. Yellow oxide of 
 lead. 
 
 MAST. The nuts of beach, oak, 
 chestnut, &c., forming admirable food 
 for hogs, and often worthy of collec- 
 tion for winter store. 
 
 MASTIC. The resin of the Pista- 
 cia Icntiscus, extensively used in ma- 
 king varnishes. Also a cement used 
 in plastering walls. 
 
 iMASTlCATION. Chewing. The 
 reduction of grains, &c., into meal 
 by the teeth. Old animals require 
 this to be done artificially for them. 
 It is very essential to health that it 
 be properly performed. 
 
 MASTIFF. The large guard dog. 
 He has .small, drooping ears, smooth 
 skin ; is variously coloured, hanging 
 lips, large jaws, and is strong, and 
 very large. 
 
 MASTOID. Small knobs or ele- 
 vations on bones, &c. 
 MATE. The Paraguay tea. 
 MATERIA MEDICA. The col- 
 lection of drugs used in medicine, far- 
 rierv, &c. 
 
 MAT GRASS. Nardus stricta. 
 An insignificant Southern grass, 
 growing un barren lands. 
 
 M A T R ASS. A chemical flask, 
 with a long neck, used for heating or 
 boiling fluids. 
 
 MATRIX. A womb. A place 
 where anything is formed. The min- 
 485 
 
May 
 
 ME A 
 
 eral in which motallic ores or choice ] viilla, and other plants. Perennial- 
 crystals are imbedded. rooted, composite herbs, overrunning 
 MATTER. Anything that has rich cultivated lands ; they should be 
 
 weight or sensible properties, as di- 
 visibility, impenetrability, extension. 
 It is organized or inorganic, element- 
 ary or compound. 
 MATTOCK. The pickaxe. The 
 
 mowed before flowering, and exter- 
 minated by cultivating hoed crops. 
 
 MEAD. A wine made by ferment- 
 ing one part honey boiled in three 
 parts water, and flavoured with va- 
 
 iron ends may be pointed or of the rious aromatic herbs, according to 
 figure of a chisel ; the handle of oak | the taste. 
 
 or ash. 
 
 MATURATION. Ripening. The 
 formation of pus in abscesses. 
 
 MAT WEED. The sea reed. 
 
 MAUL. A large mallet, or beetle, 
 to split wood. 
 
 MAW. The stomach. Maw shin 
 is the prepared stomach for rennet. 
 
 M E A D W S. " Properly, low 
 grounds on the banks of rivers, which, 
 being kept moist by their situation, 
 and also occasionally flooded by the 
 rise of the waters, are best adapted 
 for the growth of grass, and are gen- 
 erally mown for hay. 
 
 ■ \Vhen meadows are private prop- 
 
 MAW SEED. The small Poppy, erty they become much more valua- 
 which see. ble. The flooding is encouraged or 
 
 AIAXILLA. The jaw. In zoolo- . prevented, according to circumstan- 
 gy, it means the upper jaw ; in ento- ces, and, in many cases, artificial ir- 
 mology, the inferior pair of jaws. | rigation is adopted (see Irrigation). 
 
 Maxillary. Related to the if they are exposed to be too often 
 jaws, as the maxillary glands, ar- | inundated, they are protected by 
 
 teries 
 
 MAY. The most important agri- 
 cultural month. In the North, oats 
 being sowed, and the land manured 
 and in good tilth, corn planting is 
 commenced ; potatoes are also to be 
 set out ; meadows should be harrow- 
 ed where wanted, and manured ; 
 hemp and most crops are sown this 
 month ; everything is to be done out 
 of doors ; in the garden, cabbages, cu- 
 cumbers, melons, lettuce, &c., are 
 transplanted from the hot - beds ; 
 pease, beans, root crops, &c., sowed ; 
 spring budding and grafting are car- 
 ried on until trees are in leaf In the 
 South, tobacco is transplanted, the 
 young cotton plants are cleaned, 
 pease are sown in the corn-hills, the 
 sugar-cane is to be worked, and sweet 
 potato cuttings set out. 
 
 MAY-APPLE. Podophyllum pel- 
 tatum. Wild mandrake. An herba- 
 ceous perennial, growing in moist 
 woods, bearing one stem with two 
 leaves ; the roots are cathartic : the 
 yellow fruit, often two and a half inch 
 
 I dams and sluices. 
 I " The herbage of low, wet mead- 
 I ows is generally coarser and less 
 nutritious than that of those which 
 lie higher ; hence upland hay, as it is 
 called, is preferred for the better sort 
 of cattle. Good grass land, to which 
 the floods never rise, is often called 
 meadow land when the natural herb- 
 age is permanent, and frequently 
 made into hay. 
 
 " Upland meadows are very valua- 
 ble wherever there is a demand for 
 good hay. A considerable degree of 
 attention is required to make them 
 most productive. Not being annual- 
 ly recruited by flooding, they would 
 soon degenerate if some pains were 
 not taken to keep up their natural fer- 
 tility. This may be done in various 
 ways : the most obvious is to recruit 
 them frequently with the richest ani- 
 mal and vegetable manure, which, 
 being spread over the surface at a 
 time when showers are abundant, 
 that is, either early in spring or im- 
 mediately after midsummer, is wash- 
 
 es long, is acid and pleasant : it is : ed down to the roots of the grass. 
 
 worthy of cultivation. A rapid growth is thus produced, 
 
 MAY-TREE. The hawthorn. which is soon perceived by comparing 
 
 MAY- WEED. Matricaria chamo- the appearance of a meadow which 
 486 
 
MEADOWS. 
 
 lias hern rnanuiPd with that of one 
 left in its natural state. It has been 
 asserted l)y many agricultural au- 
 thors tiiat the |)ro(iuce of hay is great- 
 er when the meadows are mown ev- 
 ery year, provided they he occasion- 
 ally manured, than when mown and 
 depastured alternately. But the pro- 
 ductiveness of a meadow depends en- 
 tirely on the circumstances of soil 
 and situation. A meadow, the soil 
 of which IS naturally of a rich nature, 
 and adapted t<» produce fine grasses, 
 may he mown year after year with- 
 out any perceptible change in the 
 quality of the hay ; while another of 
 inferior quality requires to be occa- 
 sionally cropped close, to check the 
 growth of the coarser grasses, and to 
 allow the finer to rise As to the 
 effect of taking off the hay by mow- 
 ing it, compared with that of the bite 
 of cattle, there is little difference, 
 except that, in pasturing, the grass 
 is repeatedly cropped close to the 
 ground as soon as it rises to such a 
 height that the teeth of the cattle 
 can sever it. It consequently spreads 
 by the roots, and the pile becomes 
 closer. 
 
 " The urine of the cattle greatly 
 promotes luxuriant vegetation in 
 rainy weather, but in hot, dry weath- 
 er it does more harm than good. The 
 dung, when dropped on the grass, is 
 of little or no value compared with 
 what it would be if mixed up with 
 straw, earth, or peat, or diffused 
 through water in a tank. It is there- 
 fore an excellent practice to employ 
 women and children to collect the 
 fresh dung in the pastures, and to 
 carry it to a heap of earth, where it 
 may be covered up, or to a tank, 
 where it may be diluted with water. 
 
 " Of late years the practice q{ soil- 
 ing has been extensively adopted ; 
 that i.s, all the grass is mown and car- 
 ried every day in a green state to 
 cows or horses tied up in a stable. By 
 this means all the advantage of mow- 
 ing for hay is obtained, besides an 
 abundant supply of rich manure, 
 which can be applied to the land in a 
 liquid and diluted state, when its ef- 
 fect ic powerful and certain. So 
 
 much more fodder is produced from 
 the land by the system of soiling, that 
 arable fields are converted into arti- 
 ficial and temporary meadows, in 
 which tiie different species of grasses 
 are sown, in order to he cut green or 
 made into hay ; and when, from the 
 nature of the soil, the herbage degen- 
 erates, the field is ploughed up again, 
 greatly improved by this change of 
 cultivation. 
 
 "When a natural meadow has been 
 neglected, and the grass is of an in- 
 ferior quality, and mixed with rank 
 weeds and moss, it requires much 
 care to restore it to its original fer- 
 tility. In most cases, the bhoriest 
 method and the best is to plough it 
 up, clean and manure it during a 
 course of tillage, without taking very 
 exhausting crops from it, and then 
 to lay it down again in a clean and 
 enriched state, by sowing the best 
 sort of grass seeds ; or, which is pref- 
 erable, by inoculating, or planting in 
 it small tufts of grass from some rich 
 meadow, which will soon increase, 
 and produce a new and improved 
 sward. But where the soil is a very 
 stiff clay, with only a small depth of 
 good mould over it, there is some 
 danger in breaking the old sward, for 
 it will take a long time and much ma- 
 nure to reproduce a proper covering 
 of grass. In this case it is a prefer- 
 able practice to scarify the mead >w 
 by means of instruments which do 
 not go deep, but only tear up the sur- 
 face. If this is done early in spring, 
 when the ground is moist, and the 
 whole surface is brought to resemble 
 a fallow field, good grass seeds may 
 be immediately sown. If rich ma- 
 nure, mixed with lime orchalk, is then 
 spread over the land, and the whole 
 well harrowed and rolled, the old and 
 young grass will spring up together, 
 and show a wonderful improvement 
 in a very few months. It is prudent to 
 mow this renovated meadow before 
 the seeds of the grasses are formed, 
 contrary to a common notion, that in 
 a thin meadow the seed should be al- 
 lowed to shed, in order to increase 
 the number of plants. The notion is 
 good, but it should be done by sow- 
 487 
 
mi: A 
 
 MEA 
 
 ing seed which has been produced on 
 other ground ; for the ripening of the 
 seed tends to exhaust the soil. If the 
 grass be cut before the flower is fa- 
 ded, the roots will soon spread, and 
 produce a new and improved sward. 
 
 " It must be observed that it is not 
 indifTerent what cattle are turned 
 into the meadow after hay-making. 
 Horses invariably produce coarse 
 weeds by their dung and urine ; cows 
 may be depastured in autumn, as long 
 as the surface is dry ; but sheep are 
 far more advantageous, and may be 
 kept in the meadows at all times, if 
 they are not too wet for the health 
 of the sheep, and if there is no dan- 
 ger of their having the rot. As soon 
 as the surface becomes soft by the 
 autumnal rains, all heavy cattle 
 should be excluded : every tread of 
 a horse or cow at this time destroys 
 a portion of good grass, and makes a 
 hollow, in which the water remains, 
 killing the finer grasses, and produ- 
 cing rushes and aquatic plants. 
 
 " The meadows which are to be 
 mown should be shut up early in 
 spring, and those which are soft and 
 ■wet should have nothing larger than 
 a sheep in them from November till af- 
 ter hay-making time the next year." 
 
 MEADOW FOXTAIL. Alopecu- 
 rus pratensis. See Grasses. 
 
 MEADOW GRASSES. See 
 Grasses. 
 
 MEADOW SAFFRON. See Col- 
 chiaim. 
 
 MEAL. The flour of corn, oats, 
 pease, &c. A meal of milk means 
 the quantity obtained at a milking. 
 
 MEASLES. A skin disease of 
 hogs. See Hng, Diseases of. 
 
 MEASURES. See Weights and 
 • Measures. 
 
 MEASURING CHAIN. A chain 
 of 100 links, or 22 yards, used in sur- 
 veying ; the link is 792 inches. 
 
 MEAT. " L Selection of Cattle and 
 Beef. — In the selection of cattle to be 
 sent alive to market, they should in- 
 variably possess fine symmetry and 
 small bone, carrying the greatest 
 weight of beef on the most valuable 
 points, such as rumps, loins, and 
 crops ; the back well covered, the 
 488 
 
 buttocks and flanks well filled up, and 
 the whole carcass exhibiting a ful- 
 ness of flesh, excepting the necks and 
 coarser parts. They should handle 
 hard and firm, in order to stand well 
 the voyage, and handle and look well 
 in the market. Firm handlers, wheth- 
 er heifers or oxen, always cut well 
 up. An ox or heifer of these proper- 
 ties, weighing 80 stones (stone of 8 
 lbs.), will actually realize more money 
 than a coarse ox or heifer weighing 
 100 stones. Heavy cattle, however, 
 do not take readily in market, unless 
 they are remarkably handsome ; nor 
 do very light cattle, under 40 stones, 
 for two or three months in summer, 
 unless they are really neatly shaped, 
 and thick on the backs and best 
 points. 
 
 " The meat intended to be sent to 
 the carcass market should be taken 
 from such cattle as we have descri- 
 bed. It is not large quantities of 
 lean and fat that are wanted there, 
 but both well mixed. Ox and heifer 
 beef of equal quality command ti\e 
 same prices. Rumps, loins, crops, 
 and other fine parts fitted for roast- 
 ing and steaks, are more in demand 
 than the boiling pieces, and realize 
 comparatively higher prices. 
 
 " 2. Selection of Sheep and Mutton. 
 — Ripe, compact sheep, of light 
 weights, carrying a large proportion 
 of lean on the back, loins, and shoul- 
 der, with a full, round leg, and hand- 
 some carcass, are admirably suited 
 for market. Such, from 14 lbs. to 20 
 lbs. per quarter, will take readily ; 
 but they are most valuable from 16 
 lbs. to 18 lbs. The nearer the form 
 and quality approach those of South 
 Downs, the more likely are they to 
 command the top prices ; for the 
 Downs have long been unrivalled fa- 
 vourites. Pure bred Leicesters are 
 too fat, unless they are sent young, 
 and do not exceed 20 lbs per quar- 
 ter ; when above that weight, they 
 fetch inferior prices. 
 
 "The carcasses of mutton to be 
 sent to market should, of course, be 
 those of sheep such as are here rec- 
 ommended to be sent alive. Large 
 quantities of fat are not so desirable 
 
MEAT. 
 
 as a proportionable mixture of fat 
 with the lean. In using the loins 
 and other parts of very fat mutton 
 lor chops, much of it has to be pared 
 away, and sold i'or the price of raw 
 fat. The great point is to select 
 ripe mutton and sheep, for the latter 
 will stand the journey better than half 
 fat, and will not lose half the quan- 
 tity of llesh in three days as tiie lat- 
 ter. IS'o overgrown animals, having 
 masses of fat on one place and not 
 on another, would, therefore, com- 
 mand the top price ; but those having 
 plump carcasses, well mixed with fat 
 and lean, firmly and equally laid on, 
 with fine symmetry and valuable 
 points, will always command the top 
 price, both at Smithfield and the car- 
 cass markets. 
 
 "3. Selection of Lambs. — Lambs 
 are a favourite stock to send to mar- 
 ket, and they are always sent alive. 
 Leicester lambs are admirably adapt- 
 ed for the market. They are hand- 
 some, compact, thick on all the 
 points ; and although they might be- 
 come too fat when grown to sheep, 
 they cannot be too fat as lambs. 
 Their flesh is white, and every joint 
 of them looks well on the table. The 
 lambs of the cross between the Lei- 
 cester and the Cheviot and black- 
 faced ewes are next best for fat and 
 lean, and cut well into joints, although 
 they have not the handsome figures 
 of the pure Leicester. No lambs 
 should be sent to market until they 
 are at least three months old, and 
 have attained the weight of 9 lbs. or 
 10 lbs. a quarter; and if they are not 
 fat enough, and have not attained 
 that weight at that age, they should 
 be kept on. Ewe lambs are prefer- 
 red, being more delicate than weth- 
 ers, which are next in value. All 
 wether lambs, therefore, should he 
 castrated when a few days old, and 
 their tails cut short, leaving not more 
 than three inches. The docking gives 
 them a very compact form, and it 
 causes the flesh to grow up towards 
 the back, long tails giving a contrary 
 tendency. 
 
 " 4. Selection of Pigs and Pork. — 
 A very mistaken notion prevails that 
 
 pigs must be fat to suit the market. 
 The fact is quite the reverse, for 
 the larger the pig is fattened the less 
 money per pound it fetches. Pigs 
 are worth the most money when their 
 weight ranges from 3.5 lbs. to 40 lbs. ; 
 and from this weight up to 60 lbs. or 
 70 lbs. they are termed dairy fed pork- 
 ers. If, at the former weight, they 
 are of good symmetry, fine quality, 
 delicate and white in the flesh, and 
 not more than 1 inch or 1| inch thick 
 of fiit on the back, they will fetch the 
 top price of the day. Indeed, we need 
 not be surprised at this preference, 
 when we consider that only the small 
 lean and fat porkers are used for 
 roasting, chops, and pickled pork, and 
 the large, fat pigs are chopped down 
 for sausages. No pigs, therefore, 
 should be sent to market exceeding 
 100 lbs., exclusive of head and feet, 
 but which are only moderately fat 
 and of fine quality ; all other quali- 
 ties should be cured as bacon and 
 hams. Occasionally they arrive in 
 pretty good order in carcass ; but in 
 carcass, in thick weather, the flesh 
 becomes very soft, and the skin dry ; 
 and in dry weather the skin becomes 
 quite hard and brown coloured. Of 
 equal qualities, the live pig will draw 
 from a halfpenny to a penny a pound 
 more than in carcass. Feeders of 
 pigs should be careful on what they 
 feed their pigs, especially fish. The 
 retail butchers are such nice judges 
 of pork that, on buying a carcass and 
 cutting a slice, they can detect the 
 least peculiarity in taste. 
 
 " Cutting up Meat. — The mode of 
 cutting up meat is more diversified 
 even than the slaughtering ; but as 
 London is the great emporium of th^ 
 export meat trade, the method of cut- 
 ting up meat in the metropolis should 
 constitute the particular study of the 
 shippers of meat. In the carcass of 
 any animal, an ox, for instance, there 
 are different qualities of meat, and 
 these qualities are situated in differ- 
 ent parts of the carcass. All the best 
 parts-are, in London, used for roast- 
 ing and steaks, and the inferior for 
 boiling, either in pieces, or making 
 stock for soups, or minced meat, in 
 48Q 
 
MKAl'. 
 
 the various forms of pies, sausages, l into the following pieces, as may be 
 &c. seen on referring to the numbers on 
 
 "The carcass of an ox is cut up | the annexed cut {Fig. 1). 
 
 Hind Quarter. 
 
 1. Lnin. 
 
 2. Rump. 
 
 3. Itch or adze-bone. 
 
 4. Buttock. 
 
 5. Hock. 
 
 6. Thick flank. 
 
 7. Thin flank. 
 
 8. Fore rib. 
 
 "The relative value of these differ- 
 ent cuts of an ox may be stated at 
 their current value, namely, when 
 the rumps, loins, and fore ribs of a 
 line ox fetch 8d. a pound, the thick 
 flank, buttock, and middle rib will 
 fetch 6d. ; the itch or adze-bone, thin 
 flank, chuck rib, brisket, and leg-of- 
 mutton piece, od. ; the clod and stick- 
 ing, and neck, 3d. ; and the legs and 
 shins, 2(f. a pound. Such is the differ- 
 
 Fore Quarter. 
 9. Middle rib. 
 }0. Chuck rib. 
 
 11. Brisket. 
 
 12. I,eg-of-mutton piece. 
 
 13. Clod and sticking and neck. 
 
 14. Shin. 
 
 15. Leg. 
 
 ence in value of the different cuts of 
 an ox in the meat markets in London. 
 " As an object of comparison, we 
 shall also give a figure of an ox cut 
 up in the Xew-York method, as in 
 Fi^. 2, and the great difference be- 
 tween both methods may be seen at 
 a glance. It is from the American 
 Agriculturist. The prices are those 
 asked in the New-York market, Jan- 
 uary, 1845. 
 
 a b\c\d 
 
 liilL 
 
 -Vr 
 
 772. 
 1 S 
 
 The 01 as cut up for fresh ir.eat. 
 
 " a. Neck, for corning or mince I left in one whole piece, for large 
 meat ; price, 2 to 3 cents per lb. | roasts for hotels or public dinners, 
 
 "A, c, d. Chuck rib, for roasting [ and sometimes cut in two pieces only, 
 pieces or steaks. It is sometimes j If the animal be small, it may, for 
 490 
 
MEAT 
 
 moderate roasting cuts, be divided 
 into two only ; price, 7 cents per lb. 
 for roasts, and 8 cents for steaks. 
 
 " ^' /> ffy ^' '■ ^fiddle or crop rib 
 roasting pieces, also called prime 
 ribs. They are sometimes left in 
 two or three pieces, only for the 
 same reason as the chuck rib ; price, 
 9 cents per lb. 
 
 ";'. Sirloin or tenderloin steaks. It 
 is cut into thin slices, for steaks, as 
 wanted. Steaks should not be cut 
 to the required size until they are to 
 be put on the gridiron, as they thus 
 lose their juice ; price, 9 to 10 cents 
 per lb. 
 
 "A-. Sirloin roasting piece; price, 9 
 cents per lb. 
 
 " /, m. Rump steaks. The steaks 
 from I are nearly (perhaps quite) as 
 good as those of the sirloin ; these 
 pieces are also corned. If the steaks 
 be cut from I only, they are worth 7 
 to 8 cents ; if from I and m together, 
 6 cents per lb. 
 
 " n, t. Brisket, for corning, and the 
 finest corning beef in the animal, 
 when there is a full, deep brisket. 
 These pieces are subdivided before 
 corning ; price, 5 cents per lb. 
 
 "o. Shoulder, or arm, for soup and 
 mince meat ; also corned ; price, 2 
 to 3 cents per lb. It is sold, ordina- 
 rily, by the piece. 
 
 "/). Cross-piece, for roasting, and 
 also cut for steaks ; it makes a good 
 corning piece. From the cross-piece 
 is cut the shoulder clod ; cross-piece 
 is worth 6 cents ; shoulder clod, 5 
 cents per lb. 
 
 "y. Plates for corning. When 
 corned, it is cut smaller : price, 5 
 to 6 cents per lb. 
 
 "r. Flank, for corning ; price, 4 to 
 5 cents per lb. 
 
 "s. V. Thigh or round, for beef a 
 la. mode ; s, worth 5 cents, and i', 4 
 cents per lb. 
 
 " u. Navel, for corning ; to be cut 
 smaller before corning ; price, 5 to 6 
 cents per lb. 
 
 " if. Shank, for soup, or mince 
 meat, or corning; price, 2 to 3 cents 
 per lb., or sold by the piece. This, 
 as well as the shoulder or arm piece, 
 o, makes poor corned beef, and is 
 
 more economically used for soups ; 
 and, after serving that purpose, may 
 be made into mince meat or hash. 
 
 " Sometimes it is desirable to corn 
 nearly the whole of the quarter for 
 dried beef If so, m, s, and v are left 
 in one piece, / and w being taken off ; 
 / is made into steaks or corned, and 
 ic into soup or mince meat. The bal- 
 ance of the thigh, consisting of m, s, 
 and V, is cut into long, narrow pieces, 
 from the upper part of the thigh down ; 
 they are broad at top, and run to a 
 point below. When corned, they are 
 hung up to dry and smoke, and should 
 be hung up by the small or lower end. 
 " e, f, g, are the primest roasting 
 pieces in the carcass ; next come c, 
 d, h, i ; then k ; then b. Many per- 
 sons prefer k, the sirloin roasting 
 piece, to all others ; but a true epi- 
 cure in beef always chooses the rib 
 cuts ; and of the rib cuts, the crop 
 ones are far the finest. 
 
 " The butchers ask most for e,f, g, 
 h, i, _f* k. They are about equal in 
 price ; but e, f, g are more valuable 
 for roasts, and h for steaks. Prices 
 vary according to the goodness or 
 badness of the animal ; as he may 
 be good in his chine and crops, and 
 bad in his loins and rumps ; or the 
 reverse ; or equal in both ; also, ac- 
 cording to the knowledge of the 
 butcher, founded on the fancy of his 
 customers. The highest price is al- 
 ways asked for sirloin steaks when 
 cut by the butcher. Next come f>, 
 c, d, chuck rib roasting pieces and 
 steak.s, and /, the rump steaks ; then 
 m, lower part of rump, p, cross-piece, 
 q, plate, and «, navel ; r, flank ; s, 
 round ; n, t, brisket ; v, lower round 
 or thigh ; a, neck ; o, shoulder ; and 
 ic, leg. 
 
 " We would respectfully suggest 
 to all our readers to follow the above 
 directions in cutting up their beef It 
 is the most economical, as proved by 
 long experience, and will avoid all 
 waste. It separates all the pieces 
 properly, so that the good and indif- 
 ferent are not joined. If a prime part 
 be left coupled with an inferior one, 
 and roasted, the prime only will be 
 eaten, and much of the inferior waa» 
 491 
 
MEAT. 
 
 ted, or used in some other form, as 
 for hash or mince meat. There are 
 parts enough for those purposes that 
 ought not to be wasted, and should 
 not be corned. The roa.sting cuts 
 and the steaks require the juiciest 
 meat, with inlersporsod fat, making 
 what is called marbling or sparkling 
 cutting ; and the fat should not be in 
 separate masses, nor in great abun- 
 dance. The prime parts are all juic}'. 
 For corning, beef should be fat ; and 
 the proper corning parts have fat in 
 large, separate masses. If the prop- 
 er corning piece be roasted fresh, the 
 lean gets soaked with melted tallow, 
 and the roast is worthless. A\'hen 
 boiled, this does not take place. Ju- 
 dicious cutting is, therefore, of great 
 importance. 
 
 " Sheep and swine are cut up near- 
 ly in the same manner as the ox, and 
 have nearly the same relative value 
 of the different parts." 
 
 "Veal is cut up, in London, in a 
 different way from any other «rieat. 
 The knife is drawn between the but- 
 tock and itch bone, and through the 
 pope's eye, taking a sloping direction 
 through the coarse end of the but- 
 tock, leaving a flap. The piece thus 
 cut out is called ?i fillet of veal. It is 
 like a round of beef, with a part of 
 the thin flank left to be skewered 
 around it. The round bone is taken 
 out, and stuffing put into its place. 
 When the itch bone and hook bone 
 are cut from the loin, the piece is 
 called a chump of veal. The hind 
 quarter of veal thus consists of fillet, 
 chump, loin, and leg. The fore quar- | 
 ter is cut in the same manner as 
 mutton, having shoulder, breast, and 
 neck. In Scotland veal is cut very 
 much like mutton." 
 
 Jugged beef consists of the lean 
 parts of the flanks, salted, and dried 
 in the sun. 
 
 Curmg Beef for Exportation to Eng- 
 land. — '• Beef is uniformly cut into 
 eight-pound pieces, and cured, in all 
 particulars, precisely as pork (see 
 Hog), except a larger proportion of 
 saltpetre is used in packing. Beef is 
 almost entirely packed in tierces. For 
 export, tierces only should be used. 
 493 
 
 I "A tierce of prime India beef 
 should contain 42 pieces, eight lbs. 
 each, and weigh not less than 336 
 pounds nett. It should be made from 
 I well fed bullocks, and contain 32 pie- 
 j ccs of loins, flanks, ruinps, plates, but- 
 j tocks, and briskets ; 10 pieces con- 
 I sisting of four chines, two mouse but- 
 I tocks, two shells of rumps, two pie- 
 ces cut close up to the neck, with 
 j bone taken out ; no shins, thigh- 
 bones, or necks. To be well salted, 
 and capped with St. Ubes, or other 
 i coarse salt. 
 
 "A tierce of prime mess beef 
 should contain 38 pieces of eight 
 I pounds, and weigh not less than 304 
 pounds nett. It should be made from 
 ! prime fat cows or heifers ; 28 pieces 
 of prime, from loins and chines, with 
 one rib in each, flanks, rumps, plates, 
 briskets, and buttocks, with 10 coarse 
 pieces, consisting of two neck pieces 
 (not the scrag), two thighs or but- 
 tock bones, with some meat to them, 
 two shells of rumps, two, or even 
 four chines, not cut too close to the 
 neck, and two shoulder pieces, with 
 part of the blade bone in them, well 
 salted, and capped with St. Ubes, 
 or other coarse salt. The tierces, 
 whether for beef or pork, must be 
 made of well-seasoned oak, with 
 eight wooden and three iron hoops 
 on each end. 
 
 " No pains to be spared in prepa- 
 ring and putting up, as the neat and 
 tasty appearance of the packages will 
 ensure a more ready sale than if put 
 up in a slovenly manner. 
 
 " It may be useful to see the mode 
 of cutting up the carcass of an ox in 
 London. The provisions exported 
 from that metropolis rule the trade 
 in the West India Islands, and ia 
 other distant places abroad. It is 
 very proper, therefore, that American 
 packers should understand the Eng- 
 lish methods. 
 
 " The relative value of the differ- 
 ent cuts of an ox may be stated at 
 their current value, viz. : when the 
 rumps, loins, and fore ribs of a fine 
 ox fetch Sd. a pound, the thick flank, 
 buttock, and middle rib will fetch 6(/. ; 
 the itch or adze bone, thin flank, 
 
MED 
 
 mi:d 
 
 chuck-rib, brisket, and leg of-mutton 
 piece, 5d. ; the clod and sticking, and 
 neck, 3d. ; and the legs and shins, 2(Z. 
 a pound. Such is the difference in 
 value of the diffei-ent cuts of an ox 
 in the meat markets in London. 
 
 " It is well to observe that the 
 greatest attention should be paid to 
 making the brine or pickle, whether 
 for beef or pork. Pure water should 
 he used in its manufacture ; for the 
 sediment from that which is impure 
 will settle down upon the meat, and 
 give it a bad colour and a slimy feel. 
 Whether river or rain water is used 
 (and soft water sliould always be pre- 
 ferred), it would be exceedingly desi- 
 rable to tilter it through sand, or, at 
 least, to strain it. A great deal of 
 beef and pork is utterly unfit for ex- 
 portation by the use of unfiltered wa- 
 ter in making the brine. 
 
 '• In packing provisions, the tier- 
 ces, barrels, &c., should be made 
 with great care and neatness. Clean, 
 handsome ash staves are preferred, 
 and of such other hard, close-grained 
 woods as will not stain the meat. 
 Tierces should have four iron hoops, 
 or three — one at each bilge and one 
 at each chime ; barrels^ with an iron 
 hoop at each chime. The fuller hoop- 
 ed the barrel or tierce is, the better." 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. The 
 simple machines, the lever, pulley, 
 wheel and axle, rope machine, wedge, 
 and screw. 
 
 MECHOACAX. Convolvulus pan- 
 duratus. Wild potato vine. A peren- 
 nial, herbaceous bindweed, with tu- 
 berous root, of a slightly cathartic 
 property. 
 
 MECONIG ACID (from meconium, 
 opium). The acid with which mor- 
 phia is combined. It is tribasic, white, 
 crystalline, acid, and soluble in water 
 and alcohol : the solution turns red 
 when a per salt of iron is introduced 
 into it. Formula, 3 HO C14 HO,i-{- 
 G HO (Graham), with 6 atoms of wa- 
 ter of crystallization. Comenic and 
 pyro-meconic acids are derivatives. 
 
 MECONIUM. Opium. The ex- 
 crement found in the intestines of 
 new-born animals. 
 
 MEDIAS riNIJM. The portion of 
 Tt 
 
 the cavity of the chest made by the 
 folding of its membrane (pleura). 
 
 M E D I C. The genus Mcdicago. 
 The principal species is the M. sativa, 
 lucern. They are mostly small an- 
 nuals, with minute leguminous flow- 
 ers, are all very nutritious and readily 
 propagated. M. lupulina, or black 
 medic, is indigenous, but small ; M. 
 falcala, yellow medic, has been recom- 
 mended lor cultivation, and is hardi- 
 er, although not so luxuriant or suc- 
 culent as lucern : it is perennial. 
 They all prefer a dry, calcareous, 01 
 marly soil. 
 
 MEDICINES FOR CATTLE. See 
 PkarmacopcBia. 
 
 MEDIUM. In science, the sub- 
 stance in which any body is immer- 
 sed. It is called rare, dense, opaque, 
 or transparent, according to its na- 
 ture. It causes resistance to motion, 
 and, more especially, acts upon the 
 passage of light, bending (refracting) 
 It from its straight course. Astron- 
 omers are disposed to admit the ex- 
 istence of a very rare medium or 
 ether beyond the earth's atmosphere, 
 filling the space of our solar system. 
 
 MED L A R. 31espilus Germanica. 
 A European tree resembling the pear ; 
 the fruit is about two inches in di- 
 ameter, and llattened ; it is very hard 
 and austere until decayed, when it 
 becomes of a pleasant acid sweet- 
 ness. The Dutch and Nottingham 
 varieties are best ; but as the fruit 
 keeps only for a short time when 
 ripe, and is in no way handsome, it 
 is but little cultivated. The wood is 
 hard and tough, resembling that of 
 the apple and pear. It is propagated 
 in the same way as these trees. 
 
 MEDULLA. Marrow, pith, the 
 pith of herbaceous plants. The me- 
 dulla oblongata is the uppermost por- 
 tion of the spinal marrow, which is 
 sometimes called the medulla, and its 
 membranous coverings the medulla- 
 rtj sheath. The same term is used in 
 botany to designate the vessels sur- 
 rounding the pith of exogenous plants. 
 
 MEDULLARY RAYS. The sil- 
 ver grain of wood, a prolongation of 
 the pith of trees from the centre to 
 the bark, in exogens. 
 
 493 
 
\ 
 
 MEL 
 
 MEDULLARY SUBSTANCE.: 
 The whitp, internal portions of the [ 
 brain. Mcdullanj tumours contain a j 
 substance of the same appearance. 
 
 MEDULLIN. T[ie pith of plants ; [ 
 the cellulose of Payen, to a consider- ! 
 able extent. 
 
 MEERS, MERES. Pools, lakes, 
 ponds. 
 
 MELASOMES, MELASOMA. A 
 tribe of heteromerous coleoptera, of 
 a black or dark uniform colour. 
 
 MELASSIC ACID. The product 
 of heat and alkalies on solutions of 
 grape sugar ; the acid of molasses. 
 
 MELIC GRASS. Mclica. A ge- 
 nus of perennial, harsh grasses, but 
 little esteemed. M. spccwsa is the 
 only indigenous species : it grows 
 near Charlestown, South Carolina. 
 Some species are made into domestic 
 brooms and baskets in Europe. 
 
 M E L I L O T. Tnfoliu m officinale. 
 " The melilotus, or honey-lotus of 
 botanists, so called from its smell, is 
 a tall, yellow-flowered annual. It has 
 loose racemes of small flowers, form- 
 ed like those of clover, of which it 
 was once regarded as a species. 
 The melilotus has long roots, and a 
 branching stem two or three feet 
 high. It grows wild in woods, hedg- 
 es, and neglected fields. "When cul- 
 tivated in a dry soil and made into 
 hay, it has a powerful aromatic smell, 
 and, mixed in a small proportion with 
 meadow hay, gives it an agreeable 
 flavour. This plant is used in ma- 
 king the Swiss cheese called Schab- 
 zieger. It is ground in a mill, and 
 mixed with the curd into a kind of 
 paste, which is put into conical 
 moulds and there dried. 
 
 " The white or Siberian melilot (M. 
 alba) rises several feet high, with a 
 strong, branching stem, often six feet 
 high. It was strongly recommended 
 by Tliouin, in a memoir addressed to 
 the Agricultural Society of Paris in 
 1788, and has been tried occasionally 
 with some success by various agri- 
 culturists, without, however, having 
 been so generally adopted for cultiva- 
 tion as might have been expected from 
 the high encomiums pas.sed upon it. 
 It will bear four cuttings in the year, 
 494 
 
 MEL 
 
 and produces a very great quantity 
 of green fodder. It should be cut be- 
 fore the stems become woody, and 
 thus it will continue several years in 
 the ground, although it is naturally 
 only biennial. A light and moist soil 
 suits this plant best. It is thorough- 
 ly acclimated." 
 
 MELILOTUS MAJOR. Bokhara 
 clover. See Clover. It grows nine 
 feet high, but becomes woody when 
 above two feet. 
 
 MELLIPHAGANS (from fic?.i, 
 honey, and <j>a-/u, I eat). A family of 
 birds ( Tenuirostcrs), some of whom 
 feed on honey. 
 
 MELOE. A genus of coleopterous 
 insects. The wings are wanting; the 
 outer cases oval or triangular ; abdo- 
 men large. They crawl on the ground 
 and low plants, and are remarkable 
 for the blistering power they possess. 
 
 MELOLONTHIANS. The family 
 of coleopterans to which the May-bug, 
 or cockchafTer, belongs {Melolontha 
 vulffaris). 
 
 MELON. Cucumis melo. An 
 Asiatic fruit, of the family Cucurbita- 
 cecE, much improved by cultivation. 
 The best varieties are Skillman'snet' 
 ted, green-fleshed citron, green-flesh- 
 ed nutmeg, large yellow cantaleup, 
 green-fleshed Persian, pineapple, and 
 musk-scented. The first is, for the 
 most part, cultivated for the New- 
 York market. The varieties of mel- 
 on require a rich, sandy soil ; it should 
 be well prepared and rich, a spade of H 
 old dung being dug into the place .H 
 where the seeds are dropped. Sow 
 in shallow hills, five or si.x leet apart 
 each way, soon in .May. Six to ten 
 seeds to the hill will be enough, one 
 ounce serving for 100 hills : plant 
 over in ten days, if the seeds fail. 
 They are to be managed like cucum- 
 bers, two or three plants being left in 
 the hill. When fine fruit is preferred 
 to great numbers, the branches should 
 be summer-pruned after a few melons 
 are set ; otherwise, when many are 
 required, the first fruits, near the 
 centre, should be plucked off. The 
 fruit ripens in six weeks : it should 
 part from the stem readily, be very 
 fragrant, and well cracked or marked. 
 
MKR 
 
 MET 
 
 Never plant melons near other cucur- 
 bitacea;, and keep choice kinds quite 
 separate. The Persians cover tiie 
 younij melons with leaves and a little 
 earth, to obtain them larger and more 
 tender. An acre, well planted, will 
 produce 400 bushels of cantaleups. 
 Guano and a compost of fowl dung 
 are especially reputed as manures for 
 melons. 
 
 MELON, WATER. Cumrbita ci- 
 trullus. Varieties : New-Jersey, (Car- 
 olina, dark-skinned Spanish, Good- 
 win's imperial. 
 
 They require a loose, dry, sandy 
 soil, made rich as for the muskmel- 
 on ; hills six to eight feet apart. An 
 ounce of seed serves for forty or fif- 
 ty hills. The skins make good pre- 
 serves with spices. The juice is fer- 
 mented into a beer in some parts of 
 Europe : when boiled down to a 
 proper consistence, it makes a good 
 sirup. 
 
 MEMBRANE. The tissue or ex- 
 pansion of animal or vegetable mat- 
 ter surrounding the bones and lining 
 cavities. That lining the intestinal 
 and urinary apparatus is mucous. 
 The fibrous membrane covers all the 
 bones and many muscles ; and the 
 serous tissue exists on the outer sur- 
 face of the lungs and intestines, &c. 
 
 MENDING. Improving the tex- 
 ture or quality of land. 
 
 MENISCUS. A lens, concave on 
 one side and convex on the other. 
 
 MENISPERMIC ACID. An or- 
 ganic acid in Cocculus Indicus. 
 
 MENSTRUUxM. Any fluid which 
 dissolves a given solid. 
 
 MENSURATION. The admeas- 
 urement of the contents of solids or 
 areas of surfaces. 
 
 MENTUM. The chin. The low- 
 er and anterior portion of the under 
 jaw of animals. 
 
 MENYNGES, or MENINGES. 
 The membranes which cover the 
 brain. 
 
 MEPHITIS. A noxious vapour; 
 hence mepiiitic. 
 
 MERCURY. Quicksilver, fluid, 
 white, brilliant : sp. gr., 13-5 ; freezes 
 at — 40^ ; boils at 660°, rising in va- 
 pour unchanged ; equivalent, 101-43 ; 
 
 symbol, Hg. {Hydrargyrum). It is 
 soluble in nitric acid, and the oxides 
 combine; with numerous acids. Cal- 
 omel is a chloride of mercury ; cor' 
 rosivc sublimate, a bichloride, has been 
 used to preserve timber, and is one 
 of the most fatal poisons. 
 
 MERCURY, MERCURIALIS. A 
 genus of insignificant weeds. 
 
 MERIDIAN (from mcr'uUes, mid- 
 day). A great circle passing through 
 the zenith of any place and the North 
 and South Pole, on which the sun 
 comes at 12 o'clock. The magnetic 
 needle lies nearly in the meridian, the 
 departure from this line being called 
 its variation east or west. 
 
 MERINO SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 MESENTERY. The membrane 
 which binds the small intestines to 
 the back bone ; it is a fold of the per- 
 itoneum, and contains the vessels, 
 nerves, and absorbents, going to or 
 from the bowels. 
 
 MESITE, MESITEN. Substances 
 existing in wood spirit. 
 
 MESITYLENE. An oily product 
 from acetone. 
 
 MESLIN. In Spain, a union of 
 flocks ; more commonly a mixture 
 of seeds sown together, as wheat and 
 rye, oats and pease, &c. 
 
 MESO (from /^fffof, middle). An 
 affix to many compound words, mean- 
 ing the middle. 
 
 MESOCOLON. The membrane 
 surrounding the colon. 
 
 M E S O P H Y L (from ixeaoc, and 
 (^vl7.ov, a leaf). The central layer 
 of the leaf; we have also mesocarp, 
 the fleshy part of the fruit. 
 
 MESOTHORAX (from fiecoc, and 
 ^(jpa^, the chest). In entomology, 
 the posterior segment of the thorax, 
 bearing the second pair of wings and 
 third pair of legs. 
 
 MESOTYPE. The silicate of alu- 
 mina and soda ; it occurs in trap and 
 ancient lavas. 
 
 MESTA. A mixture of flocks. 
 
 META (from jiera, between). A 
 prefix to many compound words. 
 
 METABOLIANS. Insects which 
 undergo complete metamorphosis. 
 
 METACARPAL. That portion of 
 the hand between the lingers and 
 495 
 
MET 
 
 wrist ; metatarsal is the same part in 
 the foot. 
 
 METAGALLIC ACID. Galhc 
 acid changed by licat ; its formula is 
 Cij H.., O3. 
 
 METALLOID. Potassium, sodium, 
 and other alkaline metals ; it is some- 
 times applied to the inflammable el- 
 ements, as sulphur, phosphorus. 
 
 METALS. Elementary bodies, re- 
 markable for their lustre ; they con- 
 duct electricity and heat, and are neg- 
 ative electrics. The following table 
 gives their names, specific gravity, 
 and melting points : 
 
 Names of Metals. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Melting 
 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Points. 
 
 
 
 i''a/tr. 
 
 1. Gold .... 
 
 19-25 
 
 2016" 
 
 2. Silver . 
 
 
 
 
 10-47 
 
 1873 
 
 3. Iron 
 
 
 
 
 7-78 
 
 C2800? 
 
 ( Smith'efbrgo. 
 
 4. Copper . 
 
 
 
 
 8-89 
 
 1996 
 
 5. Mercury 
 
 
 
 
 13-56 
 
 —39 
 
 6. Lead 
 
 
 
 
 11-35 
 
 612 
 
 7. Tin 
 
 
 
 
 7-29 
 
 442 
 
 8. Antimony 
 
 
 
 
 6--0 
 
 
 9. Bismuth 
 
 
 
 
 9-80 
 
 497 
 
 10. Zinc 
 
 
 
 
 -7-00 
 
 773 
 
 11. Arsenic , 
 
 
 
 
 5-88 
 
 
 12. Cobalt . 
 
 
 
 
 8-53 
 
 2810? 
 
 13. Platinum 
 
 
 
 
 20-)8 
 
 ( oxyhydrogen 
 > blowpipe. 
 
 H. Nickel . 
 
 
 
 
 8-37 
 
 2810? 
 
 15. Manganese 
 
 
 
 
 6-85 
 
 Smith's forge. 
 
 16. Tungsten 
 
 
 
 
 17-60 
 
 17. Tellurium 
 
 
 
 
 6-11 
 
 620? 
 
 18. Molybdenum 
 
 
 
 
 7-40 
 
 1 ° 
 
 19. Uranium 
 
 
 
 
 9-00 
 
 ^ 
 
 20. Titanium 
 
 
 
 
 5-30 
 
 << 
 
 21. Chromium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. Columbmm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^■3 
 
 23. Palladium 
 
 
 
 
 11-50 
 
 ■ a'J 
 
 24. Rhodium 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 2.5. Iridium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sr 
 
 26. Osmium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 27. Cerium . 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 28. Potassium 
 
 
 
 
 0-86 - 
 
 136 
 
 29. Sodium . 
 
 
 
 
 0-97 
 
 190 
 
 30. narium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ST. Strontium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32. Calcium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 33. Cadmium 
 
 
 
 
 8-60 
 
 442 
 
 34. Lithium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.5. Silicium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36. Zirconium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 37. Aluminum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38. Glucinum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39. yttrium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40. Thorium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. M.asnesium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-2. Vanadium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS (from fiera, 
 change, and uopcpri, form). Transform- 
 ation. In entomology, the changes 
 the metabolian insects pass through 
 of larva, pupa, and imago. In botany, 
 the doctrine that the flowers, sta- 
 mens, carpels, and seeds are modifi- 
 cations of the leaf 
 
 METAPHOSPHORIC ACID. See 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 METASTASIS (from uera, change, 
 496 
 
 MIC 
 
 and araaic, place). The change of an 
 affection or pain from one part of the 
 body to another. 
 
 Metayer, a farmer who rents 
 land at a certain proportion of the 
 crop, usually half, the owner finding 
 tools and animals. 
 
 METEOROLOGY (from fzereopuc, 
 aerial, and ?.oyoc). The science which 
 treats of the physical changes occur- 
 ring in the atmosphere, the formation 
 of clouds, fogs, rain, winds, and the 
 phenomena of lightning. 
 
 METEORITE, AEROLITE. The 
 masses of metallic iron occasionally 
 precipitated to the earth ; they are 
 supposed to be derived from the 
 moon : showers of many hundreds 
 have sometimes fallen together. 
 
 METEORS. The transitory phe- 
 nomena occurring in the air ; thus, 
 aerial meteors are winds, tornadoes, 
 &c. ; aqueous meteors are rains, hail, 
 fogs ; luminous meteors are halos, 
 rainbows, lightning, northern lights. 
 
 METHEGLIN. Mead. 
 
 METHOL. A hydrocarbon, ob- 
 tained by distilling xyhte with sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 METHYL. A volatile, combusti- 
 ble spirit, soluble in water, closely 
 resembling alcohol, is obtained from 
 wood, and contains this compound 
 radical, symbol Me. ; formula, C2 H.-) ; 
 it has not been isolated. Numerous 
 compounds of methyl are known. 
 
 MEZEREOX. Daphne mczereum. 
 A highly ornamental shrub with pink 
 flowers, the spurge laurel .- the w hole 
 plant is poisonous. It is readily cul- 
 tivated, although exotic. 
 
 MEZZANINE. In architecture, a 
 low story introduced between two 
 taller ones. 
 
 MIASM. Malaria, infectious va- 
 pours from marshes, &c. 
 
 MICA. Isinglass, silver. A bright 
 laminated mineral of every colour, 
 elastic, and more or less transparent. 
 An ingredient in granite and most 
 ancient rocks, often occurring in 
 large sheets, and used as a substitute 
 for glass. It consists of silica, 42 ; 
 alumina, 16 ; magnesia, 25 ; potash, 
 7i ; manganese, iron, &c., 9-5 in 100 
 parts. 
 
MICA SLATE. A transition slate, 
 full of bright specks of mica mixed 
 with quartz. 
 
 MICROMETER. An instrument 
 affixed to microscopes and telescopes 
 for measuring the size of objects. 
 
 MICROPYLE. In botany, a small 
 hole over the apex of the nucleus of 
 a seed. 
 
 MICROSCOSMIC SALT. Phos- 
 phate of ammonia and soda, used in 
 blowpipe analysis. 
 
 MICROSCOPE (from lUih-pof, small, 
 and oKo-eu, I vieiv). An optical in- 
 strument which enables us to see and 
 examine objects which are too mi- 
 nute to be seen by the naked eye. 
 Microscopes are single or compound, 
 according to the nature of their con- 
 struction ; a single microscope being 
 one through which, whether it con- 
 sists of a single lens or a combina- 
 tion of lenses, the object is viewed 
 directly ; and a compound microscope 
 one in which two or more lenses are 
 so arranged that an enlarged image 
 of the object formed by one of them 
 is magnified by the second, or by the 
 others, if there are more than two, 
 and seen as if it were the object it- 
 self. A single microscope is no more 
 than a magnifying glass. 
 
 MIDDEN. A dung heap. 
 
 MIDDLE RAIL. The central rail 
 of the door, on which the lock is 
 placed. 
 
 MIDRIB OF A LEAF. The cen- 
 tral collection of woody fibres and 
 vessels ; the prolongation of the leaf 
 stem. 
 
 MIDRIFF. The diaphragm; the 
 muscle which divides the cavity of 
 tiie chest from the abdomen. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 -MIL 
 
 MIGNONETTE. Reseda odorata 
 An annual, but may become peren- 
 nial by keeping in a hot-house during 
 winter and pruning. 
 
 MIGRATORY. Of the habit of 
 migrating or moving with the season 
 to the north or south, as numerous 
 birds and fishes. 
 
 MILDEW. This is a thin and whi- 
 tish coating with which the leaves 
 of vegetables are sometimes covered, 
 occasioning their decay and death, 
 and injuring the health of the plant. 
 It is frequently found on the leaves 
 of hop, pea, hazel, fruit-trees, and 
 the white and yellow dead-nettle ; it 
 is found also on wheat, in the shape 
 of a glutinous exudation, particularly 
 when the days are hot and the nights 
 without dew. J. Robertson {Hort. 
 Trans., v., 178) considers it as a mi- 
 nute fungus, of which different spe- 
 cies attack different plants. Sulphur 
 he has found to be a specific cure. 
 In cultivated crops mildew is said to 
 be prevented by manuring with soot; 
 though by some this is denied, and 
 soot, by rendering the crop more lux- 
 uriant, is said to be an encourager of 
 mildew, the richest parts of a field 
 being always most infected by it. As 
 it is least common in airy situations, 
 thinning and ventilation may be con- 
 sidered as preventives. 
 
 Liming, the use of salt, and saline 
 manures generally act as prevent- 
 atives. The varieties of mildew are 
 many, the Puccinia graminis being 
 that" affecting wheat and grasses. 
 See TJreio. The eflTects of mildew and 
 bhght have sometimes been averted 
 by lighting fires to windward, so that 
 the smoke swept over the field, and 
 
 Fis. 2. 
 
 T T 2 
 
 497 
 
MIL 
 
 MIL 
 
 also by drawing a rope tliroiigh the 
 field and moving it across the wheat 
 or grain in the morning wiicn the dew 
 was on the plants in dull weather. 
 One of the commonest forms of the 
 white mildew that covers leaves is 
 that of the Aspergillus {Fig. \) : a is 
 the plant enlarged. The mildew of 
 roots, which destroys potatoes, &:c., 
 is usually the Rhizoctonia (Fig. 2). 
 
 MILE. 1760 yards. The sea mile 
 is l-60th of a degree, or 2025 vards. 
 
 MILFOIL. Achillea milUfolmm. 
 Yarrow. A common flowering plant 
 in meadows, marking a good soil. 
 
 MILIARY. Granulated, like many 
 small seeds. 
 
 MILK. The secretion of the mam- 
 mary glands, but especially that from 
 the cow. Its composition varies 
 somewhat, but averages per cent., of 
 curd or casein, 4-5 parts ; of butter, 
 3-2 ; milk-sugar, 48 ; saline matters, 
 •60 ; water, 86-9. The butter is held 
 in suspension in the milk, but sep- 
 arates when it is heated or much 
 shaken. The specific gravity of 
 fresh milk is 1 03. The flavour and 
 quality of milk vary much with pas- 
 ture and food ; it is also affected by 
 cleanliness. See Butter, Cheese, Cow. 
 Milk may be kept for a long time 
 sweet if heated in bottles to 180° 
 Fahrenheit and tightly corked while 
 the steam is issuing, and immediately 
 after removing it from the fire. 
 
 MILK FEVER. Puerperal fever. 
 " Cows in high condition are most sub- 
 ject to this fever. This inflammato- 
 ry disease sometimes appears as ear- 
 ly as two hours after parturition. If 
 fourorfive days have elapsed, the ani- 
 mal may generally be considered safe. 
 On the appearance of the fever, from 
 six to ten quarts of blood should be 
 taken, according to the age and size 
 of the animal. The bowels must be 
 opened, or the disease will run its 
 course ; and purging once established 
 in an early stage, the fever will, in 
 the majority of instances, rapidly sub- 
 side, leaving the strength of the con- 
 stitution untouched." Calomel pur- 
 ges are best in the first stage. 
 
 MILK CELLARS. Dairy. 
 
 MILKING. " When you milk, 
 498 
 
 take a vessel of cold water and sponge. 
 Wash the udder and teats clean, dash- 
 ing on the cold water. This will pre- 
 vent the teats from becoming sore, 
 and the udder hot and feverish. Milk 
 with clean hands. The whole busi- 
 ness of milking is frequently conduct- 
 ed in such a slovenly manner that 
 the milk is entirely unfit for food. 
 The cow should be milked while eat- 
 ing her fodder at morning and even- 
 ing. She should always be milked 
 and fed at the same time in the day, 
 and uniformly by the same person. 
 Milk without interruption. Be sure 
 to milk the cow as dry as possible. 
 To be milked by different hands, at 
 different times in the day, in a slow, 
 interrupted manner, and leaving part 
 of the milk in the udder, will ruin the 
 best cow in the world. If the cow 
 have sore teats, foment them before 
 milking with warm w-ater, and after- 
 ward dress them with the following 
 salve : Melt together one oz. of yel- 
 low wax and three oz. of lard, and as 
 these begin to get cool, rub in a quar- 
 ter of an oz. of sugar of lead, and 
 a drachm of finely-pounded aloes." — 
 (Youatt.) 
 
 MILK SICKNESS. Trembles. A 
 frightful, contagious disease, attack- 
 ing the cattle of certain districts of 
 the Western States, more especially 
 Indiana and Illinois ; one of the in- 
 fected districts lies for 100 miles 
 near the banks of the Wabash. The 
 animals are poisoned by some arti- 
 cle of food or drink ; their breath is 
 foetid, eyes blood-shot, gait stagger- 
 ing and wild ; when driven, they fall 
 into convulsions, and frequently die. 
 The milk, butter, cheese, and meat 
 of such animals are highly poisonous, 
 two or three ounces bringing on the 
 same disease in man and other ani- 
 mals in from six hours to four days. 
 In man it com.mences with foetid 
 breath, general uneasiness, lassitude, 
 loss of nervous power, vomiting fre- 
 quently with blood, loss of appetite, 
 constipation, loss of biliary secre- 
 tion, and, finally, all the symptoms of 
 low typhus fever, with nervous tre- 
 mours and delirium, the brain and me- 
 ninges becoming inflamed : it is very 
 
MIL 
 
 MIL 
 
 fatal. The cheese and butter of the 
 infected districts are abundantly ex- 
 ported to St. Louis, Louisville, &c., 
 and frequently produce fatal effects. 
 It IS probable that the extensive poi- 
 soning in this city (Xew-York) in the 
 spring of 1840 arose from cheese im- 
 ported thence. 
 
 The treatment is very doubtful, 
 but should proceed as in typhus fe- 
 vers, by sustaining the strength, and 
 allaying nervous irritability. 
 
 There seems to be much connex- 
 ion between this peculiar disease and 
 the malignant pustule, which affects 
 cattle in Europe, and occasionally 
 the seaboard states, except only that 
 it is said to be strictly local in places 
 now infested, having been so for 100 
 years, as known to the settlers, and 
 there is no pustule produced. 
 
 MILK PARSLEY. Sclinumpalus- 
 trc. A perennial, herbaceous weed, 
 growing in wet places in Europe ; 
 the roots are acrid, and said to serve 
 the Russians for ginger. 
 
 MILK, SUGAR OF. See Milk. 
 
 MILK-TREE, COW-TREE. Pa- 
 lo de leche, Galactodcndron duke. A 
 tree of Upper South America (Carac- 
 cas), of the same family as the fig 
 ( Urticacea). The sap obtained by tap- 
 ping is precisely like milk, and very 
 palatable; it contains a creamy matter i 
 like bees" wax, fibrin, sugar, an acid, 
 salts, and water. Other trees about 
 Maracaibo yield good milk, as the 
 Clusea galactodcndron. In the East, 
 at Ceylon, the Tabcrnamontana utilis 
 also yields a good milk. The rnilky 
 juice of most plants is acrid, and oft- 
 en very poisonous. 
 
 MILK VESSELS. In plants, the 
 anastomosing tubes lying in the bark 
 or near the surface of plants, in which 
 a white turbid fluid is secreted ; they 
 are one of the forms of the vital veins I 
 (latici/erons) of Schahz, the fluid being 
 called the latex. I 
 
 MILK VETCH. Plants of the 
 genus Astragalus : they are legumi- 
 nous, wholesome weeds. The A. 
 bwlicus is cultivated for its seeds, 
 which resemble cofli'ee. 
 
 MILK WORT. Plants of the ge- 
 nus Polygula, mostly annuals, with 
 
 pretty leguminous flowers ; the roots 
 are often medicinal, especially the P. 
 Senega, or snake-root. 
 
 MILL. A machine in which va- 
 rious substances are crushed or 
 ] ground bv a rotatory motion. See 
 ! Gnst Mill Oil Mill. 
 I MILLEPEDE. The thousand 
 feet ; the centipede. 
 
 MILLET. Several distinct plants 
 are known under this name, two of 
 which arc much cultivated, viz., the 
 common millet {Paiucum miliaccum), 
 and the doura or Indian millet (Sor- 
 ghum vulgare). Besides these, there 
 is a Polish millet {Digitaria sangui- 
 nalis), German millet {Setaria Ger- 
 manica), and Italian millet {S. Italtca), 
 of which the Polish only is at all cul- 
 tivated now. 
 
 Common millet rises from three to 
 four feet high, is like a reed, and bears 
 a large loose panicle of seeds hang- 
 ing on one side. 
 
 " Culture. — This plant will grow 
 upon any soil of tolerable richness, 
 though it does best on a loam. The 
 ground should be prepared as for or- 
 dinary crops. The seed may be sown 
 broad-cast, and covered with the har- 
 row. If sown early, the crop may be 
 gathered in August, though if sown 
 any time before the 25th of June it 
 will come to maturity. If seed is the 
 object, four quarts of seed to the 
 acre will be enough ; but if intended 
 principally for cattle feed, the quan- 
 tity of seed may be increased to eight 
 quarts. Birds are fond of the seed, 
 and devour it as soon as it begins to 
 ripen ; the crop should be, therefore, 
 cut before the whole has matured, 
 and while the straw is green. It may 
 be cut with a sickle, scythe, or cra- 
 dle, and should be housed as soon as 
 it is sufficiently dry. 
 
 "Product. — The product will be ac- 
 cording to the soil, and will vary from 
 10 to 30 bushels of seed, and from 
 one to three tons of forage on the 
 acre. It sometimes produces more 
 than a thousand fold return. 
 
 " Use. — We have found it an excel- 
 lent substitute for corn in fattening 
 hogs, either ground or boiled, and its 
 early maturity renders it particularly 
 499 
 
iMIN 
 
 MIS 
 
 useful for this purpose. It is an ex- 
 cellent food for poultry, pigs, and, if 
 ground, would probably be useful for 
 neat cattle and horses. The straw 
 is eaten freely by cattle, and both the 
 seed and straw abound in nutritious 
 matter." 
 
 Indian Millet. — This plant very 
 closely resembles broom corn, ex- 
 cept that the seeds are collected to- 
 gether in a bunch at the top of the 
 stalk. It grows from five to seven 
 feet high ; the seeds are round, yel- 
 lowish, and easily thrashed. It re- 
 quires the same management as In- 
 dian corn, but may be sown in much 
 closer drills. It often yields 80 bush- 
 els per acre of seed, besides an abun- 
 dant straw. The grain is good fod- 
 der for horses, cows, pigs, and poul- 
 try, and forms nearly the only bread- 
 stuff of the Arabians. The meal is 
 very much like that of corn. Eight 
 quarts of seed are enough for the 
 acre : it is sown in May on land pre- 
 pared as for corn. 
 
 MILLET GRASS. Milium. The 
 only species which appears to be cul- 
 tivated is the M. ejjusum ; this is per- 
 ennial, from four to eight feet high, 
 with a loose, spreading panicle : it 
 very much resembles the panic grass- 
 es. If the seed is sown in the fall 
 broad-cast, and raked in, it will ripen 
 in the following July. It is indige- 
 nous. 
 
 MILL-STONE. See Buhr-slone. 
 Conglomerates, or sandstones, are 
 sometimes used for coarse purposes, 
 but should not be set up for flouring. 
 
 MILL-STONE GRIT. A geologi- 
 cal formation immediately under the 
 coal, and made of beds of coarse 
 quartzoze sandstone. 
 
 MILSEY. A sieve in which milk 
 is strained. 
 
 MILVINES. A family of raptorial 
 birds, of which the kite {Milvus) is a 
 member. 
 
 MIMUS. The genus of passerine 
 birds, of which the mocking-bird {M. 
 polijglottus) is a species. 
 
 MINUERERUS SPIRIT. Solu- 
 tion of acetate of ammonia, a febri- 
 fuge. 
 
 MINERALOGY. The science 
 500 
 
 which has for its object the exam- 
 ination and description of minerals. 
 
 M 1 N I .M. A measure equal to a 
 drop of water: there are sixty min- 
 ims in a fluid drachm. 
 
 MINIUM. Red-lead, used in 
 painting. 
 
 MINT. The genus Mentha, but, 
 especially, the M. viridis, or green 
 mint ; a well-known fragrant peren- 
 nial, of the natural family Labiala, 
 used in juleps, with pease, &c. The 
 M. ■piperita yields the valuable pep- 
 permmt oil. 
 
 All the mints are creeping-rooted 
 perennials ; they require a rich, moist 
 soil, and, when cultivated for their oil, 
 are grown in beds with trenches be- 
 tween them for irrigation. They are 
 propagated from pieces of stem, set 
 in rows six inches apart each way, 
 in April : the third year gives a full 
 crop, which is continued for five or 
 six seasons. The plants are cut as 
 soon as the flowers expand, and dis- 
 tilled while fresh, with a large quan- 
 tity of water, the essential oil pass- 
 ing over with the steam, and float- 
 ing on the cooled distilled water : 
 the latter forms the best peppermint 
 water. 
 
 MINUS. Less, distinguished by 
 the mark — , and used in physics to 
 designate quantities below a stand- 
 ard ; thus, all degrees of temperature 
 below zero (0) are minus, and read 
 minus 50, — 30, &c. 
 
 MIOCENE (from /jeiuv, less, and 
 Kaivoc, recent). The intermediate 
 portion of the tertiary epoch, in which 
 some seventeen per cent, of recent 
 shells are discovered. 
 
 M I R A G E, FATA MORGANA, 
 LOOMING. An optical delusion, in 
 which ships and objects at sea appear 
 depicted against the clouds. 
 
 MIRROR. A looking-glass, spec- 
 ulum, or any polished surface, used 
 as a reflector. Mirrors are plane, 
 concave, or burning (magnifying), 
 and convex, or minifying. 
 
 MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion. 
 
 MISLETOE. Viscus album, verti' 
 cillatum. Shrubby, parasitical plants, 
 growing occasionally on large trees. 
 Manv fabulous virtues are attribu- 
 
MOL 
 
 MON 
 
 ted to it ; sheep are said to be very , 
 fond of the leaves. The white ber- j 
 ries make good birdlime, when pre- 
 pared, i 
 
 MIST. Fog. 
 
 MITES. Wingless insects of the 
 genus Acariis, inhabiting animal mat- 
 ters in certain stages of decay. Tlie 
 cheese mite is the Acanis domcsticus. 
 
 MITRAL V.\LVES. The valves 
 of the left ventricle of the heart. 
 
 MITRE. In building, the junction 
 of two pieces of wood, Sec, by cross 
 fitting. 
 
 MOCKING-BIRD. A species of 
 thrush. See Mimus. 
 
 MIXEN. A compost. 
 
 MOBILITY. Capacity tor move- 
 ment, mobile. 
 
 MODILLON. An ornament, or 
 scroll, placed at intervals under the 
 corona. 
 
 MOHAIR. The silky hair of the 
 Angora goat, used for camlets and 
 other costly stuffs. 
 
 MOLARS, MOLARES (from mola, 
 a mill). The grinding teeth, placed 
 behind the incisors. 
 
 MOLASSE. A soft, green sand- 
 stone, of the miocene epoch, found 
 in Switzerland 
 
 MOLASSES. The thick, dark 
 fluid which runs from the Muscovado 
 sugar ; it consists of uncrystallizable 
 sugar, an acid, aromatic bodies, and 
 water : when fermented, it yields 
 rum by distillation. But under this 
 name the refuse of the sugar-house 
 is also sold, a compound which is 
 more correctly called treacle. The 
 inspissated juice of the corn, maple, 
 &.C., is also called molasses by some 
 persons. 
 
 MOLE. The American mole is the 
 Scalops aquaticus, an animal distinct 
 from the European (Talpa Europea). 
 Moles live in pairs, in rich soils 
 abounding in worms, slugs, and m- 
 sects, upon which they feed ; they do 
 much good in this way, and should 
 not be disturbed unless in great num- 
 bers. They may be destroyed by set- 
 ting traps in their paths ; the trap is 
 no more than a half cylinder of wood 
 made hollow, each end of which 
 should be furnished with a ring con- 
 
 taining a noose, orloop, of horsehair ; 
 these are loosely fastened in the cen- 
 tre by means of a moveable peg, and 
 the hair stretched above the ground 
 by a bent stick capable of springing 
 up. As the mole passes, he forces 
 the central peg away when half 
 through the trap, and the spring above, 
 acting on the hair, draws it tightly 
 and strangles the animal. 
 
 MOLE CRICKET. Achcta gryllo- 
 talpa. Earth crab. A kind of crick- 
 et, with a remarkable hand like a 
 mole, by which it burrows in the soil ; 
 it devours the roots of plants, and is 
 often very injurious to meadows : 
 when found, they should be killed. 
 
 MOLECULE. An atom not ca- 
 pable of being reached by mechani- 
 cal subdivision. 
 
 MOLE PLOUGH. A plough pro- 
 vided with a deep sharp foot beneath 
 the sole to penetrate the earth. See 
 Draining. 
 
 MOLE-TREE. Euphorbia lalhjrus. 
 Spurge caper, epurge. A biennial 
 herb, the fruit of which, when half 
 ripe, is pickled for capers. It is an 
 acrid plant, and was supposed to be 
 injurious to moles. 
 
 MOLLITES (from mollis, soft). A 
 disease of the bones, hoofs, &c., in 
 which they become soft, and often 
 flexible. 
 
 MOLLUSKS, MOLLUSCA. The 
 animals inhabiting shells, and those 
 of similar conformation, but without 
 that covering : they are of low or- 
 ganization, and cold-blooded. 
 
 MOLYBDENUM. A rare metal, 
 not used in the arts. 
 
 MO.MENT, MOMENTUM. The 
 available force of a moving body at 
 any time ; its velocity multiplied into 
 its weight. 
 
 MONADELPHOUS, MONODEL- 
 PHIA (from /novoc, one, and a6e?.(pia, 
 a fratcrintij). Flowers in which the 
 stamens are united into one mass by 
 their tilaments. 
 
 MONANDROUS, MONANDRIA 
 (from fiovor, and avrip, male). Plants 
 or flowers having one stamen only. 
 
 MONAS, plural MONADS. A ge- 
 nus of extremely minute simple poly- 
 gastric infusiorials. 
 
 501 
 
MON 
 
 MOO 
 
 MON I LI FORM Resembling a 
 siring of beads. 
 
 MONKSHOOD. Acomtuni napcl- 
 lus. Wolfsbane, aconite. Handsome 
 perennial-rooted plants, witb large 
 blue flowers, inucli cultivated. Tbey 
 are very poisonous and narcotic. An 
 extract of tbe leaves of monkshood is 
 used in medicine. 
 
 MONO (from fiovo^, one, single). An 
 affix to many compound words. 
 
 MONOCHROMATIC (from jiovo^, 
 and xP^I^'^1 colour). Having but one 
 colour, incapable of decomposition by 
 the prism. 
 
 MONOCHLAMYDE.^, MONO- 
 CHLAMYDEOUS (from fiovo<:, and 
 Xkafiv^, a coat). Flowers with only 
 one envelope, or perianth, as the tu- 
 lip, lily. Those furnished with a ca- 
 lyx also, are called diclamydeous. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS, MONO- 
 COTYLEDONIA (from iiovo^, and 
 KOTvlsduv, lobe). Endbgens. Those 
 plants and trees the seeds of w-hich 
 have but one lobe, as grasses and 
 palms. 
 
 MONCECIA (from fiovoc, and oikoc, 
 a house). The twenty-first class of 
 Linnaeus ; plants which bear pistillate 
 and staminate flowers, perfectly dis- 
 tinct, but on the same stem, as In- 
 dian corn. 
 
 MONOGYNTA (from /.lovog, and 
 yvvri, a female). Flowers with one 
 pistil. 
 
 MONOMERANS (from fiovoc, and 
 (iTjpo^, a limb). A section of the co- 
 leopterous insects, in which the tarsus 
 is supposed to be formed of a single 
 joint. 
 
 MONOPETALOUS. A corolla, 
 the petals of which cohere into a tube : 
 synpetalous, gamopetalous. 
 
 MONOPHYLLUS. A calyx with 
 the sepals united. Monoscpalous is 
 used to indicate the same form. 
 
 MONOSEPALOUS. With the se- 
 pals of the calyx united into one 
 tube. 
 
 MONSOONS. The periodical 
 trade winds of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 MONSTROUS PLANTS, MON- 
 STROSITY. Plants which by cul- 
 tivation or otherwise have become 
 changed from their original forms. 
 502 
 
 MONTANT. In building, any up- 
 right piece in framing. 
 
 M O O N. The common notions 
 of the operation of the moon on 
 changes of weather, &c., have been 
 often and fully proved to be errone- 
 ous : they are altogether destitute of 
 truth. 
 
 MOONSTONE. Adulana. Sem- 
 itransparent feldspar. 
 
 MOON TREFOIL. Medicago ar- 
 borea. A species of medic. 
 
 MOON WORT. Botryclnum fuma- 
 rmdes. An indigenous, unimportant 
 fern. 
 
 MOOR. " A name given to exten- 
 sive wastes which are covered with 
 heath, and the soil of which consists 
 of poor light earth, mixed generally 
 with a considerable portion of peat. 
 The want of fertility in moors arises 
 chiefly from a deficiency or supera- 
 bundance of moisture, the subsoil be- 
 ing either too porous to retain it, or 
 too impervious to allow it to escape. 
 Both extremes occur in some moors, 
 which are parched up in dry weather, 
 and converted into a dark mud by any 
 continuance of rain. A considerable 
 portion of iron is also generally found 
 in the soil of moors, which is very 
 hurtful to the vegetation of plants, 
 except heath, furze, and other coarse 
 plants, which almost entirely cover 
 the moors. This iron is carried down 
 through the light surface-soil, and, if 
 it meets with a less porous eartli be- 
 low, is frequently deposited in a thin 
 layer, cementing the particles of si- 
 licious sand, which are carried down 
 with it, and forming what is called 
 the hcatk-pan or moor-band. This sub- 
 stance is perfectly impervious to wa- 
 ter, and wherever it exists in a con- 
 tinous state, all attempts at improve- 
 ment are vain, till it is broken through 
 or removed. The roots of trees oc- 
 casionally find a passage through in- 
 terstices or fractures of the pan, and 
 then often grow luxuriantly. But 
 wherever young trees are planted, 
 without the precaution of breaking 
 through the moor-band, they invaria- 
 bly fail, and disai)i)oint the expecta 
 tions of the planter, who, seeing fine, 
 large trees growing around, naturally 
 
MOO 
 
 MOO 
 
 imagined that the soil was peculiarly 
 fitted for them. If the stump of a 
 large tree, which has been cut down, 
 is grubbed up, pieces of the moor- 
 band may often be seen all around 
 the stem, at a short depth below the 
 surface, so arranged as to show evi- 
 dently that the tap-root, having found 
 an aperture, and extending its fibres 
 downward into a better soil, has, in 
 swelling, broken the pan and pushed 
 it aside. When the moor consists of 
 a loose, peaty earth of little depth in- 
 cumbent on a rock, as is the case in 
 many mountainous countries, no art 
 can fertilize it. In dry weather the 
 whole surface has the appearance of 
 a brown powder like snuf^", which be- 
 comes a spongy peat as soon as it 
 is soaked with rain. The hardiest 
 heaths and mosses alone can bear 
 this alternation ; and where the sub- 
 stratum of rock is not broken into 
 crevices through which the roots pen- 
 etrate, ail vegetation ceases except 
 mosses and lichens. 
 
 " ^foss land is often confounded 
 with moor ; but it is very distinct in 
 its nature. Moss land is produced by 
 the accumulation of aquatic plants, 
 and its origin is chiefly vegetable. 
 When it has a considerable depth, 
 and its substance has lost all power 
 of vegetation, it forms peat bogs of 
 more or less consistency, as the wa- 
 ter is dramed otf or retained in its 
 pores. In the latter case it appears 
 like a spongy vegetable mass, con- 
 sisting almost entirely of fibres, so 
 interwoven as to form a very light 
 substance, in which water is'easily 
 retained, which keeps up a kind of in- 
 ternal vegetation, by which the quan- 
 tity of the moss is gradually increas- 
 ed. This is the substance which cov- 
 ers the surface of bogs, and where it 
 is of some consistence it allows a 
 passage over them ; but where it is 
 very thin and loose it deceives the 
 eye by an appearance of solidity, like 
 that of a smooth, green pasture, 
 which, however, gives way to the 
 pressure of the foot, and allows it to 
 sink through it with very little resist- 
 ance. The only way to improve 
 moss is to drain it, and then convert 
 
 the vegetable matter of which it is 
 composed into soil, by means of lime 
 and pressure. The latter is efTccled 
 by putting on a considerable quantity 
 of earth, especially sand and gravel, 
 which, incorporating with the moss; 
 consolidates it, and assists the lime 
 in decomposing the vegetable fibre. 
 After this it becomes extremely fer- 
 tile, producing abundant crops of po- 
 tatoes and oats ; and whenever it has 
 acquired sufiicient solidity by the 
 treading of sheep and cattle, it will 
 produce good crops of wheat, or, if 
 laid down to grass, give abundance 
 of hay and pasture. Trees do not 
 thrive in mossy soil, there being too 
 little solidity for the roots, and the 
 large trunks which are frequently 
 found in bogs must have grown be- 
 fore the moss was formed. This may 
 be easily imagined. A wood laid flat 
 by a storm or hurricane may obstruct 
 the natural flow of the waters, and 
 cause them to accumulate. The pros- 
 trate trees become surrounded by 
 aquatic plants, which spread their 
 fibres and roots freely through the 
 water, and, decaying, make room for 
 others. Thus the trees are gradually 
 covered and buried in the moss till 
 future generations find them, when 
 the moss or bog is explored for fuel 
 or for improvement. The trees which 
 are found buried in mosses frequent- 
 ly show evident signs of having been 
 gradually covered. The upper sur- 
 face is often decayed and uneven, 
 while the lower surface shows that 
 it has remained submerged and pro- 
 tected from the contact and influence 
 of the air, and has thus been preserv- 
 ed from rottins " — {W- L. Rham.) 
 
 MOOR-BAND PAN. The incrus- 
 tation produced in some ferruginous 
 soils. See Muor. The pan may be 
 calcareous in limestone soils, and 
 when not very hard can be destroy- 
 ed bv the subsoil plough. 
 
 MOOR GR.\SS. Scsleria dactylo- 
 ides. An unimportant Southern grass. 
 
 MOOSE. Cervus alecs. The lar- 
 gest of the deer genus. They live in 
 troops in swampy places, and are con- 
 fined to the northern portions of the 
 States, and to Canada. 
 
 503 
 
MOU 
 
 MOR 
 
 MOOSE EI.M. The red elm. 
 
 MOOSE WOOD. Acer striatum. 
 The striped maple. Thi.s term is also 
 applied to the Dirca ■paltistns,ox\edi\.\\- 
 er wood. 
 
 MORAINE. The longitudinal 
 masses of stones and rubbish found 
 at the bases and along the edges ol 
 great glaziers, or in places where 
 they have existed. 
 
 MOR.^SS. Swampy moor land. 
 
 MORDANT. A substance which 
 unites chemically with the fibre of 
 wool, cotton, &c., and with the col- 
 ouring matter also, forming with both 
 insoluble compounds. See Cotton 
 Dyemg. Acetate of alumina, alum, 
 solution of tin, and pyrolignite of iron 
 (red liquor) are the most important 
 mordants. 
 
 MORDELLA. A genus of coleop- 
 terans, now the type of a family, Mar- 
 dellidcp. They are heteronierans, with 
 an elevated and arched body, low 
 head, thorax semicircular, or trape- 
 zoid, elytra very short, pointed at the 
 tips. 
 
 MOREL. Morchdla esculcnla. Lat- 
 ticed mushroom. An edible mush- 
 room much esteemed in Europe, 
 where it is stuffed with force-meat, 
 and fried for the table. It grows in 
 woods, has a wide, hollow stalk two 
 inches high, with a yellowish or gray- 
 ish ribbed head, of small width, arid 
 two or three inches deep. 
 
 MOROCCO LEATHER. The true 
 sort is of goat's skins, tanned on the 
 grain side ; but sheep skins are often 
 sold. The skins are first steeped in 
 a fermenting mixture of bran and 
 water for a few days, worked on the 
 horse, steeped twelve hours in fresh 
 water, and rinsed. They are then 
 steeped in lime-pits until the hair can 
 be removed, cleansed, and the sur- 
 face dressed with hard schist to ex- 
 pel the lime. They are then work- 
 ed on the horse-beam, and subjected I 
 afterward to a species of fulling by 
 being agitated by pegs in a revolving | 
 cask with water. 
 
 The skins are again immersed a 
 
 night and day in a fermentmg bath, 
 
 worked, and salted for dyeing. They 
 
 are first mordanted by solution of tin 
 
 504 
 
 or alimi, two skins being sowed to- 
 gether to make a bag to hold the fluid, 
 and the colour given by a solution of 
 cochineal, in cream of tartar and wa- 
 ter. 
 
 MOROXITE. A native phosphate 
 of lime of a mulberry colour. 
 I MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid 
 tound in the bark of the white mul- 
 berry-tree. 
 I MORPHIA. The active narcotic 
 • principle of opium. It is extremely poi- 
 sonous : composition, 72 34 carbon, 
 } 6-36 H . 5 N., 16 3 oxygen.— ([//•£.) 
 
 MORPHOLOGY (from /iop0;/, 
 \ form, and /.oyor, a discourse). The 
 ' doctrine of the metamorphosis of 
 I)lants, from which it appears that pe- 
 1 tals, stamens, and carpels are merely 
 modified leaves ; that their position 
 and mode of development are similar 
 with that of leaves. A seed is also 
 analogous to a leaf bud. 
 [ MORTAR. " This is composed of 
 quicklime and sand, reduced to a 
 paste with water. When dry, it be- 
 comes as hard as stone and as dura- 
 ble ; and adhering very strongly to 
 the surface of the stones which it is 
 employed to cement, the whole wall, 
 in fact, becomes nothing else than 
 one single stone. The bricks or stones 
 should be dipped in water before mor- 
 i tar is added, otherwise it does not 
 j adhere to them so perfectly. But 
 this effect is produced very imper- 
 ! fectly unless the mortar be very well 
 I prepared. The lime ought to be pure, 
 i completely free from carbonic acid, 
 i and in the state of a very fine pow- 
 der ; the sand should be free from 
 clay, and partly in the state of fine 
 sand, and partly in that of gravel ; 
 j the water should be pure, and if pre- 
 I viously saturated with lime, so much 
 j the better. The best proportions, ac- 
 i cording to the experiments of Doctor 
 j Higgins, are three parts of fine sand, 
 I four parts of coarse sand, one part of 
 quicklime, recently slacked, and as 
 I little water as possible. The stony 
 j consistence which mortar acquires is 
 ] owing partly to the absorption of car- 
 I bonic acid, but principally to the com- 
 ■ bination of part of the water with the 
 , lime. This last circumstance is the 
 
MOR 
 
 reason that, if to common mortar one j 
 fourth part of lime, reduced to pow- 
 der without being slacked, be added, I 
 the mortar, when dry, acquires much 
 greater solidity than it otherwise 
 would do. This was first proposed 
 by Loriot ; and afterward Morveau 
 found the following proportions to an- 
 swer best ; 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Fine s.ind 3 
 
 Cement of well-baked bricks .... 3 
 
 Slacked lime 2 
 
 Unslacked lime _2 
 
 10 
 
 The same advantages may be ob- 
 tained by using as little water as pos- 
 sible in slacking the lime. Higgins 
 found that the addition of burned 
 bones, in the proportion of not more 
 than one fifth of the lime employed, 
 improved mortar by giving it tenaci- 
 tv, and rendered it less apf to crack." 
 ' M O R T A R, H Y D R AU L I C. 
 " When a little clay is added to mor- 
 tar, it acquires the important property 
 of hardening under water, so that it 
 may be employed by the farmer in 
 places whicii are constantly exposed 
 to the action of water. Limestone is 
 found not unfrcquently mixed with 
 clay; and in that case it becomes 
 brown by calcination, instead of white. 
 These native limestones are employ- 
 ed for making leater mortar ; but 
 good water mortar may be made by 
 tlie followiuL^ process : Mix together 
 four parts of blue clay, six parts of 
 black oxide of manganese, and 90 
 parts of limestone, all in powder ; 
 calcine this mixture to expel the car- 
 bonic acid ; mix it with 60 parts of 
 sand, and form it into a mortar with 
 a sufficient quantity of water. The 
 best mortar for resisting water is 
 made by mixing lime with puzzolano, 
 a volcanic sand brought from Italy. 
 Morveau informs us that basalt, which 
 is very common, may be substituted 
 for puzzolano. It must be heated in 
 a furnace, thrown while red-hot into 
 water, and then passed through a 
 
 MORTIFICATION. Gangrene ; 
 
 the death of a part of the body. When 
 
 it occurs in the limbs, a distinct line 
 
 of separation of a red colour may he 
 
 I' r 
 
 MOS 
 
 seen between the mortified and living 
 parts ; the limb should be removed 
 as soon as possible above the healthy 
 part. Mortification of internal or- 
 gans, when extensive, is necessarily 
 fatal ; when it comes on, there is 
 great loss of strength, freedom from 
 pain, usually a disagreeable or gan- 
 grenous odour, delirium, cold sweats, 
 and death. The lungs are most sub- 
 ject to gangrene, as a consequence 
 of inflammation. Sloughs and spha- 
 celus are small portions of gangrenous 
 flesh removed from wounds. 
 
 MORTISE. Tiie union of two pie- 
 ces of wood or other substance, by 
 introducing one into a hole made in 
 the other : the former is called the 
 tenon. 
 
 MORUS. The generic name of 
 the mulberry, now often applied to 
 the Chinese, or M. muUicauUs. 
 
 MOSAIC WORK. Inlaying pave- 
 ments, walls, &c., with' small dies of 
 different shapes, colours, and mate- 
 rials, more especially to represent 
 historical subjects. 
 
 MOSSES. Musci. In common 
 language, any minute, small-leaved, 
 cryptogamic plants. Thus, club-moss 
 is a lycopodium ; Iceland and rein- 
 deer mosses are lichens, and the nu- 
 merous species of Jungermannia are 
 all comprehended under the same 
 term ; but in systematical botany, 
 no plants are considered mosses ex- 
 cept such as belong to the natural or- 
 der BniacecE or Musci. Such plants 
 are sitri pie-leaved, without spiral ves- 
 sels or stomata ; with a distinct ax- 
 is of growth, and with the sporules, 
 or reproductive matter, enclosed in 
 cases, called sporangia or thecae, cov- 
 ered by a cap or calyptra ; they have 
 cases, called staminidia, containing 
 I powdery matter. None of the moss- 
 i es are of any known use, except for 
 the purpose of packing plants, and 
 surrounding their roots when they 
 are sent to a distance. 
 
 MOSS LANDS, or MOSSES. See 
 Moor. 
 
 MOSS IN PASTURES. See Mead- 
 owx. Scarifying and manuring with 
 ashes form the most ready method of 
 treatinff Uu* defect. 
 
 505 
 
MOT 
 
 MUU 
 
 MOTH. The perfect insect of an 
 extensive class of lepidoineroiis in- 
 sects, furnished with scaly wings. 
 The houschuld nuisances known un- 
 der this name are usually of the tribe 
 tineans ( Tineada). The clothes moth 
 is the Tinea vcslianclla; the carpet 
 moth, T. tapetzella; the fur moth, T. 
 jiellionella. 
 
 They lay their eggs in the spring, 
 and the moth dies immediately after ; 
 their eggs are hatclied in 15 days ; 
 the white caterpillars begin at once 
 to feed on the fabric, covering them- 
 selves with fragments of its texture, 
 which they mould into a tube. With 
 these protections they move about 
 all the summer; in the autumn they 
 fix their habitation, remain torpid in 
 the winter, change to crysalids in 
 spring, and some twenty days after, 
 in May and June, come cut as moths 
 to lay their eggs in the evenings. 
 
 Preventives^ — In spring bring out 
 all the clothing, feathers, &c., sub- 
 ject to their ravages, expose them to 
 the sun for some hours, taking care 
 to brush and shake them thoroughly ; 
 by this means the insects are dis- 
 lodged. When they are in the crev- 
 ices of walls, &c., all suspected pla- 
 ces should be reached with spirits of 
 turpentine or tobacco smoke. There 
 should be placed in clothes-drawers 
 camphor, tobacco leaves, pennyroyal, 
 and lavender ; it is found, also, that 
 cedar wood is offensive to moths. 
 Where there is no cause against it, 
 substances infested may be dipped in 
 boiling water, or a solution of corro- 
 sive sublimato, "which is a violent poi- 
 son. 
 
 The Tinea granella sometimes at- 
 tacks stored wheat and other grains, 
 but they are destroyed by kiln-drying 
 at 180° Fahrenheit. 
 
 MOTHER-W^\TER. In chemis- 
 try, the solution from which crj'stals 
 have been obtained, and which furnish 
 a second supply when evaporated. 
 
 MOTION. " In mechanical philos- 
 ophy, motion is the change of place ; 
 that is, of the part of space which 
 the body occupies, or in which it is 
 extended. Motion is real or absolute 
 when the moving body changes its 
 506 
 
 place in absolute space ; it is relative 
 when the body changes its place only 
 with relation to surrounding bodies; 
 and it is apparent when the body 
 changes its situation with respect to 
 other bodies that appear to us to be 
 at rest. All the phenomena of mo- 
 tion are derived by mathematical de- 
 ductions from the three I'oUowing 
 laws of motion of Newton : 
 
 " 1 . A body must continue forever in 
 a state of rest, or of uniform motion in 
 a straight line, if it be not disturbed by 
 the action of an external cause. 
 
 " 2. Every change of motion pro- 
 duced by any external force is pro- 
 portional to the force impressed, and 
 in the direction of the straight line in 
 which the force acts. 
 
 "3. Action and reaction are equal, 
 and in contrary directions ; that is, 
 equal and contrary changes of mo- 
 tion are produced on bodies which 
 mutually act on each other." 
 
 MOTOR. Producing motion. 
 
 MOTTLED. Maculalus. Stained 
 with coloured blotches or dots 
 
 MOULD. Finely divided soil, rich 
 in vegetable matter : it is to be dis- 
 tinguished from decayed leaves, &c., 
 which constitute vegetable mould or 
 humus. 
 
 M O U L D-B A R D. The large 
 curved side of a plough, which turns 
 the furrow slice. 
 
 MOULDEB.ERT, MOLLEBART. 
 A Flemish levelling machine, figured 
 in the article Barren Lands. 
 
 MOULDINESS, MOULD, MII^ 
 DEW. Minute cryptogamic plants, 
 of a grayish aspect usually, but of all 
 colours, which appear upon damp 
 linen, cotton, and vegetable substan- 
 ces, as bread ; they belong to the 
 genera Aspergillus, Mucor. and other 
 mucedines, and are to be avoided only 
 by dryness, and proper exposure to 
 the sun and dry air. The genera 
 which appear on plants, as the hop, 
 pea, &c., are very numerous. 
 
 M O U L D 1 N G. The curved or 
 straight lines, or fillets, used in archi- 
 tecture, as decorations, or members 
 of the common orders. 
 
 MOULTING. Change of plumage. 
 It takes place annually for the entire 
 
MOW 
 
 plumage, and also partially whrre 
 feathers of new colours are produced. 
 
 MOUNTAIN ASH. Pyms aucu- 
 partd. Rowan-tree. A handsome ex- 
 otic shrubbery-tree, with beautiful 
 hunches of red berries, which are oc- 
 casionally prepared by soaking in wa- 
 ter, and preserved as a sweetmeat. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LAUREL. Kalmia 
 lalifolia. A handsome shrubbery 
 plant ; the flowers are poisonous. It 
 sometimes grows to 15 or 20 feet. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. The 
 strata of this material immediately 
 below the coal measures. 
 
 MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY. Be- 
 lula Icnta. The black birch. 
 
 MOUNTAIN RICE. Oryzopsisas- 
 perifolia. A perennial, native of the 
 South ; culm almost naked, leaves 
 rigid, erect, and sharp at the point ; 
 flowers in a panicle ; height IS inch- 
 es : flowers in May. 
 
 MOURAT. A name given to the 
 brown wool of some sheep. 
 
 MOUSE. Several species of the 
 genus ^[us, of the family Rodenlia. 
 They are the food of cats, the terrier 
 family of dogs, hedgehogs, snakes, 
 and owls. Mice not only destroy the 
 products of the farm, but, when they 
 are shut out by well-made granaries, 
 gnaw the trunks and roots of trees, 
 doing much mischief to the orchard. 
 See Field Mice. Numerous common 
 traps are contrived for their capture. 
 The carbonate of barytes is recom- 
 mended in the Mark Lane Express as 
 a poison in the place of arsenic ; a 
 drachm should be mixed in the food 
 for each mouse, which should also be 
 flavoured with oil of anise seed to at- 
 tract them. The removal of grain 
 stacks is a good occasion to destroy 
 mice and rats : let the stack be sur- 
 rounded at four feet by a few stakes, 
 some four feet high ; stretch around 
 these either hurdles or a coarse can- 
 vass, so that the vermin cannot es- 
 cape underneath ; as the grain is re- 
 moved, they will attempt to run away, 
 and may be killed by sticks within 
 the enclosure. 
 
 M W. The mass of hay, straw, 
 grain, &c., put up to dry and be pre- 
 served. 
 
 MUC 
 
 MOW-BURNED. Injured by fer- 
 mentation in the mow. Fodder, when 
 too green, heats rapidly, becomes 
 black, and acquires a bituminous 
 taste ; this is disagreeable, and some- 
 times injurious to cattle. 
 
 MOWING. The operation of cut- 
 ting down grass or other crops with 
 a scythe. The instruments used 
 are the common scythe, the cradle- 
 scythe where grain is cut, and the 
 Hainhault scythe and hook, which 
 answers for heavy crops. The op- 
 eration is extremely fatiguing, and 
 requires great strength and practice 
 from youth, as the body is swung 
 round in a very unusual manner. 
 
 MOWING MACHINES. See 
 Reaping Machines. 
 
 MOXA. A conical mass of calico 
 or linen, rolled tightly, and with a 
 base of half an inch or more ; used 
 to produce a sore on the skin in cer- 
 tain diseases. The moxa, being pla- 
 ced on the part selected, is set oa 
 fire at the upper part, and, burning 
 slowly downward, acts as an actual 
 cautery. The sore is kept open by 
 being dressed with basilicon, savin, 
 and irritating ointments, and serves 
 as an issue. 
 
 MOYA. Mud poured out by vol- 
 canoes. 
 
 MUCIC ACID. An acid produced 
 by the action of nitric acid on gum 
 and sugar of milk. It is a white, 
 crystalline powder, feebly acid, solu- 
 ble in six parts boilmg water, and 
 insoluble in alcohol. It is bibasic. 
 Formula, C12 Hs Om -f- 2 HO. It was 
 formerly called saccholactic acid. 
 Mucic acid is converted into the py- 
 romucic by dry distillation. Cm H3 O5 
 -j- HO. Both these acids form chlo- 
 ro compounds with chlorine. 
 
 MUCIL.\GE. A thick solution of 
 gimi in w^ater. The ropy fluids ex- 
 tracted from certain plants by pres- 
 sure are also called mucilage. 
 
 MUCIVORA. A family of dipte- 
 rous insects, which feed on the juices 
 of plants and decaying matters. 
 
 MUCK. A vulgar name for peat, 
 marsh mud, and decaying vegetable 
 matter generallv. 
 
 MUCOUS MEMBRANE. The 
 507 
 
MUL 
 
 MUL 
 
 membrane which lines the mouth, 
 nostrils, exterior of tlie eyes, lungs, 
 stomach, intestines, bladder, and uri- 
 nary apparatus. It secretes an ani- 
 mal fluid, uuiciis, by which it is moist- 
 ened and [)r()tectcd from tlie contact 
 of air and other substances. Irrita- 
 tions and inflammations are very 
 common, and do not extend so rap- 
 idly as in otber membranes. They 
 are usually subdued by bleeding, ca- 
 thartics ; or special medicines, when 
 the lungs or urinary membrane is at- 
 tacked. 
 
 MUCIIONATE. In botany, a leaf 
 or other organ, having a rounded ex- 
 tremity, tipped with a sharp point or 
 prickle. 
 
 MUCUS. The viscid, ropy secre- 
 tion of the mucous membrane. It 
 contains five per cent, solid matter 
 (albumen), and is azotized. 
 
 MUD. The fine particles of earth 
 and organic matters suspended in 
 rivers, &c., and deposited by subsi- 
 dence. When mellowed by exposure 
 to frost, and composted with one 
 bushel of lime to tbe cubic yard, it 
 makes a good amendment to loose, 
 thin soils, destitute of humus. 
 
 MUD WALLS. See Cottages. 
 
 MUDAR. Calotropis giganica. 
 An asclepiadeous plant, used medi- 
 cinally in scrofula in the East. 
 
 MUFF L E. A serai-cylindrical 
 vessel of earthen-ware, capable of re- 
 sisting a high temperature, in which 
 crucibles are placed in assaying, and 
 by which means they are exposed to 
 a great heat without coming in con- 
 tact with the fuel. The upper, curv- 
 ed side, is usually cut into slits, to 
 allow the passage of reflected heat. 
 
 MUGWORT. Artemisia xndgaris. 
 A kind of wormwood. It is used in 
 decoction, as a weak stomachic bit- 
 ter. 
 
 MULBERRY. The genus Morus. 
 They prefer a moist, deep, loamy soil, 
 and good exposure. The mulberries 
 are readily propagated by layers and 
 cuttings put down in spring. The 
 black fruit {M. nigra) mulberry grows 
 to a large size. The fruit is rather 
 sickly, and used as a sirup in medi- 
 cine. There is a red variety. The 
 ri08 
 
 wood is yellow, and tolerably hard ; 
 it is used in carving and turning. 
 The bark makes strong ropes, when 
 separated by steeping in water and 
 twisted. A common wine is made 
 from mulberries in some parts of Eu- 
 rope. The bark of the root is a ver- 
 mifuge and cathartic. 
 
 The wild mulberry {Mortis rubra) 
 of the United States yields smaller 
 and pleasant fruit. The M. tarlanca 
 of the north of Europe yields an in- 
 sipid fruit, which is, however, pre- 
 served, dried, and made into a wine 
 and spirit. 
 
 The 31. tinctoria, or yellow mulber- 
 ry, yields the fustic of commerce. 
 See Fustic. 
 
 The white Italian mulberry {M. 
 alba) is a small tree of 15 to 20 feet, 
 and extensively cultivated in France 
 and Italy as food for silk-worms. 
 This tree has been much developed 
 and improved. From it the choice 
 Moretta, Provence, and Lombardy 
 mulberries, for silk culture, have been 
 obtained. The multicaulis, Broussa, 
 and Canton, with the hybrid multi- 
 caulis, are most suitable for silk cul- 
 ture in the United States, especially 
 the last, which can bo cut down to 
 the roots annually, and thus kept per- 
 fectly free of frost, for all the mul- 
 berries are tender with respect to 
 climate. The Broussa and white 
 yield the earliest foliage, but that of 
 the latter is too small. 
 
 The paper mulberry {Broussonetia 
 papyrifcra) is a tree of some 20 feet, 
 cultivated, in China and .Japan, for 
 the paper which is made from the 
 bark of the young shoots. The bark 
 is steeped in water, then boiled, 
 washed, and beaten into a pulp ; this 
 pulp, being put into water, separates 
 like grains of meal ; to this a miTci- 
 lage from rice and the root of the 
 manihot is added, to give it consist- 
 ence ; it is then spread, pressed, and 
 dried. The juice of the tree also 
 furnishes a glutinous varnish, used 
 in gilding. The inner bark of the 
 same tree supplies the Otaheitans 
 with a white cloth. The muUicau- 
 lis and other varieties, treated in the 
 same way, make a coarse paper ; the 
 
MUL 
 
 MUR 
 
 the pulp is best prepared by steam- 
 ing. 
 
 MULBERRY CALCULUS. A 
 stone of the bladder of the colour 
 and appearance of the mulberry fruit, 
 and consisting of oxalate of linie. It 
 is uncommon. 
 
 MULCH. Straw or litter half rot- 
 ted. Shrubs surrounded with it are 
 said to be mulched. 
 
 MULE. "The well-known off- 
 spring of the ass and the mare, or of 
 the she ass and the horse. In the 
 latter case, the produce is called a 
 jennet, and is much less hardy, and 
 therefore rarely bred. The term 
 mule is generally applied, in the ani- 
 mal creation, in the same sense with 
 hybrid in the vegetable world, signi- 
 fying tiie intermixture of two distinct 
 species. Mules are very hardy ani- 
 mals, and therefore much used in 
 warm climates, where they are pre- 
 ferred to horses, either for the pur- 
 poses of draught or carriage. No 
 animal is more sure-footed or more 
 hardy ; but the pace of the mule is 
 disagreeable to those unaccustomed 
 to its action. The diseases to which 
 the mule is liable are few. He at- 
 tains double the age of the horse, 
 and is much more easily maintained. 
 The mules of the South of Europe 
 are frequently very fine animals, 16 
 or 17 hands in height, active, hand- 
 some, and peculiarly patient of la- ^ 
 hour, but very inferior in beauty to 
 the horse, particularly about the head 
 and tail. The importation of Span- 
 ish jacks has tended greatly to im- 
 prove mules, many of which, when 
 bred with care, are sufficiently thick- 
 set and heavy for all those purposes 
 in which our largest draught-horses 
 are employed. I 
 
 "To have large and handsome I 
 nmles, the mare should be of a large 
 breed, well proportioned, with rather 
 small limbs, a moderate-sized head, 
 and a good forehead ; and the ass I 
 should be of the large Spanish breed." I 
 They are incapable of propagation. I 
 
 MULING. Hvbridizmg. ^ee Hy- i 
 brid. ' j 
 
 MULLEIN. Verhascum thapsus. A 
 common, biennial, large weed, with ] 
 U u 2 
 
 yellow flowers. They are readily 
 overcome by cultivation, and are usu- 
 ally seen only on neglected fields. 
 There are other species of Verbas- 
 ciim, but they arc unimportant weeds. 
 
 MULLION. The upright post or 
 bar dividing two lights in a window. 
 
 MULTIARTICULATE. A term 
 applied, in natural history, to the an- 
 tenna;, legs, &c., of animals or in- 
 sects which have many joints. 
 
 MULTIFID. Divided into many 
 segments. 
 
 MULTILOCULAR. Having many 
 compartments or chambers. 
 
 MUMPS. An irritation of the pa- 
 rotid and neighbouring glands, at- 
 tended with much swelling. 
 
 MUNJEET. A kind of madder 
 cultivated in the East. — (Urc). 
 
 ML'KEXIDE. A beautiful red prod- 
 uct of the decomposition of uric acid 
 by nitric acid. Murexan is formed 
 by dissolving murexide in solution of 
 caustic potass. 
 
 MURIACITE. A kind of sulphate 
 of lime, containing common salt. 
 
 MURIATES. Salts containing 
 chlorine, more properly called chlo- 
 rides ; muriate of soda is common salt. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID, SPIRITS 
 OF SALT, HYDROCHLORIC 
 ACID, MARINE ACID. The sub- 
 stance obtained in commerce is a so- 
 lution of the true gaseous acid ; it is 
 of a yellowish colour from impurities, 
 and at specific gravity 1-15 contains 
 30 per cent, of real acid : this fluid 
 fumes, possesses a disagreeable smell, 
 and is highly caustic ; it decomposes 
 carbonates rapidly, and unites with 
 most mineral oxides. The composi- 
 tion of pure hydrochloric acid is 1 
 equivalent chlorine with 1 hydrogen ; 
 its combining number is, therefore, 
 36 47 : it is procu^^d by distilling 
 common salt with sulphuric acid in 
 an earthen-ware apparatus, and re- 
 ceiving the vapour i.i water. 
 
 Muriatic acid forms soluble com- 
 pounds with many oxides, and is 
 iience extensively u.sed as a solvent 
 in chemistry ; the pure acid should 
 be colourless and yii.'ld no precipitate 
 with solution of barytes. The pres- 
 ence of muriatic acid and chlorine is 
 509 
 
ML'S 
 
 MUS 
 
 detected by the peculiar curdy pre- 
 cipitate they yield with nitrate of sil- 
 ver, which is soluble while I'resh in 
 ammonia, but blackens by exposure 
 to light. 
 
 A\'hen muriatic acid acts on a me- 
 tallic oxide, there results a chloride 
 of the metal for the most part, the hy- 
 drogen of the acid and oxygen of the 
 oxide forming water. 
 
 MURICATE. Thorny. In zoolo- 
 gy, a surface armed with short conical 
 eminences, having a sharp apex. 
 
 MURID.E. A famUy of rodents, of 
 which the mouse is a type. 
 
 MURRAIN. " A contagious, ma- 
 lignant epidemic, which prevails in 
 hot, dry seasons among cattle, carry- 
 ing off numbers. It once used to 
 sweep off the horned stock of whole 
 districts. It principally appears in 
 marshy and woody districts, or where 
 draining has been neglected, or the 
 cattle have been exposed and half 
 starved. The disease is known by 
 the animals hanging down their 
 heads, which are swollen, by short 
 and hot breathing, cough, palpitation 
 of the heart, staggering, an abundant 
 secretion of viscid matter in the eyes, 
 rattling in the throat, and a slimy 
 tongue. The early stage of murrain 
 is one of fever, and the treatment 
 should correspond with this : bleed- 
 ing and small doses of purgative med- 
 icine will be serviceable. The pecu- 
 liar foetid diarrhoea must be met with 
 astringents, mingled also with vege- 
 table tonics. In combating the pus- 
 tular and gangrenous stage, the chlo- 
 ride of lime will be the best external 
 application ; while a little of it, ad- 
 ministered with the other medicines 
 inwardly, may possibly lessen the 
 tendency to general decomposition. 
 Above all, the infected animal should 
 be immediately removed from the 
 sound ones." — {Youatt on Cattle.) 
 
 MUSACE^. A small family of 
 tropical plants, resembling the ma- 
 rantaceae, and including the plantain 
 (Musa sapientum) and banana {M. par- I 
 adisiaca), which, together, yield the , 
 greater part of the nourishment of j 
 tropical America. The leaves are i 
 also used for thatch, and the fibres of j 
 510 
 
 the stem for cordage. The curious 
 
 flowering plants called strelitzias are 
 of this family, 
 
 MUSCHEL-KALK. Shell lime- 
 stone, the strata belonging to the new 
 red sandstone series. 
 
 MUSCI. See Mosses. 
 
 MUSCICAPA. Agenus ofdenti- 
 rostral passerine birds ; they live on 
 insects and small birds. 
 
 MUSCID.E. A family of dipterous 
 insects, resemblmg the fly (musca). 
 
 MUSCLE. Fleshy fibres, suscep- 
 tible of contraction and relaxation, 
 and by which the phenomena of mo- 
 tion in animals takes place. They 
 are voluntary, or under the influence 
 of the will, and involuntary, as the 
 heart, the muscles of the intestines, 
 &c. They are of a red colour when 
 filled with blood-vessels, but are nat- 
 urally white, and consist of fibrine, 
 surrounded by cellular tissue, and 
 supplied with nerves, &c. 
 
 The lean of meats consists of mus- 
 cular fibre mostly ; it contains about 23 
 per cent, solid matter, the rest being 
 water. The solid consists of 51 8 
 carbon, If) hydrogen, 150 nitrogen, 
 21-3 oxygen, with sulphur and phos- 
 phorus, and 2 3 ashes per cent. It is 
 one of the most nutritious aliments. 
 MUSCOVADO. The brown moist 
 sugar as separated from the mo- 
 lasses. 
 
 MUSHROOM. A term commonly 
 used to designate the tribe of fungi, 
 toadstools. More correctly, the Agar- 
 icus cainpestris, a mushroom w'iih a 
 white smooth cap, with flesh-colour- 
 ed gills, a pleasant odour, growing in 
 fertile meadows during the autumnal 
 months, and collected as a delicacy, 
 and for the manufacture of catsup. 
 Mushrooms are propagated from 
 spawn, which is kept by the seeds- 
 men, or it may be collected in the 
 fall in those places where the plants 
 abound ; it resembles pieces of thread, 
 and is imbedded in earth or dung. 
 When kept quite dry, the spawn will 
 retain its germinating power for three 
 or four years. The following is chief- 
 ly from Loudon and Bridgeman : 
 
 " A mushroom bed is simply a heap 
 of animal dung and earth, so tern- 
 
MUSHROOM. 
 
 pered as to be capable of producing 
 and preserving spawn ; but, in order 
 to have fruitful spawn at all times, it 
 should be so formed as to be always 
 at command. To this end, a quan- 
 tity of fresh horse droppings, mixed 
 with short litter, should be collected ; 
 add to this one third of cow dung, 
 and a small portion of good earth, to 
 cement it together ; mash the whole 
 into a thin compost, Hke grafting 
 clay ; then form it in the shape of 
 bricks, which being done, set them on 
 edge, and frequently turn them until 
 half dry ; then, with a dibble, make 
 one or two holes in each brick, and 
 insert in each hole a piece of spawn 
 the size of an egg : the bricks should 
 then be laid where they can dry grad- 
 ually. When dry, lay dry horse 
 dung on a level floor, six or eight 
 inches thick ; on this pile the bricks, 
 the spawn side uppermost. When 
 the pile is snugly formed, cover it 
 with a small portion of fresh warm 
 horse dung, sufficient in quantity to 
 produce a gentle glow through the 
 whole, \^'hen the spawn has spread 
 itself through every part of the bricks 
 the process is ended, and they may 
 be laid up in any dry place for use. 
 Mushroom spawn, made according to 
 this receipt, will preserve its vegeta- 
 ting powers for many years, if well 
 dried before it is laid up ; if moist, it 
 will grow, and soon exhaust itself. 
 
 " Mushroom beds are often formed 
 in ridges in the open air, and covered 
 with litter and mats, so as to prevent 
 heavy rains exciting fermentation ; 
 and sometimes in ridges of the same 
 sort undercover, as in the open sheds 
 of hot-houses. They are also made in 
 close sheds behind hot-houses, or in 
 houses built on purpose, called mush- 
 room-houses. A moderately warm, 
 light cellar is peculiarly suited for the 
 purpose in the winter season, as no 
 fire is necessary, and but little water, 
 the application of which frequently 
 proves injurious, when not judicious- 
 ly managed. Mushrooms may also be 
 raised in pots, boxes, hampers, &c., 
 placed in warm situations, in old beds, 
 in pits with glazed frames, and in 
 dark frames or pits. 
 
 " The general way of making mush- 
 room beds is to prepare a body of 
 stable dung, moderately fermented, 
 about a yard in thickness, more or 
 less, according to the size and situa- 
 tion in which the bed is to be formed ; 
 when the strotig heat has subsided, 
 an inch of good mould may be laid 
 over it, and the spawn planted there- 
 in in rows five or six inches apart ; 
 after this is done, another layer of 
 mould, an inch thick, may be added, 
 and then a coat of straw. Beds well 
 constructed will produce mushrooms 
 in five or six weeks, and will con- 
 tinue to produce for several months, 
 if care be taken in gathering not to 
 destroy the young ones. As mush- 
 rooms are gathered, from time to 
 time, the straw should be spread 
 carefully over the bed. 
 
 " Beds made in a convenient place, 
 where there is space all around, may 
 be formed so as to make four sloping 
 surfaces, similar to the roof of a 
 house ; this, by being spawned on 
 the four sides, will yield abundantly. 
 The celebrated Mr. Nichol makes his 
 beds without spawn. 
 
 " After having laid a floor of ashes, 
 stones, chips, gravel, or brickbats, so 
 as to keep the bed quite dry and free 
 from under damp, lay a course of 
 horse droppings, six inches thick. 
 These should be new from the sta- 
 bles, and must not be broken, and the 
 drier the better. They may be col- 
 lected every day until the whole floor 
 or sole be covered to the above thick- 
 ness ; but they must not be allowed 
 to ferment or heat. In the whole 
 process of making up, the bed should 
 be as much exposed to the air as pos- 
 sible ; and it should be carefully de- 
 fended from wet if out of doors. 
 A\'hen this course is quite dry, and 
 judged to be past a state of ferment- 
 ation, cover it to the thickness of 
 two inches with light, dry eartii ; if 
 sandy, so much the better. It is im- 
 material whether it be rich or not, 
 the only use of earth here being for 
 spawn to run and mass in. Now lay 
 another course of droppings, and 
 earth them over as above, when past 
 a state of fermentation : then a third 
 511 
 
MUS 
 
 MI'S 
 
 I'ourse, which, in likft manner, cartli 
 ail over. Tiiis finishes the bed, 
 which will be a very strong and pro- 
 ductive one if properly managed af- 
 terward. 
 
 " Observe that, in forming the bed, 
 it should be a little rounded, in order 
 that the centre may not be more wet 
 or moist than the sides. This may 
 be done in forming the sole or floor 
 at first, and the bed would then be of 
 equal strength in all parts. If it be 
 made up against a wall in a cellar, 
 stable, or shed, it may have a slope 
 of a few inches from the back to the 
 front, less or more, according to its 
 breadth. I have sometimes been con- 
 tented with two courses, as above, in- 
 stead of three; and often, when ma- 
 terials were scarce, have made them 
 up slighter, thus : three four-inch 
 courses of droppings, with one inch 
 of earth between each, and a two- 
 inch covering at top. Such a bed as 
 this I have had produce for ten or 
 twelve months together ; but very 
 much depends on the state of the ma- 
 terials, on the care taken in making 
 it up, and also on the after manage- 
 ment. 
 
 " The droppings of hard-fed horses 
 only are useful. Those of horses 
 kept on green food will, of them- 
 selves, produce few or no mush- 
 rooms. I have made up beds from 
 farm horses, fed partly on hard and 
 partly on green food, and from car- 
 riage or saddle horses, fed entirely 
 on corn and hay ; treated them in the 
 same way in every respect, and have 
 found, not once, but always, those 
 made from the latter most produc- 
 tive. Droppings from hard-fed horses 
 may be procured at the public stables 
 in towns, or at inns in the country, 
 any time of the year ; and if the sup- 
 ply be plentiful, a bed of considerable 
 dimensions may be made and finish- 
 ed within five or six weeks. In as 
 many more weeks, if in a stable or 
 dry cellar, or a flued shed, it vvdl be- 
 gin to produce, and often sooner ; but 
 if the situation of the bed be cold, it 
 will sometimes be two or three 
 months in producing mushrooms. 
 
 " It may be necessary to state, far- 
 512 
 
 thnr, that e.vtremes of heat, cold, 
 drought, and moisture should be 
 avoided iii the cultivation of mush- 
 rooms. If the temperature keeps up 
 to 50^ in the winter, the beds will be 
 safe, and the heat in the beds may 
 rise to GO^, or even 70°, without inju- 
 ry. Air, also, must be admitted in 
 proportion to the heat, and GO' should 
 be aimed at as a medium tempera- 
 ture. Water, when given a little at 
 a time, is better than too much at 
 once, after the spawn has begun to 
 spread, and the water for this pur- 
 pose should always be made blood- 
 warm. A light covering of straw 
 may be used to preserve moisture on 
 the surface ; and if the beds are made 
 in open frames, or otherwise subject 
 to exposure, the straw may be laid 
 thicker than on beds made in a cellar. 
 
 " Should beds fail in producing 
 mushrooms after having been kept 
 over hot or wet, it may be inferred 
 that the spawn is injured or destroy- 
 ed ; but if, on the contrary, a bed 
 that has been kept moderately warm 
 and dry should happen to be unpro- 
 ductive, such bed may be well replen- 
 ished with warm water, and a coat 
 of warm dung may be laid over the 
 whole. If this does not enliven the 
 bed after having lain a month, take 
 off the earth, and if, on examination, 
 there is no appearance of spawn, the 
 whole may be destroyed ; but if, on 
 the contrary, the bed should contain 
 spawn, it may be renovated by cov- 
 ering it again, especially if any small 
 tubercles be discernible ; if the heat 
 should have declined, the spawn may 
 be taken out and used in a fresh bed. 
 If beds be formed in hot-bed frames 
 under glass, some mats or straw must 
 be laid over the glass to break off the 
 intense heat of the sun." 
 
 If any accidents arise from eating 
 improper mushrooms, vomiting, by 
 means of a mixture of salt and wa- 
 ter, should be encouraged. 
 
 M U S K M E L O N. The common 
 yellow melons, of little flavour, and 
 unworthy of cultivation. See Melon. 
 
 M U S Q U I T O, MOSQUITO. In- 
 sects of the genus Culex, armed with a 
 sharp proboscis, by which they pierce 
 
MIS 
 
 MIT 
 
 the skin. They abound in damp pla- 
 ces. 
 
 MUST. The fresh juice of the 
 grape before fermentation. Other 
 juices capable of fermentation. 
 
 -MUSTARD. Two species are cul- 
 
 tivated, both annuals ; the Sinapis 
 alba (a), for salad, oil, as an jngredi- 
 ent in pickles and medicine ; and S. 
 nigra (b), or black mustard, for the 
 condiment known by that name. For 
 salad, the seeds are sown very thick 
 in rows of two or three inches wide, 
 and the crop cut while in the second 
 leaf It grows up in a few days, and 
 may be sown any time during the 
 season, if well watered and sheltered 
 from the hot sun. 
 
 For a lield crop the soil should be 
 fine, rich, and loamy, deeply plough- 
 ed, rather moist and light than oth- 
 erwise. The seed is sown thinly, 
 broadcast, in April or May : two to 
 three gallons are used per acre. The 
 plants are hoed in the fourth leaf, 
 and, to keep down weeds, thinned to 
 eight or twelve inches apart, and col- 
 lected as soon as the pods have 
 changed from green. It may be sown 
 jn drills two feet apart, and twelve 
 inches in the row. It must be well 
 dried before thrashing, which is done 
 b}' a flail. It ought not to be exposed 
 to rains. A good crop is twenty-four 
 to thirty-two bushels per acre, which 
 will bring from S70 to SIOO, at eight 
 cents the pound for seed. In the 
 
 ■ manufacture of mustard the white 
 and black seeds are combined, al- 
 though tiie black is best ; they are 
 pressed between rollers, and ground 
 in a mill set apart for the purpose, 
 and sifted and screened as fine flour. 
 : The pungency of mustard, by which 
 it raises blisters on the skin, is due 
 j to a volatile oil containing sulphur, 
 I which is not originally present in the 
 : flour, but results from the action of 
 i the moistened emulsin {myrosyne) 
 of the seeds upon a peculiar acid 
 present, to which the name of my- 
 ronic acid has been given. The se- 
 cret of making good flour, therefore, 
 consists of keeping the whole perfect- 
 ly dry from the seeds to the lime of 
 sale, otherwise the changes which 
 produce the active principle will have 
 taken place before it is wanted. Vin- 
 egar diminishes this change, and 
 should not be used with mustard : te- 
 pid water is the proper fluid to mix 
 up the condiment, or make the irrita- 
 ting poultice. The seeds of many 
 cruciferous plants are occasionally 
 substituted for the true mustard. 
 
 The white mustard yields a bland 
 oil in large quantity, from twenty-five 
 to thirty per cent, by expression. The 
 cake is employed as a good manure. 
 The black species is also sown in 
 borders around seed beds, to protect 
 them from the black flies (haltka). 
 
 MUSTELLA. The genus contain- 
 ing the weasel and other vermin 
 quadrupeds. 
 
 MUTAGE. A process to stop the 
 fermentation of must. It is practised 
 either by diffusing sulphurous acid in 
 the cask into which the liquor is rack- 
 ed by burning sulphur matches, or by 
 adding a little sulphite of lime to the 
 must : the latter is the best. 
 
 M U T I C U S. Beardless, without 
 awns, or arista. 
 
 MUTTON. The flesh of the sheep. 
 The best meat is that from wethers 
 three to five years old, of the South 
 Down or improved Leicester breed. 
 The spayed ewe five years old is also 
 said to make equally good m.eat. The 
 offal of a well-made animal with fine 
 bone should not exceed one third of 
 the live weight. 
 
 513 
 
nm;v 
 
 NAP 
 
 MUZZLE. The nose of an animal. 
 A kind of halter fastened over the 
 nose to prevent an animal from biting. 
 Muzzle of a plough is the end of the 
 beam to which the clevis is attached. 
 
 MYCELLA. The young, floccu- 
 lent filaments of fungi. 
 
 MYOLOGY (from fzvuv, a muscle, 
 and ?Myor, a discnvrse). An account 
 of the muscles of the body. 
 
 MYOPS. Shortsightedness. 
 
 MYRIAMETER. Ten thousand 
 metres, equal to two leagues. 
 
 MYRICIN. That portion of wax 
 which is insoluble in alcohol. 
 
 MYRISTICACE.i:. A family of 
 tropical trees, exogens, containing the 
 nutmeg. They are nearly allied to the 
 laurels. 
 
 MYRONIC ACID, MYRON- 
 ATES. An acid existing in crucif- 
 erous seeds, and containing sulphur. 
 
 MYROBALANS. A bitter, aus- 
 tere fruit, used in India in calico dye- 
 ing and medicine. 
 
 MYROSYNE. A substance re- 
 sembling emulsin, or caseum, in mus- 
 tard seeds. 
 
 MYRRH. An odoriferous gum 
 resin imported from the East, and 
 supposed to be the product of a spe- 
 cies of Amyris. Sweet cicely is some- 
 times called by this name. 
 
 MYRTACE.E. A family of small 
 trees and shrubs, particularly devel- 
 oped in tropical climates, and yield- 
 ing the pimento, cloves, guava, caje- 
 put, and other aromatic products. 
 
 MYRTLE. Myrtus communis. An 
 evergreen, fragrant bush with white 
 flowers. It is a Southern plant, and 
 requires protection from frosts. 
 
 MYRTLE BILBERRY. The 
 whortleberry. 
 
 MYRTLE, DUTCH, or SWEET 
 GALE. Myricagale. A sweet-scent- 
 ed, swamp shrub, three or four feet 
 high, bearing waxy berries. 
 
 N. 
 
 NACREOUS. Reflecting irides- 
 cent light, like pearl. 
 
 NACRITE. A pearly mineral. 
 Silicate of alumina and potash 
 
 N ^E V U S. A natural mark or 
 blotch on the skin. 
 614 
 
 \AG. a small horse. 
 
 NAILS. The horny extremities 
 of tlie skin, modified into claws, tal- 
 ons, hoofs, &ic. They are of the same 
 composition as hair, and yield an 
 equally valuable manure. 100 lbs., 
 during decomposition, yield 20 lbs. 
 of ammonia. Tliey are best in com- 
 posts, at the rate of 300 to 400 lbs. 
 to the acre, and show their efl^ects 
 for several years. The composition 
 of horn gives that of nails, hoofs, 
 &c., 52 carbon, 6-7 hydrogen, 173 
 nitrogen, 24 oxygen and sulphur, with 
 less than one per cent, ashes, in 100 
 parts. All these textures are used 
 m the manufacture of glue. 
 
 NAKED. In botany, without the 
 customary covermg, as a stem with- 
 out leaves, corolla without calyx, &c. 
 
 NAKED DISEASE, PELT ROT, 
 HUNGER ROT. A disease of sheep 
 poorly kept, in which the wool, and 
 sometimes the horns and hoofs, drop 
 off. It is to be remedied, if taken m 
 time, by shelter and good food in suf- 
 ficient quantity. 
 
 NAKED FLOORING. The tim- 
 ber-work of the floor. 
 
 NANKIN, NANKEEN. A buff 
 colour. Calico may be dyed of this 
 colour by the followmg means : Take 
 300 lbs. of yarn, scour and boil in pure 
 water, wince the hanks in an alum 
 bath containing 2 lbs. of alum to 96 
 gallons of water at 165^ Fahr. ; drain, 
 expose to the air, rinse in pure wa- 
 ter, and wring. Boil 40 lbs. of oak 
 bark, contained in a canvass bag, for 
 two hours, in 100 gallons of water; 
 wince the cotton through the boiling 
 bath a quarter of an hour ; while it is 
 draining above the bath, add 28 ounces 
 of alum ; and, when it is dissolved, 
 wince through again for a quarter of 
 an hour ; drain, wring, and expose to 
 the air. It is now of a yellowish col- 
 our. Make a clear liniewater bath 
 of about 150 gallons, or a weak soda 
 lye ; dip the hanks, without washing, 
 into it rapidly three times ; then 
 move each hank separately in the 
 bath until it is of the proper colour ; 
 squeeze, rinse, and air them, and, 
 finally, brighten by passing them 
 through a weak solution of tin. 
 
NAT 
 
 NEA 
 
 NAPHTHA. A highly-inflammalile 
 fluid, of a peculiar odour, sp. gr. 75, 
 which exudes from tlie earth in some 
 places. A similar fluid is distilled 
 from wood tar, and called wood naph- 
 tl a. It is used as a solvent of India 
 rubber. 
 
 NAPHTHALINE. A white, crys- 
 talline, volatile product of the de- 
 structive distillation of pit coal. 
 Naphthalic acid, naphthalamide, &c., 
 are derivatives. 
 NAPIFORM. Turnip-shaped. 
 NARCEIA. A vegetable alkaloid 
 from opium, producing salts of a blue 
 colour. Little is known concerning 
 its effects. 
 
 NARCISSUS. Ornamental bul- 
 bous flowers. 
 
 NARCOTICS. Anodynes. Drugs 
 which produce sleep, drowsiness, and 
 allay pain. Opium, henbane, tobac- 
 co, camphor, stramonium, &.C., are 
 of this kind. 
 
 NARCOTINE. A vegetable alka- 
 loid existing in opium, to which its 
 stimulating effects is due. 
 NARES. The nostrils. 
 NASCENT. In the act of being 
 produced or evolved. A chemical 
 phrase given to the evolution of gas- 
 es from fluids, at which time they 
 are more fitted to unite with other 
 bodies. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and oth- 
 er gases, in the aeriform state, com- 
 bine only slowly with substances, 
 but when nascent enter readily into 
 union. 
 
 NASTURTIUM. Cress, Indian. 
 NASTJTA (from nasus, the nose). 
 A prolongation of the muzzle into the 
 form of a nose. 
 
 NATANS, NATANT, NAYANT. 
 Floating or swimming. 
 
 NATATORY. In zoology, when 
 the feet or tail are provided with a 
 membrane or hairs to repel or dis- 
 place water, and buoy up the insect 
 or animal. 
 
 NATRIUM. Sodium. See Soda. 
 NATROLITE. A fibrous, yellow- 
 ish mineral. Silicate of alumina and 
 soda. 
 
 NATRON. Soda. Impure, native 
 sesquicarbonate of soda, found in 
 Egypt, Fezzan, Tartary, Hindostan, 
 
 in Mexico near Zacatecas, and in Co- 
 
 lunihia forty-eijrht miles from Merida. 
 That of Fezzan is called Trona, and 
 the Columbian Urao. All these lo- 
 calities are cither in lakes or on the 
 sites of ancient lakes. Egyptian na- 
 tron consists of 22 44 carbonate of 
 soda, 18 35 sulphate of soda, 38.64 
 common salt, 6 insoluble matter, 
 and 14 water : trona, of 65 75 car- 
 bonate, 7 65 sulphate, 2 63 salt, 24 
 water, 1 insoluble matter. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. A de- 
 scription of natural objects, as ani- 
 mals, plants, insects, fishes, miner- 
 als, fossils. 
 
 NATURAL ORDERS OF 
 PLANTS. Natural system of Jussieu. 
 Groups of plants having a close sim- 
 ilarity in internal organization, and 
 frequently in external characters and 
 properties. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 Physics, mechanical philosophy. The 
 science which investigates the me- 
 chanical laws of nature ; and the rela- 
 tions of weight, movement, pressure, 
 or of mechanical forces in masses. 
 
 NAUCA. A seed in which the 
 scar of the hilum occupies a third of 
 the surface. 
 
 NAUSEA. A feeling similar to 
 that preceding the act of vomiting. 
 
 NAVE OF A WHEEL. The hub, 
 the block in the centre of the spokes, 
 which receives them. It is bound by 
 two nave-bands of iron on the outside, 
 and contains in the inside an iron box 
 or washer, to save the friction of the 
 axle. 
 
 NAVEL ILL See Calf. 
 NAVEL-WORT. The American 
 plant is Hydrocotyle umbellala, and a 
 water weed. 
 
 NAVE W. Brassica campestris. 
 The wild plant is a native of Eng- 
 land : in the cultivated form it is 
 known as colza and rape. 
 
 NAVICULAR (from navis, aship). 
 Having the figure of a ship's body. It 
 is applied to the nut bone of the foot, 
 as well as to the form of seeds, &,c. 
 NEAT CATTLE. Horned cattle, 
 oxen. 
 
 NEAT'S-FOOT OIL. The fat ob 
 taiaed by boiling calve's feet. 
 
 615 
 
NEIl 
 
 NUT 
 
 NEBULA. A cluster of small stars 
 appearing like a minute cloud. 
 
 NECK, COLLL.M. In [.lants. the 
 space between the stem and roots, 
 often swollen in size. 'I'lie neck of a 
 capital is the sj)ace ahove the shaft 
 between the ring {annulet) above, and 
 the astragal at the top of the shaft. 
 
 N E C K O P H A G A N S, NECRO- 
 PHAG A (from vei<poc, dead, and <payu, 
 I cat). A family of clavicorn beetles, 
 some of which live on decomposing 
 animal matters. 
 
 NECROSIS (from vsKpoeiv, to de- 
 stroy). A disease, resembling morti- 
 fication, of the bony structures. In 
 plants, the term means the rotting of 
 the part. 
 
 NECTARY, NECTARIUM. The 
 part of a flower which secretes hon- 
 ey. It is usually an appendage of 
 the petals or disk. 
 
 NECTARINE. The smooth peach. 
 See Peach. 
 
 NEGATIVE SIGN. Minus, or 
 — . It is employed to denote quan- 
 tities or measures below a standard. 
 
 NELUMBIUM. A marsh plant of 
 China, the seeds of which, of the size 
 of an acorn, are eaten green, or pre- 
 served as sweatmeats, and have a 
 nutty flavour. The succulent roots 
 are also eaten raw as a fruit, or boil- 
 ed as a vegetable. 
 
 NEMOCERA. A family of dipte- 
 ra, with filiform antennae. 
 
 NEMOGLOSSATA. The bee 
 tribe, and those hymenoptera which 
 have a long, thread-like tongue. 
 
 NEMOROSE, NETilOROSA. Be- 
 longing to the woods. 
 
 NEP. Catmint. 
 
 NEPHRITE. A tough, greenish 
 mineral, used to manufacture orna- 
 ments. A silicate of alumina and 
 magnesia with iron. 
 
 NEPHRITES (from ve(f>poc). In- 
 flammation of the kidney. Bleeding, 
 warm baths, purges, diluents are 
 used. 
 
 NEPTUANIAN THEORY. The 
 theory of Werner, that geological for- 
 mations were due to aqueous causes. 
 
 NERIUM. A genus of important 
 
 Eastern plants. N. ayUidyscntericum 
 
 affords the codaga bark ; N. tinctori- 
 
 616 
 
 urn, a beautiful evergreen of India, 
 affords some indigo from its leaves. 
 
 NEROLI, OIL OF. The distilled 
 essential oils of orange flowers. 
 
 NERVES. The white, thread- 
 like fibres which, proceeding from 
 the brain or spinal marrow, ramify 
 throughout every part of the bodies 
 of the higlier animals. They convey 
 impressions from and to the brain, 
 preside over the functions of the dif- 
 ferent organs, and regulate motion 
 and the senses. Nerves can hardly 
 be said to be absent in any animals, 
 although they become extremely ru- 
 dimentary in many. Chemically, ner- 
 vous matter consists of seven parts 
 albumen, five fatty matter, and eighty 
 water. The fat is peculiar, contain- 
 ing phosphorus. 
 
 Most diseases affecting the whole 
 body are accompanied, or commence 
 in an impaired state of the nervous 
 system, which presides over health. 
 Nerves are said to be cerebral when 
 they proceed directly from the brain : 
 there are nine pairs of these, and 
 they preside over the senses. The 
 nerves arising from the spinal mar- 
 row are termed spinal nerves, and di- 
 vided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar, 
 and sacral. They preside over mo- 
 tion and ordinary sensation, as well 
 as the functions of the lungs, stom- 
 ach, liver, and other viscera. The 
 great sympathetic nerve is a series of 
 junctions between the spinal nerves, 
 and is connected with the brain ; in 
 its course, small masses of a reddish 
 colour occur, called ganglions : it 
 renders the functions of the different 
 organs uniform. A plexus of nerves 
 is a net-work formed by the union of 
 various filaments. 
 
 NERVES, or NERVURES. In 
 plants, the raiuifications of woody 
 tissue and vessels seen upon leaves, 
 flowers, &c. They support the cel- 
 lular tissue of the leaves. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, HUSBANDRY 
 OF. See Flanders. 
 
 NETTED. Reticulated, marked 
 like the meshes of a net. 
 
 NETTLE. The genus Urtica, 
 herbaceous and shrubby plants, often 
 furnished with stinging hairs : their 
 
NEW 
 
 MD 
 
 burning is lessened by vinegar and ; NEW HUSBANDRY. The drill 
 oil. A rennet is made bv adding salt , and iiorse-hoe husbandry, 
 to a strong decoction of liettles. Ass- j NEW RED SANDSTONE. The 
 cs eat the common nettle, and some- series of strata lying immediately 
 times the boiled sprouts are used as i above the coal formation. It con- 
 vegetables. The commonest sting- sists of conglomerates, and contains 
 ing species are U. dioica, urcns. Can- \ marl, gypsum, and large quantities 
 adcnsis, and proccra. The common | of rock salt. It is found abundantly 
 
 nettle (dwica) is a troublesome peren- 
 nial weed in cultivated lands, and re- 
 quires to be ploughed out by tillage. 
 The U. nivca and ainnabina yield fine 
 hemp. The U. Canadensis, Canada 
 
 in New-York, the Valley of Virginia, 
 and of the Connecticut. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND FLAX. Plwr- 
 mium lenax. Iris-leaved flax lily. It 
 grows with broad, stiff leaves, like 
 
 or Albany nettle, grows six feet high, 1 those of lilies, the fibres of which are 
 is indigenous, perennial, and has been ; readily obtained by rotting. They 
 
 recommended as a hemp plant. It is, 
 however, covered with stings. 
 
 NETTLE-TREE. The genus Cf^ 
 tis, amentaceous trees. The princi- 
 pal American species is the C. occi- 
 dcnlalts, the sugar or pompion berry. 
 It is seldom twenty feet in the Mid- 
 dle .States, but becomes seventy on 
 the Savannah. It is ornamental, with 
 small, white flowers, and sweet, red- 
 dish fruit. 
 
 NETS. They are useful in the or- 
 chard and garden to protect seed and 
 fruit from buds. 
 
 NEURALGIA. Painof the nerves. 
 
 NEURILEMA. The covering of 
 the nerves. 
 
 NEUROPTERA. Insectswith 
 four netted winss. See Insects. 
 
 are of extraordinary strength, and 
 used for fishing-lines, cordage, and 
 coarse cloth. It requires a warm 
 climate for successful cultivation. 
 
 NICARAGUA WOOD. The dye- 
 wood of the Ccesalpina eckinata, a tree 
 of South America. The red colour 
 is fugitive with solution of tin. 
 
 NICHE. A recess in a wall for a 
 statue. 
 
 NICKEL. A rare white metal, 
 like iron. Its salts are green for the 
 most part. It exists in meteoric 
 stones. 
 
 NICKING AND DOCKING. 
 Pricking. Cutting off'part of a horse's 
 tail, and making nicks on the under 
 side, to divide the two cords which 
 draw down the tail ; this causes the 
 NEUTERS. Infertile animals or j stump to stand out in what a stable- 
 
 plants, having neither stamens nor 
 pistils. 
 
 NEUTRAL, NEUTRAL I- 
 ZATION, NEUTRALIZED. The 
 combination of an acid with an alka- 
 
 boy supposes a graceful fashion. It 
 is nearlv obsolete. 
 
 NICOTIN, NTCOTINA. An ac- 
 rid, soluble, volatile alkaloid found 
 in tobacco. It combines with acids, 
 11, or of two active bodies together, '■ and forms salts. It is very poisonous, 
 by which the properties of either are i NICOTIANIN. A fatty, volatile, 
 perfectly destroyed. The addition azotized body, insoluble in water, 
 mast be made in the proportion of \ lormed during the fermentation of 
 their equivalents to produce neutral tobacco in preparing for the market, 
 compounds. and to which its odour is due. It is 
 
 NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which poisonous, especially to insects and 
 
 betray neither an acid nor alkaline re 
 action. 
 
 NEWEL. In building, the space 
 around which a flight of steps is 
 turned. 
 
 NEW-JERSEY TEA. Ceanothus 
 Americana. A common marsh shrub 
 with fragrant bunches of flowers. It 
 was used in the Revolution for tea. 
 X X 
 
 reptiles. 
 
 NICTITATION. Winking. The 
 movement of the membrane covering 
 the eyes of birds and some animals, 
 called the membrana niclilans. 
 
 NIDUS. A nest. A suitable po- 
 sition or matrix for development. 
 Niduliis and nidulale are deriva- 
 tives. 
 
 517 
 
NIG 
 
 M(J 
 
 ^'ul^J!'^!'^:'^'"!' ^™"- I The salts had the fbll 
 
 ing black. AVr/r««.v, blackish. s()(,fv 
 NIGHTSHADES. The gonus *V 
 lajaun. They are iiiostlv pcrennia] or 
 shrubby, of th(3 faiiiilv fio/anaccie, the 
 fruit and leaves being often poison- 
 ous, especially in the S. niirrum and 
 dulciimiira, or bittersweet. They are 
 common weeds in moist, cultivated 
 grounds. 'l"he deadly nightshade is 
 the Atropa belladonna. The potato 
 egg fruit, and tomato are of this ffcnus' I 
 
 NIGHT SOIL. The contents of 
 privies. It IS a very valuable manur 
 /or all crops. In the fresh state it is 
 applied at the rate of six to twelve 
 cart loads the acre; but this is an 
 unpleasant and wasteful application 
 It may be dried, and rendered ino- 
 dorous by union with charcoal, char- 
 
 owing com- 
 
 position : 
 
 ('.irhunate of soda ... 90 /i 
 
 I Chloride of sodium 9, * 
 
 Sulphate of soda . j?.? 
 
 Ammoiiiaco-magnesian phosphate ! ' 'll-fi 
 Phosphate of lime ....... .235 
 
 JOiFo 
 
 Human urine is one of the most 
 powerful of all manures. Left to it- 
 self, u speedily undergoes putrefac- 
 tion, and evolves an abundance of am- 
 moniacal salts. Its composition is : 
 
 Urea , 
 
 IJricacid ..:;■■ Oil 
 
 Iiidetermjnate animal matter )' 
 
 LactsR acid, and lactate of ammonia • .1 "1 
 
 AIucus of the bladder . . nno 
 
 Sulphate of potash ... • • • ■ ""^ 
 
 Sulphate of soda . . • • • • "J/ 
 
 Phosphate of soda ....';;'■ (J.gg 
 
 rpri nf>Tt ni- hvr.I.„„ „ 1 ",'' ^''"'" ( ''hloride of sodium . . 
 
 nr /no L , 1 ^ ^''^^' ^"''^ ^^'^^S Phosphate of ammonia . . . ^ ' In 
 
 or tine mould, and drying by e.xno r^'''"^"Mraie of ammonia . ' ' " n-i^ 
 
 sure to the air. This fonus one kind 
 of poudrette. It is best treated with 
 charcoal powder, gvpsum, or very 
 small quantities of gVeen vitriol the 
 sulphuric acid of which fixes the vol- 
 atile ammonia. Quicklime and un- 
 leached ashes are objectionable addi- 
 tions, as they liberate the ammonia 
 and cause loss. The most econom- 
 ical method, so far as the soil of the 
 Jarni 's concerned, is to keep pound- 
 ed charcoal and a little gypsum in the 
 cess pool, so as to have it ready for 
 use as soon as removed. Dryint^ 
 night soil in tlie air, without any ad"^ 
 dition, is wasteful ; for fermentation 
 comes on rapidly, and great loss of 
 ammoniacal matters arises. For the 
 Flemish method of using night soil, 
 seeF/andcrs Husbandry. 
 
 Night soil is a mixture of urine and 
 faces, and, as such, must vary in 
 composition, and has never been ex- 
 amined. The fffices and urine sep- 
 arately were analyzed by Berzelius 
 
 Phosphate of lime and of magnesia 
 
 •Silica 
 
 Waler 
 
 010 
 
 traces 
 
 fl3-30 
 
 lOOOO 
 
 The phosphates of lime and mag- 
 nesia which it contains are extreme- 
 ly insoluble salts, and have been sup- 
 posed to be held in solution by phos- 
 phoric acid, lactic acid, and very re- 
 ' cently, by Professor Liebig, by hip- 
 puric acid, which he now states to 
 be a regular constituent of healthy 
 human urine. 
 
 From the interesting inquiries 
 upon urine made by M. Lecanu, it 
 appears that a man passes nearly 
 half an ounce of azote with his urine 
 in the course of 24 hours. A quan- 
 tity of urine taken from a public urine 
 pail of Paris yielded 7 per 1000 of 
 azote. The dry extract of the same 
 urine yielded nearly 17 per cent. 
 
 It is difficult to give an estimate 
 of the comparative value of nitrht 
 soil, for the urine present is nearly 
 
 faces to be as follows : 
 
 Remains of food 
 Bile .... 
 Albumen 
 
 Who found the composition of the ^''""'^t'''"'' ^^e valuable part, and the 
 "" ■ ■ - *=' amount varies. It is, however, more 
 
 active (hotter) and valuable than the 
 best horse dung, being estimated at 
 14, and horse dung at 10. A Young 
 increased his crop of wheat, on I 
 poor gravel, from 12 to 31 bushels 
 by 160 bushels, upward of six bush- 
 
 els more than he obtained by 60 cu- 
 
 1000 1 bic yards of farm-yard manure. Ac- 
 
 A peculiar extractive matter . .' ' " ' 2-7 
 Indeterminate animal matter, viscous niat- 
 ter, resin, and an insoluble residuum . 140 
 
 *8ltS 
 
 W'''" . . . - • 73 3 
 
 518 
 
NIT 
 
 cording to Boussingault, when dri- 
 ed in the air it is 10 tiiiirs as fertili- 
 zing as good farm-yard manure. It 
 may be composted \\ ith any of tiie 
 ordinary manures, and should be 
 plou<fhed under shallow, and near to 
 seed time. As a poudrctte, it is used 
 to the hill, or as a top-dressinjj. It 
 is best applied to quick-gro\vinj;f, rank 
 plants, as turnips, and cruciferous 
 plants generally, Indian corn, pota- 
 toes, &c. 
 
 NIjMBUS. The rain cloud. It is 
 black, and near the earth. 
 
 NIPPERS. The four front teeth 
 of the horse. They are put forth be- 
 tween the second and third years. 
 Pincers, forceps. 
 
 NIPPLE. A conical elevation. 
 The extremities of the udder. Teats. 
 
 NITIDUS. Shining, polished, 
 smooth. 
 
 NITRATE OF AMMONIA. This 
 has been used as a steep, in the same 
 way as nitre, but is, perhaps, too ex- 
 pensive, except for garden crops. 
 Nitrate of lime, for leguminous crops, 
 and perhaps all others, would prob- 
 ably be as serviceable, and much 
 cheaper. 
 
 NITRATE OF SILVER. In the 
 fused state, called lunar caustic, and 
 much used as a caustic. It consists 
 of one equivalent of nitric acid united 
 with one of oxide of silver. A solu- 
 tion is used in the laboratory to de- 
 tect the presence of muriatic acid and 
 chlorine in solutions, with both which 
 it forms a wliite, curdy precipitate. 
 It is also a test for organized matter, 
 becoming black in its presence. 
 
 NITRATES. Sails containing ni- 
 tric acid combined with a base, as ni- 
 trate of potash, soda, lime, ammonia. 
 
 NITRE. Saltpetre, nitrate of 
 potash. A compound of 54 parts (1 
 eiiuivalent) of nitric acid with one 
 equivalent, or 48 parts potash. It 
 crystallizes in six-sided prisms, with 
 two faces at the summits ; is soluble 
 in seven parts cold, and less than its 
 weight of hot water. It is for the 
 most part derived from the soil of 
 India. Egypt, and Spain, and exists 
 in most limestone caverns and about 
 dunghUls. The crude nitre contains 
 
 NIT 
 
 nitrate of lime ciiiefly, but by adding 
 fresh ashes, boiling, andcry.stallizing, 
 nitrate of potash is obtained. It is 
 extensively used in the manufacture 
 of gunpowder, preserving meats, and 
 as a chemical and medical compound. 
 The coarser kinds have also been 
 used, to a great extent, in agricul- 
 ture, principally as a steep for corn, 
 wheat, and grain generally. For this 
 purpose, one pound, dissolved in one 
 gallon and a half of water, answers 
 for a bushel of grain. This is the 
 strength used by Mr. Campbell, but 
 ordinarily five or more gallons of wa- 
 ter are employed. The grains re- 
 main for 60 hours. This steep not 
 only forwards their germination and 
 start, but is one of the best preserva- 
 tives against rust, smut, and insects. 
 The ix)unded nitre has been used at 
 the rate of from 50 to 100 lbs. to the 
 acre as a top-dressing to grass, wheat, 
 barley, and other crops. It frequent- 
 ly does great good, especially on poor, 
 sandy soils, but 'is not so apparent on 
 very rich lands, and sometimes fails 
 altogether. The high price of $7 to 
 $9 the cwt. forbids its use except as 
 a steep ; which seems, also, to be the 
 most effective application. Nitre and 
 nitrates are by no means uncommon 
 in plants. It has been found in the 
 sunflower, borage, barley, tobacco, 
 Indian corn, beet root, and probably 
 
 I exists in all grain plants. It does 
 
 ; not seem to have any remarkable ad- 
 vantage over the nitrate of soda, or 
 
 I cubic nitre of Peru, which is one half 
 
 ! the price. 
 
 j NITRE, CUBIC. Nitrate of soda. 
 It consists of one equivalent nitric 
 acid and one soda ; is crystallized in 
 
 ' rhomboids ; is very soluble and de- 
 liquescent, requiring but three parts 
 
 I water, at 60^ Fahr., for solution. It 
 has been used to land jjrecisely as ni- 
 
 I tre, with similar eflccts. The great 
 
 ] part of the salt in commerce is deri- 
 ved from Peru, where inmiense de- 
 posites of it occur in Taracapa and 
 Atacama. 
 
 NITRIC ACID. Aquafortis. The 
 
 pure acid is unknown, that of the 
 
 shops iieing a solution in water ; the 
 
 strongest specimens have a sp. gr. of 
 
 519 
 
NIT 
 
 NIT 
 
 1-5, and contain one atom of acid (54), 
 with two of water ; it is of a yellow- 
 ish tinge, smokes, and is extremely 
 caustic, dissolving most metals. The 
 pure acid consists of one atom of ni- 
 trogen with five of oxygen (formula, 
 N Or,). The commercial specimens 
 are adulterated with oil of vitriol and 
 muriatic acid, which are detected by 
 the occurrence of a precipitate when 
 nitrate of silver or limewater is 
 added : this does not occur in pure 
 acid. Nitric acid is extensively em- 
 ployed in the laboratory as a solvent, 
 and, from its active action on many 
 compounds, it readily parts with a 
 portion of its oxygen, oxydizing or- 
 ganic and other bodies presented to 
 it. Its salts are soluble in water, 
 and decrepitate on a hot coal. 
 
 NITRIC OXIDE, NITROUS G-\S. 
 Binoxide of nitrogen. This gas is 
 given off when dilute nitric acid acts 
 on a metal ; it turns red in the air, 
 being changed into nitrous acid. 
 
 NITRIFICATION, NITRE 
 BEDS. Nitrates of lime or magne- 
 sia are often artificially formed, and 
 the compound subsequently convert- 
 ed into nitre by boiling with wood ash- 
 es, &c. The production of nitrate of 
 lime in agriculture, to be applied to 
 the field and form steeps, is worthy of 
 attention ; this is readily effected by 
 mixing animal and vegetable rubbish 
 with air-slacked hme in loose heaps 
 of any desired length, and six feet 
 wide by three feet high ; these should 
 be arranged under a shed, to protect 
 them from rain and heat, and kept 
 moist with urine, blood, ditch water, 
 and animal or putrescent fluids ; the 
 heaps should be built on tempered, 
 dry ground that will not absorb fluid, 
 and occasionally spaded over. In 
 from four months to one year, ac- 
 cording to ttie heat and abundance of 
 animal matter, the heaps will be rich 
 enough for use as a top-dressing, or 
 may be washed, to separate the ni- 
 trate : as much of the nitre-bed sub- 
 stance as contains 100 pounds of ni- 
 trate may be used as a top-dressing 
 to the crop, or put into compost with 
 other fertilizers. As soon as one bed 
 is removed another should be erect- 
 520 
 
 ed, and thus a succession formed, in 
 which every kind of offensive garbage, 
 night soil, and every kind of animal 
 texture will be consumed with profit to 
 the farmer, and one of the most active 
 manures for poor soils created. Peat, 
 fine mould, river mud, and such sub- 
 stances may be used to mix with the 
 nitre bed when a basis is wanted. 
 
 The rich mould of the forest, old 
 manure heaps, damp calcareous tracts 
 of land are all natural nitre beds, 
 which may be put up without any or- 
 ganic matter, but in which, the more 
 we add, the. more rapidly nitrates are 
 formed. 
 
 NITRITES. Salts of nitrous acid. 
 They are not of agricultural impor- 
 tance. 
 
 NITROGEN. Azote. An ele- 
 mentary gas, colourless, inodorous, 
 inactive, of nearly the same weight 
 as air, incapable of sustaining life or 
 flame, forming 8-lOths of the atmo- 
 sphere, and existing in nitric acid, 
 ammonia, cyanogen, and numerous 
 compounds. It is abundantly present 
 in animal textures, and forms a mi- 
 nute part of all plants, rarely attain- 
 ing 5 per cent. Its equivalent is 14-2, 
 symbol N. Its compounds with oxy- 
 gen are numerous ; of these, nitric 
 acid is the most important ; nitric 
 oxide, or the binoxide, seems to be a 
 compound radical. With hydrogen 
 it forms ammonia, a substance of 
 great importance, of which w^e shall 
 treat here. 
 
 Ammonia {volatile alkali), in the 
 pure state, is a very pungent, inflam- 
 mable gas, consisting of one equiva- 
 lent of nitrogen (14-2) and three of 
 hydrogen (3), and having a combi- 
 ning number of 173 : symbol N H3. 
 Water dissolves 700 to 800 times its 
 volume of the gas ; the solution, or 
 liq. ammonia, of sp. gr. 87, contains 
 32 per cent, ammonia : it becomes 
 caustic, pungent, and alkaline. It is 
 the usual form in which this body is 
 known. It readily unites with acids, 
 forming salts of ammonia, of which 
 the sesquicarbonate, or sal volatile, 
 preserves the odour. 
 
 Ammonia is one of the products of 
 fermenting animal matter, and its 
 
-MT 
 
 NOS 
 
 smell may be detected in cess-pools 
 and dunghills ; the carbonate and 
 muriate usually formed are volatile, 
 and escape into the air ; hence it is 
 recommended that charcoal be used 
 to absorb these substances, or that 
 sulphuric acid, gypsum, or green vit- 
 riol (sulphate of iron) be employed to 
 convert them into sulphates, which 
 are not volatile at ordinary tempera- 
 tures. Liebig asserts that an appre- 
 ciable amount of ammonia exists in 
 the air and rain storms, derived from 
 decompositions occurring on the 
 earth. Much of the fertility of de- 
 caying putrescent matters is said to 
 depend on the evolution of ammonia- 
 cal compounds, or the nitrates which 
 they originate by farther decay. 
 
 In the compounds of ammonia with 
 bases, it becomes converted — accord- 
 ing to modern authorities — into an 
 oxide of ammonium, or N H^ 0, or 
 an hydrate of ammonia ; hence, a ni- 
 trate of ammonia is, according to this 
 nomenclature, a nitrate of the oxide 
 of anmionium, N H4 O + N 0,-,. The 
 nitrate, sulphate, muriate, and nu- 
 merous organic salts of ammonia, 
 have been found in plants. The sul- 
 phate, carbonate, muriate, and ni- 
 trate have been used as steeps in the 
 same way and dose as nitre, but are 
 too expensive in the commercial 
 form ; most of these are found in sta- 
 ble manure and putrescent composts. 
 The amount of ammonia taken by a 
 crop from an acre rarely exceeds 30 
 pounds, except in such crops as tur- 
 nips, cabbages, and cruciferous plants, 
 which often carry off upward of 100 
 pounds. Some plants evolve ammo- 
 nia from their leaves, and all throw 
 off nitrogen, which is most probably 
 derived from ammonia taken from 
 the soil. The common salts of this 
 alkali are all soluble, and decomposed 
 or volatilized at a red heat. 
 
 NITRO. A prefix to the name of 
 bodies containing nitric acid or nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 NITRO-MURIATIC ACID. Aqna 
 rcgia. A mixture of strong nitric 
 and muriatic acid, whereby chlorine 
 is evolved, which dissolves gold, pla- 
 tinum, and other metals. 
 X x2 
 
 NITROUS ACID. A pungent, or- 
 ange-coloured, volatile acid, consist- 
 ing of one equivalent nitrogen and 
 four oxygen. 
 
 NITROUS OXIDE. Protoxide of 
 nitrogen, laughing gas. 
 
 N 6 C T i: R N A L. Of the night. 
 Many birds and insects prey only at 
 night. 
 
 NODE. A knot or lump. A bony 
 tumour. The swelling on the stems 
 of plants where leaves start ; also 
 called nodi. A 7wdal point, in physics, 
 is a place of rest, where several for- 
 ces counterbalance one another. 
 
 NODOSUS. Knotty. 
 
 NODULE. Rounded, irregular 
 lumps or masses. 
 
 NOGGIN G. In building, brick- 
 work carried up between uprights of 
 timber scantling. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE. The lan- 
 guage employed in scientific descrip- 
 tions. 
 
 NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance 
 incapable of conducting heat or elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 NONESUCH. The black medic 
 ( M. lupuUna ), common in upland 
 meadows. 
 
 NOOTH'S APPARATUS. A se- 
 ries of three glass vessels, placed ver- 
 tically, for the purpose of impregna- 
 ting water -with carbonic acid gas. 
 The lower vessel contains the mar- 
 ble and muriatic acid for the evolution 
 of the gas ; the central vessel holds 
 the water, through which it is made 
 to pass, under the pressure of the col- 
 umn of water in the third or upper ves- 
 sel, which is closed by a conical stop- 
 per, which serves as a safety-valve. 
 
 NOPAL. The Opunlia cochinillif- 
 era, a cactus on which the cochineal 
 insect lives : native of the sandy 
 tracts of Mexico. 
 
 NORDHAUSEN SULPHURIC 
 ACID. Fuming strong acid obtain- 
 ed by the distillation of green vitriol. 
 NORMAL. Regular, straight, 
 usual. 
 
 NOSE-BAG. A bag containing 
 corn or oats to be tied to the horse's 
 nose. 
 
 NOSE-BAND. That part of the 
 headstall of a bridle which comes 
 521 
 
MR 
 
 XI I R 
 
 over a horse's nose. It is sometimes 
 termed maserole. 
 
 NOSOLOGY. A classification or 
 dissertation on diseases. 
 
 NOTCHED. Crenate. 
 
 NOTCH-BOARD. In building, the 
 board which receives the ends of the 
 steps of a staircase. 
 
 NOTHUS. Spurious. 
 
 NOVACULITE. Hone stone. 
 
 NOVE.MBER. In this month the 
 later or fall crops, as carrots, turnips, 
 cabbages, &c., are collected, and sto 
 red up from frost ; preparation is to be 
 made for securing the fodder in a 
 suitable place for stock ; the farm- 
 stead is to be set right for wintering. 
 All stiff lands are now ploughed for 
 spring crops. The latter steps of 
 curing tobacco, the preparation for 
 rotting hemp, and securing cotton for 
 market, are now made. In the gar- 
 den, early vegetables are to be look- 
 ed after, and frames got ready to pro- 
 tect them from winter. The land 
 may be trenched for spring crops ; 
 transplanting can take place until the 
 ground begins to freeze too deep. 
 
 NUCLEUS. The point around 
 which crystals or organized struc- 
 tures are developed : the origin. In 
 botany, the upper, pulpy mass of an 
 ovule ; the interior of a seed. The 
 shield of lichens. 
 
 NUCULA. A fruit like the acorn, 
 or a one-seeded, hard seed-vessel. 
 
 NUDUS. Naked. 
 
 NURSERY. " In gardening, a plot 
 of ground, or an entire garden, set 
 apart for the propagation of plants, 
 more particularly trees and shrubs. 
 The situation ought to be open and 
 airy, and the soil of an average qual- 
 ity, neither too heavy nor too light, 
 so as to be adapted to the majority of 
 plants ; but in a complete nursery 
 there ought also to be shady borders 
 for plants requiring shade, and beds 
 or compartments of peat soil, or oth- 
 er peculiar soils, for such plants as 
 are not readily propagated and grown 
 in ordinary soils. Where tender 
 plants are propagated, or where hardy 
 plants are to be raised from seeds, 
 or struck from cuttings which are not 
 easily germinated or rooted in the 
 522 
 
 open ground and in the ordinary man- 
 ner, hot-beds, frames, and hand-glass- 
 es are also requisite. Every private 
 garden of any extent requires a nur- 
 sery' to raise and bring forward young 
 plants as a reserve for supplying fail- 
 ures by disease or accident in the 
 general garden. 
 
 "The seeds of the trees to be cul- 
 tivated are first sown in what are 
 termed the seed beds. The pits of 
 peaches and stone fruits may be ei- 
 ther broken, or placed in wet sand in 
 the fall, so as to open in the spring of 
 themselves. The beds may be made 
 about four feet wide, with little paths 
 for passages between. 
 
 " The ground of these beds being 
 carefully digged, and rendered smooth 
 by the rake, and a little of the sur- 
 face soil being laid aside for the pur- 
 pose of covering the seeds, these are 
 to be scattered evenly over the sur- 
 face, and a light wooden roller then 
 passing over it, the earth which had 
 been laid aside is to be spread care- 
 fully and equally over the seeds. 
 
 " The seeds of resinous trees must 
 be lightly covered, and so also must 
 some of the hard-wood kinds. Those 
 of the larch and the spruce should be 
 covered about a quarter of an inch, 
 and sown in the month of April, while 
 those of the oak, the ash, the chest- 
 nut, the sycamore, and others, may 
 be more deeply covered, and sown 
 at an earlier season. But some of 
 the hard-wood kinds require to be 
 sown at a later period, on account 
 of their being subject to injury from 
 frost ; and some may be sown in sum- 
 mer and autumn. 
 
 " The young plants remain in the 
 seed beds for one or two years, du- 
 ring which period they are termed 
 seedlings. Some of the hardier spe- 
 cies, as the larch and pine, may be 
 transplanted at once from the seed 
 beds to the place which they are to 
 occupy in the forest, while others, in- 
 cluding several of the resinous, and 
 all the hard-wood kinds, are first 
 transplanted into lines in another part 
 of the nursery, where they remain for 
 one or more years, and then are trans- 
 planted to their place in the forest. 
 
NUR 
 
 NUT 
 
 The most of the resinous trees, when 
 they are to be transplanted into the 
 nursery hnes, may he one year's seed- 
 lings ; others of the resinous, and all 
 the hard- wood kinds, should not gen- 
 erally be less than two years' seed- 
 lings before being transplanted to the 
 lines. Those that require grafting 
 are worked either in the first or sec- 
 ond year, and removed the next sea- 
 son. The transplantation from the 
 seed beds to the nursery lines may 
 take place in autumn, after the de- 
 scent of the sap, or in spring, before 
 vegetation has commenced. The 
 operation may be performed by the 
 spade, but is often performed by the 
 dibble. The plants are set at such 
 distances in the rows that the hori- 
 zontal branches of the young trees 
 shall not interfere with one another. 
 In transplanting, no part of the root 
 should be lopped or shortened by the 
 knife, nor the roots doubled in put- 
 ting them into the ground ; and care 
 should be taken in planting, where 
 the dibble is used, that the root shall 
 be fixed firmly, without being com- 
 pressed at the neck. 
 
 " Certain kinds of tree plants, in- 
 stead of being propagated by seeds, 
 are propagated by cuttings, consist- 
 ing of a portion of the shoot of the 
 previous year's growth, twelve or 
 fifteen inches long. These cuttings 
 are planted by thrusting one end a 
 few inches into the ground. This 
 is the manner in which willows and 
 certain poplars are raised. 
 
 " Certain kinds, again, are best prop- 
 agated by layers. This practice con- 
 sists in bending down the branches 
 of a growing tree, fixing them in the 
 ground by means of crooked pins of 
 wood, and covering them partly with 
 earth. In this state the covered part 
 quickly shoots forth roots, and the 
 branch, being then separated from the 
 parent tree, becomes a distinct plant. 
 
 '■ But, in the case of the greater 
 number of species, the practice is to 
 sow the seeds in the seed beds in the 
 manner described. The hardier are 
 often planted at once, but most of 
 the hard-wood are not planted in the 
 forest until they have been one or 
 
 more years in the nursery lines, 
 where they extend their roots, and 
 acquire strength and size. 
 
 " During the period in which the 
 plants remain in these lines they are 
 to be kept free from weeds. They 
 require no pruning at this early stage 
 farther than to the extent of causing 
 the leading or principal ascending 
 shoot to preserve its ascendency over 
 the lateral and more horizontal ones, 
 so that the plant shall not become 
 what is termed forked. This may be 
 simply efTected by shortening one of 
 the branches, or by simply nipping off 
 the terminal bud of the branch, by 
 which means its vertical growth will 
 be interrupted, and the mam stem per- 
 mitted to preserve its ascendency." 
 NURSES IN PLANTATIONS. 
 Shrubs or trees which grow rapidly 
 and protect the young plants. Thus 
 the vine is used as a nurse to the 
 cork-oak in Spain. By this means a 
 profit is obtained from the soil. They 
 must not shade the trees too much. 
 
 NUT, NUX. A fruit with a hard 
 covering, indehiscent, with one seed 
 (nucida). 
 
 NUTANT, NUTANS. Nodding, 
 inclined forward, or to the ground. 
 
 NUT OF A SCREW. The head, 
 or piece of wood or metal turned 
 down upon the screw. 
 
 NUTMEGS. "The fruit of the 
 Mynsiica moschata, a beautiful tree of 
 the family of the Laurinea: of Jussieu, 
 which grows in the Molucca Islands. 
 All the parts of this tree are very ar- 
 omatic, but only those portions of 
 the fruit called mace and nutmeg are 
 sent into the market. The entire 
 fruit is a species of drupa, of an ovoid 
 form, of the size of a peach, and fur- 
 rowed longitudinally. The nutmeg 
 is the innermost kernel or seed, con- 
 tained in a thin shell, which is sur- 
 rounded by the mace ; and this, again, 
 is enclosed in a tough, fleshy skin, 
 which, opening at the tip, separates 
 into two valves. The nutmeg-tree 
 yields three crops annually : one in 
 April, which is the best, one in Au- 
 gust, and one in December. 
 
 " Good nutmegs should be dense, 
 and feel heavy in the hand. M'heu 
 5'.i3 
 
OAK 
 
 they liave been perforated by worms 
 they feel light ; and thou.,'h the holes 
 Have been fraudulently stopped, the 
 unsound ones may be easily detected 
 by this criterion. 
 "Nutmegs afford two oily products : 
 - 1. Butter of nutmeg, vulgarly cahed 
 oil of mace, is obtained in'the Moluc- 
 cas, by expression, from the fresh 
 nutmegs, to the amount of fifty per 
 cent, of their weight. It is a reddish- 
 yellow, butter-like substance, inter- 
 spersed with light and dark streaks 
 and possesses the agreeable smell 
 and taste of the nutmeg, from the 
 presence of a volatile oil. It consists 
 ot two fats : one reddish and soft, 
 soluble in cold alcohol ; another white 
 and solid, soluble in hot alcohol 2 
 1 he volatile oil is solid, or stercoptcne I 
 and has been styled myristicine." I 
 _ The nutmegs are exclusively trop- ' 
 ical, and found in America as well as i 
 India. The Santa Fe nutmeg is the 
 Myristica oloba. I 
 
 A- U T R I T 1 N. The manner in I 
 Which a living animal or plant, or i 
 any part of their structure, is sustain- ' 
 ed, and the organs preserved from 
 Waste and decay 
 
 NUX VOMICA. The seeds of the 
 ^trychnos 7iux vomica, a tree of India 
 Ihey are very poisonous, and con- 
 tain strychnia and brucia. 
 N^ MPH. A pupa, or grub. 
 
 OAK 
 
 O. 
 
 OAK. Trees of the genus Quercus, 
 remarkable for the durability and 
 toughness of their timber, their size 
 and handsome appearance. Their 
 acorns are also of considerable value 
 as food for pigs, and in Europe are 
 often collected and sold as produce 
 The oaks require, for the most part 
 a rich, clayey soil, rather moist and 
 deep; hence many oak lands form 
 good wheat soils. The followin<r is 
 iMichaux's classification of American I 
 oaks, including three exotics only : 
 
 First Division. | 
 
 Fruclification annual. 
 First Skctio-^.— Leaves lobcd. 
 1. White 0!^k {Quercus alba), seventy 
 to eiglity feet higb. I 
 
 524 
 
 2. Common European oak {Quercus 
 robur), sixty to eighty feet high 
 
 3. European white oak {Quercus ro- 
 bur pcdunculata), sixty to eijjhtv 
 feet high. "^'S^iy 
 
 4. Mossy-cup oak {Qiiercus oHvcfor- 
 viis), seventy to eighty feet high 
 
 5. Over-cup white oak {Quercus mac- 
 rocarpa), seventy to eighty feet 
 high. 
 
 6. Post oak {Quercus obtusiloha), thir- 
 ty to fifty feet high. 
 
 7. Over- cup oak {Quercus lyrata), 
 sixty to seventy feet high. 
 
 Second Section.— Leaves toothed 
 
 8. Swamp white oak {Quercus bi- 
 I color), sixty to seventy feet high 
 
 9. Chestnut white oak {Quercus pri. 
 I nos) seventy to eighty feet high. 
 j 10. Rock chestnut oak {Quercus mon- 
 
 , , '?»«). thirty to forty feet high. 
 11. lellow oak {Quercus acuminata) 
 
 sixty to seventy feet high 
 I 12. Small chestnut oak{Quercus chin- 
 
 quapin), a shrub of three to four 
 
 teet high. 
 
 Second Division. 
 
 Fructification biennial; leaves mucro- 
 
 nated (except in the 13th species). 
 
 First Section.— Leat-e^ obtuse or en- 
 
 tire. 
 
 13. Live oak {Quercus virens), ever- 
 , . g;''een, forty to sixty feet high. 
 
 14. Cork oak{Qucrcus suber), Spanish 
 tree. 
 
 15. V^'iUow oak {Quercus phellos), thir- 
 ty to sixty feet hi</h 
 
 I IG. Laurel oak {Quercus imbricario), 
 I shingle oak, forty to fifty feet high 
 , 17. Lpland willow oak {Quercus cin- 
 erea), evergreen Southern, twen- 
 j ty feet high. 
 
 , 18. Running oak {Quercus puniila) 
 I two feet high. 
 
 Second Section.— Zearfs lobcd. 
 
 19. Bartram oak {Quercus hcterophyl. 
 la), said to be found only on one 
 plantation. 
 
 20. Water oak {Quercus aquatica), 
 thirty to forty feet high. 
 
 21. Black Jack oak {Quercus ferru^i. 
 nca), small, barren oak. 
 
 22. Bear oak {Quercus banisteri, v. 
 iljci/olia), two to nine feet high. 
 
OAK 
 
 OAK 
 
 Third Section. — Leaves niuUIJld, or 
 many-cJcft. 
 
 23. Barren serul) oi\\i {Qucreus Cates- 
 b(ei), fifteen to thirty feet high. 
 
 21. Spanish oiik ^Qiicreusfalcata), sev- 
 enty to eighty feet high. 
 
 25. Black oak (Qucreus tinctoria), six- 
 ty to seventy feet high. 
 
 26. Scarlet oak {Quercus coceinea), 
 eighty feet high : produces brown- 
 ish ink galls. 
 
 27. Gray oak (Quercus ambi^ua), a 
 hybrid, seventy to eighty feet high. 
 
 28. Pin oak (Qucreus jmlustris), forty 
 to sixty feet high. 
 
 29. Red oak (Quercus rubra), seventy 
 to eighty feet high." 
 
 To this list a few others have been 
 added, and some of the names of 
 Michaux changed. Of the additions, 
 the Southern (Q. Michauxii), flft}' to 
 sixty feet high, is the most important. 
 The list is, indeed, extended now to 
 some forty-five trees and shrubs, but 
 many of these are unquestionably hy- 
 brids, or varieties, in which list Q. 
 ambigua, kemispherica,humiilis, obtusa, 
 mollis, and others are to be reckoned. 
 
 The most important of this noble 
 class of trees is the white oak (Q. 
 alba), which is especially developed 
 on tiie clay and calcareous soils of 
 the Middle States : it is a close-grain- 
 ed, tough, and durable wood, exten- 
 sively employed in building, naval 
 structures, and almost every purpose. 
 The black oak (Q. /incloria) yields a 
 good timber,- but it is porous, and in- 
 ferior to the preceding; the bark is, 
 however, much employed for tanning, 
 and the inner bark yields the quer- 
 citron bark, extensively exported as 
 a yellow dye-stuff. The bark of Q. 
 acuminata vcl caslanca, a northern 
 tree, is also used for a yellow dye. 
 The bark of the Spanish oak is pre- 
 ferred for tanning, but the wood is 
 liable to worms. The Q. virciis, Flor- 
 ida, or live oak, produces a timber of 
 remarkable toughness and durabili- 
 ty, said to be superior to all other 
 kinds for naval purposes. It is not 
 extensively developed, and grows in 
 swampy situations. 
 
 The proper time for felling timber 
 is a question much agitated ; from 
 
 October to March is adopted by the 
 French ; mid-winter by the English. 
 Duhamel examined this subject thor- 
 oughly, and concluded that the time 
 was by no means important, for that 
 timber felled in summer, and care- 
 fully seasoned, was as tough and du- 
 rable as winter-felled. Barking is 
 practised in June and July, and it is 
 an advantage to allow the tree to 
 stand until the fall, and then fell for 
 timber ; indeed, Duhamel recom- 
 mends that it be allowed to stand 
 two years after, and this is practised 
 by the Dutch, and in some measure 
 by the English. It is not, however, 
 to be recommended for more than 
 one season, since the moisture of a 
 swamp and other causes may bring 
 on the growth of fungi. 
 
 OAK APPLE. A spongy excres- 
 cence growing on the young stems 
 of various oaks, especially the red 
 oak ; it is produced by an insect, the 
 Ci/nips conjlucntus. On the white oak, 
 excrescences, very nearly resembling 
 small gall-nuts, are produced by the 
 C. oneratus. Other species of cy- 
 nips sting the various oaks, forming 
 excrescences more or less large ; of 
 these, the gall-nuts of the white and 
 scarlet oak are most used for making 
 ink, and the former closely resemble 
 the commercial galls. 
 
 OAK BARK. The innermost lay- 
 er of the black and Spanish bark are 
 of the greatest service in tanning ; 
 the tan often amounts to 77 parts in 
 the 100 in this bark during the spring, 
 but is very much less in autumn and 
 winter: the difference, as ascertain- 
 ed by Mr. Higgins, is upward of two 
 thirds. The bark, when split off, 
 should be set up in loose piles to dry, 
 the pieces being so placed as to throw 
 off water, which injures its quality. 
 As soon as dry it ought to be kept 
 under a shed, and not ground till 
 wanted. The exhausted bark of the 
 tanner is much used by gardeners for 
 various purposes, and when rotted, 
 forms a good humus manure. See 
 Bark and Tan. 
 
 OAK PRUNER. Oaks are infest- 
 ed by numerous insects, the most cu- 
 rious of which is the pruner (Stcnoco- 
 
OAT 
 
 OAT 
 
 rus putator), which severs the young 
 branches ; these contain the insect, 
 and if collected in the autumn, when 
 just fallen, and burned, will serve as 
 a means of destroying them. 
 
 A K U M. The yarns of hemp, 
 which are spun into ropes. 
 
 OASIS. A green spot in a desert ; 
 usually a valley. 
 
 OAST, OAST-HOUSE. A drying- 
 house, heated by hot air circulating 
 in pipes or flues. It differs in this 
 respect from a kiln, in which the 
 smoke and heat pass into the grain. 
 It is used in drving hops and malt. 
 
 OAT-FIELD LAND. Open or un- 
 enclosed arable land. 
 
 OAT GRASS. The Avcna genus. 
 See Grasses. 
 
 OAT MEAL. The flour of oats, es- 
 pecially the Scotch oat ; it is exten- 
 sively employed for cakes, like bat- 
 ter cakes, and for porridge or brose. 
 Oat meal is very nutritious, and fre- 
 quently much more so than wheat or 
 corn, this point depending upon the 
 proportion of gluten or albumen they 
 contain. The oat meal cakes are al- 
 lowed to ferment slightly, so as to 
 become acid (lactic acid) before being 
 used. For the production of meal, the 
 oats are first kiln-dried, then passed 
 through a coarse-set mill to separate 
 the hull or shellings ; this forms 
 groats or gnts, and they are then 
 ground in a mill into a coarse meal. 
 
 OATS. Avcna saliva. A cultiva- 
 ted annual of the gramineous family. 
 Other varieties of the avena are also 
 cultivated, as the A. oncntalis, Tar- 
 tarian oat, with a one-sided head ; 
 the A. slrigosa, or bristle-pointed oat. 
 The varieties of the common oat are 
 classified into the black, gray, and 
 white ; of these, the black kinds are 
 smallest and lightest, but most hardy ; 
 and the white kinds best, especially 
 the imperial, potato, Georgian, and 
 the Dutch or Friesland oat. Tlie 
 Polish oat is one of the finest of the 
 black kind, but requires careful till- 
 age, and scatters. It is urged as an 
 objection to the potato oat that the 
 skin is too hard, so that they are oft- 
 en voided by horses unbroken ; it, how- 
 ever, yields the most meal, and rises 
 536 
 
 to 46 pounds the bushel. The com- 
 mon black and gray varieties are 
 often less than 25 pounds the bushel, 
 and seldom reach 30 ; but the Polish 
 is said to reach 50 pounds. 
 
 Oats do better north of Philadel- 
 phia than south, although they can 
 be cultivated to the Gulf of iMexico ; 
 their habitat is, however, northern. 
 This plant grows so rapidly in a good 
 soil that it is not uncommon to ob- 
 tain two crops in a year, especially 
 if they be cut for fodder while the 
 grain is in the dough. A good yield 
 is 50 bushels, but 90 bushels have 
 been taken from well-prepared soils. 
 The straw varies from H to 3 tons 
 the acre. As food for horses, no- 
 thing except beans can be compared 
 with oats ; Indian corn is much too 
 oily : while oats contain about four 
 per cent, of oil, Indian corn rises 
 above 10 per cent. In point of nu- 
 tritiousness they are also superior to 
 corn, and are equal to double their 
 weight of fine hay : the straw of a 
 greenish tinge is the best kind of ce- 
 real straw for fodder, and about a 
 quarter the value of prime hay. A 
 draught horse should receive from 
 seven to nine pounds of oats daily, 
 with as much prime hay and straw : 
 this is the ration for the heavy French 
 cavalry. The following is by the 
 Rev. W. L. Rham : 
 
 " The great use of oats, and the 
 ease with which they are raised on 
 almost every kind of soil, from the 
 heaviest loam to the lightest sand, 
 have made them occupy a place in 
 almost every rotation of crops. Of 
 all the plants commonly cultivated in 
 the field, oats seem to have the great- 
 est power of drawing nourishment 
 from the soil, and hence are justly 
 considered as greatly exhausting the 
 land. With proper management, a 
 crop of oats may give as great a prof- 
 it on the best land as any other crop, 
 when it is considered that it requires 
 less manure and produces an abun- 
 dance of straw, which is very fit for 
 the winter food of horses and cattle, 
 especially when aided by roots or oth- 
 er succulent food. 
 
 " To make a crop of oats profitable 
 
OATS. 
 
 some attention must be paid to the 
 preparation of the soil and to free it 
 from weeds ; for to sow oats on a foul 
 wheat or barley stubble slightly turned 
 in by the plough, as is sometimes done, 
 is the reverse of good husbandry. 
 
 " The best oats are raised in Scot- 
 land and ui Friesland, and in both 
 countries the land is carefully culti- 
 vated. In Scotland, oats are gener- 
 ally sown on a grass layer which has 
 been in that state for some years, and 
 sometimes on old pastures which are 
 broken up for the purpose. The crops 
 exceed in bulk and weight of grain 
 all that the most sanguine person, un- 
 acquainted with the system, would 
 expect, and in many seasons, not fa- 
 vourable for the wheat crop, oats are 
 much more profitable. Wherever 
 the land is not of a good quality, and 
 wheat is apt to fail, oats are a much 
 safer crop, especially in retentive 
 soils, as rye is on poor sands. I 
 
 " When oats are sown after tur- 
 nips, cabbages, or any other green , 
 crop, the land should be well plough- 
 ed, if the green crop was not con- 
 sumed on the spot, and a moderate 
 supply of manure will be well repaid 
 by the increased produce. A heavy 
 loam is best suited for oats : they re- 
 quire a certain degree of moisture, 
 and a deep soil is very favourable to 
 their growth. On land which has 
 been trenched, or where the subsoil 
 plough has been used, after careful 
 draining, if required, oats will thrive 
 wonderfully without requiring so rich 
 a soil as barley or wheat. The roots 
 are hardier, and have a stronger ve- 
 getative power. When once they 
 have struck deep into the soil, a good 
 crop, according to the quality of the 
 land, may be relied on. 
 
 " When oats are sown after artifi- 
 cial grasses, the land is seldom 
 ploughed more than once, and the 
 seed is sown on the fresh mould 
 which has been turned up ; but, un- 
 less the land be very free from weeds, 
 it would be better to plough the sward 
 with a shallow furrow early in au- 
 tumn. Before winter the scarifier 
 would break the rotten sward, which 
 might then be buried deep by another 
 
 ploughing. The land would be ready 
 for sowing early in spring, which is 
 a great advantage, both as to the 
 quality of the oat crop and the earli- 
 er harvest, especially in those dis- 
 tricts where the latter part of the au- 
 tumn is apt to be stormy and rainy. 
 The land thus treated would be clean, 
 and the fallow, which is often resorted 
 to of necessity after a crop of oats, 
 might be dispensed with, as the 
 weeds have been destroyed and bu- 
 ried deep. 
 
 " \\'hen oats are sown on light land 
 after turnips, it may be ploughed with 
 as shallow a furrow as will turn in 
 the surface : the preparation for tur- 
 nips will have sufliciently moved the 
 soil. On poor, moist land, oats are 
 more profital)le than barley. Clover 
 and grass seeds may be sown among 
 them with equal advantage, as they 
 will seldom grow so high as to be laid 
 and smother the young clover ; and 
 barley is very apt to fail on land sub- 
 ject to retain the water. 
 
 " In sowing oats, more seed is oft- 
 en used than of any other grain, be- 
 cause, although the plants tiller where 
 they have room, the straw of the sec- 
 ond shoots is weaker, and the grain 
 is not ripe so soon as that of the 
 principal stem ; but when the plants 
 rise close and thick, there are no til- 
 lers, the main stem is stronger, and 
 the corn is more plump and equal. 
 Six l)ushels of oats are often sown on 
 an acre ; but if they are drilled, four 
 bushels are sufficient ; and when dib- 
 bled, which is sometimes the case in 
 Norfolk and Suffolk, much less seed 
 is used. A good preparation of the 
 land is of more consequence than a 
 superabundance of seed. 
 I " In a field where oats are sown 
 I broad-cast, and covered by the har- 
 rows, many seeds remain exposed 
 to the depredation of birds, which 
 j soon find them out at a time of the 
 i year when food is scarce. When the 
 ] seed is sown and ploughed in, the 
 1 same object is attained ; but as the 
 1 furrow must be shallow, in order that 
 I the seed may not be buried too deep, 
 I the land must have been ploughed 
 i before to a considerable depth : in cl- 
 537 
 
OATS, 
 
 ther case, Tour bushels of seed per 
 acre are an aniplr allowance. Tliey 
 are sown as soon as frost is out of 
 the ground, but not in land too wet, 
 lest they rot in the soil. A second 
 crop is often ploughed in to enrich the 
 soil, but tliey arc inferior to clover. 
 
 " M'hcn the ground has been well 
 prepared, there is no necessity for 
 weeding or hoeing the crop as it ad- 
 vances ; but if large weeds appear, 
 such as charlock, May-weed, docks, 
 or thistles, they must be carefully 
 weeded out, or else the ground will 
 be so infested with their seeds or 
 roots, that it will be difficult to erad- 
 icate them afterward. Oats, when 
 fully ripe, are very apt to shed, and 
 many are lost for want of attention. 
 As soon as the straw turns yellow 
 under the heads, the oats should be 
 reaped, however green the lower part 
 of the straw may be : the straw will 
 be better fodder for cattle, and all the 
 corn will be saved. Oats are gener- 
 ally mown with a scythe, and- raked 
 into heaps to dry like bay ; but this 
 is a wasteful and slovenly practice. 
 A good crop of oats should be reaped, 
 like wheat, close to the ground, and 
 tied in sheaves. A cradle scythe, or 
 a short Hainault scythe, does the 
 work well in the hands of an expert 
 mower, who should be followed by 
 binders, who gather the straw with 
 their hands, and lay it regularly on 
 the ground, if it be not fit to tie up 
 immediately : the straw should after- 
 ward be tied up into sheaves, and set, 
 with the corn uppermost, in shocks 
 of ten or twelve sheaves, leaning 
 against each other, and open at bot- 
 tom, in order to allow the air to pass 
 through. Thus, in a short time the 
 oats become sufficiently dry to be 
 stacked, or carried immediately into 
 the barn. 
 
 " Oats, ground into a coarse meal, 
 form a considerable portion of the 
 food of labourers, and many men in 
 the middle ranks of fife in Scotland, 
 Ireland, and the north of England. 
 The meal is simply stirred into boil- 
 ing water with a little salt, until it 
 becomes of the consistence of a has- 
 ty pudding ; it is then called porridge, 
 528 
 
 or stirabout ; and, when eaten with 
 milk or treacle, makes a wholesome 
 and palatable food. It is sometimes 
 mixed with the thin liquor of boiled 
 meat, or the water in which cabbages 
 or kale have been boiled, and ac- 
 quires the denomination of beef- 
 brose or kale-brose. When made 
 into a dough with water, and baked 
 on an iron plate in thin cakes, it 
 makes a bread which is very palata- 
 ble to those who are accustomed to 
 it, and who often prefer it to wheat- 
 en bread. In Germany and Switzer- 
 land the coarsely-bruised oatmeal is 
 put into an oven till it becomes of a 
 brown colour ; it is then called haber- 
 meel, and is used in broths and pot- 
 tages, as the semolina, made from 
 wheat, is used in France and Italy. 
 The coarsely-broken grains, after the 
 husk has been removed, form grits, 
 which are extensively used to make 
 gruel for children and invalids. The 
 chaff of oats, put into a canvass bag, 
 forms a good substitute for feather 
 beds. 
 
 "In some countries the oats are 
 given to horses in the straw, without 
 thrashing thern ; and, where the quan- 
 tity can be regulated, the practice is 
 good. The horses masticate the corn 
 better in the chaff, and the straw is 
 wholesome ; but where horses do 
 hard work they would be too long in 
 eating a sufficient quantity, and it is 
 better to give them oats thrashed and 
 cleaned, with clover hay cut into 
 chaff. When hay is dear, it is often 
 cheaper to increase the quantity of 
 oats, and to give it with wheat straw 
 cut fine. In this way very little hay 
 is required. The calculation is easi- 
 ly made, when we consider that a 
 pound of good oats gives as much 
 nourishment to a horse as two pounds 
 of the best clover or sainfoin hay. A 
 truss of hay of 6G pounds is therefore 
 equal to 28 pounds of oats, or a bush- 
 el of the best oats will go as far as 
 one truss and a half of hay. 
 
 " Farmers who have hay-ricks, 
 from which they often allov/ their 
 men to take as much as they please 
 for their horses, will carefully meas- 
 ure out the oats, which probably are 
 
OB 
 
 OCT 
 
 much cheaper. Some men, who 
 keep many horses, cut all the hay 
 into chaff by a machine, and, mixing 
 this with a proper proportion of oats, 
 feed all their horses in mangers with 
 a certain allowance of the mixture, 
 a practice much more economical 
 than that usually adopted. In France 
 and Germany the practice of baking 
 oats, as well as rye, into loaves for 
 horse food, is gaining ground, and is 
 said to be attended with an evident 
 saving of food." ^ 
 
 The oat is a pretty sure crop ; the 
 smut and chinch-bug sometimes re- 
 duce the yield, and rust impoverishes 
 the straw ; but as these enemies 
 come late, it is best to cut the crop 
 as early as they appear : the wire- 
 worm sometimes destroys a portion. 
 
 OATS, COMPOSITION OF. The 
 general composition of the oat is sim- 
 ilar to the other cerealia, and the spe- 
 cial compost given for wheat will 
 serve for this crop and for barley. 
 By Boussingault, the yield of an acre 
 perfectly dry in graiu is 975 pounds ; 
 straw, 1176 in the dried state (small 
 crop) ; the ashes, 4 per cent, grain, 
 5 1 straw, or, per acre, 39 pounds 
 for the grain, and 60 pounds for the 
 straw. The composition of the ash, 
 per cent., was, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Potash 12-9 
 
 Soda 
 
 Lime 3-7 
 
 Magnesia 7-7 
 
 Phosphoric acid 14'9 
 
 Sulphuric acid TO 
 
 Silica 53-3 
 
 Chlorine 0-5 
 
 Irou, carbonic acid, and loss . 6-0 
 1000 
 
 It would appear, therefore, that bone 
 earth, common salt, gypsum, and, 
 where the composition can be formed 
 at little expense, silicate of potash, 
 would be excellent manures, and 
 might be combined in compost with 
 nitrate of soda. 
 
 The ultimate composition of the 
 grain gives 2-24 per cent, nitrogen ; 
 the straw, 38 ; and, according to the 
 Scotch, 14 pounds of oats yield eight 
 of meal. 
 
 OB. A very common affix to de- 
 scriptive words in botany, &c., as 
 
 y T 
 
 i obcordate, ohrotund, &c., signifying 
 nearly or somewhat heart-shaped, 
 round, &c. 
 
 OBESITY. Extreme or morbid 
 fatness. 
 
 OBJECT GLASS. The glass, or 
 lens, of the telescope nearest the ob- 
 ject. 
 
 OBJECT STAFF. The survey- 
 or's staff. See Letelling Staff. 
 
 OBLATE. Somewhat spherical, 
 but flattened in the perpendicular ax- 
 is, as an orange, the world. 
 
 OBSIDIAN. A black, glassy, com- 
 pact lava, consisting of potash and 
 soda, 7 to 10 per cent. ; silica, 7750 ; 
 alumina, 1175 ; iron, 125. 
 
 OBTUNDENTS. Mucilaginous, 
 oily, or bland substances, which re- 
 duce the acrimony of other medi- 
 cines. 
 
 OCCIPITAL BONE. The bone 
 which forms the back portion of the 
 skull, to which the spinal column is 
 attached. 
 
 OCHRE. Peroxide of iron mixed 
 
 with clay : the colour is very durable. 
 
 OCHREA. The leaf-stems which 
 
 clasp or surround the stem, as in the 
 
 case of some grasses. 
 
 OCTAGON. A superficial figure, 
 with eight sides or angles. 
 
 OCTAHEDRON. A solid, with 
 eight regular sides ; it is one of the 
 most common figures of crystals, and 
 may be a derivative from the cube or 
 tetrahedron. 
 
 OCTANDRIA (from oktu, eight, 
 and avTip, male). The Linna;an class, 
 in which the flowers contain eight 
 stamens. 
 
 OCTOBER. This is one of the 
 most important months. Whenever 
 frost begins to occur, all tender roots 
 and potatoes should be stored. Ap- 
 ples, pumpkins, and other fruits are 
 also to be stored. Turnips, parsnips, 
 and carrots may remain in the ground. 
 Hemp, sugar, tobacco, and cotton 
 are either quite or nearly collected. 
 This month is also preferred for tim- 
 ber cutting. Wheat sowing, as well 
 as winter grains, should be draw- 
 ing to a close, as the season is late 
 except for the South. In the garden 
 and orchard, transplanting and prop- 
 529 
 
OFF 
 
 OIL 
 
 agation by cuttings, &c., may com- 
 mence as soon as the leaves have 
 fallen, or in evergreens ; arrange- 
 ments should be made for early vege- 
 tables, and the frames looked to. As 
 soon as frost comes on, collect straw 
 and leaves to cover the vegetables 
 remainmg in the soil, spinach, turnip 
 tops, &.C., and secure the roots and 
 stems of tender fruit or shrubbery 
 plants ; prepare for laying vmes, &c. 
 Ewes put to the ram this month bring 
 lamb in March, which is seasonable 
 in the South, but too early for the 
 North. 
 
 ODERITE. A species of black 
 mica. 
 
 ODOMETER (from 66oc, a road, 
 and jicTpov, a measure). A wheel, 
 the axis of which turns a graduated 
 scale, so that the distance over which 
 it passes on a road is recorded in feet 
 and miles. It may be attached to a 
 carriage wheel, or rolled along by the 
 hand 
 
 ODONTOLOGY (from o6ovg, a 
 too/h, and Zoyof). A treatise on the 
 teeth. 
 
 D R I N. A very concentrated 
 empyreumatic oil, obtained by recti- 
 fying oil of bones. 
 
 CEDEMA. Puffiness of a part of 
 the body, produced by a dropsical ef- 
 fusion or collection of watery fluid. 
 
 CENANTHIC ETHER. A vola- 
 tile oily body, to which the peculiar 
 vinous flavour of wine is owing ; by 
 boiling with potash it becomes con- 
 verted into cEnanthic acid and alco- 
 hol. Liehig traces its existence to 
 the free tartaric and racemic acids of 
 certain grapes, which yield the oil 
 by their transformation. 
 
 CESOPHAGUS. The gullet or 
 swallow. 
 
 CESTRUS. The genus of Gad 
 Flies, which see ; as also Insects. 
 
 OFFSET. In building, the supe- 
 rior surface left uncovered by the 
 continuation upward of a wall where 
 the thickness diminishes, forming a 
 ledge. 
 
 OFFSETS. In surveying, short 
 distances from the chain-line, usually 
 measured with a rod, called an offset- 
 staff, the most convenient length for 
 5:J0 
 
 which is 6 feet 72 inches, being 
 equal to 10 links of the surveying 
 chain. 
 
 OFFSETS. In gardening, young 
 radical bulbs, when separated or ta- 
 ken off from the parent roots, are so 
 called. One of the chief methods of 
 propagating plants is by offsets. 
 
 OGEE. In moulding, is a line re- 
 sembling the italic/. 
 
 OGIVE. The pointed arch. 
 
 01L-(3AKE. The remainsof seeds, 
 especially linseed, after expression 
 for oil. Linseed and several other 
 cakes are used for fattening, two to 
 four pounds being broken up into the 
 daily food ; it is remarkably rich in 
 oil, containing often 15 per cent., and 
 ranks high as nutriment. See Fodders. 
 Animals do not always take to it 
 readily, and are therefore to be grad- 
 ually fed. Rape, mustard, hemp, 
 castor oil, and other cakes are admi- 
 rable manures ; half a ton of rape 
 cake, well broken and sown broad- 
 cast, is a well-established manure in 
 England. The Flemish mix them 
 with their fluid manure. See Flan- 
 ders Husbandry. The cake of any 
 particular seed is the best manure for 
 the same crop. They are suitable 
 for the drill. 
 
 OIL OF BRANDY. OIL OF PO- 
 TATOES, OIL OF GRAIN SPIRIT, 
 FOUSEL OIL. This volatile aro- 
 matic oil is formed in the fermenta- 
 tion of potatoes or grains where hops 
 are not employed, and which yield an 
 alkaline mash ; it comes over in the 
 last portion of the distillation for the 
 alcohol ; when concentrated, it is 
 oily and very nauseous. It is also 
 called amylic alcohol, and hihydrate 
 of amylene : formula (Cm Hu), HO, 
 the flrst term being the compound 
 radical Amyl of Dumas. 
 
 OIL OF VITRIOL. Sulphuric acid. 
 
 OIL OF WINE. Two liquid oily 
 bodies, as well as the oenanthic ether, 
 are known by this name ; the former 
 arise from distilling ether off caustic 
 lime, and are sulphates of the oxide 
 of ethyl. 
 
 OILS. Compounds consisting of 
 carbon and hydrogen for the most 
 part, but occasionally containing oxy- 
 
OILS. 
 
 gen, and having an affinity for that 
 element, whereby tliey beconae rancid 
 or are converted into resins. They 
 are compounds of the margaric, oleic, 
 or stearic acids, with glycerine, and 
 owe their value not only to their pe- 
 culiar properties, but to the soaps 
 and liniments they form with alkaline 
 substances. They are in all respects 
 fluid fats of vegetable and animal ori- 
 gin, agreeing very closely in struc- 
 ture. Thus per cent., 
 
 Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 
 Olive oil consists of 77-2 133 9'5 
 
 Spermaceti " 780 ITS 10-2 
 
 Oils are divided into expressed or 
 fixed oils, which are also subdivided 
 into drying oils and common oils, and 
 into distilled or essential oils. The 
 common fat oils are like almond and 
 olive, bland, preserving their flavour 
 for a long time, but becoming ran- 
 cid ; palm oil is solid. The drying 
 oils are like linseed, hemp seed, nut 
 oil ; they attract oxygen readily from 
 the air, evolving heat, and become 
 solid. The essential oils impart to 
 flowers and aromatic bodies their 
 odour ; they are very volatile, and are 
 obtained by distilling the leaves or 
 flowers with water. All vegetables 
 contain a proportion of oil of some of 
 these varieties, which may be obtain- 
 ed by digesting them in ether and al- 
 cohol ; it is, however, frequently be- 
 low one per cent., while in other 
 cases, as the nut, it is more than sixty 
 per cent. In provender, the fattening 
 quality is closely related to the per 
 centage of common oil. The follow- 
 ing table contains the best informa- 
 tion on this topic : 
 
 . 8 to 12 per ceut. 
 0-8 
 
 Common maize 
 
 Rice . . . . 
 
 Oats . . . . 
 
 Ditto . . . . 
 
 Rye . , . . 
 
 Rye flour . . 
 
 Hard wheat • . 
 Wlieat flour 
 
 Ditto . . . . 
 
 Fine bran . . 
 
 Coarse bran . . 
 
 Dry clover . . 
 
 Dry lucern . . 
 Meadow hay 
 
 Oat straw . . 
 
 Bean uieal , . 
 
 Beans . . , . 
 
 Haricot* . . . 
 
 Peas 20 per cent. 
 
 Lentils 2-5 
 
 Potatoes 008 " 
 
 Mangel-wurzel. ... 01 " 
 
 Carrots 017 " 
 
 Oil-cake 90 to 15 " 
 
 M. Payen found that the oil was 
 everywhere present in the seeds of 
 gramineous plants. The embryo 
 contains much, the husk less, the 
 farinaceous portion still less ; but 
 maize and oil-cake contain about 9 
 per cent., whence the universally ad- 
 mitted superior fattening power of 
 these two articles. 
 
 The crops enumerated in the fol- 
 lowing tal)le are those principally 
 raised for oil (the bene might be add- 
 ed) : it is from Boussingault ; 
 
 
 
 >. ^ c 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 c«: c 
 
 "S 
 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Seed produced 
 
 0^a 
 
 •5 , 
 
 
 
 per acre m 
 
 
 
 
 Cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 5 
 
 ■a 
 
 Cnlewort . . . 
 
 ly 15 
 
 875-4 
 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 Rocket . . . 
 
 15 1 3 
 
 320-8 
 
 18 
 
 73 
 
 R.ipe .... 
 
 16 2 18 
 
 641-6 
 
 33 
 
 &t 
 
 .'iwpdipli turnip 
 
 15 1 25 
 
 6*5-8 
 
 33 
 
 62 
 
 Curled colewort 
 
 16 2 13 
 
 641-6 
 
 33 
 
 m 
 
 Turnip cabbage 
 
 13 3 19 
 
 565-4 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 Gold of pleasure 
 
 17 1 16 
 
 545-8 
 
 27 
 
 Tt 
 
 Sunflower . . 
 
 15 3 14 
 
 275-0 
 
 IS 
 
 80 
 
 F\^x .... 
 
 15 1 25 
 
 3850 
 
 22 
 
 69 
 
 White poppy . 
 
 10 1 18 
 
 .ShO-8 
 
 46 
 
 bi 
 
 Hemp .... 
 
 7 3 21 
 
 22y-0 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 Summer rape . 
 
 11 3 17 
 
 412-5 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 55 
 3.3 
 1-8 
 35 
 2-6 
 2-1 
 14 
 4-8 
 5-2 
 40 
 3-5 
 3-8 
 51 
 21 
 2-0 
 30 
 
 A few oils, as the castor and caje- 
 put, are eminently medicinal, al- 
 though expressed ; this arises from 
 the presence of peculiar principles in 
 them. Camphor is by some writers 
 regarded as a concrete volatile oil. 
 
 The process for procuring express- 
 ed oils is either conducted with or 
 without heat ; where no heat is era- 
 ployed, less, but a superior kind is ob- 
 tained, which resists the action of air 
 longer, and is of a more delicate fla- 
 vour. For virgin oils the seeds are 
 first crushed, either between iron rol- 
 lers, in mortars, or in an edge mill, re- 
 sembling the bark mill (see Oil Mill) ; 
 the crushed mass is then enclosed in 
 strong hempen or woollen bags, and 
 this often in another of horse hair, 
 and subjected to the pressure of a 
 screw, placed in a hydraulic oil mill, 
 or merely into press boxes of stout 
 materials, and pressed by driving 
 wedges perpendicularly between the 
 sides of the box and bags. The hy- 
 531 
 
OILS. 
 
 draulic arrangement is most effective . 
 (See Press, Hydraulic) Tlie oil is 
 collected as it flows into appropriate 
 casks or vessels. The cake is now 
 boiled, heated by hot water, or press- 
 ed between hot plates in the hydrau- 
 lic press ; by this means more oil is 
 obtained, which, if water be used, 
 rises, after a time, to the surface, and 
 may be skimmed off. Coarse oils, as 
 castor, hemp, cotton, &c., can be 
 heated in an oven, or over flues, or 
 parboiled in the first case ; but olive, 
 almond, and table oils should not be 
 heated, the second drawing being fit 
 only for machinery. The cake or 
 marc is always serviceable as food 
 or manure. Sometimes oils are ob- 
 tained by merely bruising, and then 
 boiling in a great deal of water, the 
 floating produce being taken off by 
 skimming; but this is a very objec- 
 tionable method for table oils. For 
 farther particulars, see the oil plants. 
 
 OILS AS MANURE. Train oil 
 and blubber have been recommended, 
 and much used in composts as ma- 
 nures ; and, from some of the re- 
 sults, many farmers have taken up 
 an idea that oils are great fertilizers. 
 Train oil and other animal oils con- 
 tain impurities rich in nitrogen, and 
 their decay produces a fertilizing ac- 
 tion, but otherwise it is difficult to 
 understand that oils should be, to any 
 extent, manures. The idea is prob- 
 ably erroneous, although of very an- 
 cient date ; but the old writers were 
 altogether in the wrong in calling 
 night soil and such bodies oily 
 compounds ; they do not, therefore, 
 speak of real oils in many of their 
 observations. 
 
 OIL MILL. This is made in sev- 
 eral ways, but the most common is 
 that called the edge mill, the stones 
 of which are large and heavy. See 
 Figure. 
 
 532 
 
OLF 
 
 OINTMENT. A medical prepara- 
 tion containing lard, suet, or fat as 
 a basis. 
 
 OKRA. Hibiscus cscidejitus. An 
 annual of the family Mahaccct, 
 abounding in a ropy mucus. It is 
 readily cultivated, and much valued 
 for soups and as a vegetable, served 
 with butter. It is said that the ripe 
 seeds, which are as large as a small 
 pea, when roasted and prepared like 
 cofTee, are a perfect substitute for 
 that product. They are sowed in 
 settled weather (May), in rich lands, 
 in drills three feet apart each way, 
 and improved by manure and tillage. 
 The plants grow three or four feet 
 high, and bear numerous pods, which 
 are cut green, and while sufficiently 
 tender to break across. In good sit- 
 uations they grow six to ten inches 
 long. They are boiled, and served 
 with butter, or sliced, and introduced 
 into soup, with tomatoes, &c. The 
 green pods also make a good pickle. 
 They are regularly brought to the 
 Southern markets. 
 
 OLD RED SANDSTONE. The 
 formation of red sandstones and con- 
 glomerates next below the coal. 
 
 OLEACE-E. The family of trees 
 and shrubs containing the olive, ash, 
 and privet. 
 
 OLEANDER. Nerium oleander. 
 A beautiful evergreen, with large, ro- 
 saceous flowers. It requires, shel- 
 ter in the green-house, and is prop- 
 agated with ease by cuttings kept 
 moist. 
 
 OLECRANON. The bone of the 
 elbow. A process of the ulna. 
 
 OLEFIANT GAS. An inflamma- 
 ble gas, condensing spontaneously 
 into a fluid oil, with an aromatic 
 odour. It consists of two atoms 
 carbon and two hydrogen. It is re- 
 garded as a hvdrate of acetyl (C4 
 H3-fH). 
 
 OLEIC ACID. The acid of olein 
 (elain), or the fluid portions of fats, sep- 
 arated by alkalies from the glycerine. 
 
 OLERACEOL'S. Of the nature 
 of culinarv vegetables or pot herbs. 
 
 0LFAC;T0RY nerves. The 
 first pair proceeding from the brain, 
 and distributed in the nose. 
 Y V 'i 
 
 OME 
 
 OLIBANUM. a fragrant Eastiern 
 gum resin. Frankincense. 
 
 OLIVE. Oka Europea {Fig.). A 
 
 small evergreen tree, requiring a 
 mild climate, similar to that of South 
 Georgia, and a dry, granitic soil. It 
 is propagated from slips or seeds. 
 The trees bear well at ten years, and 
 live for centuries, when undisturbed 
 by frosts. They are more hardy than 
 the orange. The unripe fruit, pre- 
 served in salts and water, form an es- 
 teemed culinary and desert article. 
 The variety of tree with long leaves 
 (longifoJia) yields the best table oil. 
 It is cultivated in Fiance. The oil is 
 procured from fruit fully ripe, which 
 is allowed to sweat in heaps for a 
 few days, and then crushed in an 
 edge mill, and pressed without heat. 
 The oil becomes tine by standing for 
 a time. 
 
 OLIVE, AMERICAN. Olea Amer- 
 icana. Devil wood. A large ever- 
 green shrub of the South, growing 
 near the seashore, with aromatic 
 flowers and a small fruit. The wood 
 is very hard, but is '-tile used. 
 
 OLIVILE. An amylaceous body 
 obtained from the gum of the olive- 
 tree. 
 
 OLIVINE. A grosn, volcanic min- 
 eral. A silicate of magnesia and iron. 
 
 M B R O .\t E 1" E R (Irom nu6poc, 
 rain, and fierpov). A rain gauge. 
 
 OMEXTL'.M. Tiic membrane or 
 caul that lies over the intestines, and 
 becomes loaded with fat. 
 
 6^ 
 
0\I 
 
 ONI 
 
 OMNIVORES, OMNIVOROUS. 
 Eating animal and vegotahle food. 
 
 OMPIIALODIUM. Tiic point in 
 tlie hihim or scar of a seed tlirough 
 which the nutritions vessels pass. 
 
 ONION. Allnim ccpa. The fol- 
 lowing article is chiefly from Mr. 
 Bridgeman : " Varieties. — New-Eng- 
 land white, large red, yellow or sil- 
 ver-skinned, yellow Dutch, Stras- 
 burgh or Flanders, Madeira. 
 
 " Of the several varieties of on- 
 ions, the yellow or silver-skinned and 
 large red are the best for a general 
 crop. The bulbs are handsome, of 
 firm growth, and keep well through 
 the winter. The New-England white 
 are handsome for the table, and very 
 suitable for pickling, as well as to pull 
 while young, and generally prove a 
 very profitable crop. 
 
 "Previous to sowing onion seed 
 for a general crop, the ground should 
 be well prepared by digging in some 
 of the oldest and strongest manure 
 that can be got. The earlier this be 
 done in the spring, the belter ; and 
 the planting should not be delayed 
 longer than the middle of April. The 
 seed may be sowed moderately thick, 
 ia drills one inch deep and twelve 
 inches apart, in April or May. 
 
 " Those who cultivate onions for 
 the sake of their bulbs may use at 
 the rate of four or five pounds of 
 seed per acre. 
 
 " As market gardeners, in the vi- 
 cinity of large cities, find it most 
 profitable to pull a great proportion 
 of their onions while young, they gen- 
 erally require at the rate of from eight 
 to ten pounds of seed to an acre of 
 land. 
 
 " When the plants are up strong, 
 they should be hoed. Those beds 
 that are to stand for ripening should 
 be thinned out while young, to the 
 distance of two or three inches from 
 each other. If a few should be re- 
 quired for use after this, those can 
 be taken which incline more to tops 
 than roots ; and if the beds be fre- 
 quently looked over, and the small 
 and stalky plants taken away where 
 they stand thickest, the remaining 
 bulbs will grow to a larger size. 
 534 
 
 : The plants should be hoed at least 
 three times in the early part of their 
 growth ; but if the season prove 
 I damp, and weeds vegetate luxuri- 
 antly, they must be removed by the 
 hand ; because, after the onions have 
 begun to bulb, it would injure them 
 to stir them with a hoe. 
 
 " When the greenness is gone out 
 of the tops of onions it is time to 
 take them up, for from this time the 
 fibrous roots decay. After they are 
 pulled they should be laid out to dry, 
 and when dry, removed to a place of 
 shelter." 
 
 The crop is put up into ropes of 
 three and a half pounds, and a fair 
 crop is from 6000 to 8000 such ropes. 
 
 " The small onions may be planted 
 in the following spring. Even an 
 onion which is partly rotten will pro- 
 duce good bulbs, if the seed stems be 
 taken off as soon as they appear." 
 
 The admirable Portuguese onions 
 are only raised in perfection near the 
 seashore, in places moistened by the 
 tide ; hence moisture and a little salt 
 should be secured to the growing 
 plants. 
 
 " The Allium fistulo sum, Welsh on- 
 ion, or Ciboule, is cultivated for 
 spring salad ; it forms no bulbs, but 
 is very hardy. If the seed be sowed 
 early in September, in rich ground, 
 although the tops may die down in 
 the winter, yet the roots will continue 
 sound, and put up new leaves early 
 in the spring. 
 
 " The Allium cepa, or common 
 white and red onions, are most gen- 
 erally cultivated by market garden- 
 ers, as a substitute for the Allium 
 fistulosum. They sow the seed in 
 the spring and autumn months ; the 
 product of which is pulled and sent 
 to the market while young, and gen- 
 erally meets with a ready sale. 
 
 " The Allium proliferum, or tree 
 onion, is propagated by planting the 
 bulbs in spring or autumn — either the 
 root bulbs or those produced on the 
 top of the stalks ; the latter, if plant- 
 ed in the spring, will produce fine 
 onions. These may be planted in 
 rows with a dibble, the same aa 
 shallots. 
 
OPI 
 
 ORA 
 
 " The potato onion {Allium tubero- 
 sum) does not produce seed as other 
 onions, hut it increases by the root. 
 One single onion, slightly covered, 
 will produce six or seven in a clump, 
 partly under ground. 
 
 " The bulhs are generally planted 
 in the spring, from twelve to eighteen 
 inches apart ; but they will yield bet- 
 ter whcti planted in autumn, as they 
 will survive the u inter if slightly cov- 
 ered with dung, litter, or leaves of 
 trees, &,c." 
 
 ONION, WILD. A troublesome 
 weed in meadows and open grounds. 
 It is to be removed by a few hoed 
 crops and heavy liming. 
 
 O N I S C I D ^. Insects like the 
 wood louse {Oniscus). 
 
 OOLITE. Roe stone. A lime- 
 stone of the secondary epoch, the 
 parts of which are rounded so as to 
 resemble a fish roe. It is unknown 
 as a formation in the United States, 
 at least on the seaboard. Oolitic is 
 a derivative. 
 
 OP.\L. An iridescent, silicious 
 mineral. 
 
 OPEN CUTS. Ditches not cov- 
 ered. 
 
 OPERCULUM. A lid or covering. 
 The coverings of the theca of moss- 
 es. In zoology this term is applied 
 to the apparatus supported by four 
 bones, which protects the gills of 
 fishes ; also to the horny or calcare- 
 ous plate which closes the aperture 
 of univalve shells ; and to the four 
 calcareous pieces which defend the 
 entrance to the tube of Balanites, or 
 bell barnacles. 
 
 OPHIDIANS, OPHIDIA (from 
 oi>L^, a snake). The order of reptiles 
 resembling snakes. 
 
 OPHTHAL.MIA (from o<j>6alfioc, 
 an eye.). Inilammation of the mucous 
 membrane of the eye. 
 
 OPIU.M. The concrete juice of 
 the poppy, obtained by woundmg the 
 unripe seed capsules of the Papaver 
 soinni/erum, collecting the milky juice 
 %vhich exudes and driers in the sun, 
 and kneading it into cakes. The 
 cakes of the best opium are covered 
 externally with pieces of dried leaves 
 aud the seed capsules of some spe- 
 
 1 cics of Runiex. It should be of a rich 
 ; brown colour, tough consistency, and 
 I smooth, uniform te.\ture ; its pecu- 
 liar narcotic smell should be strong 
 and fresh ; its taste bitter, warm, and 
 somewhat acrid. The chemical anal- 
 ysis of opium has rendered it proba- 
 ble that its activity as a medicine de- 
 pends upon the presence of a peculiar 
 alkaline base, called morpUia, in com- 
 bination with an acid which has been 
 termed meconic acid. Opium also con- 
 tains narcoline. narccitie, codcin, gum 
 resin, extractive matter, and small 
 portions of other proximate princi- 
 ples. 
 
 The chief countries in which opi- 
 um is prepared are India. Egypt, Tur- 
 key, and other parts of Asia ; it is 
 even cultivated in Italy, France, and 
 England ; but the climate of Europe 
 seems to be too uncertain to allow 
 of its regular production. 
 
 There is no substitute for this in- 
 valuable drug in allaying pain. See 
 Poppy. 
 
 OPOBALS.\M. Balm of Gilead. 
 A fragrant gum resin, from a species 
 of Amyris. 
 
 OPODELDOC. A liniment of 
 soap with camphor. 
 
 OPOPONAX. A gum resin of a 
 bad odour, from the Pastinica opo- 
 ponax. 
 
 OPOSSU^^ The genus Didelphis 
 of marsupials, peculiar to the Amer- 
 ican continent. 
 
 OPTIC NERVES. The second 
 pair from the brain. They enter the 
 back of the eyes, and form the re- 
 tina. 
 
 OPTICS. The science which in- 
 vestigates the property of light, and 
 all that relates to vision. 
 
 ORACHE. The genus ^?rz>/ex, of 
 the family Chenopodmcecz, which con- 
 tains the beet and spinach ; most of 
 the species are weeds in rich soils, 
 but A. hortensis is cultivated and 
 used like spmach in some parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 ORANGE. Citrus auranlium. 
 This tree and the genus are cultiva- 
 ted only in situations tree from frost, 
 and suffer even in Florida ; with suf- 
 ficient shelter to protect them from 
 535 
 
ORA 
 
 ORG 
 
 frost, they are readily raised in or- 
 angeries kept above 32=" Fahrenheit. 
 They are evergreens : the flowers 
 are large, white, and odoriferous, ex- 
 isting at the same time as the fruit, 
 which is too well known to require 
 description. Orange-trees thrive best 
 in a good loamy soil, mixed with a 
 quantity of rotten dung. The differ- 
 ent kinds are procured by budding or 
 grafting on common stocks. Stocks 
 for working upon are raised from any 
 oranges, lemons, &c. They are some- 
 times raised from cuttings, in which 
 case they produce fruit when very 
 small plants. The flowers of the or- 
 ange-tree yield, by distillation, a fra- 
 grant volatile oil, known by the name 
 of oil of Neroli. The fruit of the 
 bignaroll, or bitter orange, makes one 
 of the best preserves that can be eat- 
 en, namely, Scotch mai-malade. The 
 unripe fruit is used for flavouring the 
 liquor called Curagoa. The ripe fruit 
 is wholesome, and a useful refriger- 
 ant in fevers." 
 
 ORANGE DYE. A mixture of 
 red and yellow dyes. 
 
 ORANGE, OSAGE. Maclaura au- 
 rantica. A small, handsome, decidu- 
 ous tree or shrub of 15 feet, bearing 
 a large fruit somewhat like an orange 
 in appearance. It is a native of Ar- 
 kansas, but grows in New- York. Be- 
 ing a branching, thorny, and quick- 
 growing shrub, it has been recom- 
 mended for hedges ; it is readily prop- 
 agated from seeds, and grows suffi- 
 ciently in three years to form a fence : 
 the seeds germinate in a few weeks, 
 and one fruit yields some two hun- 
 dred ; three may be set in holes five 
 feet apart, and thinned to one after 
 the first year. 
 
 OR.^NGERY. "A kind of gallery 
 in a garden, or parterre, to preserve 
 orange-trees in during the winter sea- 
 son. For trees in large boxes a pro- 
 portionably large and lofty house is 
 requisite ; it may be opaque on the 
 north side, with a glass roof, front, 
 and ends, of any convenient or de- 
 sired length, width, and height. For 
 one of moderate size, the height at 
 the back wall may be fifteen feet, at 
 front ten feet, and the width of the 
 636 
 
 house fifteen feet. The floor may be 
 either perfectly level, and the boxes 
 placed on it, the largest behind, so as 
 their tops may form a slope to the 
 front glass ; or if the trees are young, 
 a stage may be erected for a few 
 years, in order to raise the plants to 
 the light ; but if the trees are of a 
 considerable size, the best way is to 
 have square pits in the floor at regu- 
 lar distances, somewhat larger than 
 each box, and in these to sink the 
 boxes, covering them with mould, 
 sand, or moss, nearly to the level of 
 the pavement, so that each tree so 
 placed and dressed will appear as if 
 placed in a small compartment of 
 earth." 
 
 ORANGE, WILD. Prunus Caro- 
 liniana. A kind of cherry evergreen, 
 and growing to the size of a small 
 tree ; the fruit is not edible, but the 
 tree is much esteemed on the South- 
 ern seaboard as an ornamental plant. 
 It is a native of Florida. 
 
 ORBIT. In birds, the skin which 
 surrounds the eye : the bony cavity 
 in which the eye is set. 
 
 ORCHARD. A collection of fruit- 
 trees. The operations of the orchard 
 are to be found under their respective 
 heads. The best soil is somewhat 
 calcareous or marly for the Potnacecs, 
 or apples, pears, peaches, cherries, 
 plums, and apricots ; but the " hard 
 gravelly soil of the Eastern States, 
 the sandy soil of New Jersey, the clay 
 soil of Pennsylvania, and the rich al- 
 luvial bottoms of the West, all pro- 
 duce an abundance of the different 
 varieties of fruit, when proper atten- 
 tion is given to the trees. Mr. Phin- 
 ney, of Lexington, Massachusetts, 
 has ditched and drained one of his 
 swamps, and has now on it a luxu- 
 riant orchard of apple-trees. The 
 great point is to have a dry soil. If it 
 is not sufficiently rich, make it so ; 
 no man should expect to have fine 
 crops of anything unless his soil is 
 rich. 
 
 " Setting out Trees {Mr. Pell's plan). 
 — If by exposure the roots have be- 
 come dry, immerse them in water 
 for 20 or 30 hours previous to setting 
 them out. Prepare a compost as fol- 
 
ORG 
 
 ORG 
 
 lows : Take 3 bushels of rich soil, or 
 3 bushels of swamp nuick would be 
 better, 1 bushel night soil, 1 bushel 
 fine charcoal (if charcoal is plenty, 3 
 to 4 bushels are to he preferred), 1 
 bushel air-slacked lime, 1 bushel of 
 leached wood ashes, and 1 peck of 
 salt. Mix the above well together. 
 
 " Dig the holes 3 feet wide, 2 feet 
 deep, keeping the top soil by itself; 
 fill in a portion of the bottom soil un- 
 til nearly ready for the tree, then fill 
 in half a bushel of the compost and 
 set in the tree, spreading out the roots 
 to their natural position, and fill in 
 the top soil, gently shaking the tree 
 two or three times to settle the soil 
 around the roots. The tree should 
 be set the same depth in the orchard 
 that it stood in the nursery. Leave 
 the soil a little hollowing about the 
 tree, to catch and retain the rain-wa- 
 ter. Put around each tree half a peck 
 of fine charcoal and half a peck of 
 slacked lime. Witli these precautions 
 neither peach nor any other fruit 
 trees will be infested with worms at 
 the roots, provided they have suitable 
 after-culture. 
 
 ^' CuUiirc of Orchnrds. — The soil 
 around the trees should be kept loose, 
 either by spading, digging with a mat- 
 tock, or by ploughing. If a crop is put 
 in the orchard, nothing should be 
 planted or sowed within five feet of 
 the trees, as the nourishment taken 
 up by the crop is so much taken from 
 the growth of the trees. After the 
 lime and charcoal has laid around the 
 trees one year, spread it around the 
 trees in a circle of ten feet in diam- 
 eter. This should be done in the 
 spring, when the soil is cultivated, 
 and a fresh supply of lime and char- 
 coal applied. 
 
 " When the trees have been set out 
 three or four years, the soil should 
 be enriched with a compost of ma- 
 nure, swamp muck, and ashes. Early 
 every spring the trunlcs of the trees 
 should be washed with strong lye, 
 strong soapsuds, or thin soft soap. 
 Apply either of these with a white- 
 wash brush as high as a man can 
 reach. When the trees grow rapid- 
 ly, their girth will be increased by 
 
 ' slitting the outer bark the whole 
 Irngtb, from the ground up to the 
 limbs. This gives the trees room to 
 expand. 
 I '■^To render Old and Barren Orchards 
 Thrifty and Productive. — Early in the 
 spring plough the entire orchard, and 
 enrich with a compost of manure, 
 swamp muck, lime, and chip manure. 
 Scrape offall the old bark with a deck 
 \ scraper, or a hoe ground sharp. Ap- 
 ply half a bushel slacked lime, and the 
 same of fine charcoal, around each 
 I tree. Apply then soft soap or strong 
 ^ soapsuds on the trunks and limbs as 
 higii as a man can reach. ^V'hile the 
 I trees are in full bloom, throw over 
 I them a good supply of fine slacked 
 j lime. 
 
 I ^^ To dcstroxj Caterpillars. — As soon 
 as the nests can be seen, procure 
 some spirits of turpentine ; tie a small 
 ' piece of sponge to a pole that is long 
 i enough to reach the highest nests, fill 
 \ the sponge, and once filling will be 
 sufficient to rub off and destroy sev- 
 eral nests." 
 I ORCHARD GRASS, ^ee Grasses. 
 ORCHIDACE.E. Herbaceous en- 
 j dogens with remarkably irregular and 
 I beautiful flowers ; they are propaga- 
 j ted by seeds, and bear bulbs contain- 
 ing an agreeable farina (salcp), for 
 which the Orchis masnila is partially 
 cultivated. They are natives of cal- 
 careous soils. In the tropics the spe- 
 cies and genera often become splen- 
 did parasites. 
 
 ORCHIL, or ARCHIL. The Ro- 
 cella tinctoria. A lichen indigenous 
 to the Canaries, and yielding a pur- 
 ple dye. 
 
 ORCINE. The colouring matter of 
 the Violaria orcina, or lichen dealbatus. 
 ORDER. A style of architecture, 
 or column. 
 
 OREGON ALDER. Alnus Orego- 
 na. An alder of 25 to 30 feet. 
 
 ORES. Minerals containing a 
 large amount of some metal. 
 
 ORGAN. In anatomy, a viscus, 
 or structure of the body. 
 
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. The 
 
 chemistry of organic matters, or such 
 
 as are directly or indirectly derived 
 
 from plants or animak. The invea- 
 
 <3^ 
 
0R.\ 
 
 ORN 
 
 tigation or analysis of such hodies arc 
 proximate or ultimate ; the former 
 when the parts are merely separated 
 by solvents, as water, alcohol, eiher, 
 and acids; the latter when the ele- 
 mentary composition is ascertained. 
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro- 
 gen, combined in binary, ternary, or 
 quarternary compounds, with a small 
 amount of saline matters, form the 
 majority of organic bodies ; sulphur 
 and phosphorus are present in a few 
 only. The modern process of organic 
 analysis is briefly described in Kane's 
 and in Graham's Chemistry. These 
 manipulations require great experi- 
 ence and skill. Vegetable tissues are 
 distinguished from animal by the 
 great amount of nitrogen in the latter. 
 
 ORGANIC DISE.\SE. Disease 
 attended with an alteration of tbe 
 structure of a viscus or organ. 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS. Fossils. 
 
 ORGANIZATION. The process- 
 es by which an organized body is 
 formed ; also the totality of the parts 
 which constitute, and of the laws 
 which regulate, an organized body. 
 
 ORGANOGRAPHY. A descrip- 
 tion of the structure of plants. 
 
 ORLO. The plinth to the base of 
 a column or pedestal. 
 
 ORNITHICNITES (from opvic, a 
 bird, and ixvo^, a trace). Certain 
 marks in the new red sandstone, sup- 
 posed to be bird tracks. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY (from opvLc, a 
 bird, and ?.o}0(, a description). The 
 science which teaches the natural 
 history and arrangement of birds. 
 
 " The subdivision of the class of 
 birds is by no means so clearly indi- 
 cated by either external or anatomi- 
 cal characters as that of mammals, 
 and the systems of ornithology pre- 
 sent, in consequence, greater dis- 
 crepancy. 
 
 " In the quinary arrangement of 
 birds, proposed by Mr. Vigors, there 
 may be traced a similar principle to 
 that which guided Nitzsch in his ter- 
 nary classification. Thus, the first 
 order {Raptores, Virg ) includes the 
 birds which soar in the upper regions 
 of the air, which build their nests and 
 rear their young on the highest rocks 
 639 
 
 and loftiest trees. The second ordei 
 (Inccssorcs) includes the birds which 
 affect tiie lower regions of the air, and 
 wbicli are peculiarly arboreal in their 
 habits ; whence the name of perch- 
 ers. The third order corresponds 
 with Nitzsch's Aves terrcstres, and is 
 termed Rasorcs. If the aquatic birds 
 of Nitzsch be divided into those 
 which frequent the fresh waters, and 
 are restricted to wading into rivers, 
 lakes, &c., in search of their food, 
 and those which have the power of 
 swimming or diving, and, for the 
 most part, frequent the ocean, we 
 shall then have the two remaining 
 orders of the quinary arrangement, 
 viz., Grallalores and Natatores. The 
 chief merit of this arrangement is its 
 aim to express the natural affinities, 
 and their circular progression in the 
 whole and in the several parts. 
 
 " Linnaeus and Cuvier have six or- 
 ders of birds, which are character- 
 ized as follows by the latter nat- 
 uralist : 
 
 " Of all classes of animals, that of 
 birds is the most strongly character- I 
 ized ; that in which the species bear \ 
 the greatest mutual resemblance, and 
 which is separated from all others by 
 the widest interval. Their system- 
 atic arrangement is based, as in the 
 mammalia, on the organs of mandu- 
 cation, or the beak, and in those of 
 prehension, which are again the beak, 
 and, more particularly, the feet. 
 
 " One is first struck by the charac- 
 ter of webbed feet, or those wherein 
 the toes are connected by membranes 
 that distinguish all swimming birds. 
 The backward position of their feet, 
 the elongation of the sternum, the 
 neck, often longer than the legs, to 
 enable them to reach below them, the 
 close, glossy plumage, impervious to 
 water, altogether concur with the 
 feet to make good navigators of the 
 Palmipedes. 
 
 "In other birds, which have also 
 most frequently some small web to 
 their feet, at least between the two 
 external toes, we observe elevated 
 tarsi ; legs denuded of feathers above 
 the heel joint ; a slender shape ; in 
 fine, all the requisites for wading in 
 
ORN 
 
 OSI 
 
 shallow waters in search of nounsli- 
 ment. Such, in fact, is the source of 
 food of the greater number ; and al- 
 though some of them resort exclu- 
 sively to dry places, they are, never- 
 theless, termed • shore birds,' or 'wa- 
 ders' {Gi-allcc). 
 
 " Among the true land birds, the 
 Gallinacccc have, like our domestic 
 cock, a heavy carriage, a short flight, 
 the beak moderate, its upper mandi- 
 ble vaulted, the nostrils partly cover- 
 ed by a soft and tumid scale, and al- 
 ways the edges of tlie toes indented, 
 with short membranes between the 
 bases of those in front. They sub- 
 sist chiefly on grain. 
 
 " Birds of prey (Accipitres) have a 
 crooked beak, with its point sharp 
 and curving downward, and the nos- 
 trils pierced in a membrane that in- 
 vests its base : their feet are armed 
 with strong talons. They live on 
 flesh, and pursue other birds ; their 
 flight, accordingly, is mostly power- 
 ful. The greater number still retain 
 a slight web between their external 
 toes. 
 
 "The passerine birds (Passcres) 
 comprise many more species than all 
 the other families ; but their organi- 
 zation presents so many analogies 
 that they cannot be separated, al- 
 though they vary much in size and 
 strength. 
 
 " Finally, the name of climbers 
 (^Scansorcs) is applied to those birds 
 in which the external toe is directed 
 backward like the thumb, because the 
 greater number of them avail them- 
 selves of a conformation so favoura- 
 ble for a vertical position to climb the 
 trunks of trees. 
 
 " The primary division of the class 
 of birds adopted by the author of the 
 article ' Aves,' in the Cyclopccdm of 
 Anatomy and Physiology, includes 
 seven orders ; the struthious birds, 
 by virtue of tlieir remarkable ana- 
 tomical peculiarities, being separated 
 from tlie GrallcB of Linnaius and Cu- 
 vier. The following are the orders ; 
 
 1. Raptorks, AcapUres, Linn., Cuv. 
 Birds of prey. 
 
 2. Incessokes, f asserts, Cuv. Perch- 
 ers. 
 
 3. ScANsoREs, Cuv. Climbers. 
 
 4. Rasores. Gallina:. Linn., Cuv. 
 Scratchers. 
 
 5. CuRsoREs, Illig. Coursers. 
 
 6. Grall.atores, Gra/te, Linn. Wa- 
 ders. 
 
 7. N.'iT.ATORES, Palmipedes, Cuv. ; An- 
 sercs, Linn. Swimmers." 
 ORPIMENT. Yellow sulphuret 
 
 of arsenic : it is poisonous ; the so- 
 lution in li(iuor ammonia has been 
 used as a yellow dye. 
 
 ORPI\E. Scduin tclephium. An 
 exotic perennial succulent plant, of 
 the family Crassulacccz. 
 
 ORRIS. Ins Florenlina. The root 
 of this flag is remarkably fragrant, 
 and used in powder as a dentifrice. 
 It is readily cultivated in moist, light 
 soils, and grows rapidly from offsets. 
 
 ORTHOPNGEA. Difficulty of 
 breathing, especially when lying 
 down. 
 
 ORTHOPTER.ANS. See bisects. 
 
 ORTHOTROPOUS (from opOot;, 
 straight, and Tperrcj, I turn). Seeds in 
 whicli the hilum and foramen are op- 
 posite. 
 
 ORTOLAN. A bird of passage of 
 the family Fringillidce. They migrate 
 from Africa to Southern Europe, and 
 are fattened for the tables of the lux- 
 urious. 
 
 ORYZ.\ (from Aruz, Arabian). The 
 genus of the rices. 
 
 OSCILLATION. Movement sim- 
 ilar to that of the pendulum. 
 
 OSCILLATORIA. Plants of the 
 lowest organization, living in wet or 
 damp places, and consisting of 
 threads, which have sometimes an 
 apparent movement. 
 
 OSIER. Salix viminalis. Com- 
 mon osier ; there are, however, other 
 useful species, but this only is accli- 
 mated in the United States ; the S. 
 Forbiana is cultivated in England for 
 fine baskets, and also the 6'. rubra. 
 They are botanically willows, but are 
 remarkable for their slender and 
 tough twigs, which answer admirably 
 lor baskets and hoops ; for the first, 
 they are cut annually ; for the second, 
 every two years. They require a 
 marshy, rich soil. 
 
 " In the fens of the east of Eng- 
 539 
 
OUT 
 
 OVI 
 
 land, many holts (as they are provin- 
 cially called) or plantations of osiers 
 are raised, which beautify the coun- 
 try, keep the stock warm in the win- 
 ter, and provide much useful wood 
 for baskets and all kinds of wicker- 
 work. The mode of planting is very 
 simple : it is, first, to dig the land 
 from six to twelve inches deep, and 
 then to prick down cuttings of four 
 years' growth, and eighteen inches 
 long, about three feet apart. The 
 soil may be moor or clay, or any that 
 is low and wet." 
 
 OSMAZOME. The brown, fra- 
 grant extractive matter of roasted 
 meats. 
 
 OSMIUM. A rare metal, associa- 
 ted with platina in ores. 
 
 OSSEOUS BRECCIA. Fragments 
 of bones and mineral matters found 
 cemented together in some caverns 
 and fissures of rocks. 
 
 OSSIFICATION. The process of 
 the deposition of bone. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. A dissertation on 
 bones. 
 
 OTITIS (from ovc the ear). In- 
 flammation of the internal parts of 
 the ear. 
 
 OTTO, or ATTAR. A perfume, 
 the essential oil of roses. The fresh 
 flowers are distilled with water by a 
 gentle heat, as in the case of other 
 essences. 
 
 O U N C E. In troy weight, 480 
 grains, -j^ of a pound ; in avoirdu- 
 pois, jg of a pound ; it contains only 
 437i troy grains. 
 
 OCRARI. A virulent poison from 
 the Strychnos toxifera, of Guiana. It j 
 produces convulsions and suspended 
 respiration. 
 
 OUTCROP. In geology, the ex- 
 posure of rocks or strata above the 
 earth. 
 
 OUTFALL. The lower end of a 
 water-course. 
 
 OUTFIELD. Unenclosed lands, 
 distant from the farm-stead. 
 
 OUTLIER. A detached portion 
 of rock, distant from the mass. 
 
 OUTRE. Unusual, unnatural, 
 without taste 
 
 OUZE. The muddy deposites of 
 the 3ea, or waters. 
 S40 
 
 OVARIA. The oval bodies which 
 contain the eggs, or germs, in female 
 animals. 
 
 OVARIUM. " In plants, a hollow 
 case, enclosingovulesor young seeds, 
 containing one or more cells, and ul- 
 timately becoming the fruit ; it is al- 
 ways situated in the centre of the 
 flower, and, together with the style 
 and stigma, constitute the female 
 system of the vegetable kingdom. 
 When it is united to the calyx, it is 
 called inferior ; when separate from 
 it, it is termed superior." 
 
 OVEN. A domestic furnace used 
 for baking bread, pies, tarts, &c. 
 Ovens are generally constructed of 
 brick-work, with a semicircular and 
 very low roof; the bottom is laid 
 with stone, and in the front is a small 
 aperture and door, by the shutting of 
 which the heat is confined while the 
 bread is baking. They are usually 
 heated by means of dry fagots, wood, 
 dec, introduced into the cavity, and 
 are without any grate below. As 
 these ovens, however, are not calcu- 
 lated for small families, on account 
 of the quantity of fuel they consume, 
 others have been contrived, on a 
 more diminutive scale ; these are 
 usually formed of cast iron, and may 
 be heated by the same fire which 
 serves for the cooking of other pro- 
 visions, the hot ashes being applied 
 upon the lid, as well as helow the 
 oven ; but for baking bread they are 
 inferior to the brick (or Dutch) oven. 
 
 OVERLAND FARM. Without 
 buildings. 
 
 OVERSHOT WHEEL. That form 
 in which the water falls from above 
 the wheel upon the upper parts. It 
 is the common kind. 
 
 OVIDUCT. Fallopian tube, a 
 membranous tube which conveys the 
 germs, or eggs, from the ovarium into 
 the womb, or out of the bodv, 
 
 OVIPAROUS. Producing eggs. 
 Birds, serpents, insects, and fishes 
 are usually oviparous. 
 
 OVIPOSITOR. A pointed tuDe 
 whereby many insects deposite their 
 eggs in holes or chinks ; they are 
 sometimes boring or stinging organs 
 {^aculeus). 
 
 \ 
 
ox 
 
 ox 
 
 OVIS. The generic name of the 
 sheep. The Mouflons are supposed 
 to be the original of our domestic 
 animal, but this is questionable. 
 
 OVIVIPAKOWS. Producing liv- 
 ing young, enclosed within an egg- 
 like membrane ; the marsupials, the 
 viper, flesh fly, and several mollusks, 
 are instances. 
 
 O V U L U M. In botany, the rudi- 
 mentary seed before impregnation. 
 
 OWL. Raptorial or preying and 
 nocturnal birds of the genus .S7r(.r ; 
 they prey on mice and small birds, 
 and are useful to the farmer. 
 
 OX. For the varieties, see Cattle. 
 
 " The ox or steer is the castrated 
 male of neat cattle. He is called an 
 oxcalf, or hull calf, until he is a twelve- 
 month old, a steer until he is four 
 years old, and after that an ox, or bul- 
 lock. A sufficient number of the 
 most likely of the male calves being 
 selected for the future propagation of 
 the breed, the others are castrated 
 between the lirst and third months. 
 
 " The advantages derived from the 
 performance of this operation are 
 very great. The nutriment, which is 
 no longer directed to the sexual or- 
 gans, goes to the general enlarge- 
 ment of the frame ; the propensity to 
 fatten is abundantly increased, and 
 the animal becomes far more docile 
 and tractable. The use of the ox in 
 agricultural and other labours may be 
 traced in almost every country, and 
 to periods of the remotest antiquity. 
 
 " The education of the steer should 
 commence between the second and 
 third year. At an earlier period he 
 has scarcely sufficient strength, and 
 at a later one he may have become 
 obstinate and self-willed. His edu- 
 cation should be founded on patience 
 and kindness, and then the term of 
 it will be far shorter than is generally 
 imagined, and the result will be per- 
 manent. 
 
 " There has been much dispute 
 with regard to the comparative ad- 
 vantage of the employment of cattle 
 and horses in agricultural labours. 
 The former are said to cost less, and 
 to be supported at less expense. For 
 the latter it is pleaded that a smaller 
 Z z 
 
 number are needed, that the work ia, 
 on pressing occasions, far more quick- 
 ly i)erformed, and that it is always 
 abundantly greater. The plain mat- 
 ter of fact, however, is, that, although 
 the ox is still used for slow and heavy 
 work on many farms, he is not so 
 generally employed as he used to be, 
 even by his warmest advocates, and 
 the use of him has been completely 
 abandoned by a very considerable 
 number of agriculturists. 
 
 " In the native counties of the best 
 breeds, he is still admired and valued 
 as a beast of draught, but by the ma- 
 jority of farmers his value is now 
 chiefly or solely estimated by the 
 quantity and quality of the meat that 
 he will yield, according to the care 
 that is bestowed upon him, and the 
 expense that is incurred. He is in 
 the fullest perfection at four years 
 old, and he will then prove more 
 profitable to the farmer than if he 
 were worked four or five years lon- 
 ger, when the quality of his flesh 
 will be deteriorated, and his disposi- 
 tion to fatten considerably impaired. 
 
 " The diseases of cattle may be 
 conveniently made the subject of 
 consideration in the present article. 
 They are not so numerous as those 
 of the horse, but there is often con- 
 siderable difficulty attending the 
 treatment of them. From the pecu- 
 liar temperament of cattle, ami the 
 comparatively great quantity of blood 
 which flows in their veins, prompt- 
 ness in the recognition and the treat- 
 ment of disease is of far greater con- 
 sequence than in the horse, rapid as 
 is often the progress of his maladies. 
 Few of the diseases of the horse de- 
 stroy him at once ; but there are 
 many maladies of the ox which must 
 be met at the instant, or they will be 
 uselessly struggled with afterward. 
 Let the owner and the veterinary 
 surgeon take good heed of this. 
 
 " The diseases of calves should be 
 first considered. They are as numer- 
 ous as those of the colt, and more 
 fatal. At the head of them stands 
 diarrluca. This sometimes occurs 
 when the calf is suflercd to continue 
 by the side of its own dam. Both 
 Ml 
 
ox. 
 
 etavvalion and excess of food in the 
 niotlier will produce it ; more partic- 
 ularly will tliis be the case when a 
 foster-mother is employed. If she 
 has calved but a very few weeks be- 
 fore the newly-dropped young one is 
 put to her, the bowels of the calf j 
 will almost certainly be disturbed, j 
 Where it can conveniently be accom- 
 plished, every calf should be reared 
 by its own dam. A state of consid- 
 erable purging should never be neg- 
 lected many days, and more especial- j 
 ly if the animal loses its gayety or is 
 in evident pain, or the dung is una- ; 
 sualiy offensive or tinged with blood. 
 The grand cause of this is acidity in 
 the stomach or intestines, wiiich grad- 
 ually causes inflammation of the inner 
 coat of these vessels. The irritation 
 here set up is communicated to the 
 constitution generally, and exhaus- { 
 tion and death ensue. Then recourse 
 must be had to a compound medi- | 
 cine, the value of which cannot be | 
 too highly estimated, and the farmer [ 
 should never be without it. There \ 
 should be a base, chalk, to neutral- i 
 ize the acid ; an astringent, catechu, | 
 to arrest the discharge ; a sedative, ! 
 opium, to allay the irritation ; and a \ 
 carminative, ginger, to support the 
 strength of the patient. These should 
 be mingled in the proportions of eight 
 parts of the first, four of the second, j 
 one of the third, and two of the fourth. 
 A large tea-spoonful of this powder 
 should be given twice or thrice in the 
 day, according to circumstances. 
 
 '• Costivcntss is a contrary disease 
 to this ; it should never be suffered 
 to continue long, for it is fraught 
 with danger. The best aperient for 
 calves and cattle is Epsom salts, in 
 doses of from one to two ounces, 
 with a scruple or half a drachm of 
 ginger. 
 
 " Cough should be promptly at- 
 tended to the moment that it is heard. 
 A dose of physic, small doses of pow- 
 dered foxglove, with nitre, or, in bad 
 cases, a slight bleeding, will usually 
 remove it. 
 
 " In proceeding to the diseases of 
 adult cattle, we are struck wiih the 
 numerous diseases of the eye. Ulcera- 
 542 
 
 tion of eke lids will generally yield to 
 the nitrated ointment of mercury, lo- 
 cally applied, and a course of altera- 
 tive medicine. Warts should be ex- 
 cised by means of a pair of scissors, 
 and the root touched with nitrate of 
 silver. 
 
 " For inflammation of the hau% or 
 membrane at the corner of the eye, 
 a weak Goulard lotion, or the tincture 
 of opium, lowered with ten times its 
 quantity of water, will be useful ; but 
 if there is any fungous growth on the 
 haw, extirpation will afford the only 
 cure. h)Jiammalion of the eyelids will 
 generally yield to fomentations of 
 warm water. For inflammation of the 
 eye, warm or cold fomentations, the 
 former at the first, and the latter a 
 day or two afterward, with the opiate 
 lotion at the commencement, and a 
 very diluted one of white vitriol — two 
 grains to the ounce — when the in- I' 
 flammation is subdued, with a mod- I 
 erate bleeding or a dose of physic, ■ 
 will constitute the most successful 
 means of cure. Ulceration of the eye 
 will be best treated with the opiate i 
 lotion, but cataract and gutta serena 1 
 do not admit of cure. 
 
 '• In fracture of the horn, if the bones 
 are not quite separated, they may be 
 bound together by tarred cords or 
 splints. If there is a perfect fracture 
 of the bone, it should be sawn off as 
 closely as possible to the head, and a 
 hot iron passed over the suriace. 
 
 " Water in the head in calves, known 
 by the enlargement of the head and 
 the stupidity of the animal, admits 
 not of any cure. The giddiness which 
 is sometimes observed in them, and 
 even in the adult beasts — turning 
 round and round — is usually hope- 
 less. 
 
 " Apoplexy, or sudden determina- 
 tion of the blood to the head, produ- 
 ced by the forcing system being car- 
 ried too far and the process of fatten- 
 ing hurried too rapidly on, can be 
 cured only by the most decisive meas- 
 ures. The animal that is Wms struck 
 must be bled until he faints, and 
 powerful purgatives administered and 
 continued. 
 
 " Phrensy is produced by the same 
 
ox 
 
 cause, and can only be cured by the 
 same treatment. In these cases, 15 
 or '20 drops of the crotoii oil should 
 be added to the aperient. 
 
 " Locked jaw too frequently bids de- 
 fiance to medical treatment ; the only 
 hope of cure consists in active bleed- 
 ing and the continued use of Epsom 
 salts and croloii oil, until the bowels 
 are opened. Immediately after the 
 bleeding, the jaws wdl usually be 
 found sufficiently relaxed to admit of 
 the administration of medicine. This 
 golden opportunity should never be 
 lost. As an adjuvant, a seton of 
 black hellebore in the dewlap may be 
 tried. 
 
 " Young cattle are occasionally 
 subject to Jils. Almost without warn- 
 ing the beast staggers, fails, bellows, 
 and is convulsed in every limb : this 
 is the consequence of over-heating 
 or over-driving, or both. The physic 
 and the fleam must be here put into 
 active use. Perhaps it would be pru- 
 dent to send such a patient to the 
 butcher with very little delay. 
 
 " Rheumatism. — There are few dis- 
 eases of more frequent occurrence 
 among cattle than this. It is not long 
 absent in a low marshy situation, and 
 it is the constant attendant on care- 
 less or cruel exposure to cold and 
 wet. It is recognised by the difficul- 
 ty of motion and the occasional ex- 
 pression of pain. The cure is com- 
 prehended ill one word, 'comfort.' A 
 little mild physic, with warm, com- 
 fortable drinks and gently stimulating 
 applications, will hasten and confirm 
 the cure. 
 
 " Connected with, or a consequence 
 of rheumatism, is swelled joints, yield- 
 ing sometimes to stimulating embro- 
 cations and comfortable lodging. 
 There are, however, otiier tumours 
 unconnected with the influence of 
 cold ; such are fluctuating tumours, 
 usually about the knees, which re- 
 quire stimulating embrocations, and 
 the occasional use of the budding- 
 iron, followed by the a|)plication of a 
 blister when the fluid lias escaped 
 Oilier tumours, also in the neighbour- 
 hood of joints, are of a hard charac- 
 ter; they will generally yield to fric- 
 
 tions with an ointment of the hydrio- 
 date of potash, this drug being also 
 administered internally in doses of 
 six or eight grains daily. The too 
 frequent consequence of these affec- 
 tions is palsi/, at first confined to cer- 
 tain limbs, but gradually spreading 
 over the frame, being, however, most 
 visible in the hind extremities. Here, 
 again, the whole treatment may be 
 included in the comprehensive word 
 ' comfort.' Small doses of physic, 
 the administration of the white anli- 
 monial powder, the use of stimula- 
 ting embrocations, with warm lodg- 
 ing and good food, especially mashes, 
 will be useful adjuvants. 
 
 " As for that species of nervous 
 affection rabies or madness, it admits 
 not of cure ; and it lias but one cause, 
 namely, the bite of a rabid or mad 
 dog. If a farmer knows that certain 
 beasts have been bitten, or has strong 
 reason to suspect it, he will act wise- 
 ly in sending them to the butcher, for 
 after the disease has once appeared 
 there is no cure, and the meat is 
 spoiled. 
 
 " It is time to recur to the diseases 
 of other systems and parts. Too fre- 
 quent and destructive is that inflam- 
 mation of the tongue and mouth rec- 
 ognised by the name of blain ; it con- 
 sists of vesicles and tumours occu- 
 pying the side of the tongue and the 
 membrane of the mouth, speedily ul- 
 cerating, becoming gangrenous, pro- 
 ducing much swelling of the face and 
 head, and rapidly destroying the ani- 
 mal. It often appears under the form 
 of an epidemic, and it is frequently 
 contagious. The mouth should be 
 well cleansed with a solution of the 
 chloride of lime. Blood should be 
 abstracted in an early period of the 
 disease, and mild purgatives admin- 
 istered ; but if the complaint has at- 
 tained its height before any treat- 
 ment is adopted, the chloride of lime 
 should still be used, and also the 
 physic, but it should be accompanied 
 by some stimulating ingredients, as 
 gentian or ginger, or boih. 
 
 "All cattle are subject to fever; 
 the dry muzzle, and the heat at the 
 root of the horn, and the heaving at 
 543 
 
ox. 
 
 the flanks, are sufficient proofs of it. 
 If this is early observed, a dose of 
 physic and one or two mashes will 
 usually set all right. At times, how- 
 ever, the attack is sudden and more 
 violent, and danger is evident from 
 the very commencement. The farm- 
 er recognises this affection by the 
 terms black-quarter, quarler-iU, blood- 
 striking, &c. ; the beast is seen with 
 his head protruded, his nostrils ex- 
 panded, and his flank heaving, the 
 breath and horn hot, and the eyes 
 bloodshot ; there is a peculiar crack- 
 ling sound if the loins are pressed 
 upon, and the slightest pressure gives 
 extreme pain ; ulcers appear on vari- 
 ous parts of the body, and every part 
 seems tending to corruption. This 
 disease is sometimes epidemic, but it 
 is quite as often the consequence of 
 the fattening process being hurried 
 on too rapidly. In the early stage of 
 such a complaint the treatment will 
 consist of copious bleeding and brisk 
 purging ; these should be continued 
 until tliey produce their effect, and 
 then some sedative medicine, as fox- 
 glove, or emetic tartar, administered 
 and persisted in until the disease is 
 evidently yielding. After this, some 
 mild stomachics, as gentian and gin- 
 ger, should be administered. 
 
 " Too frequently, however, the 
 treatment has not been sufficiently 
 active, or was not commenced early 
 enough, and a peculiar low fever be- 
 gins to be apparent. There is dys- 
 entery, which no astringent will ar- 
 rest ; ulcers, which defy the power 
 of every disinfectant ; and the ani- 
 mal dies one mass of putridity. In 
 this stage of the disease, and also in 
 many of the complaints that have 
 been described, the assistance of an 
 educated veterinary surgeon should 
 be requested, for the treatment is 
 complicated and difEcuH to a great 
 degree. 
 
 " The diseases of the respiratory 
 system require particular notice : 
 most frequent among them is cough. 
 It is too little regarded by the owner, 
 but it is often the unsuspected mes- 
 senger of consumption and death. 
 There is no rule of more universal 
 £44 
 
 application in cattle practice than 
 that a chronic cough is the forerun- 
 ner of everything that is bad. While 
 the beast feeds well, and the muzzle 
 is cool and moist, and the flanks are 
 quiet, the dairyman feels no alarm, 
 although he hears the cough almost 
 every time that he enters the cow- 
 house. By-and-by, however, he finds 
 that the cow is losing condition, 
 and her quantity of milk is evidently 
 diminishing, and he begins to think 
 that there is some necessity for at- 
 tending to the case. It is then too 
 late ; the seeds of consumption are 
 sown, and he must part with her im- 
 mediately, or she will pine away and 
 die. In every case of severe cough, 
 moderate bleeding and purgation 
 should be had recourse to, with warm 
 mashes and a comfortable cow-house. 
 The same treatment will apply to the 
 epidemic catarrh, which is sometimes 
 so prevalent. When this catarrh as- 
 sumes a malignant form, as in mur- 
 rain, the treatment will be little dif- 
 ferent from that of black-quarter. ■ 
 Sore throat, or inflammation of the ' 
 upper part of the throat and the back 
 of the mouth, should be treated as 
 cough, except that a blister or some 
 stimulating application should be had 
 recourse to. The same may be said 
 of bronchitis, but there is a peculiar 
 form of It to which young cattle are 
 subject, and which bids defiance to 
 all medical treatment, namely, the 
 choking of the windpipe and passa- 
 ges of the lungs by an innumerable 
 host of minute worms. No medicine 
 will be of avail here. 
 
 " Cattle are comparatively seldom 
 attacked by pure inflammation of the 
 lungs ; this disease principally occurs 
 when the beasts have been compelled 
 to travel too far or too fast, and when 
 they are exposed to sudden varia- 
 tions of temperature. It may be 
 known by the drooping head, the 
 heaving flank, the frequent painful 
 cough, the obstinate standing, the 
 hot mouth, and the cold feet. The 
 animal should immediately be bled 
 until the pulse falters. In all cases 
 of inflammation and danger, this is 
 the guide. No specific quantity should 
 
ox. 
 
 be ordered or taken. The faltering 
 of the pulse is the unerring indica- 
 tion of the abstraction of the proper 
 quantity. If the pulse again throbs 
 hardly, the bleeding should be repeat- 
 ed. The bowels should be opened 
 by means of Epsom salts. Setons in 
 the dewlap should not be forgotten, 
 and blisters should be rubbed on the 
 sides with right good earnest. The 
 diet should consist of thin gruel and 
 mashes. Pleurisy may often be dis- 
 tinguished by a peculiar symptom, 
 twitchings and shiverings about the 
 chest and shoulders, these being the 
 parts external to the seat of pain. 
 Little waves appear to be stealing 
 over the skin, and the animal shrinks 
 when the sides are pressed upon. 
 The treatment is the same as in in- 
 flammation of the lungs. Consump- 
 tion is the most frequent and fatal of 
 all the diseases of the chest in cattle ; 
 it is the consequence or the winding 
 up of every other pulmonary com- 
 plaint. It is distinguished by a feeble 
 and hoarse cough, evidently accom- 
 panied by pain, and interrupted be- 
 
 fore it is perfectly completed ; for 
 a while the beast may continue to 
 thrive ; she — for it is oftenest a dis- 
 ease of the female — may increase in 
 condition ; but she will presently be- 
 gin to waste rapidly away. Medi- 
 cine is powerless in this disease. 
 The animal must be disposed of or 
 destroyed. 
 
 "First among the diseases ofthedi- 
 gestive system is choking, or the stop- 
 ping of a piece of carrot or turnip, or 
 other hard substance, in its passage 
 down the gullet. The cart-rope or the 
 cart-whip is resorted to in order to 
 force it along the canal, and much mis- 
 chief has ensued from the violence 
 that has been resorted to on these 
 occasions. Probangs are now con- 
 structed at trifling expense, and may 
 be had from most surgical-instrument 
 makers in town and country, by means 
 of which the purpose may be readily 
 effected, and without danger. See 
 Probang. 
 
 " From the gullet the food passes 
 into the stomachs of the animal, of 
 which there are four (see Fig.). The 
 
 the gullet. 
 
 J, tlie paunch, c, the honeycomb, d, tlie maiiy;ilies. e, the reed. /, the 
 commencement of the duodenum. 
 
 first is the rumen, or paunch, into i will reveal the real state of the case, 
 which the imperfectly- masticated The stomach-pump will be of admi- 
 food, as it is hastily gathered, de- I rable use here. Any quantity of fluid 
 scends ; it is there macerated and I can be injected into the stomach, 
 prepared to be returned for a second j and the hardened mass may be ren- 
 or more complete grinding. Some- dered more fluid, and removed by 
 
 times this stomach becomes over- 
 loaded with food : this is the grain 
 side of the dairy. The animal refu- 
 ses to eat, he becomes uneasy, moans, 
 swells at the flank, and a kind of un- 
 consciousness gradually steals upon 
 him. The symptoms are often treach- 
 erous, and would deceive him who 
 was not thoroughly acquainted with 
 
 means of the pump ; or, if the stom- 
 ach is too full to admit the probang, 
 and to be thus evacuated, an incision 
 may be made in the flank, and the 
 accumulated mass withdrawn by the 
 hand. 
 
 " At other times an unnatural fer- 
 mentation commences, and the stom- 
 ach is inflated with gas. One look 
 
 the diseases of cattle ; but the intro- at the sides will sufficiently indicate 
 
 duction of the probang, if necessary, , the inflation of the paunch ; this is 
 
 Z z 2 545 
 
ox 
 
 termed Jwovc. The first indication of 
 cure is to get rid of the gas ; this 
 may be accomplished by the introduc- 
 tion of substances that will chemi- 
 cally combine with it : the chloride 
 of lime will effect this. The princi- 
 pal gas in the inflated stomach is a 
 compound of hydrogen. The chlo- 
 rine leaves the lime and combines 
 with the hydrogen, and the compound 
 does not occupy a thousandth part of 
 the space previously occupied by the 
 hydrogen. Two drachms of the chlo- 
 ride of lime will form a cheap and a 
 very efficient agent ; but if this is 
 not at hand, then a puncture may be 
 made into the left flank with perfect 
 safety. If this is done with a trocar, 
 the canula may remain in the wound, 
 and the gas will continue to be ex- 
 tricated while any considerable por- 
 tion of it remains. In default of a 
 trocar, a penknife may be used ; but 
 as the upper portion of the stomach 
 sinks with the disengagement of the 
 gas, the aperture through the skin 
 and that into the rumen will cease to 
 be accurately opposed to each other, 
 and some of the gas and the contents 
 of the stomach will enter the cavity 
 of the abdomen, and will be the cause 
 of future illness, or, perchance, of 
 death. 
 
 " The gas having escaped, a pur- 
 gative should be administered, with 
 a double dose of the aromatic, in or- 
 der to excite the stomach to resume 
 its duty. Hoove, or hoven, is to be 
 avoided by not letting cattle get at 
 too much green food in spring. 
 
 "The loss of cud, or the cessation 
 of rumination, is only the indication 
 or the consequence of other disease, 
 and will cease with it. If the nature 
 of that disease is not clear, a dose of 
 physic, with the usual or more than 
 the usual quantity of the carminative, 
 may be given. 
 
 " The diseases of the second stom- 
 ach, the reticulum, or honeycomb, are 
 few, and not easily distinguished : 
 the simple function of that stomach 
 is to prepare the pellet of food for re- 
 mastication. 
 
 " The third stomach, the manyplies, 
 has more to do. The food which has 
 546 
 
 not undergone sufficient comminu- 
 tion in the second mastication is 
 seized by the rough and powerful 
 leaves of this stomach, and is ground 
 down, as it were, in a living mill. 
 Sometimes, however, there is a de- 
 ficiency of moisture in this stomach, 
 or the muscular apparatus of the 
 leaves does not act with sufficient 
 energy ; and at length the manyplie 
 becomes perfectly paralyzed by the 
 distention caused in consequence of 
 the undue quantity of food which is 
 accumulated in it : this is known by 
 the name of fardel-bound. The symp- 
 toms are not always evident. Dul- 
 ness, want of appetite, disinclination 
 to move, and costiveness, are among ' 
 the usual indications. The treatment 
 is simple, but too often ineffectual. 
 It consists in the frequent adminis- 
 tration of small doses of purgative 
 medicine, with more than the usual 
 quantity of carminatives ; at the same 
 time, a small stream of warm water 
 is, by means of a horn or the stom- 
 ach-pump, made to flow down the _ 
 gullet and pass through the canal at I 
 the base of this stomach, thus grad- ' 
 ually dislodging and washing away a 
 portion of the accumulated and hard- 
 ened contents. 
 
 " The principal disease of the abo- 
 masum, or fourth stomach, is inflam- 
 mation, designated by evident unea- 
 siness, the resting of the muzzle on 
 the situation of this stomach, or a 
 peculiar stretching out of the fore 
 legs. Venesection and purgatives 
 should be used in this case. Of the 
 indications of disease in the spleen, 
 little is known ; inflammation is oft- 
 en found in it, with enlargement, in- 
 duration, or softening of its sub- 
 stance. These circumstances, how- 
 ever, are rarely suspected during life. 
 
 " To diseases of the liver these ani- 
 mals appear to be peculiarly prone. 
 A yellowness of the skin betrays the 
 existence of biliary affections in a 
 great proportion of the inhabitants of 
 every dairy. When acute inflamma- 
 tion of the liver exists to any con- 
 siderable extent, not only this yellow 
 tint of the integument will be found, 
 but tenderness on the right side, ful- 
 
ox. 
 
 ness there, and the direction of the | cus actually discharged, or, in other 
 muzzle to it. The proper remedies words, of the danger of the case. 
 are those used in intlammation of The progress of the disease is rapid 
 other viscera, with the addition of blis- or slow, according to circumstances 
 ters over the diseased part. Chronic which it is difficult to appreciate; 
 inflammation is far more prevalent but, in the usual course of things, 
 than that which is acute. The indi- the animal wastes away almost to a 
 cations are, want of condition, the skeleton, and then dies. 
 same tint of the skin, and obstinate '• Notwithstanding the purging, the 
 cough. The remedies are gentle pur- first indication of cure is to bleed. It 
 gatives, and succulent food. When is an inflammatory disease, and that 
 obstruction of the biliaiy ducts takes ; mflammation must be subdued. To 
 place, there is a still deeper yellow, the abstraction of blood should sue- 
 invariably accompanied by loss of ceed the administration of an aperi- 
 condiiion. The animal then has jaun- ent ; and castor oil, as being the least 
 dice, or the yelloics. If much fever irritative, will be the best. Injections 
 accompanies it, recourse must be had of gruel should follow ; and when the 
 to bleeding and to physic. Cattle in dung has somewhat resumed its nat- 
 swampy places nearly always have , ural character, astringents may be 
 disease of the liver, and even die ofi administered, at the very head of 
 bilious fevers. which, in this case, stands opium : 
 
 " Among the various intestinal dis- [ a little calomel should, perhaps, be 
 eases of the ox stands enteritis, or in- mingled with if, as an alterative ; 
 flammation involving all the coats of and after that the vegetable tonics 
 the intestines. Young and fattening \ must perfect the cure. Cattle are 
 cattle are most subject to it. It is s\i\i]ftc\.io flatulent anA spasmodic colic, 
 not, however, of very frequent occur- for both of which the vegetable tonics 
 rence, except as an epidemic, and will be the best cure, with a little of 
 then it is very destructive. Wood- the chloride of lime to absorb the gas, 
 evil and moor-ill are varieties of the i and the abstraction of blood if there 
 same disease. They must be treat- is any inflammatory action. Walk- 
 ed by bleeding, demulcents, blisters ' ing exercise and friction of the belly 
 on the belly, mashes, and gruel. should not be omitted. For strangu- 
 
 " Diarrhaa, or purging without the lation of the intestines there is sel- 
 discharge of mucus mingling with dom any cure but by means of an 
 the faeces, is produced by various operation, which a skilful veterinary 
 
 causes, and particularly by a change 
 or excess of food. It is often epi- 
 demic in the autumn. A mild pur- 
 gative should first be given, and then 
 the mingled, but very efficacious med- 
 
 surgeon alone can perform. In ca- 
 ses of constipation, the aperients must 
 sometimes be long administered be- 
 fore the bowels will be opened. There 
 will be no danger in this, provided the 
 
 icine already recommended for a sim- Epsom salts, alone or with a small 
 ilar disease in calves. portion of aromatic powder, are ad- 
 
 " Dysentery, in the adult as well as | ministered. Dropsy in cattle seldom 
 in the young animal, is, indeed, a admits of cure. Although an opera- 
 fearful disease. Its causes are often tion may be resorted to, the belly fills 
 obscure, and the means of success- -again, nor will any physic or diuretic 
 fully arresting its progress are a de- \ arrest the evil. 
 
 sideratum. Its principal character- ! " Among the supposed diseases of 
 istic is the discharge of mucus with the urinary organs, but much oftener 
 the faeces, recognised by the appear- [of the digestive ones, stands red-ica- 
 ance of bubbles standing for a while | tcr, so called from the colour of the 
 on the fa;ces. The length of time fluid which is evacuated. It is ma- 
 which they continue there unbroken torially connected with the pasture, 
 may be considered as a kind of ad- \ but sometimes it has an epidemic 
 measurement of the quantity of mu- J character. In the acute form of 
 
 547 
 
ox 
 
 OXE 
 
 the disease the water is red. This 
 must be combated by bleeding and 
 purging until the bowels respoiul. In 
 chronic red-water, the urine has a 
 brown tinge at first, but a red hue 
 gradually mingles with it. This is 
 difficult to treat. The principal 
 hope of cure consists in the; exhibi- 
 tion of Epsom salts until thorough 
 purging is produced. Some mild car- 
 minative may then be given. Black- 
 water is only a variety, or the conclu- 
 ding stage of red-water. 
 
 " Puerperal fever, or dropping after 
 calving, is a disease that has been 
 very much misunderstood. A few 
 days after calving, the cow suddenly 
 loses all power over her hind limbs. 
 She falls, and continues down three, 
 four, or more days, until the power 
 of voluntary motion returns, or she 
 dies It is inflammation of the womb 
 or of the spinal cord, which extends 
 to the organs of motion in the hind 
 extremities. She must generally be 
 bled, and always purged. No half 
 measures will do here ; the bowels 
 being once opened, the cow will fre- 
 quently get up, and there will be an 
 end of the matter. Injections will ma- 
 terially assist the action of the phys- 
 ic. Whatever apparent weakness 
 there may be, no tonic must be giv- 
 en until the bowels have been well 
 opened. 
 
 " Garget is inflammation or ulcera- 
 tion of the udder. The milk coagu- 
 lates in the bag, and produces inflam- 
 mation there. In an early stage, the 
 sucking of the calf will afford the 
 greatest relief. If this does not suc- 
 ceed, fomentation must be had re- 
 course to, and friction with an ungu- 
 ent composed of elder ointment, with 
 an eighth part of camphor, and mer- 
 curial ointment. To this, if necessa- 
 ry, iodine may succeed ; but it must 
 be a last resource, on account of its 
 absorbent power. 
 
 "The treatment of cowpox will 
 consist in fomenting the teats, apply- 
 ing an emollient ointment, and giving 
 a little physic. 
 
 " The diseases of the feet must not 
 be forgotten. Foul in the foot con- 
 sists in ulceration about the coronet 
 648 
 
 or between the claws, which produ- 
 ces great lameness, and occasionally 
 loss of the hoof It is very conta- 
 gious. The treatment is simple : ev- 
 ery pustule or collection of purulent 
 matter must be opened ; the horn 
 which is separated from the parts be- 
 neath must be carefully and wholly re- 
 moved ; a linseed-meal poultice appli- 
 ed foraday ortwo, andthen the sores 
 touched with the hiiller of antimony. 
 
 " Mange is a too frequent and very 
 troublesome disease among cattle. 
 An ointment, however, the basis of 
 which is sulphur, with a small por- 
 tion of mercurial ointment, daily and 
 well rubbed on every affected part, 
 will usually remove the complaint. 
 Sulphur given internally will be a 
 useful adjunct." — {Youatt.) 
 
 For the medicines and their do- 
 ses, see the article Pharmacopoeia. 
 OXALATES. Salts of oxalic acid. 
 OXALIC ACID. See Acids. 
 O X A L I S. The genus of wood 
 sorrels. "The 0. crenata is a peren- 
 nial, ornamental plant, native of Chili. 
 The flowers are beautiful, of a yel- 
 low colour, and in umbels ; the stalks 
 and leaves are succulent, of an acid 
 taste, and useful as salads ; the roots 
 or tubes are produced in clusters ; 
 their taste, when boiled, somewhat 
 resembles a chestnut. They are rais- 
 ed from the tubers, are very produc- 
 tive, as easily cultivated as the pota- 
 to, and decidedly superior in flavour. 
 They require a rich soil, and, like the 
 potato, are stored during winter in 
 cellars." — {Keyinck.) 
 
 OXAMIDE. A white, insoluble 
 sublimate, rising in a dense vapour 
 when oxalate of ammonia is decom- 
 posed by heat ; formula, N Hj d 
 O2. It is a test of the goodness of 
 African guano. 
 OX BOOSE. A stall for oxen. 
 OXEN IN THE WEST. The 
 abundance of cattle sustained by the 
 prairies, and their cheapness, has led 
 to the introduction of various plans 
 for disposing of the carcasses. See 
 Ellnvorth's Report, 1844. 
 
 The hide is salted for the English 
 market, and netts four to five cents 
 the pound. The hoofs and horns are 
 
oxr 
 
 OXY 
 
 eimilarly disposed of. From the thigh 
 and shoulder. 75 to 100 lbs. of lean, 
 fit for drying into jugged beef, are ob- , 
 tained ; 100 lbs. of the best pieces 
 are also salted for shipping. The 
 liver is rubbed with nitre, and salted 
 for home consumption. | 
 
 But the great object is to obtain the ' 
 tallow. For this, the rest of the car- 
 cass is cut up, and placed in an iron 
 cylinder holding 10,000 to 15,000 lbs. 
 The top is made fast, and steam let 
 in at 70 lbs. pressure, equal to 306- 
 Fahr. In 12 to 14 hours the grease 
 will be free, and may be drawn off 
 into barrels. The soup formed un- 
 der the tallow is used, with meal, 
 <S:c.. to fatten hogs. 40 oxen per day 
 will feed 600 to 1000 hogs. The pigs, ' 
 in time, are steamed into lard. J 
 
 An ox of 700 lbs. yields 25 lbs. suet 
 from kidneys, 50 lbs. from intestines, 
 100 lbs. hide, 100 lean meat, and the 
 rest yields 10 to 20 per cent, tallow, 
 from a fat animal. 
 
 It is to be remarked that the fat is 
 not equal to that taken without steam- 
 ing. The bones, burned into bone- 
 black, form a rich manure and excel- 
 lent purifying substance for sugar re- 
 finers. They are also assorted for 
 buttons, knife handles, &c., and the 
 rest exported for manure. 
 
 OX EYE. The genus Chnjsarithe- 
 mum. "Weeds growing among wheat 
 and small grain, with large white and 
 yellow composite flowers. 
 
 OX FEET. When the horse's 
 hoof splits before, so as to become 
 apparently divided into two parts. 
 
 OX GALL, or BILE. It is an ex- 
 cellent substance to refresh the col- 
 our of old, greasy carpets. For this 
 purpose, a small quantity is mixed 
 with water, and the carpet or cloth 
 well brushed with it. The dry gall 
 is very purgative. 
 
 OX GANG. An old, uncertain 
 measure of land, varying from 6 to 
 40 acres. 
 
 OX HARROW. A large, heavy 
 harrow. 
 
 OXICHLORIDES. Compounds of 
 chlorine with metallic oxides, as 
 bleaching salt. 
 
 OXIDATION, OXIDIZING. The 
 
 act of combining with oxygen, usu- 
 ally that of the air. 
 
 OXIDE. A compound of oxygon, 
 with an element or other compound. 
 Numerous oxides arc, however, call- 
 ed acids, when they become sour, or 
 are capable of neutralizing alkalies. 
 The most powerful oxides are pro- 
 toxides ; and these are bases. A 
 protoxide contains one equivalent of 
 oxygen ; a binoxide or deutoxide, tw^o 
 equivalents ; a sesquioxide, three, 
 with two equivalents of the base ; a 
 tritoxidc or teroxide, three equiva- 
 lents of oxygen ; a quadroxide, four 
 equivalents ; and a peroxide repre- 
 sents the highest state of oxidation, 
 which varies much with different 
 bodies. A dioxide is a compound of 
 one equivalent oxygen with two of 
 
 OXYGEN, VITAL AIR (from 
 ofi'f, and yevvaeiv, to generate). This 
 important element was discovered in 
 1774 by Dr. Priestley. There are sev- 
 eral compounds of oxygen which, 
 when exposed to heat, are decompo- 
 sed, and yield the gas in a state of 
 purity. Of these, the best is chlorate 
 of potash ; but as that salt is expen- 
 sive, we generally resort to black ox- 
 ide of manganese, which, at a dull-red 
 heat, gives out a considerable quan- 
 tity of tolerably pure oxygen gas. 
 
 Oxygen gas is colourless, taste- 
 less, and inodorous ; it is electro- 
 negative, and therefore, when com- 
 pounds containing it are electrically 
 decomposed, it always appears at the 
 positive surface. It is a little heavi- 
 er than atmospheric air, in the pro- 
 portion of 11 to 10 ; 100 cubic inch- 
 es weighing 34 18 grains. Its equiv- 
 alent is 8 on the hydrogen scale, but 
 it is often made the 100th of what is 
 called the oxygen scale, symbol 0. It 
 is absorbed by water to the extent of 
 less than one per cent., and is neither 
 acid nor alkaline. It has a powerful 
 attraction for most of the simple sub- 
 stances, especially for the electro- 
 positive bodies. The act of combi- 
 ning with it is called oxidation. The 
 compounds thus formed are divided 
 into acids and oxides ; among the 
 latter are the alkalies, and almost all 
 549 
 
OXY 
 
 salifiable bases. Oxidation is often 
 attended wjtli the evolution of heat 
 and light, as in all processes of com- 
 bustion in atmospheric air ; some- 
 times it is slow, and unattended with 
 such phenomena, as in the gradual 
 rusting of metals. Oxygen is a most 
 powerful supporter of combustion ; 
 it constitutes one fifth of the bulk of 
 the atmosphere, and is the principle 
 which enables combustible bodies to 
 burn in it. The product of combus- 
 tion, that is, the oxide or acid, is 
 sometimes itself gaseous, as when 
 charcoal, by burning, is converted 
 into carbonic acid ; or it is liquid, as 
 hydrogen, by combustion, produces 
 water ; or it is solid, as when iron, 
 by burning, produces oxide of iron. 
 Oxygen gas is also essential to res- 
 piration ; that is, to the evolution of 
 carbonic acid from the blood ; but 
 requires to be diluted with nitrogen, 
 as in the air, otherwise it destroys 
 life by producing over-activity. Seeds 
 cannot germinate without oxygen, 
 and are, therefore, not to be buried 
 too deep in a compact soil. The 
 leaves of trees, also, cannot perform 
 their functions without its presence, 
 although they are always exhaling a 
 large quantity of this gas. Oxygen 
 is very extensively ditTused in na- 
 ture ; in the compound state it forms 
 eight ninths of all waters, and at 
 least one half of all structures, wheth- 
 er mineral or organic, except a few 
 oils and resins. 
 
 OXYGENATION, AERATION. 
 The introduction of atmospheric air 
 into the blood through respiration. 
 
 OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. 
 A contrivance for burning hydrogen 
 gas in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, 
 whereby the most intense heat is ob- 
 tained. Dr. Hare's apparatus is con- 
 sidered equal, if not superior, to most 
 others. 
 
 OXYMEL. A mixture of honey 
 and vinegar, for coughs. 
 
 OXYMURIATES, OXYCHLO- 
 RIDES. An erroneous name for 
 salts of chlorine, formerly called ox- 
 ymuriatic acid. 
 
 O X - Y O K E. The timber placed 
 above the heads of oxen, and fasten- 
 550 
 
 OYS 
 
 ed by a throat-latch or piece, to yoke 
 them. The French fasten a flat 
 board to the foreheads ; and it is 
 found best to have one for each ox, 
 as shown in the Figure. Harness- 
 
 ing oxen in the same way as horses, 
 if they be well broken, is a very su- 
 perior method, and highly recom- 
 mended in hilly countries, where it 
 has been practised from time un- 
 known, as in ^Vales, Cornwall, and 
 Devonshire in England. 
 
 OXY- SALTS. Chemical com- 
 pounds containing an acid and alkali, 
 which are both oxides. This class 
 of salts comprehends the greater part 
 of those used in the arts. 
 
 OXYURES. A family of hyme- 
 nopterous insects with an external 
 ovipositor resembling a tail. They 
 are pupivorous, and prey on other in- 
 sects. A genus of intestinal worms, 
 also. 
 
 OYSTERS. Ostracca. A family 
 of inequivalve bivalves, of which the 
 Ostrca. edulis, or common oyster, is an 
 esteemed luxury. Those from the 
 Chesapeake Bay are best. They are 
 frequently transplanted and set in 
 beds in the North and East Rivers, 
 and elsewhere, divided by stakes, in 
 shallow water, within reach of the 
 tide ; water which is only partially 
 salt is best. They grow sufficiently 
 for use in two or three years. They 
 should not be disturbed in May, which 
 is the spawning season, but are fit to 
 eat in August. 
 
 OYSTER SHELLS. They con- 
 
PAL 
 
 sist, according to Brandes, of one half 
 percent, matter resembling glue, 983 
 carbonate of lime, and l 2 per cent, 
 of phosphate and sulphate of lime. 
 They are, therefore, a manure re- 
 sembling chalk, when ground into 
 powder, and have been used with 
 good effects on wheat and legumin- 
 ous crops. They can be crushed with 
 a common bark mill. When burned 
 in an open kiln, the animal matter is 1 
 driven off, and the best description of 
 lime is formed. These remarks apply 
 to all shells which are not porcelanous. 
 OZOENA (from ofw, I smell). A 
 putrid discharge from the nose. 
 
 P. 
 
 PACAXE-NUT, The Louisiana 
 hickory. The nut is the best of the 
 hickory kind. 
 
 PACE. A distance of from four to 
 five feet. 
 
 PACHYDERMATA (from naxvc, 
 thick, and depfxa, skin). l"he order of 
 quadrupeds with thick hides, as the 
 horse, elephant, oxen, pig, &c. 
 
 PACING, AMBLING. A natural 
 pace of the horse, in which both legs 
 of one side are raised. 
 
 PADDLE STAFF. A staff or im- 
 plement used to free the ploughshare 
 from earth, &c. 
 
 PADDOCK. A small enclosure at 
 pasture. 
 
 PAG IN A. The flat surface of the 
 leaf. 
 
 PAGODITE. A kind of steatite. 
 
 PALATE. The roof of the mouth. 
 It is divided into hard or bony palate, 
 and soft palate, the latter being the 
 membrane at the innermost portion. 
 The shape and markings of the pal- 
 ate are adduced by zoologists in their 
 descriptions. The elevated portion 
 of the lower lip of a personate flower. 
 
 PALE.E, CHAFF. A name giv- 
 en to the bracts that are stationed 
 upon the receptacle of compositae be- 
 tween the florets, and having gener- 
 ally a membranous texture and no 
 colour ; also the interior bracts of the 
 flowers of grasses. 
 
 PALINGS. Light fences made by 
 driving posts at distances of ten or 
 twelve feet into the soil, crossing 
 
 PAL 
 
 them above and below by stout tim- 
 bers, and nailing slabs or laths of 
 wood to these in an upright direction, 
 and at intervals of three or four 
 inches. 
 
 PALLADIUM. A rare metal, re- 
 sembling platinum : sp. gr., 11-8. 
 
 PAL.MA CHRISTI. The castor 
 oil plant, which see. 
 
 PALMATE. Resembling the hand, 
 five-lobed or toothed. 
 
 PALMETTO. Chamoerops palmet- 
 to. A cabbage-tree palm, growing as 
 far north as 34° N. lat. It some- 
 times rises ninety feet ; the stem is 
 nearly cylindrical, capped by a splen- 
 did frond, the centre of which, an 
 immense bud, is tender, and can be 
 eaten as a vegetable, but its removal 
 destroys the tree. Like other palms, 
 the outside of the trunks is very hard 
 and durable, and the interior spongy. 
 The hollowed stems make good tul)es 
 to convey water, or, being split in 
 halves, they serve for piles, and last 
 a long time in water. The fully- 
 expanded leaf is very large ; fans, 
 hats, and a good thatch may be made 
 from it. The fruit is like a date, 
 not very palatable. The genus Cha- 
 mcerops contains also the indigenous 
 species scrrulata and hystnx, with 
 creeping stems, and which, when 
 burned, are said to yield a large 
 amount of potashes. 
 
 PALMIPEDES. The anseres, or 
 swimming birds of Linnaeus. 
 
 P.\LM OIL. The solid, fragrant 
 oil oiihe Avoiraelais,dLn African palm- 
 tree 
 
 PALMS, PALMACEJE. A natu- 
 ral order of arborescent endogens, 
 like the palmetto, chiefly inhabiting 
 the tropics, distinguished by their 
 fleshy, colourless, six-parted flowers, 
 enclosed within spathes, and rigid 
 plaited or pinnate inarticulated leaves, 
 sometimes called fronds. They yield 
 bread, oil, wine, cordage, fuel, and all 
 necessaries to the savages of the 
 tropics. 
 
 PALP, PALPUS. The jointed or- 
 gans attached to the labium and max- 
 illa of insects : the feelers. 
 
 PALPATORS. Those clavicora 
 beetles w^ith long palpi. 
 
 SSI 
 
TAP 
 
 PAR 
 
 PALSY. Loss of nervous power, 
 in horses, usually in the hind legs. 
 See the Horse, Ox. Sheep. 
 
 PALUSTRINE, PALUSTRIS. 
 Marshy, belonging to a marsh. 
 
 P A M B I N A. A species of high 
 cranberry, found near the Columbia 
 River. 
 
 PAMPAS. The South American 
 prairies. 
 
 PAN. A term applied to the bed 
 or flooring upon which the cultivated 
 soil lies or is placed. It is sometime 
 extremely hard. See Moor. 
 
 PANACEA. A universal and fab- 
 ulous remedy. 
 
 PANCREAS, The sweet bread. 
 It is composed of innumerable small 
 glands, the excretory ducts of which 
 unite and form one duct, called the 
 pancreatic duct, that conveys a fluid 
 very similar to saliva into the intes- 
 tines, called the pancreatic juice, 
 which mixes with the chyle in the 
 duodenum. 
 
 PANE OF GROUND. A small, 
 four-sided piece of ground capable of 
 irrigation. 
 
 PANDURIFORM. Shaped like a 
 fiddle or guitar. 
 
 PAN-FEEDERS. In horticulture, 
 the shallow vessels in which pots 
 are set. 
 
 PANIC GRASS. The genus Pcm- 
 icum. Coarse annuals, of little value 
 for grass. P. miliaceum is one vari- 
 ety of millet, which see. 
 
 PANICLE. A kind of inflores- 
 cence, in which the central stalk 
 throws out lateral stems, and these 
 bear the petioled flowers, as in oats. 
 
 PANNAGE. The food consumed 
 by hogs in woods. 
 
 PANSY. Heart's ease. Violets. 
 
 PAPAVERACE^. Plants allied 
 to the poppies ; they are for the most 
 part narcotics. 
 
 PAPAW. Carica papaya, Assimi- 
 nier. A Southwestern tree, attain- 
 ing sometimes twenty-five feet ; the 
 fruit is three inches long, soft and 
 insipid ; a spirituous liquor may be 
 made from it : the wood is useless. 
 
 PAPILIONACE^, PAPILIONA- 
 CEOUS PLANTS. The Legutni- 
 noscB. 
 552 
 
 PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS. 
 A name given to the corolla of legu- 
 minous plants, as that of the garden 
 pea and bean ; it consists of a large 
 upper petal, standard, or vexillum ; 
 two lateral petals, called ala, wings ; 
 and two intermediate petals, forming 
 the keel, or carina. 
 
 PAPILIONID.E. Lepidopterous 
 insects, properly called butterflies : 
 they feed by day. 
 
 PAPILLA, PAPILL.-E. Small 
 delicate eminences, as on the tongue. 
 
 PAPPUS. The hairy down of 
 thistles and other compositse. Pap- 
 pose is a derivative. 
 
 PAPYRUS. A large sedge (Cy- 
 perus papyrus), a native of the Nile 
 and Southern Asia, from which the 
 ancients made their paper, or papyrus. 
 
 PARACENTESIS. Tapping, 
 opening the covering of the abdomen, 
 &c., to let out water : it is done with 
 a trocar. 
 
 PARACYANOGEN. A brown 
 solid, with the composition of cyan- 
 ogen. 
 
 PARADOX. An apparent absurd- 
 ity, but really a fact. 
 
 'PARAFINE. A tasteless, inodor- 
 ous, fatty matter, obtained, among 
 the products of distillation, from 
 wood tar. 
 
 PARAGUAY TEA. Ilex Para- 
 guayensis. An evergreen holly, the 
 leaves of which contain theine, and 
 are used as tea in South America. It 
 grows well in Georgia. 
 
 PARALYSIS. Palsy. Paralytic 
 is a derivative. 
 
 PARAPLEGIA. Paralysis of the 
 upper or lower part of the body only. 
 
 PARASITE, PARASITIC 
 PLANTS. Plants which strike their 
 roots into the textures of others, as 
 the misletoe : mildew, smut, rust, &c., 
 are also parasites. Many insects are 
 parasitical on animals. 
 
 PAR A ST ATE. Square pillars 
 standing from the wall. 
 
 PARCHMENT. Refuse or clip- 
 pings make glue, or sizing, when 
 boiled ; they constitute an excellent 
 manure of the same kind as woollen 
 
 rags. 
 
 PAREGORIC. 
 
 Tincture of opium 
 
PAR 
 
 TAR 
 
 and camphor with oil of anise seed ; 
 an anodyne to allay pain. 
 
 PARELLA. Lfcanora parclla. A 
 lichen of Europe, used as a dye, ahd 
 similar to archil. 
 
 PARENCHYMA. The cellular 
 substance of vegetables or animals. 
 
 PARGASITE. A kind of horn- 
 blend (aclinolyte). 
 
 PARGET. The plaster of lime, 
 hair, cow dung, and water used in 
 coating the flue of a chimnev. 
 
 PARHELION. The appearance 
 of two or more suns from the misty 
 state of the air. Faraselcnd are sev- 
 eral moons seen from the same cause. 
 
 PARIETAL. In botany, any or- 
 gan which grows from the sides of 
 another is said to be parietal. The 
 parietal hones, in zoolog.v, are those at 
 the sides of the skull, which together 
 form the arch. 
 
 PARING AND BURNING. " This 
 operation consists in cutting a thin 
 slice from the surface of land which 
 is overgrown with grass, heath, fern, 
 or any other plants which form a 
 sward by the matting together of 
 their roots. The sods arc allowed to 
 dry in the sun to a certain degree, 
 after which they are arranged in 
 heaps, and burned slowly, without 
 flame or violent heat. The result is 
 a mi.\ture of burned earth, charred 
 vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that 
 part which is entirely consumed. 
 
 "The object uf th is operation is two- 
 fold : first, to kill insects and destroy 
 useless or no.\ious weeds completely ; 
 and, secondly, to obtain a powerful 
 manure, impregnated with alkalme 
 salts and carbonaceous matter, which 
 experience has shown to be a very 
 powerful promoter of vegetation. 
 
 " The instruments by which this 
 is eflTected are either a common 
 plough with a very flat share, which 
 may be used when the surface is very 
 level without being encumbered with 
 stone or large roots, as in low moist 
 meadows, or, in most other cases, a 
 paring-iron, which is used by hand. 
 The cross-bar of this instrument is 
 held with both hands, and the upper 
 parts of the thighs, being protected 
 by two small slips of board, push the 
 
 A K A 
 
 instrument into the ground, so as to 
 cut a slice of the required thickness, 
 which is then turned over by moving 
 the cross-handle. The labour is se- 
 vere, and a good workman can 
 scarcely pare more than one sixth of 
 an acre in a day. 
 
 " Paring and burning the surface 
 is an almost invariable preliminary 
 in the converting of waste lands to 
 tillage ; and where these lands are in 
 a state of nature, overrun with wild 
 plants which cannot be easily brought 
 to decay by simply burying them in 
 the ground, burning is the readiest 
 and most efTeclual mode of destroy- 
 ing them. In this case the practice 
 is universally recommended and ap- 
 proved of. 
 
 " But it is not only in the reclaim- 
 ing of waste lands, and bringing them 
 into cultivation, that paring and burn- 
 ing the surface is practised. The 
 fertility produced by the ashes, which 
 is proved by the luxuriance of the ve- 
 getation in the first crop, has induced 
 many to repeat this process so often 
 as materially to exhaust the soil, and 
 induce partial sterility. Hence the 
 practice has been recommended on 
 the one hand and strongly reprobated 
 on the other. 
 
 " A\'hen we come to apply to the 
 subject the test of experience, and 
 reason correctly on the facts which 
 are presented to us by the abettors 
 of the practice and its adversaries, 
 we shall find that the advantages and 
 disadvantages arise chiefly from the 
 circumstances under which the oper- 
 ation is carried on. But it may be 
 necessary to an impartial examina- 
 tion of the subject, to inquire into the 
 changes produced on the substances 
 subjected to the process of burning, 
 when it is done with due precautions. 
 
 " In burning vegetable matter in an 
 open fire, the whole of the carbon is 
 converted into carbonic acid and flies 
 off, leaving only some light ashes, 
 containing the earthy matter and the 
 salts which the fire could not dissi- 
 pate. These are, no doubt, very pow- 
 erful agents in promoting vegetation, 
 when they are added to any soil ; but 
 they are obtained at a very great ex- 
 5.-.S 
 
PARING AND BURNING. 
 
 pense of vegptable matter, which, by 
 its decomposition in liie earth, might 
 also have afforded food for vegeta- 
 tion. If the earth which is burned 
 with the sods is of a cold, clayey na- 
 ture, the fire will change it into a 
 kind of sand, or hrickdust, which is 
 insoluble in water, and corrects the 
 too great tenacity of clays, by con- 
 verting them more or less into loams. 
 This is so well known, that clay 
 is often dug out of the subsoil to be 
 partially burned. On stiff clay soils, 
 therefore, there is a double advan- 
 tage in paring and burning, that of the 
 vegetable ashes and of the burned 
 clay. When the fire is so managed 
 that the vegetable matter is only par- 
 tially burned, the oily and inflamma- 
 ble portions being converted into va- 
 pour by the fire without being de- 
 stroyed, and absorbed by the earth, 
 the effect produced is only to impreg- 
 nate the earth with minute particles 
 of matter, readily converted into tl>e 
 constituent parts of vegetables. The 
 earth is the mere recipient of these 
 particles, which are held in its pores, 
 as water is in a sponge, ready to be 
 let loose to any substance which has 
 the power of attracting them. The 
 Dioisture, which the dry earth will 
 also absorb from the atmosphere if 
 no rain should fall, is retained and 
 inci'eased by the effect of the salts 
 with which it is impregnated. 
 
 '• The principal objection to burn- 
 ing is, that it destroys a great portion 
 of vegetable matter. But this is a 
 fact to be proved, and is, perhaps, 
 rashly taken for granted. It appears 
 that a clay soil may be pared and 
 burned without its real substance be- 
 ing diminished ; and if its texture is 
 improved, it becomes more fertile by 
 the operation. 
 
 " Many experienced farmers pare 
 and burn the soil on the edges of their 
 ditches and on the banks on which 
 the hedges grow, because they there- 
 by exterminate many rank weeds ; 
 and the burned earth mixed with 
 farm-yard dung makes an admirable 
 compost. Here the burned earth acts 
 as an absorbent, and no doubt attracts 
 many of the volatile parts of the ma- 
 
 00 1 
 
 nure, which are produced by the de- 
 composition of animal and vegetable 
 matter in it. Paring and burning, 
 therefore, should be joined to ma- 
 nuring, if a powerful and immediate 
 effect is desired without exhausting 
 the soil ; and, in tliis case, we do not 
 hesitate to recommend it on all cold 
 clay soils, where rank weeds are apt 
 to spring up, and coarse grasses take 
 the place of the better sorts which 
 have l)een sown. The proper time 
 to pare and burn is evidently after 
 the land has lain in grass for several 
 years, and is broken up for tillage. 
 The surface should be pared thin ; 
 about two inches is the extreme 
 thickness allowable for the sod if the 
 soil is very stiff and poor, and as thin 
 as possible in a better soil. The sods 
 should be moderately dried, and then 
 arranged into small heaps with a hol- 
 low in the middle to hold heath or 
 bushes to kindle the fire. When it 
 has fairly established itself, all the 
 apertures should be carefully closed. 
 Wherever any smoke breaks out, a 
 fresh sod should be immediately put 
 over it ; a heap containing a small 
 cart-load of sods should be smoulder- 
 ing for several days without going 
 out, even if it rains hard. If the fire 
 is too brisk, the earth will form hard 
 lumps, and even vitrify ; but other- 
 wise it comes out in the form of a 
 fine powder, in which evident marks 
 of charcoal appear. If this is of a 
 fine red colour, it is a good sign ; for 
 the iron in the earth has been con- 
 verted into a peroxide, which is per- 
 fectly innocent in its effects on ve- 
 getation, whereas all the saline im- 
 pregnations of iron are more or less 
 hurtful. It is better to burn the sods 
 in large than in small heaps ; for the 
 more the fire is smothered the better 
 the ashes. 
 
 " So great a quantity of ashes is 
 sometimes produced as to admit of a 
 portion being carried off on grass 
 land, or used to manure another field. 
 As this is evidently robbing the field 
 where the operation has been carried 
 on, an equivalent quantity of manure 
 should be brought in exchange. Per- 
 haps the most advantageous mode of 
 
PARING AXD BURNING. 
 
 using the ashes is to spread them in ! 
 the drills where the seed is to he ' 
 sown, after a portion of dung has 
 been buried under them. In this 
 manner the ashes from one acre of j 
 land pared and burned, together with I 
 ten or twelve cart-loads of good yard j 
 dung, will manure two acres. But I 
 experience proves that the earth and , 
 ashes almost ensure a good crop of 
 turnips in many poor, stiff soils, in ; 
 which they would probably not have 
 succeeded if sown in the cominon 
 course of cultivation without bones 
 or ashes. 
 
 "When a considerable erxtent of 
 poor land is brought into cultivation, 
 and there is no sufficient supply of 
 manure at hand, paring and burning 
 a portion of the land every year, by 
 wiiich a crop is obtained, is a most 
 effectual means of improvement. 
 I.ime may be used at the same time 
 with the ashes, and will increase 
 their effect. It would be a great 
 waste to burn the surface of a rich 
 piece of grass land, where the plants 
 growing m it are tender and succu- 
 lent, and would readily rot on being 
 ploughed under ; in such case a mod- 
 erate application of lime would have 
 a much better effect. This kind of 
 land will produce good crops without 
 any manure, and continue fertile for 
 many years if judiciously cultiva- 
 ted. To pare and burn rich land is 
 wasteful, and can never be recom- 
 mended. It is only on poor land 
 which has not strength to produce a 
 crop, and of which the texture re- 
 quires to be improved and its powers 
 stimulated, that paring and burnintr is 
 advantageous ; on poor, thin, chalky 
 soils, which have been laid down with 
 sainfoin, of which the roots and stems 
 are grown coarse and hard, so as not 
 readily to rot in the ground, the op- 
 eration is proper and advantageous. 
 
 "Many tracts of waste land might 
 be brought into cultivation by means 
 of paring and burning, which without 
 it would never repay the labour re- 
 quired. Where the soil is inclined 
 to peat, this operation and abundant 
 liming are the indispensable prelimi- 
 naries of cultivation. The ashes and 
 
 the lime will produce vegetation and 
 food for animals. These will produce 
 dung to supply what the vegetation 
 abstracts, and to assist, also, in the 
 farther decomposition of the peaty 
 matter, converting it into vegetable 
 mould. 
 
 " The first crop after paring and 
 burning should, if possible, be tur- 
 nips, and these should be consumed 
 on the spot ; but there are exceptions 
 to the rule. The soil may be a stiff 
 clay of a considerable degree of nat- 
 ural fertility, only encumbered with 
 rank weeds and grasses. In this 
 case the surface is burned to destroy 
 these, and a crop of corn may safely 
 be taken after the paring and burning, 
 the land coming into a regular alter- 
 nate rotation alter it. For example, 
 the next crop may be beans ; or clo- 
 ver may be sown with the first crop, 
 if the ground appears fit for it. The 
 effect of the ashes will be readily per- 
 ceived in the luxuriance of the clo- 
 ver. Such land may be afterward 
 cultivated, according to its nature 
 and quality, with the rest of the farm, 
 or laid down to grass after a course 
 of cleansing and ameliorating crops. 
 Thus old wet meadows, after having 
 been well underdrained, may be great- 
 ly improved, and either converted 
 into arable fields, or laid down again 
 with choice grasses. 
 
 " Old rough pastures may often be 
 greatly improved by a very thin pa- 
 ring and burning, so as not to destroy 
 all the roots of the grass. When 
 the ashes are spread over the pared 
 surface, some good grass seeds are 
 sown with them. The whole is well 
 harrowed or scarified and rolled, and 
 the grass which will spring up after 
 this will be greatly improved, and 
 will fully repay the expense of this 
 simple mode of renovating it. This 
 is the cheapest mode of improving 
 coarse pastures that we know, with- 
 out breaking them up. 
 
 " The partial paring and burning of 
 the headlands of fields, for the pur- 
 pose of mixing the ashes and burned 
 earth with dung in a compost, is a 
 most excellent practice, and often 
 superior to that of using the sods 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 only, without burning tlicin. Tliese 
 sods contain iiinuiuerable seeds of 
 weeds, and egi^s or magsols of in- 
 sects, which are not destroyed by tlic 
 fermentation of the heap, but, on the 
 contrary, are hrouglit to hfe. The 
 loss of "a portion of vegetable matter 
 in the burning is amply compensated 
 by the destruction of these enemies 
 of the future crops. 
 
 " It now only remains to take no- 
 lice of the soils and situations where 
 paring and burning cannot be recom- 
 mended. \\lierever the soil is very 
 loose from a great proportion of sili- 
 cious sand in its composition, and is 
 held together chiefly by the slender 
 roots which run through it, the burn- 
 ing would destroy the whole of the 
 vegetable matter ; for none of the 
 volatile parts which the tire dissi- 
 pates or generates would be retained 
 or absorbed, but would pass through 
 the loose sand in the same way that 
 water would. Here, then, would be 
 actual destruction ; and the residue 
 would be a mere barren silicious 
 sand, much worse and more porous 
 than it was when held together by 
 the roots. The only way to bring 
 such soils into cultivation is to put 
 clay, marl, or vegetable matter on 
 them, and to force vegetation by 
 means of liquid manures, chiefly the 
 urine of animals, consolidating them 
 by every means applicable, so that 
 they may retain moisture, and that 
 the manure may not be washed 
 through by the rains. Such soils may 
 be improved, but they are the most 
 ungrateful of any ; and it is only ne- 
 cessity and indefatigable industry 
 which can make them produce any 
 crops. 
 
 " It is very easy to ascertain wheth- 
 er any soil will be improved or not 
 by paring and burning. A few sods 
 may be taken and exposed to heat in 
 an iron pot closely covered over, or 
 in a large crucible ; the heat should 
 not be so great as to produce light, 
 but should be kept up for a consider- 
 able time, till the sods are consumed. 
 If the ashes are red, and the whole 
 is a fine powder, with particles of 
 charcoal in it, the soil from which it 
 556 
 
 was taken may be safely pared and 
 burned, especially if it forms a mud 
 with water, and the earth is not read- 
 ily deposited. But if it feels gritty, 
 lets the water readily through, and is 
 soon deposited when mixed with it, 
 burning will not be advantageous. 
 This is the evident result of the prin- 
 ciples laid down before. 
 
 " On the whole, the operation of 
 paring and burning, when judiciously 
 applied and properly performed, is a 
 most excellent and cheap improve- 
 ment of certain soils, and it will never 
 diminish their fertility, if they are 
 properly cultivated and manured, and 
 a judicious succession of crops is 
 adopted ; but, on the contrary, it will 
 improve their quality and texture, 
 and make them more productive." — 
 (Rham.) 
 
 P A R K. An enclosed woodland 
 pasture. 
 
 PAROTID GLAND. A large sal- 
 ivary gland, situated at the angle of 
 the jaws. 
 
 PAROXYSM. A sharp attack, an 
 increase of sickness. 
 
 P.\RSLEY. Aptum petroselinum. 
 A biennial, umbelliferous plant, the 
 aromatic leaves of which are much 
 used in cookery. It is propagated 
 readily by seed in a dr>', fair soil. 
 The curled variety is the prettiest. 
 A bed once formed will perpetuate 
 itself, if suffered to bear a few seeds 
 annually. It may be covered by straw 
 in the fall to protect it from winter. 
 
 PARSLEY, THE HAMBURGH. 
 Apitim lattfolium. This plant is cul- 
 tivated for its root, which resembles 
 a middling-sized parsnip ; it is man- 
 aged and used in the same way, and 
 is a good vegetable. 
 
 PARSLEY, WILD. Wild celery. 
 This and similar umbelliferous plants, 
 growing in wet places, are acrid, and 
 should be carefully weeded out from 
 pastures. 
 
 PARSNIP. Pastinaca saliva. Va- 
 rieties : Jersey long, and large Dutch, 
 a well-known umbelliferous plant, 
 cultivated for its roots. It grows 
 well in deep, rich, loamy clay, or 
 sandy soils, and is cultivated exactly 
 like the carrot. Sow in April or May, 
 
PAS 
 
 in drills 18 inches apart, so as to ad- 
 mit the horse hoe. 5 pounds of fresh 
 seed per acre ; prick out to 12 inch- 
 es, and hoe well : produce in October 
 9 to 11 tons ; take up with the plough 
 or a fork : they keep well in sand. 
 All stock like them, especially if 
 steamed. The leaves are often given 
 to cows, &c. Its value as fodder will 
 be seen under Fodder. 
 
 PARSNIP. COW; MASTER 
 "WORT. Heraclcum lunatnm. A 
 large perennial, umbelliferous plant, 
 growing in wet places, and very poi- 
 sonous. Use the stomach pump and 
 warm water in poisoning by it. 
 
 PARTERRE. In gardening, a 
 system of beds of different shapes and 
 s^zes, in wiiich flowers are cultivated, 
 with intervening spaces, either paved, 
 of gravel, or turf, for walking on. 
 
 PARTURITION. The act of 
 bringing forth voung. 
 
 PASSERINES, PASSERES. 
 "Birds similar to the sparrow, inclu- 
 ding those which neither manifest the 
 violence ofbirdsof prey, nor have the 
 fixed regimen of the terrestrial birds, 
 but which feed on insects, fruit, or 
 grain, according to the slenderness or 
 strength of their beak ; some, with 
 sharp and toothed mandibles, pursue 
 and feed on small birds. All the pas- 
 serines have short and slender legs, 
 with three toes before and one be- 
 hind, the two external toes being 
 united by a very short n>enibrane. 
 They form the mo.st extensive and 
 varied order of birds, and are the least 
 readily recognisable by distinctive 
 characters common to the whole 
 group. 
 
 " The passerines, in general, have 
 the females smaller and less brilliant 
 in their plumage than the males ; 
 they always live in pairs, build in 
 trees, and display the greatest art in 
 the construction of their nests. The 
 young are excluded in a blind and 
 naked state, and wholly depend for 
 subsistence, during a certain period, 
 on parental care The brain arrives 
 in this order at its greatest propor- 
 tional size ; the organ of voice here 
 attains its utmost complexity ; and 
 all the characteristics of the bird, as 
 
 A A A 2 
 
 PAS 
 
 power of flight, melody of voice, and 
 beauty of plumage, are enjoyed in 
 the highest perfection by one or other 
 of the groups of this extensive and 
 varied order. 
 
 " The beak of the passerines varies 
 in form according to the nature of 
 their food, which may be small or 
 young birds, carrion, insects, fruit, 
 seeds, vegetable juices, or of a mixed 
 kind. The modifications of the ros- 
 trum have, therefore, afforded con- 
 venient characters for the tribes or 
 subdivisions of the order : these are 
 termed, 1. Dentirosters ; 2. Coniros- 
 ters; 3. Tcnuirosters ; 4. Fissirosters.' 
 See those words. 
 
 PASSIONFLOWER. Thegenns 
 Pdsssijlora, bearing beautiful flowers, 
 and, in the tropics, tolerable fruit, 
 and a good wood resembling ebony. 
 
 PASTEL. A dye stuff, resembling 
 indigo, woad. 
 
 PASTERN OF A HORSE. The 
 distance that intervenes between the 
 joint of that name and the coronet of 
 the hoof 
 
 PASTURE LANDS. " Consider- 
 able improvements have been made 
 in natural pastures, not only by the 
 raising of banks and stone walls as 
 shelter against the winter's storms, 
 but also by extensive draining and 
 clearing the surface of wild plants 
 and shrubs, which prevent the her- 
 bage from springing up, and greatly 
 diminish the feed. On the sides of 
 steep hills, where springs are apt to 
 break out and produce swamps and 
 bogs, drains judiciously made have 
 carried off the water, and laid dry 
 the pastures below them ; while res- 
 ervoirs have been constructed in 
 many places to receive the water and 
 to supply the stock in dry w^eather. 
 On peaty moors the application of 
 lime to the surface has often pro- 
 duced wonderful effects, and made 
 various kinds of clover and grasses 
 spring up, which wore never seen on 
 the sjMit before. 
 
 " Those who are possessed of ex- 
 tensive pastures often look upon 
 them as of too little value to lay out 
 any money in their improvement; 
 and unless when an attempt is made 
 557 
 
PASTURE LANDS. 
 
 to bring them into regular cultiva- 
 tion, which often fails after a great 
 outlay of money, they are not tliought 
 worth attention. Yet many rough, 
 hilly pastures mi^lil be doubled and 
 tripled in value, merely by clearing 
 the surface, burning coarse grasses, 
 rushes, ferns, and furze, and .sowing ; 
 a few seeds where the ashes have 
 been spread. The additional number 
 of cattle or sheep which can be main- 
 tained by this means would surprise 
 any one who had not had experience 
 of such improvements. The forming 
 of convenient channels for the water 
 to run off is another important ob- 
 ject, which can often be effected at a 
 trifling expense ; and a loo.se surface 
 laid dry by this means may be much 
 improved by merely burning the heath 
 which grows upon it. After the fire 
 has scorched the ground, grasses will ; 
 spring up spontaneously ; and, at a 
 very small expense, a considerable ' 
 tract of mountain pasture may be con- 
 verted from the state of a brown 
 heath, or moor, to that of a fine green | 
 sward. | 
 
 " Wherever there are large pas- 
 tures, proper and suitable buildings, 
 made of substantial materials, should 
 be erected. The cattle should have 
 numerous sheds for refuge in bad 
 weather, and sheep especially should [ 
 have protection and shelter. Warmth 1 
 is in some cases of more importance 
 than food : and an animal exposed 
 to all the severities of a northern cli- ' 
 mate requires more food to keep him 
 alive than when he is kept warm and 
 protected from the immediate influ- j 
 ence of cutting winds. ] 
 
 " To those who have extensive 
 pastures, as on the prairies, it is of 
 great importance to ascertain wheth- 
 er oxen, heifers, cows, or sheep are 
 the most profitable, and of these, 
 what breeds suit the situations ; and, 
 when this has been determined by 
 experience, to know what quantity 
 may safely be kept, without suffering 
 for want of sufficient food, or allow- 
 ing any portion of the pasture to 
 wither or become coarse from not 
 being duly fed ofl^. Whatever be the 
 stock depastured, the greatest atten- 
 558 
 
 lion should be paid to them by a 
 herdsman or shepherd of experience, 
 who should have a certain number 
 only under his care. It is a good 
 plan to give him some share or inter- 
 est in the produce as part of his wa- 
 ges. When any part of the stock is 
 sold off to drovers or butchers, he 
 should have a per centage on the sale. 
 This will give him the activity of an 
 owner, and he is not so likely to be 
 negligent and allow the stock to suf- 
 fer from a want of sufficient food, or 
 from accidents which can be prevent- 
 ed by proper attention. 
 
 "When the soil is naturally deep 
 and of a good quality, but the situa- 
 tion renders it not advisable to con- 
 vert the pastures into permanent 
 arable land, and the herbage has been 
 deteriorated and overrun with moss 
 or weeds, it is a very effective mode 
 of improving the pasture to plough 
 up the sward as thin as possible, and 
 then, having removed the sods into 
 heaps or rows, to plough and scarify 
 the bared surface to the depth of four 
 or five inches, so as to give it the 
 appearance of a fallow field When 
 it is well pulverized and harrowed 
 level, the sod, which had been taken 
 off, is chopped into small pieces by 
 the spade, and scattered over it ; and 
 after a shower has somewhat moist- 
 ened the surface, it is well rolled with 
 a heavy roller. Thus the moss is 
 effectually destroyed ; the root weeds 
 have been eradicated, and the fine 
 grasses, the roots of which are short 
 and fibrous, are preserved. They 
 will soon strike into the loosened 
 soil, and a fine close sward will be 
 the result. The improvement is still 
 greater if lime is put on the land be- 
 fore the spreading of the sods, and if, 
 at the same time, some of the best 
 grass seeds are sown over it. The 
 proper season for this operation is 
 after harvest, and no cattle should be 
 admitted till the next spring. 
 
 " In the richest pastures, an acre 
 will maintain and fatten an ox of 
 eighty or ninety stone, and some- 
 times keep several sheep in store or- 
 der besides. There is a marked dif- 
 ference between land that will fat- 
 
PAV 
 
 ten an ox, and that which will only ; 
 rear him. This can scarcely be dis- } 
 coveretl by simple examination of the , 
 land, but is found by experience. The ; 
 same appearance of grass has more 
 proof, as it is called, in one place than ; 
 another. The bite may be very short 
 and tlie pasture appear bare, and yet 
 the value of it may be seen on the 
 ribs of the cattle. Much of the skill 
 of a grazier consists in stockmg his 
 pastures to advantage. He should 
 know the power of every portion of 
 it, and stock it so that the grass may 
 not grow faster than it can be crop- 
 ped by the cattle or sheep, and that 
 the animals may always have the 
 full quantity required. Every animal 
 wants a certam quantity of food to 
 repair the daily waste occasioned by 
 the animal functions. If he has no 
 more he makes no progress : the 
 more he can convert into flesh and 
 fat beyond this quantity in a given 
 time, the more profitable he will be. 
 Hence the superior qualities of some 
 animals with respect to this point in- 
 dicate the superiority of their breed, 
 and afford the greatest nett profit to 
 the grazier. In the same pasture, one 
 beast or sheep will give a reasonable 
 profit, while another may occasion an 
 actual loss. The adaptation of the 
 stock to the nature of the pasture is 
 consequently an object of the great- 
 est importance, and requires much 
 judgment and experience.'' — {W. L. 
 Rham.) 
 
 PATELLA. The knee pan. 
 PATENS, PATENT. Spreading. 
 PATHOGNO.MIC (from Trado^, a 
 disease, and yvufiri, opinion). Symp- 
 toms which are characteristic of a 
 disease. 
 
 PATHOLOGY. A dissertation on 
 the effects of disease on the body. 
 
 PAVILION. " In architecture, a 
 projecting apartment on the flank of 
 a building, usually higher than the 
 rest of it. Summer-houses in gar- 
 dens are sometimes called by this 
 name, but improperly. The term pa- 
 vilion is also used to signify a milita- 
 ry tent." — (Branile). 
 
 PAVING ORCHARDS. Some- 
 times practised about plum-trees to 
 
 PEA 
 
 cut off the escape of the curculio. If 
 it is temporary, there can be no ob- 
 jection, but otherwise we are unable 
 to apply composts to the roots. It 
 is very effective against the curculio. 
 PEA. Pisnm sativum. An annu- 
 al of the leguminous family. It is 
 supposed that the gray pea is the P. 
 arvcnse. Varieties ; 
 
 Early Cedo NuUi, or Race Horse, 3 feet 
 Early Frame, 2 to 3 feet. 
 Early Warwick, 3 feet. 
 Early Washington, 3 feet. 
 Early Charlton, 3 feet. 
 Double Blossom Frame, 3 feet. 
 Bishop's Early Dwarf, 2 feet. 
 Dwarf Prolific, or Strawberry, 2 feet, 
 Dwarf Spanish, or Fan, 1 to 2 feet. 
 Early Nimble Dick, S feet. 
 Dwarf Blue Imperial, 2 to 3 feet. 
 Waterloo Blue, 4 feet. 
 Groom's Dwarf Blue Prolific, 4 feet. 
 Dwarf Blue, Prussian, 2 to 3 feet. 
 Dwarf .Marrowfat, 3 to 4 feet. 
 Lady's Finser Marrows, 4 feet. 
 Matchless Marrowfat, 6 feet. 
 Knight's Tall Marrow, 6 feet. 
 Knight's Dwarf .Marrow, 3 feet. 
 Woodford's Green Prolific, 6 feet. 
 Large Gray Rouncival, 4 feet. 
 Dwarf Sugar (eatable pods), 3 feet. 
 Tall Crooked Pod Sugar, 6 feet. 
 French Bouquet, or Sugar, 3 to 4 feet. 
 Albany Field, several varieties. 
 
 The time of sowing is early spring, 
 in drills four to six feet apart ; they 
 should be protected by straw, pine 
 brush, or similar substances. A sow- 
 ing may be made every two weeks 
 until the end of May ; a bushel will 
 plant an acre, and yield from fifty to 
 one hundred bushels of green peas. 
 The best soil is a deep, moderately 
 rich, clayey soil, containing some 
 amount of lime, or having been well 
 manured with it. They are usually 
 supported by sticks, but in field cul- 
 ture are allowed to grow on the 
 ground. They should be hoed sev- 
 eral times, and earthed up. A fall 
 crop can be obtained in the Middle 
 States by sowing in a shady place 
 after the heat of summer is passing 
 away. 
 
 Tlie field is sown broad-cast at two 
 
 and a half bushels the acre ; the crop 
 
 is readily collected by a short scythe 
 
 ' and horse-rake. It should be done 
 
 I while the haulm is of a yellowish 
 
 I green, or the peas scatter. The 
 
 '. haulm in this state is a very valua- 
 
 659 
 
I'KA 
 
 ble rough fodder, if carefully housed. 
 The grain is tlirastied out, and forms 
 one of the best kinds of provender 
 for all stock and poultry. 'I'lie yield 
 per acre is Irom twenty-five to forty 
 bushels. 
 
 Tlie pea can be readily forced in 
 the hot-house, and may be much ad- 
 vanced by glass. The diseases of 
 the pea are few-, mildew and plant 
 lice sometimes destroy late crops. 
 
 Manures. — Like all leguminous 
 plants, pease require lime and gyp- 
 sum, but as they yield much seed, 
 bone earth is also essential. They 
 are an exhausting crop. The com- 
 position of the pea is given by Spren- 
 gel : 1000 parts in the ordinary dry 
 state yield 
 
 Seed. Straw. 
 
 Potash and soda .... 15-50 235 
 
 Lime and magnesia . . . r95 30-70 
 
 Phosphoric acid .... 1-9U 2-40 
 
 Sulphuric acid .... 0-52 335 
 
 Chlorine 038 000 
 
 Silica, iron, &c 4-40 10-85 
 
 24-65 49^ 
 
 PEA BUG. Bruchus fist. A well- 
 known coleopterous insect which lays 
 its egg in the young pea, and comes 
 out in May. Sowing pease two years 
 old, taking care invariably to destroy 
 the insects that are hatched, is a cer- 
 tain preventive. 
 
 PEA, COW. Yeatman's pea. A 
 very productive yellow Southern pea, 
 much used for green fallows in the 
 same way as clover. 
 
 PEANUT. See Pindars. 
 
 PEA PATTRIDGE. Cassia cha- 
 mcBcrista. Wild sensitive plant. It 
 is a beautiful ornamental plant. 
 
 PEACH. Amygdalus Pcrsica, of 
 the natural family Pomacea. The fol- 
 lowing account is partly from Mr. 
 Thomas : 
 
 " The peach is usually cultivated 
 by planting the stone in autumn, at a 
 depth of about two inches ; a small 
 part of them grow the succeeding 
 spring, and the remainder the year 
 following. Cracking the stones be- 
 fore planting ensures their growth the 
 first season, but it is best in thi« case 
 to expose the stones to the action of 
 frost during winter, mixed with sand 
 or earth, and to defer the planting till 
 560 
 
 PEA 
 
 spring. If the soil be fertile, so that 
 their growth is vigorous, they may 
 be budded the same season ; but if 
 not, the operation must be deferred 
 till the second. One and two years' 
 growth of the bud will render' them 
 large enough to transplant into the 
 orchard. 
 
 " The most suitable soil for the 
 peach is a rich, sandy loam ; a light 
 soil is generally preferred, but this is 
 not indispensable, if tlie ground be 
 well prepared. Peach-trees, when 
 transplanted, should not be large. 
 
 " To obtain good varieties with any 
 degree of certainty, budding must be 
 resorted to. Grafting rarely suc- 
 ceeds, and never unless perfonned 
 with unusual care on such kinds as 
 have the firmest wood. It is an ad- 
 vantage to bud on almond or plum 
 stocks. 
 
 " When the great difference be- 
 tween good and bad varieties is re- 
 membered, the importance of obtain- 
 ing the best must be obvious. The 
 reputation of some which are excel- 
 lent has been greatly injured by the 
 numerous errors in names which have 
 been introduced. 
 
 " This misapplication of names has 
 induced the attempt to arrange the 
 varieties and distinctive characters, 
 so that this inconvenience may be re- 
 moved. The peach presents facili- 
 ties for this purpose not existing in 
 other fruits. The following, which is 
 generally adopted as the best, is from 
 Lindley. Peaches and nectarines 
 (which may he considered as one and 
 the same fruit, the latter having 
 smooth skins) are separated into 
 three general classes, each of which 
 has three divisions ; these are each 
 separated into two suhdnusions, and 
 every subdivision into two sections : 
 consisting, in all, of thirty-six sec- 
 tions. Only a part of these sections 
 contain varieties with which we are 
 acquainted, and are only to be filled 
 up as new ones are discovered with 
 characters adapted to them. 
 
 " Class I. comprehends those the 
 leaves of which are deeply and doubly 
 serrated, and having no glands on the 
 serratures {Fig. 1). 
 
I'KACII. 
 
 " Class II. contains those whose 
 h);ives are creiiate, and have glohose 
 f^lands (Fig. 2). 
 
 " Class III. inchules all those 
 ■whose leaves are crenate or serru- 
 late, and have kidney-shaped glands 
 {F,g. 3). 
 
 Fig. 3. Fig.% Fig. I. 
 •' It will, however, sometimes hap- 
 pen that irlands are not discernible 
 on some of the leaves, especially on 
 those produced on weak branches ; 
 in this case other branches must be 
 sought for which do produce them. 
 They are represented as rather lar- 
 ger and more distinct, in the accom- 
 panying figures, than usually occur 
 in a state of nature. 
 
 "These classes, thus formed, are 
 each divided into three divisions. 
 
 " Div. I. embraces those which 
 produce large flowers. 
 
 " Dh\ II. includes those which pro- 
 duce flowers of medium size. 
 
 " Div. III. contains those which 
 produce small flowers. 
 
 " These divisions are not so dis- 
 tinctly marked as the classes, the 
 middle and small flowers only difTer- 
 iiig by the former being larger in all 
 their parts. 
 
 The subdivisions, two in number, 
 are determined by the fruit. The 
 first comprehends true peaches, or 
 those which have a downy skin ; the 
 second includes nectarines, or those 
 which have a smooth skin, similar to 
 that of the plum. 
 
 " Each of these subdivisions is 
 again divided into two sections ; the 
 former including the pacics, or cling- 
 stones ; the latter the mclters, or free- 
 stones. 
 
 " The same arrangement may be 
 adopted with the other classes. 
 
 " The following list contains some 
 of the best varieties, arranged accord- 
 ing to the preceding method : 
 
 SERRATED, GLANDLESS LEAVES. LARGE 
 FLOWER. 
 
 Peaches — I'avies. 
 Old Newington. 
 
 Early Newington, or Smith's New- 
 ington. 
 
 Peaches — Melters. 
 Early Anne. Tillotson. 
 Malta. 
 Noblesse. 
 Early While Nutmeg. 
 
 Nectarines — Pavies. 
 Scarlet Newington. 
 Tawny Newington. 
 
 SERRATED, GLANDLESS LEAVES. SMALL 
 FLOWER. 
 
 Peaches — Mclters. 
 Royal George. 
 Befle de Vitry. 
 
 CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE 
 GLANDS. LARGE FLOWER. 
 
 Peaches — Melters. 
 Grosse Mignonne. 
 
 CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE 
 GLANDS. SMALL FLOWER. 
 
 Peaches — Melters. 
 Bellegard. 
 Teton de Venus. 
 George the Fourth. 
 President. 
 
 CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFORM 
 GLANDS. LARGE FLOWER. 
 
 Nectarines — Melters. 
 Fairchild's. 
 
 CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFOKM 
 GLANDS. SMALL FLOWER. 
 
 Peaches — Pavies. 
 Incomparable. 
 Catharine. 
 
 Peaches — Melters. 
 Chancellor. 
 Late Purple. 
 
 Nectarines — Melters. 
 Common Elruge. 
 Violet Hative. 
 Aromatic. 
 
 " The following list of peaches will 
 give a constant succession from a 
 period immediately after wheat har- 
 I vest until autumnal frosts : 
 
 561 
 
PEACH. 
 
 V:,ri.M.i,-H. 
 
 S,7V. 
 
 Kip«. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 r Knrly White Nut nirj,' . . 
 
 small 
 
 July 
 
 slender growth. 
 
 
 Early Aiiiip J 
 
 Early TiUutsnn . . . . j 
 
 middling 
 
 August 
 
 slender growth. 
 
 
 Early Red Rareripe . . 
 
 large 
 
 August 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 i:^ 
 
 Early York 
 
 similar 
 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 Grosse Mipnonne . . . 
 
 largo 
 
 August 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 s 
 
 White Im|i(,rial .... 
 
 larffo 
 
 August 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 Red-cheek Malacatou . . 
 
 large 
 
 late, August 
 
 very imiductive, excellent. 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 largo 
 
 August 
 
 very productive, splendid. 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 large 
 
 September 
 
 very productive, good. 
 
 
 President 
 
 large 
 
 September 
 
 very productive, good. 
 
 
 'Early Ncwington . . . 
 Oldniixon 
 
 middling 
 
 August 
 
 very productive, good. 
 
 ii 
 
 large 
 
 September 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 Old Newington .... 
 
 large 
 
 September 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 Lemon Clnif;slone, Pineap- 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ple, or Kennedy's . . 
 
 large 
 
 September 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 
 Heath 
 
 large 
 
 late, Sejitember 
 
 very productive, excellent. 
 
 " The early white nutmeg is a 
 peach of very small size, and a very 
 poor bearer ; and a cultivator may 
 count himself fortunate if he gets a 
 quart of peaches from a full-grown 
 tree. It ripens a week or more after 
 our wheat harvests, and is valuable 
 only for its early maturity. The 
 early Anne is later, but much larger 
 and a much belter bearer ; and were 
 it not for its very slow growth, would 
 be valuable. 
 
 " The peach appears to vary more 
 in quality from the effect of climate 
 than other fruits. Culture greatly 
 affects the quality ; thus, the Heath 
 clingstone, under favourable circum- 
 stances, is an excellent fruit ; but if 
 the branches are permitted to bear 
 full, the fruit is small and of little 
 value. 
 
 " Peach and nectarine trees are 
 liable to destruction from two causes, 
 the icorm, and Ihe yelloics. The pres- 
 ence of the worm is readily detected 
 by the gum, mixed with excremcnti- 
 tious matter, oozing from the trunk, 
 at the surface of the ground. The 
 best, and probably the only effectual 
 remedy is, to scrape the earth from 
 about the tree, and then, with a knife, 
 to follow the holes made by the worm 
 to their termination, and destroy it. 
 As this insect merely confines itself 
 to the bark, its destruction is very 
 easy. It rarely occurs that trees are 
 completely destroyed by this insect, 
 except they be small : death can only 
 take place when the bark is eaten 
 round the tree. Timely care will 
 prevent this ; the evil, in fact, is only 
 662 
 
 to be dreaded by negligent cultiva- 
 tors." 
 
 For an account of the yelloics, see 
 Yellows. 
 
 "I'lie shortness of life in the peach- 
 tree, and the consequent difficulty of 
 its culture in some places, appear to 
 be chiefly owing to this disease. In 
 Western New- York it is comparative- 
 ly unknown, and great care should be 
 used by cultivators that it be not in- 
 troduced by importations. 
 
 " The peach-tree, though generally 
 supposed to be very short-lived, when 
 not destroyed by unnatural causes, 
 will continue to flourish and bear for 
 many years. Trees twenty years old 
 and upward are frequently seen. 
 
 " The curled leaf, which frequently 
 appears on peach-trees early in sum- 
 mer, is occasioned by frost or chilly 
 weather. These leaves soon drop, and 
 the tree assumes a healthy appear- 
 ance. This would not be worth no- 
 ticing, except that it sometimes oc- 
 casions unnecessary alarm. 
 
 " The growth of some varieties is 
 retarded by mildew on the young 
 shoots. It appears to be exclusively 
 confined to those having serrated, 
 glandless leaves, as the early white 
 nutmeg, early Ann, and some of the 
 earlier varieties of the red rareripe. 
 It is not a very serious evil ; and the 
 best remedy appears to be good soil 
 and good culture to stimulate the 
 growth. All yellow-fleshed varieties 
 appear to be entirely free from it." 
 
 For the curculio, see Plum. 
 
 PE A C H B ORE R. See Borers. 
 
 PEACOCK. Pavo cristatus. The 
 
PEAR. 
 
 young birds are good eating, but the 
 full-grown cocks are extremely troub- 
 lesome ill ttie poultry-yard, from their 
 voracity and tyrannical habits to- 
 wards chickens. 
 
 PEAR. Pijrus communis. The 
 varieties are very numerous : they 
 may be classified into summer, au- 
 tumn, winter, and perry kinds. 
 
 The following is from several lists : 
 
 SUMMER KINDS. 
 
 " Ah ! Mo\ DiEu. — Size medium ; 
 form handsome ; colour rich yellow, 
 with bright red cheek ; flesh juicy ; 
 flavour sweet and perfumed. Tree 
 vigorous and productive, the fruit 
 growing in clusters of four or five 
 together. 
 
 " Beurre d'Am.inlis. — A fine early 
 pear. Size large ; form obovate ; 
 colour green, changing to yellow, with 
 a fine blush when fully ripe, and rus- 
 set spots ; flesh melting, sweet, and 
 excellent : ripe in August and Sep- 
 tember. Tree vigorous and produc- 
 tive. 
 
 "Dearborn's Seedling. — The tree 
 is of vigorous growth ; fruit of me- 
 dium size, rounded at the crown, and 
 regularly diminishes to the stalk ; the 
 skin is smooth, thin, green, with rus- 
 set spots ; at maturity it turns to a 
 delicate yellow ; flesh very melting, 
 and of the finest flavour ; ripe in Au- 
 gust. 
 
 "Honey Ve.kr, American Honey. — 
 This pear in size and shape resem- 
 bles the Seckle ; the skin is yellow, 
 with a large portion of dull red ; the 
 flesh sweet, juicy, and good. 
 
 " Jargonelle. Epargne, Beau Pres- 
 ent, Saint Sainsoi, Grosse Cuisse Ma- 
 dame, Saint Lambert, Poire des Ta- 
 bles dcs Princes. — Fruit rather large, 
 oblong, of a pale green colour, a little 
 marked with red ; flesh melting, juicy, 
 with a slightly acid, rich, and agreea- 
 ble flavour. It ripens early in August, 
 is one of the most productive of all 
 pear.s, and the very best in its season. 
 
 " M-vdeleine, yiagdalenc, Citron des 
 Carmes, Early Chaumontcllc. — This 
 pear is of medium size, pale yellow, 
 with an occasional blush next the 
 sun J flesh white, melting, perfumed. 
 
 " RoUSSELET DE RhEIMS, Musk OT 
 
 Spice Pear. — Fruit small, pyramidal, 
 greenish yellow at maturity, but 
 brown red next the sun, with rus- 
 sety spots ; flesh half beurre, juicy, 
 very perfumed. 
 
 " Stevens's Genesee Pear. — A 
 beautiful pear, of medium size, and 
 of rather an oblong form ; its col- 
 our is mellow green, with russet 
 blotches ; its flesh is represented as 
 white, juicy, and melting ; flavour 
 sprightly, rich, and very delicious : 
 ripens towards the end of August. 
 
 " Su.M.MER Francreal, Francreal 
 d'Ete, Fondante, France Cannel, Gros 
 Micet d'Ete, Milan Blanc, Prcbles Beur- 
 re. — Fruit above medium size ; shape 
 oblong ; thickest about one third from 
 the eye ; skin yellowish green ; flesh 
 melting, rich, and excellent : ripe ear- 
 ly in September. 
 
 " SuM.MER .Melting, Summer Beur- 
 re, Fondant d'Ete — An excellent sum- 
 mer pear, of pyriform shape ; colour 
 yellow, tinged with brownish red ; 
 flesh soft, melting, and sweet. The 
 tree bears young, and ripens its fruit 
 in .August. 
 
 "\\'lLLlAMs'sBoNCHRETIEN, Bavtlet, 
 
 William's Early, Autumn Superb of 
 Prince. — The fruit is large, oblong ; 
 the stalk thick and fleshy, an inch 
 long ; the colour at maturity yellow, 
 tinged with red; flesh whitish, very 
 melting, and delicate; juice perfumed, 
 sweet, and abundant. Tree very pro- 
 ductive, and fruit ripe early in Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 AUTUMN KINDS. 
 
 " Belle et Bonne, Belledc Flanders, 
 Gracieu.'ie. — Fruit very large, globu- 
 lar, depressed ; the stalk long ; skin 
 greenish yellow, but next the sun yel- 
 low, with spots of russet ; flesh white, 
 sweet, exceeding rich, and agreeably 
 perfumed. The tree is very produc- 
 tive, and the fruit ripens in September. 
 " Belle Lucrative. — A beautiful 
 Flemish pear ; middle sized, rounds 
 ish, tapering at the stalk ; skin yel- 
 low, slightly russeted, and tinged 
 with pale red ; flesh melting, sweet, 
 and juicy, with a slight musky per- 
 fume : ripe early in October, 
 
 563 
 
I'FAH. 
 
 " Beurrk Bosc. — Fruit large and 
 very long ; terminated with a crown 
 near three inclus in diameter ; some- 
 what calabash - formed ; skin gray 
 lawn colour, but russety yellow at 
 maturity ; flesh white, melting, high- 
 ly flavoured, and delicious : it ripens 
 in October. 
 
 "Bi.ekker's Meadow. — A native 
 fruit of medium size, roundish form, 
 and of a yellow colour, tinged with 
 dull red ; the flesh melting, juicy, 
 sweet, musky, and of delicious fla- 
 vour : ripe in October. A prolific 
 bearer. 
 
 " Capiamont, Beurr'e de Capiaumont. 
 — Fruit of medium size ; skin yellow, 
 tinged with fine red or cinnamon ; 
 flesh yellowish, melting, very rich, 
 and high flavoured : ripe in September 
 and October. 
 
 " Gushing. — Medium size and ob- 
 long shape ; skin, when ripe, smooth, 
 of a light yellow, mottled with dull 
 red on one side ; flesh white, melting, 
 sprightly, and good. Mr. Manning 
 says it comes early into bearing, and 
 produces plenty of fruit m September 
 and October. 
 
 " Delicks d'Ardenpont, Dcliccs 
 d'Hardenpont. — Fruit above medium 
 size ; oblong, pyramidal ; skin yellow 
 at maturity, and partially covered 
 with a thin cinnamon-coloured russet ; 
 flesh yellowish white, nearly melting ; 
 juice pleasant, sweet, and abundant : 
 ripe in October and November. The 
 tree is a good bearer. 
 
 " Dix. — A native variety ; originated 
 in the garden of Mr. Dix, in Boston ; 
 fruit large, oblong; skin, when ripe, 
 yellow, with a blush of red ; flesh 
 melting, juicy, and rich : ripe in Oc- 
 tober and November. 
 
 " Duchess of Angouleme, Duch- 
 esse d' Angouleme . — A pear of first-rate 
 excellence. Form roundish, oblong, 
 tapering towards the stalk ; skin dull 
 yellow, with broad russet patches ; 
 flesh white, rich, melting, very juicy, 
 and high flavoured, with a most agree- 
 able perfume. Specimens of this fruit 
 have been shown weighing twenty- 
 two ounces : at perfection in October 
 and November. 
 
 " Flemish Beauty, La Belle de 
 564 
 
 Flanders. — A fine Flemish pear in 
 great repute. It is of large size, ob- 
 ovate, obtuse at the stalk ; greenish 
 yellow russet, tinged with crimson ; 
 flesh rather firm, yellowish white, 
 sweet, rich, and excellent : it ripens 
 in October. 
 
 " Frederic of "VVurtembero, Koi 
 de Wurlemberg, Capiaumont of some 
 collections. — A large and splendid 
 pear, of pyramidal form and fine yel- 
 low colour, covered with beautiful 
 crimson on one side ; flesh melting, 
 and of delicious flavour. The tree 
 bears while young, and very abun- 
 dantly. 
 
 " FuLTox. — A finp pear of medium 
 size ; shape roundish, turbinate ; skia 
 dark yellow, russeted ; flesh melting, 
 juicy, and of delicious flavour: ripe 
 in September, and lasts a month. 
 The tree is a great and constant bear- 
 er, and highly deserving of cultivation. 
 
 " Gansel's Bergamot, Broca's Ber- 
 gamot, Ives's Bergamo/, Bonne Kovge. 
 — Fruit varying from middle size to 
 large ; ovate, flattened ; colour dull 
 green, slightly red next the sun ; flesh 
 white, melting, sweet, rich, and high- 
 flavoured. A delicious pear : ripe in 
 October, and good till Ghristmas. 
 
 "Golden Beurre of Bilboa. — 
 Fruit of medium size, oblong ; colour 
 a bright golden yellow, with patches 
 of russet ; perfectly melting, and of 
 fine flavour. A beautiful pear-tree, a 
 great bearer, and worthy of cultiva- 
 tion : ripe in October. 
 
 " Hacon"s In-comparable, Norfolk 
 Seedling. — Fruit middle sized, of pale 
 yellow colour, mixed with green, par- 
 tially covered with orange russet ; 
 flesh yellowish white, slightly gritty, 
 but very tender,juicy, sweet, and rich, 
 and possessing a high musky and per- 
 fumed flavour. The tree is a great 
 bearer, and the fruit excellent : ripe 
 in November and December. 
 
 " Henry the Fourth, Henri Qua- 
 tre. — Fruit of medium size, oblong ; 
 skin a dull yellow, mixed with brown 
 and green ; flesh yellow, rather grit- 
 ty, juicy, and melting, with a peculiar 
 rich flavour : ripe in September and 
 October. Mr. Manning says the tree 
 bears while young, and abundantly. 
 
PEAR 
 
 "Marie Louise, Marie Chr'elicnnr.. 
 — Fruit oblong, tapering towards both 
 ends ; size varying from medium to 
 large ; skin nearly smooth, yellowish 
 green, and cinnamon-coloured russet ; 
 flesh white, melting, juicy, and rich. 
 It ripens in October and November, 
 and is an excellent fruit in its season. 
 
 " N.^POLEON, Roi dc Rome. — Fruit 
 large, form of the Colmar ; skin 
 smooth ; colour bright green, but at 
 maturity pale green ; flesh very melt- 
 ing, with an unusual abundance of 
 rich, agreeable juice : in perfection in 
 October and November. 
 
 " Seckle, New- York Red Check, 
 Red Cheek Seckle, Sycle. — An excel- I 
 lent native fruit, in size rather small ; 
 colour varying from yellowish to 
 brownish russet, but bright red next 
 the sun ; flesh melting, spicy, and of 
 a most extraordinary rich flavour. 
 This fruit grows in clusters in great 
 abundance, and is in perfection in 
 September and October. 
 
 "Swan's Egg. — Fruit small, of an 
 oval figure ; colour yellowish green, 
 and dull, russety brown ; flesh ten- 
 der and melting, with a rich, saccha- 
 rine, musky flavour. An excellent 
 fruit : ripe in October. The tree is 
 large, vigorous, and productive. 
 
 " Urbamste, Beurri dti Roy. — The 
 fruit is of medium size, pyramidally 
 ovate ; skin pale green, inclining to 
 yellow, with green streaks ; flesh 
 white, but reddish-yellow next the 
 core ; it is quite melting, juicy, and 
 very sweet, with a little perfume : it 
 ripens from the middle of September 
 to November. 
 
 " White Doyexxe, Doyenne Blanc, 
 Saint Michael. — Fruit pretty large, 
 roundish, ol)long ; skin pale citron yel- 
 low, with cinnamon russet, speck- 
 led ; flesh white, juicy, very buttery, 
 and delicious : rijie in September and 
 October. An old and once-celebra 
 ted variety, still admired by many, al- 
 though excluded from some nurser- 
 ies, or cultivated under new names. 
 " \ViLKi\so\. — A native pear from 
 Cumberland, Rhode Island Tiie tree 
 bears young, and i.s very fniilfiil ; size 
 above medium ; Ibnu oblong ; skin 
 yellow, with a brownish blush near 
 13 B a 
 
 the sun ; flesh white, juicy, and melt- 
 ing : in perfection in October and No- 
 vember. 
 
 winter kinds. 
 
 "Beurre n'ARKMBERG. — The tree 
 is a great bearer, comes early into 
 cultivation, and the fruit will keep 
 till March. Fruit large, skin of a del- 
 icate pale green, dotted with russet, 
 which becomes of a deeper yellow at 
 maturity ; flesh whitish, fine, very 
 juicy, perfectly melting, and very e.x- 
 traordinarily rich, sweet, high fla- 
 voured, and excellent. 
 
 " Beurre Diel, Beurre Incompa- 
 rable of some. — This ranks among the 
 best of pears. The tree is of vigor- 
 ous growth ; fruit, when in perfec- 
 tion, four inches long, and three inch- 
 es broad ; the skin at maturity is 
 bright orange, with reddish russet ; 
 flesh clear, white, melting, juicy, and 
 of a delicious aromatic flavour : from 
 November to January. 
 
 " Beukre Range, Beurre Epine. 
 Hardcnpont dc Printemps. — This is a 
 first-rate pear. The tree is vigorous, 
 and a good bearer ; fruit middle si- 
 zed, oblong ; skin deep green, with 
 russety specks ; flesh green, melt- 
 ing, having a rich, delicious flavour, 
 with very little acid. It shrivels in 
 ripening, but will keep till April. 
 
 " Catillac. — Fruit very large, rath- 
 er turbinate ; pale yellow, stained 
 with red ; flesh firm and breaking ; 
 its flavour astringent ; an excellent 
 baking pear : from November to April. 
 Specimens of this variety have been 
 known to weigh upward of two 
 pounds. 
 
 " Colmar, Colmar Souvcrain, Poire 
 Manne, Bergamotle Tardive, Incompa- 
 rable. — This fruit is rather large ; skin 
 smooth, of a green colour, changing 
 to a yellow at nuiturity ; form pyram- 
 idal ; flesh melting, juicy, saccha- 
 rine, and of excellent flavour. The 
 fruit is in perfection from November 
 to February. 
 
 "Columbia, Columbian Virgalicu. — 
 A large native pear of oblong or py- 
 ramidal form, and fine yellow colour, 
 t.iiged with red ; flesh rich, firm, jui- 
 cy, and excellent : from November 
 565 
 
PEAR. 
 
 to January. Tree productive and of 
 very haiulsonie form. 
 
 " Eastf.u Bkukrk, Bcurri d'Hiver, 
 Doyenne tVH>vcr. — Of all the late-keep- 
 ing pears, this is considered the best. 
 Fruit large, roundisli, oblong ; colour 
 green, but yellow at maturity, with 
 specks of russet iirown ; ilcsh yellow- 
 ish white, perfectly buttery and melt- 
 ing, also e.\treniely high flavoured. 
 It is eatable in November, and will 
 keep till May : it is a most profuse 
 bearer on a quince stock. 
 
 "Glout Morce.\u, Bcurre (TArem- 
 herg. — A very large Belgic variety, 
 of great excellence ; fruit of ovalish 
 form, pale green colour, inclining 
 to yellow, with russety specks and 
 blotches ; flesh whitish, firm, very 
 juicy, ai||i excellent : in perfection 
 from November to March. 
 
 " Lewis. — The size medium ; form 
 somewhat globular ; skin, when ripe, 
 a greenish yellow ; the flesh is white, 
 very melting, juicy, and excellent : 
 from November to March. The tree 
 grows quick, and bears abundance of 
 fruit. 
 
 " Louise Bonne de Jersey, Louise 
 Bonne d'Avranchcs. — A large pear ; 
 oblong ; a good substitute for the old 
 St. Germain; skin yellowish green, 
 sometimes tinged with red ; flesh ex- 
 tremely tender, and full of an excel- 
 lent saccharine, well-flavoured juice. 
 A first-rate fruit ; from October till 
 after Christmas. 
 
 " P.issE CoLM.^R. — A most valua- 
 ble pear, of medium size, conical, flat- 
 tened next the eye ; skin at maturi- 
 ty yellowish, sprinkled with russet ; 
 a tinge of red next the sun ; flesh 
 yellowish, melting, rich, and excel- 
 lent. The tree is a good bearer, and 
 the fruit is in perfection from Novem- 
 ber to February. 
 
 " Pound Pe.^r. — Fruit very large, 
 of a roundish, turbinate figure ; skin 
 rough, covered with dull russet ; flesh 
 hard and coarse, but excellent when 
 baked or stewed in winter. Grafted 
 on a pear stock, the tree bears so 
 abundantly as to bend like a weeping- 
 willow. A specimen of this variety 
 weighed thirty-three ounces. 
 
 " Prince's St. Germ.^in. — Fruit 
 566 
 
 about medium size ; form obovafe ; 
 skin russety yellow, with dull red 
 cheek; flesh melting and good. Mr. 
 .Manning says that its abundant bear- 
 ing, and its ripening gradually in the 
 house during winter, renders it a very 
 valuable market fruit : good till after 
 Christmas. 
 
 " Si'Rp.\ssE Marie Louise, PitCs 
 Prolific Marie, Pitt's Marie Louise. — 
 A large pear ; oblong or calabash 
 formed ; green, covered with brown 
 yellow russet ; flesh melting and rich- 
 flavoured : ripe in October and No- 
 vember. It is a very prolific bearer. 
 
 " Surpasse Vergout.euse. — Fruit 
 large, oblong, some specimens near- 
 ly round ; the skin smooth, its colour 
 yellow, with a light-red cheek ; flesh 
 rich, juicy, and delicious eating : in 
 October and November. The tree 
 bears young, yields large crops, and 
 is worthy of extensive cultivation. 
 
 " Winter Nelis, Nelis d'Hivcr. — 
 All accounts agree that this is a most 
 excellent winter pear. Its size is 
 above medium, somewhat oval ; its 
 skin green and russety, full of gray 
 dots ; flesh yellowish white, melting, 
 high-flavoured, with a musky per- 
 fume : in perfection in December and 
 January." 
 
 They prefer a deep, well-drained, 
 and tolerably rich soil ; are planted 
 for standards at twenty feet, but if 
 grafted on quince stocks for dwarfs, 
 may be set at six to ten feet, and 
 trained en quenouille, or distatT fash- 
 ion ; they also make good espaliers. 
 Worked on pear stocks, they grow to 
 a great size, and last for centuries ; 
 but the quince stock, unless reduced 
 down to the roots, is liable to attacks 
 from worms. It requires usually 
 more than seven years to obtain fruit 
 from a pear standard, but by grafting 
 or budding on the quince, and train; 
 ing distaff fashion, fruit may be ob- 
 tained in four years. 
 
 Diseases of the Pear-tree. — The most 
 formidable is the blight, which some- 
 times occurs in summer, the leaves 
 of the upper branches withering and 
 turning brown in a few hours. It is 
 the effect of insects, according to 
 Peck, of the Hcolytus pyri, and the 
 
PEA 
 
 only and best remedy is to saw off 
 the blighted limbs at once and burn 
 lliem. 
 
 Harris also mentions the existence 
 of a borer of the same genus as that 
 of the peach {^Egeria pyri) ; it is, 
 however, scarcely known. 
 
 The buds are subject to a cur- 
 culio (C. pyn, Fig.), of the size of 
 the line, which de- 
 posites her egg in 
 the young flower- 
 bud, and retires to 
 — ^\ ^-^^^V^ the earth in the 
 ' ' ^^^ fall ; it is, howcv- 
 
 t. er, so seldom mul- 
 Naturaisae. tiplicd to a great 
 
 extent, that its effects are more ben- 
 eficial than otherwise, by hindering 
 too much fruit from being formed, 
 and thus improving what remains. 
 
 Drying Fears. — The following ex- 
 cellent method is from Kenrick, and 
 is applicable to apples also : '■ When 
 dried in ovens the fruit will keep for 
 years. This mode of preserving is 
 common in France. Bosc has de- 
 scribed two modes of drying pears, 
 and adds, that, in some of the can- 
 tons of that country, the cultivators 
 annually preserve, by these means, 
 supplies of subsistence extremely 
 agreeable and wholesome during win- 
 ter and spring. He invites cultiva- 
 tors not to neglect this resource. In 
 this mode of drying, those varieties 
 of middle size, melting and sweet, 
 are preferred. After the bread is 
 drawn from the oven, they are placed 
 on the swept hearth, or on hurdles 
 or boards. This operation is repeat- 
 ed a second, a third, and even a Iburth 
 time, according to their size and the 
 degree of heat. The heat must not 
 be so great as to scorch, and the fruit 
 must not be dried to hardness. Last- 
 ly, they are placed in bags, and pre- 
 served in a dry place. The second 
 mode of preserving is practised chief- 
 ly on the Rousselets and finest fla- 
 voured varieties. Bosc states that 
 he has tried them after three years' 
 preservation, and found them still 
 good ; but they are better during tlie 
 fust year. They are gathered a lit- 
 tle before their maturity, and after 
 
 PEA 
 
 being half boiled in a small quantity 
 of water, they are peeled and drain- 
 ed. Tlipy are next carried on hur- 
 dles to the oven, after the bread is 
 drawn, or the oven is heated to a 
 suitable degree ; here they remain 
 twelve hours, after which they are, 
 steeped in the sirup, to which have 
 been added sugar, cinnamon, cloves, 
 and brandy. They are again return- 
 ed to the oven, which is now heated 
 to a less degree than at first. This 
 operation is thrice repeated, until 
 they are sufficiently dried, or of a 
 clear brown colour, and firm, trans- 
 parent flesh ; and. finally, they are 
 packed in boxes lined with paper." 
 
 PEARL ASHES. See Potashes. 
 
 PEAT. " This is a substance of 
 vegetable origin, found wherever the 
 soil has been long soaked with water 
 which has no outlet, and does not 
 completely evaporate by the heat of 
 the sun. 
 
 '• When dried peat is examined, it 
 is found to consist of roots and fibres 
 in every stage of decomposition, from 
 the natural wood to the complete- 
 ly black vegetable mould. I.arge 
 branches and trunks of trees are found 
 imbedded in peat, which have no 
 mark of decomposition, except what 
 may have taken place before the wood 
 was completely immersed in the peat. 
 Peat contains the elements of ma- 
 nure, and may by an easy process be 
 converted into humus : for this pur- 
 pose, the agency of alkalies is the 
 most effectual. When peat is newly 
 dug up, if caustic lime be added to it 
 before it is dry, the moisture of the 
 peat slacks the lime, which acts on 
 the peat and neutralizes it. If this 
 mixture be then excited to fermenta- 
 tion by the addition of animal matter, 
 such as urine or dung, oxygen is ab- 
 sorbed and carbonic acid evolved, 
 and the residue is converted into an 
 excellent manure, containing much 
 humus. The same may be effected 
 more slowly by mixing peat with clay 
 or marl, and allowing the mixture to 
 remain exposed to the atmosphere 
 for a considerable time, frequently 
 turning it ; but nothing accelerates 
 this process like the addition of pu- 
 567 
 
PEAT. 
 
 trescent animal matter, which acts 
 as a ferment and greatly hastens the 
 decomposition. 
 
 " The soils for which peat forms 
 the best manure are the clialky and 
 clayey. Sand has too little tenacity ; 
 it lets the gases produced by the de- 
 composition escape, instead of at- 
 tracting them, as clay does, and pre- 
 venting their escape. 
 
 " The burning of peat destroys the 
 vegetable matter, and leaves the 
 earths and salts behind. They are 
 accordingly very strong stimulants to 
 vegetation, especially that of clovers 
 and herbaceous plants, of which the 
 leaves and stems are the most valu- 
 able parts. If the soil is well fur- 
 nished with vegetable matter, and 
 capable of bringmg an abundance of 
 seed to perfection, it may be very 
 useful to apply peat ashes to increase 
 the verdure ; but on poor soils des- 
 titute of humus, the mcrease of the 
 stems and leaves does not ensure a 
 like increase of seed. Hence it is 
 often remarked that soot, potash, 
 saltpetre, and similar substances pro- 
 duce a deceitful growth, giving a rank 
 green leaf, which is not succeeded by 
 a heavy ear ; but, on the contrary, 
 the produce in seed is rather dimin- 
 ished than increased by the use of 
 the manure. Whenever a stimula- 
 ting manure is used, the soil should 
 be naturally rich, or enrichmg ma- 
 nure should be applied at the same 
 time. 
 
 " The following particulars of the 
 conversion of peat into a rich com- 
 post were given by Lord .Meadow- 
 bank about forty years ago, and show 
 that the principles which we have 
 here laid down were known to him. 
 
 " He recommends taking the peat 
 out of the moss some time before it 
 is used, that it may lose a portion of 
 its moisture, and be lighter to carry 
 It is then to be carted to a dry spot, 
 where the compost heap is to be 
 formed. A bottom of peat is to be 
 laid six inches deep and fifteen feet 
 wide ; on this are to be put ten inch- 
 es of good yard dung, then six inches 
 more peat, and over this four inches 
 of dung, and so alternately to the 
 568 
 
 heigiit of four or five feet. The w hole 
 should then be enclosed all round 
 with a wall of peat, and covered with 
 the same material. The proportion 
 of fresh dung is about seven cart- 
 loads to twenty-one of peat, if the 
 weather is mild ; but more dung is 
 required if the weather is cold : over 
 this heap ashes or lime may now be 
 spread, in the proportion of a cart- 
 load to twenty-eight of the compost. 
 The dung should not have fermented 
 much before it is used, and if it is 
 watered with urine or the drainings 
 of a dunghill, the effect will be more 
 rapid. Animal matter, such as fish, 
 refuse of slaughter-houses, and every 
 substance which will readily undergo 
 the putrefactive fermentation, will ac- 
 celerate the process, and save dung 
 in the compost. Where pigeons' or 
 fowls' dung can be procured, a much 
 smaller quantity will produce the de- 
 sired effect. The heap should not be 
 pressed down, but left to settle by its 
 own weight. If the heat produced 
 by the fermentation is very great, the 
 whole heap may be turned over and 
 more peat added to it. This will 
 keep up the heat till the whole is re- 
 duced to a uniform mass of black 
 mould. It may then be put on the 
 land in the same quantity that farm- 
 yard dung would have been, and, con- 
 sequently, by a little labour, four times 
 the quantity of manure is produced 
 by the mixture of the peat with the 
 dung. It is found that lime is not 
 essential to the formation of this com- 
 post. The fermentation excited is 
 sufficient to decompose the tannin 
 and convert it into a soluble extract. 
 The fibres, partially decomposed, are 
 reduced into vegetable mould, and the 
 whole assumes a uniform and rich 
 appearance. A complete chemical 
 change has taken place, and the peat, 
 from being very inflammable, is now 
 scarcely capable of combustion, and 
 that only in a very great heat. There 
 is no better or more economical mode 
 of converting peat into a rich manure. 
 In summer the whole process may 
 be completed in eight or ten weeks ; 
 in winter it takes a longer time ; and 
 it may be useful to give the heap an 
 
PEA 
 
 PEG 
 
 occasional lining of fresh dung, as is 
 <Jone with hot-beds in gardens, to re- 
 new the heat." The peat is carted 
 out during winter, while the ponds 
 are frozen ; it becomes much broken 
 during the season, and may be pre- 
 pared as recommended, or composted 
 with lime or ashes only, one bushel 
 to the single load of peat. 
 
 " Where a great extent of peat 
 land renders the improvement of it 
 desirable, there are various ways in 
 which it may be reclaimed. In some 
 places the i)eat has been removed, 
 and the loam which lay below it was 
 found of a very fertile nature. This 
 could only be done on the banks of 
 rivers, into which the peat was float- 
 ed by means of small canals dug 
 through it, and communicating with 
 the river. In ail other cases the 
 mode adopted has been that of drain- 
 ing and consolidating. In draining a 
 peat moss the water must not be let 
 oft' too rapidly, for in that case the 
 surface may become so loose and dry 
 that no vegetation can take place in 
 it. If the water is drained off so as 
 to leave two feet of peat dry above 
 its level, this is all that is required 
 for a beginning. The best improve- 
 ment, and the most rapid, is produced 
 by bringing sand or gravel in suffi- 1 
 cjent quantity to cover the surface ' 
 with two or three inches of it. This I 
 will make a beginning of a soil, in 
 which potatoes may be planted. At 
 first the surface will not bear the 
 wheels of a cart nor the tread of a 
 horse ; but in a short time a solid 
 crust will be formed, which will in- 
 crease in strength and thickness as ■ 
 cultivation advances. There are ! 
 many fine pastures in Scotland which ' 
 once were brown peat mosses, on i 
 which it would have been dangerous j 
 for a man to walk, but which now | 
 bear heavy oxen, and seem as solid 
 as any pasture on a clay subsoil. Ma- ' 
 nuring and liming are the most ef- ; 
 fective operations in bringing about 
 this great improvement. Potatoes i 
 and oats are usually the first crops I 
 on reclaimed peat mosses. It is long ' 
 before they become capable of bear- ] 
 ing wheat ; nor is this crop to be rec- 1 
 
 B B B 3 
 
 ommended at any time unless there 
 be a good depth of soil formed over 
 the peat. Laying down to grass as 
 soon as a certain degree of improve- 
 ment has been made, and depasturing 
 with sheep at first and cattle after- 
 ward, tend more than any other 
 means to consolidate the surface and 
 deepen the mould, which gradually 
 increases by the decomposition of the 
 tannin in the peat 
 
 I "A patent has been lately obtained 
 by Mr. Williams, managing director 
 of the Dublin Steam Navigation Com- 
 pany, for compressing peat into a 
 dense mass, so as to resemble coal. 
 It is said to be superior to coal in its 
 properties of producing heat by com- 
 bustion, forming an excellent char- 
 coal, or coke. It is asserted that this 
 charcoal is much more combustible 
 than that of wood, and very useful in 
 the manufacture of fireworks. Mr. 
 W'illiams has found that with 10 cwts. 
 of pit coal and 2^ cwts. of this facti- 
 tious coal, the same quantity of steam 
 can be generated as with 17i cwts. 
 of pit coal alone. 
 
 " The process is as follows : Im- 
 mediately after being dug it is tritu- 
 rated under revolving edge-wheels 
 faced with iron plates perforated all 
 over the surface, and is forced by the 
 pressure through these apertures, till 
 it becomes a species of pap, which is 
 freed from the greater part of its 
 moisture by a hydraulic press. It is 
 then dried, and converted into coke 
 in the same manner as is done with 
 l)it coal. The factitious coal of Mr. 
 Williams is made by incorporating 
 pitch or rosin melted in a caldron 
 with as much of the peat charcoal 
 ground to powder as will form a tough 
 doughy mass, which is then moulded 
 into bricks." — [W. L. Kham.) 
 
 The ashes of prat are often termed 
 Dutch ashes : they vary mucii in com- 
 position, as tiiey are taken from a 
 calcareous or clayey soil, but are 
 usually deficient in potash and soda, 
 except in salt marshes. 
 
 PECK. A dry measure of two 
 gallons ; a quarter of a bushel. 
 PECOll.A. The Rummanlm. 
 PECTIN, The jelly of fruits, roots, 
 5G9 
 
PEN 
 
 PEP 
 
 and plants : it is soluble, transparent, 
 insipid, and nnicli like gum ; formula, 
 Ci- Hi7 On -{- H O. Pectic acid is 
 very similar, isomeric, and bibasic ; 
 the salts are called pectates. 
 
 PECTLXATE. Divided so as to 
 resemble the teeth of a comb. 
 
 PECTOR.\L{frompeclus, the chest). 
 Relating to tiie chest. 
 
 PEDATE. Resembling the foot of 
 a bird. 
 
 PEDICEL. The foot stalk of the 
 flower, and not of the bunch of flow- 
 ers, which is the peduncle. 
 
 PEDIMENT. The triangular or- 
 nament over a building, door, win- 
 dow, &,c. ; it is often sculptured, and 
 seldom exceeds in height two ninths 
 of its width. 
 
 PEDIPALPS. Spiders and other 
 arachnidans, with the feelers in the 
 shape of claws. 
 
 The water chestnut. 
 The main flower 
 
 A delicate covering, 
 
 PEE-TSEE 
 
 PEDUNCLE 
 stem. 
 
 PELLICLE, 
 film, or membrane 
 
 PELLITORY OF SPAIN. Ayithe- 
 mis pyrclhrum. A perennial herba- 
 ceous composite, the root of which is 
 very pungent, and is chewed for tooth- 
 ache. It is very similar to chamomile. 
 
 PELTA. Ashield ; the seed shield 
 of some lichens. A peltate leaf is 
 shield-shaped. 
 
 PELT ROT. Hujigcr rot. 
 
 PELTRY, PELTS. The dry, un- 
 prepared skins of animals. 
 
 PELVIS. The bony cavity situa- 
 ted at the lower part of the belly, 
 formed by the sacrum and innomina- 
 ta bones. 
 
 PENCIL OF LIGHT. A diver- 
 gent beam of small size. 
 
 PENDANT. "In Gothic archi- 
 tecture, an ornamented polygonal 
 piece of stone or timber hanging 
 down from the vault or roof of a 
 building. In ancient writers the 
 springers of arches, which rest on 
 shafts or corbels, are called pendants." 
 
 PENDENTIVE. " In architecture, 
 the portion of a vault 
 between the arches 
 I under a dome, call- 
 ed by the French 
 570 
 
 fuiirchc, or panache, lettered a in tlie 
 diagram, by wiiich it will be seen 
 that It falls at its superior part into 
 a circle inscribed in the square form- 
 ed on the plan of the four arches. 
 Hence it is obvious that a dome may 
 be formed by means of pendentives 
 over any regular polygon." — {Brande.) 
 
 PENDULOUS. Hanging, branch- 
 ing over. 
 
 PENDULUM. Any weight sus- 
 pended by an inflexible rod, and mo- 
 ving freely about a point. Its oscilla- 
 tions, whether wide or limited, are 
 always performed in the same period 
 of time ; but the period is directly as 
 the square root of the length of the 
 rod. The seconds pendulum in New- 
 York is 39- 10 12 inches from the point 
 of suspension to the weight, or bob. 
 
 PENNICILLATE. Furnished 
 with small bunches of hairs. 
 
 PENNYROYAL. Mentha pulegi- 
 um. A kind of mint cultivated for its 
 essential oil ; used in medicine. See 
 Mitit. The American plant is Hcdeo- 
 ma pulegioides ; its odour is similar 
 to that of the European plant ; many 
 insects, especially ticks, are remark- 
 ably annoyed by its presence. 
 
 PENNYWEIGHT. Twenty- 
 four grains, or ^'^ of an ounce troy. 
 
 PENTAMERANS. Coleopterous 
 insects, with five joints on the tarsus 
 of each leg. 
 
 PENTANDRIA, PENTAGYNIA. 
 See Botany. 
 
 PEN UM BRA. The partially dark 
 outer shadow. 
 
 PEPO. The form of fruit similar 
 to the melon and other cucurbitaceae. 
 
 PEPPER BRAND. See Burned 
 Ear. 
 
 PEPPER GRASS, PEPPER- 
 WORT. Garden cress {Lepidium sa- 
 tivum), cultivated for small salad : it 
 grows with great rapidity. See Cress. 
 
 PEPPERiDGE. The barberry: 
 sometimes the black gum. 
 
 PEPPERMINT. iMe?itha piperita. 
 See Mint. It is of great use as an 
 adjunct with cathartics, to hinder 
 griping. 
 
 PEPPERS. This term is usually 
 applied, in agriculture, to the species 
 of Capsicum. The most common is 
 
 1 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 the C. haccahun. The following va- | 
 rieties are cultivated : Bell, long red, ' 
 cherry, tomato - shaped, and sweet : 
 Spanish. The latter is used as a I 
 salad, and the hell is perennial. Sow | 
 early in May in a warm bed and fine 
 soil ; transplant when two inches 
 high, and set at two feet apart. The \ 
 soil should be dry and light, but rich, 
 and the plants hoed and weeded. 
 For pickles, they should be collected i 
 before ripening : for curing meat, I 
 when beginning to dry ; hang them 
 in the air until quite dry. The pow- 
 der rubbed upon hams and salt meats [ 
 preserves them, in some measure, 
 from insects ; and the smoke, which 
 is peculiarly pungent, is very distress- 
 ing to them. Cayenne pepper is the 
 powder of the C. baccatum. 
 
 PEPPERS, INDIAN. Pij>er ni- 
 grum {Fig: a). An endogenous climb- 
 ing shrub of Sumatra, the fruit of 
 which appears on spikes at three 
 years, and forms the black pepper of 
 
 commerce. The same, hulled by rub- 
 bing, constitutes white pepper. The 
 celebrated betel, or intoxicating pep- 
 per, chewed by the natives of India 
 with lime {chuvam), is the fruit of the 
 P;;>fr hrtlc {Fig. h). 
 
 PEPSIN. Albuminous matter of 
 the stomach and gastric juice in a 
 state of change. It forms the active 
 agent of rennet, and, with a little mu- 
 riatic acid, has been made to produce 
 artificial digestion. 
 
 PER. A chemical prefi.x to those 
 
 compounds which contain the liighest 
 proportion of the element against 
 which it is placed ; as peroxide, per- 
 chloride, &c. 
 
 PERCH. The ,\jth of a rood, 30i 
 square yards ; in long measure, 5J. 
 yards. 
 
 PERCHERS. The Inressores, 
 birds which perch on trees, including 
 the Scansorcs and Passcres. 
 
 PERCHLORIC ACID. An acid 
 consisting of 1 eq. chlorine with 7 ox- 
 ygen, which forms a sparingly solu- 
 ble compound with potash, the per- 
 chloraie, and has hence been used as 
 a test for that alkali. 
 
 PERCOLATION. The slow ooz- 
 ing of water through rocks, earths, or 
 other slightly porous structures. 
 
 P E R E N N I A L S. Plants whose 
 roots live several years, but the tops 
 die annually. 
 
 PERFOLIATE. Leaves through 
 which the stem pass. 
 
 PERGAMENOUS. Parchment- 
 like. 
 
 PERL A common affix of de- 
 scriptive terms, meaning about, or 
 around. 
 
 PERIANTH, PERIANTHUM. A 
 flower which has no distinct calyx. 
 
 PERICARDIUM. The membrane 
 surrounding the heart : its inflamma- 
 tion is called pericarditis. 
 
 PERICARP. The outer portion 
 of the fruit surrounding the carpels. 
 
 PERICRANIU.M. The membrane 
 which is attached to the bones of the 
 skull. 
 
 PERIGYNIUM. The case formed 
 in Car tecs by the union of two bracts. 
 The disk. 
 
 PERIGYNOUS. Stamens which 
 are attached to the sides of the calyx. 
 
 PERIOSTEUM (from nefji, about, 
 and oareov, a bone). The fibrous 
 membrane attached to the surface of 
 all the bones. 
 
 PERIPHERY. The circumfer- 
 cncG. 
 
 PERIPNEUMONY. Pneumonia. 
 
 PERiSPERM. The testa or cov- 
 ering of a seed. 
 
 PERISTALTIC. A worm - like 
 motion of the intestines, produced by 
 a contraction and dilatation of their 
 571 
 
pi:t 
 
 PHA 
 
 circular fibres, whereby their contents 
 are pushed forward into the colon and 
 ruotum. 
 
 PERISTOMIUM. The fringed 
 membrane surrounding the capsule 
 of mosses. 
 
 PERITONEUM (from nepireivu, I 
 extend around). The membrane which 
 envelops the organs of the abdomen ; 
 it is serous : its inflammation is call- 
 ed pcntonitis. 
 
 PERMEABLE. Permitting the 
 passage of fluids or gases. 
 
 PERRY. The cider of pears. See 
 Pear, for the best fruit, and Cider, for 
 the method of making it. 
 
 PERSIAN BERRIES. French 
 berries. 
 
 P E R S I M M N. Plaqueminier. 
 Diospyros Virgimana. A small tree 
 growing in open places in the Middle 
 and Southern sections. The fruit, 
 when frosted, is sweet, and is o(\en 
 mashed and fermented into a beer. 
 The tree is dioecious, and of the same 
 genus as the ebony : the wood is 
 very hard. The green fruit is ex- 
 tremely astringent, and used in med- 
 icine. 
 
 PERSONATE FLOWERS. Ir- 
 regular, monopetalous flowers like the 
 snapdragon {Antirrhinum), with an 
 upper and lower lobe, but with the 
 faux or throat closed : in this respect 
 it diflTsrs from the labiate corolla. 
 
 PERSPIRATION. The function 
 of the skin whereby a saline fluid 
 with a little gaseous matter is thrown 
 out of the body. It is increased by 
 taking much fluid in summer ; and 
 the state of this excretion is closely 
 connected with health. 
 
 PERUVIAN BARK. The bark 
 of several varieties of Cinchona trees 
 of Central and South America : they 
 furnish the invaluable alkaloid qui- 
 nine. 
 
 PETALS. The divisions of the 
 flower : the leaves of the flower, usu- 
 ally of bright colours. Petaloid is a 
 derivative. 
 
 PETIOLE. The leaf stalk. 
 
 PETROLEUM. Barhadoes tar. 
 Natural bitumen. 
 
 PETROSILEX. Hornstone, 
 sometimes compact feldspar. 
 572 
 
 PLTUNTZE. Porcelain clay, de- 
 cayed feldspar. 
 
 PHAGEDENIC. Corrodingulcers. 
 
 PHALANGES. Tlie small, long 
 bones of the fingers and toes. 
 
 PHANEROGA.MIA, PHANERO- 
 GAMOUS. Plants hearing flowers. 
 
 PHAR.MACOP.EIA. An account 
 of the preparation of medicines. 
 
 The following formulae for veteri- 
 nary practice have been compiled by 
 Loudon from the works of the most 
 eminent veterinary writers of the 
 present day ; and he confidently rec- 
 ommends the selection to the notice 
 of agriculturists, and the owners of 
 horses in general. It would be pru- 
 dent for such as have loany horses, 
 and particularly for such as live at a 
 distance from the assistance of an able 
 veterinarian, to keep the more neces- 
 sary articles by them in case of emer- 
 gency : some venders of horse drugs 
 keep veterinary medicine chests; and 
 where the compositions can be de- 
 pended on, and the uncompounded 
 drugs are genuine and good, one of 
 these is a most convenient appendage 
 to every stable. 
 
 ■' The veterinary pharmacopajia for 
 oxen, calves, and sheep has been in- 
 cluded in the arrangement. When 
 any speciality occurs, or where dis- 
 tinct recipes are requisite, they have 
 been carefully noticed ; it will, there- 
 fore, only be necessary to be kept in 
 mind, that with the exception of acrid 
 substances, as mineral acids, &e., 
 which no cattle bear with equal im- 
 punity with the horse, the remedies 
 prescribed require about the follow- 
 ing proportions : A large ox will bear 
 the proportions of a moderate-sized 
 horse ; a moderate-sized cow some- 
 thing less ; a calf about a third of 
 the quantity ; and a sheep about a 
 quarter, or, at most, a third of the pro- 
 portions directed for the cow. It is 
 also to be remarked, that the degrees 
 in strength in the difTerent recipes 
 are usually regulated by their num- 
 bers, the mildest standing first. 
 
 Alteratives. 
 1. 
 Levigated antimony, 2 drachms. 
 Cream of tartar. 
 Flower of sulphur, each half an ounce. 
 
miAK.MACUr.EIA. 
 
 2. 
 
 Cream of tartar, 
 Nitre, of each half an ounce. 
 3. 
 
 ^thiops mineral. 
 
 Levigated antimonr. 
 
 Powdered resin, each 3 drachms. 
 
 " Give in a mash, or in corn and bran a little 
 wetted, every lughl, or make into a ball with 
 honey. 
 
 Tonic Alteratives. 
 1. 
 
 Gentian, 
 
 Aloes, 
 
 Blue vitriol, in powder, of each 1 drachm. | 
 Oak bark, in powder, 6 drachms. I 
 
 2. 
 Winter's bark, in powder, 3 drachms. 
 Green vitnol, do., one and a half drachms. 
 Gentian, do., 3 drachms. 
 '• .Make either of these into a ball with honey, 
 and give every morning. 
 
 3. 
 White vitriol, 1 drachm 
 Ginger or pimento, ^ound, 2 drachms. 
 Po\vdered quassia, half an ounce. 
 Ale, 8 ounces.— Mix, and give as a drink. 
 
 Astringent Mixtures for Diarrhaa, Lax, or 
 Scouring. 
 1. 
 Powdered opium, 20 grains. 
 Prepared chalk, 2 ounces. 
 Boiled starch, 1 pint. 
 2. 
 Suet, 4 ounces ; boiled in 
 Milk, 8 ounces. 
 Boiled starch, 6 ounces. 
 Powdered alum, 1 drachm. 
 
 3. 
 " The following has been very strongly rec- 
 ommended, in some cases, for the lax of horses 
 and cattle, when it arises from taking food that 
 disagrees ; 
 
 Glauber's salts, 2 ounces. 
 Epsom do., 1 ounce. 
 Green vitriol, 4 grains. 
 Gruel, half a pint. 
 
 4. 
 " When the lax or scouring at all approaches 
 to dvsentery or molten grease, the following 
 drink shoald be first given: 
 Castor oil, 4 ounces. 
 Glauber's salts (dissolved). 2 ounces. 
 Powdered rhubarb, half a drachm. 
 Powdered opium, 4 grains. 
 Gruel, 1 pint. 
 Astringent Balls for Diabetes, or Pissing Evil. 
 Catechu (Japan earth*, half an ounce. 
 Alum, powdered, half a drachm. 
 Sugar of lead, 10 grains. 
 Conserve of roses to make a ball. 
 
 Astnngent Paste for Thrush, Foot-rot, Foul in 
 the Foot, 4-c. 
 Prepared calamine. 
 Verdigris, of each half an ounce. 
 White vitriol, 
 
 Alum, of each Ualf a drachm. 
 Tar, 3 ounces ; mix. 
 
 Astringent Washes for Cracks in the HetU, 
 Wounds, Sprains, ifC. 
 1. 
 Sugar of lead, 2 drachms. 
 White vitriol, 1 drachm. 
 Strong infusion of oak or elm bark, 1 pint: 
 mix : 
 
 2. 
 Green vitriol, 1 drachm. 
 Infusion of galls, half a pint. 
 " Mix, and wash the parts three times a day. 
 Powder for Cracks, 4-c. 
 3. 
 Prepared calamine, 1 ounce. 
 Fullers earth, powdered. 
 Pipe clay, do., of each 2 ounces. 
 " .Mix, and put within gauze, and dab the 
 moist surfaces of the sores frequently. 
 Astringent Paste for Grease. 
 
 Prepared calamine. 
 
 Charcoal, powdered, of each 2 ounces. 
 
 Yeast enough to make a paste. 
 
 2. 
 " To the above, if more strength be required, 
 add of alum and verdigris each a drachm. 
 Astringent Wash for Grease. 
 3. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms. 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce. 
 Soft water, 10 ounces. 
 
 "Rub the sublimate in a mortar with the 
 spirit till dissolved, then add the water. This 
 is a strong preparation, and has often proved 
 successful in very bad cases of grease, which 
 have resisted all the usual remedies. 
 Blisters. 
 1. A general one. 
 Cantharides, powdered, 2 ounces. 
 Venice turpentine, do. 
 Resin, do. 
 
 Palm oil or lard, 2 lbs. 
 
 " Melt the three latter articles together, and 
 when not too hot stir in the Spanish liics. 
 
 2. 
 A strong, cheap Blister, but not proper to he 
 used in Fevers or Inflammations, as of the 
 Lungs, Bowels, SfC. 
 Euphorbium, powdered, 1 ounce. 
 Oil of vitriol, 2 scruples. 
 Spanish flies, 6 ounces. 
 Palm oil or lurd. 
 Resin, of each 1 lb. 
 Oil of turpentine, 3 ounces. 
 " Melt the resin with the lard or palm oil. 
 Having previously mixed the oil of vitriol with 
 an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add 
 this mixture to the melted mass ; which again 
 set on a very slow tire for ten minutes more : 
 afterward remove the whole, and, when begin- 
 ning to cool, add the powders previously mixed 
 together. 
 
 3. 
 A mercurial Blister for Splints, Spavins and 
 Ringbones. 
 Of either of the above, 4 ounces. 
 Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered, half a 
 drachm. 
 
 4. 
 Strong Liquid Blister. 
 Spanish flies in gross powder, 1 ounce. 
 Oil of origanum, 2 drachm*. 
 
 573 
 
PHARMACOPOEIA. 
 
 Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces. 
 Olivo oil, 2 ounces. 
 
 " Steep the flies in the turpentine three 
 weeks, strain off, und add the oil. 
 
 5. 
 Mild Liquid or Sweating Blister. 
 Of the above, 1 ounce. 
 
 Olive oil or goose grease, one ounce and a 
 half. 
 
 Clysters, a Laxative one. 
 J. 
 Thin gruel or broth, 5 qnart^s. 
 Cpsom or common salts, G ounces. 
 Clyster for Gripes. 
 2. 
 Ma«h two moderate-sized onions. 
 Pour over them oil of turpentine, 2 ounces. 
 Capsicum, or pepper, half an ounce. 
 Thin gruel, 4 quarts. 
 
 Nutritious Clystei. 
 3. 
 Thick gruel, 3 quarts. 
 Strong sound ale, 1 quart. 
 
 Or 4. 
 Strong broth, 2 quarts. , 
 
 Thickened milk, 2 quarts. 
 
 Astringent Clyster. 
 5. 
 Tripe liquor, or suet bodied in milk, 3 pints. 
 Thick starch, 2 pints. 
 Laudanum, half an ounce. 
 
 Or 6. 
 Alum whey, 1 quart. 
 Boiled starch, 2 quarts. 
 
 Cordial Balls. 
 Gentian, powdered, 4 ounces. 
 Ginger, do., 2 ounces. 
 Coriander seeds, do., 4 ounces. 
 Caraway, do., 4 ounces. 
 Oil of anise seeil, a quarter of an ounce. 
 " Make into a mass with honev, treacle, or 
 lard, and give one ounce and a ha'lf for a dose. 
 Chronic Cough Balls. 
 1. 
 Calomel, 1 scruple 
 Gum ammoniacum, 
 Horseradish, of each 2 drachms. 
 Balsam of Tolu, 
 Squills, each 1 drachm. 
 " Beat all together, and make into a baU with 
 honey, and give every morning fasting. 
 
 Drink for the same. 
 2. 
 
 Tar water, 
 
 Limewater, of each half a pint. 
 Tincture of squills, half an ounce. 
 Powder for the same. 
 3. 
 Tartar emetic, 2 drachms. 
 Powdered foxglove, half a drachm. 
 Powdered squill, half a drachm. 
 Calomel, 1 scruple. 
 Nitre, 3 drachms. 
 " Give every night in a malt mash. 
 
 Diuretic Balls. 
 Resin, yellow, I lb. 
 Nitre, half a pound. 
 Horse turpentine, half a pound. 
 Vrllow soap, quarter of a pound. 
 574 
 
 " Melt the resiu, soap, and turpentine over a 
 blow fire ; when cooling, add the nitre. For a 
 strong dose, an ounce and a half; for a mild 
 one, an ounce. It should be kept in mind that 
 mild diuretics are always equal to what is re- 
 quired, and that strong diuretics are alwavs 
 hurtful. •' 
 
 Diuretic Powders. 
 Yellow resin, powdered, 4 ounces. 
 Nitre, do., 8 ounces. 
 Cream of tartar, do., 4 ounces. 
 "Dose, 6, 8, or 10 drachms nightly, which 
 some horses will readily eat in a mash. 
 Urine Drink. 
 Glauber's salts, 2 ounces. 
 Nitre, fi drachms. 
 
 " Dissolve in a pint of warm water. 
 Embrocations.— Cooling for Inflammations. 
 
 I. 
 Goulard's extract, half an ounce. 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce. 
 Soft water, 1 quart. 
 
 2. 
 Mindererus spirit, 4 ounces. 
 Water, 12 ounces. 
 
 For Strains. 
 Bay salt, bruised, half a pound. 
 Crude sal ammoniac, 2 ounces. 
 Sugar of lead, quarter of an ounce. 
 Vinegar, one pint and a half. 
 Water, 1 pint. 
 
 For the Eyes. 
 1. 
 Sugar of lead, 1 drachm. 
 White vitriol, 2 scruples. 
 Water, 1 pint. 
 
 2. 
 Brandy, 1 ounce. 
 Infusion of green tea, 4 ounces. 
 Tincture of opium, 2 drachms. 
 Infusion of red roses, 4 ounces. 
 
 3. 
 Rose water, 6 ounces. 
 Mindererus spirit, 3 ounces. 
 
 4. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 4 grains. 
 Alcohol, 1 ounce. 
 Lime water, 1 pint. 
 
 5. 
 Alum, powdered, I drachm. 
 Calomel, half a drachm. 
 " Mix, and insert a little at one corner of the 
 eye. The custom of blowing it in alarms the 
 horse. 
 
 Fever Powders. 
 1. 
 Tartar emetic, 1 drachm. 
 Nitre, 5 drachms. 
 
 2. 
 Antimonial powder, 1 drachm. 
 Cream of tartar. 
 Nitre, of each 4 drachms. 
 
 Fever Drink. 
 3. 
 Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce. 
 Mindererus spirit, 6 ounces. 
 Water, 4 ounces. 
 
 Malignant Epidemic Fever. 
 4. 
 Simple oxymel, 
 
PHA 
 
 Mindererus spirit, 
 Deer yeast, of each 4 ounces. 
 Sweet spirit of nitre, 1 ounce. 
 Fumigations for purifying infected Stables, 
 
 Sheds, <5-c. 
 Manganese, 2 ounces. 
 Common salt, ditto. 
 Oil of vitriol, 3 ounces. 
 Water, 1 ounce. 
 
 " Put the nii.\ed manganese and salt into a 
 basin ; then, having before mixed the vitriol and 
 water very gradually, pour them, by means of 
 tongs, or anything that will enable you to stand 
 at a sulTicient distance, on the articles in the 
 basin gradually, -^s soon a.s the fumes rise, 
 retire and shut up the door close. 
 Hoof Liquid. 
 Oil of turpentine, 4 ounces. 
 Tar, 4 ounces. 
 Whale oil, S ounces. 
 
 " This softens and toughens the hoofs ex- 
 tremely, when brushed over them night and 
 morning. 
 
 Purging Medicines. 
 Balls — very mild. 
 Aloes, powdered, 6 drachms. 
 Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm. 
 
 Mild. 
 Aloes, powdered, 8 drachms. 
 Oil of turpentine, 1 drachm. 
 
 Strong. 
 Aloes, powdered, 10 drachms. 
 Oil of tur|ientine, 1 drachm. 
 " The aloes may be beaten with treacle to a 
 mass, adding, during the beating, the oil of 
 turpentine. All spices, oil of tartar, cream of 
 tartar, jalap, &c., are useless, and often hurt- 
 ful additions. 
 
 Liquid Purge. 
 Epsom salts, dissolved, 8 ounces. 
 Castor oil, 4 ounces. 
 Watery tincture of aloes, 8 ounces. 
 " Mix.— The watery tincture of aloes is made 
 liy beating powdered aloes with the yolk of 
 egg, adding water by degrees ; by these means 
 half an ounce of aloes may be suspended in 
 eight ounces of water; and such a purge is 
 useful when a ball cannot be got down, as in 
 partial locked jaw. 
 
 Scalding Mixture for Pole Evil. 
 Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered, one 
 
 drachm. 
 Yellow basilicon, 4 ounces. 
 
 Foot Stoppings. 
 Horse and cow dung, each about 2 lbs. 
 Tar, half a pound. 
 
 Wash for coring out, destroying Fungus, or 
 
 proud Flesh, ^c, ifC. 
 Lunar caustic, 1 drachm. 
 Water, 2 ouuces. 
 
 Wash for Mange. 
 Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms. 
 Spirit of wine or brandy, 1 ounce. 
 Decoction of tobacco. 
 Ditto of white helleliore, of esch 1 pint. 
 " Dissolve the mercury in the spirit, and then 
 add the decoctions. 
 
 I'llO 
 
 Ointments for Healing. 
 1. 
 White vitriol, powdered, half a drachm. 
 Lard, 8 ounces. 
 
 For Digesting. 
 \. 
 White vitriol, 1 drachm. 
 Yellow basilicon, 7 ounces. 
 
 For Mange. 
 Sulphur vivum, 8 ounces. 
 Arsenic, in powder, 2 drachms 
 Mercurial ointment, 2 ounces. 
 Turpentine, 2 ounces. 
 Lard, 8 ounces. 
 " Mix, and dress with every morning. 
 
 For Seal) or Shab in Sheep, Mallenders and 
 Sclttndrrs in Horses, and foul Blotches and 
 Eruptions m Cattle in general. 
 
 Camphor, 1 drachm. 
 
 Sugar of lead, half a drachm. 
 
 Mercurial ointment, 1 ounce." 
 
 PHARYNX (from <j>epeiv, to con- 
 vey, because the food is conveyed by 
 it into the oesophagus and stomach). 
 The back part of the mouth ; it is 
 somewhat funnel-shaped, attached to 
 the fauces behind the larynx, and 
 terminatmg in the gullet. 
 
 PHENECIN. The red hydrate of 
 indigo. 
 
 PHENOMENON, plural PHE- 
 NOMENA. A natural occurrence, 
 or object of a recondite nature. 
 
 P H L E A M. The knife used in 
 bleeding horses. 
 
 PHLEBOTOMY. An old term for 
 bleeding. 
 
 PHLORIDZIN. A silky, bitter, 
 and almost insoluble solid, obtained 
 from the root of the apple, pear, cher- 
 ry, and plum trees. It closely re- 
 sembles salicin ; formula, 0« H23 O18 
 -|- 6 H O. Phlorizcin, produced by 
 the action of ammonia and air on 
 moist phloridzin, is a red colouring 
 matter ; a bright blue is also produ- 
 ced by chemical means. 
 
 PHLOX. A genus of handsome 
 flowering plants. 
 
 PHOSPHATES. Salts of phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 PHOSPHITES. Salts of phospho- 
 rous acid. 
 
 PHOSPHORESCENCE. The 
 quality of shining at a temperature 
 below a red heat. 
 
 PHOSPHORITE. Native bone 
 earth, or phosphate of lime. 
 
 575 
 
PHO 
 
 PHOSPHORUS (from tpur, Urrht, 
 and (pcpu, I carry). " So called from its 
 property of shining in the -lark : it is 
 extracted from bone earth. The 
 hones are calcined, so as to destroy 
 the animal matter, and, bcin<5 |)0\v- 
 dered, are mixed with water, to which 
 half their weight of sulphuric acid is 
 added. Tiie bone earth, consisting 
 chiefly of phosphate of lime, is thus 
 decomposed, sulphate of lime is form- 
 ed, and phosphoric acid is evolved ; 
 or, rather, superphosphate of lime, 
 which, being much more soluble than 
 the sulphate, remains in the liquid, 
 and may be obtained by its evapora- 
 tion. It is mixed with about half its 
 weight of charcoal, and put into a 
 well-luted earthen retort, the beak of 
 which dips into water. At a bright 
 red heat the phosphorus distils over 
 into the water. It is purified by care- 
 fully melting it under water, and 
 straining it through a piece of cha- 
 mois leather. 
 
 " Pure phosphorus is an element 
 almost colourless and semitranspa- 
 rent ; it may be cut with a knife, and 
 its surface has a waxy lustre. It fu- 
 ses at 108°, boils at 550 -, and is con- 
 verted into vapour, having, accord- 
 ing to Dumas, a density = 4-35. It 
 is sparingly soluble in fixed and vola- 
 tile oils, and in ether and alcohol ; 
 but insoluble in water. It shines in 
 the dark, and emits a luminous va- 
 pour, undergoing a slow combustion, 
 and exhaling a peculiar smell like 
 garlic. When rubbed, or heated to 
 a temperature of about 110^ it takes 
 fire and burns with great rapidity, 
 with a white flame, emitting abun- 
 dajice of acid fumes of phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 " The product of the perfect com- 
 bustion of phosphorus is phosphoric 
 acid, a fusible substance, very solu- 
 ble in water, and intensely sour. It 
 appears to consist of 1 equivalent 
 of phosphorus = 31 44, and 5 of 
 oxygen = 41, its equivalent being 
 7144. 
 
 " There are two other acids of phos- 
 phorus, namely, the phosphorous acid, 
 consisting of 31-44 phosphorus -\- 24 
 oxygen, and the hypophosphorous 
 576 
 
 PHY 
 
 acid. When phosphorus is boiled in a 
 solution of caustic potash a gas is 
 evolved, which is remarkably distin- 
 guished by its spontaneous inflamma- 
 bility, each bubble, as it rises through 
 the water, taking fire upon the sur- 
 face and producing a beautiful ring of 
 smoke : this gas is commonly called 
 phosphuretted hydrogen. Phospho- 
 rus may be made to combine with the 
 greater number of the metals, form- 
 ing compounds called phosphurets." 
 Phosphorus is not found in the ele- 
 mentary state in nature, but in the 
 form of phosphoric acid it is combi- 
 ned with lime, magnesia, alumina, 
 and many metals, forming native 
 phosphates. Most of these are insol- 
 uble in pure water, but dissolve in 
 acids and in carbonic acid water. In 
 this solution they are carried to plants, 
 which have the property of decompo- 
 sing them, and assimilating the phos- 
 phorus. Fibrin, albumen, some oils, 
 I and other products of vegetation, con- 
 tain phosphorus. It is to all vegeta- 
 tion an essential body, especially for 
 the production of seeds. I3one earth, 
 ' or phosphate of lime, is the principal 
 \ source for manure ; but urine, and 
 j the dung of all animals, contain phos- 
 : phates. 
 
 I It is frequent to see a distinction 
 
 I made between phosphoric, metaphos- 
 
 phoric,and pyrophosphoric acids; but 
 
 , these have all the same basis, the 
 
 phosphoric acid being tribasic, and 
 
 forming three sets of salts with some 
 
 bodies which are different in charac- 
 
 f ters. 
 
 ! PHOTOMETER (from <puc, and 
 I f/erpov, a measure). An instrument 
 to measure the intensity of light. 
 
 PHRENITIS. Inflammation of the 
 brain. 
 
 PHRYGANID-E. Tricopterous in- 
 sects, case-worm flies. 
 
 PHYCOMETER. The gelatinous 
 matter in which the sporules of the 
 lowest plants germinate. 
 
 PHYLLODIA. Leaves in which 
 the petiole is very much expanded 
 and the lamina absent. 
 
 PHYSICS. Mechanical philoso- 
 phy. The study of the properties of 
 objects and their motions. 
 
PIN 
 
 PIC 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. The investiga- 
 tion of the properties and functions 
 of plants and animals. 
 
 PHYTOCillAriiY. Descriptive 
 botany. 
 
 PIA MATER. The delicate mem- 
 brane covering the brain. 
 
 PIAZZA. An arcade. 
 
 PICAMAR. A bitter substance 
 found in tar. 
 
 PICID.E, PICE. The family of 
 woodpeckers. 
 
 PICK. A pickaxe. 
 
 PICKLING. The preservation of 
 vegetables or meats in vinegar or 
 brine. 
 
 PICIIOMEL. Sugar of bile: bilin, 
 changed by the action of acetic acid, 
 &c. 
 
 PICROTOXIA. A poisonous al- 
 kaloid in Cocculus Indicus. 
 
 PIE. A mould, or rounded mass 
 of earth, compost, &c.^ 
 
 PIER. In architecture, the solid 
 between the openings of a building, 
 or that from which an arch sprmgs. 
 An abutment pier, in a bridge, is that 
 next the shore. 
 
 PIG. See Hog. 
 
 PIGNUT. See Hickory. 
 
 PIGEON. Birds of the genus Co- 
 lurnba ; the young are tender, and 
 used as food, to some extent. The 
 dung is a choice manure, and collect- 
 ed with great care and expense in 
 the East for melons : it is the same 
 as poultry dung. The full-grown 
 birds are tough, but may be ren- 
 dered tender by cooping for 10 days or 
 more, and feeding with Indian meal. 
 
 PIGGERY. See Hog-sty. 
 
 PILASTER. A square pillar sit- 
 uated in a wall, usually projecting not 
 more than one fifth or one sixth of 
 its widtli. Pilasters are subject to 
 the same rules of proportion as col- 
 umns. 
 
 PILCHARD. A small kind of her- 
 ring. 
 
 PILE. The hair on furs. 
 
 PILES. Timbers driven into a 
 marshy soil to afford a better founda 
 tion. In surgery, enlargement of the 
 veins of the rectum. 
 
 PILEUS. The cap of a mush-room. 
 
 PILOSE. Hairy, set with hairs. 
 C c c 
 
 PIMENTO. Myrtus pimcnla. All- 
 spice. The aromatic berries of an 
 evergreen tree of Jamaica and the 
 tropics of America. 
 
 PIMPERNEL. Aiiagallis arvensis. 
 A pretty, indigenous annual. 
 
 P1ND.\RS. Arachis hypogcca. The 
 ground pea. The following, from 
 Mr. M'Caughan, of Mississippi, is 
 worthy of the attention of Southern 
 planters : 
 
 " I planted, the 18th of February 
 last, three acres in pindars, in rows 
 five feet apart, the peas about 12 
 inches apart, in a common small fur- 
 row made with a bull-tongue plough, 
 on level ground, having first broken 
 up and harrowed it well. The weath- 
 er afterward, in ^larch, was very cold, 
 wet, and unfavourable, and killed 
 many of the peas which had sprout- 
 ed, so that I had a very poor stand ; 
 they, however, grew finely, and in- 
 terlocked across the rows, and cov- 
 ered the ground pretty well. On the 
 27th of October I began digging (for 
 fear of frost) by loosening the ground 
 a little round the bunch with an iron 
 fork with three prongs, each above 13 
 inches long, and then pitched the fork 
 under the tap root and pressed it up ; 
 a hand follows and lifts up the bunch, 
 most of the [lease adhering to it, and 
 shakes the sand (dirt we have none) 
 all off', and lays it out straight to cure 
 like hay ; when sufficiently cured, tie 
 up in bundles the proper size for a cut- 
 ting-box, and stow away for winter 
 food for horses, cows, &c., than 
 which there can be nothing better or 
 more nutritious. The pindars that 
 are torn from the vine are partly left 
 on the top of the ground, and can ea- 
 sily be picked up after a rain ; I then 
 turn the hogs in, and they gather the 
 balance, and fatten as finely on them 
 as on corn. Our poorest land will 
 yield 50 to 80 bushels of the pease, 
 atid over a ton of hay per acre, and 
 altogether I regard it as one of the 
 finest crops the Southern farmer can 
 raise. If we could afford to give an 
 entire crop to the land, I am persua- 
 ded it would be quite as good as a 
 crop of your best red clover to fer- 
 tilize it. There has been a mistaken 
 677 
 
PIN 
 
 policy pursued, almost universally, in 
 cuilivalinff tin- piiidar, by rcnering 
 over llie lop uitli earlli wlion they 
 hegin to bloom ; this is not only un- 
 necessary, but positively injurious ; 
 although the top, or vine, grows 
 straight up at first, yet when it is 
 time to seed, the small fibres on the 
 end of which the poa grows arise, 
 the vine inclines to the ground until 
 it finds a proper location, and then 
 extends its branches, two, three, or 
 lour feet in length in every direction, 
 touching the earth. The only culti- 
 vation requisite is to keep the ground 
 loose and clear of weeds and grass, 
 and as level as possible, so that the 
 fibres on which the pea grows can 
 penetrate the ground easily. I intend, 
 next year, to plant pmdars in hills, 
 or, rather, in checks, two feet apart 
 each way, which will cause them to 
 grow in upright bunches, yielding 
 more hay, and will be easier dug, and, 
 I think, will probably yield as many 
 peas." 
 
 The pindar is a legumen, like the 
 pea and bean, and it is, when raised 
 for seed, as exhausting. It differs 
 from them in containing a large 
 amount of oil, and is therefore much 
 more fattening, and equally nutri- 
 tious as respects the strength of ani- 
 mals. Lime and bone earth would 
 be found capital manures. Tlie green 
 stems, ploughed in, are equal to clo- 
 ver as a I'ertilizer. 
 
 PINEAL GLAND. A small gland 
 of the brain. 
 
 PINEAPPLE. Bromdia ananas. 
 A native of the American tropics, 
 with dry, spiny leaves. The supply 
 of this fruit is so great, and the price 
 so cheap, that no inducement is of- 
 fered for its cultivation, which is te- 
 dious, and requires a full supply of 
 heat. The woody fibres of the leaves 
 are readily separated by dew-rotting, 
 and are said to form a silky fiax, 
 which has been made use of to a lim- 
 ited extent in manufactures. 
 
 PINE BARREN. The extensive 
 districts of sandy lands in the South 
 on which the pine only grows. It 
 is supposed by naturalists that they 
 would become deserts if the trees 
 579 
 
 PIN 
 
 were once removed, for they are wa- 
 tered chiefly by the moisture attract- 
 ed bv tlie trees. 
 
 PINE-TREE. The genus Finus, 
 the trees of which afford the well- 
 known timber, as well as tar, turi)en- 
 tine, &c. The pines are distinguish- 
 ed from firs, larches, and spruces by 
 their needle-shaped leaves, grouped 
 in twos, threes, &c., and collected 
 into a sheath at the base. The F. 
 strolms, or white pine, also called 
 Weymouth pine, yields nearly all the 
 choice deals of the country : the 
 leaves are in fives. The P. palustris 
 yields tlie tar and resin of North 
 Carolina ; it is southern, but the P. 
 rigida, which is more extended, and 
 fills the barren, sandy lands of the 
 seaboard, is also rich in tar. The 
 /-•. Canadensis, or hemlock, furnishes 
 timber, and the bark is used in tan- 
 ning. The old field pine of the South 
 is the Pinus lada ; the young shoots, 
 or browse, are very healthy and nu- 
 tritious for sheep ; they answer well 
 to protect autumn and spring garden 
 crops from frost. The pines are 
 readily propagated by seeds, which 
 are found in the cones before they 
 have been exposed too long. They 
 may be budded, or, rather, grafted in 
 the growing, tender shoots, with a 
 little care, but not on the drier wood. 
 Several species of pines produce 
 seeds in their cones, which are suffi- 
 ciently large to be obtained for food. 
 In Italy, the P. pinca yields a large, 
 excellent nut, much esteemed ; some 
 of the Mexican pines also produce 
 edible fruit. 
 
 PINING. A disease of sheep, 
 languishing. " It is most fatal in a 
 season of drought, and June and Sep- 
 tember are the most deadly months. 
 If ever a farmer perceives a flock on 
 such a farm having a flushed appear- 
 ance of more than ordinarily rapid 
 thriving, he is gone. By that day 
 eight days, when he goes out to look 
 at them again, he wdl find them ly- 
 ing, hanging their ears, running at 
 the eyes, and looking at him like so 
 many condemned criminals. As the 
 disease proceeds the hair on the ani- 
 mal's face becomes dry, the wool as- 
 
PIS 
 
 PLA 
 
 sumes a bluish cast, and if the shep- 
 herd have not the means of changing 
 the pasture, all those affected will fall 
 in the course of a month." 
 
 PINION. A small wheel playing 
 in the teeth of a larger one. It is 
 sometimes only a spindle or arbor. 
 
 PINK. The genus Dianlhus; per- 
 ennial flowering plants, propagated 
 readily by layering. 
 
 PINK ROOT. Spigelia Marilandi- 
 ca. Carolina pink, a handsome per- 
 ennial, growing about liie borders of 
 woods in the South ; the roots are 
 used in infusion as a powerful vermi- 
 fuge ; the dose for children of tbree 
 years is 10 grains of the powder : in 
 very large quantities it proves a dan- 
 gerous narcotic. 
 
 PINNACLE. A square or polyg- 
 onal pillar rising above a building, and 
 terminating in an ornamental pyra- 
 mid. 
 
 PINNATE. Leaves whh separate 
 leaflets arranged along the midrib, or 
 petiole : some are doubly pinnate. 
 
 PINNATIFID. Imperfectly pin- 
 nate. In this case the leaflets are 
 not distinct, but a portion of tiie lam- 
 ina runs along the central petiole. 
 Cut-leafed. 
 
 PINT. The eighth part of a gallon ; 
 half a quart. 
 
 PIP. A disease of poultry, attend- 
 ed with the formation of a tough 
 membrane at the tip of the tongue, 
 which hinders feeding ; it is cured by 
 pulling off the membrane and wash- 
 ing the part with salt : the cause is 
 said to be bad water and food, which 
 should be changed. 
 
 PIPE. A wine measure of rather 
 uncertain capacity — 105 imperial, or 
 126 wine gallons. 
 
 PIPE CLAY. White clay, disin- 
 tegrated feldspar found in primitive re- 
 gions, with which the white smoking 
 pipe and coarse pottery are made. 
 
 PIPERIN. A white, crystalline, 
 inactive alkaloid, obtained from black 
 pepper. 
 
 PISE. In building, a wall con- 
 structed of stiff earth or clay, carried 
 up in moulds, and rammed down as 
 the work is carried up. The ex- 
 pression, buildmg enpisc, is common. 
 
 PISOLITE. Native limestone, 
 moulded into grains like peas. 
 
 PISTACHIO, or PISTACHIA 
 NUTS. Pislachia vera. A turpen- 
 tine-tree, a native of Syria ; the nuts 
 are the size of small filberts, of a 
 sweet taste and pleasant flavour re- 
 sembling almonds. 
 
 PISTIL, PISTILLUM. The cen- 
 tral organ of flowers ; it is divided 
 into an ovarium, or lowest part, a 
 style, and stis^nm, which last is the 
 uppermost surface, and receives the 
 fertilizing pollen. It is called the 
 female organ, because flowers in 
 which it is absent are barren. Pis- 
 tils are made of one or more carpels, 
 the styles of which unite. Flowers 
 with pistils only are termed fistd- 
 late. 
 
 PISTON. A short cylinder of 
 wood or metal, which fits e.xactly the 
 cavity of a pump or barrel, and is 
 worked up and down in it alternate- 
 ly. Two sorts of pistons are used 
 in pumps : one hollow, with a valve, 
 used in the sucking pump ; and the 
 other solid, which is employed in the 
 forcing pump. 
 
 PITCH. The substance that re- 
 mains after boiling or distilling tar ; 
 it is used as a coarse paint when 
 warmed. 
 
 PITCH OF A ROOF. Its incli- 
 nation to a level plane. 
 
 PITHING. The operation of kill- 
 ing animals suddenly and without 
 loss of blood, by driving a knife into 
 the spinal marrow : this is done by 
 directing the knife to the space be- 
 tween the first and second vertebra, 
 or rack bones. 
 
 PITTACALL. A blue substance 
 obtained from oil of tar. 
 
 PITUITARY GLAND. The pi- 
 neal gland, situated in the base of 
 the brain. 
 
 PITUITARY M E.M BR ANE, 
 SCHNEIDERI AN M E M B R A N E. 
 The mucous membrane of the nos- 
 trils. 
 
 PITYRIASIS, DANDRUFF. A 
 scurfy disease olthe skin. 
 
 PIVOT. The extremity of an axle 
 which revolves in a socket or hole. 
 
 PLACENTA. The after-birth. A 
 579 
 
PLA 
 
 PLA 
 
 large sponjry organ which rocrivps 
 the Wood of tho mother, and supplies, 
 by the umbihcal artery, tiie fcRtiis. 
 
 In botany, celhilar tissue dcvcloijod 
 within a carpel, to whicii the ovules 
 are attached sometimes by an umbil- 
 ical cord. 
 
 PLAITED, PLICATE. In bota- 
 ny, folded like a fan. 
 
 PLAGUE. A violent, contagious, 
 and typhoid disease. 
 
 PLANARIA. A genus of flat en- 
 tozoic animals, which do not, how- 
 ever, inhabit the bodies of other an- 
 imals. 
 
 PLANE. A flat surface. 
 
 PLANE TABLE. A square board, 
 furnished with a compass, and with 
 lines drawn on its upper side, used 
 in taking angles and in measuring 
 land. 
 
 PLANE-TREE. The button- 
 wood. 
 
 PLANER-TREE. Planera vlmi- 
 folia (aqiiatica). A tree of twenty- 
 three to thrity feet height, growing 
 in swampy places, in the South and 
 Southwest, and resembling the elm. 
 The wood is hard and strong, but 
 there is only a small amount of it. 
 
 PLANIPENNATES. Neuropte- 
 rous insects with flat wings, the low- 
 er pair of which equal the upper. 
 
 PLANKS. Boards of nine inches 
 or more in width, and one to two 
 inches thick ; they are sold by the 
 square foot. 
 
 PLANO-CONCAVE. A thin disk, 
 having one surface flat and the other 
 curved inward {^concave). 
 
 PLANT. A complex organiza- 
 tion, produced from seeds or sporules. 
 The most general characters are the 
 presence of cellular tissue, and the 
 power of decomposing carbonic acid 
 in light ; but the latter function does 
 not belong to fungi. 
 
 PLANT CASES, WARD'S. Tight 
 glazed boxes, at the bottom of which 
 a layer, six inches deep, of garden 
 mould, in a moist state, is placed ; 
 and in which plants being set, are 
 said to grow without farther trouble 
 if the case be well closed. 
 
 PLANTAIN. The genus PlanUi- 
 go ; for the most part perennial weeds 
 530 
 
 in meadows ; they are nutritious, but 
 grow too small for hay. The P. ma- 
 jor is called white man's footsteps ; 
 it is connnonly recommended as an 
 application to wounds, being mucila- 
 ginous. 
 
 PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 " Planting is the operation of placing 
 in the soil the roots of a plant which 
 has been previously removed ; and 
 the preservation of the roots is the 
 first thing to be attended to. It 
 should be kept in mind that the spnji- 
 ffiulcs, or delicate extremities of the 
 fibres, are the parts by which the 
 chief supply of food froin the earth is 
 absorbed by the plant. Their tissue 
 being tender and almost naked, they 
 are very susceptible of injuries from 
 mechanical action ; and being adapt- 
 ed for performing their functions in 
 a humid medium, they readily suffer 
 from being kept for any length of 
 time exposed to free air and drought. 
 Ill taking up the jilants, therefore, 
 the roots should be loosened in such 
 a manner as to receive the least pos- 
 sible violence in the operation. Plants 
 in pots can be shifted from one place 
 to another without exhibiting symp- 
 toms of deranged functions ; and if it 
 were possible to preserve the spon- 
 gioles of a large tree as entire as 
 those of a plant in a pot, the same 
 successful result would follow ; but 
 as it is next to impossible to do this, 
 we can only attempt to preserve 
 them as far as circumstances will 
 permit. If the tree be large, a trench 
 should be opened beyond the extrem- 
 ities of the roots, of sufficient width 
 and depth to allow the process of un- 
 dermining to be freely carried on. 
 The roots should be gradually set at 
 liberty by a round-pronged fork, the 
 prongs tapering so as to be easily in- 
 serted, yet not by any means so sharp 
 as to prick the roots. As the fork is 
 being used, the soil from among the 
 roots will fall into the open trench ; 
 but as it accumulates there it must 
 be cleared away, and, at the same 
 time, the portion of roots set at liber- 
 ty will reijuire to be slightly tied to- 
 gether with pieces of matting, and, 
 if necessary, supported by temporary 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 stakes, or held to one side by an as 
 
 sislant, while the planter proceeds in | 
 liberating others. If there be, as is 
 frequently the ease, a tap root ex- 
 teiiiiiiig to a much greater depth than 
 the other roots, and if the latter have 
 been carefully preserved during the 
 operation, the tap root may be dis- 
 pensed with, for it could only be 
 raised in a mutilated state, owing 
 to the great solidity of the earth at 
 such a depth. 
 
 " Although it is verj' desirable to 
 preserve the greatest possible quan- 
 tity of sound roots, yet all that are 
 bruised or lacerated should be clean- 
 ly amputated up to the sound parts. 
 Cross roots are apt to gall the others 
 when they become large, and there- 
 fore the sooner they are removed the 
 better, \\hen the plants are young 
 and in the course of being occasion- 
 ally removed in a nursing state, all 
 irregularities in the roots should be 
 corrected, which can then be done 
 with comparatively little injury, as 
 the roots of young plants bear a great- 
 er proportion to the top than seems 
 to be the case at a more advanced 
 period of growth, and the loss of any 
 of them is consequently felt less. In 
 tlie early stage of rearing trees, while 
 the proportion of roots predominates, 
 it may be found advisable, in various 
 cases, to shorten, not only the tap 
 root, as above mentioned, but also, 
 judiciously, some of the other strong 
 roots, in order that subdivisions of a 
 more fibrous nature may be produced, 
 and a number of rootlets substituted 
 for large root branches. Even in the 
 case of large trees this principle has 
 been acted upon for centuries, and 
 latterly it has been strongly advoca- 
 ted and put in practice for the pur- 
 pose of producing immediate etTect in 
 park or landscape scenery. A trench 
 is cut out round the tree, and the 
 roots shortened wherever they hap- 
 pen to traverse this trench, so as to 
 leave it quite clear. This being done, 
 the trench is filled up, either with its 
 own excavated soil, or, in very par- 
 ticular cases, with fresh soil. The 
 tree has still a sufficient number of 
 undisturbed roots to keep it alive ; 
 C c c 2 
 
 and, in fact, it ought not to be mere- 
 ly kept alive, but as many roots should 
 be lelt as will ensure its continuing 
 in a healthy, though not a vigorous 
 state of growth. In the course of a 
 year or two after this operation has 
 been performed, a number of young 
 roots will have been protruded from 
 the various amputations into the 
 loosened soil of the trench ; and, part- 
 ly from the possibility of preserving 
 these roots, and partly from the top 
 becoming habituated to a more limit- 
 ed supply of food, the tree feels com- 
 paratively little the change conse- 
 quent on transplantation. 
 
 " Roots may be produced of a prop- 
 er description for planting by the 
 adoption of such means as the above, 
 and, if care be taken, they will suf- 
 fer little from the operation of re- 
 moval. Still, they may be seriously 
 injured from exposure to air, and 
 more especially to drying winds, 
 frost, and even to wet. To be cov- 
 ered in the soil is the natural condi- 
 tion of the roots of most vegetable 
 productions, and, therefore, endeav- 
 ours should be made to place them 
 in such a condition with the least 
 possible delay ; or, at all events, if 
 circumstances render delay unavoid- 
 able, such means should be adopted 
 as will preserve them in a state of 
 moisture similar to that which they 
 have in the soil. It is, however, ne- 
 cessary to observe, that when the 
 tops are closely packed up and evap- 
 oration from them prevented, the 
 roots should be kept rather dry than 
 otherwise, lor, under such circum- 
 stances, damp is found to be much 
 more frequently destructive than a 
 little dryness. 
 
 •• Though the preparatory steps to 
 planting, as regards roots and their 
 preservation, may be properly taken, 
 yet, if the operation be not perform- 
 ed at the proper season, success will 
 not be complete. It is true that in- 
 stances may be adduced of planting 
 being done at the very opposite sea- 
 son to that which is here recommend- 
 ed as the best ; but such cases are 
 only examples of what may be done 
 by extraordinary care in adopting ar- 
 581 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 tificial means, so as to imitate more 
 natural circumstances. It is a well- 
 known fact that plants are subject to 
 a process of evaporation from all the 
 parts which arc exposed to the atmo- 
 sphere, provided the latter is not in 
 a state of saturation. The source 
 from whence this evaporation is sup- 
 plied is the moisture of the soil, and 
 the roots are the media by which it 
 is <;olIected and transmitted to the 
 stem branches and leaves. If the 
 expenditure be greater than the sup- 
 ply of moisture, the plant will begin 
 to suffer ; if the disparity be great 
 and continued, a degree of desicca- 
 tion will be occasioned sufficient to 
 deprive the vegetable tissue of that 
 moisture which constitutes the me- 
 dium of intercommunication between 
 the different cells ; organization is 
 destroyed ; the chain which connected 
 it with vitality is broken, and incapa- 
 ble of being reunited by any mechan- 
 ical means. 
 
 "A much greater amount of evap- 
 oration takes place from a given sur- 
 face in some species than in others ; 
 but the amount as regards plants of 
 the same species, all other circum- 
 stances being the same, is in propor- 
 tion to the extent of surface which 
 the respective individuals possess. 
 The leaves of a lime-tree may have 
 a surface equal to thirty times that 
 of the stem, branches, and twigs 
 which produce them, and, conse- 
 quently, the demand on the roots for 
 the supply of evaporation will be 
 thirty times greater when in leaf 
 than when the branches are naked. 
 Instances might be adduced in which 
 this difference would even be exceed- 
 ed ; but if, on the contrary, it were 
 found considerably less, still there 
 would be sufficient evidence of the 
 impropriety of moving plants when 
 in leaf; and it may be here remark- 
 ed that young leaves admit of the 
 fluids being more rapidly evaporated 
 than old ones. 
 
 " The month of December is that 
 in which the condition of the air with 
 regard to moisture approaches near- 
 est to that of complete saturation ; 
 and next in this respect is January, 
 682 
 
 which is also the coldest. It might 
 therefore be concluded that those 
 months are the best for planting, 
 more especially as they are the most 
 opposite in character to June and 
 July, which, from their being the hot- 
 test and driest, are found to be the 
 worst. But November is also moi.st ; 
 and although the temperature of the 
 season has not then reached its min- 
 imum, yet the foliage, accustomed to 
 exercise its fimctions under a sum- 
 mer heat, can no longer perform them 
 under a reduction of temperature 
 which, though not the lowest, is 
 comparatively low as regards sum- 
 mer productions. The leaves, in 
 consequence, lose their connexion 
 with the roots ; the earth still re- 
 tains considerable warmth ; and al- 
 though the absence of leaves in de- 
 ciduous trees, and perhaps the in- 
 activity of those .of evergreens, may 
 prevent the formation of wood, ex- 
 cept in the most limited degree, yet 
 the buds, while they are themselves 
 increased in volume, maintain a cor- 
 responding action in the roots, suffi- 
 cient, in many instances, to form 
 fresh spongioles before winter .- a 
 process which is favoured by the soil 
 Ijeing warmer than the atmosphere. 
 Should circumstances occur to pre- 
 vent the actual protrusion of cellular 
 substance in the form of spongioles, 
 still an accumulation of it will be ta- 
 king place, ready to burst forth in 
 spring. On this account, therefore, 
 although December, January, and 
 February are sufficiently moist, yet 
 November, or as soon as the leaves 
 have fallen, is the preferable season 
 for planting. There may be some 
 exceptions, as in the case of very 
 wet soils, where the plants, if not 
 firmly rooted, are liable to be thrown 
 out during winter, owing to which, 
 spring planting would be more jirop- 
 er ; but, under ordinary circumstan- 
 ces, all deciduous trees will succeed 
 best at the period above indicated. 
 Such species as push forth their buds 
 early ought certainly to be planted 
 in autumn. Many of the coniferous 
 trilie will succeed well if planted soon 
 alter they have made their summer's 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 growth ; the earth is then warm, and 
 ( he plants make roots very promi)tly. 
 Some species of this interesting or- 
 der of trees require to be planted ei- 
 ther before winter, so as to have suf- 
 ficient time to strike root, or imme- 
 diately before their buds begin to 
 t)urst in the spring. These species 
 of trees are injuriously affected by 
 exposure to dry, cold winds, even 
 when their roots are undisturbed by 
 removal ; but if planted at a season 
 when several months must elapse 
 before any perfect action can com- 
 mence, the tops are apt to become 
 dried up in the interval. It appears 
 that if their juices become inspissa- 
 ted to a certain extent, they never 
 again become licpiefied, probably ow- 
 ing to their resinous nature. 
 
 " The watering of newly-planted 
 trees ought to be attended to. The 
 supply, in the first instance, should 
 be copious, in order to wash the earth 
 into the cavities among the roots. 
 Some err in keeping the roots of 
 newly-planted trees constantly soak- 
 ed with water, as if they were those 
 of bog plants, for vviiich only such 
 treatment is proper. In watering, 
 consideration should always be had 
 to the nature of the plant ; to which, 
 if it delight in dry soils, no more wa- 
 ter should be artificially applied than 
 is necessary to moisten it as much 
 as the soil m which the species grows 
 naturally, and at a time when shoots 
 and leaves are abundantly produced. 
 When watering is performed, it 
 should be done thoroughly, so as to 
 reach the lowest portions of the root. 
 In the case of plants being much dri- 
 ed from long carriage or other caus- 
 es, the supply, on first planting, should 
 be very moderate. The tops, how- 
 ever, should be frequently syringed, 
 in order to moisten the bark, and pre- 
 vent its absorbing the organizable 
 matter which descends towards the 
 root by the inner bark. The flow 
 must be extremely weak under such 
 circumstances ; but if it can be pre- 
 served from the effects of drought 
 till it reach the extremities of the 
 roots, the formation of fresh spongi- 
 oles will immediately commence, and 
 
 the tree may then be pronounced out 
 of danger. 
 
 " The manner of performing the 
 operation of planting may be reduced 
 to one general principle, that of pla- 
 cing the roots in the soil so as to im- 
 itate as closely as possible the posi- 
 tion which they occupy when grow- 
 ing wild and uncontrolled. Plants, 
 inileed, may be instanced whose 
 roots have been observed, in one 
 situation, penetrating to the depth of 
 four or five feet ; or, in another, 
 creei)ing along the surface, among 
 stones, or into the crevices of rocks, 
 with scarcely soil to cover them, as, 
 for example, in the vine. But al- 
 though roots can usually accommo- 
 date theinselves to that position 
 which the nature of the situation 
 renders it alone possible for them to 
 occupy, yet there can be no doubt 
 that in all cases the extremities of 
 the roots should be lower than where 
 they diverge from the stem : a rule 
 which, however self-evident it may 
 be, is frequently violated in practice, 
 by making a basin-shaped hole, deep- 
 est in the middle, in which the roots 
 are either doubled, or have their ex- 
 tremities tending upward on the slo- 
 ping sides of the cavity. 
 
 " The excavation for the reception 
 of the roots of a plant should be con- 
 siderably larger than those roots will 
 traverse when extended at the time 
 of planting. It should be as wide at 
 bottom as at top. The bottom should 
 be more or less convex, and the depth 
 such as to admit of the roots being 
 covered to the extent observed in 
 undisturbed seedling plants of the 
 same species ; that is to say, the up- 
 per part of the root should only be 
 just covered. The lower roots should 
 be regularly disposed over the con- 
 vex bottom of the excavation, and 
 carefully strewed with some of the 
 finer portion of soil, over which the 
 other roots may be spread. More soil 
 stiould then be carefully rather than 
 forcibly introduced. There should 
 be no vacant spaces left, except those 
 of so minute a description that they 
 will be readily filled up by the finer 
 particles of earth washed down by a 
 583 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 plentiful watering. This watering 
 should be given when the soil is near- 
 ly all filled in, and, alter tiio water 
 has subsided, so as not to stand above 
 the surface, the latter should be cov- 
 ered with the remaining portion of 
 soil. Except in very loose or light 
 soils, tills method will supersede the 
 necessity of the hard beating and 
 treading in to which the roots of 
 trees are very generally subjected. 
 The latter practice is now, however, 
 being laid aside by many, from a con- 
 viction of its injurious effects. It is 
 also necessary to remark that a plant 
 should be placed, before the introduc- 
 tion of the soil, exactly as it is in- 
 tended it should stand ; and it should 
 not be pulled from side to side for the 
 purpose of shaking the earth among 
 the roots. If the tree be drawn to 
 one side, the fibres of the root will 
 also be drawn towards the same side ; 
 but they are, of course, too flexible 
 to force their way back when the 
 tree is drawn in a contrary direction, 
 and they must therefore become 
 more or less doubled. Nor should 
 the soil be thrown against, the fibres 
 w hile the roots are being covered ; 
 it should be made fine, and either 
 shaken from the spade so as to fall 
 perpendicularly among the roots, or 
 scattered by a force impelling it in 
 the direction of the fibres, which will 
 be, in general, from the stem towards 
 the extremities, or from the centre 
 to the circumference. 
 
 " The principles here stated are 
 applicable to the planting of large as 
 well as small trees, and, in fact, to 
 any terrestrial species of plant. There 
 are, however, many modifications in 
 practice, some of which may be no- 
 ticed as proper under certain cir- 
 cumstances, and others as only to be 
 condenmed under any circumstances 
 whatever. 
 
 " Small plants are very frequently 
 inserted by the dibble, a cylindrical 
 piece of wood, shod with iron, and 
 tapering to a point. This is thrust 
 into the soil, and in the hole formed 
 by this means the roots of the plant 
 are introduced, and a portion of 
 soil passed towards them by a sec- 
 584 
 
 end stroke of the dibble. It is ev- 
 ident, however, that by this proce- 
 dure the roots cannot be in the most 
 natural position ; they are, in fact, 
 the very reverse of being spread out 
 to the best advantage. In the case, 
 of very valuable species, the spade 
 or planting trowel is used in prefer- 
 ence to the dibble. The latter has 
 nothing to recommend it on the score 
 of good principles in planting ; the 
 expedition with which it can be em- 
 ployed is all that can be said in its 
 favour. 
 
 " Besides the spade and dibble, va- 
 rious other implements are used in 
 planting, such as the diamond dibble, 
 a pointed plate of steel, with a short 
 iron liandle ; a mattock, used in stony 
 soils ; and some others, adopted ac- 
 cording to circumstances. In all ca- 
 ses, however, where the spade can 
 be used, it is undoubtedly the best 
 instrument. If the soil be unfit for 
 allowing the use of the spade, it 
 should be rendered fit previously : 
 and if some time be lost and expense 
 incurred by using it instead of small- 
 er and more expeditious, but, at the 
 same time, more cramping imple- 
 ments as regards the roots, the dif- 
 ference will certainly be ultimately 
 in favour of a proper disposition of 
 the roots by means of the spade. - 
 
 " With regard to the preparation 
 of the soil for plantations, it is found 
 that trenching the ground is attended 
 with profit wliere it is practised for 
 the purpose of rearing wood for fuel 
 and small timber. This mode of prep- 
 aration ought likewise to be adopted 
 where trees are intended to be plant- 
 ed for ornament or for shelter. It 
 has not been generally attempted in 
 the case of extensive plantations of 
 heath or rugged mountain land. It 
 may, however, be affirmed, without 
 hesitation, that great advantages 
 would be derived from the operation 
 being more extensively performed. 
 Something more than merely burying 
 the roots of hard-wooded plants is 
 thought necessary, and, accordingly, 
 pits are made. It is scarcely neces- 
 sary to observe that, if these are not 
 of considerable size, the direct prog- 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 ress of the roots is soon obstructed. 
 Tlie time required to form these pits 
 as they ought to be would be suffi- 
 cient to regularly trench double their 
 area. The expense of trenching the 
 intermediate spaces will be compen- 
 sated by the greater return derived 
 from the nurse plants, such as larch, 
 when they come to be removed. 
 
 " Plantations are generally planted 
 thick in the first instance, and with 
 various species of trees. Larch, 
 Scotch fir or pine, mountain ash, 
 &c., are interspersed among the hard 
 wood for shelter, or as nurses. La- 
 burnum is also useful for preserving 
 the other sorts from the depredations 
 of hares, as they prefer the laburnum 
 to every other bark. Nurses arc gen- 
 erally left till they are fit for various 
 purposes for which small timber is 
 applicable. Tliey should be planted 
 closer to each otlier than to the prin- 
 cipal trees intended to constitute the 
 more permanent part of the planta- 
 tion. 
 
 "After all the care of the planter, 
 and the skill with which the opera- 
 tion of removing may have been ef- 
 fected, much of the success of a 
 plantation depends on the proper 
 adaptation of species to the soils and 
 situations most suitable to them. 
 
 " The following remarks upon 
 some of the timber-trees principally 
 cultivated may be useful : 
 
 "The oak (Qucrctis robur, and Q. 
 sessiliflora) prefers strong, or even 
 clayey loam ; any soil not wet or 
 chalky. 
 
 " Beech {Fagus si/lvatira), calcare- 
 ous soils, gravelly or sandy loam ; 
 dislike stiff clay. 
 
 "Elm {Ulmus campeslris, U. gla- 
 bra. U. mnnlaria) attains, near the 
 banks of rivers, a large size; thrives 
 in most soils. 
 
 " Ash {Fraxinus excelsiar) prefers a 
 dry subsoil ; dislikes stiff clay. ! 
 
 " Plane {Plalanus Oricntulis), rich, 
 warm soil, tolerably moist, but not 
 retentive. 
 
 " Sycamore (.leer ■pseudo-platanus, 
 A. platanoidcs), best in moist, deep 
 soil, but will thrive in others not too 
 stiff; withstands the sea-breeze. 
 
 "Chestnut {Castanea vcsca), deep, 
 sandy l«ain. 
 
 " ^^'alnut {Juglans regia), deep 
 loam, with a pervious subsoil ; dis- 
 likes strong clays. 
 
 " Hickory {Vanja alha), similar soil 
 to that required by the walnut. 
 
 " Acacia, or locust-tree (Robinia 
 pscud-acacia), sandy loam ; a shel- 
 tered situation ; cannot bear storms. 
 
 "Birch {Bctula alba), forms best 
 timber on dry sandy or gravelly soil. 
 
 " Laburnum {Cytisus alpinus), any 
 soil not too wet. 
 
 " White bean {Pyrus Aria), any 
 good soil, with a pervious subsoil ; 
 dislikes wet clay. 
 
 " Lime {Tilia EuropcEa), soft, deep 
 loam, in low, rather moist situations. 
 
 " Horse-chestnut {JEsculus hippo- 
 castanum), deep loam ; not in expo- 
 sed situations. 
 
 " Poplar (Popubis alba, P. canes- 
 cens, P. nigra, P. trcmula, P. fastigi- 
 ata, P. GrcEca, P. monili/cra). These 
 thrive in almost any soil, but best in 
 that which is deep and rather moist. 
 
 "Mountain-ash {Pi/riis aucuparia), 
 any soil, wet clay excepted ; adapted 
 for high situations. 
 
 " Alder (Ahnis glutinosa), moist, 
 or even swainpy soil. 
 
 " Willow (Salix), of numerous spe- 
 cies. Some thrive in rather dry soil, 
 but all prefer moist. 
 
 " Pine {Pinus sylvcstris, P. Laricis, 
 P. Pinaster, P. Strobus). The first 
 two are adapted for thin, rocky, grav- 
 elly soils ; tliey grow at a great eleva- 
 tion on the warmest sides of mount- 
 ains, but better in mountain glens ; 
 they dislike stiff clay and deep, strong 
 loam, and, like all coniferous plants, 
 they do not thrive on chalk. P. Pi- 
 naster and P. Strobus require a less 
 exposed situation than the other two. 
 
 " Spruce (Abies excelsa, A. alba, A. 
 rubra, A. nigra), deep, moist soil, in 
 low situations ; dislikes thin, sandy 
 soil, and exposure. 
 
 " Larch (Abies Larix), adapted for 
 thin mountain land, or any soil of 
 which the subsoil is not retentive, 
 excepting, however, red sandstone 
 or chalk, as above mentioned. 
 
 " Cedar of Lebanon {Abies cedrus), 
 585 
 
PLANTATION, PLaNTINO. 
 
 any tolerably good soil, ratlior dcopor 
 tlian for tlic laicli, Imt a pervious stib- 
 soil, free fVoiii sla^iiaiit water. 
 
 "Too close planting produces weak, 
 dra\vn-u|) timber, in consequence of 
 the tops only receivinjr a due share 
 of light. It is true that the most 
 magnificent trees arc found in tliose 
 ancient forests that have never been 
 sowed, planted, or thinned by the 
 hand of man ; but, at the same time, 
 it will not be denied that, wlierever 
 natural forests exist, the soil and sit- 
 uation must be exceedingly favoura- 
 ble for the species produced ; and 
 that, although tliousands sprung up 
 more than could possibly find room 
 to attain perfection, yet those only 
 that were the most favourably cir- 
 cumstanced and most vigorous would 
 continue ; and whcui once their tops 
 got completely above those of the 
 general mass, the latter must have 
 inevitably fallen into decay. There 
 is no reason, however, to suppose 
 that those which maintained their 
 ground, and, favoured by propitious 
 soil, became lofty specimens, would 
 not have been benefited by the assist- 
 ance of the axe, to relieve them soon- 
 er from their rivals. 
 
 " If, on the contrary, trees are 
 planted at too great a distance from 
 each other, they are inclined to ram- 
 ify into large limbs and spreading 
 tops, with a stem short, but mucli 
 thicker than where the space admits 
 of less expansion of foliage. If, there- 
 fore, very thick timber of no great 
 length be required, wide planting is 
 proper ; but if tall timber be the ob- 
 ject, the plantation must be moder- 
 ately thick. 
 
 " The care which plantations re- 
 quire from year to year consists in 
 making up deficiencies, thinning, and 
 pruning. Deficiencies seldom occur 
 if the planting be at first duly per- 
 formed ; and every endeavour should 
 be used to prevent the necessity of 
 making up. This is always done 
 with considerable disadvantage to 
 the plants thus introduced, unless the 
 spaces be trenched ; but in that case, 
 if the species of tree be properly 
 chosen, the plants may do well in 
 586 
 
 consequence of the shelter afforded 
 by tiie older surrounding individuals. 
 
 "Thinning should be commenced 
 in due time. No branch of the tem- 
 porary trees should, by any means, 
 overhang the top, or even branches of 
 those that are permanent. The shel- 
 ter on the most exposed sides of the 
 plantation should be formed of ro- 
 bust, vigorous-growing kinds, and it 
 should be allowed to remain unbro- 
 ken. Plantations that have been neg- 
 lected till they have formed a dense 
 thicket must be thinned gradually ; 
 for if thinned at once, those left would 
 be injured by tlie sudden exposure, 
 and would be blown over by winds. 
 
 " Pruniiiff is an important opera- 
 tion in the management of planta- 
 tions, but it is often improperly prac- 
 tised, for want of the knowledge of a 
 few physiological facts, which are es- 
 sentially necessary to be stated be- 
 fore any rules for pruning can be 
 properly given. If these facts be un- 
 derstood, few rules will be required, 
 but otherwise a volume of directions 
 are liable to be misapplied. It ought, 
 therefore, to be understood, that the 
 sap ascends from the stem chiefly 
 through the alburnum, or outer layers 
 of young wood. It then enters the 
 leaves, when it is exposed to the in- 
 fluence of light. Having, in conse- 
 quence, undergone an elaboration, it 
 descends on the outside of the albur- 
 num, that is to say, through the inner 
 bark ; the internal surface of the lat- 
 ter possessing a great degree of lu- 
 bricity, whereby the passage of a por- 
 tion of the juices, at least, is facilita- 
 ted to the roots, while part is detain- 
 ed and becomes organized, forming a 
 new layer of woody matter. The 
 thickness of the layer so formed is 
 very different in different species ; 
 but in the same species, all other cir- 
 cumstances being the same, it is in 
 proportion to the surface of leaves. 
 The aggregate horizontal growth, or, 
 in other words, the diametrical ex- 
 tension of the stem, branch, and even 
 roots, depends upon the quantity of 
 healthy foliage. The diametrical in- 
 crease of any particular part corre- 
 sponds with the greater or less pro- 
 
PLANTATION, PLANTING. 
 
 portion of foliage above that part. 
 Again, it may be stated that if one 
 tree has a clear stem of 20 feet in 
 lengtii, and another has one of 40 feet, 
 tlie roots and toMage of both being 
 equal, the layer of new wood w-ill be 
 much thinner in the latter case than 
 in the former ; for the deposition of 
 woody matter will have to extend 
 over double the surface in the tall 
 tree. It may be also remarked that, 
 in general, if a tree be left entirely to 
 nature, it will ultimately produce a 
 greater bulk of wood, taking stems 
 and branches togetiier, than would be 
 the case if subjected to pruning. Ex- 
 cept, however, in the case of growing 
 for fuel, pruning is more or less neces- 
 sary. The value of a timber-tree de- 
 pends chiefly on the stem, the branch 
 timber being of less value. The ob- 
 ject to be kept in view in pruning for 
 timber is the production of a clean 
 stem with as small a proportion of 
 branches as possible. But it has been 
 explained that the growth of the stem 
 depends on the quantity of foliage, 
 and without branches a sufficient 
 quantity of foliage cannot be main- 
 tained. While, on the one hand, an 
 undue preponderance of branches is 
 prevented by pruning, yet, on the 
 other, as much foliage should be pre- 
 served as circumstances will permit. 
 " An excessive privation of foliage 
 should never be occasioned at any 
 one time. It is therefore advisable 
 to commence pruning early, in order, 
 as it were, to repress irregularities in 
 the bud. At all events, whenever an 
 irregularity can be clearly distinguish- 
 ed as such, it should be checked. 
 Thus, when a shoot, occupying the 
 position of a branch, ascends in com- 
 petition with the top, or leading shoot, 
 and is allowed to go on for years, the 
 stem will have a forked character ; 
 or if the competing portion be ampu- 
 tated after it has acquired a large 
 size, the timber will be rendered un- 
 sound. But if the shoot from w^hich 
 this aspiring liml) took its rise had 
 been stopped in the first or second 
 season of its growth in summer, the 
 tree might have been grown with a 
 clean, regularly tapering stem. It is 
 
 only great irregularities, however, 
 that should be meddled with during 
 the e;niy growth of the plant ; other- 
 wise the increase of roots is prevent- 
 ed, such increase being reciprocal 
 with that of the branches. 
 
 " Young shoots of the above de- 
 scription may be checked by being 
 shortened in summer ; but no large 
 branches should be cut off at that 
 season, nor after the sap begins to 
 flow briskly in spring. Towards au- 
 tumn, however, when the leaves have 
 nearly ceased to carry on their func- 
 tions, pruning may be very properly 
 performed ; and some species, for 
 example, the birch and maple, require 
 to be pruned at that time, otherwise 
 they are apt to bleed. The period at 
 which bleeding; that is, an extravasa- 
 tion of sap, takes place with greatest 
 force, is immediately before the burst- 
 ing of the buds in spring. If a branch 
 be cut off when it is in foliage, the 
 remaining portion draws the sap 
 and prevents effusion at the wound. 
 Some derangement will of course be 
 produced in the flow of sap ; and a 
 diminution of the process of lignifica- 
 tion and of the formation of roots will 
 be occasioned, owing to the abstrac- 
 tion of a certain extent of foliage. 
 But when the sap is in motion, and 
 the leaves at the same time not ex- 
 panded, the amputation of a branch 
 is followed by a flow of sap, which 
 appears to drain from every part of 
 the tree. The sap becomes stale on 
 exposure to the air ; it then aflects 
 the cambium and inner bark, often 
 to a considerable extent below the 
 wound, and if these are not in all 
 cases so far completely killed, yet 
 they are generally more or less in- 
 jured, and canker is apt to ensue. 
 
 " Suppose it were required to rear 
 a tree so as to have a stem of clean- 
 grown timber as tall and as thick 
 as could possibly be obtained in any 
 given time. The first consideration 
 is the root, the plant being supposed 
 to be young, with a top or upright 
 leading shoot, and several side branch- 
 es. All these should be left undis- 
 turbed in the first instance, unless 
 such of the latter as may require a 
 587 
 
PLA 
 
 PLA 
 
 check if growing too strong for the 
 others or for tho U.^ader. Tiie later- 
 als should be left, for the sake of ilie 
 roots, till tiieir presence on the stem 
 becomes inconsistent with the object 
 of producing it as free as possible 
 from knots, taking also into consid- 
 eration that the diliiculty in healing 
 the wound increases as the branches 
 get older. A J'eiv of the largest 
 shoots should be those first removed. 
 They may be shortened in the first 
 instance after midsummer, and af- 
 terward cut off smoothly by the low- 
 est circular wrinkles which form 
 round their base, close to the stem, 
 but without slicing off a portion of 
 the bark : a slovenly practice, of 
 which only bad pruners are guilty, 
 and which can only have the effect 
 of diminishing the power of the bark 
 to close over the wound necessarily 
 made by the pruning-knife. Such 
 unnecessary wounds cause an extrav- 
 asation of sap, as may be seen espe- 
 cially in coniferous trees, where they 
 are generally covered with resinous 
 exudations. In the following sea- 
 son the next largest branches should 
 be in like manner displaced, care be- 
 ing still taken, on account of the im- 
 portance of tlie foliage, as already 
 explained, that the quantity removed 
 shall be no more than is absolutely 
 necessary. 
 
 " Small branches along the stem 
 should be left till they approach the 
 dimensions by which the removal of 
 the others is regulated. These prin- 
 ciples should be followed up till the 
 required height of stena is attained ; 
 after which the branches composing 
 the top shall be allowed full freedom, 
 in order to increase, by their organ- 
 izing power, the diameter of the 
 stem. 
 
 " Coniferous trees require little 
 pruning ; nor is it necessary to com- 
 mence so early with them as in the 
 case of other kinds. In dense for- 
 ests, they are found with straight 
 stems, approaching the height of 100 
 feet clear of side branches, the latter 
 gradually decaying below as they be- 
 come excluded from light and moist- 
 ure by those above them. When, 
 588 
 
 from this cause, the lower branches 
 of coniferous trees are observed to 
 lose, in a great measure, their vigour, 
 and when their foliage contributes lit- 
 tle to the enlargement of the stem, 
 they may then be very properly cut 
 off, without waiting for their actual 
 decay. It is a question whether the 
 branches of these trees should be cut 
 close to the stem at once, in pruning, 
 or whether they should first be snag- 
 ged, that is, cut at some distance from 
 the stem, and either allowed so to 
 remain or be afterward cut close. 
 That plan is best to adopt by which 
 the least exudation of resinous sub- 
 stance is occasioned, and the blemish 
 soonest overgrown. With the view 
 of preventing the former, the branch 
 may be shortened only to the first live 
 twigs, so as almost to nullify its con- 
 nexion with the stem, preparatory to 
 its final and close removal in the fol- 
 lowing season. 
 
 " By choosing the proper season, 
 and by previous shortening, large 
 limbs of any healthy tree may be 
 closely amputated so as to heal over 
 without aft"ei,;ling the tree generallj', 
 or even the portion of stem more im- 
 mediately connected with the limb to 
 any material extent ; yet the new 
 layer of wood will prove, on cutting 
 up the timber, to be only in close con- 
 tact with the surface of the wound, 
 which will remain dead, and with 
 which the living matter enclosing it 
 could not coalesce. A piece of un- 
 sound wood is thus imbodied. In 
 this case, it would be advisable to 
 shorten the limb to such of its later- 
 als as will just be sufficient to keep it 
 alive till the tree is felled. If, in the 
 interval, the branch should push vig- 
 orously, means must be adopted to 
 keep it always in a reduced state, by 
 merely allowing as much foliage to 
 grow as will keep the branch alive, 
 without affording any material ad- 
 dition to its diameter." — (Professor 
 Lindley.) 
 
 PLANTING. See Plantation. 
 The following table shows the num- 
 ber of plants required for one acre of 
 land, from one fool to twenty-one feet 
 distance from plant to plant. 
 
PLA 
 
 PLO 
 
 Pistance. 
 
 
 Distance. 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Knmber. 
 
 1 . 
 
 . 43.560 
 
 8 
 
 6 . 
 
 . . 602 
 
 1 6 . 
 
 . 19.360 
 
 9 
 
 . 
 
 . . 538 
 
 2 . 
 
 . 10,890 
 
 9 
 
 6 . 
 
 . . 482 
 
 2 6 . 
 
 . 6,960 
 
 10 
 
 . 
 
 . . 436 
 
 3 . 
 
 . 4,840 
 
 11 
 
 . 
 
 . . 361 
 
 3 6 . 
 
 . 3,556 
 
 12 
 
 . 
 
 . . 302 
 
 4 . 
 
 . 2,722 
 
 13 
 
 . 
 
 . . 253 
 
 4 6 . 
 
 . 2,151 
 
 14 
 
 . 
 
 . . 223 
 
 5 . 
 
 . 1,712 
 
 15 
 
 . 
 
 . . 194 
 
 5 6 . 
 
 . ],-140 
 
 16 
 
 . 
 
 . . 171 
 
 6 . 
 
 . 1,210 
 
 17 
 
 . 
 
 . . 151 
 
 6 6 . 
 
 . 1,031 
 
 18 
 
 . 
 
 . . 135 
 
 7 . 
 
 6S9 
 
 19 
 
 . 
 
 . . 121 
 
 7 6 . 
 
 775 
 
 20 
 
 . 
 
 . . 109 
 
 8 . 
 
 680 
 
 21 
 
 . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 PLANT LICE. 
 
 See Aphis. 
 
 PLASIILXG. 
 
 ' A mode o 
 
 f repair- 
 
 ing or making a hedge by bending 
 down a portion of the shoots, cutting 
 them iialf through near tiie .ground, to 
 •render them more pliable, and twist- 
 ing them among the upright stems, 
 so as to render the whole effective as 
 a fence, and, at the same time, pre- 
 serve all the branches alive. For 
 this purpose, the branches to l)e plash- 
 ed or bent down must not be cut 
 more than half through, in order that 
 a sufficient portion of sap may rise 
 up from the root to keep alive the 
 upper part of the branches. Where 
 hedges are properly formed and kept, 
 they can very seldom require to be 
 plashed ; but this mode of treating a 
 hedge is most valuable in the cases 
 of hedges abounding with hedge-row 
 trees, when from neglect, or from 
 any other cause, the hedge has be- 
 come of irregular growth. 
 
 PLASTER. A mixture of burned 
 plaster of Paris with water, which 
 sets with great rapidity, and is used 
 in moulding and the finer work of 
 plasterers. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS. Gypsum, 
 which see. 
 
 PLASTIC. Capable of being 
 moulded, adhesive. 
 
 PLATBAND. A square moulding, 
 projecting from the wall less than its 
 width. 
 
 PLATE. In building, a timber ly- 
 ing horizontally on a wall to receive 
 the ends of girders, joists, rafters, &c. 
 
 PLATFORM. A level structure 
 of any materials, to receive a super- 
 incumbent building. 
 
 PLATINUM, PLATINA. An ex- 
 
 D D D 
 
 pensive metal, of the appearance of 
 silver, but very infusible, and of spe- 
 cific gravity 21-5. It resists most 
 chemical reagents, and is used in 
 chemistry for crucibles, and in foil 
 and wire for numerous purposes. 
 The bichloride of platinum, dissolved 
 in alcohol, forms insohil)lc salts with 
 chloride of potash, or annnonia, but 
 not with soda, and is used to separate 
 the former alkalies from the latter. 
 PL.\TYPH YLLUM. The Katydid, 
 
 wllictl SG6. 
 
 PLATYSO.MES, PLATYSOMA. 
 A family of coleoptera with wide and 
 fiat bodies, living under the bark of 
 trees. 
 
 PLEASURE GROUNDS. 
 Grounds laid out in shrubberies, 
 groups of trees, winding walks, and 
 lawns. 
 
 PLESIO.MORPHISM (from K^.T^ai- 
 of, near, and /J.op(p7], form). A terra 
 used to denote a similarity between 
 different crystals in their angles, but 
 not an identity. 
 
 PLETHORA. A fulness of the 
 circulatory system, almost amount- 
 ing to disease, and calling for bleed- 
 ing. 
 
 PLEURA. The serous membrane 
 surrounding the cavity of the chest, 
 lungs, and heart ; it consists of two 
 parts, which are united along the 
 middle, and forms the mcdmslinum. 
 Its inflammation is called pleurilis, or 
 pleurisv. 
 
 PLICIPENNATES, PLICIPEN- 
 NES. Neuropterous insects, the in- 
 ferior wings of many of which are 
 larger than the upper pair, and are 
 folded lengthwise, as the caddis flies. 
 
 PLINTH. The lowest form or 
 member of the base of a column, of 
 a square figure and small height. 
 
 PLIOCENE. The uppermost por- 
 tion of the tertiary formation, con- 
 taining recent fossils, for the most 
 part. 
 
 PLOTTING. In surveying, laying 
 down on paper the angles and lines 
 measured to calculate the contents 
 of a given tract ; it is done with a 
 protractcr or plotting scale. 
 
 PLOTTING SCALE. "It con- 
 sists of two graduated ivory scales, 
 589 
 
PLO 
 
 PLO 
 
 one of which is perforated nearly its 
 wliolc length by a dovctail-shapcd 
 groove, for tiic reception of a sliding 
 piece, to which tiic second scale is 
 attached, and with which it moves, 
 the edge of the second being always 
 at rijiht angles to the edge of the first. 
 By this means the rectangular co-or- 
 dinates of a point are measured at 
 once on the scales, or tlie position 
 of the point laid down on the plan." 
 — (Braude's Encyclopccdia.) 
 
 PLOUGH AND PLOUGHINCx. 
 " Before we enter into any details, it 
 may be as well that we describe the 
 difl'erent essential parts of a plough 
 by the names which are usually given 
 to them. 
 
 " The body of a plough is that part 
 to vvhi(,'h all the other parts are at- 
 tached. The bottom of it is called 
 the sole, or slade, to the fore part of 
 which is affixed the point, or share ; 
 the hind part of the sole is called the 
 heel. The beam, which advances for- 
 ward from the body, serves to keep 
 the plough in its proper direction, and 
 to the end of it are attached the oxen 
 or horses which are employed to 
 draw it. Fixed in the beam, in a 
 vertical position, before the point of 
 the share, with its point a little for- 
 ward, is the coidler, which serves to 
 cut a vertical section in the ground, 
 while the point of the share, expand- 
 ing into a fin, separates a slice by a 
 horizontal cut from the solid ground 
 under it. The mould-hoard, or turn- 
 furrow, is placed obliquely behind the 
 fin, to the right or left, in order to 
 push aside and turn over the slice of ^ 
 earth which the coulter and share 
 have cut off: it thus leaves a regular 
 furrow wherever the plough has pass- 
 ed, which furrow is intended to be 
 filled up by the slice cut olTfrom the 
 land by the side of it when the plough 
 returns. The stilts or handles, of 
 E 
 
 Fig. 1 
 C 
 
 which there may be either one or two, 
 as is thought more convenient, direct 
 the plough by keeping it in the line 
 required, and at a regular depth in 
 the ground. The single stilt appears 
 to be the most ancient form. 
 
 " Wheels are a modern invention 
 in.com|)arison with the other parts. 
 They support the end of the beam, 
 and prevent it from going too deep 
 into the ground, or rising out of it 
 while the plough is going on. The 
 greatest improvements introduced 
 into modern ploughs are in the shape 
 of the mould-board or turn-furrow, 
 of which we shall take particular no- 
 tice, and the contrivances for regu- 
 lating the line of draught, so as to 
 make the plough go at an equal depth, 
 and cut off a regular slice of equal 
 breadth without any great force being 
 applied by the ploughman who holds 
 the stilts. 
 
 " The ploughs in use in different 
 countries in Europe have undergone 
 little change for many centuries ; it 
 is only lately that any attempt has 
 been made to vary the old forms. 
 
 "The Roman plough, such as is 
 described by Virgil in the ' Georgics' 
 (i., 169), is still used in many parts of 
 France, under the name of Araire 
 Komain. It consists of a beam {te- 
 mo), a body {buris), a share {vomer), 
 and a handle or stilt {stiva). The of- 
 fice of the turn- furrow is performed 
 by two pieces of wood, about six inch- 
 es long, projecting obliquely upward, 
 and very properly called teeth {denla- 
 lia), E F {Fig. 1). The sole of the 
 plough, A B, has two pieces of wood, 
 G G and D H, fi.xed to it on each 
 side, forming an acute angle with it, 
 in which the teeth are inserted. This 
 exactly answers the description of 
 Virgil, ' Duplici aptantur dentalia dor- 
 so' (the teeth are fitted to the double 
 back). 
 
 590 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 " These teeth help to push aside 
 the earth to the right and left, and 
 the instrument resembles what is 
 called a inouldin;? plough, which is 
 used in throwinj; the soil aside against 
 young plants growing in rows, as tur- 
 nips, potatoes, &.C. A chain or pole 
 connected with the end of the beam, 
 was hooked to the middle of the yoke 
 on the neck of the oxen, and thus the 
 plough went on making parallel fur- 
 rows, so near to each other that the 
 preceding furrow was partially filled 
 with the earth which the dentalia 
 pushed aside. The point was in the 
 shape of the head of a lance. This 
 plough might suffice in liL'ht, mellow 
 soils which had been long in cultiva- 
 tion, and had more the texture of 
 garden mould than of stubborn clay. 
 
 " The small, double mould-board 
 plough, common in other parts of 
 France, is evidently taken from this. 
 The teeth not being sufficiently 
 strong, a slanting board was sul)sti- 
 tnted on each side, and wheels were 
 added, to diminish the labour of the 
 ploughman. The stdt remained the 
 same at the place where it is attach- 
 ed to the plough, but higher up it was 
 divided into two, like a fork, for the 
 convenience of holding it with both 
 hands. This plough acts exactly like 
 the other, but it is stronger and better 
 adapted for heavier land. Neither of 
 them goes much deeper than four or 
 five inches, leaving shallow parallel 
 ridges, in which the seed falls, and is 
 buried by light wooden harrows, 
 which are drawn over the land after 
 sowing. This is an imperfect till- 
 age, the bottoms of the furrows being 
 only partially stirred. The broad, flat 
 share, and the single mould-board, 
 
 r:.,ugh. 
 
 which turns the earth completely 
 over, after lifting it up, is a far more 
 eflectual instrument, and has been 
 adopted wherever agriculture has 
 made any improvement. This plough 
 more nearly imitates the digging with 
 a spade, and the more perfect the imi- 
 tations, the better is the work. 
 
 " The mould-board of a modern 
 plough is either fixed on one side, or 
 made to be shifted from one side 
 to the other, or there are two mould- 
 boards, as in Barnaby and Mooer's 
 double mould-board plough, _/ig- 3. In 
 the first case, one half the furrow sli- 
 ces lie on one side, and half on the oth- 
 er, and there is of necessity a double 
 furrow where they join. When it is 
 desirable that the surface should be 
 quite flat, and the furrow-slices all in 
 one direction, the mould-board must 
 be shifted at every turn, and a plough 
 which admits of this is called a turn- 
 wrest plough, or there must be two 
 boards. 
 
 "The form of the turn- furrow is of 
 material importance, for on this de- 
 pends not only the perfection of the 
 work, but also the lightness of the 
 draught. When we follow a plough 
 working in a mellow soil which slight- 
 ly adheres to the plough, we often 
 perceive that, instead of being turned 
 aside, the earth is carried forward, 
 and only falls off when the accunui- 
 lation of it becomes heavy enough 
 to overcome the adhesion. It does 
 not slido ofT from the mould-board it- 
 self, but separates from the earth 
 which adheres to the latter: thus 
 showing that the shape is defective, 
 and giving good hints for its improve- 
 ment. But as the same plough will 
 sometimes turn over the same earth 
 591 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHLNG. 
 
 better when it is either drier or moist- 
 er, it is very ciifncult to determine, 
 by ex|>eriinent only, wimt may, on 
 the whole, be the i)est sliape. A lit- 
 tle relieclion, and the application of 
 scientilic jjrinciples may greatly as- 
 sist us here. It is not suflicient, 
 however, to find the curve which 
 will make the plough go tlirough the 
 
 ground with the least force. The 
 plough must also perform its work 
 perfectly, and if anything is to be 
 sacrificed, it is better to employ more 
 power than to plough the ground 
 badly. After liaving ascertained the 
 mechanical principles which bear on 
 the working of the plough, we must 
 observe its action carefully, follovvr 
 the plough day after day, in different 
 soils and diderent weatlier, and thus 
 we may be led to observe all the cir- 
 cumstances which attend its opera- 
 tion, and correct any mistakes which 
 an erroneous theory might have led to. 
 " Many attempts have been made 
 to ascertain the exact curve which 
 the turn-furrow should have to per- 
 form the work well, ^nd at the same 
 time to produce the least resistance. 
 The difficulty of the problem lies in 
 determining the data, or principles 
 on which the investigation is found- 
 ed ; and these are so various that it 
 is not surprising that no very satis- 
 factory conclusion has yet been ob- 
 tained. We will make an attempt at 
 a solution from a simple examination 
 of the motion to be produced in the 
 portion of earth to be turned, which 
 we call the furrow-slice. We shall 
 suppose this separated from the ad- 
 jacent soil by the vertical cut of the 
 coulter, and, at the same time, from 
 the subsoil by the horizontal cut of 
 the share : a section of the slice, by 
 a plane at right angles to the line of 
 the ploughing, will be a parallelo- 
 gram A B D C (Fig. 4), the depth, 
 Fig-. 4. 
 
 692 
 
 C D 6 6' 
 
 A C, being the thickness of the slice, 
 and A B its width. Confining our at- 
 tention to this section of the slice, 
 the object is to move it from its po- 
 sition, A B D C, as cut off by the 
 coulter and share, to that of b' d' c' a', 
 where it is inclined at an angle of 
 45^ to the horizontal line, the surface, 
 A B (i' a'), being laid on the slice 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 previously turned over, so as to bury 
 the grass or weeds winch might be 
 I rooted there, exposing the roots to 
 I the sun and air. The more uniform- 
 f' ly this motion is produced, and the 
 more regularly the successive sec- 
 tions follow each other, the less pow- 
 er will be required to turn over the 
 whole slice. The motion of C D 
 round the point D must therefore be 
 uniform. If the turn-furrow is hori- 
 zontal at the point where it joins the 
 share, and of the same width as tlio 
 furrow-slice, it will slide under the 
 slice ; and if the vertical sections of 
 its upper surface, at equal distances 
 from the share, are inclined at an- 
 gles regularly increasing with this 
 distance till it arrives at the perpen- 
 dicular, the turn-furrow will, as it 
 advances, turn the slice from a hori- 
 zontal to a perpendicular position ; 
 the section of it will then be Dc ab. 
 The inclination of the section of the 
 turn-furrow must now be to the oth- 
 er side, forming an obtuse angle with 
 the section of the sole, until it has 
 pushed the slice over at the required 
 inclination of 45°, which theory and 
 experience have shown to be the 
 best adapted to expose the greatest 
 surface to the action of the atmo- 
 sphere, and likewise to form the most 
 regular furrows for the reception of 
 the seed, which the harrow can then 
 most readily bury. 
 
 " Tlie surface of this turn-furrow 
 is curved in the form of the spiral 
 
 thread of a screw, such as would be 
 generated by a line moved uniformly 
 forward in a direction at right angles 
 to its length, while it revolved uni- 
 formly round one of its extremities. 
 This surface is easily constructed 
 mechanically thus : take a rectangu- 
 lar parallelogram, A B C D {Fig. 5), 
 
 Fi;,'. 5. 
 A B 
 
 of the width of nine inches, or as 
 wide as the intended furrow, and of 
 a length equal to four times the width. 
 Bisect B C in E, and D C in F ; at 
 F raise a perpendicular F G to the 
 plane of the rectangle, and make it 
 equal to C E. Join E G and produce 
 it to K, making F K equal to F E. 
 Join K D. Draw from every point 
 in C U lines at right angles to C D, 
 meeting the line E K in different 
 points ; these lines will form the re- 
 quired surface. The line K D will 
 be found inclined 45^ to the horizon, 
 at the angle K D H, which is the in- 
 clination at which the furrow-slice is 
 most advantageously laid. To those 
 who are not familiar with solid geom- 
 etry, these lines may be easily ex- 
 hibited, by means of a wire inserted 
 at E, and bent at a right angle at K, 
 B 
 
 <\\\\\ll//////. 
 
 F 
 / U Fig. 6. 
 
 inserting the bent portion into the 
 board A B C D {Fig. 6) at D, so that 
 it shall be inclined 45- at D, lying in 
 the direction of E K, in Fis:^. 5 and 
 6. Care must be taken that G F be 
 equal to C E, and perpendicular to 
 the board. 
 
 " It is evident that, as the plough 
 moves on. a particle at E will slide 
 alon'.r the line E K. become at G per- 
 pendicular to the bottom of the turn- 
 
 D D D 2 
 
 furrow, which should be parallel to 
 the sole, and at K be at an angle of 
 45^ with that line. If the slice were 
 a solid substance, this line, E K, 
 would be all that is required to turn 
 it in its proper position ; but as the 
 soil is generally loose, and would 
 crumble to pieces, a support must be 
 given to it by a surface at least as 
 wide as the slice. This surface is 
 generated by drawing lines from dif- 
 593 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 fcrent parts of D C at rijj^ht angles to ] at 45° beyond it at D. The curve 
 
 this hnc. and meeting the line K E 
 (,Fiff. 7). These lines will be at dif- 
 Horizontal Plan of the Plough. 
 
 A B, the Sole. C, the Fin. D C, the bottom 
 of the Turn-furrow. 
 
 ferent angles to the horizon, nearly 
 horizontal at C, where the fin of the 
 point begins, perpendicular at F, and 
 Sections of the three different Turn-furrows, at different distances from the Heel 
 
 thus generated will be found to turn 
 over soils of a moderate tenacity 
 very perfectly. If it is very light, 
 the surface may be formed by arcs 
 of circles with a considerable diame- 
 ter, the concave part upward ; if it is 
 very tenacious, the convex part of 
 the arches may be upward. Thus the 
 surface may be varied without alter- 
 ing the ti\ed line E K. The annexed 
 figures (8, 9, and 10) will explain this. 
 The distance of the perpendicular F G 
 from the lin of the share may also be 
 varied, either lengthening or short- 
 ening the turn-furrow as experience 
 may show to be most advantageous. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 " A plough has lately been con- 
 structed on this principle ; it prom- 
 ises to realize the expectations form- 
 ed of it. In soils of a loose, mellow 
 nature it answers completely, and 
 does the work more perfectly than 
 any other plough. It unites the par- 
 allelism of the sole and bottom of the 
 turn-furrow of the Flemish plough 
 with the improved shape of the turn- 
 furrow. By adopting the variations 
 in the shape of the turn-furrow which 
 we have suggested, this plough may 
 be adapted to any soil, and be used 
 with or without wheels. 
 
 " Ploughs were formerly made of 
 wood, having those parts covered 
 with iron where the greatest friction 
 takes place, the share and coulter 
 only being of iron ; but in conse- 
 quence of the greater facility of cast- 
 ing iron in modern times, most of the 
 parts are now made of this metal. 
 The beam and stilts are still usually 
 of wood, but even these are now 
 sometimes made of wrought iron and 
 cast iron. The advantages of iron 
 
 A D 
 
 and consequent greater friction of 
 the sole. Recent experiments have 
 proved this to be greater than was 
 generally suspected. A great im- 
 provement has been introduced by 
 making the points of the shares of 
 cast iron, which, by a mode of cast- 
 ing the lower surface on a plate of 
 metal, makes one surface much hard- 
 er than the other ; and as the softer 
 surface wears more rapidly, a sharp 
 edge is always preserved. 
 
 " The stilts of the plough are most- 
 ly of wood. Where the soil is light 
 and crumbling, without stones, a sin- 
 gle handle or stilt is sufficient ; but 
 where some force is occasionally re- 
 quired to prevent stones or other ob- 
 stacles from turning the plough out 
 of its course, two stilts are most con- 
 venient, placed at a more obtuse an- 
 gle with the sole of the plough. 
 
 "The force required to draw a 
 plough depends, not only on the na- 
 ture of the soil, but also on the shape 
 of the plough, and especially on the 
 position of its difTerent parts with re- 
 
 are its durability and the smaller fric- | spect to each other, so that they do 
 tion it occasions when once polished | not counteract each other, 
 by use. The inconveniences are the " If a plough w'ere drawn in the di- 
 additional weight of the instrument, J rectioa of the sole, the obliquity of 
 594 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 the turn-furrow would cause it to 
 turn towards one side, and it would 
 require a considerable force to keep 
 it straight. In order to prevent this, 
 the line of draii<ilit is placed at an 
 angle, which vaiics with that of the 
 turn-furrow and liie force recjuired 
 to push the furrow-slice over. To 
 adjust this angle, so as to cause the 
 plough to keep in the intended line, 
 there is a contrivance at the end of 
 the beam to cliange the position of 
 the ring by which the plough is drawn 
 to the right or lelt of the line of the 
 beam, and another by which it may 
 be raised or lowered. In most ploughs 
 the beam, having been originally set 
 at a small angle with the sole towards 
 the right, has an arch of wood or 
 iron at the end, as in the annexed 
 Fig. An iron, shaped as in Fig. 13, 
 
 Fig. 11 
 
 is made to embrace the beam, to 
 which it is attached by a pin {a), round 
 
 Fi^.l2. J 
 
 which it turns as a centre. Another 
 pin (i) passes through one of the 
 holes in the circular end, and keeps 
 the iron in any required position to 
 the right or left of the line of the 
 beam. The end of this iron, which 
 is called a bridle or clevis, has sev- 
 eral projecting hooks in the ol)long 
 curve which terminates it, on which 
 an iron ring is hung at different 
 heights. By these contrivances the 
 plough maybe drawn from a point on 
 either side of the beam, and higher 
 or lower, as may be required. When 
 
 the plough is found to take too much 
 land, as ploughmen say, that is, tends 
 to increase the width of the slice cut 
 off by the coulter, the bridle is shifted 
 to the left by moving the pin (4) into 
 another hole ; when it goes out of the 
 land, as it is called, that is, diminishes 
 the width of tlie furrow-slice, the pin 
 is moved a hole or two to the right, 
 until the [ilough has no tendency to 
 deviate to either side. If it inclines 
 to rise out of the ground, tlie ring is 
 shifted in the iron bridle, and placed 
 in a hook or notch higher up ; if, on 
 the contrary, it dips too deep, the 
 ring is hooked lower. Thus a plough 
 may be made to go straight and at a 
 regular depth, without any more force 
 being applied to the stilts than is re- 
 quired to counteract inequalities in 
 the land, or accidental obstacles, such 
 as stones or roots, which might throw 
 the plough out of the ground. When 
 the soil is of unequal texture, it is 
 useful to have a small wheel con- 
 nected with the fore part of the beam, 
 so as to prevent its dipping down- 
 ward, which would require a great 
 pressure on the stilts to keep the 
 point of the share up, and thus in- 
 crease the friction of the sole on the 
 ground, and, consequently, the labour 
 of the horses. In the Rutland plough, 
 two wheels are connected with the 
 beam, one of which runs in the fur- 
 row to the right, and the other on the 
 unploughed soil to the left. When 
 the plough has been well adjusted, 
 and the larger wheel runs in the angle 
 of the furrow, it acts as a gauge to 
 regulate the width of the slice, as 
 well as its depth ; in very uniform 
 soils without stones, the plough, when 
 set in the proper direction, will make 
 a very straight and even furrow, par- 
 allel to the one in which the wheel 
 runs, without any person holding the 
 stilts ; so that all that is required is 
 to turn the plough at the end of each 
 furrow, and set it into the proper line 
 to form the next. As this admits of 
 a very correct adjustment, no unne- 
 cessary force is required to draw the 
 plough, and hence this plough appears 
 to be the easiest for the horses ; and 
 if the wheels are not very heavy, and 
 595 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 the plough is of a good form, it certainly re- 
 quires less power to move it than many which 
 596 
 
 are without wlieels. There 
 are some very irregular and 
 stony soils, where a common 
 swing -plough can scarcely 
 be kept steady without the 
 help of wlieels, and where it 
 would not be so convenient 
 to have the beam fixed on 
 the wheels. In this case, a 
 separate carriage is neces- 
 sary, that the ploughman 
 may have a fulcrum on which 
 he can raise his plough, or 
 turn it to either side to avoid 
 any considerable stone or 
 other obstacle. As a gen- 
 eral rule, it may be safely 
 asserted that a slight but 
 strong swing-plough, in the 
 hands of a clever ploughman 
 — with one wheel in partic- 
 ular soils, but, in general, 
 without any wheel — will ef- 
 fect its purpose with the 
 greatest precision, and the 
 least exertion of the horses 
 drawing it. Theory and prac- 
 tice agree in this ; and if any 
 experiments appear to throw 
 a doubt upon it, we siiall 
 probably find some circum- 
 stances which have influen- 
 ced the result, when wlieel- 
 ploughs have appeared to re- 
 quire the least power of 
 draught. But wheels have 
 one advantage — they will en- 
 able an inferior ploughman 
 to make better work than lie 
 could possibly do without 
 them ; and that, too, with 
 less labour to the horses, be- 
 cause, from his want of skill, 
 the swing-plough would be 
 continually subject to sud- 
 den deviations, requiring him 
 to use his strengtli to coun- 
 teract them ; and each exer- 
 tion of the ploughman adds 
 to the labour of the horses." 
 The numbers in the fol- 
 lowing table show the com- 
 parative draught of the same 
 ploughs in different soils ; 
 they are from Mr. Pusey's 
 experiments : 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 . 17 J stom 
 . 4T| " 
 . 16* " 
 • 3I5 " 
 . 28$ "- 
 . 20 " 
 
 Trial 1. Sandy loam 
 " 2. Clay loam . 
 " 3. Loamy sand 
 " 4. Strong- loam 
 " 5. Clay loam . 
 " 6. Miwry soil . 
 
 " Without enterin<j into any com- 
 parison of ploughs differently con- 
 structed, it is evident that the shape 
 of the plough must vary with the na- 
 ture of the soil which it is to turn up. 
 
 A light soil must be shovelled up ; 
 a mellow one may be turned over 
 with any kind of mould-board ; a very 
 stiff, tenacious soil, which adheres to 
 any surface pressed ajiainst it, will 
 be more easily turned over by a few 
 points of contact which do not allow 
 of adhesion."' Where the soil is a 
 stiff, moist clay, the skeleton plough 
 of Finlayson {Fig. 14) is drawn with 
 
 half the force necessary for a com- 
 mon implement. This plough is used 
 to some extent in the upper prai- 
 rie lands, the beam being modified. 
 " Hence the point and turn-furrow 
 have been made of all imaginable 
 shapes, and while one man contends 
 for a very concave form, another will 
 admit of nothing which is not very 
 convex. That plough will, no doubt, 
 have the least draught which is best 
 suited to the soil which it has to 
 move. The lighter the plough is, 
 consistently with sufficient strength, 
 the less draught it requires, all other 
 circumstances remaining the same. 
 Lightness and strength combined are, 
 consequently, great advantages, and 
 if a very light plough does its work 
 as well as a heavier, there can be no 
 doubt that it is preferable. DurabiK 
 ity is nothing compared with the sa- 
 ving of one horse in three ; it is 
 cheaper to have a new plough every 
 year than to keep an additional horse 
 all the year. If a wooden plough is 
 found to be more easily moved than 
 an iron one, there can be no doubt 
 which should be preferred. 
 
 "The Flemish plough is made of 
 wood, and is very light ; the share 
 and coulter only are of iron, besides 
 a thin sheet of iron over the mould- 
 board, which is shaped as if it had 
 been rolled obliquely over a cylinder, 
 a shape well adapted to sandy soils. 
 In ploughing land which is more or 
 less mellow and crumbling, the great 
 object is to bring to the surface that 
 portion which has lain buried, and 
 has not served to nourish the pre- 
 ceding crop, and to bury that which 
 has produced vegetation, and in which 
 the roots of various weeds have estab- 
 lished themselves. When manure 
 is to be covered with a certain depth 
 of earth, a more complete subversion 
 is required, in order that no part of 
 it may remain uncovered. When the 
 land is in a compact state, from the 
 roots which pervade it, and it is only 
 ploughed once to prepare it for re- 
 ceiving the seed, much greater nicety 
 is required to lay the slices at a cer- 
 tain angle, so as to leave regular 
 lines or depressions in which the 
 seeds may fall and be regularly cov- 
 ered by the harrows which follow. 
 5D7 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING 
 
 In tliis case, the angle of 15° is found 
 to be tlie uiost convenient at which 
 the furrow-sUces may 1)0 laid against 
 one another. The licld will then 
 have the appearance of being laid in 
 small ridges, as in the annexed figure, 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 all towards the same side if ploughed 
 with a double mould-board plough, or 
 towards a middle line if a plough with 
 a fixed turn-furrow has been used. 
 To produce this regularity, the end 
 of the turn-furrow is made to press 
 on the slice turned over ; and some 
 ploughmen fi.x a piece of wood or iron 
 to the end of the turn-furrow, which 
 makes a groove in the furrow-slice 
 at the place where the next one will 
 be laid upon it. This prevents use- 
 less openings between the slices. It 
 adds, no doubt, to the draught, but it 
 makes better and neater work. 
 
 " When the seed is to be dibbled 
 on the sward, which is reversed by a 
 single ploughing, it is necessary that 
 the sod should be completely turned 
 over and laid flat. To do this, and 
 at the same time to bury all the grass, 
 requires the furrows to be very equal 
 and parallel ; so that when a roller 
 has gone over the land, it is perfectly 
 fiat, without any interstices between 
 the slices which ar6 turned over. It 
 requires a good ploughman to do this 
 perfectly. 
 
 " When clover ley or old grass is 
 ploughed up, it is difficult to bury all 
 the grass which grows on the edge of 
 tlie slice ; and if it remains exposed, 
 it will grow and increase, to the detri- 
 ment of the corn. To prevent this, a 
 wing is sometimes added to the side 
 of the coulter, a few inches from the 
 point. It cuts a small horizontal slice 
 (iff the surface before the sod is turn- 
 ed over, and this falls into the bot- 
 tom of the furrow, and is buried there. 
 l"he coulter with such a wing is called 
 a skim-coulter, because it, as it were, 
 skims the surface {Figs. 16 and 17). 
 This instrument may require an ad- 
 .538 
 
 ditional horse to be put to the plough 
 in tenacious soils, but this cannot be 
 avoided. There is no doubt that no 
 more horses should be put to a plough 
 than can do the work ; but whatever 
 be the number required, the work 
 must be done well. There is no sav- 
 ing in doing the work imperfectly. 
 The discussion about the number of 
 horses which should draw a plough 
 might easily be settled, if the nature 
 of the soil were sufficiently taken 
 into consideration. The shape of the 
 plough may make some difference, 
 but the tenacity of the soil makes a 
 much greater. It is, however, not a 
 little surprising that there should be 
 so little variety in the width of the 
 furrows. It would appear as if there 
 were a law prohibiting furrows less 
 than eight inches wide, or more than 
 ten : a furrow-slice five inches wide 
 and ten deep requires no more pow- 
 er than one ten inches wide and five 
 deep. It is true that a plough will 
 not do more than half an acre at most 
 in a day with narrow furrows ; but, 
 if two horses will do this, and two 
 ploughs instead of one be used, with 
 one man and two horses each, an 
 acre will be ploughed in a day with 
 four horses and two men, which is 
 the number usually employed when 
 the furrows are deep and nine or ten 
 inches wide ; but the land will be 
 much better stirred, and laid more 
 even. The Romans ploughed with 
 deep, narrow furrows, and varied the 
 width purposely, the better to pulver- 
 ize the soil. The plough need not be 
 narrower for this work ; for if the 
 first furrow be made wide enough, 
 the plough can deepen it by a second 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING, 
 
 turn in it, and a trench is formed in 
 which the next shce (alls, and is push- 
 ed aside by the tail of the turn-fur- 
 rows, so as to leave another trench 
 open ten inches wide. 
 
 " Suppose A B C D (Fig. 18) the 
 section of the first wide furrow, and a 
 slice, A E F B, is cut off the solid side 
 Fig. 18. 
 E A o D 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 J L_ 
 
 F It b C 
 
 of the land half the width of the 
 trench ; the mould-board pushes this 
 earth, after it has been turned over, 
 into the space, D C a i, marked with 
 the dotted line, and in doing so beats 
 and crumbles it, leaving a fresh 
 trench, abF E, equal to the first, and 
 so the whole field may he ploughed 
 without difficulty. In nine cases out 
 often, where the soil is properly cul- 
 tivated, and ploughed in a proper 
 state, this mode of ploughing would 
 be found a great improvement, and 
 equal to a trench ploughing, or sub- 
 soil ploughing. Where the farms are 
 email, and few horses are kept, deep 
 ploughing is not practicable with the 
 usual width of furrow ; but, with a 
 narrow furrow, the land may be 
 moved to a very great deptii with a 
 couple of horses. The plough must 
 be made sharp and narrow, and the 
 turn-furrow not much curved, so as 
 rather to push the earth aside than to 
 lift It. 
 
 " Very little attention was former- 
 ly paid to the straightness of the fur- 
 rows. It was natural to follow the 
 thapc of the boundary of the field, 
 which was seldom straight ; and this 
 practice increased gradually tUl no 
 straig'.it furrow was to be seen ; but 
 no curves can be laid so perfectly 
 
 parallel as two straight lines. Every 
 deviation from parallelism causes a 
 defect in the contact of the slices, 
 and a loss of force by the oblicpiity of 
 the draught. A superficial observer 
 would not perceive this, but minute 
 examination proves it. Hence equal 
 and straight furrows are a sign of 
 good ploughing. 
 
 " When tiic land lies on a dry sub- 
 soil, and no more moisture remains 
 in it, after continued rains, than is 
 useful to promote vegetation, it may 
 bo ploughed quite fiat. This may be 
 done by a plough with a double mould- 
 board, or by ploughing in a continued 
 spiral from tlie centre to the circum- 
 ference, or tiie reverse. In this case 
 straight furrows cannot be made. 
 The best way is to draw a furrow 
 the whole length of the field in the 
 middle, and plough towards this from 
 both sides. If the field is wide, it is 
 most convenient to plough it into sev- 
 eral broad stitches, each a certain 
 number of perclies in breadth. A 
 perch (16^ feet) is a very common 
 width for a stitch, or land, and con- 
 venient to guide the sower or the 
 drdling machine. 
 
 " But on moist, impervious subsoils 
 it is necessary to lay the land in a 
 rounded form, in order to let the 
 superfluous water run off into fur- 
 rows, from which it is conducted by 
 proper channels into the ditches. In 
 this case, half a perch is a common 
 width for each stitch, or land. It re- 
 quires some practice to lay up a land 
 in a rounded form from a llat sur- 
 face. After cross-ploughing and har- 
 rowing, the first furrow is drawn 
 wide and shallow, and the earth is 
 thrown upon the surface to the right : 
 when the plough returns, it takes an- 
 other furrow^ about nine or ten inch- 
 es from the first, laying the earth or 
 furrow-slice somewhat obliquely over 
 the first. At the next turn another 
 slice is laid, meeting the last at an 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 599 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 angle, the first slice being quite cov- 
 ered by the last two. This now 
 forms the crown of the ridge, and 
 the succeeding slices are laid oblique- 
 ly, leaning to the right and left, till 
 the required width is obtained. An- 
 other land is now begun at the dis- 
 tance of a quarter of a perch from 
 the last furrow, and laid exactly in 
 the same manner. When the two 
 lands meet, the intervening furrow, 
 which had been purposely left shal- 
 lower, is deepened, and there is a 
 furrow between every two lands, the 
 bottom of which is considerably be- 
 low the bottom of the other furrows. 
 When this licld is ploughed again af- 
 ter harvest, the work is reversed ; 
 the furrow between the lands is filled 
 ■\vith the first slice, and another is 
 placed over this, which now becomes 
 the crown of the land to be formed : 
 this is called ploughing crown and 
 furrow. When the lands are plough- 
 ed towards the crown, it is called 
 gathering. By gathering several 
 limes in succession, the soil is much 
 raised at the crown, at the expense 
 of the sides. This was the old prac- 
 tice, when lands were laid very wide 
 and very high ; in conmion fields the 
 land or stitch was often the whole 
 widtii of the possession, from which 
 came the name of land." 
 
 Every practical man will be pre- 
 pared to understand that the longer 
 his furrows are, the less loss is made 
 in turning ; but the amount of this 
 loss is much heavier than will be sup- 
 posed : according to Stephens, it is, 
 
 Len<'th 
 
 Breadth of 
 
 Time lost 
 
 Time de 
 
 Hours 
 
 or rutge. 
 
 slice. 
 
 inturnin!;. 
 
 plough- 
 
 ofwork. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Incites. 
 
 h. m. 
 
 h.m. 
 
 /.. 
 
 78 
 
 10 
 
 5 n 
 
 4 4 
 
 10 
 
 149 
 
 — 
 
 2 44 
 
 7 16 
 
 — 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 7 59 
 
 — 
 
 212 
 
 
 
 1 bU 
 
 8 3.V 
 
 — 
 
 274 
 
 — 
 
 1 26 
 
 8 32 
 
 — 
 
 " One of the most useful opera- 
 tions in ploughing land is to cross the 
 600 
 
 former furrows, by which means the 
 whole soil is much more completely 
 stirred ; and if any part has been left 
 solid without being moved by the 
 ploughshare, which is called a balk, 
 it is now necessarily moved. The 
 leaving of balks is a great fault, 
 and is owing to the sole of the 
 plough being narrower than the fur- 
 row-slice, and the wing of the point 
 too short, or to the ploughman not 
 holding his plough upright. The 
 share should cut the ground to the 
 whole width of the furrow, that no 
 roots of thistles, docks, or other large 
 weeds may escape and grow up again. 
 iMany ploughmen hold the plough in 
 an oblique position ; the bottom of the 
 furrow is consequently not level, and 
 the soil is not stirred equally. This 
 is a great fault, especially in wet 
 ground ; for the furrows thus become 
 channels, in which the water remains, 
 not being able to run over the in- 
 equalities of the bottom. It is of no 
 use to lay the surface convex if the 
 solid earth below lies in hollows or 
 gutters. The water naturally sinks 
 down into the newly-ploughed land, 
 till it meets the solid bottom which 
 the plough has gone over ; if it can 
 run over this into the deeper furrows 
 between the stitches, it evaporates or 
 runs off, and the land is left dry, and 
 so consolidated as to let the water 
 run along the surface without sink- 
 ing to any deptii ; but if the bottom 
 is uneven, it remains in the hollows, 
 and stagnates there, to the great in- 
 jury of the growing crops. 
 
 " There are various modes of 
 ploughing land when it is intended to 
 pulverize and expose it to the sun in 
 summer, or the frost in winter, to pu- 
 rify and fertilize it. To expose as 
 great a surface as possible, the whole 
 field is laid in high and narrow ridges, 
 bringing to the surface all the fertile 
 portion of the soil, and often, also, a 
 portion of the subsoil, so as to deep- 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 en the productive portion, and give 
 more room for the roots to spread in. 
 The simplest method of increasing 
 the surface exposed, when the land 
 is first broken up from pasture, or af- 
 ter liaving been some years in grass, 
 and is in a foul state, is called ribbing. 
 The plough turns up a slice, which it 
 lays over flat on the adjoining sur- 
 face. It does not cover this with the 
 next slice, as if it were beginning the 
 crown of a stitch, but it takes anotli- 
 er slice at some distance, and then 
 one parallel to the lirst, likewise laid 
 flat on the solid part. When the 
 whole field has been so ploughed, the 
 surface consists altogether of ridges 
 and furrows, but only half the sur- 
 face has been ploughed. No grass 
 appears ; if it has been well done, the 
 unploughed strips being covered by 
 the slices raised by the sides of them, 
 the two surfaces with grass on them 
 cover each other. It is left in this 
 state till the grass is rotten, and when 
 the sod is broken to pieces by heavy 
 drag harrows, the land can be cross- 
 ploughed and cleaned or fallowed in 
 dry weather. 
 
 " There is another mode ofridging, 
 when the land has had one or two 
 ploughings, in order to expose it to 
 t!ie frost in winter, and to mellow it. 
 The operation is somewhat similar 
 to ribbing, but after the first slice is 
 turned over, another is added, as 
 deep as the plough can be made to go 
 so as not to bring up the subsoil ; by 
 this means the whole surface is laid 
 in high ridges and deep furrows ; and 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 wlien this ploughing is reversed in 
 spring, the soil which has been ex- 
 posed to the frost and wind is mixed 
 with the rest, and lends greatly to 
 mellow it. This is an excellent prep- 
 aration for potatoes and roots, if the 
 land has been well cleaned. The 
 manure, being distributed in the deep 
 furrows, is covered by the plough 
 right and left, or at one operation by 
 a plough with a turn-furrow on each 
 side, which divides the ridge and lays 
 half of it ill each contiguous furrow. 
 
 E EE 
 
 : The plough is a double mould-board 
 plough, which is extremely useful ia 
 j many operations of husbandry. 
 ! " In order to save hands and ex- 
 : pedite the tillage of the land, ploughs 
 I have been contrived which make two 
 j or more furrows at once. "When they 
 are well constructed, they are very 
 useful on light soils. If it is not re- 
 quired to go deep, and two horses 
 can draw a double plough, there is a 
 decided saving of power ; but if it re- 
 I quires four horses, nothing is gained. 
 The double ploughs are therefore 
 not much in use. But there are in- 
 I strunients which cultivate the earth, 
 ' stirring and pulverizing it much more 
 speedily than the plough. Some of 
 these will stir the ground to the depth 
 of seven or eight inches, going over 
 a width of five or six feet at once. 
 Such an instrument is preferable to 
 the plough, after the ground has al- 
 ready had a certain degree of stirring, 
 and is become mellow and crumbling ; 
 but to break up pasture or clover ley 
 there is nothing so eflicacious as the 
 plough, which cuts regular slices, and 
 lays them over so that all the grass 
 shall rot, and the roots, being exposed 
 to the air, shall decay, and thus fur- 
 nish food for other crops. 
 
 " The instruments which have 
 been invented to save the time and 
 labour required by repeated plough- 
 ings are very numerous. Some of 
 the most useful have been noticed 
 before (see Arable Land.) A'ew ones 
 are daily invented, and some are sup- 
 ported by wheels, which render them 
 both lighter and more convenient. 
 They are easily raised out of the 
 ground, when not intended to work, 
 and the depth to which they are let 
 down is more easily regulated. 
 
 " Deep ploughing is generally ac- 
 knowledged to accord with the best 
 husbandry, where the subsoil is dry 
 naturally, or has been artificially 
 drained ; but some inconvenience 
 may arise from bringing a barren 
 subsoil to the surface, in trench- 
 ploughing, by two ploughs following 
 each other in the same furrow. It 
 has therefore been suggested to take 
 off the turn-furrow from the plough 
 601 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 which follows the first, so as to stir 
 the subsoil without bringing it to the 
 surface. Tliis idea has been im- 
 proved upon by constructing a sub- 
 soil plough of great strength, which 
 will go very deep into the ground, and 
 stir the subsoil a foot or more below 
 the bottom of the usual furrow. Mr. 
 Smith, of Deanstone, has invented 
 
 one made entirely of iron (Fig. 22). 
 This plough requires four horses in 
 the most favourable soils, and six in 
 tenacious clays, to keep up with the 
 common plough, which always should 
 precede it. Many improvements have 
 been made on Mr. Smith's original 
 implement ; that represented in Fig' 
 urc 23 is one of the best ; the three 
 
 points cut down the earth gradually, 
 and pulverize it thoroughly. Some- 
 times, however, the subsoil plough 
 may be used alone, where the surface 
 is already mellow and crumbling. 
 
 " Many different ploughs have been 
 invented for the purpose of saving la- 
 bour in draining land. See Draining 
 Plough. As they all cut out a slice 
 from the bottom of a furrow, and raise 
 it up to the surface of the ground, 
 they are of little use in crumbling 
 soils, and in the most tenacious re- 
 quire the assistance of much manual 
 labour to complete the work. They 
 act on the principle of the carpenter's 
 tool, by which a groove is formed in 
 tlie edge of planks or deals, when 
 they are intended to be joined close- 
 ly, as in a floor. This instrument is 
 also called a plough ; but the uniform 
 tenacity of the wood allows a narrow 
 chisel to cut an even, regular groove. 
 In the draining plough the two sides 
 of the drain arc to be cut obliquely 
 downward and the bottom scooped 
 out evenly. The plough requires to 
 602 
 
 be often adjusted, and the deep fur- 
 rows to be kept cleared from loose 
 earth by means of spades and scoops. 
 In this way drains may be made from 
 fifteen to eighteen inches deep, in 
 which loose stones or tiles may be 
 laid to form a channel for the water. 
 The expense is much less than when 
 the drains are made with the spade. 
 " ^^'hen grass land lies low and wet 
 on a very tenacious subsoil, a plough 
 is sometimes used which consists of 
 a cylinder of iron pointed at one end, 
 and connected with a strong beam by 
 a thick plate of iron, which is sharp 
 on the side nearest the point of the 
 cylinder, and acts as a coulter. This 
 instrument is forcibly drawn horizon- 
 tally through the stiff subsoil at a 
 depth of twelve to eighteen inches, 
 so as to leave a round channel like 
 a pipe where the cylinder has pass- 
 ed. This has been called a mole 
 plough, the passage made by it under 
 ground resembling the workings of a 
 mole. It takes six horses to draw 
 this plough when the cylinder is fif- 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 Lambert's Mole Plough. 
 
 teen inches under the surface, but is 
 the most easy and expeditious means 
 of temporarily draining land. It can 
 only be done when the soil is moist 
 and gives way without cracking, but 
 at that time the feet of the horses 
 greatly damage the surface. In con- 
 sequence of this, a windlass with a 
 long chain has been invented. The 
 drum, which is vertical, and round 
 which the chain is coiled, is turned 
 by a horse, who walks round and 
 round, while the whole apparatus is 
 kept in its place by means of au an- 
 chor fixed in the ground. It draws 
 the mole plough the length of the 
 chain, and is then moved forward on 
 small wheels while the chain uncoils. 
 As soon as the chain is all off the 
 drum, the anchor is refixed, and the 
 operation continues. This mode of 
 draining land has now been almost 
 entirely superseded by a more regu- 
 lar and permanent system of drain- 
 ing with stones or tiles. The chan- 
 nels made by the mole plough are 
 very apt to fill up in dry weather ; 
 and the mole takes advantage of a 
 
 ready-made passage to work in it, 
 stopping it purposely to retain water 
 and to form its nest. When this is 
 the case, the water rises to the sur- 
 face and does much harm. Nothing 
 but a fresh application of the mole 
 plough parallel to the old channels 
 can remedy this evil. 
 
 " Various ploughs have been con- 
 structed with the intention of dimin- 
 ishing the draught, or improving the 
 form of the turn-furrow ; but most of 
 them without much regard to scien- 
 tific principles, merely from a vague 
 notion founded on some real or sup- 
 posed defect in the ploughs in com- 
 mon use, or in order to adapt them 
 to particular soils and situations." 
 
 Of late, some have favoured the 
 idea that the introduction of a wheel 
 in the heel of the plough would di- 
 minish the draught by converting a 
 sliding into a rolling friction. The 
 figure, from Mr. ^^■ilkie's implement, 
 will explain the mechanism {Fig. 25). 
 In a public trial it was found to di- 
 minish the draught thirty per cent. 
 
 Burrell, of Geneva, New- York, and 
 
 other plough-wrights in the United 
 States, have patented friction-wheel 
 ploughs ; and in the case of Burrell's 
 shell -wheel plough, the draught by 
 the dynamometer, at the New-York 
 Agricultural Society's Fair, 1843, w^as 
 
 298 pounds, his own Geneva plough 
 drawing 100 pounds more. 
 
 Draught. — It is the custom at the 
 fairs of several agricultural associa- 
 tions, to have a trial of plouglis with 
 the dynamometer, whereby their com- 
 603 
 
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 
 
 parative draught is in some measure 
 ascertained. We are not, however, 
 to regard these as absolute quanti- 
 ties ; they are true only for the tin)0. 
 The adhesiveness of the soil, its state 
 of moisture, the depth of the furrow, 
 its width, and the pace of the horses, 
 are all sources of disturbance. Thus 
 we find, by comparing the different 
 results with the same implement, 
 that tlie Bergen plough, at Sing Sing, 
 drew 472 pounds, and the next year, 
 at Patterson, 350 pounds. The same 
 difference is seen in other cases ; how- 
 little these experiments can be taken 
 as a guide, appears from the fact that 
 ploughs, which at one season were 
 lowest on the list, take the prize the 
 next year. From these experiments 
 we gather, however, two miportant 
 facts, viz., that a two-horse plough 
 
 ought not to weigh more than 170 
 pounds, nor require, in a medium 
 soil, more than 450 poimds draught, 
 these numbers being the average re- 
 sults of the better kind of implements. 
 The length and sharpness of a plough 
 have much to do with its draught ; but 
 it is properly urged by practical men, 
 that such plouglis become difficult to 
 manage in rough lands or new fields, 
 the leverage of the body being too 
 great. It is in this respect that Amer- 
 ican ploughs differ so strikingly frcjm 
 Scotch and English implements : they 
 have a mellow, clean soil to till, we 
 a rough, stumpy soil. The accom- 
 panying figure gives a good general 
 outline of our best class of ploughs. 
 It is not, however, a good represen- 
 tation of Ruggles, Nourse, and Ma- 
 son's implements. 
 
 It would be very invidious to state 
 that any particular machine was the 
 best ; nor is it true, for, as is justly 
 remarked by Mr. Rham, the figure of 
 the plough must difTer with the soil, 
 and that is a bad one in any soil 
 wiiich either drags too heavily on the 
 horses, or does not fully tax their pow- 
 er. In a list I procured from ^^'ash- 
 ington of ploughs, I find 164 patented 
 since 1831. Of these, there are mark- 
 ed by Mr. Ellsworth as being good, 
 in his knowledge and experience, 
 Beat's, Moore's, Prouty and Mear's. 
 AVoodcock's, John Mear's ; and of my 
 knowledge I can recommend Barna- 
 hy and Mooer"s, Delano's, Bergen's, 
 Ruggles and Go's, centre draught, 
 the Wisconsin, Codding"s American, 
 Howard's, Eastman's, of Baltimore, 
 the Caledonia, Livingston County, 
 the iron beam, Burrell's Geneva and 
 shell-wheel ploughs, the Montgome- 
 ry County plough, and the Scotch 
 
 wrought-iron plough. The editor of 
 Johnson's Encyclopsedia also men- 
 lions Beech's, Miles's, Peacock's, and 
 Wiley's ploughs, besides which there 
 are numerous excellent implements 
 in the West and elsewhere. 
 
 Wiard, of Avon, Thorp, and other 
 instrument makers, have placed three 
 or four small ploughs on a frame, so 
 as to run as many furrows ; in light 
 sand soils, and for an after ploughing, 
 these may answer ; but if we have 
 to hitch on additional horses, there 
 is little gain. The shares of Lang- 
 don's cultivators are in some meas- 
 ure of the figure of mould-boards. 
 
 The table on the following page 
 will be found useful in showing the dis- 
 tance travelled by a horse in plough- 
 ing or scarifying an acre of land ; as 
 well as the quantity of land work- 
 ed in a da^ at the rate of sixteen 
 and eighteen miles per day of nine 
 hours. 
 
 604 
 
PLU 
 
 PLU 
 
 Urci.ltb of 
 F.irrowslice 
 or Scanlicr. 
 
 Spacetravel- 
 teil in pluu^li 
 
 Extent ploughed per Jay, 
 at llie rate of 
 
 Breadth of 
 Furrow-slice 
 or Scarifier. 
 
 Space travel- 
 led in plough 
 ,ng au acre. 
 
 Extent ploughed per day, 
 at the rate of 
 
 luches. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 18 Miles. 1 Iti Miles. 
 Acres. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 18 Miles. 1 16 Miles. 
 Acres. 
 
 7 
 
 »<V 
 
 1>4' 
 
 !.■« 
 
 46 
 
 2 16 
 
 »H 
 
 7 2-5 
 
 8 
 
 \f 
 
 IK 
 
 1^ 
 
 47 
 
 2 I-IO 
 
 8 
 
 7 :!-5 
 
 9 
 
 1 Js 
 
 48 
 
 2 112 
 
 8% 
 
 7M 
 
 10 
 
 9 9-10 
 
 145 
 
 135 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 8 9 10 
 
 7 9-10 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 l?-i 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 9 9 10 
 
 8 MO 
 
 IvI 
 
 *}i 
 
 - ';* 
 
 19-10 
 
 61 
 
 1910 
 
 9 1-5 
 
 8>4' 
 
 i:i 
 
 7« 
 
 
 2 1-10 
 
 52 
 
 1 9-10 
 
 9M 
 
 825 
 
 14 
 
 
 21; 
 
 2,V 
 
 53 
 
 19 10 
 
 m 
 
 15 
 
 6H 
 
 1^1 
 
 2 2-5 
 
 64 
 
 14-5 
 
 94-6 
 
 8 9-10 
 
 16 
 
 (.1-6 
 
 2 9-10 
 
 2 3-5 
 
 55 
 
 145 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 5H 
 &H 
 
 3 MO 
 
 2iW 
 
 66 
 
 IV 
 
 10,^ 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 Vi 
 
 2 9-10 
 
 57 
 
 13^ 
 
 10 2-5 
 
 9 1-5 
 
 19 
 
 f>fA 
 
 3J2 
 
 3 1-10 
 
 68 
 
 1 7-10 
 
 10 3-5 
 
 9« 
 
 20 
 
 4 9' 10 
 
 33 5 
 
 3¥ 
 3)5 
 
 69 
 
 1710 
 
 101^ 
 
 9hi 
 
 21 
 
 4 710 
 
 345 
 
 60 
 
 13-5 
 
 10 9-10 
 
 9 7 10 
 
 2i 
 
 4l.< 
 
 4 
 
 SK 
 
 61 
 
 135 
 
 11 1-5 
 
 9 4-5 
 
 23 
 
 ^"l 
 
 4 1-5 
 
 3 7-10 
 
 62 
 
 13-5 
 
 "« 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 ■«s 
 
 3 9-10 
 
 63 
 
 135 
 
 11>.< 
 
 10 1-5 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 - 4,C; 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 IK 
 
 117"10 
 
 lOK 
 
 26 
 
 3 4-5 
 
 *^Z 
 
 415 
 
 66 
 
 i% 
 
 11 4-5 
 
 \o}4 
 
 27 
 
 335 
 
 4!)-10 
 
 *}i 
 
 66 
 
 \}S 
 
 12 
 
 10 3 5 
 
 28 
 
 3K 
 
 s>i 
 
 *M 
 
 67 
 
 i>i 
 
 ux 
 
 10 4-5 
 
 29 
 
 3^ 
 
 64 
 «?4 
 
 43-5 
 
 68 
 
 1^ 
 
 12 2-5 
 
 U 
 
 30 
 
 3)3 
 
 44-5 
 
 69 
 
 12-5 - 
 
 12 3-5 
 
 nn 
 
 31 
 
 3 1-5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 12-5 
 
 ■ 12Ji 
 
 nn: 
 
 32 
 
 3 1-10 
 
 5 4-5 
 
 i 
 
 71 
 
 12-5 
 
 1-2 910 
 
 UK 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 125 . 
 
 iS}i 
 
 11 3-5 
 
 34 
 
 2 910 
 
 6 1-5 
 
 5>^ 
 
 73 
 
 1« 
 
 ^Vi 
 
 114 5 
 
 35 
 
 24 5 
 
 6K 
 
 5 3-5 
 
 74 
 
 1« 
 
 13K 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 2M 
 
 6^ 
 
 5 4-5 
 
 75 
 
 1« 
 
 13 3 5 
 
 12>< 
 
 37 
 
 2=5 
 
 6ii 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 13 10 
 
 13 4-5 
 
 i-^ia 
 
 38 
 
 2 35 
 
 6 9-10 
 
 ^H 
 
 77 
 
 1 3 10 
 
 14 
 
 12K 
 
 39 
 
 2M 
 
 7.V 
 
 7>a' 
 
 6M 
 
 78 
 
 Ik 
 
 i^X 
 
 12 is 
 
 40 
 
 2>.T 
 
 6^ 
 
 79 
 
 11 
 
 14 2-5 
 
 IZJi 
 
 41 
 
 2 -2 5 
 
 75^' ■ 
 
 6?3 
 
 80 
 
 14 3-5 
 
 12 9 10 
 
 43 
 
 
 7 
 
 81 
 
 11-5 
 
 U}i 
 
 13 110 
 
 4:i 
 
 •: 3-10 
 
 74-5 
 
 7 
 
 82 
 
 1 1-6 
 
 15 ■ 
 
 13>4' 
 
 44 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 110 
 
 83 
 
 11-5 
 
 is,V 
 
 13 2-5 
 
 45 
 
 ■2 1-5 
 
 8 1-6 
 
 7¥ 
 
 84 
 
 1 1-6 
 
 15.M 
 
 13 3 5 
 
 PLOUGHING. See Plough. 
 
 PLUG. " In buildins, a piece of 
 wood driven horizontally into a wall, 
 its end being then sawn away flush 
 with the wall, to afford a hold for the 
 nailing up of dressings." 
 
 PLUM. Prunus domestica. The 
 improved fruit : the following excel- 
 lent observations are chiefly from 
 Mr. Thomas : 
 
 Varieties. — " White Primordian, 
 Early Yellow, or Jaime Hative, is one 
 of the very earliest of plums, ripen- 
 ing in the middle of July, and is chief- 
 ly valuable on this account. It is a 
 small yellow fruit, a good bearer, with 
 a sweet taste, thougli not first-rate. 
 
 " Wilmot's Early Orleans. — This is 
 a large, flne fruit, ripening early in 
 August. 
 
 " Greengage. — This is generally 
 admitted to be the finest of ail plums ; 
 the fruit is of medium size, and 
 round ; the skin is yellowish green, 
 When fully ripe nearly yellow, »no^?/f(Z 
 with russety red near the stem ; 
 flesh melting, and of exquisite fla- 
 E E F. 2 
 
 vour. There are many varieties cul- 
 tivated in this state under the name 
 of greengage, which appear to have 
 originated from stones of the genuine 
 variety, but are greatly inferior in fla- 
 vour. 
 
 " Prince's Imperial Gage was ob- 
 tained from the seed of the green- 
 gage ; the fruit is imuch larger than 
 that of the greengage, and the tree 
 is very productive. Manning says 
 that this is ' the most productive 
 and profitable of all plums.' 
 
 " Orleans. — Fruit nearly round, 
 middle-sized or rather large, skin red- 
 dish purple, flesh yellow, firm, and 
 good, separating freely from the stone. 
 An excellent fruit, ripening about the 
 time of the greengage. 
 
 " Gifford's La Fayette was obtained 
 from the seed of the Orleans, and is 
 an excellent fruit, remarkable for the 
 richness and sprightlincss of its fla- 
 vour. 
 
 " Ruling's Superh. — Fruit very 
 large, often two inches or more in 
 length, not inferior in richness, but 
 605 
 
PLUM. 
 
 more acid than the grcenprage, of 
 very vigorous growth, and ot extraor- 
 dinary excellence. 
 
 " W(is/ii>ifrto?i. — Fruit oblong, very 
 large, orange yellow, with a fine blush 
 next the sun ; flesh yellow, firm, 
 sweet, and excellent. Though the 
 flavour of this is inferior to that of 
 some other varieties, it is highly es- 
 teemed as a first-rate plum. Ripens 
 about a week later than the Orleans. 
 
 " Impcratrice. — A good phim, ri- 
 pening in October. One of the best 
 late plums. 
 
 " Coe^s Golden Drop. — Fruit of large 
 size, skin golden yellow, spotted with 
 rich red next the sun, flesh yellow, 
 sweet, and delicious. Like the pre- 
 ceding, slightly necked next the stem, 
 a clingstone, and a great bearer. The 
 best late plum. The writer has 
 measured them more than 2i inches 
 long. 
 
 " The Egg Plum, or Yellow Mag- 
 num Bonum, is a very large plum, of 
 a sweet, agreeable flavour ; but, as 
 the texture is rather coarse, is chiefly 
 used for cooking and preserving. The 
 same remark applies to the Red Mag- 
 num Bonum, wliich is harsh and acid. 
 These two are admired as table-fruit 
 where finer varieties are unknown. 
 
 " The plum is propagated by bud- 
 ding or grafting. The former can 
 only be successfully practised on the 
 most thrifty stocks. 
 
 " The principal enemy to the plum 
 is the Curculio {likynchanus pruyii). 
 This is a small insect with an elon- 
 gated thorax and head, which resem- 
 bles a proboscis in appearance. The 
 whole insect is not more than a quar- 
 ter of an inch lung, of a dark brown 
 colour, the slieaths covering the 
 wings, slightly variegated with light- 
 er colours. It makes a small incis- 
 ion in the young fruit, and lays its 
 egg in the opening. Its presence 
 may now be perceived by examina- 
 tion, 36 these crescent-sliaped incis- 
 ions are very easily seen. The egg 
 soon hatches into a small white worm, 
 which penetrates deeper and feeds 
 upon the fruit, causing it to fall pre- 
 maturely to the ground, or if it ripens, 
 it is unsound. The worm, when the 
 606 
 
 [ fruit falls, makes its way into the 
 earth, where it remains through win- 
 I ter, as is supposed, in the pupa state, 
 to be transformed the succeeding 
 spring into a perfect insect, and thus 
 perpetuate its race. The easiest and 
 most effectual way to destroy them 
 is to confine a sufficient number of 
 swine with the trees, to eat all the 
 injured fruit which falls. When this 
 has been pursued perseveringly, it has 
 proved completely successful. To 
 render this operation easy and effect- 
 ual, all trees which are liable to at- 
 tacks of the curculio should be plant- 
 ed separately, so that they may be 
 enclosed apart for the confinement 
 of the swine. 
 
 " Another remedy is to spread 
 white sheets under the tree and jar 
 it briskly. The insects immediately 
 drop upon the sheet, and remain mo- 
 tionless a few seconds, during which 
 time they may be destroyed. The 
 operation should be repeated two or 
 three times a day so long as any re- 
 main. This remedy rarely fails if thor- 
 oughly and unremittingly pursued. 
 
 "Trees near path doors, paved 
 yards, and other frequented places, 
 are frequently observed to be full of 
 fruit, while others are all destroyed. 
 Hence favourite trees of the plum, 
 nectarine, or apricot may be often 
 planted to advantage near such fre- 
 quented places, and the fruit will es- 
 cape. The black excrescences on 
 the branches of the plum may be pre- 
 vented by a constant and vigorous 
 excision of tlie affected parts, and 
 burning them as fast as they ap- 
 pear. 
 
 "The plum is by some cultivators 
 regarded as only fitted for heavy or 
 clay soils, and some striking instan- 
 ces are given in proof; but the wri- 
 ter has seen trees in abundant bear- 
 ing year after year, and yielding fruit 
 of the finest quality, on light or sandy 
 soils. A porous earth may possibly 
 furnish a better retreat for the cur- 
 culio ; but to what extent this may be 
 true requires farther examination." 
 
 The plum is often brought into 
 bearing by root pruning, horizontal 
 training, and similar expedients. The 
 
POD 
 
 POI 
 
 lime compost used by Mr. Pell is very f dine birds, in which the web of the 
 
 serviceable 
 
 PLL'.MBAGO. Native carburet of 
 iron ; black-lead. 
 
 PLU.MULA. The leaf-like portion 
 of the embrj'o. 
 
 PLUS. More : marked by the 
 S!gn + 
 
 foot is not perfect. 
 
 POIKILITIC. Variegated. In ge- 
 ology, the new red sandstone foriiia- 
 tion. 
 
 POINTS OF LIVE STOCK. "The 
 first point to be ascertained in exam- 
 ining an ox is the purity of its breed, 
 
 PLUTONIC ROCKS. Unstratified I whatever that breed may be. The 
 crystalline rocks, like granite, por- ascertainment of the purity of the 
 phyry, basalt. breed will give the degree of the di.s- 
 
 PLU VIA.METER. The rain position to" fatten in the individuals 
 
 gauge. 
 
 PNEUMATICS. The science 
 which treats of the mechanical char- 
 acters of gases and vapours. 
 
 PNEUMATIC TROUGH. A 
 chemical utensil used for the collec- 
 tion of gases over water or fluids. 
 It consists of a vessel of tin or wood 
 containing water, in which is placed 
 one or more ledges, within two inch- 
 es of the surface. On the ledges the 
 jars which are to receive the gases 
 rest, and they are at first filled with 
 the fluid of the trough, but the gas 
 passing up into them from conduct- 
 ors, the fluid is displaced. 
 
 PNEUMONIA. Inflammation of 
 the substance of the lungs. 
 
 PNEU.MO-THORAX. A collec- 
 tion of air in the cavity of the pleura. 
 
 POA. An extensive genus of val- 
 uable natural grasses, to which the 
 
 of that breed. The purity of the 
 breed may be ascertained from sev- 
 eral marks. The colour or colours 
 of the skin of a pure breed of cattle, 
 whatever those colours are, are al- 
 vvaj's definite. The colour of the 
 bald skin on the nose and around the 
 eyes in a pure breed is always defi- 
 nite and without spots. This last is 
 an essential point, ^^'hen horns ex- 
 ist, they should be smooth, small, ta- 
 pering, and sharp-pointed, long or 
 short, according to the breed, and of 
 a white colour throughout in some 
 breeds, and tipped with black in oth- 
 ers. The shape of the horn is a less 
 essential point than the colour. 
 
 " The second point to be ascertain- 
 ed in an ox is the form of its carcass. 
 It is found, the nearer the section of 
 the carcass of a fat ox, taken longi- 
 tudinally vertical, transversely verti- 
 
 meadow grass, blue grass, and many leal, and horizontally, approaches to 
 important species belong. The bo- [ the figure of a parallelogram, the 
 tanical characters of this genus are, greater quantity of flesh will it carry 
 
 panicle loose ; spikclcts three or more 
 flowered, or even two-flowered, with 
 the pedicels of a greater number of 
 florets ; florets articulated with the 
 rachis ; palca two, nearly equal, awn- 
 less ; scales oval, acute, gibbous at the 
 base. See Grasses. 
 
 POACHING. The treading of 
 cattle in wet meadows, in which they 
 leave their hoof marks. 
 
 POCKET. A large bag of hops. 
 
 POD. Those of the pea and bean 
 are called legumes ; those of the rad- 
 ish, mustard, and cruciferae are sil- 
 iqucs. 
 
 PODENTIA. The stalk which 
 supports the fructification of some 
 lichens, as the reindeer moss. 
 
 PODICEPS. A genus of palmipe- 
 
 within the same measurement. 
 
 " These constitute the points which 
 are essential to a fat ox, and which 
 it is the business of the judge to 
 know, and by which he must antici- 
 pate whether the lean one, when fed, 
 would realize. The remaining points 
 are more applicable in judging of a 
 lean than a fat ox. 
 
 " The first of the points in judging 
 of a lean ox is the nature of the bone. 
 A round, thick bone indicates both a 
 slow feeder and an inferior descrip- 
 tion of flesh. A flat bone, when seen 
 on a side view, and narrow when 
 viewed either from behind or before 
 the animal, indicates the opposite 
 properties of a round bone. The whole 
 bones in the carcass should bear a 
 607 
 
roi 
 
 POL 
 
 small proportion in bulk and weight 
 to the flesh, the bone l)cing only re- 
 quired as a support to the fiesli. 
 
 "A full, clear, calm, and prominent 
 eye is another point to be considered, 
 because it is a nice indication of good 
 breeding. It is always attendant on 
 fine bone. 
 
 "The state of the skin is the next 
 j)oint to be ascertained. The skin 
 affords what is technically and em- 
 phatically called the touch, a criterion 
 second to none in judging of the feed- 
 ing properties of an ox. The touch 
 may be good or bad, fine or harsh, 
 or, as it is often termed, hard or mel- 
 low. A perfect touch will be found 
 with a thick, loose skin, floating, as 
 it were, on a layer of soft fat, yield- 
 ing to the least pressure, and spring- 
 ing back towards the fingers like a 
 piece of soft, thick chamois leather, 
 and covered with thick, glossy, soft 
 hair." 
 
 POINTS OF SUPPORT. The 
 foundations, walls, or pillars of a build- 
 ing, whereon the superstructure is 
 founded. 
 
 POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 
 See Compass. 
 
 POISON FANGS. The hollow 
 teeth in the upper jaws of vipers, rat- 
 tlesnakes, &c., through which their 
 poison is discharged into the wounds 
 they make. Only such snakes as 
 have poison fangs are venomous. 
 
 POISON OAK. Rhus radicans, 
 and R. toxicodcndroyi, the former be- 
 ing also called poison vine : it is a 
 climber, the stem throwing out an 
 abundance of black roots. The milky 
 juice is poisonous, and, to some per- 
 sons, the volatile particles thrown off 
 from the plant. They produce in- 
 flammation and swelling, resembling 
 erisypelas. Light diet, laxatives, and 
 a lotion of sugar of lead and water 
 to the part are best. 
 
 POISONS. Bodies which disturb 
 or destroy the natural functions of 
 the body. They are narcotic, acrid 
 or septic. Many are to be met by an- 
 tidotes ; but with animals the stom- 
 ach pump is to be looked to as the 
 chief means of relief 
 
 POITTEVIN'S MANURE. Night 
 6(tS 
 
 soil mixed with fine charcoal and 
 j dried to powder. 12 to 25 bushels 
 are applied, with the seed, by a drill, 
 to the acre. 
 
 POLARITY. The quality in the 
 particles of bodies of adjusting them- 
 selves in given directions, as north 
 and south, in the magnet. 
 
 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. 
 " Light which has undergone certain 
 reflections or refractions, or been 
 subjected to the action of material 
 bodies in any one of the great number 
 of ways, actjuires a certain modifica- 
 tion, in consequence of which it no 
 longer presents the same phenomena 
 of reflection and transmission as 
 light which has not been subjected 
 to such action. This modification is 
 termed the polarization of light, its 
 rays being supposed, according to 
 particular theoretical views, to have 
 acquired poles (like the magnet), or 
 sides with opposite properties." — 
 (B7-a7idc.) 
 
 POLDERS. The old salt marshes 
 of Holland and Flanders. 
 POLE. A rod. 16^ feet. 
 POLECAT. Sbmk? {Felis Pu- 
 torius, Lin.) " It may be caught and 
 destroyed by a deadfall, constructed 
 in tlie following manner : Take a 
 square piece of wood, weighing 40 
 or 50 pounds, bore a hole in the mid- 
 dle of the upper side, and set a crook- 
 ed hook fast in it ; then set four fork- 
 ed stakes fast in the ground, and lay 
 two sticks across, on which sticks 
 lay a long staff, to hold the deadfall 
 up to the crook ; and under this crook 
 put a short stick, and fasten a line to 
 it ; this line must reach down to the 
 bridge below ; and this bridge you 
 must make about five or six inches 
 broad ; on both sides of this deadfall 
 place boards or pales, or edge it with 
 close rods, and make it 10 or 12 inch- 
 es high ; let the entrance be no wider 
 than the breadth of the deadfall. A 
 pigeon-house surrounded with a wet 
 ditch will tend to preserve the pi- 
 geons, for beasts of prey naturally 
 avoid water." 
 
 POLE E^TL. See Ox, Diseases of. 
 
 POLES. The ends of the wires 
 
 proceeding from a galvanic battery ; 
 
POM 
 
 POP 
 
 the extremities of a magnet. There 
 are two jjoles, north and south, or 
 positive and negative. They are also 
 called anode and cathode by Mr. Far- 
 ady. 
 
 POLLARD. Bran. Also, a tree 
 often cut or lopped for hoops, fire- 
 wood, &c. 
 
 POLLED. Hornless. 
 
 POLLEN. The yellow dust or fa- 
 rina of the stamens or male organs. 
 It fertilizes the pistils. The pollen 
 is thrown out by the bursting of the 
 anthers, and alighting on the moist 
 and acid surface of the stigma, begins 
 to throw out a lillle tube, or pollen 
 tube {boyau), which pierces the tissue 
 of the stigma, and reaches the ovule, 
 where it lays the foundation of the 
 eiul)ryo. Without pollen, seeds would 
 not be formed capable of germina- 
 tion ; and in wet seasons a large 
 amount is often destroyed. 
 
 POLY (from -o7.vq, many). A pre- 
 fix of many words, as polygon, poly- 
 peialous. 
 
 POLYGHROITE. The colouring 
 matter of saffron. 
 
 POLYGA\nA, POLYANDRIA. 
 See Botany. 
 
 POLYGASTRIC INFUSORL\LS. 
 The class of animalcules with many 
 stomachs inhabiting infusions. 
 
 POLYGONACE-E. Herbaceous, 
 apetalous exogens, with triangular, 
 scaly fruit, and an ochrea. The rhu- 
 barbs, sorrels, docks, and backwheat 
 belong to this family. 
 
 POLYPES, POLYPI (fromTToArf, 
 and 77ovf, a foot). The name of an 
 extensive group of radiated animals 
 in the system of Cuvier, associated 
 together by the common character 
 of a fleshy body, of a conical or cy- 
 lindrical form, commonly fixed by one 
 extremity, and with the mouth situ- 
 ated at the opposite end, and sur- 
 rounded by more or less numerous 
 arms or tentacles. 
 
 POLYPODY, POLYPODIUM. 
 Several species of handsome ferns. 
 
 POLYPUS. A fleshy tumour of 
 the nostrils or womb. It is to be re- 
 moved by the knife with care. 
 
 PO.MACE, PO.MAGE. Refuse ap- 
 ples, after pressing for cider. It is 
 
 excellent food for cows and hogs, es- 
 pecially if fresh. 
 
 POMACE.E. Rosaceous plants, 
 with an inferior ovary, as the apple, 
 pear. 
 
 POMEGRANATE. Pumca gra- 
 natum. A beautiful, hardy, decidu- 
 ous shrub, growing from 12 to 15 
 feet high. Its varieties produce their 
 splendid flowers and fruit very plen- 
 tifully from July to September, when 
 planted against a south wall. They 
 all grow well in a light, rich loam, 
 and strike root freely from cuttings 
 or layers ; the rarer varieties are 
 sometimes increased by grafting on 
 the common kinds. The pomegran- 
 ate requires shelter from frost. The 
 pulp of the fruit is of an agreeable 
 acid, and the rind is very astringent. 
 
 POMMEL. The front prominence 
 of the saddle. 
 
 POND. " An artificial excavation 
 in the soil, or a natural hollow, dam- 
 med up for the purpose of detaining 
 water, generally made in fields, in or- 
 der to supply drink to pasturing ani- 
 mals. The essential ditlerence be- 
 tween a pond and a lake is, that the 
 former is formed by art, the water 
 being often ponded, or impounded, 
 by a bank of earth thrown across a 
 natural hollow or bourne containing 
 a stream. The soil should be pud- 
 dled, to render it impervious, befi)re 
 water is let in. In places where the 
 soil does not abound in springs, the 
 formation of ponds in the fields is as 
 essential to the business of farming 
 as the building of farm offices. \ 
 pond in a garden, when of a round 
 form, is termed a basin ; and when 
 of some length, with parallel sides, a 
 canal." 
 
 PONE, PONES OF BREAD. 
 Small loaves. 
 
 PONS VAROLII. An eminence 
 of the medulla oblongata, at the top 
 of the spinal marrow. 
 
 PONTI A. The genus of insects to 
 which the cabbage butterfly belongs. 
 
 POPLAR. The genus Populus of 
 amentaceous exogens. They prefer 
 a moist, deep, and good soil, and are 
 readily increased by cuttings. The 
 wood of the P. momltfera is very good 
 609 
 
POR 
 
 POT 
 
 when thoroughly dried, and not ex- 
 posed to ni()i:stiire. The luli|)-trec is 
 improperly called a poplar. 
 
 P U P L IT ]•: A L. Relating to the 
 space behind the knee joint. 
 
 POPPY. The genus Papavcr, of 
 which the P. somnifcrum is cultivated 
 for opium and the bland oil furnished 
 by expression from its seeds. It is 
 cultivated on the best soil, well ma- 
 nured. The land sometimes receives 
 as many as five stirrings, and the 
 seed IS then dropped into shallow 
 drdls, about two feet apart. Durmg 
 the growth of the plants, the soil is 
 stirred, well watered, and sometimes 
 top-dressed. In two months from 
 the time of sowing, the capsules are 
 ready for incision, which process 
 goes on for two or three weeks ; 
 several horizontal cuts being made 
 in the capsule on one day, on the 
 next the milky juice which had oozed 
 out, being congealed, is scraped off. 
 This operation is generally repeated 
 three times on each capsule, and 
 then the capsules are collected for 
 their seed. The raw juice is knead- 
 ed with water, evaporated in the sun, 
 mixed with a little poppy oil, and, 
 lastly, formed into cakes, which are 
 covered with leaves of poppy, and 
 packed in chests with poppy husks 
 and leaves. 
 
 The F. Rhcas is also cultivated as 
 an oil plant in France, where little of 
 the opium is made. In Europe some 
 species are a great pest in corn- 
 fields. 
 
 P P U L I N. A crystalline sub- 
 stance obtained from the bark of the 
 aspen. 
 
 PORCATE. In entomology, divi- 
 ded into ridges ; a surface on which 
 there are several elevated and paral- 
 lel grooves. 
 
 PORCELAIN CAPSULES. Evap- 
 orating basins of porcelain ; this ma- 
 terial resists a great heat, and is not 
 readily acted on except by potash or 
 soda. 
 
 PORCH. An arched or flat ceiled 
 vestibule to a door or building. 
 
 PORES. Small spaces existing 
 between the atoms of bodies ; also, 
 distinct apertures through leaves or 
 610 
 
 membranes, from which perspiration 
 and vapours pass. 
 
 POROSITY. The property of bod- 
 ies whereby they transmit fluids or 
 gasses, and which depends on their 
 pores. 
 
 PORK. See Bacon, Ham, Hog. 
 
 PORK, CLEAR. Side pork for 
 barrelling, free from lean, being aU fat ; 
 theBerkshires, if fully fat, cut as largo 
 a quantity as anv other breed. 
 
 P O R P H Y R Y. A hard red or 
 gray stone of the nature of granite, 
 of igneous origin, and consisting oj 
 feldspar, with quartz or hornblende 
 It occurs in the oldest dikes. 
 
 PORRECT. Extending. When a 
 part extends horizontally. 
 
 P O R R I G O. Scahi head, ring- 
 worm, tetter. Tar ointment, cleanli- 
 ness, and attention to the general 
 heerlth, are the best remedies. 
 
 PORTAL. The lesser of two 
 gates. 
 
 PORTAL CIRCULATION. Tho 
 circulation of venous blood from the 
 abdominal viscera through the liver 
 to the riglit auricle of the heart. 
 
 PORTER. A beer coloured with 
 dark malt or molasses. 
 
 PORTICO. A projection from a 
 building, supported by arches or pil- 
 lars. 
 
 POSITIVE ELECTRICITY. See 
 Elechiciiy. A surplus of electricity. 
 
 POST. A perpendicular piece of 
 timber ; a piece driven into the earth ; 
 the end should be charred. Locust, 
 catalpa, and oak posts are preferred, 
 
 POST ABDOMEN. The five pos- 
 terior segments of the abdomen of in- 
 sects, or the tails of some crusta- 
 ceans. 
 
 POTASH, POTASSA, KALI. Pro- 
 toxide of potassium, a well-known 
 caustic (vegetable caustic). See Po- 
 tassium. 
 
 POTASHES. The washed or 
 lixiviated ashes of trees, especially 
 of oaks, hickories, maples, sycamores, 
 the elm, willow, and beech. The ash, 
 mixed with lime, is leached in bar- 
 rels or vats, and the clear solution, 
 being drawn off, or allowed to drip 
 from holes made in the bottom of the 
 vats, is next evaporated in large iron 
 
POT 
 
 POT 
 
 pots set in a furnace : these are kept 
 full several days. When the liuid 
 becomes black and of the consistence 
 of thick molasses, it is subjected to 
 the highest heat of a wood fire for 
 some hours ; by this means much of 
 the combustible matter is burned. 
 As soon as the fused matter becomes 
 quiet it is dipped out by iron ladles 
 into iron pots, where it congeals ; 
 this, broken into pieces and barrelled, 
 forms commercial potash. The lye 
 should be sufficiently strong to bear 
 an egg before being evaporated. 
 Pearlash is made by transferring the 
 black potash into a reverberatory fur- 
 nace, and stirring it while hot: this 
 is continued until it acquires a whi- 
 tish colour. 
 
 Composition. — American potash 
 consists of 85-7 parts caustic potas- 
 sa, 15 4 sulphate of potassa, 20 com- 
 mon salt, 11-9 carbonic acid and wa- 
 ter, and 2 insoluble matter in 115 
 parts. Pearlash contains 75-4 caus- 
 tic potash, 80 sulphate, 04 common 
 salt, 30 8 carbonic acid and water, 
 6 insoluble matter in 115 parts. 
 
 Amounl of pure potash in 1000 lbs. 
 of wood : in elm and maple, 3 9 lbs. ; 
 willow, 28 lbs. ; oak and beech, H 
 lbs. ; poplar, \ lb. : the spray and 
 young branches are richest in ashes. 
 The varieties of pine seldom furnish 
 half a pound to the 1000 of timber. 
 
 POTASSIUM. The metallic basis 
 of potash ; it is white and brilliant, 
 hut soft as wax, lighter than water, 
 sp. gr. "86, and spontaneously inflam- 
 mable on water ; symbol, K. ; propor- 
 tional, 39 3. Its compound with 1 
 equivalent oxygen, potash, is one of 
 the most important chemical agents: 
 a powerful base and an alkali. 
 
 Potash is very soluble in water, 
 neutralizes acids, discharges the col- 
 our of red litmus, converting it into 
 blue ; it is also soluble in alcohol. 
 It unites definitely with water, form- 
 ing the hydrate, or fused potash, con- 
 taining 47-3 potash, and 9 parts wa- 
 ter. Potash combines with nearly all 
 acids ; by the agency of heat it also 
 dissolves silica, being converted into \ 
 silicate of potash. Its prominent 
 salts are the nitrate, carbonate, sul- : 
 
 phate, and muriate (chloride of po- 
 tassium). 
 
 In the mineral kingdom it exists 
 abundantly, forming 10 to 20 per cent, 
 of many minerals, as mica, feldspar, 
 lava, and green sand. In these it is 
 insoluble, and in the form of silicate; 
 but it becomes slowly dissolved by 
 water containing carbonic acid. In 
 plants it is also abundant, especially 
 in the grasses and cerealia ; the vine, 
 oak, willows, maples, cruciferous and 
 chenopodiaceous plants contain a con- 
 siderable proportion. It is found in 
 urine, and in other animal excretions. 
 
 POTATO {Solamim tuberosum, 
 Linnaeus). Varieties: "Of the better 
 kinds, we may enumerate the follow- 
 ing : 
 
 " 1. Kidneys, or Foxites, white 
 flesh, rather small, and seemingly de- 
 teriorating, as an old variety. 
 
 "2. Pink Eves, white flesh, rather 
 kidney- shaped, yield well, and are yet 
 in their prime. 
 
 " 3. St. Helen.4., very similar in 
 flesh, shape, colour, and quality to 
 the foregoing, without the pink eyes 
 or blotches : to us a new variety. 
 
 " 4. Early Kidneys, real kidney- 
 shaped, smooth, white, and of fair 
 size : the best early variety. 
 
 " 5. Mercer, well-known and de- 
 servedly liked. 
 
 " 6. S.A.ULT St. M.iRiE : the true 
 kind large, long, dark-coloured, and 
 good. 
 
 " 7. Liverpool Blues : coloured, 
 good size, and productive. Boil white, 
 and may be placed in the first class 
 for the table. 
 
 " The foregoing we esteem the best 
 kinds. There may be other kinds 
 equally good, and some that we have 
 enumerated may be known by other 
 names. The Forty-fold has been 
 highly commended for its productive- 
 ness and good qualities, with what 
 truth we will not venture to say. 
 
 "In this latitude the potato is bet- 
 ter, both as to product and flavour, 
 when grown on a moist and cool, 
 than when grown on a warm and dry 
 soil : better on a moderately loose 
 and friable than on a hard, compact 
 soil. 
 
 611 
 
POTATO. 
 
 " They do belter on a grass ley 
 than on stubble ; and belter with long 
 or unfermentcd manure than with 
 short muck. 
 
 " The medium-sized whole tubers 
 give a better crop than sets or very 
 large tubers. 
 
 '• Drills or rows should be adapted 
 to Ihe growth of the tops, and the 
 condition of the soil — the small growl- 
 ing tops nearer, and those having 
 larger lops, farther apart, so that 
 the sun may not be excluded from 
 the intervals ; and where the soil is 
 slifT, or the sod tough, hills are con- 
 sidered preferable to drills. 
 
 " If the ground is well prepared, 
 and the seed well covered, they are 
 not benefited by heavy earthing ; 
 ploughing among them, or earthing 
 them, after they come in bloom, 2s 
 prejudicial. 
 
 "The kinds best for the table are 
 also best for farm stock, containing a 
 larger portion of nutriment than in- 
 ferior kinds." 
 
 " Those who are curious about ob- 
 taining new varieties can almost in- 
 definitely pursue their object ; for 
 the seed of a species, the red apple, 
 for example, will sport, and this, too, 
 without hybridizing (that is, without 
 the admixture of its pollen with that 
 of any other species, the produce of 
 Avhich would be hybrids), into num- 
 berless varieties of form and colour 
 — round, fiat, oblong, red, pink, black, 
 white, mixed, and purple, of every 
 shade and colour. These, wheth- 
 er hybrids or not, are reproduced 
 through successive seasons by the 
 tubers alone, irttiey possess those 
 qualities which render them desirable 
 for continued cultivation, on account 
 of peculiar adaptation to early or late 
 seasons, size, predominance of fari- 
 na, &c. 
 
 " This mode of propagation by tu- 
 bers either improves those qualities 
 or gradually develops objectionable 
 properties ; some varieties are there- 
 fore permanently established, while 
 the culture of others is either aban- 
 doned, or, if continued, it is known 
 that those varieties revert, in the 
 course of a few generations, to the 
 612 
 
 nature of their parent kind, and there- 
 fore cease to constitute a variety. 
 
 " In the vegetable kingdom, hybrid 
 plants have not the power of jjrojia- 
 gation by seed ; but they can be ren- 
 dered reproductive by budding and 
 grafting, or by means of cuttings, 
 slips, and tubers, and an original 
 stock, comparatively worthless, may 
 be highly improved by such modes of 
 multiplication. But when a farmer 
 possesses two or three kinds of de- 
 cided excellence, he will act wisely 
 by not encumbering his stores with 
 too many varieties, which always oc- 
 casion trouble and confusion in the 
 field management. 
 
 " In order to obtain seed, properly 
 so called, the potato-apple, when per- 
 fectly ripe, should be dried, and then 
 disengaged from its seed by rubbing 
 with the hand. The seed should be 
 preserved in a dry place, in paper or 
 cloth bags, until the middle of Alarch 
 or beginning of April, when it may be 
 sown in wooden boxes or earthen 
 pans, with a covering of less than 
 half an inch of well-pulverized earth ; 
 the vessels ought then to be placed 
 in hot-beds of inild heat, such as is 
 suited to the raising of half-liardy an- 
 nuals. The plants, when an inch 
 high, should be pricked out into oth- 
 er vessels, and placed in a tempera- 
 ture somewhat lower than betbre, to 
 inure them to the external air, to 
 which they should be exposed after 
 frosts have ceased. These plants 
 should be put out in drills 16 inches 
 apart, and with the interval of six 
 inches between the plants in the 
 rows ; they will produce tubers in the 
 first year, and these may be planted 
 in the following season in the ordi- 
 nary way. 
 
 " For very early crops, such as 
 those which the ash-leaved and wal- 
 nut-leaved kinds, in particular, yield, 
 the most successful treatment was 
 that practised by the late Mr. Knight, 
 president of the London Horticultu- 
 ral Society, from the course of whose 
 practice we give the following de- 
 tails of instruction : Drills may be 
 formed in a warm and sheltered sit- 
 uation (and in the direction of north 
 
POTATO. 
 
 and south) iluring any of the winter 
 montlis, two lect apart, and seven or 
 ejfiht inches deep. tStable dung, iialf 
 decomposed, should be laid in the 
 drills, and combined with the earth 
 four inciies downward, and covered 
 with some of the mould which had 
 been thrown out in forming the drills, 
 by the rake, to within four inches of 
 the surface. The sets, uncut, are then 
 to be placed, with the crown eye up- 
 permost, in the centre of the furrow, 
 four inciies from each other, and to 
 be covered with only an inch of mould 
 at first, and afterward with an occa- 
 sional quantity of sifted coal ashes, un- 
 til the plants arc so vigorous and ad- 
 vanced as to require the usual earth- 
 ing, of which, however, very little is 
 necessary. Mr. Knight used leaves 
 as a lining at the sides of the drills 
 in the early periods, to preserve as 
 much warmth as possible, and bet- 
 ter to guard against the effects of 
 frost. The sets near the top end 
 {Fig., a) are found to come to matu- 
 rity a fortnight ear- 
 lier than those at 
 the root end (</) ; 
 and these, there- 
 fore, form two class- 
 es of sets for an 
 earlier and a later 
 crop. The sets from 
 the middle (b, c) are 
 put together for an 
 intermediate crop. 
 
 " This management alone will be 
 found successful, except, perhaps, in 
 very tenacious clay soil, in wliich the 
 rains of winter may lodge so near the 
 fibres of the plants as to destroy them 
 altogether; but destruction from this 
 cause may easilj' be avoided by in- 
 creasing the original depth of the fur- 
 rows and loosening the bed of clay 
 below with the spade to such a depth 
 as will allow the water to descend 
 from the surface, with a drain to 
 carry it off altogether ; or by laying 
 below some absorbent matter, such 
 as aslies, chalk, or calcareous gravel. 
 " The germination of the sets may 
 be accelerated by a little management 
 previously to their being planted, by 
 laying them on a floor, sprinkling 
 
 F F F 
 
 them with water until they bud, and 
 then covering them with finely-sifted 
 mould. If this be done early in Jan- 
 uary, the sets, with strong shoots, 
 may be taken up in April (with as 
 much earth as possible adhering to 
 thein), and carefully placed in the 
 drills prepared as directed, and cov- 
 ered with well-rotted leaves or earth 
 in the same way. 
 
 " To market gardeners it is a great 
 object to raise the earliest potatoes, 
 considering the high price which they 
 obtain for them, though in their waxy 
 state they are neither wholesome nor 
 palatable. Next in early maturity to 
 the ash-leaved and walnut-leaved are 
 the early manly and early champion, 
 and Fox's seedling. 
 
 "The best soil for potatoes gener- 
 ally is that which is altogether fresh 
 from the state of ley, or which has 
 not long been broken up : land which 
 has been in grass for only two or 
 three years is easily prepared for 
 the principal crop. It should be as 
 deeply ploughed as possible before 
 winter, and early in April harrowed, 
 and thoroughly cross-ploughed. Af- 
 ter lying in this state for two or 
 three weeks, it should again be well 
 harrowed and very deeply ploughed 
 twice, without bringing up any bad 
 substratum, and it will then be fit ibr 
 the reception of the crop. 
 
 " The most approved modes of 
 setting are as follows : Drills should 
 be formed in the well-pulverized field, 
 with double boutings of tlie plough, 
 in order to have the shoulders uni- 
 form, which is essential to the cor- 
 rectness of succeeding operations. 
 The dung is then to be carted out, 
 and divided by the carter with a drag 
 fork, as his horse and cart move for- 
 ward (the horse walking in the centre 
 of tlirce drills, while the wheels move 
 in the other two), in such quantities 
 as can be most conveniently shaken 
 out into the drills by tlu; labourers 
 employed to spread it. In dry weath- 
 er the carting does no injury, and 
 this method is universal in Scotland. 
 The other principal mode, more gen- 
 erally pursued in Ireland by some of 
 the best cultivators of the potato, i 
 613 
 
POTATO. 
 
 to part out the manure before the 
 drills are formed, in rows seven or 
 eifillit yards apart, and to supply the 
 drills from the heaps as the plough 
 advances in its work, reserving just 
 as much as is supposed sufficient for 
 the concluding drills, which are to be 
 made in the sections of the field pre- 
 viously occupied by the rows of ma- 
 nure. By the latter treatment the 
 manure may be laid over the sets, 
 which cannot be done in the former 
 case, and this will preserve them from 
 being displaced or crushed by the 
 feet of the horses during the process 
 of covering the seed. But against 
 this advantage, which is not incon- 
 siderable, there is the inconvenience 
 of calculating with precision and lay- 
 ing aside, as the plough advances to 
 draw tlie last drills — where the rows 
 had stood — the precise complement 
 of manure, and the difficulty to the 
 ploughman of preserving the exact 
 breadth in those drills. 
 
 " Some avoid any perplexities in 
 those respects by ploughing in the 
 manure thoroughly before drilling, 
 and either dropping the set in every 
 third furrow, or rolling the whole 
 manured and ploughed surface, and 
 then making drills. Our own expe- 
 rience is greatly in favour of this lat- 
 ter mode, when the fertilizing matter 
 is abundant and of the short descrip- 
 tion, which freely combines with the 
 soil, and does not obstruct the plough 
 in the subsequent drilling. The lazy- 
 bed method is so generally condemn- 
 ed that any explanation of it here 
 would be superfluous, yet in undrain- 
 ed bog land, or under any circumstan- 
 ces in which a redundancy of wetness 
 is probable in the autumn, as on low, 
 marshy lands, or stiff clay soils which 
 have no sufficient inclination to carry 
 off the water, and are likely to be 
 saturated with moisture in winter, 
 from want of drainage, the lazy-bed 
 system is by far the safest. The 
 deep, wide furrows at each side car- 
 ry off the water, or, at least, remove 
 it from the potato. Thousands of 
 tons of potatoes, in the year 1839, 
 were utterly lost in Ireland, being 
 drilled in flat and tenacious lands, 
 614 
 
 which would have escaped destruc- 
 tion from the continued rains of that 
 season if drained by the furrow of 
 the lazy-bed. Besides, where circum- 
 stances preclude the practicability of 
 deep ploughing, the lazy-bed practice, 
 repeated for three years, will com- 
 pletely spade-trench the entire land, 
 and thus effect an important benefit, 
 not otherwise attainable by the hum- 
 ble tiller of the soil, who has no teauis 
 for ploughing it effectually. Thus 
 local or national modes, though aj)- 
 parently defective to the superficial 
 observer, are sometimes founded 
 upon sound principles ; and though we 
 feel disposed to exclude the minute 
 details of what is only defensible un- 
 der peculiar circumstances from an 
 essay on potato culture under our 
 modern system, we protest against 
 the unqualified condemnation of a 
 method which is still pursued through- 
 out nearly one half of Ireland. 
 
 " The sets (uncut, for reasons to be 
 yet assigned) are next to be laid down, 
 either under or over the manure, at 
 the average distance of sixteen inch- 
 es, by the setters, who move in a 
 retrograde direction, and are provi- 
 ded with aprons to contain the sets. 
 A sufficient number of men is in at- 
 tendance to divide the manure even- 
 ly in the drills ; the plough also is in 
 the field, in order that there may be 
 the least possible exposure of the 
 manure and sets to the sun or to 
 parching wind, but the plough should 
 cover the sets rather lightly in clay 
 soil. 
 
 " The roller is next used to lay an 
 even surface to the young plants, and 
 to facilitate the subsequent progress 
 of the paring plough, which is to be 
 set to work when the stems are six 
 or seven inches high, and sliould 
 move as close to the plants as is 
 practicable without injuring their ten- 
 der fibres. The weeders should then 
 hoe the plants carefully, and imme- 
 diately afterward (for the influence 
 of wind or hot air on the roots is per- 
 nicious) the scufller or drill-harrow 
 is to follow, in order to clean and lev- 
 el the intervals, liefore the earthing- 
 plough, with either double or single 
 
 I 
 
POTATO. 
 
 mould-board, is introduced to apply I erage depth, unless there be a very 
 fresh earth to the sKMns. vride interval between the drills, and 
 
 •• Such is the method of earthing it is certain that much earthing in 
 universally pursued by the fanner in , dry and shallow soil is injurious ; for 
 Ireland and Scotland, but in England by withdrawing the earth from con 
 
 the hand hoe is principally used for 
 destroying weeds, loosening the earth, 
 and moulding the plants ; for the first 
 two of these operations the beau hoe 
 
 tiguity to the fibres which ramify and 
 penetrate far in loose soil, and laying 
 it on the head of the drill, and in the 
 high ridgclet form, it is applied where 
 
 (which cuts about six inches deep) is j it is useless for the nourishment of 
 used, and the turnip hoe for drawing , the tubers, and in a position that fa- 
 the earth to the stems. One man I vours the rapid escape of moisture, 
 will hoe out the weeds and loosen ; which, in such soil, it ought to he an 
 the soil of half an acre per day, and , object to retain. In deep land, more 
 the subsequent earthing of the' same ! particularly if it be of tenacious qual- 
 quantity is also executed by one ity, the furrows at each side of the 
 man. This is far cheaper than horse ; drill will be, in general seasons, most 
 work, and it does no injury to any | serviceable as drains, as well as for 
 of the stems, and makes no waste | furnishing earth to support the stems. 
 
 land at the head-riggs ; and where 
 the earth has been perfectly well pre- 
 pared at the commencement, this 
 manual husbandry is the best. 
 
 '■ .\s to the distance between the 
 drills, due regard must be had to the 
 natural quality of the soil, and the 
 quantity and description of manure 
 available, or, in other words, to the 
 probable luxuriance of foliage. Mr. 
 Knight, aware of the necessity of al 
 lowing room in proportion to tlie vig 
 
 while the moisture will be sufficiently 
 retained for the roots. 
 
 " Experiments have led to the in- 
 ference that, in soil of a loose, porous 
 quality, there is probably a greater 
 produce by not affording any (or a 
 very slight) moulding, but by digging, 
 instead, between the rows ; for deep 
 and perfect pulverization, next to an 
 adequate allowance of rich manure, 
 is the main cause of a large produce. 
 In proportion to the deficiency of 
 
 our and height of the plants, has laid ' manure will be the necessity for open- 
 down an exact rule, thus: 'Thejing the soil beneath, to allow the 
 
 height of the stems being three feet, 
 the rows ought to be four feet apart ;' 
 but for a general average thirty 
 inches is the best distance. As to 
 excess of foliage, we are certain that 
 it is not desirable, for the produce 
 of tubers is not always in propor- 
 tion to the degree of foliage ; under 
 hierh and rank stems there is often a 
 
 fibres, which maybe distinctly traced 
 to a depth incredible to those who 
 have not followed their ramifications, 
 to extract all the nourishment which 
 the subsoil may afford. If there be 
 an abundance of nutriment above, 
 neither the necessity nor, perhaps, 
 the inclination for penetrating deeply 
 can exist, and in such cases the op- 
 
 very scanty crop, and Mr. Knight is ; eration of earthing by the plough, as 
 justified by experience in his obser- : long as it can be introduced without 
 vation that ' the largest produce will , injury to the stems, may be useful in 
 be obtained from varieties of rather many ways, but unquestionably by 
 early habits and rather low stature, ! guarding them from the effects of 
 there being in very tall plants much storm in exposed, and from excessive 
 time lost in conveying the nutriment I wetness in low situations ; besides, 
 from the soil to the leaves," and con- in regulating this point, regard should 
 sequently strong and upright stems, I always be had to the quality of the 
 which do not fall down and shade the potato, for the tubers of some varie- 
 others, are those which are desirable, ties have a tendency to push to the 
 "Two more earthings are usually | surface, while others tend into the 
 given, but it is questionable whether earth, and therefore require a differ- 
 even one be necessary in soil of av- , ent treatment. 
 
 615 
 
POTATO. 
 
 " But in all cases the earth should 
 be rendered as loose and friable as 
 possible, by sjiade, hoe,* or plough, 
 and where labour is easily eoaunand- 
 ed, the spade will be lound to be the 
 more etiieacious iin|)leuient in the 
 first course of treatment, after the 
 plants are well up. 
 
 " Some plant one or two sets in 
 the centre of every square yard, but 
 in such cases great and continued 
 earthing, until each square presents 
 the form of a pyramid, is contem- 
 plated ; and, if our preceding remarks 
 be correct, this treatment is only ap- 
 plicable to deep and retentive soils. 
 Great returns have, no doubt, been 
 thus obtained, but by this mode there 
 is the least possible incorporation of 
 the manure with the soil. 
 
 " In minute husbandry, such as 
 that exemplified in labourers' allot- 
 ments, which excludes the plough al- 
 together, the ordinary and best prac- 
 tice is to lay the sets in rows, after a 
 very deep winter digging, marked 
 ■with a garden-hne. The workmen 
 digs precisely as in a garden plot for 
 cabbages : he clears a little drill, lays 
 the sets straight, puts a sufficiency 
 of manure over them, and then covers 
 from the next spit, which he digs 
 with a spade or a three-pronged fork 
 flattened at the ends, levelling and 
 pulverizing as he advances to the 
 distance at which he again puts down 
 his line and forms a new drill. Thus 
 the entire piece is thoroughly loosen- 
 ed, the manure perfectly covered, 
 and every facility given for the hand- 
 hoeing in due course. 
 
 " The ne.xt stage of the potato is 
 that in which it blossoms. It has 
 been recommended to pluck off the 
 flowers. Excessive blossoming is no 
 doubt injurious, but experience has 
 generally proved that the extra cost 
 is hardly defrayed by the additional 
 produce obtained. If the flowers are 
 plucked off, they should be nipped in 
 the early bud. 
 
 " When the crop is fully ripe, 
 which is indicated by the withering 
 of the stalks, and when the land is 
 
 * That kind called the bean hoe, shaped like 
 an adze. 
 
 616 
 
 free from stones, labourers, in the 
 proportion of about twenty to one 
 plough (half of these being usually 
 men, and the remainder women or 
 young persons), should be set to pull 
 up the stalks, and carefully collect 
 the tubers which may be attached to 
 them before the plough proceeds in 
 its operation. When it is prepared 
 for work, the men, with prongs flat- 
 tened at the extremity, are placed at 
 such distances from each other as 
 will give them proper time to fork 
 out the potatoes cleanly for the pick- 
 ers, who are also stationed at exact 
 distances with a basket between ev- 
 ery pair, into which they gather the 
 potatoes. 
 
 " The common swing plough may 
 be employed in three ways ; First, in 
 taking off a slice from each side of 
 every drill, and leaving it to the 
 workmen to open out the centre with 
 their prongs ; or, in its third move- 
 ment, it may turn up this centre, 
 under which the main body of the 
 tubers lie, which is more expeditious- 
 ly and easily done if the earth be in fit 
 condition. Second, a double mould- 
 board plough with a long sack, and 
 divested of its coulter, maybe drawn 
 by two strong horses through the 
 centre of the drills, and completely 
 under the level of the tubers, so as to 
 avoid injuring them, by which means 
 the work-people will be kept exceed- 
 ingly busy ; and if the land be in good 
 friable order, this is the most expe- 
 ditious mode ; and provided there is 
 a perfect harrowing afterward, the 
 crop will be taken out with sufficient 
 cleanliness. Third, the crop may be 
 taken up by prongs, or long, narrow 
 ; spades, without the plough. In wet 
 ! weather, this more tedious, but far 
 { safer method is frequently adopted ; 
 i and if the drill be short and the head- 
 riggs under crop also, it is the most 
 desirable, effectual, and economical 
 1 mode. In removing the produce in 
 I this manner, it is obvious that the 
 number of gatherers should be much 
 less, in proportion to the men, than 
 under the other circumstances. The 
 ! head-riggs should evidently be the 
 1 first parts of the field cleared, to make 
 
POTATO. 
 
 a free space for the ploughs in the 
 boulinjrs and lor the carts. 
 
 " One liorse will answer for three 
 carts, if the distance of draii<j;lit to 
 the pits be short, by changing hnn al- 
 ternately from an empty to a full 
 one, but this only applies to the 
 Scotch and Irish system of draught 
 by single carts and iiorses. The 
 general mode of securing the crop in 
 pits in the field is the safest. In 
 making the pits — improperly so term- 
 ed, for the base is only sunk a few 
 inches, and the potatoes are raised 
 considerably in the heaps — the only 
 caution to be observed is, that fur- 
 rows should be cut on all sides to 
 prevent water from lodging or [)ene- 
 trating inward, and that the earth 
 thrown up and over them, to the 
 depth of four or five inches, should 
 be well beaten with spade or shovel 
 to exclude moisture and frost. The 
 potato stalks, however apparently 
 dry, should never be laid between 
 the potatoes and the earth in these 
 accumulations, for they soon ferment 
 and rot, and injure all the potatoes 
 in contact with them. Straw is at 
 least useless. The length of the pit 
 depends on circumstances, but the 
 breadth should not exceed four feet, 
 as large accumulations are most lia- 
 ble to fermentations." 
 
 The potato crop is commonly be- 
 low 200 bushels the acre, but by good 
 management 400 bushels may be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 "The only decided diseases of the 
 potato, besides the dry rot, is ' the 
 curl,' which is an imperfect forma- 
 tion ; and a rot of the new tubers, 
 which seems to be owing to a fungus, 
 and may be overcome by liming or 
 using salt to the land. One thing, 
 however, is clear, that from a crop 
 of which any part is intended for 
 seed, all the plants affected with curl 
 should be carefully separated before 
 the general removal commences. 
 The dry rot, or decay of the set, is 
 also still unexplained as to its real 
 cause, though the press has teemed 
 with essays and very plausible theo- 
 ries respecting it. The same malady 
 was remarked for many years, and, 
 
 F F F 2 
 
 we have reason to think, m seasons 
 similar to tliose which w-e have ex- 
 perienced in latter years. The set, 
 though ajjparentiy sound when plant- 
 ed, has either failed to germinate at 
 all, and rotted away, or has feebly 
 and partially thrown out its sickly 
 shoots. The most contradictory 
 causes have been assigned : over- 
 ripening in the preceding year ; un- 
 der-ripening ; fermentation in the 
 pits ; I'ermeiitation of the set in the 
 ground when placed in contact witli 
 hot dung (which is utterly absurd, 
 for when in the ground no injurious 
 fermentation can arise) ; very hot 
 weather, great drought, hot sun, cold, 
 parching wind, dry and healing ma- 
 nure, sea-ware, which is always 
 damp ; exhaustion of the kind from 
 a long course of culture, contradicted 
 by many instances, in which it ap- 
 pears that the produce of the same 
 variety — for instance, the apple — has 
 been successively cultivated during 
 sixty-five years without any lailure ; 
 or the loss of vitality from prema- 
 turely shooting. 
 
 " If potatoes have fermented in 
 their accumulated state, they would 
 bear obvious evidence of it, and 
 therefore be rejected. Fermentation 
 cannot be the true cause in every or 
 even the majority of cases, nor does 
 the failure, probably, proceed from in- 
 sects in the eyes, as has been sug- 
 gested ; for if so, it is difficult to ac- 
 count for the fact that sets from the 
 same heap planted at one part of the 
 day have totally failed, while others 
 put into the ground at another have 
 pushed forth healthy shoots. As to 
 decay in the land, from the contiguit)'- 
 of fermenting manure. How is it 
 to be proved that the gases evolved 
 by fermenting manure can injure the 
 sets] Fermenting manures would 
 rather stimulate by their warmth, 
 and excite their growth by the ali- 
 ment which their essential (juaiities, 
 carbon and ammonia,supply to plants. 
 Wliy do not the gaseous exhalations 
 from rank and fermenting hot-beds 
 destroy the tender plants which are 
 raised in them V 
 
 " The same causes which are sev- 
 G17 
 
POT 
 
 POT 
 
 erally assigned for the total or par- ] 
 tial failure of the potato in number- 
 less instances, ami to a most distress- 
 ing extent in Ireland, have existed 
 since the culture of the potato com- 
 menced, but without the effects de- 
 plored, which have only prevailed 
 within a very recent space of time. 
 But from the frequent and searcliing 
 investigation of the subject by the 
 most competent and practical men, a 
 preventive against the failure has 
 been ascertained, namely, the plant- 
 ing of entire tubers. When cut sets 
 have failed, the entire tubers have 
 resisted premature decay ; whether 
 it arises from atmospheric influence 
 or debility of constitution, or from 
 any of the conjectured causes, the 
 entire tubers resist these noxious in- 
 fluences, and germinate healthily and 
 freely. All reports agree on this 
 point : there is no risk in this case, 
 if the tubers be sound when planted ; 
 and it may be added, that in all 
 stages of their growth, the uncut tu- 
 bers maintain a decided superiority 
 and yield a corresponding produce. 
 
 " The farina of the potato, properly 
 granulated and dried, is sold in our 
 shops as tapioca, to which it bears 
 the closest resemblance both in ap- 
 pearance and essential properties. 
 For confectionery, the flour is so del- 
 icately white, and it is so digestible 
 and nutritious, that it ought to be in 
 more general use. Few housewives 
 
 are ignorant of the method of obtain- 
 ing it by the use of a connnon hand- 
 grater and sieve ; but for yielding 
 larger supplies, some machinery is 
 necessary. The preceding figure rep- 
 resents an approved implement : b is 
 the hopper ; the potatoes are scraped 
 by the wires set in the revolving 
 wheel a." 
 
 Manures for the Potato. — Lime is 
 eminently serviceable in improving 
 the mealiness and flavour of the po- 
 tato ; salt, at the rate of five bush- 
 els the acre, is also an invaluable ma- 
 nure ; but all gross animal composts 
 are injurious, many of them render- 
 ing the tubers waxy and of bad fla- 
 vour. The fresh potato contains 75 
 per cent, water ; 1000 pounds in the 
 ordinary state yield 8-28 pounds ash- 
 es. The composition of the ash is, by 
 Sprengel, 
 
 1000 lbs. tubera. 
 Potash anJ soda . . . 636 
 Lime and magnesia . . 65 
 Phosphoric acid . . . "40 
 Suliihuric acid .... '54 
 
 Sihca -08 
 
 Chlorine '16 
 
 Iron, alumina, &c. . . '08 
 
 This analysis also explains why 
 plaster is sometimes useiul in com- 
 posts intended for the potato. A light 
 soil abounding in humus is most prof- 
 itable for this crop. 
 
 POTATO FLY. See Blistermg 
 Fly. 
 
 POTATO PIES, CAMPS, or 
 PITS. See Potato and Barrow. 
 Earthen mounds to store potatoes 
 and other roots. 
 
 POTATO STARCH. The farina. 
 See Potato. 
 
 POTATO SUGAR. The sugar 
 produced from potatoes by boiling po- 
 tato starch with sulphuric acid. It 
 is s^lucose. See Siisar. 
 
 POTATO WASHER. The figure 
 on the following page represents a 
 simple and effective implement. It 
 consists of a trough containing water, 
 on which is made to revolve a cylin- 
 drical cage (c) containing the pota- 
 toes. The cage opens to allow the 
 tubers to be introduced and with- 
 drawn. 
 
 1000 lbs. tops 
 
 8-29 
 14-67 
 1-97 
 0-42 
 494 
 050 
 006 
 "30^85 
 
 I 
 
 618 
 
POT 
 
 POU 
 
 POTS FOR PLANTS. The com- 
 mon unglazed earthen pots are su- 
 perior to those that are glazed, be- 
 cause they allow excess of fluid to 
 drain ofT by their pores. The size 
 should be proportional to the plants. 
 
 POT-STONE. A tough soap-stone. 
 
 POTTER'S CLAY. Plastic clay 
 either of a white or red colour. 
 
 POTTLXG. The placing of young 
 plants in small pots for the following 
 purposes : 
 
 " The first and greatest end at- 
 tained by potting is the power of mo- 
 ving plants about from place to place 
 without injury ; green-house plants 
 from the open air to the house, and 
 the reverse ; hardy species, difficult 
 to transplant, to their final stations 
 in the open ground without disturb- 
 ing their roots ; annuals raised in 
 heat to the open borders, and so on : 
 and when this power of moving 
 plants is wanted, pots afford the only 
 means of doing so. It also cramps 
 the roots, diminishes the tendency to 
 form leaves, and increases the dispo- 
 sition to flower. Another object is 
 to effect a secure and constant drain- 
 age from roots of water ; a third is, 
 to expose the roots to the most fa- 
 vourable amount of bottom heat, 
 which cannot be readily accomplish- 
 ed when plants of large size are made 
 to grow in the ground, even of a hot- 
 house ; and, finally, it is a conveni- 
 ent process for the nourishment of 
 delicate seedlings. Unless some one 
 of these ends is to be answered, and 
 cannot be effected in a more natural 
 manner, potting is better dispensed 
 with." — {Lindicy.) 
 
 POUDRETTE. Dried night soil 
 mixed with charcoal powder, with 
 gypsum, with lime, with peat, or 
 merely dried in the air. The manu- 
 facturers usually reserve the process : 
 that with gypsum and charcoal is 
 best. From twenty to thirty bushels 
 the acre are used with great effect in 
 the drill, or sown over growing crops 
 in spring. It forwards the plant con- 
 siderably, but seldom lasts for more 
 than one season. See Nisrht Soil. 
 
 POULTICE. " An external appli- 
 cation employed for promoting the 
 suppuration of tumours, or abating 
 painful inflammation. The chief in- 
 tention of the poultice is to retain the 
 heat on the tumour for a sufficient 
 length of time ; consequently, corn 
 meal, linseed meal are the best fitted 
 for poultices. The fatty matter usu- 
 ally added is to give softness to the 
 poultice, which is otherwise apt to 
 harden as the moisture evaporates. 
 Few farmers are aware of the value 
 of these simple applications in abating 
 inflammation, relieving pain, cleans- 
 ing wounds, and disposing them to 
 heal. The poultice may be rendered 
 more soothing by opium, or increased 
 activity may be given by the addition 
 of common turpentine or chloride of 
 lime, and in cases of foul ulcers pow- 
 dered charcoal may be added. As 
 an emollient poultice for grease and 
 cracked heels, and especially if ac- 
 companied by much unpleasant smell, 
 there is nothing preferable to a poul- 
 tice of mashed carrots with charcoal. 
 It is always best to enclose poultices 
 in bags." 
 
 POULTRY (from the French pou- 
 C19 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 Id). The term includes all the do- 
 mesticated birds reared for the table : 
 fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, and 
 Cruinea fowls. 
 
 " Fuicls. — ' The strong feet of the 
 gallinaceous birds are adapted to the 
 region wlicre they chiefly resort for 
 their food and the purposes of incu- 
 bation ; their toes and nails peculiar- 
 ly formed for scratching up the grains 
 and seeds which constitute the main 
 part of their subsistence ; their short 
 wings and the weakness of their pec- 
 toral muscles, whi'ch cause the heavi- 
 ness of their flight, a deficiency which 
 is counterbalanced by the strength of 
 those muscles of the thighs and legs 
 that contribute to their powers of 
 running ; their gregarious, and, gen- 
 erally speaking, polygamous habits ; 
 the ease with which they are domes- 
 ticated ; their wholesome flesh, to- 
 gether with many striking peculiari- 
 ties in their anatomy, serve equally 
 to distinguish thera.' 
 
 " Some foreign varieties have not 
 even the rudiment of a tail, while 
 others are distinguished by it. The 
 gamecock, which is probably a native 
 of India, has an unusual length of 
 spur, his natural weapon of combat. 
 The flesh of this variety is delicate- 
 ly white and of the finest flavour, the 
 plumage brilliant, and the form sym- 
 metrical ; but from their pugnacious 
 temper, there is great difficulty in 
 rearing even those of the same brood ; 
 and for companionship with the gen- 
 eral inmates of the fowl-yard they are 
 very exceptionable for the same cause. 
 
 " The best breed of Dorking fowls 
 is the produce of the Dorking cock 
 and the common dunghill fowl. This 
 cross is larger and plumper, and more 
 hardy than the pure Dorking, without 
 losing delicacy of flavour or white- 
 ness of flesh. 
 
 "The characteristics of the pure 
 Dorking are, that it is white-feather- 
 ed, short-legged, and an excellent 
 layer. The peculiarity of this estab- 
 lished variety, which has frequently 
 five claws perfectly articulated (with 
 sometimes a sixth springing laterally 
 from the fifth, but always imperfect), 
 is well known. But though the true 
 600 
 
 Dorking, which is white, is much es- 
 teemed, that colour is rare, and prized 
 for the ornament of the poultry-yard . 
 speckled colours are most generally 
 seen. 
 
 " The Poland breed, which is black- 
 feathered, with white topknots, lays 
 well, and is highly desirable where 
 the production of eggs for the table 
 is the principal object ; but they sel- 
 dom sit. 
 
 '• The Chiltagong, or Malay, which 
 is a very large Indian variety, is gen- 
 erally long-legged, with yellow body 
 and coarse, yellow flesh. Fanciers 
 used to like them for their fine ap- 
 pearance and their large eggs ; but 
 as their long legs incapacitate them 
 from steady sitting, they are not gen- 
 eral favourites. One of our practical 
 acquaintances recommends the male 
 produce of the Poland and Chittagong M 
 as a good cross with the common ■ 
 dunghill hen, as their progeny will sit. ~ 
 
 " Parmentier thus describes the 
 cock ; ' He is considered to have ev- 
 ery requisite quality when he is of a 
 good middling size ; when he carries 
 his head high ; has a quick, animated 
 look, a strong and shrill voice, short 
 bill, a fine red comb, shining as if 
 varnished ; wattles of a large size, 
 and of the same colour as the comb ; 
 the breast broad ; the wings strong ; 
 the plumage black, or of an obscure 
 red ; the thighs very muscular ; the 
 legs thick, and furnished with strong 
 spurs ; the claws rather bent, and 
 sharply pointed. He ought also to be 
 free in his motions, to crow frequent- 
 ly, and to scratch the ground often in 
 search of worms, not so much for 
 himself as to treat his hens. He 
 ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, 
 ardent, and ready in caressing the 
 hens ; quick in defending them, at- 
 tentive in soliciting them to eat, in 
 keeping them together, and in assem- 
 bling them at night.' " 
 
 '■ The Bantam is a beautiful little 
 bird, usually white in colour, with 
 short legs, feathered oftentimes to 
 the extremity of its toes. It is often 
 of variegated colours, inclined to red, 
 brown, and white, prettily mixed. Oc- 
 casionally a variety is met with that 
 
POULTRY 
 
 are smooth-legged. They are very 
 domestic, often making tlieir nest in 
 the kitchen and cupboards of the 
 (IweUiiig, wiien ])crmilted. They are 
 (■\ceik'nt layers and good nurses, 
 but require a dry location, on account 
 of their short, featliered legs. The 
 males are wonderful crowers, exceed- 
 ingly pugnacious, and make three 
 times the luss about the poultry-yard 
 that anything, but a bantam, should 
 do. They arrive at maturity early, 
 and are well worthy of propagation. 
 "The Btirfcs County breed has re- 
 ceived some celebrity in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Philadelphia as a valua- 
 ble variety of fowl, principally on ac- 
 count of its enormous size. I have 
 seen many specimens of this fowl, 
 paid some attention to its habits, and 
 learned from those who have tried 
 them their principal merits. It is a 
 large bird, weighing, at maturity, 
 eight, and even ten pounds, rather 
 thinly feathered, of various colours 
 from gray to black, and frequently 
 speckled black and white. They are 
 coarse in their legs, tall and bony, 
 and have evidently a cross of the Ma- 
 lay in tlieir composition. They are 
 but moderate layers ; their eggs very 
 large and good. They are bad sit- 
 ters, frequently breakmg their eggs, 
 on account of their great weight and 
 size, by cru.shingthem ; are not hardy, 
 and, on the whole, will not compare 
 with the common dunghill fowl for 
 ordinary uses. They do not breed 
 equaJly in size and appearance, show- 
 ing t hem, evidently, to be a cross from 
 other breeds ; but from what they are 
 derived, other than the Malay, it is 
 difficult to say. A gentleman of my 
 acquaintance, who is very curious as 
 well as nice in the selection of his 
 fowls, tried them effectually for his 
 poultry-yard, and they disappointed 
 him. He then crossed them with the 
 game breed, and has succeeded fine- 
 ly, the cross being reduced in size, 
 fuller feathered, hardier, and better 
 layers, with an excellent carcass, and 
 finer flesh. As a fancy fowl, or to 
 make up a variety, they are very 
 well, but they can never become of 
 great uUliiy, except to cross with the 
 
 common or the game fowl, to the 
 farmer. 
 
 " The Java or Indian fowl is a 
 large, coarse bird, covered with a 
 coarse, long down or hair, of a dirty 
 white or yellow colour, and running 
 from that into all the shades of brown, 
 even to a smoky black. It appears 
 to difler little from the Malay fowl, 
 save in its crowing, and perhaps lay- 
 ing deeper-coloured eggs. Its gener- 
 al characteristics are the same. In the 
 Northern States it is hardly worth 
 propagation : as a fancy bird, it pos- 
 sesses neither beauty nor utility." 
 
 " Those who intend to rear fowls 
 or any kind of poultry on a large scale 
 should have a distinct yard, perfectly 
 sheltered, and with a warm aspect, 
 well fenced, secure from thieves and 
 vermin, and sufficiently inclined to be 
 always dry, and supplied with sand 
 or ashes for the cocks and hens to 
 roll in, an operation necessary to dis- 
 engage their feathers from vermin : 
 running water should be especially 
 provided ; for the want of water, of 
 which all poultry are fond, produces 
 constipation of the bowels and in- 
 flammatory diseases ; and for geese 
 and ducks bathing is an indispensa- 
 ble luxury. A contiguous field is also 
 necessary for free exercise, as well 
 as for the suijjtly of grubs and grass 
 to the geese. The fowl-house should 
 be dry, well roofed, and fronting the 
 east or south, and, if practicable, at 
 the back of a stove or stables, warmth 
 being conducive to health and laying, 
 though extreme heat has the contra- 
 ry efTect. It should be furnished with 
 two small lattice windows, that can 
 be opened or shut at pleasure, at op- 
 posite ends, for ventilation, which is 
 frequently necessary ; and the perch- 
 es should be so arranged that one row 
 of roosting fowls should not be di- 
 rectly above another. 
 
 " M. Parmentier has shown by 
 
 what arrangement a house twenty 
 
 feet long and twelve feet wide may 
 
 be made to accommodate 150 hens 
 
 at roost. The plan is simply this : 
 
 \ the first roosting-perch (rounded a 
 
 little at the upper angles only, for gal- 
 
 , linaceous fowls cannot keep a firm 
 
 6S1 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 hold on perfectly cylindrical support- 
 ers) should be placed loiiptlnvisc, and 
 rest on trcsscls in each end wall, ssix 
 feet from the front wall, and at a con- 
 venient height, which must depend 
 on the elevation of the house from 
 the floor, which should be formed of 
 some well consolidated material that 
 can be easily swept. Another perch 
 should be fi.ved ladder-wise {en eche- 
 lon) above this, but ten inches nearer 
 to the back wall, and so on, until 
 there are four of these perches, like 
 the steps of a ladder \\ hen properly 
 inclined, but with a sufficient distance 
 between the wall and the upper one 
 to allow the poultry-maid to stand 
 conveniently upon when she has oc- 
 casion to examine the nests, which 
 it is her duty to do every day at least 
 once, and in the forenoon. The high- 
 est of these she can reach by stand- 
 ing on a stool or step-ladder. By this 
 contrivance the liens, when desirous 
 of reaching the nests, have no occa- 
 sion to fly, but merely to pass from 
 one stick to another. If the size and 
 form of the house permit, a similar 
 construction may be made on the op- 
 posite side, care being taken to leave 
 an open space in the middle of the 
 room, and a sufficiently wide passage 
 for the attendant to pass along the 
 walls. It is not at all required to 
 have as many nests as hens, because 
 they have not all occasion to occupy 
 them at the same time ; and besides, 
 they are so far from having a repug- 
 nance to lay in a common receptacle, 
 that the sight of an egg stimulates 
 them to lay. It is, however, true that 
 the most secluded and darkest nests 
 are those which the hens prefer. 
 
 " The nests, if built into the wall, 
 are in tiers from the bottom to the 
 top, the lowest being about three feet 
 from the ground, and a foot square. 
 If the laying chambers consist of 
 wooden boxes, they are usually fur- 
 nished with a ledge, which is very 
 convenient for the hens when rising. 
 
 " But the best receptacles for the 
 eggs are those of basket-work, as 
 they are cool in summer, and can ea- 
 sily be removed and washed. They 
 ought to be fastened, not directly to 
 022 
 
 the wall, as is generally the case, but 
 to boards fixed in it by hooks, well 
 clinched, and with a little roof to cov- 
 er the rows of baskets. They will 
 thus be isolated, to the great satis- 
 faction of the hen, which delights in 
 the absence of all disturbing influ- 
 ences when laying. All the ranges 
 of nests should be placed check-wise, 
 in order that the inmates, when com- 
 ing out, may not startle those imme- 
 diately under. Those designed for 
 hatching should be near the ground 
 (where instinct teaches the hen to 
 choose her seat), and so arranged 
 that the hens can easily enter them 
 without disturbing the eggs. The 
 house should be thoroughly fumigated 
 with tobacco and sulphur in spring, 
 to kill the disagreeable lice, the straw, 
 &c., all changed, and the dung care- 
 fully removed. 
 
 " Wheaten or rye straw is the most 
 approved material for the bedding, 
 being cooler than hay : the hens are 
 sometimes so tortured by lice as to 
 forsake their nests altogether, in an 
 agony of restlessness. A housewife 
 has assurred us that she once lost an 
 entire clutch, from iiaving, as she be- 
 lieves, given a bed of hay seeds to 
 her sitting hen. The chicks were all 
 glued to the shells, and thus destroy- 
 ed, owing, as she thinks, to the high 
 temperature occasioned by the fer 
 menting seeds. 
 
 " For all f)urposes two cocks in a 
 good run are considerd as sufficient 
 lor twelve or fourteen hens, but in 
 France they allow twenty mistresses 
 to each cock, which no doubt is on 
 account of the higher temperature 
 there. In a conhned yard, five hens 
 are sufficient for one cock, and a 
 double set will not answer in very 
 limited space. When there are two 
 or more cocks, care should be taken 
 not to have them of equal age or size, 
 for in this case they are always jeal- 
 ous and quarrelsome ; if one is deci- 
 dedly ascendant, the other will nev- 
 er presume to dispute with him. It 
 will be judicious, also, to avoid the in- 
 troduction or changing of cocks in 
 the breeding season, for the hens re- 
 quire constant intercourse with them, 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 and several days frequently elapse 
 before tliey become familiarized with 
 a stranger. The best way is to bring 
 in the new cock in tiie summer, ei- 
 ther as a chick, or late in the year in 
 the moulting season, when he will 
 not take too much notice of tlie liens. 
 As a general rule, it would be well to 
 have one a yearling, and the other a 
 year older. In the third year, the 
 cock, who then becomes lazy and ex- 
 cessively jealous, should be killed. 
 
 '• In order to have the earliest chick- 
 ens, hens should be induced to sit in 
 October, which they may do if they 
 have moulted early. By attention 
 in this particular, chickens can be 
 brought to the market at Christmas ; 
 but the object should be, in general, 
 to set the eggs as soon as possible 
 after Christmas, in order to have 
 chickens with the forced asparagus 
 in March. 
 
 " In selecting eggs for hatching, 
 care should be taken that they are not, 
 at the utmost, more than a month old, 
 but their condition for hatching will 
 greatly depend upon the temperature 
 of the weather : vitahty continues 
 longest when the air is cool. 
 
 '• It has been asserted that the fu- 
 ture sex of tlie bird is indicated by 
 the shape of the egg, the round pro- 
 ducing the female, and the oblong the 
 male. But this is contradicted, and, 
 we believe, with sufHcient reason, 
 and it is impossible not only to foretell 
 the sex, but even to ascertain wheth- 
 er the egg be fecundated. This, how- 
 ever, is certain, that if the air-bag (at 
 the obtuse end), which has been mis- 
 taken for the germ, and the purpose 
 of which is to oxygenate the blood of 
 the chick, be perforated even in the 
 least conceivable degree, the genera- 
 ting power is lost altogether. Those 
 eggs only which have been fecunda- 
 ted by the male are possessed of the 
 vital principle. The number of eggs 
 for a hen should not exceed sixteen, 
 as she cannot unpart the necessary 
 warmth to more. It is by no means 
 uncommon with experienced breed- 
 ers to place two hens on the same 
 day on their respective eggs, and then 
 on the twenty-first day, when the 
 
 broods are out, to give the maternal 
 charge of both to one of the hens, re- 
 moving the other to another set of 
 eggs, which, if she be a steady settee, 
 she will hatch as in the first instance. 
 This, however, must be deemed a cru- 
 elty, though some hens would in- 
 stinctively continue to sit until death. 
 They woidd, however, become so at- 
 tenuated by continued sitting, as to 
 lose the i)ower of communicating to 
 the eggs the necessary degree of 
 warmth. The practice of the Surrey 
 breeders is to feed the hen on oats 
 while sitting, as less stimulating than 
 barley, which they give to the laying 
 hens on account of this very quality. 
 
 " Some fanciers use artificial moth- 
 ers, which effect the purpose of im- 
 parting the necessary heat to the 
 young chicks after birth, when there 
 is no natural mother nor a trained 
 capon to brood them. These artifi- 
 cial mothers — as used by Mr. Mou- 
 bray, and described by him — are box- 
 es lined throughout with wool. He 
 recommends that a curtain of flannel 
 should be suspended over the open- 
 ing of the box for the exclusion of 
 cold air. 
 
 "Mr. Young states that ' five broods 
 may at once be cherished under an 
 artificial mother. This mother may 
 be framed of a board ten inches broad 
 and fifteen inches long, resting on two 
 legs in front, two inches in height, 
 and on two props behind, two inches 
 also in height. The board must be 
 perforated with many small gimlet- 
 holes, for the escape of the heated 
 air. and lined with lamb's skin dressed 
 with the wool on, and the woolly side 
 is to come in contact with the chick- 
 ens. Over three of these mothers a 
 wicker basket is to be placed for the 
 protection of the chickens, four feet 
 long, two feet broad, and fourteen 
 inches high, with a lid open, a wooden 
 sliding bottom to draw out for clean- 
 ing, and a long narrow trough along 
 the front, resting on two very low 
 stools, for holding their food. Perches 
 are to be fi.xcd in the basket for the 
 more advanced to roost on. A flannel 
 curtain is to be placed in front, and at 
 both ends of the mothers, for the 
 623 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 chickens to run under, from which 
 they soon learn to push outward and 
 inward. These mothers, with tlie 
 wicker baskets over them, are to be 
 placed against a hot wall, at the back 
 of the kitciien fire, or in any other 
 warm situation where tlie heat shall 
 not exceed 80 degrees of Fahrenheit. 
 
 " ' When the chickens are a w'eek 
 old, they are to be carried, with the 
 mother, to a jjfrass-plat, for feeding, 
 and kept warm by a tin tube filled 
 with hot water, which will continue 
 suflicientiy warm for about three 
 hours, when tlie hot water is to be 
 renewed. Towards the evening the 
 mothers are to be again placed 
 against the hot wall.' 
 
 "The artificial mother, however, 
 is only a iricchanical house for chicks 
 already hatched ; but the process of 
 bringing the embryo of organized life 
 in the egg through all the stages of 
 the vital principle, until it becomes 
 matured, by means of heated ovens, 
 has been long and successfully prac- 
 tised in Egypt. 
 
 " These ovens, which are con- 
 structed with bricks, are about nine 
 feet high, with galleries extending 
 through the whole length, and con- 
 taining chambers into which a man 
 can creep, through a very contracted 
 orifice, for the purpose of deposit- 
 ing the eggs, which are laid, to the 
 amount of several thousands, on 
 mats or beds of flax over the brick 
 floors. The heat is conveyed through 
 fire-places ; and the material of the 
 slow fires, which are most effective, 
 is the dung of cows or camels com- 
 bined with straw. The fires are kept 
 up for as many days (according to 
 the temperature of the weather) as 
 are sufficient to impart such a degree 
 of heat as will continue to the expi- 
 ration of the 21 days required for 
 the hatching of chickens, care being 
 taken to confine the warmth by clo- 
 sing up all the orifices communica- 
 ting with the external air. One hun- 
 dred millions of chickens are said to 
 be thus annually produced in Egypt. 
 
 " M. Reaumur made various ex- 
 periments in hatching with ferment- 
 ed dung in hot-beds, but unsuccess- 
 624 
 
 fully ; life was developed, but never 
 matured ; the chicks were in some 
 cases even feathered, but long be- 
 fore the full time they lost vitality. 
 He succeeded at length, ' after trials 
 enough to wear out the most endu- 
 ring patience,' with an oven free 
 from the influence of the vapour ex- 
 haled from the dung, which in the 
 previous experiinents had been de- 
 structive of the embryo. He after- 
 ward succeeded, to a great degree, 
 by using a box or shelves over an 
 oven, with due regard to uniformity 
 of temperature. Several of the eggs 
 in this latter case were hatched on 
 the twentieth day, by which the usu- 
 al course of nature was anticipated 
 by one day. But though artificial 
 hatching has long been practised 
 with success in Egypt, it has not 
 been found worth the expense and 
 trouble in France, from the variable- 
 ness of temperature there compared 
 with that in the Delta, where, in the 
 autumnal season, when the mammals 
 (hatching-ovens) are used, it is re- 
 markably steady and extremely 
 warm. 
 
 " Since the attempt to pursue the 
 Oriental system has failed in France, 
 there is no probability of its succeed 
 ing in the climate of Great Britain ; 
 but it by no means follows that suc- 
 cess may not attend such manage- 
 ment as will obviate the obstructions 
 which arise from irregularities of 
 temperature. The object was par- 
 tially attained some years ago by 
 means of steam, but uniformity of 
 heat was not preserved, and, conse- 
 quently, that experiment failed. It 
 would appear, however, that the ap- 
 plication of the Eccaleobion* ma- 
 chinery, exhibited in London by Mr. 
 Bucknell, the inventor and proprie- 
 tor, may be successful. Mr. Buck- 
 nell asserts that his eccaleobion pos- 
 sesses a perfect and absolute com- 
 mand over temperature from 300 
 degrees of Fahrenheit to that of cold 
 water ; so that any substance sub- 
 mitted to its influence shall uniform- 
 ly be acted upon over its whole sur- 
 
 * From iKKaXcoi, I call forth, and /?ioj, 
 life. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 face at any required intermediate de- 
 pree within the above range, and such 
 lii^at maintained unaltered, without 
 trouble or difficulty, lor any length 
 of time, and that ' by means of this 
 absolute and complete command over 
 the temperature obtained by this ma- 
 chine, the impregnated egg of any 
 bird, not stale, placed within its influ- 
 ence at the proper degree of warmth, 
 is, at the expiration of its natural 
 time, elicited into life, without the 
 possibility of failure, which is some- 
 times the case with eggs subjected to 
 the caprice of their natural parent.' 
 
 "That chickens are thus hatched 
 in considerable numbers is unques- 
 tionable, upward of thirty thousand 
 having' been already brought into ex- 
 istence by this single eccaleohion ma- 
 chine ; nor has any difficulty been 
 found in the subsequent rearing of 
 those chickens, when proper yards 
 and suitable temperature were pro- 
 vided, more than m the natural way ; 
 indeed, in some respects less so, as the 
 losses sustained in poultry by the sud- 
 den changes of the weather, and the 
 influence of dampness in particular, 
 and accidents from various causes, 
 are very considerable. Supposing Mr. 
 Bucknell's experiment to answer the 
 purpose in every respect, the increase 
 in the production of poultry might be 
 rendered incalculably great by the 
 adoption of his principle on a great 
 scale, wherever the essentials of a 
 dry soil, warmth, and proper build- 
 ings can at the same time be supplied. 
 
 " ' It must have struck even the 
 most superficial observer, that the 
 extraordinary fecundity of gallinace- 
 ous fowls is a wise and most benev- 
 olent dispensation of nature to pro- 
 vide the more abundantly food for 
 rnan, as, in those tribes of birds not 
 suited for his table, the female lays 
 no more eggs than she can incubate. 
 With respect, therefore, to domestic 
 poultry, the most nutritious of all hu- 
 man food, this rich provision of a 
 bounteous providence is, for the first 
 time, available to Europe.' 
 
 " The eccaleobion machine, capa- 
 ble of containing 2000 eggs, r'^sem- 
 bles an oblong box, nine feet in length, 
 
 G G 3 
 
 three feet in breadth, and the same 
 in height. It has no connexion with 
 the walls, against which it is placed 
 on the table on which it stands ; its 
 regulating power is within. 
 
 " The following striking passage, 
 from Mr. Bucknell's work ' On Arti- 
 ficial Incubation,' above alluded to, 
 will show the importance of this sub- 
 ject in its commercial and domestic 
 bearings. 
 
 "Mr. Bucknell observes (page 16), 
 ' We call the Egyptians barbarous ; 
 the procuring, however, by art and 
 industry, an abundant supply of that 
 necessary of life, good animal food, 
 is no evidence of barbarism. If 
 the population of the United King- 
 dom, which, as respects Egypt, is as 
 twenty-four to two, were as well 
 supplied with this artificial produc- 
 tion as Egs'pt, it would require, not 
 92,000.000,''but 1,104,000,000 of poul- 
 try annually, for them to be as well 
 fed in this respect as the uncivilized 
 natives of Egypt. But how stands 
 the account in this matter ! Full one 
 third of our population subsist almost 
 entirely, or, rather, starve, upon po- 
 tatoes alone : another third have, in 
 addition to this edible, oaten or infe- 
 rior wheaten bread, with one or two 
 meals of fat pork, or the refuse of 
 the shambles, per week ; while a con- 
 siderable majority of the remaining 
 third seldom are able to procure an 
 ample daily supply of good butcher's 
 meat, or obtain the luxury of poultry 
 from year to year. 
 
 " ' On the Continent of Europe the 
 population is still in a worse condi- 
 tion ; fish, soups made from herbs, 
 a stuff called bread, made from every 
 variety of grain, black, brown, hard, 
 and sour, such as no Englishman 
 could eat ; olives, chestnuts, the pulpy 
 saccharine fruits, roots, stalks, and 
 leaves, and not unfreqiicntly the bark 
 of trees ; sawdust, blubber, train-oil, 
 with frogs and snails, make up and 
 constitute a good part of the food of 
 the greater portion of the inhabitants 
 of Europe. There is no other cause 
 for this than the excessive ignorance 
 of its population.' 
 
 " The contemplation of the pro- 
 625 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 gressive stages throngli wliich life is 
 developed and nialurcil in the egg is 
 highly interesting. The contents of 
 the shells, of the species under im- 
 mediate consideration, taken out and 
 placed on a pUite or a saucer on Mr. 
 BuckncH's table, present the follow- 
 ing appearances, according to the re- 
 spective periods ; 
 
 " On the third day, the embryo or- 
 ganization of the skull, brain, heart, 
 and blood, is perceptible by the aid 
 of a magnifying glass. 
 
 " Fourth day. The pulsation of 
 the heart is distinguishable by the 
 naked eye. 
 
 " Sixth day. The chief vessels and 
 organs rudimentally formed ; the pul- 
 sation and circulation of blood appa- 
 rent. 
 
 " Ninth day. Intestines and veins 
 formed, and the deposition of flesh 
 and bony substance commenced ; the 
 beak for the lirst time open. 
 
 *' Twelfth day. The feathers have 
 protruded, the skull has become car- 
 tilaginous, and the fust voluntary 
 movement of the chick is made. 
 
 " Fifteenth day. Organs, vessels, 
 bones, feathers, closely approaching, 
 in appearance, to the natural state. 
 
 " Eighteenth day. Vital mecha- 
 nism nearly developed, and the first 
 sign of life heard from the piping 
 chick. 
 
 " Twenty-first day. The chick 
 breaks the shell, and in two or three 
 hours is quite active and lively. 
 
 "The exit of the chick from the 
 shell is assuredly one of the most 
 interesting processes of animated na- 
 ture ever investigated by naturalists. 
 It was supposed that the mother bird 
 broke the shell ; but M. Reaumur has 
 long since detailed the processeSj and 
 we ourselves have witnessed the ev- 
 olution of the chick in the eccaleo- 
 bion, by its own unassisted efforts, 
 The French naturalist to whom we 
 have just now referred thus explains 
 some interesting facts : ' I have seen 
 chicks continue at work for two days 
 together. Some, again, work inces- 
 santly ; others lake rest at intervals, 
 according to their physical strength. 
 I have observed some, in consequence 
 626 
 
 of their impatience to see the light, 
 begin to break the shell a great deal 
 too soon ; for they ought, before they 
 make their exit, to have within them 
 provision enough to serve for twenty- 
 four hours without taking food, and 
 for this purpose the unconsumed por- 
 tion of the yolk enters through the 
 navel. The chick, indeed, which 
 comes out of the shell before taking 
 up all the yolk, is certain to droop 
 and die a few days alter it is hatched. 
 The help which 1 have occasionally 
 tried to give to several of them to- 
 wards their deliverance has aflbrded 
 me an opportunity of observing those 
 which had begun to break their shells 
 before this was accomplished ; and I 
 have opened many eggs much frac- 
 tured, in each of which the chick had 
 as yet much of the yolk not absorbed. 
 Besides, some chicks have greater 
 obstacles to overcome than others, 
 since all shells are not of an equal 
 thickness nor of an equal consist- 
 ence ; and I think it probable that the 
 same inequality takes place in the li- 
 ning membrane. The shells of the 
 eggs of birds of various species are 
 of a thickness proportional to the 
 strength of the chick that is obliged 
 to break through them.'* 
 
 " If the chick should be glued to 
 the shell, as sometimes occurs, and 
 is indicated by the faintness of its 
 chip and the non-enlargement of the 
 fracture for some hours, it must be 
 assisted (but not until the necessity 
 is fully ascertained) in its liberation 
 ' with a key, or some such instru- 
 ment, and by cutting the membrane 
 with the points of a pair of scissors. 
 The operation, though painful to the 
 chick, does not prove mortal ; for it 
 is no sooner freed than it exhibits as 
 much vigour as any other chick of its 
 age.'t But unless the chick, after a 
 full day's effort, is found unable to 
 chip the shell, from weakness or ad- 
 hesion to its envelope, it is better not 
 to assist it in its extrication ; for in 
 ninety-nine cases out of a hundred 
 aid proves ineffectual, through the 
 injury inflicted upon the delicate or- 
 
 * " Domestic Haliits of Birds," Library of 
 Entertaining Knowledge. t IbiJ. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 ganizatioii of the bird ; or, more prob- fects the most surprising change in 
 ably, the previous weakness or im- her disposition and temper. Before 
 
 perfection of the chick, which occa- 
 sioned the necessity for assistance, 
 also occasions its death at the mo- 
 ment of its birth, and would take place 
 even if its disengagement were ef- 
 fected without any injury. 
 
 she attained her matronly character, 
 she was greedy, and always scaich- 
 ing for food, fond of gadding about, 
 and timid in the extreme. iS'ow she 
 becomes generous, self-denying, and 
 intrepid ; she assumes the liery tem- 
 
 ' There is a caution to be observed ! per of the cock, and becomes a vira- 
 in all cases regarding the eggs when go in defence of her helpless brood, 
 the chicks are on the verge of inatii- An anecdote is told by White, in his 
 rity : they should not i)e stirred when • Natural History of Sclborne.' of the 
 within two days of the evolvcment ■ punishment inliicted by some hens 
 of the chicks. U any circumstances j upon a hawk which had, at different 
 render it absolutely necessary to do , times, killed their chickens. By some 
 so, care should be taken to place ! means this hawk was caught, and the 
 them with the broad end inclining ! owner gave him up to the tender mer- 
 upward, as the beak of the chick is ; ciesof the bereaved mothers. In his 
 then in its proper position ; and if | own words, ' Resentment suggested 
 this be reversed, the chick becomes '■ the laws of retaliation. He clipped 
 unable to chip the shell, and must the hawk's wings, cut off his talons, 
 therefore die. and, fixing a cork on his bUl, threw 
 
 "Chickens should be fed the day I him down among the brood hens, 
 after their birth with crumbs of bread ; Imagination cannot paint the scene 
 soaked in milk, or with the yolk of ! that ensued ; the expressions of fear, 
 an egg boiled hard; and they will rage, and revenge inspired were new, 
 quickly learn to eat curds, grits, and or, at least, such as had been unno- 
 barley-meal and milk. If not design- ticed before. The exasperated ma- 
 ed for immediate use, they should trons upbraided, they execrated, they 
 soon get raw corn, and occasionally insulted, they triumphed. In a word, 
 alteratives of green food, such as they never desisted from buffeting 
 bruised leeks, nettles, lettuces, (Sec. their adversary tUl they had torn him 
 For the first week they should be con- in a hundred pieces.' 
 fined to the house altogether ; after , " The same writer calls attention 
 that time they may be let out for a to the language of the fowl, from a 
 short time in the sun, and gradually pleased twittering to a scream. A 
 habituated to the weather. To ren- laying pullet utters a complacent, soft 
 der the hen, which has already dis- \ note ; but when she has been deliv- 
 charged her duty, still more produc- ered of an egg, her cackle of delight 
 live to her owner, she is frequently ' and importance is loud enough to ex- 
 confined to a coop, called, in Surrey, cite the sympathetic voices of all her 
 a Tip, for some weeks after the chicks companions ; when her chickens are 
 have seen the light. Her offspring hatched, she has a different language, 
 during this time pass freely through which is intelligible to her little ones, 
 the prison bars, returning at her call, The crested cock has various notes ; 
 or on occasions of alarm, to the ma- his tone and language, for such it is 
 tcrnal wings, and then hopping out' in effect, as he calls his favourites to 
 again, to the inexpressible misery of partake of the food which he gallant- 
 their imprisoned mother, who is kept ly scrapes for them, is of a very pe- 
 in this state of confinement until she culiar kind, and very different from 
 
 becomes indifferent to the chickens 
 and disposed to lay again. 
 
 " The courage of the hen in de- 
 fence of her offspring has been a 
 common theme of admiration ; the 
 
 his ordinary voice, that is so familiar 
 to us. 
 
 " Poultry are the better for high 
 feeding from the very shell, and. on 
 this account, the heaviest corn is oft- 
 
 force of her maternal solicitude ef- 1 ea far cheaper for them in the eod 
 
 627 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 than tailings, as regards tlir flesh, or 
 the size and substantial jioddncss of 
 the eggs. Chickens may be piii up 
 for feeding as soon as the hen lias 
 ceased to regard them, and before 
 they lose tlieir first good condition. 
 When chickens are wanted (or do- 
 mestic purposes, they are often left 
 at liberty in the farm-yard ; and if 
 they have plenty of good food, they 
 will be in the most healtlifnl state for 
 the table, and rich and juicy in fla- 
 vour. Mr. Moiibray ascertained that 
 pullets hatched in March, if constant- 
 ly high fed, laid eggs abundantly in 
 the autumn ; and it killed in the Feb- 
 ruary or March following, were so ex- 
 cessively fat from the run of the yard 
 as to open more like Michaelmas 
 geese than chickens. Experienced 
 poulterers will fatten fowls in two or 
 three weeks vvitii the aid of grease, 
 which gives a luscious, but, in our 
 judgment, a very disagreeable fla- 
 vour to the flesh, which, though not 
 actually diseased, is very inferior to 
 that of the fowl fed at large in the 
 common way at the barn-door. 
 
 "The practice of cramming poul- 
 try by the hand is quite common. A 
 machine for this purpose is used in 
 France, by which one man can cram 
 fifty birds in half an liour. It is some- 
 what on the principle of a forcing- 
 pump. The throats of the birds are 
 held open by the operator until they 
 are gorged tlirough a pipe, which 
 conveys the food from a reservoir be- 
 low, placed on a stool. In fifteen 
 days fowls are said to attain the high- 
 est state of fatness and flavour by 
 this feeding. In addition to the or- 
 dinary paste of barley-meal, or meal 
 made into little balls with milk, the 
 dried seeds and leaves of nettles have 
 been recommended by the continent- 
 al poulterers, some of whom give a 
 little henbane seed to induce sleep, 
 while others put out the eyes of the 
 prisoners, as the most efl~ectual way 
 of keeping them in a state of dark- 
 ness, which is considered essential 
 to their becoming rapidly fat ; and, 
 under the pretext of relieving them 
 from the irritation of vermin, they 
 pluck the feathers from their heads, 
 628 
 
 bellies, and wings. While fowls are 
 thus preparing for the knife, though 
 their bodies are closely confined, tlieir 
 hinder i)nrts are free for evacuatitm 
 and cleanliness, and their heads are at 
 liberty to take in fresh supplies of 
 nutriment. 
 
 "The practice of making capons 
 (emasculating the males) is practised 
 a little in some of the English coun- 
 ties, and very much in France, where 
 the females are also rendered inca- 
 pable of breeding, and termed in their 
 nnsexed condition poiilardes, in order 
 to give them the tendency to fatten. 
 An incision is made near the parts, 
 and through this the finger is intro- 
 duced to take hold of and bring away 
 the genitals, but so carefully as not 
 to injure the intestines : the wound is 
 then stitched up, and rubbed with oil 
 or grease ; and the comb (which ap- 
 pears to be an unnecessary and gratu- 
 itous pain and insult to the sufferer) is 
 oiien cut off. Tiie lemales are treated 
 nuK-li in the same way, when they do 
 not promise well for laying, or when 
 they have ceased to be fertile ; they 
 are deprived of the ovarium. The 
 subsequent treatment is similar to 
 that in the former case. Care is ta- 
 ken to give them good food for three 
 or four days, and during that time to 
 keep them in a place of moderate 
 temperature, to avoid the danger of 
 gangrene, which, considering the 
 time of the year — midsummer, when 
 the operation is usually performed — 
 is a very probable consequence. Pul- 
 lets of the largest breed are selected 
 for the purpose, as they yield the 
 greatest weight to the poulterer ; and, 
 if employed in hatching, cover the 
 greatest number of eggs. 
 
 " Cuvier states that the capon may 
 be taught to hatch eggs, and to act 
 the part of a good nurse, with a little 
 bell round his neck to supply the want 
 of a good voice. He asserts that the 
 natural courage and energy of this 
 bird are not abated by the alteration 
 of his condition, in which his audaci- 
 ty enables him to impose on the cocks 
 and hens, so that they allow him to 
 strut about with his former gait of 
 I consequential importance, and to ful- 
 
 I 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 fil his duties without interference or 
 nuili'station. Tliis seems incredible, 
 as a bold and liauglity spirit under 
 siK-h circumstances is unnatural in 
 the extreme. Tlie pallidness of his 
 head and the diniinuliveness of his 
 comb and yills indicate the contrary 
 disposition, and he is so despised by 
 the other fowls that they will hardly 
 condescend to roost with him. 
 
 "Mr. Young, in his ' Report of the 
 County of Sussex,' says that much 
 art and attention are requisite to 
 make capons, and that the Sussex 
 breed are too long in the body for 
 success in the operation, by which 
 many are lust. A perfectly fat capon 
 will weigh from seven to ten pounds. 
 
 " As soon as fowls are rendered 
 sufficiently fat, they should be killed, 
 or they will loose tlesh and become 
 unhealthy. The most humane and 
 expeditious mode of putting them to 
 death is by a smart blow with a blunt- 
 edged stick, such as a child's bat, at 
 the back of the neck. Higglers break 
 the vertebraj of the neck by a sudden 
 twist, and never bleed fowls, as this 
 mode of despatching them dries up 
 the juices of the flesh. They bleed 
 turkeys and geese, however, after a 
 stunning blow on the neck, not by 
 cutting the tliroat, but by an incision 
 in the upper part of tiie mouth. 
 
 " Store fowls will feed well upon 
 the tailings of corn, potatoes, and in- 
 sects, and require little attention ex- 
 cept when laying, during which time 
 the food for the hens should be abun- 
 dant, and their roosting places dry 
 and warm. 
 
 " The diseases of all poultry prin- 
 cipally arise from cold and moisture. 
 Rheumatism decidedly arises from 
 this cause. During or after moult- 
 ing in a wet season, fowls frequently 
 become diseased, as is evident from 
 their drooping appearance, swelled 
 and watery eyes, and the dropsical 
 affections of the legs. Severe laying 
 also sometimes causes emaciation 
 and illness, which give way to a more 
 healthy condition after the moulting 
 season, if they have good food and 
 dry weather. 
 
 ' Chickens are very subject, in wet 
 
 G G G 2 
 
 or variable weather, to a disease call- 
 ed the chip, which appears in about 
 a fortnight after their birth, when 
 they are changing their feathers. 
 Warmth and sunshine are the only 
 restoratives within our knowledge. 
 
 " The roup is properly a gathering 
 upon the rump, which is cured or re- 
 lieved by opening, squeezing, and 
 bathing with warm water. Mr. Mow- 
 bray, however, who is a good practi- 
 cal authority, states that the roup is a 
 general term for all diseases, though 
 it is chiefly applied to catarrh, which 
 is indicated by watery eyes and run- 
 ning at the nostrils. This last disease 
 resembles glanders in horses, and 
 is infectious, and generally fatal. As 
 all these diseases originate in moist- 
 ure, dryness and warmth are the 
 best counteracting influences. The 
 nostrils should be washed with soap 
 and water, and the eyes with milk 
 and water. Mr. Mowbray recom- 
 mends a pepper-corn in dough at first, 
 to impart warmth, and afterward 
 calomel three times a week, as a fin- 
 ish to the cure. 
 
 " We have had the trachea of a 
 chicken dying of the gapes (which is 
 the incipient stage of roup) cut and 
 opened, and have taken out narrow 
 worms, about half an inch in length, 
 wiiich lay imbedded in a serous fluid. 
 A medical friend has frequently cured 
 fowls of the same disease by putting 
 the upper part of a feather, stripped 
 for the purpose, down the trachea, 
 turning it round, and thus bringing 
 up the worm, which he thinks is the 
 sole cause of the disease. It may, 
 however, be the effect of the malady, 
 as is the opinion of many. 
 
 " The pip, which the same individ- 
 ual considers analogous to the thrush 
 in the human kind, he cures, not by 
 scraping roughly, but by an applica- 
 tion of powdered borax dissolved in 
 tincture of myrrh and water, and 
 rubbed on the tongue with a cainel's- 
 hair brush two or three times a day. 
 This, at the same time, assists the 
 bowels. The Jinx is not uncommon. 
 Solid corn is the most certain reme- 
 dy for this disease. Taken at the 
 commencement, it is rarely serious, 
 629 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 but if once established in the consti- 
 tution, it becomes incurable, and, ac- 
 cording to some, contagious. For 
 constipatioji, bran, or pollard, with 
 milk, beet leaves, and lettuces, afford 
 a certain cure. 
 
 " Much of the foregoing matter ap- 
 plies to the rearing and management 
 of all poultry. The succeeding ob- 
 servations will be brief 
 
 " Turkeys. — The greatest weight 
 to which our domesticated poultry 
 can be made to attain is thirty pounds, 
 and a turkey of even half this weight 
 is a ' dainty dish.' 
 
 " The varied plumage of the bird 
 in the domesticated state is well 
 known to every one ; and in no spe- 
 cies is that sure mark of subjection 
 to man more strongly seen. The 
 bronze, or copper-coloured, is not 
 considered hardy, nor often reared, 
 and the varieties may be stated to be 
 only twofold, the dark-coloured and 
 the light. 
 
 The dark-coloured birds are most 
 prized for size and hardihood. 
 
 " Turkeys, though extremely deli- 
 cate in their infancy, become very 
 hardy, and, if permitted, will roost on 
 the highest trees, in the cold dry 
 nights of winter, without suffering 
 injury. The hen, which lays many 
 eggs early in spring, sits thirty days, 
 and covers from twelve to fifteen 
 eggs. It is unnecessary for the tur- 
 key-cock, as is the case with gallina- 
 ceous fowl, to be in constant inter- 
 course with the hen during her pe- 
 riod of laying. Two visits from him 
 in that season are sufficient to im- 
 pregnate all the eggi. She is a very 
 steady sitter, and must be removed 
 to her food and supplied with water, 
 for she would never leave her nest. 
 She wants the alertness, and courage, 
 and sagacity of the common hen, and 
 might be called a fool with much 
 more propriety than the goose, which 
 is an intelligent bird. The turkey 
 hen is incapable of teaching her young 
 ones how to pick up their food, on 
 which account a poultry maid should 
 always attend them until they are 
 reared. 
 
 " On account of the constitutional 
 630 
 
 delicacy of this bird, the hatching 
 should not be commenced too early 
 in the spring, and when the chicks 
 are hatched they should be guarded 
 from the extremes of heat and cold 
 for some weeks. Rain is almost 
 always fatal to them in their early 
 stage. Curd, boiled eggs, and barley 
 or oatmeal, kneaded with milk (or 
 water, in case milk should produce 
 looseness), potatoes, nettles, parsley, 
 Swedish turnips, with chopped beet 
 leaves, after a little time, are their 
 proper food. As they retain so much 
 of their original wild namre as to 
 stray a considerable distance, if per 
 mitted, the hen should be tied oi 
 cooped for at least six weeks, when 
 the chicks will be hardy enough to 
 follow her about, under the vigilant 
 eye, however, of the poultry maid, 
 who should beware of their being 
 caught by a shower. 
 
 " They are soon familiarized to the 
 society of fowls in the poultry or 
 farm yard. "Without the advantage 
 of the latter, it is an unprofitable 
 speculation to rear any description of 
 poultry on a large scale ; but where 
 a farmer's yard presents facilities, the 
 economy of having all those kinds to 
 which the soil and climate are suita- 
 ble is considerable. The only cau- 
 tion with regard to turkeys, where 
 gallinaceous birds are numerous, is 
 to have separate houses for them at 
 night. These should be very lofty 
 and well ventilated. They may be 
 altogether open to the air in front, the 
 doors being of trellis-work. Fowls 
 (which are equally unsocial with the 
 capons of their own kind) have a 
 strong disinclination to roost with 
 them. 
 
 " When well grown, turkeys sup- 
 ply themselves in their ramblings so 
 far as to require food only when leav- 
 ing their house in the morning and 
 returning at night. The chances of 
 rearing a second brood are not so 
 great as to render it expedient to 
 make the trial. 
 
 " After six months, turkeys may 
 be crammed like fowls, but they re- 
 quire a much longer period to render 
 them fully fat. Those great birds 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 which are sent to the market about 
 Christmas, freiiuciitly weighing from 
 twenty to twenty-five pounds, are 
 usually cocks from the preceding 
 year. 
 
 •• Guinea Fowl. — This bird, which is 
 not much larger than the common 
 barn-door fowl, is of beautiful form 
 and plumage, and, though not a 
 source of profit to those who rear 
 poultry for immediate sale, is usually 
 kept where there is proper accommo- 
 dation, as much on account of the ex- 
 cellence and abundance of the eggs 
 (which, though small, are well-fla- 
 voured) as for the sake of the flesh, 
 which is prized. The number of hens 
 allowed to the male is about the same 
 as among the gallinaceous family. 
 The cock, little distinguished in ap- 
 pearance from the female, is an at- 
 tentive and affectionate mate, and 
 even obtrusively so to his favourites, 
 whom he will attend to the nest, and 
 remain with until they have laid their 
 eggs. 
 
 " Retaining some of their original 
 wildness, Guinea fowl dislike the con- 
 finement of a house. For the pur- 
 pose of laying, they prefer shrubber- 
 ies, clover meadows, or corn-fields, 
 in which they will deposite their 
 eggs, unless closely watched. The 
 Guinea hen is fruitful during the en- 
 tire summer, but not earlier than May. 
 On this account, and the difficulty of 
 rearing a late brood, it is more bene- 
 ficial to keep her entirely for laying, 
 and to put the earlier eggs under a 
 common hen, or capon, which will 
 cover from twenty to twenty-five, 
 than to encourage the incubation of 
 the natural parent, which is, more- 
 over, indisposed to it, especially if un- 
 der cover. If left to her instinct, this 
 bird would, at a late season, in the 
 open air, sit for the natural period, 
 which is twenty-eight or twenty-nine 
 days. 
 
 " The cock, having the same dis- 
 like to incubation which character- 
 izes the male of pea fowl, will de- 
 stroy the eggs if he can discover 
 them. Though the shell is remarka- 
 bly hard, the chicks break through it 
 at the proper moment, and are soon 
 
 after as vigorous and ready to eat 
 as the young of any other tribe of 
 poultry. 
 
 " The loud cry of these birds is not 
 agreeable, but. like the scream of the 
 pea fowl, it announces with certainty 
 an approaching change of weather. 
 The hen utters a cry when she de- 
 sires to roost, to call in her compan- 
 ions, to summon assistance, or to give 
 notice of any of those alarms which 
 her sensibilities cause her to express 
 with such energy of voice, and in all 
 which cases she is sure of receiving 
 a ready sympathy. 
 
 " The same food which is suited to 
 the young of gallinaceous fowls and 
 turkeys is good for the chicks of this 
 kmd ; but as they are not often des- 
 tined to the coops for fattening, a 
 good deal of garden or field green 
 food may be combined with their 
 grits, &c., after the first month. They 
 have a great relish for insects of ev- 
 eiy kind, and thrive upon them as 
 well as upon hemp seed. When de- 
 signed for the table, they ought to be 
 killed at an early age, at which time 
 the flesh is more juicy than that of 
 other poultry of the same age, and 
 very like that of the pheasant, though 
 when old it becomes exceedingly 
 tough. 
 
 " Ducks. — The white duck, being 
 the largest of the common domesti- 
 cated kmds, is perhaps the best for 
 the poulterer, though it is not deem- 
 ed so delicate in flavour as the dark- 
 coloured, such as that bred from in- 
 termixture with the Rhone duck, 
 which is also large. The Muscovy 
 variety is said to be a good breeder. 
 One drake is suflieient for five fe- 
 males. It is generally believed that 
 the duck lays no more eggs than she 
 can cover (from twelve to fifteen), 
 but Mr. Moubray states that, if well 
 fed, some ducks will lay a great num- 
 ber, and he gives an instance of one 
 laying an egg every day for eighty- 
 five days. 
 
 " For a fortnight after their birth, 
 ducklings should be kept from rush- 
 ing into the water, to which their in- 
 stinct soon leads them ; and with 
 this view the mother is frequentlv 
 631 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 confined (where there is any pond 
 within her reacli) to the rip, already 
 described, w liicli s^hould be placed on 
 a field of short grass with a fiat dish 
 of water near it. The ducklings wad- 
 dle about in search of insects, and at 
 the maternal call return to the coop. 
 This restraint upon tlie liberty of the 
 poor mother should be avoided if cir- 
 cumstances permit, for to protract 
 her close confinement after more 
 than four weeks' sitting is a cruel re- 
 straint. It is very common to place 
 duck eggs under a hen, on account 
 of her excellent qualities as a nurse. 
 
 " Any kind of meal is good for 
 ducklings at first, and this may soon 
 be mixed with potatoes. The rel'use 
 of the kitchen will not only support, 
 but fatten them ; but to have them 
 quickly and highly fattened, they 
 should have oatmeal made into paste. 
 They will also devour any animal of- 
 fal, and have no fastidiousness what- 
 ever. If allowed to lollow a plough, 
 or attend on the gardener when his 
 spade is at work, their greediness 
 and activity in picking up worms are 
 extreme ; and for gobbling up snails 
 and slugs, and other such delicacies 
 in the field or garden, they are most 
 useful, while they are at the same 
 time putting themselves into high 
 condition. Having no fastidiousness 
 of appetite, they never require cram- 
 ming ; indeed, they act as if they 
 considered it their duty to get fat as 
 quickly as possible, and therefore re- 
 quire no artificial aid. 
 
 '•In a poultry-yard the ducks and 
 geese are frequently lodged on the 
 lower floor of ihe fowl-houses, but it 
 is better, if the locality will permit, to 
 give them distinct chambers, partic- 
 ularly where a good pond (free from 
 eels) is available ; on the margin of 
 this their huts may be placed, with 
 very trifling labour, and an invisible 
 palmg all round the water, construct- 
 ed at bottom on the principle of the 
 cage-trap, so as to prevent the in- 
 gress of rats or weasels, while it af- 
 fords them a ready outlet, renders 
 this department of the poultry estab- 
 lishment complete, though far too 
 expensive for common adoption. 
 632 
 
 ^' Geese. — The proportion of fe- 
 males to the males is ihe same as in 
 the duck tribe, and the period of in- 
 cubation and the numl)er of eggs that 
 may be set correspond exactly. The 
 goose lays in a mild spring very ear- 
 ly, and on this account (but only with 
 high corn-feeding in the previous win- 
 ter, and stimulating food during the 
 entire breedmg season) two broods 
 may be had in the same year. Un- 
 like the peacock and the Guinea cock, 
 the gander is not only indisposed to 
 do any mischief to the nests, hut is 
 very attentive to the hatching birds, 
 whom he vigilantly protects as he 
 sits patiently by ; nor is his protec- 
 tion, as he accompanies the goslings 
 in due course, less creditable to his 
 paternal character. The goose is a 
 very steady sitter, but usually rises 
 often enough to drink and take sus- 
 tenance, without its being necessary 
 to remove her from her nest for the 
 purpose. 
 
 " The early treatment of the gos- 
 lings is similar to that of ducklings. 
 The mother should be penned up for 
 some days upon dry grass, but nei- 
 ther too early nor very late in the 
 day : beet leaves, or other green food, 
 may be mixed even with the early 
 diet, if immediate fattening be not 
 the object. 
 
 "Green geese are brought very 
 early to market ; they can be made 
 quite fat with oatmeal and pease, 
 and skimmed milk or buttermilk, 
 when from four to six months old : 
 many prefer oats alone. 
 
 '•The management of them is thus 
 detailed in a communication to ■\ir. 
 Moubray : 
 
 " ' Cleanliness, punctuality, and reg- 
 ularity prevail ; the business is con- 
 ducted, as it were, by machinery, ri- 
 vallinir the vibrations of the pendu- 
 lum in uniformity of movement. The 
 grand object of preparing, not geese 
 only, but poultry in general, for mar- 
 ket, in as short a time as possible, is 
 efTected solely by paying unremitting 
 attention to their wants ; in keeping 
 them thoroughly clean ; in supplying 
 them with proper food (dry, soli, and 
 green), water, exercise ground, &,c. 
 
POU 
 
 On arriving at the feeders, they are , 
 classed according to condition, &c. : j 
 they soon become reconciled to their ' 
 new abode and to each other. They 
 are fed tlree times a day, and it is 
 truly astonishing how soon they ac- i 
 quire th;? knawledge of the precise , 
 time ; marching from the exercise j 
 ground to the pens like soldiers in | 
 close column. Goslings, or young 
 geesn, come to hand generally about 
 the month of April, after which a 
 regular and constant supply arrives 
 weekly througliout the season. At 
 firat they are fed on soft meat, con- ■ 
 sioting of prime barley or oat meal, [ 
 afterward on dry corn. An idea pre- 
 vails with many that any sort of corn j 
 "^'iU do for poultry : this is a grand 
 iiistake. Those who feed largely 
 ■tnow better, and invariably make it a 
 rule to buy the best. The Messrs. 
 Boyce, whose pens are capable of 
 lokiing the extraordinary number of 
 1000 geese, independent of ducks, 
 -urkeys, &c., consume SO bushels of 
 oats daily, exclusive of other food.' 
 
 '■ But. though green geese bring an 
 enormous price in the spring, if thor- I 
 oughly fat, farmers generally find it | 
 more profitable to feed goslings on 
 the stubbles, where they supply them- 
 selves with the best food without ! 
 cost, and become sufficiently fat at 
 Michaelmas, when ancient custom 
 renders them a favourite dish. 
 
 " Though young geese are subject [ 
 to a disease called the cramp, the 
 greater number of those which die in : 
 summer are destroyed by starvation, 
 and the change from corn, and other 
 nutritive food, to the miserable her- 
 bage which the fields and commons 
 yield ; and this constitutes their chief 
 diet until the harvest season. Cold j 
 and wet weather are often fatal to | 
 them in the earlier months, if tbey be 
 neglected. Much mortality also pre- 
 vaUs among grown geese, wherever 
 the horrible system of plucking them 
 alive is practised. It is generally 
 urged in excuse for this barbarity 
 that feathers are most elastic and 
 valuable before the period of moult- 
 ing, and that geese have been thus 
 treated ever since feather beds came 
 
 POU 
 
 into fashion. The offence carries 
 some punishment with it, for it ren- 
 ders the flesh very tough, and in 
 many respects deteriorates the value 
 of a bird, if it does not destroy it al- 
 together ; but the immediate gain 
 from the feathers counterbalances 
 this and every humane consideration. 
 
 " The cramming system is prac- 
 tised in France, when the object is 
 to render the liver unnaturally en- 
 larged by disease, with circumstan- 
 ces of great cruelty. We do not in- 
 tend to give any information upon 
 practices which we cannot recom- 
 mend, and which we strongly con- 
 demn. 
 
 " Eggs. — The most certain way of 
 preserving eggs fresh is by greasing 
 them with some unctuous matter, or 
 immersing them in milk of lime. In 
 packing, they should be laid on end ; 
 for otherwise the yolks, preserving 
 their centre of gravity, fall to the 
 lowest side, and, by adhesion to it, 
 become tainted sooner than if they 
 were suspended in the centre. Briny 
 salt, or sawdust, are good packing 
 materials. 
 
 " The only management, besides 
 v/arinth and high feeding, by which a 
 perpetual succession of eggs can be 
 obtained in winter, is by having pul- 
 lets and hens of different ages, which, 
 moulting at different periods, do not 
 all cease laving at the same time." 
 
 POULTRY DUXG. The urine of 
 birds is solid, and voided along with 
 the matters rejected from the bowels; 
 their dung is, therefore, nearly ap- 
 proaching to urate or the dried urine 
 of animals, and is richer the less ve- 
 getable food they take ; hence the ex- 
 crement of sea gulls forms guano, 
 the best manure known. The com- 
 position of poultry dung varies with 
 their food, the husks and green, indi- 
 gestible parts of vegetables being im- 
 purities which diminish the value of 
 the white solid uric acid. The com- 
 position of the urine or white part is 
 the same for all birds, and consists 
 chiefly of 
 
 Incacid . . 88-71 - 
 Aminiinia . . 8 5b 
 Hone earth . . 2T5 i 
 
 I luooo-J 
 
 6^3 
 
POU 
 
 PRA 
 
 The uric acid by decay becomes l 
 converted into bicarbonate of ammo- 
 nia, so that tlic manure i.s nearly ap- 
 proacliing to commercial carbonate 
 of ammonia, with a litlie bone cartb. 
 Four or live busbels comiwjsted with 
 moist charcoal, gypsum, and peat, 
 and allowed to rot partially, forms a 
 very stimulating application to young 
 plants and seeds, being as good as 
 about one half the quantity of guano. 
 Johnstone makes the following re- 
 marks on the comparative value of the 
 difTerent kinds of dung, but it is to be 
 remembered that fowls fed on in- 
 Soluble matter in pigeons' dung ... 23 
 
 " The soluble matter consists of | 
 uric acid in small quantity, of urate, i 
 sulphate, and especially of carbonate 
 of ammonia, common salt, and sul- 
 phate of potash ; the insoluble chiefly 
 of phosphate of lime, with a little 
 phosphate of magnesia, and a varia- 
 ble admixture of sand and other 
 earthy matters. When exposed to 
 moisture, the pigeons' dung, especial- 
 ly if recent, undergoes fermentation, 
 loses a portion of its ammoniacal 
 salts, and thus becomes less valuable. 
 When it is intended to be kept, it 
 should be mixed with a dry vegetable 
 soil, or made into a compost with 
 earth and sawdust, with a portion 
 of pulverized or charred peat, or 
 ■with such a disinfecting charcoal as 
 that which is employed in the man- 
 ufacture of animalized carbon. 
 
 " Fowl dung often accun)ulates, 
 decomposes, and runs to waste in 
 poultry-yards, when, with a little care, 
 it might be collected in considerable 
 quantities 
 
 " Goose dung is less rich than that 
 of hens or pigeons, because this bird 
 feeds less upon graifl, and derives a 
 considerable portion of its nourish- 
 ment from the grass which it crops 
 when allowed to go at liberty over 
 the fields. Its known injurious ef- 
 fects upon the grass on which it falls 
 arise from its being in too concen- 
 trated a state. In moist weather, or 
 where rain soon succeeds, it does no 
 injury, and even when in dry weath- 
 634 
 
 sects or animal matters will make 
 manure as rich as guano. 
 
 " Pigeons' dung is much prized as 
 a manure, wherever it can be obtain- 
 ed in any considerable (juantity. In 
 Belgium it is esteemed as a top-dress- 
 ing for the young tlax, and the yearly 
 produce of 100 pigeons is sold for 
 alxnit 20s. Its inunediate effect de- 
 pends upon the quantity of soluble 
 matter it contains, and this varies 
 much, according to its age and to 
 the circumstances under which it has 
 been preserved. Thus, Davy and 
 Sprengel obtained respectively of 
 
 Recent. 
 (Davy.) 
 per cent. 
 
 Six montlLS old. 
 (.Sl,rengel.) 
 lb per cent. 
 
 After fermentation. 
 
 (l'av.v.) 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 er it kills the blades on which it 
 drops, it brings up the succeeding 
 siioots with increased luxuriance." 
 
 POl'ND, LB. The avoirdupois 
 contains 16 oz. and 7000 troy grs. 
 The troy pound 12 oz. and 5760 grs. 
 Also, an enclosure for cattle. In 
 England a penal enclosure for tres- 
 passing cattle. 
 
 POUP ART'S LIGAMENT. A 
 tendinous expansion, running from 
 the top, or crista, of the ilium to the os 
 pubis, under which hernias protrude. 
 
 POVERTY GRASS. Ansthla 
 dichotoma. A grass growing on steril 
 places. 
 
 POWER. In mechanics, denoting 
 a force which, being applied to a ma- 
 chine, tends to produce motion. A 
 mechanical poirer denotes one of the 
 six simple machines, viz., the lever, 
 the inclined plane, the scrcic, the wheel 
 and axle, the ired^e, and the pulley. 
 
 POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes, 
 used in making hydraulic cements. 
 
 PR-ECORDIA. The fore part of 
 the chest. 
 
 PR.EMORSE, BITTEN. Stumpy 
 roots which appear to have been 
 bitten. 
 
 PRAIRIE. This name is given to 
 the immense tracts of grass land oc- 
 curring throughout the West. They 
 are usually gently rolling or undula- 
 ting lands, the grass of which is 
 thickly matted, and from a few inches 
 to three or four feet high, being most 
 luxuriant in wet, swampy places. 
 
PRAIRIE. 
 
 The prairie is often adorned with 
 beautilul lowers in spring, and, in- 
 deed, thruuifhout tiie year. Tiie 
 grass is of various kinds, some, as 
 that called hiiflalo grass, being of 
 great value ; the whoh; is, however, 
 nutritious, and sustains oxen, liorses, 
 and sheep remarkably well : there 
 are numerous species. The great 
 defect of the prairie is want of tim- 
 ber ; in some places this is provided 
 on the islets of the rivers, or on 
 bluffs, but it is often altogether absent 
 for great distances. There is a de- 
 scription of partially timbered land, 
 called barrens, in which the trees 
 stand apart, with a tender grass grow- 
 ing between them. 
 
 The method of breaking up the 
 prairie, and other interesting topics 
 to the emigrant, are contained in the 
 following remarks by Mr. Robinson, 
 of Indiana : 
 
 " Breaking vp the Prairie. — Fancy 
 upon a level, smooth piece of ground, 
 free from sticks, stumps, and stones, 
 a team of four, five, or even si.x yoke 
 of oxen, hitched to a pair of cart 
 wheels, and to them hitched a plough 
 with a beam fourteen feet long, and 
 the share, &c., of which weigh from 
 sixty to one hundred and twenty-five 
 pounds, of wrought iron and steel, 
 and which cuts a furrow from sixteen 
 to twenty-four inches wide, and you 
 will figure the appearance of a ' break- 
 ing team' in o|)eration. 
 
 " 1 do believe, though, that a smaller 
 plough and less team would be bet- 
 ter lor the land, though it is said it 
 would he more expensive ploughing. 
 It is true that the sod is more tough 
 than can be believed by those who 
 liave never ploughed it. It requires 
 the plough to be kept very sharp, and 
 lor tills purpose the ploughman is 
 always provided with a large file, with 
 which he keeps a keen edge as pos- 
 sible upon the share and coulter. 
 
 " Such a team ploughs iVom one to 
 two acres a day, usually about four 
 inches deej), which is not near down 
 to the bottom of the roots, so that 
 the sod turned up aflbriis but a scanty 
 covering for grain that is sowed upon 
 it at first, yet very fine crops of wheat 
 
 are raised in this way. It is also a 
 common practice to break up in the 
 spring and drop corn in every second 
 or third furrow, and from which 
 twenty or thirty bushels to the acre 
 are often gathered, nothing having 
 ever been done to it after planting. 
 It takes two or three years for these 
 sods to become thoroughly decom- 
 posed, and then the soil is of a light, 
 loose, black, vegetable mould, very 
 easily stirred by the plough, but of a 
 nature that it adheres to the plough 
 in a troublesome manner. In fact, 
 no plough has ever been found to 
 keep itself clear ; and the ploughman 
 is generally obliged to carry with him 
 a small wooden paddle, with which to 
 clear off the adhering mass of dirt 
 upon the mould-board. With this 
 exception, the prairie soil is gener- 
 ally one of the easiest in the world to 
 till, and of course remarkably fertile. 
 
 " By far the greatest portion is 
 based upon a subsoil of clay, though 
 in many places the subsoil is sand 
 or gravel, and there are large tracts 
 of which the surface is of this mate- 
 rial. The streams are often broad 
 and nearly covered with vegetable 
 growth, in some instances to that 
 degree that sheets of water, many 
 rods wide, actually burn over during 
 the autumnal fires. 
 
 " Notwithstanding the many ' in- 
 teresting accounts of burning prai- 
 ries,' the fire upon a dry prairie, in a 
 calm time, does not blaze as high as 
 it would in an old stubble field ; but 
 in the marshes, or wet prairies, it 
 sometimes rages with grandeur. 
 
 " Enclosing. — The settlements al- 
 ready made are upon the smaller 
 prairies, the centre of which are not 
 more than four or five miles from 
 timi)er, or along the border of ' the 
 Grand Prairie," taking care not to ex- 
 tend out beyond the reach of conve- 
 nient woodland. But there are many 
 places where the groves are barely 
 sufficient to furnish the land most 
 contiguous, and vast tracts of prairie 
 are to be found ten or fifteen miles 
 from timber. That these tracts will 
 forever remain uncultivated, cannot 
 for a moment be thought of That 
 635 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 timber can be planted and raised in 
 abundance is certain. It is eiiiially 
 certain that they can be fenced with 
 ditches, and, perhaps, wiiii iiedges, 
 though the experiments tiiat have 
 as yet been made in the United States 
 to enclose land with hedges have 
 generally proved failures. 
 
 "The most feasible plan, it seems 
 to me, would be to enclose large 
 tracts by ditcliing, and cultivate the 
 land without division fences, even 
 between many occupants. Such is 
 the mode in many parts of Europe. 
 Or this kind of land could be profit- 
 ably improved by grazing herds of 
 cattle and sheep, under the care of 
 shepherds. Houses of a most com- 
 fortable kind can be built of clay 
 without burning into brick, and the 
 expense of hauling lumber for roofs 
 and inside work would be trifling. 
 The only difficulty would be fuel. 
 In many parts of the West coal ex- 
 ists in abundance, and where that is 
 not to be had, the expense of hauling 
 wood over a smooth and nearly level 
 country would not be a serious ob- 
 stacle. It is also thought that peat 
 will be found abundant. 
 
 " At present, however, there is an 
 abundance of unoccupied land so con- 
 venient to tiinber as to be easily 
 fenced in the cominon way, with 
 Virginia or worm fence ; and the oak 
 timber of this region is very durable." 
 
 PRASE. Green quartz. 
 
 PRECIPITATE. A solid matter 
 thrown down in a clear fluid by chem- 
 ical action. 
 
 PREDIAL. Belonging to a farm 
 
 PREDISPOSING AFFINITY. 
 Chemical affinity arising in the pres- 
 ence of three bodies, whereby a union 
 is accomplished between two, which, 
 without coming in contact with a 
 third, would not readily unite. 
 
 PREGNANCY. The state of be- 
 ing with young, carrying young. The 
 signs and determination of pregnancy 
 are often important. The following, 
 from Mr. Youatt, is of great service 
 in coming to a conclusion on this 
 point. 
 
 " Among healthy animals, the im- 
 pregnation of the female rarely fails 
 636 
 
 to be the result of an intercourse be- 
 tween the sexes. The assurance, 
 however, of this having taken place 
 is occasionally an aflair of consider- 
 able interest, and of no little diflicul- 
 ty, and the value and tiie destiny of 
 the female may very much depend on 
 the decision of the question. A cer- 
 tain time having elapsed, the thing 
 will speak for itself; but are there 
 any symptoms or circumstances that 
 will warrant the veterinary surgeon 
 or the agriculturist in giving a deci- 
 ded opinion on the case in an early 
 period of supposed pregnancy 1 
 
 '•It occasionally happens that the 
 fifth or the sixth month arrives, and, 
 even to the practiced eye, there arc 
 few or no indications of conception 
 having taken place. There are, also, 
 but somewhat unfrequently, diseases 
 which very closely simulate this nat- 
 ural process. Can the veterinary 
 surgeon or the breeder decide 1 The 
 answer is in the affirmative, and 
 plainly and unequivocally. This is 
 one of the boons which the veterina- 
 ry art can now confer on the agricul- 
 turist. The altered character of the 
 female is regarded, and very proper- 
 ly, as a cn-cumstance of no little 
 weight. She is comparatively calm 
 and quiet ; her appetite returns, and 
 she regains her former condition and 
 her former habits. Five or six weeks 
 pa.ss, and there is no outbreak of any 
 kind. The owner concludes, and he 
 is not often wrong, that she is im- 
 pregnated. He, however, has had 
 little to do with mares or with cows 
 who has not witnessed the return of 
 the most furious oestrum, after a much 
 longer period of time has elapsed. I 
 have known more than three months 
 pass in this delusive quietude, and 
 tiien a salaciousness worse than at 
 first has indicated that no actual im- 
 pregnation had taken place. On the 
 other hand, the oestrum, but not with 
 all its former fury, has returned two, 
 and three, and four months after the 
 connexion, and yet, as the result 
 finally shows, impregnation had ta- 
 ken place at their first intercourse. 
 
 "Many circumstances may cause 
 the owner to be anxious to know the 
 
PREGNANCY. 
 
 truth of tlie matter. He may wish 
 to soil her, or he may be unusually 
 desirous to breed froui lier. Let the 
 animal be I'xammed \u'r vaginain. 
 ]jet the hand l)e slowly and cautious- 
 ly passed up the vagina until it reach- 
 es the OS uteri. Let there be no at- 
 tempt to penetrate farther. No in- 
 formation can be gained from intro- 
 ducing the fingers mto the uterus. It 
 is simply wished to ascertain the 
 character of the os uteri. In its nat- 
 ural and unimpregnaied state it will 
 be closed ; but it will not be tightly 
 or spasmodically so, and the contrac- 
 tion of the mouth of the womb will 
 form a kind of cup, with the base to- 
 wards that viscus. If she is impreg- 
 nated, the entrance to the uterus will 
 he more firmly closed, and the pro- 
 trusion will be towards the vagina. 
 This is the only exploration per vagi 
 nam which I would allow ; it is easi- 
 ly made, and it will be satisfactory. 
 If an exploration of this kind is at- 
 tempted when half or more than half 
 of the period of pregnancy has passed, 
 ■it is not at all unlikely that so much 
 irritation of the parts will ensue as 
 to cause the expulsion of the fuBtus. 
 
 "I will suppose that two months 
 have passed since the supposed im- 
 pregnation. The fcEtus is still re- 
 maining in the pelvic cavity. The 
 heart has begun to beat, and the 
 blood to circulate through its little 
 veins. It will be situated innriedi- 
 ately below the rectum. I introduce 
 my hand into that intestine. I have 
 no occasion to pass it very far up. 
 I feel the little substance ; for it then 
 is small in proportion to its after 
 growth. I feel it under my hand. I 
 am certain that I am pressing upon 
 the uterus and its contents. I can- 
 not, perhaps, detect the pulsation of 
 the embryo ; but if I had delayed my 
 examination until the f oRtus was three 
 months old, I should have assurance 
 that it was there by its now increas- 
 ed bulk, wlule the pulsation of its 
 heart would tell me that it was liv- 
 ing. 
 
 " For two months from this period 
 in the cow, and for three in the mare, 
 I should have no other indication of 
 Huh 
 
 the presence of the foetus, noi of its 
 life and growth, except from the grad- 
 ual eiilargeinent of the abdomen of 
 the mother ; and by that time the; lit- 
 tle one would have in(-rcased in size 
 and strength, and would have begun 
 to take occasional exercise in its first 
 donucil, and then would become the 
 more evident, but not more satisfac- 
 tory proof of the life of the foetus ; 
 its motion strong enough to be seen 
 through the integument. 
 
 " I might, perhaps, wish to give 
 this assurance of the life of the foetus 
 to some curious spectator, or to some 
 intended purchaser. I would not gal- 
 lo]) the mare in order to effect this ; 
 1 would not so far disturb her or the 
 young ammal that she bore within 
 her : much less would I give her 
 cold water to drink, and which she 
 usually would drink until she annoy- 
 ed the fcRtus, and the unborn animal 
 told us how much we annoyed him 
 by endeavouring to shift his ([uarters 
 and get away Irom the action of the 
 cold. I would not run the hazard of 
 giving her the colic, and perhaps de- 
 stroying him or her by this unscien- 
 tific and somewhat cruel method of 
 exploration ; but I probably should 
 give a tap or two on the outer wall 
 ol his dwelling, just sufficient to rouse 
 him from his slumbers, and induce 
 him to express his anger at the an- 
 noyance by a tolerably distinct plunge 
 or kick. 
 
 " Most certainly, if it was a cow 
 that I was exhibiting, I would not 
 give, nor would I suffer any one else 
 to give, those terrible punches in the 
 right Hank, which, I have no doubt, 
 are the cause of much unsuspected 
 injury, and, occasionally at least, 
 connected with, or the origin of, a 
 difficult or a fatal parturition 
 
 " I may here observe that the foe- 
 tus of the mare, from the beginning, 
 occupies nearly the centre of the bel- 
 ly. In the early stage, Mr. Mogford 
 generally found it 'lying across the 
 pelvic cavity, the spine being imme- 
 diately under ; the head on the left 
 side, and the tail on the right side.' 
 In the latter portion of its fcetal state 
 its motions are pretty equally dis- 
 037 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 tribiitpd on either side, and the beat- 
 inji of the fo'tal hcnit is most phiiiily 
 hoard at the very liase of the alido- 
 ineii. The fa?tus of the cow is iiud- 
 dled up on the right side of the heily. 
 There its motions are most seen, and 
 the beatings of its heart best heard. 
 The enormous paunoh, lying princi- 
 pally on the left side, presses every 
 other viscus, and the uterus among 
 the rest, into the right flank. This 
 also explains a circumstance familiar 
 to every breeder. If the cow should 
 happen to carry twins, they are crowd- 
 ed together in the left flank, and one 
 seems absolutely to lie upon the oth- 
 er. Whenever the farmer notices the 
 kicking of the fcptus high up in the 
 flank, he at once calculates on twins. 
 "To return from this digression. 
 If half the period, or more, of utero- 
 gestation had passed, and I could get 
 the little stranger to move by my gen- 
 tle tapping, and it was a cow with 
 which we had to do, and a quiet one, 
 I would have her carefully held by 
 the cowherd, while I stooped and ap- 
 plied my ear flat upon the flank, and 
 then, slowly, and with gentle pressure 
 upward and downward, and forward 
 and backward, over the flank and the 
 lower part of it, until 1 heard — and 
 which I should do in a great majori- 
 ty of cases — the pulsations of the los- 
 tal heart. I should recognise it by 
 their quickness, tlie pulsations of the 
 foetus being doul)le, or more than 
 double, those of tlie mother. 
 
 " If it was a mare, I would have a 
 halter put on her, and an assistant 
 should hold up one of her legs, while 
 some person interested reached un- 
 der, or, perhaps, knelt under the belly 
 of the mare, and, passing one ear 
 along an imaginary Ime from be- 
 tween the teats to the chest, and de- 
 viating a little from one side to the 
 other, he would then also recognise 
 the quick pulsation of the foetal heart. 
 " These observations are address- 
 ed to practical men, and will be speed- 
 ' ily put to the test by them. The ob- 
 ject of the author is to get rid of the 
 vulgar and inefiicient methods of de- 
 tecting pregnancy which are now in 
 general use, and to introduce others 
 638 
 
 that are founded on a surer and more 
 
 scieiitilic basis." 
 
 PKESITIVATION OF FOOD. 
 The process ol' salting, rubbing with 
 nitre, and smoking or drying, is that 
 j usually performed by tiie farmer, and 
 it is successful. The exclusion of air, 
 I mechanically or by chemical means, 
 j is another certain means of preserv- 
 ing food. Drying perfectly, so as to 
 separate the water necessary for pu- 
 trefaction, is also a perfect process, 
 and much used in keeping fruits, as 
 [ dried apples, jieaches, &c. Sugar, 
 alcohol, molasses, alum solution, are 
 ' also serviceable in preserving some 
 kinds of food. They do this by remo- 
 ving their interior water. Coldness 
 and absence of air, or moisture procu- 
 red by mechanical means, are also 
 sufficient. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 Careful drying and'preservation from 
 moisture is the commonest process ; 
 but, for a perfect preservation, it is 
 necessary to saturate the pores of the 
 wood with metallic salts. This sat- 
 uration has to be made in a press, 
 and is hence very expensive. The 
 fluids used are solutions of blue vit- 
 riol (sulphate of copper), pyroligniie 
 of iron, sulphate of iron, corrosive 
 sublimate. M. Boucherie, three years 
 since, recommended the immersion 
 of the trunks of newly-cut trees in 
 these solutions, which, under these 
 circumstances, rose through the stem 
 and branches to the leaves, and im- 
 pregnated them thoroughly. The in- 
 convenience of this process for large 
 trees has induced him to niodily it to 
 the following : 
 
 •' Tite ingenious process of impreg- 
 nating wood, by the way of vital as- 
 piration, is not without certain ob- 
 jections. In the first place, it can 
 only be performed at those periods of 
 the year when the sap is in motion 
 and the trees are covered with leaves. 
 This time is limited to a few months 
 of the year, and the usual practice 
 being to fell timber in the winter, 
 usage is opposed to cutting down 
 trees in the spring and autumn. To 
 meet these objections, M. Boucherie 
 engaged in new experiments, which 
 
PRE 
 
 PRE 
 
 led him to a means of impregnating 
 timber at all seasons, in winter as 
 well as spring and autiinin. and in a 
 very short space of tmic ; this second 
 method is applicable to wood tliat has 
 already been squared as well as to 
 the round trunk, provided it has been 
 recently felled. 
 
 " To impregnate timber by this 
 process, the logs are placed upright, 
 and the upper extremities are fitted 
 with an impermeable sack for the re- 
 ception of the saline solution destined 
 to charge them ; the fluid enters from 
 above, and almost at the same mo- 
 ment the sap is seen to begin running 
 out below. There are some woods 
 which include a large quantity of air 
 in their tissues ; in this case tlie How 
 does not go on until this air has been 
 expelled : once begun, it goes on 
 without interruption. The operation 
 is terminated when the fluid, which 
 drips from the lower part, is of the 
 same nature as that which is enter- 
 ing above. In my opinion, this meth- 
 od must be preferable to that by as- 
 piration. In the second mode of pro- 
 ceeding, in fact, we accomplish our 
 object l)y a true displacement ; al- 
 most the whole of the sap is expell- 
 ed, and the saline solution introdu- 
 ced has only to subdue or neutralize 
 the very small quantity of soluble or- 
 ganic matter which may remain ad- 
 hering to the woody tissue. By ac- 
 complishing such a displacement by 
 means of simple water, we should un- 
 doubtedly obtain results favourable 
 to the preservation of timber, inas- 
 much as we should have freed it from 
 almost the whole of those matters 
 which are regarded as the most al- 
 terable themselves, and the first 
 cause of rotting in timber. The ra- 
 pidity with which the fluid introdu- 
 ced is substituted for the sap which 
 it displaces, and the quantity of this ex- 
 pelled sap, which may be readily col- 
 lected, exceeds anything that could 
 have been imagined before making 
 the experiment ; thus the trunk of a 
 beech-tree, about 52J feet in length, 
 by 334 inches in diameter, and con- 
 setjuently forming a cube of some- 
 what more than 29 feet and a half, 
 
 I gave, in the course of twenty-five 
 hours, upward of 330 gallons ot" sap, 
 which were replaced by about 350 
 gallons of pyroligneous acid. The 
 liquid which penetrates in this way 
 I acts so effectually in displacing the 
 I sap, that M. Boucherie says we can 
 j readily procure or extract by its 
 I means the saccharine, mucilaginous, 
 : resinous, and coloured juices con- 
 tained in trees. It would, perhaps, 
 be possible — and I beg to suggest this 
 idea to colonial planters — to apply 
 the method of displacement to the 
 extraction of the colouring matters of 
 live woods.'' 
 
 ■ PRESS FOR CIDER. The com- 
 mon press is represented in the fig- 
 I ure at the head of the following page ; 
 a rougher press, made by means of a 
 lever, is also much used. 
 
 PRESS FOR OILS. See Oils. 
 I PRESS, HYDRAULIC. " The fra- 
 . ming consists of two stout cast-iron 
 plates, d, d, which are strengthened 
 by projecting ribs, not seen in the 
 section, Fig. 1. The top, or crown 
 plate, b, and the base plate, d, d, are 
 bound most firmly together by four 
 I cylinders of the best wrought iron, 
 c, c, which pass up through holes 
 near the ends of said plates, and are 
 fast wedged in them. The flat pie- 
 ces, e, e, are screwed to the ends of 
 the crown and base plates, so as to 
 bind the columns laterally, f vs the 
 hollow cylinder of the press, which, 
 as well as the ram, g, is made of cast 
 iron. The upper part of the cavity 
 of the cylinder is cast narrow, hut is 
 truly and smoothly rounded at the 
 boring mill, so as to fit pretty closely 
 round a well-turned ram, or piston : 
 the under part of it is left somewhat 
 wider in the casting. A stout cup of 
 leather, perforated in the middle, is 
 put upon the ram, and serves as a 
 valve to render the neck of the cylin- 
 der water-tight, by filling up the space 
 between it and the ram ; and since the 
 mouth of the cup is turned downward, 
 the greater the pressure of water up- 
 ward, the more forcibly are the edges 
 of the leather valve pressed against 
 the inside of the cylinder, atnl the 
 tighter does the joint become. 
 
 639 
 
PRESS, HYDRAULIC. 
 
 "Upontheiupoi the ram, the press- I the follower, because it followa the 
 plate or table, h, rests ; it is called | ram closely in its movements. 
 
 640 
 
PR 
 
 "A:, k (Figs. 1 and 2) is the fra- 
 ming of a forcing pump, with a nar- 
 row barrel ; i is tlie well containing 
 water to supply the pump. F(g. 3 is 
 F'g- 3. Fig. 4. 
 
 a section of the pump and its valves. 
 The pump, m, is of bronze ; the suc- 
 tion pipe, 71, has a conical valve with 
 a long tail ; the solid piston, or plun- 
 ger, ;;, is smaller than the barrel in 
 which it plaj-s, and passes at its top 
 through a stuffing-box, q ; r is the 
 pressure-valve, s is the safety-valve, I 
 which, in Fig. 2, is seen to be loaded j 
 with a weighted lever ; t is the dis- 
 charge-valve, for letting the water es- i 
 cape, from the cylinder beneath the 1 
 ram, hack into the well. See the 
 winding passage in Fig. 4. u is the 
 tube which conveys the water from 
 the pump into the press-cylinder. In ' 
 Fig. 2 two centres of motion for the 
 pump lever are shown. By shifting 
 the bolt into the centre nearest the ' 
 pump rod, the mechanical advantage 
 of the workman may be doubled. 
 Two pumps are generally mounted i 
 in one frame for one hydraulic press : ; 
 the larger to give a rapid motion to 
 the ram at the beginnmg, when the ' 
 resistance is small ; the smaller to 
 give a slower but more powerful im- 
 pulsion when the resistance is much 
 increased. A pressure of 500 tons 
 may be obtained from a well-made 
 hydraulic press with a ten inch ram, 
 and a two and a one inch set ofj 
 pumps'" — (Ure.) | 
 
 PRICKLN'G. The same as nick- 
 ing, which see. . 
 
 H H H 2 
 
 PRO 
 
 PRICKING OUT. Thinning 
 plants in drills, &c. 
 
 PKICKLi;. A sharp thorn, pro- 
 duced by a lliickening of the bark or 
 skin of the plant. 
 
 P K I M A-: V I .E. The passage 
 through the bowels. 
 
 PRIMARY ROCKS. Theunstrati- 
 fied, crystalline rocks, as granites. 
 Sometimes the transition slates and 
 stratified rocks are included in this 
 term. 
 
 PRI.MIXE. The outermost cov- 
 ering of the ovule ; afterward it be- 
 comes the skin, or testa, of the seed. 
 
 PRIMROSE. Pretty flowering 
 perennials of the genus Primula. 
 
 P R i S M. " A solid contained by 
 planes, of which two that are op- 
 posite are equal, similar, and paral- 
 lel, and all the rest parallelograms. 
 Prisms take particular names from 
 the figures of their ends, or opposite, 
 equal, and parallel sides. When tlie 
 ends are triangles, they are called 
 triangular prisms ; when the ends are 
 square, square prisms ; when the 
 ends are pentagonal, pentagonal 
 prisms ; and so on. A right prism 
 has its sides perpendicular to its 
 ends ; an oblique prism is that of 
 which the sides are oblique to the 
 ends. The solid conumt of a prism 
 is found by multiplying the area of 
 the base into the perpendicular alti- 
 tude ; hence all prisms are to one 
 another in the ratio compounded of 
 their bases and altitudes." The opti- 
 cal prism is of three similar sides. 
 
 PRIS.MATIC COL(JURS. Light 
 passing through a prism is divided 
 into seven colours, called the prix- 
 matic spectrum ; tiiese colours are, in 
 their order, red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, indigo, violet. They have each 
 peculiar cliemical properties. 
 
 PRH'ET. Ligustrum vulgare. A 
 small shrub with pretty white flow- 
 ers and black berries, used as an or- 
 namental hedging in gardens. They 
 are readily propagated by seeds, lay- 
 ers, or cuttings. 
 
 P R O B .V .\ G. CEsophagus tube. 
 
 See Ox. The tubes (see Fig.) are of 
 
 leather, covering a spring; they are 
 
 sometimes hollow, and contain a sti- 
 
 G41 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 
 F<7 1 
 
 lette. J, Fig., represents the mouth- 
 piece to keep the jaws open ; it is 
 fixed between the teeth, and kept in 
 its place by the strap. The probang 
 is introduced through the hole in the 
 wooden centre-piece, or gag. In c 
 the stilette has a corkscrew end, 
 which can be made fast in substan- 
 ces which obstruct the gullet, and 
 will enable the farmer to pull them 
 upward. 
 
 PROBE. A wire of silver, with a 
 blunt or sharp point, used to ascer- 
 tain the depth of wounds, sinuses, &;c. 
 
 PROBOSCIS. A trunk, or nasal 
 projection. 
 
 PROCESS. In descriptions, a tu- 
 mour or eminence on a bone or part. 
 A proiection. 
 
 PROCUMBENT. Laying on the 
 ground. 
 
 PROGNOSIS. A conclusion re- 
 specting the termination of a disease. 
 
 PR0L.\PST;S. a failing out or 
 protrusion of any part of the body ; 
 as of the intestines, womb. 
 
 PROLEGS. The imperfect legs 
 of caterpillars. 
 
 PROMUSCIS. The suctional or- 
 gan of the hemiptera. 
 
 PROPAGATION. Seeds are the 
 most general means of propagation, 
 but they do not perpetuate many im- 
 proved varieties, especially of fruits ; 
 buds do, however. Buds are propa- 
 gated by hidding, grafting, setting 
 slips, cuttings, layers, offshoots, suck- 
 ers, and in some plants, as the straw- 
 berry, by natural runners. The bulb 
 is a peculiar bud, which also propa- 
 gates varieties by offsets. Tubers, 
 or rhizomes, are underground stems, 
 642 
 
 as in the potato, dahlia, flag, and they 
 propagate the varieties also. " Cut- 
 tings are portions of shoots, either of 
 ligneous or herbaceous plants ; and 
 they are made of the young shoots 
 with the leaves on, or of the ripened 
 wood either with or without its 
 leaves ; and after they have, either 
 in an herbaceous state with the 
 leaves on, or with the wood mature, 
 and with or without the leaves, been 
 properly prepared and planted, they 
 form roots at their lower extremity, 
 each cutting becoming a perfect plant. 
 In general, cuttings should be taken 
 from those shoots of a plant which are 
 nearest the soil ; because, from the 
 moisture and shade there, such shoots 
 are more predisposed to emit roots 
 than those on the upper part of the 
 plant. The young, or last-formed 
 shoots, are to be taken in preference 
 to such as are older, as containing 
 more perfect buds in an undeveloped 
 state, and a bark more easily perme- 
 able by roots ; and the cutting is to be 
 prepared by cutting its lower extrem- 
 ity across at a joint, the lenticells, or 
 root-buds, being there most abundant. 
 When the cutting is planted, the prin- 
 cipal part of the art consists in ma- 
 king it quite firm at the lower extrem- 
 ity, so as completely to exclude the air 
 from the wounded section. Cuttings 
 emit roots at this section, either in 
 consequence of the action of the ac- 
 cumulated sap in the cutting, as in 
 the case of the ripened wood in de- 
 ciduous trees and shrubs ; or in con- 
 sequence of the joint action of the 
 accumulated sap and of the leaves, 
 as in the case of cuttings of soft wood 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 with the leaves on, and in a living 
 state. A few plants are propagated 
 by cuttings of the leaves, the petiole 
 of the leaf being slipped off from the 
 parent plant, and ])r()l)ab!y containing 
 the latent emliryos of buds. (Jraft- 
 ing and budding are processes which 
 have been already explained. In- 
 arching may be described as a spe- 
 cies of grafting, in which the scion is 
 not separated from the [)arent plant till 
 it has become united with tiie stock." 
 
 PROPEns. The same as prolegs. 
 
 PROPHYLACTIC. Prevcntmg 
 disease. 
 
 PROPORTIONS, CHEMICAL. 
 See Equivalents and Atom. 
 
 PROSENCH YMA. Elongated cel- 
 lular tissue, as that of woody struc- 
 tiues. 
 
 PROTEIN. The pure basis of the 
 animal principles : it is separated 
 from albumen, or fibrin, by dissolving 
 them in caustic potash, and precipita- 
 ting by acetic acid. It is gelatinous, 
 gray ; when dry, semitransparent, 
 and insoluble. Its composition is C 
 55-7 . H 6-8 . N IGI . O 21 2 ; formu- 
 la (Mulder) C40 H:u N3 O^ (Liebig 
 construes the composition into C+s 
 N(5 H36 Oh) ; symbol Pr. It is a body 
 of great interest, since in its combi- 
 nations with sulphur, phosphorus, 
 ammonia, &c., most animal tissues 
 are formed. Thus 10 Pr. -^sulphur, 
 i phosphorus, is albumen. 10 Pr.,2 
 sulphur, ^ phosphorus, is another form 
 of albumen. 
 
 PROTOTHORAX. The first seg- 
 ment of the thorax in insects. 
 
 PROTO-SALTS. Oxides ; com- 
 pounds, the bases of which are com- 
 bined with but one equivalent of ox- 
 ygen. 
 
 PROTOZOA. The lowest animal- 
 cules. 
 
 PROTRACTOR. " A mathemat- 
 ical instrument for laying down an- 
 gles on paper, used in surveying, 
 plotting, &c. 
 
 " In its simplest form, the protract- 
 or consists merely of a semicircular 
 limb of metal divided mto 180% and 
 subtended by a diameter, in the mid- 
 dle of which is a notch to mark the 
 position of the centre. On placing 
 
 this notch over tlie angular point, and 
 laying the diameter along a given 
 straight line, an angle of any number 
 of degrees may be made by marking 
 the point on the paper which coin- 
 cides with the given degree on the 
 limb, and joining this point witli the 
 centre when the instrument is re- 
 moved. The protractor is rendered 
 more commodious by transferring the 
 divisions to the edge of a parallel ruler. 
 " When a survey is to be plotted 
 on a large scale, and it becomes ne- 
 cessary, in consequence, to lay down 
 the angles with considerable precis- 
 ion, a more complex apparatus is re- 
 quired. The most approved form of 
 the protractor may be described as 
 follows : It consists of an entire cir- 
 cle, connected with its centre by four 
 radial bars. The centre of the metal 
 is removed, and a circular disk of 
 glass fixed in its place, on which are 
 drawn two lines crossing each other 
 at right angles, the point of intersec- 
 tion denoting the centre of the pro- 
 tractor. Round the centre, and con- 
 centric with the circle, is fitted a col- 
 lar carrying two arms, one of which 
 has a vernier at its extremity adapt- 
 ed to the divided circle ; and the oth- 
 er a milled head, which turns a pin- 
 ion working in a toothed rack round 
 the exterior edge of the instrument. 
 The rack and pinion give motion to 
 the arms, which can thus be turned 
 quite round the circle, and set the 
 vernier to any angle that may be re- 
 quired. Each of the two arms is pro- 
 longed beyond the edge of the pro- 
 tractor, and carries a fine steel prick- 
 er, which is pressed down when the 
 instrument is placed in its required 
 position, and makes a small puncture 
 in the paper. It is essential that the 
 points of the two prickers and the 
 centre of the instrument be accu- 
 rately in the same straight line." — 
 {Simms on Mathematical Instruments.) 
 PROTUSILE. Capable of being 
 protruded and withdrawn. 
 
 PROVENDER. Dry food. See 
 ! Fodders. 
 
 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The 
 I separation of a compound organic 
 I body into its several complex parts, 
 643 
 
PRU 
 
 PRU 
 
 as the flour of wheat into starch, ' 
 sugar, gum, fibrin, gluten, alljumen. 
 These are also called proxnnair prin- 
 ciples. Tliis kind of analysis is made 
 by means of solvents, as alcohol, | 
 ether, water, potash, and acids : it is j 
 coarse and unsatisfactory. j 
 
 PRr.NLXG. "The art of cutting 
 off parts of plants, and more espe- 
 cially of trees and shrubs, with a 
 view to strengthening those which 
 remain, or of l)ringing the tree or 
 plant into particular forms, calcula- 
 ted to increase particular products. 
 Pruning, therefore, varies according 
 to the kind of plant or tree to be 
 pruned, and according to the object 
 in view. In the case of forest- 
 trees, the general object of pruning 
 is to increase the quantity of tim- 
 ber in the trunk by diminishing the 
 side branches, commencing at the 
 lower part of the tree when it is 
 quite young, and gradually advancing 
 upward as the tree increases in 
 growth. In the case of hedges, the 
 object is to produce a dense mass 
 from the ground upward, which is ef- 
 fected by shortening the side branch- 
 es. In the case of pruning trees 
 which are cultivated for the sake of 
 their fruit or blossoins, the object is 
 to thin out the branches so as to ad- 
 mit the light and air more freely to 
 their leaves and blossoms, and to 
 concentrate and increase the nour- 
 ishment to the branches which re- 
 main. In the case of trees or shrubs 
 cultivated for the beauty of their 
 shapes, whether natural or artificial, 
 the object of pruning is to deprive the 
 trees or shrubs of all those branches 
 which deviate from or interfere with 
 the natural shape, or witii tlie form 
 which is intended to be produced by 
 art. In pruning with a view to pro- 
 duce fruit, it is necessary to know on 
 what description of branches and 
 buds the fruit is produced. In some 
 trees, as in the peach, it is generally 
 produced on the wood of the prece- 
 ding year ; in others, as in the apple 
 and pear, it is generally produced on 
 wood of two years' growth ; and in 
 the vine it is produced on shoots of 
 the current year. The general effect 
 644 
 
 of pruning on plants is to increase 
 their longevity ; since the tendem^y 
 of all vegetables is to exbaust them- 
 selves, and, consequently, to shorten 
 their duration, by the production of 
 seeds. In the operation of pruning, 
 the shoots are cut off close to the 
 buds, or at a distance from them not 
 greater than the diameter of the 
 branch to be cut off; because, with- 
 out the near proximity of a bud, the 
 wounds will not heal over. In shoots 
 which produce their buds alternately, 
 the cut is made at the back of the bud, 
 sloping from it, so as that it may be 
 readily covered by bark in the same 
 or in the followmg year. This is 
 readily done with a pruning knife, by 
 a slanting cut, made at an angle of 
 45" with the direction of the branch ; 
 but in the case of branches where 
 the buds are produced opposite each 
 other, either one bud must be sacri- 
 ficed, or the branch must be cut off at 
 right angles to its line of direction, 
 and is more conveniently done by the 
 pruning shears. The operation of 
 pruning may, in many cases, he su- 
 perseded by rubbing off, or pinching 
 out the leaf-buds, so as to prevent 
 superfluous shoots from being pro- 
 duced."' — {Lindlcy.) 
 
 Where bleeding occurs in summer 
 pruning, the stem should be first 
 pinched by the thumb and finger, to 
 destroy the tissues, and removed 
 when dead : in this way vines and 
 figs may be pruned at any time. The 
 best time for pruning trees is in June 
 and July, when the wounds heal 
 readilv 
 
 PRUNING KNIFE. " A knife the 
 blade of which has a straight edge, 
 formed of well-tempered steel, and 
 of no great breadth, with a narrow 
 point, in order that it may be more 
 readily introduced among crowded 
 branches. Formerly, pruning-knives 
 were hooked at the point ; but the 
 cuts made by such knives had a ten- 
 dency to crush the shoot, and leave 
 a rough section, more readily injured 
 by the air and water, and less likely 
 to be speedily healed over. Such 
 knives, when of a large size, were 
 called pruning hooks. 
 
PUL 
 
 PUM 
 
 PRUNING SHEARS. Shears in i insects, enabling thcin to walk on the 
 
 ceiling of rooms against gravity. 
 
 PUMICE. Porous lava. It consists 
 of silica, 775 ; alumina, 175 ; potash 
 and soda, 30 ; oxide of iron, 1-75. 
 
 PUMICED FOOT. In farriery, a 
 wide-spread hoof, the sole of which is 
 flat with the ground. 
 
 PUMP. This machine is of great 
 use on the farm fur many purpo- 
 ses. The various forms may often 
 
 which one of the blades moves on a 
 pivot, which works in an oblong open- 
 ing instead of a circular one, by 
 which means a draw cut is produced 
 smiilar to that effected by a knife, 
 instead of the crushing cut produced 
 by common shears, which fractures 
 the section left on the branch, and 
 renders it liable to become diseased, 
 or to decay, instead of being covered 
 over with fresh bark. Pruning shears ! be employed for collecting or distrib- 
 are particularly adapted for cutting \ uting fluids. " Though the forms un- 
 spiny or prickly shrubs, such as the der which this useful engine is con- 
 different species of thorns, gooseber- structed, and the mode in which the 
 nes, or roses. power is applied, may be modified in 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID. Hydrocyanic an infinite number of ways, there are 
 acid. See Cyanogen. It is distilled 
 from many flowers and seeds, which 
 owe their odour to it, as peaches, 
 cherries, apple seeds, &.c. 
 
 P S E U D O. A common prefix, 
 meaning false. 
 
 PTYALISM. Increased sali- 
 vation. 
 
 PUBESCENT, PUBESCENCE. 
 Covered with soft hairs. 
 
 P U C COO N. American alkanet. 
 Balschia. canescens. A perennial-root- 
 ed plant of the borage tribe, the root 
 of wliich yields a red pigment, with 
 wiuch the Indians colour themselves. 
 
 PUDDINGSTONE. A conglom- 
 erate. 
 
 PUDDLING. Ramming clay with 
 sand and water until it is converted 
 into an impervious mortar. 
 
 PUERPERAL. Relating to partu- 
 rition. 
 
 PUFF-BALL. The genus Lycoper- 
 don yields numerous pufT-balls. The 
 dust was at one time used to stop 
 bleeding from wounds, as a stvptic. 
 
 PUGGING. The stuff laid be- 
 tween floors to deaden sound. 
 
 PUGIL. A pinch of any stuff. 
 PULMONARIES. A kind of spi- 
 der. 
 
 PULMONARY, 
 lungs. 
 
 only three which can be considered 
 as differing from each other in prin- 
 ciple. These are the sucking pump, 
 the forcing pump, and the lifting pump, 
 so called from the manner in which 
 they act. 
 
 " The sucking pump, or common 
 household pump, is an apparatus of 
 which the principle and construction 
 will be evident fiom the annexed fig- 
 ure. A A is a pipe of any convenient 
 length, the lower end of Fig. l 
 
 which reaches below the 
 surface of the water in the 
 well or reservoir ; B is a bar- 
 rel, generally of greater di- 
 ameter than the pipe ; C a 
 valve opening upward ; D a 
 piston moved by the rod E : 
 in this piston there is also a 
 valve opening upward. When 
 the piston is raised, the air 
 in the barrel between the valves is 
 expanded, and its tension, conse- 
 quently, diminished ; the pressure of 
 the air in the pipe, therefore, opens 
 the valve C, and the whole air in the 
 pipe and barrel becomes less dense. 
 In this state the atmospheric press- 
 ure on the surface of the water caus- 
 es it to rise in the pipe, until the ten- ' 
 Relating to the I sion of the confined air becomes equal 
 1 to the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 PULQUE. The fermented juice i On again depressing the piston, the 
 of the Mexican aloe {Agave Amer- \ valve in it opens, and the air passes 
 jcana). through it from the barrel as it de- 
 
 PULSE. Leguminous crops. scends ; but the valve, C, is closed 
 
 PLLVILLI. The hairs, or a mem- by the downward pressure, and the 
 braue, which covers the feet of some , volume of water which has entered 
 
 645 
 
PUMP. 
 
 the pipe remains. On again raising 
 the piston, llie same effect is repeal- 
 ed, and an additional ijiiantity of wa- 
 ter enters the pipe, 'i'liii.s, l)v tiie al- 
 ternating motion of the piston, a col- 
 umn of water is raised in the pipe 
 until it reaches the piston when at 
 the bottom of the barrel, and the 
 whole of the air below it has been 
 excluded. On raising the piston 
 when the water has reached it, the 
 fluid will be compelled to follow by 
 the pressure of the atmosphere on its 
 surface in the well. When the pis- 
 ton is again depressed, Uie water 
 flows through the valve in it, and as- 
 cends into the barrel, and by the suc- 
 ceeding strokes of the piston is lifted 
 up until it reaches and flows out of 
 the spout, F. 
 
 " Although in theory the limit of 
 the height to which water may be 
 raised by the sucking pump, from the 
 surface of the fluid in the well to the 
 highest position of the moveable pis- 
 ton, is about thirty-four feet (the 
 height of a colunm of water which 
 balances the pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere), it is not found practicable, 
 with pumpo of the ordinary construc- 
 tion, to raise it more than about twen- 
 ty-eight feet. The difference arises 
 from the difficulty of making the ap- 
 paratus absolutely air-tight. 
 
 ''The forci7i<r pump is represented 
 in Fig. -i. The piston-rod, E D, is 
 attached to a solid 
 plunger, D, adjusted to 
 the cavity of the bar- 
 rel. A pipe, G H, fur- 
 nished with a valve, 
 F, opening outward, 
 communicates with 
 the barrel at G. On el- 
 evating the plunge r,D, 
 the water will ascend 
 through the valve, C, 
 in the same manner as 
 in the sucking pump, 
 till the barrel is filled to D. Now when 
 the plunger is depressed, the valve, 
 C, will shut, and the water between 
 D and C be forced through the valve 
 F into the pipe G H. When the 
 plunger is raised, the valve at F shuts, 
 the pressure on its under side being 
 646 
 
 removed, so that the water which 
 was forced into the pipe liy the pre- 
 vious stroke cannot return into the 
 barrel. At the next stroke of the 
 piston more water is again forced 
 into the pipe, and so on till it is rais- 
 ed to the height required. 
 
 " In this pump the pipe, A A, may 
 be dispensed with, and the barrel, B, 
 immersed in the reservoir ; in which 
 case the action of the pump is inde- 
 pendent of the atmospheric pressure, 
 and could be maintained equally well 
 in a vacuum. 
 
 " In order to produce a continued 
 stream through the pipe, G H, an air 
 
 Vxg. 3. 
 
 vessel, m n, may be 
 attached to tlie lateral 
 branch above the valve 
 F, Fig. 3. The pipe, 
 G H, reaches to near 
 the bottom of the air- 
 vessel ; and when the 
 water has been forced 
 into the vessel by the 
 action of the pump, un- 
 til it reaches above the 
 lower end of the pipe at G, it is evi- 
 dent that, as all communication is 
 then cut off with the external atmo- 
 sphere, every additional quantity of 
 water thrown into the vessel will tend 
 more and more to compress the air 
 within it, which, acting by its press- 
 ure on the surface of the water, for- 
 ces it through the pipe, G H, in a con- 
 tinued stream. 
 
 " The lifting pump is represented 
 by Fig. 4. The barrel of the pump 
 is immersed in the water 
 and fixed to an immovea- 
 ble frame. The piston, 
 with its bucket and valve, 
 C, opening upward, is at- 
 tached at E to another 
 frame, G H I K L, consist- 
 ingof twostrongiron rods, 
 H I and LK, which move 
 through holes in frame- 
 work to which the pump 
 is fixed. An inclined 
 branch, M N, either fixed to the top 
 of the barrel, or moveable by means 
 of a ball and socket, is fitted exactly 
 to the barrel, and furnished with a 
 valve at M. Suppose the barrel im- 
 
 Fia. i. 
 
PUP 
 
 inersed in the water to a certain depth : 
 if the piistou frame be now thrust down 
 by the handle at Cr, the piston will 
 descend, and the water be forced by 
 its upward pressure tiirougli tlie valve 
 C, so as to maintain the same level 
 in the pump as in the well. But when 
 the piston frame is elevated, the valve 
 C will shut (as shown in the figure), 
 and the water above C be lificd up 
 with the piston, and forced througli 
 the valve M into the branch, M N, from 
 which its return will be prevented by 
 the shutting of the valve M when the 
 piston descends. 
 
 " In each of these different kinds 
 of pumps which have been described, 
 the total effort required to work the 
 machine, independently of friction, is 
 equal to the weight of a column of 
 water, the base of which is equal to 
 the area of a section of the working 
 barrel, and the altitude equal to the 
 distance between the surface of the 
 water in the reservoir and the point 
 to which it is raised. In the suck- 
 ing pump the whole of this effort is 
 expended in raising the piston ; in 
 the forcing pump one part is expend- 
 ed in raising and the other in de- 
 pressing the piston, and it is advan- 
 tageous to dispose the machinery so 
 that these two parts shall be nearly 
 equal. In small pumps for domestic 
 purposes, the strength of man is usu- 
 ally employed as the moving power ; 
 but in raising water from great depths, 
 as the bottom of mines, the steam- 
 engine is applied to this purpose." — 
 {Brandc's E/icyclopirdia.) 
 
 PUMPKIN. Citcurbila pcpo. The 
 best varieties are the family, mam- ' 
 moth, Connecticut field, white bell, 
 Valparaiso. They are cultivated like 
 melons, but may be planted in corn- 
 fields. They are kept during the 
 winter by placing them on shelves in 
 a cellar where the temperature is 
 uniform and not below the freezing '' 
 point. They form admirable food for 
 stock, and are extensively employed 
 in the West to fatten hogs. 
 
 PLNCHEOxN. A measure of 84 
 gallons ; a short post. 
 
 PUNCTATE. Dotted. ! 
 
 PUPA. A nymph, grub, or chrysalis, i 
 
 PUT 
 
 PUPIPARES, PUPIPAR.A. Those 
 
 insects are said to be pupiparoua 
 which produce their young in tiie con- 
 dition of a pupa or nymph, as the for- 
 est tly {Hippobosca equina). 
 
 PUPIVOllES, PUPIVORA. The 
 name of a tribe of hymeuopterous in- 
 sects, comprehending those of which 
 the larvaj live parasitically in the in- 
 terior of the larvaj and pupaj of oth- 
 er insects. 
 
 PURGATIVES. Medicines which 
 produce purging. See Pliannacopaia. 
 PURGING. Often used for diar- 
 rhoea or over-purging. See the ani- 
 mals respectively. 
 
 PURIFORM. Like pus. 
 I PURLINE. In building, a piece 
 , of timber lymg on the principal raft- 
 ers to support them in the middle. 
 
 PURPURIC ACID. A red com- 
 pound produced by the action of nitric 
 acid on uric acid. 
 
 PURSIVENESS, PURSINESS. 
 Shortness of breath. 
 
 PURSLANE. Portulacca olera- 
 cea. An annual with succulent leaves, 
 partially cultivated as a salad and 
 pot-herb. 
 
 PUS, MATTER. A yellow, cream- 
 like fiuid formed in abscesses and 
 from w^ounds. It contains globules, 
 and is blood modified by inflammato- 
 ry action. 
 
 PUT AMEN. The shell of a fruit. 
 The endocarp. 
 PUT LOGS, 
 in scaffolding. 
 
 PUTREFACTION. The foetid de- 
 composition of animal and vegetable 
 substances containing much nitrogen. 
 The bad odours are due to the for- 
 mation of compounds of sulphur and 
 ammonia with sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen. Putrefaction can only take place 
 when oxygen is present with moist- 
 ure, and a temperature above 32° 
 Fahrenheit. Everything which hin- 
 ders the accomplishment of these 
 conditions hinders putrefaction, as 
 drying, salting, coldness, placing in 
 air-tight vessels. Saline substances 
 hinder putrefaction by either coagu- 
 lating and changing the nitrogen com- 
 pound, or withdrawing the water by 
 their greater affinity. 
 
 647 
 
 Short timbers used 
 
QUA 
 
 PUTTY. In building, a fine ce- 
 ment of lime only. In glazing, a com 
 pound of drying oil, linseed oil, and 
 whiting. 
 
 PYLORUS. The passage or valve 
 of the stomach into the intestines. 
 
 PYUrj'KS. Native sulphurets of 
 iron or copper. 
 
 PYKO (from nvp, fire). A com- 
 mon chemical prefix, indicating com- 
 pounds modified by the action of heat, 
 as pvrophosphoric, pvrotartaric acids. 
 
 PYROACETIC SPIRIT. A vol- 
 atile, inflammable, and limpid fluid, 
 formed by the distillation of acetate 
 of lead. It is also called acetone. 
 
 PYROLIGXEOUS ACID. The 
 vinegar (acetic acid) procured by dis- 
 tilling wood. It contains creasote 
 and other tarry compounds, but is 
 extensively used to form solution of 
 iron or red liquor for dyers. Its com- 
 pounds are called pvrolignites. 
 
 PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT, 
 PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. Hydrate of 
 mythylene, wood naphtha, a very 
 vwlatile, inflammable fluid, from dis- 
 tilled wood, sometimes used for 
 lamps. It is one of the most pow- 
 erful antiseptics, but of an unpleas- 
 ant odour. 
 
 PYROMETER. An instrument 
 for measuring degrees of heat above 
 600"^ Fahr. They are all very im- 
 perfect except Daniel's, and seldom 
 used. 
 
 PYROSIS. Acidity of the stom- 
 ach, with a discharge of hot fluid into 
 the throat and mouth. 
 PYROXENE. Augite. 
 PYROXYLIU SPIRIT. Pyrolig- 
 neous spirit 
 
 PYXIDIUM (from Tnfif, a small 
 box). A fruit which splits into an 
 upper and lower half, as that of the 
 pimpernel. 
 
 QUADRICORXES. A family of 
 wingless insects, with four antennae. 
 
 QUADRIFID. Four-cleft. 
 
 QUADRILATERAL. Four-sided. 
 
 QUADRIPENXATES. A tribe of 
 insects with four membranous wings. 
 
 QUAGGA. A quadruped allied to 
 the zebra. 
 648 
 
 QUI 
 
 QUAGMIRE. A muddy, soft bog 
 or marsh. 
 
 Q U A I L. The genus Coturnix. 
 Birds like the partridge, but of pas- 
 sage. 
 
 QUAKING GRASS. The genus 
 Briza. 
 
 QUART. The fourth of a gallon. 
 
 QUARTAN. An intermittent fe- 
 ver, appearing everv fourth day. 
 
 QUARTER. Eight bushels, a 
 fourth {)art. 
 
 QIJ.ARTZ. Silica, silicic acid crys- 
 tallized, rock crystal. 
 
 QUARRY'. A pit or excavation, 
 from whence stones are taken, by 
 blasting or otherwise. 
 
 QU.\SSIA. A bitter wood, from 
 the Q. cxcclsa of South America. A 
 strong decoction, sweetened with su- 
 gar, is a certain and safe poison for 
 flies. 
 
 QUEEN POST. In building, an 
 upright post in a roof for suspending 
 the beam when the principal rafters 
 do not meet in the ridge. 
 
 QUERCITRON BARK. The in- 
 ner bark of the black oak. See Oak. 
 
 QUICKLIME. Caustic, fresh- 
 burned lime. 
 
 QUICKSILVER. Mercury. 
 
 QUICKS. The young white thorns. 
 
 QUICKSET HEDGE. A hedge 
 of white thorn. 
 
 QUINATE. Five-parted. 
 
 QUINCE. Cydonia vulgaris. A 
 well-known fruit, readily cultivated 
 from seed, cuttings, and suckers. 
 The stocks are much used for working 
 pears and apples, which they bring 
 forward, but render short-lived. The 
 Portuguese, eatable, orange, and 
 musk kinds are most esteemed ; the 
 Chinese is very long. 
 
 The quince prefers a moist, loose 
 soil ; it requires little pruning, ex- 
 cept the removal of suckers. The 
 fruit is chieflv used for preserves. 
 
 QUINCUNX. In the following 
 
 order °o°, with one at each corner. 
 
 o o ' 
 
 and a fifth in the centre of the s(]uare 
 QUININE. The active principle 
 
 of Peruvian bark, a white, crystalline 
 
 alkaloid. 
 
 QUINOA or PERUVIAN RICE. 
 
 I 
 
RAC 
 
 RAG 
 
 Ckenopoiihim quinoa. A plant of the 
 Andes, similar to the gousefoots, the 
 leaves of which are used as spinach. 
 The seeds are very nutritious, and 
 are eaten hoiled in soups. 
 
 QUINSEY. " Indammation of the 
 tonsils. This is common intianima- 
 tory sore tiiroat : it is not infectious. 
 It hegfins with pain on one side of the 
 throat, and swelling of the tonsil, at- 
 tended by febrile symptoms, which 
 sometimes run high, especially as the 
 tumefaction advances ; there is great 
 restlessness and anxiety, and often 
 the utmost difficulty of swallowing 
 even liquids, and of breathing. Tlie 
 disease has proved fatal by producing 
 sutfocation, but it generally termi- 
 nates in resolution or suppuration : 
 in the latter case the abscess breaks, 
 and a good deal of pus is discharged, 
 
 one of the chief causes of the blind- 
 ness of horses. 
 
 RACKING FUTIDS. Decanting; 
 separating the clear portions from 
 the dregs. The barrel into which 
 the fluid is racked should be perfectly 
 clean and fumigated with sulphur. 
 
 RADIANT. A luminous spot or 
 bodv. 
 
 RADIATION. The emission of 
 rays of heat or light through air or 
 space, whereby little is lost. 
 
 RADICAL. A base in chemistry. 
 Compound radical is a compound base 
 in organic bodies. 
 
 RADICLE. The miniature root 
 of the embryo. Also, small roots. 
 
 R.VDISH. Raphanus sativus. An 
 annual cruciferous plant, cultivated 
 for its roots. Varieties : Long scar- 
 let, scarlet turnip, white turnip-root- 
 
 and the patient is at once relieved of ed. long w"hite Naples, purple turnip, 
 
 all his urgent symptoms ; hut it oc- 
 casionally happens that the other side 
 of tiie throat becomes affected, and 
 goes through the same stages." 
 
 QUITCH GRASS. Couch grass. 
 
 QUOIN. The corner of a building. 
 
 R. 
 
 A moulding. 
 Lepus cuniculus. 
 
 RABBET. 
 
 RABBIT 
 well-known rodent. They breed at 
 si.x months, and have seven to eight 
 young in a litter. They devour the 
 young, green vegetation of the farm- 
 er, but are readily kept, and yield 
 an abundant supply of food. The 
 dung IS of the same character as that 
 of sheep. 
 
 RACEME. A form of inflores- 
 cence, consisting of a main stem with 
 stalked flowers arranged along it. 
 
 RACE.VIIC ACID. An old name 
 for a form of tartaric acid ; the para- 
 tartaric acid. 
 
 R.\CHIS. An upright axis of in- 
 florescence. 
 
 RACK. A railed space above the 
 manger, in which grass is placed. 
 Below should be a box to collect the 
 grass seeds. The rack should not be 
 placed above the animal's head ; for 
 the dust of the hay, falling into his 
 eyes, may produce irritation, and, ul- 
 timately, blindness. 
 I I I 
 
 white Spanish, black Spanish. The 
 early crops must be forwarded in 
 frames and hot-beds. Warm bor- 
 ders are also selected for crops in 
 May. The seed is sowed broad-cast 
 or in drills nine inches apart. The 
 soil should be light, drained, and mod- 
 erately fertile. A\hen the crop is 
 large, 10 to 14 lbs. of seed the acre 
 are employed. The leaves are in- 
 fested by skipping beetles, and should 
 be sprinkled with air-slacked lime, 
 snuff, &LC. The roots are also sub- 
 ject to a maggot. The green pods 
 are sometimes pickled, and the young 
 plants used as salad. 
 
 RADISH, WILD. The charlock, 
 a weed. 
 
 RADIUS. The length of a straight 
 line drawn from the centre to the cir- 
 cumference of a circle. 
 
 RADIUS BONE. Oneof the bones 
 of the forearm. 
 
 RAFTER. A timber of the roof 
 
 RAFTERING LAND. Ploughing 
 only half the land, and turning the 
 grass side of each furrow'-slice upon 
 an unploughed bed. 
 
 R.VG. Woollen rags are very use- 
 ful as a manure. They are chopped 
 line, and used at the rate of half a 
 ton to the acre. They last four or 
 five years, and advance vegetation, 
 
 This is, indeed, 1 especially the bop. 
 
 The rags, by de- 
 649 
 
RAI 
 
 RAP 
 
 cay, become pon verted into carbonate ; 
 of aininonia, in tlie sanu; way as hair 
 and horns, with wliich manures they 
 are identical. I 
 
 R A G WEE D. GROUNDSEL. 
 Composite-flowered weeds. 
 
 R A I L. Tlie horizontal parts of 
 framing. Pieces of timber of 12 feet, 
 used lor fencing. I 
 
 R A I N. 'J"hc water of Clouds, 
 which see. 'J'he average amount 
 that falls in tliis state is 35 inches, 
 the largest amount following south- 
 west and northwest winds. Rain is ! 
 a true manure, containing carbonic ' 
 acid, a little ammonia, and saline , 
 matters. It is preferable to preserve ! 
 it in tanks, for watering gardens, 
 than to use well water. 
 
 RAINBOW. A display of the pris- 
 matic colours in the air, produced by 
 the action of particles of water on the 
 sun's rays. 
 
 RAIN GAUGE. An instrument 
 to measure the amount of rain fallen. 
 A convenient form of the instrument 
 is represented in the annex- 
 ed figure, where the rain 
 which enters the funnel is 
 collected in a cylindrical 
 vessel of copper, connected ', 
 with which, at the lower 
 part, is a glass tube with an 
 attached scale. The water 
 stands at the same height in the cyl- 
 inder and glass tube, and being visi- 
 ble in the latter, the height is read 
 immediately on the scale ; and the 
 cylinder and tube being constructed 
 so that the sum of the areas of their 
 sections is a given part, for instance, 
 a tenth, of the area of the funnel at 
 its orifice, each inch of water in the 
 tube is equivalent to the tenth of an 
 inch of water entering the mouth of 
 the funnel. A stop-cock is added, 
 by which the water is drawn offwhen 
 the observation is made. It should 
 be placed in an open space. 
 
 R.\I.SINS. Grapes allowed to dry 
 on the vine. As soon as they are 
 ripe, the leaves are pruned off", and 
 none hut sound fruit left. The stalk 
 is also half cut through. When dry, 
 they are plucked, dipped in a solution ! 
 of lye, and dried ou frames. 1 
 
 650 
 
 RAISING PLATE. The timber 
 to which the upper ends of the raf- 
 ters are nailed. 
 
 RAKE. An implement consisting 
 of one or more rows of long teeth, 
 to tear the ground or collect hay, 
 &c. The revolving hay rake is fig- 
 ured under Hay-makiyi<:. The horse- 
 rake is only a large rake drawn by a 
 horse, and furnished with handles to 
 be held by a labourer. 
 
 RAM. The male of the sheep. 
 Sec Sheep. 
 
 RA.MENTA. Thin, brown scales 
 seen on ferns and voung shoots. 
 
 RAMOSE. Branched. 
 
 RAMPKJNS. Campamtla rapurf 
 cultis. Tiiis is cultivated, to a limit- 
 ed extent, for its roots, which are 
 said to be better than radishes. They 
 are cultivated like radishes, and are 
 fit for use in September and the fall. 
 The soil should be rather moist. The 
 roots are eaten raw, in salads, sliced 
 with the leaves, or they may be boiled, 
 and treated as asparagus. Seed is 
 obtained by setting out a few of the 
 last year's roots in spring. 
 
 PvANID.E. The reptiles resem- 
 bling the frog (rana). 
 
 RANUNCULUS. Plants resem- 
 bling the buttercup and crowsfoot. 
 They are vile weeds in meadows, 
 inany of thein being acrid and poi- 
 sonous. They have been much im- 
 proved for the flower garden. 
 
 RAPE. Brassica napus. " This 
 plant, which is of the cabbage tribe, 
 is cultivated, like cole, or colza, for 
 the sake of its seeds, from which oil 
 is extracted by grinding and i)ressure. 
 It is also extensively cultivated in 
 England for the succulent food which 
 its thick and fleshy stern and leaves 
 supply to sheep when other fodder is 
 scarce. 
 
 " The mode of cultivation of the col- 
 za and rape forseed is nearly the same. 
 The colza takes a longer time to come 
 to maturity, and produces more seed. 
 The rape grows on less fertile soils, 
 and may be sowed in spring as well 
 as in autumn. Both are hardy, and 
 resist the winter's frost. 
 
 " The seed-bed. where tlie cultiva- 
 tion is on a small scale, is usually 
 
 \ 
 
RAPE. 
 
 prepared by digo:ing or trenching with 
 the spade in a good loamy soil, nei- 
 ther too sandy nor too wet. A large 
 pro|)ortion of rotten dung is spread 
 evenly over it, and dug in six inches 
 deep, and the surface is raked fine. 
 The seed is sowed broad-cast or in 
 drill ; the latter is the best method : 
 it is then slightly covered with the 
 rake ; and if the ground will allow 
 of It, without risk of its being bound 
 too hard in case of dry weatiier, it is 
 well rolled or trodden with the feet. 
 The seed must not be sowed too 
 thick ; and the plants, as soon as 
 they have six leaves, must be thin- 
 ned to a distance of four or live inch- 
 es in the rows, which wdl make them 
 stronger and better furnished with 
 roots. One acre of seed-bed will fur- 
 nish plants for ten acres or more. 
 The seed is sowed in July or August, 
 that the plants may not run to seed 
 the same year, which they are apt to 
 do if sowed early ; and they are trans- 
 planted in September or October, on 
 land which has already borne a prof- 
 itable crop. As this crop is a substi- 
 tute for a fallow on rich, heavy land, 
 too much pains cannot be taken to j 
 keep it free from weeds. Winter 
 barley and rye, which are reaped, 
 early in July, are very proper crops 
 to be succeeded by rape or colza. | 
 The stubble should be ploughed two i 
 or three times, to pulverize and clean ' 
 it. A goodcoat of rotten dung should 1 
 be put on, and the land ploughed in ' 
 ridges, as for turnips. The plants 
 should be put in on the ridges ten 
 inches apart. It requires great care, 
 in taking them up, not to break the 
 fibres of the roots ; they should be 
 raised with a fork, and placed gently, 
 with the fine earth adhering to them, 
 in flat baskets, and in a slanting posi- 
 tion, so that the tops may be upward. 
 In planting, the holes should be made 
 with a large, thick dibble, that the 
 plants may be introduced without 
 doubling up the principal roots or 
 breaking tlie fibres. The earth should 
 be pressed to the root by a short dib- 
 ble, inserted to the right or left of the 
 h(jle made by the first dibble ; or, 
 which IS better iii sliS soils, a hole 
 
 should be made with a narrow hoe 
 of sulTicient depth to allow the plant 
 to be placed in it, and another hoe 
 should follow to draw the earth to 
 llie ()lant. Thus, two men with hoes, 
 and one woman, will plant a row more 
 rapidly than could be done in any oth- 
 er way. The man who fills up the 
 holes places his foot by the side of 
 each plant as he goes on, to press 
 trie earth to the roots. 
 ' '• An expeditious mode of planting 
 I rape is used in Flanders. A spade 
 I ten inches wide is pushed vertically 
 I into the ground, and, by drawing the 
 I handle towards his body, the labour- 
 [ er makes a wedge-like opening; a 
 woman inserts a plant in each side 
 of this opening, and when the man 
 j removes the spade the earth falls 
 back against the plants. The wom- 
 I an puts her foot between the two 
 plants, and they are then fixed in 
 their places. In this operation the 
 man moves backward ; and the wom- 
 an, who puts in the plants, forward. 
 Instead of the spade, an instrument 
 is also used called a plan/oir. It con- 
 sists of two sharp-pointed stakes, a 
 foot or more apart, connected by a 
 cross-handle at top, and a bar at about 
 eight or ten inches from the points. 
 This instrument is pressed into the 
 ground by the handles, assisted by 
 the foot placed on the lower bar, and 
 makes two holes, a foot apart, into 
 which the plants are placed, and 
 earthed round as before. This is 
 done when the land has not been laid 
 up into high ridges. 
 
 '• When a large field is to be plant- 
 ed, a more expeditious mode is adopt- 
 ed ; and this is the most usual prac- 
 tice in Holland and Germany. The 
 land having been prepared, and the 
 manure well incorpora.ted, a deep fur- 
 row is drawn with the plough ; wom- 
 en follow with baskets of plants, 
 which they set, a foot apart, slanting 
 against the furrow slice. When the 
 plough returns, the earth is thrown 
 against these plants, and a man or 
 woman follows, who, with the foot, 
 presses the earth down upon the 
 roots. Sometimes plants are put 
 into each furrow, which is then teo 
 651 
 
RAPE. 
 
 inches or more wide ; but the best 
 cultivators put them only in every al- 
 ternate furrow. In this case, also, 
 there are no ridges. The season of 
 the year affords sufficient moisture, 
 in the north of Europe, to ensure the 
 growth of tlie |)lanls ; and if they 
 have escaped the fly in the seed-bed. 
 they are now tolerably safe ; no far- 
 ther attention is requisite till spring' ; 
 the weeds are then carefully extirpa- 
 ted by hand and hoe, and where the 
 distance of the plants admits of it, 
 the light plough stirs the ground be- 
 tween the rows, throwing the earth 
 towards the sterns, yet so as to leave 
 each i)lant in a little basin, to catch 
 the water and conduct it to the roots. 
 When the jilants are invigorated with 
 rich liijuid manure, such as niuht soil 
 mixed with water, or the drainings 
 from dunghills, they i)ecome extreme- 
 ly luxuriant, and every trouble or 
 expense bestowed upon thein is am- 
 ply repaid. The difference between 
 a crop partially neglected and anoth- 
 er carefully cultivated often exceeds 
 fifty per cent. 
 
 "A moderate return of seed for 
 colza is thirty bushels per acre ; but 
 it frequently exceeds tifiy The value 
 on the Coiitment is nearly the same 
 as that of wheat. In England it is 
 somewhat less, owing to the quanti- 
 ty imported. It is usually sold by 
 the last of ten quarters. 
 
 "There is not much difference 
 between the value of colza and rape 
 seed (called 7iavet/e in French), but 
 the latter produces less. When the 
 rape is transplanted before winter it 
 is much more productive than when 
 sowed in spring In the latter case 
 it produces seed the same year.- It 
 is sowed in drills, and thinned out by 
 the hoe ; and in favourable seasons 
 a tolerable crop is obtained. It is 
 generally sowed on land which could 
 mit be brought into a proper tilth af- ' 
 ter harvest, and which would reqnire 
 the frost of winter to mellow it. 
 
 " Great crops of cole seed and rape 
 have been produced by merely paring 
 and burning the surface and plough- 
 ing in the ashes ; and these crops, 
 alternating with oats, have iii many [ 
 652 
 
 instances so exhausted the soil as to 
 cause a great prejudice against them 
 in the minds of the landlords. .Many 
 leases have a clause prohibiting its 
 cultivation, except to be eaten green 
 by sheep. The principal cause, how- 
 ever, of the diminution of this crop 
 in England is the inferior price ob- 
 tained for the seed when compared 
 with wheat, which can be raised on 
 the same laud, and is a more certain 
 crop. 
 
 "The rape and colza ripen their 
 seed very unequally. The lower pods 
 are ready to burst before those at the 
 top are full. If the season is wet at 
 harvest, much of the seed is lost ; 
 and, without great attention, some 
 loss is sustained in the most favour- 
 able seasons. It should be cut when 
 the dew is on it, and moved as little 
 as possible. If the weather permits, 
 it is thrashed out on a cloth in the 
 field ; and as many thrashers are em- 
 ployed as can be conveniently col- 
 lected, that no time may be lost when 
 the weather is fair. The seed is 
 spread out on the floor of a grana- 
 ry, that it may not heat, and is turn- 
 ed over frequently. It is then sold 
 to the crushers, who express the oil. 
 The pods and small branches which 
 are broken off in thrashing are much 
 relished by cattle. 
 
 " This crop returns little to the 
 land, and is of itself very exhausting. 
 Not so, however, is the rape when 
 sown as food for sheep ; it is, on the 
 contrary, a valuable substitute for 
 turnips, upon land which is too wet 
 and heavy for this root. The Bras- 
 sica clcracr.a is more succulent than 
 the Brassica napus. Its stem is not 
 so hard, and the soft pith which it 
 contains is much relished by every 
 kind of live stock. To have it in per- 
 fection, the land should be prepared 
 and manured as for turnips. The 
 rape should be sown in drills, ten 
 inches apart, about the beginning or 
 middle of August, which gives ample 
 time for preparing the land without 
 interfering with the turnip crop. It 
 wdl be sufficiently forward before 
 winter, and it should then be hoed 
 over once. If the crop is very for- 
 
RAP 
 
 ward, it may be slightly fed off; but, 
 in gtMieral, it is best lu let it iciuaiii 
 iiiiiuucliud till spring. In the end of 
 .March and the begnmnig of April it 
 Will be a great help to the ewes and 
 lainbs. It will produce e.\.cellent Ibod 
 till It begins to be in llower, when it 
 should uninediately be ploughed up. 
 'ihe ground will be found greatly re- 
 cruited by this erop, which iias taken 
 nothing from it, and has added much 
 by the dung and urine ot tlie sheep. 
 Whatever be the succeeding crop, it 
 cannot tail to be productive ; and if 
 tlie land is not clean, tin.' larnier must 
 have neglected tlie double opportuni- 
 ty of destroying weeds in the prece- 
 ding summer and in the early part of 
 spring, if the rape is fed olf m lime, 
 it may be succeeded by barley or 
 oats, with clover or grass seeds, or 
 potatoes, if the soil lo not too wet. 
 'I'hus no crop will be lost, and the 
 rape will have been a clear addition 
 to the produce of the land. Any crop 
 which IS taken olf the land in a green 
 stale, especially if it be fed off with 
 sheep, may be repeated, without risk 
 of failure, provided the land be prop- 
 erly tilled ; but where cole or rape 
 have produced seed, they cannot be 
 profitably sown in less than hve or 
 SIX years after on the same land. 
 
 •• When the oil has been pressed 
 out from the seed, the residue and 
 the husk of the seed form a hard cake 
 known tiy the name of rape-cake. 
 This IS used on the Continent to feed 
 cows and pigs with, as we use the 
 linseed cakes ; but it is also used as 
 a rich manure. When rape-cake is 
 ground to a powder and drilled with 
 the seed on poor, light lands, it sup- 
 plies nourishment to the young plants, 
 and greatly accelerates tlieir growth ; 
 but 11 It be added in a large propor- 
 tion m immediate contact with the 
 seed, on heavy, impervious soils, it 
 often undergoes the putrid fermenta- 
 tion, which It communicates to the 
 seed sown, and, instead of nourish- 
 ing, destroys it. in this case, it is 
 useful to mix it with some dry, po- 
 rous earth, or with ashes, which will 
 prevent the too rapid decomposition ; 
 sixteen bushels are used to the acre. 
 I I I 2 
 
 RAS 
 
 Dissolved in water, and mixed witn 
 urine, it forms one of the most etli- 
 cacious of artificial lujuid manures 
 Hence it is probable tliat the most 
 advantageous mode of using it on the 
 land, after it has been dissolved in 
 the urine tank, is to apply it by means 
 of a water cart to the rows where tlie 
 seed has been already drilled, or some 
 time before it is put in. Where Uax 
 is to be sosvn, this mixture, applied a 
 few days belbre the seed is sown, so 
 as to allow it to sink into the soil, is 
 considered, in f'landers, as ne.vt in 
 value to the emptyings of privies, 
 which with them hold the first rank for 
 producing fine crops of tlax. When a 
 crop appears sickly, and not growing 
 as It should do, owing to poverty in 
 the soil, a top dressing of rape-cake 
 dissolved in water, if no urine is at 
 hand, will generally excite the pow- 
 ers of vegetation ; and it is highly 
 probable that it may greatly assist 
 the effects of saltpetre or of nitrate 
 of soda, where these salts are applied. 
 The cultivation of rape or cole for 
 spring food cannot be too strongly 
 recommended to the farmers of heavy 
 clay soils.'' — ( VV. L- Rham.) 
 
 RAPE-SEED CAKE. See Rape. 
 
 RAPHE. A suture. Parts which 
 appear as tliougli they had been uni- 
 ted. In botany, the thread passing 
 Iroiii the ovule to the placenta. 
 
 RAPlllDES. Crystals of oxalate 
 of potash and other salts lound in the 
 juice of rhubarbs, docks, and other 
 plants. 
 
 RAPTORES, ACCIPITRES. 
 Birds of prey, as the hawk, owl, eagle. 
 
 RAREFACTION. The act of di- 
 minishing the density of air or other 
 bodies : n is done by the air-pump in 
 the case of air. 
 
 RASORES. Scratchers ; gallina- 
 ceous birds, such as the fowl, turkey, 
 pheasant, &c. 
 
 RASPBERRY. Ruhus idaus. 
 This shrub, in its wild state, is found 
 growing in our mountainous woods 
 and thickets : it flowers in .May and 
 June. The root is creeping. The 
 stems are biennial, erect, three or 
 four feet high, branched, round, pale, 
 or purplish, more or less besprinkled 
 653 
 
RAT 
 
 RAT 
 
 with small, straight, slendor prickles, 
 '"rcqiiently rather resemhling bristles 
 than prickles, and sometimes alto- 
 gether absent. Leaves pinnate, of 
 five or three ovate, rather angular, 
 lateral leaflets, serrated or cut, and 
 angular, green, and nearly smooth 
 above, ^ery downy beneath, and a 
 larger terminal leaflet. The foot- 
 Btalks are furrowed, downy, and 
 prickly, with narrow lateral stipules. 
 'I'hv, flowers are small, white, or pink- 
 ish-white, pendulous, in drooping ter- 
 minal clusters. Fruit crimson, of 
 numerous juicy grains, beset with the 
 permanent styles, and highly fra- 
 grant, with a very deliciously-per- 
 fumed, sweet, and acid flavour, more 
 exquisite in the wild state, in general, 
 than Vv'hen cultivated. 
 
 "The wood of the raspberry bush 
 produces fruit but one year, there- 
 fore that should be carefully cut down 
 below the surface of the earth, and 
 the young shoots should be shorten- 
 ed to about two feet high ; and not 
 more than three or four shoots should 
 be left to each root, as these will [iro- 
 duce a greater number of berries, and 
 larger Iruit, than would be obtained 
 if twice that number of suckers were 
 left. The middle or end of October 
 is the proper time for this pruning. 
 The fruit is produced from young 
 branches out of the last year's shoots 
 or suckers. l"he plants raised by 
 layers are much preferred to those 
 taken from suckers ; they should also 
 have plenty of room, for when there 
 is not space for the air and light to 
 pass between the rows, the fruit will 
 be small, and will not ripen well. 
 They require a fresh, strong loam, 
 deeply trenched and well manured in 
 the lirst instance, for in warm, light 
 ground they |)ro(luce but little fruit. 
 
 " The following selection is recom- 
 mended fur a small garden : Barnet, 
 Cornish, double-bearing red Antwerp, 
 Williams's preserving yellow Ant- 
 werp.' ' — (Joh nson.) 
 
 RAT. Mas raftus. "Few animals 
 are more destructive of every kind of 
 grain than rats. When a barn is in- 
 fested with them, it is scarcely pos- 
 sible to get rid of them. They will 
 654 
 
 leave it for a time, and the farmer 
 imagines that they are all destroyed ; 
 but no sooner is the corn brought in 
 than they resume their depredations. 
 There are means, however, of de- 
 stroying them, and some of these 
 means are equally eflectual and inge- 
 nious. The most obvious way of de- 
 stroying rats is to poison them, which 
 appears an easy matter ; but it is not 
 so without an accurate knowledge of 
 the habits of these creatures. Their 
 sense of smelling is more acute than 
 we can well conceive, and their cau- 
 tion is not easily deceived. It is dif- 
 ficult to entice them with food when 
 they have plenty of grain to satisfy 
 their hunger. Patience and perse- 
 verance alone can lull their caution 
 to rest. 
 
 " The principle on which all rat- 
 catchers proceed is to entice the rats 
 to some particular spot convenient 
 for their future operations. There 
 are some strong scents which these 
 animals seem to delight in, and by 
 means of these their natural sagacity 
 is deceived. Oil of rhodium, of cara- 
 way, or anise seed, and musk, are 
 great favourites with rats. Rags im- 
 pregnated with these, and which have 
 not been in contact with any part of 
 the body of a man, being laid, as if 
 by accident, will induce them to come 
 out of their hiding-places in the night, 
 and frequent the spot where the smell 
 attracts them. Gradually they will 
 become familiarized \vith the place ; 
 and pieces of tallow, or cheese, or 
 malt-dust may be placed near with- 
 out exciting their suspicion. After 
 they have been fed for a time, they 
 will readily eat anything thai may be 
 thrown down, provided it has not 
 been touched by the hand without the 
 covering of a glove properly scented. 
 It will take some time to accom- 
 plish this ; and when they are to be 
 poisoned, a quantity of poisoned food, 
 similar to what they have been ac- 
 customed to feed on, must be pre- 
 pared, sufficient to poison all those 
 which are supposed to frequent the 
 place. The poisons commonly used 
 are arsenic, nux vomica, powdered 
 Spanish flies, and cocculus indicus, 
 
RAT 
 
 REA 
 
 which intoxicates them, so that they ] 
 may be taken l)y the hand. A small 
 chamber, or a large chest or box, is 
 convenient to collect the rats ; and 
 in order to induce them to go in, 
 pieces of toasted cheese, or red her- 
 ring, are trailed along the ground 
 from the rat holes to the place where 
 it is wished that they should assem- 
 ble. As soon as they have been ac- 
 customed to find food which they Hke, 
 they will all come to it in the night; 
 and they can be poisoned, or caught 
 by some contrivance by which the 
 only entrance to the place or box can 
 be suddenly closed. ^Vhen traps are 
 set, they should be left open for a 
 time, and the rats allowed to go in 
 and out without hinderance, till they 
 crowd together in them, and can be 
 taken in great numbers. When rats 
 have been caught in a trap, and have 
 soiled it with their excrements, it 
 should not be washed nor much han- 
 dled : it should be left in the same 
 spot as h)ng as any rats are caught. 
 Any change of position excites their 
 caution. An ingenious trap is made 
 by stretching a piece of parchment 
 over the open end of a cask, and en- 
 ticing the rats to eat the food laid 
 upon the parchment. When they 
 have evidently been there to feed, 
 cross cuts, a few inches long, are 
 made in the parchment with a pen- 
 knife ; and in the bottom of the tub, 
 which has four inches of water in it, 
 a brick is set on its edge, so as to 
 rise just out of the water. The rats 
 coming for food, as usual, some one 
 soon slips through the parchment, 
 and, falling into the water, seeks ref- 
 uge on the brick ; as more fall in, 
 they fight for the possession of the 
 brick, and their noise attracts all the 
 rats within hearing. Thus it is said 
 that a great number may be caught 
 in one night." 
 
 RATCHET. A small lever which 
 plays into the teeth of a ratchet- 
 wheel, and allows it to turn freely 
 onlv in one direction. 
 
 RATTLESNAKE. Snakes of the 
 genus Crotalus. Their bite is ex- 
 tremely venomous. The wound 
 should be cut out and scarified, and 
 
 the patient sustained by brandy and 
 ammonia. 
 
 RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Sen- 
 ega root. 
 
 RAT'S T.-ML. A disease in hor- 
 ses, in which the hair of the tail is 
 permanently lost. 
 
 REAPING. " The common reap- 
 ing-hook, or sickle, with which grain 
 is cut, is one of the oldest instruments 
 of husbandry. In reaping with it, a 
 portion of the stems is collected with 
 the left hand and held fast, while the 
 sickle in the right hand is inserted 
 below the left, taking the stems in 
 its semicircular blade, and cutting 
 them through by drawing the sickle 
 so as to act as a saw, for which pur- 
 pose the edge is finely serrated in a 
 direction from the point to the han- 
 dle. The heads of the grain, with the 
 upper part of the straw, are then laid 
 on the ground in quantities, which 
 may readily be collected into a sheaf. 
 Practice soon gives dexterity to the 
 reaper, and he finds it more expedi- 
 tious to cut small quantities in suc- 
 cession, until he has filled his hand, 
 than to attempt to cut through a large 
 handful at once. Severe wounds are 
 often inflicted on the fingers of the 
 left hand by beginners, even to the 
 loss of a finger ; but this soon makes 
 them cautious and expert. The di- 
 vision of labour is introduced with 
 advantage among a band of reapers. 
 A certain number cut the grain, while 
 others follow to gather the sheaves ; 
 some only preparing the bands, and 
 others tying them and setting up the 
 sheaves into stooks, or shocks, wiiich 
 usually consist of ten or twelve 
 sheaves. The smaller the sheaves 
 are, the less injury the grain sustains 
 in a wet harvest, as the moisture in 
 a thick sheaf does not so readily evap- 
 orate. Hence it is the interest of 
 the farmer to see that the reapers do 
 not make the sheaves too large. la 
 many places there is a regular meas- 
 ure ior the circumference of a sheaf, 
 which should never exceed thirty inch- 
 es. The bands are made by taking 
 two small handfuls of the cut grain 
 and crossing them just below the ears 
 into a knot. The sheaf is then press- 
 655 
 
REAPING. 
 
 ed with the knee, and tlie band drawn 
 tightly around it. The ends are 
 twisted together lilte a rope, and in- 
 serted under tiie band, wiiicli cfTect- 
 ually fastens it. This operation is 
 soon learned, and is done very rapid- 
 ly. The sheaves should be so tied 
 tliat there may be no danger of their 
 falling loose when pitehed into the 
 cart or slacked, without being so 
 tight as to prevent the moisture in 
 the straw from evaporating. They 
 should not be tied too near the ears, 
 but rather nearer to the butt. The 
 sheaves, when tied, are placed two 
 and two on the butt ends, with the 
 ears leaning against each other : 
 sometimes they are placed in a circle, 
 all the ears being together, and the 
 butts slanting outward: a sheaf is 
 then opened by inserting the hand 
 into the middle of the ears, and re- 
 versed over the tops of the preceding, 
 forming a cone, and covering all the 
 other ears, while it hangs down 
 around them. In this position they 
 will bear much rain without injury. 
 It is a good practice to place the 
 shocks across the furrows between 
 the stitches or lands, so as to allow 
 the air to circulate more freely around 
 them. In this case four or five sheaves 
 are placed in a row, leaning against 
 as many in a parallel row, and two 
 sheaves, being opened, are reversed 
 over them to protect the ears. "What- 
 ever be the mode adopted in reaping 
 the corn, the same kind of sheaves 
 are formed, and set up in shocks. 
 
 " Wherever the sickle is used for 
 reaping, the straw is cut at a certain 
 height from the ground, and the re- 
 mainder forms a long stubble, which 
 may be mown at leisure after har- 
 vest, and carried into the yard for 
 litter ; but in the neighbourhood of 
 large towns, where straw is sold at 
 a good price, or exchanged for sta- 
 ble dung, it is important that as much 
 as possible of it should be cut with 
 the grain. This has introduced the 
 practice called fagging. The instru- 
 ment used for this purpose partakes 
 of the nature of a scythe, as well as 
 of a reaping-hook. It is shaped like a 
 sickle, but is much larger and broad- 
 656 
 
 I er, and, instead of being indented like 
 a saw, it has a sharp edge like a 
 ; scythe, which is renewed when^blunt 
 by means of a stone or bat. The fag- 
 , ging-hook cuts the straw close to the 
 ground by a stroke of the hand ; and 
 j its curved form is only useful in col- 
 I lecting stray stems, and holding a 
 certain quantity of them between it 
 and the left hand of the reaper when 
 I he makes up a sheaf A certain 
 j quantity is cut towards the standing 
 j grain, the left hand pressing it down 
 I at the same time. When as much 
 ! is thus cut as would make half a 
 [ small sheaf, the reaper comes back- 
 ! ward, cutting in a direction at right 
 angles to the first, and rijlling togeth- 
 er the two parts, which he carries in 
 ! the bend of his hook and places on 
 the band which had been prepared 
 I for him. A full-sized sheaf is usu- 
 ally composed of two cuttings. Two 
 men will fully employ a third to make 
 bands for them, tie up the sheaves, 
 and set them up. This method of 
 reaping is laborious, on account of 
 the stooping required to cut near the 
 ground. The Hainhault scythe does 
 the work better, and with less f;itigue ; 
 it is, in fact, a fagging-hook, not quite 
 so curved, of which the handle is 
 longer, and placed at an angle with 
 the plane of the blade. It requires 
 some practice to give the proper 
 swing to it by a peculiar motion of 
 the wrist ; but when this is once ac- 
 quired, a considerable saving of la- 
 bour and time is efiected. A better 
 instrument, however, on extensive 
 farms, is the cradle-scythe, which, in 
 the hands of an expert mower, will 
 do more work, and more effectually 
 secure all the straw, than any other 
 instrument. 
 
 " The objection to the great barn 
 room required for so much straw is 
 obviated by the practice of stacking 
 the grain in the open air on proper 
 stands, to keep it dry and out of the 
 reach of vermin. The additional 
 trouble in thrashing is not so great 
 as that of mowing or raking the stub- 
 ble, which is generally deferred till 
 half of it is lost by decomposition by 
 the air and moisture. When the sa- 
 
REA 
 
 REA 
 
 ving of time is considered, as well as 
 the saving' of expense, there seems 
 to be no doubt that on an extensive 
 farm the scythe is far preferable to 
 the sickle for cutting every kind of 
 grain. Barley and oats are usually 
 mown and carried without tying them 
 into sheaves ; but tliis is a slovenly 
 and wasteful practice : by means of 
 the cradle-scythe they may be mown 
 so regularly as to be readily tied into 
 sheaves ; and the additional expense 
 will be fully compensated by the sa- 
 ving of all the grain which, being on 
 the outside of the stack, is lost by 
 the depredations of small birds. 
 
 " Beans are usually reaped by the 
 sickle, the stems being too strong 
 and too wide apart to admit of the 
 scythe. Where it can be done con- 
 veniently, without the soil adhering 
 too niucii to the roots, it is better to 
 pull them up and tie them in bun- 
 dles with straw bands, or twine, which 
 will be found both a convenient and 
 economical method. 
 
 " Pease are generally reaped by 
 means of two large hooks similar to 
 the fagging hooks, one of which is 
 held iu each hand ; and the stems, 
 which are generally much interwo- 
 ven, are partly cut and partly torn 
 from the roots, and so rolled up into 
 a small bundle laid loose, in order that 
 
 it may dry. Tares are reaped in the 
 same way. 
 
 " There have been many attempts 
 to introduce machinery for reaping. 
 Some of the inventions were inge- 
 nious and promised well, but none, 
 when put to the test, answered the 
 expectations formed, 'i'he various 
 inchnalions of the straws prevent any 
 regular mode of cutting. The prin- 
 ciple of most reaping machines is that 
 of a revolving edge to cut the straw, 
 and a drum to lay the cut grain down 
 regularly. Whenever tiie grain is 
 laid or lodged, it is evident that no 
 machine can collect straws lying in 
 every imaginable direction and inter- 
 woven with each other. Till some 
 better invention appears, the scythe 
 will probably be found the cheapest 
 and most expeditious instrument for 
 reaping." — ( W. L. Rham.) 
 
 REAPING HOOK. See Reaping. 
 
 REAPING MACHINE. Several 
 patents have been taken for machines 
 to cut grass and grain crops. One of 
 these, which promised much, is the 
 invention of ^Ir. Smith, of Deanston, 
 and has been modified and patented 
 by Mr. Wilson in the United States. 
 The original machine is figured be- 
 low. They have given satisfaction 
 on smooth meadow lands. 
 
 Mr. Hussey's reaping machine is 
 
 
 
 
 an admirable and durable implement. I from several committees, and is used 
 Ithasmet with considerable applause I in Delaware, Virginia, and other 
 
 657 
 
REC 
 
 RED 
 
 states. The grain is cut by an ar- 
 rangement of knives, acting in a way 
 nearly resomliling scissors. Tiie pri- 
 ces are SlOO and SITjO. It cuts irom 
 fifteen to twenty acres per day. See 
 Fig. 2. 
 Mr. M'Cormick's reaping machine 
 
 has been ii.sed with success on the flat 
 hinds of the James River. It costs 
 SlOO. 
 
 Mr. Carpenter, of Caledonia, New- 
 York, is also the inventor of a ma- 
 chine for reaping and thrashing grain : 
 it is said to finish fifteen acres a day 
 
 •with the help of one man to drive, 
 and one man to tend the machine. 
 Cost, .$600. 
 
 Mr. Esterly, of Heart Prairie, Wis- 
 consin, has recently patented a har- 
 vesting machine for reaping the heads 
 of wheat, barley, rye, and timothy: it 
 is warratited to cut twenty-five acres 
 a day of wheat, and requires two men, 
 a boy, and three horses. It is highly 
 recommended by those who have 
 seen it in action, and the State Agri- 
 cultural Society, at their fair in 18-14, 
 awarded the inventor an extra pre- 
 mium for it. AVe believe this to be 
 a machine of great promise. 
 
 REBATE. The groove sunk on 
 the edge of any building material. 
 
 RECEPTACLE. In botany, has 
 four different significations: 1. That 
 part of a flower upon which the car- 
 pella are situated ; or, in other words, 
 the extremity of the fruit stalk. 2. 
 The axis of the theca of Trichomancs 
 and Hymcnophylliim, among ferns. 3. 
 That part of tiie ovarium from which 
 the ovula ari.se, and which is com- 
 monly called the placenta. And, 4. 
 658 
 
 That part of the axis of a plant which 
 bears the flowers when it is depress- 
 ed in its development ; so that, in- 
 stead of being elongated into a stem, 
 it forms a flattened area, upon which 
 the flowers are arranged, as in com- 
 positfe. 
 
 RECTIFICATION. A second 
 distillation. 
 
 RECTRICES. The tail feathers 
 of a bird. 
 
 RECTUM. The lowest intestine, 
 ending in the anus. 
 
 RECUMBENT. Leaning down. 
 
 REDB.\Y. An indigenous South- 
 ern laurel, the Laurus Camlinciisis : 
 it is an evergreen of 10 to 25 feet. 
 
 REDDLE, or RUDDLE. A red 
 aluminous marking stone. 
 
 RED GUM. A kind of blight which 
 affects grain. 
 
 RED LIQUOR. Crude pyrolignate 
 of alumina, used in dyeing as a mor- 
 dant. 
 
 RED-LEAD. A mixture of the 
 protoxide and peroxide of lead, used 
 as a paint. 
 
 RED ROOT. A name given lo 
 
RES 
 
 some dozen (lifTerent plants with red- 
 dish-coloured roots. 
 
 RED SPIDER, PLANT MITE. 
 Acarius tflarius. A sinall red insect 
 which spins a uel, and lives on the 
 juices of many phmts and trees, at- 
 lachinjr itself to the lower side of the 
 leaf. It is especially injurious to hot- 
 houses. They are destroyed by fre- 
 quent syringing with cold water, by 
 fumigations and washes of whale-oil 
 soap and water. 
 
 RED TOP. A name sometimes 
 given to herd's grass, and also to a dry 
 perennial grass of the Middle States 
 {Tricuspis) of little or no value. 
 
 RED WATER. A disease of cat- 
 tle. See Ox. 
 
 RED WORM. An old name for 
 the wire-worm. 
 
 REED. The gem--^ Arando, tall, 
 aquatic, and bogsj grasses. They 
 may be destrov^u by draining the 
 soil, bv limin? ind ashes. The soil 
 is usually xnj fertile. 
 
 REED -ltR.VSS. Canary grass. 
 REF-^ECTIOX. The throwing 
 back jf the rays of heat or light by a 
 po'.shed surface or mirror. 
 
 REFLEXED. Bent back, turned 
 back. 
 
 REFRACTION. The action ex- 
 erted by water, glass, and all trans- 
 parent bodies of changing the direc- 
 tion of rays of light, so as to make 
 them appear bent. 
 
 RE.MIGES. The quill feathers of 
 birds. 
 
 REMIPES. An order of coleop- 
 terous insects wliich are capable of 
 swimming. 
 
 REMITTENT FEVERS. Fevers 
 ■which are subject to periodical par- 
 oxysms, as the ague, bilious fever, &c. 
 ilENAL. Relating to the kidneys. 
 RENIFORM. Kidney-shaped, of 
 the shape of a kidney bean. 
 RENNET. See Cheese. 
 REPENT. Running . on the 
 gr(umd. 
 
 REPTILIA. Cold-blooded verte- 
 brate animals, as snakes, tortoises, 
 IroL's, lizards, &c. 
 
 RKSlN. An inflammable product 
 of the vegetable kingdom, rich in car- 
 bon and hydrogen, soluble m alcohol, 
 
 RET 
 
 but insoluble in water. There are a 
 great number of species, some of 
 which are evidently oxidyzed oils. 
 They are used in varnishes. 
 
 RESERVOIR. A tank or artificial 
 excavation to hold water. 
 
 RESOLUTION. In farriery, the 
 discussion or dispersion of inflamma- 
 tory gatherings or abscesses, by ap- 
 plying leeches and other means. 
 
 K E S P I R A T I O N . The act of 
 breathing. It is accomplished by the 
 movements of the diaphragm and 
 muscles of the chest. Atmospheric 
 air passing into the lungs is changed, 
 oxygen being separated from it and 
 absorbed into the blood, and four per 
 cent, of carbonic acid thrown out. 
 Water also passes ofT from the lungs. 
 By these changes heat is produced. 
 The etTect of respiration is to alter 
 the colour of the blood from black to 
 bright red ; it is at the commence- 
 ment of life, and any interruption of 
 the function is rapidly fatal. 
 
 REST HARROW. Ononis, a 
 pricklv shrub. 
 
 RETE .MUCOSUM. The part of 
 the skin immediately below the scarf- 
 skin (epidermis). 
 
 RETIARIES. Spiders which spin 
 w"ebs. 
 
 RETICULATE. Like a net. 
 RETICULU.M. The honey-comb 
 bag of ruminants. See Ox. 
 
 RETINA. The nervous layer at 
 the back of the eye which receives 
 the images of things. 
 
 RETORT. A chemical vessel em- 
 ployed in a variety of distillations. 
 It is generally made of glass or earth- 
 en-ware, and sometimes is provided 
 with a stopper so placed above the bulb 
 as to enable substances to be intro- 
 duced into it without soiling the neck.; 
 in this case it is called a tubulated 
 retort. A receiver is usually annexed 
 to it for the purpose of collecting the 
 products of distillation. Fig. 1 rep- 
 
 (J— 
 
 659 
 
RHU 
 
 resents a plain retort and receiver ; in 
 Fiff. 2, both are tiihulatcil. — (Bninilc.) 
 KEVEllBEilATUUV FL" KNACK 
 A funiace witii an arclu.d roof over 
 the fire, so that tiie llaiue and heat 
 may be reflected and a hijjh temper- 
 ature obtained. 
 
 REVOLIITE. Rolled backward. 
 
 RHAPON'TICIN and 11 H E I N. 
 Substances obtained from the roots 
 of rhubarb. 
 
 RHEL'MATISM. A nervous dis- 
 ease, sometimes attended wiih in- 
 flammation of the fibrous membranes 
 and swelUns of the joints. 
 
 RHIPIPTERANS. An order of 
 insects, the Slrepsiptcra. 
 
 RHIZANTHS, RHIZANTH.E. A 
 small order of plants resembUng fun- 
 gi, but having sexes. 
 
 RHIZOMA. A root stock like that 
 of the flasT. 
 
 RHODIUM. A rare metal, of great 
 hardness, found in some of the platina 
 ores. 
 
 RHODODENDRON. A genus of 
 handsome flowering shrubs ; they are 
 hardy, and prefer a peat soil. 
 
 RHUBARB. Plants of the genus 
 Rheum, hardy, perennial, and large 
 herbs of the same family as the Docks. 
 The leaf stalks of several species, 
 which grow two feet and more in 
 length, are much used as a substitute 
 for gooseberries ; preserves are also 
 made of them, and even a wine of 
 F(>. 1. 
 
 RHU 
 
 their juice, which is said to resemble 
 the best gooseberry wine. 
 
 The edit)le kinds are Buck's new 
 scarlet, of a deep red ; the Tobolsk, 
 whicli is the earliest ; the Goliath and 
 Admiral, of great size ; Elfort, giant, 
 \A'ilmofs early red ; jMyatfs Victoria, 
 of the largest size ; and the Austra- 
 lian, which is of the flavour of apples 
 and yields stems nearly the wliolo 
 summer. These are varieties of the 
 Rkcum rhapo7ilicum, u/ululntum, and 
 Einodi {Auslrak) (F(>. 1). They also 
 yield medicinal rhubarb when the 
 roots are allowed to remain from four 
 lu bcn-en years. But the species 
 whi«h produces the best European 
 rhubai'i is the R. palmalum {Fig. 2). 
 Fxg. 2. 
 
 The source of the Chinese drug is 
 unknown. 
 
 Cultivation. — " The soil best suit- 
 ed to these plants is one that is light, 
 rich, deep, and moderately moist. A 
 poor, heavy, or shallow soil never 
 produces them in pertection. 
 
 " It may be propagated by cuttings, 
 but the mode almost universally prac- 
 tised is by seed. This should he 
 sown soon after it is ripe, in Septem- 
 ber or October, for if kept out of the 
 ground until the spring, it will often 
 continue dormant for twelve months ; 
 if the danger of this, however, is 
 risked, it must be inserted early in 
 February or March. The seeds are 
 best inserted in drills three feet apart, 
 and an inch deep, the plants to re- 
 main where raised ; lor although 
 thev will boar removing, yet it al- 
 
 660 
 
RHU 
 
 RIC 
 
 Tvays checks and somewhat lessens 
 theirgiowth. When they make their 
 appearance in the spring, and have 
 been tlioroiighly cleared of weeds, 
 they may be thinned to six or eight 
 inches asunder, and the surtace ol" 
 the ground about tlieni loosened witii 
 the iioe. Towards the conclusion ol' 
 summer, when it can be determined 
 which are the strongest plants, they 
 must be finally thinned to three or 
 four feet, or the hybrid to six. They 
 nmst be continually kept clear of 
 weeds. In autumn, when the leaves 
 decay, they are ren^oved, and the bed 
 being gently turned ovf;r, a little well- 
 putrefied stable dimgadded,and some 
 of the earth applied over the stools. 
 In the spring, the bed may be again 
 (lug, previous to the plants making 
 their appearance ; and as the stalks, 
 when blanched, are much less harsh 
 in taste, require less sugar to be ren- 
 dered palatable, and are greatly im- 
 proved in appearance, at this period 
 a trench may be dug between the 
 rows, and tlie carih from it laid about 
 a foot, thick over the stool. This 
 covering must be removed when the 
 cutting ceases, and the plants allow- 
 ed to grow at liberty. As the earth 
 in wet seasons is apt to induce de- 
 cay, the covering may be advanta- 
 geously formed of coal ashes or drift 
 sand, which are much less retentive 
 of moisture. Those plants produce 
 the seed in greatest perfection that 
 are not gathered from, but on no ac- 
 count must they be subjected to the 
 process of blanching." 
 
 The stems may be forced very 
 readily by covering them with barrels 
 or hand frames, and surrounding the 
 outside by fermenting horse dung. 
 
 When the roots are wanted, the 
 stalks should not be removed to any 
 great extent ; the soil is to be thor- 
 oughly loosened about the plants, 
 once a year at least, by spading or 
 trenching. They are taken up at six 
 years, in the autumn, cleaned, scra- 
 ped, and hung on strings to dry in the 
 sun ; a hole is often bored through 
 the centre of the large roots for this 
 purpose ; the young roots are reject- 
 ed. They are also dried, in part, by 
 Kk K 
 
 exposure to heat upon slabs of stone, 
 and the large roots cut into slices. 
 The process must be perfectly ac- 
 complished, and often requires sev- 
 eral months ; the loss by drying is 
 four fifths of the weight. 
 
 RHL'S. A genus of shrubs, some 
 of which are ot economical value, as 
 the R. conaria, which yields much 
 tannin, and i,s used for dyeing and 
 making leather ; the R. glabra, which 
 is a very common indigenous plant, 
 is also useful in tanning ; the poison 
 oak [R. loxicodcnilrou), poison sumach 
 {R. vcrnix), poison vine {R. rudicans 
 and R. pumila), are all remarkable 
 for their poisonous juice and exhala- 
 tions. See Poixon Oak. 
 
 RIBAND GRASS. Canary grass, 
 and the striped leafed Phalaris ; sown 
 as an ornament in gardens. 
 
 RIB GRASS. A name for the 
 plantain {Flantago major). 
 
 RIBS. The curved hones attach- 
 ed to the vertebraj behind ; those 
 which meet at the chest and are ar- 
 ticulated to the sternum are called 
 true ribs ; those whose extremities 
 are only furnished with cartilage are 
 the false ribs. In building, curved 
 timbers ibr roofing 
 
 RICE. Plants of the genus Ory- 
 za, especially the O. 
 satiL-a {Fig.), or wa- 
 ter rice, cultivated 
 in South Carolina 
 and other Southern 
 and Southwestern 
 States. In India 
 and Africa several 
 mountain or dry spe- 
 cies are cultivated, 
 as the 0. mutica, but 
 they are much small- 
 er and yield less than 
 the aquatic kinds. 
 The cultivation in 
 South Carolina is 
 very successful on 
 rich river bottoms, 
 the yield being forty 
 bushels or more the 
 acre, and one hand 
 managing five acres. 
 The process is well 
 described by a successful planter. 
 661 
 
RIC 
 
 RIC 
 
 *' Begin to plant about the SSth of 
 March, trencli sliallow and wide, and 
 scatter the seed in tiie row ; make 
 72 or 75 rows in a tasit, and sow two 
 bushels to an acre. 
 
 " Hoe altdut tlie end of April or be- 
 ginning of May, wiien the rice is in 
 llie fourth leaf; then flood, and clear 
 the field of trash. If the planting be 
 Lite, and yon are likely to be in grass, 
 flood helore hoeing ; but hoeing first 
 is preferable. The best depth to flood 
 is three or four inches. It is a good 
 mark to see the tops of the rice just 
 out of the water ; the deep places are 
 not to be regarded : the rice will grow 
 through in three or four days. Ob- 
 serve to make a notch on the frame 
 of the trunk when the water is at a 
 proper depth ; if the rains raise the 
 water above the notch, or it leaks 
 out, add or let off accordingly. This 
 is done by putting a small stick in the 
 door of the trunk, al)out an inch in 
 diameter: if scum or froth appear in 
 eight or ten days, freshen the water, 
 take off the trunk doors, run off 
 th© water with one ebb, and take in 
 the next flood ; then regulate as be- 
 fore. Keep the water on al)Out fif- 
 teen or seventeen days, according to 
 the state oi' the weather ; that is, if 
 a hot sun, lifteen days, if cool and 
 cloudy, seventeen days, counting from 
 the day the field is flooded ; then leak 
 
 I ofC with a small stick for two days ; 
 , then run off the whole, and keep the 
 , field dry. In four or five days after, 
 hoe the second time, stir the ground, 
 whether clean or not, and comb up 
 the fallen rice wiih the fingers. Keep 
 dry and hoe through the field. Hoe 
 the third time and pick clean. Tliis 
 will be about the beginning of July. 
 Then flood as you hoe. Let the wa- 
 ter be tbe same depth as before. If 
 any grass has escaped, it must be 
 picked in the water after it shoots 
 out. This is called the fourth hoe- 
 ing, but the hoe is never used except 
 for some high places, or to clean the 
 dams. If the rice is flaggy and like- 
 ly to lodge, flood deep to support it, 
 and keep it on until fit to harvest." 
 
 Most of the rice exported is in the 
 form of -paddy, or cleaned ; the hull- 
 ing is readily accomplished by grain 
 cleaners. 
 
 The Chemical Compositinn. — The 
 grain of rice has been examined by 
 Braconnot and others. It consists of 
 85 starch, 3 6 gluten, and 013 fat 
 per cent. From this composilion we 
 are at no loss to account for its infe- 
 riority as an article of food ; indeed, 
 the parts removed by cleaning the 
 chit or germ are much the richest 
 portion. The ashes of the grain, 
 chaff, and straw have been determin- 
 ed i)y Professor Shephard per cent. : 
 
 P!iiis|>hate ol liiiu! .... 
 Phospliate of ptjtasli (nearly) . 
 
 Silica (nearly) 
 
 Sulphate of |iotash .... 
 Chloride of potassium and loss 
 Carbonate of lime .... 
 Carbonate of magnesia . . . 
 Potash from tbe silicate . . 
 
 lie clean grail 
 )-^ per ceuL 
 
 Cl.alC, 
 
 13'7 per cent. 
 
 ash. 
 
 7(i 20 
 5-flO 
 
 ao-oo 
 
 traces. 
 
 , 1-024 
 trace. 
 97-55 
 trace. 
 1-13 
 029 
 
 200 
 trace. 
 
 84-75 
 
 2-56 
 200 
 
 RICE WEEVIL. Callandra ury- 
 za.. An insect very similar to the 
 grain weevil, and which produces 
 much destruction in crops of rice and 
 wheat at the South : it is destroyed 
 by kiln-drying the grain. 
 
 RICE, WILD, or WATER. Zi- 
 zanea aqnaiica, imlwcca, and fluitans. 
 Indian rice. It grow's in the margins 
 of lakes and rivers The aqualica is 
 large and abundant in the Middle 
 Western States, and was much used 
 G62 
 
 by the Indians and early French set- 
 tlers, and called by them Folic avome. 
 The Indians collected the grain by- 
 first tying the fruit stems in bundles, 
 and when they became dry, they pass- 
 ed through the plants in canoes, and, 
 bending over the heads, beat the 
 seeds from them into a blanket pla- 
 ced in their canoes. 
 
 RICINIC ACID. An oily acid, 
 produc;ed by distilling castor oil at a 
 high temperature. 
 
RIS 
 
 ROA 
 
 RICK. A stack. 
 
 RIDDLE. A coarse sieve to sep- 
 arate grain tVom dust, &c. 
 
 RIDGE, "riie upper timber in a 
 roof, against which the rafters pitch. 
 
 RIDGING. Laying up the soil in 
 narrow ridges. 
 
 RIDGLLXG. A male animal half 
 castrated. They are troublesome, 
 iseless creatures. 
 
 RIGGIL. An imperfect sheep. 
 
 RIME. Frost. 
 
 RI.VIOSE. Resembling the broken 
 ippearance of the bark of old trees. 
 
 RING BONE. In farriery, a Cal- 
 ais growing in the hollow circle of 
 -belittle pastern of a horse, just above 
 the coronet. 
 
 RINGING. An operation in hor- 
 ticulture : cutting out a ring of bark 
 down to the new wood, but not into 
 it, for the purpose of making a luxu- 
 riant branch fruitful. It arrests the 
 descent of the elaborated sap, and 
 swells out the flower buds. It is 
 done in spring. When the wound is 
 •nade into or through the new wood, 
 the tree is killed, and this plan is pur- 
 sued in forests to kill them prepara- 
 tory to burnmg. Roots are also cut 
 into or ringed for the purpose of 
 throwing out new, healthy shoots. 
 The width of the wound when fruit 
 is wanted should not be great, and it 
 i,s well to leave a part of the bark un- 
 cut, by which the place heals over 
 more rapidly. Fruit has been doubled 
 in size and much improved in flavour 
 by this process. 
 
 RINGENT. Grinning. A name 
 given to the personate corolla, as in 
 the genus Anlirrhinum, 
 
 RINGS, FAIRY. Rings of green 
 grass, enclosing a less fertile spot : 
 they are produced by the growth and 
 decay of fungi, the green grass ap- 
 pearing where the fungi have just 
 died. 
 
 RIPPLE GRASS. The smaller 
 plantain. 
 
 RIPPLING FLAX. Separating 
 the seeds by beating the plants against 
 a board, or other contrivance. 
 
 RISTLE PLOUGH. A paring 
 plough for cutting turfs and the roots 
 of heath or other shrubs. 
 
 RIVOSE. A surface marked with 
 irregular furrows. 
 
 ROADS. In the construction of 
 good, durable roads, the following 
 points are to be attended to : 
 
 ''■Drainage. — All exertion to con- 
 struct or repair roads is considered 
 unavailing until the bed of the road is 
 freed from water, and secured against 
 its return. Of what service can stone 
 be when the road is immersed in wa- 
 ter ! To correct and prevent a re- 
 currence of the evil, sub.stantial ditch- 
 es should be opened, so as to give a 
 slope of one inch in twenty-four be- 
 tween the crowns of the road and 
 bottoms. If open drains cannot be 
 made on both sides, owing to the de- 
 clivity of the surface, under drains 
 should be constructed, with outlets, 
 through the bed of the road to the 
 lower side ; and if springs exist in 
 the site of the road, their water must 
 be concentrated and conducted off 
 by under drains. "When a particular 
 piece of road is observed to be con- 
 tinually heavy, and in a bad state, it 
 is either caused by spring water, or 
 is situated in a Hat, from which the 
 water cannot escape. These sug- 
 gestion should not be lost to us. A. 
 principal defect in our roads is the 
 want of efficient drainage. Wherever 
 water is permitted to remain, either 
 upon the surtace or substratum, in 
 wet seasons there will be a slough, 
 and the bed of the road will be en- 
 tirely broken up. 
 
 " Tke substance or thickness of Ma- 
 terials. — Without a sufficient depth 
 of consolidated materials, there will 
 not be a resistance equal to the weight 
 which a highway is subject to. There 
 must be weight to resist weight. If 
 the weight of metal forming the sub- 
 stance be of an imperfect quality, 
 more will be required than when 
 sound and clean. In proportion to 
 the quantity of deleterious matter 
 contained in the body (as earth, small 
 gravel, soft stone, &c.) must the thick- 
 ness be increased. Any matter that 
 is not of a sound nature has no pow- 
 er in road making, and therefore 
 the hard materials alone contained 
 iu the roads can be calculated upon 
 663 
 
ROA 
 
 ROC 
 
 as possessinp the quality to resist 
 ivoijjhts. Exporicnce lias tiiimht that 
 there can he no real security a<^ainst 
 a road giviu;^ way, takiiijr the year 
 throii^'h, unless l~ inches at least of 
 good consolidated materials form the 
 body of a road, and this upon a found- 
 ation rendered sound and diy by ef- 
 fectual drainaije. 
 
 " Sort of Materials. — Not the hard- 
 est, but the tounlti:st stones, are the 
 best : the first will break, the latter 
 bend. The trappean and basaltic 
 rocks are therefore preferred ; then 
 whinstone, dark-coloured granite, and 
 limestones. 
 
 " Preparation and, size of Materials. 
 — The stone to he employed is first 
 freed from dirt, and then broken so 
 small as to pass through the inch 
 meshes of a wire sieve. Some al- 
 low the stones to retain the size of 
 two inches, but none larger. The 
 tougher the nature of the material, 
 the smaller the size should be. 
 
 " Quantity of Materials to be laid on 
 at a Tunc. — \\'hen a thick coat is laid 
 on, the destruction of the material is 
 very great before it becomes settled 
 or incorporated with the road. The 
 stones will not allow each other to 
 lie quiet, hut are continually elbowing 
 one another, and driving their neigh- 
 bours to the left and right, above and 
 below. This wears off their angular 
 points, produces mud and dirt, and 
 reduces the stones to an angular 
 form, and prevents their uniting and 
 becoming lirm. If there be substance 
 enough already on the road, it will 
 never be right to put on more than a 
 stone's thickness at a time. A cubic 
 yard, nicely prepared and broken, to 
 a rod superficial, will be quite enough 
 for a coat, and will be found to last 
 as long as double the quantity put on 
 unprepared and in thick layers. There 
 is no grinding to pieces when thus 
 applied ; the angles are preserved, 
 and the materials are out of sight 
 and incorporated in a very little time. 
 Each stone becomes fixed directly, 
 and keeps its place, thereby escaping 
 the wear and fretting which occur 
 when they are applied in a thick stra- 
 tum. On new roads, the covering 
 664 
 
 ' should be applied in tliin coats. As 
 soon as one is imbedded, apply anoth- 
 er, until the desired power isobiained. 
 j "To say nothing of the saving in 
 a course of years by the durability 
 of a road formed under the new sys- 
 tem, and which has been found in 
 some cases, even where the traffic is 
 considerable, by the side of a large 
 town, to last for seven years without 
 an additional stone being applied ; to 
 say nothing of the saving to the public 
 in wear and tear of horses, carts, and 
 tackle ; to say nothing of the comfort 
 of travelling a smooth road, and also to 
 say nothing of employment found for 
 the poor, yet a road can be maintain- 
 ed good and perfect for half the sum un- 
 der the new system, which under the 
 old is expended without improvement. 
 
 " Spreading. — Cause the load to be 
 shot down a short distance from the 
 place upon which you wish the ma- 
 terials to be finally spread, and direct 
 the spreader to cast every shovelful 
 from him equally all over the sur- 
 face, and in such a manner as he 
 would do if he were sowing wheat 
 broad cast. The road will then he 
 not thicker in one place than anoth- 
 er, and a section will be produced per- 
 fect and true. 
 
 " Scraping. — If it is desirable to 
 keep a road dry at the foundation, it 
 must be equally so at the surface," 
 
 ROARING. A disease in horses 
 called broken wind. It is the result 
 of injury to the cells of the lungs, 
 brought on by too violent exercise, 
 especially after meals. 
 
 ROCHAMBOLE. Allium scorodo- 
 prasum. ".Spanish garlic. It has bulbs 
 or cloves growing in a cluster, form- 
 ing a kind of compound root. The 
 stem bears many bulbs at its sum- 
 mit, which, as well as those of the 
 root, are often preferred in cooking 
 to garlic, being of much milder fla- 
 vour. It is best propagated by the 
 root bulbs, those of the stem being 
 slower in production. The planta- 
 tion may be made either in March or 
 the early part of April, as well as 
 throughout the autunm. They may 
 be inserted either in drills or by the 
 dibble, in rows six inches apart each 
 
ROD 
 
 way, and usually two inches within 
 the ground, but thrive better if grown 
 on the surface. A very small bed is 
 sutficient for the supply of the largest 
 fainilv" 
 
 ROCHELLE SALT. Tartrate of 
 soda and potassa ; used as a gentle 
 purgative. 
 
 ROCK CRYSTAL. Transparent 
 quartz. 
 
 ROCK SAI>T. The coarse native 
 salt, found in immense masses in 
 some parts of the globe. It consists 
 of salt chiefly, but adulterated with 
 chloride ofcaloium,gvpsum, and marl. 
 
 ROD. The same as a pole, 16^ feet. 
 Four of these make Cunter's chain. 
 
 RODENTS, RODEXTIA. Gnaw- 
 ing quadrupeds, with two long chisel 
 
 ROL 
 
 [ teeth in the front of either jaw. Rats, 
 ' rabbits, and squirrels are of this 
 ! class. 
 
 ROE STONE. Oolite, rocks the 
 structure of which is made of small 
 rounded particles. 
 
 ROLLERS. Rounded logs, or cyl- 
 inders of iron or stone turning on an 
 axis, and capable of being drawn by 
 hand or horses. They are of great 
 service in levelling the surface of 
 fields and breaking lumps. On loose 
 soils they compress the earth and 
 render it more fertile, and are much 
 used to imbed small seeds and run 
 over grass. The common roller is 
 no more than a heavy log, but nu- 
 merous varieties have l)een proposed. 
 The improved kinds (see Ftg. 1) are 
 
 constructed of iron, in two or more 
 pieces, so as to run over two lands, 
 the horse walking in the ditch, or 
 central furrow. They also carry a 
 
 i6 
 
 wooden frame for rocks, so as to be 
 
 weighted according to circumstances. 
 
 Instead of the frame for weights, 
 
 or in addition to it, a box (a) is some- 
 
 K K K 2 
 
 666 
 
KOO 
 
 times attached, for the purpose of 
 waterintif or sprinkling fluid inannros 
 over liie young plat)ls. As tht-y arc 
 roiled, the man who leads the horse 
 manages the watering by a string at- 
 tached to the end of the lever (b), 
 
 ROO 
 
 ■which, being raised, lets the fluid out 
 througli the small holes (c). The 
 cylinder, or roller, is also set with 
 scarifiers and other contrivances for 
 cutting or crushing the sod, as in the 
 clod crusher {Fig. 3) In some imple- 
 
 ments the roller is of a conical form, 
 or of the figure of two cones, united 
 at their bases for the purpose of run- 
 ning between furrows or ridges ; they 
 are also made of a series of separate 
 rings or wheels which run between 
 drills {drill rollers), and may be used 
 in marking the ground before sowing 
 seeds 
 
 ROMAN VITRIOL. Blue vitriol, 
 sulphate of copper. 
 
 ROOD. A square measure, equal to 
 40 perches or square poles. The 
 fourth part of an acre. 
 
 ROOF. The covering of a build- 
 ing. The pitch, or inclination, should 
 be much greater in northern posi- 
 tions than at the south, since snow 
 and rains tend to rot the timbers 
 more rapidly. Those which are cov- 
 ered with shingles must also be 
 more pitched than those of slate or 
 metal. 
 
 " A roof, as respects its construc- 
 tion, involves some knowledge of 
 mathematics Of the general princi- 
 ples on which its proper construction 
 666 
 
 depends, we shall here subjoin some 
 account. The obvious mode of cov- 
 ering a building, where a greater or 
 lesser inclination of the sicies of the 
 roof is required by the climate, is to 
 place two sloping rafters, C C, upon 
 the walls, B B, as in 
 the subjoined diagram 
 {Fig-. 1), meeting at 
 the apex, A , where we 
 will suppose them so 
 connected with a 
 hinge as to be insep- 
 arable, but capable of f)^ 
 descending by their \, 
 gravity, as shown in \ i 
 
 No. 2. The walls are \| 
 
 considered as solid '•'' 
 
 masses, moveable on points. P. If 
 the walls be not of sufficient \veight, 
 the thrust that will be thus exerted 
 on them by the tendency of the raf- 
 ters to spread at their feet will throw 
 the walls out of an upright, as in No. 
 2, and the whole assemblage will be 
 destroyed. By the laws of mechan- 
 ics, it is known that the horizontal 
 
ROO 
 
 ROO 
 
 thrust thus acting on the walls is 
 proportional to tho length of a line, 
 d, e, drawn at right angles to the raf- 
 ter, intersecting a vertical line drawn 
 from the apex, which it is manifest 
 must increase as the roof becomes 
 flatter. To counteract the thrust above 
 mentioned, notlimg more is necessa- 
 ry than to tie together the feet of the 
 rafters, as in the following diagram 
 {Fig. 2), in which A B is the tie in 
 Fiff.2. question, and tlience 
 
 is called a tic-bcam. If 
 B the extent be not very 
 great, the rafters may 
 be kept from spreading by a minor 
 tie, as at a b, called a collar. Beyond 
 certain lengths or spans, however, it 
 will occur to the reader that a tie- 
 beam will itself have a tendency to 
 bend, or sag, as the workmen call it, 
 in the middle ; and from this circum- 
 stance a fresh contrivance becomes 
 necessary, which will be seen in the 
 annexed diagram {Fig. 3), marked c 
 Fig. 3. d : this is called a king- 
 ^^i^^fi^^ ;)os^ or, more properly, 
 f^^^u^^^ king-piece, inasmuch as 
 II it does not perform the 
 office of a post, but rather of a tie, 
 for it ties up the beam to prevent its 
 bending. If the rafters be so long as 
 to be liable to bend, two pieces, a, a, 
 called seru/s, are introduced, which, 
 havmg their footing against the sides 
 of the king-post, act as posts to sup- 
 port or siiui tip the rafters at their 
 weakest point The piece of framing 
 thus contrived is altogether called a 
 truss. It is obvious that by means of 
 the upper joints of the struts we ob- 
 tain more points of support (Fig. 4), 
 Fig. 4. or, rather, suspen- 
 
 ^^isi|p:^5^^_^ sion ; and that but 
 ^^s^^y^^^^^^ for the compres- 
 3 ii sibility of the tim- 
 
 beV, there would be no limit to the 
 space which a roof might be made 
 to cover. This compressibility takes 
 place at those points where the fibres 
 of the wood are pressed at right an- 
 gles, or nearly so, with their direc- 
 tion ; and many ways are adopted for 
 avoiding this inconvenience. There 
 is a species of roof, dependant in con- 
 struction on the principles we have 
 
 just described, which we jshall here 
 briefly notice, and whereof the fol- 
 lowing is a diagram {/"/(T. 5). This 
 roof has three Fig. 5. 
 
 points of support. 
 A,B, A; the posts 
 A A, A A are call- 
 ed queen-posts ; the collar, A B A, is 
 here a slrainutg piece, instead of a 
 tic, as it was in the example of ties 
 first noticed, its operation being ex- 
 actly the reverse of a tie. The curb 
 or mansard roof is one in which a 
 story is obtained, as may be seen in 
 the annexed diagram {Fig. 6). Its 
 principles a~re the same 
 as those already men- 
 tioned, and do not here 
 require farther notice. 
 In the execution of ' 
 roofs the expense of trussing every 
 pair of rafters would be unneces- 
 sary, and the practice would also load 
 the walls with a far greater weight 
 than would be expedient ; it is there- 
 fore the custom to place these prin- 
 cipal parts of a roof at certain inter- 
 vals, which, however, should never 
 exceed ten feet. The rafters which 
 are actually trussed are called princi- 
 pal rafters ; and by the intervention 
 of the purline. A, in the diagvam{Fig. 
 7), are made to Fi^.~. 
 
 bear the smaller 
 or common raf- 
 ters, which are 
 notched down on 
 it. These common rafters are re- 
 ceived by, or pitch upon a plate, B, 
 called a pole-plate ; and the principal 
 rafters, which fall on the tie-beam, are 
 ultimately borne by the wall-plate, C. 
 When beams in either roofs or floors 
 are so long that they cannot be pro- 
 cured in one piece, two p^^ g 
 pieces, to form the requi- . — r ^ — i 
 red length, are sfar/c(/ to- ' J}^ z^ 
 gether by indenting them ' i ^ -^ 
 at their joints, and bolting them to- 
 gether, of which practice two modes 
 are here subjoined {Fig. 8)." 
 
 ROOK. Corvus frugilegus. The 
 gregarious crow, almost domesticated 
 in England in rookeries. They live, 
 for the most part, on insects. The 
 young are sometimes eaten. 
 
 667 
 
ROS 
 
 ROT 
 
 ROOT. " That part of the central 
 axis of a plant uhifh is formed l)y 
 the dt'sccniJing (il)ros, and whose 
 function is to attract liquid food from 
 the soil in which it is mingled. It 
 differs from the stem in not having 
 leaves or buds upon its surface, and 
 in its tendency to burrow under 
 ground, retreating from light ; nev- 
 ertheless, some kinds of roots are ex- 
 clusively formed in air and light, as 
 in the ivy, and other such plants." 
 
 Roots are of various figures, as 
 fibrous ; spindle, as in the radisli ; 
 knotted, &c. The rhizome of the 
 flag and the tuber of the potato are 
 not roots, but subterranean stems. 
 The cormus of palms and aroidaj is a 
 mere expansion of tissue, which is 
 neither a root nor stem. 
 
 ROOT CROPS. Crops of beets, 
 turnips, carrots, &c. 
 
 ROOT STOCK. The rhizome of 
 the flag, ginger, arrow-root. 
 
 ROSACE-E. "A large and im- 
 portant natural order of plants, the 
 species of which are, for the most 
 part, inhabitants of the cooler parts 
 of the world. They are in some ca- 
 ses trees, in others shrubs, and in a 
 great number of instances herba- 
 ceous perennial plants : scarcely any 
 are annuals. No natural orders con- 
 tain more species of general interest, 
 in the beauty of their flowers or their 
 perfume : there is the rose itself, and 
 various species of the genera liulus, 
 Spiraa, Volentilla, Gcum, and Pi/rus. 
 The apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach, 
 nectarine, apricot, raspberry, straw- 
 berry, and similar valuable fruits, are 
 the produce of others. As medicinal 
 plants, some are of considerable im- 
 portance. Prussic acid is obtained 
 from the leaves and seeds of the bit- 
 ter almond, peach, plum, and other 
 species. This important assemblage 
 of plants is distinguished by havmg 
 several petals ; separate carpels ; dis- 
 tinct, perigynous, nunnerous stamens ; 
 alternate leaves, and an exogenous 
 mode of growth.'' 
 
 ROSE. The genus Kosa, which, 
 
 by cultivation, has been extended to 
 
 upward of a thousand varieties. They 
 
 require a good loamy soil, and are 
 
 663 
 
 much improved by judicious pruning. 
 Many diseases inlect the rose shrubs ; 
 of these, the aphm is the most com- 
 mon. They are also attacked with 
 blight, and by the rose-bug, a coleop- 
 terous insect, of the family of the 
 cockchaffers. But by proper clean- 
 ing, and syringing with water, or 
 with toliacco water, the plants are 
 easily preserved in health. Several 
 varieties are worthy of cultivation for 
 the perfume (attar) distilled from their 
 petals. The French rose is used by 
 druggists. 
 
 ROSEBAY. The handsome Rho 
 dodcnilion maximum. 
 
 ROSE BUG. Insects of the same 
 family as the cockchaffer, infesting 
 the rose, vine, and fruit-trees during 
 June and July. The perfect insect 
 issues from the earth in June, to 
 which the female retires at the end 
 of July atid lays her eggs. They 
 cannot be destroyed except by direct 
 violence, fumigations and washes be- 
 ing of little service. The most usual 
 means is to catch them by the hand, 
 or by shaking the plants they infest, 
 and burning or cruslung them. The 
 insects pass througii all their trans- 
 formations in one year in the soil, 
 and emerge only in the beetle form. 
 
 ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus offici- 
 nalis. A handsome evergreen shrub, 
 cultivated for its odoriferous leaves, 
 from which an essential oil is distill- 
 ed. It requires a dry soil, and lasts 
 many years. 
 
 ROSIN. The resin remaining 
 after distilling the spirit from turpen- 
 tine. Colophony. 
 
 ROSTELLUM. The name given 
 to the retractile sucking tube of ap- 
 terous insects. 
 
 ROT. A fatal disease of stock, 
 especially Sheep, which see. 
 
 ROT "in wood. See Dnj Rot 
 and Preservation of Timber. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. "As 
 crops of the cultivated plants succeed 
 to each other upon the same ground, 
 a question to be determined is the 
 order in which the different kinds 
 should follow each otl>€r. 
 
 "All plants which are cultivated, 
 and which are carried from the ground 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 where they are produced, tend to ren- this healing property, and may be 
 rier the soil loss productive, or, in the [ more full of weeds, and no richer 
 language of farmers, to exhaust it. ] when plouglicd up again after a time 
 ""But plants which are suffered to i than when laid down. Under good 
 decay, or which are consumed by an- ' management, however, the laying 
 imals on the ground on wliicb they down of cultivated land to grass and 
 grow, do not e.vhaust the soil. On other herbage ph\nlsto be consumed 
 the contrary, the decay of the stems upon the ground, is a means of rest- 
 and leaves of such plants, either nat- 1 ingthe soil and renovating its powers 
 urallv or by the consuming of them ' of production ; and this mode of re- 
 by animals, tends to add those dc- cruiting an exhausted soil being al- 
 composing organic matters to ilie ways at the conmiand of the farmer, 
 sod which forin one of the elements its application is important in prac- 
 of its fertility. Tiiis process may be tice. It is to be observed, also, that 
 
 imperceptible and slow, but it is that 
 which Nature herself employs to form 
 the soil, as distinguished from what 
 has been termed the subsoil. 
 
 " Sometimes this process of decay 
 is counteracted by the singular nat- 
 ural provision of a conversion of the 
 decomposing vegetables into a sub- 
 stance which itself resists decompo- 
 sition, peat. But with this exception, 
 the tendency of the decay of vegeta- 
 
 the poorer soils require this species 
 of rest and renovation more tlian 
 those which are naturally productive. 
 " The experience of husbandmen, 
 from the earliest times, has shown 
 that the same kinds of plants cannot 
 be advantageously cultivated in con- 
 tinued succession. The same or sim- 
 ilar species tend to grow feebly, or 
 degenerate, or become more subject 
 to diseases, when cultivated success- 
 
 bles upon the surface is to add to the I ively upon the same ground, and 
 fertile matters of the soil. ' hence the rule which forms the basis 
 
 '•This is well understood in the of a system of regular alternation of 
 practice of agriculturists. When the j crops is, that plants of the same or 
 productive powers of a soil have been similar species shall not be cultivated 
 exhausted by cultivation and the car- in immediate succession ; and tar- 
 rying away of its produce from the I ther, the same rule has been thus far 
 surface, it "is laid down to herbage, in j extended, that the same species shall 
 whi(-h state the future vegetation ! recur at as distant intervals of the 
 
 which it produces tends, by its de- 
 composition upon the surface, to ren- 
 ovate the productive powers of the 
 soil. Land in this state is said to 
 rest. 
 
 course as circumstances will allow. 
 
 "All herbaceous plants, whose pro- 
 duce is carried off the ground which 
 produces them, may be said to ex- 
 haust the soil upon which they grow. 
 
 When land, however, has been i But all such plants do not exhaust 
 
 impoverished by successive crops, 
 and has become full of weeds, the 
 laying it down to rest in that state 
 is attended with less beneficial con- 
 sequences than when the soil has 
 been previously cleaned of injurious 
 weeds, and fertilized by good cuUure. 
 In the former case, the process of 
 renovation is slow, if perceptible at 
 
 the soil in the same degree ; for after 
 some species the soil is seen to be 
 more impoverished than after others. 
 " And not only do ditferenl species 
 of plants exhaust the soil in a greater 
 or less degree than others, but the 
 same species does so according to 
 the different period of its growth at 
 which the plant is removed from the 
 
 all ; the useless plants increase, and ground, 
 not those which arc beneficial, and " When an herbaceous plant is suf- 
 afford food to pasturing animals, fered to mature its seeds, it exhausts 
 Land, when properly laid down to the soil more than when it is removed 
 grass, therefore, lends to recover its ! before its seeds are matured. All 
 wasted powers of production. Land j herbaceous plants, therefore, when 
 not properly laid down has less of 1 cut in their green state, that is, be- 
 
 669 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 fore thoy have matured their seeds, 
 exhaust the soil less than when they 
 remain until they have ripened their 
 seeds. Thus the turnip, when used 
 m its green slate, is one of the least 
 exhnusting in the agricultural class 
 of j)lants t() which it helong.s ; hut the 
 turnip, when allowed to remain upon 
 the ground until it has ripened its 
 seeds, is one of the most exhausting 
 plants that is cultivated among us ; 
 and so it is with the rape and others. 
 " Farther, certain plants, by the 
 larger or smaller quantity of manure 
 which the consumption of them afford, 
 are more or less useful in maintaining 
 the fertility of the farm. 
 
 " When an herbaceous plant is suf- 
 fered to mature its seeds, and when 
 any part of these seeds is carried ofT 
 the farm, the plant affords, when con- 
 sumed by animals, a smaller return 
 of manure to the farm than if the 
 same plant had been cut down before 
 it had matured its seeds, and been 
 in that state consumed by animals. 
 Thus it is with the turnip plant re- 
 ferred to. This plant is, with us, 
 sown before midsummer. In the first 
 seasim it forms a napiform root, and 
 puts forth a large system of leaves. 
 Early in the following season it puts 
 forth a long stem, which bears flow- 
 ers, and the seeds are generally ma- 
 tured about midsummer. If this 
 plant is removed in the first stage of 
 its growth, that is, after it has put 
 forth its large leaves and formed its 
 bulb, and is then consumed by ani- 
 mals, it returns a great quantity of 
 manure ; but if it remains until the 
 second state of its growth, then the 
 consumption of its stems and leaves 
 return scarce any manure. The 
 juices of the root have apparently 
 been exhausted in affording nutrition 
 to the flower stem, the flowers, and 
 seeds. 
 
 " It is beyond a question, that, in 
 order to bring a plant to its entire 
 maturity by the perfecting of its seeds, 
 a larger quantity of the nutritive mat- 
 ter of the soil is sucked up by it than 
 when it is brought only to its less 
 advanced stages. AVhen crops of 
 plants, therefore, are suflered to ar- 
 670 
 
 rive at maturity, they are greatly 
 more exhausters of the soil on which 
 they grow than when they are cut 
 down while they arc green ; and if 
 those seeds are in whole or in part 
 carried off the farm, the crops are ex- 
 hausters of the farm, as well as of 
 the ground which had produced them. 
 Were the ripened seeds to be wholly 
 returned to the soil, it may be be- 
 lieved that they might give back to it 
 all the nutritive matter which had 
 been derived from it. But, in prac- 
 tice, seeds are employed for many 
 purposes, and are generally carried 
 off the farm which produces them. 
 When this is done in whole or in part, 
 the plants produced are in an eminent 
 degree exhausters of the farm, as well 
 as of the soil on which they have 
 grown. 
 
 " Farther, certain plants, from their 
 mode of growth and cultivation, are 
 more favourable to the growth of 
 weeds than other plants. The cereal 
 grasses, from growing closely togeth- 
 er, and not admitting, or admitting 
 partially, the eradication of weeds, 
 are more favourable to the growth 
 and multiplication of weeds than such 
 plants as the turnip and the potato, 
 which are grown at a considerable 
 distance from each other and admit 
 of tillage during their growth, and 
 whose broad system of leaves tend 
 to repress the growth of stranger 
 plants. 
 
 " Having these principles in view, 
 
 certain rules may be deduced from 
 
 ' them for the order in which the crops 
 
 of plants in cultivation in a country 
 
 I shall succeed to each other on the 
 
 same ground. 
 
 I " 1st. Crops consisting of plants of 
 
 I the same or similar species shall not 
 
 I follow in succession, but shall return 
 
 at as distant intervals as the case 
 
 will allow. 
 
 " 2d. Crops consisting of plants 
 whose mode of growth or cultivation 
 tends to the production of weeds, 
 shall not follow in succession. 
 
 "'3d. Crops whose culture admits 
 of the destruction of weeds shall be 
 cultivated when we cultivate plants 
 which favour the production of weeds. 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 And farther, crops whose consump- 
 tion returns to the soil a suffioienl 
 quantity of manure, shall be cultivated 
 at intervals suflicicnt to mainlam or 
 increase the fertility of the farm. 
 
 " And, ilh, when land is to be laid 
 down to grass, this shall be done when 
 the soil is fertile and clean. 
 
 ■ These rules may be applied to the 
 
 their effect upon the soil, is that, from 
 their growth and the manner of cul- 
 tivating them, they arc greatly less 
 favourable to the production of weeds 
 than cereal grasses. By their broad- 
 er system of leaves, they tend to stifle 
 the growth of weeds more than the 
 cereal grasses ; and, farther, they ad- 
 mit of tillage during a great part of 
 
 plants which form the' subject of | their growth. This is especially the 
 common cultivation in the lields. In | case with the bean [and maize], 
 this country, the plants chiefly culti- ' which is therefore regarded as a use- 
 vated on the large scale are, the ful cleaning crop, and so is cultivated 
 cereal grasses, chiefly for the farina] in rotation with the cereal grasses, 
 of their seed.s ; certain leguminous as a means of preserving the land 
 plants, as the bean and the pea ; plants | clean. 
 
 cultivated for their libres, as the flax : '• M. Hemp and flax, which are 
 and hemp ; for their leaves, roots, I cultivated for their libres. The ex- 
 and tubers, as the turnip, the cab- j haustion of hemp and flax is not great 
 bage, and the potato ; and certain j when they produce no seeds. All 
 leguminous and other plants for for- j plants cultivated for their oils are ex- 
 age or herbage. The plants of these i hausters of the soil. They are suf- 
 different clas°ses are yet to be descri- ; fered to form and ripen their seeds, 
 bed ; and they are now only referred and their stems afford no return of 
 to with relation to the order in which | manure to the farm, 
 they may succeed to each other in "The next class of plants, from the 
 cultivation. The \st class of these large return of manures which the 
 
 plants consist of the cereal grasses. 
 These are chiefly wheat, Indian corn, 
 barley, oats, and, partially, rye. All 
 these plants are, in an eminent de- 
 
 consumption of them affords, may be 
 regarded as enriching or restorative 
 crops, in contradistinction to the 
 others, which may be termed ex- 
 
 grce, exhausters of the farm. They hausting crops : 
 
 are all suffered to mature their seeds, j "1. The turnip, the rape, and other 
 
 and are wholly or partially carried i plants of the cabbage genus, cultiva- 
 
 away from the farm. Farther, from ted for their roots and leaves, and 
 
 the manner of their growth and mode j consumed upon the farm. 
 
 of cultivation, they all tend to favour 1 "2. The potato, the carrot, the 
 
 the production of weeds. For these i parsnip, the beet, and other plants 
 
 reasons, and on the general principle 1 cultivated for their tubers and roots, 
 
 that plants of the same or similar ' and consumed upon the farm. 
 
 kinds should not follow in succession, I "3. The leguminous plants, the 
 
 the cereal grasses should not succeed , clover, the tare, the lucern, and olh- 
 
 each other, but should be preceded ers, when cut green for forage, and 
 
 or followed by some crop which either consumed upon the farm. 
 
 exhausts the soil less, or admits of a I " The plants of the latter class, 
 
 more perfect eradication of weeds, j namely, tiie leguminous, when mixed 
 
 •'2d. The leguminous plants culti- 1 with gramineous plants, as the rye 
 
 vated lor their"seeds, as the bean and grass, are commonly termed the arti- 
 
 the pea, are all exhausters of the soil. : licial grasses, but would be more cor- 
 
 They ripen their seeds, and the seeds rectly termed the cultivated herbage 
 
 are for the most part carried off the or forage plants. They are often suf- 
 
 farm. Some physiologists suppose , fered partially to ripen their seeds, 
 
 that they are less exhausters of the ; and are made into hay ; and in this 
 
 soil than the cereal grasses. But the case they follow the general law, ex- 
 
 essential difference between them, ! hausting the soil more than when 
 
 when considered with relatioa to , used green. Aud when the hay crop 
 
 671 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 is carried away from the farm, they 
 are to be refjarded as cxliausting 
 rather than restorative crops. 
 
 "Ill speaking of tiiese ditTerent 
 classes of plants, the following terms 
 may be employed : 
 
 "1. The cereal grasses may be 
 termed corn crops. 
 
 '• 2. The leguminous plants culti- 
 vated for their seeds, pulse crops. 
 
 '■3. The turnip, and other plants 
 of the same kind, cultivated for their 
 roots and leaves, may, with reference 
 to their mode of consuming them, be 
 termed green crops ; or, with refer- 
 ence to the manner of preparing the 
 ground for them, fallow crops. 
 
 "4. The potato^ and plants of oth- 
 er families cultivated for their roots 
 and tubers, may. in like manner, be 
 termed green or fallow crops. 
 
 " 5. The leguminous plants culti- 
 vated for green food, as the lucern 
 and tare, may be termed green for- 
 age crops. 
 
 " And, lastly, the mixture of gra- 
 mineous and leguminous plants culti- 
 vated for herbage or green feed may, 
 in compliance with common Ian- j 
 guage, be still termed the sowed or | 
 artificial grasses. 
 
 "Farther, distinguishing these dif- { 
 ferent classes of crops according to 
 their effects upon the fertility of the 
 farm, they might be divided thus : [ 
 
 "I. Corn crops — exhausting crops, 
 and favourers of weeds. 
 
 "2. Pulse crops — exhausting or 
 cleaning crops, or capable of being 
 rendered so. 
 
 " 3. Green or fallow crops — resto- 
 rative and cleaning crops. 
 
 "4. Green forage crops — restora- 
 tive, and sometimes cleaning crops. 
 
 " 5. The sowed grasses — restora- 
 tive. crops. 
 
 " Knowing these the general char- 
 acters of the cultivated plants, we 
 have, in devising a rotation, to cause 
 the restorative and cleaning crops so 
 to alternate with the exhausting crops 
 as that the land may be preserved 
 fertile and clean. Farther, when we 
 find that land cannot be sufficient- 
 ly cleaned by means of cleaning crops, 
 we must make use of the summer 
 fallow ; and again, when we find that 
 land requires rest, we may lay it 
 down to grass for a longer or shorter 
 time, taking care, when this is done, 
 that the land shall be in as fertile a. 
 state as circumstances will allow, 
 and free from weeds." — {Lou-.) 
 
 There are not many established 
 rotations in the United Slates. The 
 following is one which is found suc- 
 cessful in Pennsylvania. It is, how- 
 ever, adapted only to strong, new 
 soils. The manure should be added 
 to the Indian corn : 
 
 
 FieW Nn. 1. 
 
 Field No. -2. 
 
 field No. X 
 
 Field No. 4. 
 
 Field No. S. 
 
 Field No. 6. 
 
 Field No. 7. 
 
 Field No. 8. 
 
 let Year . . 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Kye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Com 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Oats 
 
 2d '• . . 
 
 live 
 
 Clover 
 
 Corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 3d •' . . 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wlieat 
 
 Corn 
 
 Clover 
 
 Ith " . . 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Clover 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oats 
 
 Wheat 
 
 6tli •' . . 
 
 Cnrn 
 
 Oats 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Whe.at 
 
 Rye 
 
 6tli " . . 
 
 Oats 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Corn 
 
 Rye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Clover 
 
 7th " . . 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Rve 
 
 Oats 
 
 Clover 
 
 Corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 8th " . . 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Clover 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rve 
 
 Corn 
 
 It is very defective, as there are 
 neither roots nor pulse crops ; pota- 
 toes or roots might be introduced in 
 part, after the leys, which may be of 
 grass ; and beans or pease can come 
 after wheat, with the manure, or 
 succeed the Indian corn. 
 
 Where a particular staple is culti- 
 vated, as tobacco, hemp, sugar, or 
 cotton, it is to he introduced in its 
 place according as it is a grain or 
 green crop. Thus, in the above ta- 
 ble, cottoa or hemp, cultivated for 
 
 67a 
 
 seeds, may come in the place of 
 
 wheat, and tobacco after manure. 
 
 Near cities, where there is a de- 
 mand for everything raised, the rota- 
 tion becomes much more managea- 
 ble, and may be made to approach the 
 very complicated formulas given in 
 Europe, of which the one on the next 
 page is a good specimen. 
 
 The cliemical principles of rota- 
 tions are under discussion, and can- 
 not, therefore, be entered upon in a 
 practical work. It may, however, be 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 MR. THOMAS BLACKIG S SCHEME OF RO- 
 TATION UPON A FARM OF ONE HUN- 
 j DRED ACRES, AS PROPOSED TO THE 
 
 I FRENCH GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I |i| s ? 1 -^ ills ^ i 
 
 o a H6aoi.>a ^ o 
 
 _o H d = a 
 
 OS O K 
 
 o a ^ p.>n 
 
 ? t- U P3 u J 
 
 
 .w--u->-ss 
 
 briefly stated that leguminous crops I 
 are regarded as lime crops ; the corn ^ 
 crops as potash and bone-eartli crops, ; 
 and most roots and green crops as 
 potash crops ; and that these should 
 severally succeed each other in a 
 well-tilled and prepared soil. j 
 
 " To lie ploughed op ader seven years, sad Tonowed 
 
 by wheat. J 
 
 L L L 
 
 Boussingault, who has taken an- 
 other view of rotations, and main- 
 tains that they should be so directed 
 as to economize the nitrogen or am- 
 monia ot" manures, has entered into 
 an extensive series of researches to 
 determine the best rotations. He 
 analyzed his crops and manures, and 
 calculated the amount of each com- 
 ponent they carried from the field. 
 As the rotations are good, we have 
 no hesitation in presenting them, 
 with his results. 
 
 " The measure of dung in use at 
 Bechelbronn is the wagon drawn by 
 four horses. After repeated weigh- 
 ings, it was found that this measure 
 contains nearly 1 ton. 15 cwt., 2 qrs., 
 23 lbs. of moist material, or 7 cwt., 
 
 1 qr., 15 lbs., if that be computed dry. 
 The first course of the rotation re- 
 ceives 27 loads of this manure, weigh- 
 ing about 48 tons, 14 qrs., 5 lbs., 
 equivalent to 9 tons, 19 cwt., qr., 
 
 2 lbs. of dry manure per hectare, or 
 20 tons per acre. 
 
 " The preceding analyses show 
 that this charge of manure, which is 
 to fertilize the soil during the course 
 of the rotation (five years), contains, 
 
 Carbon 8,027 lbs. 
 
 Hydrogen 925 
 
 Oxygen 5,767 
 
 Azote 447 
 
 Salts and earth . . -. . . .7,188 
 22,355 
 
 " Such are the principles which, 
 together, form the organic matter 
 that is to be consumed, and, in a ma- 
 jor part, assimilated by the crops 
 grown. I say partly, because I do 
 not believe that the whole organic 
 matter necessarily enters into the 
 constitution of the plants which 
 spring up during the rotation ; no 
 doubt a considerable portion of the 
 manure is lost through spontaneous 
 decomposition, or is carried away by 
 the rain ; and another portion may 
 remain a long time dormant in the 
 soil, to act as a fertilizer at a more 
 or less distant period ; just as, in the 
 present rotation, the manure former- 
 ly introduced co-operates with that 
 recently added. One thing is cer- 
 tain, viz , that the proportion of ma- 
 nure indicated is essential for aver- 
 673 
 
IIOTATJOX OF CROPS. 
 
 age crops ; bydiminisliin<; it, the prod- 
 uce is necessarily lesseinHl. Lastly, 
 it is proved that after the rotation the 
 crops have coiisuMiuil the uiamnc.and 
 the earth will not yield its increase 
 unless a fresh quantity he added. 
 
 " I now proceed to consider the re- 
 lation subsisting between the quanli- 
 ty of organic matter buried in the soil 
 as manure and what is recovered in 
 the crops. In this way the respect- 
 ive proportions of elementary matter 
 which various crops derived from tlie 
 air and the soil may be determined 
 approximately, and a knowledge ob- 
 tained of those rotations which least 
 exhaust the land, or, in other words, 
 which obtain from the atmosphere 
 the largest amount of organic matter. 
 
 "The rotations set down in tables 
 Nos. 1 and 2 are those adopted at Be- 
 chelbronn and throughout the great- 
 er part of Alsace. Tliese two rota- 
 tions, which differ only in the hoed 
 crop introduced, potatoes in one, 
 beet root in the other, are almost 
 identical, nearly the same quantity of 
 dry matter being produced per acre, 
 and nearly the same quantity of or- 
 ganic material withdrawn from the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 "The rotation No. 3 was introdu- 
 ced by Schwertz, at Hohenheim ; 
 theoretically, it is one of the most 
 advantageous ; it was tried at Be- 
 chelbronn, but abandoned, because 
 pease and vetches fail frequently. 
 
 " Table Xo. 4 shows the triennial 
 rotation with manured fallow ; this 
 is disadvantageous in point of theory. 
 The organic constituents of the crop 
 exceed but little those of the manure. 
 Supposing that even the whole of the 
 straw were converted into manure, 
 the farmer would still be com [jelled 
 to procure manure from abroad, in 
 compensation for the outgoing of 
 wheat. It is thus obvious why tri- 
 ennial rotation always requires a 
 great deal of meadow land. 
 
 " In table No. 5 the result of the 
 
 continuous cultivation of Jerusalem 
 
 artichokes is given. At Bechelbronn 
 
 these are dressed every two years 
 
 674 
 
 with about ten loads of dung per acre. 
 Upon an average, 20 tons of tui)ers 
 and about two tons of woody stems 
 are gathered in the course of two 
 years. It will be perceived, from 
 perusal of this table, that the culture 
 of Jerusalem artichokes presents, 
 theoretically, considerable advanta- 
 ges. I'he organic matter of the crop 
 greatly exceeds that of the manure. 
 .Moreover, in Alsace, where it is very 
 common, it is held to be most pro- 
 ductive. Still, the organic matter of 
 the stems must be taken into account, 
 which, practically speaking, are near- 
 ly worthless. 
 
 " Table No. 6 comprises the data 
 relative to a quadrennial rotation 
 adopted by M. Crud, and in which are 
 grown successively, 1st. Potatoes or 
 beet root. 2d. Wheat. 3d. Red clo- 
 ver. 4th. "Wheat. The first sowing 
 is dressed with about 18 tons of half- 
 wasted farm-yard dung. The gain in 
 organic matter obtained by this rota- 
 tion surpasses that of the preceding ; 
 but as the clover crops are not very 
 sure when repeated every four years, 
 M. Crud, for reasons which may be 
 called in question, follows this rota- 
 tion with one of lucern, which gets a 
 fresh supply of manure. It cannot 
 be denied that lucern furnishes a 
 great mass of fodder, and in this re- 
 spect the fertility of the land ought 
 to be vastly enhanced, were this con- 
 sumed on the spot ; but I can discov- 
 er no objection to the renewal of clo- 
 ver, if the lucern succeeds so well as 
 M. Crud says it does. From too fre- 
 quent repetition, farmers have gone 
 into the opposite extreme of culti- 
 vating clover only every five or six 
 years. This subject oflers an impor- 
 tant field for research. It is not im- 
 possible that the ill success depends 
 often on premature mowing of the 
 clover during the first year, and be- 
 fore its roots have acquired sufficient 
 vigour. This practice has been aban- 
 doned with us for some years, and 
 there is now everything to assure us 
 that the second year"s crop is there- 
 by secured. 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 ROTATION, COURSE NO. 1. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Substanies. per acre. 
 
 Crnpa 
 dry. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Ojygen. 
 
 Azote. 
 
 Salts 
 
 and 
 
 earths. 
 
 
 
 Ilw. 
 
 Ib.i. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Ut 
 
 
 117.33 
 
 2H2!? 
 
 1214 
 
 164 
 
 12154 
 
 42 
 
 113 
 
 2d 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 1«1 
 
 1052 
 
 4«5 
 
 61 
 
 4.57 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 
 
 
 2798 
 
 2070 
 
 1002 
 
 110 
 
 805 
 
 8 
 
 145 
 
 3d 
 
 
 
 
 
 4675 
 
 ■Jim 
 
 1750 
 
 185 
 
 1396 
 
 78 
 
 284 
 
 4th 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 1631 
 
 1300 
 
 599 
 
 75 
 
 564 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 
 
 
 34.56 
 
 2557 
 
 1237 
 
 135 
 
 995 
 
 10 
 
 179 
 
 
 Tucaip» (2d crop) 
 
 
 
 
 8754 
 
 (i5(i 
 
 2832 
 
 30 
 
 278 
 
 11 
 
 f.0 
 
 etb 
 
 Oat.s 
 
 
 
 
 l-2;!2 
 
 SI 75 
 
 494 
 
 62 
 
 358 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 
 Oat straw . 
 
 
 
 
 i»;50 
 
 1170 
 
 .59.'} 
 
 63 
 
 458 
 
 r. 
 
 60 
 
 
 T.rtal . 
 
 
 
 
 371)50 
 
 Ui:i()7 
 
 102.10 
 
 «91 
 
 6575 
 
 229 
 
 926 
 
 
 .Manure emplojed 
 Dillerence . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9114 
 
 342(i 
 
 391 
 
 2403 
 
 185 
 
 2999 
 
 
 
 Ij'.r.t) 
 
 tiHlO 
 
 .500 
 
 4172 
 
 44 
 
 2073 
 
 
 
 
 ROTATION, COURSE NO. 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Crops 
 per acre. 
 
 Crops 
 dry. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Azote. 
 
 Salts 
 
 and 
 
 earths. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lat 
 
 
 2.3*3 
 
 2907 
 
 1244 
 
 157 
 
 1262 
 
 49 
 
 182 
 
 2d 
 
 Whe.1t . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1086 
 
 928 
 
 428 
 
 63 
 
 403 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 
 
 
 
 2468 
 
 1827 
 
 8«3 
 
 98 
 
 710 
 
 7 
 
 128 
 
 Sd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11675 
 
 3693 
 
 1749 
 
 185 
 
 1396 
 
 77 
 
 28-1 
 
 4th 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1520 
 
 1.300 
 
 699 
 
 75 
 
 664 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 
 
 
 
 3456 
 
 2557 
 
 1237 
 
 .1.35 
 
 995 
 
 10 
 
 179 
 
 
 Turnips 
 Oats 
 
 
 
 
 
 8754 
 
 fi.55 
 
 -281 
 
 36 
 
 277 
 
 11 
 
 50 
 
 6tb 
 
 
 
 
 
 1232 
 
 975 
 
 495 
 
 62 
 
 358 
 
 21 
 
 .39 
 
 
 Oat straw 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.50 
 
 1176 
 
 5.'<9 
 
 63 
 
 468 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 
 27224 
 
 1G018 
 
 7505 
 
 864 
 
 6423 
 
 231 
 
 975 
 
 
 Manure employed 
 Difference . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9314 
 
 3426 
 
 .391 
 
 2403 
 
 185 
 
 2999 
 
 
 
 
 6704 
 
 4079 
 
 473 
 
 4020 
 
 46 
 
 2024 
 
 ROTATION, COURSE NO. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Substances 1 ^'°^^ 
 bubsLances. per acre. 
 
 C rops 
 dry. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Azote. 
 
 Salts 
 
 and 
 
 earths. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lb.». 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1st 
 
 
 11733 
 
 2828 
 
 1244 
 
 164 
 
 1264 
 
 42 
 
 113 
 
 2d 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1231 
 
 1054 
 
 485 
 
 61 
 
 457 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 
 
 
 
 2798 
 
 2070 
 
 1002 
 
 110 
 
 805 
 
 8 
 
 145 
 
 3d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4675 
 
 3693 
 
 17.50 
 
 185 
 
 1396 
 
 78 
 
 284 
 
 4th 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1515 
 
 1300 
 
 599 
 
 75 
 
 564 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3456 
 
 2.558 
 
 1238 
 
 1.35 
 
 995 
 
 10 
 
 179 
 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Pease i' dunged) . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8754 
 
 6.56 
 
 2S2 
 
 36 
 
 278 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 Dth 
 
 
 
 
 
 1001 
 
 915 
 
 425 
 
 66 
 
 366 
 
 38 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2558 
 
 2-356 
 
 1033 
 
 112 
 
 803 
 
 62 
 
 255 
 
 6th 
 
 Kve . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1539 
 
 1278 
 
 5P0 
 
 71 
 
 665 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 
 Rye straw . 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3420 
 
 27,80 
 
 13.87 
 
 1,55 
 
 1129 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 
 148280 
 
 21388 
 
 10035 
 
 1160 
 
 8622 
 
 323 
 
 1240 
 
 
 Manure employed 
 Dillerence . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11176 
 
 4000 
 6035 
 
 470 
 
 2883 
 
 223 
 
 3599 
 
 
 
 .10212 
 
 690 
 
 5739 
 
 100 
 
 2359 
 
 ROTATION, COURSE NO. 4. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Crops 
 per acre. 
 
 Crops 
 dry. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 1 Salts 
 Azote. 1 and 
 1 earths. 
 
 1st 
 2d Si. 3d 
 
 Dun-cd fallow 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Straw 
 
 Total 
 
 .Manure employed .... 
 
 DifTerence 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3041 
 
 6875 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2600 
 6080 
 
 lbs. 
 
 951 
 2462 
 
 lbs. 
 
 150 
 
 270 
 
 lbs. 
 
 11-28 
 1979 
 
 lbs. 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 lbs. 
 
 62 
 356 
 
 
 9916 76,80 
 3795 
 
 3413 
 
 1358 
 
 420 
 159 
 
 3107 
 979 
 
 80 418 
 
 76 1222 
 
 
 3885 
 
 2055 
 
 . 261 
 
 2128 
 
 4 , 804 
 
 
 NO. 5, CONTINUOUS 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE CROPS. 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Crops 
 per acre. 
 
 Crops 
 dry. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Azote. 
 
 Salts 
 
 and 
 
 earths. 
 
 l8t &. 2d 
 
 Artichokes . .... 
 Sulks . . ... 
 
 Total 
 
 Manure employed .... 
 
 D.lTHr.-n,-e 
 
 lbs. 
 48473 
 2.5&50 
 
 lbs. 
 100S3 
 2-2497 
 
 lbs. 
 4366 
 10289 
 
 lbs. 
 
 fiS5 
 1215 
 
 lbs. 
 4366 
 10289 
 
 lbs. 
 161 
 
 lbs. 
 605 
 &30 
 
 
 74323 
 
 32580 
 86-24 
 
 14li5;5 
 
 3087 
 
 1800 
 362 
 
 146.55 1 251 
 2-2-25 1 172 
 
 1236 
 
 2777 
 
 
 
 
 23951'; U.'.r.K 1 1133 
 
 12130 ' 79 
 
 1,542 
 
 675 
 
ROT 
 
 RUB 
 
 
 NO. 6, QUATRENNIAL ROTATION ADOPTED BY M. 
 
 CRUD. 
 
 
 
 
 Crops grown. 
 
 Crops 
 per acre. 
 
 Crops 
 dry. 
 
 Elcineiitiir.v 
 
 ngredien 
 
 s ol the 
 
 ■rop. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Aiote. 
 
 SalU 
 
 and 
 
 earths. 
 
 l8t 
 
 3d 
 
 Half acre of potatoes .... 
 Ditto of heel roots .... 
 V\lient, 15.i bushels .... 
 
 Wheal straw 
 
 Clover, tliree cuttings .... 
 
 Total 
 
 Manure consumed .... 
 
 nilVereMce 
 
 lbs. 
 Hlfi7 
 
 :W3l 
 7M3 
 7333 
 
 lbs. 
 2:0.) 
 2.;:!7 
 2847 
 6:43 
 67tf3 
 
 lbs. 
 972 
 957 
 1312 
 2.037 
 2-4fi 
 
 lbs. 
 128 
 130 
 l«.i 
 278 
 290 
 
 lbs. 
 987 
 970 
 1235 
 2040 
 2190 
 
 lbs. 
 33 
 38 
 65 
 
 21 
 121 
 
 Ib8 
 
 88 
 141 
 
 68 
 347 
 416 
 
 
 ■lbW7 
 
 8349 
 
 29S9 
 
 991 
 350 
 
 - 74:2 
 2154 
 
 478 
 167 
 
 1110 
 
 2688 
 
 
 
 
 9980 
 
 Cinlia 
 
 ti41 
 
 .52liS 
 
 HI 
 
 1.078 
 
 
 Dry manure 
 
 
 Dry produce 
 
 
 Gain in organic 
 
 
 Kola lions. 
 
 expended upon 
 
 Azote contained 
 m the manure. 
 
 obtained in one 
 year upon one 
 
 Azote contained 
 in the produce. 
 
 matter in one 
 
 year upon one 
 
 acre. 
 
 upon one acre. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 No. 1 . 
 
 1862 
 
 37 
 
 3261 
 
 46 
 
 1399 
 
 9 
 
 No. 2 . 
 
 1P62 
 
 37 
 
 3204 
 
 46 
 
 1342 
 
 9 
 
 No. 3 . 
 
 1862 
 
 37 
 
 3564 
 
 54 
 
 1702 
 
 17 
 
 No. 4 . 
 
 l2a-> 
 
 2r 
 
 2561 
 
 26 
 
 1295 
 
 1 
 
 Nn. 5 . 
 
 4312 
 
 £6 
 
 16290 
 
 125 
 
 11975 
 
 39 
 
 No. 6 . 
 
 20a7 
 
 43 
 
 45S2 
 
 70 
 
 2495 
 
 23 
 
 " From all that precedes, it is ob- 
 vious that rotations which include 
 trefoils, red clover, lucern, and sain- 
 foin are those that aflbrd considera- 
 bly the largest proportion of orfraiiic 
 matter; a fact, indeed, which, if not 
 legitimately estal)lislied, has still been 
 long acted on in that system of crop- 
 ping which embraces forage plants 
 as an element. Lucerns, too, when 
 they have taken kindly, yield an ex- 
 traordinary quantity of forage, as ev- 
 ery one may see by turning to the 
 produce of the piece under that crop 
 which, in the system of M. Crud, suc- 
 ceeds the quatrennial rotation. At 
 the end of his rotation, M. Crud al- 
 ways lays on manure in the ratio of 
 18 tons per acre, which lasts for six 
 years, and may be said to suffice for 
 the succession of crops in the ap- 
 
 pended table : 
 
 Produ 
 
 re 
 
 Contents 
 
 Crops. 
 
 
 
 per ac 
 
 e. 
 
 in azote. 
 
 Lucern 
 
 dry 
 
 1st year 
 
 a080 lbs. 
 
 72 1I)S. 
 
 " 
 
 
 2d year 
 
 9240 
 
 
 215 
 
 " 
 
 
 3d year 
 
 IH58 
 
 
 269 
 
 « 
 
 
 4th year 
 
 9240 
 
 
 213 
 
 " 
 
 
 5th year 
 
 7333 
 
 
 172 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 Gthyear 
 
 1448 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 3645 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 980 
 
 Dung e 
 
 mployed . . 
 
 40233 
 
 
 2(15 
 
 Tutalg 
 
 lin ir 
 
 azote . . 
 
 
 
 . 775 
 
 Gam in azote per annum and per acre 130 
 
 " In glancing at these tables, it is 
 obvious that the azote of the crop al- 
 ways exceeds the azote of the ma- 
 nure. Generally speaking, I admit 
 676 
 
 that this excess of azote is derived 
 from the atmosphere ; but I do not 
 pretend to say in what precise man- 
 ner the assimilation takes place. I 
 shall only quote the conclusion of a 
 paper which I published on the sub- 
 ject in the year 1837. Azote may 
 enter immediately into the constitu- 
 tion of vegetables, provided their 
 green parts have the power of fixing 
 it ; azote may also enter vegetables 
 dissolved in the water which bathes 
 their roots, and which always con- 
 tains it in a certain proportion. Last- 
 ly, it is possible that the air may con- 
 tain an infinitely minute quantity of 
 ammoniacal vapour, as some natural 
 philosophers have maintained, and 
 that this, assimilated, decomposed, 
 and recomposed anew by the plant, 
 is the source of its azotized constit- 
 uents." 
 
 ROTTEN STONE. A soft alu- 
 minous mineral used in polishing met- 
 als. 
 
 ROUP. A disease of Poultry, 
 which see. 
 
 ROWAN-TREE. The mountain 
 ash {Pyrus auciiparia). 
 
 ROWEL. A seton ; also the sharp 
 wheel of a spur. 
 
 ROW^EN. A name for after-math 
 hay. 
 
 RUBEFACIENTS. Substances 
 which produce redness on the skin 
 without blistering. 
 
RUT 
 
 RYE 
 
 RUBBLE -STONES. Fragments 
 of brickbats, loose stones. 
 
 RL:BBL\G-P0ST. a useful ap- 
 pcndaije to the cattle-yard. 
 
 R(:i3IG0. Rust in plants. See 
 Urcdo. 
 
 RUDDLE. An ochreous clay, red- 
 dle. 
 
 RUE. Ruta gravcolcns. A foetid 
 shrub ; the leaves are rei)Uted of use 
 as an antispasmodic. It grows readi- 
 ly in a clay soil without manure, and 
 is propagated by slips. 
 
 R U M E X. The paunch, or first 
 stomach, of ruminating (juadrupeds. 
 
 RU.Ml.XAXTS. Animals, as the 
 ox, sheep, and deer, which have four 
 stomachs and cloven hoof, and chew 
 the cud. 
 
 RUMINATION. The act of Chew- 
 ins the Cud, which see. 
 
 RUNCIXATE. In botany, hooked 
 back, or curved in a direction from 
 the apex to the base, as the lobes of 
 the leaf of the dandelion. 
 
 RUNNER. The stolon, or run- 
 ning stem, as in the strawberry : 
 it IS a convenient means of propa- 
 gation. 
 
 R U N T. A variety of common 
 pigeon ; small black cattle of Wales 
 and Scotland ; decrepid pigs. 
 
 RUPTURE. A hernia or sinking 
 of the bowels through, so as to form 
 a large, soft tumour. 
 
 RURAL ECONO.MY. The man- 
 agement of all things pertaining to 
 the farm. 
 
 RUSHES. The family of sedges, 
 called by botanists Juncus and Scir- 
 pus, growing in rich wet lands : they 
 are destroyed by draining, tillage, 
 and liming. Rushes make excellent 
 mats, coarse basket-work, and bot- 
 toms of chairs. 
 
 R U S T. Peroxide of iron, with 
 some amount of carbonate. A family 
 of parasitic fungi infesting grain and 
 plants, sometimes called liubtgo. See 
 Uredo. 
 
 RUSTIC-WORK. In building, a 
 term applied to work jagged out into 
 an irregular surface. Work, also, 
 which is left rough. 
 
 RUT. To cut a line on the soil 
 with a spade. The copulation of deer 
 L L I. 2 
 
 in the rutting season ; the track of a 
 cart-wheel. 
 
 RUTA BAGA. See Turnip. 
 
 R Y E. Sccale cereale, of the fam- 
 ily GraminccR. " It bears naked seeds 
 on a flat ear furnished with awns like 
 barley. The straw is solid, the in- 
 ternal part being filled with a pith, 
 which, if it causes it to be inferior as 
 fodder, makes it more valuable for 
 litter, and still more so for tliatching. 
 The value of the straw is often near- 
 ly equal to that of the grain. Rye 
 grows on poor, light soils which are 
 altogether unfit for wheat, and hence 
 tracts of light sands are often de- 
 nominated rye land. On these soils 
 this grain is far more profitable than 
 wheat, which can only be raised there 
 at a great expense of marling and 
 manuring. From experiments made 
 to ascertain the quantities of nutri- 
 tious matter in rye and wheat, Thaer 
 states their real comparative value 
 to be as 64 to 71. If the soil is capa- 
 ble of bearing a moderate crop of 
 wheat, it would be much more advan- 
 tageous to sow one portion of a field 
 with rye and another with wheat; 
 and if meslin bread is desired, the 
 two grains may be mixed in any re- 
 quired proportion. Excellent bread 
 is made of two parts of wheat and 
 one of rye, ground together. Rye is 
 at present raised in very sinaU quan- 
 tities in the United States. 
 
 " Rye is extensively cultivated in 
 Europe, especially in the Nether- 
 lands, where it is the chief grain from 
 which the spirit called Hollands is 
 distilled ; and it is also the source of 
 whiskey. When malted, it makes 
 excellent beer, one bushel of rye malt 
 being equal to at least one and a quar- 
 ter of barley malt. The cultivation 
 of rye is very simple ; it is usually 
 sown after wheat, where the soil is 
 light and rich, or after turnips and 
 potatoes, in those soils which are 
 not strong enough for wheat. 
 
 " It is mostly sown as a green 
 crop, and when fed off early in spring 
 Willi sheep, the land is invigorated, 
 and will bear excellent potatoes or 
 other roots the same year. This 
 practice cannot be sufficiently rec- 
 677 
 
RYE. 
 
 ommended ; and if the rye is sown 
 very oarly in autuiiin, it may be fed 
 off in October and November, when 
 sheep feed is beginnin^f lo fail, with- 
 out any detriment to the succeeding 
 spring |)n)diice. 
 
 " Winter barley and winter oats 
 have been substituted for rye as 
 spring fodders by some farmers ; but 
 on land of moderate quality rye is 
 generally preferred. It bears the se- 
 verest winters, which is not the case 
 with barley or oats. The rye which 
 has been fed off very early may be 
 allowed to remain for seed, which it 
 will produce more or less abundantly, 
 according as it has been fed off ear- 
 lier or later. 
 
 " The preparation of the land for 
 rye is the same as for wheat, except 
 that in very light soils no more 
 ploughings are required than will 
 clear the ground of weeds. If rye is 
 sown after harvest, one ploughing 
 only is usually given. It will thrive 
 upon rich wheat soils, as well as 
 upon lighter, and, as it throws out 
 numerous stems in rich land, it is the 
 more profitable as fodder, although 
 the crop of grain might not be so 
 abundant when the plants are too 
 much crowded. To have as much 
 green food as possible, the rye is al- 
 ways sown broad-cast, three bushels 
 at least to an acre ; some sow a sack, 
 and with advantage. 
 
 " There is a variety of rye men- 
 tioned by continental authors by the 
 name of Seiglc de la St. Jean, or St. 
 John's-day rye, because it grows so 
 rapidly that, if sown about St. John's 
 day (24th of June), it will be tit to 
 mow green by the middle of Septem- 
 ber, and in favourable seasons may 
 be fed off again in November, with- 
 out preventing its giving ample feed 
 in spring, and a good crop of grain 
 at the next harvest. It might be ad- 
 vantageous to introduce this variety. 
 There is no doubt that there are va- 
 rieties of the same kind of plants 
 which have a much more vigorous 
 vegetation than those connnonly cul- 
 tivated, and the introduction of them 
 where they are not known is an im- 
 portant benetii to agriculture. The 
 678 
 
 celebrated agriculturist Du Hamel du 
 Monceau mentions an individual who 
 had obtained, from one sowing, five 
 abundant cuts of green rye for cattle 
 in two years. If any green plant is 
 cut down before the fructification is 
 completed, it will, in general, throw 
 out fresh stems ; and in very rich 
 soils its blossoming may thus be con- 
 tinually retarded until the roots be- 
 come too weak to force successive 
 stems. 
 
 " Although the value of rye as a 
 green crop is fully admitted, very lit- 
 tle is grown for food ; yet on some 
 poor soils, where wheat and barley 
 are now often sown with a very poor 
 return, and at a great expense of 
 manure, rye and buckwheat would 
 give a much greater clear profit, and 
 would require much less manuring : 
 and where there are not ready means 
 of improving the soil by claying or 
 marling, the cultivation of rye would 
 be found most advantageous ; and, 
 by means of sheep, very poor sandy 
 soils might thus be made profitable. 
 The grains of rye from the distilleries 
 are excellent food for milch cows and 
 hogs, which fatten readily on them. 
 
 " Rye is subject to most of the dis- 
 eases which attack the plants of the 
 family of the Grajmnect, such as rust, 
 mildew, burned ear, and sinut-ball. 
 But there is one remarkable disease, 
 which, although it is sometimes found 
 in wheat, is much more commonly 
 observed in rye. It is called the 
 ergot, the French name of a cock's 
 spur, which the diseased grain re- 
 sembles in shape. By some perver- 
 sion of the Vital functions of the 
 plant, the embryo, or germen, instead 
 of growing into a regular seed filled 
 with farina, shoots out a long black 
 fungus-like substance, several times 
 the length of a common seed, which 
 rises above the chaff, and has the 
 appearance of a slender pyramid, 
 slightly bent on one side. This sub- 
 stance is soft and easily broken or 
 cut, and is uniform in its internal tex- 
 ture, without any husk or skin over 
 it. If it were merely the loss of the 
 grain of which the ergot takes the 
 place, the mischief occasioned by 
 
SAC 
 
 SAI 
 
 this disease would be comparatively 
 trilling ; but this fungus, when taken 
 internally, mixed with the rye flour 
 conv^erled into bread, has a most 
 powerful and deleterious effect on 
 the animal frame. When taken in 
 any considerable quantitj-, it produ- 
 ces the most dreadful diseases. This 
 was first observed in France, where 
 a great scarcity from the failure of 
 the crops, accompanied with a more 
 than usual production of the ergot in 
 rye, obliged the poorer inhabitants 
 of certain districts to make bread 
 from diseased rye. The consequen- 
 ces were horrid to behold ; their 
 limbs rotted and separated from the 
 trunk before death relieved them from 
 their misery. The ignorant ascri- 
 bed it to witchcraft, but experiments 
 made on animals by feeding them on 
 ergotted rye soon showed the real 
 cause. 
 
 " The extraordinary effects of the 
 ergot of rye have made it the subject 
 of experiments in medicine, and it 
 has been found extremely useful in 
 certain cases of protracted labour. 
 It is consequently become an article 
 of commerce as a drug." 
 
 RYE GRASS. See Grasses. 
 
 SACCHARIC ACID. Anuncrys- 
 tallizable acid, produced by the action 
 of nitric acid on sugar. Its salts are 
 called saccharates. 
 
 SACCHAROMETER. An imple- 
 ment for taking the specific gravity 
 of sirups and worts. Baume's hy- 
 drometer is chietly used. 
 
 SACCHAROULMIN and ULMIC 
 ACID. A brown, brilliant substance 
 obtained by digesting sugar for a long 
 time in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid. 
 
 SACCHOLACTIC ACID. Mucic 
 acid, obtained by treating sugar of 
 milk with nitric acid. 
 
 SACK. A coarse, large bag ; a 
 measure of three bushels. 
 
 SAC OF THE EMBRYO. In bot- 
 any, the small enclosed body in which 
 the embryo is placed during its 
 growth. 
 
 SACRUM. The lowest portion of 
 the spine. 
 
 SAFFLOWER. Tlie Carthamus 
 tinctorius, bastard saffron. An an- 
 nual of the family Composkcc, the 
 flowers of which yield a rich red col- 
 our when treated with solution of 
 carbonate of soda. Rouge is made 
 from them. There is no difficulty in 
 their cultivation. 
 
 SAFFRON. Crocus sativus. A 
 bulbous plant with purple flowers, the 
 stamens of which yield a bright yel- 
 low colour to hot water. They are 
 used in medicine, but are of no im- 
 portance. The cultivation presents 
 no difficulties. The stamens, or in- 
 ternal, thread-like parts of the flow- 
 er, are to be collected when of the 
 brightest colour, and dried loosely 
 without compression. The bulbs are 
 placed in a fair soil six inches apart, 
 in June, and the flowers gathered in 
 September, the stigmas being pluck- 
 ed out and dried in a warm room. 
 The first year the yield does not ex- 
 ceed three pounds, but in the second 
 and third twenty-four are obtained. 
 The bulbs are taken up and divided 
 the third year. 
 
 SAFFRON, MEADOW. Colchi- 
 cum. 
 
 SAGAPENUM. A fcetid gum res- 
 in from a species of ferula. 
 
 SAGE. Salvia officinalis. A well- 
 known aromatic perennial. The soil 
 should be dry, and tolerably rich. It 
 is propagated by splitting the roots, 
 or by root shoots. 
 
 SAGITTATE. Shaped like an ar- 
 row head. 
 
 SAGO. A starchy farina from the 
 pith of several palm-trees, as the Sa- 
 gus farinifera, Rhumphii, &c. It is a 
 good, wholesome food, and much es- 
 teemed for puddings and gruel. In 
 England a gruel of sago is often giv- 
 en to horses after a hard run. The 
 Florida arrow-root is a kind of sago 
 obtained from the pith of the Zamia 
 integrifolia and pumila, indigenous 
 plants. 
 
 SAINFOIN. Hcdi/sarum onohri- 
 chis{Fig.), esparcette. A long-rooted, 
 perennial, leguminous plant with red 
 flowers. It is native in calcareous 
 soils. 
 
 " There are few plants which have 
 679 
 
SAINFOIN. 
 
 more rapidly improved the value of 
 poor, thin, calcareous soils tliaii sain- 
 
 foin ; and in the richer kinds of loam, 
 which contain a considerable propor- 
 tion of calcareous matter, its value 
 surpasses even that of broad clover, 
 giving fully as great a return, with a 
 much smaller expenditure of manure. 
 The plant has a strong, woody, and 
 fibrous root, which insinuates itself 
 into the fissures of calcareous rocks, 
 and finds moisture in the dryest sea- 
 sons, while its spreading fibres keep 
 the earth from being washed down 
 the steep slopes of the hills. In fa- 
 vourable situations, it may be made 
 into hay twice in the year, or cut oft- 
 ener as green food. In the most arid 
 and exposed situations it gives at 
 least one good crop of hay. The 
 plant grows about two feet high, and 
 the stem branches out into many 
 compound leaves. After it has been 
 mown, it shoots out rapidly again, 
 and may be advantageously depas- 
 tured by every kind of cattle or sheep. 
 There are varieties of the plant which 
 differ in the rapidity of their growth; 
 the best is called, in France, esparcetle, 
 or sainfoin a deux coupes. From 
 France it has been introduced into 
 England. The duration of sainfoin 
 depends on the nature of the soil, and 
 the state it was in v\ith respect to 
 weeds when it was sown. A cold, 
 wet subsoil soon destroys the roots, 
 whereas a free and dry one, whether 
 680 
 
 rocky or gravelly, gives them vigour. 
 Grass and weeds, which choke the 
 crown of the plant, soon cause it to 
 decay, as is the case with lucern. 
 With every advantage, it may last in 
 vigour ten years, especially if it is oc- 
 casionally invigorated with a top- 
 dressing of manure or ashes, or, which 
 is best of all, with diluted urine, or 
 the drainings from dunghills. Du- 
 ring that time it may be cut twice for 
 hay every year, taking care to cut it 
 before the liower is faded or the seed 
 formed ; and if sheep are folded on 
 it after the second cutting, the next 
 crop will well repay the trouble. It 
 is usually sown in spring in a crop of 
 barley or oats, which should be sown 
 thin in order that the sainfoin may 
 not be smothered. The land should 
 have been prepared by a cleansing 
 crop. From three to four bushels of 
 seed may be sown, harrowed in, and 
 rolled. It is not often drilled, al- 
 though this method, by allowing the 
 use of the hoe between the rows, 
 would much strengthen the young 
 plants, and protect them against 
 coarse grasses, which are their great- 
 est enemies. In the first year the 
 sainfoin should not be fed off by 
 sheep ; and if it is mown, it should 
 not be mown too close to the ground. 
 The crown of the root in the young 
 plant rises a little above the ground, 
 and if this be bit off, or cut with the 
 scythe, the plant dies. It is useful to 
 harrow the ground lightly, to draw 
 the earth round the roots, and to de- 
 stroy seed weeds soon after the bar- 
 ley or oats are reaped. The sainfoin 
 does not produce a large crop the 
 first year, for some of the seeds will 
 lie a twelvemonth in the ground be- 
 fore they spring up. It is in perfec- 
 tion after the second year, when a 
 ' portion may be reserved for seed. 
 j Sainfoin hay is extremely nourishing 
 j for every kind of cattle, especially if 
 ' it has been made without rain. Al- 
 I though it is not apt to heat in the 
 stack, it must be put up in a very dry 
 : state ; and if it has suffered from rain, 
 too much care cannot be taken thor- 
 oughly to dry it ; for the water insin- 
 ; uates itself by capillary attraction 
 
SAINFOIN. 
 
 into the hollow stems, and is long in 
 evaporating, so that when it feels 
 quite dry it may yet eoiitain nuicli 
 water. The mode of diseovei/ng this 
 is to twist it strongly in tlic liands 
 into a rope, when the moist iiro. if 
 t^iere is any, will ooze out. It is bet- 
 ter to let it dry thoroughly, than, by 
 carrying it in a hurry, to run the risk 
 of its becoming mouldy within. In 
 very precarious seasons it may be 
 carried in a green state, provided 
 there be no moisture in it from dews 
 or showers, and stacked in alternate 
 layers with good straw. It will im- 
 part some of its fragrance to the 
 straw, and lose none of its nutritive 
 qualities. The same may be done 
 with lucern or clover. The most ad- 
 vantageous use of sainfoin, however, 
 is to cut it green and give it immedi- 
 ately to the cattle. There is no dan- 
 ger of their being hoven by it, for it 
 ferments very slowly, owing to the 
 fibrous nature of the stem. If the 
 situation of the field admits of occa- 
 sional irrigation, without danger of 
 the water stagnating, the produce of 
 the sainfoin will be greatly increased ; 
 and it may then be cut four or even 
 five times in a season without fear 
 of exhausting its strength. When it 
 begins to appear thin on the ground, 
 and other plants seem to get the bet- 
 ter of the sainfoin, it is time to break 
 it up. The land will be found much 
 improved in fertility by the sainfoin. 
 A poor chalk or gravel, which before 
 would scarcely repay the seed sown 
 in it, will now, by the gradual decay 
 of the roots and fibres of the sain- 
 foin, produce several good crops with- 
 out any other manure. The prudent 
 farmer, however, will not entirely de- 
 stroy, by repeated crops of grain, that 
 cohesion of the soil which is produ- 
 ced by the roots of the sainfoin ; but 
 by a judicious course and proper ap- 
 plication of the mannre, wiiich the 
 sainfom enabled him to make, he will 
 keep up the newly-acquired fertility 
 until, in the course of ten or twelve 
 years, he can again sow sainfoin seed 
 in it with the prospect of a crop more 
 abundant than the first. Many a poor, 
 barren tract of calcareous rock and 
 
 gravel has been fertilized and raised 
 in value by the sole effect of the sain- 
 foin, without which it must have re- 
 mained in its unproductive state. 
 
 ".Mthough a chalky soil is best 
 adapted to tiie growth of sainfoin, it 
 may be sown with advantage in all 
 light loams, provided the substratum 
 be sound and dry. On very rich, deep 
 moulds lucern is a more profitable 
 crop ; but sainfoin will tiirive where 
 lucern would fail ; and it is particu- 
 larly adajjtcd for poor, dry soils. 
 
 "There is nothing peculiar in the 
 manner in which sainfoin is made 
 into hay. It should not be shaken 
 about too much, for fear of injuring 
 the dower and breaking ofTthe leaves. 
 The swarth should be merely turned 
 over, when dry on one side, and then, 
 as soon as it is dry through, it should 
 be put into small cocks, occasionally 
 spread out in tlie sun, when the dew 
 is off the ground, and carried to the 
 stack as soon as it is sufficiently made. 
 It should take a good heat in order to 
 make it compact, but without acqui- 
 ring too dari< a colour. Experience 
 alone can teach the exact time when 
 it should be stacked. When it is left 
 for seed, it should be examined care- 
 fully after the blossom fades. The 
 lower pods will be filled with ripe 
 seed before the blossoms at the top 
 of the spike of flowers are withered 
 or the seed formed in them. If the 
 sainfoin were left standing till these 
 seeds were ripe, the lowest would be 
 shed ; but by cutting it at a proper 
 time these may be preserved, while 
 most of the latter will ripen in the 
 straw sufficiently to vegetate when 
 sown. Rainy weather is very inju- 
 rious to the seed crop ; a fine time 
 should therefore be selected, if pos- 
 sible, even at the risk of a smaller 
 crop. The seed is only gathered for 
 sowing ; but in case there should be 
 more than is required for that pur- 
 pose, and no ready sale, it is excel- 
 lent food for horses. The produce 
 varies from three to five or even six 
 sacks per acre. It is easily thrashed 
 out, and this operation is often done 
 on a cloth in the field, when the weath- 
 er permits. It is readily done by a 
 CSl 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 thrashing machino, and winnowed 
 hl\e corn. On the whole, tlieie are 
 few plants the ciihivatioii ol' wliich is 
 so advantageous as tiiai of sainiuin 
 on tlie soils on which it thrives best." 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S WORT. John's 
 wort. 
 
 SALAL BERRY. A fruit from 
 the Columhia, of a dark colour, sweet 
 taste, and the size of a grape. 
 
 SAL AiNLMOMAC. Muriate of 
 ammonia. A common salt of am- 
 monia much used in the arts. It is 
 very soluble in water, and has been 
 used as a steep by .Mr. Campbell ; one 
 pound, being added to one gallon and 
 a half of water, is sufficient for one 
 bushel of seed. A small amount of 
 it exists in putrescent fluids. The 
 expense of this preparation will prob- 
 ably hinder an extensive use. 
 
 SALEP. The farinaceous product 
 of the roots of the Orchis niascvla. 
 
 SALICIN. A neutral crystalline 
 body existing in willow bark. 
 
 SALICYL. An hypothetical com- 
 pound radical, C14 H5 ©4, existing in 
 salicylous acid, (Sec., bodies derived 
 from salicin. 
 
 SALIFEROUS. Containing salt ; 
 a name given to the new red sand- 
 stone formation. 
 
 SALIFIABLE BASE. A sub- 
 stance which combines with acids to 
 form salts. 
 
 SALIVA. The spittle : it is pre- 
 pared by the parotid and other glands, 
 and mixed with the food during mas- 
 tication : its office is important. Ac- 
 cording to Liebig, it is a means of 
 introducing oxygen into the stomach 
 to accomplish the lirst step in diges- 
 tion. Its loss is always injurious to 
 animals. 
 
 SALIVATION. An excessive dis- 
 charge of saliva, slobbering ; change 
 of food, with salt, are preventives in 
 cattle. 
 
 SALLOWS. Willows which grow 
 in marshy lands, and produce tough, 
 strong branches, are so called. 
 
 SALLOW THORN. Hippophai 
 rhamnoides. An ornamental shrub 
 five feet in height. ! 
 
 SALSIFY. Tragopogonporrifolms. 
 Vegetable oyster. A biennial com- ' 
 6S3 
 
 posite plant, the root of which grows 
 to ilu^ si'/.e of a small carrot, is white, 
 and an excellent vegetable ; the 
 young spring shoots of the second 
 year are also eaten as asparagus. 
 Sow the seed in April or May, in 
 drills, twelve inches apart, thin to six 
 inches, and work when wanted ; the 
 roots are taken up l)efore late frosts, 
 and kept in a moist cellar. For seeds, 
 set out some thrilty plants in spring, 
 or some may be leit in the ground. 
 
 SALSILLA. An herbaceous i)lant 
 of Peru, of the genus Alslrcemciia, 
 cultivated for its edible roots. 
 
 SALT, CO.MMON. Chloride of 
 sodium. It requires three times its 
 weight of water lor solution, and is 
 composed of one equivalent sodium 
 (23 31) and one chlorine (3.') 47). 
 
 It is a substance of great impor- 
 tance in agriculture : in thepurestale, 
 as a means of preserving butter and 
 meats, or supplying cattle with a 
 wholesome and necessary food, and, 
 in the impure state, as a manure and 
 steep for seeds. 
 
 As a Sleep. — A strong solution, or 
 ordinary brine, is an admirable prep- 
 arative for wheat, oats, and grains ; 
 it destroys the seeds of smut and 
 other parasites, as well as the eggs 
 of insects, and also enables us to sep- 
 arate the plump, heavy kernels from 
 the light and motheaten. It has 
 proved a certain remedy, even when 
 the grain was known to be smutted. 
 
 In doses of fifteen to thirty bushels 
 to the acre, it is used in Cheshire on 
 a clean fallow to destroy insects in 
 the ground, couch grass, and other 
 noxious weeds ; the land is left un- 
 sown for three to six months after; 
 as a manuring, in quantities of three 
 to five bushels, on wheat, oats, rye, 
 potatoes, turnips, and other crops, it 
 has often produced the best results. 
 It is not indicated on those soils 
 which are within reach of the sea air, 
 as they receive a sufficiency. 
 
 Plants absorb weak solutions of 
 salt, but are injured by a strong dose ; 
 they also possess the power of de- 
 composing it, and appropriating its 
 soda. There are failures when salt 
 is used indiscriminately ; but all the 
 
 I 
 
SAL 
 
 plants which require much soda, or 
 alkali, and grow distant from the sea, 
 are undoulitedly benefited thereby. 
 
 Salt is of great use in composts 
 with lime, vegetable matter, and 
 earth. If these be kept moist, but 
 sheltered, there is gradually formed 
 the carbonate of soda and chloride of 
 calcium, both of which are excellent 
 manures. The heap should l)c stir- 
 red often, and contain as much lime 
 as salt, with a sufficient quantity of 
 vegetable matter and earth to keep 
 the whole moist. Or the heap, in- 
 stead of containing salt, may be wa- 
 tered with salt water, or made up 
 with sea-weeds or salt muck. 
 
 Salt, in small quantities, is also a 
 desirable addition to the farm-yard 
 manure, and all vegetable composts. 
 
 SALTING MACHINF. " The in- 
 strument resembles a common syr- 
 inge of more than ordinary dimen- 
 sions, and, although not quite so sim- 
 ple in its con.strucaon, it is intended 
 to be userf in the same way as the 
 syringe, provided the point or tube 
 be rot exposed to the air. The ad- 
 vantages to be derived from the use 
 of the instrument arc explained by 
 the fact that a joint of meat may, in 
 the simplest manner, l)e properly 
 salted in less than ten minutes. The 
 brine is made of the usual ingredients, 
 and after the salt and other substan- 
 ces are completely dissolved, the li- 
 quid is poured into the machine, and 
 the nipple, or tube (the circumfer- 
 ence of which is perforated with 
 three small holes), is inserted into the 
 most solid part of a joint of meat, 
 and the contents are, by a very strong 
 pressure, forced through the fibres 
 until the brine is seen to escape on 
 the surface. For this purpose, a 
 smaller quantity of pickle is used 
 than is employed in the ordinary 
 method of curing meat, and the bone 
 (if there be any) in the centre be- 
 comes thoroughly impregnated with 
 the fluid. By the present mode of 
 salting meat, it is a matter of some 
 difficulty to inject the brine into 
 the iimermost part of a large joint, 
 whereas by the process which is 
 adopted in the use of the instrument, 
 
 SAP 
 
 the size or substance of the meat 
 presents no additional trouble to the 
 o])crator." 
 
 SALT MARSHES. Marshes 
 washed by sea water .- the herbage 
 is coarse, but often very nutritious, 
 and preferred by cattle. 
 
 SALT OF LEMONS. Binoxalate 
 of potash, used in removing iron 
 mould from linen. 
 
 S A LTPETi; E. See Nitre. 
 
 SALT, SPIRIT OF. Muriatic 
 acid. 
 
 SALTS. Chemical compounds, 
 wiiich are usually (oxysalts) formed 
 of a base and acid, and possess nei- 
 ther acidity nor alkaline action. Ha- 
 loid salts are those which are binary, 
 containing a metal in combination 
 with an electro-negative element 
 
 SALTWORT. The genus Sali- 
 cornia, which grows on salt marshes : 
 the ashes yield barilla. 
 
 SALVE. An ointment. 
 
 SALVER- SHAPED. Hypocra- 
 teriform. A monopetalous corolla, 
 with a long tube and spreading limb 
 at the top. 
 
 SALVING SHEEP. Anointing 
 them with a mixture of tar and but- 
 ter or lard. See Skccp. 
 
 SAL VOL.\TILE. Sesquicarbon- 
 ate of ammonia, or smelling salts. 
 
 SA.MARA. An indehiscent, few- 
 celled seed, with an expansion of tis- 
 sue resembling wings, as the pods of 
 the ash and alanthus. 
 
 SAND. Divided silicious matter: 
 it is extremely permeable to water, 
 retains heat well, but is infertile. 
 Sand is much used to improve the 
 texture of stifT clays, but vegetable 
 matter does this better, while it en- 
 riches the soil. 
 
 SANDAL WOOD. Pterocarpus 
 santalhius. Red saunders, a dye 
 wood, but giving fugitive reds. 
 
 SAND BATH. A quantity of sand 
 heated by a flue, and used in the lab- 
 oratory. 
 
 SAND CRACKS. Fissures in the 
 hoofs of horses, from which matter 
 exudes ; it is customary to fire the 
 edges of the wound, dress with hot 
 pitch, and bandage. They produce 
 much lameness. 
 
 683 
 
SAU 
 
 SANDSTONE. A rock made of 
 sand cemented together, or merely 
 compressed together. 
 
 SANDWORT. Plants of the ge- 
 nus Areiiaria : thcy are succulent and 
 harmless. 
 
 SANICLE, SANICULA. A genus 
 of umbelliferous weeds. 
 
 SANIES. A thin, foetid discharge 
 from sores. 
 
 SAP. The fluid of vegetables and 
 trees. That absorbed from the soil 
 is called the asccndmg sap ; it passes 
 to the leaves along the cellular tissue 
 of herbs, and along the new wood 
 {alburnum) of trees. In the leaf, by 
 the action of light, it is converted 
 into a mucilaginous fluid, the elabo- 
 rated sap, which, moving from the 
 leaf, is diffused to all parts of the 
 plant along the space between the 
 bark and new wood ; out of this sap, 
 new roots, buds, flowers, seeds, and 
 partially the fruit is formed. 
 
 SAPAN WOOD. A dye wood re- 
 sembling Brazil wood. 
 
 SAP WOOD. The alburnum, or 
 new wood. 
 
 S A P S A G O. A Swiss cheese, 
 flavoured with mellilot. 
 
 SAPHENA. The large vein of 
 the thigh. 
 
 SAPROPHAGANS. A tribe of 
 coleopterans, many of which feed on 
 decaying matters. 
 
 SARCOCELE. A tumefaction of 
 the testes. 
 
 SARCOCARP. The fleshy sub- 
 stance of fruits. 
 
 SARCOCOLLA. A kind of gum. 
 
 SARMENTUM. A runner, such 
 as that of the strawberry. 
 
 SARSAPARILLA. The roots of 
 several species of Smilax growing in 
 tropical America ; the decoction is 
 much used as an alterative. 
 
 SASH. In building, a piece of 
 framing for holding the squares of 
 glass in a window. It is of two sorts, 
 viz., that called the French sash, 
 which is hung like a door to the sash- 
 frame ; and that in which it moves 
 vertically, from being balanced by a 
 weight on each side, to which it is 
 attached by lines running over pul- 
 leys at the top of the sash-frame. 
 684 
 
 SCA 
 
 When, in a window, both the upper 
 and lower sashes are moveable, the 
 sashes arc said to be double hung, 
 and single hung when only one of 
 them moves. 
 
 SASSAFRAS. Laurus sassafras. 
 A well-known tree, the wood and 
 roots of which arc highly aromatic ; 
 in poor, worn lands it is little more 
 than a shrub, but on the borders of 
 Southern swamps sometimes attains 
 fifty to seventy feet. The wood is 
 tough and very durable, resisting 
 worms : it is but little known. A 
 beer is made of the bark of the young 
 shoots, boiled with sugar or molasses, 
 and fermented. 
 
 SATURATION. A chemical ex- 
 pression, signifying either that no 
 more of a given substance, or salt, 
 can be disiolved ; or that, in a com- 
 pound, the combination of its parts 
 IS complete or saturated. 
 
 SAUER KRAUT. See Callage. 
 
 SAURIANS. The Rubdivision of 
 the animal kingdom, including the 
 crocodiles, lizards, <Scc. ; they have 
 four legs, and are covered with a sca- 
 ly epidermis. 
 
 SAVANNAHS. Extensive allu- 
 vial flats ; the prairies. 
 
 S A V I N. Juiiiperus salina, the 
 leaves of which are a powerful drug. 
 In the United States, tlie red cedar is 
 often called savin. 
 
 SAWDUST. When rotted in the 
 compost heap, or with lime and earth, 
 it forms a good manure for improving 
 the texture of soils. 
 
 SAW FLIES. An extensive fam- 
 ily of hymenopterous insects, of the 
 genera Cimbcx, Tcnthredo, Sclandria, 
 &.C. The perfect insects, resembling 
 bees and wasps, are seen in summer 
 hovering over the plants they feed 
 on. The female lays her eggs in a 
 slit made in the young stem, or in 
 leaves ; the larvae, which are called 
 false caterpillars, feed on leaves and 
 buds, and are extremely voracious. 
 In some eight weeks, they descend 
 to the ground and form a web either 
 among the dead leaves, in the bark, 
 or under ground : the grub remains 
 eight months before changing to the 
 fly. They are very destructive: whale- 
 
SCA 
 
 SCO 
 
 oil soap water, tobacco water, and 
 lime are used to destroy them. 
 
 SAW, PRUNING. This is a small 
 saw, set in a long handle, and used 
 to prune trees. 
 
 SAVORY. The summer savory 
 {Satumja hortevsis) is an annual, and 
 propagated by seed ; the wmlcr (S. 
 vwntaiia) is perennial, and manaj^ed 
 in the same way as sage, wiiifii it 
 greatly resembles. They are labiate 
 plants. 
 
 SAXIFRAGE. Flowering plants 
 of the genus Saxifras^a. 
 
 SAXON BLUE. A solution of in- 
 digo in sulphuric acid, used as a dye. 
 
 SCAB. A disease of sheep. 
 
 SCABIOUS. Weeds of the genus 
 Scakiosa, at one time celebrated for 
 curing the itch. 
 
 SCABROUS. Rough, from minute 
 inequalities. 
 
 SCAFFOLDING. The temporary 
 frame-work put up in building. 
 
 SCALDED CREAM. Clotted 
 cream ; cream raised from milk by 
 heating. 
 
 S CALL I ON. Akindof 0/iiOH, 
 which see. 
 
 SCALPEL. A small knife, con- 
 venient for dissections or surgical op- 
 erations. 
 
 S(]AM.MONY. The gum resin of 
 the CoiiEoli-idus scaminonca, an East- 
 ern plant. It closely resembles jalap. 
 
 SCANDENT, SCANDENS. 
 Climbing branches. 
 
 SCANSORIALS, SCANSORES. 
 Climbmg birds, as the woodpeckers : 
 they have two toes before and two 
 behind on each foot. 
 
 SC.\NTLING. " In building, the 
 measures of breadth and thickness 
 of a piece of timber or other mate- 
 rial. It is also the name of a piece 
 of timber when under five inches 
 square." 
 
 SCAPE. A flower stem or pedun- 
 cle rising from the ground, as in the 
 hyacinth, flag. 
 
 SCAPULA. The shoulder-blade. 
 
 SCAPULARS. The shoulder 
 feathers which cover the sides of the 
 back in birds. 
 
 SCAPUS. The stem of a feather. 
 In architecture, a shaft. 
 
 M M M 
 
 SCARAB.EIDANS. A family of 
 lamellicorn beetles. 
 
 SCA RC EM I'^NT. A rebate or set 
 back in a wall, or bank of eartii. 
 
 SCARFING. The union of two 
 timbers, to answer as one : they are 
 made fast by bolts. 
 
 SCARFSKIN. The epidermis, a 
 delicate covering of the true skin. 
 
 SCARIFICATOR. A cupping in- 
 strument. 
 
 S(;ARIFIER. An implement be- 
 tween the harrow and cultivator for 
 pulverizing the soil. See Cultivator. 
 
 SCARLET DYE. Prcparatton.— 
 For each pound of cloth take 14 
 drachms of cream of tartar ; when 
 the water boils and tiie tartar is all 
 dissolved, pour in 14 drachms of so- 
 lution of tin, and let the whole boil 
 a few minutes : introduce tiie cloth, 
 boil two hours, let it drain and cool. 
 
 For the Colour Bath. — For each 
 pound of cloth take two drachms of 
 cream of tartar ; when the bath be- 
 gins to boil, add one ounce of fine 
 cochineal powder, stir well with a 
 willow switch, and let it boil for a few 
 minutes ; pour in gradually one ounce 
 of solution of tin, stirring continual- 
 ly. Introduce the prepared clotli and 
 dye as quickly as possible : it will be 
 a beautiful scarlet. In the colour 
 bath, two ounces of solution of tin 
 may be taken, and no cream of tartar. 
 
 SCELIDES. The posterior or low- 
 er extremities. 
 
 SCHAPHOID. Shaped like a lit- 
 tle i)oat. 
 
 SCHEELES GREEN. Mineral 
 green, arsemte of copper. 
 
 SCHIST. A coarse slate. 
 
 SCIATIC. Relating to the hip 
 joint, as the sciatic nerve. 
 
 SCIRRUS. An indurated gland ; 
 it becomes a cancer when suppura- 
 tion occurs. 
 
 SCIURINES. The squirrel family. 
 
 SCLEROTICA. The white mem- 
 brane of the eve. 
 
 SCOLOPENDR.E. The genus of 
 centi[)edes. 
 
 SCOPIPEDS. A tribe of mellif- 
 erous insects, some of which have 
 the posterior feet furnished willi a 
 scopa, or little tuft of hair. 
 
 6S5 
 
SCY 
 
 SCY 
 
 SCORE. 20 pieces, or 20 pounds. 
 
 SCORL'E. Cinders, especially of 
 the forge. 
 
 SCORZONERA. ScoizoJicra His- 
 panica. " This plant has long been 
 raised in British gardens for culinary 
 purposes, and especially as an ingre- 
 dient in soups, on account of its pal- 
 atable and nourishing roots. Some 
 boil and cat them l:ke carrots, &c., 
 in which case they should be depri- 
 ved of their rind, and immersed in 
 cold water for half an hour, or they 
 will be bitter. They are raised pre- 
 cisely in the same manner as salsify. 
 If the seeds be sown in April, in a 
 good deep soil, the roots will attain 
 perfection in autumn, and continue 
 good all the winter. They last from 
 three to four years, according to the 
 quality of the earth and the care be- 
 stowed upon them ; but it is better 
 to raise a few from seed every year." 
 — ( Bridsrcman. ) 
 
 SCOURING. Excessive purging. 
 See Ox, Sheep, &c. 
 
 SCRAPER. An implement to 
 scrape roads, like the mouldcbeart. 
 
 SCREEDS. Wooden rules for 
 running mouldings. 
 
 SCREENING. Sifting by pass- 
 ing through a screen such as masons 
 use. 
 
 SCROFULA. A disease of the 
 glands about the neck, followed by 
 debility and skin diseases. 
 
 SCRUPLE. Twenty grains ; the 
 third of a drachm. 
 
 SCUFFLER. A light scarifier, or 
 horse hoe. 
 
 SCUTATE. Protected by large 
 scales. 
 
 SCUTELLIFORM. Of the figure 
 of a shield ; leaves having the foot- 
 stalk terminating in the centre of the 
 lamina. 
 
 SCURVY GRASS. Cochleana of- 
 ficinalis. A plant belonging to the 
 same genus as the horseradish, and 
 sometimes cultivated for its leaves. 
 It is propagated by seed, and prefers 
 a moist soil. 
 
 SCUTCHING. Breaking flax or 
 hemp. See Flax. 
 
 Sc;YTHE. " The common scythe 
 is an instrument too well known to 
 6S6 
 
 require a minute description, but as 
 nmch of its utility in agriculture de- 
 pends on a correct adjustment of its 
 parts, wo shall briefly advcMt to them. 
 The blade of tin; scythe, whicli is al- 
 ways curved, with the cutting edge 
 on the concave side, is fixed to the 
 handle at an angle both to the plane 
 of the blade, and to the tangent to 
 the curve. It is on the nice adjust- 
 ment of these angles that the perfec- 
 tion of the instrument depends. A 
 scythe must cut the corn or grass, 
 especially the latter, as near to the 
 ground as possible, and where the 
 land lies flat and the stones have been 
 removed from the surface, a good 
 scythe, in the hands of a skilful mow- 
 er, will cut the grass so near to the 
 ground that little or no .stubble is lelt. 
 Every farmer knows well that an inch 
 of the grass near the ground adds 
 more to the weight of the hay than 
 several inches higher up, and that a 
 skilful mower, with a good scythe, 
 can easily add much more to the value 
 of the crop than his earnings amount 
 to, however liberally he may be paid, 
 and that it is of the greatest impor- 
 tance that none but the best mowers 
 be intrusted with the work, and that 
 attention be paid to the form of their 
 scythes, and to their being frequently 
 whetted. 
 
 " In some countries the handle of 
 the scythe is nearly straight, and the 
 end of it passes over the upper part 
 of the left arm. The position of the 
 mower is then nearly erect, and his 
 body turns as on a pivot, carrying the 
 blade of the scythe parallel to the 
 ground, and cutting a portion of a 
 considerable circle. The |;osition of 
 the handle in this case must be such 
 that when the scythe is in tiie middle 
 of its swing, and the blade parallel to 
 the ground, it rests naturally on the 
 left arm above the elbow, while the 
 mower is nearly in an erect position. 
 By turning his body to the right, and 
 stooping towards that side, he begins 
 his cut, and by raising himself up, the 
 muscles of his back greatly assist in 
 swinging the scythe round. 
 
 " The blades of the scythes on the 
 Continent are mostly made of soft 
 
SCY 
 
 SEA 
 
 steel, and they are so soft that the in Belgium, where it was first no- 
 edge can be hammered to sharpen it ticed. It is commonly used in dif- 
 and keep it thin. In England the ferent parts of the Continent. The 
 scythes are forged thin and well tem- Hainault scythe is swung by the pow- 
 pered, and to prevent their bending er of the wrist principally. It does 
 they have a rim of iron along Die not cut the straw by so oblique a 
 baclv to witiiin a few inches of the stroke as the common scythe, but 
 point. Tills saves much time in rather as a bill-hook or axe would do, 
 sharpening, and they very seldom re- meeting the straw nearly at right 
 quire the grindstone. ! angles. The hook collects a small 
 
 "Most scythes iiavetwo projecting bundle, which is severed at a stroke, 
 handles fixed to tSe principal handle, and the left foot assists in holding 
 by which they are held, and these are what is cut and rolled together with 
 variously put on, according to the the hook, in the hollow of the blade, 
 fashion of the district. The real line It is thus laid aside, and fit to be tied 
 of the handle is that which passes up. This instrument is a great im- 
 through both the hands and ends at provement on the English fagging- 
 the head of the blade. This may be hook, which is used in the same man- 
 a straight line or a crooked one, gen- ner, the left arm of the reaper acting 
 erally tlie latter, and by moving these the part of the hook ; but as the ban- 
 handles up or down the main handle, die is inserted in the plane of the 
 each mower can place them so as blade, it causes the reaper to stoop 
 best suits the natural size and posi- ^ low, which is fatiguing to the loins, 
 tion of his body. Hence it is that one | especially of elderly people, who can 
 man can seldom mow well with an- [ more readily reap with the Hainault 
 other man's scythe. scythe. 
 
 " In mowing grain when ripe, which I "The scythe is an instrument 
 is the best mode of reaping, the scythe which should be more generally in- 
 need not have so great a sweep, nor ! troduced in harvest, and experience 
 is it necessary to cut the straw so I has proved that it has many advauta- 
 near to the ground. The great diffi- 1 ges over the sickle or reaping-hook." 
 o.ully here is to lay the cut grain even- See Harvest. 
 ly, so that the binders can readily j SEA-KALE. See Kale, Sea. 
 collect it and tie it into sheaves. 1 SEA.M. In geology, a thin layer 
 When the grain is only slightly bent ofa given rock between large masses. 
 
 down, a scythe with an addition ofa 
 cradle collects the slanting straw 
 more easily. The cradle is a species 
 of comb, with three or four long teeth 
 parallel to the back of the blade, and 
 fixed in the handle. This inserts it- j 
 
 Also, a measure of eight bushels, or 
 a horse-load of wood. 
 
 SEA MUD. The muck, or mire, of 
 salt marsiies. 
 
 SEA WARE. See Weeds. 
 
 SEA WATER. This has been 
 
 self behind the straw to be cut, raises used as a manure near the shore, oc- 
 it up, and, by a peculiar twist of the casionally with good effect. It is 
 scythe after the stroke, it is left so useful to apply it over compost heaps 
 as to be easily collected. Those who ' containing lime, as the whole is much 
 are accustomed to use the cradle- improved in fertilizing power, 
 scythe do the work rapidly and well. ! SEA- WEEDS. They are used as 
 "•• W hen the grain is much laid and manure in the fresh state, being turn- 
 entangled, it is impossible to use the ed into the soil as soon as spread. As 
 common scythe, even with a cradle, they contain nearly ninety per cent. 
 This has probably suggested a scythe water, the quantity to be applied is 
 to be used with one hand, while a very great. Some farmers waste 
 hook in the other gathers the strag- them by allowing the weeds to dry. 
 gling grain. The most perfect of l It is more common and better to 
 these scythes is called the Hainault put them into composts and farm-yard 
 scythe, from a province of that name i manure ; the pig-pen is a favourite 
 
 687 
 
SEC 
 
 SEE 
 
 place to cast sea-wccd into. They i 
 decompose rapidly, and will even act i 
 as a ferment to peat, and are fertili- 
 zing from ilie large amount of salt 
 and nitrogen they contain. 
 
 SEBACEOUS GLANDS. The 
 minute glands of the skin, which ex- 
 crete a fatty matter. 
 
 SEBACIC ACID. An acid produ- 
 ced during the destructive distillation 
 of fats. 
 
 SECALE. Ergot. See Rye. 
 SECHIUM. A new vegetable 
 fruit, resembling a small squash in ' 
 size, but different in flavour and struc- 
 ture, said to be from the Scchium edu- [ 
 Us, a South American plant. 
 
 SECONDARY ROCKS. The for- { 
 mations lying above the coal and be- i 
 tween it and the tertiary series. \ 
 They are fossiliferous and stratified, i 
 
 SECRETION. The separation 
 from the blood or sap of certain prod- 
 ucts, by a glandular or other appara- 
 tus ; the perspiration, urine, bile, sal- 
 iva, &c., are secretions. They per- 
 form important offices in the econo- 
 my, and cannot be arrested without 
 the occurrence of disease. 
 
 SECUNDINE. The second en- 
 velope of the ovule in plants. The 
 word sccundincs also means the mem- 
 branes which cover the animal foetus. 
 SECURIFERS, SECURIFERI 
 (from securis, a htUchet, and fcro, I 
 bear). The name of a tribe of Tcrc- 
 biantia, or boring hymenopterous in- 
 sects, comprising those in which the 
 females have a saw-shaped or hatch- 
 et-shaped terrebra or appendage to 
 the posterior part of the abdomen, 
 for the purpose of preparing a place 
 
 to receive the eggs, and of depositing 
 them therein. 
 
 SECIJRIPALPS, SECURIPALPI 
 (from securis, a huUhcl). 'i'lie name 
 of a family of coleopterous insects, 
 comprehending those in which the 
 maxillary palps terminate in a joint 
 which is elongated and hatchet-sha- 
 ped. 
 
 SEDATIVES. Medicines which 
 produce sleep and diminish pain, as 
 henbane, camphor, morphia. 
 
 SEDGES. Plants of the genus 
 Carex, perennial, coarse false grass- 
 es, inhabiting marshes and wet pla- 
 ces for the most part. 
 
 SEED. The reproductive part of 
 the plant. It is usually enclosed 
 within a carpel or ovarium, except in 
 pines, which are gymnospermous, or 
 have the seeds placed in an open 
 carpel. Seeds consist of an external 
 coat or testa, an embryo, and one or 
 two seed lobes (coii/kdons). They 
 reproduce the species, and not the 
 variety of the plant, and in this re- 
 spect differ from buds and bulbs. 
 The finest plants should be selected 
 for seed, and only the principal grain 
 stems allowed to remain, tlie small 
 side branches being pruned off". 
 
 The seed is a reservoir of the most 
 nutritious parts of the vegetable, con- 
 taining often ten times more nourish- 
 ment than any other part. In sowing, 
 sound, plump, and well-matured seeds 
 only should be selected, and this is 
 done by screening and then steeping 
 in a brine sufficiently strong to float 
 an egg, rejecting the grains that float. 
 The vegetative power of seeds kept in 
 the usual way is often much impaired 
 
 Broad-casl. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oals 
 
 Barley 
 
 Rye 
 
 Beans 
 
 Pease 
 
 Buckwheat . . . . 
 Clover, Red . . . . 
 _— White ^^ij^^,l 
 
 Red Clover J 
 
 Rye Grass 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Mangel-wurzel . . . 
 Potatoes 
 
 September to November 
 
 March and April 
 
 March to May 
 
 September 
 
 March and April 
 
 March and April 
 
 April 
 
 March and April 
 
 May to Aujjust 
 April and .May 
 March to June 
 
 2jt to 34 bush. 
 4 to 6 " 
 3 to 4 " 
 2Jto3J " 
 3 to 4 " 
 34 to 4i " 
 
 2 to 2.^ " 
 12 to 16 lbs. 
 
 3 to 4 " 
 2 " 
 2 ** 
 
 1 peck 
 
 2 to 3 lbs. 
 
 Drill. 
 
 2 to 3 bush. 
 H to 4J " 
 2.^ to 3J " 
 
 2 to 3 " 
 2.\ to 3i " 
 
 3 to 4 " 
 2 " 
 10 to 14 lbs. 
 
 1 1 4 to 2 bush. 
 2|to3 " 
 
 2 to 3 
 3 
 
 li to2 lbs. 
 20 t 1 2.) bush 
 
 688 
 
SEN 
 
 in two or three years, but if kept ab- 
 solutely dry, or out of the contact 
 of air, some retain their vitality for 
 ages. 
 
 Manuring the seed by steeps, and 
 rolling them in mixtures of blood and 
 lime, <&c., has of late been practised 
 with great success ; at all events, it 
 seems to destroy rust and many in- 
 sects. 
 
 The preceding table shows the 
 quantities of seed usually sown in 
 England per acre. They exceed our 
 applications, but their harvests are 
 verv superior. 
 
 SEED LIP, A sowing basket. 
 
 SEED LOBES. The fleshy sub- 
 stance of the seed, the cotyledons : 
 there are two in dkotijlcdonous or 
 exogenous plants, but one in endo- 
 gens, such as grasses, cerealia, palms. 
 
 SEEL. A season. 
 
 SEGMENT. A slice, a portion 
 cut from a solid by a line or plane. 
 
 S E L E N I T E. Crystallized sul- 
 phate of lime. 
 
 SELENIUM. An elementary body 
 closely resembling sulphur. Selenic 
 acid is isomorphous with sulphuric 
 acid : it is very rare. 
 
 SELLENDERS. A skin disease 
 of the bend of the hock in horses, 
 produced by want of cleanliness : the 
 part is to be kept clean. 
 
 SEMEIOTIC. Relating to the 
 signs or symptoms of diseases. 
 
 SENEGA ROOT, SENECA 
 S N A K E R O T. Polygala senega. 
 A perennial-rooted, common plant, 
 especially in the South, the roots of 
 which are used as an expectorant : 
 it is not to be trusted as a remedy 
 for snake bites. 
 
 SENNA. Cassia {acufifolia, oho- 
 vata, &c.,) senna. A small legumin- 
 ous shrub of Africa and Arabia, the 
 leaves of which are much employed 
 in decoction as a purge. The Mary- 
 land senna (C. Marylandka) is of the 
 same genus, but a perennial herb ; it 
 grows irom four to six feet high : the 
 leaves should be collected in August 
 and carcfullv dried. 
 
 SENSIBLE FROG. The part of 
 a horse's hoof immediately above the 
 bony covering ; the fleshy sole. 
 
 M M M 2 
 
 SER 
 
 SENSITIVE PLANTS. Plants 
 or slirubs of the genus Mimosa, wliose 
 leaves fold when touched, or shaded 
 from the sun. 
 
 SEPALS. The leaflets of the calyx. 
 
 SEPTUM, SEPTA. A partition, 
 especially in a seed vessel. 
 
 SEPTARIA. Large nodules or 
 masses of a marly clay found in some 
 geological formations ; when burned, 
 they form Roman cement, which has 
 the property of hardening under 
 water. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. This is the month 
 for sowing wheat ; corn is gathered, 
 and preparations are made to fatten 
 off the stock for sale ; pre[)are for ma- 
 king cider, and let the root crops be 
 hoed and kept in good ordei', for they 
 grow much this month : potatoes are 
 to be taken up as soon as the vines 
 die. 
 
 In the garden, fall crops are to be 
 attended to ; budding can also be 
 practised on some trees. In the 
 South, tobacco is ripenmg, cotton is 
 to be picked, and preparations for the 
 sugar harvest are to be made at the 
 end of the month. Wheat, rye, and 
 winter barley are to be sowed. 
 
 SEPTIC. Substances or causes 
 hastening putrefaction. 
 
 SERICEUS. Silky, covered with 
 short, soft hairs. 
 
 SERICIC or MYRISTIC ACID. 
 An oily acid obtained from the butter 
 of nutmegs. 
 
 SERON. A buffalo's hide used 
 for packing drugs. 
 
 SEROSITY, SEROUS FLUID. 
 See Serum. 
 
 SERPENTINE. An injected 
 rock of a greenish colour, consisting 
 of a silicate of magnesia (43 percent.), 
 with various proportions of iron and 
 alumina. 
 
 SERRATE. Having an edge cut 
 into sharp teeth, like a saw^ 
 
 SERRICORNS. A coleopterous 
 family, many of which have serrated 
 antenna:>. 
 
 SERL'.M. The fluid portion of the 
 blood ; it consists of a solution of al- 
 bumen in soda, with salts, and con- 
 tains 7 per cent, solid matter : in the 
 form of a secretion from membranes, 
 6S9 
 
SUA 
 
 SHE 
 
 it is called scrosity, or serous fluid, 
 'i'ho whey of milk. 
 
 S1']RV1CE. I'ljrus lorminalis. A 
 small tree of the apple gemi.s, tiie fruit 
 of which, when half decayed, is eaten, 
 and closely resembles the medlar : 
 they are small. The P. domeslica 
 yields a better fruit of the same kind. 
 
 SESAMfJlD (from aijaauij, a seed). 
 Small bones not larger than a pea, 
 found at the joints of the toes and 
 fingers. 
 
 SESASUM. See Bene. 
 
 SESQUI. One and a half. . Sesgm- 
 oxide. An oxide containing three 
 equivalents of oxygen, and two of 
 metal. 
 
 SESSILE. ^Vithout stalk, sitting 
 on the stem. 
 
 SETA. A term used by botanists 
 in various senses. It is the stalk 
 that supports the theca, capsule, or 
 sporangium of mosses ; the awn or 
 beard of grasses, when it proceeds 
 from the extreme point of a palea or 
 glume ; sometimes the glandular acu- 
 leus of roses, and also the abortive 
 stamens or rudimentary perianth of 
 cyperaceous plants. 
 
 SETACEOUS. Bristle-like, ^c- 
 tose, bristlv. 
 
 S E T 6 N. An artificial ulcer, 
 made by passing a skein of silk or a 
 piece of riband under a portion of the 
 skin by means of an instrument call- 
 ed a seton needle, which is a flat 
 blade with a needle eye ; the thread 
 is occasionally anointed with irrita- 
 ting substances, in order to keep up 
 a discharge from the sore. 
 
 SETS. The pieces of potato used 
 in planting : when the whole is plant- 
 ed, it is called a whole set. 
 
 SETTING. In building, the act 
 of solidifying, as in mortar. 
 
 SETT OFF. The projecting part 
 of a wall that is built thinner above 
 than below. 
 
 SEXES. In plants, the stamens 
 and pistils ; the former being called 
 the male, and the latter the female 
 organs, from a fanciful analogy. 
 
 SHAB. The scab of sheep. 
 
 SHADDOCK. An inferior but 
 very large orange ; the fruit of the 
 Citrus decumaria. 
 690 
 
 SHAFT. The trunk of a column ; 
 the entrance or downward excava- 
 tion of a mine ; a handle. 
 
 SHAKES IN TREES. Fissures, 
 clefts, rents, or black and rough pla- 
 ces in trees or timber. 
 
 S H A L E. A loose, rotten, or 
 crumbling slate. 
 
 SILVLLOT. Alium esealonicum. 
 It is stronger than the onion, but has 
 a better flavour. The offsets for 
 propagation are set in rows, 12 inches 
 apart, 5 inches in the row, in August 
 and September, and taken up in May. 
 
 SHANK BONE. The femur. 
 
 SHARE OF A PLOUGH. The 
 point. 
 
 SHEARING. " When the sheep 
 are to be shorn, they are driven to a 
 pen or other enclosed space, and 
 lirought one by one to the shearers. 
 Tlie sheep to be shorn is first placed 
 upon his rump, and the shearer, with 
 the shears, beginning at the neck, 
 clips in a circular direction down the 
 belly towards the back. The animal 
 is then laid on his side, and kept 
 down by the leg of the shearer, who 
 clips the fleece all round to the back. 
 Turning the animal on the other side, 
 he clips, in like manner, round to the 
 back ; then raising the sheep, he clips 
 the part of the fleece not yet cut 
 away, and so lets the animal go, ta- 
 king care that it shall not entangle 
 itself with the fleece. The fleece, as 
 soon as it is shorn, is taken away by 
 an attendant, spread out, neatly roll- 
 ed up with the inner surface outmost, 
 and then deposited in some dry place 
 until it is packed in the wool sheets." 
 
 SHEARING RIVERS. "The 
 mowing of weeds in rivers and ponds 
 is done in the usual way from a boat, 
 in which the operator stands, and is 
 rowed forward by another as requi- 
 red. Sometimes scythe-blades are 
 tied or riveted together, and worked 
 by means of ropes like a saw from 
 one shore to the other, called shear- 
 ing ; but the first mode is generally 
 reckoned the best, and is imquestion- 
 ably so in agriculture.'' 
 
 SHEARLING. A sheep once 
 shorn. 
 
 SHEARS. A large kind of scis- 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 sors used in clippinff hedges and pru- 
 ninij yoiHiR l)raiiclu>s ; tliey are oCtcn 
 worked hy a rope at the end of a 
 long handle. Slieep-shears are well 
 known : they have been unimproved 
 in ages. 
 
 SHEEP. Ovisaries. The follow- 
 ing is principally from Mr. Youatt 
 and Mr. Spooner, the two best wri- 
 ters on sheep ; 
 
 " The sheep belongs to the class 
 mammalia, to the order ruminantia, 
 with four stomachs, and the organs 
 of digestion disposed for chewing the 
 cud ; to the tribe capridm, with horns 
 persistent, and placed on an osseous 
 nucleus ; and to the g(?nus ovis, with 
 or without horns, but these, when 
 present, uniformly taking, to a greater 
 or less degree, a lateral and spiral 
 direction. The forehead of the sheep 
 is arched, and protruded before the 
 base of the horns ; there are no lach- 
 rymal ducts ; the nostrils are length- 
 ened and oblique, and terminate with- 
 out a muzzle ; there is no beard prop- 
 erly so called ; the ears are small, and 
 the legs slender. The hair is of two 
 kinds, one hard and close, and the 
 other woolly, the wool prepondera- 
 ting in proportion as the animal is 
 domesticated. 
 
 " There is a breed of sheep now 
 extending over the north and south 
 of Asia, and Palestine, and Russia, 
 and of which the flocks of the Cal- 
 nuicks and Tartars of the present 
 day are almost entirely composed. 
 They are distinguished by two mass- 
 es of fat commencing at the loins, 
 gradually swelling into a considera- 
 ble mass towards the rump, and pre- 
 senting behind two enlargements of 
 a more or less globular form. The 
 owners of the modern improved 
 breeds would find great fault with 
 some points about them ; but many 
 of their defects have doubtless been 
 the result of neglect. 
 
 " Some naturalists have traced the 
 origin of the sheep to the Argali or 
 the Mouflon. The Argali is a spe- 
 cies of mountain-sheep, found in small 
 flocks on the high grounds of A.sia, 
 extending from the precipices of 
 Khamtschatka in the north, to those 
 
 j of Mongolia in the centre, and of 
 
 I Caucasus in W(\stern Asia. The 
 
 I Mouflon is an inhabitant of Southern 
 
 I Europe, Corsica, (Jrete, and the isl- 
 
 j ands of the Grecian Archipelago. 
 
 They congregate in large groups, and 
 
 possess all the wildness of the Argah. 
 
 Neither of these, however, has the 
 
 slightest claim to being the original 
 
 I parent of the sheep. They are de- 
 
 I scendants of those who liave escaped 
 
 [ from the dominion of man, and are 
 
 retreating from desert to desert, in 
 
 proportion as the pojjulatiou of the 
 
 country increases. 
 
 " It will be most satisfactory to the 
 reader to commence with the history 
 of the British sheep, and then com- 
 pare with them the breeds and man- 
 agement in other countries. 
 
 " Different names are given to the 
 sheep, according to its sex and age. 
 The male is called a ram or tup. 
 After weaning, he is said to be a hog, 
 a hotfgct, or hoggcrd, a lamb hng, or 
 tup hog, or teg; and if castrated, a 
 wether hog. After shearing, and when 
 he is probably a year or a year and a 
 half old, he is called a shear hog, 
 shearling, dinmont, or tup ; and when 
 castrated, a shearing wether. After 
 the second shearing, he is a tu-o-shcar 
 ram, tup, tcethcr. At the expiration 
 of another year, he is a three-shear 
 ram. 
 
 " The female is a ewe or gimmer 
 lamb until weaned, and thena gim- 
 mer or ewe hog, or teg. After being 
 shorn, she is a shearing ewe, gimmer, 
 theavc, or double-toothed ewe ; and 
 after that, a two, or three, or four, or 
 shear ewe, or theave. The age of the 
 sheep is reckoned, not from the pe- 
 riod of their being dropped, but from 
 the first shearing. 
 
 '• The teeth give certain indications 
 as to the age. The sheep has no 
 incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; but 
 there is a dense elastic cushion or 
 pad, and the herbage, firmly held be- 
 tween the front teeth in the lower 
 ja\V and this cu.shion, is partly bitten 
 and partly torn a.-^uiulcr. The sheep 
 has the whole of the iucisor teeth by 
 the time that he is a month old, and 
 he retains them until the fourteenth 
 691 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 or sixteenth month. They then be- 
 gin to (liniiiiisli in size, and are dis- 
 phiced. The two central ones are 
 first shed, and the permanent ones 
 supply their place, and attain their 
 full growth when the animal is two 
 years old. Between two and three, 
 the next pair are chaiifjed ; the third 
 at three years old ; and at four, the 
 mouth is complete. After this there 
 is no certain rule, until, two years 
 more having passed, the teeth one by 
 one become loosened and are lost. 
 At six or seven years of age the 
 mouths of the ewes should l)e occa- 
 sionally examined, and the loose teeth 
 removed, and then, by good pasture 
 and good nursing in the winter, they 
 may produce lambs until they have 
 reached the ninth or tenth year, when 
 they begin rapidly to decline. Some 
 favourites have lingered on to the 
 fifteenth or sixteenth year ; but the 
 usual and the most profitable method 
 is to fatten and dispose of the ewes 
 when they are five or six years old, 
 and to supply their places by some 
 of the best shearing ewes. 
 
 " The rings at the base of the horns 
 afford very imperfect indications of 
 the age of the sheep. 
 
 " The history of the sheep will be 
 most naturally divided according to 
 the quantity and quality of the wool 
 of the different breeds, the uses of 
 the skin, and the quantity and quali- 
 ty of the flesh. Tlie covering of tlie 
 original sheep consisted of a mixture 
 of liair and wool, the wool being 
 short and fine, and forming an inner 
 coat, and the hair of greater length, 
 projecting through the wool, and 
 constituting an external covering. 
 "When the sheep are neglected, or 
 exposed to a considerable degree of 
 cold, this degeneracy is easily tra 
 ced On the Devonshire moors, the 
 mountains of Wales, and the high- 
 lands of Scotland, the wool is deteri- 
 orated by a considerable admi.Kture 
 of hair. Even among the South 
 Downs, the Leicesters, and the Rye- 
 lands, too many kanps occasionally 
 lessen the value of the fleece. It is 
 only by diligent cultivation that the 
 
 diminished, and that of wool increas- 
 ed in our best breeds. 
 
 " Wool. — The filaments of wool ta- 
 ken from a healthy sheep present a 
 beautifully polished and even glitter- 
 ing appearance. That of the neglect- 
 ed or half-starved animal exhibits a 
 paler hue. This is one valuable in- 
 dication by which the wool-stapler is 
 enabled to form an accurate opinion 
 of the value of the fleece. The mi.x- 
 ture of hair in the wool can often be 
 detected, by close examination, with 
 the naked eye, but most readily by 
 the assistance of a microscope. 
 
 "Among the qualities which influ- 
 ence the value of the wool ?kxe fine- 
 ness, and the uniformity of that fine- 
 ness in the single fibre and in the col- 
 lected fleece. This fineness, howev- 
 er, differs materially in different parts 
 of the fleece. It prevails on the neck, 
 the shoulders, the ribs, and the back. 
 It IS less on the legs, thighs, and 
 haunch, and still coarser on the neck, 
 the breast, the belly, and the lower 
 part of the legs. The fineness of the 
 wool is considerably influenced by the 
 temjjerature. 
 
 '• The fineness of the fleece is also 
 much influenced by the kind of food. 
 An abundance of nutriment will in- 
 crease both the length and the bulk 
 of the wool. This is an important 
 consideration with the sheep-breed- 
 er. Let the cold of winter come — 
 let it continue for a considerable pe- 
 riod, yet if the sheep is well kept, al- 
 though the fleece may lose a little 
 weight, this will be more than com- 
 pensated by its fineness and increase 
 of value. If the sheep, however, be 
 half starved while exposed to unu- 
 sual cold, the fibres of the wool, al- 
 though perhaps somewhat finer, will 
 be deficient in weight, and strength, 
 and usefulness. 
 
 "That which is called trucness of 
 staple, or the fibres being of an equal 
 size, is of much importance in the 
 manufacture of wool ; for whenever 
 the wool assuines an irregular and 
 shagged, or hrcachy appearance, there 
 is a weakness in the fibre, and will 
 be an irregularity in the manufacture, 
 
 quantity of hair has been generally I especially if the fleece is submitted to 
 692 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 the operation of the comb. Connect- 
 ed with this, and a most important 
 quality, is the elasticity of the woolly 
 fibre — the disposition to yield, or sub- 
 mit to some eloiisjation of substance, 
 some alteration of form, when it is 
 distended or pressed upon, and the 
 energy by means of which the origi- 
 nal form is resumed as soon as the 
 external force is removed. 
 
 " Referrible to this elasticity or 
 yielding character of the wool is its 
 pliu/iiliti/ and softness, and without 
 which no manufacture of it can be 
 carried to any degree of perfection. 
 The last quality which it is necessary 
 to mention is its fcliinsr property — 
 that quality by which it may be beat- 
 en or pressed together and worked 
 into a sol't and pliable substance of 
 almost any size and form. It would 
 seem that the process of felting is of 
 far older date than that of weaving ; 
 and it is still continued, not only by 
 the nomadic tribes of Southeastern 
 Europe and of Asia, but it is made 
 occasionally to vie with the finest 
 productions of the loom. 
 
 " Some late microscopic observa- 
 tions have unravelled the whole mys- 
 tery of felting, and of the employ- 
 ment of wool in almost every form. 
 The fibre, examined under a power- 
 ful microscope, appears like a con- 
 tinuous vegetable growth, from which 
 there are sprouting, and all tending 
 one way, from the root to the other 
 extremity, numerous leaves, assu- 
 ming the appearance of calices or 
 cups, and each terminating in a sharp 
 point. It is easy to conceive how 
 readily one of tliese fibres will move 
 in a direction from the root to the 
 point, while its retraction must be 
 exceedingly difficult, if not impossi- 
 ble. It was a fibre of Merino wool 
 that was first submitted to microscop- 
 ic observation, and the number of 
 these serrations or projections count- 
 ed. There were 2400 in the space 
 of an inch. A fibre of Saxon wool, 
 finer than that of the Merino, and of 
 acknowledged superior felting quali- 
 ty, was substituted. There were 
 2720 serrations. A fibre of South 
 Down wool, ia its felting power well 
 
 known to be inferior to that of the 
 Saxony and the Merino, was i)laced 
 in the fiidd of vision. There were 
 only 2080 serrations in the space of 
 an inch, or 640 less than the Saxony 
 exhibited. The Leicester wool is 
 acknowledged to ])ossess a less filt- 
 ing property than the South Down. 
 There were only I860 in the space 
 of an inch. 
 
 " There can be no doubt as to the 
 structure of the woolly fibre. It con- 
 sists of a central stem or stalk, from 
 which ttiere spring, at different dis- 
 tances, circles of leaf-shaped projec- 
 tions, possessing a certain degree of 
 resistance or of entanglement with 
 other fibres, in proportion as these 
 circlets arc multiplied and tliey pro- 
 ject from the stalk. They are sharp- 
 er and more numerous in the felting 
 wools, and in proportion as the felt- 
 ing property exists. They are con- 
 nected with, or, it may be confidently 
 asserted, they give to the wool the 
 power of felting, and regulate the 
 degree in which that power is pos- 
 sessed. 
 
 " Skins. — The skin of the sheep is 
 often partially tanned, and then used 
 in the common sorts of book-binding; 
 or it is manufactured into parchment, 
 and becomes exceedingly valuable on 
 account of its durability. Immense 
 numbers of lamb skins are dressed in 
 a peculiar way, and converted into 
 gloves with the wool remaining on 
 them, or used, in some countries, for 
 the linings of valuable garments. It 
 is scarcely credible to what degree 
 vanity and cruelty are sometimes car- 
 ried. The ewe is slaughtered a little 
 before the time when her pregnancy 
 would have expired, and the lamb is 
 taken from the womb and immediate- 
 ly destroyed. It is supposed that the 
 fur nearest to the skin is more beau- 
 tiful than could have been obtained 
 from the same animal after birth. 
 
 " Varieties. — It will now be proper 
 to take a rapid survey of the diflerent 
 breeds of sheep, commencing with 
 the South Downs. The South Downs 
 and the Hampshire and ^Vlltshlre 
 breeds were formerly, according to 
 Mr. EUman, of 'a very small size, 
 693 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 and far from possessing a good shape, 
 beirig long and lliiii in the neck, high 
 on tiie shoulders, low beliind, low on 
 the loins and on the rumps, the tail 
 set very low, perpendicular from tlie 
 hip-bones, sharp on the hack, the ribs 
 flat, but good m the leg, although 
 having big bones.' 
 
 " It is pleasing to compare this with 
 the account given by the same breed- 
 er of the 8outh Downs {F^s- 1) of the 
 present day, the change being effect- 
 ed by him and a few spirited individ- 
 uals : ' The head small and hornless ; 
 
 Fifr. 1. 
 
 the face speckled or gray, and nei- 
 ther too long nor too short ; the lips 
 thin, and the spaces between the 
 nose and tiie eyes narrow ; the un- 
 der jaw fine and thin ; the ears tol- 
 erably wide, and well covered with 
 wool ; the forehead also, and the 
 whole space between the ears, well 
 protected by it, as a defence against 
 the fly. 
 
 " ' The eyes full and bright, but 
 not prominent ; the portion of the 
 frontal bone arching the eye not too 
 prominent, that it may not form a fa- 
 tal obstacle in lambing. 
 
 " ' The neck of a medium length, 
 thin towards the head, but enlarging 
 towards the shoulders, where it 
 should be broad and high, and straight 
 in its whole course above and below; 
 the chest wide, deep, and projecting 
 between the fore legs, indicating a 
 good constitution and a disposition 
 to thrive ; the shoulders on a level 
 with the back, and not too wide above, 
 but bowing outward from the top to 
 the breast, leaving room for the 
 springing rib behind. 
 
 " ' The ribs coming out horizontal- 
 ly from the spine, extending far back- 
 694 
 
 I ward, and the last rib projecting more 
 1 than the others. The back flat from 
 I the :5lioulders to the setting on of the 
 1 tail ; the lom broad and flat ; the 
 rump long and broad, and the tail set 
 on high, and nearly on a level with 
 the spine ; the hips wide ; the space 
 between them and the last rib on ei- 
 ther side as narrow as possible, and 
 the ribs presenting a circular form, 
 like a barrel 
 
 " ' The belly as straight as the back. 
 
 " ' The legs neither too long nor 
 too short ; the fore legs straight from 
 the breast to the foot, not bending in- 
 ward at the knee, and standing far 
 apart both before and behind ; the 
 hocks having a direction outward, 
 and the meeting of the thighs being 
 particularly full ; the bones fine, but 
 having no appearance of weakness ; 
 and the legs ofaspeckled, dark colour. 
 
 " ' The belly well defended with 
 wool, and the wool coming down, be- 
 fore and behind, to the knee and to 
 the hock ; the wool short, close, curl- 
 ed, and free from spiry, projecting 
 hairs. 
 
 " 'The South Down is adapted to 
 almost any situation in the northern 
 and middle parts of the United States. 
 It has a patience of occasional short 
 keep and an endurance of hard stock- 
 ing equal to any other sheep ; an ear- 
 ly maturity scarcely inferior to the 
 Leicesters, and the flesh finely grain- 
 ed and of good flavour.' 
 
 " According to Mr. Ellman, the ar- 
 tificial food resorted to at the begin- 
 ning of spring, and soon alter lamb- 
 ing, is green rye ; but it must be very 
 cautiously given, on account of its 
 occasionally producing diarrhoea or 
 dysentery. This bad effect, howev- 
 er, may be prevented by removing 
 the ewes, once in the day, to old pas- 
 ture ground. 
 
 " The rye being fed off or running 
 to seed, the ground is ploughed in 
 May for turnips or rape. Rye grass 
 succeeds to the rye until the latter 
 end of June, when clover, lucern, or 
 sainfoin will come in. One crop 
 should follow another in proportion 
 as it is wanted. 
 
 " Tares, clover, or rape next take 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 their turn ; the tares, perhaps, are 
 somcwliat inferior to the others. As 
 a winter food, the nita baga or beets 
 come ill until lambing tmie, but not 
 after that, lest it should produce pur- 
 ging id the hunbs. 
 
 "About the middle of October the 
 rams are admitted to the ewes, and 
 a plentiful allowance of nutritious and 
 stimulating food will have considera- 
 ble influence in increasing tlu; num- 
 ber of lambs. Much to the credit of 
 the breeder, great care is taken of 
 the sheep during the lambing time. 
 The ewes are either driven home, or 
 there are sheltered places construct- 
 ed in the fields. 
 
 " The average dead weight of the 
 South Down wether varies from eight 
 to eleven stones ; but at the Christ- 
 mas show there are usually some 
 pens in which the weight is double 
 that. The average weight of the 
 fleece used to be two pounds ; but, 
 from the altered system of manage- 
 ment, it is now at least three pounds 
 in the hill sheep, and nearly four 
 pounds in the lowland sheep. This 
 wool has likewise changed its char- 
 acter. It has become a combing in- 
 stead of a carding wool. Formerly 
 devoted to the manufacture of ser- 
 vants' clothing, or being sparingly 
 mixed witli other wool, it is now used 
 for flannels, and baizes, and worsted 
 goods of ahnost every description ; 
 tlius becoming of considerably in- 
 creased value. The hogget wool is 
 particularly improved ; it is finer than 
 the other long wools, and is applica- 
 ble to many new and valuable pur- 
 poses. 
 
 " The South Down sheep have suc- 
 ceeded admirably in all the southern 
 districts of the kingdom ; but the 
 northern hills have occasionally been 
 too cold for them. Crosses between 
 the South Down and almost every 
 breed of middle-wool sheep have an- 
 swered well ; while in counties where 
 it could have been least expected, the 
 old breed is, in a great measure, su- 
 perseded by the Soulli Downs. 
 
 '• In Kent many South Downs are 
 kept, and much prized ; but on the 
 marshes and their neighbourhood 
 
 they have given way to the Romney 
 Marsh sheep. 
 
 " The South Down dill'er material- 
 ly in the different districts of Surrey. 
 In some of the lofty and barren heaths 
 a small and jfrolitable sheep, distin- 
 guished by tlie name of the Bagshot, 
 still prevails. The old Wilishire 
 sheep are occasionally seen here, 
 while the Dorsets have possessed 
 themselves of many extensive dis- 
 tricts, and are employed in supplying 
 the London iiuuk(;t with early lambs. 
 Still, however, the South Downs are 
 numerous, and vie with any of the 
 others in excellence and profit. 
 
 " The old Wiltshire breed of sheep, 
 the largest and the heaviest of the fine- 
 woolled sheep, has gradually pass- 
 ed away. They were crossed by the 
 South Downs until every trace of the 
 old breed had vanished, and a useful 
 variety remained, which would have 
 been called true Sussex sheep, only 
 they were of a somewhat larger size 
 and lighter colour, and a lighter, finer 
 fleece. Tliis breed is now rapidly 
 yielding to the true South Downs. 
 In the lower land pastures of Wilts 
 a breed is found evidently derived 
 from the South Downs, but larger in 
 size, and with a heavier fleece. 
 
 " In Dorsetshire we find a very dif- 
 ferent and valuable breed of sheep ; 
 they are white, the face long and 
 broad, with a tuft of wool on the 
 forehead ; the shoulders low but 
 broad ; the chest deep ; the loins 
 broad, and the bone small : a hardy 
 and useful sheep. Their chief pecu- 
 liarity IS the forwardness of the ewes, 
 which supply the market with lamb 
 when it produces the highest price. 
 If tliey have plenty of nutritious food, 
 the ewes will be in lamb as early as 
 April, so that the young one will drop 
 in September, and be ready for the 
 market at Christmas. 
 
 " The Ryelands. — They are small, 
 polled, with white faces, the wool 
 growing close to and almost covering 
 the eyes, the carcass round and com- 
 pact, the animal quickly fattening, 
 and the superabundant fat accumu- 
 lating within ; they are hardy, and 
 peculiarly free from disease ; they 
 695 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 are particularly distinguished by the 
 lituMU'ss of their wool. 'I'iie miiTil)er 
 and tlie nature of tlie serration.s place 
 it precisely where the maiuilaclure 
 had long done. It is decidedly supe- 
 rior in lineness and in fulness to the 
 South Down, but yields in both of 
 these qualities to the jMerino wool. 
 It was attempted to cross the Rye- 
 land sheej) with the Merino, in order 
 to increase the value of the wool. 
 To a certain extent this was accom- 
 plished, but It was at the expense of 
 the carcass. The Merinos were then 
 crossed by the Ryelands, with a view 
 to the improvement of form, and 
 greater tendency to fatten, but this 
 also failed. W'liiie these experiments 
 were proceeding, arrived the period 
 when the lleece of the sliort-woolled 
 sheep, both the South Down and the 
 Ryeland, was materially changed by 
 the altered system of sheep-husband- 
 ry that was introduced, and the wool 
 of both was rejected by the manu- 
 facturer for the purposes to which it 
 had hitherto been applied. 
 
 " The Delamere sheep is the only 
 short-wooUed breed deserving of no- 
 tice in Cheshire. The wool is short 
 and fine, and still used by some man- 
 ufacturers, but it is no longer used 
 for any of the fine cloths. 
 
 " The different districts of South 
 Wales afford a small and valuable 
 breed of sheep, principally used for 
 the supply of the London market, 
 where tlie Welsh mutton is in con- 
 sideral}le request. These sheep seem 
 scarcely to have changed their char- 
 acter for many centuries, but some 
 crosses of t he South Downs have been 
 lately introduced, and even some 
 flocks of this sheep have begun, and 
 with much prospect of advantage, to 
 spread over the lower part of the 
 country. 
 
 " In North Wales, and particularly 
 in Anglesea, the old South Down re- 
 appears, or a sheep wlujse likeness 
 to the unimproved South Down is 
 too striking to escape observation. 
 The purest and best blood that the 
 mountains of Wales are now suppo- 
 sed to be capalde of producing is 
 found at the loot or on the declivi- 
 
 ties of Cader Idris. All the hills of 
 North Wales are covered with sheep, 
 which are sent in the spring from all 
 parts of the low country. The strong- 
 est wethers remain on the mountains 
 during the winter, and without tlie 
 slightest artificial provision for their 
 sujiport ; the others are brought down 
 to the low ground about Michaelmas, 
 to be returned in the spring. 
 
 " The Chcviois extend from West- 
 moreland far into Scotland ; their 
 birthplace, or where they were origi- 
 nally observed, and are still found in 
 their greatest purity, is the Cheviot 
 Hills in Nortiiumberland. They dif- 
 fer essentially from both the black 
 and the dun-faced breeds by which 
 they are surrounded ; but neither 
 history nor tradition has given the 
 slightest clew to their origin. The 
 following is a descrii)tion of the pure 
 breed, thirty years ago, before they 
 began to be crossed by the Leices- 
 ters : ' The head polled, bare and 
 clean, with jaw bone ofa good length ; 
 ears not too short, and countenance 
 of not too dark a colour ; neck full, 
 round, and not too long, well covered 
 with wool, but without any coarse 
 wool depending tieneath ; shoulders 
 deep, full, and wide ; chest full and 
 open ; chine long, but not too much 
 so ; straight, broad, and wide across 
 the fillets ; horns round and full ; the 
 body in general round and full, and 
 not too deep or fiat either in the ribs 
 or fianks ; the lleece fine, close, short, 
 and thickset, of a medium length of 
 pile, without hairs at the bottom, and 
 not curled on the shoulders, and with 
 very little coarse wool on the hips, 
 tail, or belly.' 
 
 " Sir John Sinclair adds the fol- 
 lowing account of them : ' Perhaps 
 there is no part of the whole island 
 where, at first sight, a line-woolled 
 breed of sheep is less to be expected 
 than among the Cheviot Hills. Many 
 parts of the sheep walks consist of 
 nothing but peat bogs and deep mo- 
 rasses. During winter the hills are 
 covered with snow during two, three, 
 or even four months, and they have 
 an ample proportion of bad weather 
 . during the other seasons of the year, 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 and yet a sheep is to be found that 
 will thrive even in the wildest part 
 of it. Their shape is excellent, and 
 their fore quarters, in particular, are 
 di.-itiniiuished by such justness of pro- 
 portion, as to 1)0 equal in height to 
 ilie hinder ones, which enables iheni 
 to i)ass over bogs and snows through 
 which a shorter-legged animal could 
 not penetrate. They have a closer 
 fleece than the Tweeddale and Lei- 
 cester breeds, which keeps them 
 warmer in cold weather, and pre- 
 vents cither rain or snow from in- 
 conmioding theiii. They are excel- 
 lent siiow-travcllers, and are accus- 
 tomed to procure their food by scra- 
 ping the snow off the ground with 
 their feet. They have never any 
 oilier food but the grass and natural 
 hay of their own fields, except when 
 it is proposed to fatten them. They 
 weigh from 12 to 18 pounds per quar- 
 ter, and their meat is fully equal to 
 any that the Highlands can produce.' 
 
 " The wool is inferior to that of 
 the South Downs. It is not so fine 
 as before the attempted improvement 
 of the carcass ; and the use of it is 
 abandoned in the manufacture of fine 
 cloth. 
 
 " There are many flocks of pure 
 Cheviots, but in the majority of the 
 flocks there is a cross of Leicester 
 blood. 
 
 " The other breed of short-woolled 
 sheep which contend with the Che- 
 viots in number and value is the black- 
 faccd Scots ; they extend from Lan- 
 cashire to the very north of Scotland. 
 The males are mostly horned, the 
 horns of a spiral form, but the fe- 
 males are frequently without horns. 
 The faces and legs are always black 
 or mottled ; they are covered with 
 wool about the forehead and lower 
 jaw ; the fleece is long and some- 
 what coarse. The carcass is pecu- 
 liarly compact ; so much so, that on 
 account of the shortness, roundness, 
 firmness, and handsomeness of the 
 carcass, it is called the short sheep, 
 in opposition to the Cheviots, or long 
 sheep. The weight of the carcass 
 does not differ materially from that of 
 the Cheviot, and the fleece weighs 
 
 N N -N 
 
 about three pounds after it is washed. 
 These sheep have been improved by 
 selection, but have derived little ad- 
 vantage from any of the crosses that 
 have been tried. 
 
 "As these are the prevailing breeds 
 in the northern parts of the kingdom, 
 if not to the exclusion of the short 
 horns and the Leicesters, yet, being 
 far more numerous than they, it may 
 not be uninteresting to institute a 
 brief comparison of their respective 
 merits. The three important points 
 with respect to sheep in such locali- 
 ties are the weight and value of the 
 wool, the carcass, and the degree of 
 hardihood. 
 
 " As to the wool there can be no 
 question. The weight of the indi- 
 vidual fleece may be somewhat, but 
 not a great deal, in favour of the 
 black-faced breed ; but in point of 
 value and the price which the wool 
 will obtain, the advantage is most 
 decidedly in favour of the Cheviots. 
 As to the carcass, the Cheviot is 
 ready for market a full twelvemonth 
 before the other. If so many sheep 
 cannot be kept on the same quantity 
 of ground, the quantity of meat that 
 can be produced is greater, and con- 
 sequently the profit of the farmer is 
 greater ; and as to hardihood, they 
 are both of them excellent breeds, 
 and it might be difficult to decide 
 which wool would most successfully 
 endure the hardships of a Highland 
 winter. The adjudication, on the 
 whole, is most decidedly in favour of 
 the Cheviot breed, with this excep- 
 tion, perhaps, that on the wildest of 
 the Grampian, or other similar hills, 
 the black-faced mountain sheep may 
 have the best chance of doing well ; 
 and the acknowledged fact is, that in 
 almost every northern district the 
 Cheviots are rapidly superseding the 
 native black-faced sheep. 
 
 " Long-u-oolled Sheep. — There is 
 much more similarity between the 
 varieties of the long-woolled sheep 
 than those of shorter fibre. The de- 
 ficiency of horns, the form of the 
 head, the expression of the counte- 
 nance, and the white faces and legs, 
 show tiiat they had one common 
 G97 
 
SlIEKP 
 
 origin ; while the colour and wciKhi, 
 and uses of the wool, speak their com- 
 mon origin. 
 
 "The following description of the 
 new Leicester {Ftg. 2), by Mr. CuUey, 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 
 will, to a very considerable degree, 
 serve for all the varieties of the long- 
 woolled sheep. The head should be 
 hornless, long, small, tapering to- 
 wards the muzzle, and projecting hor- 
 izontally forward. The eyes promi- 
 nent, but with a quiet expression. 
 The ears thin, rather long, and di- 
 rected backward ; the neck full and 
 broad at its base, but gradually taper- 
 ing towards the head, and particular- 
 ly tine at the junction of the head and 
 neck. The neck seeming to project 
 straight from the chest, so that there 
 is, with the slightest possible devia- 
 tion, one continued horizontal line 
 from the rump to the poll. The 
 breast broad and full ; shoulders also 
 broad and round, and no uneven or 
 angular formation where the shoul- 
 ders join either the neck or the back, 
 particularly no rising of the withers, 
 or hollow behind the situation of 
 those bones. The arm fleshy through 
 its whole extent, and even down to 
 the knee. The bones of the legs 
 small, standing wide apart, no loose- 
 ness of the skin about them, and com- 
 paratively bare of wool. The chest 
 and barrel are at once deep and round 
 in the ribs, forming a considerable 
 arch from the spine, so as in some 
 cases, and especially when the ani- 
 mal is in good condition, to make the 
 apparent width of the chest even 
 greater than the depth. Tiie barrel 
 ribbed well home. No irregularities 
 of line on the back or the belly ; but 
 on the sides the carcass very gradu- 
 698 
 
 ally diminisiiing in width towards the 
 rump. The quarters long and full, 
 and as wide as the fore legs. The 
 muscles extending do\\n to the back, 
 the thighs also wide and full. The 
 legs of a moderate length ; the pelt 
 also moderately thin, but soft and 
 elastic, and covered with a good quan- 
 tity of white wool, not so long as in 
 some breeds, but considerably finer. 
 " Such is the l.eicester sheep as 
 Bakevvell made him. He found him as 
 different an animal as it was possible 
 to conceive — fiat-sided, large-boned, 
 coarse-woolk'd, slow to fatten, and his 
 flesli of liille value. Were there room 
 for its insertion, a detailed history of 
 the different steps of the changes 
 would be most interesting to the read- 
 er. The means were simple, and the 
 effect was almost magical. The prin- 
 ciple was, that ' like produces like ;' 
 and therefore he selected a few sheep 
 with aptitude to fatten, with a dispo- 
 sition to produce an unusual quantity 
 of valuable meat, with little bone and 
 offal, and with quietness of temper ; 
 and from these he exclusively bred. 
 He cared not about near or distant 
 affinities ; but his object was to in- 
 crease every good point, and gradu- 
 ally to get rid of every bad one. They 
 were not different sorts of sheep that 
 he selected, but the best of the breed 
 to which he had been accustomed. 
 
 " Such was the origin and the 
 eventual triumph of the new Lei- 
 cester breed of sheep. They have 
 spread themselves to every part of 
 the kingdom. There are ffew other 
 varieties of long-woolled sheep which 
 do not owe much of their excellence 
 to the new Leicesters, and even some 
 of the short-woolled flocks are deep- 
 ly indebted to the breed introduced 
 by Bakevvell. There is no other spe- 
 cies of sheep that possesses so deci- 
 ded a propensity to fatten, or that is 
 prepared for the butcher at so early 
 an age. It will not, however, thrive 
 on a poor soil, nor if it is compelled 
 to travel far in order to procure its 
 food ; but on soils of a moderate 
 quality there is no other sheep so 
 profitable. Other breeds, as the 
 Teeswater and the Lincoln, may be 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 superior in size, but it is at an ex- 
 pense of time and of food, and, event- 
 ually, a palpable deterioration of flesh 
 and di(ninution of profit. The new 
 Lciresters, on fair keep, will yield a 
 greater (piantity of meat, for the same 
 quantity of food, than any other breed 
 of sheep. The meat is of a peculiar 
 character. It is disliked by some on 
 account of a supposed insipidness. 
 The fatty matter is too much intro- 
 duced between the muscular fibres, 
 and there may be the appearance and 
 the taste of a mass of fat. This, how- 
 ever, is the fault of the breeder, and 
 not of the animal : it marks the point 
 to which the fatteninij process should 
 he carried, and where it should stop. 
 It is the fault of th(? grazier if he con- 
 verts that which is an excellence into 
 a fault. 
 
 " There are accounts of the Lei- 
 cester sheep attaining a very great 
 weight. Two prime wethers exhib- 
 ited by Mr. Painter at the Smithfield 
 cattle show, in 1835, weighed 165 
 and 155 pounds. It should, howev- 
 er, be remarked that the new Leices- 
 ter sheep has a smaller quantity of 
 bone, in proportion to its weight, than 
 any other sheep. 
 
 " The deficiency of the fleece was 
 formerly objected to in the new Lei- 
 cester sheep. The truth of the mat- 
 ter was, that with the early breeders 
 the fleece was a perfectly secondary 
 consideration, and comparatively dis- 
 regarded. There is now little cause 
 for complaint on this head. The wool 
 has considerably increased in length, 
 and it has improved both in lineness 
 and strength of fibre. It averages 
 from six to seven pounds the fleece, 
 and the fibre varies from five to more 
 than twelve inches in length. Like 
 all other British wools, it is applied 
 to a purpose different from that to 
 which it was formerly devoted, and 
 is mostly used in the manufacture of 
 serges and carpets. 
 
 " The chief value of the new Lei- 
 cester breed consists in the improve- 
 ment which it has eflfected in almost 
 every variety of sheep with which it 
 has been crossed. Most of the breed- 
 ers of the South Downs were at first 
 
 averse to admit a cross with the Lei- 
 cesters ; but when tiie wool of the 
 South Downs bei;an to be applied to 
 purposes very different from those to 
 which it had been formerly devoted, 
 a cross with the Leicesters was reluc- 
 tantly attempted. A sheep was pro- 
 duced, probably not so hardy, but 
 coming earlier to the market, yicUl- 
 ing a longer and a finer fleece, of 
 nearly double the weight, and with a 
 combing wool adapted for many val- 
 uable purposes. 
 
 " A short account must be given 
 of the other breeds of long-woolled 
 sheep, although some of them are 
 rapidly passing away. The Teeswa- 
 tcr, inhabiting the southern districts 
 of Durham and the north of York- 
 shire, was once in considerable re- 
 quest on account of the weight of its 
 carcass, the goodness of its flesh, 
 and the remarkable degree in which 
 the ewes were prolific. Its greatest 
 fault was that it was too heavy for 
 the lowlands in which it was placed, 
 and th€ pasture was trodden down 
 and destroyed. Some of the Leices- 
 ters found their way to the banks of 
 the Tees, and the old breed was 
 crossed by them. The carcass be- 
 came somewhat smaller, but it was 
 more compact and profitable. More 
 mutton was produced on the same 
 quantity of land ; and, after a consid- 
 erable time, for the improvement was 
 always slower with regard to the wool 
 than the flesh, the fleece became finer 
 and closer. The old breed gradually 
 diminished and almost disappeared. 
 j "The largest and most ungainly 
 I breed of sheep was the Lincolns, 
 \ ' hornless, with long, thin, and weak 
 carcasses, large bones, weighing from 
 I twenty to thirty pounds a quarter ; 
 the wool averaging from eight to 
 I twelve pounds the fleece ; the sheep 
 [ a slow feeder, and the flesh coarse- 
 I grained.' This is the account given 
 I of them by a good but a prejudiced 
 j observer, Mr. (JuUey. In fact, while 
 I Bakewell and his admirers were al- 
 1 most neglecting the fleece, the Lin- 
 I colnshire farmer was quite as inat- 
 tentive with regard to the carcass. 
 j Both parties were wrong. The old 
 699 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 Lincolnshire sheep yielded a wool 
 which in qu.intiiy and in quahty was 
 unrivalled, wiiilc the Lcicesters could 
 boast of a disposition to fatten which 
 the other could never equal. At length 
 the attempt was honestly made to 
 amalgamate the valuable qualities of 
 the two breeds. In consequence of 
 the cross, the wether attained its 
 maturity a full year sooner than it 
 was accustomed to do, and the fleece 
 became finer and improved in colour, 
 but it was shorter and more brittle, 
 and not fitted for some of its former 
 purposes. On the whole, a great im- 
 provement has been effected botli in 
 the carcass and the fleece ; and so 
 satisfactory did this prove, that it is 
 now difficult to find any sheep in Lin- 
 colnshire that have not been crossed 
 with the Leicesters. This cross is 
 deeper on the wolds than in the marsh 
 lands, which may serve to account 
 for the difference of the fleece in the 
 two. The breed of these sheep gen- 
 erally has been greatly increased 
 since the introduction of the turnip 
 system. 
 
 " Among the long-wooUed sheep 
 that have been improved by the ad- 
 mixture of the old and new long- 
 woolled breeds and the altered sys- 
 tem of husbandry, the Romncy Marsh 
 must not be forgotten. From time 
 immemorial the produce in wool and 
 thethickness in stockingwere scarce- 
 ly equalled in any other breed or sit- 
 uation. The Kentish men obstinate- 
 ly resisted every encroachment on 
 their favourite breed, and predicted 
 disappointment and loss in every pos- 
 sible form. For a while it seemed 
 as if tliey had reason on their side, 
 for the size of the sheep was consid- 
 erably lessened, and the wool was 
 not so valuable, nor yielded in its for- 
 mer quantity. By degrees, however, 
 it began to be found that these small- 
 er, deeper, closer, and more compact 
 sheep weighed heavier than the old 
 long-legged and long-bodied ones ; 
 that they did not consume so much 
 food, that the hard stocking of former 
 days might be increased, that they 
 were ready a full year sooner for the 
 market, and therefore became far 
 700 
 
 more profitable. That the fat form- 
 rd more on the exterior of the an- 
 imal, where it was advantageously 
 placed for the farmer and the consu- 
 mer, and did not accumulate within 
 for the profit of the butcher alone : 
 and that, by careful selection, al- 
 though the wool was somewhat short- 
 er and lighter, it was improved in 
 firmness and colour and felling prop- 
 erty. 
 
 " Some valuable breeds of long- 
 woolled sheep are found in the South 
 Hams in Devonshire, extending from 
 Axminster to Dartmoor, and lYom 
 the north of Devon to the vale of 
 Taunton, under the name of the 
 Bampton sheep, and also, but small- 
 er in number and size, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Exmoor. 
 
 " The Cotswold sheep {Fig. 3), so 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 called from the cots or sheds in which 
 they were housed, formerly inhabited 
 the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, 
 and Worcester. They were a long- 
 woolled breed, yielding, formerly, a 
 description of wool much valued on 
 account of the fabrics in the con- 
 struction of which it was employed. 
 Even they, like the rest, have amal- 
 gamated themselves with and been, 
 in a manner, lost among the Leices- 
 ters. They were taller than the pres- 
 ent sheep, flat-sided, deficient in the 
 fore quarter, but full in the hind quar- 
 ter, not fattening so early, but yield- 
 ing a long and heavy fleece. Many 
 of these good qualities have been pre- 
 served, and to them have been added 
 that which is of so much importance 
 to the farmer, the capability of rear- 
 ing and fattening so many more sheep 
 on the same quantity of land, and of 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 hringring' them so much earlier to the 
 rnarkct. 
 
 " Spanish Sheep.— The English wool 
 bcin<j, from the increased coarseness 
 of the fibre, rejected hy the manufac- 
 turer in the eonstrution of fine cloths, 
 recourse was had to foreign wools, 
 and to those chiefly that were de- 
 rived from the Merino sheep {Fig. 4). 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 As early as the commencement of the 
 Christian era, the wool of the Spanish 
 sheep was in great request for the 
 production of the most costly dresses. 
 In less than half a century afterward 
 we find Columella busily employed 
 Ih improving the Spanish sheep, and 
 the effect of his labours remained 
 during the long dark ages that suc- 
 ceeded. The Merino flocks with- 
 stood the baneful influence of almost 
 total neglect, and continued, to a 
 greater or less degree, to furnish the 
 finest and the choicest wool. 
 
 " By degrees the Merino sheep 
 found its way to almost every part 
 of the European continent, and by 
 careful management its fleece rapidly 
 increased in fineness and in useful- 
 ness. In 1834, the prime wool pro- 
 duced in Spain readdy found a sale at 
 from 3*. 6(1. to 45. per lb. In Saxony 
 it reached to 5s. 3d. per lb., and in some 
 parts of Hungary to 5s. Qd. In Aus- 
 tralia the cultivation of the Merino 
 sheep and its fleece has proceeded 
 most rapidly and prosperously. 
 
 " The Merino sheep are small in 
 size, with flat sides, narrow chests, 
 and long legs. The wool is usually 
 white, but darker on the legs, and 
 face, and ears, and a tuft of coarse 
 wool is found on the forehead ; the 
 Nn n3 
 
 skin is of a reddish colour, and there 
 is a looseness of the skin under the 
 throat, wiiich is considered favoura- 
 ble, as indicative of good fleece. The 
 males have large spiral horns, but the 
 females are without any. \\'iih these 
 peculiarities, it must be evident that, 
 as regards the carcass, the Merino is 
 by no means a profitable animal, and 
 to this nmst be added, that they are 
 bad nurses, so that one hundred ewes 
 will not bring up more than fifty 
 lambs ; they are also by no means 
 hardy, and the flesh is inferior. To 
 atone for these bad qualities, the wool 
 is superior to every other kind, and 
 forms, indeed, the principal source 
 of profit ; the fleece is close, short, 
 and abounding in yolk, weighing 
 hi^avy, and is superior to all others 
 m its felling properties. 
 
 " It is computed that not less than 
 ten millions, or a moiety of the whole 
 number of sheep kept in Spain, are 
 migratory, and occupy no less than a 
 quarter of the year in going and re- 
 turning to their summer and winter 
 pastures. These Transhumantes, as 
 they are termed, leave their winter 
 quarters in the south about the mid- 
 dle of April, and proceed slowly on 
 their six weeks' journey. One divis- 
 ion travels towards the east, and the 
 other in a more westerly direction. 
 During their journey they are shorn 
 in large buildings, built expressly for 
 the purpose, which are divided into 
 two large compartments, with a small- 
 er one adjoining. Those sheep which 
 are to be sheared first are driven into 
 the small hut as closely as possible, 
 and there remain throughout the 
 night, so as to occasion a consider- 
 able sweat, which softens the unctu- 
 ous matter, and renders the shearing 
 easier. No previous washing is em- 
 ployed, but in this manner a thousand 
 are shorn in a day, there being a suf- 
 ficient number of shearers in attend- 
 ance for the purpose. This singular 
 custom, which has existed for cen- 
 turies, is protected by certain laws, 
 which give to these sheep the right 
 of pasturage on the common lands on 
 their passage, and regulate other 
 matters relating to it. The wool is 
 701 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 divided into three different parcels, as 
 it is taken from tiie back, riiinp, and 
 tliijilis, and shoulders, or liead, belly, 
 and hocks, and these are respectively 
 valued as supertine. tine, and waste. 
 The wool is washed first in water at 
 120^ Fahrenheit, and afterward in 
 running brooks. It is stated that 
 there are no less than fifty thousand 
 shepherds employed in tending these 
 sheep, which are generally divided 
 into flocks of a thousand each. These 
 shepherds are a singular race of men, 
 sleeping on the ground while on their 
 journey, and living in huts during the 
 rest of the year, and existing on a 
 spare diet, varied occasionally with 
 some mutton from their flocks, which 
 accident or disease may have afford- 
 ed them. 
 
 " The sheep remain in their sum- 
 mer quarters till September, when 
 they set out for their return. The 
 rams are put to the ewes in July, so 
 that tlie lambs are dropped soon after 
 the fiock arrives at their winter 
 quarters. 
 
 " In these long and tiresome jour- 
 neys, it cannot be otherwise than ex- 
 pected that great loss should be ex- 
 perienced from casualties and dis- 
 ease. A great mortality takes place, 
 and no less than half the lambs are 
 destroyed, in order that the others 
 should have the advantage of a double 
 number of nurses. Tlie migratory 
 system is more ancient than advan- 
 tageous. It would, indeed, be far 
 more profitable if the sheep were 
 stationary, and the breed varied so 
 as each to be bred on the most suit- 
 able pastures. 
 
 " The stationary sheep are termed 
 Estantes, and consist partly of large 
 sheep, and partly of .^Terinos, besides 
 the mixed breeds ; and it is found that 
 the stationary Merinos do better than 
 the migratory ones in every respect. 
 
 " For many centuries the Merino 
 sheep were confined to Spain, and 
 preserved with jealous care. Sweden 
 appears to have been the first country 
 which succeeded in procuring them ; 
 and in 1723 a small flock was im- 
 ported from Spain, and there are now 
 about seven hundred thousand in 
 702 
 
 Sweden, but they are somewhat in- 
 ferior to the original breed. In 
 I'Vance many attempts have be(>n 
 made to cultivate them during the 
 last century, but altogether with but 
 little success. In Germany, how- 
 ever, the experiment has been emi- 
 nently successful. The Elector of 
 Saxony introduced the first flock in 
 17G5, and about ten years afterward 
 another small flock was brought to 
 Austria; and in 1786 and 1802 they 
 were introduced to the imperial do- 
 mains of Holditch in Hungary, and 
 Maunersdorf in Austria. Such is the 
 origin of the German Merino, which 
 has now spread so extensively over 
 these vast countries. There appear 
 to be now two distinct breeds, differ- 
 ing from each other both in appear- 
 ance and the quality of the wool. 
 First, the Infantado, or Negretti, hav-^ 
 ing shorter legs and a stouter body 
 than the others, and the head and 
 neck comparatively short and broad ; 
 the nose short and somewhat turned 
 up, and the body round. The wool, 
 observes Mr. Carr, is often matted 
 upon the neck, back, and thighs, and 
 grows upon the head to the eyes, and 
 upon the legs to the very feet. The 
 grease in its fleece is almost pitchy, 
 so as to render the washing ditlicult. 
 This breed is descended from the 
 sheep imported directly from Spain 
 into Austria, while the other breed, 
 called Escurial, are those which were 
 first imported into Saxony. They 
 have longer legs, with a long, spare 
 neck and head, with very little wool 
 on the latter ; and a finer, shorter, 
 and softer character in its fleece, but 
 less in quantity than the other breed 
 The fleece, in the Escurial, averages 
 from one and a half to two pounds in 
 ewes, and two to three pounds in 
 rams and wethers ; while in the In- 
 fantados it is from two and a quarter 
 to three and a quarter in ewes, and 
 from four to six pounds in rams and 
 wethers. 
 
 " Many attempts have been made 
 to amalgamate these breeds, but 
 without success ; the advantages ol 
 each can only be retained by pre- 
 serving them pure. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 " ' These sheep,' observes Mr. 
 Carr, a large owner in Germany, 
 • cannot thrive in a damp climate, 
 and it is qnite necessar}' that they 
 should have a wide range of dry and 
 hilly pasture of short and not over 
 nutritious herbage. If allowed to 
 feed on swampy or marshy ground, 
 even once or twice, in autumn, thcij 
 arc sure to die of liver complaint in the 
 folloicing spring. If they are per- 
 mitted to eat wet grass, or exposed 
 frequently to rain, they disappear by 
 hundreds with consumption. In these 
 countries it is found that the higher 
 bred the sheep is, especially the Es- 
 curial, the more tender. They are 
 always housed at night, even in sum- 
 mer, except in the very finest weath- 
 er, when they are sometimes folded 
 in the distant fallows, but never taken 
 to pasture tilt the dew is off the grass. 
 In the winter they are kept within 
 doors altogether, and are fed with a 
 small quantity of sound hay, and ev- 
 ery variety of straw, which has not 
 suffered from wet, and which is vari- 
 ed at each feed ; they pick it over 
 carefully, eating the finer parts, and 
 any grain that may have been left by 
 the thrashers. Abundance of good 
 uater to drink, and rock-salt in their 
 cribs, are indispensables.' By these 
 means the Saxon sheep has been 
 formed, which is more valuable in 
 the fleece than the Merinos. 
 
 " Our notice of the sheep in other 
 countries must be exceedingly brief 
 Alsng the western coast of France 
 the traveller continually meets with 
 the semblance of those noble ani- 
 mals which Edward IV. permitted 
 to be annually sent to improve the 
 breed of foreign sheep on the other 
 side of the Channel. The wool is 
 now about the same in value as that 
 ot' our inferior Lincoln or Keptish. 
 In Normandy is a larger and a coars- 
 er variety of the same breed. In the 
 old province of Maine succeeds the 
 old, unimproved, long, and thin-car- 
 cassed native French breed. In Bre- 
 tagne and Gascony will be recognised 
 the native short-wools, some of them 
 exceedingly valuable ; in Navarre, a 
 mountain breed, with its kempy fleece ; 
 
 in the Lower and the Higher Pyre- 
 nees, the two essentially different 
 breeds which countries so ditlcrent, 
 yet so near to each other, produce. 
 On entering Rousillon some migrato- 
 ry breeds scarcely inferior to the 
 Merinos are found, and also in Lan- 
 guedoc and Aries. The whole num- 
 ber of sheep in France is calculated 
 at about 30,000,000. The royal Me- 
 rinos are called Rambouillcts. 
 
 " Notwithstanding the accounts 
 given by some authors of the Italian 
 sheep, and of the care bestowed on 
 them, there are \'e\v deserving of no- 
 tice except some Merinos. With the 
 exception of a few of the valleys, 
 the same may be said of the Swiss, 
 and also of the Savoy sheep, but in 
 Piedmont there has been from time 
 immemorial a breed of sheep inferi- 
 or only to the Merinos. In most of 
 the German States, the Merino, the 
 Saxon breed, is almost the only sheep 
 that is cultivated. It is the same in 
 Prussia, except that the sheep are 
 somewhat diminished in size, while 
 the wool retains all its value. The 
 chief wealth of Hungary is derived 
 from the cultivation of the Merino 
 sheep. Of the two Hanoverian breeds, 
 the larger one has almost disap- 
 peared ; the smaller has been cross- 
 ed with the Merinos, and yields a 
 wool of some value for ordinary pur- 
 poses. The Dutch and Flemish breeds 
 are of English origin, although some 
 of them have considerable resem- 
 blance to the Irish long-woolled breed. 
 Their wool is used for the production 
 of the coarser kinds of goods." 
 
 The following answers to queries 
 are by Judge Buel, and peculiarly 
 adapted to this season : 
 
 " What sheep are the most profit- 
 able ! The Saxon and Spanish Me- 
 rino for fleece ; the South Down 
 and new Leicester for mutton. The 
 fleece would probably be the most de- 
 sirable object in Tennessee and the 
 West. 
 
 " What is the best time to move 
 them'! In September. 
 
 " What pasture bests suits them, 
 andhowmanycanbe kept on an acrel • 
 Sheep want a dry pasture, and if hilly 
 703 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 and stony, the better. Although they 
 will thrive best upon good herbage, 
 such as other farm slock like, they 
 will live where other animals will 
 starve. They bite close. An acre of 
 good pasture will summer six sheep. 
 
 " How many should be kept togeth- 
 er ] what shelter do they require, and 
 what food, in winter 1 The number 
 in small enclosures, or in a yard, or 
 in a shed, should not exceed 100 : 
 when in large pastures, it may ex- 
 ceed 100 ; sheds are only neces- 
 sary to protect them from storms, 
 and to keep them dry in winter. 
 They want air and exercise. Sheep 
 are kept upon hay and straw in win- 
 ter ; some add oats, or corn, or roots, 
 either of which is serviceable in 
 keeping them in good plight. One 
 quart of grain may be given to a doz- 
 en sheep per day, beginning to feed 
 with a less quantity. In Tennessee 
 sheep will get much from the pas- 
 tures in winter, where they should be 
 permitted to range in dry weather. 
 
 " How is wool managed for expor- 
 tation, the time of shearing, &c.1 
 The wool is carefully rolled up, each 
 fleece separate, and tied, and sent to 
 market in bales like those used for 
 cotton. Shearing is generally per- 
 formed here in June, after the cold 
 rains have subsided. It is consider- 
 ed bad policy to shear lambs the first 
 season, as they want their fleece to 
 protect them during our cold winters, 
 and it is found that nothing is gained 
 by early shearing. It is advisable 
 to tag ewes in spring and autumn. 
 Sheep enrich the land on which they 
 run. A good shepherd and his dog 
 can take care of 1000 to 1500 sheep, 
 or more, and feed them in winter." 
 
 " This will be the proper place to 
 speak of the shearing of the sheep, or 
 the separation of the fleece from the 
 animal. The time for this operation 
 will vary much with the state of the 
 animal, and of the season. After a 
 cold winter, and the animal having 
 been neglected, the sheep will be 
 ready at an early period, for the old 
 coat will be loosened and easily re- 
 moved. The operation should never 
 be commenced until the old wool has 
 704 
 
 separated from the skin, and a new 
 coat of wool is sprouting up. The 
 coldness or warmth of the spring will 
 also make a great difference. The 
 usual time for shearing is about the 
 middle of May, and the sheep-master 
 will in a moment perceive when the 
 fitting time is come. It is a bad prac- 
 tice to delay the shearing, for the old 
 fleece will probably have separated, 
 and the fly will have longer time to 
 do mischief, and the growth of the 
 new fleece will have been stinted, or 
 a portion of it will be cut away by 
 the shears. 
 
 " Cu stom has very properly required 
 that the old fleece shall be cleansed 
 before its removal, by washing the 
 animal in some running stream. Two 
 or three days are then allowed for 
 the drying of the wool previous to its 
 being shorn, the sheep being turned 
 into a clean rick-yard, or field, or dry 
 pasture, and remaining there until 
 the fleece is dried, and that the new 
 yolk, which is rapidly secreted, may 
 penetrate through it, giving it a little 
 additional weight and a peculiar soft- 
 ness. As soon as the sheep is shorn, 
 the mark of the owner is placed upon 
 it, consisting of lamp-black and tal- 
 low, with a small portion of tar, melt- 
 ed together. This will not be wash- 
 ed away by any rain, but may be re- 
 moved by the application of soap and 
 water. 
 
 " On the score of humanity, one 
 custom must be decidedly protested 
 against — the shearing of a flock of 
 sheep before they are driven to the 
 market in an early part of the spring. 
 The farmer thinks that he shall get 
 nearly or quite the same price for the 
 sheep whether the wool is off or on. 
 But does he find this to be the case 1 
 When the poor animals are shivering 
 under the influence of the cold air, do 
 they look so attractive! Do they 
 handle well 1 Is there not an ap- 
 pearance of disease about them 1 
 Does not the rheum that hangs about 
 the nostrils indicate the actual com- 
 mencement of diseased 
 
 " Few rules can be laid down with 
 regard to the rearing and feeding of 
 sheep that will admit of anything like 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 general application. A great deal 
 depends on the kind of sheep, and 
 the nature of the pasture and the 
 food. 
 
 "Suppose the larger kind of sheep, 
 and on arable ground. The ewes are 
 generally ready to receive the ram 
 at the beginning of October, and the 
 duration of pregnancy is from about 
 twenty-one to twenty-three weeks, 
 bringing the period of parturition to 
 nearly the beginning of .March, at 
 which time most of the lambs will be 
 dropped. It is best to postpone the 
 tu[)ping till November, so that the 
 lambs may be dropped in April, when 
 there is grass. The ewes should be 
 fed rather better than usual a short 
 time previous to the male being in- 
 troduced. Rams are fit to propagate 
 their species in October and Novem- 
 ber of the second year, and that is 
 also the proper period for the im- 
 pregnation of the ewes. Tiie ewe is, 
 after impregnation, suffered to graze 
 on the usual pasture, being supplied, | 
 as occasion may require, with extra 
 food, and especially in cases of snow, 
 until within five or six weeks of 
 lambing, when turnips or roots are 
 given to her, and continued from that 
 time until the spring of grass renders 
 them no longer necessary. The tur- 
 nips are laid out for the ewes in the 
 grass fields in certain quantities each 
 day, but by no means so many as 
 they would consume if permitted to 
 feed without restriction, as it is con- 
 sidered to be most important that 
 they should not be too fat when the 
 lambing season approaches. The 
 hogs and the fattening sheep of the 
 previous year, now one year and a 
 half old, are put upon the turnips 
 wlienever the pastures cease to im- 
 prove their condition. The turnips 
 required for the cattle, or the ewe 
 flock, are then drawn off in alternate 
 rows, in the proportion of one half, 
 one third, or one fourth, as the con- 
 venience of the situation, the good- 
 ness of the crop, or the quality of the 
 land may dictate. The remainder are 
 consumed on the ground by the oth- 
 er sheep. 
 
 "As the period of parturition ap- 
 
 proaches, the attention of the shep- 
 herd should increase. There should 
 be no dogirin^r then, but the ewes 
 j should be driven to some sheltered 
 enclosure, and there left as much as 
 possible undisturbed. Siiould abor- 
 tion take place with regard to any of 
 them, although it does not spread 
 through the flock as in cattle, yet the 
 ewe should be immediately removed 
 to another enclosure, and small doses 
 of Epsom salts, with gentian and gin- 
 ger, administered to her, no great 
 (}uantity of nutritive food being al- 
 lowed. 
 
 " The ewes should now be moved 
 as near home as convenience will 
 permit, in order that they may be un- 
 der the immediate observation of the 
 lamber. The operation of clalting 
 (tagging), or the removal of the hair 
 from under the tail and around the 
 udder, should be effected on every 
 long-woolled ewe, otherwise the lamb 
 may be prevented from sucking by 
 means of the dirt which often accu- 
 mulates there, and the lamber may 
 not be able at all times to ascertain 
 what ewes have actually lambed. The 
 clattmg before the approach of win- 
 ter is a useless, cruel, and danger- 
 ous operation. 
 
 " The period of lambing having ac- 
 tually commenced, the shepherd must 
 be on the alert, yet not unnecessari- 
 ly worrying or disturbing the ewes. 
 The process of nature should be per- 
 mitted quietly to take its course, un- 
 less the sufferings of the mother are 
 unusually great, or the progress of 
 the labour has been arrested during 
 several hours, or eighteen or twenty 
 hours or more have passed since the 
 labour commenced." 
 
 " The following very useful obser- 
 vations, from an essay by Mr. Cleeve, 
 in the first volume of the ' Journal ot 
 the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England,' are worthy of much con- 
 sideration : ' The shepherd must not 
 be led, by the appearance of uneasi 
 ness and pain, to interfere premature 
 ly ; he must watch the ewe closely, 
 and so long as she rises at his ap- 
 proach, he may be assured that, what 
 ever uneasiness she may exhibit, aH 
 705 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 is well. Much uneasiness is poner- 
 ally apparent ; she will r('|)oato(ily lie 
 down, and rise ai,'ain with seeining 
 distress. ICthisoeetirs wi)en driving 
 her to fold, he must he very cautious 
 and gentle in urging her. These 
 symptoms ought to be continued for 
 two or three hours, or even more, he- 
 fore he feels imperatively called on 
 to interfere, except the lainh is in 
 such a position as to warrant fears 
 of losing it. In cold weather partic- 
 ularly, the labour is likely to be pro- 
 tracted. Sliould the ewe ajipear ex- 
 hausted, and gradually sinking under 
 iier labour, it will be right to give 
 her some oatmeal gruel, with a little 
 linseed, in the proportion of a spoon- 
 ful of the latter to two of tiie former. 
 When the ewe feels tliat she is una- 
 ble of herself to expel the lamb, she 
 will quietly submit to the shepherd's 
 assistance. In giving her this assist- 
 ance, his first duty is to ascertain 
 whether the presentation is natural. 
 The natural presentation is with the 
 muzzle foremost, and a foot on each 
 side of it. Should all be right in this 
 respect, he must proceed to disen- 
 gage the lamb, first very gently draw- 
 ing down the legs, and with all pos- 
 sible tenderness sinoothing and facil- 
 itating the passing of tiie head with 
 his fingers, rather than forcibly ex- 
 tricating it, the particular attention 
 of the shepherd being given to these 
 points. This may be effected by pass- 
 ing the finger up the rectum, until 
 he feels the back of the lamb's head, 
 and then urging it forward at the 
 same time that he gently pulls the 
 legs. Sometimes the head is suf- 
 ficieritly advanced, but the legs are 
 too backward. In this case the head 
 must be gently pushed back, and the 
 hand being well oiled, must be intro- 
 duced into the vagina, and applied to 
 the legs so as to place them in their 
 natural position, equal with the head. 
 Should the fore feet, on the other 
 hand, protrude, they must in like 
 manner be returned, and the same 
 assistance given to advance the head. 
 If the hinder quarters present them- 
 selves first, the hand must be ap- 
 plied to get hold of both the hind legs 
 706 
 
 together, and draw them gently hut 
 firmly : the laml) may often be easily 
 removed in this po.sition. It is no 
 unconunon occurrence to find the 
 head of the lamb protruding, and much 
 swollen ; but still, by patience and 
 gentle irianipulalion. it may often be 
 gradually brought forward ; or even 
 nature, not unduly interfered with, 
 will complete her work if the pelvis 
 is not very much deformed. Sliould, 
 however, the strength of the mother 
 be rapidly wasting, the head may be 
 taken away ; and then, the operator 
 pushing back the lamb, may intro- 
 duce his hand, and laying hold of the 
 fore legs, effect the delivery. It also 
 often happens that the legs are thrust 
 out to the shoulder, and from the 
 throes of the ewe, it is not possible 
 to replace them so as to get up the 
 head of the lamb. By partially skin- 
 ning the legs, you may disunite them 
 t>om the shoulder-joint; there will 
 then be room for the introduction of 
 the hand, and by laying hold of the 
 head you can deliver the ewe. A 
 single season of practice will do more 
 than voluiTies of writing to prepare 
 the farmer for the precedmg and some 
 other cases of difficult labour. Bu'; 
 let hiiTi bear in mind that, as a gen- 
 eral rule, the foetus should, if possible, 
 he placed in its natural position pre- 
 viously to any attempt to extricate 
 it by force. When force must be 
 used, it should be as gentle as is con- 
 sistent with the object of delivery. 
 I need scarcely observe that the ewe 
 must be the object of careful nursing 
 and care, until she is completely re- 
 stored.' 
 
 " Abortion. — Though not so com- 
 mon as in cows, this disease, as it 
 may be termed, sometimes occurs 
 very extensively, and becomes of se- 
 rious consequence to the sheep-own- 
 er, disarranging all his plans, as well 
 as occasioning a severe pecuniary 
 loss. It may occur at all periods of 
 pregnancy, but is most frequent when 
 the ewe is about half gone. The 
 causes of abortion are various: sud- 
 den fright, jumping over hedges or 
 ditches, being worried with dogs, and 
 the too free use of salt, have all been 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 known to produce it ; but that which [turnips ; they should have instead 
 causes it more than anything else is | some dry pasture, and be well sup- 
 the unlimited use ot" turnips and sue- plied with hay. If feed is short, the 
 culent food. .Many farmers may have, turnips may be drawn and given them 
 doubtless, been in the habit of per- | on the ground in moderate (piantities, 
 niitting this with impunity, and would ! or, wliicli is better, cut up and mi.\ed 
 therefore be disposed to doubt the with chaff, or bruised corn in troughs. 
 
 evil consequences of the practice ; 
 but it is not in every season that it is 
 attended with the danger ; but when 
 vegetation has been abundant in the 
 autumn, and the winter has been 
 unusually wet, there is considerable 
 probability of the ewes casting their 
 iambs. Such was the case during 
 the past spring in numerous instan- 
 ces in this locality, and several of 
 which came under my own particu- 
 lar attention. One farmer had near- 
 ly a hundred aborted, and lost a good 
 many of the ewes. They had been 
 turned on a fine field of turnips, and 
 subsisted entirely on them and wa- 
 ter-meadow hay for some time pre- 
 vious to the commencement of the 
 mischief, which began soon after 
 Christmas, and continued for several 
 weeks. Though the greater number 
 of ewes recovered, yet they suffered 
 much, and some died from inflamma- 
 tion of the womb, and others became 
 paralyzed 
 
 It is better that the condition of tlie 
 ewes be in some degree impaired, 
 than that so great a danger as abor- 
 tion should be incurred. If this pre- 
 caution has not been observed, and 
 abortion should appear, what then is 
 to be done ! The flock should be re- 
 moved from the turnips to a dry pas- 
 ture, and supplied with the best hay 
 on the farm ; the aborted parts should 
 be carefully buried, and the ewe re- 
 moved from the rest ; and, if possi- 
 ble, the same man that attends the 
 flock should not touch or go near the 
 abortion, for there is very consider- 
 able danger from infection. The ewe 
 should be placed in a sheltered situa- 
 tion, but allowed plenty of fresh air, 
 and the following medicine may ba 
 given with some nourishing gruel • 
 
 Epsom salts 4 ounce. 
 
 Tincture of opium . . . 1 drachm. 
 Powdered camphor . ■ i " 
 
 " The two latter medicines maybe 
 repeated the following day, but not 
 
 The symptoms first manifested | the salts, unless the bowels are con- 
 are dulness and refusal to feed ; the fined 
 
 ewe will be seen moping at a corner 
 of the fold, and will be heard to bleat 
 more than usual. To these succeed 
 restlessness, and often trembling, with 
 
 The immediate cause of death in 
 fatal cases is inflammation of the 
 uterus or womb." 
 
 If any of the newly-dropped lambs 
 
 slight labour pains, and in the course ■ are weak, or scarcely able to stand, 
 of twelve hours abortion will have he must give them a little of the milk, 
 taken place. Sometimes the parts which at these times he should al- 
 will be so relaxed, that the uterus or \ ways carry about him. or he must 
 vat^ina will become inverted, and the p.'ace them m some sheltered, warm 
 expulsion of the placenta will precede ,' place ; in the course of a little while, 
 that of the foetus. In the flock be- ! the young one wdl probably be able 
 fore alluded to the lamb was almost ' to join its dam. The lambmg field 
 universally dead, and often exceed- often presents at this period a strange 
 iniilv offensive, and the abdomen was spectacle. 'Some of the younger 
 distended with a bloody, watery fluid, j ewes, in the pain, and confusion, and 
 pointin'T out pretty clearly the nature i fright of their first parturition, aban- 
 and source of the disease. I don their lambs. Many of them, when 
 
 " The treatment to be adopted is of the udder begins to fill, will search 
 two kinds,"prcventive and curative : ! out their offspring with unerring pre- 
 the former, however, is the most im- ; cision ; others will search in vain for 
 portant. In the first place, it is iin- • it in every part of the field with in- 
 prudent to turn ewes in lamb into \ cessant and piteous bleating ; others, 
 I I I 2 707 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 afrain, will hano; over their dead ofT- 
 spriiiR, from which nolhinfT oan sep- 
 arate them, while a few, strangely 
 forgetting tliat they are mothers, will 
 graze unconcernedly with the rest of 
 the flock.' 
 
 " The shepherd will often have not 
 a little to do in order to reconcile 
 some of the mothers to their twin 
 offspring. The ewe will occasionally 
 refuse to acknowledge one of the 
 lambs. The shepherd will have to 
 reconcile the little one to its unnatu- 
 ral parent, or to find a better mother 
 for it. If the mothers obstinately 
 refuse to do their duty, they must be 
 folded by themselves until they are 
 better disposed ; and, on the other 
 hand, if the little one is weak and 
 perverse, he must be repeatedly for- 
 ced to swallow a portion of her milk 
 until he acknowledges the food which 
 nature designed for him." 
 
 It is said that placifig salt on the 
 back of the lamb, and inducing the 
 ewe to lick it, is a certain method 
 of causing them to recognise their 
 young. 
 
 Castration. — The following method 
 is by Mr. Spooner : 
 
 " The earlier this operation is per- 
 formed, the less likely is it to be fol- 
 lowed by injurious effects. A fa- 
 vourable day should be selected, dry, 
 but neither hot nor cold ; and if the 
 flock is considerable, it will be better 
 to operate upon the lambs at differ- 
 ent periods, by which they can all be 
 operated on at pretty nearly the same 
 age, than to wait and perform tlie 
 whole at the same time : a fortnight 
 is a very good age. It will also save 
 trouble, and be quite as well, to doek 
 them at the same time. There are 
 different methods of performing the 
 operation, but the following, which 
 we have generally practised, is as 
 expeditious, convenient, little painful, 
 and satisfactory as any : 
 
 "The operator sits astride on a 
 long stool, with one of the lamb's 
 hind legs under each thigh, the fore 
 legs and head being held by an as- 
 sistant. With the finger and thumb 
 of the left hand, he draws up the low- 
 er part of the scrotum or bag, and 
 708 
 
 cuts off a portion of the skin A'ith a 
 sharpscalpcl or knife, lie then grasps 
 tiie U[)[)cr part of the scrotum, which 
 forces the testicles forward, and with 
 one incision separates the part which 
 divides the testicles, sufliciently to 
 cause them both to escape from the 
 bag. He then places the iron clams 
 on the cords above the testicles, and 
 with a hot iron divides the cords, and 
 the operation is completed. By re- 
 moving a portion of the skin, though 
 the wound is rather longer healing, 
 there is less likelihood of matter col- 
 lecting within the bag. A little lard 
 may be smeared on the parts after- 
 ward, to keep off the fleas, &c. Before 
 the operation is performed the bag 
 should be examined, in order to find 
 whether any rupture exists, in which 
 case some of the intestines will have 
 escaped into the scrotum. In such 
 case, the operation must be perfornr- 
 ed in a more careful and difficult man- 
 ner. Four small slips of wood, about 
 four inches in length, must first be 
 provided. Two sticks of elder cut in 
 half will be most suitable ; and it 
 will be better if the pith is removed 
 and the vacancy filled with some 
 caustic. One end of each pair must 
 be fastened together with waxed 
 thread. The intestines should be 
 gently forced up into the abdomen, at 
 any rate as high as possible. An in- 
 cision should then be carefully made 
 over each testicle, and through the 
 skin alone : the testicle, with its cov- 
 erings, should then be pressed through 
 the opening in the skin, which, being 
 held back, the elder-sticks should be 
 placed on the cord above the testicle ; 
 and one end having been previously 
 united, the other should be brought 
 together, and firmly tied by an assist- 
 ant with waxed thread. The other 
 testicle may then be operated on in a 
 similar manner. Care must be taken 
 that neither the skin nor any portion 
 of the intestine be included m the 
 wooden clams, and they must be 
 pressed together as closely as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 " In the course of three or four 
 days the lamb should be examined ; 
 and if the testicle has fallen off, or 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 can be removed by the hand, the 
 thread may be cut and the clams re- 
 moved. 
 
 " In castrating full-grown lambs, it 
 is bettor to take out each testicle 
 separately, through an incision made 
 into each compartment of the scro- 
 tum, and the same method may be 
 adopted as is practised with the horse. 
 
 " Dockintf. — Tliis simple ojjeration 
 is performed on most lambs at an 
 early age, generally, and very prop- 
 erly, at tlie period of castration. In 
 the Dorset and Somei"set horned 
 sheep, and a few others, it is, how- 
 ever, customary to leave the tails ; 
 but if diarrhcea should attack the 
 lamb, a.s it is likely to do in some de- 
 gree, the long tails harbour tilth, and 
 sometimes cause sores, on which the 
 fly will deposite its eggs. 
 
 " The best method of performing 
 the operation is to place the tail on a 
 block of wood, and excise it with a 
 sharp iron red hot, about four inches 
 from tlie root. It may, however, be 
 cut off without any bad efTect." 
 
 " Unless the pasture on which the 
 ewes are placed is very good, it will 
 be advisable to continue the use of 
 the turnips or roots. A moderate 
 quantity may be given twice in the 
 day, care being taken that the whole 
 of one quantity shall be eaten before 
 any more is placed before them. 
 This is a better practice than hurdling 
 off certain portions of the tield for 
 the sheep, unless the land is perfect- 
 ly dry. 
 
 " A little hay will always be ser- 
 viceable while the flock is fed on tur- 
 nips. It corrects the occasional wa- 
 tery quality of the turnips, and the 
 sheep usually thrive better than if 
 they are fed either on hay or turnips 
 alone. Bran and oats, with oil-cake, 
 have been recommended for the ewes 
 before weaning time ; but this is an 
 expensive measure, and its cost can 
 hardly be repaid either by the ewe or 
 the lamb. 
 
 " By the end of March or the be- 
 ginning of April the turnips are gen- 
 erally nearly consumed, and the farm- 
 er is occasionally a little puzzled to 
 lind sufficient food lor his Hock. He 
 o 
 
 should have had some plots of rye to 
 support them for a while. Rye grass 
 and clover are very serviceable. Swe- 
 dish turnips that have been carefully 
 stacked on dry straw will be most 
 useful, for the .Swedes, properly pre- 
 pared and housed, will retain their 
 nutritive quality until the flock can 
 be conveniently supplied with other 
 food. Ruta baga are always useful 
 for spring food. The after-grass like- 
 wise furnishes plentiful and whole- 
 some food for the lambs. 
 
 " At length comes the time for 
 weaning. In a poor country it takes 
 place before the lambs are much more 
 than three months old. In a more 
 plentiful one the lambs may be left 
 until the fourth month is nearly or 
 quite expired. If the pasture is good, 
 and it is intended to sell the lambs in 
 store condition, the weaning may be 
 delayed until six months. Which- 
 ever time is selected, it is of essential 
 consequeuce that the mothers and 
 the dams should be placed so far 
 apart that they cannot hear the bleat- 
 ings of each other. The ewes should 
 be somewhat carefully looked after, 
 and if any of them refuse to eat, they 
 should be caught, the state of the ud- 
 der ascertained, and proper measures 
 adopted. 
 
 " The lambs should not be put on 
 too stimulating food. The pasture 
 should be fresh and sweet, but not 
 luxuriant. It should be sufficient to 
 maintain and somewhat increase their 
 condition, but not to produce any dan- 
 gerous determination of blood to any 
 part. In the Northern and Eastern 
 States it will be advisable to house 
 sheep in large barns during winter. 
 
 " The Diseases of Sheep. — The rap- 
 id progress which the veterinary art 
 has lately made has thrown great 
 light on the maladies to which the 
 sheep is liable, and the mode of pre- 
 venting or removing them. 
 
 " Commencing with the muzzle 
 and head, there is a disease, or rath- 
 er annoyance, to which sheep are ex- 
 posed by the persecution of a fly, the 
 Oistrus ovis, or <sadjhj of ti:e sheep. 
 .\t a period between May and July 
 this fly is perseveringly endeavouring 
 709 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 to lay its eggs on the inner margin of 
 the nostril of tlie sheep, whence, 
 hatched by tlie warmth ami moisture 
 of the situation, and assiiminL; its lar- 
 va form, it crawls into the nostril in 
 order to reach the frontal sitms, or 
 cavities in the skull bone. Instinct- 
 ively alarmed by the buzzing of the 
 fly, or the motions of the larva;, the 
 sheep congregate with their heads in 
 the centre, pawing continually with 
 their feet, and expressing their dislike 
 and fear in every possible way. It re- 
 mains in the sinus a certain period, 
 until it has attained its full growth, 
 when it endeavours to escape, in or- 
 der to undergo another transforma- 
 tion. It escapes from the nostril, 
 burrows in the earth for a while, as- 
 sumes its pupa state, undergoes its 
 final change, and assimies the form 
 ofafly, and then becoming impregna- 
 ted, seeks again the nostril of the 
 sheep. All that can be done with re- 
 gard to this nuisance is to destroy the 
 flies, which are generally to be seen 
 on the walls or pales in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the flock, and which the 
 shepherd, or shepherd's boy, should 
 be taught to recognise. 
 
 "Another parasite is a species of 
 hydatid, the Ccennrus, or Hydatis 
 folyccphahts ccrchrulis. It has the ap- 
 pearance of a bladder, sometimes 
 filled with pellucid water, or, occa- 
 sionally, with myriads of minute 
 worms, or smaller hydatids. Its res- 
 idence is the brain, either beneath 
 the inner membrane of the brain, or 
 in the fissure between its two hemi- 
 spheres. The origin of it is not clear, 
 except that it is connected with bad 
 management, being scarcely known in 
 upland pastures, or in grounds that 
 have been well drained. As the par- 
 asite grows, it presses upon the 
 neighbouring substance of the brain, 
 and interferes with the discharge of 
 its functions. There is an aberration 
 of intellect ; the sheep is frightened 
 at any trifling or imaginary object ; he 
 separates himself from his compan- 
 ions ; he commences a strange rotato- 
 ry motion even while he grazes, with 
 the head always turned towards the 
 same side. This is the characteris- 
 710 
 
 tic symptom, and as soon as it is per- 
 ceived the animal should be destroy- 
 ed, for there is no certain cure, and 
 many of the operations that some 
 persons have flescribed are cruel and 
 ineflicient. The duty of the farmer 
 is to destroy the slurdicd sheep as soon 
 as the disease is ascertained, howev- 
 er poor it may be in condition." 
 
 It may be well to remark, that 
 when the hydatid is situated near the 
 bone, and especially in the forehead, 
 between and above the eyes, the skull 
 becomes soft at the place, and this 
 being discovered, a cure has some- 
 times been effected by cutting down- 
 ward through the soft bone, so as to 
 reach the hydatid ; if this is cut 
 through, it frequently dries ; and 
 should there be no more, a cure oc- 
 curs. The puncture should not reach 
 to the brain ; half an inch is enough. 
 
 " A somewhat similar disease, but 
 with which the hydatid has nothing 
 to do, is Hi/drorcphalus, or v:atcr in the 
 head, generally indicated by a little 
 enlargement of the. skull, a disincli- 
 nation to move, a slight staggering 
 in the walk, a stupidity of look, and 
 a rapid loss of condition. This dis- 
 ease seldom admits of cure or pallia- 
 tion. If any amendment can be ef- 
 fected, it will be by the administration 
 of good food, tonic medicine, and gen- 
 tle aperients. When water in the 
 head is an occasional visitant in a 
 flock of sheep, there is something 
 wrong in the land, or its management, 
 or in the nature of the food, or the 
 character of the sheep. 
 
 "Another species of pressure on 
 the brain is of too frequent occur- 
 rence — Apoplexy. A flock of sheep 
 shall be in apparently as good and 
 fine condition as the farmer can de- 
 sire. They have for a considerable 
 period grazed on the most luxuriant 
 pasture, and are apparently in the 
 highest state of health. By and by, 
 one or more of them is, without any 
 previously observed change, sudden- 
 ly taken ill. He staggers, is uncon- 
 scious, falls, and dies, and perhaps 
 within a quarter of an hour from the 
 first attack. With regard to how 
 many over-fattened sheep is this the 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 case? The owners, taking them to 
 some cattle-sliow, say that they died 
 of inflammation. Inflammation had 
 nothing to do with it. The sheep had 
 heen brought to the liighest and most 
 dangerous state ofoondition. Every 
 vessel was overloaded with blood, 
 and then some trifling exertion being 
 required, or the animal being a little 
 disturbed, the nervous functions were 
 suspended, and the vital current sud- 
 denly arrested. Very few persons 
 have gone into a cattle-show without 
 being painfully struck with the evi- 
 dent distress exhibited by some of 
 the over-gorged animals. 
 
 " If there is time for resorting to 
 curative means, the jugular vein 
 should be opened, and aperient medi- 
 cine administered. 
 
 " Inflammalion of the Brain is a fre- 
 quent consequence of this strange 
 over-feeding. It is ushered in by 
 dulness and disinclination to move ; 
 but presently the eye brightens, and 
 the animal attacks everything with- 
 in his reach. If it can be managed, 
 the same treatment must be adopted 
 — bleeding, phasic, and low feeding. 
 
 " Locked Jaw is not an unfrequent 
 disease among sheep. It commences 
 with an involuntary spasiriodic mo- 
 tion of the head, accoinpanied by 
 grinding of the teeth ; but the latter 
 symptom is presently succeeded by 
 fixedness of the jaws. The disease 
 often runs its course in a little more 
 than twelve hours. The principal 
 cause is cold and wet. After an un- 
 usually cold night, it is not uncom- 
 mon to find many ewes that have 
 lately lambed, and many lambs re- 
 cently dropped, dead and stiffened. 
 It sotnetimes occurs after castration, 
 and at weaning time. Bleeding, ape- 
 rient medicine, an opiate given an 
 hour after the physic, and also a warm 
 bath, are among the most likely means 
 of cure. 
 
 " Epilepsy is a not unfrequent dis- 
 ease among young sheej) which are 
 exposed too much to cold, or dismiss- 
 ed from the fold too soon in the morn- 
 ing. Care and nursing will some- 
 times recover them, or a little exer- 
 cise forced upon the patient. 
 
 " Palsy. — The appearance of this 
 disease is mostly confined to the ewe 
 and lamb at weaning time, or when 
 they are left at night in a bleak and 
 exposed situation. The vital heat is 
 abstracted by the cold bed on which 
 they lie, and the cold air around them, 
 and there follows a compound of 
 rheumatism and palsy, the latter pre- 
 dominant and most obstinate. In the 
 majority of cases they will never re- 
 gain tiieir former condition or value, 
 but continue a disgraceful exhibition 
 of the carelessness and inhumanity 
 of the owner. It is dreadful to think 
 how many animals in some districts 
 are thus destroyed. No little art and 
 kind treatment are in some cases re- 
 quisite in order to recover these neg- 
 lected and abused creatures. Warm 
 gruel or milk, and a moderate degree 
 of warmth, are the chief restoratives 
 that can at first with safety be appli- 
 ed. A little ginger and spirit of ni- 
 trous ffilher may be added to the gruel 
 when the patient begins to recover. 
 
 " Rabies. — The rabid dog seems to 
 have an irresistible propensity to 
 worry sheep, and the poison is as fa- 
 tal in this as in any other animal. 
 There are cases on record in which 
 from twenty to thirty have been bit- 
 ten by the same dog, and all have 
 died. If it can be proved that the 
 flock has been attacked by a mad dog, 
 every sheep should be most carefully 
 examined, and if the slightest wound 
 is found upon him, he should be de- 
 stroyed. When the disease has bro- 
 ken out in the flock, no sheep that 
 has exhibited the slightest trace of it 
 should be used for human food. 
 
 "There is no cure for rabies, and 
 he will incur fruitless expense who 
 has recourse to any pretended nos- 
 trum for this purpose. 
 
 " Ophthalmia is a very frequent dis- 
 ease among sheep. The old people 
 used to say that the animal had dis- 
 turbed a lark's nest, and that the lark 
 had spurred him blind. If any in- 
 flammation of the eye is detected, 
 that organ should be frequently bath- 
 ed with a weak solution of Gouland's 
 lotion, to which a few drops of lauda- 
 num have been added. It is some- 
 711 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 times difficult to get rid of this affec- 
 tion, and cataract and permanent 
 l)lindness will ensue. 'I'lie Ettrick 
 shepherd says that ' a iViend will |L;en- 
 erally attach itself to the sufferer, 
 waiting on it with the most tender 
 assiduity, and by its bleating calling 
 it from danger and from going astray.' 
 
 " Huovc is a morbid distention of 
 the paunch with food, and the extri- 
 cation of gas from that food. An ac- 
 ccunt has been given of this disorder 
 in tlie article Ox, so that every pur- 
 pose will be answered by referring 
 to it. The same may be said of all ' 
 the diseases of the digestive organs. 
 Their structure is the same in cattle 
 and in sheep ; and the causes and ap- 
 pearances and treatment of the dis- 
 eases are the same. 
 
 " There is, however, a disease of 
 the liver — the Rut — far more frequent- 
 ly occurring in sheep than in cattle, 
 and bearing a peculiar and more de- 
 structive character. 
 
 " In the very earliest stage alone 
 does it admit of cure. The decisive 
 symptom, at that time, is a yellow 
 colour of the eye, that surrounds the 
 pupil and the small veins of it, and 
 particularly the corner of the eye, 
 which is fdled with a yellow serous 
 fluid, and not with blood. There is 
 no other apparent nrorbid appearance 
 until it is too late to struggle with 
 the malady ; on the contrary, the 
 sheep, although perhaps a little duller 
 than usual, has an evident propensity 
 to fatten. 
 
 " The rot is a disease of the liver, 
 attended by inflammation of that or- 
 gan, and the vessels of it contain 
 fasciolaj {flukes). The flukes are 
 probably more the efiect than the 
 cause of the disease. They aggra- 
 vate the disease by perpetuating a 
 state of irritability and disorganiza- 
 tion. The rot is evidently connected 
 with the state of the pasture. It is 
 precisely the same as marsh fever in 
 men, originating from the poisonous 
 vapours of marshes. It is conlined 
 either to wet seasons or to the feed- 
 ing on ground that is moist and 
 marshy. In the same farm there are 
 fields on which no sheep can be turn- 
 Tig 
 
 ed without getting the rot, and there 
 are others that never give the rot. 
 After long-continued rains it is almost 
 sure to appear. The disease may be 
 conmnunicatcd with extraordinary ra- 
 pidity. A flock of sheep was halted 
 by the side of a pond for the purpose 
 of drinking ; the time which they re- 
 mained there was not more than a 
 quarter of an hour, yet two hundred 
 of them eventually died rotten. In 
 the treatment of the rot little that is 
 satisfactory can be done. Some sheep 
 have recovered, but the decided ma- 
 jority perish in despite of every ef- 
 fort. The patients, however, may, 
 as giving them a little chance, be 
 moved to the driest and soundest 
 pastures ; tliey may undergo a regu- 
 lar course of aperient medicine. Mer- 
 curial friction may also be used, but, 
 above all, plenty of salt should be 
 placed within the animals' reach, and 
 given to them in the way of medicine. 
 Doses of calomel may be given in the 
 early stages. 
 
 " In the way of prevention, the 
 farmer may do much : he may drain 
 the most suspicious parts of his farm. 
 No money would be more profitably 
 expended than in accomplishing this. 
 Som.e of the little swampy spots 
 which disgrace the appearance of his 
 farm, possibly he at the root of the 
 evil. 
 
 " Red-water, or the effusion of a 
 bloody serous fluid in the cavity of 
 the abdomen, is a frequent and very 
 fatal disease among sheep. The 
 cause of it is a sudden change from 
 one pasture to another of almost op- 
 posite quality, or the moving of the 
 flock from a dry and warm to a damp 
 and cold situation. It is most de- 
 structive to lambs if exposed to a 
 hard frost, or suffered to lie on a damp 
 and cold soil. The sheep will separ- 
 ate himself from the rest of the flock ; 
 he will evince a great deal of pain, by 
 rolling about and frequently lying 
 down, and immediately getting up 
 again ; and sometimes he dies in less 
 than twenty-four hours from the first 
 attack. The belly will be found swell- 
 ed and filled with the red water, or 
 serous fluid tinged with blood, from 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 which the disease derives its name. ' extended and labouring for breath. 
 The treatment should consist of mild If his general health does not seem 
 aperients, with gentian and ginger, to be atTccted, this nasal glut will all 
 and a liberal allowance of hay and pass away as the spring approaches, 
 corn. Inflammation of the coals of If, however, any of the flock should 
 the intestines (enteritis) would not now appear to be losing flesh and 
 always be readily distinguished from strength, it is too probable that cun- 
 the last disease, except that there is { 4-!tmp<(07i is at hand. The only chance 
 more stamping on the ground and i of saving or doing them any good will 
 striking the belly with the hind legs, | be to place them in some comfortable 
 and occasional lying on the back. | pasture, letting them have salt within 
 The principal causes of enteritis are their reach, and giving them the hy- 
 improper food, or an excess of that ^ driodate of potash, in doses gradual- 
 which is healthful, or exposure to ly increasing from three grains to 
 cold and wet. Here, also, bleeding ' twelve, morning and night, 
 is imperatively required, but the pur- i " Lambs, when too early and too 
 gative should not consist of anything I much exposed, are subject to diseas- 
 strongerthan sulphur. Dtarrhma is a i es of the upper air passages {laryngi- 
 very prevalent disease among lambs, | tis and hronchUis), the one attended 
 and especially after a change of diet by a ringing cough, and the other by 
 
 or of situation. When it is not vio 
 lent, and does not seem to be at- 
 tended by colic, a little absorbent 
 and astringent medicine, with a few 
 grains of opium, may be administered. 
 The diarrhoja of sheep may be simi- 
 larly treated ; but when the disease is 
 assuming the character of dysentery, 
 when the discharge is more frequent 
 and copious, and mingled with mucus, 
 a larger quantity of this medicine 
 should be given, and some blood ab- 
 stracted if there is any degree of fe- 
 ver." 
 
 Costiveness, or stretches, is attend- 
 ed with loss of appetite. The animal 
 also frequently lies down and stretch- 
 es itself: two tqi)le-spoonfuls of cas- 
 tor oil or one ounce of salts will rem- 
 edy it. The disease is said to arise 
 from want of green food. Braxy ap- 
 pears to be an inflammation of the 
 stomach ; the sheep refuses food, is 
 costive, drinks often, mouth parched, 
 eyes red, belly swollen and tender. 
 Bleed, and give febrifuge medicines ; 
 place in the house, and, after a few 
 days, give aperient medicines. 
 
 " The diseases of the respiratory 
 organs are often of a serious charac- 
 ter. During the greater part of the 
 winter the nostrils will sometimes 
 
 one of a more wheezing sound. 
 Bleeding will always be necessary 
 for the first, with aperient medicine. 
 A mild purgative will usually suffice 
 for the second, or, possibly, an ounce 
 or an ounce and a half of common 
 salt may be given dissolved in six 
 ounces of lime-water. 
 
 " Inflammation of the lungs, recog- 
 nised by difficulty of breathing, heav- 
 ing at the flanks, and distressing 
 cough, is a disease of frequent occur- 
 rence in sheep. It speedily runs its 
 course, and the lungs are found to be 
 one disorganized mass. Bleeding and 
 purging are indispensable ; but as 
 soon as the violent symptoms .seem 
 to remit, tonics, composed of gentian 
 and spirit of nitrous aether, must fol- 
 low. 
 
 " Epidemics. — Sheep are not so lia- 
 ble to the attack of these diseases as 
 horses and cattle. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, sheep suffer from epidemic dis- 
 eases very seriously. They have 
 cough, and discharge from the nose 
 and eyes. Tiie appetite ceases. 
 Those that are affected by the dis- 
 ease separate themselves from the 
 rest of the flock ; they continually lie 
 down, and many of them die. They 
 exhibit, after death, inflammation 
 
 be tilled with mucus, and the sheep through all the contents of the chest 
 is compelled to stop for a moment at and abdomen, with effusion into the 
 every second or third bite, and snort cavities of both. The disease is most 
 violently, and stand with his muzzle i rapid in its course. The shepherd 
 O o 3 713 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 may leave his flock in tlie morning, 
 free, apparently, from any imiiicdiaie 
 danger, and when he reiurns in tlie 
 afternoon he will find two or throe of 
 them dead. Epsom salts with nitre 
 may be given. Blood should be ab- 
 stracted if the case seems to require 
 it; and the medicine should be re- 
 peated sufficiently often to keep the 
 bowels gently open. If the purging 
 becomes considerable, a little starch, 
 with chalk and cinnamon, may be ser- 
 viceable. Those that will eat should 
 be foddered with good hay, and the 
 others forced with gruel, being kept 
 dry and comfortable, with plenty of 
 clean straw under them. The de- 
 tached horn should be pared from the 
 feet where there was any separation, 
 and the parts washed with a solution 
 of blue vitriol, and then smeared over 
 with melted tar. The mouth and 
 tongue, on which there are generally 
 some ulcers, should be dressed with 
 a strong solution of alum in water. 
 Under this treatment most of the pa- 
 tients will probably recover. 
 
 " Garget. — Inflammation of the ud- 
 der is more frequent in the ewe than 
 in the cow. 'Ihe udder should be 
 well fomented with warm w ater, and 
 then, if there are no large knots or 
 kernels, she should be returned to 
 her lamb, whose knocking about of 
 the udder will generally be produc- 
 tive of good rather than harm. If, 
 liowever, she refuses the lamb, a 
 drachm of camphor and mercurial 
 ointment may be well incorporated 
 with an ounce of elder ointment, and a 
 little of it well rubbed into the udder 
 every morning and night. If the ud- 
 der should still continue to enlarge, 
 a free incision must be made into 
 that part where the swellings are 
 largest. A weak solution of chloride 
 of lime should then be applied, and 
 when the putrid smell is gone, the 
 friar's balsam should be used. In a 
 few days the wound will generally be 
 healed, and the lamb may be return- 
 ed to its mother. 
 
 " Diseases of the Feet. — There is a 
 
 small opening at the bifurcation of 
 
 the pasterns, which leads to a canal 
 
 running down the inner face of each 
 
 714 
 
 to the commencement of the hoot. 
 
 The function of this canal is a matter 
 of doubt ; but dirt or gravel, or other 
 foreign bodies, sometimes get into 
 these canals, and produce considera- 
 ble pain, inflammation, and ulcera- 
 tion. The treatment consists in the 
 extraction of any of those e.vtraneous 
 substances that can be got at, and the 
 fomenting and poulticing, or scarify- 
 ing the parts, or efTecling incisions 
 into the canal, and applying a caustic 
 or a balsam, as the case may re- 
 quire." 
 
 Foot-rot arises from wet pastures. 
 It first produces lameness, origina- 
 ting in the softening of the crust 
 of the foot ; ulcerations appear, and, 
 finally, the animal is unable to move, 
 and dies. 
 
 " The treatment of foot-rot essen- 
 tially consists in paring away all loose 
 and detached horn. This is the cor- 
 ner-stone of skilful and successful 
 practice. All fungous granulations 
 must either be cut away, or de- 
 stroyed by the muriate of antimo- 
 ny, and the foot well washed with 
 a solution of chloride of lime. The 
 muriate of antimony must then be 
 lightly applied over the whole of the 
 denuded surface This must be re- 
 peated daily, until the whole of the 
 foot is covered with new horn. The 
 diseased sheep must not be permitted 
 to join his companions until the cure 
 is complete; for it is a sadly infec- 
 tious disease, and may easily spread 
 through the whole flock." 
 
 Fouls is an irritation and suppura- 
 tion of the gland in the cleft of the 
 hoof. It is easily remedied by apply- 
 ing warm tar. It is not contagious. 
 
 " The Scab is a very troublesome 
 disease, common in the spring and 
 summer. The sheep is continually 
 scratching himself with his feet, tear- 
 ing offthe wool, and violently rubbing 
 himself against every protruding sub- 
 stance. The disease first appears in 
 the form of minute pustules ; but sev- 
 eral of these unite, and form a scan. 
 The health of the sheep becomes rap- 
 idly affected under this disease, and 
 some of them p'ne away and die. It 
 is a very infectious disease ; for ev- 
 
SHE 
 
 SHE 
 
 ery place against which the sheep can 
 rub hiiiiself becomes tainted with the 
 poison. The sheep must he housed, 
 and shorn as closely as possible, and 
 tlien well washed with warm water. 
 An ointment composed of one part of 
 mercurial ointment and seven of lard, 
 or sulphur and lard, mu.st then be pro- 
 cured, and such a quantity of it as the 
 diseased parts seem to require rubbed 
 in on every second day. Every place 
 in the field and in the fold against 
 which he can possibly have rubbed 
 himself must be well cleaned and 
 painted before he is permitted to re- 
 turn. The cause of scab consists in 
 the presence of a minute insect or 
 tick (Acarus), which may be convey- 
 ed from one sheep to another when 
 an infected sheep comes in contact 
 with a sound one ; or it may be left 
 on the rubbing-post, and entangled 
 in the wool of the next animal that 
 comes in contact with it ; or it may 
 be the product, and is too often so, 
 of disease of the part. It is of spon- 
 taneous origin, as well as the product 
 of contagion, and is called into exist- 
 ence by the derangements which our 
 neglect, or accident, or disease has 
 made in the skin. This is a view of 
 the case that should never be forgot- 
 ten by the sheep-owner. 
 
 " Lice and Ticks will be best got 
 rid of by the application of the mer- 
 curial ointment just recommended, 
 or dipping the sheep in a decoction 
 of tobacco. 
 
 " The Fly. — Several species of fly 
 frequently deposite their ova on the 
 wool of the sheep. If there are any 
 sore places, they are selected for the 
 habitation of the larvae. The head, 
 as the most exposed part, is the one 
 oftenest attacked, and the sheep are 
 sadly tormented by the fly and the 
 larvae. The best preservative or cure 
 is the application of a plaster compo- 
 sed of a pound of pitch and a quarter 
 of an ounce of bees' wax, spread on 
 soft leather or linen. The attack 
 may, however, be generally prevent- 
 ed by the application of a small 
 quantity of spirit of tar to the head, 
 or any bare or sore part. Two or 
 three applications of this will be suf- 
 
 ficient for the whole of the summer, 
 and not a fly will approach a siiecp 
 thus guarded." 
 
 For medicines and their doses, see 
 Pharmacopaeia. 
 
 SHEEP-FOLD. A yard for sheep 
 to be gathered into in cold weather 
 or during nigiit. It should be well 
 littered, and in a dry situation. Sheds 
 of slabs may be placed around, or 
 facing the south, so as to atlbrd 
 them shelter from cold. Shelter and 
 warmth during winter effect a great 
 saving, even as much as one half of 
 the food. 
 
 SPIEEP-PENS. Enclosures made 
 by hurdles. They should be situated 
 on dry places. They are convenient 
 for sorting and examining the ani- 
 mals, separating the sickly and lamb- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 SHEEP, PERUVIAN. The al- 
 paca, or llama. See Alpaca. 
 
 SHEEP'S SORREL. Rumex acc- 
 tosclla. A small acid weed, growing 
 in thin, poor soils. 
 
 SHELLER, CORN. A machine 
 for removing the grain from the cob. 
 There are innumerable patents for 
 corn shellers. The machines are of 
 two classes, either for slielling one 
 or two ears, or acting on a large quan- 
 tity. The form.er usually consists of 
 a wheel of cast iron, roughened over 
 the whole surface by knobs, which is 
 rotated against the ear placed in a 
 spring case ; by this means, theknobs, 
 grating against the ear, tear off the 
 seeds, and the cob is gradually push- 
 ed out of the case below : the case is 
 connected with a hopper. For larger 
 purposes, a cylinder is roughened and 
 made to rasp against the ears. F. N. 
 Smith's corn sheller seems to be the 
 most eflective of the latter" kind ; it 
 is made by Hanna and Peaslee, Va- 
 latie, New-York : they will shell and 
 separate the cobs of upward of 100 
 bushels in the hour. Price $40. 
 
 SHELL LIME. Lime procured 
 from burning shells. If well made, 
 it is excellent for agricultural purpo- 
 ses, as it contains nearly two per 
 cent, of bone earth, and is free from 
 caustic magnesia. The term lime 
 shells is used by many writers, from 
 715 
 
SHI 
 
 SIA 
 
 tlie lumps of fresh-burned lime before 
 slacking. 
 
 SHELL MARL. This is very rich 
 in the remains of shells : it is the 
 best kind, and may often be profitably 
 burned for lime. 
 
 SHELL S. When burned, they 
 form the best lime. In the ponnded 
 state they resemble the best marls, 
 but the shells of crabs, lobsters, and 
 animals of that kind {Crustaceans) 
 are rich in animal matter and hone 
 earth, containing I'rom 30 to 40 per 
 cent, of the former, and 12 to 14 of 
 the hitter, the remainder being car- 
 bonate of lime ; it would be a great 
 loss to burn them : but oyster, and 
 other similar shells, contain very lit- 
 tle animal matter. 
 
 SHELL SAND. The shelly sand 
 of the seashore, or ancient sea beach- 
 es, is extensively employed in France 
 and Ireland as a manure, or, rather, 
 amendment : fifty or more loads are 
 put to the acre of stiffish soil. It is 
 identical with sandy marl in its ef- 
 fects, but somewhat superior, inas- 
 mnch as it often contains a small 
 amount of animal and saline matters. 
 Its value is, like that of all marls, 
 measured by the proportion of shells 
 it contains. 
 
 SHEPHERD. The man who tends 
 sheep ; he should be of a kind dispo- 
 sition, as sheep are wayward and ob- 
 stinate ; he should be well acquamt- 
 ed with their diseases, and take an 
 interest in his charge. Many diseas- 
 es of sheep are so sudden and fatal, 
 that unless they are constantly under 
 the eye of a well-informed and kind 
 person, numbers will die annually. 
 
 SHERDS. Fragments of garden 
 pots, used to under-drain the soil of 
 boxes, pots, &c. 
 
 SHIELDS. " In botany, little col- 
 oured cups or lines witli a hard disk, 
 surrounded by a rim, and containing 
 the sporules, or seeds of lichens." 
 
 SHIFT OF CROPS. Rotations. 
 
 SHIM. " A tool of the tillage kind, 
 used in breaking down and reducing 
 the more stiff and heavy sorts of 
 land, as well as cutting up and clear- 
 ing tiicm from weeds. They are made 
 of different forms and constructions, 
 716 
 
 to suit different purposes." — {John' 
 son.) 
 
 SHINGLE. A coarse, sea-shore 
 gravel. 
 
 SHINGLES. " In architecture, 
 small slabs of wood, or quartered 
 boards, used instead of slates or tiles 
 for covering roofs. They are sawn 
 to a certain scantling, or, ratiier, 
 cleft to about an inch thick at one 
 end, and shaped like wedges by ma- 
 chines or the drawing-knife, four or 
 five inches broad and eight or nin<; 
 inches long." The cedar yields the 
 finest shingles. Shingle roofs should 
 always have a very considerable pitch 
 to let off water. 
 
 SHOCKS. Stocks, or hattocks, 
 horse-heads ; assemblages of sheaves, 
 from six to twelve, independently of 
 the two or four hood, or roof sheaves. 
 Also, an accumulation of hay of 100 
 to 300 pounds. 
 
 SHORE. A piece of timber which 
 props up a wall. 
 
 SHORT HORNS. The breed of 
 cattle with short horns, considerably 
 improved, and now much celebrated 
 in the United States under the nauio 
 of Durhams. 
 
 SHOVEL. The wide curved spade 
 for casting earth, and not digging. 
 
 SHREW. SoricidcB. A family of 
 small, insectivorous, rodent quadru- 
 peds : they resemble the moles, and, 
 on the other hand, mice, and live, for 
 the most part, in excavations made 
 in the soil. 
 
 SHRUB. "A small, low, dwarf- 
 ish tree, v.hich, instead of one single 
 stem, puts forth from the same root 
 several sets or stems." A collection 
 of these, tastefully arranged, is a 
 shrubbery. 
 
 SHUCK. The husk, or collection 
 of involucra about the corn ear. 
 Shucks are much esteemed for fod- 
 der, being very superior to straw and 
 corn fodder. When cut into shreds, 
 they make a good material for mat- 
 trasses. This word is also used for 
 shuck. 
 
 SHY. Starting aside, in horses : 
 the result of fear, produced by strange 
 objects. 
 
 SIALAGOGES. Drugs which pro- 
 
SIL 
 
 (luce salivation, or an increased flow 
 of saliva. 
 
 SICKLE. The reaping hook. See 
 Ha rvest. 
 
 S r E N I T E, SYENITE. A gray 
 granite ; Boston granite : it contains 
 honiblcnd in the place of mica. 
 
 SI LEX. SILICIC ACID. Pare 
 sand, rock crystal. This familiar body 
 is an acid, and consists of I equiva- 
 lent of silicium (22-22), a body resem- 
 bling in appearance charcoal, and 3 
 equivalents of oxygen, 4G 22. In the 
 cold it is inactive, but at a white heat 
 it forms an exceedingly active acid, 
 combining with bases, and displacing 
 most other acids, except the phos- 
 phoric a!i<l i)()racic. The silicates are 
 nearly all insoluble in pure water ; 
 glass and conmion earthen-ware are 
 specimens of silicates, but they grad- 
 ually decay in the presence of acids, 
 and of carbonic acid and water. But 
 the compounds of silicic acid, with 
 two or three times its weight of car- 
 bonate of potash or soda, are soluble 
 silicates, and have been recommend- 
 ed as manures for the cerealia, which 
 always contain a large amount of si- 
 licic acid in their stems, leaves, and 
 husks. Most of the minerals and 
 rocks of the earth are silicates, this 
 acid forming from one quarter to one 
 third of its entire solid mass. 
 
 Soluble and other silicates are 
 formed by fusing together sand and 
 the desired chemical body, usually in 
 the state of carbonate, in a black-lead 
 crucible, at a full red heat. 
 
 The stores of potash, soda, lime, 
 and magnesia in the soil which sup- 
 ply plants with saline matters, are 
 
 SIL 
 
 often in the form of silicates ; these 
 are slowly decomposed under the in- 
 fluence of the carbonic acid of the 
 air, or from decaying vegetable mat- 
 ter, which converts them into soluble 
 carbonates, whereby they gain ac- 
 cess to the plant. 
 
 SILICATES. Salts containing si- 
 licic acid ; they are usually flinty and 
 insoluble : slate, feldspar, and granite 
 are specimens. 
 
 SILICULA. " A fruit exactly sim- 
 ilar to that called a siliqua, except 
 that it is shorter, and contains fewer 
 seeds. It is never more than four 
 times as long as broad, and usually 
 much shorter." 
 
 SILIQUA, SILIQUE. " A one or 
 two celled, many-seeded, linear fruit, 
 dehiscent by two valves separating 
 from a septum ; the seeds are at- 
 tached to two placentce adhering to 
 the septum, and opposite to the lobes 
 of the stigma. The fruit of the mus- 
 tard is an example." 
 
 SILIQUOSE PL.-VNTS. Improper- 
 ly applied to leguminous plants, but 
 properly to the cruciferous family. 
 
 SILK. On this subject much has 
 been written and said of late ; there 
 i-s no question that by judicious man- 
 agement a good profit can be made 
 by raising the worms. 
 
 The silk worm is the larva or cat- 
 erpillar of the Phalana hombyx {Bom- 
 hjx mori, Lin.) ; a represents the male, 
 and b the female moths ; c, the grub, 
 or chrysalis. The eggs are hatch- 
 ed in April or May, but may be kept 
 back until the end of May by placing 
 them in a cool, dry place. The eggs 
 should be hatched in parcels, and not 
 
SILK. 
 
 altogcllier, as by tins means the la- 
 bour is increased, and casualties, as 
 frost, may deprive the grower of his 
 whole crop. The natural food is the 
 mulberry leaf, which should be fed 
 so as to suit the age of the worm, 
 the youngest worms receiving the 
 young leaves, and the full leaves 
 being fed to the large worms. In the 
 beginning, if mulberry leaves are 
 scarce, lettuces will answer ; but tliese 
 do not answer for the whole season, 
 but only at first. Mulberry leaves of 
 the previous year, carefully dried of 
 a green colour, and moistened for 
 use, will also answer for the early 
 crop of worms. The worms grow 
 about six weeks, but this depends on 
 the variety and state of the weather: 
 they moult, or change their skin, four 
 times in the season. Having com- 
 pleted their growth {Fig., d), they be- 
 come restless, and retire to crannies, 
 branches, or the corners of their 
 apartments to spin a cocoon ; here 
 the worm is changed into a grub, or 
 chrysalis ; this, in some 15 days, be- 
 comes changed to a moth, which eats 
 its way through the cocoon. The per- 
 fect insects live but two or three 
 days, the eggs being laid in this time : 
 the eggs are received on paper or 
 cloth, and dried before being put 
 away. 
 
 The silk grower proceeds to obtain 
 the silk libi^e from the cocoon before 
 these changes are completed, and de- 
 stroys the grub by alcohol, or boiling 
 water. The cocoons are plunged m 
 hot water, and examined to find the 
 end of the silk fibre ; twelve or more 
 of these are now brought together, 
 and made fast to the reeling arrange- 
 ment. The best reel is called the 
 Piedmont reel, but this is to be tended 
 by experienced persons, and is best 
 set up at proper filatures, of which 
 there are many, especially at the 
 manufactories. Mr. Vati Epps has 
 established one in New- York, and is- 
 sued the following judicious sugges- 
 tions to silk growers : 
 
 " The nursery for worms should be 
 
 furnished with a stove for raising the 
 
 temperature in damp, cold weather. 
 
 Artificial heat may frequently be ena- 
 
 718 
 
 ployed to advantage (particularly in 
 New-England), previously to the third 
 moulting, while the worms require 
 but little space and air. 
 
 " We would here caution growers 
 against noise ; every preparation re- 
 quiring pounding or jarring should 
 be attended to before the worms aro 
 hatched, Uiat everything in and around 
 the building may be pefeetly quiet 
 throughout the whole feeding. 
 
 " The feeding frames which we 
 use, and prefer to any other fixtures 
 we have seen, are very simple, com- 
 bining all the advantages of ' Gill's 
 ventilating cradle,' with none of its 
 disadvantages, saving much time and 
 some expense in their construction, 
 besides being a sure defence against 
 mice, rats, ants, and other enemies 
 of the silk-worm. Should any of our 
 readers be disposed to adopt our 
 plans, the following description will 
 be sufficient : 
 
 " In the first place, attach the pie- 
 ces of timber designed for suspend- 
 ing the frames to the rafters, allow- 
 ing them to come down to within two 
 leet of the ground. These should be 
 about seven or eight feet apart at 
 the top, and four or five at the bot- 
 tom, which will cause the frame to 
 enlarge in nearly the same proportion 
 with the worms, and thus prevent 
 their becoming too much crowded : 
 this is the chief excellence (we think) 
 of Gill's cradle. Cross pieces should 
 be fastened at the lower ends of the 
 upright timbers, on which to lay 
 boards to receive the worms from 
 the nursery. About two inches above 
 these boards should be placed sticks, 
 one inch square, resting on pieces 
 running lengthwise at the sides ; 
 these, at first, should be six inches 
 apart (after a few days' feeding, one 
 half can be drawn out), and in feed- 
 ing, the branches sliould be laid be- 
 tween them, until they are filled up 
 to the top, when they should be laid 
 across. After two or three days' 
 feeding, the boards and dry branches 
 should be removed from under the 
 worms, and they left to feed on the 
 branches above. If care is taken to 
 feed no more than is needed, the 
 
SILK. 
 
 brush will remain very open, allow- [ 
 ing all the pieces of leaves and the 
 excrements from tiie worms to fall 
 directly through to the ground, from 
 whicii they should he often swept 
 out, furnisliing a free circulation of 
 air from beneath. At the sides and 
 ends of these frames it is necessary 
 to have something to keep the branch- 
 es in order, and prevent the worms 
 from faUing ofT; these may be made 
 of narrow boards or lath ; between ■ 
 these and the brush most of the co- j 
 coons will be placed, as it secures 
 the worms from the light, and fur- 
 nishes them with places for fasten- 
 ing their floss whenever they have 
 finished eating and are ready to spin. 
 Tliese directions, of course, are ap- 
 plicable only where branch feeding is 
 practised. Cocoons should not be 
 gathered until dried, that is, in six or 
 seven days from the time the worms 
 began to spin. Those designed for 
 eggs should be selected first, taking 
 such as have been spun by the most 
 healthy worms. These should be 
 closely flossed, and spread out thin 
 on the shelves in the nursery. 
 
 " We now come to the destruction 
 of the chrysalis, and the curing of 
 the cocoons, upon which the value of 
 tlve silk must depend. "We cannot 
 dwell upon this point with too much 
 care. We have received at our fila- 
 ture cocoons that had been almost 
 ruined by the means used for stifling 
 the chrysalis. Our standing offer is 
 from $2 50 to S3 .50 per bushel ; yet 
 we have had cocoons sent us which 
 would not pay the expenses of reel- 
 ing and transportation. Among the 
 many means resorted to for this pur- 
 pose, alcohol is doubtless the best, as 
 it not only destroys the chrysalis, but 
 leaves the fibre of the cocoon in fine 
 order for reeling, and is supposed by 
 some actually to add to its original 
 beauty. Not more than half a pint 
 (some use only a gill, others a pint) 
 is needed for a bushel of cocoons. 
 They should be placed for this pur- 
 pose in a tiglit box ; first a laj'er of 
 cocoons (very thin), then a slight 
 sprinkling with alcohol, and so on till 
 the box IS filled, which should then 
 
 be nailed up tight. After remaining 
 in the box ai)out 24 hours, tliey should 
 be removed and spread out for dry- 
 ing, which will take several days, 
 even in very warm weather. If tiie 
 chrysales arc not entirely dry, they 
 undergo a putrefaction, which fre- 
 quently injures the silk, and renders 
 them very offensive to the reeler. 
 Persons designing to send their co- 
 coons to our filature are re(iuested to 
 adopt the above method, and as soon 
 as dried the cocoons should be for- 
 warded, as it is exceedingly hazard- 
 ous purchasing when they have been 
 lying for some months and become 
 very dry." 
 
 The following important facts are 
 gleaned from the correspondence of 
 various silk conventions : 
 
 1st. That of the varieties of mul- 
 berry, the Canton is the most val- 
 uable, then the multicaulis ; the broo- 
 sa is as early, and larger leaved than 
 the white. The worms are fed with 
 small branches. 
 
 2d. It is best to feed in open sheds, 
 which may be of tarred canvass, and 
 temporary. The cradles of Mr. Gill, 
 or those just described by Mr. Van 
 Epps, are the best places to feed 
 them on : shelves should not be set 
 up. The greatest attention should 
 be had to cleanliness. 
 
 3d. There should be no attempt to 
 raise two crops the same year. Early 
 hatching is altogether to be preferred 
 to late. 
 
 4th. The best varieties are the pea- 
 nuts ; they are hardiest, mature ear- 
 ly, and produce a cocoon that reels 
 well : the sulphur and white are also 
 esteemed kinds. The eggs are hatch- 
 ed from the papers on which they 
 were laid in seven to ten days after 
 being brought out, and at a tempera- 
 ture of 70^ Fahrenheit: the rooms 
 should be kept at that heat. 
 
 5th. It is best to sell the cocoons 
 at .S3 or §^3 50 the bushel than to at- 
 tempt reeling without experience. 
 
 6th. On an average, 3500 worms 
 will yield a bushel of cocoons, which 
 reels into from one pound to 20 oun- 
 ces, and sells at upward of §5 the 
 pound. The cost of raising is §2. 
 719 
 
SILK. 
 
 Acconlini^ to Dr. Smith, each worm 
 coiLsunics an ouncn of leaf; 1~0 re- 
 males yield an ounce of eggs, con- 
 taining 39,000 eggs. 
 
 7th. Tlic nature and quality of the 
 staple obtained are thus described by 
 an able weaver and judge of silk from 
 Spitalfields : 
 
 " I am qualified to affirm, from va- 
 rious ex[)erimcnts I have tried, that 
 the silk is superior to any I have seen 
 from Italy, China, France, Piedmont, 
 or V^alencia, where the worms are 
 fed upon niulticaulis, or Italian ; its 
 brilliancy, strength, and scent are su- 
 perior. I am aware that an exposure 
 to the saline air, in the passage across 
 the ocean, may be the cau-se of the 
 loss of fragrance to imported silk ; 
 but the bnllianry is peculiar to Amer- 
 ican silk, if reeled in a proper man- 
 ner, with cleanliness. 
 
 " I am confident that the mammoth 
 sulphur worm is the pure Fossam 
 brown. To try this, I had about 
 three pounds of silk reeled, and en- 
 closed it in an air-tight box for three 
 weeks. \Mien I took it out it had 
 the fragrance of the Fossam brown 
 stronger tlian any that I eversmelled 
 in England, which convinced me that 
 the mammoth sulphur is the identical 
 silk which is always from five to eight 
 shilhngs per pound higher than ordi- 
 nary silk. The mainnioth white and 
 the pea-nut white are Novi, and su- 
 perior to any I have seen in England. 
 The yellow, or orange, I cannot, sat- 
 isfactorily to my own mind, yet de- 
 fine, but am trying experiments in 
 order to ascertain. I am strongly 
 persuaded it is a Bergam ; should 
 tliis be the case, it will prove a great 
 acquisition to manufacturers of silk 
 velvet. Some have supposed the 
 pea-nut while is the Piedmont, but 
 they are mistaken ; the Piedmont 
 cocoon is lily-white, very diminutive, 
 with a sharp point." 
 
 Mr. Young, a dyer of Detroit, also 
 remarks, concerning the cleansing of 
 silk: "Most people clean the silk 
 with soft soap, destroying the native 
 gloss in freeing it of its gum, owing 
 to the vegetable alkali the soap con- 
 tains, the silk being animal substance ; 
 720 
 
 it will completely dissolve wool, if 
 ajiplied strongenough, forming a soap 
 of itself Many dyers use nothing 
 but the best white soap ; being made 
 from mineral alkali, soda acts gently 
 on animal substances ; nor does it 
 give that yellow tinge the vegeta- 
 ble alkali produces. It is even ne- 
 cessary to bleach silk for certain 
 shades, to give them a clear bloom. 
 About 25 pounds good white soap, 
 dissolved in sufficient clean, soft wa- 
 ter, for 100 pounds silk ; put the silk 
 loosely in their bags ; boil gently, 
 say 2^ hours; cool and wash well in 
 a running stream : beat occasionally, 
 to free it from all impurity. This I 
 know by practice." 
 
 We shall conclude by offering sev- 
 eral letters from the ablest raisers of 
 silk, addressed to the convention held 
 at the American Institute in 1843 : 
 
 Mr. GilVs Letter. 
 
 " Mt. Pleasant, Jefferson Co., Ohio. 
 
 " 1. I have fed worms for five years 
 past : results various, owing to the va- 
 rious fixtures used, and experiments 
 tried, attention or neglect of the feed- 
 er. I never had a lot of icorms diseas- 
 ed, or die, if from a healthy stock of 
 well-kept eggs, icitkout being able to 
 trace the cause, which was always local, 
 and easily remedied. 
 
 "2. I have used both one and two 
 story buildings, built of brick and of 
 wood ; have used stoves, and also 
 fireplaces with chimneys: prefer fire- 
 places on account of their drawing 
 ofT impure air. I think artificial heat 
 beneficial in cold, damp weather, es- 
 pecially when worms are spinning. 
 My cocooneries are ventilated by 
 openings, with shutters near the floor, 
 with ventilators from each story 
 through the roof 
 
 " 3. I have fed in open sheds and 
 tents with complete snccess. I fed this 
 year four several successive lots, 
 and gathered the cocoons from the 
 same cradles. The first was fed in 
 June, the last in September, both per- 
 fectly healthy : they made superior 
 cocoons. 
 
 "4. The salmon pea-nut is the best ; 
 white pea-nut next ; gold pea-nut 3d ; 
 
SILK. 
 
 Piedmont 4th. Mammoth varieties 
 are also good. I have no faith in any 
 two-crop varieties whatever, after 
 five years' experimenting with all 
 kinds recommended ; but would ob- 
 serve, that those who wish eggs to 
 hatch, must select the pure white co- 
 coons from the first lot fed, to get 
 millers to lay eggs for the second lot. 
 
 "5. White mulberry and multicau- 
 lis are best. I cultivate them as I do 
 corn, and replant the multicaulis ev- 
 ery three years. 
 
 " 6. In previous years, my first lot 
 of worms were fed early in the sea- 
 son : they have always been the best. 
 
 " The Causes of Disease. — 1st cause 
 is, eggs saved from unhealthy stock ; 
 2d. Eggs being improperly preserved ; 
 3d. Irregular feeding and unwhole- 
 some food ; 4th. Changing the worms 
 while moulting ; 5th, and most fre- 
 quent cause, want of pure air, and 
 neglect to remove the excrements 
 immediately from the worms ; 6th. 
 Letting the mice eat them during 
 their last age, and while they are 
 winding their cocoons. 
 
 " I have been successful beyond 
 my most sanguine expectations in 
 feeding in the shed and ventilating 
 cradles. Have gathered four lots 
 from each, averaging seven bushels 
 per cradle, or near two bushels at 
 each gathering per cradle. 
 
 " I think our cocoons will average 
 twenty ounces of silk per bushel. The 
 cost to me this year for producing 
 them will not exceed two dollars per 
 bushel. 
 
 " I am completely satisfied that my 
 system of shed, or tent and cradle, 
 and branch feeding, is a system for 
 general adoption, and will produce 
 more cocoons than any other method 
 yet introduced, at half the usual ex- 
 pense, during three to four months 
 each feeding season Cold weather, 
 in early and late feeding, may retard 
 the worms in eating, and lengthen 
 their time a little in spinning, caus- 
 ing, however, no other injury ; and 
 for warm, sultry weather nothing can 
 supersede them. Many others have 
 used them, and advised me of their 
 complete success." 
 P p p 
 
 I " Dr. Daniel Stebbins, JS'orthamjh- 
 ton, Massachusetts. — I give the fol- 
 lowing answers to your several ques- 
 tions : 
 
 , " I have fed worms for seven or 
 eight years, with the sole view of 
 
 I showing that it could be done. This 
 year I made twenty-five to thirty 
 
 I pounds of silk. 
 
 " This season T erected a new co- 
 coonery in the midst of a mulberry 
 
 , patch, forty-two by twenty, posts 
 
 i eight feet out of ground. Roof cov- 
 ered with boards and battened, the 
 sides and ends covered with slats 
 three inches wide, and half an inch 
 apart, extending from the eaves to 
 the ground. Floor of earth. 
 
 " Adjoining the above is a tent 
 
 \ wholly covered with bass matting, 
 through which the rains had a free 
 
 ' passage. The success of the tent 
 
 I was superior even to the cocoonery. 
 
 I •' I have fed for several years in 
 an open shed, in the barn-yard, but 
 
 ; nothing to exclude birds and fowls ; 
 in other respects the experiment was 
 
 i successful. 
 
 j " For making silk, the pea-nut va- 
 
 ' riety has the preference, being less en- 
 cumbered with floss, less gurn, more 
 length, lustre, and strength of fibre 
 than other varieties, as testified by a 
 skilful silk-dyer. 
 
 " Having the black, white. Canton, 
 Asiatic, Broosn, muliicaulis, and some 
 other varieties. I have not found any 
 to excel the Canton for its foliage, 
 and the Asiatic for its abundant 
 branches. The foliage of the Canton 
 continues to the latest season in 
 greater perfection than any other. 
 
 " An early crop of worms is pref- 
 erable to a late crop. Tlie foliage 
 becomes abundant the latter part of 
 the season, but is very unfit for the 
 worms, being too hard, or deprived 
 of its richness by drenching or long- 
 continued rains. 
 
 " It was my expectation and in- 
 tention to test the use of the mulber- 
 ry foliage, both in its green and dry 
 state, for making paper, and for that 
 purpose had sent a quantity to the 
 paper-mill, hut cannot have the ex- 
 periment fully tried at present." 
 721 
 
SILK. 
 
 " Mr. H. p. Byr.am, Brandcnhiir;:, 
 Ky. — \\\i\\ pleasTire I rosiiond to ll)c 
 questions contained in tiio ' Silk Cir- 
 cular' of the Aniorican In.stitule. 
 
 '* I have fed silk- worms to a greater 
 or less extent in the State of Ken- 
 tucky, every season except one, since 
 the year 1837 inclusive, and generally 
 with good success, loss by disease in 
 no lot exceeding fifteen percent., and 
 often not over three per cent. 
 
 " I have fed in enclosed buildings, 
 ventilated by doors, windows, and 
 openings under the latter, and heat- 
 ed by a stove when necessary. 
 
 " The present season I fed in an 
 ojicn shed with decidedly good suc- 
 cess : worms healthy : they wound 
 large, fair cocoons. 
 
 " 1 have fed every variety of worms 
 that I could procure, and give the 
 preference to those called the Chinese 
 Imperial, and a variety represented 
 to me as the pea-nut. 
 
 " I feed from the multicaulis in the 
 first stages, and in the last stage use 
 all the white and Canton that I can 
 procure. 
 
 " The multicaulis should be cut off 
 near the ground every three years, 
 one third of the field each year. The 
 other varieties I head dou-n every 
 year. I feed branches in the last 
 stages. 
 
 " I have hatched and fed worms in 
 every month from April to August, 
 the earliest fed always producing the 
 heaviest cocoons. The latter equally 
 healthy when the eggs have been 
 properly kept and managed. But few 
 persons have succeeded in late feed- 
 ing, from the want of proper care of 
 the eggs. 
 
 " The causes of bad success that 
 have come to my knowledge have 
 been owing either to bad eggSj bad 
 management, or the want of free cir- 
 culation of air in the apartment. 
 
 "The hatching of eggs can be per- 
 fectly retarded by being placed in a 
 tin box, enclosed in a wooden one, and 
 suspended in the body of the ice jiear 
 the bottom of the ice-house. This is 
 done by introducing a long box, cut 
 in three lengths and placed on end, 
 soon after the first portions of ice arc 
 722 
 
 thrown into the house. The top joints 
 can be removed as the ice settles : 
 the eggs at no time to be above the 
 body ol the ice. They should be pla- 
 ced in the ice in February or early io 
 March." 
 
 "Mr. B.\ubour, Oxford, Mass. — It 
 is fifteen years since J began to ex- 
 amine the silk business. 
 
 " The results of my own labours 
 are decidedly in favour of early feed- 
 ing. Out of all the crops that I have 
 carried through by the middle of 
 August, I have never lost by disease 
 five per cent, in any case. Not so 
 with later crops generally, although 
 this year my later crops were healthy, 
 and made first-rate cocoons. 
 
 " As to buildings, I have fed in a 
 large, open garret, in a corn-house 
 and a carpenter's shop. In 1840 I 
 built a regular cocooner}% thirty by 
 twenty feet, two stories high, with ten 
 windows in each story, and warmed 
 by a hot-air chamber in the cellar. 
 In 1842, fed a lot also in an open shed, 
 and this year in a lent, with cradles, 
 on Mr. Gill's plan. The result of the 
 whole is, in my judgment, the more 
 air the better, only guarding against 
 sudden gusts of wind, that will dis- 
 turb your leaves or bushes. 
 
 " As to ordinary turns of cold weath- 
 er, in our summer months, their ef- 
 fect is to render the worms torpid. 
 Of course they will not, in this state, 
 eat and grow, and there is a loss of 
 time in getting them through ; and 
 this is the only loss to be apprehend- 
 ed. Upon returning warmth they re- 
 vive, and go on with their labours, 
 apparently uninjured. 
 
 ''Trees. — My first movement (1837) 
 was wrong. I bought a lot of mul- 
 berry seed as ' genuine Chinese Mul- 
 berry Seed,' which proved to be an in- 
 ferior variety of the white : lost two 
 seasons in getting started, and some 
 patience withal. In 1839. planted 
 one hundred dollars worth Alpine cut- 
 tings. According to the ' books,' I 
 was not to lose one in fifty : in the 
 result, did not get one in fifty. I 
 should almost as soon recommend 
 the propagation of oak bushes by cut- 
 
SIL 
 
 SIL 
 
 tings as the Alpine or other hardy 
 varictirs of the mulberry. Same 
 year, planted Canton and nuilticaulis. 
 They vegetated very \V(>11, but made 
 a small growth. 1 had been taught 
 to believe that the mulberry -tree 
 would flourish where nothing cl.se 
 would grow — quite a mistake. I took 
 my trees up too early, and lost many 
 the ensuing winter. 
 
 " Thus far I had been operating 
 upon rented lands. In 1840, began on 
 the farm wiiere I now live— lands all 
 sadly exhausted ; not an acre on the 
 farm that would give lialf a ton of 
 )iay. I planted two acres, chiefly 
 with multicauiis and Cantons, by lay- 
 ing the trees whole length in the fur- 
 row, manuring them with a cheap 
 compost, made principally of peat 
 mud properly prepared. They did 
 well, and made an average growth 
 of three feet. Let them stand as 
 they grew, and they all wintered safe- 
 ly. In 1841, planted three acres more 
 in like manner ; season dry, average 
 growth two feet : left all out as be- 
 fore. 
 
 " But the winter of 1841-42 was 
 very open : no snow, frequent and 
 heavy rains, with constant freezing 
 and thawing. My ground is a plain, 
 very level, and the water stood and 
 froze in many places : trees not ridged 
 up with the plough in summer culti- 
 vation, as they should have been on 
 such land, to guard against this dan- 
 ger. The result w'as, that I lost the 
 whole of the three-acre lot, and at 
 least three fourths of the other. 
 
 " To me this was a sad disappoint- 
 ment, and for a few days in March. 
 1842, for the first and the last time, I 
 had feelings of unconquerable discour- 
 agement. In this state, my first move- 
 ment was to despatch some twenty- 
 five to thirty letters of inquiry to silk- 
 growers in New-England. The mails 
 in due time brought me this return, 
 that the injuries of the winter, severe 
 as it was, had been confined to trees 
 planted, as mine were, whole and hori- 
 zontalhj, on flat ground, without being 
 ridged up, and those of small growth. 
 I was greatly relieved to learn that, in 
 all cases where they had been set 
 
 deep, one root in a place, on dry, slo- 
 ping land (or ridged, if flat), rich 
 enough to make good extended roots 
 the first season, they had gone through 
 the winter safely, pre-eminently bad 
 as it had been. 
 
 " Feeling, therefore, that I then 
 knew the loorst of the case, I went di- 
 rectly to work, with augmented confi- 
 dence, to repair my loss. I ploughed 
 up all my lands, saving every live 
 tree, sent thirty-five to forty miles 
 and bought others, so as to plant 
 seven to eight acres, and thus bcfran 
 the silk business anew, in 1842, and be- 
 gan right. 
 
 " As to trees, I prefer the multi- 
 cauiis, the large-leaf Canton, and the 
 Asiatic. Managed as indicated in the 
 above details, they are essentially safe 
 from the perils of winter anywhere be- 
 tween Canada and the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico. If not thus managed, they are 
 in danger anywhere and everywhere, 
 where it is cold enough for ice to form 
 and the ground to freeze. It is not the 
 degree of cold that does the injury in 
 this and similar cases, but freezing 
 and thawing. Everybody knows that 
 a peach-tree is more safe on the north 
 than on the south side of the wall, and 
 for the reasons here stated. I would 
 not, therefore, give a dollar for a full 
 ensurance on all my trees if the ther- 
 mometer, in December, will drop 
 down to twenty degrees below zero, 
 and slay there until the last of March. 
 
 " As to the feasibility of the silk 
 business in this country, I have no 
 doubt. I must unlearn all that I have 
 learned upon the subject for fifteen 
 years, undo all that I have done, and 
 unsay all that I have said — unhinge 
 and upset all the abiding and fixed 
 impressions upon my own mind be- 
 fore I can begin to doubt." 
 
 SILK- WEED. The A.^clepias seri- 
 aca, the seed vessels of which con- 
 tain a long, silky down, sometimes 
 wrought into fabrics by private per- 
 sons. 
 
 SILL. The horizontal and lower 
 piece of a window or other framing : 
 also, the shafts of a cart. 
 
 SILT. The loose sandy matters 
 that accumulate in rivers. 
 
 723 
 
SKI. 
 
 SLO 
 
 SILURIAN ROCKS or SYSTEM. 
 The iii)|)cr portion of tlic transition 
 rocks lound below the old red sand- 
 stone. 
 
 SILVER. A well-known metal : 
 it is soluble in nitric acid, the salt 
 {7iitratc of silver) being used as a caus- 
 tic in farriery, and in the laboratory 
 as a test for chlorine, with which it 
 produces a while, curdy compound 
 {chloride of silver) that is soluble in 
 ammonia, and blackens by exposure 
 to light. Equivalent 108-3, svmb. Ag. 
 
 SILVER GRAIN, IN WOODS 
 The bright markings ; the medullary 
 ravs. 
 
 SILVER-WEED. Potcntilla an- 
 serina. A perennial running weed 
 with yellow (lowers, and five-parted, 
 silvery leaves, growing on poor soils. 
 
 SINAPISM. A mustard poultice 
 or other preparation. 
 
 SINCIPUT. The forehead. 
 
 SINUS. A cavity : the veins of 
 the brain are so called. 
 
 SINUOUS. Full of cavities, tor- 
 tuous. 
 
 SIT-FAST. "In farriery, an ul- 
 cerated sore in which a part of the 
 skin has turned horny ; if it cannot 
 be dissolved and softened by rubbing 
 with mercurial ointment, it must have 
 a mild blister applied, which will 
 cause it to separate. It generally 
 proceeds from a warble or little tu- 
 mour resulting from the pressure of 
 the saddle." 
 
 SIZE. A thin glue made from 
 skins. 
 
 SKEGS. The Avcna stipiformis. 
 A kind of oat cultivated in Notting- 
 hamshire, England. 
 
 SKELETOxNf. The bony frame on 
 which the muscles and soft parts are 
 placed. 
 
 SKID. A drag chain. 
 
 SKIM COULTER. See Plough. 
 
 SKIN. The external coat of ani- 
 mals. It consists of a scarfskin, or 
 epidermis, a rcte mucosum, which is 
 thin and coloured, and the culis vera, 
 which forms the substance, and from 
 which hairs, &c., proceed. 
 
 SKIRTING. In building, the nar- 
 row, horizontal board running along 
 the walls of a room at the floor. 
 724 
 
 SKIRRET. Sium sisaricm. Cher- 
 vis. "This plant is first cultivated 
 by seed, and afterward by offsets 
 taken from the old roots, and planted 
 very early in the spring, before they 
 begin to shoot ; but it is best to raise 
 a small bed from seed every year, as 
 the roots grow longer than those 
 raised from slips, and are less liable 
 to be sticky. The seed may be sown 
 in drills the latter part of March, or 
 early in April, and managed the same 
 as salsify, parsnip, &c. In autumn, 
 when the leaves begin to decay, the 
 roots are fit to use, and continue so 
 till they begin to shoot in the spring. 
 
 " Skirrets should be planted in a 
 light, moist soil, for in dry land the 
 roots are generally small, unless the 
 season proves wet. 
 
 " The root of the skirret is compo- 
 sed of several fleshy tubers as large 
 as a man's finger, and joined together 
 at the top. They are eaten boiled, 
 and stewed with butter, pepper, and 
 salt, or rolled in flour and fried, or 
 else cold, with oil and vinegar, being 
 first boiled. They have much of the 
 taste and flavour of a parsnip, and 
 are by some considered a great deal 
 more palatable." — {Bndgcman). 
 
 SKUNK CABBAGE. Spnphcar- 
 pusfatida. Marsh cabbage. A large- 
 leaved plant of the family Aroida, 
 growing in wet places at the north ; 
 it has a vile odour, and is reputed an- 
 tispasmodic. 
 
 SL.VTE. Any rock which has a 
 close texture and is readily split into 
 slabs. The term is more particularly 
 applied to the fine aluminous slates 
 used in roofing and for writing upon. 
 
 SLEEPER. Timbers on which 
 are laid the ground joists of a build- 
 ing or railway. 
 
 SLEET. A cold rain mixed with 
 snow. 
 
 SLIPS. Twigs or small branches 
 torn from a tree or bush for the pur- 
 pose of propagation. Spring or au- 
 tumn is the time to do this. They 
 should be set in a rich spot and kej)t 
 moist. Flower slips are commonly set 
 in pots in the green-house : charcoal 
 forms a good soil to strike them in. 
 
 SLOE. In Europe, this name is 
 
SMU 
 
 SNE 
 
 given to a small wild plum, the Pru- 
 vus spinosa, which is used as a dwarf 
 stock for grafting phinis. In the 
 United States it is given to tlic Pru- 
 nus pi/gmcEu, and also the Viburnum 
 frunifolmm. 
 
 SLOUGH. A name given to 
 decayed matters separating from a 
 wound : proud flesh ; a muddy hole. 
 It may he remedied in a road hy sin]<- 
 ing pebbles and small stones into it. 
 
 SLUGS. Naked moluscous ani- 
 mals. See Insects. Tliis name is 
 also given to the larvae of some saw- 
 flies which infest pear, ciierry, and 
 other trees. They are all destroyed 
 by salt, lime, or whale-oil soap solu- 
 tion. 
 
 SLUICE. A frame of timber, 
 stone, or other solid substance, serv- 
 ing to retain and raise the water of a 
 river or canal, and, when necessary, 
 to give it vent. See Irrigation. 
 
 S M U T. For an account of the 
 various diseases known under this 
 name, see Burned Ear and Urcdo. 
 The best preventives known are to 
 keep the lands occasionally limed or 
 salted, never using too much rank 
 stable manure without some saline 
 matters ; and, secondly, steeping the 
 seeds before sowing in solution of 
 sulphate of copper (blue vitriol). One 
 ounce and a (juarter of the salt is used 
 to a bushel of wheat : it is dissolv- 
 ed in just enough water to wet the 
 grain, which is steeped for three 
 quarters of an hour, and dried by be- 
 ing spread out. A strong brine and 
 milk of lime are also used witii good 
 success ; but the copper solution is 
 very superior. 
 
 SMUT MACHINES, or GRAIN 
 CLEANERS. These are of service 
 to the miller chiefly. They consist 
 of interior brushes revolving in a 
 roughened cylinder, usually set in an 
 inclined direction. The brushes rub 
 the grain against the rough surface, 
 and by this means rub off the smut, 
 or break open the injured kernels. 
 A fan is added for the purpose of 
 driving a current of air through the 
 cylinder, which carries off the smut 
 balls and other light rubbish out 
 above, and allows the perfect grains 
 r p p 2 
 
 to reach the bottom of the cylinder 
 
 and pass out. There arc a great 
 number of patents : tho.sc of .Messrs. 
 Young, Henry A. Buck. George D. 
 Waldo, and Wm. C. Grimes are in 
 great esteem. The figure represents 
 Messrs. Bird and Weld's machine ; 
 it possesses decided advantages, hav- 
 ing separate pulleys, d and c, to drive 
 
 the fan and beating cylinder at dif- 
 ferent velocities, by which arrange- 
 ment buckwheat and other tender 
 grains may be cleansed without 
 breaking, by reducing the speed of 
 the beating cylinder, while a full cur- 
 rent of wind may be kept up with the 
 fan, running at any required speed 
 for that purpose. When in use, a 
 pipe is added to a, to increase the 
 draught, and a sieve at b, to separ- 
 ate the grain : c is tlie hopper. 
 
 SNAILS. HclicidiE. See Insects. 
 
 SNAKEROOT, THE VIRGIN- 
 IAN. Aristolochia scrpcntaria. A 
 perennial-rooted plant, growing wild 
 in woodlands, the root of which is 
 collected for the druggists, and used 
 as a bitter and tonic. 
 
 SNE AD, or SNATHE. The han- 
 dle of the scythe : it should be of ash, 
 light, but not flexible, 
 
 725 
 
SOA 
 
 SOA 
 
 SNOW. Congealed moisture : it 
 is produced whenever a cold wind 
 below 32° Fahrenheit acts upon the 
 moisture of wanner clouds. It is an 
 excellent covering for winter crops, 
 protecting them from the winds and 
 sudden changes of winter ; it also 
 protects roots and the bark of trees 
 from mice. 
 
 SOAP. "This useful compound 
 is obtained by the action of alkaline 
 upon oily substances. There arc, 
 accordingly, a great variety of soaps ; 
 but tliose commonly employed may 
 be considered under the heads of, 1. 
 Fine white soaps, scented soap, &c. ; 
 2. Coarse household soaps ; 3. Soft 
 soaps. The materials used in the 
 manufacture of white soaps are gen- 
 erally olive oil and carbonate of soda : 
 the latter is rendered caustic by the 
 operation of quicklime, and the solu- 
 tion thus obtained is called soap lye. 
 The oil and a weak lye are first boil- 
 ed together, and portions of stronger 
 lye are gradually added till the soap, 
 produced by the mutual action of the 
 oil and alkali, begins to become tena- 
 cious and to separate from the water ; 
 some common salt is then generally 
 added to promote the granulation and 
 perfect separation of the soap : the 
 fire is then drawn, and the contents 
 of the boiler allowed to remain for 
 some hours at rest, so that the soap 
 may more completely collect. When 
 it is perfect it is put into wooden 
 frames or moulds ; and when stiff 
 enough to be handled, it is cut into 
 oblong slices and dried in an airy 
 room. Perfumes are occasionally 
 added, or various colouring matters 
 stirred in while the soap is semiflu- 
 id, to give it a mottled appearance. 
 The Spanish soap is marbled by stir- 
 ring into it a solution of sulphate of 
 iron, which is decomposed by the 
 soap, and black oxide of iron separ- 
 ated in streaks and patches through 
 the mass. The action of the air con- 
 verts the exterior into red oxide, 
 while the interior long retains its 
 black colour ; hence a slice of this 
 soap presents a black mottled centre, 
 surrounded by a reddened external 
 layer. 
 726 
 
 " Common household soaps are 
 made chiefly of soda ash and tal- 
 low ; or if potash is used, a large ad- 
 dition of common salt is made to 
 harden the soap, which it probably 
 effects by the transference of soda. 
 Yellow soap has a portion of rosin 
 added to it. Soft soaps are generally 
 made with potash, instead of soda, 
 and fish oil. The common soft soap 
 is a compound of this kind ; it has a 
 tenacious consistence, and appears 
 granulated. Soap is soluble in pure 
 water and in alcohol ; the latter so- 
 lution jellies when concentrated, and 
 is medicinally known under the name 
 of opodeldoc. When carefully evap- 
 orated the soap remains in a gelati- 
 nous state, which forms, when dry, 
 the article sold under the name of 
 tratisparent soap. 
 
 " The earths and common metallic 
 oxides form insoluble soaps ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, these are precipitated when 
 earthy and metallic salts are added 
 to solution of soap. It is the sul- 
 phate of lime and carbonate of lime 
 in common spring water which thus 
 render it unfit for washing, and give 
 it what is termed hardness ; and, upon 
 this principle, a spirituous solution 
 of soap is a simple and valuable test 
 of the fitness of any river or spring 
 water for the purposes of the laundry. 
 If it merely renders tl-.e water slight- 
 ly opalescent, as is the case with 
 rain and other soft waters, it may be 
 used for washing ; but if it become 
 milky, it is usually too hard to be 
 conveniently employed ; and when 
 we wash or shave with hard water, 
 the separation of the insoluble cal- 
 careous soap is extremely disagree- 
 able ; it adheres to the skin, and soils 
 instead of cleansing it. 
 
 " The chemical nature of soap has 
 been laboriously examined by Chev- 
 reul, who has shown that the alkali 
 in the process of saponification con- 
 verts the oil into peculiar acids, as he 
 terms them ; the elain of the oil form- 
 ing oleic acid, and the stearin margar- 
 ic acid : so that soluble soaps are ule- 
 ates and margarates of soda and pot- 
 ash. He has enumerated several 
 other fatty acids similarly produced. 
 
SOD 
 
 SOI 
 
 " All new soaps contain a consid- 
 erable portion of adhering water, a 
 ijieat part of which they lose when 
 kcjjt in a dry place ; hence the econ- 
 omy and excellence of old soap ; and 
 lience the dealers in soap generally 
 keep it in a damp cellar, that it may 
 not lose weight by evaporation ; or, 
 as it is said, sometimes immerse it in 
 brine, which does not dissolve it, but 
 keeps it ia its utmost state of hu- 
 midity." 
 
 SOAPER'S WASTE. The refuse 
 of the soap-works has been much 
 used as a manure. The nature of 
 the manure depends on the use of 
 ashes or soda ash in the manufac- 
 ture : in the tirst case, it is a very 
 vahiable amendment ; in the latter, 
 considerably less so. The first con- 
 tains a large quantity of ash, tlie 
 chloride of potassium ; the second 
 contains but little soda salts, and 
 when barilla is employed, the ash is 
 merely calcareous matter : of the lat- 
 ter ashes, in the fresh state, from 60 
 to 200 bushels have been used on 
 grass lands with great effect. If 
 ashes and common salt have been 
 used, 10 to 20 bushels of refuse will 
 be enough. The gelatinous substance 
 remaining after the separation of the 
 soap is called glycerine, and does not 
 contain nitrogen ; it is not, therefore, 
 of much moment alone. 
 
 SOAPSTO.NE, STEATITE. A 
 gray, soft mineral, consisting of sili- 
 cate of magnesia, coloured by two 
 and a half per cent, of iron. 
 
 SOBOLE. An underground creep- 
 ing stem. 
 
 SOD. A turf of grass. 
 SODA, PROTOXIDE OF SODI- 
 UM. An alkali very analagous and 
 isomorphous with potash. Equiva- 
 lent, 31 31, or 2331 sodium and 8 
 oxygen ; symbol, Na O. It is con- 
 stantly found, in the ashes of plants 
 performing the same function as pot- 
 ash ; but m the vine and some other 
 plants it is not equally serviceable. 
 In the mineral kingdom it is abun- 
 dant as a silicate, but especially in 
 the form oi chloride of sodium, or sea 
 salt (see Sail) ; the nitrate, which 
 is an important manure, is also 
 
 abundant in certain places (see Ni- 
 trates). 
 
 Kelp, barilla, and soda ash all owe 
 their value to the carbonate of soda, 
 which is used in making hard soaps. 
 The carbonate of soda resembles 
 pearlash very closely in its properties, 
 but is less active. 
 
 SOIL. "The nature and compo- 
 sition of soil, and, consequently, its 
 greater or less aptitude to the growth 
 and maturity of vegetable produc- 
 tions, depend chiedy on the propor- 
 tion and mechanical structure of the 
 various substances of which it con- 
 sists. When the soil is favourable 
 to the chemical action by which the 
 elements are combined to form ve- 
 getable substances, and admits that 
 quantity of air and moisture without 
 which this chemical action cannot 
 take place in any given climate or 
 temperature, vegetation goes on rap- 
 idly, and all the plants which are suit- 
 ed to the climate grow in the great- 
 est perfection and bear abundant 
 fruits. 
 
 " It is not, however, very frequent- 
 ly the case that a soil possesses all 
 those qualities on which great fertil- 
 ity depends. So many circumstan- 
 ces must concur to make a soil high- 
 ly fertde, that the great majority of 
 soils can only be made to produce 
 abundantly by being improved by art 
 both in their texture and composi- 
 tion. Hence the practice and sci- 
 ence of agriculture, which is founded 
 on experience, but to which every 
 progress in science also affords great 
 assistance, by the additional light 
 which every new discovery throws 
 on the true theory of vegetation. 
 
 " There are various modes of dis- 
 tinguishing soils, without here enter- 
 ing into a minute analysis (see Aiml- 
 y«;*) of their component parts. The 
 simplest and most natural is to com- 
 pare their texture, the size and form 
 of the visible particles of which they 
 are composed, and to trace the ])rob- 
 able source of their original formation 
 from the minerals which are found 
 around or below them, or the rocks 
 from which they may have been slow- 
 ly separated by the action of the el- 
 727 
 
SOIL. 
 
 ements. The science of geology, 
 which teaches the relative position 
 and nature of tiie minerals of which 
 the outer crust of the earth is formed, 
 is consequently of the greatest util- 
 ity in aiding us to compare different 
 soils, and ascertaining their compo- 
 sition. 
 
 " The knowledge which geology 
 imparts is, however, not sufficient 
 for the minuter classification of soils ; 
 for it is found by experience that the 
 soils which lie over or near the dif- 
 ferent strata, as they appear near the 
 surface, vary greatly, although they 
 retain some general character which 
 distinguishes them from others. The 
 streams which descend from the hills, 
 and flow towards the valleys, and 
 through them to the sea, carry to a 
 great distance the minuter portions 
 of the minerals which they flow over 
 in their course, while the larger and 
 heavier are deposited much sooner. 
 Hence the heterogeneous mixture of 
 various earths and stones, and their 
 stratification in thin layers, as is oft- 
 en found when a soil is examined 
 which has never been disturbed by 
 cultivation. A sudden flood, rising 
 rapidly, carries stones and fragments 
 of rocks in its course, while a gentler 
 stream deposites fine sand or clay 
 over these, and forms every variety 
 of sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil. 
 If chalky hills are near, carbonate of 
 lime abounds in almost every propor- 
 tion, with its usual concomitant, ir- 
 regular flints. If the waters have 
 accumulated in a basin, and formed 
 a temporary lake, the soil will con- 
 sist of all the finest portions of the 
 minerals, which, from their minute 
 size, have remained long suspended 
 in the still waters, and slowly depos- 
 ited in the form of mud. In propor- 
 tion to the shallowness of the lake, 
 vegetable matter will have been pro- 
 duced, and intimately mixed with the 
 minerals ; and, where vegetation has 
 gone on rapidly, peat and soft bogs 
 are formed. 
 
 " It is not sufficient to class soils 
 according to the substance which pre- 
 dominates, as has been usually done, 
 such as sandy, gravelly, chalky, or 
 728 
 
 clay soils ; for this gives very imper- 
 fect information respecting their na- 
 ture or fertility ; neither is it alto- 
 gether sufficient to class them ac- 
 cording to any particular geological 
 formation. It is important to enter 
 into a more minute examination of 
 their component parts. But as the 
 geological investigation of the differ- 
 ent strata is a great help in the ex- 
 amination of soils, we will in the first 
 place give a short description of those 
 which have the most distinct charac- 
 ters, from their connexion with dif- 
 ferent geological formations. 
 
 " The soils which are immediately 
 derived from those rocks in which no 
 traces of organic remains are to be 
 found consist either of visible frag- 
 ments of quartz and other hard min- 
 erals, which are not affected by ex- 
 posure to air or water, and are only 
 ground and commmuted by being rub- 
 bed against each other in floods and 
 torrents, or of minuter particles of 
 the same, of which the shape is not 
 readily distinguished by the naked 
 eye. When they are altogether com- 
 posed of visible particles and stones, 
 the water readily passes through 
 them ; and unless they are kept con- 
 tinually moist by a regular irrigation, 
 without any stagnation of the water, 
 they are absolutely incapable of sus- 
 taining vegetation, or of bringing 
 fruits to maturity. It is seldom, 
 however, that any gravel or sand 
 does not contain some portion of 
 earth or other matter, of which the 
 particles become invisible when dif- 
 fused through water, and to which, 
 for the sake of perspicuity, and to 
 prevent confusion, we will here give 
 the general name of impalpable sub- 
 stance. A certain portion of this finer 
 part of the soil, and its due admix- 
 ture with the coarser, especially 
 where there is some regular grada- 
 tion in size, and no stones of too large 
 dimensions to obstruct the instru- 
 ments of tillage, may be considered 
 as essential to fertility. The chem- 
 ical composition of the impalpable 
 substance, no doubt, greatly affects 
 the degree of fertility ; but the gen- 
 eral texture must be considered as 
 
SOIL. 
 
 by far the most important circum- 
 stance. To improve this texture 
 permanently is the great object of 
 all the labours of the husbandman. 
 For this purpose, he carries various 
 earths from one spot to another ; 
 clays one field, and limes or chalks 
 another ; brings peat upon sands and 
 clays, and carries gravel and lime on 
 his peat bogs. Without an adequate 
 knowledge of the composition and 
 texture of a soil, it is impossible to 
 make permanent improvements with 
 any certainty, or without incurring 
 the risk of failure or of useless outlay. 
 
 " The soils which have been form- 
 ed from the disintegration and de- 
 composition of the primitive rocks, 
 such as granite, basalt, schist, or 
 limestone, and especially those which 
 contain all these minerals, minutely 
 divided and intimately mixed, are al- 
 ways naturally fertile, and soon en- 
 riched by cultivation. The hard par- 
 ticles of quartz maintain a certain 
 porosity in the soil, which allows air 
 and moisture to circulate, while the 
 alumina prevents its too rapid evap- 
 oration or filtration. The silicate of 
 potash also seems highly favourable 
 to the vegetation and growth of those 
 plants which contain silica in their 
 stems, such as the graminea?, espe- 
 cially wheat, of all plants the most 
 important to the husbandman in our 
 northern climates. If organic mat- 
 ter be an essential ingredient in a 
 fertile soil, it is soon produced by 
 cultivation, or added by judicious 
 manuring. 
 
 ""Where there is a deficiency of 
 impalpable matter, and the fragments 
 of the rocks of which the soil is com- 
 posed are large, and lie loosely, it is 
 in vam to expect vegetation, except 
 along gently flowing streams, which 
 supply the roots with moisture, and 
 thus form a bed of vegetable matter ; 
 but in a climate suited to the vine, 
 and in a good exposure, these loose 
 soils often produce excellent wine, 
 as maybe seen along the steep banks 
 of the Rhine and other rivers. The 
 roots of the vine run deep into the fis- 
 sures of the rocks below, and there find 
 nourishment suited to their nature 
 
 "The primitive limestone, which 
 
 is very hard, is yet gradually decom- 
 posed by the action of air and water, 
 being, in a very small degree, soluble 
 in the latter. The water which flows 
 through these rocks is soon satura- 
 ted ; but when it springs out and 
 comes to the light, the carbonate of 
 lime is deposited by the evaporation 
 of the water ; and if this meets with 
 the clay which results from the de- 
 composition of the slate, it forms a 
 marl, which, naturally or artificially 
 added to silicious sand, forms the ba- 
 sis of a very good soil, particularly 
 well adapted to pasture. 
 
 "The soils which have been evi- 
 dently formed from the rocks which 
 are supposed to be of secondary for- 
 mation are fertile according to the 
 proportion of the earths of these rocks 
 which they contain. It is of these 
 chiefly that those loose, sandy soils 
 are formed of which the particles ap- 
 pear as distinct crystals, easily dis- 
 tinguishable with the aid of a lens, or 
 even by the naked eye. Air and wa- 
 ter have been the chief agents in the 
 decomposition of those secondary 
 rocks called sandstones, and agita- 
 tion in water has washed from them 
 the finer portions, which have remain- 
 ed suspended. The immense sandy 
 plains which are either barren, or 
 have been fertilized with great trou- 
 ble and expense, have probably once 
 been the sliores of the sea, from which 
 the waves have washed all that por- 
 tion which was impalpable and easily 
 suspended in water, depositing this 
 in the depths, which, by some con- 
 vulsion of nature, may some time or 
 other be raised above the level of the 
 waters, and form hills or plains of 
 clay, such as are often found in ex- 
 tensive basins of great depth. 
 
 " Argillaceous earth exists in some 
 proportion in almost every rock. 
 Some of the hardest gems are chief- 
 ly composed of alumina. It has the 
 property, when mixed with other sub- 
 stances, as silica or lime, of fusing 
 into a stone of great hardness and 
 insolubility. In this state its effect 
 on the soil is not to be distinguished 
 from that of silica ; and by burning 
 729 
 
SOIL. 
 
 common clay, or clay mixed wiih car- 
 bonate of lime, a sandy substance is 
 produced rescnil)ling l)urncd bnck, 
 which tends greatly to iniiirove the 
 texture of those clays wliich contain 
 little or no sand in their composition. 
 It nnist be renienil)crcd that tlie stifl- 
 est clays contain a large portion of 
 Bilica in an inii)alpable state ; but 
 this, instead of correcting their im- 
 permcal)le and |)lastic nature, rather 
 adds to it. It is only palpal)le sand 
 which, vvitii clay, forms what is C(jm- 
 monly called loam, and which, when 
 the sand is in due proportion with a 
 mixture of organic matter, forms the 
 richest and most easily cultivated 
 Boils. Some of the rocks of second- 
 ary formation contain a considerable 
 portion of alumina and lime ; and 
 when these earths meet with crys- 
 tallized saud, a compound, or, rather, 
 a mixture is formed, which has all the 
 requisite qualities, as to texture, to 
 produce the most fertile loams. The 
 only deficiency is that of organic mat- 
 ter ; but this is so readily accumula- 
 ted wherever vegetation is establish- 
 ed, or can be so easily added artifi- 
 cially, that these loams may always 
 be looked upon as the most favoura- 
 ble soils for the usual agricultural op- 
 erations : and if a considerable depth 
 of loam is found which neither re- 
 tains water too long nor allows it to 
 percolate too rapidly, it may be look- 
 ed upon as a soil eminently capable 
 of the highest degree of cultivation, 
 and on which no judicious outlay of 
 labour will ever cause loss or disap- 
 pointment to the farmer. 
 
 " The alluvial soils formed by the 
 deposite of a variety of earths in a 
 state of great division, and mixed 
 with a considerable portion of organ- 
 ic matter, form by far the most pro- 
 ductive lands. They will bear crop 
 after crop with little or no additional 
 manure, and with a very slight culti- 
 vation. These soils are found along 
 the course of rivers which traverse 
 extensive plains, and which have 
 such a current as to keep very fine 
 earth suspended by a gentle but con- 
 stant agitation, but not sufficiently 
 rapid to carry along with it coarse 
 730 
 
 gravel or sand. Wherever there is 
 an obstruction to the current and an 
 eddy is formed, there tlie soil is de- 
 posited in tii(> form of nmd, and grad- 
 ually accunnilaliiig, forms those allu- 
 vial soils whieh are so remarkable for 
 their fertility when carefully protect- 
 ed from the inroads of the water.- 
 In these soils the impalpable matte 
 greatly predominates; but the inti- 
 mate mixture of the earths witli or- 
 ganic matter, in that state in wliich 
 it has been called humus, prevents 
 their consolidating into a slid" clay; 
 and the gases which are continually 
 evolved from the organic matter keep 
 the pores open, and give scope to the 
 growth as well as the nourishment of 
 the roots. It is in the alluvial soils 
 princijjally that an accurate analysis 
 is useful ; because the proportion of 
 their constituent parts varies in in- 
 numerable degrees. It may be laid 
 down as a general rule, that the most 
 fertile of these sods are those in 
 which the primitive earths are nearly 
 in equal proportions, silica being the 
 most ai)undant, with about ten per 
 ccnt. of organic matter ; a greater 
 proportion of this last would form too 
 loose and spongy a soil to bear good 
 crops of corn, especially of wheat. 
 But four per cent, of hunms, with a 
 good mixture of earths, and some 
 phosphate of lime from the decompo- 
 sition of bones and marine shells, 
 produces a very good wheat soil. 
 The rich warp-lands along the Hum- 
 ber are artificial alluvial soils, and 
 although they contain but a small 
 proportion of humus, are highly fer- 
 tile after their first deposition, but it 
 is observed that they gradually be- 
 come more tenacious and difficult of 
 cultivation as this humus is carried 
 off by the crops, and that it is soon 
 necessary to add animal and vegeta- 
 ble manures to supply its deficiency. 
 " Organic matter is no doubt essen- 
 tial to great fertility in a soil, but 
 some soils require more of it than 
 others. Humus, which is the form 
 which organic matter naturally comes 
 to by slow decomposition in the 
 earth, gives out certain elements 
 which the roots can take up in their 
 
SOIL. 
 
 nascent state, and from wliich tliey 
 obtain the carbon which is so abun- 
 dant in all vegetable productions. 
 But organic matter, in every stage of 
 its spontaneous decomposition, keeps 
 the pores of the soil open, and ad- 
 mits, if it does not even attract, air 
 and moisture to the fibres of the 
 roots. In all rich soils which have 
 been long cultivated, especially in 
 gardens, there are particles of a dark 
 colour and fibrous texture, which, in 
 the microscope, appear like minute 
 logs of charred wood. Ihese keep 
 the soil open, and supply carbonic 
 acid, when the air reaches them, or 
 they are slowly transformed into hu- 
 mus, which remains inert as long as 
 it cannot imbibe oxygen and form 
 carbonic acid by a species of slow 
 combustion. Humus is no doubt one 
 of the chief causes of fertility, but 
 its presence does not appear to be 
 so indispensable as has been ima- 
 gined. A proper texture seems a 
 much more indispensable condition. 
 Humus can undoubtedly be formed 
 from the elements of water and of 
 the atmosphere. Whether it be di- 
 rectly, or by the slow process of ve- 
 getation and subsequent decomposi- 
 tion, does not so readily appear, but 
 it is certain that there are soils which 
 are higiily fertile in which scarcely a 
 trace of humus can be discovered, 
 and which, from their igneous forma- 
 tion, cannot well contain organic 
 matter; such are the soils which are 
 produced by the decomposition of 
 the lava which has run in a hquid 
 state from the craters of volcanoes. 
 This is composed of different miner- 
 als, which have been fused by the ac- 
 tion of heat, but in which the mixture 
 of the earths and salts has not been 
 in such proportions as to form a per- 
 fect glass. When exposed for a time 
 to the influence of the atmosphere, the 
 lava crumbles into an earth, which is 
 neither so loose as silicious sand, nor 
 so plastic as clay, and which has such 
 a porosity as suits the growth of the 
 roots of vegetables. By tlie effect 
 of a warm climate and frequent rains, 
 vegetation goes on rapidly, and by 
 cultivation humus is soon formed and 
 
 accumulated, so that it is only in the 
 more recently cultivated kivas that it 
 can he said tliat vegetation goes on 
 without any supply of organic matter ; 
 and tiie addition of humus greatly in- 
 creases the fertility of these soils. 
 It is much easier to sup[)ly the defi- 
 ciency of humus, which at best forms 
 but a very small portion of the soil, 
 than of silica or alumina, which should 
 enter into its composition in the pro- 
 portion of one half or a third of the 
 whole. It is practicable to carry lime 
 or chalk upon soils which do not con- 
 tain calcareous matter ; clay may also 
 be carried upon loose, sandy soils, 
 where it can be found below the sur- 
 face, or at a moderate distance ; but 
 if a soil is very deficient in silica, it 
 requires so large a proportion of tliis 
 earth to give porosity to stiff clay, 
 that it very seldom can repay the 
 trouble and expense. Hence the dif- 
 ficulty of bringing poor, wet, clay 
 soils into a fertile state, except where 
 an abundance of chalk and vegetable 
 manures can be easily procured. In 
 this case, the perfect draining of the 
 land, and exposure of the ploughed 
 surface to the frosts of winter, with 
 the addition of chalk and manure, 
 produces such an alteration in the 
 texture of the clay, that, by contin- 
 uing the improving process, it is en- 
 tirely changed into a mellow and fer- 
 tile loam. The burning of a portion 
 of the retentive subsoil into a brick- 
 like earth gives it a porosity which 
 renders it mechanically similar to si- 
 licious sand, and converting the iron 
 which all these clays contain into a 
 peroxide, the soil is thereby greatly 
 improved in fertility ; for it seems 
 that iron, in a state of slight oxida- 
 tion, or combined with any acid, is 
 hurtful to vegetation, whereas the red 
 peroxide ks not only innocuous, but 
 seems to have fertilizing properties. 
 " The comparison of the different 
 fertile soils leads, therefore, to the 
 conclusion that the texture or porosity 
 arising from the admixture of parti- 
 cles of various dimensions is the most 
 important object of examination ; and 
 subordinate to this is the chemical 
 constitution of the earths and other 
 731 
 
SOIL. 
 
 substances of uhich it is composed. 
 In the examination and analysis of 
 soils for the pur|)0se of ascertaining 
 their power of production, we must, 
 therefore, first examine them mechan- 
 ically, and afterward chemically, and 
 on this principle has been proposed 
 the mode of analyting soils, in a pa- 
 per which obtained one of the first 
 prizes given by the Royal English 
 Agricultural Society, and published 
 in the first number of its journal. 
 M'e will here insert a short account 
 of the process, with such alterations 
 and additions as more extensive prac- 
 tice has suggested. 
 
 " There are two easy methods of 
 ascertaining the size of the particles of 
 a soil. The first and simplest is by 
 drying the portion under examination, 
 gently triturating it with a wooden 
 pestle in a mortar, so as not to pro- 
 duce a grinding of the more solid 
 portions, and then separating the 
 coarser from the finer parts by means 
 of several metallic sieves of different 
 fineness. A simple ins-trument is rec- 
 ommended for this pur- 
 pose, which is very porta- 
 ble, and consists of three 
 or four sieves fitting into 
 each other ; the coarsest 
 sieve being uppermost and 
 covered with a lid ; the fi- 
 nest fitting into a recipient, 
 and the whole forming a 
 cylinder three or four inch- 
 es in diameter, and from 
 six to eight in height. The 
 coarsest sieve has threads 
 at the distance of -jV of an inch, the 
 second has 80 in an inch, the third 
 120, and the lourth is the finest me- 
 tallic tissue which can be made. 
 What remains in the first two is ea- 
 sily examined by the eye, or with the 
 help of a lens. The third and fourth 
 require a microscope to see whether 
 any crystallized particles remain in 
 the impalpable dust which has gone 
 through all the sieves. By carefully 
 weighing these different earths their 
 proportion is known, and by taking 
 the specific gravity of each their na- 
 ture can be guessed at with tolerable 
 accuracy. 
 732 
 
 "As this analysis is not intended 
 for experienced chemists, the sim- 
 plest methods are preferred to the 
 more accurate. There is a mode of 
 taking the specific gravities of sub- 
 stances which are in the form of pow- 
 der insoluble in water, so easy and 
 so little liable to error, that any per- 
 son, however unaccustomed to exper- 
 iments, can soon become sufficiently 
 expert to have full confidence in the 
 result. It is as follows : a small, 
 pear-shaped vial is blown of thin 
 glass, and the neck cut and ground 
 
 smooth. The size is such as to con- 
 tain 300 grains of water, more or 
 less ; the exact quantity is not essen- 
 tiah It is now filled with pure water 
 at 60° of Fahrenheit's scale, and ac- 
 curately poised in a delicate balance : 
 100 grains weight are then placed in 
 the same scale with this vial, and, 
 by means of a very fine tube, water 
 is gradually sucked out of the vial 
 till the equilibrium is restored ; that 
 is, exactly one hundred grains of wa- 
 ter have been taken out. A counter- 
 poise is now made of lead or brass, 
 when the 100 grains weight has been 
 removed, and this serves for all fu- 
 ture experiments. "When the specif- 
 ic gravity of any substance is requi- 
 red, the vial, partly filled with wa- 
 ter, is placed in one scale, and the 
 counterpoise, made as above descri- 
 bed, is placed in the other ; water is 
 added or taken from the vial till an 
 equilibrium is obtained. The sub- 
 stance to be tried is slowly and care- 
 fully poured into the vial, until the 
 water rises to the ground surface of 
 the neck and stands quite level, which 
 is easily seen by observing the reflec- 
 tion of the light from the surface. It 
 is then carefully replaced in the scale, 
 and grain weights are added to the 
 other scale to restore the equilibrium. 
 
SOIL. 
 
 The number of these grains at once 
 indicates the specific gravity of the 
 substance ; for tlie space above the 
 water was that of 100 grains of water, 
 and this space is now tilled up by the 
 earth examined. Its weight, there- 
 fore, denotes its specific gravity com- 
 pared to water as 100 ; and as a del- 
 icate balance readily turns with a 
 decimal of a grain, the decimals give 
 the specific gravity to the third fig- 
 ure. Thus, if the grains are 256 
 and the decimals 4, the specific grav- 
 ity is accurately 3564, water being 
 1000. 
 
 " By taking the specific gravity of 
 the pure earths, it is found that sili- 
 ca is the heaviest, the next is car- 
 bonate of lime, and the lightest is 
 alumina, while organic matter is much 
 lighter than any earth. Thus, a tol- 
 erable guess can be made of the com- 
 position of that impalpable portion of 
 the soil which generally contains all 
 the salts and organic matter. To 
 separate these chemically requires 
 more experience and a more exten- 
 sive apparatus ; but the quantity of 
 carbonate of lime in any soil which 
 effervesces with acids, when its pres- 
 ence is thus ascertained, can be cal- 
 culated by a simple process, almost 
 as easily as the specific gravity ; for 
 this purpose, it is necessary to have 
 a balance with a somewhat larger 
 scale, in which can be conveniently 
 placed a small glass cup and a vial. 
 The cup is placed in the scale with 
 100 grains weight in it ; and the vial, 
 also containing 200 or 300 grains, 
 more or less, of very dilute muriatic 
 acid. The whole is accurately poised 
 Fine dry sand is the most convenient 
 counterpoise when the exact weight 
 is not required. The 100 grains are 
 now taken out and replaced by the 
 dried soil to be examined. When 
 the equilibrium is restored, the dilu- 
 ted muriatic acid is poured carefully 
 and gently on the earth in the cup 
 as long as it continues to effervesce ; 
 it is then left for a while, and a little 
 more of the acid added. If no bub- 
 bles appear, then all the carbonic acid 
 has been expelled, and the opposite 
 scale preponderates. The grains and 
 
 Q Q Q 
 
 decimals of grains required to restore 
 the equilibrium give the weight of the 
 carbonic acid expelled, which will 
 sometimes be considerable. Since 
 100 grains of carbonate of lime con- 
 tain 44 grains of carbonic acid, we 
 have only to take the proportion as 
 follows : let a denote the grains of 
 carbonic acid indicated in the experi- 
 
 lOOrt , 
 ment ; then, 44 : 100 : : a : — — =the 
 
 44 
 
 quantity of carbonate of lime in the 
 soil ; that is, multiply the grains add- 
 ed to the scale by 100, and divide by 
 44. This experiment, repeated with 
 a very accurate balance, will surprise 
 by its correctness ; and no chemical 
 analysis could give it with equal cer- 
 tainty, especially in the hands of an 
 inexperienced person. When the 
 weights are ascertained by substitu- 
 tion, the accuracy of the balance is of 
 less consequence ; all that is required 
 is that it be sensitive, or turn read- 
 ily by the addition of very minute 
 weights. Thus, by two simple and 
 easy experiments, some of the most 
 important qualities of the impalpable 
 portions of a soil may be accurately 
 ascertained, viz., its specific gravity, 
 and the quantity of carbonate of lime 
 which it contains. 
 
 " It is more difficult to separate the 
 fine silica from the alumina, and this 
 is of less importance than might be 
 supposed ; for silica, when extremely 
 divided, so as to remain long sus- 
 pended in water, and mixed with alu- 
 mina, becomes as impervious to wa- 
 ter as alumina itself, and therefore its 
 mechanical effect on the soil is the 
 same. For farther information, see 
 art. Analysis. 
 
 " The coarser portions of the soil, 
 which have been separated in the 
 sifting, are easily examined by the 
 eye. If repeated washing carries off 
 nothing from them, they may be con- 
 sidered as so many crystals, which 
 have no other effect in the soil than 
 to keep it open. If some of these 
 are of a calcareous nature, they will 
 dissolve with effervescence in mu- 
 riatic acid, and their proportion can 
 be ascertained by the process abovt 
 described ; if not, they may be ? 
 733 
 
SOIL 
 
 considered as mere silicious sand or 
 gravel 
 
 " A good soil is composed of one 
 third coarse sand, one tliinl very fine 
 sand, and one liiird niipalpaljle mat- 
 ter, in which there is sihca in the 
 greatest quantity, alumina and lime 
 in a smaller, and from four to ten per 
 cent, of organic matter, without any 
 appearance of tannin, which is readi- 
 ly discovered by pouring into tlie wa- 
 ter which has liltered through it a 
 weak solution of sulphate of iron ; if 
 a blackness appears, the gallic acid 
 is present, and in proportion to its 
 quantity the soil is less fertile. In 
 this case quicklime is the best correc- 
 tive. 
 
 "In ascertaining the value of a 
 soil for the purposes of agriculture, 
 two circumstances should be care- 
 fully noticed : the first is the permea- 
 bility of the soil to water ; and the 
 second is its power of absorbing moist- 
 ure from the atmosphere. To ascer- 
 tain the first, it is only required to 
 place an equal weight of different 
 soils in glass tubes of equal diameter, 
 pressing them so that they shall oc- 
 cupy equal spaces, but not filling the 
 tubes ; then pour an equal quantity 
 of water over each soil, and place 
 them upright with cups under them. 
 Examine which has the surface first 
 dry, and how much water runs through 
 each in a given time. That which 
 presents a dry surface, while it holds 
 most water in its pores, is probably 
 the t)est. To ascertain the compara- 
 tive absorption of moisture, the soils 
 are dried in pairs on a plate of metal 
 heated by steam, or at a heat of 212°, 
 to expel the water ; they are then 
 placed in equal quantities in similar 
 flat cups or dishes, and placed in op- 
 posite scales of a balance, and poised. 
 The apparatus is exposed to a moist 
 atmosphere out of doors, or in a cel- 
 lar, and occasionally examined. That 
 which is heaviest is, in general, the 
 most fertile, and contains most hu- 
 mus. If there are more than two 
 soils, they are compared with each 
 other, and with a third as a stand- 
 ard. 
 
 " By these simple means any per- 
 734 
 
 son, however ignorant of chemistry, 
 or unaccustomed to make accurate 
 experiiiienls, may soon satisfy him- 
 self as to the comparative value of 
 diflerent soils which have never yet 
 been cultivated ; how they may be 
 improved, and what crops are bust 
 suited to them : tilings of the great- 
 est importance to tliose who go to 
 distant colonies in the hopes of ob- 
 taining good land at a moderate price, 
 and cultivating it to advantage. 
 
 " But we have intimated that there 
 were other means of ascertaining the 
 mechanical texture of soils than by 
 sifting them ; tliis is by washing with 
 pure water. For this purpose, no- 
 thing is required but a few flat plates 
 and large cups. Some of the soil is 
 formed into a very thin mud by stir- 
 ring it in a cup nearly full of water. 
 The finer particles are successively 
 poured off from the sand or grit, 
 which at last remains pure, so that 
 the water added to it is no longer 
 discoloured : this being dried and 
 weighed, gives the coarse sand. The 
 water and earth poured off are al- 
 lowed to settle : a common soup- 
 plate is found a very convenient ves- 
 sel for this purpose. On the surface 
 of the deposited earth will be found 
 all the undecomposed vegetable mat- 
 ter, which, with a little care, is easily 
 taken off, dried, and weighed. The 
 finer portions of the earth can be 
 poured off successively by shaking 
 the whole moderately till nothing but 
 very fine sand remains. The alumi- 
 na and impalpable silica will remain 
 long suspended in the water, and al- 
 low any sand yet remaining to be de- 
 posited. They may be rapidly sep- 
 arated from the water by filtration 
 through stout blotting paper ; but it 
 is preferable to pour them into a glass 
 tube about one inch in internal di- 
 ameter, with a cork fitted into the 
 lower end. In this tube the earths 
 slowly fall to the bottom, and any 
 variety in the size of the particles 
 causes a line more or less distinct, 
 which can be observed through the 
 glass ; and thus a very good idea 
 may be obtained of the proportion of 
 the different earths as far as regards 
 
SOI 
 
 SOI 
 
 the size of their particles. For their 
 chemical diflerenc-es, the preceding 
 process must be adopted. 
 
 •' It is often useful to ascertain 
 nearly the composition of a soil with- 
 out having time or opportunity to 
 make accurate experiments. A grad- 
 uated glass tube which can be carried 
 in the pocket, and a small vial with a 
 ground stopper, containing diluted 
 muriatic acid, and secured in a wood- 
 en case for fear of accident, are all the 
 apparatus required. A little of the 
 soil is taken and moistened with wa- 
 ter ; a few drops of the acid are pour- 
 ed on ; and by the greater or less dis- 
 engagement of bubbles the proportion 
 of calcareous matter is guessed at, 
 and Its presence proved. The soil, 
 mixed with water, is poured into the 
 glass tube and well shaken. In a few 
 minutes the coarse sand is deposited, 
 shortly after the finer sand, and, last- 
 ly, the clay and impalpable matter, of 
 which the lightest remains longest 
 suspended. Distinct rings can-be ob- 
 served in the deposites, and the grad- 
 uated tube shows their proportion. 
 A person accustomed to this method I 
 will guess with great precision the 
 general qualities of the soil ; and 
 when the geological structure of the 
 neighbourhood and the nature of the i 
 subsoil are taken into consideration, I 
 the value of the land for pasture or 
 cultivation is guessed with little dan- 
 ger of making very glaring mistakes. 
 To surveyors and valuers this meth- 
 od is of very great help, when other 
 means are not at hand. 
 
 " In practice, soils are usually di- 
 vided into light, mellow, and stiff; 
 but this gives very little information, 
 there being every imaginable variety 
 in each of these. In the article Ara- 
 ble Land, we have given a more par- 
 ticular classification from Thaer, but 
 this is found chiefly applicable to al- 
 luvial soils. There are still minute 
 circumstances which produce great 
 fertility or the reverse, and which it 
 is difficult to investigate. An accu- 
 rate chemical analysis, joined to a 
 careful mechanical examination, and 
 very correct accounts of the average 
 produce under different systems of 
 
 cultivation, can alone give us a scale 
 according to which the natural fertility 
 of different soils can be classed ; and 
 this must be the work of time and in- 
 dustry joined to science and practical 
 knowledge. We shall therefore con- 
 clude this article by recommending to 
 every lover of agriculture to observe 
 and note the peculiarities of the soils 
 with which he is best acquainted ; to 
 analyze them frequently and under 
 various circumstances, and thus en- 
 deavour to find to what peculiar sub- 
 stance or condition is to be ascribed 
 a greater or less degree of fertility ; 
 so as to lead to the simplest and ea- 
 siest mode of rendering indifferent 
 soils fertile, and increasing the pro- 
 ductive power even of the best." — 
 {Rham.) '. 
 
 SOILING. " This is the name giv- 
 en in agriculture to the mode of feed- 
 ing horses and cattle in the stable or 
 yards with food brought to them as 
 it is cut in the meadows or fields. 
 The great advantage of soiling cattle 
 is the increase of manure of the best 
 quality which is thereby produced ; 
 and this circumstance alone can coun- 
 terbalance the great trouble and ex- 
 pense incurred in cutting and carry- 
 ing all the green food from a distance 
 to the farm-yard. 
 
 " The system of soiling is not very 
 generally adopted, it being so much 
 easier to allow the cattle to crop their 
 food in the pastures ; but in those 
 countries where property in land is 
 greatly subdivided, and where farms 
 are small and good pastures scarce, 
 as in Flanders, France, and Switzer- 
 land, especially where the vineyards 
 render manure scarce and dear by 
 taking a considerable portion of it 
 and returning none, there the soiling 
 of cattle is almost a matter of neces- 
 sity. A cow or ox requires from two 
 to three acres of pasture or meadow 
 to feed it all the year round, allowing 
 a portion for hay; but by raising clo- 
 ver, lucern, sainfoin, tares, and otlier 
 green crops, three cows or more can 
 be fed with the produce of one acre, 
 especially if a portion is in turnips or 
 other succulent roots. Thus the 
 straw of the white crops is converted^ 
 735 
 
SOILING. 
 
 into excellent manure, and the land 
 kept in a state of fertility. 
 
 " In proportion as a farm is larger 
 in extent, so the expense of soilmg 
 increast^s, both from the distance of 
 the fields where the green crops 
 grow, and from the same distance 
 to wliicii the dung is to be carted. 
 There is a limit, therefore, to the 
 soiling system, unless there be many 
 yards or stables in different parts of 
 a farm, so as to subdivide it, and 
 make each yard the centre of a dis- 
 tinct system of soiling, with fields 
 near at hand for the green crops. In 
 almost every experiment on a large 
 scale, it has been found that soiling 
 was only a certain mode of purchasing 
 dung, and that it often was more ex- 
 pensive to procure it in this way than 
 to send to a considerable distance to 
 purchase it in towns. Where it can- 
 not be purchased at all, there are no 
 other means, in many situations, of 
 producing a sufficient quantity ; and 
 the trouble and expense of soiling 
 must be submitted to. In almost ev- 
 ery case where sheep can be folded 
 to feed ofT the crops, the soiling of 
 cattle is a loss, because the sheep pay 
 something for their food -, the cattle 
 in the stall seldom do. 
 
 " But there are animals which 
 must be fed for the work of the farm, 
 such as horses or oxen ; and these 
 are much more profitably and eco- 
 nomically fed by soiling than by any 
 other means. A horse or ox, if he 
 works eight or ten hours, has no time 
 for rest if he has to crop his food 
 from a short pasture, however sweet ; 
 whereas an abundant supply of clo- 
 ver, lucern, or tares enables him to 
 take a hearty meal and lie down to 
 rest. He wants no corn with this 
 food, and does his work without los- 
 ing flesh or activity. 
 
 " There is nothing easier in a mild 
 climate, and especially a moist one 
 like Britain or Ireland, than to have 
 a succession of green food from the 
 beginning of spring to the end of au- 
 tumn. Rye and winter barley, sown 
 early in autumn, will be ready to cut 
 as soon as the mild weather of spring 
 commences ; some sown later with 
 739 
 
 winter tares, and the young clover, 
 which has not been cropped in au- 
 tumn, will succeed. After this come 
 artificial grasses, as Italian rye grass 
 and the grass of water meadows 
 mown early ; although this last is not 
 so hearty food for working cattle ; 
 but when joined to a mixture of oats 
 and cut straw, their watery nature is 
 corrected. Clover and spring tares 
 (when these can be raised at proper 
 intervals), lucern and sainfoin (if the 
 soil is suited to them), will afford a 
 C(mstant and abundant supply to the 
 scythe which cuts the daily allowance. 
 It is prudent to provide against fail- 
 ure, and have more land in these crops 
 than is absolutely necessary, because 
 the surplus can always be made into 
 hay, or reserved to ripen its seed ; 
 and these green crops, valuable as 
 they are, far from, deteriorating the 
 soil, clear it of weeds, and render it 
 more fit to bear corn afterward. In 
 this case, soiling is profitable and 
 economical. 
 
 " It is generally thought in those 
 countries where the soiling system is 
 most universally adopted, that it is 
 best to allow the green food to re- 
 main twelve or twenty-four hours af- 
 ter it is cut before it is given to cat- 
 tle. This may be prudent with cows 
 and oxen, wiio are apt to eat vora- 
 ciously, and are subject to be hoven 
 from the fermentations of the green 
 food in the paunch or rumen ; but for 
 horses there is little danger ; and if 
 the food is not wet with dew or rain, 
 the fresher it is eaten the better it 
 will nourish the animal, and the more 
 he will relish it. 
 
 " If any one is desirous of calcula- 
 ting the expense of soiling any num- 
 ber of beasts, he has only to reckon 
 what time of men and horses it will 
 take to cut the food and carry it to 
 the cattle, from the average distance 
 of the fields in \\hich it can be raised 
 in succession. .Much of their time is 
 lost in the morning and evening in 
 going backward and forward from the 
 field to the yard ; for there can scarce- 
 ly be an establishment so large as to 
 keep them employed a whole day ; 
 and if there was, the fields must be 
 
soo 
 
 so large and so distant as to greatly | 
 increase the expense of carriage. ; 
 Not to enter into muuite calculations, 
 it is fully proved that, to a certain ex- j 
 tent, soiling is protitablc and econom- 
 ical, when it can be done before and 
 after the usual hours of labour ; but 
 that, when undertaken on a large 
 scale in anv one locality, it is usually 
 attended with loss, the manure pro- 
 duced being purchased at too great a 
 price." 
 
 SOLANACE.E. a natural order 
 of herbaceous or shrubby exogcns, 
 inhabiting all parts of tlie world ex- 
 cepting the arctic regions. This or- 
 der contains nightshade, henbane, 
 mandrake, tobacco, stramonium, the 
 potato, and the tomato, the leaves of 
 all which arc narcotic and excitnig, but 
 in different degrees, from Atropa bel- 
 ladonna, which causes vertigo, convul- 
 sions, and vomiting ; tobacco, which 
 will frequently produce the first and 
 last of these symptoms ; henbane and 
 stramonium, down to some of the so- 
 lanum tribes, the leaves of which are 
 so inert as to be used as kitchen herbs. 
 Even in the potato plant, the narcotic 
 acrid principle is I'ound in the stem 
 and leaves, and even in the rind of 
 the tuber. But the principal part of 
 the latter consists of starcli ; and the 
 small quantity of deleterious matter 
 being volatile and near the surface, 
 is readdy drivea off by the heat used 
 in cookmg. 
 
 SOLIDUNGULATES. Ani- 
 mals with an undivided hoof, as the 
 horse. 
 
 SOLUTION. The diffusion in wa- 
 ter or other menstrua of the particles 
 of a solid or other body. The amount 
 dissolved is definite at the same tem- 
 perature, and is usually increased by 
 heat. A Uuid already holding in so- 
 lution a given substance will not dis- 
 solve so inuch of a tliird as if pure, 
 and sometimes none at all. 
 
 SOOT. " Soot is a complicated and 
 variable mixture of substances pro- 
 duced during the combustion of coal. 
 Its composition, and consequently its 
 effects as a manure, vary with the 
 quality of the coal, with the way in 
 which the coal is burned, and with 
 
 Q Q Q 2 
 
 SOO 
 
 the height of the chimney in which 
 it is collected. 
 
 " Soot has not been analyzed since 
 the year 183G, when a variety exam- 
 ined' by Braconnot was found by him 
 to consist, in a thousand parts, of 
 
 Ulniic acid? (a substance resemblin[,0 
 
 that portion of the vegetable matter I 305.0 
 of the soil which is soluble 111 caustic | 
 ]>otash) . . • • • --^ 
 
 A ledilish brown soluble substance, con- 1 
 taiuin? nitrogen, and yielding ammo- > 
 nia when heated . . • • ' 
 
 Asboline 
 
 Carbonaleof lime, with a trace of mag- 
 nesia (probably derived in part from 
 the sides of the chimney) . 
 
 Acetate of lime 
 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) . 
 
 Acetate of maonesia . . . • 
 
 Phosphate of lime, with a trace of iron 
 
 Chloride of potassium . . . ■ 
 
 Acetate of potash .... 
 
 Acetate of ammonia .... 
 
 Silica (sand) 
 
 Charcoal powder •"''^ 
 
 Water 125-0 
 
 2000 
 
 50 
 
 146 6 
 
 56-5 
 5e-0 
 
 5-3 
 150 
 
 3fi 
 410 
 
 20 
 
 9-. 
 
 lUOO-0 
 
 " The earthy substances which the 
 soot contains are chiefly derived from 
 the walls of the chimney, and from 
 the ash of the coal, part of which is 
 carried up the chimney by the draught. 
 These, therefore, must be variable, 
 being largest in quantity where the 
 draught is strongest, and where the 
 earthy matter or ash in the coal is the 
 greatest. The quantity of gypsum 
 present depends upon the sulphur 
 contained in the coal : that which is 
 freest from sulphur will give a soot 
 containing the least gypsum. The 
 ammonia and the soluble substance 
 containing nitrogen will vary with 
 the quantity of nitrogen contained in 
 the coal and with certain other caus- 
 es, so that the composition of differ- 
 ent samples of soot may be very un- 
 like, and their influence upon vegeta- 
 tion therefore very unequal. The 
 consecjuence of this must be, that the 
 results obtained in one spot, or upon 
 one crop, are not to be depended 
 upon as indicative of the precise effect 
 whicli another specimen of soot will 
 produce in another locality, and upon 
 another crop even of the same kind ; 
 and thus it happens that the use of 
 soot is more general, and is attended 
 with more bcnelieial effects in some 
 districts than in others. 
 
 737 
 
soo 
 
 SOR 
 
 " In general, it may be assumed 
 that where ammonia or its salts will 
 benefit the crop, soot also will be of 
 use, and hence its successful appli- 
 cation to grass lands. From its con- 
 taining gypsum, it should also espe- 
 cially benefit the clover crops ; yet 
 Dr. Anderson says, ' I have used soot 
 as a top-dressing for clover and rye 
 grass in all proportions, from one 
 hundred bushels per acre to six hun- 
 dred, and I cannot say that I ever 
 could perceive the clover in the least 
 degree more luxuriant than in the 
 places where no soot had been ap- 
 plied ; but upon rye grass its efTects 
 are amazing, and increase in propor- 
 tion to the quantity, so far as my tri- 
 als have gone ;' and his general con- 
 clusion is, that soot does not effect the 
 growth of clover in any icay, while it 
 wonderfully promotes that of rye grass. 
 
 " The presence of ammonia in soot 
 causes it, when laid in heaps, to de- 
 stroy all the plants upon the spot. 
 
 " This ammonia also causes soot 
 to injure and diminish the crop in 
 very dry seasons. Thus the produce 
 of a crop of beans, after oats, in 1842, 
 upon an 
 
 Unmiiiiured part of the field was . . 29i bush. 
 Dressed with fourbushels uf soot . . 28 " 
 
 " It also diminished, in a small de- 
 gree, the potato. 
 
 With manure alone, the pro- 
 duce was . . . .11 tons 17 cwt. 
 
 With thirty bushels of soot 
 sprinkled over the dung . 11 " 4 " 
 
 " Like rape-dust and saline sub- 
 stances, therefore, soot seems to re- 
 quire moist weather, or a naturally 
 moist soil, to bring out all its virtues. 
 
 " Yet even in the dry season of 
 1842, its effect upon wheat and oats 
 in the same locality (Erskine) was 
 very beneficial. Thus the compara- 
 tive produce of these crops, when un- 
 dressed and when top-dressed with 
 ten bushels of soot per acre, was as 
 follows : j 
 
 Unmanured . . . Wheat 44 Oats 49 
 Top-dressed with soot . " 54 " 55 
 
 " But the dressed wheat was infe- 
 rior in quality to the undressed, the 
 former weighing only 58, the latter 
 62 pounds a bushel. In the oats there 
 was no difference. Are we to infer 
 738 
 
 ' from these results that, even in dry 
 seasons, soot may be safely applied 
 to crops of corn, while to pulse and 
 roots it is sure to do no good ! Far- 
 ther precise observations, no doubt, 
 ! are still necessary, and the more es- 
 pecially, as the experiments upon oats 
 and wheat made in a drier locality 
 gave a decrease in the produce of 
 grain, while in Mr. Fleming's exper- 
 iments upon turnips, 50 bushels of 
 soot, applied alone, gave an increase 
 of four tons in the crop. 
 
 "Another experiment enables us 
 to judge of ti»e efficacy of soot in a 
 dry season, compared with that of ni- 
 trate of soda and of guano, upon the 
 produce of hay. Thus the crop of hay 
 per acre from the 
 
 Cost 
 . tons. cwts. £. 8. d. 
 
 Undressed portion, weighed ..18 
 
 Dressed with 40 bush, of soot . 1 15 118 
 " " leOlbs. nitr. ofsoda 1 19 1 15 9 
 
 " " 160 lbs. of guano .2 2 1 15 9 
 
 " In this experiment the soot pro- 
 ved a more profitable application than 
 either of the other manures. 
 
 " In regard to this substance, I 
 shall only advert to one other obser- 
 vation — but it is an important one — 
 made by Mr. Morton, when describing 
 the management of a well-conducted 
 farm. 'The quantity of soot used 
 upon this farm amounts to 3000 bush- 
 els a year, one half of which is ap- 
 plied to the potato, the other half to 
 the wheat crop.' All the straw grown 
 iifon this farm is sold for thatch, and 
 for the last thirty years the only ma- 
 nure that has been purchased to re- 
 place this straw is soot." — (Johnston.) 
 
 The amount applied is from twen- 
 ty-five to fortv bushels the acre. 
 
 SOPORIFICS. Drugs which pro- 
 duce sleep. 
 
 SOREDIA. Masses of powdery 
 bodies lying on the thallus of lichens. 
 
 SORI. The small heaps of repro- 
 ductive granules found growing upon 
 the fronds of polvpodiaceous ferns. 
 
 SOROSIS. a' fruit resembling the 
 mulberry, being a succulent spike. 
 
 SORREL. Rumex acctosella. A 
 small perennial weed of the dock 
 family, with a sour taste, arising from 
 the binoxalate of potash. It grows 
 
sow 
 
 sow 
 
 on poor lands, and marks sterility. ' 
 A good liming and tilth are wanting to 
 improve such soils, not because they 
 are sour, or the sorrel should be kill- 
 ed, but because they are poor lands. 
 The wood {oxaiis) sorrel grows only 
 in rich places. 
 
 SORREL-TREE. Andromeda ar- 
 borca. A handsome shrubbery tree 
 in the North, with beautiful white 
 racemes of riowers. In the South it 
 becomes a large tree. 
 
 SOUTHERNWOOD. Wormwood. 
 
 SOWENS. A dish made from oat- 
 meal. 
 
 SOWING, AND SOWING MA- 
 CHINES. " The sowing of the seed 
 has always been looked upon as one 
 of the most important operations of 
 husbandry. Much of the success of 
 the future crops depends on the time 
 and the mode in wliich the seed is 
 committed to the earth. After the 
 land has been well prepared by ju- 
 dicious tillage and manuring, many 
 accidents and circumstances may dis- 
 appoint the hope of the farmer, and 
 the crop may be scanty or fail alto- 
 gether. The weather and the sea- 
 sons are not under his control ; but 
 much also depends on his own judg- 
 ment and skill. If he selects the best 
 seeds, chooses the proper season for 
 sowing them, and has them carefully 
 distributed and properly covered with 
 earth, as their nature requires for the 
 most perfect germination, and thus 
 also protects them from the voracity 
 of birds or insects, he will have a 
 much greater prospect of success, 
 under all circumstances, than if he 
 were careless or negligent. 
 
 " The most common mode of sow- 
 ing the seed is by scattering it as 
 evenly as possible over the ploughed 
 surface, as it lies in ridges from the 
 plough. The harrows follow, and 
 crumbling down the ridges, cover the 
 seed which has fallen in the hollows 
 between them. It requires an ex- 
 perienced sower to scatter the exact 
 quantity o%-er a given surface, with- 
 out crowding the seed in one spot, 
 and allowing too great intervals in 
 another. Hence the farmer wiio 
 does not himself sow the seed, inva- 
 
 riably chooses the most experienced 
 and skilful labourer to perform this 
 work. Notwithstanding every care 
 and attention on the part of the farm- 
 er, the labourer will ol'ten relax and 
 become careless, and the result ap- 
 pears only when it is too late to rem- 
 edy it. This has given rise to the 
 various attempts which have been 
 made to invent machines for sowing 
 the seed, such as should ensure per- 
 fect regularity. Of some of these 
 we will now give a short account. 
 
 "One of the simplest of these ma- 
 chines consisted in a hollow cylin- 
 der, with one or more rows of holes 
 in a line parallel to the axis. These 
 holes can be stopped in part, if re- 
 quired. The seed is put into the cyl- 
 inder, the length of which is equal to 
 the width of the land, or stitch, which 
 It is desired to sow at a time. By 
 shaking this when held horizontally 
 and at right angles to the path of the 
 sower, the seed is scattered with con- 
 siderable regularity. One inconve- 
 nience of this instrument is, that it 
 requires to be filled frequently, and 
 that much still depends on the atten- 
 tion of the operator. Accordingly, it 
 was very soon laid by. The idea, 
 however, was followed up and im- 
 proved upon in the sowing harrow, 
 an instrument still extensively used 
 for sowing grass seeds. It consists 
 of a wooden trough placed on the 
 frame of a light wheelbarrow. An 
 iron spindle, furnished with circular 
 brushes at regular intervals, runs the 
 whole length of the trough, and is 
 turned by means of simple machin- 
 ery connected with the wheel. Op- 
 posite each brush is a brass plate, 
 with holes of different sizes, which 
 can be partly closed by means of a 
 circular slide. According to the size 
 of the seed to be sown and the quan- 
 tity to be scattered, the holes are 
 opened or shut. The seed is put 
 into the trough, which has a cover or 
 lid ; and by merely wheeling the bar- 
 row in a straight line, a breadth is 
 sown equal to the length of the trough, 
 usually 12 or 15 feet. But this ma- 
 chine cannot conveniently be used in 
 windy weather, which disperses the 
 739 
 
SOWING, AND SOWING MACHINES. 
 
 seeds irregularly ; and it is very little 
 superior to sowing by tlie hand, ex- 
 cept ill tlie case of small seeds, which 
 cannot so well be spread evenly by 
 the hand. 
 
 " The drill husbandry has suggest- 
 ed other more couipiicated machines, 
 of which some account will be found 
 in the article Drill. The principle 
 of these is to deliver the seed by 
 means of funnels, each corresponding 
 to a small furrow made by a coulter 
 placed iuunediately before tlie fun- 
 nel ; and some of these machines 
 perform the work very regularly and 
 satisfactorily. As the inequalities of 
 the ground require that the coulters 
 should move up or down, to allow 
 for these inequalities, the seed can- 
 not be accurately deposited at a given 
 depth ; and some improvement in the 
 mode of drilling is yet desirable, and 
 has, in some measure, been effected. 
 The patent lever drill in common 
 use is very imperfect in its work, and 
 the remedy lies in the greater atten- 
 tion to the preparation of the surface. 
 When this is effected, the levers may 
 be set aside, and a much simpler drill, 
 such as was used at first, may re- 
 place it. The object is to make fur- 
 rows of equal depth in which to de- 
 posite the seed, and to cover this uni- 
 formly. The land must consequently 
 be more carefuUy prepared by repeat- 
 ed harrowing and rolling, till the sur- 
 face resembles the seed-beds in a 
 garden. A simple drill, which makes 
 equidistant furrows at a given depth, 
 in which the seed drops regularly, 
 will then do better work than a more 
 complicated machine ; but if still 
 greater accuracy and perfection are 
 desired, the dibble must be had re- 
 course to. No one will deny tliat 
 seed deposited by means of a dibble 
 is distributed more equally and cov- 
 ered with a more equal depth of soil 
 than by any other means, and that 
 there is a great economy of seed in 
 this mode of sowing ; but the slow- 
 ness of the operation, and the num- 
 ber of hands it would require to dib- 
 ble all the seed on a large farm, have 
 prevented its being very generally 
 adopted. See Arabic Land. Many at- 
 740 
 
 tempts have been made to invent ma- 
 chines to imitate the work done by 
 band in dibbling, and hitherto with 
 no marked success, owing chiefly to 
 the difficulty of clearing the dibbles 
 from the adhering soil, and making a 
 clean hole, and also of letting the 
 seed fall exactly in the dibble holes. 
 Several patents have lately been ta- 
 ken out for dibbling machines, of 
 which we shall only notice three. 
 The first machine consists of large 
 hollow disks, armed at the circum- 
 ference with blunt projections or 
 knobs, which make a depression in 
 the surface as the disk revolves : 
 these knobs are hollow, and open by 
 one half sliding upward as the knob 
 leaves the depression it has made. 
 The seed which has been deposited 
 in the hollow knob falls into the hole. 
 This machine is said to do its work 
 well. 
 
 " The next is Bradshaw's patent, 
 which is not so generally known, 
 having only been tried by the invent- 
 or and his friends. Here the dibbles 
 are moved up and down by means of 
 a crank, or eccentric circle, and are 
 twisted in the ground by means of a 
 projection from the shank of the dib- 
 ble, which is connected with the frame 
 of the machine; andw'hen the dibble is 
 moved by the crank, the rod is twist- 
 ed by the difference in the motion of 
 the crank and the machine. The 
 seed is delivered by means of a cyl- 
 inder with cavities in its surface, 
 which revolves very near the ground, 
 the seed being kept in these cavities 
 liy a leather belt, which only lets 
 them out at the lowest part. 
 
 " The last is somewhat on the 
 same principle, and was invented by 
 the late Rev. W. L. Rham. This ma- 
 chine, which was exhibited at the 
 meeting of the Royal Agricultural So- 
 ciety of England at Liverpool, in 1841, 
 is thus noticed by the judges of the 
 implements appointed by that So- 
 ciety : 
 
 '"The Rev. W. L. Rham exhibited 
 an implement, the principal object of 
 which is to extend and improve the 
 system of drilling and dibbling wheat, 
 beans, «Scc. It is chiefly in its latter 
 
SOWING, AND SOWING MACHINES. 
 
 capacity, as a dibbler of seed and ' 
 manure, that we shall attempt to give 
 a slight description of it. The op- 
 erative part of the machine is sus- 
 pended upon an iron carriage having ■ 
 four wheels, the two hinder ones 
 being fast upon their axle and turn- 
 ing with it. On this axle is a spur- 
 wheel, giving motion to a pinion on 
 an intermediary axle, which carries 
 a wheel geared into a second pinion 
 fixed on its axis, having six cranks 
 arranged spirally. The velocity given 
 to the axis is such that the cranks 
 make one revolution for every six 
 inches of the circumference of the 
 hind wheels, or whatever is the dis- 
 tance desired between dibble holes. 
 The radius of each crank is such 
 that this distance shall be equal to 
 the circumference described by one 
 revolution. Thus the space described 
 by every crank coincides with that 
 passed over in the same time by the 
 hind wheels ; and as the cranks turn, 
 during the half of a revolution, in an 
 opposite direction to that of the 
 wheels, the result of this compound 
 motion is a pause or rest of short du- 
 ration, at the point where the crank 
 in its rotation commences to retro- 
 grade from the line of progress of the 
 machine, t. c, at the lowest point, 
 and when the dibbles are in the 
 ground. The crank raises the dib- 
 bles up and down by means of con- 
 necting rods and levers, which double 
 the vertical without increasing the 
 horizontal motion ; and in order that 
 the point when in the ground may 
 be perfectly stationary, it is made the 
 centre of motion while the machine 
 progresses ; and to enable it to re- 
 tain that position for a sufficient 
 length of time, for the purpose of 
 leaving a hole truly vertical, the dib- 
 bles move between checks in the rod 
 which connects it with the crank, 
 and which has a spring to restore it 
 quickly to its proper place as it rises 
 out of the ground During, therefore, 
 the entire time occupied in its pier- 
 cing the hole and being withdrawn 
 from the soil, the dibble retams its 
 perpendicularity. 
 '• ' By an ingenious and simple 
 
 contrivance, a slow rotatory motion 
 about its own axis is given to the 
 dibble, by which means its point may 
 be said to bore into the ground, thus 
 assisting in the formation of the hole ; 
 and by the same action the dibble is 
 cleared of any adhering soil, and the 
 hole left firm and clear. 
 
 " ' The seed-valve consists of a 
 cylinder, with a cavity in it of dimen- 
 sions sufficient to hold one or more 
 seeds. This cylinder is tumbled over, 
 and the seed discharged into a recip- 
 ient of the shape of a quadrant, from 
 which it is pushed out, when the cyl- 
 inder returns to its first position and 
 takes in a fresh supply. As this mo- 
 tion is sudden, the seed is surely de- 
 livered, even when rather damp : 
 when the cylinder is delivering, the 
 quadrant is receiving, and vice versa. 
 The delivery of manure is effected by 
 a similar apparatus, only of a larger 
 size, the valves being furnished with 
 brushes, or other means, to remove 
 the superfluity. 
 
 " ' The valves are connected with 
 the dibbles in such a manner as to 
 deposite the manure and seed in the 
 hole last formed, while the dibbles 
 are stationary in the advancing one. 
 The dibbles bore their holes in shal- 
 low drills made by the pressure and 
 sliding action of an iron shoe shaped 
 like a boat, and forming a smooth 
 furrow. 
 
 '• ' The whole of the machinery is 
 supported by an iron frame, one end of 
 which rests on trunnions attached to 
 aprojecting part of the back of the car- 
 riage. It is suspended at the other end 
 by a cross shaft, carrying two pinions, 
 working in arcs of circles fixed on the 
 frame, so that it can be raised or de- 
 pressed at pleasure, or elevated clear 
 of the ground by one turn of a winch. 
 At the same time, the pinion con- 
 necting the machinery with the hind 
 wheels is put out of gear, and the 
 whole can be moved about on the 
 carriage. 
 
 " ' The object of the reverend gen- 
 tleman in contriving this original and 
 singularly ingenious implement, has 
 been to imitate the more minute and 
 1 certain manipulations of the garden- 
 
SOWING, AND SOWINt! MACHINES. 
 
 er, and so to adapt his machinery to 
 the (lrillin<; and dihbiin^r of seed upon 
 land previously laid flat and well 
 prepared, that (!very field, however 
 extensive, should present the neat- 
 ness and regularity of a highly fin- 
 ished garden. 
 
 " ' The distinguishing peculiarities 
 of this remarkable piece of mecha- 
 nism are the arrangements for the 
 dibbles to horc holes, causing them to 
 be perpendicular and truly cylindri- 
 cal, and the apparatus forgiving cer- 
 tainty to the valves in receiving and 
 delivering the manure.' 
 
 " In order to render the above high- 
 ly commendatory report of the judges 
 more intelligible to those who have 
 not seen this implement, we will add 
 a slight diagram, to explain the most 
 essential parts : 
 
 " A C 13 is a lever, whose fulcrum 
 is at A ; B G, the rod of the dibble 
 M, which turns on it by means of a 
 
 ! socket ; C D E is the rod which com- 
 i mutiicates the motion to the lever 
 A C B, by means of the crank L E, 
 moved by the machinery. A D is a 
 rod connecting the crank with the 
 rod of the dibble, and having a slit or 
 cheeks in which this rod moves. F 
 is the spring which keeps the rod in 
 its place when the dibble is out of the 
 ground, a i is an iron plate with a 
 slit or cheeks to keep the dibble from 
 swerving from the line of the furrow 
 made by the shoe, c is a thin pi« 
 projecting upward from this plate, 
 and bent at its upper end. This pin 
 meets one of four arms projecting 
 horizontally from the shank of the 
 dibble whenever it descends into the 
 ground ; and as it proceeds with the 
 carriage while the dibble is at rest, 
 it gives this a motion round its rod 
 to the extent of a quarter of a circle. 
 When the rod rises, it clears the 
 arms from the pin, which, at the next 
 
 descent, meets with another arm ; 
 and thus a complete revolution is ef- 
 fected in four descents of the dibble. 
 " H is the vessel which contains 
 the seed. The valve consists of a 
 cylinder, d, with a cavity sufficient 
 to receive the required number of 
 seeds to be deposited in each hole, 
 a brush to remove any superfluous 
 seeds, and a recipient, V, in the form 
 of a quadrant, in which they drop 
 when the cylinder is suddenly turned 
 half round on its axis. This is ef- 
 fected by a small crank fixed to the 
 axis, and connected by a rod r with 
 742 
 
 the quadrant V. The quadrant it- 
 self moves a quarter round its centre 
 X by means of a rod q, which con- 
 nects it with the dibble, or with the 
 crank when the dibble is not used ; 
 and the seed is dropped into the dib- 
 ble hole or the furrow when the 
 quadrant is pushed back in its place. 
 A rake and roller are attached to the 
 implement to complete the operation. 
 " This may give some idea of this 
 new machine, and if it answer the 
 expectations of the inventor, it will 
 cause a great saving in the seed and 
 labour of sowing, while it will de- 
 
SPE 
 
 posite the seed much more regularly, 
 and at an equal depth." 
 
 SOW THISTLES. Composite 
 plants of the genus Sonchiis. They 
 are smooth perennials, with a milky 
 juice. 
 
 SPADE. A well-known garden 
 implement. The spading of land pro- 
 duces the best results from the thor- 
 ough loosening and great depth to 
 which the soil is stirred. Astonish- 
 ing crops have been obtained on small 
 lots by using the spade for wheat and 
 root culture ; but the expense is the 
 great drawback. 
 
 SPADIX. A form of inflorescence, 
 m which the flowers are arranged 
 around a fleshy raehis, and enclosed 
 within a kind of bract called a spathe, 
 as in palms and araceous plants. The 
 Indian turnip is an instance. 
 
 SPANISH NEEDLES. Annual 
 weeds of the genus Bidetis, the seeds 
 of which adhere to the skm of ani- 
 mals and clothes. 
 
 SPAN WORMS. The caterpillars 
 called geometers, loopers, or canker- 
 worms. See Canker-worm. The fe- 
 male of the prefect insects are inca- 
 pable of flight, and crawl up trees to 
 lay their eggs ; various contrivances 
 have, therefore, been adopted to hin- 
 der them passing, such as a rope of 
 straw bound round the trunk, a layer 
 of tar spread on paper and fastened 
 round, or lead and tin troughs con- 
 taining od, water, or other prepara- 
 tions, have been affixed to the trunk 
 with sreat advantage. 
 
 SPASM. A cramp. Rubbing the 
 skin with turpentine, when it is of 
 the external muscles, often alleviates 
 the pain. 
 
 SPATHE. See Spadix. 
 
 SPAVIN. See Horse, Diseases of. 
 
 SPAYING. The operation of ex- 
 tracting the ovaries of the females of 
 different kinds of animals, as sows, 
 heifers, mares, &c., in order to pre- 
 vent any future conception, and pro- 
 mote fattening. 
 
 SPEAR GRASS. A name given 
 to the Poa pratensis. 
 
 SPEAR.MINT. Common green 
 mint : also the weed Mentha tenuis. 
 
 SPECIES. In natural history, an 
 
 SPI 
 
 individual separated from others of a 
 genus by certain slight but permanent 
 characters. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. See Grav- 
 ity. 
 
 SPECTRUM. An image, usually 
 applied to the image of the sun seen 
 throuifh a prism, and which consists 
 of seven colours. 
 
 SPECULU.M. A reflector or mir- 
 ror of metal. 
 
 SPEEDWELL. The genus Fero«- 
 ica, perennial plants, ot'ten with beau- 
 tiful spikes of blue flowers. 
 
 SPELT. Spelter wheat. See 
 Wheat. 
 
 SPERMATIC ANIMALCULES. 
 Minute, thread-like animalcules found 
 in the secretion of the testes. 
 
 SPERMATIC CORD. The col- 
 lection of blood-vessels passing from 
 the abdomen to the testes. 
 
 S P E R M I D I U M. The same as 
 akenium, a small seed vessel resem- 
 bling a seed. 
 
 SPHACELUS. Mortification, gan- 
 grene. 
 
 SPHAGNU.M. A genus of mosses 
 growing in bogs, and forming a great 
 deal of the peat. 
 
 SPHENOID BONE. A bone in 
 the base of the skull. 
 
 SPHINCTER (from acfir/xu, I 
 close). The name of muscles which 
 close the natural openings of the 
 bodv. 
 
 SPICE WOOD, or BUSH. Lau- 
 rus benzoin. Benjamin bush, fever 
 bush. An indigenous shrub, four to 
 ten feet high, the wood of which yields 
 an aromatic smell. It grows on damp 
 places. 
 
 SPIGEL. Fennel. 
 
 SPIKE. An inflorescence, in which 
 the flowers are sessile upon an up- 
 right stem. 
 
 SPINACH. Spinaciaoleracca. An 
 annual of the family Chenopodiacem. 
 Varieties : Large round-leaved, broad- 
 leaved Savoy, Holland. The New 
 Zealand, which is a superior vegeta- 
 ble, is very large and running : it is 
 the Tetragnna expansa. The seeds 
 are planted in hills six feet apart, 
 three to the hill, in May ; twenty hills 
 supply a family. 
 
 748 
 
SPI 
 
 " The soil requires to be rich to pro- ; 
 (luce larjfc, tine leaves, though spin- 
 ach will grow even in the poorest 
 soil, if well manured. The time of 
 sowing for a winter crop, to come in 
 from iMurch till May, is from the mid- 
 dle of August to tlic 8th of Septem- 
 ber ; but if frost occurs soon after the 
 latter sowing, it will seldom survive 
 the winter. For a summer crop, to 
 come in after the winter crop has run 
 to seed, tlie end of April is the prop- 
 er time ; though, if an August sowing 
 have been neglected, seed may be 
 sown in the end of February or even 
 in January, ^^'hen sown in June and 
 July, it will run rapidly to seed. 
 
 " The sorts are the prickly-seeded, 
 or, what is better, the Holland, for the 
 August sowing, and the round-leaved 
 for spring. 
 
 " For a bed five feet wide and 
 twelve feet long, an ounce of seed 
 will be enough, or half an ounce for 
 the same space drilled. 
 
 " Sow thinly broad-cast in a finely- 
 dug bed, or, rather, in very shallow 
 drills six or eight inches apart ; or, 
 as some prefer, double that distance, 
 with rows of radishes or lettuce be- 
 tween, treading it well before raking. 
 The earth over the seed should not 
 exceed the third of an inch, for if 
 much thicker, the seed will be lost. 
 
 " Sparrows and other birds, if not 
 prevented, will endeavour to purloin 
 the whole sowing, as has frequently 
 occurred within our knowledge ; and 
 when the young plants come up, pi- 
 geons, if they get at them, will devour 
 the whole. Careful weeding and hoe- 
 ing up the earth, so as not to choke 
 the hearts of the plants, are indispen- 
 sable. Thinning also must be duly 
 attended to, and the plants should be 
 left three or four inches apart. If a 
 few plants of the winter or spring 
 crops are allowed to remain, they will 
 produce an abundance of seed, which 
 should be protected from birds. For 
 summer crops, it is a good plan to 
 sow the seed in drills, between the 
 rows of pease, as the latter will af- 
 ford it shelter and shade, and assist 
 much in preventing it from running 
 to seed ; besides which, the ground 
 744 
 
 SPI 
 
 will thus be better and more profita- 
 bly occupied. 
 
 "While licet of the curled sort, and 
 several wild plants and weeds, such 
 as Good King Henry, goosefoot, or 
 niylcs, yield leaves little inferior to 
 spinach." 
 
 SPINDLE. The axis of a wheel 
 or roller. 
 
 SPINDLE-SHAPED, FUSI- 
 FORM. Roots are so called which 
 taper at both ends, as the radish. 
 
 SPINDLE-TREE. Euomjmus Eu- 
 ropaus. A small tree or shrub, the 
 wood of which is extremely hard, and 
 used for spindles. It is improperly 
 called strawberry-tree by some nur- 
 sery men. 
 
 SPINDLE WORM. The caterpil- 
 lar which destroys the young ear of 
 corn, Gorlyna Zecc of Harris : they 
 make known their presence by leav- 
 ing a small hole on the shuck, and 
 should be destroyed when found, as 
 they hinder the formation of the ear. 
 See Corn, Diseases of. The moth is 
 thus described by Dr. Harris : 
 
 " The fore wings are rust-red ; they 
 are mottled with gray, almost in 
 bands, uniting with the ordinary spots, 
 which are also gray and indistinct ; 
 there is an irregular tawny spot near 
 the tip, and on the veins there are a 
 few black dots. The hind wings are 
 yellowish-gray, with a central dusky 
 spot, behind which are two faint, 
 dusky bands. The head and thorax 
 are rust-red, with an elevated tawny 
 tuft on each. The abdomen is pale- 
 brown, with a row of tawny tufts on 
 the back. The wings expand nearly 
 one inch and a half" 
 
 SPINE. The vertebrated column 
 of quadrupeds. It is composed of 
 forty or more pieces, or vertebra', ar- 
 ticulated by cartilage ; through these 
 runs the spinal marrow, or pith, 
 which sends ofl"at every bone a pair 
 of spinal nerves, which distribute the 
 sensation of touch and the power of 
 movement to the skin and muscles, 
 over which they are distributed. 
 
 SPINES. In botany, imperfect 
 branches. ■• 
 
 SPIRACLES, The breathing open- 
 ings or pores of insects. 
 
SPR 
 
 SPU 
 
 SPIRAL VESSELS. In plants, 
 elongated cellules, which contain a 
 delicato internal thread, spirally 
 wound, and capable of being drawn 
 out. 
 
 SPIRIT. A distilled alcoholic 
 product. 
 
 SPIT OF EARTH. A spadeful, 
 as dug from the soil. 
 
 SPLANCHNOLOGY (from aT?.ay- 
 vov, an enlrail). An account of the 
 viscera. 
 
 SPLAYED. In building, an angle 
 cut off obliquely. 
 
 SPLEEN. "A spongy viscus, of 
 an oval form, the use of which is un- 
 known ; placed in the human subject 
 in the left hypochondrium, between 
 the eleventh and twelfth false ribs." 
 
 S P L I N T. •• In farriery, a hard 
 excrescence growing on the shank 
 bnnes of horses. It appears first in 
 the form of a callous tumour, and 
 afterward ossifies. If the splint in- 
 terfere with the action of some ten- 
 don or ligament, the hair should be 
 removed, a little strong mercurial 
 ointment be rubbed in for two days, 
 and then an active blister applied.'' 
 Also, a thin board of a suitable fig- 
 ure, or pasteboard, to sustain a bro- 
 ken limb. 
 
 SPONGIOLE. The small spongy 
 extremity of the rootlets. 
 
 SPORADIC. Springing up singly, 
 or in small numbers. Diseases are 
 sporadic which are not epidemic or 
 endemic. 
 
 SPORANGIUM. The case or re- 
 ceptacle containing the spores. 
 
 SPORIDIA. The covering of the 
 spores, the spore-like bodies of algae. 
 
 SPORULES, or SPORES. The 
 minute, simple, reproductive grains 
 of cryptogamic plants. 
 
 SPRINGS. Natural fountains of 
 water, formed whereverthe rain, fall- 
 ing on a pervious bed, is interrupted 
 b/an impervious stratum of clay or 
 rock. See Drainage. 
 
 SPRAY. The young branches or 
 twigs of trees. 
 
 SPRUCE PINE. Pinus Canaden- 
 sis. Hemlock pine, a handsome ever- 
 green tree, with excellent wood. It 
 is common in New-York and the 
 
 R R R 
 
 Eastern States. The bark is used for 
 tanning. 
 
 SPUD. " An implement used ad- 
 vantageously in cutting up weeds. 
 It consists of a chisel-formed tool, 
 about two inches wide on the cutting 
 edge, inserted into a handle of some 
 four or six feet in length. It is often 
 made use of by the farmer as a use- 
 ful substitute for the walking-cane, 
 affording an opportunity of destroy- 
 ing weeds with the utmost facility 
 while walking over his grounds." 
 
 SPUR. The short, fruit-bearing 
 branches of apples and pears. The 
 hind toe of gallinaceous birds. A 
 well-known implement used by horse- 
 men. In botany, an elongated ap- 
 pendage of the corolla. 
 
 SPURRED RYE. Ergotted rye. 
 See Ersot. 
 
 SPURGE. The genus Euphorbia^ 
 the juice of which is usually acrid. 
 Many species are highly ornamental. 
 The unripe fruit of the E. lathyris is 
 used as a pickle. 
 
 SPURGE LAUREL. Daphne lau- 
 rcola. A shrub of the same genus as 
 the Mczereoa. 
 
 SPUR OF RYE. Ergot. See Rye. 
 
 SPURRY. Spcrgula arveusis {fig.). 
 Corn spurrv, an indigenous annual, 
 
 growing in sandy wheat and grain 
 fields. It may be cultivated on the 
 poorest soils, and is so quick of 
 growth and short of duration, that it 
 is often made to take an intermediate 
 place between the harvest and the 
 spring sowing, without any strict ad- 
 herence to the regularity of sucres- 
 i sion. It is sown sometimes in the 
 746 
 
SQU 
 
 sprinj:, but in general in the autumn, 
 iuuncdiatcly alter liarvcstiiiy the corn 
 crops. One light ploiigliing is sutli- 
 cient, and as the grain is very small, 
 it is but very lightly covered. About 
 twenty-four pounds of seed to the 
 acre is the usual quantity. Its growth 
 is so rapid that m tive or six weeks 
 it acquires its full height, w^hich sel- 
 dom exceeds twelve or fourteen inch- 
 es. The crop is of course a light 
 one, hut is considered of great value, 
 both as supplying a certam quantum 
 of j)rovender at very little cost, and 
 as being the best food for milch cows 
 to improve the quality of the butter. 
 It lasts till the frost sets in, and is 
 usually fed off by milch cows tether- 
 ed on it, but is sometnnes cut and 
 carried to the stalls. 
 
 Where spurry is sown in spring, 
 the crop is occasionally made into 
 hay ; but from the watery nature of 
 the plant, it shrinks very much in 
 bulk, and, upon the whole, is much 
 more advantageously consumed in 
 the other manner. It is indigenous 
 in Flanders ; and, except when culti- 
 vated, is looked on as a weed, as in 
 this country. 
 
 Von Thaer considers it the most 
 nutritious herb of any, but the crop 
 is too small. Crome makes the fresh 
 plants to consist of water, 710; 
 starch, sugar, and gum, 75 ; albu- 
 men, 2 3 ; woody fibre, 120 percent. 
 
 SQUAMA. A scale : rudimentary 
 scale, like leaves or other parts of 
 a plant. Squamous is scaly, or scale- 
 like. 
 
 SQUARROUS. Ragged in appear- 
 ance. 
 
 SQUASH. Cucurbita melopepa is 
 the simbling or round squash ; C. 
 verrucosa, wharty squash ; the vege- 
 table marrow, C. succado. Varieties : 
 Early orange, early bush scollop, 
 green-striped bush, early crookneck, 
 large cushaw, vegetable or autumn 
 marrow, Canada or winter crook- 
 neck, Lima cocoanut, acorn or Cal- 
 ifornia, and Valparaiso. Of these, 
 the early orange and autumn marrow 
 are best for the table ; the Valparai- 
 so, which sometimes becomes up- 
 ward of 100 lbs. weight, is also ex- 
 746 
 
 STA 
 
 cellent for the table and a crop. The 
 Canada or winter crookneck keeps 
 well through winter, and is good for 
 a crop for cattle. The culture is the 
 same as for the cucumber and melon, 
 the hills being from six to ten feet, 
 according to the variety. They should 
 be well aired and dry before being 
 put away for winter, and should be 
 placed on straw or shelves, and not 
 allowed to press on each other. 
 
 SQUASH BUG. Coreus trislis. 
 See Cucumber. 
 
 SQUEAKERS. Pigeons under six 
 months old. 
 
 SQUILL. The genus Scilla. Bul- 
 bous plants with handsome flowers 
 like the hyacinth. The root of S. 
 i7taritima, a native of the sandy shores 
 of the Mediterranean, is an excellent 
 medicine in diseases of the throat 
 and chest ; it is also diuretic. 
 
 STABLE. The building in which 
 horses are lodged. It should be well 
 ventilated and often cleaned, the 
 urine and dung being collected into a 
 suitable tank, or charcoal and gyp- 
 sum should be spread on the floor to 
 catch the urine and improve the air. 
 The following account of stable man- 
 agement is from the " British Hus- 
 bandry ;" 
 
 " Notwithstanding that the cost of 
 horses forms a prominent item in the 
 farmer's outlay, there is frequently 
 no part of his live-stock, nor any 
 branch of his business, either so ill 
 understood or so much neglected as 
 stable management. Let any one look 
 into the low-roofed, narrow, dark, and 
 unstalled building in which teams are 
 often huddled together in some of the 
 old homesteads, and the fumes arising 
 from stagnant urine lying upon the 
 uneven pavement, as well as from 
 accumulated heaps of fermenting lit- 
 ter, and he must be convinced that it 
 is a place as noxious to health as the 
 cobwebbed rafters, the unwhitewash- 
 ed walls, and the confusion of the 
 harness and utensils, show it to be 
 devoid of neatness and order. Let 
 him examine the horses, and he will 
 find that, although perhaps sleek from 
 good feedmg, their coats are foul and 
 their heels greasy. Instead of e.\- 
 
STABLE. 
 
 hibitingthe sprightly appearance indi- I 
 cuted by animals that have been com- j 
 fortably bedded, their heavy eyes and \ 
 sluggish appearance distinctly mark 
 the state ol the stable tbey have quit- 
 ted. But tliuugh this description is 
 strictly applii"al)le to many stables, it 
 must yet be admitted that those on 
 most farms of magnitude wear a very 
 different appearance. 
 
 " A stable for farm horses need not 
 be rigged out like one for hunters ; but 
 it should be roomy, clean, and well 
 ventilated, and everything belonging 
 to it should be kept in its proper place. 
 Neither is it necessary that it should 
 he completely stalled : team cattle are 
 generally quiet ; if vicious, they should 
 be got rid of A pair of horses, 
 worked together, will stand and feed 
 together quite as conveniently as in 
 sejjarate stalls, if allowed sufficient 
 room, and two in one stall are more 
 convenient to the carter. Horses 
 gather their feet under them ; and 5 
 feet, or 4^ feet if the cattle be not 
 large, are sufficient width for the fore 
 quarter. A division between each 
 pair is, however, desirable ; but a 
 strong post and rail will be sufficient, 
 without close boarding, provided a 
 partition be made about four feet 
 long, and extending from thence up- 
 ward at least the full depth of the 
 manger, so as to enclose both that 
 and the rack. Horses, however, 
 sometimes acquire a habit of not ly- 
 ing down at all in the stable, if they 
 be not very conveniently lodged; 
 and as this cannot but prove highly 
 prej udicial to their health, they should, 
 in such cases, be accommodated with 
 roomy single stalls, or else turned 
 out under a loose shed. Double 
 stables, in which horses stand heel 
 to heel, are objectionable ; and hay 
 is better when cut fresh daily from 
 the stack, as well as more economi- 
 cally used, than when kept in lofts. 
 Corner racks are preferable to those 
 which extend along the front ; and 
 if bars be nailed across the manger, 
 at about a foot distance from each 
 other, they will prevent the horses 
 from throwing out their food, which 
 tbey are apt to do, in search of the 
 
 corn, when it is mixed with chafT, as 
 well as when they have filled them- 
 selves. Every kind of food should, 
 also, be administered in small (juanti- 
 ties at a time ; when manger meal is 
 
 ' given, and even when racked up for 
 the night, the provender should be 
 served out s[)aringly. A cart horse, 
 fed on dry food, will require from two 
 
 I to three hours to consume his morning 
 feed ; the men should therefore be 
 early in the stable, and all food should 
 be punctually given at stated hours. 
 Regularity should also be observed in 
 the hours of their work. A farm 
 horse can well support ten hours' la- 
 
 I hour in the day, provided he be not 
 hurried, and the time be divided into 
 
 ' two equal periods, with a rest of at 
 least two or three hours between. In 
 the short days of winter, when that 
 cannot be allowed, the time may be 
 prolonged to six or even seven hours, 
 but ought never to extend beyond 
 
 I eight, with a short bait. 
 
 " Care is also requisite in watering 
 horses in the stable ; and it should 
 
 '; never be given either immediately be- 
 fore or after their corn, unless they 
 first eat some hay. On the road 
 they may be watered moderately, and 
 then put gently into motion, instead 
 of allowing them to stand at an ale- 
 house door while the carter refreshes 
 himself Some persons imagine that 
 hard spring water is the most whole- 
 some for cattle, but horses invariably 
 prefer it soft. 
 
 " Farm stables are merely intended 
 to protect the cattle from the weather, 
 for, being much exposed to changes 
 of the temperature, they should nev- 
 er be kept hot ; and as fresh air is 
 an essential element of health, the 
 windows should be merely latticed, 
 like those in granaries ; and two or 
 three wooden funnels, according to 
 the size of the stable, should be in- 
 serted from the ceiling through the 
 roof, thus forming so many chimneys 
 for the escape of foul vapours. The 
 floors of all stables should be paved 
 with either clinkers or table-stones, 
 laid close and even, and well bedded 
 under the foundation, as otherwise a 
 portion of the urine will be absorbed 
 74T 
 
STABLE. 
 
 by the soil, and will emit a nauseous ' 
 and unwholesome exiialation. The 
 floor should be slightly raised at the 
 front of the stalls, but the slope should ; 
 not exceed three inches, and that 
 should be provided for by raising the ; 
 litter behind them, or they wdl stand i 
 in an uneasy position. The doors 
 would be more conveniently placed ! 
 at one end of the stable than in the 
 side, as the dung will be more easily ; 
 removed, and a free passage mi-iy be : 
 allowed to the urine by a gentle slant 
 in the gutter of the pavement at their 
 feet, which may then be convenient- 
 ly carried ofl' by a drain. 
 
 " Some very intelligent farmers 
 keep their teams entirely in open , 
 yards, or hammels, surrounded with 
 well littered sheds for them to run , 
 under at pleasure ; and experience ; 
 has proved that, in this manner, their 
 health may be maintained as well, if 
 not better than in stables. Such a 
 yard does for the whole year — for 
 summer soiling and wmter feeding — ' 
 but it is attended with the inconve- 
 nience of exposing them to accidents 
 when many are thus together ; nei- 
 ther can their food be so equally di- 
 vided, nor can they be kept equally 
 clean. i 
 
 " Carters think it no harm to pilfer 
 corn to pamper their teams ; they 
 have no idea of any better mode of 
 feeding than to cram them to the ut- 
 most, and, if allowed the free use of 
 hay, they will not only waste it, but, 
 out of mistaken kindness, do the ani- 
 mals serious injury by overloading 
 their stomachs. On every consid- 
 eration, therefore, of health and econ- 
 omy, they should be allowanced. ' 
 The chatr, as well as the corn, should 
 be weighed or measured, and if hay 
 be given in the racks, it should be ! 
 bound, and given out in trusses : the 
 expense of binding will be more than 
 repaid by the saving in consumption. 
 Marshall has justly observed, in his 
 Minutes of Agriculture, that, by stint- 
 ing the quantity, the men become 
 more careful ; they look upon it as ' 
 something, and know that if they lav- j 
 ish to-day they will want to-morrow-; 
 thus the servant learns frugality, | 
 748 
 
 while his cattle have their food reg- 
 ularly ; he will give them a little at 
 a time, and see that they eat it up 
 clean. There is a sympathy between 
 the human and the brute creation, 
 arising from acquaintance, which is 
 more easily observed than communi- 
 cated. There are carters who would 
 sooner starve themselves than their 
 horses, and among stock-feeders in 
 general it is obvious to common ob- 
 servation ; though this kindness does 
 not extend equally to the bestowal 
 of their labour, and, from habit, as 
 well as idleness, they are very gen- 
 erally neglectful of the essential du- 
 ties of cleanliness. Much of this 
 must, however, be attributed to their 
 masters, who too commonly treat 
 them as men not to be trusted, and 
 suspicion naturally begets deceit. 
 There is, consequently, but little sym- 
 pathy existing between them ; but 
 when servants are used with kind- 
 ness, they often return it with inter- 
 est, and devote themselves with sin- 
 cerity to the service of their em- 
 ployer. 
 
 " Condition is a word of large 
 meaning in the stable of a gentleman ; 
 in that of a farmer, whose horses 
 should be kept more for work than 
 for show, it should be understood to 
 mean a sufficiency of wholesome 
 food, evidenced by a healthy, mellow, 
 clean-skinned hide, without much 
 fat, a lively eye, and a general ap- 
 pearance of health. Common work- 
 ing horses require but little groom- 
 ing ; yet their coats should be kept 
 clear of scurf, and their feet should 
 be well attended to. The rough hair 
 which encumbers their fetlocks is 
 useful in some countries as a protec- 
 tion against flints, but a much less 
 quantity would serve that purpose, 
 and when allowed to remain clog- 
 ged with dirt, it engenders grease. 
 Through a very unwise economy of 
 some masters, the shoes, too, are 
 seldom removed until they are either 
 completely worn or broken, by which 
 much injury is done to the hoof; 
 their shoulders are galled by want of 
 timely attention to the state of the 
 collars, and tinae is contmually lost 
 
STABLE. 
 
 by the breaking and patching of the 
 harness. In all these cases, preven- 
 tion is better than cure ; and, besides 
 the established regulation of remo- 
 ving the dung and ' setting the stable 
 fair' every morning, as well as see- 
 ing that each horse be thoroughly dry 
 and clean, his feet washed, and occa- 
 sionally oiled and stopped, before 
 ' making up for the night,' it would be 
 a good rule to have a regular inspec- 
 tion of the cattle, harness, and imple- 
 ments, once every week, even were 
 a portion of the Saturday evening's 
 usual work devoted to that ])urposc. 
 '• Shucing. — Although tlie better 
 class of veterinary surgeons are men 
 of education, it is yet to be regretted 
 that the common run of farriers are 
 of a very different description, who, 
 though usually employed in common 
 cases, yet should never be intrusted 
 in one that incurs danger. They, 
 however, are generally handy work- 
 men, and possessed of knowledge 
 
 and observation sufficient to shoe a 
 horse with propriety, though it is oft- 
 en an operation which requires con- 
 siderable delicacy, and, in the com- 
 monest case, should never be confi- 
 ded to a man who is not perfectly 
 master of his business. Though usu- 
 ally executed through the general do- 
 cility of the animals, without any ex- 
 traordinary difficulty, yet there is no 
 one who has not witnessed repeated 
 instances of accidents to both men 
 and horses, through the violence or 
 the imperfect performance of the op- 
 eration, through the unsteadiness of 
 the latter ; and it even sometimes 
 becomes necessary to cast them, in 
 order to avoid danger, from the want 
 of a proper machine for the purpose 
 of security. 
 
 " This difficulty may, however, be 
 avoided by the adoption of the Flem- 
 ish forge, which is in general use 
 throughout the Low Countries, and 
 consists of strong posts and rails, by 
 
 R R R S 
 
 749 
 
STACK. 
 
 which the horses are confined in a 
 very simple apparatus, whinh may be 
 easily erected, and which we partly 
 copy from one of the plates in the 
 work of Count Lasteyrie on agricul- 
 tural implements." 
 
 STACK. A regular structure of 
 hay, oats, wheat, or other produce, 
 for their storage and preservation. 
 
 " Stands are requisite fi.xtures of the 
 stack-yard : they are basements of 
 timber, or masonry, or sometimes of 
 iron, on which to build the stack, and 
 their object is to keep the lower part 
 of the stack dry and exclude ver- 
 min. The usual mode of constructing 
 stands is to place a stout frame of 
 timber on upright stones, two feet 
 high, and having projecting caps of 
 flat stones. They are also construct- 
 ed wholly of stone, with circular or 
 polygonal walls {Fig. 1, a, b), built to 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 the same height as in the former case, 
 in a rather slanting manner outward, 
 and covered on the tops with copings 
 of oak planking, or flat stones, which 
 project over the edges several inches, 
 and in that way prevent the ascent 
 of rats and mice to the stacks. In 
 both these modes, pieces of timber 
 are placed as a frame in the middle 
 to support the grain upon, and gener- 
 ally a cone of spars in the centre, to 
 form a column of air in the heart of 
 the corn. Some suppose the first of 
 these sorts of corn stands to be the 
 best for general purposes, as being 
 more easily as well as more cheaply 
 constructed, and, at the same time, 
 permitting the air to enter and circu- 
 late with more freedom underneath, 
 in the bottom of the stand, which is 
 of much advantage. It is obvious 
 that the form of these stands or base- 
 ments must vary according to that in 
 which the stacks are to be made, 
 which is different in different dis- 
 750 
 
 tricts. But wherever the thrashing 
 machine is introduced, the circular 
 base, as producing a stack of a mod- 
 erate size, with other advantages, is 
 generally preferred. But cast-iron 
 stands {Fig. 2), with or without fun- 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 nels, are found preferable, and admit 
 of stacking the corn somewhat ear- 
 lier. The pillars of these stands are 
 three feet high, and weigh half a hun- 
 dred each. A stack requires s€ven 
 pillars, besides the framing, which 
 may either be made of poles or young 
 trees. In the wet climate of Clack- 
 mannanshire, wheat has been stack- 
 ed in five days, beans in eight, and 
 barley and oats in ten days, and some- 
 times earlier. No vermin can find 
 their way into these stacks to con- 
 sume the grain, and the straw is bet- 
 ter preserved. The cone or triangle 
 keeps up a circulation of air, and pre- 
 vents heating or other damage. 
 
 " The stack-yard, or enclosure, 
 within which corn, hay, &c., are 
 stacked, is placed exterior to that side 
 of the building which contains the 
 barn. Stack-yards should always be 
 sufficiently spacious and airy, having 
 a firm, dry bottom ; and some advise 
 them to be ridged up to prevent the 
 accumulation of surface water ; as 
 by raising the ridges pretty well in 
 the middle, and covering the places 
 where the stacks are to be built, ei- 
 ther with rough stones, with a mix- 
 ture of gravel, or with pavement in 
 the same manner as streets, much 
 advantage would be gained at little 
 
STACK. 
 
 expense ; but a much bettor method 
 is to have them raised considerably 
 above tbe surface, and placed upon 
 pillars of wood or stone, with a cov- 
 ering of wood round the circumfe- 
 rence, and beams laid across. The 
 enclosing of stack-yards should be 
 well performed, either by means of 
 walls or palings, or, better, with a sunk 
 fence ; as in this way the stacks will 
 have the full benefit of the air from 
 top to bottom, a circumstance of no 
 small moment, since il is ollen found, 
 especially in wet seasons, where the 
 fence of the stack-yards is only a low 
 wall, that the whole of the stacks are 
 damaged or spoiled as high up as the 
 wall reaches, while the upper part is 
 perfectly safe. Should any addition 
 be required to the sunk fence, a rail- 
 ing upon the top may be quite suffi- 
 cient. This fully sliows the vast ad- 
 vantage of having stack-yards suffi- 
 ciently airy. The proper arrange- 
 ment of the stands, for their being 
 removed to the thrashing-mill, is also 
 a matter of much consequence in the 
 economy of the work that is to be 
 performed in them. 
 
 " The proper size of the hay stack 
 should probably be different in some 
 degree, according to the state and na- 
 ture of the hay ; but a middling size 
 is perhaps the best, say from twenty 
 to thirty loads of about one ton each, 
 as there are inconveniences in both 
 small and large stacks, the former 
 having too much outside, while the 
 latter are liable to take on too much 
 heat, and, at the same time, permit 
 less moisture to be preserved in the 
 hay. In small stacks, the bellying 
 forms, with very narrow bottoms, 
 have often much advantage, and are, 
 in some districts, termed sheep 
 stacks, probably from the slovenly 
 practice of sheep having been per- 
 mitted to feed at them. 
 
 " In building every description of 
 stack, the stem, or body, should be so 
 formed as to swell gradually out- 
 ward, quite up to the part termed the 
 eaves ; as by this method it is more 
 perfectly secured against the en- 
 trance of moisture, and, at the same 
 time, requires a less space of stand 
 
 to rest upon ; and, when the building 
 of them is well performed, they have 
 equal solidity, and stand in as firm a 
 manner. 
 
 " The stem should contain about 
 two thirds, and the roof one third, of 
 the wiiole stack. If it be built on a 
 frame, the stem should contain less 
 and the roof more ; if on a bottom, 
 the reverse. The corners of the 
 stem should not be built too sharp, 
 but should be carried up rather round- 
 ish, by which the sides will look full- 
 er, and the swell given by the press- 
 ure will be more perceptible. 
 
 " The ends of the roof should have 
 a gentle projection, answerable to 
 the stem ; and the sides should be 
 carried up rather convex than flat or 
 concave. Perhaps a roof gently con- 
 vex shoots otr the rains better than 
 any other. 
 
 " Where grain is stacked that has 
 not been sheaved, and in building 
 hay stacks, it is the usual practice to 
 have a number of persons upon the 
 stack, the corn or hay being forked 
 up and deposited on the different 
 sides all round in a similar method ; 
 after this, other parcels are laid all 
 round on the inside of these, so as to 
 bind them in a secure manner from 
 slipping outward, the operator pro- 
 ceeding in the same manner till the 
 whole of the middle space is perfect- 
 ly filled up, when he begins another 
 course in the same method, and goes 
 on in this mode, with course after 
 course, till he has raised the whole 
 of the stem, when he begins to take 
 in for the roof, in a very gradual man- 
 ner, in every succeeding course, un- 
 til the whole is brought to a ridge or 
 point, according to the manner in 
 which the stack is formed. But for 
 the purpose that the roofs may throw 
 off the water in a more perfect and 
 effectual manner, they should be 
 made so as to have a slight degree 
 of fulness or swell about the middle 
 of them, and not be made flat, as is 
 too frequently the practice with in- 
 different builders of stacks. 
 
 " In stacking, where the grain is 
 bound into sheaves, there is seldom 
 more than one person employed in 
 751 
 
STACK. 
 
 managing the work of building the 
 staclt, except in cases where the di- 
 mensions are very consideral)le, m 
 which case it is found necessary to 
 have a boy to receive the sheaves 
 from the pitcher and hand them to 
 the man wlio builds the stack. In 
 executing the work, it is of the ut- 
 most importance that the centre of 
 the stack be constantly kept in a 
 somewhat raised state above the 
 sides, as the sheaves have thus a 
 sloping direction outwards by which 
 the entrance of moisture is more ef- 
 fectually guarded against and pre- 
 vented. To accomplish this in the 
 most perfect manner, the workman 
 begins in the middle of the stand or 
 staddle, setting the sheaves together 
 so that they may incline a little 
 against each other, placing the rest 
 in successive rows against them till 
 he comes to the outside, when he car- 
 ries a course of sheaves quite round, 
 in a more sloping manner than in the 
 preceding courses. The bottom of 
 the stack being formed in this way, 
 it is afterward usual to begin at the 
 outside, and advance with different 
 courses round the whole, placing 
 each course a little within the other, 
 so as to bind them in an exact and 
 careful manner, till the stacker comes 
 to the middle. All the different cours- 
 es are to be laid on in a similar manner 
 until the whole of the stem is raised 
 and completed, when the last outside 
 row of sheaves is, in most cases, 
 placed a very little more out than the 
 others, in order to form a sort of pro- 
 jection for the eaves, that the water 
 may be thrown ofi' more effectually. 
 But in cases where the stems of the 
 stacks are formed so as to project 
 outward in the manner already no- 
 ticed, this may be omitted without 
 any bad consequences, as the water 
 will be thrown off easily without 
 touching the waste of the stack. The 
 roof is to be formed by placing the 
 sheaves gradually a little more in and 
 in, in every course, until it comes to 
 a ridge, or point, according to the 
 form of the stack, as has been al- 
 ready observed. But in forming and 
 constructing this part of the stack, 
 752 
 
 great care should constantly be taken 
 to give the ear ends of the sheaves a 
 sufficiently sloping direction upward, 
 in order that they may be the better 
 secured from wetness ; and to the 
 outside should be given a rounded 
 form, in the manner that has been 
 already noticed. 
 
 " A funnel or chimney is frequent- 
 ly formed or left in circular stacks, 
 especially in wet districts, in order 
 to prevent their taking on too much 
 heat : where these funnels are not 
 formed with the basement of timber, 
 iron, or masonry, they are produced 
 by tying a sheaf up in a very tight 
 manner, and placing it in the middle, 
 on the foundation of the stack, pull- 
 ing it up occasionally as the building 
 of the stack proceeds all round it. In 
 setting up ricks in bad harvests, it is 
 a practice in some places, particular- 
 ly with barley crops, to have three or 
 four pretty large poles tied together, 
 by winding straw ropes round them, 
 set up in the middle, round which the 
 stacks are then built. But except 
 the stacks are large, or the grain, 
 when put into them, is in an imperfect 
 condition, such openings are quite 
 unnecessary. 
 
 " The stacking of hay requires 
 much care and attention in the per- 
 son employed for the purpose, though 
 less than that of building grain stacks. 
 There should constantly be a proper 
 stand or foundation, somewhat raised 
 by wood or other materials, prepared 
 for placing the stacks upon ; but no- 
 thing of the coping kind is here ne- 
 cessary. In the business of stacking 
 hay, the work should be constantly 
 performed, as much as possible, while 
 the sun is upon the hay, as considera- 
 ble advantage is thus gained in its 
 quality : and it is necessary to have 
 a stacker that has been accustomed 
 to the business, and a proper number 
 of persons to help upon the stack, in 
 order that it may be well spread out 
 and trodden down. 
 
 " The building of hay stacks should 
 be conducted much in the same way 
 as the building of stacks of loose 
 grain ; the middle of the stack being 
 always well kept up a little higher 
 
STACK. 
 
 than the sides, and the sides and ends 
 well bound in by the proper applica- 
 tion of the successive portions of hay 
 as the work advances, and during 
 which it is a good way, where there 
 are plenty of hands, to have the sides 
 and ends properly pulled into form, 
 as by this means much after labour is 
 prevented. It is likewise of advan- 
 tage that the hay should be well sha- 
 ken and broken from the lumps du- 
 ring the operation of stacking. The 
 form in which the stacks are built is 
 not of much consequence ; but if 
 large, and made in the square form, 
 it is belter not to have them too broad, 
 or of too great width, as by this 
 means they are less apt to heat. 
 With the intention of preventing too 
 much heat, sometimes in building hay 
 stacks, as well as those of the grain 
 kind, holes, pipes, and chimneys are 
 left in the middle, that the excessive 
 heat may be disciiarged ; but there is 
 often injury sustained by them, from 
 their attracting too much moisture. 
 
 " The hay stacks of Middlesex, 
 England, are more neatly formed and 
 better secured than anywhere else. 
 .\t every vacant time, while the stack 
 is carrying up, the men are employed 
 in pulling it with their hands into a 
 proper shape ; and about a week 
 after it is finished the whole roof is 
 properly thatched, and then secured 
 from receiving any damage from the 
 wind, by means of a straw rope ex- 
 tending along the eaves, up the ends, 
 and near the ridge. The ends of the 
 thatch are afterward cut evenly be- 
 low the eaves of the stack, just of 
 sufficient length for the rain water to 
 drip quite clear off the hay. When 
 the stack happens to be placed in a 
 situation which may be suspected of 
 being too damp in the winter, a trench 
 of about six or eight inches deep is 
 dug round, and nearly close to it, 
 which serves to convey all the water 
 from the spot, and renders it perfect- 
 ly dry and secure. 
 
 " The stack guard {Fig. 3), or cov- 
 
 ering of canvass, is emploved in some 
 districts to protect the stack while 
 building in a wet season. The worn 
 sails of ships are sometimes made 
 use of for this purpose, though, in 
 most parts, a covering of loose straw 
 or hay is found sufficient in ordinary 
 cases ; but where, from a continued 
 rain, the stack is penetrated some 
 way down, a part is removed on re- 
 commencing, and dried before being 
 replaced, it is observed by Marshal, 
 that a sail cloth, thrown over and im- 
 
 mediately upon the hay of a stack in 
 full heat, is liable to do more injury 
 by increasing the heat, and, at the 
 same time, checking the ascent of the 
 steam, than service in shooting off 
 rain water. The improved method 
 of spreading the cloth he describes as 
 follows : two tall poles (a, a) are in- 
 serted firmly in two cart wheels (i, b), 
 which are laid flat upon the ground at 
 each end of the stack, and loaded 
 with stones to increase their stability. 
 Another pole of the same kind, and 
 753 
 
STA 
 
 STA 
 
 somewhat longer than the stack, is ; hrasts come as regularly to market 
 
 furnished at each end with an iron 
 ring or hoop, large enough to admit 
 the upright poles and to pass (reely 
 upon them. Near the head of each 
 of the standards is a pulley (c, r), over 
 which a rope is passed from the ring 
 or end of the horizontal pole, by 
 which it is easily raised or lowered 
 to suit the given height of the stack 
 
 in winter as in summer. Stall feed- 
 ing is now the principal means hy 
 which oxen and cows are rendered 
 fit for the market. 
 
 " It has been observed in the arti- 
 cle Soilnio-, that one object of that 
 system was to save the waste of foo-* 
 which is occasioned by the treading 
 of cattle in pastures, and by their 
 
 A cloth being now thrown over the choosing the sweetest grasses to the 
 horizontal pole, and its lower mar- neglect of the coarser. The princi- 
 gins loaded with weights, a complete pal object, however, is to save the 
 roof is formed and neatly fitted to i manure, which in the pastures goes 
 the stack, whether it l)e high or low, to waste, but in the yards or stall is 
 wide or narrow ; tlie eaves being al- | all preserved. In stall feeding an- 
 ways adjusted to the wall plate, or I other object is looked to, that of in- 
 upper part of the stem of the stack ; I creasing the substance of the animal, 
 thus effectually shooting off rain wa- 1 especially the fat ; and to do this'ju- 
 ter, while the internal moisture, or I diciously and with profit requires 
 steam, escapes freely at either end as \ much experience and attention. It 
 the wind may happen to blow. This j has been proved that animals require 
 contrivance is readily put up or ta- a certain portion of meat and drink 
 ken away ; the poles being light, are i to keep them alive, and that this quan- 
 easily moved from stack to stack, or |tity, in the same species, is, in gen- 
 laid up for another season, and the eral, in proportion to the weight of 
 wheels are readily removed or re- the animal. If an animal has his ex- 
 
 turned to their axles." — (Loudon.) 
 
 STADDLES. The contents of 
 haycocks spread out in circles of five 
 or six yards to dry. 
 
 act ration of food, he will continue in 
 health, but he will not increase in 
 weight : in this case, therefore, it 
 only produces a certain portion of 
 
 STAKE AND RICE. A fence manure, which is not equivalent to 
 
 made of stakes driven into the ground 
 with branches intertwined. 
 
 STAG. Sometimes used for a 
 young horse. 
 
 STAGGERS. Apoplexy. See 
 Horse, Diseases of. 
 
 STALL FEEDING. The feeding 
 of cattle in stalls for the purpose of 
 fattening them more readily than by 
 simple grazing, and at a time when 
 they cannot get fat on pastures, as a 
 regular part of the process of hus- 
 bandry, is comparatively modern. In 
 former times cattle were slaughtered 
 in October and November, which lat- 
 ter, in most languages derived from 
 the Teutonic, is called Slaughter 
 month ; there being no possibility of 
 buying fresh meat of any degree of 
 fatness during winter, and salt meat 
 was the food of all classes in that 
 season. But now the process of fat- 
 tening cattle goes on without inter- 
 ruption during the whole year, and fat 
 754 
 
 the food consumed. If a larger quan- 
 tity be given, the animal, if in health, 
 will increase in weight, and the more 
 food he has, within a certain limit, 
 the faster will be this increase : but 
 there is a point where increase stops ; 
 and if by any means the animal is in- 
 duced to take more, his stomach will 
 be deranged, and he will become dis- 
 eased, and occasion loss by over- 
 feeding. It is consequently of great 
 importance to the stall feeder to as- 
 certain what is the exact quantity 
 of food which it will be most prof- 
 itable to give to a stall-fed animal. 
 Experience alone can teach this ; 
 but some rules may be given which 
 will enable any one who wishes to 
 stall feed cattle not greatly to err 
 in his mode of feeding, and soon to 
 find out what is the most profitable 
 course to pursue. For this purpose, 
 it is essential that, after having as- 
 certained by experiment the quantity 
 
STALL FEEDING. 
 
 of food which will give the greatest 
 increase of (iesli per week on a cer- 
 tain weifilit of beasts when put up to 
 fatten, all the food given to the cat- 
 tle be carefully weighed, and no more 
 given in any day tiian is needful. 
 The quality of the food should also 
 he attended to ; for a truss of line, 
 well-made clover, lucern, or sainfoin 
 hay, may contain double the nourish- 
 ment of another truss of coarse marsh 
 hay. The best kind of food should al- 
 w'ays be reserved for fattening cattle. 
 Roots are e.vcellent helps ; hut roots 
 alone are too watery, and must be 
 corrected by dry food, such as straw 
 cut into chafl", or good hay, and es- 
 pecially farinaceous food, wliether it 
 be corn ground or bruised, or oil-cake 
 after the oil has been expressed. By 
 a judicious mixture of food, a much 
 greater mcrease of flesh may be pro- 
 duced than by an irregular mode of 
 feeding, however good the quality or 
 abundant the quantity given may be. 
 To over feed is as unprolitable as to 
 starve a beast, and produces similar 
 effects. It is of great importance 
 that the cattle should be fed with 
 great punctuality at certain hours du- 
 ring the day, and that the troughs 
 should be cleared of all the remains 
 of food which they do not eat at each 
 time of feeding. Rest and sleep are 
 great aids to digestion, and a little 
 gentle exercise after sleep prepares 
 the stomach for a fresh supply of 
 food : air, also, is highly conducive to 
 health ; and hence those beasts which 
 are allowed to move about in a loose 
 stall or a small yard, protected from 
 the rain and wind, thrive belter in 
 general than those which are tied up. 
 It is the practice of many good feed- 
 ers to put oxen in pairs in small 
 stalls, partly open, so that they may 
 be in the air, or under shelter, as they 
 prefer ; and the finest oxen, if not the 
 fattest, are prepared for the market 
 in this way. E.xperience shows that 
 all domestic animals like company, 
 and that they are more contented and 
 quiet when they have a companion 
 than when they are alone. This is 
 the reason why they are put up in 
 pairs. Whatever promotes the health 
 
 and comfort of the animal will be 
 most profitable to the feeder. When 
 a beast has actpiired a certain degree 
 of fatness, it is a nice point to decide 
 whether it would be best to send hiin 
 to market or continue to fe(;d him. 
 This is often decided by mere caprice 
 or fancy ; but if the food has been 
 weighed, and the weekly increase of 
 the beast is noted, which is best 
 done by weighing, but may nearly be 
 guessed by measuring, it becomes a 
 mere question in arithmetic to deter- 
 mine whether his increase pays for 
 his food and attendance ; if it does 
 not, there is a loss in keeping him ; 
 and if a lean animal put in his stead 
 would increase faster on the same 
 food, every day he is kept there is a 
 loss of the difference between the in- 
 crease of the two. The pride of pro- 
 ducing a wonderful animal at a fair 
 or show may be dearly paid for, and 
 must be put down to the account of 
 luxuries, such as keeping hunters or 
 race-horses. 
 
 " The most profitable food for fat- 
 tening cattle is, in general, the prod- 
 uce of the farm ; the expense of all 
 purchased food is increased by the 
 profit of the dealer and the carriage 
 of it ; and the only compensation for 
 this additional cost may be in in- 
 creasing the manure, where the straw 
 and roots of the farm are deficient. 
 In that case, oil-cake, or even corn, 
 may be purchased with advantage; 
 since by means of the manure, crops 
 may be raised which without it must 
 fail. The stalling of cattle, as well 
 as the fattening of pigs, is in many sit- 
 uations the best means of carrying 
 the produce of the farm to market. 
 An ox can be driven many miles, 
 while the food he has consumed 
 would not repay the carriage, and 
 all the manure would be lost, and 
 must be purchased at a great expense, 
 if it can be had at all. If a farmer 
 can feed cattle so as to pay him a 
 fair market price for the food con- 
 sumed, and something for the risk of 
 accidental loss, he may be well con- 
 tented to have the manure for his 
 trouble : few stall feeders get more 
 than this in the long run." — {Kham.) 
 753 
 
STA 
 
 STAMENS. The male apparatus 
 of a flower. They are situated iin- 
 niedialely within the petals, and con- 
 sist each of a filament, the anther, 
 and the pollen ; of which the two lat- 
 ter are essential, and tlio fornior not. 
 They are a niodiried form of the pe- 
 tal, and are placed next it on the in- 
 side, towards the centre of the flower. 
 Independently of their physiological 
 importance, they are much used as 
 good marks of discrimination in sys- 
 tematical hotany. 
 
 STAMINATE. Having stamens 
 only. 
 
 STANDARD TREES. Such trees 
 as are not trained, but grow erect and 
 without support. 
 
 STARCH. Amylaceous matter, 
 fecula, composed oi' carbon 12 ; hy- 
 drogen 10 ; oxygen 10. " Starch is 
 one ofthe commonest proximate prin- 
 ciples of vegetables. It is character- 
 ized by its insipidit}', and by insolu- 
 bility in cold water, in alcohol, and in 
 ether. It dissolves in, or at least 
 forms a gelatinous compound with 
 water, heated to 175° ; and this solu- 
 tion, even when much diluted, is ren- 
 dered blue by iodine. This admira- 
 ble test of the presence of starch is 
 not effective in hot solutions ; and by 
 boiling, the blue colour disappears, 
 but returns in strong solutions as 
 they cool. The term starch is com- 
 mercially applied to that obtained from 
 wheat, which, for this manufacture, 
 is ground and diffused through vats 
 of water, where it undergoes a slight 
 fermentation, and acquires a peculiar 
 sour smell. A part of the gluten and al- 
 bumenof ihegrain is thus separated in 
 the form of a viscid scum ; the starch 
 being in the form of a finely-divided 
 white powder, is gradually farther 
 separated by washing in large quan- 
 tities of water, from which it is ulti- 
 mately allowed to settle, and put into 
 boxes lined with linen to drain ; it is 
 then cut into squares, which are dried 
 first in airy chambers upon porous 
 bricks, and afterward rolled up in pa- 
 pers and s/ovc dried ; it is in this lat- 
 ter operation that the starch acquires 
 that peculiar columnar texture and 
 fracture which is well exhibited on 
 756 
 
 STE 
 
 opening a paper parcel as it comes 
 from the stove. A little smalt is gen- 
 erally added to the starch, by which 
 it acquires a very pale blue tint, and 
 is better adapted to conceal or cover 
 the yellow tint acquired by worn lin- 
 en. Starch may be obtained from 
 many other grains, and from potatoes 
 and several other esculent vegetables. 
 Arrow-root is the starch ofthe Maran- 
 ta arundinacea ; sago, of the Sagus 
 farimfcra, an East India palm-tree ; 
 and tapioca and cassava of the Jalro- 
 pha manihot. In the process of ger- 
 mination, and by various chemical 
 agents, starch may be converted into 
 a species of gum, dextrin, and su- 
 gar." 
 
 STAR- WORTS. Composite plants 
 of the genus Aster. 
 
 STAVES. Staves for spirit pun- 
 cheons are of white oak, for sugar 
 hogsheads of red oak ; but ash and 
 white oak are also used. They are 
 cut of several lengths to make into 
 hogsheads, puncheons, and tierces. 
 The largest size is 72 inches long, 7 
 wide, and 3 inches thick ; for punch- 
 eons, tierces, brewer's casks, pipes, 
 &c., staves are 33, 42, 4.5, 54 inches 
 long, and from ^, 1^, U, 2h, to 3 
 inches thick. The most usuafdimen- 
 sions are 72, 42, and 33 inches, with 
 3, Ik, and one inch thickness; these 
 measures are exclusive of sapwood. 
 The British duly on staves has been 
 reduced to 2Ss. the 50 cubic feet, and 
 hence they will be largelv exported. 
 
 STEAMING FOOD. By this means 
 many roots, especially potatoes, are 
 reduced almost to a powder. Corn 
 and other meal, when boiled, is more 
 perfectly digested, and in this way, by 
 answering for imperfect grinding, the 
 steaming of food, or boiling, serves 
 to assist a more perfect assimilation. 
 There is no increase in nutritiousness, 
 and in many cases the economy is 
 very questionable. See Food 
 
 STEARIN. The solid part of 
 fats. It is a stearate of glycerine. 
 
 STEARIC ACID. The acid ob- 
 tained by saponizing stearin, and de- 
 composing the soap by a dilute acid. 
 It is a brilliant white, soft body, in- 
 soluble in water. 
 
STI 
 
 STO 
 
 STEATITE. Soapstonc. 
 
 STEATOMA. A Tatty tumour. 
 
 STEEPING SEEDS. See Uredo, 
 Manuring Seeds, Smiif. 
 
 STELLATE. Star-shaped, resem- 
 bling a star. 
 
 STEM. In botany, the upward 
 prolongation of the axis of a plant. 
 It is distinguished from all other parts 
 by bearing buds. 
 
 STENELYTRAXS. A fttmily of 
 coleopterous insects, many of which 
 have the elytra narrow at the poste- 
 rior part. 
 
 STEPPE. An extensive plain. 
 
 STERCORARY. A place where 
 dung and manure is kept. 
 
 STEREO.METER. An instrument 
 for taking specific gravities. 
 
 STERNUM. The breast bone, to 
 which the ril)s are attached. 
 
 STETHESCOPE. A wooden tube, 
 twelve inches long, used to assist the 
 ear in determining the character of the 
 sounds of respiration and other func- 
 tions occurring within the body, to 
 form an opinion of the diseases, &c. 
 
 STHENIC DISEASES. Those of 
 increased action or inflammation. 
 
 STIGMA. The upper extremity 
 of the style, or female organ of plants ; 
 it has almost uniformly a humid sur- 
 face. It is the part upon which the 
 pollen falls, and where it is stinmlated 
 
 into the production of the pollen tubes, 
 which are indispensable to the act of 
 impregnation. 
 
 STILE. In building, an upright 
 piece in framing. In rural adairs, a 
 rough ladder, or set of steps, to al- 
 low the passage of men, but not of 
 animals. 
 
 S T I M IJ L A N T S. Substances 
 which produce increased circulation 
 or heat, as alcohol. 
 
 STIPULE. A small leaf or scale 
 situated at the base of the leaf-stalk 
 (pedole) of some plants. 
 
 STOCK. The live stock, or ani- 
 mals of the farm. 
 
 STOLON, STOLE. A running 
 stem which throws off young plants 
 at certain points, as the strawberry. 
 Stolomferons is a derivative. 
 
 STd.MACH. The cavity or pouch 
 in which food is digested. In most 
 animals there is one stomach only, 
 but in the sheep and ruminants there 
 are four. See Oz. In the stomach, 
 properly so called, a fluid termed the 
 gastric juice is secreted at meal times, 
 which serves to digest the food. 
 
 STOMACH PUMP. An instru- 
 ment of great value to the farmer to 
 remove poisonous matters or bad food 
 from the paunch of anmials. It is 
 also serviceable for administering 
 glysters, and one pump, with a num- 
 
 757 
 
STO 
 
 STO 
 
 ber of tubes of different sizes, will 
 answer fur oxen, horses, or sheep 
 The instninieiit consists of a syringe, 
 «, liaving a side openini;, b, and an 
 ordinary opening at the bottom, d. It 
 is used both for throwing fluid into 
 the stomach, &c., and removing it 
 from the l)ody. FtLT- 1 shows the fix- 
 ture for injections. Tiie extremity, 
 d, is placed into the pail of water, (kc, 
 and a long probang screwed on to the 
 side opening, b; by pumping, the flu- 
 id is driven along the probang or in- 
 jection tube. When used to remove 
 matters from the stomach, the pro- 
 bang is screwed on to the lower end, 
 d, and introduced : the fluid from the 
 stomach passes out at b (Fig. 2). 
 
 Where matters are to be removed 
 from the stomach, tepid water is first 
 injected ; the syringe is then un- 
 screwed from the probang at b, and 
 screwed on at d. It is now a stom- 
 ach pump, and will draw any thin flu- 
 ids out of the stomach. 
 
 The introduction of the pump is ef- 
 fected by the help of an assistant, who 
 holds tlie animal by a horn and the 
 dividing cartilage of the nose ; the 
 operator now takes the tongue in the 
 left hand, and introduces the tube 
 with the right, the assistant holdmg 
 the head and neck in a straight line, 
 so as to assist the passage. The 
 jaws are kept open by a regular bit 
 of perforated wood, or by any piece of 
 stick introduced between the teeth. 
 
 STOMATA. Minute openings on 
 the under side of most leaves. They 
 are surrounded by small cellules, 
 which have the power of shutting 
 them up. 
 
 STONE. A weight of 14 pounds. 
 
 STONE CROP. Small, succulent 
 plants of the genus Scdum, growing 
 on old walls and roofs. 
 
 STOOK and STOOKING. The 
 same as shock and shocking. 
 
 STOOL. " The root of a tree or 
 plant, similar to the oak, beech, elm, 
 &c., which throws up shoots. Cop- 
 pice wood consists chiefly of the 
 shoots sent up by the roots or stools 
 of trees or shrubs which have been 
 cut over by the surface. In general, 
 all dicotyledonous trees are endowed 
 758 
 
 by nature with the property of send- 
 ing up shoots from the stump or 
 stools ; but this is not the case with 
 most of the gymnosperms or conif- 
 erous trees. A wood of pines or flrs, 
 therefore, when once cut down, can 
 never be renewed except bv seeds." 
 
 STORK'S BILL. The genera 
 F,rodium and Geramum, which fur- 
 nish many beautiful flowers ; they are 
 propagated chiefly by slips. 
 
 STORY POST. An upright post 
 or timber to support a flooring, &c. 
 
 STOVE. " In horticulture, a struc- 
 ture in which plants are cultivated 
 that require a considerably higher 
 temperature than the open air. There 
 are two or three kinds of stoves, but 
 the principal are the dry stove and 
 the damp stove. The dry stove is a 
 structure, the atmosphere of which 
 is heated to the temperature of from 
 55° to 60° during winter, in which 
 are chiefly cultivated succulents, such 
 as the different species of Ceretus, 
 Cereus, Slapheiia, Euphorbia, Mesem- 
 bryanlhemiim, and other succulents 
 having similar habits. During win- 
 ter these plants require very little wa- 
 ter, and during summer they require 
 intense heat, and abundance of air 
 and water during fine weather. The 
 damp stove, sometimes also called 
 the bark stove, requires a tempera- 
 ture of between 60° and 70- during 
 winter, with a proportionate increase 
 during summer, accompanied, in both 
 seasons, with a high degree of at- 
 mospherical moisture. This moist- 
 ure is produced partly by evaporation 
 from the bark bed in which the plants 
 are plunged, but chiefly by watering 
 the floor of the house, and by syr- 
 inging the plants. During summer 
 the plants in the bark stove require 
 all the light which the atmosphere in 
 this country is capable of i)roducing, 
 together with abundance of air, as in 
 the dry stove. Both stoves are heat- 
 ed by smoke flues, or by hot water or 
 steam, circulated in metallic or other 
 tubes. The plants cultivated in the 
 moist stove are exclusively those of 
 the tropics ; and those which require 
 the highest degree of heat are chiefly 
 monocotyledonous plants, such as the 
 
STR 
 
 STR 
 
 ■' Scitamincct, which inchide the ginger, 
 plantain, banana, sugar cane, pahus, 
 Orc/iidacca; ; and such dicotyledonous 
 plants as the bread fruit, the yam, 
 niangosteen, and other East Indian 
 plants. The bark bed is chiefly em- 
 ployed for producing a uniform de- 
 gree of moisture and heat to the 
 roots, and also as a reservoir of heat 
 for the atmosphere of the house in 
 case of any diminution from the flues, 
 water or steam pipes, or the sun. 
 Stoves of every description require a 
 constant degree of attention frimi the 
 gardener throughout the year, more 
 especially such as are devoted to the 
 palms, the banana, the pineapple, and 
 the OrcIudaccoL." — {LuuUcy.) 
 
 STOVER. Refuse hulls, coarse 
 fodder. 
 
 STRAINING PIECE. A timber 
 intended to keep two posts or other 
 pieces at a certain distance. 
 
 STR.4 INS, SPRAINS. Injuries 
 produced by over-stretching the lig- 
 aments of muscles ; they are often 
 very severe, and require cupping and 
 leeching. Occasionally fomentations 
 are suthcient, with rest, and banda- 
 ging the part tightly. 
 
 STRAMONIUM. Jamestown 
 weed. See Datura. 
 
 STRANGLES. A disease of young 
 horses. See Horse, Diseases of. 
 
 S T R A N G U R Y, or SUPPRES- 
 SION OF URINE, INCONTI- 
 NENCE OF URINE, BLOODY 
 URINE. " Strangury may arise from 
 an injury done to the kidneys, or to 
 the bladder, by strains, or by the ab- 
 sorption of irritating matters. In 
 these cases, bleed if there be fever ; 
 if not, merely give the horse absolute 
 rest ; mash him, give gruel, and warm 
 the water given him for drink. Bloody 
 urine should be treated in the same 
 way. Some horses have such a nat- 
 ural or acquired weakness of kid- 
 neys, as to stale blood with their 
 urine on every occasion of over-ex- 
 ertion. The means frequently used 
 fur relief are such as aggravate the 
 complaint, and, indeed, are often the 
 occasion of it, which are diuretics. 
 Strong diuretics injure horses more 
 than strong physic, and benefit them 
 
 less than any other of the popular 
 means made use of In retentions of 
 urine, but particularly in the ease of 
 bloody urine, they are absolutely im- 
 proper." 
 
 STRATH. A small valley. 
 
 STRATUM. A bed of rock, or 
 other deposite. 
 
 STRAW. The culm or stalk of 
 the cerealia. It is used both as litter 
 and fodder. For the latter purpose, 
 the different kinds are of unequal 
 value. See Food. 
 
 STRAW CUTTER. A machine 
 to cut straw into chafT: a chaff en- 
 gine. The simplest kind is no more 
 than two, three, or more curved 
 knives working between iron bars ; 
 but the better sorts consist either of 
 knives set on a fly wheel, or on roll- 
 ers which press on the straw as it is 
 pushed along the feeding-trough, or 
 hopper. In the best, the straw is 
 pulled forward by the machine, so 
 that the labourer has only to turn the 
 handle and feed the hopper. The 
 number of patents is very great. 
 The machines of Willis, Boynton, 
 Green, ^^'orley, Hovey.SafTord, Sand- 
 ford, and Botts are well known. The 
 cost IS from 815 to §50, and they cut 
 from live to thirty bushels per hour. 
 An English machine, by W. Lester, is 
 a very simple and admirable contri- 
 vance. Sandford's machine is of a 
 durable construction, and the knives 
 are readily sharpened. Price, §15. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. This admirable 
 fruit is yielded by several species of 
 the genus Fragaria. The European 
 wood is F. vcsca ; the scarlets are 
 froraF. Virgimana; the Alpines from 
 F. collma ; and the F. Carolutcnsis, 
 elalior, Cluliensis, also furnish some 
 of the best kinds. 
 
 " The best soil is a strong, rich 
 loam, and one that is tolerably adhe- 
 sive and retentive of moisture ; for, 
 as strawberries are generally injured 
 in this country by excessive drought, 
 it is best to provide against this ca- 
 ' lamity by planting them in a rather 
 I wet soil. A rich soil, however, is 
 not indispensable, as almost any 
 mould that is not loo dry will pro- 
 duce a greater or 'ess quantity of fruit. 
 759 
 
STR 
 
 STR 
 
 " Trenching the ground a foot and 
 a half deep, and mixing plenty of 
 Well-rolled dung willi the soil that is 
 brought to the surface, is the best 
 preparation. 
 
 "The lime of planting is the first 
 week in August for the offsets of the 
 first spring runtn^rs, always choosing 
 those thai are large, and rejecting 
 small ones. During the first year, 
 cut off all ruimers as they appear. 
 Any time from October to May will 
 do for planting out old stools which 
 have borne fruit once. Those which 
 liave borne twice are good for no- 
 thing, and should be thrown away. 
 
 "The offsets may be planted in a 
 single row along the borders of the 
 walks, at ten or fifteen inches apart : 
 if another row be made, it ought to 
 be fifteen inches from the other ; 
 they may also be planted in clumps 
 of three or more together, si.x inches 
 or less apart, and three feet between 
 the clumps. Beds with four rows 
 each, and two feet between the beds 
 for cabbages, answer well. But the 
 best situation for planting strawber- 
 ries is where a row of dwarf apple, 
 pear, or other trees is grown on ei- 
 ther or both sides of a walk, to have 
 a bed of strawberries, four or five feet 
 wide, beneath them ; for in this situa- 
 tion they will be afforded that degree 
 of shade which is necessary for them 
 in dry weather, without injuring the 
 trees or being injured by them. In 
 these beds they should first be plant- 
 ed in four rows, two on each side of 
 the trees, and the offsets from these 
 should be allowed to spread so as to 
 extend themselves over the whole of 
 the bed, only cutting off annually 
 those that are disposed to wander 
 from the prescribed bounds of the 
 bed. A strawberry bed of this de- 
 scription would produce a far great- 
 er crop than if planted out in single 
 rows, and will continue bearing for 
 a greater number of years, as well as 
 be less liable to injury from drought. 
 
 " It is important to fix the roots 
 well in the ground, otherwise they 
 may be drawn out by earth worms, 
 or pushed out of the ground on a 
 thaw succeeding a hard frost. 
 760 
 
 " The best sorts are Keen's seed- 
 ling, llovey's seedling. Myall's Brit- 
 ish Queen, Swainstone"s seedling, 
 old pine, red w-ood, the roseberry, and 
 the hautbois. The scarlet is the ear- 
 liest, and the small red Alpine, which 
 some say is best when rai.sed from 
 seed, others say best from runners, 
 planted in August or September, at 
 SIX inches distance, will produce fruit 
 from the end of May till the frost sets 
 in. For a late crop, all the tiovver 
 steins should be cut off as they show, 
 up to the end of June. 
 
 " Strawberries are much injured by 
 hot, dry weather, and ther(;fore they 
 must be abundantly supplied with wa- 
 ter when this occurs, particularly just 
 as the blossom falls ; but the blossom 
 must not be wetted. Weeds must 
 be cleared off, but in stirring the 
 earth with a fork, not with a spade, 
 care must be taken not to go too near 
 the roots, as recommended by some. 
 Birds must be guarded against, as 
 well as snails and slugs, which would 
 eat the blooms and spoil the fruit. 
 Pieces of slate, tiles, tin, boards, or, 
 what is preferable, hay, straw, or dry 
 moss, should be laid three or lour 
 inches thick under the fruit as it be- 
 comes ripe, to keep it clean from 
 sand: but this precaution is seldom 
 necessary. The superfluous runners 
 and dead leaves should be removed 
 in September. What are termed male 
 or barren plants should always be 
 grubbed up." 
 
 STREAK. In mineralogy, the 
 mark left by a mineral when drawn 
 along the surface of paper. 
 
 STREET MANURE. The sweep, 
 ings of streets, consisting of the dung 
 of animals, vegetable garbage, earthy 
 matters, rubbish from buildings, soot, 
 &c. It is necessarily of very differ- 
 ent values. It is chiefly useful to 
 lighten stiff soils, and may be used 
 at the rate of 20 to 30 loads the 
 acre. 
 
 STRENGTH. "In mechanics, 
 this term is used in the same sense 
 as force or power. Thus, strength 
 of animals is the muscular force or 
 energy which animals are capable of 
 e.xerting ; strength of materials is the 
 
STR 
 
 STR 
 
 resistance which bodies oppose to a 
 force acting upon them. It is obvi- 
 ously a matter of much importance 
 to be able to estimate with tolerable 
 accuracy the efforts which an animal 
 of the average strength employed in 
 labour is capable of exerting, and, ac- 
 cordingly, very numerous observa- 
 tions have been made on the subject ; 
 but this species of force is subject to 
 variation from so great a number of 
 circumstances, both physical and me- 
 chanical, that the results given by 
 different authors present very little 
 agreement with each other, though 
 they are of great value as affording 
 data for determining the modes in 
 which animal labour is most advan- 
 tageously employed. 
 
 " Of all animals employed as first 
 movers, the horse is, beyond ques- 
 tion, the most useful, and that whose 
 labour is susceptible of the most nu- 
 merous and varied applications. For 
 the purpose of determining his mus- 
 cular power, the dynamometer may 
 be conveniently used ; but as the ac- 
 tion of the-animal is very quickly re- 
 duced by continued exertion, it is 
 more usual to estimate it according 
 to the amount of daily labour perform- 
 ed. Desaguliers and Smeaton esti- 
 mate the strength of a horse as equiv- 
 alent to that of five men ; the French 
 authors have commonly stated it as 
 equal to seven men ; and Schulze 
 makes it equal to that of fourteen 
 men, in drawing horizontally. Ac- 
 cording to Desaguliers, a horse's pow- 
 er is equal to 44-000 lbs. raised one 
 foot high in one minute. Smeaton 
 makes this number 22 916, Hachett 
 28000, and Watt 33 000. The last 
 estimate is commonly understood by 
 the term horse pmccr as applied to 
 steam-engines. The quantity of ac- 
 tion which a horse can exert dimin- 
 ishes as the duration of the labour is 
 prolonged. The following table, by 
 
 Time of 
 Man:li in 
 Hours. 
 
 Gre.itesl 
 Velocity 
 per Hour 
 in Miles. 
 
 Time of 
 March in 
 Hours. 
 
 Greatest 1 
 Veloiity 
 per Hour 
 in Miles. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 14-7 
 10-4 
 8-5 
 7-3 
 6-6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 60 
 5-5 
 5-2 
 49 
 46 
 
 Tredgold, shows the average maxi- 
 mum velocity with which a horse un- 
 loaded can travel, according to the 
 number of hours per day. 
 
 " The useful effect a horse is capa- 
 ble of producing depends much upon 
 the manner in which his strength is 
 applied. 
 
 "Strength of Materials. — There are 
 four different ways in which the 
 strength of a solid body may be ex- 
 erted ; first, in resisting a longitudin- 
 al tension, or force lending to tear it 
 asunder ; secondly, in resisting a 
 force tending to break the body by a 
 transverse strain ; thirdly, in resist- 
 ing compression, or a force tending 
 to crush the bo(iy ; and, fourthly, in 
 resisting a force tending to rend it 
 asunder by torsion. .Mr. Hodgkinson 
 gives the following results of his ex- 
 periments on the resistance of a 
 crushing force on short pillars of some 
 of the most common descriptions of 
 wood, the force being applied in the 
 direction of the fibres : 
 
 Description of Wood. 
 
 .Strength 
 Inch 
 
 per square 
 in lbs. 
 
 Alder 
 
 6831 
 
 0960 
 
 Ash 
 
 8f.!S3 
 
 9363 
 
 Bay 
 
 7518 
 
 7518 
 
 Beech 
 
 7733 
 
 9363 
 
 Birch 
 
 39-27 
 
 6402 
 
 Cedar 
 
 5fi74 
 
 5S63 
 
 Red deal 
 
 5748 
 
 66t-fi 
 
 White deal .... 
 
 6781 
 
 7292 
 
 Elder 
 
 7451 
 
 9973 
 
 Elm 
 
 
 10331 
 
 Fir (spruce) .... 
 
 6499 
 
 6819 
 
 MahoEjany .... 
 
 8198 
 
 8198 
 
 Oak (Quebec) . . . 
 
 4331 
 
 5962 
 
 Oak (Enghsh) . . . 
 
 64 84 
 
 10058 
 
 Pine (pitch) .... 
 
 6790 
 
 6790 
 
 Pine (red) .... 
 
 5395 
 
 7518 
 
 Poplar 
 
 3107 
 
 5124 
 
 Plum (dry) .... 
 
 8241 
 
 10493 
 
 Teak 
 
 
 12101 
 
 Walnut 
 
 6063 
 
 7227 
 
 Willow 
 
 2898 
 
 0128" 
 
 S s s 2 
 
 — {Brande's Diet, of Science ; Barlow^s 
 Treatise on the Strength of Timber.) 
 
 STREPSIPTERANS. An order 
 of insects possessing rudimentary 
 elytra in the form of scales. 
 
 S T R I A T E. Grooved, coloured 
 with narrow lines or streaks. 
 
 STRIGID.-E. The raptorial birds 
 of the owl kind. 
 
 STROBILE. The conical fruit of 
 the pines, firs, hop, &,c. 
 
 761 
 
STU 
 
 SUB 
 
 STRONGYLUS. A genus of par- 
 asitical intestinal worms. 
 
 STRONTIA. An alkaline earth, 
 very similar to lime. 
 
 STRUMA. A swelling. 
 
 STRYCHNIA. An extremely 
 poisonous vegetable alkali, obtained 
 from the nux vomica and other 
 strychnous plants. It produces vio- 
 lent convulsions. 
 
 STUBBLE. The roots and stems 
 of grain plants left in the soil after 
 harvest. If they are long, it will be 
 best to burn them, but on light soils 
 they may be turned in. 
 
 STUD. A post or upright in a 
 building : an establishment of hor- 
 
 STUMP MACHINE OR EX- 
 TRACTOR. A contrivance for the 
 extraction of stumps from new lands. 
 They are usually on the principle of 
 a windlass. The machines of Pratt 
 and Witney have been often recom- 
 mended. One of these will raise from 
 100 to 200 stumps a day ; they cost 
 from 8200 to $400. The Western 
 Farmer and Gardener gives the fol- 
 lowing method of removing stumps : 
 
 " Procure a dry, red-elm lever, 
 about twenty feet long, and about six 
 to eight inclies in diameter; a good, 
 stout log chain, with two yokes of 
 oxen ; this is all the machinery that 
 is necessary. The mode of operation 
 is thus : wrap the log chain round the 
 stump, a little above the ground, and 
 make what is called a log hitch ; lay 
 the lever horizontally on the ground, 
 the large end next to the chain and 
 against the stump ; make the other 
 end of the chain fast to this end of 
 the lever, drawing the lever tiglit 
 against the stump ; the cattle are 
 hitched to the small end of the lever, 
 and driven round the stump in a cir- 
 cle of which the lever is the radius. 
 One revolution of the oxen round the 
 stump will generally twist out the 
 largest of them ; but should not the 
 power thus applied be sufficient to 
 move the stump, the side roots may 
 be uncovered and cut partly off; after 
 this is done, the stump will be easily 
 removed. You will tind this plan 
 much preferable to any ' patent stump 
 762 
 
 extractor' that you may have seen 
 puffed in the papers." 
 
 STY. See Hog-sty. 
 
 STYLE. The stem which sup- 
 ports the stigma ; it is the upper por- 
 tion of the carpels. 
 
 STYLOBATE. An uninterrupted 
 base common to many columns. 
 
 STYPTICS. Substances which, 
 when applied to small wounds, re- 
 strain the flow of blood, as alum. 
 The word scarcely differs from as- 
 tringents. 
 
 SUBCLAVIAN. Any part under 
 the clavicle or collar bone. 
 
 SUB ERIN. The substance of 
 cork. By digesting it with nitric 
 acid, it is converted into suberic acid. 
 
 SUBLIMATION. A process by 
 which solids are by the aid of heat 
 converted into vapour, which is again 
 condensed, and often in the crystal- 
 line form. This operation is frequent- 
 ly resorted to for the purpose of pu- 
 rifying various chemical products, 
 and separating them from substances 
 which are less volatile. 
 
 SUBLINGUAL. The parts lying 
 under the tongue. 
 
 SUBSOIL. The earth immediate- 
 ly below that which is tilled. The 
 value of land depends almost as much 
 on the subsoil as the tilth : if it be 
 wet and full of stagnant water, it 
 must be under-drained ; if it be hard 
 and rocky, the surface soil dries too 
 readily to a dust ; if it be deep and 
 too light, water and fluid manures 
 may drain away wastefully. 
 
 S'UBSOILING. Loosening the sub- 
 soil by a plough without any mould- 
 board to turn it, has been strenuously 
 recommended of late, as a great im- 
 provement in tillage. A heavy plough 
 is first run along the field some six or 
 eight inches deep, and a subsoil 
 plough (see Plough) follows in the 
 bottom of the furrow, deepening it to 
 fourteen or sixteen inches in all. 
 This differs from trench ploughing, in 
 which the subsoil is cast up and 
 mixed with the surface, by which the 
 soil is either benefited or injured, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the subsoil. 
 
 The principal effect of subsoil 
 ploughing is, that the earth is deep- 
 
SUF 
 
 ened to a considerable depth, and 
 root culture is much improved ; the 
 soil is also considerably drained, and, 
 if moor pans exist in it, may be re- 
 claimed from sterility. It is there- 
 fore an admirable process in stiff soils 
 imperfectly drained, but in loose 
 gravelly or sandy soils subsoil plough- 
 ing is often very injurious. 15y the 
 tillage of years, the treading of cat- 
 tle, and the pressure of the sole of 
 the plough and rolling, the surface 
 soil be(!omes compact, and holds wa- 
 ter and manure sufficiently for the 
 crops ; but by suhsoiling these ad- 
 vantages are thrown away, and a 
 thirstv, loose soil again established. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVE COLOURS. 
 Colouring matters which stain the 
 texture or yarn permanently, without 
 the necessity for a mordant ; the lat- 
 ter being called adjective colours. 
 
 SUBSTITUTION. In chemistry, 
 the doctrine advanced by Dumas, that, 
 in many organic and complex com- 
 pounds, one element can take the 
 place of another without changing the 
 relations of the others. 
 
 SUBSTRATUM. The stratum of 
 a different geological kind immedi- 
 ately below the surface. 
 
 SUBULATE. Awl-shaped, round, 
 and tapering to the end. 
 
 SUBULICORNS. A family of neu- 
 roptera, with awl-shaped antennae. 
 
 SUBULIPALPS. A section of 
 caraboid beetles, some of which have 
 the exterior palpi awl-shaped. 
 
 SUCCORY. See Chicory. 
 
 SUCCULENT. Fleshy, full of 
 water. 
 
 SUCKERS. The shoots from the 
 roots of trees or plants near the stem. 
 They are often serviceable for prop- 
 agation. 
 
 SUCTION PUMP. See Piimp. 
 
 SUDORIFICS. Medicines which 
 produce increased perspiration. 
 
 SUET. Fat which contains a large 
 proportion of stearin, and is hard. 
 It is best from the loins or kidneys of 
 the sheep, and next from the ox. It 
 is used f(jr the best tallow candles. 
 
 SUFFRUTEX. An under shrub, 
 a small shrub, a portion of whose an- 
 nual stems die away. Suffruticose is 
 like an under shrub. 
 
 SUG 
 
 SUGAR. One of the indifferent 
 and ordinary products of plants. It 
 is recognised by its flavour. Chem- 
 ists distinguish a variety of species 
 of sugar, of which the crystallizable, 
 or cane sugar, and uncrystallizable, or 
 difficultly crystaUizahlc, or grape su- 
 gar (glucose), arc the representatives ; 
 these differ in composition, cane su- 
 gar being Ci... Hn On, and grape su- 
 gar, Ci.2 Hi4 Oi., ; but their chief dis- 
 tinction rests in the circumstance that 
 grape sugar is capable of undergoing 
 fermentation, whereas cane sugar 
 must lirst be converted into glucose 
 to ferment. CJrape sugar is identical 
 with that from fruits, green stalks, 
 and with dial)ctic and starch sugar. 
 Sugar for commercial purposes is ob- 
 tained chiefly from the cane, but the 
 beet is also extensively manufactur- 
 ed (see Beet), and the maple (see Ma- 
 ple) yields a large quantity. Some 
 sugar or molasses is also made from 
 starch of potatoes by boiling it in sil- 
 ver or lead boilers with dilute sulphu- 
 ric acid : for this purpose, 200 parts of 
 starch, 4 of strong acid, and 800 of 
 water are used, and the boiling con- 
 tinued thirty hours : by steaming at a 
 high pressure, six hours will answer. 
 
 SUGAR CANE. Arundo saccha- 
 rifera. It is very readily destroyed by 
 light frosts, and cannot be grown 
 north of 32^ N. In Louisiana the 
 frost sometimes destroys the crop, 
 and to save it, the cut stems are piled 
 up, or mattressed on the field in mass- 
 es three or four feet high. The press- 
 ing is done between rollers worked 
 usually by animals, but sometimes by 
 wind, water, or steam power. The 
 process of making the sugar is de- 
 tailed under the article Beet. The 
 following short rules may, however, 
 be of service : 
 
 "1. To cut the cane as ripe as pos- 
 sible, but before any acetic acid is 
 formed : litmus paper, touched to the 
 fresh-cut cane, will turn red if acid. 
 
 "2. Express the juice without loss 
 of time, as every moment after cut- 
 ting will deteriorate its quality. 
 
 " .3. A small (jiiantity of clear lime- 
 water, say one quart to a hundred gal- 
 lons of juice, should be added the mg- 
 7G3 
 
 '*r 
 
SUGAR CANE. 
 
 ment it is expressed, unless the juice 
 shows acidity witli litmus paper; in 
 tliat case, no lime sliould be used, but 
 a solution of sal-soda, or soda ash, 
 should be added until it is precisely 
 neutral. 
 
 " 4. When the juice is neutral, free 
 from excess of acid or alkali, it should 
 be evaporated in sucii an apparatus as 
 would finish its charge in thirty min- 
 utes : if the boiling power is too small, 
 good crystallization cannot possibly be 
 obtained. 
 
 " The whole time occupied, from 
 the cutting of the cane to finishing its 
 boiling, should not exceed one hour. 
 "5. To know when the boiling is 
 finished, place a thermometer in the 
 kettle, and continue to evaporate un- 
 til it stands at 239° Fahrenheit. If, 
 when placed to run off after cooling, 
 it should be found too freely boiled, 
 the next time boil to 240^, or, if too 
 light to run off, to 238^, and so on. 
 
 "6. The kettle or boiler should be 
 so arranged, that the moment it is 
 done its charge should be thrown into 
 a cooler capable of holding a number 
 of charges. The first charge should 
 be left in the cooler, without stirring, 
 until the second charge is thrown in ; 
 then with an oar scrape the crystals 
 found on the side and bottom of the 
 cooler loose, and gently stir the whole 
 mass together : the less stirred the 
 better ; so continue at the letting in 
 of each charge, to stir gently ; and 
 when all is in the cooler, let the 
 whole stand until it cools down to 
 175° ; then fill out into sugar moulds 
 of a capacity not less than 14 gallons. 
 When cooled in the mould sufficient- 
 ly, say fourteen hours, pull the plug 
 out of the bottom of the mould, and 
 insert a sharp point, nearly as large 
 as the hole, some six inches ; with- 
 draw the point, and stand the mould 
 on a pot to drip. 
 
 " 7. If the sugar is intended to be 
 brown, leaving it standing on the pot 
 for a sufficient length of time, in a 
 temperature of 80°, will run off its 
 molasses, and leave it in a merchant- 
 able shape : it will probably require 
 twenty days. It can then be thrown 
 
 use. When moulds cannot be ob- 
 tained, conical vessels of wood or 
 metal, with a hole at the apex, will 
 answer equally well." 
 
 The stools of the cane throw up 
 stems or ratoons for two or three 
 years, unless destroyed by frost, to 
 guard against which they are hilled 
 up in the fall, and opened in part in 
 spring : the same treatment is pur- 
 sued in regard to the cuttings for 
 propagation. The blue riband cane 
 is that most used in Louisiana. The 
 following from Boussingault gives an 
 account of the cultivation in the West 
 Indies and Central America : 
 
 " Three principal varieties of su- 
 gar cane are cultivated — the Creole, 
 the Batavian, and the Otaheitan. The 
 Creole cane has the leaf of a deep 
 green, the stem slender, the knots 
 very close together. This species, a 
 native of India, reached the New 
 World after having passed through 
 Sicily, the Canaries, and the West 
 India Islands. The Batavian cane is 
 indigenous in the Island of Java; its 
 foliage is very broad, and has a pur- 
 ple tint : the sap of this variety is 
 much employed in making rum. The 
 Otaheite cane is that which is most ex- 
 tensively grown at the present time. 
 It was introduced into the West In- 
 dia Islands and neighbouring conti- 
 nent by Bougainville, Cook, and Bligh, 
 in their several voyages, and is cei*- 
 tainly one of the most important ac- 
 quisitions which the agriculture of 
 tropical countries owes to the voy- 
 ages of naturalists. This variety of 
 cane grows with extraordinary vig- 
 our : its stem is taller, thicker, and 
 richer in juice than that of the other 
 species. I observed it along the 
 whole coast of Venezuela, of New 
 Grenada, and of Peru ; far from hav- 
 ing degenerated by its transplantation 
 to the American continent, it appears 
 to have preserved all its original qual- 
 ities without alteration. 
 
 " The sugar cane is propagated by 
 cuttings. Pieces of the stem about 
 18 or 20 inches long, and having sev- 
 eral buds or eyes, are placed two or 
 three together in holes a few inches 
 
 out of the moulds, and will be fit for j in depth, and are covered with loose 
 764 
 
SUGAR CANE. 
 
 moist earth. From a fortnight to three 
 weeks are required for the shoots to 
 show themselves above ground. The 
 space to be left between each clump 
 of plants depends much on the fertil- 
 ity of the soil ; in the most fertile 
 soils the distance may be about a 
 yard, or a little more ; and along the 
 rows the spaces may he about eigh- 
 teen inches. Where land is of no 
 great value it is found more advanta- 
 geous to give greater space, and so 
 to favour the access of the air and 
 the light. It is not uncommon to see 
 plantations where the canes are spa- 
 ced at distances of between four and 
 live feet. The time at which the set- 
 ting of the slips takes place cannot be 
 definitively Indicated ; it depends en- 
 tirely upon the epoch at which the 
 periodical rains are anticipated. But 
 in places where irrigation is possible, 
 the setting goes on through all the 
 months of the year The holes for 
 the reception of the slips are usually 
 dug with a hoe, and a negro will make 
 from sixty to eighty holes in the 
 course of a day. When the ground 
 has been previously ploughed, as it is 
 in some of the West India islands, he 
 will mal^e twice as many. Loose, 
 rich soils, when they have a certain 
 moisture, are the best adapted to the 
 sugar cane : it does not thrive in an 
 argillaceous soil, which drains with 
 difficulty. In these moist soils the 
 slips are not laid horizontally and cov- 
 ered, but with one end projecting a 
 little way out of the ground. When 
 the young shoots are covered with 
 narrow and opposed leaves, watering 
 is particularly advantageous, and the 
 plants are repeatedly hoed until they 
 liave acquired sufficient vigour to 
 choke noxious weeds. About the 
 ninth month after the plantation of 
 the slips, the shaft of the sugar cane 
 begins to lose its leaves, the most in- 
 ferior falling first, the others in suc- 
 cession, so that when arrived at ma- 
 turity it only presents a tuft of ter- 
 minal leaves. The flowering gener- 
 ally takes place with the conclusion 
 of the year ; and the cane is held suf- 
 ficiently ripe in from two to three 
 months after this epoch, when the 
 
 stem has acquired a yellow or straw 
 colour. The planters, however, are 
 by no means agreed as to the proper 
 period of the sugar cane harvest ; 
 some even insist upon cutting before 
 the flowering, believing that the quan- 
 tity of sugar diminishes on the appear- 
 ance of the flower. It is unquestion- 
 able, however, that the period that 
 elapses between the planting and the 
 harvest must vary with the nature of 
 the soil, and especially with that of 
 the climate ; while in some places the 
 cane may be cut when it is a year 
 old, doubtless there are others where 
 it requires to stand from fifteen to 
 sixteen months. In Venezuela, where 
 the Otaheile cane is grown at the lev- 
 el of the sea, and where the mean 
 temperature of the year is between 
 81° and 82° Fahrenheit, the cane ri- 
 pens, according to Colonel Codazzi, 
 in eleven months. In districts at 
 greater elevations under the same 
 parallels of latitude, where the cli- 
 mate is of course not so hot, the cane 
 requires a longer time to come to 
 maturity ; where the mean tempera- 
 ture is about 78° Fahrenheit, twelve 
 months are required ; where it is 
 about 74° Fahr., fourteen months be- 
 come necessary ; and where it is no 
 more than about 67= Fahrenheit, six- 
 teen months are requisite. The Ota- 
 heite cane grows to very different 
 heights : in very favourable circum- 
 stances it will reach a height of 16 
 feet and upward, but its general 
 height may be stated at from 9^ to 
 10^ feet. Great cane plantations are 
 divided into squares of from 100 to 
 120 yards on the side, each of which 
 coming to maturity in succession, the 
 labour is easily performed, both in re- 
 gard to field-work and the manufac- 
 ture of the sugar. 
 
 " The cane is cut close to the root, 
 and before being carried to the mill 
 the terminal tuft of leaves is struck 
 off These heads in the green state 
 afTord excellent food for horses and 
 cattle ; when dry they are used for 
 thatching houses. After the first cut- 
 ting, fresh sprouts arise, which re- 
 quire no other attention than hoeing. 
 In good soils one planting will yield 
 7165 
 
SUGAR CANE. 
 
 five or six harvests by successive I 
 shoots ; but I have heard phinters af- 
 firm tliat the produce in sugar duiiin- 
 ishes from year to year. In Venezu- 
 ela, cane pieces are replanted every I 
 five or six years. I 
 
 " The cane with its top struck off j 
 is carried to the mill, where the juice 
 is expressed, and the stems, which 
 aresiioken ofunderthe name of trash, 
 are dried and used as fuel. I 
 
 " The expressed juice contains j 
 crystallizable sugar, an azotized sub- 
 stance analogous to albumen, and | 
 some saline matters dissolved in a 
 large quantity of water, which is dis- 
 sipated by boiling, and the sugar final- 
 ly won by crystallization. The man- 
 ufacturing process is conducted with | 
 very dilTerent degrees of perfection 
 in different places. In some the prod- ' 
 uce is obtained almost without ad- 
 mixture of molasses, in others the 
 quantity of this article which drains 
 away from the sugar is very large. 
 It is now generally agreed that mo- 
 lasses proceeds in great part from im- 
 perfections in the manufacturing pro- 
 cesses employed, especially to chan- 
 ges which the sugar undergoes in the 
 course of its concentration by boiling 
 at a high temperature. By the em- 
 ployment of what are called vacuum 
 pans of various construction — pans 
 from which the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere is removed either by the 
 air-pump, or the condensation of the 
 vapour as fast as it is formed, rapid 
 evaporation is effected at a tempera- 
 ture much below that of boiling wa- 
 ter, by which it is found that the rel- 
 ative quantity of sugar to that of mo- 
 lasses is greatly increased. It was 
 long believed, indeed, and that on the 
 authority of the first chemists, that 
 there were two kinds of sugar con- 
 tained in the sugar cane, one crys- 
 tallizable, the other uncrystallizable, 
 and constituting the molasses or trea- 
 cle. The researches of M. Peligot 
 have shown definitively that this con- 
 clusion is erroneous ; that the cane 
 contains no sugar that is not crystal- 
 lizable, and that the pre-existence of 
 uncrystallizable sugar or molasses is 
 entirely chimerical. M. Plague had 
 766 
 
 indeed come to the same conclusion 
 some considerable time ago — as far 
 back as 1826 ; but his labours were 
 not made known by publication till 
 1840. M. Casaseca, professor of 
 chemistry at Havana, has very late- 
 ly confirmed these conclusions, so 
 important for the sugar husbandry of 
 the world. The composition of the 
 juice of the sugar cane is therefore 
 less complex than it was once believ- 
 ed to be ; making abstraction of very 
 minute quantities of an albuminous 
 azotized substance, of several salts 
 and a little silica, substances which 
 altogether do not amount to more 
 than two or three hundredths, cane 
 juice may be said to consist of water 
 and of crystallizable sugar in the pro- 
 portion of from 17 to 20 per cent. The 
 Otaheite cane, analyzed by M. Peligot, 
 actually yielded 
 
 Water 721 
 
 Woodj' matter 99 
 
 Soluble matter (sugar) . . . 18 
 1000 
 
 " This conclusion was verified by 
 M. Dupuy at Guadaloupe in 1841, 
 who, operating on the spot, found the 
 composition to be as follows : 
 
 Water 720 
 
 Woody matter 9'8 
 
 Soluble matter (sugfar) . . . 17-8 
 
 Salts 0-4 
 
 1000 
 
 " The analyses of the Creole cane, 
 made by M. Casaseca at Havana, ap- 
 pear to indicate a larger quantity of 
 woody fibre : 
 
 Water 65-9 
 
 Wood 16-14 
 
 Sugar 177 
 
 1000 
 
 " The quantity of sugar yielded by 
 the cane differs considerably. M. 
 Codazzi assigns 6 and 15 per cent, 
 as the extremes, and 7J per cent, as 
 the mean. M. Dupuy gives 7-1 per 
 cent, as the average. The quantity 
 is, of course, first and most intimate- 
 ly connected with the quantity of 
 juice obtained. But the produce of 
 juice is extremely variable. In Gua- 
 daloupe, the juice varies between 56 
 and 62 per cent, of the cane subjected 
 to pressure. The generality of mills 
 do not, in fact, enable us to obtain 
 more than about 56 per cent. At 
 
SUGAR CANE. 
 
 New-Orleans the usual quantity ob- 
 tained i-3 said to be 50, and in Cay- 
 enne only 36 per cent. At Havana, 
 according to .M. (^'a.saseca, the riband 
 cane yields 45, the crystalline 35, and 
 the Otaheitan 5(5 per cent, of juice. 
 
 "The Otaheite cane was examin- 
 ed by M. Peligt)t, under a variety of 
 circumstances of age, growth, part 
 of plant, &c. The following table 
 contains the condensed results of his 
 experiments : 
 
 First shoots 
 
 Second do. from original sprouts . 
 Third do. from second do. 
 Fourth do. from third do. 
 
 Inferior part of cane 
 
 Middle part of do 
 
 Siipenorpart of do 
 
 Knots 
 
 Cane of eifht months .... 
 Cane of ten months 
 
 Water. 
 
 Soluble mat- 
 ters (suRnr). 
 
 Woody fibre. 
 
 7.S-4 
 71-7 
 71.6 
 730 
 73-7 
 72-6 
 72-8 
 70-8 
 73-9 
 72-3 
 
 17-2 
 17.8 
 164 
 168 
 155 
 16-5 
 155 
 120 
 18-2 
 18-5 
 
 8-9 
 10-5 
 12-0 
 10.2 
 10-8 
 10-9 
 11-7 
 17-2 
 7-9 
 9-2 
 
 " It would therefore appear, ma- 
 king exception always of the knots 
 which occur in the course of a cane, 
 that the composition of the plant, in 
 its various states and conditions, is 
 almost identical. M. Peligot's im- 
 portant paper, while it informs us of 
 the average composition of the Ota- 
 heite cane, satisfies us that the gum- 
 my and mucilaginous substances and 
 the uncrystallizable sugar, the exist- 
 ence of which was held as demon- 
 strated, are, in fact, nowise constitu- 
 ents of the sugar cane. Whence we 
 may conclude, with M. Peligot, that 
 every drop of molasses which drains 
 from the sugar is the produce of the 
 manufacture ; aii opinion to which I 
 assent the more readily from having 
 myself seen, oftener than once, the 
 juice of the cane yield nothing but 
 crystaliizable sugar. These analyses 
 farther demonstrate, more powerful- 
 ly than could any discussion, the im- 
 perfection of the processes usually 
 followed in manufacturing sugar. 
 They prove, in fact, that in the mill 
 rather more than a third of the whole 
 juice contained in the cane is left in 
 the trash. This loss might be con- 
 siderably diminished were more per- 
 fect pressure employed in extracting 
 the juice. But it appears that the 
 planters are indisposed to crush the 
 trash too much, as by this it is ren- 
 dered less fit for fuel, a considerable 
 quantity of which, by the present 
 mode of manufacture, is indispensa- 
 ble. M. Dupree, however, says that by 
 
 insisting on obtaining from 65 to 66 
 per cent, of juice in all cases, the trash 
 is still left with all its value as a com- 
 bustible. The trash, on coming from 
 the mill, appears quite dry. I have 
 seen some which, after having been 
 pressed twice consecutively, looked 
 as if it were impossible, by any far- 
 ther amount of pressure, to express 
 more liquid. Nevertheless, it was 
 enough to taste this pressed cane, to 
 be satisfied that it still contained a 
 considerable quantity of sugar. To 
 procure this without using more pow- 
 erful machinery, M. Peligot proposed 
 to steep the trash in water, and to 
 press it a second time. By this 
 means a weak juice is obtained, 
 which, added to the first pressings, 
 raises the produce of sugar from sev- 
 en to ten per cent, upon the whole 
 amount of cane employed. By fol- 
 lowing this process, suggested by the- 
 ory, upon the great scale, M. Dupree 
 has succeeded in obtaining one fifth 
 more than the usual quantity of su- 
 gar without makmg any change in his 
 apparatus, and without finding the 
 trash too much shaken to be burned 
 under his coppers. In some circum- 
 stances the increase in the quantity 
 of juice which this procedure implies 
 might be found an objection on ac- 
 count of the larger quantity of fuel 
 required for its evaporation ; but 
 wherever a supjjjy of wood is to be 
 had, M. Peligot's method ought un- 
 doubtedly to be applied. 
 " The very dissimilar quantities of 
 767 
 
SUG 
 
 crystallizable sugar obtained from 
 canes, wliicli, as we have seen, all 
 contain very nearly the same quan- 
 tity of this substance, prove that the 
 processes of concentration and puri- 
 fication of the sap also contribute to 
 the loss which has been indicated. 
 M. Peligot has pointed out several 
 causes which concur to deteriorate 
 sugar: among i he number : 1. A vis- 
 cous fermentation, which renders the 
 sap thick and stringy, like mucilage, 
 by which the boiling becomes difficult 
 and the crystallization of the sugar 
 which has escaped change is render- 
 ed imperfect. 2. An acidity, which 
 takes place when the juice is not run 
 at once into the coppers and boiled, 
 an acidity which ro(juires the addi- 
 tion of lime to destroy or to prevent 
 it. The alkaline earth, as I have had 
 occasion to say, is by no means indis- 
 pensable ; its utility, under ordinary 
 circumstances, is probably confined 
 to assisting the defecation by form- 
 ing an insoluble precipitate with some 
 of the organic substances which are 
 always met with in small quantities 
 in cane juice ; perhaps, also, to ma- 
 king an earthy soap with the fatty 
 matters which adhere to the cane 
 and are expressed in the crushing. 
 When lime is added to correct acid- 
 ity, it forms an acetate or a lactate, 
 salts which are peculiarly soluble, 
 uncrystallizablc, and which necessa- 
 rily retain a quantity of sugar in the 
 sirupy state. 3. The presence of 
 certain mineral salts in the cane. 
 Conmion salt, for instance, in com- 
 bining with sugar forms a deliques- 
 cent compound, in which one part of 
 salt is united with six parts of sugar ; 
 such a compound as this of course 
 renders a large quantity of sirup in- 
 disposed to crystallize. It is therefore 
 impossible to be too cautious, accord- 
 ing to M. Peligot, in the choice of 
 manure for a cane field ; that which 
 contains any common salt must 
 needs be injurious in one way, how- 
 ever advantageous it may be in an- 
 other. The entire absence of this 
 salt in the soil of plantations which 
 are very remote from the seashore 
 is perhaps one of the causes which 
 768 
 
 SUL 
 
 increases the quantity of sugar ob^ 
 tained from the crop, and makes it 
 more easily manufactured in such 
 districts. 
 
 " M. Codazzi reckons the quantity 
 of white sugar produced by a iicctare 
 of land (2 473 acres), planted with 
 the Otaheite cane in the province of 
 Caraccas, at 1875 kilogrammes, or 
 36 cwt. 3 qrs. 9 lbs. avoir., which 
 is at the rate of 15 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lbs. 
 per acre. Taking 71 per cent, as the 
 average quantity of sugar obtained, 
 the weight of cane brought to the 
 mill must obviously have amounted 
 to 19,134 kilog., or 18 tons, 15 cwt. 3 
 qrs. 10 lbs. ; or 7 tons, 11 cwt. 3 qrs. 
 25 lbs. per acre. Assuming the av- 
 erage composition of the plant to be, 
 
 Wood (dry) HO 
 
 Sugar (minimum) 155 
 
 Water "-^'S 
 
 1000 
 
 one acre of land will consequently 
 yield a crop of 
 
 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. 
 
 Wood (dry) . . 16 2 24 
 
 Sugar .... 1 3 2 6 
 
 Water • • • ■ ^ H 2 12 
 
 7 11 3 25 
 
 " The trash of the sugar cane un- 
 dergoes rapid fermentation ; it soon 
 exhales a distinct smell of vinegar, 
 and almost the whole of the sugar 
 which is left in it is destroyed." 
 
 SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate of 
 lead, so called from its sweet taste. 
 It is much used in lotions; and in 
 solution with a little vinegar forms 
 Goulard's lotion. It must not be 
 used incautiously, as it is poison- 
 ous. 
 
 SULCATE. Marked with furrows, 
 or parallel deep lines. 
 
 SULPHATES. Salts of sulphuric 
 acid. The principal in agriculture 
 are the sulphate of lime (see Gyp- 
 sum), the sulphate of soda {Glauber's 
 salt), and sulphate of potash. The 
 latter is, however, too expensive ; it 
 is found in the ashes of some plants. 
 Glauber's salt may be obtained for 
 Si to $1 50 the 100 pounds, and is 
 serviceable as a steep, or as a manure 
 in gardens for the cruciferous plants. 
 The chief value of the sulphates as 
 manures arises from the necessity for 
 
SUL 
 
 SUL 
 
 sulphur in plants, especially the cru- 
 ciferous and lef^uminous families. It 
 would appear that plants possess the 
 property of decomposing the sul- 
 phates, for they chiefly require the 
 sulphur, which is an ingredient of 
 fibrin, casein, and albumen, as well 
 as some oils. The sulphate of cop- 
 per is of great value as a steep, and 
 a solution of sul()hate of iron, or green 
 vitriol, is much used in Switzerland 
 to fix the ammonia of putrescent ma- 
 nures. 
 
 SULPHITES. Salts of sulphurous 
 acid. 
 
 SULPHOCYANATE OF POTAS- 
 SIUM. A solution of this body is 
 used to detect iron, with which it 
 forms a brownish-red colour. 
 
 SULPHOSLXAPISIN. A pungent 
 body obtained from mustard, contain- 
 ing both salphur and nitrogen. 
 
 SULPHUR Bnmsloiic. A solid, 
 lusible. insoluble, yellow element- 
 ary b )dy ; equivalent, 161 : symbol 
 S : specific gravity, 19. It is a non- 
 conductor of electricity, and power- 
 fully electro -positive in its com- 
 pounds. It is very inflammable, uni- 
 ting with oxysren, and forming the 
 white, suffocatmg vapours of sul- 
 phurous acid. With three equiva- 
 lents of oxygen it forms sulphuric 
 acid, or oil of vitriol ; a dense, oily 
 acid, of great causticity, and well 
 known in the arts : equivalent, 401. 
 Sulphur unites directly with metals 
 at a heat below redness, forming sul- 
 phurets. The gaseous compound of 
 1 equivalent of sulphur with 1 of hy- 
 drogen, or sulphuretled hydrogen, is 
 remarkable for its great foetor ; it is 
 given off by decaying organic mat- 
 ters containmg sulphur, and, with the 
 sulphurct of anmionium, constitutes 
 the principal cause of the stench of 
 putrefying animal matters. 
 
 Sulphur is abundant in tlie mineral 
 kingdom al)out volcanoes. It is pres- 
 ent in all vegetables, existing in al- 
 bumen, casein, and analogous bodies. 
 It has been used to destroy insects, 
 and when made into an ointment 
 with lard and applied to the parts, 
 is often elTective. When burned, the 
 pungent, sulphurous acid destroys 
 T r T 
 
 life, but is also injurious to vegeta- 
 tion. It has the property of bleach- 
 ing many colours, and especially that 
 of straw. A solution, formed by boil- 
 ing equal parts of quicklime and sul- 
 phur in twenty or thirty times their 
 weight of water, is extremely foetid 
 and poisonous to insects : it is called 
 the fn/ilrostilphnret of lime. 
 
 SULPHURETS. Compounds of 
 sulphur with metals. 
 
 SULPHURETTED. Containing 
 sulphur chemically united. A solu- 
 tion of sulphuretted hydrogen gas in 
 water is much used as a test for 
 metals in solution. 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID, OIL OF VIT- 
 RIOL. It is procured in commerce 
 by burning sulphur and nitre togeth- 
 er in chambers made of lead. The 
 vapours are condensed in water, 
 which is afterward boiled down in 
 platina boilers until the solution be- 
 comes of the appearance of oil, and 
 specific gravity 18. It should be col- 
 ourless, but is often brown ; is dread- 
 fully caustic, destroying the skin in- 
 stantly. When water is added, the 
 mixture becomes quite hot, and will 
 often break glass vessels. It com- 
 bines with all oxides, forming sul- 
 phates. Sulphuric acid, mixed with 
 500 parts of water, has been applied 
 to clover and grass with advantage, 
 but is not better than gypsum, and 
 much more expensive and difficult to 
 manage. It is now used to dissolve 
 bones, but is inferior to muriatic acid. 
 100 pounds of the best acid dissolve, 
 after much time and with repeated 
 stirrings, about 200 pounds of fine 
 bone dust, converting it in part into 
 a sulphate of lime (gypsum), and mto 
 a superphosphate of lime, which is 
 soluble : the solution is enough for an 
 acre, and should be diluted with 200 
 parts of water, and applied as a top- 
 dressing. The solution must be made 
 in an earthen-ware vessel with great 
 care, lest the acid be spilled. 
 
 SULPHURIC .^THER. Common 
 
 SULPHUROUS ACID. It is com- 
 posed of sulphur 16 1, oxygen 16. It 
 is a gas readily condensed, soluble in 
 water, and very sour, with the odour 
 709 
 
SUN 
 
 SUR 
 
 of sulphur; in contact with oxygen 
 and moisture, it readily becomes 
 changed into sulphuric acid. See 
 Sulphur. 
 
 SULPHUR SALTS. A class of 
 salts in which the acid and ba.sc both 
 contain sulphur in the place of oxy- 
 gen, or as their electro-positive ele- 
 ment. 
 
 SUMACH. (SeeRhiis.) "The 
 powder of the loaves, flower stems, 
 and young branches of the R/ius eo- 
 riaria and Rhus culiiius, shrubs which 
 grow in Hungary and the Illyrian 
 Provinces. Both kinds contain tan- 
 nin, with a little yellow colouring 
 matter, and are a good deal employed 
 for tanning ligiit-coloured leathers : 
 but the first is the best. With mor- 
 dants, it dyes nearly the same colours 
 as galls. In calico printing, sumach 
 affords, with a mordant of tin, a yel- 
 low colour ; with acetate of iron, 
 weak or strong, a gray or black ; and 
 with sulphate of zinc, a brownish yel- 
 low. A decoction of sumach red- 
 dens litmus paper strongly ; gives 
 white flocks with the proto-muriate 
 of tin ; pale yellow flocks with alum ; 
 dark blue flocks with red sulphate of 
 iron, with an abundant precipitate. 
 In the south of France, the twigs and 
 leaves of the Coriaria myrtifolia are 
 used for dyeing, under the name of 
 redoul or rodoii." 
 
 The common sumach (R. glahrnm) 
 of the L'nited States is extensively 
 used by dyers and leather dressers ; 
 it is more valuable from the South 
 than North, but is inferior to the R. 
 coriaria, or Italian sumach of Sicily 
 and the south of Europe. This plant 
 is propagated by layers, as it does not 
 mature fruit. 
 
 SUMMER FALLOW. A fallow 
 made during the warm months to kill 
 weeds — a green fallow. 
 
 SUNFLOWER. HcUanthus an- 
 rtuvs. A well-known, large compos- 
 ite plant, yielding an abundance of 
 seeds, which are excellent for feed- 
 ing poultry. It requires a good soil 
 of a clayey basis, but will grow on 
 most tdled lands. It is raised in 
 France for oil, and should be sown 
 broad-cast and thinly, or in rows 18 
 770 
 
 inches apart. It soon grows suffi- 
 ciently to cover weeds. An acre will 
 carry 2.5,000 plants 12 inches apart, 
 and yield 50 bushels of seeds, and 
 upward of 50 gallons of good oil, val- 
 uable for the table, lamps, or soap 
 making. The cake is one of the 
 most nutritious fodders knowu : 1500 
 pounds will be obtained from the 
 above crop. Tlie leaves are also 
 eaten by cattle, and the young plants 
 removed in thinning form good prov- 
 ender. The stalks are rich in pot- 
 ash, yielding from eight to ten per 
 cent, of it in their ash, but should be 
 returned to the land as manure. It 
 also contains a large proportion of 
 nitrate of potash (nitre). The young 
 plants form as good a crop to plough 
 in as the Jerusalem artichoke, which 
 is indeed of the same genus as the 
 sunflower. 
 
 SUPPOSITORY. A solid medi- 
 cine introduced into the rectum to 
 produce purgation. 
 
 SUPPURATION. The common 
 healthy termination of inflammations 
 of the cellular tissues, in which pus 
 is formed. It should be thoroughly 
 evacuated as soon as formed. 
 
 SUPRACRETACEOUS. The 
 formations above the chalk, now call- 
 ed tertiary. 
 
 SURFEIT. See Horse, Diseases of. 
 
 SURVEYING. In agriculture, tlie 
 determination of the contents of any 
 piece of ground or estate ; it is usual- 
 ly done in a rough way by a compass 
 with sights, or a plane table and 
 chain of 100 links, or 22 yards. The 
 external boundaries of the lield are 
 measured by the chain along straight 
 lines determined by setting up the 
 compass, level, and a staff. The dis- 
 tance between these is ascertained in 
 chains and links ; every turn or angle 
 of large size is determined by its 
 bearing with the compass and staff, 
 and a measurement of the length of 
 the straight line, made as often as 
 there are sides or angles. In this 
 way a plan is obtained, giving the 
 angles, bearings, and lengths of the 
 sides bounding the field. This is 
 plotted, and a calculation made of the 
 contents by the ordinary rules of 
 
SWA 
 
 SWE 
 
 .mensuration. For this purpose, the 
 contents arc divided into triangles, 
 the side of any of wliich can be meas- 
 ured on the ground, to assist or cor- 
 rect the reckoning. The chain con- 
 tains 100 links of 7 92 inches. A 
 .square chain forms tlic tenth of an 
 acre ; the calculation is therefore 
 made in links, which are a decimal 
 portion of the acre ; and the resulting 
 area being reduced by three ligures, 
 gives the number of acres in a field. 
 
 But in better examinations the the- 
 odolite is used, and the distances de- 
 termined i)y trigonometrical observa- 
 tions, and not by measurements with 
 a chain. The inclinations of hills, &c.. 
 Ere also reduced to a plane surface. 
 
 SUTURE. The serrated junction 
 of two bones, especially of the skull. 
 In insects, the line along which the 
 w]ng cases meet. In botany, the nat- 
 ural division or opening in a fruit. 
 
 SWAMP. A low lake or morass 
 in which trees grow. The emana- 
 tions from swamps in the spring and 
 fall are extremely injurious, and fatal 
 to men and animals. They should be 
 drained, if possible. The mud from 
 thein consists, in a great measure, of 
 vegetable matter, and when compost- 
 ed with lime or putrescent matters, 
 forms a good coarse manure for 
 amending the character of lands. 
 Twenty to forty loads are used to the 
 acre. 
 
 SWAN. Cygnvs olor. The most 
 graceful and majestic of the famdy 
 of birds. They are much used in Eu- 
 rope to adorn rivers and small lakes, 
 are not destructive to fishes, but feed 
 c-n vegetables and grains. The fe- 
 male breeds in the summer, lays five 
 4o eight eggs, sits a month, and pre- 
 fers a retired islet. The cygnets are 
 driven off the next spring, and are 
 ?iot in full plumage till three years. 
 These birds are disposed to migrate 
 n the fall, and should have the feath- 
 ors of one wing clipped. They are 
 also very quarrelsome, and seldom 
 live in peace when more than one 
 pair are placed on a small water. The 
 black and all other kinds of swan are 
 inferior to the large white {Ct/i^mus 
 olor), the base of u hose upper bill is 
 
 furnished with a black prominence. 
 They require to be ffMl in the winter, 
 and the ice broken for tbeir accom- 
 modation until the weather is very 
 severe, when they should be allowed 
 to retire to a shc^ltcred yard. 
 
 SWARU. The green surface of a 
 meadow. 
 
 SWARD GRASSES. A name giv- 
 en to the genus Poa, which forms the 
 best natural meadows. 
 
 SWATH. The bands of hay or 
 grass cut in mowing. 
 
 SWAYS. Long bramble or other 
 flexible rods, used in thatching with 
 coarse straws or reeds. 
 
 SWEATING HAY. The slightfer- 
 mentation which occurs when fresh 
 grass, clover, &c., are placed in heaps. 
 It is attended w-ith considerable heat 
 if the quantity is great, and should, 
 therefore, be looked after. Fruits 
 and grain also undergo a sweating 
 process, if heaped soon after collec- 
 tion. It is the best method to pre- 
 pare the different kinds of hay. See 
 Hny-makwg. 
 
 SWE.\L. To singe the hair from 
 hogs or other slaughtered animals 
 with lighted wisps of straw. 
 
 SWEET flag. Acorus calamus, 
 the root of which is pleasantly aro- 
 matic. 
 
 SWEET GRASS. The genus 
 Glyccna, for the most part water 
 grasses. The seeds of G. fluitans, or 
 Marona grass, are cultivated in Ger- 
 many for gruel. The G. aquatica, or 
 water fescue, is a large, permanent 
 grass, growing in rich marshes and 
 the edges of rivers, and affording an 
 abundance of good provender. 
 
 SWEET POTATO. Convolvulus 
 hattatus. A convolvulus, the root of 
 which attains a large size, and con- 
 tains much sugar mixed with an 
 agreeable farina. They require a 
 rich, light soil. The potatoes are set 
 out in a warm place early in April. 
 In the Northern and Eastern States 
 a warm bed is necessary. They spront 
 in two or three weeks, and throw out 
 a number of runners ; these are ta- 
 ken off when throe inches above the 
 soil, and trans()lanled to beds [)roper- 
 ly prepared in hills four to five feet 
 771 
 
SYC 
 
 SYN 
 
 apart each way. The old tubers con- 
 tinue to throw out runntTs during 
 April <Tnd May. iSomeliincs tlu'y are 
 set out in liilis, and nut mi a l)ed, and 
 allowed to grow witli litile intcrruj)- 
 tion : in this way the jioialocs are 
 sooner fit for use. The hills must be 
 carefully weeded and worked. 'J'hey 
 may he taken when large enough for 
 use, but the winter crop should not 
 be removed until the vines are dead. 
 To keep them during winter, they 
 should be dried in the sun till the 
 moisture is driven ofi", sweated in 
 heaps, and when dry, packed in dry 
 sand in a cellar not subject to wet or 
 frost. There are many varieties of 
 sweet potato, but they are not classi- 
 fied. The kind cultivated in Florida 
 is very large, and altogether superior 
 to those wliich are known to us. The 
 Nansemond potatoes are also large, 
 and in high repute. The yams are of 
 a different genus ; the varieties are 
 derived from the Dioscorca sa/ira and 
 alata ; the roots are often palmated, 
 and often weigh thirty pounds. 
 
 SWEET-SCEA'TED SHRUB. Ca- 
 lycantlius Floridus. Allspice, a pleas- 
 ant, fragrant shrub with dark flowers. 
 
 SWINE. See Hog. 
 
 SWINESTONE. A bituminous 
 limestone, which becomes foetid when 
 rubbed. 
 
 SWING PLOUGH. The plough 
 without a fore wheel under the beam. 
 It is difficult for a novice to manage, 
 from the point sometimes running 
 unequally, and sinking or rising sud- 
 denly, and in very rolling land is in- 
 ferior to the wiieel ploughs ; but in 
 the hands of an experienced plough- 
 man is often preferred. 
 
 SWINGING-TREE, SWINGLE- 
 TREE, WHIPPLE-TREE. The bar 
 of wood or iron to which the traces 
 of each horse are fastened, and which 
 are hitched on to the cart, plough, or 
 other implement to be drawn. 
 
 SWITCHING HEDGES. Cutting 
 off the year's shoots. This is done 
 with a sharp hooked blade called a 
 iwitching-hook, or with large hedge 
 shears. 
 
 SYCAMORE. The buttonwood. 
 
 SYCON,SYCONUS. Afiuitcon- 
 772 
 
 sisting of a fleshy disk or hollow re- 
 ceptacle, as in the fig. 
 
 SYENITE. A granite with black 
 spots of hornblend. Haddam or Bos- 
 ton granite. 
 
 SYMBOL. In chemistry, the abbre- 
 viation used to distinguish an ele- 
 ment or chemical body. It usually 
 consists of the initial letter, some- 
 times of the first and second. 
 
 SY.MPATIIY. A veterinary and 
 medical term used to express the ex- 
 istence of certain symptoms in a dis- 
 ease which are remote from the part 
 injured. 
 
 SYMPATHETIC NERVE. A 
 grand connexion of nerves from one 
 end of the body to the other, furnish- 
 ed with nervous centres or ganglia, 
 by which some physiologists suppose 
 a uniformity in the operations of the 
 different viscera is maintained. It is 
 also called the trisplanchnic nerve. 
 
 SY.MPIESOMETER. A kind of 
 barometer. 
 
 SYN (from aw, together). A com- 
 mon prefix in descriptive words, 
 meaninff united. 
 
 SYNAPTASE. The white matter 
 of almonds freed from oil, albumen, 
 and other matters. It is probably the 
 same as emulsin. 
 
 SYNCARPOUS FRUITS (from 
 CTw, and KapjTOf, a fruit). Such as con- 
 tain several carpels united, as the ap- 
 ple, pear, &,c. 
 
 SYNCHONDROSIS (from ow, and 
 xovdpvr, a cartilage). Tlie junction of 
 bones by a cartilage. 
 
 SYNCOPE. Fainting ; whenever 
 the circulation and respiration be- 
 come very feeble for a lime. 
 
 SYNGENESIA (from aw, and ye- 
 veoig, reproduction). The composite 
 family of plants. A class of Linnaeus, 
 m which the anthers are united into 
 a tube, the filaments being usually 
 separate and distinct. 
 
 SYNOCHA. Continued inflamma- 
 tory fevers. 
 
 SYNOVIA. The albuminous or 
 serous fluid secreted in the joints, to 
 diminish the friction of the extremi- 
 ties of the bones ; it is poured out 
 from little pouches, called synovial 
 bags. 
 
TAG 
 
 TAN 
 
 SYNTHESIS. In chemistry, the 
 production of a compound body by a 
 union of its elements or parts. 
 
 SYRINGE. A macliine consisting 
 of a small cylinder with an air-tii^ht 
 piston or sucker, which is moved up 
 and down in it by means of a handle. 
 The lower end of the cylinder ter- 
 minates in a small tube, throu£jh 
 which a fluid is forced into the body 
 of the cylinder by the atiriospheric 
 pressure when the handh^ is drawn 
 up, and then expelled in a small jet, 
 by pushing the handle in the opposite 
 direction. The syrinj^e acts on the 
 principle of the sucking pump. Tlie 
 syringe is also used as a pneumatic 
 machine for condensing or exhaust- 
 ing the air in a close vessel, but for 
 this purpose it must be furnished 
 with two valves. In the condensing 
 syringe the valves open downward 
 and close upward ; in the exhausting 
 syringe they are closed downward 
 and opened upward. The garden syr- 
 inse, so useful for watering plants, 
 and removing caterpillars, red spi- 
 ders, and other insects, is no more 
 than a large squirt, of a pint or (piart 
 size, which discharges fluid from a 
 rose or perforated end instead of a 
 point. 
 
 SYRUP. A thick solution of sugar. 
 
 SYSTOLE (from nvireiyM, I cnn- 
 trar.t). The contraction of the heart, 
 the diastole being its dilatation. 
 These two alternate movements pro- 
 duce the beating. 
 
 SYTHE. See Scythe. 
 
 T. 
 
 TACAMAHACA. The Populus 
 balsamica of Canada, which yields a 
 resinous, balsamic exudation in the 
 spring, which is sometimes called Ta- 
 camhac. 
 
 TAG. A sheep of the first year. 
 Tai^s are the masses of dirt that ac- 
 cumulate on the wool of the tail ; 
 the process of removing them is call- 
 ed tagging, and sometimes, when 
 they cause the tail to be fastened to 
 the body, that state is called tagbelt 
 or pinning. 
 
 TAGLI.\. A combination of pul- 
 leys, a tackle. 
 
 T T T 2 
 
 TAGLIACOTIAN or TALIACO 
 TIAN OPERATION. Any opera 
 tion in which the skin is nearly cut 
 from one part and made to cover an- 
 other. 
 
 TAIL DRAIN. The main drain, 
 which receives the water of the less 
 er drains. 
 
 TALC. A mineral closely resem 
 bling mica, but not elastic. 
 
 TALLOW. The melted or ren 
 dered fat of the ox or sheep. The 
 greater part of the bodies of sheep 
 and oxen are thrown into inmiense 
 caldrons, and rendered by steam at 
 a high pressure, in the West and in 
 New Holland. The fat of bones, 
 which amounts to eight or ten per 
 cent., is obtained in the same way, 
 and forms a coarse tallow. Its com- 
 position is similar to that of oils, but 
 the stearin is in excess. 
 
 TALLOW-TREE. Croton sebife- 
 runi. A large, lauraceous tree of 
 China, the seeds of which, when 
 pressed, yield a fatty body very simi- 
 lar to tallow. Some specimens of 
 this tree are found growing in the 
 sltrul)beries of the Southern States. 
 
 TALKS. A heap of rubliish accu- 
 mulated at the foot of a clitlor steep 
 rock. 
 
 TAMARIND. Tamarindus Lidica. 
 A large tree of the leguminous fam- 
 ily, native of the tropical East and 
 West Indies. The prepared pods, 
 preserved in sugar, form a refreshing 
 sweetmeat. They contain much cit- 
 ric acid. 
 
 TAMARIX. The genus Tamarix, 
 small, ornamental shrubs. 
 
 TAMPING. In blasting, filling the 
 hole with sand and pieces of rock 
 after a cartridge has been introduced. 
 
 TANK. "A reservoir for water 
 or other fluids. The name is some- 
 times applied to large open recepta- 
 cles, or ponds, formed by excavating 
 the ground and disposing the removed 
 earth in the form of banks to retain 
 the water; but the tanks which will 
 here be especially treated of, are the 
 smaller covered reservoirs used to 
 collect and retain water and liquid 
 manure for domestic and agricultural 
 purposes. 
 
 773 
 
TANK. 
 
 " The importance of collecting rain 
 water for domestic purposes, espe- 
 cially in districts where springs are 
 deficient or lie at a great depth, has 
 been much overlooked. Waistell ur- 
 ges the importance of placing spouts 
 round all the buildings of a farm to 
 collect tiie rain water which falls 
 upon them into a tank or tanks, ob- 
 serving that, besides the value of the 
 supply of water thus obtained, the 
 buildings will be benefited by the 
 walls and foundations being kept 
 drier than when the water from the 
 roof is suffered to fall upon them. 
 He states that the quantity of water 
 that falls annually upon every hun- 
 dred superficial feet, or square of 
 building, is about 1400 imperial gal- 
 lons. If, therefore, the external sur- 
 faces of roofs were adapted to the 
 collection of the rain water which 
 falls upon them, and means were 
 provided for conveying it to covered 
 tanks, in which it might be preserved 
 from evaporation, and kept free from 
 any admixture of impurities, almost 
 every house might be readily and 
 cheaply supplied with a quantity of 
 wholesome water sufficient for the 
 ordinary wants of its inhabitants. 
 The extensive roofs of churches and 
 other public buildings might be em- 
 ployed in like way to collect water 
 for the supply of ponds or tanks for 
 public use. In some cases, even the 
 drainage of lands might also be made 
 avadable, as the water may be sub- 
 mitted to any required process of 
 filtration before it is allowed to enter 
 the tank. 
 
 " Tanks or cisterns to hold water 
 for domestic purposes maybe conve- 
 niently situated beneath the surface 
 of the ground, so that, being paved 
 over, they occupy no valuable space. 
 They are formed of stone slabs 
 grooved into each other and set in ce- 
 ment ; of slate ; of large paving tiles 
 bedded in cement ; of brick-work ; 
 of plates of cast iron ; or of thick 
 wooden planks, i)rotected by charring 
 and pitching, or lined with sheet lead. 
 The brick tanks described by ^^■aist- 
 ell are circular, the sides being built 
 like a well, with bottoms of an in- 1 
 774 
 
 verted dome-shape, of very slight 
 convexity. The top is also dome- 
 shaped, and has an opening in the 
 centre, large enough to receive a 
 man, in order that the tank may be 
 thoroughly cleaned out when neces- 
 sary. This opening, which may be 
 upon the surface of the ground, or a 
 little above it, should be covered with 
 an oak flap pierced with a number of 
 holes, or with an iron grating. The 
 depth and width of the tank should, 
 it is stated, be nearly equal. If ne- 
 cessary, a smaller brick chamber may 
 be constructed alongside of the tank, 
 in which the water may be filtered 
 through gravel, sand, charcoal, &c., 
 before entering it. It is recommend- 
 ed to make the opening by which 
 water enters the tank near the top. 
 Brick tanks of this description may 
 be rendered water-tight by laying the 
 inner course of bricks in cement, and 
 plastering the v^'hole of the inside 
 with the same to the thickness of 
 about three quarters of an inch. To 
 enable them without injury to bear 
 the great weight of water when near- 
 ly full, the earth should be rammed 
 closely round the brick work, and it 
 should be allowed to settle thoroughly 
 before any great quantity of water is 
 admitted. Loudon describes anoth- 
 er kind of brick tank, contrived to 
 save expense in construction, by 
 adopting a figure of maximum capa- 
 city and minimum surface. When 
 the tank is large, it is proposed to 
 adopt the spherical form ; and when 
 of less than five or six feet in diam- 
 eter, that of a short vertical cylinder, 
 with hemispherical ends. By pud- 
 dling with clay round about the tank, 
 the necessity for the use of Roman 
 cement is avoided. 
 
 " In addition to tanks for water, 
 every farm-yard should have one to 
 collect the liquid portion of the ma- 
 nure, which is washed by the rain 
 through the refuse litter, and also the 
 urine of the stalled cattle. Though 
 not yet generally adopted, in France, 
 Germany, and especially in Belgium, 
 such tanks are considered as neces- 
 sary to a farm as any of its most com- 
 mon buildings. They are usually 
 
TANK. 
 
 constriictpd of an ohlong shape, of 
 Idie-k well cemented, with one or 
 more divisions, and capable of con- 
 taining at least ten times as many 
 hogslieads as liiere are heads of cattle 
 on the farm. They are vaulted over, 
 having a small aperture, in which a 
 pump is placed, suliicient to allow a 
 man occasionally to clear out the sed- 
 iment when the li<iuid has been pump- 
 ed up. The best shape to contain a 
 large quantity in the smallest space 
 would be like those before described ; 
 but they cannot conveniently be made 
 sufficiently large, and a cubical form, 
 or, rather, that of several cubes in 
 succession, is preferred. A tank for 
 a farm of 200 acres of arable land 
 should be 15 feet wide, 15 deep, and 
 45 long, giving three cubes of 15 feet, 
 or a cavity capable of containing up- 
 ward of 10,000 cubic feet of liquid. 
 In this tank the urine is diluted with 
 water to prevent too rapid decompo- 
 sition, and also to retain the ammo- 
 nia which is formed ; for which pur- 
 pose gypsum and sulphate of copper 
 are sometimes put into the tanks. 
 
 " If the soil be not sandy, clay will 
 answer, instead of mortar, to con- 
 nect the brick-work, and a plastering 
 of lime or cement will be sufficient to 
 keep out the worms ; hut in very 
 porous soils the bottom and sides 
 must be puddled, to keep in the liquid ; 
 and it may be advantageous to build 
 the walls in cement altogether. The 
 liquid from the yards and stables is 
 carried into the tank by a main drain 
 constructed of brick or stone, and 
 which receives a number of smaller 
 drains from every part of the yards 
 and cattle sheds. Thus the litter in 
 the yard is always dry, and none of 
 the richness of the manure is lost by 
 evaporation. 
 
 " Sometimes the tank is vaulted 
 like a cellar under the cow-house and 
 stables, which are washed out twice 
 every day, and all the dung and wa- 
 ter are swept into a cess-pool com- 
 municating with the tank. Thus a 
 very diluted but rich liquid soon fills 
 the first division of the tank : a sluice 
 is then shut, and the ne.xt washings 
 run into a second division, and when 
 
 that is full, into a third. In the mean 
 time the contents of the first tank 
 have undergone a certain fermenta- 
 tion, by which the caustic ammonia 
 first evolvcnl has become mild and 
 impregnates the water. It is then 
 in a fit state to be carried on the land 
 in tubs or water-carts. When prop- 
 erly diluted, it accelerates vegetation 
 in a surprising degree ; but if ])ut on 
 fresh, it burns the grass or any ve- 
 getable it touches, because the am- 
 monia is in a caustic state. If a cow 
 drop her urine in a field in a hot 
 sununer's day, all the grass it has 
 touched becomes yellow and is burn- 
 ed up ; but if the same happen in 
 rainy weather, the spot soon becomes 
 very green, and the grass luxuriant ; 
 because, in this case, the urine is 
 amply diluted and its caustic nature 
 corrected. Those who live near gas 
 works may collect the ammoniacal 
 gas water in a tank, and, by the ad- 
 dition of sulphuric acid in very small 
 quantities, they may produce a very 
 fertilizing liquid, which will stimulate 
 vegetation, and be a very good ma- 
 nure. 
 
 " The necessary concomitant of a 
 tank, whether for water or manure, 
 is a water-cart, that is, a large cask 
 put upon wheels to bring water from 
 some distance. When there are no 
 means of bringing water in pipes, a 
 water-cart is quite indispensable. It 
 is simply a cask placed on the frame 
 of a cart, with a plug-hole in the end 
 or lower part, from which the water 
 may be let out by a cock, or drop on 
 a flat board or into a bucket with 
 holes, so as to spread it about. The 
 plug-hole is shut by a valve inside, 
 which can be opened by means of a 
 string, the pressure of the liquid 
 keeping it close to the plug-hole. 
 
 " Many of the artificial manures, 
 of which a number have been lately 
 proposed, would make excellent li- 
 quids by merely mixing them with 
 water in a tank, and allowing a cer- 
 tain degree of fermentation to take 
 place. Thus nothing is lost, and all 
 volatile substances are taken up by 
 the water. The soluble portions are 
 dissolved and the earthy matters dif- 
 775 
 
TAN 
 
 fused, so as to be more equally spread 
 over the land. If it be true tliat the 
 ammonia found in some plants is 
 chiefly derived from tlie very small 
 portion discovered in rain water, it 
 follows that a scarcely perceptible 
 impregnation with this salt may have 
 most powerful effects on vegetation. 
 
 "When a farm-yard is situated on 
 a hill, and there are fields or pastures 
 on a lower level, at no great distance 
 from it, the liquid from tiie tank may 
 be conducted by channels lined with 
 clay, having small sluices to direct 
 the streams to any particular field. 
 It may ihus be made to irrigate tem- 
 porarily a considerable surface, which 
 it will greatly enrich. It may be led 
 into the common furrows between 
 the lands, or stitches, in j)loughed 
 land, and allowed to soak in them, and 
 then it can be spread with the earth 
 of the furrow, by means of broad 
 shovels, over the growing crops, and 
 wUl greatly invigorate them. This 
 species of irrigation is common in 
 Lombardy, where much ingenuity is 
 shown in the manner in which water 
 is made to flow in small rivulets be- 
 tween the rows of growing vegeta- 
 bles. The water here is supplied by 
 streams, but the same method would 
 distribute the tank liquor with great 
 effect. A very small quantity of this 
 liquor, allowed to flow into the main 
 feeder of a water meadow, will soon 
 prove how great effects are produced 
 by impregnations which are scarcely 
 perceptible by chemical analysis. 
 
 "Small as the experience has hith- 
 erto been in this country of the ad- 
 vantages of liquid manure tanks, it 
 has sufficiently proved their use to 
 induce every man who constructs a 
 farm-yard and erects buildings to take 
 in tlie tank as an essential part of his 
 plan ; and even if it only collected the 
 refuse fluids which are allowed to run 
 off in common sewers from most 
 houses, it would soon repay tlie cost 
 of its construction, while it rendered 
 the ditches in the neighbourhood less 
 subject to noxious emanations from 
 the corrupted matter which now flows 
 into them." 
 
 TANNER'S BARK. The bark of 
 776 
 
 TAN 
 
 ' oak, &c., used for tanning ; when ex- 
 hausted it is serviceable to the farm- 
 er and gardener, and may be used 
 in stoves (see Store), or composted 
 with lime and earth, or putrescent 
 j manures, into a good coarse manure. 
 Where the quantity is large and the 
 I land in good tilth, it may be burned, 
 i and the ashes applied at the rate of 
 i ten to fifteen bushels the acre, espe- 
 j cially to clovers and grass. 
 I TANNER-S WASTE. The mix- 
 ture of lime and hair, scrapings and 
 trimmings of skins, as well as the 
 fluid of the lime and steeping vats, 
 are all serviceable in composts ; the 
 solids being mixed with earth, char- 
 coal, spent bark, or sawdust, and the 
 fluids being used to moisten the com- 
 post heaps. 
 
 TANNIN. The astringent princi- 
 ple of galls, sumach, catechu, and 
 numerous barks. It is very soluble 
 in water, and possesses the property 
 of uniting with albuminous matters, 
 and forming lanno-gelatinc, or leather. 
 When separated from the other sub- 
 stances in bark, it is found to be a 
 white, astringent powder, with acid 
 reaction, and known as tannic acid; 
 by the action of moisture and air it 
 absorbs oxygen, and becomes con- 
 verted into the insoluble gallic acid. 
 The formula of tannic acid is C]8 
 H.5 Og-f-S HO : it is tribasic, and its 
 salts are called tammtes. 
 
 The value of any specimen of bark 
 for tanning and certain dyes is as- 
 certained by the amount of tanni-3 
 acid they contain. The amount in 
 the following table is from Davy. In 
 480 parts, 
 
 at. 
 
 Oak bark contains .... 29 
 
 Spanish chestnut .... 21 
 
 Leicester willow (large) . . 33 
 
 Elm 13 
 
 Common willow (large) . , 11 
 
 Ash .16 
 
 Beech 10 
 
 Horse-chestnut 9 
 
 Sycamore ]1 
 
 Lomliardy poplar .... 15 
 
 Birch 8 
 
 Hazel 14 
 
 Blackthorn 16 
 
 Cojjpice oak 32 
 
 Inner rinii of oak bark. . . 72, 
 
 Oak cut in autumn .... 21 
 
 Larch cut iu autumn ... 8 
 
TAN 
 
 TAN 
 
 To this may be added the 
 
 Sicilian sumach 78 lbs. 
 
 Nut galls 127 
 
 Catechu 261 
 
 TANNING ON THE PLANTA- 
 TION. The advantajjcs of liaving a 
 means of preparin':r hides on the plan- 
 tation, in the South and Southwest, 
 need not be enlarged upon ; the fol- 
 lowing simple process is by Mr. Af- 
 fleck, and from the American Agri- 
 culturist : 
 
 " Tanning leather for the use of 
 the plantation is an item of good 
 management that should not be over- 
 looked by any planter ; nor would it 
 be as nuich overlooked as it is, if the 
 simplicity of the process was gener- 
 ally known — that process, I mean, 
 that will suffice for making leather 
 for home use. The tanner by profes- 
 sion, in order to prepare an article 
 that will command a good price in 
 market, and have a merchantable ap- 
 pearance, puts the hides and skins 
 through a greater number of manip- 
 ulations ; and, that he may work to 
 better advantage, has his arrange- 
 ments on a more extensive scale. 
 
 " The vats, tools, and implements 
 really needed are few and simple. 
 Four vats will generally be found all- 
 sufficient : one for a pool of fresh wa- 
 ter, and for baiting ; one for limincr ; 
 another for colouring; and a fourth 
 for tanning. The best size, in the 
 clear, is seven feet long, four and a 
 half feet wide, and five feet deep. 
 They should be placed so as to be 
 easily and conveniently filled with 
 water from a spring, running stream, 
 or cistern. Dig the holes nine feet 
 by six and a half and six ; if the found- 
 ation is clay, the depth need not be 
 over five feet. Form a stifT bed of 
 clay mortar in the bottom, on which 
 to lay the floor, and on it erect the 
 sides and ends of the vat, of plank of 
 almost any kind, sufficiently thick to 
 resist tiie pressure from without : 
 two inches will be thick enough. 
 When this is done, and the wiiole 
 nailed fast, fdl in the vacant space all 
 round with ur.ll tempered cVay mortnr, 
 ramming it efTectually ; it is on this, 
 and not the planks, that dependance 
 
 is placed for rendering the vat per- 
 fect. When well made, a vat will 
 be good for a long lifetime, the ooze 
 preventing the decay of any but the 
 top round of plank. Such a vat will 
 hold fifteen large beef hides (thirty 
 sides), besides a number of small 
 skins. 
 
 "The material used for tanning is 
 the bark of the red or black oak, 
 stripped when the sap flows in the 
 spring, stacked and dried, of which 
 about four pounds are supposed to be 
 necessary to produce one pound of 
 leather. There is an article occa- 
 sionally used, called ' catechu,' which 
 is an extract made from the wood of 
 a mimosa-tree, a native of India, half 
 a pound of which answers the same 
 purpose. Galls, willow bark, the bark 
 of the Spanish chestnut, and common 
 elm, as also sumach, are all used by 
 the tanner. It has been recently 
 found that the root of the palmetto 
 answers an equally good purpose with 
 the best oak bark. 
 
 " Bark has to be ground as wanted ; 
 or if the quantity needed is small, and 
 it is not thought advisable to incur 
 the expense of a bark null (from ten 
 to eighteen dollars), it may be pound- 
 ed in a large mortar, or beat up on a 
 block. It will require one third more 
 of pounded than of ground bark to af- 
 ford equally strong ooze, which is the 
 infusion of bark. 
 
 " Tlie principal tools requisite are 
 afcshing-knifc, currier's knife, a brush 
 like a stiff" horse-brush, and ajleshing- 
 bcnm. The fleshing-beam is made by 
 splitting in two a hard- wood stick of 
 about a foot in diameter, inserting 
 two stout legs, some thirty inches 
 long, in one end, on the split side, so 
 that the other end rests on the ground, 
 with the round side up, the elevated 
 end being high enough to reach the 
 workman's waist. A fleshing-knife 
 may be made by bending an old draw 
 knife to suit the round of the fleshing- 
 beam. 
 
 " The skins of bulls, oxen, cows, 
 and horses, are called hides ; those 
 of calves, deer, sheep, &c., are known 
 as skins. 
 
 " Fresh and dried hides receive the 
 777 
 
TANNING ON THE PLANTATION. 
 
 same treatment, except in the wash- 
 ing process. Those that are salted 
 and dry (and no hide should be dried 
 ■with less than from two to lour quarts 
 of salt being rubbed on tlie flesh side : 
 dried without salt, it is extremely 
 difficult to soften theui) require to 
 be steeped, beaten, and rubbed sev- 
 eral times alternately to bring them 
 to a condition sufficiently soft for 
 tanning. 
 
 " Green or fresh hides must be 
 soaked in pure water from twelve to 
 twenty-four hours, to extract all the 
 blood, &.C.., and soften the extrane- 
 ous fleshy matter, which must then 
 be removed by throwing one hide at 
 a time on the fleshing-beam, i^r«!« o;- 
 hair side dinvn, and scraping or sha- 
 ving it off with the fleshing-knife, 
 which must be somewhat dull, or the 
 skin is apt to be cut. They are then 
 put in the Umuii^ rat, winch is su|)- 
 plied with 'strong lime-water, by fill- 
 ing the vat a little over half full of 
 water, and adding thereto four bush- 
 els of unslacked (or of air-slacked) 
 lime, or at the rate of two thirds of 
 a bushel of lime to the barrel of wa- 
 ter. This will suffice for fifteen 
 hides ; each time that they are re- 
 moved and a fresh lot of hides put 
 in, add another bushel of lime, which 
 will keep up the strength for a twelve- 
 month. Before using, stir the lime 
 well up, and while it is thus mixed 
 with the water put in the hides even- 
 ly, so lliat the hme will settle on ev- 
 ery part of them. They are to re- 
 main here from ten to fifteen days, 
 or for three or four days after the 
 hair will rub off with the finger com- 
 pletely and v^nth ease. While in the 
 liming vat, they must be moved up 
 and down every other morning, to 
 expose them to the air, and to the 
 equal action of the lime. Being now 
 ready for unhairing, cut each hide in 
 two, by slitting them along the cen- 
 tre of tlie back w^th a knife, forming 
 them into sides. Tlirow ten or twelve 
 of these sides on the fleshing-beam, 
 and strip the hair off with the knife ; 
 and as they are unhaired, throw 
 each one into the vat of freah water 
 lo bait or soak. When the sides 
 778 
 
 and skins in hand have been all «n- 
 haired and thoroughly washed, Ihiow 
 tlu'iii again, and at once, on the flesli- 
 iiig-beam, with the grain or hair side 
 up, and u-ork thr.m ofcr(rub and press 
 them) with the knife until all the 
 mucus or mucilaginous matter is 
 worked out. This should be repeat- 
 ed two or tiiree limes during ten or 
 twelve days, being each time baited 
 anew in fresh water. And this irork- 
 ing over must only be done when the 
 sides feel soft and smooth to tlie 
 touch ; as they will, at times, from 
 some unexplained cause, feel rough, 
 at which time they must not be u-ork- 
 cd over. While they are thus baitinrr, 
 they must not be neglected, or they 
 will soon spoil. Tanners are in the 
 practice of adding a 1000th part of 
 sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) to the 
 last bait, which has the effect of 
 swelling the pores and distending the 
 fibres, and thus rendering the skins 
 more susceptible to the action of the 
 ooze : forty-eight hours generally suf- 
 fice for this last bailing. 
 
 " In the mean time, some good 
 strong ooze should be prepared for the 
 first tanning process, called colouring. 
 Fill a vat a little more than half full 
 of water, and add bark, in the pro- 
 portion of one bushel and a half of 
 ground, or two bushels of pounded 
 bark, to the barrel of water, which 
 will bring the vat up to about two 
 thirds full. A\'hen the bark hassoaked 
 from four to five days, the sides are put 
 in, and allowed to remain filteen days ; 
 during which they must be orice well 
 and CdrefuUy fleshed and worked over, 
 and must be drawn up and down ev- 
 ery morning, for the first week at 
 least, and the bark well ;>/!<no-c(i or stir- 
 red up, to have them colour evenly. 
 
 " .\fter this, the vat being now two 
 thirds full of this same ooze, after 
 drawing out the hides, lay a good 
 coating of fresh bark, of say an inch 
 thick, on top of the water, on which 
 it will float ; lay on this a side, spread 
 out evenly ; and if it has to be lapped 
 over in any part, lay on more bark 
 until it is all well coated, taking care 
 to place those hides at the bottom of 
 the vat now that were at the top last 
 
 i 
 
TANNING ON THE PLANTATION. 
 
 time. On this side lay an inch coat- 
 ing of bark, and on that anotlier side, 
 and so on, with alternate layers of 
 bark, until the vat is full, or the sides 
 all laid away. 
 
 " In this, which is called the first 
 bark, the sides must lie four weeks ; 
 they are then drawn out, and the 
 spent bark taken out with a skimmer 
 or drainer. The sides are then re- 
 placed as before, with alternate lay- 
 ers of fresh bark in the same ooze, 
 which has acquired some additional 
 strength, notwithstandingthe amount 
 of tannin and extractive matter, con- 
 tained in the bark, that has become 
 intimately combined with the animal 
 fibre of the hide. In this second bark 
 they remain six weeks undisturbed, 
 when they receive a third bark in the 
 same way, in which they are left an- 
 other six or eight weeks. Three barks 
 will suffice to tan deer, hog, calf, and 
 other small skins ; four barks will 
 make good sole leather, but five are 
 preferable. 
 
 " The tanning process being com- 
 pleted, sole leather is taken out of 
 the vat, rinsed efTectually, and dried 
 in the shade, hanging the sides up by 
 two of their corners to joists, where 
 they may remain until wanted. Those 
 sides inteniled for upper and harness 
 leather (which are tliose of cows, 
 &c., the largest and thickest bullock 
 hides being used for sole leather), as 
 also deer, hog, and other small skins, 
 being thoroughly rinsed, are spread 
 out on a strong table, with the grain 
 or hair side up, and scoured with a 
 stiff brush, like a very stiff horse- 
 brush, occasionally throwing on pure 
 water, until all the ooze is scoured 
 out. Tanners use the edge of a stone, 
 made smooth, to assist in rubl)ing out 
 the ooze, and all the water that can 
 possibly be rubbed out. They also 
 use what they call a slicker, being a 
 dull edge of copper of about six or 
 seven inches long, set in a piece of 
 wood to serve as a handle. 
 
 " After they are all served thus, 
 and rubbed as dry as pos.sible, the ta- 
 ble is cleaned off, and the skins thrown 
 back upon it, grain side up, and are 
 rubbed with lanner"s oil (codfish oil) 
 
 as long as the leather will receive it. 
 Harness leather must be completely 
 saturat(!d. As they are oiled, fold 
 them up and lay them aside. When 
 they are all gone over, lay one on the 
 table at a time, Jlesh side up, and with 
 a rag rub on all the dubbmg that the 
 leather will absorb. Thin hides re- 
 quire but a small quantity. Harness 
 leather must have a heavy coating. 
 
 ''Dubbing, which consists of equal 
 parts of tar and tallow, melted to- 
 gether, and well mixed, must be made 
 the day previous to being used. Lard 
 may he used in place of tallow, but 
 will require a less proportion of it. 
 Each side of leather is then hung up 
 by two corners to joists, there to re- 
 main until dry, or until wanted. 
 
 " a iron or steel touches a hide du- 
 ring the process of tanning, when in 
 the least wet, or even moist, it will 
 discolour it, forming an indelible black 
 mark. 
 
 " To blacken harness or other leath- 
 er, take the skin when completely 
 dried, and if any greasy spots ap- 
 pear, showing that more oil or dub- 
 bing has been applied than the leath- 
 er could absorb, wet the spots with a 
 little strong ooze, and scrub them 
 out with the brush ; then apply a good 
 coat of copperas (sulphate of iron), 
 dissolved in ooze, until the leather 
 has a good colour all over. After 
 this, when dry, put on another good 
 coat of oil. The leather may then 
 be smoothed off with a rounding edge 
 of polished steel, or glass, or stone." 
 
 A discovery has recently been 
 made which seems likely to revolu- 
 tionize the tanning trade. By means 
 of a tanning machine, or pair of hori- 
 zontal rollers, fixed over a tan-pit, 
 between which is fixed a band or belt 
 of hides attached by ligatures to each 
 other, to the number of 50 to 100, 
 and by which the rollers are con- 
 stantly fed or sujjplied, the hides are 
 lifted out of the pit on one side of the 
 machine. As they pass between the 
 rollers, the exhausted ooze or tan- 
 ning liquid is [)ressed out of them, 
 and they are deposited in folds in the 
 pit on the other side of the machine, 
 wJiere they absorb another supply of 
 779 
 
TAP 
 
 TAR 
 
 fresh tannin. The first hide having 
 been inserted between the rollers, 
 the other?; follow in succession, and 
 n|)on arrivintr at the end ol'tiic l)ai)d 
 the motion of the roller is reversed, 
 and the belt is returned through the 
 machine to receive another squeeze. 
 This alternating motion is constantly 
 repeated, the i)il being replenished 
 from time to time with fresh solu- 
 tions of tan till the operati(jn is com- 
 pleted. The effects produced by this 
 simple plan are, 1. The shortening of 
 the time of tanning to one fourth of 
 that generally requireil. 2. The pro- 
 duction of a consideralile increase of 
 weight. 3. The leather tanned by this 
 method resists water longer than that 
 tanned by the old process. 4. The 
 new method is cheaper than the old. 
 5. It is applicable to the existing tan- 
 yards, at a comparatively trifling ex- 
 pense, with a capability of working 
 in rounds or series, and of expending 
 tan or liquor. 6. That it is available 
 for all sorts of leather. 
 
 TANSY. The plants of the genus 
 Ta7iacctum : they are composite, her- 
 baceous, and tonic. 
 
 TAN FSTOMES. A family of dip- 
 tera, most of which have a project- 
 ing proboscis. 
 
 TAPETUM. A coat of the eye 
 under the black pigment, and peculiar 
 to quadrupeds. 
 
 TAPE WORMS. Flat worms 
 (TcBnia) of great length, and consist- 
 ing of a number of pieces, which in- 
 fest the intestines. They are de- 
 stroyed by large doses of turpentine. 
 
 TAPIOCA. A starchy farina from 
 
 I the root of the Janipha {Jalropa) man' 
 ' hiot ( /'Vi'.) There are two varieties : 
 one with a bitter, jjoisonous root ; the 
 other witii a sweet root. Tlie former 
 is [)repared with heat. 
 
 TAP ROOT. The main root which 
 descends vertically from trees. 
 
 T.\R. " .\ dark-brown, viscid li- 
 quor,obtained by charring the wood of 
 the fir-tree. It consists of resin, em- 
 pyreumatic matters, and acetic acid. 
 When inspissated by boiling, it is con- 
 verted into pitch. The manufacture 
 is simple ; a conical hole, usually in 
 the side of a bank, being made, roots 
 and billets of pine are let into the cav- 
 ity, and the whole is covered with 
 turf, which is beat firmly down above 
 the wood. The wood being kindled, 
 a slow combustion takes place. A 
 cast-iron pan at tlie bottom of the 
 cavity receives the fluid, and has a 
 spout which projects through the 
 bank and carries the tar into barrels. 
 As quickly as the barrels are filled 
 they are closed with bungs, when the 
 material is ready for exportation. 
 This manner of preparing tar has 
 been derived from the earliest ages. 
 Tar is a very compound substance ; 
 it contains modified resin, and oil of 
 turpentine, acetic acid, charcoal, wa- 
 ter, &c. Tar is used in medicine as 
 well as in the arts. It is an excel- 
 lent topical stimulant, when made into 
 an ointment with lard, in dry skin 
 diseases. These two substances, tar 
 and pitch, are of extensive use in the 
 arts. 
 
 "Tar may be found useful as an 
 application for cuts in sheep by clip- 
 ping, and also to the parts atfected 
 by the fly. It is also of great use in 
 some cases for applying as a paint to 
 boarding, &c. ; but in this use, a lit- 
 tle tallow, or other coarse fat, should 
 be melted with it, as by this means it 
 resists the weather more effectually." 
 
 TARE. In the great interest at 
 present taken in sheep husbandry, 
 full information is desirable on this 
 crop ; for, although tares have not 
 succeeded well in some imperfect ex- 
 periments hitherto made, there is no 
 reason why, on poorish soils, they 
 should fail if properly managed. 
 
 780 
 
TARES. 
 
 " They are a most important green 
 crop ill the improved systems ot agri- 
 culture, especially on heavy soils, 
 ■where they thrive best. When sown 
 in autumn, with a small sprinklinsr of 
 ■wlieat or rye, they cover the ground 
 in spring, and supply abundance of 
 fodder in summer. A good crop of 
 tares is fully equal in value, if not su- 
 perior, to one of red clover : it comes 
 off the ground in sufficient time to 
 give the land a hasty summer tillage, 
 which is so useful in destroying 
 weeds, and to allow turnips to be 
 sown in the same season. They 
 smother annual weeds if the crop is 
 plentiful, which should always be se- 
 cured by an abundant manuring ; thus 
 they are a good substitute for a sum- 
 mer fallow m heavy soils, and amply 
 repay the labour and manure bestowed 
 upon them. 
 
 " There are many species and va- 
 rieties of tares ; hut that which is 
 found the best adapted for agricultu- 
 ral purposes is the common tare (Fi- 
 cm sattva, Fig.), of which there are 
 
 cK 
 
 -if/' 
 
 two principal varieties, very slightly 
 differing in appearance, one of which 
 is hardy, and will stand the severest 
 winters ; the other is more tender, 
 and is therefore only sown in spring ; 
 but it has the advantage of vegeta- 
 ting more rapidly, so that spring tares 
 sown in March will be fit to cut with- 
 in a fortnight or three weeks after 
 those which were sown in autumn. 
 U u u 
 
 By sowing them at regular intervals 
 from September to May, a succession 
 of green tares in perfection, that is, 
 in bloom, or wlien tlie pods are form- 
 ed, may be cut for several months, 
 from May to October. A prudent 
 farmer arranges his crops so that he 
 shall have artificial green food for 
 his horses and cattle at least six 
 months in the year, by having tares 
 fit to cut between the first and sec- 
 ond cut of clover. When there are 
 more tares than is absolutely requi- 
 red for this purpose, and the weather 
 permits, they make excellent hay ; 
 or, if the weather is not favourable, 
 they are cut and given to sheep, 
 which are folded on the portion al- 
 ready cut. It is an advantage to have 
 portable racks for this purpose, that 
 the fodder may not be trodden under 
 foot and wasted ; or the tares may 
 be placed between hurdles, tied two 
 and two, which form extemporaneous 
 racks. It is prudent to raise suffi- 
 cient seed for another year ; but a 
 crop of seed tares raised for sale is 
 seldom profitable, as they greatly ex- 
 haust the soil ; and tlie price varies 
 so much in different seasons, that it 
 becomes too much of a speculation 
 for a farmer. The difficulty in dis- 
 tinguishing the seed of the winter 
 tare from the spring variety is so 
 great, that it should either be raised 
 at home, or only purchased from 
 neighbours or from the most respect- 
 able seedsmen. It is a common prac- 
 tice with dealers to mix the seeds of 
 the winter tares, after the time of 
 sowing is past, with spring tares, 
 which are in request at a later period. 
 The inconvenience of this is, that 
 they do not vegetate equally, and con- 
 sequently the winter tare is not in 
 bloom when the spring tare is fit for 
 the scythe. Foreign tares, which are 
 imported in large quantities, are often 
 the growth of southern climates, and 
 will not stand the winter ; or they 
 have been raised from seed sown in 
 spring, so as to be really spring tares. 
 The difference is probably more ow- 
 ing to habit than to any real botani- 
 cal distinction between them. When 
 spring tares are sown m autumn 
 781 
 
TARES. 
 
 instead of winter tares, they may oc- 
 casionally stand the frost, if not very 
 severe ; hut, in {jeneral, tliey rot 
 on the ground and never recover ; 
 whereas, the real hardy winter tares, 
 whose vegetation is slower, seem in- 
 sensible to the severest frosts. 
 
 " In the early part of summer, green 
 rye and tares, mixed, are sold at a 
 great priee in large towns, for horses 
 which have worked hard and been 
 highly fed in winter. They act as a 
 gentle laxative, and cool the blood : 
 near London, where every produce 
 is forced with an abundance of ma- 
 nure, tares are often tit to cut early 
 in May, and the land is immediately 
 ploughed and planted with potatoes, 
 or sown with mangel-wurzel or ruta 
 haga, which come off in September or 
 October, in time for wheat sowing. 
 Thus two very profitable cnips are 
 raised during the time that the land, 
 according to the old system, would 
 have been fallow ; and, at the same 
 time, it is left as clean, by careful 
 hoeing, as the best fallow would have 
 made it. 
 
 " There are a great many species 
 of tares or vetches, for the terms are 
 synonymous, many of which have 
 been proposed to be introduced into 
 general cultivation ; but none seem, 
 on the whole, to be so well adapted 
 to our climate as the common tare : 
 some have biennial and some peren- 
 nial roots. The Vlcia bicmiis has a 
 strong stem and large leaves, and 
 grows four or five feet high ; but it is 
 not so succulent as the common sort. 
 It might, perhaps, by cultivation and 
 early cutting, become a useful early 
 fodder, and it may be worth while 
 to make some experiments with it. 
 There are several species of tares 
 which grow wild in bushesand hedges, 
 but they have never been cultivated 
 in the fields, perhaps from the difH- 
 culty in collecting the seeds, which 
 shed as they are ripe. Of these, the I 
 Vicia craca appears most deserving of 
 attention. It bears its blue flower on 
 stems or spikes longer than the leaves, 
 which are downy It is very com- 
 ni'/n in France among wheat; and, 
 although a decided weed there, it is 
 782 
 
 I not much dreaded by the peasants, as 
 it improves the fodder greatly. It 
 has the appearance of great luxuri- 
 ance in its growth, wliere it meets 
 with a proper support. If it weie 
 mixed with some plants with a strong 
 stem, such as the Bokhara clover 
 {Mclilotus arborca altissima), which it- 
 self affords much fodder, it might 
 probably he cultivated to great ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 "In the south of France there is a 
 white perennial vetch or tare, called 
 Vicia pisifnnnis, which is cultivated 
 for its white seeds, of which soups 
 are made, as with the pea and lentil. 
 It grows in very light, soils ; and, al- 
 though indigenous to a southern cli- 
 mate, it is said not to be impatient of 
 frost. It has been called by some the 
 Canadian lentil, or the white tare. 
 
 "We shall only notice one more 
 of the wild tares, which is an annual : 
 it is called the yellow tare (Vicia lii- 
 tra). It grows in stony soils and 
 among bushes, is very branching, and 
 rises from one to two feet high. From 
 some experiments made by the Ag- 
 ricultural Society of Versailles sev- 
 eral years ago, it would appear that 
 this tare might be cultivated with 
 great advantage, and is even superi- 
 or to the common sort, because it 
 can be cut two or three times during 
 the summer, and aflbrds a very good 
 pasture in winter, which does not 
 stop its vegetation ; it will even bloom 
 in a mild winter. Although short, it 
 is so thick upon the ground, that its 
 first cut is as heavy as that of the 
 common tare, which is seldom worth 
 cutting a second time. 
 
 " Tares should be sown on land 
 which is well pulverized. If after 
 wheat, the stubble should be plough- 
 ed in with a deep furrow after a pow- 
 erful scarifier has gone over the land 
 several times to loosen it ; five or six 
 cart-loads of good farm-yard dung 
 should be ploughed in. The tares 
 should be drilled or dibbled, and the 
 surface well harrowed. The inter- 
 vals should be hoed early in spring : 
 this will accelerate the growth, and 
 ensure a complete covering of the 
 ground. As soon as the tares show 
 
TAR 
 
 TEA 
 
 the flower, they may be cut daily till 
 tiie pods are fully formed ; after this, 
 any which remain uncut should be 
 made into hay or given to sheep ; for 
 if the seeds arc allowed to swell, the 
 ground will he mucii exhausted. An- 
 other piece should be ready to cut by 
 this time, and thus there may be a 
 succession of tares and broad clover 
 from May to November. Tares may 
 be sown as late as August, on a bar- 
 ley or rye stubble, for sheep feed ear- 
 ly in wuiter, or to be ploughed in to 
 rot in the ground where beans and 
 pease are intended to be sown early 
 in spring : this is perhaps the cheap- 
 est mode of manuring the land, the 
 only expense being the seed, for the 
 tillage is necessary at all events. In 
 light soils, tares and huckwheat,sown 
 together mimediately after barley or 
 rye harvest, will produce a consider- 
 able crop of vegetable matter, which 
 may be ploughed in in November. In 
 favourable seasons, wheat may be ] 
 sown immediately after, without fear- 1 
 ing the effect of two white crops fol- 
 lowing each other ; for the tares and 
 buckwheat coming between, by their 
 shade, and the two ploughings of the 
 ground, one when they are sown, and 
 the second when they are ploughed 
 in, will entirely destroy all weeds, 
 and give to the soil that improvement 
 which will enable it to bear as good a 
 crop of wheat as it would have done 
 had it been sown the year after on a 
 clover lay. Clover, which could not 
 be sown with the barley, from the foul 
 state of the lattd, imay be sown among 
 the wheat in the next spring, when it 
 is hoed for the second time. This is 
 held out as a hint to show how an 
 accidental interruption in a rotation 
 may be remedied without any loss of 
 crop or great deviation. As no rule 
 is without exception, so no rotation 
 can always be strictly adhered to ; 
 antl those crops which admit of being 
 sown at different times of the year 
 are of the greatest use as substitutes 
 for others which could not be con- 
 veniently sown without materially al- 
 tering the succession of crops. In 
 the common course of cultivation of 
 heavy soils, where occasional fallows 
 
 are necessary to clean the land, one 
 half of the land wliich retjuires fallow- 
 ing iTiay lie sown with tares ; and thus 
 the clean unjiroductive summer fal- 
 low will only return at every second 
 rotation. If the tares have been ma- 
 nured, or if they are fed off with sheep 
 fokled upon the land, the wheat or 
 other crop which is sown after them 
 will be as good as on a clean fallow, 
 or after a good crop of clover. This 
 alone would make tares a valuable 
 crop ; and they may be compared in 
 their effect on heavy lands to turnips 
 on lighter soils. 
 
 " The seeds of the tare are occa- 
 sionally ground into meal and made 
 into bread. It is a very poor food ; 
 and when there is more seed than 
 can be profitably disposed of, it may 
 be given to pigs ; but poultry, espe- 
 cially pigeons, are very fond of it. 
 When given to horses, the seeds of 
 tares are found very heating ; and al- 
 though they produce a fine glossy 
 coat, they are not to be recommended 
 for this purpose." — (Kliam.) 
 
 TARO. A cultivated Arum of the 
 Columbia River. 
 
 TARRAGON. Artcmesia dracun- 
 cidus. A bitter pot-herb, of the same 
 genus as the tansy. 
 
 TARSUS, TARSE. The bones 
 articulated to the tibia, and forming 
 the upper part of the foot. 
 
 TARTAR. The sediment of wine 
 casks. 
 
 TARTAR, CREAM OF. Siiper- 
 tartrate of potash, obtained by purify- 
 ing tartar. 
 
 TARTAR EMETIC. Tartrate 
 
 of potash and antimony, a powerful 
 
 J emetic, sedative, and expectorant. • 
 
 TARTARIC ACID. The acid of 
 grapes or of tartar. See Acids. 
 I TAXICORNS. A family of cole- 
 opterans, in many of which the an- 
 tenna; enlarge to wards the upper ends. 
 
 TAXIS. The replacement of parts 
 by the hand. 
 
 TEA. The tea plant has been par- 
 tially introduced into North Carolina 
 with a view to cultivating that impor- 
 tant staple ; we tiierefore present the 
 reader with an abstract of the Chi- 
 nese plan from Louduo : 
 
 .783 
 
TEA. 
 
 " Tlie tea districts of China extend 
 from the 27th to the 31st deffree of 
 latitude. Accordinij to the missiona- 
 ries, it thrives in the more northern 
 provinces ; and from Kiempfer it ap- 
 pears to he cultivated in Japan as far 
 north as lat. 45 \ It seems, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Abel's observation, to suc- 
 ceed best on the sides of mountains, 
 where there can be but little accumu- 
 lation of vegetable mould. The soils 
 from which he collected the best spe- 
 cimens consisted chiefly of sandstone, 
 schistus, or granite. It grows well 
 in St. Helena and Rio Janeiro, and 
 will grow an>"where in a meager soil 
 and moderate temperature. 
 
 " The culture of the tea plant in Chi- 
 na has been given by various authors. 
 It is raised from seeds sown where 
 the plants are to remain. Three or 
 more are dropped into a hole four or 
 five inches deep ; these come up with- 
 out farther trouble, and require little 
 culture, except that of removing 
 weeds, till the plants are three years 
 old. The more careful stir the soil, 
 and some manure it ; but the latter 
 practice is seldom adopted. The third 
 year the leaves are gathered, at three 
 successive gatherings, in February, 
 April, and June, and so on till the 
 bushes become stinted or tardy in 
 their growth, which generally hap- 
 pens in from six to ten years. They 
 are then cut m to encourage the pro- 
 duction of fresh shoots. 
 
 ""The gathering of the leaves is 
 performed with care and selection. 
 Tlie leaves are plucked off one by 
 one : at the first gathering only the 
 unexpanded and tender are taken ; at 
 llie second, those that are full grown ; 
 and at the third, the coarsest. The 
 first forms what is called in Europe 
 imperial tea ; but of this and other 
 names by which tea is designated, 
 tlie Chinese know nothing ; and the 
 compounds and names are supposed 
 to be made and given by the mer- 
 chants at Canton, w'ho, from the great 
 number of varieties brought to them, 
 have an ample opportunity of doing 
 so. These varieties, though numer- 
 ous, and some of them very different, 
 are yet not more so than the difler- 
 7S4 
 
 cnt varieties of the grape ; they are 
 now generally considered as belong- 
 ing to one species, the Thea Bohea, 
 now Camellia Bohca {Fig. a), of bot- 
 
 anists. Formerly it was thought that 
 green tea was gathered exclusively 
 from Camellia viridis ; but that is now 
 doubtful, though it is certain there is 
 what is called the green tea district 
 and the black tea district ; and the 
 varieties grown in the one district 
 differ from those grown in the other. 
 Dr. Abel could not satisfy himself as 
 to there being two species or one, but 
 thinks there are two species. He was 
 told by competent persons that either 
 of the two plants will atford the black 
 or green tea of the shops, but that the 
 broad, thin-leaved plant (C vin{lii) is 
 preferred for making the green tea. 
 
 •'Tlie tea leaves being gathered, 
 are cured in houses which contain 
 from five to ten or twenty small fur- 
 naces, about three feet high, each 
 having at the lop a large, flat iron 
 pan. There is also a long, low table 
 covered with mats, on which the 
 leaves are laid, and rolled by work- 
 men, who sit round it : the iron pan 
 being heated to a certain degree by 
 a little fire made in the furnace un- 
 derneath, a few pounds of the fresh- 
 gathered leaves are put upon the pan : 
 the fresh and juicy leaves crack when 
 they touch the pan, and it is the bu- 
 siness of the operator to shift them 
 as quickly as possible with his bare 
 hands, till they become too hot to be 
 
TEA 
 
 TEA 
 
 easily endured. At this instant he 
 takes off the leaves with a kind of 
 shovel reseinbling a fan, and pours 
 them on the mats before the rollers, 
 who, taking small quantities at a time, 
 roll them in the palms of their hands 
 in one direction, while others are fan- 
 ning them, that they may cool the 
 more speedily, and retain their curl 
 the longer. This process is repeated 
 two or three times or oftencr, before 
 the tea is put into the stores, in or- 
 der that all the moisture of the leaves 
 may be thoroughly dissipated, and 
 their curl more completely preserved. 
 On every repetition the pan is less 
 heated, and the operation performed 
 more slowly and cautiously. The tea 
 is then separated into the different 
 kinds, and deposited in the store for 
 domestic use or exportation. 
 
 " The different sorts of black and 
 green are not merely from soil, situa- 
 tion, and age of the leaf ; but, after 
 winnowing the tea, the leaves are ta- 
 ken up in succession as they fall ; 
 those nearest the machine, being the 
 heaviest, form the gunpowder tea; 
 the light dust, the worst, being chief- 
 ly used by the lower classes. That 
 which is brought down to Canton un- 
 dergoes there a second roasting, win- 
 nowing, packing, &c , and many hun- 
 dred women are employed for these 
 purposes. 
 
 " For more select sorts of tea, the 
 blossoms of the Camellia sasanqua 
 {Fig. b) appear to he collected, since 
 they are brought over land to Russia, 
 and sold by Chinese and Armenians 
 in .Moscow at a great price. The 
 buds also appear to be gathered in 
 some cases. By far the strongest tea 
 which Dr. Abel tasted in China was 
 that called Yu-tien, used on occasions 
 of ceremony. It scarcely coloured 
 the water, and on examination was 
 found to consist of the half-expanded 
 leaves of the plant. 
 
 " As substitutes for tea, used by 
 the Chmese, may be mentioned a spe- 
 cies of moss common to the mount- 
 ains of Shan-tung ; an infusion of 
 ferns of different sorts, and Dr. Abel 
 thinks the leaves of the common 
 camellia and oil camellia may be add- 
 U u u 2 
 
 ed. Du Halde observes that all the 
 plants called tea by the Chmese are 
 not to be consid<5red as the true lea 
 plant ; and Kiempfer asserts that in 
 Japan a species of Camelha, as well 
 as the Oleafragrans, is used to give 
 it a high flavour." 
 
 TEAK. Tcctona grandis. A splen- 
 did tree of the elevated lands of In- 
 dia, the wood of which appears to be 
 superior even to oak. It is strong, 
 light, oily, and free from dry rot. 
 
 TEAM. " Nothing is of greater 
 importance in the management of a 
 farm than the cattle winch perform 
 the necessary work in ploughing and 
 other operations on the soil, in draw- 
 ing manure to the land, and carrying 
 the produce to market. It is evident 
 that the smaller the expense of the 
 team which does the requisite work 
 in proper lime, the greater the profit 
 of the farmer, and every saving in 
 this part of the expense of cultivation 
 is so much added to the clear gain. 
 Wherever the land is only partially 
 cultivated, and a portitm of it riMnains 
 in coarse pasture, which costs little or 
 nothing to the occupier, or where ex- 
 tensive open commons alford cheap 
 food for oxen, these last arc naturally 
 employed in farm labour. If four oxen 
 do only the work of two horses, they 
 are maintained at a much smaller ex- 
 pense, and, alter working for two or 
 three years, their value is improved 
 for the purpose of fattening for the 
 butcher. The necessary gear is much 
 less expensive, especially where the 
 old yoke is still in use, whether across 
 the neck or the horns. In fact, for a 
 poor man who has only a few acres 
 , of land, and who is situated near a 
 , waste or coinmon, oxen are by far 
 ; the most economical team. Many 
 ; writers on agriculture, who in gcner- 
 i al have more theoretical than practi- 
 ; cal knowledge of husbandr)', have 
 I maintained the general superiority of 
 ', an ox-tearn over that composed of 
 j horses, and have given calculations 
 which appear clearly to establish that 
 j point. But, on the other side, it may 
 be observed, that wherever arable 
 ; land is the chief object of the farmer's 
 attention, and the tillage of the soil 
 
TEAM. 
 
 is brought to any degree of perfec- 
 tion, there oxen arc never seen at 
 work, but have been invariably su- 
 perseded by active horses. 
 
 " In Switzerland, which is tolera- 
 bly advanced in its agriculture, oxen 
 are very generally used for the work 
 of the farm ; but there the system of 
 stall-feeding is universal, and having 
 a considerable portion of grass land, 
 whicii can be irrigated by the streams 
 from tlie mountains, they cut the 
 coarse, long grass produced there for 
 their cows and oxen ; and this food 
 is more congenial to their nature than 
 to horses, which do not thrive on 
 coarse watery grass, and require hay 
 and corn nearly all the year round. 
 But where there is less grass land 
 and more artificial grass, such as lu- 
 cern, sainfoin, and clover, which is 
 the case in all extensive farms, there 
 horses are chiefly used, this food being 
 suited to their constitution. Not to 
 enter farther into the comparative ad- 
 vantage of oxen and horses, we shall 
 turn our attention to the most profit- 
 able management of the latter, which 
 now almost universally compose the 
 farmer's team. 
 
 " The choice of the horses for a 
 farm is of great importance. It may 
 be very satisfactory to a rich fanner 
 to see fine, large, well-fed horses in 
 his wagon, moving along as if they 
 followed a procession, with bright har- 
 ness ornamented with shining brass. 
 This is a luxury like that of the rich 
 man's coach-horses, and as such is 
 very natural and innocent. It is the 
 pride of many a wealthy farmer, and 
 we would not curtail his pleasure or 
 despise his taste ; but as a matter of 
 profit or loss, the case is very differ- 
 ent : a fat horse does little work, no 
 more than a fat coachman. Horses 
 to be in working condition should be 
 muscular and active. The great, 
 heavy cart-horse may, for a moment, 
 be capable of greater exertion at a 
 dead pull, his weight assisting him ; 
 but in a long day the thin, active horse 
 will do witli ease what would sicken, 
 if not kill, his heavy companion. Hor- 
 ses about fifteen hands high, with 
 short legs and broad chests, such as 
 786 
 
 the Canadian horse, which walk as 
 fast as an ordinary man, are the most 
 economical for farm work. A pair of 
 such horses will draw a load in a cart 
 sixteen miles and return, or plough 
 one acre and a quarter in ten working 
 hours, having a rest of two hours ; 
 while the heavy, slow cart-horses 
 could not walk the distance in the time 
 without being overdriven. This is 
 more than the average work ; but in 
 the busy lime of the year it is a great 
 advantage to have horses which can, 
 with good feeding, work longer and 
 faster without suffering in their health. 
 The carriers on the roads, who hve 
 entirely by the work of their horses, 
 know how to choose them and how 
 to feed them to the greatest advan- 
 tage, and, without overworking them, 
 to make them do as much as is con- 
 sistent with their health. If hard 
 w'ork is the cause of some diseases in 
 horses, comparative indolence causes 
 many more. Where horses are slug- 
 gish, the men soon become so like- 
 wise. To see a wagon with four 
 strong horses returning empty, at the 
 rate of two miles in the hour, with 
 two men, or at least a man and a boy, 
 lying lazily in it, is a sure sign that 
 the work on the farm to which they 
 belong is done at the same rate. A 
 single horse-cart, or a light spring 
 wagon with two horses, driven by a 
 man or boy with reins and a whip, 
 and trotting at the rate of five miles 
 an hour, is a perfect contrast to tliis, 
 and no doubt the owner has his work 
 done much more expeditiously, and 
 consequently at a cheaper rate. The 
 stage-coach proprietors have gener- 
 ally very light, four-wheeled carriages 
 to carry their corn from their chief 
 stations to places where they keep 
 horses, and they often carry as heavy 
 loads as a farmer's wagon does when 
 carrying corn to market ; yet the two 
 horses in the light carriage trot with 
 their load, and the three or four heavy 
 horses of the farmer move at the rate 
 of two miles and a half in the hour at 
 most, both going and returning. It 
 is evident that there is a waste of 
 time and power here, which is so 
 much lost. Horses half-bred between 
 
TEAM. 
 
 a cart mare and a blood horse are ; 
 reared by some spirited farmers, and 
 if they are more dehcate and suscep- 
 tible of cold than the coannon cart- 
 horses, they have many advantages : i 
 sometimes they inherit so much cour- '• 
 age and vigour from their sire, that 
 they become valuable as carriage hor- 
 ses or hunters, and well repay tlie ex- 
 pense incurred in rearing them ; and, ' 
 at all events, they are superior to any 
 others for the work of the farm, and 
 are in general docile and tractable. 
 The only inconvenience arises from 
 their spirit. When any sudden ob- 
 struction arises in ploughing, such as 
 a considerable root of a tree or a large 
 stone, they make violent exertions, 
 and sometimes break the ploughs or 
 other implements. In this respect 
 oxen are more phlegmatic, and stop 
 when the collar presses on them ; so 
 that in breaking up rough commons 
 or newly-cleared woods oxen may be 
 preferred. This is almost the only 
 case where spirit and courage ai'e not 
 an advantage. 
 
 " With respect to the food of farm- 
 horses, as we observed before, a great 
 saving may be effected by a judicious 
 use of many vegetables and roots 
 which are easily raised on arable 
 land. Various modes of preparing 
 the food have been recominended, 
 such as steeping corn till it sprouts, 
 baking it into bread, or mixing it with 
 boiled roots. All these may have their 
 advantage where economy is the ob- 
 ject ; but, with the exception of baked 
 bread made of rye, barley, and oats, 
 and slightly leavened, which is per- 
 haps the best food which can be giv- 
 en to slow-wo king horses, there is 
 nothing so congenial to the healthy 
 stomach of a horse as good hay and 
 dry oats, or beans bruised in a mill 
 and mixed with cut chaff. They re- 
 quire no cooking to be fully digested, 
 and the digestive power ot the horse 
 will extract all the nourishment which 
 they contain. But there are cheaper 
 fodders than hay and corn, especially 
 in summer, when they can be given 
 fresh and green. Tares, clover, lu- 
 cern, and sainfoin, cut as they are 
 wanted, will keep a horse in health 
 
 and working condition with little or 
 no corn, and at a comparatively tri- 
 fling expense : carrots are peculiarly 
 relished by horses, and are very whole- 
 some ; and Swedish turnips, or ruta 
 baga, given raw in moderate quanti- 
 ties, make their skins shine, and thus 
 prove that they tend to keep them 
 in condition. Every prudent farmer 
 takes care to have a sufficient supply 
 of these clieaper substitutes for hay 
 and corn, keeping these last as a re- 
 serve and auxiliary to the former. In 
 a prize essay of the Highland and 
 Agricultural Society, on the compar- 
 ative advantages of raw and boiled 
 grain as food for farm horses, the 
 author adduces some experiments, 
 which lead to the conclusion that 
 there is no advantage in boiling grain, 
 but rather the contrary. The cost of 
 keep of a horse per day on different 
 food has been given as follows : 
 
 10 lbs. of straw cut into chaff . . . Id. 
 10 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per bushel . . 9 
 16 lbs. of turnips, at li)s. per ton . . 1 
 
 E.xpense of culling • Ij 
 
 1*. OU. 
 
 16 lbs. of hay, at 3s. 6d. per cwt. 
 5 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per busliel . 
 16 lbs. of turnips, at lOs. per ton . 
 
 6(i. 
 4i 
 J_ 
 
 or, 
 
 2S lbs. of steamed turnips .... 3W. 
 7 lbs. of coals, at Is. per bushel . . 1 
 
 Expense of steaming 5 
 
 16 lbs. of straw, at H. per ton . . . Ij 
 Ud 
 
 "This last appears the most eco- 
 nomical food, but steamed turnips 
 and straw only would probably not 
 keep a horse in good working condi- 
 tion, and it is not said how long the ex- 
 periment was continued, nor whether 
 the horses thus fed lost weight. The 
 food is also valued at a low rate. 
 
 " It is evident that if farm horses 
 can be kept in condition for Ghd. a 
 day, which is not 4s. a week, while 
 on hay and oats, in the common mode 
 of feeding, they will cost more than 
 double that sum, the saving in a year 
 would amount to nearly X 10 on each 
 horse ; and as every twenty-hve 
 acres of a farm of moderately light 
 land will require one horse fbr its 
 7!37 
 
TEAM. 
 
 cultivation, tliere will be a saving of 
 fijilil .sliillini,'s per acre, probal)!)' iialf 
 tlie rent, and more than liaK" tiie prof- 
 it. However this may he, there is no 
 doubt that it is of ^^roat importance 
 to ascertain what is, on the whole, 
 the best and cheapest mode of feed- 
 ing farm horses ; and without enter- 
 ing into miiuito calculations, it will 
 be found that various artilicial grass- 
 es may be made to succeed each 
 other l)y successive sowings so reg- 
 ularly that the horses shail be kept 
 for six months of the year entirely 
 on succulent green food, which will 
 enable them to do all the necessary 
 work, and keep them in good health 
 and condition. Tims, with the help 
 of carrots, potatoes, and rula baga, 
 a great saving of hay and oats may 
 be effected in winter, and these crops 
 will take up much less land for their 
 production than hay and oats, and 
 exhaust the soil less, if we except 
 potatoes, which are more profitably 
 used as human food, or to fatten pigs. 
 "The example of tradesmen and 
 manufacturers who keep horses, and 
 cut all the hay which they use into 
 chaff, mixing it with oats, may be 
 good for a farmer to follow where 
 hay is scarce and beans a good price, 
 but otherwise it is fully as economi- 
 cal to give the hay in racks, provided 
 no more be given at once than a horse 
 will eat up entirely, and a certain ra- 
 tion be allowed for each horse, which 
 experience has shown to be sufficient. 
 In the cavalry, where great atten- 
 tion is paid to economy, the horses 
 have their rations of hay, oats, and 
 straw, according to the exercise they 
 take, or the fatigue they are exposed 
 to ; so likewise it should be with a 
 farmer's team. In the old mode of 
 feeding horses with as much hay as 
 they would eat, and two bushels of 
 oats for each horse per week, during 
 at least nine months in the year, and 
 giving them tares or artificial grasses 
 between spring sowing and harvest, 
 when there was less to be done, the 
 expense of a horse was much greater 
 than most farmers could now afford, 
 and more land was devoted to the 
 keep of the team than was necessary. 
 788 
 
 i " It is of great importance to a per 
 son about to manage a farm lo know 
 exactly what number of horses will 
 be required for its proper cultivation ; 
 and this depends ui)on many circum- 
 stances, which mu.siall be taken into 
 : consideration, and which will make 
 I a very materia! difference, often as 
 much as half the rent of the; land. 
 j He is lo consider the situation of the 
 i farm buildings, especially the stalls 
 ! and cattle-yards, where the manure 
 is to be made, with respect to their 
 distance from the fields ; the stale ol 
 the roads and the access to the fields , 
 the distance of a good market-town, 
 and whether the fields lie in a ring, 
 fence or are scattered. A farm o) 
 good light loam will require one 
 horse for every twenty-five acres for 
 Its cultivation, with an additional one 
 for every two hundred acres; that 
 is, nine horses for two hundred acres. 
 The additional horse should be light- 
 er and more active than the rest, for 
 the farmer to ride on and to drive in 
 a light cart ; yet it should be capable 
 of supplying the place of any of the 
 others in case of illness or accident, 
 or when extra work is required, as 
 in harvest or seed time. The larger 
 the farm, or rather the fields, the 
 fewer horses are required in propor- 
 tion to its size, because much time is 
 lost in turning the plough where the 
 furrow is short; and ploughing is al- 
 ways the principal work ot the team. 
 If more than two horses are requi- 
 red to plough the ground, the soil 
 must be very compact and heavy ; 
 and if this is not compensated by 
 greater fertility, the expense of the 
 horses will much reduce the profit of 
 the farmer. It is the custom in 
 some farms for each ploughman to 
 have the charge of his own horses ; 
 but it is far better to make the feed- 
 ing and cleaning of horses the busi- 
 ness of regular servants, who should 
 sleep in or near the stables, and rise 
 very early, so that the horses maybe 
 fed and ready to go to work as soon 
 as the ploughman comes. \\'lien a 
 man has been eight or ten hours 
 holding a plough, he is not so capable 
 of cleaning and rubbing the horses as 
 
TEA 
 
 one who has onlj' had light work in 1 
 the day. The horse kcep'TS oan | 
 prepare manure, make coinijosts. cut I 
 iiay and straw into chad' lor llie lior- } 
 ses, mow tares or oilier i!;ieeii food, | 
 or hoe the crops in tJK! season while j 
 the horses are at work, and the hist | 
 thing before lliey He down at night i 
 shonld be to give the horses tlieir [ 
 proper ration of hay, and hcc thai j 
 their beds are comfortal)le and every- 1 
 thing in proper order in tlie stables : 
 good grooming is of as great use to 
 a horse as good feeding, and without 
 it they will never be in perfect work- 
 ing condition. The harness should 
 always be cleaned and oiled, and 
 hung up in a separate place, not, as 
 is too commonly done, hung up be 
 hind the horses in the stables. There 
 should be no unnecessary ornaments, 
 but strength and simplicity should be 
 studied. The weight and size of the 
 collars are in many places absurd : 
 they cannot be too light, provided 
 they are of sufficient strength. The 
 work in the field, when the days are 
 long, should be divided so as to give 
 the horses at least two hours' rest, 
 during which they should be fed with 
 oats or corn. When the fields are 
 near the stables, the horses may be 
 brought home, but a portable manger 
 is easily carried into the field, such 
 as is used at the inns on the roads 
 where carriers stop to bait. In win- 
 ter it may be as well to finish the 
 days' work with only an interval of 
 half an hour. The time in summer 
 should be from five in the morning 
 till ten, and from two till seven if the 
 weather is very warm, resting four 
 hours; or from si.x till eleven, and 
 from one till six, resting two hours. 
 In winter the time is from seven till 
 three, resting half an hour or an hour 
 between eleven and twelve. With 
 good feeding and grooming this is by 
 no means too hard work when the 
 work requires to be carried on brisk- 
 ly. The heavier and lighter kind of 
 work should be so arranged that 
 \vhen horses have worked hard for a 
 day or two, they may have one or two 
 days of lighter work." 
 TEATHING Feeding or stack- 
 
 TEA 
 
 ing hay for use on the field : bating 
 turnips, &,c., on fields, or young wheat 
 in spring. 
 
 TEASEL, or FULLER'S TEAS- 
 EL. Dipsaats fullonum. It is an 
 herbaceous biennial, of the composite 
 fitmily, growing four to six feet high, 
 and cultivated for the rough, jjrickly 
 flower head, which is used in the 
 manufacture of cloth, flannel, &c. 
 The soil best suited is a clayey loam, 
 not over rich ; the seed is sown in 
 April or May, either broad-cast or in 
 drills eighteen inches to two feet 
 apart. Sometimes caraways are 
 sown with them. One to two pecks 
 of seed are sown to the acre. The 
 plants are weeded, thinned, and deep- 
 ly worked as they grow, to six inches 
 in the row, or one foot each way, in 
 the broad-cast field. They are fit for 
 cutting the second year about July, 
 or as soon as the blossoms begin to 
 fall from the heads, and are now to 
 be cut immediately above the upper 
 leaves (see Fig.) with a sharp knife 
 
 or hook, and received into a basket ; 
 the cutter should have his hands well 
 provided with stout gloves. Three 
 cuttings are made at intervals of eight 
 to ten days, the ripe heads only being 
 taken. They are to be sunned for a 
 day, and then conveyed into dry 
 rooms or sheds ; no water should 
 touch them. They are sorted for 
 sale : the finest and firmest are call- 
 ed kings ; the second, middhngs ; and 
 789 
 
TER 
 
 TET 
 
 the inferior, unripe, and brittle kinds 
 scrubs. The sorts are put into open 
 bales of sticks for sale. 9000 heads 
 of the first form a pack, and 20,000 
 of the second. An acre will yield ten 
 to fifteen packs in all. The haulm is 
 burned on tiie ground. The crop is 
 not exhausting, but sometimes fails. 
 
 TEGTRICES. The small feathers 
 which cover the quill feathers. 
 
 TEDDING HAY. Spreading it out. 
 
 T E E T II. To leara the age of 
 horses by, see Horse. 
 
 TEGMENTA. The scales of win- 
 ter buds. 
 
 TEGUMENT, or TEGMEN. Tn 
 anatomy, the general covering of the 
 body. In entomology the term is ap- 
 plied to the coverings of the wings 
 of the order Orthoptera, or straight- 
 winged insects. 
 
 TEMPORAL BONES. The tem- 
 ple bones. 
 
 TENACITY. Cohesion. The 
 power of resisting a pulling force. 
 
 TENACULUM. A simple small 
 hook, used to seize bleeding vessels 
 in operations. 
 
 TENDRIL. A clasping stem, as 
 that of the vine. 
 
 TENESMUS. A straining and in- 
 effectual effort to relieve the bcnvels ; 
 it is a symptom of irritations and in- 
 flannnalions of the bowels. 
 
 TENON. The end of a rail intro- 
 duced into a mortice. 
 
 TENSOR MUSCLES. Those 
 which tighten a part. 
 
 TENT. A plug of lint or sponge 
 introduced into wounds to dilate 
 them, or to stop hemorrhages. 
 
 TENTACULA, or TENTACLES. 
 Prehensile, thread-like organs in the 
 lower animals, usually arranged 
 around their mouths. 
 
 T E N U I R O S T E R S. Incesso- 
 rial birds, with a slender bill. 
 
 TEREBRANTIA. A section of 
 hymenopterous insects, the females 
 of which are furnished with a icrchra, 
 or borer, with which she bores into 
 the bark of trees, or the bodies of an- 
 imals, to deposiie her eggs. The ich- 
 neumons, wheat insect, <Scc., are of 
 this class. See Insects. 
 
 TERETE (from teres, round). A 
 790 
 
 I term applied to round stems, anten- 
 nse, &.C. 
 
 TERGUM. In insects, the upper 
 part of the abdomen or back. 
 
 TERMITES. A genus of insects 
 inhabilmg tropical Africa and Amer- 
 ica, and allied to the ants. 
 
 TERRACE. A raised bank, for a 
 promenade and ornamental oi)jects. 
 
 TERTIARY F O RM A T 1 N. 
 Strata situated above the chalk and 
 green sand, disposed in basins, and 
 for the most part sednnentary, but 
 containing some hard rocks. It is di- 
 vided into three portions, the eocine, 
 miocine, and pliocine, which see. 
 
 TESSELATED. Marked into 
 squares, or trapezoids ; a pavement 
 laid with square stones of different 
 colours. 
 
 TEST. In chemistry, anything by 
 which we distinguish the chemical 
 nature of substances from each oth- 
 er ; thus, infusion of galls is a test of 
 the presence of iron, which it ren- 
 ders evident by the production of a 
 black colour in water and other li- 
 quids containing that metal ; in the 
 same way, sulphuretted hydrogen is a 
 test of the presence of lead, and ni- 
 trate of baryta, of sulphuric acid. In 
 metallurgy and assaymg, the porous 
 crucible which absorbs the liquid vit- 
 rifiable oxide of lead and other met- 
 als combined with it is sometimes 
 called the lest. 
 
 TESTA. The shell or integument 
 of a seed. 
 
 TESTACEANS. Animals provi- 
 ded with a shell. 
 
 TESTES. The glands which pro- 
 duce the reproductive secretion of 
 male animals. 
 
 TESTUDINATA. A tribe of an- 
 imals like the tortoise, furnished with 
 a carapace or horny covering. 
 
 TETANUS. Locked jaw. 
 
 TETHERING. Fastening cattle 
 or horses by a rope, or chain, to a 
 post, or tree, to give them a limited 
 pasturage. 
 
 TETRADYNAMIA. Having four 
 long and two short stamens, as the 
 cruciferous plants. 
 
 TETRAGONA. The New Zea- 
 land spinach. See Spinach. 
 
THA 
 
 TIIA 
 
 TETRAGYXIA. Having four pis- 
 tils. 
 
 TETRANDRIA. With four sta- 
 mens. 
 
 TETTIGONIANS. Tiie Cicadi- 
 ans, or tree locusts. 
 
 THALAMUS. In anatomy, the 
 part of the brain from which the op- 
 tic nerves have part of their origin. 
 In botany, the part on which the 
 ovary is seated. The succulent red 
 centre of a strawberry, the core ia 
 the fruit of a raspberry, are the thai- 
 ami of these plants. Some botanists 
 call it the receptacle of the fruit. 
 
 T H A L L 1 : S. The leaf-like ex- 
 pansion of lichens, sea-weeds, &.c. 
 Hence these plants are sometimes 
 called Thallogens, or Thallophjtes. 
 
 THATCH. "This is a covering of 
 straw, rushes, or reeds, as a substi- 
 tute for tiles, or slates, for houses, 
 barns, and principally for sheds for 
 cattle. The increase of agricultural 
 produce on a farm makes the stacking 
 of corn out of doors a matter of neces- 
 sity as well as convenience. The 
 temporary thatching of these stacks, 
 as well as of hayricks, has made it 
 necessary that some of the regular 
 servants of the farm should be capa- 
 ble of thatching in a neat and sub- 
 stantial manner, that there may be 
 no delay fr.om want of a regular 
 thatcher. We will first describe the 
 mode of thatching hayricks and corn 
 stacks, as the simplest. 
 
 " The rick, or stack, having heen 
 formed into a proper shape, either 
 with a roof slanting from a ridge, or 
 conical, and ending in a central point, 
 the straw is prepared by moistening 
 it, that it may more easily bend with- 
 out breaking. It is then forked up 
 in a loose heap, the straws lying in 
 every direction, and somewhat mat- 
 ted. Portions are now drawn out 
 from this heap in handfuls, which 
 lays the straws again in a more paral- 
 lel order : these are placed in a fork- 
 ed stick, which will hold several of 
 these bundles or handfuls, and are 
 thus carried to the thatcher on the 
 top of the rick, or stack. He seizes a 
 handful, and bending one end into a 
 kind of noose, he inserts this into the 
 
 hay or straw near the bottom of the 
 roof, at one end if it be a square roof, 
 or at any convenient part if it be a 
 round one. He presses down the 
 straw which he has thus inserted to 
 about half its length, in order to form 
 the eaves, which extend a little be- 
 yond the lower part of the roof. 
 When he has thus laid several hand- 
 fuls side by side, so as to cover about 
 a yard in width, that is, as far as he 
 can conveniently reach without mo- 
 ving his ladder, he begins another 
 row a little above the place where 
 he began, so that the lower end of 
 the straw now inserted may cover 
 the upper part of the first row, as tiles 
 do each other. Thus he proceeds 
 upward till he comes to the upper 
 ridge of the roof, or to the point of 
 the cone in a round stack. In the 
 latter case the covering diminishes 
 to a point, so as to form a triangle. 
 The ladder is now shifted a yard to 
 one side, and the same operation is 
 performed, care being taken that each 
 j fresh handful put on shall be inter- 
 ■ woven with that which lies beside it, 
 so that no water can possibly pass 
 i between them. Thus the work pro- 
 ceeds till the roof is completed, and 
 it only remains to secure the upper 
 ridge in a square stack, or the point 
 of the cone in a round one. In the 
 first case, the highest layer of straw 
 is made to extend beyond the ridge 
 I on both sides, and the ends are brought 
 together and stand up like the bristles 
 on a hog. A rope of straw has been 
 prepared, and many small rods, about 
 two feet long, and cut sharp at the 
 point: these are inserted just below 
 ; the ridge, in a line with it, and about 
 a foot apart ; one end of the straw 
 : rope is inserted into the stack, and 
 twisted firmly round the projecting 
 end of the first rod ; it is then wound 
 once round the next rod, and so on 
 the whole length of the ridge : this is 
 done on both sides. The straws which 
 form the ridge are now cut with shears 
 horizontally, to give it a neat finish, 
 and at each end a kind of ornament 
 is usually made by winding a straw 
 rope round a handful of the project- 
 ing straw, lorming a kind of knot or 
 791 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 bow, accordinn; to the taste of the 
 tliatchcr. Rods with straw ropos 
 twisleii round them arc inserted near 
 the edge of the slanting side and all 
 along the eaves, whieh prevent the 
 wind from blowing off the thatch. 
 
 "The only ditferenoe in the thatch 
 of a round ricic is, that it is brought 
 to one point, wliere^ it is lied with 
 straw rope wound round it, and form- 
 ed into a kind of bow ; the rods are 
 inserted a little below in a circle, and 
 a straw rope twisted round them, 
 and likewise around the circular 
 eaves. Barley is generally put into 
 square stacks, and wheat in round 
 ones. When the outside is neatly 
 trimmed and cut smooth, so that no 
 birds can lodge in it, wheat may be 
 kept for years, without danger of in- 
 jury or loss, much better than in a 
 barn, or even in a granary. 
 
 " In thatching sheds and buildings 
 which are to last many years, the 
 straw is prepared in the same man- 
 ner, but the ends of the handfuls, as 
 they are put on a lathed roof, are 
 kept down by means of long rods, 
 which are tied to the laths of the roof 
 by means of strong tar twine. A 
 much thicker coat of straw is put on ; 
 and rye straw, which has a solid 
 stem, is preferred as more lasting, 
 and less liable to be filled with water 
 than hollow straw. Instead of straw 
 ropes, split willow is used, and the 
 rods which are inserted are much 
 nearer each other and more carefully 
 secured. As this kind of thatching 
 is a peculiar trade, it requires a reg- 
 ular apprenticeship to be master of 
 it. The thatching of temporary ricks 
 may be done from mere description, 
 and a very little practice will enable 
 any one to protect his stacks suffi- 
 ciently by a thatched covering." 
 
 THECA. A case, usually the urn 
 of mosses, in which their spores are 
 situated. 
 
 THECOSTOMES. Those insects 
 which have their suckers surrounded 
 bv a sheath or case. 
 
 THEODOLITE. A surveying in- 
 strument for measuring both vertical 
 and horizontal angles, and necessary 
 ia accurate surveys. 
 792 
 
 THEORY. The expression of a 
 general law based on numerous as- 
 certained facts. An hypothesis is 
 merely a guess, without any basis on 
 fact. 
 
 THERAPEUTICS. The science 
 which treats of the action of medi- 
 cines. 
 
 THERMO-ELECTRICITY. The 
 study of the conditions for the produc- 
 tion of an electrical current i)y heat. 
 
 " When one part of a metallic bar 
 is heated and another cooled, an elec- 
 tric current is generated in its sub- 
 stance, which may be rendered evi- 
 dent, and its direction ascertained by 
 the galvanometer. When two rnetals 
 of ditTerent temperatures are brought 
 into contact, similar electric currents 
 are generated, the quantity and di- 
 rection of the electricity varying with 
 the nature of the metals and their re- 
 spective temperatures. The best ap- 
 paratus for exhibiting these thermo- 
 electric currents consists of alternate 
 bars of antimony and bismuth sol- 
 dered together at their ends, so as to 
 form a compound bar or parallelo- 
 gram, the junctions of which may 
 be alternately heated and cooled. In 
 this case, the direction of the current 
 is from the antimony to the bismuth ; 
 so that these metals bear the same 
 relation to each other in the thermo- 
 electric series as the zinc and silver 
 in the simple voltaic circuit. The 
 term stereo-chctric has also been ap- 
 plied to these currents, implying their 
 production in solid bodies independ- 
 ent of a fluid, and as opposed to the 
 hydro-electric or voltaic current." — 
 {Krandc.) 
 
 THERMO-ELECTRIC PILE. 
 See above. 
 
 THERMOMETER (from -Qepfio^, 
 rearm, and /^utjiov, a measure). An in- 
 strument to measure sensible heat. 
 It most usually consists of a tube of 
 small bore, with a bulb at the lower 
 end containing mercury, which, by its 
 dilatation from heat, ascends within 
 the tube. There is a scale attached, 
 marked into degrees, and the altitude 
 of the mercury is measured by its 
 position opposite the degrees. The 
 marking is after the plan of Fahren- 
 
THI 
 
 THO 
 
 heit, 32'^ Fahrenheit being the freez- 
 ing of water, and 212= Fahrenheit 
 its boiling point. The {zero) is as- 
 certained by the cold produced from 
 mixing snow and salt so as to melt. 
 
 The centigrade scale is used by the 
 French, in which the zero is the 
 freezing of water, and 100=' cent, its 
 boiling pomt. 
 
 The thermometer is of great ser- 
 vice to the gardener in the hot-house, 
 to regulate its temperature. Ruther- 
 ford's thermometer marks the lowest 
 and highest degrees of temperature 
 during an\' given time. " It consists 
 simply of two thermometers: a mer- 
 curial thermometer. A, and a spirit 
 thermometer, B, attached horizontally 
 
 o the same frame, and each provi- 
 ded with its own scale. The index 
 of A is a bit of steel, which is pushed 
 before the mercury ; but, in conse- 
 quence of its horizontal position, re- 
 mains in its place when the mercury 
 recedes, and consequently indicates ; 
 the highest degree of the scale to j 
 which the mercury has risen. The j 
 index of B is of glass, with a small ; 
 knob at each end. This lies in the ! 
 spirit, which freely passes it when ; 
 the thermometer rises ; but when the | 
 spirit recedes, the cohesive attraction ■ 
 between the fluid and the glass over- 
 comes the friction arising from the . 
 weight of tlie index, and the index is ' 
 consequently carried back with the 
 spirit towards the bulb. As there is | 
 no force to move it in the opposite | 
 direction, it remains at the point near- j 
 est the bulb to which it has been 
 brought, and tl»us indicates the low- 
 est temp(?rature which has occurred. [ 
 By inclining the instrument, the in- '■ 
 dices are brought to the surfaces of, 
 their respective fluids, and prepared 
 for a new observation." 
 
 Til Eil.M OSCOFE. A general 
 term, including any implement for 
 measuring heat. 
 
 THICKET. A dense accumula- 
 tion of shrubs or young trees. 
 X X s 
 
 THILL. The central beam or 
 draught-tree of a wagon. 
 
 T H I X N I N G OUT. Removing 
 some plants or branches of a tree to 
 give the rest a better opportunity of 
 growing large. It is an important 
 operation in the orchard, as a tree 
 overburdened with fruit will not pro- 
 duce such tine specimens as one that 
 has a few to perfect. 
 
 THISTLE. The genus Cardmis. 
 The commonest kinds in the United 
 States are the C. lanceolalus and ar- 
 tcnsis : the latter is the well-known 
 Canada thistle. Considered as a 
 weed in our fields, our principal ob- 
 ject is to eradicate it, which, in con- 
 sequence of the ready dispersion of 
 the seeds by the wind, is not easily 
 done, as a slovenly farmer may seed 
 the vvhole country around. 
 
 " Those crops which are usually 
 hoed can readily be cleared of this- 
 tles ; but where the seed is sown 
 broad-cast, the labour of weeding 
 them out is much greater. If they 
 are not extracted with the root, they 
 will soon grow again with redoubled 
 vigour. In a moist season they may 
 be pulled up by means of a wooden 
 or iron pincers, which grasps them 
 strongly near the crown of the root. 
 A^'hen a field has been long infested 
 with thistles, the best way of clear- 
 ing it is to watch when the thistle is 
 in full bloom and the seed just form- 
 ing ; if it be then cut off" at the root, 
 it will die. Thus in two years a field 
 may be entirely cleared of thistles. 
 
 " It is chiefly in arable land that 
 thistles are most troublesome. In 
 pastures it is sufficient to eradicate 
 them once, and to permit none to 
 grow along the hedges and ditches. 
 The seed does not readily vegetate, 
 unless it finds a loose soil ; and little 
 birds are so fond of it, that they will 
 leave none that is not covered with 
 earth, especially in the beginning of 
 winter." 
 
 T H O R A QIC. Relating to the 
 chest. The thoracic duct is a vessel 
 which receives the contents of the 
 lacteals and absorbents, and con- 
 veys it to the blood by the subclavian 
 vein. 
 
 793 
 
THR 
 
 THY 
 
 THORAX. The chest. The cav- 
 ty of the chest is termed the lliora- 
 cic cavity, and contains the heart and 
 lungs. In entomology, the second 
 segment of the frame. 
 
 THORN. The genus Crat<r<rus: 
 thorny shrubs of tlie family Rosacea. 
 The C. oxyacanlha is the .May, or Eng- 
 lish hedge thorn. The C. crus gaili, 
 or Newcastle thorn, is much used in 
 Delaware as a hedge ; it is supposed 
 to be superior to tlie C. cordata, or 
 Virginian thorn. 
 
 THORN-APPLE. The stramo- 
 Ilium. 
 
 THRASHING AND THRASH- 
 ERS. " The separation of the grain 
 from the ear in corn has always been 
 one of the most laborious operations 
 on a farm. 
 
 " Where the grain is thrashed out 
 immediately after harvest, to be put 
 into a granary, the most common 
 practice is to level a portion of a lieid, 
 and laying the grain in the straw in a 
 large circle, to drive oxen and horses 
 over it till it is all trodden out. Till 
 ingenuity had produced machines to 
 supersede the flail, this was the only 
 instrument in use. The first idea of 
 a machine for thrashing was that of 
 imitating the motion of the flail, but 
 so much depends on the eye of the 
 thrasher, that no mechanism could 
 ■well imitate the motion of his arms. 
 This was consequently given up, and 
 an imitation of the rubbing of the 
 grains from the ears between the 
 hands, combined with the beaters 
 of a flax -dressing machme, grad- 
 ually produced the present improved 
 thrashing machine. 
 
 " Without a figure it would be dif- 
 ficult to describe the different parts 
 and motions of a thrashing machine. 
 They are, however, now so common, 
 that it will suffice to give the general 
 principal of action, and to mention 
 some of the latest improvements in 
 it. A rapid motion is given to a hol- 
 low cylinder round a horizontal axis ; 
 on the outer surface there are pro- 
 jecting ribs parallel to the axis at 
 equal distances from each other, 
 or, what is more common, spikes. 
 Around half the cyluider is a case, 
 79 i 
 
 the inner surface of which is lined 
 with plates of cast-iron grooved in 
 the direction of the axis, or furnished 
 with spikes. The ribs or beaters 
 come quite close to these, so that an 
 ear of wheat or other grain cannot 
 well pass between them without be- 
 ing flattened. The sheaves of grain, 
 having been untied, arc spread on a 
 slanting table, and in some machines 
 are drawn in by the spikes. The 
 motion of the cylinder or drum is 
 very rapid. The beaters act on the 
 straw as it comes through, and beat 
 out most of the grain ; but wliat re- 
 mains is carried in between the beat- 
 ers and the case, and when it has 
 made half a revolution all the grain 
 has been beaten and rubbed out. It 
 i falls on a sieve, which lets the grain 
 j through, but retains the straw, which 
 I is raked off by hand, or by circular 
 I rakes moved by the machinery. The 
 great perfection of a thrashing ma- 
 chine is to rub out every grain and 
 to break the straw as little as possi- 
 ble : the larger the scale of the ma- 
 chine the better it does this. Hand 
 machines have been made on the 
 same principle, but they do not effect 
 any saving in the expense, requiring 
 many men to produce the effect of 
 one horse. Moveable thrashing ma- 
 chines are very generally in use where 
 farms are small. They are often the 
 property of an industrious mechan- 
 ic, who undertakes to superintend 
 the work, the farmer finding horses 
 and men. Thus he goes from farm 
 to farm. The best machines will 
 thrash 25 to 50 bushels the hour." 
 The thrashers best known are Pitt's, 
 Hall's, Hale's, Whitman's, Stafford's, 
 Warren's, Bostwick"s. 
 
 THREAVE. Twelve sheaves of 
 grain in the straw. 
 
 THROAT. Faux, the commence- 
 ment of the tube of a personate or 
 labiate flower. 
 
 THRIPS. The genus of vine fret- 
 ters, minute flies which destroy the 
 buds, leaves, and flowers of several 
 fruit-trees. They are extremely act- 
 tive, and skip considerable distances. 
 See Insects. 
 
 TIIY.ME. The genus Thymus, ol 
 
TIL 
 
 TIL 
 
 which T. vulgaris is cultivated as a 
 well-known aromatic pot-herb of the 
 family Labiahe. It is a perennial, and 
 propagated both by seed and slips : it 
 should be placed in a moderately fer- 
 tile bed in a dry situation. 
 
 THYRSUS, or TIIYRSE. An in- 
 florescence similar to that of the com- 
 mon lilac. 
 
 T H Y R I D GL AXD. A gland 
 situated in front of the throat : its 
 office is unknown. 
 
 TIBIA. The largest of the two 
 bones of the fore leg. In entomolo- 
 gy, the fourth joint of the leg. 
 
 TICK. A well-known race of in- 
 sects found on grass, decayed wood. 
 &c. : they are easily removed by 
 smoking with tobacco. The sheep 
 tick is destroyed by mercurial or sul- 
 phur ointment, or dipping the sheep 
 mlo a strong infusion of tobacco. 
 
 TIE. In building, a limber or met- 
 al used to bind together two parts 
 which are liable to separate. 
 
 TILLAGE. " Applied to arable 
 land, the stirring and preparing the 
 surlace of the soil, so as to render it 
 fit for the vegetation of seeds ; its 
 object, also, is the destruction of 
 noxious weeds. 
 
 " The whole art of cultivation con- 
 sists in tillage and manuring, and the 
 profit of the husbandman depends on 
 the perfection of the tillage and the 
 economy of labour in producing the 
 elTect. A defect in tillage will cause 
 a creat deficiency in the crops in or- 
 dinary years. To ensure good crops, 
 the soil should be in such a state that 
 the rains and dews may readily be 
 diffu.sed through it, without giving it 
 a wet appearance, or evaporating too 
 rapidly. It requires great knowledge 
 and experience to give any particular 
 soil the exact portion of tillage which 
 is suited to it. A fine garden tilth, 
 as it is called, is the most perfect for 
 liglit soils which have been long cul- 
 tivated and manured : when they can 
 be brought to such a state, that after 
 continued rains the surface dries 
 without forming a crust, and crum- 
 bles of its own accord, the tillage has 
 been good ; and the deeper this soil 
 is stirred, the more it will produce ; 
 
 but where clay abounds in the soil, 
 which in dry weather can be readily 
 pulverized by crushing the dry clods, 
 and be reduced to the finest powder, 
 too much tillage may do more harm 
 than good. The fine clay is soon 
 converted into mud at the surface by 
 the least rain, because it is not suffi- 
 ciently porous to let the water tiirough 
 it ; it dries into a hard crust, which 
 effectually precludes the access of 
 air, and consequently stops the ve- 
 getation of the seed. It is only by 
 abundant manuring with organic mat- 
 ter that this natural tendency in clays 
 to cohere can be overcome ; and un- 
 til this is effected, it is best to stir 
 clay soils as deep as possible by 
 means of subsoil ploughs, but they 
 should not be pulverized so that the 
 water cannot run down between the 
 lumps and clods, and especially the 
 surface should be left in such a state 
 of roughness that heavy rains cannot 
 cover It with a coat of mud. The 
 clods which are left on the surface 
 imbibe the moisture more gradually, 
 and, in drying, fall to pieces, by which 
 the young plants are invigorated, 
 and, as it were, moulded up. This is 
 particularly the case in winter after a 
 frost, as all clay land tanners are 
 well aware. It is very easily ascer- 
 tained whether a soil will bear much 
 tillage or not. It is only necessary 
 to try some of it in a large pot or 
 box ; make the surface very fine by 
 breaking the clods, then water it 
 abundantly, and let it dry in the sun ; 
 if a crust is formed in drying, that 
 soil will not bear too much harrow- 
 ing and pulverizing, and should be 
 left in a moderately rough state after 
 sowing or drilling the seed ; but if, 
 after it dries, the surface is loose and 
 porous, then the finer the tillage the 
 better the seed will vegetate. The 
 whole depends on the ready admis- 
 sion of air or its exclusion. When 
 grass seeds are sown, the surface 
 sliould be well pulverized ; but this 
 cannot be safely done if the soil is apt 
 to run together when mucii rain falls 
 soon after the seed is sown. Some 
 plants, like beans, will force theii 
 way through a very hard surface ; 
 795 
 
TILLAGE. 
 
 but small seeds are too weak to do 
 so, and their growth is entirely stop- 
 ped by the least crust on the surface. 
 Besides the preparatory tillage of the 
 soil before sowing the seed, there is 
 great advantage in the stirring it as 
 the plants are growing. On this de- 
 pends all the merit of the row culture 
 for every kind of plant, especially 
 those which have esculent roots or 
 extensive foliage, and which are 
 chiefly cultivated for the sustenance 
 of cattle. The effect of deep tillage 
 is here most remarkable. If rows of 
 turnips or cabbages be sown at such 
 a distance that a small plough or oth- 
 er stirring implement can be used l)e- 
 tween them, and the intervals be 
 stirred more or less, and at different 
 depths, it will be found that the deep- 
 er and more frequent the tillage, until 
 the foliage covers the whole interval, 
 or the bulbs swell to a great size, the 
 heavier and more abundant the prod- 
 uce will be. It is worth while to try 
 tl>e experiment ; Sow Swedish tur- 
 nips or mangel wurzel in rows three 
 feet apart ; let some of the rows be 
 merely kept clear of weeds by surface 
 hoeing, and the plants be thinned out 
 to the distance of a foot apart : let 
 oiher intervals be stirred to different 
 depths ; some three inches, some six 
 inches, and some nine inches or more. 
 The result will be, that the first rows 
 will appear to have been sown much 
 too far from each other, not half the 
 ground being covered with the fo- 
 liage of the plants ; the others will 
 he covered more and more as the till- 
 age has been deeper, and the last 
 will completely cover the whole in- 
 tervals. The roots or bulbs will be 
 in exact proportion to the richness 
 of the foliage, and the weight of the 
 deeply-tilled rows will far exceed 
 that of any of the others, while the 
 first will, by comparison, appear a 
 poor and scanty crop, however clear 
 of weeds the surface may have been 
 kept. The soil best suited for this 
 experiment is a good, light loam on 
 a dry or well-drained subsoil ; for 
 stagnant moisture under any soil will 
 chill the fibres and check the growth 
 of the plants, however dry the sur- 
 796 
 
 face may he. It was this which led 
 Tull, the father of drill husbandry, to 
 the conclusion that tillage was all 
 that the soil required to maintain 
 perpetual fertility. He carried his 
 conclusion too far ; but we shall not 
 be wide of the truth, if we assert that 
 with proper tillage the soil will be 
 gradually improved, and a much 
 smaller quantity of manure occasion- 
 ally added to recruit the waste pro- 
 duced by vegetation will render the 
 soil much more fertile than it would 
 be with more manure and less till- 
 age ; and as tillage can be increased 
 by mechanical contrivances where 
 labourers are scarce, whereas the 
 supply of manure must generally be 
 limited, it follows that, as a general 
 rule, the land should be well and 
 deeply tilled, due attention being paid 
 to the nature of the soil, and its prop- 
 erty of retaining or transmitting 
 moisture. Very loose sands should 
 not he much stirred until they are 
 consolidated by the admixture of 
 marl, clay, peat, or well-rotted dung ; 
 but in all cases the manure should 
 he mixed as intimately as possible 
 with the soil, and as deep as the til- 
 lage has gone, not including the stir- 
 ring of the subsoil ; for the roots will 
 always penetrate thus far, and find 
 the nourishment which they require. 
 Those plants which throw out roots 
 from tlie bottom of the stem, as 
 wheat, barley, and oats, require the 
 surface to be most pulverized and 
 enriched to allow these roots to 
 spread ; a spring tillage is therefore 
 highly advantageous, which can only 
 be given when the seed has been de- 
 posited in rows by drilling, or in 
 patches by dibbling. This last meth- 
 od is found to give much finer crops, 
 from the circumstance that the hoe 
 not only loosens the earth between 
 the rows, but also between the dif- 
 ferent patches of the growing corn, 
 by which the coronal roots are 
 strengthened, and the tillering of the 
 stems so much encouraged, that it is 
 not uncommon to see twenty, thirty, 
 or more strong stems, all bearing fine 
 ears, arising from one tuft of plants, 
 the produce of one or more seeds. 
 
TILLAGE. 
 
 whose roots are matted together and 
 send out fibres in every direction. 
 The crowding of several plants does 
 not prevent their growth, provided 
 the fibres can spread around in a 
 rich, mellow soil, well pulverized, 
 and admitting the air and moisture 
 readily. 
 
 " As a perfect tillage requires much 
 labour and minute attention, and hi 
 many situations where the farms are 
 large labourers cannot be procured 
 at moderate wages, nor can they al- 
 ways be depended upon to perform 
 the work with sufficient care, me- 
 chanical ingenuity has been taxed to 
 invent implements of tillage by which 
 it may be more perfectly accomplish- 
 ed, and at a smaller expense, by 
 using the power of horses instead of 
 that of men, and making implements 
 which will till a considerable breadth 
 at once, and thus save time. 
 
 " The old plough, and which, how- 
 ever it may be improved, still acts on 
 the same principle of turning up a 
 fresh portion of the soil, burying that 
 which has for some time been at the 
 surface, will probably always contin- 
 ue to be the chief implement of tillage ; 
 but the minuter operations, which are 
 taken from garden culture, require 
 particular contrivances to effect them 
 by instruments. The harrows are but 
 an imperfect substitute for the gar- 
 den rake, and do not stir the soil to a 
 sufficient depth. Other implements 
 have therefore been invented, which 
 by means of wheels can be regulated 
 so as to act at a greater or less depth. 
 These have received the different 
 names of scarifiers, grubbers, or cul- 
 tivators, according to the fancy of the 
 inventors. Many of these answer 
 the purpose well, and save labour. 
 They can be used in all directions, so 
 as to pulverize the soil to any degree. 
 Heavy rollers, with and without 
 spikes around them, are used when 
 many clods require breaking ; and, 
 although not yet adopted in this coun- 
 try, the Belgian trunieau, a strong 
 frame of wood, boarded over and 
 loaded with weights if required, is a 
 most effectual instrument in levelling 
 the -urface and crushing clods, wilh- 
 X X X 2 
 
 out pressing them into the soil, as the 
 roller freijuently does. 
 
 " ft would be endless to enumerate 
 all the implements of tillage which 
 are daily invented. As the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil approaches more to 
 that of the garden, more perfect in- 
 struments will be used, such as can 
 be directed with great accuracy be- 
 tween parallel rows of growing plants 
 without danger of injuring them. 
 \Mien the width of the stitches or 
 beds accurately corresponds with the 
 width of the instrument, so that the 
 wheels will run in the intervals and 
 the horses step in the same, the soil 
 may be tilled perfectly, although the 
 rows of plants have but a small in- 
 terval between them ; and the lar- 
 gest field w'ill thus present to the 
 eye extended seed-beds or equal 
 rows of growing plants, as we are ac- 
 customed to see in a kitchen-garden. 
 The result will be the same as when, 
 for the sake of experiment, we sow 
 the common grains and leguminous 
 plants of the fields in a plot of garden 
 ground ; in such case the produce is 
 so far greater, that it quite baffles 
 our calculation when extended to a 
 large surface, and hence the incredi- 
 ble results which we continually 
 meet with in the reports of experi- 
 ments on some new produce lately 
 introduced : everything is on a mag- 
 nified scale, owing to superior tillage. 
 No doubt many fields possessed of 
 fertile soils might, by attentive tillage, 
 be made as productive as the best 
 garden ground. The Chinese have, 
 as we are told, already accomplished 
 this by their incredible numbers and 
 indefatigable labour ; but science and 
 mechanical contrivance are a substi- 
 tute for millions of labourers when 
 judiciously apiilied. The same in- 
 genuity applied to tillage might in- 
 crease the produce of the earth, if 
 not indefinitely, at least far beyond 
 what we may now suspect. 
 
 " In the early ages of agriculture, 
 tillage was almost confined to the 
 ploughing of fallows to clean the 
 land, which was very imperfectly 
 executed, and in ploughing the stubble 
 of one crop to prepare for the seed 
 797 
 
TIM 
 
 TOB 
 
 of another, as long as the land would ] 
 give a return for tlie labour. The ; 
 idea of tdlage for tlie sake of a per- 
 manent improvement of the sod was 
 only entertained by a few men who 
 reflected, and that of encouraging tlie 
 vegetation while the crop was grow- 
 ing was not even thought of. The 
 plough to stir, and the harrow^s to 
 cover the seed, were the only instru- 
 ments in use, and they were very 
 rude of their kind." 
 
 TILLER. The branching of stems 
 from the root. 
 
 TILTH. The fineness and prep- 
 aration of the soil. See Tillage. 
 
 T I M O T H Y GRASS. Phkum 
 pralcnse. Meadow cat's-tail grass. 
 " This has been highly extolled by 
 many agriculturists for the profusion 
 of hay which it makes, and also for its 
 rai)id growth when depastured. It is 
 but a coarse grass when allowed to 
 stand till it is fit for hay ; and in rainy 
 weather it too readily imbibes moist- 
 ure. It is said to give a very sweet 
 and early herbage for sheep in spring, 
 and, mixed with other grasses, is 
 found very useful in laying down 
 land to pasture for a few years. 
 
 " The soil which suits timothy 
 grass best is a good, moist, and rather 
 stiff loam. On gravel it soon dies 
 off. It is scarcely to be recommend- 
 ed without a mixture of other grass- 
 es, although very heavy crops of it 
 have been grown ; and from its strong 
 stem when full grown, it should al- 
 ways be fed off when young, or cut 
 for soiling horses and cattle before 
 the stem has acquired its full growth. 
 In rich land which is tired of clo- 
 ver, it may form a very good sub- 
 stitute, to cut up green and depasture 
 afterward." 
 
 The seed is usually sown on 
 wheat in the spring, or it may be 
 sown with oats ; two pecks are 
 commonly used, but it is better to 
 use three pecks, or even a bushel 
 when other grasses are not used. 
 Clover and timothy do well together ; 
 eight pounds of clover and three 
 pecks of timothy seed may be used. 
 
 TirsGTLRE. A solution in proof 
 alcohol ; the substance is usually cut 
 798 
 
 or pounded, and allowed to remain 
 fourteen days, and then strained. 
 
 TINE. A tooth or spike of a hai- 
 row, &c. 
 
 TIN MORDANT. The common 
 mordant is made of 8 parts of aqua- 
 fortis, 1 part conurion salt, or sal am- 
 moniac, and 1 part granulated tin. 
 
 TISSUE. A mcuibrane, or expan- 
 sion of a cellular structure in animals 
 or plants. 
 
 TITHONICITY. A new impon- 
 derable existing in sunlight, and pro- 
 ducing chemical changes. 
 
 TOAD. Rana bujo {Biifo Ameri- 
 canus). A well-known hatrachian, of 
 great use in the garden to devour in- 
 sects : it is perfectly harmless. 
 
 TOADFLAX. Weeds of the ge- 
 nus Antirrhinum and Linaria : they 
 are usually perennial, and should be 
 extirpated. 
 
 TOBACCO. Plants of the genus 
 Nicotiana, cultivated for smoking, and 
 of great service in medicine and gar- 
 dening ; in the latter, for the destruc- 
 tion of insects by smoking, infusion, 
 or snuff. Its activity as a sedative 
 poison arises from the presence of 
 nicotine, an oily base, which is pro- 
 duced during the curing of the leaves. 
 
 Varieties. — The principal varieties 
 of tobacco in cultivation are the N. 
 tabacum {Fig. I), or Virginian tobac- 
 Fig. 1. 
 
TOBACCO. 
 
 CO ; the varietywilh a large leaf (ma- 
 
 crophylla) is prclbrrcd ; the. iV. rusltca 
 
 {Fig. 2), tlie green, or Orinoko, as 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 it is sometimes improperly called ; 
 the N. repanda {Fig. 3, a}, which yields 
 
 the hcst Havana ; the N. qnadrivalvis 
 (i) and nana (c) make gooil tobacco, 
 and arc cultivated by tlio Indians for 
 that purpose. 
 
 The natural soil of the tobacco is 
 a forest mould ; but it grows well on 
 any light, well-tilled soil which has 
 been impregnated with manure. It 
 requires a dry soil with a good expo- 
 sure, protected from heavy winds, 
 which break the leaves. The follow- 
 ing account of the cultivation is 
 chiefly from Mr. Edmunds : 
 
 " Raising Ihc Plants. — The land for 
 the ■plant-bed is usually selected in a 
 warm exposure on the south or south- 
 eastern side of a hill in a wood, new 
 ground being always preferred. From 
 this the roots should be grubbed, the 
 rubbish cleared away, and the old 
 leaves raked ofT. Brush of pine or 
 other wood is then to be piled on 
 until from two to three feet thick all 
 over the bed, and this is to be set on 
 fire. As the beds should be prepared 
 for seeding immediately after the 
 frost is out of the ground, the brush 
 
 should be collected and put in place 
 some time during the winter. In- 
 stead of burning over the whole bed 
 at once, a part may be fired for an 
 hour or so at a time, proceeding thus 
 over the entire bed. The place is 
 then to be broken up with hoes, and 
 sometimes with coulters drawn by 
 horses or oxen, and the work repeat- 
 
 I ed until the earth is made perfectly 
 fine, being careful to avoid turning 
 under the surface. All the roots 
 
 ! should then be extracted, and the. 
 land laid offin beds (slightly elevated, 
 if dry, and more if moist or wet; four 
 feet wide ; and to 16 s(juare yards a 
 common jiipe-bovvl of seed is sown. 
 The bed is then trodden or pressed 
 799 
 
TOBACCO. 
 
 with hoes, and well covered with 
 brush to protect the plants from 
 frosts. When the plants have coine 
 fully out, tlicy should be slightly ma- 
 nured Willi strong manure made fine ; 
 this should bo repeated frc()uently, 
 and in larger (juantity as the plants 
 increase in size and arc able to bear it. 
 
 " When the plants have attained a 
 good size, and there is no longer dan- 
 ger of frost, the covering of brush is 
 removed, and the bed weeded with 
 the hand, those employed in this duty 
 taking great care to avoid bruising 
 the tender plants. The beds require 
 frequent picking to keep down the 
 weeds. 
 
 " Preparation and Pla7ithig. — Tlie 
 plants will be generally ready for re- 
 moval about the last of May or first 
 of June. They are to be drawn out 
 after a rain and transplanted in good 
 ground previously well prepared for 
 their reception. 
 
 " Field Culture. — The land for to- 
 bacco should be of the best quality, 
 either newly cleared and virgin soil, 
 or old ground highly manured and 
 well pulverized, or good clover fal- 
 low, ploughed in the fall, manured 
 and cross-ploughed in the spring, 
 just before planting, well harrowed, 
 and then laid off with a plough in 
 rows three, three and a half, or four 
 feet apart each way. Every square 
 thus made is to be scraped with the 
 hoe so as to form a hill, in which one 
 plant is to be set. In case the plants 
 die from drought, or are destroyed 
 by worms, a very common occur- 
 rence, others must be set in their 
 places. 
 
 " Cultivation. — The culture is very 
 much like that usually adopted for In- 
 dian corn, the plough, cultivator, and 
 hand hoe being freely used to keep 
 down weeds and loosen the earth. 
 
 " It is important to the early growth 
 of the plant to plough and work deep 
 once or twice, so that when it is ri- 
 pening, the ground will be broken 
 deep and fine. (The coulter is prefer- 
 red for this operation.) This should 
 be effected without much interference 
 with the roots, as that would check 
 the growth, and prevent the plant 
 800 
 
 from attaining its proper size. And 
 hence the advantage of greater dis- 
 tance between the rows than the 
 common distance of three and a half 
 feet, because the wide rows can be 
 ploughed, and worked with less dam- 
 age to the roots. In this, as in all 
 other crops, if we wish a good return, 
 " we must speed the plough" and hoc 
 before the roots run out. On our 
 high lands, we should endeavour, by 
 deep and horizontal ploughing, to 
 counteract the bad effects of drought. 
 On our fiats, we should aim to pre- 
 vent the collection of water by drains 
 discharged at the lowest point. 
 
 " The bed is best for high land, be- 
 cause it retains more moisture where 
 it is generally needed. The hill, re- 
 taining less moisture, is best for flat 
 land, where there is commonly a su- 
 perabundance. 
 
 " Priming, Topping, Suckering, and 
 Worming. — As the tobacco plant 
 grows and develops, a blossom bud 
 puts out from the top, which is term- 
 ed buttoning. This top must be pulled 
 off along with such of the upper leaves 
 as are too small to be of any value. 
 The plants are thus left usually about 
 two or three feet high. The plants 
 also shoot out suckers from every 
 leaf, which must be broken off, care 
 being taken not to break the leaf from 
 the main stem. This causes the 
 leaves to spread. 
 
 " The most regular topping is per- 
 formed by measure. The topper car- 
 ries in his hand a measure six inches 
 long, by occasionally applying which, 
 he can regulate the priming with 
 great accuracy ; and as the remain- 
 ing leaves are numbered, this governs 
 the operation, and gains the object of 
 even topping. The topper should 
 always carry this measure in his 
 hand, as it serves to prevent excuses 
 fur negligence and uneven topping. 
 Prime six inches, and top to eight 
 leaves. We have found, by experi- 
 ence, that this is the best average 
 height. We sometimes, but seldom, 
 vary from this general rule. If the 
 land is poorer than common, or if, 
 from the backwardness of the plant, 
 and the advanced state of the season, 
 
TOBACCO. 
 
 we apprehend frost, we do not prime 
 as hif,'li (say four inches.) If we have 
 an uncominonlv rich spot, and there is 
 danger that the top leaves will come 
 to the ground, we should rise in the 
 same proportion. The crop should 
 be wormed and suckered at least 
 once a week. 
 
 " Cutting and Housing. — In about 
 three months after setting out, the 
 plants assume a spotted and yellow- 
 ish appearance, indicating that they 
 have attained sufficient maturity for 
 cutting and housing. This stage of 
 the tobacco culture is generally reck- 
 oned the most difficult and delicate 
 part of the whole business, and the 
 planter, if he wishes to be successful, 
 must give it all his attention, as the 
 profit of a whole plantation for the 
 year greatly depends upon the dili- 
 gence and skilful management exer- 
 cised during the few days of cutting. 
 He should, therefore, be well prepa- 
 red for this state of the crop, by hav- 
 ing the barns close, carts and wag- 
 ons in good order, and everything 
 arranged to despatch business as 
 much as possible, since it is hard 
 work he has to encounter. To save 
 a heavy crop in the best manner re- 
 quires both energy and activity. The 
 most judicious hands should be se- 
 lected for cutters. The plants are 
 cut with a knife near the ground, and 
 suffered to lie in the sun for a few 
 hours, to cause them to ' fall' or wilt. 
 When the field is a pretty large one, 
 a middling or average hand should 
 count the whole number of plants he 
 cuts, so that, allowing each cutter the 
 same ninnber, we may arrive at near- 
 ly the whole quantity cut. We should 
 never cut more nor less than will fill 
 the contemplated barn ; otherwise 
 there is labour lost in attending to a 
 barn not full, or the overplus is in- 
 jured for want of firing. The tobac- 
 co, after it has 'fallen,' or becomes 
 sufficiently limber, is carried to the 
 barn in carts or wagons, being from 
 six to ten plants on a stick, and stow- 
 ed away for firing. It is also of great 
 importance to be particular in the 
 arrangement of the sticks. The 
 equal and general circulation of heat 
 
 throughout the house depends on the 
 manner in which this is done. Our 
 barns commonly have three firing 
 tiers above, and three below the joists. 
 We commence arranging the sticks 
 on the most elevated tier in the roof, 
 to which we give five inches distance ; 
 and on each tier, as we descend, we 
 gain one inch ; so that on the lowest 
 tier, nearest the fire, the sticks are 
 placed eleven inches apart. This dis- 
 position of the sticks, I have ascer- 
 tained by late experiment, is impor- 
 tant. The sticks of tobacco being 
 wider apart next to the fires, gives a 
 freer circulation, and, consequently, 
 a more equal temperature than the 
 usual way of e(|ual distance from bot- 
 tom to top. The heat having more 
 space to ascend, must be more equal 
 and generally diffused, and will give 
 a more uniform house of tobacco. I 
 esteem this a considerable improve- 
 ment ; and if we have house room, 
 and make a greater difference in the 
 proportionate distance between the 
 sticks, it will be a still better arrange- 
 ment. The stems of the tobacco are 
 often split to hasten the drying. 
 
 " Curing. — We commence our 
 warming or preparing fires the day 
 after housing. We prefer what is 
 commonly called the ' bed logs' of 
 green, and the 'feeding' of dry or 
 seasoned wood. By this arrange- 
 ment the fires are rendered more 
 governable. The bed logs should be 
 nicely fitted to the barn floor, two 
 lengths to reach across, the large ends 
 placed outward, to guard agamst the 
 tendency of heat to the centre. We 
 keep up our warming fires from 36 to 
 48 hours, the mercury rangmg from 
 100° to 115=. This will generally 
 bring the leaf to the drying state ; the 
 tail, or end of the leaf, now begins to 
 curl handsomely, and then the planter 
 must be on the alert. If he is careless, 
 and his fires are made too hot, the 
 aromatic oil passes off with the sap 
 and smoke, and he has a house of red 
 or dark inferior tobacco. If his fires 
 are kei)t too low, his tobacco geta 
 into a clammy sweat, and the oil es- 
 capes. There is much more danger 
 of the former than of the latter evil. 
 801 
 
TOB 
 
 TOB 
 
 There is more tobacco injured by too 
 mucli heat than by the want of a suf- 
 ficiency. Tiie fires shouhl now l)e 
 kept steady and regular, witli a grad- 
 ual increase of heat, so that in 48 
 hours the mercury will stand 150- to 
 160°. It must be kept at or about 
 that temperature until the tobacco is 
 cured. 
 
 " 6Vr !/)/); ?(ir, Prcsxintr. 6fC. — After 
 the plants become sufficiently dried, 
 known by the stems getting hard, 
 which will be in about two months 
 after housing, the leaves are stripped 
 from the stalks. For this operation, 
 a moist time in the spring or late in 
 winter is chosen, to prevent the leaves 
 from crumbling, 'i'hey are divided 
 by select hands into three classes for 
 stripping: 1st, that which is of the 
 best colour and quality ; 2dly, that 
 which is somewhat inferior, compri- 
 sing the balance of the leaf; 3dly, 
 higs, or ground leaves. Some planters 
 make still more classes, but this re- 
 quires more attention and discrimi- 
 nation than can be generally bestow- 
 ed, at least by ordinary hands. After 
 sorting, the leaves are neatly tied up 
 in bundles called ' hayuls,' consisting 
 of four leaves in each bundle of the 
 first class, or six of the second and 
 third classes. The hands are next 
 ' put down to condition,' as the pro- 
 cess is commonly termed. This con- 
 sists in putting it in large bulks 
 and subjecting it to pressure from 
 weights, in which state it undergoes 
 a sweat. It must be watched during 
 this process, and as soon as it is ob- 
 served beginning to heat, taken out 
 and hung up to dry. After drying 
 thoroughly, it must be again taken 
 down and put into bulk, a damp time 
 being chosen, so as to prevent the 
 leaves from breaking or crumbling. 
 At the close of each day's stripping, 
 and oftener, if the weather is drymg, 
 we bulk down what has been strip- 
 ped, being careful to pack straight. 
 It is left in this situation until we 
 wish to commence pressing, and then 
 hung, from twelve to fifteen bundles 
 on a smooth stick, and hoisted in the 
 barn, the sticks placed six inches 
 apart, the bolster carrying a measure 
 802 
 
 in his hand. It is important to meas- 
 ure, as the order will be more uni- 
 form. It should remain until tbe 
 stems are pcrlectly dry ; after which 
 it should be taken down for j)ressing, 
 as dry as it can be handled without 
 breaking. It remains in this state a 
 few days, until the leaves are pressed 
 together, and we have soft weather 
 for packing. Each bundle is tlien 
 carefully straightened, repacked, and 
 heavily weighted. It is then ready 
 for pressing. We should press in 
 weather when the order of the tobac- 
 co will not change. Each bundle 
 should be straight, and closely pack- 
 ed in hogsheads in the usual way."' 
 The press is a long lever weighted 
 w'iih stones. 
 
 The hogshead contains from 1100 
 to 1300 pounds. One hand can at- 
 tend to 6000 plants, or rather more 
 than an acre, and these will average 
 from 1000 to 1100 pounds of cured 
 tobacco, and commands, if of good 
 quality, seven cents the pound. 
 
 New land tobacco and the Orinoko 
 variety are often sun-dried, without 
 any heat ; by this means they acquire 
 a rich golden colour, and are of supe- 
 rior excellence for chewing tobacco. 
 
 Diseases of Tobacco. — The first diffi- 
 culty the planter encounters is in the 
 dryness of the season at the time of 
 transplanting, for the young plants 
 will not take except in moist weather 
 and a wet soil. The next is the large 
 horn worm, which increases the ex- 
 pense of cultivation by requiring the 
 attention of pickers, and the worm- 
 holes injure the value of the leaves. 
 Hail storms and heavy winds are 
 often causes of damage. Sun burn- 
 ing during cutting and house burning 
 are also sources of loss. But per- 
 haps the greatest cause of loss is 
 firing or Fue Blight, which see. 
 
 TOBACCO, CHEMICAL RE- 
 MARKS CONCERNING. The fla- 
 vour and value of tobacco depend 
 entirely on the sweating or prepara- 
 tion : during this time the fermenta- 
 tion set up converts the fat which it 
 contains into the aromatic principle 
 nicotin. If, therefore, the heat is too 
 little, the quantity produced is defi- 
 
TOI 
 
 TOR 
 
 cient ; if too great, the volatile nico- 
 tin is driven out. The object in cu- 
 ring is, therefore, in the first place, 
 to retain all the fat of the leaf, and 
 in the second, to get the largest quan- 
 tity of aromatic principle in the pre- 
 pared tobacco. 
 
 Special Manures. — The analysis of 
 tobacco in Europe has brought to 
 light a remarkable fact, that the best 
 varieties contain much potash in their 
 ashes, and the inferior kinds most 
 lime. — {Pclouze.) Now these bases in 
 tobacco can replace one another, and 
 the planter will produce lime tobac- 
 co in any soil in which that base is 
 more abundant. 
 
 One hundred parts of the ashes of 
 leaf tobacco contain, according to 
 Fresenius and Will, 
 
 Potash 30-67 
 
 Lime and magnesia 3336 
 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 5'CO 
 
 Chloride of sodium (common salt) . . 5-95 
 
 Phosphates 603 
 
 Silica . . ~ 1839 
 
 lUJ-UO 
 
 From this, which is the examina- 
 tion of a good specimen, we learn 
 that the plants require not only pot- 
 ash and lime, but gypsum and salt : 
 the former is indeed added with great 
 effect in Virginia ; the latter is very 
 worthy of a trial ; one bushel to the 
 acre in a compost, applied to the 
 plants at the time of hoeing, or three 
 or four busliels to the acre, would no 
 doubt show good effects. Where the 
 New- Jersey green sand, or the ashes 
 of oaks or hickories can be obtained, 
 the potash salts can be procured. In 
 the red clays of Virginia, an addition 
 of lime would unquestionably be ser- 
 viceable. By these means we meet 
 tiie demands of the plants for miner- 
 al matters ; but it is not to be over- 
 looked that nitrates of potash and am- 
 monia, as well as sal ammonia {chlo- 
 ride), have been found in large quan- 
 tity in the juice : these are destroyed 
 by burning for the asii. Every kind 
 of animal offal and putrescent matter, 
 especially when composted into nitre 
 beds (see Xitre Beds), will therefore 
 be indicated as special manures. 
 
 TOI.S E. Six French feet, equal to 
 G 33 English feet. 
 
 TOKAY. A luscious and spright- 
 ly wine made from the Tokay grape 
 when nearly dried into raisins. 
 
 TOLU. A balsam, from the My- 
 roxijloii toluifcruni of South America. 
 TO.MATO. Solarium hjcopcrsicum. 
 An annual of the family Solanacece, 
 the fruit of which is much used as a 
 vegetable, preserve, and pickle. 
 
 The seed is sown in March in a 
 hot-bed, and the plants set out in May 
 along a fence, or near trellises where 
 they can be supported : place them 
 four feet distant. They are to be 
 hoed and weeded, and ripen in Au- 
 gust and September. There are four 
 principal varieties, the large red and 
 yellow, the pear-shaped, or fig, and 
 the cherry tomatoes, or small-sized. 
 The soil should be rich, dry, and well 
 exposed to the sun. 
 
 TOMENTOSE. Covered with 
 downy hairs. 
 
 TON. A weight of 20 cwt., or 
 2240 pounds. 
 
 TONGUE. The soft, fleshy organ 
 of taste. It is covered by nerves and 
 blood-vessels. The salted and dried 
 tongues of deer and oxen are much- 
 esteemed delicacies. They are cured 
 like hams, but usually with more nitre. 
 
 TONICS. Those medicines which 
 improve the general health and appe- 
 tite. They are commonly called bit- 
 ters. 
 
 TONKA BEAN. The fruit of the 
 Diptcri-x odorata, used to flavour snuff. 
 
 TONSILS. Small glands situated 
 in the throat. 
 
 TOP DRESSING. Applying ma- 
 nures to the surface of land, or to the 
 growing crop, grass, <Scc. Spring is 
 the proper time, but care should be 
 taken that the soil is not too much 
 pressed in carting. 
 
 TORMENTIL. PotenliUa officina- 
 lis. An exotic with an astringent root. 
 
 TORREFACTION. Roasting min- 
 eral bodies, usually under a red heat. 
 
 TORTRICES. A tribe of noctur- 
 nal lepidoptera, the larvaj of most of 
 which conceal themselves by rolling 
 up leaves and living in the interior. 
 
 TORUS. The end of the flower 
 branch on which the carpels are sit- 
 uated. 
 
 803 
 
TRA 
 
 TRA 
 
 TOURMALINE. A gem, valued 
 from its jnopcrty of polarizing light. 
 
 TOURNlyl'ET. A bandage which 
 may be tightened to any extent by 
 means of a screw, so as to exert 
 pressure upon a cushion, and com- 
 press the arterial truniis to which it 
 is applied. It is chiefly used to pre- 
 vent hemorrhage in the operations of 
 amputation. 
 
 TRACHEA. The windpipe. 
 
 TRACIIE.E. The spiral vessels 
 of leaves and insects. 
 
 TRACIIELIDANS. A fainily of 
 coleoptcra, in many of which the head 
 is supported on a kind of neck. 
 
 TRACHEOTOMY. The operation 
 of cutting into the windpipe to ex- 
 tract foreign bodies, &c. 
 
 TRACHYTE. An ancient lava. 
 
 TRAGACANTH. A variety of 
 gum, which swells, but is not soluble 
 in cold water. 
 
 TRAINEAU. A Flemish imple- 
 ment of agriculture. See Tillage. 
 
 TRAINING. The education of 
 horses. See Horse. 
 
 TRAINING TREES. The man- 
 agement, by pruning, of the stem and 
 branches of trees, so as to secure an 
 increase of fruit of a superior quality. 
 Training against walls has also the 
 advantage of enabling the orchardist 
 to cultivate southern fruits, and ri- 
 pen them more perfectly. The chill- 
 ing effects of winds and excessive 
 evaporation are averted, while the in- 
 creased temperature to which the 
 fruit is exposed renders it sweeter. 
 
 There are three general plans of 
 
 training: on espaliers, walls, or as 
 dwarf standards. The espalier is usu 
 ally a trellis, consi-sting of posts ten 
 feet high, set eight or twelve feet 
 apart, and sustaining horizontal laths 
 or wires: the trees are therefore 
 trained horizontally. This is usually 
 intended for grapes, apples, or pears. 
 But the posts arc sometimes set in 
 circles, around which three or more 
 branches are trained. This is called 
 spiral or hoop training (see Fig. I). 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Funnel training is a modification , 
 the posts are set in an inclined direc- 
 tion, so as to meet at their summits, 
 and produce the outline of a cone ; 
 wire is wound around it at intervals 
 of a foot. Light iron bars are some- 
 limes used instead of the wooden 
 posts. 
 
 Walls. — The choicest varieties of 
 fruit, which require additional heat, 
 are placed on walls, as apricots, nec- 
 tarines, peaches, plums, grapes, figs, 
 and some cherries and pears. The 
 method of arranging the branches dif- 
 
 804 
 
TRAINING TREES. 
 
 fers with the fruit, but the horizontal 
 flan is most recommended, espe- 
 cially for plums and pears ; but some 
 gardeners give it the preference in 
 nearly every case {Fig. 3). 
 
 Fan training is the most common, 
 especially for peaches, nectarines, 
 apricots, almonds, figs, plums, and 
 cherries of small growth [Fig. 3). 
 
 rig 
 
 Besides these most common meth- 
 ods, pendant, vertical, and high train- 
 ing are practised. In the first, the 
 branches are curved downward ; in 
 the second, several shoots, selected 
 from two horizontal branches, are car- 
 ried upright ; in the third, the main 
 stem is allowed to run nearly to the 
 top of the w'all without branchins, 
 3. 
 
 and then the uppermost shoots are 
 trained horizontally and drooping. 
 This is especially recommended in 
 the grape and pear. It is a good plan 
 for filling up a wall, the lower parts 
 of which are covered with peaches and 
 other fan-trained trees. 
 
 Some gardeners combine several 
 of these plans together, so as to give 
 the branches partly a horizontal, and 
 partly a fan training, and instead o.f 
 one main stem only.others select two. 
 
 Standards. — The commonest train- 
 ing for standards is dirarjing. The 
 leading shoot is kept down to eight 
 or ten feet, and the lower branches 
 trained out and thinned, so as to give 
 the tree the appearance of a shrub. 
 In this way apple orchards are man- 
 aged in Europe, and it is wonderful 
 how many varieties are thus culti- 
 vated on an acre. For this purpose, 
 crab or paradise stocks are chosen 
 for grafting, and the trees of small 
 growth taken. The main stem is 
 made to branch at eighteen inches, 
 and the trees set at eight to twelve 
 feet apart. 
 
 The filbert is trained in a peculiar 
 manner : the leading shoot is headed 1 
 down to eighteen inches, and eight i 
 
 strong shoots obtained within twelve 
 inches of the ground, and these are 
 trained outward by placing a hoop 
 between them : when they are well 
 formed, they are trained curving up- 
 ward. The centre is to be kept free, 
 and the shoots encouraged to six 
 feet ; the small TigA. 
 
 lateral branch- 
 es along these 
 shoots are to be 
 kept down to six 
 inches, and will 
 bear the fruit. 
 
 Training en 
 quenouille, or dis- 
 taff fashion, is a 
 favourite method 
 in France and 
 Brussels for ap- 
 ples and pears 
 {Figure A:). The 
 branches are tied 
 down to stakes 
 driven near the 
 root, or to the 
 stem, until the 
 wood is firm. The 
 height of these 
 trees is usually 
 eight feet, but in France they are 
 805 
 
TRA 
 
 sometimes allowed to grow to twenty 
 feet. 
 
 Another French plan of training 
 standards is in a pyramidal form (en 
 pyramidc, Ftff. 5) ; this, with the pre- 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 ceding, is the common method of 
 managing apples and pears. The tree 
 is either cut down to a dwarf of eight 
 or ten feet, or allowed to run up to 
 twenty or more. 
 
 TRAM ROAD. A road set with 
 stone flags at such distances that the 
 wheels of wagons, &c., may contin- 
 ually roll on them. 
 
 TRANSITION ROCKS. The ex- 
 tensive series of stratified and an- 
 cient rocks lying between the granit- 
 ic series and the coal. It consists 
 of slates, gneiss, and crystaUine lime- 
 stones. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING. The remo- 
 val of plants or trees from one place 
 to another. See Planting. 
 
 TRAPA NATANS. The water- 
 chestnut. 
 
 TRAP ROCKS. Ancient rocks 
 of fusion occurring in mountains 
 and large seams. They consist of 
 various mixtures of hornblend and 
 feldspar, and when containing much 
 iron are very destructible, but usual- 
 ly resist the action of weather for an 
 immense time. 
 
 TRAUiMATIC (from rpav^ia, a 
 wound). Relating to or arising from 
 a wound. 
 806 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRAVELLER'S JOY. Clematis 
 vitalha. A climbing shrub with while 
 flowers. 
 
 TREFOIL. A general name for 
 the clovers, lucern, &,c. Plants which 
 have leaves of three leaflets. 
 
 TRENCH. A deep ditch. Trench- 
 ing, in gardening, is the preparation 
 of soils by digging two or more spades 
 deep, and exposing the soil. 
 
 TRENCH PLOUGHING. Deep 
 ploughing; subsoiling. 
 
 TREPAN and TREPHINE. In- 
 struments for removing a part of the 
 skull in disease or accidents. 
 
 TRIFOLIUM. Trifolmm incarna- 
 tuin. " This is an annual of rapid 
 growth, so that in southern climates 
 it may be sowed in summer after an 
 early crop of corn, and fed off or cut 
 before winter. It will stand the win- 
 ter well if sowed later, and give very 
 early feed in spring. It produces a 
 great abundance of seed if allowed to 
 ripen. It is a valuable addition to 
 the plants usually raised for fodder, 
 and fills up an interval between other 
 plants by its very early and rapid ve- 
 getation. The mode of sowing the 
 Trifolmm incarnatum is simple, and 
 attended with very little expense. 
 In the month of August, as soon as 
 the crops of grain have been reaped, 
 the stubble is well harrowed, to raise 
 a small portion of mould ; the trifo- 
 lium is then sowed at the rate of four 
 bushels of the seed, in the husk, per 
 acre. There is a double advantage 
 in sowing it in this manner ; it saves 
 the thrashing required to separate 
 the seed, as a very slight beating will 
 separate the florets of the head or 
 spike sufliciently to sow them ; and 
 it vegetates sooner from the moist- 
 ure retained in the husk which en- 
 velopes the seed. A bush-harrow is 
 drawn over the land to cover the 
 seed, and it is rolled with a light roll- 
 er if the land be of a firm nature, or 
 with a heavier roller if it be a loose 
 soil. Thus the trifolium will vege- 
 tate much more certainly than if the 
 land had been regularly ploughed and 
 harrowed, which would have loosen- 
 ed it too much. 
 " It is not advantageous to let it be 
 
TRI 
 
 cut lor hay. Its stem then has ac- 
 quired a hard, woody texture, and it 
 makes very inferior liay. Its princi- 
 pal value is to feetl oil" with ewes and 
 lambs before other feed is ready in 
 spring, or to cut it green for horses 
 and cattle. The ground may be 
 ploughed and prepared for spring 
 crops as early as is required ; and 
 1^ thus the trifolium in no way inter- 
 " feres with the usual rotations. When 
 the common broad clover has failed 
 from any cause, and bare patches are 
 left in the fields in autumn, the trifo- 
 lium may be sowed there with advan- 
 tage ; it will overtake the clover sow- 
 ed in the preceding spring, and fdl up 
 the deficiency. In this case a mix- 
 ture of Trifolium incarnaliim and Ital- 
 ian rye grass {Loiium pcrenne Ilali- 
 cum) has been found very useful. 
 If the trifolium be sowed early in 
 spring, it will produce very good 
 feed in a few months, and the land 
 may afterward be sowed with tur- 
 nips, without any loss of time. It 
 must be recollected that the Trifoli- 
 um incariiatum is a catch crop, that 
 is, one which comes in between two 
 regular crops, without interfering 
 with the rotation, and that it costs 
 little more than the seed, which is 
 easily raised, or may be bought at a 
 very moderate rate. All cattle are 
 fond of it in its young state, and it 
 comes in a fortnight earlier than lu- 
 cern, which is one of the first of the 
 artificial grasses fit for cutting in 
 spring. The great expectations rais- 
 ed at its first uitroduction not having 
 been fully realized, this plant has 
 rather fallen in the estimation of 
 farmers ; but if it is not so valuable 
 as the broad clover in a regular rota- 
 tion, it ought not to be despised as a 
 subsidiary crop. When the season 
 has prevented the sowing of spring 
 corn, it may be advantageous to sow 
 it. together with Italian rye grass, as 
 soon as the land is clear of root- 
 weeds. They may e fed off with 
 sheep early in autumn, and the land, 
 being manured or not, as may be 
 thought necessary, may be plouglied 
 and sowed with wheat. Thus the 
 trifolium and rye grass will come in 
 
 TRO 
 
 the place of a clean fallow ; and the 
 ground having been covered during 
 the heat of the summer, and manu- 
 red by the sheep folded on it, will bo 
 much improved for the wheat crop. 
 It must be remembered that the tri- 
 folium requires a solid bottom, and 
 that the heavy roller should not be 
 spared before it is sowed. This is 
 chielly to be recommended on soils 
 which do not suit spring tares, and 
 as a substitute for these ; for under 
 favourable circumstances the tares 
 will produce the greatest quantity of 
 feed. It is, however, useful to have 
 a choice of different green crops, 
 from which may be selected those 
 which offer the greatest prospect of 
 success, when the season, the soil, 
 and other circumstances are takeu 
 into consideration." 
 
 TRIMERANS. A section of co- 
 leoptera, in many of which the tar 
 sus contains three joints. 
 
 TRIMMER. In building, a piece 
 of timber framed at right angles to 
 the joists opposite chimneys or the 
 well holes of stairs, which receives 
 the ends of the joists intercepted by 
 the opening. 
 
 TRIMMING JOIST. In build- 
 ing, a joist into which a trimmer is 
 framed. 
 
 TRIPLE SALT. A salt with two 
 bases combined with one acid. 
 
 TRISMUS. Locked jaw. 
 
 TROCAR. An instrument for let- 
 ting out water in dropsies, wind in 
 hoveu, &c. It consists of a sharp 
 rod of metal contained within a case 
 or tube of silver up to the sharp por- 
 tion. When used, the tube is separa- 
 ted in part from the rod and held 
 against the part, and then the rod is 
 driven in so as to penetrate into the 
 cavity, and, on being withdrawn, the 
 tube is pressed into the perforation, 
 and enables the fluid to escape per- 
 fectly. 
 
 TRONA. The impure carbonate 
 of soda, or natron. 
 
 TROPHI (from rpedu, I nourish). 
 A name given to the different instru- 
 ments or organs contained in the 
 mouth or closing it, and employed in 
 manducation or deglutition. They 
 807 
 
TUF 
 
 TUR 
 
 include the labnim, labium, mandibula, 
 viaxilUr, lingua, and pharynx. 
 
 'I'KUCKr A kindofwhecl-barrow. 
 
 TRUFFLE. "A suhterrancan fun- 
 gus, of a roundish, ol)long Ibrni, and 
 a blackisili biovvn colour, much em- 
 ployed Ml cookery. It is found by 
 dogs and pigs, trained for the pur- 
 pose, in soil beneath trees, especially 
 beeches and oaks ; it is, however, 
 very local. It is propagated by spores 
 included in sinuous chambers in the 
 interior ; but has never yet been cul- 
 tivated with success, notwithstand- 
 ing many attem])ts that have been 
 made. Botanists recognise several 
 kinds of truifles, the commonest be- 
 ing the Tuber ctlmriumy — {Lindley.) 
 
 TRUNCATED. With the smaller 
 parts cut off or removed. 
 
 TRUNCHEONS. Stout stems of 
 trees, with the branches lopped off for 
 rapid growth. 
 
 TRUNK. The shaft of a column ; 
 the body without extremities ; the 
 large stem of a tree. In entomology, 
 the segment winch lies between the 
 head and the abdomen. 
 
 TRUSS. A bundle of hay or 
 straw : the truss of hay weighs 56 lbs., 
 of straw 36. A frame of timbers for 
 supporting a beam or piece. Any 
 bandage intended to support a part 
 of the body, as in hernias. 
 
 TUBE. A pipe. 
 
 TUBER. In botany, a kind of 
 fleshy stem, formed under ground, 
 and filled with starch. It is com- 
 monly looked upon as a root, as in 
 the potato, but differs from roots in 
 having buds. 
 
 TUBERCLE. A roundish tumour 
 of small size, and of the consistence 
 of cheese, found in diseased struc- 
 tures. 
 
 TUCKAHOE. Indian loaf. An 
 underground fungus, often two feet 
 deep, but sometimes partly exposed, 
 and from the size of a nut to a man's 
 head, roundish, and of a brown col- 
 our. It is the Lycoperdon solidus 
 of Clayton. When fresh, it is of an 
 acrid taste, but becomes eatable 
 when dry. 
 
 TUFA. A volcanic rock, consist- 
 ing of cemented scoria?. 
 808 
 
 TTTFO. A light, calcareous stone. 
 
 TULIP. The genus Tuhpa, con- 
 taining numerous ornamental spe- 
 cies : they are all bulbous. 
 
 TULIP-TREE. Lirwdemlron tu- 
 lipifera. White wood. It attains a 
 great size on fertile bottoms, meas- 
 uring even 150 feet in the Middle 
 States, with a trunk of sixty to eigh- 
 ty feet without branches. The flow- 
 ers are very attractive to bees and 
 other insects. The wood is white or 
 yellowish, and very soft ; it is much 
 used by cabinet-makers and in build- 
 ing, under the name of poplar. 
 
 TUMBREL. A rough cart. 
 
 T U M B R I L. A feeding trough 
 made of basket-work, or withes, set 
 coarse, so that many sheep can take 
 hay from it at the same time. 
 
 TUMOUR. An unnatural enlarge- 
 ment. This term was formerly used 
 to express any swelling or enlarge- 
 ment, as that of an abscess, or from 
 a bruise ; but it is now more strictly 
 applied to enlargements of a more 
 permanent nature, in which a change 
 of structure takes place, or a new sub- 
 stance is produced, as fatty, fibrous, 
 or bony tumours, in which the swell- 
 ings are respectively formed of fatty, 
 fil)rous, or osseous matters. These 
 being organic diseases, are not to be 
 treated by poulticing or lancing, and 
 seldom give way to any treatment 
 but an entire removal by the knife. 
 
 TUN. A measure of 253 gallons, 
 or four hogsheads. 
 
 TUNIC, TUNICA. A membrane 
 or coat covering an organ. 
 
 TUPELO. The name given by 
 Michaux to several species of Nyssa, 
 or black gum. 
 
 TURBINATE. AVhirled, and of 
 a conical figure. 
 
 TURF. " The sod which cov- 
 ers the surface of pastures. Tlie 
 word is often also applied to the 
 substance which is generally call- 
 ed peat. We shall here notice the 
 uses to which turf is applied, when 
 we mean a sod taken from the sur- 
 face on which some living plants are 
 still growing, or have lately done so. 
 Near extensive heaths which have 
 never been reclaimed, and in situa- 
 
TURF. 
 
 tions where no regular peat-bogs are 
 to be found, turf becomes a very use- 
 ful fuel. It is pared ofl" the surface 
 with the heath growing on it, in dry 
 weather, in sods of a convenient size, 
 generally round and about one foot in 
 diameter. The thickness of the sod 
 depends on the depth and abundance 
 of the roots found in it, as they are 
 the sole canse of the turf continuing 
 to burn when the blaze caused by the 
 burning of the heath is over. As the 
 soil of the places where turf is usual- 
 ly cut is generally of a sandy nature, 
 turf ashes are not so valuable for ma- 
 nuring the land as peat ashes ; still 
 they contain portions of potash and 
 other vegetable salts, and produce a 
 very good elfect when spread as a 
 top-dressing on moist meadows the 
 soil of which is chiefly composed of 
 clay. 
 
 " Turf is used for many other pur- 
 poses, as well as for fuel ; laid lilve 
 tiles on a roof, overlapping each oth- 
 er, they form an excellent and cheap 
 protection against rain ; cut some- 
 what thicker, and in the siiape of 
 bricks, they serve to build walls, 
 which are durable. 
 
 " The surface of good pastures, es- 
 pecially of commons, is often pared 
 for the purpose of forming an artifi- 
 cial turf for ornament, or for the pur- 
 poses of pasture. In the first case, 
 those spots are chosen where the 
 grass is of the finest and closest pile. 
 The surface is pared as thin as can 
 conveniently be done, so that the 
 sward shall not break. A proper 
 spot having been chosen, it is divided 
 by the spade, or some sharp instru- 
 ment like a knife stuck across a long 
 handle, into strips about a foot wide ; 
 and a very sharp flat instrument with 
 a bent handle, so as to work horizon- 
 tally, is thrust an inch, or a little 
 more, below the surface, paring off 
 the strip which has been marked. 
 As the workman who cuts the sod 
 advances, another rolls it up before 
 him, until it is of a proper size to be 
 carried off. A cut is then made 
 across the strip, and another roll is 
 begun. Thus a large space may be 
 completely bared, or parallel strips 
 Y v v2 
 
 may be cut out, leaving some of the 
 turf uncut between them. In this 
 case the loss of the herbage will be 
 soonest repaired by the spreading of 
 the grasses from the strips wbich are 
 left. When an ornamental lawn is 
 to be formed by laying down the turf, 
 tbe ground is levelled, or laid in any 
 desired form. It is well rolled and 
 beaten, to make it firm ; and if the 
 weather is dry, it is well watered be- 
 fore the turf is applied. As lawns 
 require frequent mowing, a close, 
 slow-growing turf is a great advan- 
 tage ; it should therefore be taken, if 
 possible, from a poor, thin soil. If 
 the ground to be covered is of a rich 
 quality, it is best to remove the soil 
 and lay some of the poorer subsoil 
 bare, to place the turf on : a rich 
 moist soil would make the grass grow- 
 too rank, and require constant mow- 
 ing and rolling to keep it down. Brick- 
 bats and rubbish are ot'ten spread 
 over the ground, where a lawn is to be 
 formed by turfing it over : these not 
 only form a poorer soil, but also keep 
 it drier by their porosity. It need 
 not be observed, that where turfing 
 is resorted to, to cover bare places in 
 meadows or pasture, the reverse of 
 all this should be done, and manure 
 spread over the places where the turf 
 is to be laid, so that the roots may 
 be invigorated and a rich pile of grass 
 may spring up. 
 
 " When there are banks and ine- 
 qualities in pastures, it is often use- 
 ful to pare off all the turf, rolling it 
 up from the places which are to be 
 levelled. The superfluous soil is 
 then removed, and if it has been long 
 in the form of a dry bank, it is spread 
 over the grass, which it greatly in- 
 vigorates. The new surlace is en- 
 riched with manure if it reijuires it, 
 and in moist weather, or after wa- 
 tering it. the turf is unrolled over it 
 and well beaten down. A heavy 
 roller drawn over it will greatly as- 
 sist its rooting, and thus an unsight- 
 ly bank, on which the grass was usu- 
 ally either coarse or burned up, ac- 
 cording as the season was wet or dry, 
 becomes a good and neat pasture. 
 Another important use of turf is to 
 809 
 
TUR 
 
 TUR 
 
 cut it into small strips and divide 
 these into pieces of a square incli in 
 size, or somewhat more, (or tlie pur- 
 pose of hiying land to grass by inocu- 
 lahon. This is only a partial turfing, 
 which extends rapidly, and, in the 
 course of a very few years, converts 
 a field which was not very produc- 
 tive, as arable land, into a valuable 
 meadow, especially if it is so situated 
 as to be capable of occasional irri- 
 gation." 
 
 TURKEY. See Poultry. 
 
 TURMERIC. "The root of the 
 Curcuma longa. This root yields a 
 fine yellow powder, which is occa- 
 sionally used as a dye-stuff in medi- 
 cine ; it also forms one of the ingre- 
 dients oi cxary poicdcr. Paper stain- 
 ed with turmeric is often used in the 
 chemical laboratory as a test of the 
 presence of free alkalies and their 
 carbonates, by which its yellow col- 
 our is converted to brown." 
 
 TURNER'S CERATE. It is made 
 by melting half a pound of yellow 
 wax with two pounds of lard, and, 
 when cool, working into the mixture 
 half a pound of prepared calamine. 
 It is used to excoriations, or galled 
 places, burns, and is a rnild astrin- 
 gent. 
 
 TURXIP. Brassica rapa. *'This 
 well-known plant is cultivated for its 
 bulbous roots, both in the garden and 
 the field. As a culinary root it has 
 been prized from the earliest times, 
 and many varieties have been culti- 
 vated for the table ; but it is those of 
 a larger kind, cultivated in the fields, 
 which form so important a part of 
 the most improved systems of agri- 
 culture on all light soils, that the suc- 
 cess of the farmer is, in general, pro- 
 portioned to the quantity of turnips 
 raised on his farm. They are the 
 great foundation of all the best sys- 
 tems of cropping, by supplying the 
 manure required for the subsequent 
 crop, and, at the same time, clearing 
 the land of all noxious weeds, by the 
 numerous ploughings, stirrings, and 
 hoeings which they require. 
 
 " Turnips were first raised upon 
 land which had already borne a crop 
 that was reaped early in summer, and 
 810 
 
 on fallows which had been worked 
 and cleared early, so as to leave a 
 sufficient interval between the last 
 ploughing and the time of sowing 
 winter corn to have a tolerable crop 
 of turnips. These turnips, however, 
 which are still cultivated by the name 
 of stubble, or eddish turnips, never 
 grow so large as those which had 
 been sown earlier on land well pre- 
 pared and highly manured. 
 
 " The regular cultivation of tur- 
 nips on a large scale was originally 
 introduced from Flanders into Nor- 
 folk two centuries ago. It was long 
 confined to one or two individuals, 
 who cultivated turnips very success- 
 fully ; hut at last it spread, and was 
 greatly improved by introducing the 
 row culture, according to TuH's sys- 
 tem, which acquired the name of the 
 Northumberland mode of cultivation. 
 The usual mode of sowing turnips, 
 both in Flanders and in Norfolk, was 
 broad-cast ; and, as the labourers in 
 both countries became very expert in 
 hoeing them out at regular distances, 
 this mode was long preferred. In 
 fact, the cultivation of turnips m 
 rows is scarcely practised at all in 
 Flanders, and, notwithstanding its ev- 
 ident superiority in respect to quan- 
 tity of produce and economy of la- 
 bour, it cannot be said to be yet uni- 
 versally adopted. The Northumber- 
 land method of cultivating the crop, 
 which is particularly adapted to moist, 
 cold, or tenacious soils, or to farms 
 where manure is scarce, and which 
 is mostly managed with but little use 
 of the hand hoe, is illustrated by the 
 following cuts : 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 " Fig. 1 shows a transverse sec- 
 tion of the ground when prepared for 
 receiving the manure, it being gath- 
 ered in one-bout ridgelets. The dung 
 carts pass lengthwise, and the dung 
 is dropped, or pulled out into the fur- 
 rows : lads follow the carts and spread 
 out the dung from the little heaps 
 along the hollow of each drill. The 
 horse with the loaded cart walks in 
 the interval of the ridges, so that a 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 wheel of the cart shall go in each of 
 the liollows of the two lidffos adjoin- 
 ing:^. The person who directs the 
 horse follows the cart, which is open 
 hehind, and with a crooked two-prong- 
 ed fork, or dung-hack {Fig-. 2), drags 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 nr 
 
 out the dung, as the horse moves 
 along, into little heaps in the hollow 
 of every third ridge, at tlie distance 
 from each other of from eight to ten 
 feet. Behind follow three young per- 
 sons, with each a two-pronged or 
 throe-pronged fork (F/^'-.a), each walk- 
 Vig. 3. 
 
 ing in the interval of a ridge, and 
 spreading out the dung in as regular 
 a manner as possihle, as a cross sec- 
 tion of the ridgelets with the dung 
 deposited in the intervals would show 
 {Fig. 4). It is immediately covered 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 by the plough, winch, pasbuig down 
 the middle of each ridgelet, splits it 
 into two, so that a new drill is 
 formed, whose top is immediately 
 above the former hollow of the old 
 drill, as may be seen in Figure 5. 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 For this purpose, the double muuld- 
 board plough may be employed, but 
 the single plough is preferred, as it 
 does the work better, though it re- 
 quires double the time. The turnip 
 seed is sown upon the top of the ridg- 
 es, above the manure, with a horse 
 or hand drill, the former of which 
 has a roller, which precedes the coul- 
 ters and flattens the ridges. When 
 the seed is sown by hand, a hand roll- 
 
 er is drawn over the ridges {Fig. 6;. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 "As soon as the plants have as- 
 sumed what is termed the rough leaf, 
 and are about two inches in height, 
 the process of hoeing commences. 
 This is done by turning first a light 
 shallow furrow from the plants, or 
 hy the horse hoe, or cultivator with 
 lateral coulters. 
 
 " The great object on poor light 
 lands, especially those which have 
 lately been brought into cultivation, 
 is to raise a crop of turnips ; for when 
 once this is obtained, and the land 
 has been improved by the folding of 
 sheep upon it, there is no great diffi- 
 culty in maintaining the fertility thus 
 produced by judicious management 
 and frequent green crops. Great im- 
 provement in poor soils has been ef- 
 fected by the introduction of ground 
 bones as a manure, which have the 
 peculiar property of favouring the 
 growth of the turnip, and have con- 
 sequently been used on poor light 
 sands and gravels to a great extent, 
 and with unvaried success, without 
 much help from farm-yard manure. 
 It has, however, been found that a 
 much greater profit is obtained from 
 the land by uniting the regular appli- 
 cation of farm-yard dung with that of 
 the bone dust. For this purpose, the 
 best farmers prepare their land, wliere 
 they intend to sow turnips, early after 
 harvest, by giving it as complete a 
 cultivation as they can before win- 
 ter ; and they put on it a good coat 
 of manure and plough it in. In the 
 beginning of summer another plough- 
 ing is given, with rei>eated harrow- 
 811 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 ings, to destroy the weeds which 
 have sprung up. If tlie subsoil is 
 dry, or the land has been thoroughly 
 drained, the seed may be drilled m 
 rows from two feet to thirty inches 
 apart, with bones or any equivalent 
 artificial manure on the flat surface : 
 a pound of seed the acre is a good al- 
 lowance. The turnip seed can scarce- 
 ly fail to vegetate soon. Less dan- 
 ger arises from dry weather than if 
 they were on the top of a ridge, and 
 the intervals can be readily stirred 
 by the plough, or any other instru- 
 ment adapted to the purpose. The 
 manure, which has had time to m- 
 corporate with the soil and to impart 
 to it the various gaseous products of 
 its decomposition, is in the best state 
 to nourish the young plant, untd it 
 can push forth its roots ; a more rap- 
 id growth is ensured, which is the 
 best preservative against the fly ; and 
 experience has proved that this is a 
 much more certain way to ensure a 
 good crop of turnips, especially of 
 Swedes, than the old method of put- 
 ting all the manure immediately un- 
 der the seed in the rows, where it 
 often remains inert if dry weather 
 comes on soon after the seed is sown. 
 The quantity of manure put on in au- 
 tumn, or very early in spring, depends 
 on the means of the farm. If ten 
 cubic yards of short dung can be af- 
 forded per acre, the crop of turnips 
 will amply repay it ; and tu enty bush- 
 els of bone dust or less p^racre wdl 
 be sufficient to drill with the seed. 
 Long fresh manure may be safely 
 ploughed in before winter, which 
 would be very improper in a light 
 sod if used in summer. This will be 
 rotten before the turnips are sown, 
 and all the expense of forming dung- 
 hills and turning them over is saved. 
 ^^'here farm-yard manure is scarce, 
 hah the above quantity may be used, 
 and a fair crop of turnips may still be 
 expected. We have ourselves fol- 
 lowed this method with abundant 
 manure, and also with half the usual 
 quantity, the success being always 
 in proi;ortion to the quantity of farm- 
 yard maimre. 
 
 " The early vegetation of the seed 
 813 
 
 is essential to a goop crop of turnips. 
 In its young and tender state it is 
 liable to a variety of accidents. Its 
 great enemy is the turnip fly {Haltica 
 nemorum), which appears always in 
 great quantities if there is any con- 
 tinuance of dry weather. The mores 
 frequently turnips are sown n the 
 same ground, the more abundant is 
 the fly ; but where the surface has 
 been pared and burned there is sel- 
 dom any loss from this cause. It is 
 generally found that in moist weath- 
 er the fly does comparatively little 
 harm, as then the vegetation is rapid, 
 and the plant, when once it has put 
 forth its rough leaves, is considered 
 safe. Whatever, therefore, accel- 
 erates the vegetation will secure the 
 growth of the turnip. In very dry 
 seasons, if water is at hand, it is well 
 worth while to water the newlj'-sown 
 ro\vs by means of a common water- 
 cart ; and if some liquid manure be 
 mixed with the water, the effect will 
 be astonishing. By means of two 
 leathern hose two rows may readily 
 be watered at once ; and if the pond 
 or stream be not above half a mile 
 off, a vast extent of ground may thus 
 be watered in one day. Nothing 
 brings on vegetation so fast as dilu- 
 ted liquid manure, care being taken 
 that it be not too strong. The best 
 time for watering is in the evening, 
 or early in the morning ; and if in a 
 fine summer's night the water-cart 
 were used before daylight, there 
 would be no great inconvenieuee to 
 the horse or his driver. It some- 
 times happens in soils rather com- 
 pact, that a crust is formed on the 
 surface wiiieh has been harrowed fine 
 and rolled, and this impedes the ve- 
 getation by excluding the air neces- 
 sary to germination. In this case, 
 no better remedy can be applied than 
 watering, which softens the crust 
 and lets the young plant through. As 
 soon as the turnip plant has put forth 
 Its rough leaves, the intervals be- 
 tween the rows should be stirred with 
 a light plough drawn up by one horse. 
 The plough can be made to go with- 
 in an inch or two of the plants, throw- 
 ing the earth from the row into the 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 interval : a small harrow, wliich can 
 be set to any required width, is then 
 drawn between the rows, to loosen 
 the earth raised by the plougli : this 
 greatly increases the absorption of 
 moisture, and invigorates tlie young 
 plants. They may now be thinned 
 out in the rows by means of a hoe 
 about twelve inches broad. See Fiff. 
 7 ; a is the blade, which will hoe out all 
 Fig- 7. 
 
 the superfluous plants, leaving little 
 tufts a foot or more apart. These 
 tufts are thinned out by hand, leaving 
 only one healthy plant in each. Thus 
 the turnips are left at a proper dis- 
 tance, and, having ample room, will 
 soon cover the rows. A horse-hoe 
 is now drawn between the rows, to 
 eradicate all weeds and keep the soil 
 open forthe fibres of the roots to shoot 
 in. It is not advisable to throw the 
 earth overthe turnips, unless it be just 
 before winter, to protect them from tlie 
 frost ; on the contrary, in wet weath- 
 er the earth is more likely to cause the 
 turnip to rot than to help its growth. 
 The fibres which draw the nourish- 
 ment strike in the soil below, and 
 spread between the rows wherever 
 they meet with a loose and mellow 
 earth. 
 
 " In order to have a heavy crop, 
 especially of Swedish turnips, or rula 
 baga, it is advisable to sow the seed 
 early, that is, in the beginning of July ; 
 they will then have the advantage of 
 the summer showers, and be beyond 
 the reach of t!ie fly in a very few 
 days; and when the dry weather sets 
 in, they will already have a supply of 
 moisture in tlieir roots, and the libres, 
 having struck deep, will not suffer 
 any check. The only inconvenience 
 of sowing early is, that many of the 
 plants are apt to run to seed. This 
 is in many cases owing to the seed 
 which is used. If the seed has been 
 raised from fine roots which have 
 stood the winter, there is little dan- 
 ger of the plants running to seed in 
 the first summer ; but, as is often the 
 case, if small, imperfect roots are la- 
 
 ken, or those wliich run to seed in 
 autumn, then the plants will liave a 
 tendency to jiroduco seed, and not 
 bulbs. The white Norfolk turnip and 
 its varieties should be sown about 
 midsummer, to have a good and heavy 
 crop before winter. The distance at 
 which they may be left in thinning 
 them out must depend on the variety, 
 whether it has a wide-spreading top 
 or not. The best crops, both of 
 Swedes and common field turnips, 
 are generally those where the tops 
 are vigorous and moderately spread- 
 ing. A small top will not nourish a 
 large bulb ; but when the growth is 
 chiefly in the leaves, the bulbs are 
 seldom large. 
 
 " It may be considered as a gener- 
 al rule, that the most advantageous 
 mode of consuming turnips is to draw 
 them and cut them in slices in the 
 field, to be there consumed in troughs 
 by sheep, to whom corn or oil-cake, 
 as well as hay, is regularly given. 
 When the crop of turnips is abun- 
 dant, part of them may be stored for 
 the cattle in the yard or fatting-stalls, 
 and for the milch cows and heifers. 
 They will require nothing but good 
 straw, if they have plenty of turnips, 
 and no hay whatever need be used, 
 unless it be for the horses ; and even 
 they will thrive well on Swedish tur- 
 nips and straw, with a small quanti- 
 ty of oats. Turnips are often left in 
 the field all the wmter, which great- 
 ly deteriorates them. If they cannot 
 all be fed off before December, they 
 should be taken up, with the tops on, 
 and set close together, covered with 
 the tops, on a piece of grass, or in 
 some dry spot. They will thus be 
 quite sufficiently protected from the 
 frost ; or the tops may be cut off 
 within an inch of the crown of the 
 root ; and they may be stored in long 
 camps five feet wide and four feet 
 high, sloped like the roof of a house, 
 and covered with straw and earth, in 
 which state they will keep till they 
 are wanted. It is advantageous to 
 have different varieties of turnips, 
 which will come to perfection in suc- 
 cession ; and it is useful to sow some 
 at different times for this purpose. 
 813 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 The small turnip, which from its rap- ; Let us contrast this expense with 
 id growth is called the nimble turnip, tliat of feeding hay. We believe a 
 may be sown as late as the end of ration of hay is 28 lbs. Let us sup- 
 August, and in the mild seasons of pose it to be 25 lbs. Then, to keep 
 the Middle States will produce toler- | the tive cows 60 days would require 
 
 able bulbs in winter and early in 
 spring. The frost will not injure a 
 growing turnip so readily as one 
 which is come to perfection, and the 
 leaves of which are withered. Some 
 varieties, like the yellow Aberdeen 
 and the green round turnip, are hard- 
 ier than others, and will stand the 
 winter well in a light and dry soil." 
 The method of taking up t!ie crop 
 
 7500 lbs., or 3 tons 15 cwt. of hay, 
 which, at a fair medium price of 810 
 a ton, would amount to §37 50, ma- 
 king a diflerence in favour of the tur- 
 nips of $21 25, or nearly three fifths. 
 Let us test the relative profits in an- 
 other way. The average product of 
 our grass lands is about two tons the 
 acre ; say the product of two acres 
 would be 7500 lbs. ; then the prod- 
 
 for winter store is by running a fur- j uct of an acre in ruta baga would go 
 row along the rows, and turning the about as far in feeding stock as the 
 
 product of two acres in meadow ; 
 with the farther advantage, where 
 the turnips are sown upon a young 
 clover lay, that one half the hay may 
 also be cut from the acre which pro- 
 duces the 600 bushels of turnips, the 
 latter being raised as a second crop." 
 " There are so many varieties cul- 
 tivated that it is difficult to enumer- 
 ate them. The Swedish turnips may 
 be classed according to the colour 
 and size of their tops and the shape 
 of the bulb. The best have but little 
 stem rising from the bulb, and a good 
 tuft of leaves. The substance of the 
 turnips is of a bright yellow, and has 
 a strong smell, especially when they 
 have been kept some time. No frost 
 w.ll hurt them, if they are kept dry ; 
 but alternate rain and frost will do 
 them harm When they are stored, 
 it is advantageous that the air should 
 have free access ; and for this pur- 
 pose it has been recommended to 
 place them between hurdles set up- 
 right, and to slightly thatch them 
 with straw to keep out the rain. In 
 this way they keep longer sound than 
 when put in camps covered with 
 straw and earth. 
 
 " Of the field turnip there are nu- 
 merous varieties. The common Nor- 
 folk turnip is round and flat, the bulb 
 being half buried in the ground ; it 
 and thrive upon two bushels a day ; , throws out no fibres, except from the 
 hence an acre will afford 300 daily I slender root which proceeds from the 
 rations, or maintain five cows 60 ! centre of the bulb. There is a sub- 
 days, at the actual cost of $16 25, | variety which is reddish at the inser- 
 or $3 25 for each the two months, i tion of the leaves, and another of a 
 8U 
 
 earth from the roots ; tlie turnips can 
 then be pulled by the hand, or with 
 the hook {Fig. 8). 
 
 The following account of the prod- 
 uct and profits of ruta baga is by 
 Judge Buel : 
 
 " Profits.— From many years' ex- 
 perience, we estimate as an average 
 product, under good management, 
 600 bushels to the acre. We may 
 assume the following as the average 
 expense of cultivating and harvesting 
 an acre : 
 
 One ploughins and a thorough harrow- 
 ing . $2 50 
 
 20 wagon loads manure, at "5 cents . 15 01) 
 
 1 pound seed 1 J^O 
 
 ) day spreading manure and drilling seed 75 
 3 dressings with cultivator, man aud 
 
 horse one day 1 25 
 
 2 dressings with hoe, six days, 6«. . . 4 50 
 5 days harvesting and pulling, 6s. . 3 75 
 
 $28 75 
 
 which divided by 600, the number of 
 bushels, would bring the cost of the 
 roots below five cents the bushel. 
 But if we abate half the cost of the 
 manure for the after crops, and allov/ 
 a fair consideration for the tops, say 
 $5, it will reduce the cost of the roots 
 to less than three cents a bushel. 
 Now a cow or bullock will do we 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 green hue ; the latter is the hardiest. 
 The globe turnip takes its name from 
 its shape ; it rises more out of the 
 ground, and grows to a greater size ; 
 like the last, it is either entirely white 
 or red, or green near the crown. It 
 is, on the whole, the most productive 
 and hardy. The tankard turnip rises 
 high out of the ground, and approach- 
 es in shape to the mangel wurzel. 
 It grows to the greatest size ; hut it 
 is apt to become spongy if left long 
 on the ground, and its weigiit is not 
 in proportion to its bulk. Tliere are 
 red tankards and green tankards, as 
 well as white. The green round tur- 
 nip is considered very hardy, and is 
 usually sown late, to be consumed 
 after the winter. The yellow Aber- 
 deen, although somewhat less, is 
 compact, and stands the winter well; 
 it is a very useful variety. 
 
 '' Next to those above mentioned 
 come the smaller turnips ot* quicker 
 growth, which have mostly been ta- 
 ken from the garden. They should 
 not be sown early, as they are very 
 apt to run to seed in dry weather; 
 but in a moist climate they may be 
 sown at any time in the summer, and 
 they will be in perfection in three 
 months. Thus they may be made to 
 fill up the interval between the early 
 rye or trifolium fed off in spring, and 
 tiie wheat sown in autumn. 
 
 " Those who are possessed of a 
 good variety will do well to raise their 
 own seed, as that which is bought 
 cannot always be depended upon for 
 this purpose ; the best-shaped, mid- 
 dle-sized bulbs should be chosen, the 
 leaves being cut off not nearer than 
 an inch from the crown. They should 
 be planted in a mellow soil, in rows 
 three feet wide, and a foot from bulb 
 to bulb in the rows, about March or 
 April. When the pods are well filled 
 with seeds, and these are round and 
 hard, the stem should be cut close to 
 the root, and carefully laid under a 
 shed to dry. The seed will ripen 
 there without shedding, and when the 
 pods are quite dry, the seed is easily 
 beaten out with a stick or light flail. 
 Birds are so fond of it that a con- 
 stant watch must be kept ; and this 
 
 is the reason why so few farmers 
 grow their own seed. Turnip seed 
 is often raised in the gardens, and is 
 a branch of industry which every 
 farmer should encourage. He can 
 readily see that good bull)s only are 
 used, and he secures the seeds he 
 wants. If the seed is kept in a dry 
 granary, it will be good for several 
 years. It is, however, best to use 
 fresh seed, as it always germinates 
 sooner. The seed is seldom steeped, 
 but generally drilled in the rows by 
 a drill- barrow or more perfect sow- 
 ing machine. The best farmers, even 
 on land well manured and in good 
 heart, sow with tiie seed some artifi- 
 cial manure, as bones, rape cake, or 
 rich dried compost, to accelerate the 
 first growth of the plants." 
 
 Diseases. — "The diseases and in- 
 juries to which turnips are liable are 
 various. At their first appearance 
 their leaves are liable to the attacks 
 of tlie fly (Aphis and Haltica), the 
 caterpillar, the slug, and the mildew. 
 Their bulbs and roots are attacked 
 by worms of different kinds ; by a 
 singular tendency to monstrosity, 
 known provincially by the name of 
 fingers and toes ; by the anbury ; by 
 canker, and by wasting or gangrene 
 from water or frost. Of all or most 
 of these injurious diseases, it may be 
 observed, that they admit neither of 
 prevention nor cure by art. Under 
 favourable circumstances of soil, cli- 
 mate, culture, and weather, they sel- 
 dom occur ; therefore, ail that the cul- 
 tivator can do is to prepare and ma- 
 nure his land properly, and in the 
 sowing season supply water when the 
 weather is deficient in showers or 
 the soil in humidity. 
 
 " The fly (Hahica) attacks the tur- 
 nip when in the seed leaf, and either 
 totally devours it, or partially eats 
 the leaves and centre bud, so as to 
 impede the progress of the plants to 
 the second or rough leaves. Wheth- 
 er the eggs of these flies are deposit- 
 ed on the plants or in the soil, does 
 not appear to be ascertained ; in all 
 probability they are attached to the 
 former, as in the gooseberry cater- 
 pillar, and most cases of flies and in- 
 S15 
 
TUR 
 
 TUR 
 
 sects which feed on plants. Prep- 
 arations and mixtures of the seed, as 
 ah-eady treated of, are all that have 
 yet been done in the way of prevent- 
 ive to this evil. 
 
 " The caterpillar makes its appear- 
 ance after the plants have produced 
 three or more rough leaves ; these 
 they eat througii, and either destroy 
 or greatly impede the progress of the 
 plants. There can be little doubt 
 that the eggs of these caterpillars 
 are deposited on the leaves of the 
 plants by a species of moth, as the 
 caterpillar may be detected when not 
 larger in diameter than a hair. As 
 preventives to the moths from fixing 
 on the turnips for a depository for 
 their eggs, it has been proposed to 
 place vessels with tar in different 
 parts of the field, the smell of which 
 isknown to be very offensive to moths 
 and all insects ; or to cause a thick 
 offensive smoke from straw or weeds 
 to pass over the ground at the time 
 when it is supposed the moths or pa- 
 rent flies are about to commence 
 their operations. To destroy the cat- 
 erpillar itself watering with tobacco 
 water, lime-water, strong brine, and 
 laying on ashes, barley awns, (Sec, 
 have been proposed. 
 
 " The slug and snail attack the 
 plants both above and under ground, 
 and eat both the leaves and roots. 
 Rolling, soot, quicklime, awns, &c., 
 have been proposed to annoy them ; 
 but the only effectual mode is, im- 
 mediately after the turnips are sown, 
 to strew the ground with cabbage 
 leaves, or leaves of any of the Bras- 
 sica tribe. On these, especially if 
 sweet from incipient decay, the slugs 
 will pasture, and may be gathered off 
 by women or children every morn- 
 ing. If as many cabbage leaves, or 
 handfuls of decaying pea haulm, or 
 any similar vegetable, be procured as 
 will go over a ridge or two, say at 
 the rate of a leaf to every square 
 yard, a whole field may soon be 
 cleared by picking off the slugs and 
 removing the leaves once in 24 hours. 
 This mode we have found most ef- 
 fectual, and it is extensively prac- 
 tised by market and other gardeners. 
 816 
 
 " The mildew and blight attack the 
 turnip in different stages of its prog- 
 ress, and always retard its growth. 
 Its effects may be palliated by wa- 
 tering and strewing the leaves with 
 sulphur ; but this will hardly be con- 
 sidered applicable to whole fields. 
 
 " The worms attack the roots, and, 
 when they commence their ravages 
 at an early period, impede their 
 growth, and ruin or greatly injure 
 the crop. They admit of no remedy 
 or prevention. 
 
 " The forked excrescences known 
 as fingers and toes in some places, 
 and as the anbury in others, are con- 
 sidered an alarming disease, and hith- 
 erto it can neither be guarded against 
 nor cured." See Anbury. 
 
 TURNIP CABBAGE. The kohl 
 rabi. 
 
 TURNIP CART. " This is an in- 
 genious ajdaptation of the disk turnip 
 cutter to the turnip cart. The disk 
 is pat in motion by a face-wheel fixed 
 upon the nave of the cart-wheel, 
 which, as it revolves, communicates 
 by means of cog wheels with the axis 
 of the cutting plate. It offers a very 
 convenient mode of feeding sheep 
 on pastures or lawns, and was intro- 
 duced about the year 1834 by Arthur 
 Bidden, farmer, of Playford, the in- 
 ventor o!" the well-known scarifier 
 which bears his name." — {Johnson.) 
 
 TURNIP CUTTERS. In feed- 
 ing sheep and stock with turnips, as 
 well as other roots, it is necessary to 
 cut them into small pieces to hinder 
 choking and facilitate digestion. For 
 oxen and pigs, it may be better to 
 steam them ; but for sheep, the com- 
 mon practice is to cut them. The 
 simplest form of vegetable cutter is 
 like the simplest straw cutter, two or 
 more knives set in a lever and worked 
 upon a table {Fig. 1); but this is a 
 slow machine, and has been, for the 
 most part, superseded by implements 
 of the construction shown in Fig. 2, 
 which consists of a side hopper, con- 
 taining the roots, and a wheel set 
 with blades on two or more of its 
 spokes. As these are revolved be- 
 fore the bottom of the hopper, the 
 turnips or other roots are cut into 
 
TUS 
 
 slices and fall below. The upright 
 position of the hopper constantly 
 brings down more of the vegetables. 
 In Gardner's imoroved machine, two 
 F.>. I. 
 
 ULC 
 
 spokes are set with knives at right 
 angles with the former, which split 
 the slices into small pieces as they 
 are cut by the long knives. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 TTTRNSOL. Litmus. 
 
 TURPENTINE. The resinous sap 
 of pine-trees, especially of the Pinus 
 aitslralis, the long leaved or southern 
 pine, abounding in the sandy barrens 
 of the Southern States. It is pro- 
 cured by making an excavation in 
 winter of the size of about three 
 pints in the stem, near the ground ; 
 from the upper part of this the tur- 
 pentine exudes during spring, sum- 
 mer, and fall, and is received into 
 gourds or other vessels, and emptied 
 into barrels, which are exposed to dry, 
 and then headed and shipped. It is 
 a useful application to many wounds. 
 The oil, or spirit, is obtained by dis- 
 tilling crude turpentine with water ; 
 the spirit passes over, and common 
 rosin remains in the still. It is rec- 
 tified or redistilled for commerce. 
 
 TL'SSAC GRASS. Dachjlis ca- 
 spitosa. Falkland Island grass. A 
 large, sedgy grass, growing on the 
 seashore of those islands. It is very 
 nutritious and hardy, 150 acres fat- 
 tening 250 cattle and 70 horses du- 
 ring the winter. The grass grows to 
 a great height, and maintains its ver- 
 dure even in winter. Governor Moo- 
 dy of the islands found it would grow 
 on high and dry land if the stools 
 were set out in spring. It bears 
 Zzz 
 
 three cuttings per annum ; is peren- 
 nial. It' seed be sown, it requires 
 three vears to arrive at maturity. 
 
 TUSSOCKS OF GRASS. Clumps 
 or hillocks of growing grass. 
 
 TYMPANUM. The membrane of 
 the ear which receives the vibrations 
 of sound. 
 
 TYPES. In chemistry, a certain 
 number of elements combined to- 
 gether, every one of which may be 
 replaced by another, and, indeed, ev- 
 ery one in its turn, the arrangement 
 of the elements in every case re- 
 maining always the same with re- 
 gard to each other, the type being 
 no precise compound, but the man- 
 ner of grouping. The new compounds 
 (as when chlorine replaces hydro- 
 gen) have often the same properties 
 as the original. 
 
 TYPHUS. Continued fevers, at- 
 tended with great debility. They 
 arise from impure air, bad food, dec, 
 and are therefore often epidemic. 
 Typhoid fevers are those in which 
 there is a tendency to great debilitv. 
 
 TWITCH GRASS. Couch grass. 
 
 U. 
 UDDER. The milk-secreting 
 gland of the cow. 
 ULCER. An open sore dischar- 
 817 
 
UMB 
 
 ging matter. Ulcers sometimes be- 
 come torpid and dilRcult to heal, in 
 which case stimulants are used. Tlie 
 application of caustic is necessary 
 vhen there is fungous growth ; ttie 
 nitrate of silver or red precipitate is 
 best. Calomel is extremely service- 
 able to heal healthy ulcers : tar is also 
 used for this purpose. 
 
 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS. The 
 determination of the elements of an 
 organic body. See Organic Analysts. 
 
 U.MBLL. In botany, a form of in- 
 florescence in which all the pedicels 
 proceed froin a single point. If there 
 is no subdivision, the umbel is called 
 simple ; but if the pedicels produce 
 other umbels, as in parsley, ihe um- 
 bel is compound. 
 
 U.MBELLIFER.E, UMBELLIF- 
 EROUS PLANTS. They are a race 
 of great frequency in all cool or 
 temperate climates, and even occur 
 in hot ones, though much more rare- 
 ly. They are known in general by 
 their flowers being disposed in an 
 umbel. They have an herbaceous 
 stem ; leaves usually much divided, 
 often inflated wlien they join the 
 stem ; and they have universally a 
 dry fruit, which divides into two seed- 
 like pieces. Some of them are poi- 
 sonous, as hemlock, fool's parsley, 
 and water dropwort ; others are es- 
 culents, as celery, carrots, and pars- 
 nips ; many yield aromatic fruits, as 
 caraway, coriander, and anise ; a few 
 secrete a foetid gum resin, of which 
 asafcEtida, ammoniacum, and galba- 
 num are examples. The species are 
 extremely numerous, and difficult to 
 recognise with accuracy ; and, un- 
 fortunately, no general rule has yet 
 been discovered for distinguishing 
 the poisonous from the harmless 
 kinds; but those whicii grow in damp 
 or wet places are to be suspected, 
 whereas those that are aromatic and 
 found in dry soils are often innocuous. 
 
 UMBILICAL CORD. In animals, 
 the cord of blood-vessels which pass- 
 es between the placenta and foetus ; 
 the navel string. In botany, the 
 thread which attaches the seed to the 
 earpel or placenta. 
 
 UMBILICUS. The navel. 
 818 
 
 URE 
 
 UNCIFORM BONE. One of the 
 bones of the wrist. 
 
 UNCONFORMABLE STRATA. 
 Strata which do not incline or dip in 
 the satrie direction as those below or 
 above them. 
 
 UNDERWOOD. Coppice, small 
 trees, or shoots from old stools. 
 
 UNGUIS. The claw or small ex- 
 tremity of a petal, where it is insert- 
 ed into the stem. 
 
 UNGULATES. Those quadrupeds 
 furnished witli a hoof 
 
 U N I L C U L A R. Seed vessels 
 which contain but one cavity. 
 
 UPAS. A Javanese tree, from 
 which the upas poison is secreted ; 
 the Anliaris toxtcaria. 
 
 UPONG. Ilex vomiloria and cassi- 
 na. Tlie black drink, medicine, or 
 tea plant of North Carolina, used by 
 the Indians. 
 
 UREA. A peculiar crystallizable 
 substance held in solution in the urine. 
 When dried in vacuo it consists, ac- 
 cording to Dr. Prout, of, 
 
 Atoms. Experiment. 
 
 Nitrogen 2 45 65 
 
 Carbon 2 20 07 
 
 Hydrogen 1 6-65 
 
 Okygeu 4 2663 
 
 T 10000 
 
 Urea is readily soluble in water, 
 tasteless, inodorous ; and when mix- 
 ed with the other contents of the 
 urine, very prone to putrefaction, the 
 principal result of which is carbonate 
 of ammonia. 
 
 UREDO. "As the diseases of 
 corn occasioned by fungi belonging 
 to the genus Urcdo are of great im- 
 portance, we shall describe them 
 particularly. In the article Burned 
 Ear, a diseased state of wheat is de- 
 scribed, in which the Urcdo scgctum 
 appears. 
 
 " Urcdo caries, De Candolle {U. 
 fcr/ida, Bauer), is found on wheat ; 
 the sporidia are included within the 
 ovary of the fruit, and are exactly 
 spherical, rather large, globose, and 
 black. When this plant appears on 
 wheat it is said to have the bunt, 
 smut-balls, or pepper-brand. The 
 sporidia may be detected in the young 
 seed in the very earliest states of 
 the flower-bud, and when perfectly 
 
UREDO. 
 
 ripe it occupies the whole interior of 
 the grain, but does not burst the skin, 
 so that the grain retains the charac- 
 ter of being perfectly sound. The 
 sporidia are frequently mixed with 
 delicate tibres, which seem to consti- 
 tute the niycelia of the plant. Hens- 
 low calculates that a single grain 
 of wheat may contain more than 
 4,000,000 of sporidia. Each of these 
 sporidia probably contains millions 
 of sporules ; hence some idea may 
 be formed of their minuteness, as 
 well as their capacity for spreading 
 themselves in every direction. An- 
 other peculiarity of this fungus is, 
 that it has a very disgusting smell, 
 and the consequence is that flour 
 made from grains containing it can- 
 not be eaten. Flour thus spoiled is, 
 however, sold to gingerbread-makers, 
 who have found out that mixing it 
 with treacle conceals its disagreeable 
 odour. It does not appear to act in- 
 juriously when taken. In raising 
 wheat for seed, the greatest care 
 should be taken that none affected 
 with the smut fungus is used, as it 
 seems proved that where the sporules 
 of the fungus are present in the seed 
 sown, they will grow up with the 
 plant, and be developed at the period 
 of its ripening the fruit. Many rem- 
 edies have been proposed for getting 
 rid of the sporules from wheat about 
 to be sown. Washing with clean 
 water has been found effectual, and 
 with lime-water much more so, but 
 of all applications a solution of sul- 
 phate of copper (blue vitriol) seems 
 to answer best. The following is a 
 good instance of the effect of dress- 
 ing wheat : ' Mr. John Woolnough, 
 of Boyton, sowed a large field in al- 
 ternate breadths with wheat taken 
 from a good sample without dressing, 
 and wheat that had been dressed. 
 Long before the grain was ripe the 
 difference was most distinguishable. 
 Upon those stretches sown with 
 dressed wheat it was difficult to find 
 any branded ears, while the others 
 were so branded as to make him de- 
 termine to carry the wheat at sep- 
 arate times to different places."' — 
 (Lain. Trans., vol. v.) 
 
 The common character of the fun- 
 gi of this class f,j. j. 
 is their production 
 within the plant, 
 through the skin 
 of which they ott 
 en break, as in the 
 Urcdo diffusa, that 
 attacks fruit-trees 
 (Fig. 1). 
 
 " Uredo ruhigo 
 and linearis form 
 yellow and brown 
 oval spots, and 
 blotches of an or- 
 ange and yellow 
 colour upon the 
 stem, leaf, and chaff of grain, and va- 
 rious grasses. The sporidia of U. 
 linearis are more oblong than those 
 of U. ruhigo, but they are frequently 
 found together. When these plants 
 are present the disease of the grain 
 is called rust, red rag, red robin, 
 and red gum. This is the plant 
 which Honslow believes to be iden- 
 tical with the Puccinia graminis, 
 which occurs in wheat affected with 
 mildew." Figure 2 represents the 
 Fig-'i. 
 
 Puccinia graminis, or rust: it is of the 
 natural size in the stem, a, magnified 
 in b, and the stem also magnified in c. 
 " The mildew and the rust are often 
 confounded together by farmers, and, 
 as shown by Henslow, there is no 
 difference in the essential character 
 of the plant which is the offspring of 
 the disease. Rust and mildew are 
 819 
 
URE 
 
 URI 
 
 not so certainly prevented as smut, 
 although there is reason to l)elieve 
 that the sporules of the V. rubigo are 
 taken less up by the roots, in the 
 same manner as those prochicing 
 smut. As a dressing, the use of llie 
 lime-water or sulphate of copper 
 should never be neglected ; although 
 it may not always prevent rust, yet 
 there are instances recorded in which 
 undressed wheat has had rust, when 
 dressed wheat from the same sample 
 has not had it. 
 
 " Connected with the question of 
 blight in corn is one that has produ- 
 ced much discussion, and that is, how 
 far the barberry {Berberis vulgaris) is 
 the cause of it. Tiiere is a very 
 general impression among farmers 
 that the barberry-bush produces rust 
 in corn, and there are numerous well- 
 authenticated instances of blight oc- 
 curring in the vicinity of barberry- 
 bushes and hedges. Botanists, not 
 seeing how this could occur, have 
 generally treated the fact as a coin- 
 cidence, and acquitted the barberry 
 altogether of the crime of producing 
 blight ; but the evidence of blight oc- 
 curring as the consequence of the 
 presence of the barberry is constant- 
 ly increasing. One of the best ex- 
 planations of this curious circum- 
 stance is, that the barberry itself is 
 subject to the attacks of a fungus, 
 the JScidium berbendis, similar to that 
 which produces the disease in wheat. 
 The specific characters of the two, 
 however, are very different, and it 
 is only by having recourse to the 
 supposition that many of the record- 
 ed species of JEcidium are merely 
 varieties changed in character by 
 change of position, that such an ex- 
 planation of the fact can be admitted. 
 
 " Besides the species of uredo men- 
 tioned, corn and all other plants are 
 subject to the attacks of a large num- 
 
 ber of these fungi. On whatever 
 plant they are found they are indica- 
 tive of disease, and the produce of 
 the plant will not be so great as 
 when in a state of health. Sir H. 
 Davy fuund that 1000 parts of good 
 wheat yield, on an average, 95.5 parts 
 of nutritious matter, while specimens 
 from mildewed wheat yielded only 
 from 650 to 210 parts in the same 
 quantity." Sec, also, Mildew. 
 
 URETERS. The tubes which con- 
 vey urine from the kidneys to the 
 bladder. 
 
 URETHRA. The passage from 
 the bladder outward, for the discharge 
 of urine. 
 
 URIU ACID, LITHIC ACID. An 
 acid occurring in large quantity, com- 
 bined with ammonia, in the urine of 
 birds and reptiles, and to a small ex- 
 tent only in the urine of carnivorous 
 (juadrupeds. In the pure state it is a 
 very insoluble white powder ; it dis- 
 solves in nitric acid, and when evap- 
 orated to dryness and mixed with a 
 little ammonia, gives the rich red col- 
 our of murexide. The composition 
 of uric acid is Cio H4 N4 Or : it is con- 
 verted by putrefaction into bicarbo- 
 nate of ammonia. Peruvian guano 
 contains eight to twenty per cent, of 
 this acid, but the African is usually 
 without it. 
 
 URINE. The fluid excrement of 
 quadrupeds : in birds and reptiles it 
 is solid. The urine contains the 
 greatest portion of the nitrogenized 
 matters of the excrements, and is 
 therefore the most important portion 
 of manure. The composition of hu- 
 man urine is given in the article 
 Night Soil, the management of that 
 of the cow under the article Flanders 
 Husbandry. 
 
 " The efficacy of urine as a manure 
 depends upon the quantity of solid 
 matter which it holds in solution, 
 
 Urine of 
 
 Water 
 
 1000 parts. 
 
 Solid matter in 1000 parts. 
 
 Aver, quantity 
 
 voided in n' 
 
 hours. 
 
 Organic. 
 
 inorganic. Total. 
 
 Man 
 
 9fi9 
 
 23-4 
 
 7-6 i 31 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 Horse 
 
 940 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 60 
 
 3 " 
 
 Cow 
 
 030 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 70 
 
 40* " 
 
 P.g 
 
 926 
 
 56 
 
 18 
 
 74 
 
 ■t 
 
 Sheep .... 
 
 960 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 Not in milk. When in milk, about half of this. 
 
 820 
 
URINE. 
 
 upon the nature of this solid matter, 
 ;iiul especially upon the rapid changes 
 M hich liie organic part of it is known 
 to undergo. The preceduig table ex- 
 hibits the average proportions of wa- 
 ter, and of the solid organic and inor- 
 ganic matters contained in the urine 
 of man and some other animals in 
 their healthy state, and the average 
 quantity voided by each in a day. 
 
 '•Tiie numbers in the above tabic 
 show that the urine of the cow, esti- 
 mated by the quantity of solid matter 
 it contains, is more valuable than that 
 of any other of our domestic animals, 
 with the exception of the pig. But 
 the quantity voided by the cow must 
 be so much greater than by the pig, 
 that in annual value the urine of one 
 cow must greatly exceed that of many 
 pigs. 
 
 '• It might be supposed at first that 
 in all animals the quantity of urine 
 voided would have a close connexion 
 with the quantity of water which each 
 was in the habit of drinking. But this 
 is by no means the case. Thus it is 
 the result of experiment, that in man 
 the drink exceeds the urine voided 
 by about one tenth pari only, while a 
 horse, which drank 35 lbs. of water 
 in 24 hours, gave only 3 lbs. of urine 
 during the same time ; and a cow, 
 which drank 132 lbs. of water, gave 
 18 lbs. of urine and 19 lbs. of milk.— 
 {BotissingauU.) 
 
 '^ How very large a quantity of the 
 liquid they drink must escape from 
 the horse and the cow in the form of 
 insensible perspiration I That this 
 should be very much greater indeed 
 than in man, we are prepared to ex- 
 pect from the greater extent of sur- 
 face which the bodies of these ani- 
 mals present. 
 
 " Let us now examine more closely 
 the composition of urine, the changes 
 which by decomposition it readily un- 
 dergoes, and the effect of these chan- 
 ges upon its value as a manure. 
 
 "Human Urine— The exact com- 
 position of the urine of a healthy in- 
 dividual, examined in its usual state, 
 w as found by Berzelius to be as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Urea ^^ '■ 
 
 Z Z Z 2 
 
 Uric acid 10 
 
 Free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and 
 
 auiiiiul matter not separable .... l"'l 
 
 Mucus of the bladder (v3 
 
 Siilphate of potash 3'7 
 
 Solphate of soda 3-2 
 
 Phosphate of soda 2-9 
 
 Phos|)hate of ammonia 10 
 
 Coniiiion salt 4.5 
 
 Sal-ammoniac 1'5 
 
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, with 
 a trace of silica and of fluoride of cal- 
 cium 1^^ 
 
 lUOO-0 
 
 " From what I have already had 
 occasion to state in regard to the ac- 
 tion upon living plants, of the sever- 
 al sulphates, phospliates, and other 
 saline compounds mentioned in the 
 above analysis, you will see that the 
 fertilizing action of urine would be 
 considerable, did it contain no other 
 solid constituents. But it is to the 
 urea which exists in it in very much 
 larger quantity than any other sub- 
 stance, that its immediate and mark- 
 ed action in promoting vegetation is 
 chiefly to be ascribed. This urea, 
 which is a white, salt-like substance, 
 consists of, 
 
 per cent.. 
 
 Carbon 20-0 
 
 Hydrogen <'"6 
 
 Nitrogen '^^''^ 
 
 0.xygeu 26-7 
 
 100-0 
 
 " It is, therefore, far richer in nitro- 
 gen than all other richly-fertilizing 
 substances. 
 
 "But urea possesses this farther 
 remarkable property, that when urine 
 begins to ferment, it changes entirely 
 into carbonate of ammonia. Of the 
 ammonia thus formed, a portion soon 
 [ begins to escape into the air, and 
 ' hence the strong ammoniacal odour 
 of fermenting urine. This escape of 
 ammonia continues for a long period, 
 theliquid becoming weakeraiid weak- 
 er, and consequently less valuable as 
 ; a manure every day that passes. Ex- 
 ! perience has shown that recent urine 
 i exercises in general an unfavourable 
 i action upon growing plants, and that 
 j it acts most beneficially after fermcnt- 
 : ation has freely begun, hut the longer 
 time we suffer to elapse after it has 
 : reached the npc state, the greater the 
 i quantity of valuable manure we per- 
 ' mit to go to waste. 
 
 621 
 
URINE. 
 
 " T/ie 7<nnc 0/ //le coio has been an- I with the following results in 1000 
 alyzed in several states by Sprengel, [ parts : 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 Water 926-2 
 
 Urea 400 
 
 Mucus 2"0 
 
 Hippuric and lactic acids 61 
 
 Carbonic acid ....... "o 
 
 Anmionia 21 
 
 Potash 6-6 
 
 Soda 5-5 
 
 Sulphuric acid 4'0 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0'7 
 
 Chlorine 2'7 
 
 Lime 0-6 
 
 Magnesia 0'4 
 
 Alumina, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese . 0*1 
 
 Silica 0"4 
 
 1000-0 
 
 Allowed to fer 
 
 ment for fu 
 
 weeks in the o|ien air. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 954-4 
 
 934-8 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 6-2 
 
 1-7 
 
 15-3 
 
 4-9 
 
 162 
 
 6-6 
 
 6-6 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-6 
 
 3-9 
 
 3-3 
 
 0-3 
 
 1-5 
 
 27 
 
 2-7 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-4 
 
 trace 
 
 — 
 
 o-i 
 
 0-1 
 
 99S-2 
 
 999-0 
 
 " The first variety of fermented 
 urine (A.) had stood four weeks in 
 the air in its natural state of dilution ; 
 the second (B.) had been mixed 
 while recent with an equal bulk of 
 water — which is again deducted from 
 it in the analysis — with the view of 
 ascertaining how far such an admix- 
 ture would tend to retain the volatile 
 ammonia produced by the natural de- 
 composition of the urea. 
 
 '■ An inspection of these tables 
 shows three facts of importance to 
 the agriculturist : 
 
 1°. That the quantity of urea in 
 the urine of the cow is considerably 
 greater than in that of man. 2^. 
 That as the urine ferments the quan- 
 tity of urea diminishes, while that of 
 ammonia increases ; and, 3^. That 
 by dilution with an equal bulk of wa- 
 ter the loss of this carbonate of am- 
 monia, which would otherwise natu- 
 rally take place, is in a considerable 
 degree prevented. The quantity of 
 ammonia retained by the urine, after 
 dilution, was in the same circumstances 
 nearly three times as great as when it 
 was allowed to ferment in the state in 
 which it came from the cow. 
 
 " But even by this dilution the 
 whole of the ammonia is not saved. 
 This shows the necessity of causing 
 our liquid manures to ferment in cov- 
 ered cisterns, or of adopting some 
 other means by which the above seri- 
 ous loss of the most valuable constit- 
 uents may be prevented. 
 
 " The urine of the horse, sheep, and 
 822 
 
 pig have not been so carefully ana- 
 lyzed as that of the cow. They con- 
 sist essentially of the same constitu- 
 ents, and the specimens which have 
 been examined were found to contain 
 the three most important of these in 
 the following proportions : 
 
 Horse. Sheep. Pig. 
 
 Water .... 940 960 926 
 
 Urea 7? 28 56 
 
 Saline substances . 53 12 18 
 
 1000 lOUO 1000 
 
 " Some of the saline substances 
 present in the urine, as above stated, 
 contain nitrogen. This is especially 
 the case in the urine of the horse, so 
 that the quantity of urea above given 
 is not to be considered as represent- 
 ing the true ammonia-producing pow- 
 er of the urine of this animal. The 
 urine of the pig, if the above analysis 
 is to be relied upon as anything like 
 an average result, is capable of pro- 
 ducing more ammonia from the same 
 quantity than that of any other of our 
 domestic animals. 
 
 " Of the Waste of Liquid Manure — 
 of Urate, and of Sulphatcd Urine. 
 Waste of Human Untie. — The quan- 
 tity of solid matter contained in tbe 
 recent urine voided in a year by a 
 man, a horse, and a cow, and the 
 weight of ammonia they are respect- 
 ively capable of yielding, may be rep- 
 resented as follows : 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Solid < 
 matter. 
 
 Man . 1,00011)8. 67 lbs. 
 Horse 1,000 60 1 
 
 Cow . 13,000 900 400 
 
 . ■ - And yield* 
 """'°5 ing of am- 
 ^""^^ nionia. 
 
 30 lbs. 17 lbs. 
 
 230 
 
URI 
 
 URO 
 
 " How much of all this enriching I orating the whole to dryness. From 
 matter is permitted to run to waste ! | the use of tliis substance very favour- 
 Tiie solid substances contained in ; able results may be anticipated. Still 
 urine, if all added to the land, would none of these preparations wdl ever 
 bo more fertilizing than guano. If ' equal the urine itself, part of the effi- 
 we estimate the urine of each indi- , cacy of which depends upon tbe per- 
 vidual on an average at only 600 lbs., ; feet state of solution in which all tiie 
 then there are carried into the com- ' substances it contains exist, and upon 
 mon sewers of a city of 15,000 inhab- i the readiness with which in this state 
 itants a yearly weight of 600,000 they make their way into the roots 
 pounds, or 270 tons of manure, which of plants. 
 
 would, no iloubt, prove more fertil- 
 izing than its own weight of guano, 
 and might be expected to raise an in- 
 creased produce of not less than 8000 
 bushels of grain. 
 
 "The saving of all this manure 
 would be a great national benefit, 
 though it is not easy to see by what 
 means it could be etJectually accom- 
 plished. What is thus carried off by 
 the sewers, and conveyed ultimately 
 to the sea, is drawn from and lost by 
 the land, which must, therefore, to 
 a certain extent, be impoverished. 
 Can we believe that in the form of 
 fish, of sea-tangle, or of spray, the 
 sea ever delivers back a tithe of the 
 enriching matter it daily receives 
 from the land ! 
 
 " Urate. — In order to prevent a 
 portion of this waste, the practice 
 has been introduced into some large 
 cities of collecting the urine, adding 
 to it one seventh of its weight of 
 powdered gypsum, allowing the whole 
 to stand for some days, pouring off 
 the liquid, and drying the powder. 
 Under the name of urate this dry 
 powder has been highly extolled, but 
 it can contain only a small portion 
 of what is really valuable in urine 
 
 Loss of Coirs'" Urine. — When left 
 to ferment for five or six weeks alone, 
 and with the addition of an equal bulk 
 of water, the urine of the cow loses, 
 as we have seen, a considerable pro- 
 portion of volatile matter, and in 
 these several states will yield in a 
 year, 
 
 Solid matter. 
 900 lbs. 
 850 " 
 
 Yieldins 
 of ammonia. 
 
 226 lbs. 
 
 Recent urine .... 
 
 .Mi.xed with water, after ) g^Q „ 20O " 
 
 SIX weeks . . . { 
 Unmixed, after 6 weeks . 550 " 30 " 
 
 " Those who scrupulously collect 
 in tanks, and preserve the liquid ma- 
 nure of their stables, cow-houses, 
 and fold-yards, will see, from the 
 great loss' which it undergoes by nat- 
 ural fermentation, the propriety of 
 occasionally washing out their cow- 
 houses with water, and by thus dilu- 
 ting the liquid of their tanks, of pre- 
 serving the immediately operating 
 constituents of their liquid manure 
 from escaping into the air. Even 
 when thus diluted it is desirable to 
 convey it on to the land without much 
 loss of time, since even in this state 
 there is a constant slow escape, by 
 which Its value is daily diminished. 
 Gypsum, sulphate of iron, and sulphu- 
 The liquid portion poured off must I ric acid are, by some, added for the 
 contain most of the soluble ammoni- purpose oi fixing the ammonia, but 
 acal and other salts, and even were in addition to diluting it, an admix- 
 the whole evaporated to dryness, the ture of rich vegetable soil, and espe- 
 gypsum does not act so rapidly in fi.x- | cially of peat, will be much more eco- 
 ing the ammonia as to prevent a con- '• nomical, and, except in so far as the 
 siderable escape of this compound as gypsum and sulphuric acid themselves 
 the fermentation oflhe urine proceeds. | act as manures, nearly as effectual." 
 
 URX. The small receptacle of 
 mosses in which the sporules are 
 placed. 
 
 UROCER.VT.-V. The name of a 
 tribe of the Terchrantta, or boring hy- 
 menopterous insects, in which the tcr- 
 823 
 
 Sulpkatcd Urme.—A method of 
 more apparent promise is that now 
 practised by the .Messrs. Turnbull of 
 Glasgow, of adding diluted sulphuric 
 acid to the urine as the ammonia is 
 formed in it, and subsequently cvap- 
 
VEB 
 
 VER 
 
 ebra, Or borer, of the females is some- 
 times very long and prominent, and 
 composed of. three filamentary pro- 
 cesses, sometimes capillary, and coil- 
 ed in a spiral form in the interior of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 USTILAGO. A name given to cer- 
 tain fungi which produce the appear- 
 ance of burning on the leaves of 
 plants ; lire bii^jht. This term was 
 formerly applied to the burned ear, a 
 disease of grain. 
 
 UTERi:s. The womb. 
 
 UTRICLE, UTRICULUS. A one- 
 celled, one or four seeded, superior 
 membranous fruit, often bursting by a 
 transverse suture. A little bladder. 
 
 U V A U R S I. Arbutus uva ursi 
 Bear's berry. A small shrub, the 
 leaves of which are used in medicine. 
 
 UVULA. The pendulous portion 
 of the soft palate which hangs over 
 the cavity of the pharynx. 
 
 VACUUM. A void space. The 
 cavity of any vessel from which air 
 has been extracted by the air-pump 
 is called a vacuum. A TorricelHan 
 vacuum is that above the mercury of 
 a barometer. 
 
 VAGINA. A sheath : the passage 
 from the uterus outward. 
 
 VALERIAN. Valeriana qfficinalis. 
 A perennial herb, the root of which is 
 a nervous stimulant. 
 
 VALLESNERIA. Agenus of wa- 
 ter weeds. 
 
 VALVE. In mechanics and zool- 
 ogy, a flap or small door opening only 
 in one direction, and serving to close 
 a tube or passage. There are many 
 kinds of valves, as the door valve, the 
 sliding valve. In botany, the pieces 
 into which dry fruits or anthers burst 
 naturally, are called valves. 
 
 VANiLL.\. The succulent fruit 
 of the Epidcndron vanilla, an orchid- 
 eous climbing shrub of Mexico and 
 tropical America. The seeds have a 
 delightful aroma, and are used in fla- 
 vouring confectionery and chocolate. 
 
 VAPOUR. The temporary gase- 
 ous condition of fluids. 
 
 VEERING. A ridge made in 
 ploughing where two lands meet. 
 824 
 
 VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY. 
 The chemical examination of all prod- 
 ucts of the vegetable world, as well 
 as the functions of plants. 
 
 VEGETABLE OYSTER. See 
 Salsify. 
 
 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 
 An examination of the growth and 
 functions of plants. 
 
 VEIL. Calyptra. A membrane 
 connecting the pileus with tlie stem 
 of some mushrooms. 
 
 VEINS. The vessels which con- 
 vey blood that has circulated through 
 the body back to the heart. 
 
 VEN.\ CAVA. The great veins 
 which discharge the venous blood into 
 the right auricle of the heart. 
 
 VENTER. In entomology, the 
 lower part of the abdomen. 
 
 VENTILATION. The establish- 
 ment of a current of air through any 
 room or place. 
 
 VENTRICLE. A cavity of the 
 heart, brain, &c. 
 
 VENTRICOSE. Any part which 
 appears blown out. 
 
 VERATRIA. An active alkaloid 
 principle, from the Veratrum album, 
 or white hellebore. 
 
 VERBENA. The vervain {Verbe- 
 na teuerioides), a shrubby plant, with 
 leaves of a delightful lemon odour, 
 and which are distilled for perfumery. 
 It is propagated by slips. 
 
 VERJUICE. The juice of green 
 grapes or apples, from which a vine- 
 gar is made. 
 
 VERMIN. Destructive animals or 
 insects. 
 
 VERNATION. The manner in 
 which the leaflets of a bud are folded. 
 
 VERRUCOSE. Having a wart- 
 like appearance. 
 
 VERTEBR/E. The bones of the 
 spine, which is also called the verte- 
 bral column. 
 
 VERTEBRATES, VERTEBRA- 
 TA. All animals having a spinal col- 
 umn. 
 
 VERTICAL. Upright, pointing to 
 the vertex, or uppermost point over- 
 head. 
 
 VERTICELLUS. A whorl. Vcr- 
 tiecllate is a derivative ; disposed in a 
 whorl. 
 
VIN 
 
 VIN 
 
 VERTIGO. Giddiness. 
 
 VESICANT.S. Substances which 
 produce blistering. 
 
 VESICLE. A small bladder. 
 
 VESPID-'E. The family of wasps. 
 
 VESTIBULE. A porch or ante- 
 room. 
 
 VETCH. The genus FiWa, 'sev- 
 eral of which bear pretty leguminous 
 flowers. The V. sativa is the com- 
 mon tare. 
 
 VETCIILING. The genus Lalhy- 
 rns, leguminous plants, frequently of 
 great beauty, as the L. latifolms, or 
 sweet pea. 
 
 VEXILLUM. The standard : the 
 upper petaiof a papilionaceous or pea- 
 like flower. 
 
 VIBRISSA. The pointed bristles 
 which grow from the upper lip of an- 
 imals, or from the jaws of birds, and 
 are used as feelers. 
 
 VILLOSE. Woolly, covered with 
 soft, fle.xible hairs closely set. 
 
 VILLOU.S. Having the appear- 
 ance of the pile of velvet. 
 
 VINE. Vilis vimfera, the Syrian 
 vine, from which the numerous Eu- 
 ropean varieties are produced ; but 
 in the United States there are indi- 
 genous the V. labrusca, or fo.K grape, 
 of which the Isabella, Catawt)a, and 
 Alexander grapes are supposed to 
 be hybrids ; the V. crslivalis, or little 
 summer grape ; F. riparia, the odorif- 
 erous grape. In the South there are 
 also the bullet grape, V. rotundifolia, 
 and the V. palmala. 
 
 Varieties. — Tlie kinds of vines 
 more or less cultivated in the United 
 States are very numerous, and are 
 divisible into two classes, foreign and 
 domestic grapes. 
 
 Of the foreign kinds, most are cul- 
 tivated for the table, and, according 
 to the evidence of many speculators 
 in the Nortii, cannot bo profitably cul- 
 tivated north of Maryland except un- 
 der glass, every effort to acclimate 
 them in vineyards having failed, and 
 few vines succeeding except in warm, 
 sheltered spots, or in cities. These 
 kinds are, however, of such remark- 
 able excellence, and so superior to 
 the native varieties, that they are ob- 
 tained wherever the means of culti- 
 
 vation exist. The best are the hiack 
 Hamburgh, black Muscadine, .Miller's 
 Burgundy, black, grizzly, and white 
 Frontignan, royal Muscadine {Chas- 
 selas), early white .Mu.scadine, white 
 Sweetwater {iclntc Chassdas), Muscat 
 of Alexandria, white and red .Malaga, 
 white St. Peter, and white Tokay. 
 Of these, the sweetwatcr is acclima- 
 ted in Virginia and South, and the 
 black Hamburgh will stand the open 
 air in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Of the American grapes, the Alex- 
 ander (V'evay, Madeira of York), the 
 Catawba, Cunningham, Elsinburgh, 
 Norton's Virginia, black Scuppernong, 
 and Warren's Madeira, are best : 
 most of them are, however, southern, 
 the Isabella, Catawba, Alexander, and 
 Elsinburgh growing north of Penn- 
 sylvania. Of these, the Scuppernong 
 is used for wine in North Carolina. 
 The Catawba and Cunningham also 
 yield good wine in Virginia ; the Alex- 
 ander (or Vevay) and Warren's Ma- 
 deira are cultivated in Pennsylvania 
 and Ohio for wine. Several seedlings 
 are also of good repute from Ohio ; 
 but, on the whole, the Scuppernong 
 and Catawba appear to be in the high- 
 est esteem of all native grapes for 
 wine. 
 
 Training. — The favourite method 
 of training vines which require no 
 wall is along espaliers ; but in North 
 Carolina they are carried over flat 
 arbours, rising eight to twelve feet 
 above the ground. The short bush 
 methodof pruning, by which the plant 
 is stunted to a small bush of three or 
 four feet, is common in some parts 
 of France. In Italy they are allowed 
 to grow over mulberry trees. Mr. 
 Hoare's treatise is the text-book 
 of the vine cultivator ; we therefore 
 abstract the following, which is the 
 plan pursued by the principal dress- 
 ers in New-York and Penn.sylvania : 
 
 " Aspect. — The warmer the aspect, 
 the greater perfection does the grape 
 attain in the North, provided all oth- 
 er circumstances are alike ; and if 
 the greatest quantity of the sun's 
 rays shining on the surface of a wall 
 were alone to be considered as con- 
 stituting the best aspect, there would, 
 825 
 
VINE. 
 
 of course, be no difliculty in naming ' 
 a due soutliern one ;is better than <'iny 
 other. But varinth alone is not suf- 
 ficient ; shelter from the wind is ('(jual- 
 ly necessary. The best aspects are j 
 those that range from the eastern ; 
 to the southeastern, botli inclusive. 
 The next best arc those from south- . 
 east to south ; but this depends some- : 
 what on local peculiarities. ! 
 
 " Hoil. — The natural soil which is ! 
 most congenial to the growth of the 
 vine, and to the perfection of its fruit 
 in this country, is a light, jiorous, ; 
 rich, sandy loam, not more than IS 
 inches in deptii, on a dry bottom of : 
 gravel, stones, or rocks. A strong 
 argillaceous soil is injurious to the 
 vine ; it checks the expansion of the ■ 
 roots, and retains too mucli moisture. 
 In calcareous soils the vine always I 
 flourishes, especially if the bottom ' 
 be stony or gravelly. No subsoil can 
 possess too great a quantity of these ; 
 materials for the roots of the vine, ' 
 which run with eagerness into all [ 
 the clefts, crevices, and openings in l 
 which such subsoils abound. In these j 
 dry and warm situations, the fibrous ' 
 extremities, pushing themselves with { 
 the greatest avidity, and continually ! 
 branching out in every possible direc- I 
 tion, lie secure from that excess of | 
 moisture which frequently accumu- j 
 lates in more compact soils ; and, 
 clinging like ivy round the porous sur- i 
 faces of their retreats, extract there- 
 from a species of food more nourish- | 
 ing than that obtained by them under i 
 any other circumstances whatever, i 
 All borders, therefore, made express- 
 ly for the reception of vines ought 1 
 to be composed of a sufficient quan- 
 tity of dry materials, such as stones 
 and brickbats, broken moderately 
 small, lumps of old mortar, broken 
 pottery, oyster shells, &c., to enable 
 the roots to extend themselves free- 
 ly in their search after food and nour- 
 ishment ; to keep them dry and warm 
 by the free admission of air and so- 
 lar heat, and to admit of heavy rains 
 passing quickly through, without be- 
 ing retained sufficiently long to sat- 
 urate the roots, and thereby injure 
 their tender extremities. The sweep- 
 826 
 
 ings obtained from a turnpike road, 
 or from any other high road kept in a 
 good state of repair by tiie frequent 
 addition of stones, and on which 
 there is a considerable traffic of hor- 
 ses or other cattle, is the very best 
 compost that can be added Xo any 
 border intended for the reception of 
 vines. Its com|Jonenl parts, consist- 
 ing chielly of sand, gravel, pulverized 
 stones, and the residuum ol dung and 
 urine, afford a greater quantity of 
 food, and of a riciier and more last- 
 ing nature, than can i)e found in any 
 other description of compost that I 
 have ever seen or heard of being 
 used for that purpose. Borders in 
 which vines are planted should nev- 
 er be cropped nor digged. 
 
 "■Manure. — The best species of 
 manure for the vine are those which 
 afford a considerable degree of nour- 
 ishment, but at the same time slowly 
 decompose in the soil. Such are 
 bones, whole or crushed, the horns 
 and hoofs of cattle, the entire car- 
 casses of animals, cuttings of leath- 
 er, woollen rags, feathers, and hair, 
 and the leaves of the vines them- 
 selves. Liquid manures are also val- 
 uable, and forcing in their eftect ; of 
 this class the most powerful are 
 urine, soot water, blood, the drain- 
 ings of dung heaps, and soap suds. 
 It should, however, always be recol- 
 lected that the more manure is used 
 the poorer the wine procured from 
 the grapes. As a top-dressing, and 
 to be forked into the border, night- 
 soil, refuse lish, stable manure, and 
 the excrements of all birds and ani- 
 mals, will be found highly enriching 
 substances as fertilizers, and their 
 nutritive and stimulating properties 
 have been frequently alluded to in 
 the progress of this work ; but if rich 
 manures are used, they should be 
 mixed with turf and sand. In the 
 Alto Douro is a law which prohibits 
 the vine being 'littered,' as this op- 
 eration, though it considerably aug- 
 ments the produce, tends to deterio- 
 rate the quality of the wine. 
 
 " On the Construction of Walls. — 
 No general rule can be laid dow-n as 
 to the height of the wall, which must 
 
 I 
 
VINE. 
 
 necessarily vary under different situ- 
 ations and circuuistances. Mr. Hoare 
 states that in uuslielterod situations 
 and exposed aspects he has never 
 seen fine grapes produced nuich high- 
 er tlian eight feet from the ground ; 
 but in favourable situations height 
 is of no consequence. If built for the 
 express purpose of rearing grapes, 
 low walls of not more than six feet 
 are to be preferred, as more conveni- 
 ent for pruning and training the vines. 
 Brick walls are undoubtedly the best, 
 the surface being smooth and even. 
 A considerable heat is obtained by 
 blackening the walls. 
 
 " Propaoation. — Vines are propa- 
 gated in the open ground by layers 
 and by cuttings. The former is the 
 most expeditious mode, provided the 
 shoots be laid down in pots and 
 planted out the same summer. The 
 latter mode is much the best. To 
 provide cuttings to be planted at the 
 proper season, select, at the autum- 
 nal pruning, a sufficient number of 
 shoots of the preceding summer's 
 growth. Choose such as are well 
 ripened, of a medium size, and mod- 
 erately short jointed. Cut them into 
 convenient lengths of six or eight 
 buds each, leaving at the ends not 
 less than a couple of inches of the 
 blank wood for the protection of the 
 terminal buds. Stick these tempo- 
 rary cuttings about nine inches in 
 the ground, in a warm and sheltered 
 situation, where they will be effectu- 
 ally protected from the severity of 
 the winter. The best time to plant 
 them out is about the middle of 
 March, but any time from the 1st of 
 that month to the 10th of April will 
 do very well. 
 
 " Prvninir and Iraining are so close- 
 ly connected together, and so mutual- 
 ly dependant on each other, that they 
 almost constitute one oi)eration. The 
 judicious pruning of a vine is one of 
 the most important points of culture 
 throughout the whole routine of its 
 management. The object is to get 
 rid of all the useless and superabun- 
 dant wood ; for those shoots of a 
 vine which bear fruit one year never 
 bear any afterward. There are three 
 
 methods of pruning vines in practice 
 among gardeners, namely, the long 
 jn-unitig, spur pruning, and the fan or 
 fruit-tree method. The first is con- 
 sidered to be the most eligible meth 
 od, and is that which is practised and 
 recommended by Mr. Hoare. As the 
 sole object in view in pruning a vine 
 is to increase its fertility, the best 
 method to accomplish this is to leave 
 a sufficient supply of bearing shoots 
 on the least possible proportionate 
 quantity of old wood. 
 
 " Long pruning appears to recom- 
 mend itself by its simplicity ; by the 
 old wood of the vine being annually 
 got rid of; by the small number of 
 wounds inflicted in the pruning ; by 
 the clean and handsome appearance 
 of the vine ; and by the great ease 
 with which it is managed, in conse- 
 quence of its occupying but a small 
 portion of the surface of the wall. 
 
 " 1st. In pruning, always cut up- 
 ward, and in a sloping direction. 
 
 " 2d. Always leave an inch of blank 
 wood beyond the terminal bud, and 
 let the cut be on the opposite side of 
 the bud. 
 
 '•3d. Prune so as to leave as few 
 wounds as possible, and let the sur- 
 face of every cut be perfectly smooth. 
 
 "4th. In cutting out an old branch, 
 prune it even with the parent limb, 
 that the wound may quickly heal. 
 
 " 5ih. Prune so as to obtain the 
 quantity of fruit desired on the small- 
 est number of shoots possible. 
 
 '• 6th. Never prune in frosty weath- 
 er, nor when a frost is expected. 
 
 " 7th. Never prune in the months 
 of March, April, or May. Pruning in 
 either of these months causes bleed- 
 ing, and occasions thereby a waste- 
 ful and an injurious expenditure of 
 sap. 
 
 " 8th. Let the general autumnal 
 pruning take place as soon after the 
 1st of October as the gathering of the 
 fruit will permit. 
 
 " Lastly, use a pruning knife of the 
 best description, and let it be, if pos- 
 sible, as sharp as a razor. 
 
 " Training. — To train a vine on the 
 surface of a wall is to regulate the 
 position of its branches, the principal 
 827 
 
VINE. 
 
 objects of which are, to protect them 
 from the influence of tlie wiiul ; to 
 bring then) into close contact with 
 the wall, for the jiurpose of receivinjr 
 the benetit of its warmth ; to spread 
 them at proper distances from each 
 other, that the foliage and fruit may 
 receive the full ellect of the sun's 
 rays, and to retard the motion of the 
 sap, for the purpose of inducing the 
 formation of fruit huds. The flow of 
 sap, it must be remembered, is al- 
 ways strongest in a vertical direc- 
 tion, and weakest in a downward 
 one. For this reason, the method 
 of serpentine training may be con- 
 sidered preferable to every other, be- 
 ing calculated in a greater degree to 
 check the too rapid ascent of the sap, 
 and to make it tlow more equally into 
 the fruiting shoots, and those intend- 
 ed for future bearers. On walls that 
 are much less than five feet high, a 
 portion of the shoots must be trained 
 horizontally." 
 
 In respect to the making of wine 
 much is to be learned ; it seems that, 
 in order to preserve it, an addition of 
 sugar, brandy, or spirits is universal- 
 ly made ; this is not, however, making 
 wine in the proper sense of the word. 
 I am informed by the largest wine 
 maker in North Carolina, that one 
 fourth part brandy or spirits is added 
 to each gallon of scuppernong wine, 
 or that two pounds of sugar are fer- 
 mented with a gallon of the must. 
 Mr. Weller, of North Carolina, breaks 
 his grapes by passing them between 
 rollers, and then strains the juice 
 through flannel, to deprive it of a por- 
 tion of the extraneous matters. Gen- 
 eral Van Ness, of Washington, pro- 
 duced a wine resembling hock, by 
 mixing equal parts of Isabella and 
 Catawba grapes, and adding 1 lb. 7 
 ounces of flue unrehned sugar to each 
 gallon of must ; but no spirits to the 
 wine. The following particulars of 
 the culture and management of 
 grapes are from Mr. llham and M. 
 Boussingault : 
 
 " It may, however, be interesting to 
 
 know how the vine is cultivated in the 
 
 countries which produce good wine, 
 
 of which France is one of the principal. 
 
 828 
 
 The vine grows best in a soil where 
 icw other shrubs or plants would 
 thrive. The vine delights in a deep, 
 loose, rocky soil, where its roots can 
 penetrate deep into Assures, so as to 
 ensure a supply of moisture when the 
 surface is scorched by the sun's rays. 
 On the deep slopes of hills towards 
 the south, and sheltered from the 
 northeast, the grapes attain the 
 greatest maturity, and the vintage is 
 most certain. So great an influence 
 has a favourable exposure, that in the 
 same vineyard the greatest difference 
 exists between the wine made from 
 one part and that made from another, 
 merely because there is a turn round 
 the hill, and the aspect varies a very 
 few degrees. A change of soil pro- 
 duces a similar eflfect. The famous 
 Rhine wine called Johannisberg, 
 when made from the grapes which 
 grow near the castle, is worth twice 
 as much as that made a few hundred 
 yards farther off Here both soil and 
 aspect change. The Clos dc Vovgeau, 
 which produces the finest Burgundy, 
 is confined to a few acres ; beyond a 
 certain wall the wine is a common 
 Burgundy, good, but without extra- 
 ordinary merit. 
 
 "The best vineyards in Europe 
 formerly belonged to monasteries, and 
 the quality was then thought of more 
 importance than the quantity ; of late 
 the demands of commerce have made 
 the quantity the principal object, and 
 to this the quality is frequently sacri- 
 ficed. 
 
 " When a vine is first established 
 on any spot where none grew before, 
 the first thing is to prepare the ground 
 for planting. In steep places, where 
 the soil might be earned away by 
 rains in winter or spring, terraces are 
 formed by building massive stone 
 walls along the slope, and levellir.g 
 the soil behind them. The walls 
 serve to reflect the heat, and form a 
 shelter to the vine below. Thus a 
 whole hill is sometimes covered with 
 terraces from top to bottom, and 
 there the wine is generally good, if 
 the exposure is favourable. Lime- 
 stone, gravel, or coarse sand, with a 
 small mixture of clay, form a good 
 
VINE. 
 
 soil for a vine ; venretable substances 
 alone should be used to enrich it, such 
 as the leaves and tendrils of the vine, 
 the residue of the grape when press- 
 ed, and, failing these, the leaves of 
 trees collected when green, and form- 
 ed into a compost with earth. The 
 ground should be well trenched, if it 
 will admit of it, or loosened with the 
 mattock and pickaxe, as we should 
 do a mass of gravel which was to be 
 spread on a road, and which was too ' 
 hard for the shovel or spade. The 1 
 ditTerent parts of the soil should be ' 
 intimately mixed, keeping some fine 
 earth or soil at top to set the plants 
 in. When the ground is prepared, 
 holes are dug in rows four or five ' 
 feet wule, at the same distance from , 
 each other, so as to alternate ; some 
 of the finest of the soil is put mto 
 each hole, and the vine plants which ' 
 have been rooted in a nursery, or else [ 
 simple cuttings, are carefully insert- i 
 ed, pressing the mould round the 
 roots, and levelling the earth round 
 them. Rooted plants will bear the 
 second or third year, but cuttings 
 take a much longer time. The sea- 
 son for planting is during the winter, 
 when the weather is open. If cut- 
 tings are used, they are taken off the 
 vine on which they grew at the usual 
 time of pruning after the vintage ; a 
 piece of the preceding year's wood is 
 left on the cutting, and when it is 
 planted, the end where the old wood 
 is left is bent or twisted to facilitate 
 its striking : three or four eyes are 
 buried, so that the end is at least a 
 foot underground. If the plant is al- 
 ready rooted, care is taken not to 
 wound or bend the roots, but to 
 spread them out and cover them with 
 mould. During all the time that the 
 vine is growing, the ground must be 
 regularly cultivated and kept perfect- 
 Iv^clear of all weeds. The usual in- 
 strument of tillage in stony and rocky 
 soils is a two-pronged fork fixed in a 
 short handle, at an angle less than a 
 right angle with the prongs, which 
 afe a foot long and very strong, like 
 a double pickaxe (see Fig.)- This is 
 struck into the ground and then 
 drawn towards the workman, while 
 4 A 
 
 the handle is lifted, w^hich acts as a 
 lever in raising the soil. The roots 
 are by this means enabled to spread 
 through the soil in search of moisture 
 and food. The next year it is usual 
 to prune the young vine down to one, 
 or, at most, two eyes or buds ; but 
 some experienced vine dressers rec- 
 ommend deferring this operation to 
 the second year, by w^hich, although 
 the vine will not be so forward in 
 fruitinn, it will be much strengthen- 
 ed, and fully repay the apparent loss 
 of time in the end. 
 
 " In the third year the vine is train- 
 ed, that is, the shoots are tied to up- 
 right stakes planted at each root, or 
 they are laid in an arch and tied from 
 one root to another along the ground. 
 In southern climates trees are plant- 
 ed at a certain distance from each 
 other, and the vine, planted at their 
 foot, is allowed to run up their branch- 
 es, from which it is led in festoons 
 from tree to tree, while the head 
 and branches of the tree are cut off 
 to prevent too much shade. This is 
 by far the most elegant mode of 
 training the vine ; but in France the 
 stakes and the low training are the 
 only methods suitable to the climate. 
 The pruning is generally done in the 
 beginning of winter. 
 
 " When vineyards are established 
 in the plains, where sometimes, as 
 those of Medoc, they produce very 
 good wine, the intervals between the 
 plants can be stirred by the plough, 
 although forking and digging by hand 
 ' is more common ; hoemg is as ne- 
 cessary in a vineyard to destroy 
 . weeds as it is in a field of turnips or 
 any other crop sown in rows. Wher- 
 ' ever a vineyard is overrun with 
 weeds, you may be sure that there is 
 no good wine, and much poverty in 
 the proprietor. The pruning of a 
 vine in bearing, the object of which 
 829 
 
VINE. 
 
 is to produce much fruit without 
 weakening the plant, can only be 
 learned by experience and practice ; 
 much of the success of a vineyard 
 depends on this operation. In the 
 best vineyards no manure is used ex- 
 cept that which we mentioned before, 
 of leaves and tendrils ; but some soils 
 require to be recruited, and without 
 manure would produce little or no 
 wine. In this case there is no alter- 
 native, and composts must be formed, 
 as is done in common cultivation, 
 with animal and vegetable substan- 
 ces mixed and decomposed. Horse 
 dung should be avoided, if possible ; 
 cow dung is cooler and more nearly 
 of a vegetable nature ; this should be 
 mixed with as much virgin earth from 
 pastures and meadows as can be pro- 
 cured, and laid in small heaps in the 
 intervals between the row^s. It may 
 be left a little while if it has any rank 
 smell, and then forked in round tlie 
 roots ; the more it is decomposed the 
 better. Many a vineyard has lost its 
 reputation after having been abun- 
 dantly manured. The Johannisberg 
 was much reduced in value after hav- 
 ing been dunged, while in the pos- 
 session of General Kellennan. and it 
 has not yet regained all its former 
 reputation. 
 
 " After a certain time, which dif- 
 fers in different situations, the vine 
 becomes less productive from the ex- 
 haustion of the soil, as is the case 
 when the same crops are repeatedly 
 sown in the same ground: this de- 
 pends on the depth of the soil. All 
 perennial plants shoot out their roots 
 farther and farther every year in 
 search of fresh earth, and it is by 
 this means that trees flourish for a 
 long time on the same spot ; but if 
 the roots are prevented from spread- 
 ing, or, the plants being too crowded, 
 tbeir roots interfere, a diminution of 
 vigour is the consequence. So it is 
 with the vine. In some situations, 
 w'liere the roots strike in crevices of 
 rocks in which rich earth is accumu- 
 lated, the vines will continue in vigour 
 for many years ; but where their prog- 
 ress is arrested by a solid rock or 
 substratum, they will, in time, show 
 830 
 
 signs of exhaustion. In this case the 
 remedy is the same as for land bear- 
 ing corn. A fallow, or rest, as it is 
 usually called, is necessary, together 
 with the addition of such manures as 
 shall restore the lost fertility. For 
 this purpose, a portion of the oldest 
 roots are dug up every year, and the 
 ground trenched or loosened two feet 
 deep or more with the mattock, to 
 expose it to the influence of the at- 
 mosphere. A compost is prepared 
 with sods taken from pastures, or any 
 virgin earth which can be procured ; 
 this is mixed with some lime and 
 turned over several times, to rot all 
 the roots and grass which may be in 
 it, and to make it a uniform and rich 
 mould. Holes are now made, exact- 
 ly as when a new vine is planted, and 
 in each of them a basket or barrow- 
 ful of earth is thrown; in this the 
 new plants or cuttings are planted to 
 produce new vines in due time : thus 
 the vineyard is gradually renovated. 
 The proportion thus fallowed every 
 year depends on the natural duration 
 of the vine in that particular situa- 
 tion. In inferior soils one seventh is 
 thus renewed every year ; in some a 
 twentieth part is sufficient ; and there 
 are vineyards which have never been 
 renewed in the memory of the pres- 
 ent generation, but these are few in 
 proportion to the rest." 
 
 " Grape juice contains, 1st, grape 
 sugar; 2d. albumen and gluten; 3d, 
 pectine ; 4th, a gummy matter ; 5th, 
 a colouring matter ; Gth, tannin ; 
 7th, bitartrate of potash ; Stli, a fra- 
 grant volatile oil, cream of tartar ; 
 9th, water. It is obvious, thereibre, 
 that grape juice contains within it- 
 self the elements necessary for the 
 production of the vinous fermenta- 
 tion. The relative proportions of 
 these dilferent elements, however, 
 are singularly modified, according to 
 the nature of the vine, the quality of 
 the soil, and especially the heat of 
 the climate. The limits to the cul- 
 ture of the vine in Europe are gen- 
 erally fixed where the mean tempera- 
 ture is from 50° to 52- Fahr. Under 
 a colder climate no drinkable wine is 
 produced. To this meteorological 
 
VINE. 
 
 datum must be added the farther fact 
 that the mean heat of the cycle of 
 vegetation of tlie vine must be at 
 least 59^ P'ahr., and that of the sum- 
 mer from 65 ' to G7 ' Fahr. 
 
 "As the quality of wine depends 
 mainly on the ripeness of the grapes, 
 the vintage does not take place until 
 this is complete, or until there is 
 no longer any prospect of improve- 
 ment. 
 
 " The must of the grape is procu- 
 « red by treading and pressing the 
 fruit ; the juice is run into vats, and 
 the fermentation takes place in cel- 
 lars : different procedures, however, 
 are followed in different places. The 
 fermentation havuig subsided in the 
 larger vessels, the wine is drawn off 
 into smaller casks, which are care- 
 fully filled up from time to time, and 
 in which it is preserved. 
 
 " Wine may be defective, especial- 
 ly by wanting strength and being too 
 acid. Sharp wine contains an ex- 
 cess of cream of tartar and free ve- 
 getable acids, and is always the prod- 
 uce of grapes which have not been 
 completely ripe. The deficiency of 
 strength is due to the same cause, 
 for it is well known that as the grape 
 ripens, its acids disappear and are re- 
 placed by sugar. Tliis deficiency of 
 saccharine matter in the must is now 
 habitually supplied by the addition of 
 a quantity of artificial grape sugar, 
 prepared from starch. In warm coun- 
 tries, where the grape always ripens, 
 the quantity of tartar is small ; the 
 sugar then predominates greatly — 
 sometimes to such an extent that the 
 azotized substance of the must is in- 
 sufficient as a ferment, and it is then 
 that we have wines of too sweet a 
 flavour, such as those of Lunei and 
 of Frontignac. When these musts, 
 which are so rich in sugar, contain 
 the proper quantity of ferment, they 
 produce very strong wines, in which, 
 of course, the sweet flavour no long- 
 er predominates. Such are tiie dry 
 wines of southern vineyards, of which 
 that of Madeira may be taken as the 
 type. There are some wines which 
 participate at once in the properties 
 that distinguish the two varieties 
 
 that I have mentioned, or that show 
 one of them in excess, according to 
 circumstances ; such are the wines 
 of Xeres, Alicant, and Malaga. Some 
 of these wines are what are called 
 boiled wines, that is to say, a por- 
 tion of the must, as it flows from the 
 press, is concentrated to a fourth or 
 a fifth of its original bulk by boiling ; 
 and this being added to the rest, the 
 strength of the resulting wine is in- 
 creased. Sometimes the concentra- 
 tion of the juice is effected by drying 
 the grapes partially. It is in this 
 way that the celebrated Hungarian 
 wine, called Tokay, is prepared ; the 
 clusters arc left upon the vines after 
 they are ripe, and alternately exposed 
 to the cold of the night, which prob- 
 ably decomposes, to a certain extent, 
 the texture of the grapes, and to the 
 heat of the sun. They shrivel and 
 become partially dry. In this state 
 the grapes are subjected to pressure, 
 and a very sweet must, as may be 
 conceived, flows from them. In less 
 favourable climates, where the rains 
 of autumn prevent the drying of the 
 clusters upon the vine stocks, the 
 same thing is effected by laying the 
 bunches upon straw in open or well- 
 aired granaries or sheds. It is with 
 the must procured from grapes so 
 treated, that the sweet and often 
 strong wines, which are called vtns 
 dc paille, are obtained. Wines, when 
 stored in the cask, always deposite 
 with time a copious sediment, the 
 lees. This sediment, in which tar- 
 tar predominates, appears to be the 
 consequence of an increase in the 
 proportion of alcohol in the liquor. 
 The alcohol may increase from two 
 causes : first, by the fermentation 
 which, though nearly insensible, goes 
 on in most wines so long as there is 
 any sugar left unchanged ; and next, 
 from mere keeping. It is well known, 
 in fact, that wine put into the liest 
 casks, and kept in a well-ventilated 
 cellar, loses a very perceptihle quan- 
 tity by evaporation. It is found ne- 
 cessary to fill up the casks from time 
 to time. The loss has taken place 
 through the pores of the wood, in 
 virtue of an attraction exerted be- 
 831 
 
VINE. 
 
 twecn the substance of the wood and 
 llie iiichnlcd liqiiid ; ami as this at- 
 traction IS niiicli greater l)et\veeii tlie 
 organic matter and water than be- 
 tween organic fibre and alcolioi, it is 
 easy to conceive how wine kept in 
 wood should improve. The very same 
 thing, in tact, a|)pears to go on in re- 
 gard to wine in corked bottles : the 
 cork does not opjjose all evaporation, 
 and it seems probable that it is not 
 merely upon some new and little 
 known change of a chemical nature 
 in the constitution of tiie wine that 
 its improvement and mellowing in 
 bottle depend, but also ujjKn tiie loss 
 *)f a certain quantity of its water 
 through the pores of the cork. 
 
 " Throwing quality, flavour, &c., 
 
 out of the question, it is well known 
 that a vineyard, cultivated in the 
 same way, year alter year, receiving 
 the same quantity of the same kind 
 of manure, of which the vintage is 
 managed m the same manner, the 
 wine made by the same method, &c., 
 yields a produce which difiers greatly 
 in regard to the quantity of alcohol it 
 contains in diflerent years. The vine- 
 yard of Schmalzberg, for example, 
 near Lainpertsloch, which has been 
 under my management for several 
 years, yields wines of the most dis- 
 similar characters from one year to 
 another. Some idea of this may be 
 formed from the different quantities 
 of alcohol which the wine of diiferent 
 years contains : 
 
 
 Mean temperature. 
 
 
 
 Pure al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Of tbe whole tirm of 
 
 
 
 Wine 
 
 Pure alco- 
 
 cohol 
 
 Years. 
 
 tlie growtU ot the 
 
 
 Of the beginning of 
 
 per acre 
 
 hol 
 
 per .icre 
 
 
 vines. 
 
 
 autumn. 
 
 in gallons. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 in galloha. 
 
 
 deg. Jeg. 
 
 >i^K. .le^. 
 
 deg. deg. 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 )4-7C. 5&4F. 
 
 17-3C. 63-lF. 
 
 11-4C. 51-5F. 
 
 311 
 
 5-0 
 
 11-4 
 
 1834 
 
 17-3 631 
 
 20-3 68-i 
 
 170 63 
 
 314 
 
 11-2 
 
 40-3 
 
 1835 
 
 ]5-8 60-2 
 
 19-5 07 
 
 12-3 54 
 
 621 
 
 8-1 
 
 50-0 
 
 1836 
 
 15-8 60-2 
 
 21-5 71 
 
 12-2 54 
 
 544 
 
 7-1 
 
 38-6 
 
 1837 
 
 15-2 59 5 
 
 18-7 0(3 
 
 11-9 54 
 
 184 
 
 7-7 
 
 ]40 
 
 " If we now inquire how the me- 
 teorological circumstances of each of 
 these five years influenced the pro- 
 duction of our wine, we see at once 
 that the mean temperature of the days 
 which make up the period of the cul- 
 tivation of the wine has a perceptible 
 influence. The temperature of the 
 summer was G3 1^ of tlie year which 
 yielded the strongest wine, and only 
 68-4° in 1833, the wine of which was 
 scarcely drinkable. 
 
 "The produce of a vineyard also 
 depends upon its age ; and it would 
 be curious to examine the progress- 
 ive increase of the quantity of wine 
 yielded. This information! am able 
 to give in connexion with a vineyard 
 established in Flanders. I only re- 
 gret that I have no means of present- 
 ing parallel observations from a coun- 
 try more favourable to the vine. The 
 vineyard of Schmalzberg was plant- 
 ed in 1822, with new cuttings from 
 France, and from the borders of the 
 Rhine. The vines are trained as es- 
 paliers, and are now rather more 
 832 
 
 than four feet in height. The vine- 
 yard began to yield wine in 1825, and 
 the following table shows the re- 
 sults in the successive years up to 
 1837: 
 
 v»,^ Wine per acre in 
 
 ''^^"- gallons. 
 
 1825 68-75 
 
 1826 192-0 
 
 1827 0-0 
 
 1828 115-0 
 
 18'29 55-9 
 
 1830 0-0 
 
 1831 1530 
 
 1632 2(J9-9 
 
 1833 31]-6 
 
 1834 413-4 
 
 1835 6200 
 
 1836 544 5 
 
 1837 184-4 
 
 " The mean quantity of wine fur- 
 nished by this vineyard from the date 
 of its plantation is 224^ gallons per 
 acre. M. Villeneuve reckons the 
 mean produce of many vineyards in 
 the southwest of France at from 
 about 146 to 192 gallons per acre : 
 considerably less, consequently, than 
 our vineyard at Schmalzberg ; and 
 official documents, while they give 
 
VIN 
 
 the mean produce of the vine for the 
 whole of France as 170 9 gallons per 
 acre, state the whole of the wine pro- 
 duced over the country at 976,906,414 
 gallons." — (Boussiitgault.) 
 
 VINEGAR. "This term is ap- 
 plied to various moditications of the 
 acetic acid. The simplest mode of 
 obtaining vinegar is to excite a sec- 
 ond or acetous fermentation in wine, 
 beer, or cider. In this case oxygen is 
 absorbed, a variable proportion of car- 
 bonic acid is generally evolved, and the 
 alcohol of the wine passes into acetic 
 acid. \'ery good vinegar is also made 
 from a wort or infusion of malt pre- 
 pared for the purpose, or from a de- 
 coction of common raisins, or from a 
 mixture of about one part of whis- 
 key with eight of water, and some 
 sugar and yeast. See Cider. 
 
 " When vinegar is distilled, various 
 impurities which it contains remain 
 in the still, and the liquid which pass- 
 es over is the acetic acid, nearly 
 pure, but largely diluted with water. 
 In this state it is usually called dis- 
 tiUcd vinegar, and is chiefly used in 
 pharmacy ; but the market is chiefly 
 supplied from another source, which 
 is the destructive distillation of wood. 
 It has long been known that when 
 certain kinds of dry wood, especially 
 beech and such woods as are not 
 resinous, instead of being burned in 
 the open air, are converted into char- 
 coal in close vessels, so as, in fact, 
 to be submitted to distillation, that 
 the vapours which pass off yield, 
 when condensed, a large quantity of 
 tar and of very acid w^ater : the lat- 
 ter is, in fact, an impure vinegar. I 
 \Vhen this nnpure acetic acid is freed 1 
 from the tar and empyreumatic oils j 
 with which it is mixed, it is called i 
 crude pt/roltgneous acid. To convert ; 
 it into pure acetic acid, that is, to 
 separate from it the empyreumatic , 
 products with which it is intimately 
 combined, is a somewhat circuitous 
 process. It is first distilled, by which j 
 j/l/roxiiic acid and oil of tar first pass • 
 over, and these are foHowed by a! 
 quantity of impure or rough acetic ; 
 acid. This rough acid is used bydy- j 
 ers and calico printers, and by ma- 1 
 4 A2 
 
 VIT 
 
 kers of sugar of lead. The pure ace- 
 tic acid, in its most concentrated state, 
 is extremely acrid, sour, and pun- 
 gent, and is often called radical vine- 
 \gar, or, when perfumed, arowa/ic i-in- 
 ; egar ; it is also occasionally termed 
 glacial acetic acid, from its property 
 of congealing at a low temperature, 
 and remaining frozen at temperatures 
 below 50^. In this state it is a com-i 
 pound of] atom of real acetic acid =: 
 51, and 1 of water = 9, the real or 
 anhydrous acid, as it exists in the 
 dry acetates, being composed of 
 
 Carbon 4 
 
 llvtirogen 3 
 
 O.tygen 3 
 
 " When this strong acetic acid is 
 diluted with water and slightly col- 
 oured, it forms a very pure and ex- 
 cellent substitute for common vine- 
 gar, and is cheaper than acid of the 
 same strength prepared in any other 
 way. 
 
 " The combinations of acetic acid 
 with various bases are called acetates; 
 and of these salts some are impor- 
 tantly useful in the arts : such, espe- 
 cially, are the acetates of lead, copper, 
 iron, and alumina, which are chiefly 
 employed in dyeing and calico print- 
 ing ; the acetates of ammonia and of 
 potash, which, as well as acetate of 
 lead, are used in medicine ; and the 
 acetates of lime and of soda, which 
 have been mentioned as steps in the 
 preparation of strong acetic acid. The 
 acetates are recognised by their sol- 
 ubility in water, and by the fumes of 
 acetic acid which they evolve when 
 acted upon by sulphuric acid. The 
 specific gravity of the strongest liquid 
 acetic acid is 10629 ; that of good 
 malt vinegar is 10200 ; and that of 
 distilled vinegar about 10023. The 
 strength or value of vinegar, and of 
 acetic acid, can only be learned by its 
 saturating power." 
 
 VINE Y A II D. A plantation of 
 grapes. The vines are set in rows, 
 four to six yards apart, and usually 
 sustained against trellises or stakes. 
 
 VIOLET. The genus Vwla, of 
 which V. odorata is the perfumed vio- 
 let, and V. tricolor the heart's ease. 
 
 VITELLUS. An occasional cov- 
 833 
 
WAG 
 
 WAI 
 
 cring of the embrj'o in seeds. The 
 white of the egg. 
 
 VITREOUS HUMOUR. The fluid 
 or luiinour wliich fills the posterior 
 chamber of the eye. 
 
 VITRIOL. An old name for the 
 sulphates. 
 
 VITRIOL, OIL OF. Sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 VIVES. A disease in horses, con- 
 sisting of an enlargement of the glands 
 at the curve of the jaw, and nearly 
 resembling strangles. It is treated 
 by slight bleeding and purging ; and if 
 it does no t give way, becomes changed 
 into strangles. 
 
 VIVIPAROUS. Producing living 
 young, and not eggs. 
 
 VOLATILE ALKALI. Ammonia. 
 See Nitrogen. 
 
 VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. Gal- 
 vanism. 
 
 VOLUTE. In architecture, a scroll. 
 
 VOLVA. The wrapper or veil of 
 certain fungi, as the agaricus. 
 
 V U S S I R S. " In bridges, 
 the stones which immediately form 
 the arch, being of the shape of a 
 truncated wedge. Their under sides 
 form the intrados, or soffit. The 
 length of the middle voussoir, or key- 
 stone, ought to be about one fifteenth 
 or one sixteenth of the span, and the 
 rest should increase all the way down 
 to the imposts. Their joints should 
 be cut perpendicular to the curve of 
 the intrados ; consequently, the an- 
 gle of the sides is determined by the 
 curvature." — {Huttons Tracts, vol. i.) 
 
 W. 
 
 WACKE. A hard rock of the ba- 
 saltic kind. 
 
 WAGON. " A wheel-carriage, of 
 which there are several varieties, ac- 
 commodated to the different uses 
 which they are intended to serve. 
 
 " In the business of husbandry, 
 
 ; wagons constructed in different 
 I forms, and of various dimensions, 
 are made use of in different districts, 
 i and mostly withoiit much attention 
 I to the nature of the roads, or the ar- 
 ticles which are to be conveyed by 
 them, being in general heavy and in- 
 convenient. 
 
 " Wagons require more power in 
 the draught than carts, which is cer- 
 tainly an objection, though they carry 
 a much greater load, and are far from 
 being so handy and convenient ; and 
 Mr. Parkinson is of opmion that more 
 work may be done in any particular 
 time, with the same number of hor- 
 ses, by carts than by wagons, on level 
 land, in the general run of husbandry 
 business, especially where the dis- 
 tance is small between loading and 
 unloading ; a fact which has long 
 been known and attended to m Scot- 
 land. 
 
 " Where wagons are used for hus- 
 bandry, they should be made wide 
 and low. Alanures may be carried 
 in this sort of wagon almost as well 
 as in carts. Broad wheels are im- 
 proper for passing and repassing upon 
 tillage lands ; for, if in fallow, they 
 press the land too much, and make 
 it so hard as to prevent its being 
 ploughed ; but on grass land broad 
 wheels are projjcr for all uses, as 
 there they operate as rollers. 
 
 " Wagons are probably the best 
 conveyances for different sorts of 
 heavy loads to a distance ; but for 
 home business, especially harvest, 
 and other work which requires to be 
 speedily performed in the field, carts 
 with proper shelving will be found 
 preferable."' 
 
 WAIN. A light harvest wagon. The 
 following {Fig.), which is called the 
 Cornwall wain, is an excellent kind. 
 
 WAINSCOT. A panelled framing 
 between rooms or against a wall. 
 
 834 
 
WAR 
 
 WAR 
 
 WALL. For its uses in horticul- 
 ture, see Hot-icall. 
 
 WALL EYE. Opacity of the cor- 
 nea or glaucoma 
 
 WALL-PLATE. A timber lying 
 on a wall on which girders, joists, 
 &c. rest. 
 
 WALNUT. The European, or 
 Madeira nut, is the fruit of the im- 
 proved Juglans rcgia, a very large 
 tree. It does not bear well until some 
 15 or 20 years old. It is suggested 
 to graft them by approach with bear- 
 ing branches of an older tree. The 
 wood is very valuable for cabinet pur- 
 poses, and especially sought for gun 
 stocks ; it is not, however, of the rich 
 colour of the American walnut (J. 
 nigra), or black walnut. The hulls 
 of the fruit are rich in tannin, and 
 used in France to dye brown col- 
 ours. 
 
 The black walnut is not found north 
 of New- Jersey, but exists in immense 
 quantities in the woods of Virginia, 
 Ohio, Tennessee, and in rich soils, 
 where it attains an altitude of 70 feet, 
 and a circumference of five to seven 
 feet. The fruit is well known, but 
 rather inferior to that of the Europe- 
 an tree ; the wood is, however, bet- 
 ter, and extensively employed. 
 
 WARBLES. Black sores, sitfast. 
 See Galls. 
 
 WARP. The sediment of rivers 
 or the sea. In weaving, the long 
 threads which run the lengthway of 
 the fabric. 
 
 WARPING. " A mode of produ- 
 cing a deposition of the earthy mat- 
 ter suspended in rivers of which 
 the current is frequently changed 
 by the rising and falling of the tide. 
 This causes a stirring of the water, 
 which prevents the finer particles 
 from being deposited. It is only ne- 
 cessary to produce a stagnation of 
 the water for a few hours to have a 
 copious deposite, leaving the water 
 clear over it. 
 
 " On the low flats which border the 
 mouths of rivers occasional inunda- 
 tions often cause a deposite which is 
 hijilily fertilizing. Thus, the polders 
 ill iloihind and Flanders have been 
 Icrii.ed of the mud of large rivers, 
 
 and, being drained and kept dry by 
 dikes and sluices, have formed the 
 most fertile soils. 
 
 " ^\'arping is an imitation of this 
 natural process : a bank of earth is 
 raised along the course of the river, 
 so high that the floods cannot pass 
 over it. In some part of this dike is 
 a sluice for the double purpose of let- 
 ting in the water and letting it out at 
 pleasure. When the tide is setting 
 in and counteracting the natural cur- 
 rent of the river, the sluice is opened, 
 and the water flows in by one or 
 more channels made for the purpose 
 of conveying it over the lower land, 
 and covers it to the depth of high 
 water. The sluice is now shut, and 
 the imprisoned water, becoming stag- 
 nant, deposites all the mud which it 
 held suspended before. The sluice 
 is opened at low water, and the wa- 
 ter is allowed to run out slowly ; it 
 leaves a coating of mud or sediment, 
 which hardens and dries rapidly. This 
 operation is repeated until a thick- 
 ness of several inches of new soil has 
 thus been warped, when it is allowed 
 t!) dry, and then ploughed and cultiva- 
 ted like any other field. It takes some 
 time before any corn will grow on 
 the new warp : at first it looks like 
 barren mud, but it soon dries to a 
 better texture, and ultimately produ- 
 ces very extraordinary crops. If its 
 fertility decrease, and its surface is 
 still below high-water mark, a slight 
 warping, like the inundations of the 
 Nile, immediately restores the fertil- 
 ity. What is curious is the almost 
 total absence of organic matter in the 
 warp soils, or, rather, its intimate 
 combination with the earths, so that 
 it is not readily separated from them. 
 It is neither like clay nor sand, but 
 something between the two, soft to 
 the touch, but not hardening into 
 lumps when dry ; neither very porous 
 nor very retentive of moisture. The 
 principal earth is silica in a very fine 
 state. It generally contains a portion 
 of calcareous matter, probably from 
 j comminuted shells. It produces oats, 
 beans, potatoes, and wheat in abun- 
 ! dance, without any manure. It is 
 j admirably adapted to the growth of 
 835 
 
WAS 
 
 WAT 
 
 flav, especially when the warp is of 
 a good depth. 
 
 " 'i'lie principal expense in warpin<f 
 is the sluice, and the canal through 
 which the water is conducted over 
 the land ; the longer this latter is, 
 the slower the process, as much warp 
 is deposited in the canal, which has 
 sometimes to he dug out. Accurate 
 levels must be taken, or much ex- 
 pense may be incurred uselessly, if 
 the water will not cover the surface 
 to a sufficient depth. 
 
 "It is of little consequence what 
 the soil was originally, for a new soil 
 is deposited over it. It should, how- 
 ever, not be too wet nor marshy : a 
 porous soil is best, as this becomes 
 the subsoil. All the inequalities which 
 existed before are obliterated by the 
 warping, whicli tills up all cavities, 
 and leaves a perfectly level surface." 
 
 WARREN. A place in which rab- 
 bits or other game are preserved, or 
 in which they are naturally found. 
 
 W A S H. The fermented liquor 
 from which the spirit is distilled. 
 
 WASHER. In building, a plate of 
 iron set between a wall and timber, 
 and the nut of a screw. 
 
 WASPS. The genus Vcspa: the 
 V. crabro is the hornet. They are in- 
 
 jurious to agriculture, inasmuch as 
 they destroy bees and eat fruits, es- 
 pecially grapes, and those of thin 
 skins. The greater number die at 
 the approach of winter, only a few 
 females surviving in the nests. 
 
 WATER. That of rivers and wells 
 is impure, from containing mineral 
 matters drawn from the soil. Melted 
 snow and rain water are purer, but 
 contain ammonia, gases, and a small 
 amount of salts. It is only to be ob- 
 tained pure by frequent distillation, 
 and then consists of one equivalent 
 of hydrogen and one of oxygen, or 
 one part by weight of the former and 
 eight of the latter. Its influence on 
 vegetables need not be dwelt upon. 
 
 WATER CHESTNUT. The Sdr- 
 pus tuhcrosus, a rush cultivated in Chi- 
 na and Italy for its root, which resem- 
 bles a chestnut. It grows in ponds 
 and ditches. 
 
 WATER-CRESS. See Cress. 
 
 WATERING CART. This is no 
 more than a common barrel, of large 
 size, set on a cart or on wheels (Fig.), 
 and furnished with a tin tube, a, bored 
 with numerous holes, for the distribu- 
 tion of water. A valve, b, is placed be- 
 tween the distributing tubes and the 
 interior of the barrel. The water is 
 
 836 
 
WAX 
 
 introduced by a hose at c, the tubes 
 for dislrihulion are supported by the 
 rod, d, and tlie water tiovvs from the 
 barrel bv e and e. 
 
 WATER MEADOWS. See Irri- 
 gation. 
 
 WATERMELON. See Mc^on, 
 Water. 
 
 WATER OF CRYSTALLIZA- 
 TION. Water contained in crystals. 
 WATER PLANTAIN. The genus 
 Alisma, consisting of useless water 
 weeds. I 
 
 WATERING PLANTS. The ap- 
 plication of water by the common 
 watering-pot to garden vegetables is 
 not a practice altogether safe or use- 
 ful. Where it is persevered in, and 
 the soil is well worked, it may pro- 
 duce good results ; but if not cau- 
 tiously applied, the soil is rendered 
 stiff. It is cooled by the water, and, 
 should it want drainage, stagnant 
 water is accumulated. It should only 
 be done after sunset, and with rain 
 water collected in tanks and exposed 
 to the air. Newly-planted vegetables 
 require watering. ' 
 
 WATER WHEEL. An engine ' 
 for raising water in large quantities. 
 Also, a wheel turned by the force of 
 running water. Of these there are 
 two kinds : the undershot icheel, and . 
 the overshot wheel. In the case of 
 the undershot wheel, the water strikes 
 the float boards below the axle, and 
 acts by the impulse due to its veloci- 
 ty ; in the case of tlie overshot wheel, 
 the water is brought over the top of 
 the wheel, received in buckets, and 
 acts solely by its weight. 
 
 WAVELLITE. A mineral of a 
 radiated or stellated character, con- 
 sisting of a hydrated phosphate of 
 alumina. 
 
 WAX. A hydrocarbon, composed 
 of 0:3 H:o Oi. insoluble in water, and 
 but slightly affected by most acids. 
 It is obtained from plants and from 
 bees' wax. It is prepared by drain- 
 ing and then washing the honeycomb, 
 and finally melting m hot water. The 
 yellow product is bleached by being 
 run into strips, and exposed to the 
 air until whitened sufticientlv. 
 WAX MOTH. See Bee Moth. 
 
 WEA 
 
 WAYFARING-TREE. The guel- 
 der rose. Virhurnum opulus. 
 
 W E A L D E N FOK.MATION. A 
 portion of the upper secondary, con- 
 sisting of heavy clays and green sand. 
 It is remarkable for the great number 
 of large saurians it contains. 
 
 WEANING. " The means cm- 
 ployed to reconcile a young animal to 
 the loss of its mother's milk and ha- 
 bituate it to take common food. The 
 process of weaning calves is vari- 
 ously managed by different farmers. 
 When not let run with the cow, the 
 most advisable mode, as it regards 
 the calf, is to place it loose in a crib, 
 and to suckle it by hand with the 
 mother's new milk, of which it will 
 consume for some time not more 
 than about four quarts per day : the 
 quantity, however, must then be grad- 
 ually increased, as it will, in the 
 course of a few weeks, require as 
 much as three gallons. If the weath- 
 er be fine, it should be, within a fort- 
 night or three weeks, turned out dai- 
 ly in the orchard, or some well-shel- 
 tered enclosure of sweet herbage ; 
 ' and, as it will in the course often or 
 twelve weeks have acquired some 
 relish for the pasture, it may be reg- 
 ularly weaned by gradually diminish- 
 ing the quantity of milk, and then 
 substituting the skimmed for the new. 
 Calves may, however, be reared with 
 i skimmed milk and meal, without any 
 portion of new rnilk except the first 
 few days' biestings, and many per- 
 ' sons give them nothing but water- 
 I gruel and hay tea within a fortnight 
 j after they have been remo%^ed from 
 I the cow. Sago and linseed jelly are 
 also very nutritious, and calves may 
 ' be weaned on them without any oth- 
 er food. 
 
 1 " The time of weaning lambs dif- 
 fers materially, according to the lo- 
 cality of the farms and the quality of 
 the pasture. Four months old is 
 about the period usually selected. 
 
 " The lambs should be turned into 
 somewhat better pasture than that to 
 which they had been accustomed, in 
 order to compensate for the loss of 
 the mother's milk. Many farmers 
 are very fanciful as to the provision 
 837 
 
WEA 
 
 WEA 
 
 for the weaned lambs. The clover, 
 or the sainfoin, or the aftcr-nialli are 
 selected by some; otiiers put their 
 smaller and more weakly lambs to 
 weed the turnip crops ; but there can 
 be notiiing more desirable than a fresh 
 pasture, not too luxuriant, and yet 
 sufficient to maintain and increase 
 their condition." — (Yuualt on Sheep.) 
 
 WEAR. A fence or dam made of 
 twigs and set in a stream. 
 
 WEATHER. " The state or condi- 
 tion of the atmosphere with respect 
 to heat, cold, dryness, moisture, wind, 
 rain, snow, fogs, &c. The apprecia- 
 tion of the various causes wliich de- 
 termine the state of the atmosphere, 
 and produce those changes which are 
 incessantly taking place in its condi- 
 tion, and which are popularly called 
 the weather, forms the subjects of 
 Meteorology and Climate. (See those 
 terms ; also, Atmo.sphere, Barometer, 
 Cloud, Dew, Hail, Rain.) 
 
 " In all ages of the world, mankind 
 have attempted to explain and prog- 
 nosticate the changes of the weather ; 
 but such is the complication of the 
 subject, and the vast multitude of 
 circumstances to be taken account 
 of, that no theory can furnish rules 
 for determining the order in which 
 they succeed each other, or for pre- 
 dicting the state of the weather at a 
 future time, with any approach to cer- 
 tainty. Nevertheless, all the differ- 
 ent modifications of the atmosphere 
 are the necessary results of princi- 
 ples not only fixed and unalterable 
 in their nature, but (many of them at 
 least) well known in their separate 
 and individual operation. The diffi- 
 culty of tracing the results of their 
 combined influences arises chiefly 
 from their complexity and endless 
 concatenation. 
 
 " The principal cause of all the va- 
 riations which take place in the state 
 of the atmosphere is the heating ac- 
 tion of the sun's rays ; but in order 
 to appreciate correctly its effect, it is 
 necessary to know not only the ex- 
 tent of the atmosphere, but the prop- 
 erties of all the substances of which 
 it is composed. Modern science has 
 discovered that the atmosphere is 
 833 
 
 composed of three different gaseous 
 fluids, everywhere combined in the 
 same proportions, and penetrated by 
 an ever-varying quantity of elastic 
 vapour. These two distinct enve- 
 lopes of air and vapour mechanically 
 mixed have difl^erent relations to heat ; 
 and therefore, in consequence of the 
 unequal temperature of the surface 
 of the earth, with which they are in 
 contact, they cannot both be in a 
 state of equilibrium at the same time. 
 In consequence of the diurnal rota- 
 tion, the different parts of the atmo- 
 sphere are constantly receiving differ- 
 ent quantities of heat, as the solar 
 rays penetrate more or less obliquely. 
 This inequality of temperature pro- 
 duces winds, which, if the surface ol 
 the earth were perfectly regular and 
 homogeneous, would always blow ia 
 the same direction ; but the surface 
 of the earth being composed of ma- 
 terials of various kinds, and irregu- 
 larly disposed, the distribution of heat 
 over it is extremely irregular. The 
 winds, sweeping along the surface, 
 acquire its temperature ; and hence 
 the atmosphere also becomes irregu- 
 larly heated. This produces an ac- 
 cumulation of air at one place, and a 
 deficiency at another ; and hence a 
 subsequent rush to restore the equi- 
 librium. As the air is cooled it be- 
 comes also incapable of holding the 
 same quantity of aqueous vapour, a 
 portion of which is therefore set free, 
 and gives rise to clouds, mist, rain, 
 dew, snow, &;c. Besides all this, 
 there is to be taken into account the 
 development of electricity ; the influ- 
 ences of light and galvanism ; the agi- 
 tation of the atmosphere produced 
 by the rise and fall of the tides ; and 
 probably a variety of other circum- 
 stances with which we are entirely 
 unacquainted. This very imperfect 
 enumeration may serve to give an 
 idea of the difficulties to be overcome 
 in forming a theory of the weather. 
 
 " It has always been a favourite 
 prejudice that the weather is influ- 
 enced in some mysterious manner by 
 the moon. The moon can be sup- 
 posed to act on the earth only in one 
 of three ways ; namely, by the light 
 
WEE 
 
 WEE 
 
 which it reflects ; by its attraction ; or 
 by an emanation of some unknown 
 kind. Now, the light of the moon 
 does not amount to the 100,000lh part 
 of that of the sun ; and the heat wliich 
 it excites is so small as to l)e alto- 
 gether inappreciable by the most del- 
 icate instruments, or the best devised 
 experiments. No effect can be at- 
 tributed, therefore, to the moon's 
 light. With a regard to the attrac- 
 tion of the moon, we see its influence 
 on the tides of the ocean, and might 
 therefore be disposed to allow it a 
 similar influence on the atmosphere ; 
 but when we take into accoimt the 
 small specific gravity of atmospheric 
 air in comparison with water, and the 
 consequent smallness of the mass of 
 matter to be acted upon, it will read- 
 ily be perceived that this influence 
 also must be extremely feeble. In 
 fact, it has been demonstrated by La- 
 place that the joint action of the so- 
 lar and lunar attraction is incapable 
 of producing more than an atmospher- 
 ic tide flowing westward at the rate 
 of about four miles a day, and con- 
 sequently scarcely, if at all, appreci- 
 able. As to the remaining supposi- 
 tion, that the moon may act on the 
 atmosphere by some obscure emana- 
 tion, it is sufficient to remark that no 
 meteorological observations that have 
 yet been made afibrd the slightest 
 traces of any such connexion be- 
 tween the earth and its satellite. The 
 registers which are now kept in va- 
 rious observatories and other places 
 also prove, contrary to the popular 
 belief, that the changes of weather 
 are in no way whatever dependant 
 on the lunar phases." 
 
 WEATHER-BOARDING. Board- 
 ing nailed either upright or horizon- 
 tally, and lapping on the outside of 
 the framing. 
 
 WEATHER GLASS. See Barom- 
 eter. 
 
 WEDGE. One of the simple me- 
 chanical powers, the efficiency of 
 which is proportional to the length 
 of the side. Knives are wedges. 
 
 WEED S. " Every plant which 
 grows in a field other than that of 
 which the seed has been sown by the 
 
 husbandman is a weed, and, inas- 
 much as it interferes with the in- 
 tended crop, should be carefully erad- 
 icated. It is a proof of good culti- 
 vation when few weeds appear among 
 the growing crops, and many of the 
 operations of tillage are intended 
 chiefly for their destruction. One of 
 the principal uses of summer fallows 
 is to destroy the weeds which come 
 up in spring, and which would shed 
 their seeds in summer if they were 
 not destroyed before the seeds ripen. 
 When roots are sown in drills and 
 carefully hoed, they produce the 
 same cleansing efTect, and supersede 
 the fallow ; but in heavy loams which 
 have been neglected and overrun 
 with weeds, a clean fallow is some- 
 times indispensable, before any im- 
 proved method can be adopted. When 
 a farmer enters on lands which are 
 in a foul state, it is the cheapest 
 way, in the end, to sacrifice a crop, 
 and thoroughly purge his fields from 
 weeds, especially those which have 
 vivacious roots, and cannot be e.xtir- 
 pated by simple ploughing. The 
 mode of doing this must depend on 
 the nature and duration of the weeds, 
 whether their roots are perennial, or 
 die off after the plant has borne seed. 
 Annual weeds are most readily ex- 
 tirpated by repeated harrowings, by 
 which the seeds are brought within 
 the influence of the atmosphere, and 
 when they have fairly vegetated may 
 be buried or rooted out, and by ex- 
 posing their roots to the influence of 
 a hot sun they are effectually destroy- 
 ed. The seeds of annual weeds are 
 chiefly brought on the land in the 
 manure which is made in the yards, 
 where the cattle fed on hay or straw 
 swallow the seeds, which pass 
 through them undigested. By exci- 
 ting a great degree of fermentation 
 in the mixture of dung and litter 
 some of the seeds may be destroyed, 
 but many of them will keep their 
 vegetative powers even after having 
 been exposed to a considerable heat ; 
 and as it is not advisable to let the 
 manure undergo a great degree of 
 decomposition before it is carried on 
 the land, many seeds always escape 
 839 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 destruction, and vegetate as soon as 
 they are placed in a favourable situ- 
 ation. Those wiiich are buried deep 
 lie dormant for a long time, and ve- 
 getate as soon as the plough brings 
 them up again. 
 
 "The experienced farmer knows 
 well what peculiar species of weeds 
 infest his fields, according to the soil 
 and situation ; and by studying their 
 habits, time of flowering, and of ri- 
 pening their seed, he learns the best 
 mode of destroying tliem. 
 
 " One of the greatest advantages 
 of composts made with human excre- 
 ments mixed with earths and mmeral 
 substances is, that they introduce no 
 weeds into the soil. It is reported 
 that in China, where the dung of cat- 
 tle is little used, in comparison with 
 human excrements, no weeds are to 
 he found in the fields ; and if more 
 attention were paid to the preserva- 
 tion of this highly enriching manure, 
 and its proper application to the soil, 
 much expense would be saved which 
 is now unavoidably incurred in de- 
 stroying weeds. 
 
 " Feeding slieep on roots and corn, 
 while they are folded on the land, is 
 another mode of manuring a field, 
 without introducing weeds, especially 
 if no hay is given them, except clo- 
 ver hay of the second crop, which is 
 generally most free from the seeds 
 of weeds. It would be impossible to 
 enumerate all the various weeds 
 which may infest our fields. This 
 would be giving a flora of all the 
 British plants ; but we will select 
 some of the most common and troub- 
 lesome to the farmer, with such an 
 account of each as may suggest the 
 most ready means of destruction. 
 
 " Of the annual weeds, we may 
 mention the following, noticed by 
 Professor Low, in his Elements of 
 Practical Agriculture : 
 
 " Sinapis arvensis, or wild mustard, 
 usually called charlock, is a weed the 
 seeds of which, being of an oily na- 
 ture, will remain dormant in the soil 
 for an indefinite time, if buried above 
 six inches. Hence some farmers 
 fear to deepen their ploughings, 
 which otherwise would be very ad- 
 840 
 
 vantageous, because they have found 
 that, in some soils, a ploughing be- 
 yond six inches deep will cause the 
 crop to be overrun with charlock, so 
 as to choke it with its yellow flowers. 
 It only requires a little resolution, 
 and an outlay which will be well re- 
 paid in the end, to destroy this enemy 
 Hoed crops will destroy the plants as 
 they come up. Winter tares, which 
 may be cut before the charlock per- 
 fects its seeds, will help to destroy 
 it, and if they arc succeeded by tur- 
 nips, there will be little charlock left 
 in autumn. Wherever it appears 
 and raises its yellow flower it must 
 be pulled out, whatever be the cost, 
 and care must be taken to carry the 
 plants out of the field to burn or rot 
 them ; for the seeds will vegetate 
 when they are but half ripe in the 
 pods. We have dwelt at length on 
 this weed, because it is one which 
 infests many of our best soils, and 
 which must be eradicated before the 
 land can be properly cultivated. 
 
 " Somewhat allied to the last is 
 the wild radish {Raphanus raphanis- 
 tium), which is often also called char- 
 lock : the mode of destruction is the 
 same. 
 
 " Papaver rhccas, or corn poppy, 
 infests some soils in particular sea- 
 sons. If the seed is allowed to ripen 
 and shed, it will increase rapidly ; 
 good tillage, however, soon destroys 
 it ; clover and tares which are cut 
 while the poppy is in flower general- 
 ly eradicate it. In some seasons it 
 will appear in great profusion, and in 
 others not a plant will be seen. 
 
 " Centaurea cyamts, or blue-bottle, 
 is seldom found in any quantity, ex- 
 cept where there is a slovenly cul- 
 ture, or two white crops are taken in 
 succession, a practice which, it is 
 hoped, will soon be obsolete. 
 
 " Chnjsantkemum scgetum, corn 
 marigold, infests some soils, and 
 must be eradicated by careful weed- 
 ing ; when the crops are drilled, this 
 is not a difficult task. 
 
 " Pyrethrum inodorum, corn fever- 
 few, often called May-weed, as is 
 also the wild camomile, often infests 
 the crops of grain, and with every 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 care in weeding, some of the seeds 
 vill be carried to the barn. We may 
 here observe, generally, that where 
 the grain is reaped by the sickle and 
 a long stubble is lelt, the seeds of 
 weeds remain on the land, and al- 
 though some of them are eaten by 
 birds, yet many are ploughed in after 
 the stubble has been raked off or 
 mown ; whereas, if the corn is mown 
 or cut close to the ground, which is 
 called fagging or bagging it, all the 
 weeds are tied up with the corn, and 
 go into the barn or stack ; and if care 
 be taken in the winnowing and sift- 
 ing of the corn to separate the small- 
 er seeds from the straw and burn 
 them in a heap, the straw will be 
 clean and the dung of the cattle will 
 contain no seeds of weeds. This is 
 by far the best mode of proceeding ; 
 and by careful hoeing and weeding, 
 and burning the small seeds, the land 
 may be kept tolerably free from seed 
 weeds. 
 
 " The sow thistle (Sonchus olerace- 
 us) often raises its head above the 
 oat. The seeds are blown about by 
 the winds, and if the hedges and head- 
 lands are not kept clear of them, they 
 will sow themselves in all directions ; 
 but it is a conspicuous plant, and ea- 
 sily pulled out by hand before its 
 flower expands. To destroy thistles, 
 in general, it is only necessary to cut 
 them down just as the flower is ex- 
 panding ; the roots will then die, and 
 in a few years, by the united atten- 
 tion of tlie farmers in a district, this- 
 tles may easily be eradicated. In 
 some places the infirm paupers are 
 employed in pulling up all the thistles 
 in the hedges which border the roads, 
 and wherever they make their appear- 
 ance in the highways and lanes of a 
 parish. This practice cannot be too 
 generally recommended, for the hedg- 
 es and ditches, and the sides of roads 
 and lanes, are often perfect nurseries 
 of weeds. 
 
 " Arctium lappa (burdock) is a very 
 common weed in fields ; but with a 
 little care it is easily e.\tirpated. 
 
 '• Asrostcmma gilhago, or corn 
 cockle, is a very injurious weed, be- 
 cause its seeds ripen about the tiii^e 
 4B 
 
 I of harvest, and, from its size, cannot 
 be easily separated from the wheat by 
 ' sifting ; it contains a farina, which 
 is oily, and, when ground with the 
 corn, greatly deteriorates the flour. 
 : The only mode of extirpation is by 
 hand-weeding. 
 j " Stellana media, or common chick- 
 ! weed, is a small plant which grows 
 profusely on light soils which have 
 been abundantly manured. If it be 
 i allowed to overspread the ground, it 
 will choak the young crops, especial- 
 I ly turnips, carrots, and all slow-grow- 
 j ing seeds. Drilling the crops and 
 j early hoeing them is the best means 
 of destroying this weed ; as soon as 
 the crop gets above the chickweed, 
 it is soon destroyed, if the latter cov- 
 ers the ground well. It often does 
 harm to young clover, but the latter 
 soon overpowers it. Tares smother 
 it readily. The same observations 
 are applicable to the Spe.rgula arven- 
 sis, or corn spurrey, a larger variety 
 of which, however, is cultivated as 
 excellent food for milch cows. 
 
 " Galium aparine, or goose grass, 
 also called cleavers, is a weed which 
 is dispersed by the seeds attaching 
 themselves to the wool of sheep by 
 means of hooks with which they are 
 provided. They increase rapidly ia 
 some soils, if they are not carefully 
 pulled up and the hedges cleared of 
 them. 
 
 " Urlica urens, stinging nettles, 
 generally grow where the ground 
 has been strongly manured, especial- 
 ly where heaps of dung have lam. 
 They are seldom very troublesome, 
 and are easily eradicated by repeated 
 ploughing ; they infest gardens more 
 than fields. 
 
 " Polygonum convolvulus, climbing 
 buckwheat, is a very troublesome 
 weed, which winds round the stems 
 of the corn, and often overtops them. 
 The seeds are said to be nutritious, 
 and not to injure the oats when mix- 
 ed with them ; but in wheat it is very 
 destructive, and diminishes the prod- 
 uct while it injures the quality of the 
 corn. 
 
 "All the common grasses are 
 weeds in cornfields, and in the al- 
 841 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 tcrnate husbandry are introduced in 
 the regular cultivation. Wiien tlie 
 grass is plougiied up, if the sods are 
 not covered sulficienlly so as to rot, 
 tufts of grass remain, which greatly 
 increase, to the injury of the next 
 crop. However carefully the land 
 may be ploughed, if it be sown im- 
 mediately, the roots of grass will be 
 raised to the surface by the harrows. 
 Tlie only remedy is to have them 
 carefully forked out, and carried to 
 some corner or waste spot, there to 
 form the foundation of a dung heap 
 or compost. When the land is plough- 
 ed up before winter, and the seed 
 sown in spring, the grass will be 
 rotten and have lost its vegetative 
 power. 
 
 "The bearded wild oat {Arena fa- 
 tua) is a very troublesome plant, and 
 sometimes almost exceeds the true 
 oat in quantity ; but this can only be 
 the case with very slovenly farmers. 
 It ripens sooner than the corn, and 
 sheds its seeds before harvest. Crops 
 cut green for fodder, such as rye, 
 winter barley, and tares, repeated if 
 necessary, soon destroy this weed, 
 which has no perennial root. 
 
 " Tiiese are some of the most 
 common annual and biennial weeds. 
 They may all be easily destroyed by 
 weeding at the time when they have 
 pushed up their seed stems and the 
 flower is about to expand ; if they 
 are cut up at that time they seldom 
 recover. Hoeing them when very 
 young, unless the weather be dry 
 enough to scorch the roots exposed, 
 often increases them instead of kill- 
 ing them. But the last-mentioned 
 weeds are easily got rid of in com- 
 parison with those which have peren- 
 nial roots, and some of which in- 
 crease the faster the more the roots 
 are divided. It may be proper to ob- 
 serve, that too little attention is paid 
 to the weeds in our upland meadows 
 and pastures. One would imagine 
 that every plant which increases the 
 weight of the hay or covers the 
 groiuid in spring is wholesome for 
 cattle, whereas many are detrimen- 
 tal when they are eaten for want of 
 better food. Of this kind are the ra- 
 842 
 
 I nunculi, commonly called butter- rups, 
 ' which, far from deserving this name, 
 are never touched by the cows, so 
 long as they can find other food. 
 Vv'ithout going the length of ascribing 
 to the butter-cups the power of caus- 
 ing epidemic diseases in cattle, and 
 even in men who eat of the milk and 
 butter of cows who have eaten them, 
 there is no doubt that where the 
 cows are forced by hunger to eat 
 many of them, they may be very in- 
 jurious to their health, and to the 
 production of good milk. As these 
 plants have strong perennial roots, 
 they take possession of rich, moist 
 soils, to the exclusion of good grass- 
 es. When not very abundant, the 
 plants may be weeded out by means 
 of a sharp spud or hoe, and the ex- 
 pense will be well repaid in the qual- 
 ity of the hay or pasture. Wliere 
 they are very abundant, the only 
 remedy is to break up the grass in 
 autumn, let it be exposed to the frost 
 in winter, take a crop of corn next 
 season, and lay it rough again the 
 winter after. In the succeeding 
 spring the land may be inoculated 
 with good tufts of grass, and before 
 the next year an improved pasture 
 will have been formed ; or, if this is 
 too much trouble, it may be summer 
 fallowed, and sown in August with 
 pure seed of the best grasses. This 
 is expensive, as a whole year's prod- 
 uce is lost, but the subsequent pas- 
 ture will be so much better, that the 
 expense may be considered as a prof- 
 itable investment. The most com- 
 mon species of butter-cup are the 
 Ranunculus acris, 7cpcn.i, and hulbo- 
 sus : the R. Jlannnnla is highly poi- 
 sonous, but not common, except in 
 marshy pastures. 
 
 " Senecio Jacolcca, or rag wort, is 
 another troublesome weed ; but as 
 sheep eat it readily when young, it 
 is easily kept down by jiasturing and 
 folding. In moist weather, also, it 
 is easily pulled up by hand. 
 
 " Tussilago farfara, colt's foot. By 
 its large leaves it kills the finer grass- 
 es under it. As moisture is essen- 
 tial to its luxuriance, draining tends 
 to diminish its growth ; careful ma- 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 nnnng, also, makes the grasses get 
 the better of it, and choke it when 
 young. 
 
 " C hrysanlhcmum Iciicanlhcmum, or 
 great white one eye, sometimes 
 abounds in inferior pastures, and is 
 only extirpated by tillage and impro- 
 ving the soil by manuring it well. 
 
 " \^'e have already mentioned an- 
 nual and biennial thistles, but the per- 
 ennials, such as the Cnicus artensis 
 and Sonckus arvcnsis, or corn thistle 
 and sow thistle, arc much more dif- 
 ficult to eradicate, as the roots strike 
 deep in the ground and throw up 
 fresh shoots every year. The most 
 effectual mode of destroying them is 
 to draw them out with an instrument 
 like large pincers, made of wood or 
 iron, and called 'a thistle-drawer,' 
 the form of which is well known, and 
 which may be bad in most ironmon- 
 gers' shops. The lime to draw the 
 thistles is when the stem is grown 
 sufficiently to give a good hold of the 
 crown of the root. Great care must 
 be taken not to break the root too 
 near the ground, but to draw it out 
 completely. In ploughing, also, a 
 broad and sharp share, cutting hori- 
 zontally seven or eight inches below 
 the surface, will cut off the long roots, 
 BO as to prevent their making fresh 
 shoots ; and when this is done while 
 the thistle is in a growing state, the 
 root will bleed and be destroyed. In 
 grass land they are soon destroyed, 
 if they are carefully cut down with 
 a scythe just as the llower is expand- 
 ing, and before the seed is formed. 
 If this is done for two or three years, , 
 not a thistle will be seen ; but then i 
 all the neighbouring farmers must 
 agree in a general war upon thistles, 
 whether on the land or in the liedge- 
 rows. 
 
 " The dock {Rumcx oblusjfoUus and 
 others) is another most troubleson^e 
 weed, both in fields and pastures, and 
 is only to be eradicated by similar 
 means with the thistle. Docks are 
 often left in the field after harvest, 
 where they shed their seed at leisure, 
 whereas they should be collected 
 with as great care as the corn itself, 
 and invariably be burned in heaps ; 
 
 this is the only sure means of de- 
 stroying the seed. They are often 
 thrown into the roads, supposing tha* 
 they will bo crushed by the wheels 
 of carts passing over them ; but it 
 must be remembered that birds may 
 swallow them, and void them again 
 with their vegetative powers unin- 
 jured, if not improved ; and that thus 
 they are again sown on the land. 
 Nothing but burning is a sure de- 
 struction of the seeds. 
 
 " Ccntaurca nigra, black knapweed 
 or horse-knot, is a coarse plant which 
 chiefly infests pastures, and takes up 
 the room of useful grasses, most an- 
 imals refusing to eat it. It is only 
 to be eradicated t)y pulling the plants 
 up iiy the roots or cutting them close 
 to the ground wherever they appear. 
 Manuring the surface highly and 
 mowing the grass soon makes them 
 disai)pear. 
 
 " Pohigonum amphihinm, commonly 
 called amphibious pcrsicaria, is found 
 on very wet land, and is best destroy- 
 ed by draining. 
 
 " Besides the common conch grass 
 {Triticum rcpcns), which is the pest of 
 farmers on light soils, there are a va- 
 riety of plants which spread both by 
 the roots and by creeping along the 
 surface ; of this kind are the differ- 
 ent sorts oi quitches, as they are pro- 
 vincially called, which grow in wet 
 soils. Of these, the Agrostis stolonif- 
 era, once so highly praised as fodder 
 under the name of fwrin, and the 
 Agrostis alba (March bent grass), are 
 the most common ; when they take 
 possession of a spot they exclude all 
 other grasses. The only mode of 
 extirpating these last is draining and 
 careful tillage. But to return to the 
 common couch. This weed sonie- 
 times takes such possession of the 
 soil that nothing else can thrive in it. 
 It is not a single fallow or cleaning 
 which will get rid of it, but a regular 
 system. Ploughing does often more 
 harm than good, by dividing the root 
 (which is, in fact, an underground 
 stem), and thus increasing the num- 
 ber of plants. The most effectual 
 means of destruction is by the fork. 
 If, after the ground has been once 
 
WEE 
 
 WEI 
 
 plougned, it be forked up carefully in 
 dry woalhor, and liie lulls of c()ut;li, 
 with their roots, be exposed to the 
 hot sun, they may be rakeil ofl" and 
 burned ; but as tliese roots contain 
 mucii nutritive saccliarine matter, it 
 is often wortli while to wash them, 
 if the adhering earth cannot be beat 
 out, and to give tlicm to liorscs and 
 cattle to cat, taking care that the 
 litter and dung made at that time be 
 reserved to manure grass land, and 
 not arable fields. Heaps of couch 
 may be rotted by pouring urine or 
 the drainings of dunghills over them ; 
 and if they are frequently turned, will 
 produce a rich compost. Any incon- 
 venience from the extreme vitality 
 of the roots is obviated by using this 
 compost, mixed with earth, as a top- 
 dressing for pastures. 
 
 " Another weed with perennial 
 and very vivacious roots is the Ar- 
 rhcnatherum arcnaceum, common oat- 
 like grass. The root is bulbous, and 
 the bulbs, separated, grow again. It 
 is difficult to eradicate, but the means 
 employed to get rid of the couch 
 grass will succeed with this and most 
 otlier perennial roots. These troub- 
 lesome weeds may have been wisely 
 dispersed through the soil by Provi- 
 dence, to induce the cultivator to 
 give his land a more perfect tillage 
 than he might have done otherwise. 
 The expense of forking, and what 
 is usually called couching, is gener- 
 ally amply repaid by the finer tilth it 
 gives to the land, and the crops are 
 more certain and abundant in conse- 
 quence. 
 
 " There are many other weeds, 
 both in arable and pasture land, which 
 indicate slovenly culture, and which 
 disappear on careful cultivation ; 
 such as briars, furze, broom, and 
 rushes, the last being a well-known 
 sign of superabundant moisture, and 
 only to be destroyed by under-drain- 
 ing. The whole process of cultiva- 
 tion is a continual struggle between 
 the farmer and the weeds natural to 
 the soil he cultivates. The sooner 
 he subdues them entirely, the less 
 will be his subsequent trouble ; and 
 the perfection of agriculture is to 
 84'i 
 
 produce crops of such vegetables as 
 are useful and piofitaiile, and are 
 suited to the soil which is cultivated, 
 while all others are excluded which 
 might interfere with the crops to be 
 raised. That much remains yet to 
 he done in this respect on farms 
 which are looked upon as models of 
 cultivation will be acknowledged on 
 sinqjle ins[)ection. The almost uni- 
 versal adoption of tiie system of drill- 
 ing and hoeing the crops tends great- 
 ly to the destruction of useless plants 
 on arable land ; much yet may be 
 done by way of improving the prod- 
 uce of meadows and pastures by the 
 destruction of all noxious and useless 
 plants, and th(> introduction of those 
 wliich are nutritious and improve the 
 herbage, whether depastured or made 
 into hay ; and nothing is so likely to 
 do so as a good system of alternate 
 husbandry, where the best grasses 
 are cultivated as carefully as the 
 plants which are immediately appli- 
 ed to the food of man." 
 
 WEEVILS. The true weevils are 
 coleopterans of the family Rhyncho- 
 phondc^, distinguished by the head 
 being prolonged into a snout, and 
 sometimes into a narrow tube. The 
 grain weevils will he found figured in 
 the article on Insects. The weevils 
 are all destructive to grain and trees, 
 the Hylohius pales, picivorvus, &,c., be- 
 ing particularly injurious to pine- 
 trees. They are, however, the food 
 of numerous woodpeckers, which 
 keep down their numbers. Tlie pine 
 weevils appear in the fall, from Au- 
 gust to October. 
 
 W'EIGH. A common term for a 
 certain quantity of produce, which is, 
 however, indeterminate. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 " St/stcm of Lineal Measures. — The 
 unit of lineal measure is the yard, all 
 other denominations being either mul- 
 tiples or aliquot parts of the yard. 
 The yard is divided into 3 feet, and 
 the foot subdivided into 12 inches. 
 The multiples of the yard are the pole 
 or perch, the furlong, and the mile ; 
 5^ yards being a pole, 40 poles a fur- 
 long, and 8 furlongs a mile. But the 
 pole and furlong arc now scarcely 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 ever used, ilinerary distances being 
 reckoned in nules and yards. 
 
 "The relations of these different 
 
 drnnminations are exhibited in tno 
 following table ; 
 
 In.-lies. 
 
 Keet. 
 
 Yiirds. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Furlongs. 
 
 Mile-. 
 
 I 
 
 0Ub3 
 
 0.028 
 
 00505 
 
 0-000 121126 
 
 0,0000157828 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 0333 
 
 DOB060 
 
 0-00I5I515 
 
 0-00(IIh'J39 
 
 3li 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 01818 
 
 0004545 
 
 0-(J0(l5nS18 
 
 198 
 
 10-5 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 0025 
 
 0003125 
 
 7920 
 
 fi60 
 
 220 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 0125 
 
 63300 
 
 5280 
 
 1760 
 
 320 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 " Of the different measures of | es ; 144 square inches being equal to 
 
 length used, the foot is the most uni 
 versally prevalent. We subjoin the 
 relation between the foot of different 
 countries and the English foot. 
 
 English foot 
 
 Russian foot !• 
 
 Paris foot 1 065765 
 
 Prussian and Danish foot . 1 029722 
 
 Austrian foot 1037128 
 
 '' Mcasuresof Superficies. — In square 
 measure the yard is subdivided, as in 
 general measure, into feet and inch- 
 
 a square foot, and 9 square feel to a 
 square yard. For land measure, the 
 multiples of the yard a/e the pole, 
 the rood, and the acre ; 3();J (the 
 square of 5^) square yards being a 
 pole, 40 poles a rood, and 4 roods an 
 acre (see Acre). Very large surfaces, 
 as of whole countries, are expressed 
 in square miles. 
 
 " The following are the relations 
 of square measure : 
 
 q.,,,re Fe,-:. 
 
 Squaiv V;irJ<. 
 
 P.ilc*. 
 
 Kood<. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1 
 
 0-1111 
 
 0-00:5!i7309 
 
 o-ooo«yi«27 
 
 000022957 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0-03305798 
 
 0(100826448 
 
 0000-20i;(512 
 
 272-25 
 
 30-2O 
 
 1 
 
 O-O-io 
 
 000620 
 
 10,«90 
 
 1210 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 025 
 
 435G0 
 
 4.340 
 
 160 
 
 - 4 
 
 1 
 
 "Land is usually measured by a 
 chain of 4 poles, or 22 yards, which is 
 divided into 100 links. Three chains 
 in length, and one in breadth, make 
 an acre, w-hicb equals 1G9 square 
 perches, or 4840 square yards. 
 Square, or Superficial Measure. 
 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
 9 " feet = 1 " yard. 
 
 304 " ^""'s = 1 " ■■"''• 
 
 40 " rods =1 " acre. 
 640 " acres = 1 " mile. 
 
 ''Measures of Volume. — Solids are 
 measured by ci.bic yards, feet and 
 inches ; 1728 cubic inches making a 
 cubic foot, and 27 cubic feet a cubic 
 yard. For all sorts of liquids, corn, 
 ^nd other dry goods, the standard 
 measure is declared by the act of 
 1824 to be the imperial gallon, the ca- 
 pacity of which is determined imme- 
 diately by weight, and remotely by 
 the standard of length. 
 
 " The parts of the gallon are quarts 
 and pints, 2 pints being a quart, and 
 4 quarts a gallon. Its multiples are 
 the peck, the bushel, and the quarter ; 
 the peck being 2 gallons, the bushel 4 
 pecks, and the quarter 8 bushels. 
 4 B 2 
 
 Pmt^. 
 
 •en:irts. 
 
 Gatlotis. 
 
 I'ecks. 
 
 Itusi.els. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1 
 
 Uo 
 
 0-1 io 
 
 U-0t)-21 
 
 OOl.itH.-) 
 
 0-001');Vii:,i 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 0-25 
 
 01 25 
 
 01131-25 
 
 O0ai>lli(i:.i 
 
 8 
 
 
 1- 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-1-25 
 
 001.-)lv2ft 
 
 ir. 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 0-23 
 
 0^5125 
 
 m 
 
 3S 
 
 8 
 
 4 - 
 
 1 
 
 0-1-23 
 
 I3l-i 
 
 25li 
 
 « 
 
 .T2 
 
 8 
 
 ' 
 
 Ciiliic, or Solid Measure. 
 17-23 cubic inches make . . 1 cul)ic foot. 
 
 27 ciibii; feet 1 cubic yard 
 
 40 feet of rough timiier , 
 50 feel of hewn timber 
 
 1 load. 
 
 "This comprehends length, breadth, 
 and thiL-kness. 
 
 "And 108 solid feet, that is, 12 feet 
 in length, 3 feet in l)ieadth, and 3 feet 
 deep, or, commonly, 14 feet h'ng, 3 
 (eet 1 inch broad, and 3 feet 1 inch 
 deep, are a stack of wood. 
 
 " .Vnd 128 solid feet, that is, 8 feet 
 long, 4 feel broad, and 4 feet deep, 
 are a cord of wood. 
 
 Grain Pleasures. 
 
 
 
 No. of efjual 
 
 Name of 
 
 Countries. 
 
 BusheU 
 
 to English 
 
 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 
 Kngland . 
 
 1-000 
 
 b-000 
 
 
 SrotlanJ . 
 
 l-O-.'-l 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 H-427 
 
 1-S07 
 
 Seller. 
 
 Holl'iil'l . 
 
 3-117 
 
 2 5.14 
 
 Mu.l.le. 
 
 
 14;<> 
 
 5-409 
 
 
 Spain . . 
 Poland . . 
 
 1-.599 
 
 5003 
 
 FanngA. 
 
 1-451 
 
 5-313 
 
 Ktfraee. 
 
 845 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 English Corn Measures. 
 
 4 gills =^ 1 pint = 34! cubic in. 
 
 2 pints = I quart = 69i '^' 
 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 277^ " 
 2 irallons = 1 peck = 5444 
 
 8 .rullMiis = 1 bushel = 2218i 
 
 8 bushels = I quurtcr = JOi cubic ft. 
 
 5 quarters = 1 load = 51^ 
 
 " Tlie Wincliestcr quarter is more 
 than the imperial quarter, being in 
 the proportion of 1 to 96945. The 
 English imperial quarter, in estima- 
 ting weight, means the ith of a ton of 
 2340 lbs. =560 lbs., or 1 quarter. 
 
 " Measures of Wood and other Fuel. 
 — Cord-wood, being the bigger sort 
 of fire-wood, is measured by a cord 
 or line, whereof there are two meas- 
 ures : that of 14 feet in length, 3 feet 
 in breadth, and 3 feet in height ; the 
 other is 8 feet in length, 4 feet in 
 breadth, and 4 feet in height, which 
 is generally employed. 
 Table of Weights and Mea.sures ac- 
 cording to the Imperial Standard. 
 
 Avoirdupois weigbt. French grammes. 
 
 1 drachm =: 1771 
 
 16 drachms 1 ounce =: 2S'346 
 
 16 ounces 1 pound = 453-544 
 
 28 pounds 1 qr. cwt. = l-2-69a kilogram. 
 
 4 quarters 1 cwt. = 50~96 
 
 20 cwt. 1 ton = 1015-920 
 
 " The Stone is generally 14 lbs. 
 avoirdupois weight, but for butcher's 
 meat or fish it is 8 lbs. Hence the 
 cwt. equals 8 stone of 14 lbs., or 14 
 stone of 8 lbs. 
 
 ''Wool Weight. — Like all other 
 bulky articles, wool is weighed by 
 avoirdupois weight, but the divisions 
 differ thus : 
 
 7 pounds =: 1 clove. 
 
 2 cloves == 1 stone. 
 
 2 stone ^ 1 t"d. 
 
 ei tods = 1 wey. 
 
 2" weys = 1 sack. 
 
 12 sacks =; 1 last. 
 
 " Cheese and butter, 
 
 8 pounds = 1 clove. 
 
 32 cloves = 1 wey in Essex. 
 
 42 cloves = 1 w-ey in Suffolk. 
 
 56 pounds = 1 firkin of butter. 
 
 A cubic foot of lallovr 
 " " oak 
 
 " brick 
 " " air 
 
 weiihs 
 
 59 lbs. 
 73 15 
 125 
 -0753 
 
 " The quintal is 100 lbs. ; the torn 
 2240 lbs. 
 
 " The weight of a cubic inch of dis- 
 tilled water, in air, is 252-458 grains. 
 
 "The Turkish pound is 7578grains ; 
 the Danish, 6941 ; the Irish, 7774 ; 
 the Neapolitan, 4952 ; the Scotch 
 pound troy, 7620-8. 
 
 "The imperial gallon contains 10 
 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water, 
 weighed in air at 62 = , with the ba- 
 rometer at 30 inches. 2 gallons are 
 equal to a peck, 8 gallons to a bush- 
 el, and 8 bushels to a quarter. 
 
 " Heaped measure, per bushel, is 
 28154; cubic inches clear. 
 
 "The Winchester bushel is 18^ 
 inches in diameter, and 8 inches deep, 
 containing 21.54 42 cubic inches. 
 
 " 1000 ounces of rain water are 
 equal to about 7^ gallons wine meas- 
 ure, or to a cubic foot. 
 
 " 7 pounds avoirdupois are a gallon 
 of flour. 
 
 " A chaldron of coals is 58| cubic 
 feet. 
 
 " 12 wine gallons of distilled water 
 weigh 100 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 "The imperial dry bushel, when 
 not heaped, is 2218 192 cubic inches ; 
 the peck, 5.54 548 ; gallon, 277 274 ; 
 and quart, 69 3185. The bushel is 8 
 inches deep, and 18 8 wide, with a 
 heap 6 inches high. 
 
 " A bushel of wheat is 60 lbs. ; 
 rye, 53 lbs. ; barley, 47 lbs. ; oats, 38 ; 
 pease, 64 ; beans, 63 ; clover seed, 
 68 ; rape, 48 lbs. 
 
 " A Scotch pint is equal to 4 Eng- 
 lish pints. 
 
 "A Scotch quart is 208-6 cubic 
 
 inches. 
 
 " There are 545,267,000 cubic yards 
 
 in a cubic mile. 
 
 According to usage, in Philadel- 
 
 ^- r . c ^ -i .... phia and other parts of the United 
 
 A cubic foot of loose ear.h or , ^^^^_ K„ii,iin.r.«tnnP u-l.Pn niled or 
 
 sand weighs 95 lbs. 
 
 K cubic ft. of common soil weighs 124 
 
 " " strong soil " 127 
 
 " " clar " 135 
 
 " " distilled water " 62-5 
 
 " " cast iron " 450-45 
 
 " " lead " 709 5 
 
 " " copper " 466-75 
 
 846 
 
 States, building-stone, when piled or 
 ' perched,' as it is usually termed, is 
 measured by allowing 25 cubic feet to 
 the perch ; but when placed in the 
 wall, only 22 feet are allowed to the 
 perch. In measuring stone wall, 14 
 inches of thickness is usually allow- 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 ed. When the thickness of the wall 
 exceeds 14 inches, the extra thick- 
 ness is estimated, and made an addi- 
 tional charge. This is the common 
 rule when the walls have only one 
 face. In double-faced walls there is 
 commonly an allowance of about one 
 third more. 3 pecks of good lime 
 will generally sufiice to lay 1 perch 
 of stone wall. About 2 one-horse 
 loads of sand are allowed to make 
 mortar for 3 perciies of stone wall. 
 
 "To convert cubic feet into perch- 
 es, divide by 25 ; or, what is still 
 more easy, multiply by 01. 
 
 " In brick-work, 14 bricks are usu- 
 ally allowed to the cubic foot : some- 
 times only 13 are allowed. To con- 
 vert cubic feet into cubic yards, di- 
 vide by 3, and the product by 9. 
 
 " Lumba- Measure. — In estimating 
 the number of feet in a board, the 
 length in feet is to be multiplied by 
 the width in inches, and the result, 
 divided by 12, shows the contents in 
 feet. When boards are more than 1 
 inch thick, all over is added. A 
 board 12 feet long and U inch 
 tliick would of course be estimated 
 to contain one fourth more than a 
 board only 1 inch thick. 
 
 " Capacity Measures. — Wine gal- 
 lon, 231 cubic inches : beer gallon, 2S2 
 cubic inches ; bushel, 2150 42 cubic 
 inches ; lime bushel, 131 inches diam- 
 eter at bottom, 15 inches at top, and 
 13-47 inches deep. A cord of wood 
 contains 128 cubic feet. A hogshead 
 of cider 1 10 wine gallons. 
 
 " Weights. — A Troy pound is equal 
 to that of the United States mint, and 
 the avoirdupois pound bears to it 
 the ratio of 7000 to 576. 
 
 6U lbs. of wheat pass for a bushel. 
 58 " rye. 
 58 " corn. 
 48 " buckwheat. 
 47 " barley. 
 
 32 " oats. 
 
 85 " coarse salt (foreign). 
 70 " ground salt. 
 62 " fine. 
 
 60 " anthracite coal, 112 lbs. make 1 
 owl., and 2240 lbs. = 1 ton. 
 
 " If the square of the diameter of 
 a circle be multiplied by -7854, the 
 product is the area. If the diameter ' 
 of a sphere be cubed and multiplied 1 
 
 by -6236, the product is the solidity ; 
 and tlie square of tiie diameter, mul- 
 tiplied by 314159, is the surface of 
 the sphere. 
 
 " To find the contents of a cask, 
 add double the square of the bung di- 
 ameter to the square of the head di- 
 ameter, and multiply this sum by tlie 
 head of the cask ; then divide tiie 
 product by 1077 for ale gallons of 
 280 cubic inches each, or by 882 for 
 wine gallons of 231 cubic inches each. 
 " Method of ascertaining the Weight 
 of Cattle while living. — Tliis is of the 
 utmost utility for all those who are 
 not experienced judges liy the eye, 
 and by the following directions llie 
 weight can be ascertained witliin a 
 mere trifle. Take a string, put it 
 round the beast, standing square, just 
 behind the shoulder-blade ; measure 
 on a foot-rule the feet and inches the 
 animal is in circumference ; this is 
 called the girth ; then with the string 
 measure from the bone of the tail, 
 which plumbs the line with the hind- 
 er part of the buttock ; direct the line 
 along the back to the fore part of the 
 shoulder-blade ; take the dimensions 
 with the foot-rule, as before, which 
 is the length, and work the figures in 
 the following manner: Girth of the 
 bullock, 6 feet 4 inches ; length, 5 
 feet 3 inches ; which, multiplied to- 
 gether, make 31 square superficial 
 feet ; that, again, multiplied by 23 
 (the number of pounds allowed to 
 each superficial foot of all cattle 
 measuring less than 7 and more than 
 five feet in girth), makes 713 lbs. ; 
 and allowing 14 pounds to the stone, 
 is 50 stone 13 lbs. ; and where the 
 animal measures less than 9 and more 
 than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the number 
 of pounds to each foot. Again, sup- 
 posing a pig or any small beast should 
 measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 feet 
 along the back, which, multiplied to- 
 gether, make 4 square feet, that mul- 
 tiplied by 11, the number of pounds 
 allowed for each square foot of cattle 
 measuring less than 3 feet in girth, 
 makes 44 lbs. ; which, divided by 14, 
 to bring it to stones, is 3 stones 2 
 lbs. Again, suppose a calf, sheep, 
 &c., should measure 4 feet 6 inches 
 847 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 in girth, and 3 foot 9 inches in length, 
 which, niiiltiphcd togetiicr, make 1G| 
 square feet ; tliat niultiphcd hy IG, 
 th,e numher of j)ounds allowed to all 
 cattle measuring less than 5 feet and 
 more than 3 in girth, makes 2G4 lbs. ; 
 which, divided by 14, to bring it to 
 stones, is 18 stones 12 lbs. The di- 
 mensions of the girth and length of 
 black cattle, sheep, calves, or hogs, 
 may be as exactly taken this way as 
 it is at all necessary for any compu- 
 tation or valuation of stock, and will 
 answer exactly to the four quarters, 
 sinku)g the offal, and which every 
 man who can get even a bit of chalk 
 may easily perform. A deduction 
 must be made for a half-fatted beast 
 of 1 stone in 20 from that of a fat 
 one, and for a cow that has had calves 
 1 stone must be allowed, and another 
 for not being properly fat." 
 
 " French Si/stcm of Weights. — The 
 French denominations of weight oc- 
 cur so frequently in works connected 
 with the physical sciences, that it is 
 convenient to be acquainted with their 
 values. The unit of weight is the 
 gramme, which is the weight of the 
 100th part of a cubic metre of distil- 
 led water at the temperature of melt- 
 ing ice. A gramme is equal to 15 434 
 Troy grains ; whence the following 
 comparative table of French with 
 Troy weight : 
 
 Dyers' weed, or yellow rocket, an 
 annual used for dyeing purposes, es- 
 
 Milligramme =: 
 
 •001 = 
 
 •01543 
 
 Centigramme = 
 
 •01 = 
 
 •15434 
 
 Decigramme = 
 
 •1 = 
 
 15434 
 
 Gramme =: 
 
 1 = 
 
 15-434 
 
 Decagramme =: 
 
 10 — 
 
 154-34 
 
 Hectogramme =: 
 
 100 =: 
 
 1543-4 
 
 Kilos;rarame = 
 
 1000 = 
 
 15434 
 
 Myriagramrae = 
 
 lOUOO = 
 
 154340 
 
 "The kilogramme is equal to 2 
 lbs. 3 oz., 4-428 drachms avoirdupois 
 weight. In the Sf/slemc Usucl the 
 standards are the same as the above, 
 but the denominations are those 
 which were anciently in use. It was 
 found impossible to introduce the 
 new terms. The divisions are bina- 
 ry. Half the kilogramme forms the 
 livre usuel, which is divided into 
 halves, quarters, eighths, &c., down 
 to the gros, which is the eighth of 
 the once, or the fljih of the livre. 
 
 WELD. Reseda luteola {Fig.). 
 843 
 
 pecially for yellow dyes. The fol- 
 lowing is Loudon's account of its 
 cultivation : 
 
 " The soil being brought to a fine 
 tilth, the seed is sown in April or the 
 beginning of May, generally broad- 
 cast. Tiie quantity of seed is from 
 two quarts to a gallon per acre, and 
 it should either be fresh, or, if two or 
 three years old, steeped a few days 
 in water previously to being sown. 
 Being a biennial, and no advantage 
 obtained Irom it the first year, it is 
 sometimes sown with corn crops in 
 the manner of clover, which, when 
 the soil is in a very rich state, may 
 answer, provided, also, that hoeing, 
 weeding, and stirring take place as 
 soon as the corn crop is cut. The 
 best crops, however, will obviously 
 be the result of drilling and cultiva- 
 ting the crop alone. The drills may 
 be a foot asunder, and the plants 
 thinned to six inches in the row. In 
 the broad-cast mode it is usual to 
 thin them to six or eight inches' dis- 
 tance every way ; often, when weld 
 succeeds corn crops, it is never either 
 thinned, weeded, or hoed, but left to 
 itself till the plants are in full blossom. 
 
 " The crop is taken by pulling up the 
 entire plant, and the proper period 
 for this purpose is when the bloom 
 has been produced the whole length 
 of the stems, and the plants are just 
 
WEL 
 
 beginning to turn of a light or yellow- 
 isli colour ; as in the beginning or 
 middle of July in the second year. 
 The plants are usually from one to 
 two and a half feet in height. It is 
 tiiought by some advantageous to 
 pull it rather early, without waiting 
 for the ripening of the seeds, as i)y 
 this means tiiere will not only be the 
 greatest projjortion of dye, but the 
 land will be left at liberty for the re- 
 ception of a crop of wheat or turnips ; 
 but in this case a small part must be 
 Icl't solely for tlie purpose of seed. 
 In the execution of the work, the 
 plants are drawn up l)y the roots in 
 small handfuls, and set up to dry after 
 each handful has been tied up by one 
 of the stalks, in tlie number of four 
 together in an erect position against 
 each other. Sometimes, however, 
 they become sufficiently dry by turn- 
 ing without being set up. After they 
 have remained till fully dry, which 
 is mostly effected in the course of 
 a week or two, they are bound up 
 into larger bundles that contain each 
 CO handfuls, and wiiich arc of the 
 ^veight of 50 lbs. each, 60 of these 
 bundles constituting a load. These 
 last, in places where this kind of crop 
 is much grown, are tied up by a string 
 made for the purpose, and sold under 
 the title of weld cord. 
 
 " The produce of weld depends much 
 on the nature of the season ; but from 
 half a load to a load and a lialf is the 
 quantity most commonly afforded. It 
 is mostly bought by persons who af- 
 terward dispose of it to the dyers oc- 
 casionally as they find it convenient. 
 The demand for it is sometimes very 
 little, while at others it is so great as 
 to raise the price to a high degree. 
 It i-s sometimes gathered green, and 
 treated like woad or indigo ; but in 
 general the dried herb is used by the 
 dyers in a state of decoction. 
 
 " The use of weld in dyemg is for 
 giving a yellow colour to cotton, 
 woollen, moliair, silk, and linen. Blue 
 cloths are dipped in a decoction of it, 
 which renders them green ; and the 
 yellow colour of the paint called Dutch 
 pink is obtained from weld. It yields 
 a brownish yellow decoction, the col- 
 
 WEL 
 
 our of which is rendered paler by 
 acids, and richer and deeper by alka- 
 lies. Alum tiiruws down a yellow 
 precipitate, and leaves the clear liquor 
 of a fine lemon yellow ; tartar also 
 brightens its colour ; and solution 
 of tin gives it a dilute green lint. 
 When a ini.xture of whiting and alum 
 is added to a hot decoction of wvM, a 
 yellow precipitate is obtained, which, 
 when collected, washed, and dried, is 
 of a fine delicate colour, and much 
 employed by pa[)er-stainers. 
 
 " To save seed, select a few of the 
 largest and healthiest plants, and 
 leave them to ripen. The seed i-s 
 easily separated. 
 
 " The chief disease of weld is the 
 mildew, to which it is very liable 
 when young, and this is one reason 
 that it is often sown with other crops." 
 
 W E L D I N G. The union of two 
 pieces of metal at a white heat by 
 hammering; iron, steel, and platinum 
 are the only metals susceptible of 
 welding. The surfaces are cleaned 
 by borax in welding steel. 
 
 \V E L L. " Before proceeding to 
 dig a well, it ougtit first to be deter- 
 mined on whether a mere reservoir 
 for the water which oozes out of the 
 surface soil is desired or obtainable, 
 or a perpetual spring. If the former 
 is the object in view, a depth of fifteen 
 or twenty feet may probably suflice, 
 though tills cannot be expected to 
 alford a constant supply unless a 
 watery vein or spring is hit on : if 
 the latter, the depth may be various, 
 tliere being instances of 300 and 500 
 feet having been cut through before 
 a permanent supply of water was 
 found. 
 
 " The art of well-digging is gener- 
 ally carried on by persons who de- 
 vote themselves exclusively to that 
 department. The site being fixed on, 
 the ground-plan is a circle, generally 
 of not more than six or eight feet in 
 diameter : the digger then works 
 j down by means of a small short-han- 
 ! died spade, and a small implement of 
 I the pickaxe kind, the earthy iiaate- 
 i rials being drawn up in i)uckets by 
 1 the hand or a windlass fixed over 
 the opening for the purpose. Where 
 849 
 
WEL 
 
 WHE 
 
 persons conversant with this sort of 
 business are employed, they usually 
 nianai,'e the whole olthc work, brick- 
 ing round the sides with great facility 
 and readiness ; but in otlicr cases it 
 will be necessary to have a bricklayer 
 to execute this part of the business. 
 
 " There are two methods of build- 
 ing the stone or brick within the well, 
 which is called the steening. In one 
 of these a circular ring is formed, of 
 the same diameter as the intended 
 well ; and the timber of which it is 
 composed is of the size of the brick 
 courses with which the well is to be 
 lined. The lower edge of this circle 
 is made sharp, and shod with iron, so 
 that it has a tendency to cut into the 
 ground ; this circular kirb is placed 
 flat upon the ground, and the bricks 
 are built upon it to a considerable 
 height, like a circular wall. The 
 well-digger gels within this circle, 
 and digs away the earth at the bot- 
 tom ; the weight of the wall then for- 
 ces the kirb and the brick-work with 
 which it is loaded to descend mto the 
 earth, and as fast as the earth is re- 
 moved it sinks deeper, the circular 
 brick wall being increased or raised 
 at top as fast as it sinks down ; but 
 when it gets very deep, it will sink 
 no longer, particularly if it passes 
 through a soft stratum : in this case, 
 a second kirb of a smaller size is 
 sometimes begun within the first. 
 When a kirb will not sink from the 
 softness of the strata, or when it is 
 required to stop out water, the bricks 
 or stones must be laid one by one at 
 the bottom of the work, taking care 
 that the work is not left unsupported 
 in such a manner as to let the bricks 
 fall as they are laid ; this is called 
 underpinning. 
 
 " AVell-diggers experience some- 
 times great difficulty from a noxious 
 air which fills the well, and suffocates 
 them if they breathe it. The usual 
 mode of clearing wells of noxious air 
 is by means of a large pair of bellows 
 and a long leathern pipe, which is 
 hung down into the well to the bot- 
 tom, and fresh air forced down by 
 working the bellows. 
 
 "The use of the auger is common 
 85.0 
 
 in well-digging, both in ascertaining, 
 before commencement, the nature of 
 the strata to be dug into, and also in 
 course of digging tor the same pur- 
 pose ; and because, by boring in the 
 bottom of a well to a considerable 
 depth, the spring is sometimes hit 
 upon, and digging rendered no longer 
 necessary. 
 
 " The use of the borer alone may 
 procure an adequate supply of water 
 in particular situations. This mode 
 ajipears to have been long resorted 
 to in this and other countries. From 
 what we have already stated as to 
 the disposition of strata, the C(rndi- 
 tions requisite for its success will be 
 readily conceived ; viz , watery strata 
 connected with others on a higher 
 level : the pressure of the water con- 
 tained in the higher parts of such 
 strata on that in the lower will read- 
 ily force up the latter through any 
 orifice, however small. All that is 
 necessary, therefore, is to bore down 
 to the stratum containing the water, 
 and, having completed the bore, to 
 insert a pipe, which may either be 
 left to overflow into a cistern, or it 
 may terminate in a pump. In many 
 cases, water may be found in this 
 way, and yet not in sufficient quan- 
 tity and force to rise to the surface ; 
 in such cases a well may be sunk to 
 a certain depth, and the auger-hole 
 made, and the pipe inserted in it at 
 the bottom of the w-ell. From the 
 bottom it may be pumped up to the 
 surface by any of the usual modes " 
 
 WETHER. The castrated ram : 
 it yields the best mutton, especially 
 at three to five vears old. 
 
 WHALEBONE SCRAPING S. 
 They form a manure very similar to 
 woollen rags : half a ton is applied 
 to the acre. 
 
 WHALE-OIL SOAP. A solution 
 of this substance, at the rate of one 
 pound in four or five gallons of water, 
 is found the best application for de- 
 stroying plant lice, whether on the 
 stem or roots of trees. A weaker 
 solution, sprinkled over vegetables 
 attacked with lice, will also be found 
 serviceable. 
 
 WHEAT. Triticum hybernum. 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 " Some botanists have divided wheats 
 into different species, from some 
 marked peculiarity in their formation. 
 Others, eoiisideriiig tiiat they mostly 
 form hybrids when mixed in the sow- 
 in<T, and that their pt'culiarities vary 
 with the soil and climate, have look- 
 ed upon all the cultivated wheats as 
 mere varieties. There are, however, 
 three jirincipal varieties, so ditierent 
 in appearance that they claim pecu- 
 liar attention. These are the hard or 
 liint wheats, the soft wheats, and the 
 Polish wheats. The hard wheats are 
 the produce of warm climates, such 
 as Italy, Sicily, and Barbary. The 
 soft wheats grow in the northern 
 parts of Europe. The Polish wheats 
 grow in the country from which they 
 derive their name, and are also hard 
 wheats. It is from their external 
 
 form that they are distinguished from 
 other wheats. The hard wheats have 
 a compact seed nearly transparent, 
 which, when bitten through, breaks 
 short, and shows a very white flour 
 within. The soft wheats have an 
 opaque coat or skin, and which, when 
 first reaped, give way readily to the 
 pressure of the finger and thumb. 
 These wheats require to be well dried 
 and hardened before they can be 
 conveniently ground into flour. The 
 Polish wheat has a chaff which is 
 much longer than the seed, a large, 
 oblong, hard seed, and an ear cylin- 
 drical in appearance. It is a delicate 
 spring wheat, and not very produc- 
 tive ; hence it has only been occa- 
 sionally cultivated by way of exper- 
 iment. 
 
 " The following cuts represent 
 
 , Eapfi>n»t'e.-'t { TrU,cum Eg„p,.acim): 2. Spelter wheat { Tr.<.T.,m tp.UayZ. -^^^-^^^f, T "I'^l.m'l^rVL^'f"" '"'"^ 
 icum]; 4SuigledK™^whc«U3Vi<icummom)coc«im); 5. Common beardeJwUeal (Truicum I..rf.^»m). 
 
 851 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 some peculiar species of wheat. Tiie 
 first is a eonipoiind ear, i)roduced by 
 very liixurianl vegetation, and is com- 
 mon in Ejjypt. The second is tiie 
 spelter wheat, of which the chafl" is 
 so strongly attaclied to the ^n-ain as to 
 be separated only hy passing throngh 
 a mill. It is an inferior variety, hut 
 grows in less fertile soils. The third 
 is the Polish wheat, with very long 
 chaff and hard grains. The fourth is 
 a variety which only ripens one seed 
 in each spikelet, and is not much cul- 
 tivated. The fifth is common soft- 
 bearded wheat. If the awns of this 
 kind are obliterated, it forms our 
 common soft wheat. The existence 
 of awns seems not to affect the na- 
 tiir(^ of the wheat, and they differ so 
 much in length that tiie varieties of 
 smooth-eared and bearded wheats run 
 insensibly into each other. 
 
 "The hard wlieats contain much 
 more gluten, a tough, viscid substance, 
 which is very nutritious, and which, 
 containing a portion of nitrogen, read- 
 ily promotes that fermentation, or )(- 
 sing, as it is called, of the dough, 
 which is essential to good, light bread 
 The soft wheats contain the greatest 
 quantity of starch, which fits them 
 for the vinous fermentation, by its 
 conversion into sugar and alcohol ; 
 for brewing or distijling, therefore, 
 the soft wheats are the best."' 
 
 VARIETIES OP WHE.iT. 
 
 White Flint. — This is one of the 
 most valuable kinds in the Northern 
 Stales. The heads are not long, but 
 well filled, with thirty to forty grains ; 
 the kernel is white and flinty, large, 
 and with thin bran. They are firm- 
 ly attached to the chaff, and do not 
 shell out except when very ripe. Tlie 
 heads are rather drooping, with few 
 awns, the straw medium length, and 
 very white and strong. The flour is 
 very superior : the perfect wlieat 
 weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the 
 bushel. 
 
 Harmon's While Flint. — A variety 
 improved from the above, in which 
 the berry is larger, bran very thin, 
 and the flour equally good, if nc.'l su- 
 perior : weighs 64 pounds the bush- 
 852 
 
 el. This and the above are little in- 
 jured by the Hessian fly, and will 
 stand a good deal of wet weather 
 without injury. 
 
 White I'rorcncr. — Heads middling 
 and bald; chaff bluish ; berry large 
 and white; bran thin; flour good. It 
 is early, but the straw is small, long, 
 and soft, and very liable to fall. 
 
 Old Red Chaff. — An old and favour- 
 ite kind, but now liable to rust and 
 the fly. Red chaff, bald ; long straw ; 
 berry v/hite, large, weighing 62 pounds 
 the bushel ; bran tliin ; superior flour. 
 
 Kentucky White -bearded, Canada 
 Flint. — White chaff, bearded ; heads 
 short and heavy, well filled; shells 
 readily ; berries round, short, and 
 while ; weighs 60 to 6o pounds the 
 bushel ; flour very good, but not equal 
 to the white flint. It tillers little ; the 
 straw is strong, but liable to injury 
 from insects. 
 
 Indiana Wheat. — White chaff, bald ; 
 berry u'hite and large ; bran thin ; the 
 berry not as flinty as the white flint, 
 some of the best quality weighing six- 
 ty-four pounds to the bushel, produ- 
 cing flour of superior quality and 
 quantity ; straw is larger and longer 
 than the white flint ; shells easily, so 
 that there is considerable loss if it re- 
 mains in the field till fully ripe. In- 
 sects have attacked it more than the 
 flint, and it is more liable to be win- 
 ter-killed. 
 
 A variety of while wheat is much 
 esteemed in western New -York, 
 which resembles an improved Indi- 
 ana. It is called Scotch u-hcat. 
 
 Virginia White May. — It has a white 
 chaff, bald, much resemi)lingthe white 
 flint in its growth and straw ; the 
 heads are more clumped ; the berry 
 standing out more, and shells easier. 
 The berry is white, with a very hard 
 and flinty appearance, weighing from 
 63 to 60 pounds to the bushel ; bran 
 of a medium thickness, producing 
 flour of a good quality. Its early ma- 
 turity makes it valuable. 
 
 Wheatland Red. — This is a new va- 
 riety which originated with General 
 Harmon, from the Virginia May. It 
 has a red chaff, bald ; heads of medium 
 length, and well filled with a red her- 
 
 I 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 r>'. weighing 66 pounds to the bushel, 
 and producing tiour of good quality. 
 Tliis is a very hardy variety ; straw 
 of good size, and very bright ; it has 
 the quality of the Virginia May in its 
 early ripening. 
 
 Red Bearded. — Red chaff, bearded ; 
 beards standing out from the head ; 
 berry white, weighing from 60 to 62 
 pounds the bushel ; yields Hour well, 
 and of good (juality ; this is a hardy 
 variety; succeeds well after corn, or 
 on light soils. Straw not large or very 
 stiff. This variety would be more 
 extensively cultivated if its beard 
 were not objectionable. 
 
 Mediterranean. — This was introdu- 
 ced into .Maryland from the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea. It is a light red chaff, 
 bearded ; berry red and long ; very 
 flinty ; bran thick, producing flour of 
 an inferior quality. This variety may 
 prove valuable at the South, being 
 seldom affected with the fly, and its 
 early ripening is favourable on ac- 
 count of rust. Its long, stiff beards, 
 heads short, shelling very easy (so 
 much so, that if it is not cut while 
 in its doughy state, there will be a 
 great loss), and the inferior quality 
 of its flour, are strong objections to 
 its culture, where wheat of superior 
 quality succeeds well. 
 
 Blue Stem. — Has been cultivated in 
 Virginia for about thirty years ; white 
 chaff, bald ; berry white ; weighs 64 
 pounds to the bushel ; bran thin ; 
 produces flour of .superior quality. 
 Formerly this was a rod wheat, now 
 it is changed to a beautiful white. 
 Straw fair size, producing well. It 
 is now one of the most productive 
 varieties cultivated in Virginia. 
 
 Besides these well-known varieties 
 of winter wheats, several are of local 
 reputation and worthy of trial. Some, 
 as the Valparaiso and Humes's white, 
 are of great promise, but remain to 
 be fully tested. The choice English 
 varieties, as the Talavera, golden 
 drop, are found too tender for our se- 
 vere winters in Xew-York. 
 
 Of spring- wheats, the Tea, or Sibe- 
 rian, bald, and Black Sea are the best. 
 The Italian sprmg. formerly in great 
 demand, has much degenerated. 
 4C 
 
 " The distinction between the win- 
 ter and summer wheats is one which 
 arises entirely from the season in 
 which they have been usually sown ; 
 for they can readily be converted into 
 each other by sowing earlier or later, 
 and gradually accelerating or retard- 
 ing their growth. The difference in 
 colour between red and white wheats 
 is owing chiefly to the soil ; white 
 wheats gradually become darker, and 
 ultimately red in some stiff, wet soils, 
 and the red wheats lose their colour 
 and become flrst yellow and then 
 white on rich, light, and mellow soils. 
 It is remarkable that the grain soon- 
 er changes colour than the chaff and 
 straw : hence we have red wheats 
 with white chaff, and white wheats 
 with red chaff, which on the forego- 
 ing principle is readily accounted for. 
 The chaff retains the original colour 
 when the skin of the grain has al- 
 ready changed to another. We state 
 this on our own experience. The 
 soil best adapted to the growth of 
 wheat is a deep loam inclined to clay 
 with a dry subsoil. If this is not so 
 naturally, it must be drained artifi- 
 cially, to ensure good crops of wheat. 
 In such a soil, wheat may be sown 
 every third year, with proper inter- 
 mediate crops. Formerly, the prep- 
 aration for a wheat crop was gener- 
 ally by a clean, naked fallow, with a 
 certain addition of manure, the re- 
 mains of which were thought suffi- 
 cient for a crop of barley or oats ; 
 after which the fallow recurred. It 
 
 , was soon found out that, by this 
 means, a crop of wheat could never 
 be forced beyond a certain average ; 
 
 I for if more than the usual portion of 
 manure was carried on the land, the 
 wheat failed, by being laid before it 
 arrived at maturity. Thus a limit 
 appeared to have been set to its in- 
 crease. New modes of cultivation 
 have shown that this was not with- 
 out its remedy, and that it was recent 
 manuring which caused the wheat to 
 lodge ; but that an increased fertility, 
 produced by judicious preparation, en- 
 abled the land to bear crops of wheat 
 far superior to what it ever could be- 
 
 . fore. Wheat requires a soil in which 
 853 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 the organic matter is intimately mix- 
 ed with the earthy inij^redioiils, wliere 
 it can liave a firmer hold hy its roots, 
 and can at ilie same time striki' the 
 fibres of tliem downward as well as 
 around, in search of food. When it 
 meets with such a soil, and is depos- 
 ited at a proper depth, it vegetates 
 slowly, pusliing to tlie surface one 
 cylindrical filament, while numerous 
 fibres strike into the soil from tlie 
 seed. These supply the plant with 
 regular nourishment, and in due time 
 a knot is formed at the surface of 
 the soil, from which several roots and 
 stems branch out. This is called the 
 tillering of the wheat. The new roots 
 near the surface soon become the 
 chief source of nourishment, and in 
 a rich, compact soil, where there is 
 room, numerous stems arise, forming 
 a tuft, and each of these in time bears 
 a large ear well tilled with seeds ; so 
 that, from a very moderate quantity 
 of seed, a great return is produced. 
 The strong stems supporting each 
 other are well able to resist the ef- 
 fect of storms and rains, which would 
 lay weaker plants level with the 
 ground. The effect of abundant ma- 
 nuring immediately before the seed 
 is to produce too rapid a growth, 
 weakening the straw, and increasing 
 its quantity at the expense of the ear, 
 which does not attain its proper de- 
 velopment. This is called running 
 to straw. All strong manures, which 
 contain manyazotized particles, have 
 this effect, which is corroborated by 
 late experiments with saltpetre and 
 nitrate of soda. They produce more 
 straw and less corn, and hence are 
 not found of the same use, when ap- 
 plied to crops which are cultivated 
 for their seed, as they are on grasses. 
 " Decayed vegetable matter, or hu- 
 mus, seems essential in a good wheat 
 soil ; and it may, in the slow prog- 
 ress of its entire decomposition, 
 when it is continually absorbing the 
 oxygen of the air, have some chem- 
 ical effect on the nitrogen also, so as 
 to make it of use in the vegetation, 
 whether hy first forming ammonia, or 
 in any other way. Farther experi- 
 ments may, perhaps, throw a light on 
 854 
 
 this subject. It is well known, howev- 
 er, that, provided a soil be conii)act, its 
 fertility is very nearly proportioned 
 to th(! quantity of humus which it 
 contains, especially if there be calca- 
 reous earth or carbonate of lime in 
 its composition. Lime has been oft- 
 en considered as the most efficacious 
 manure for wheat, even more than 
 dung. As long as there is organic 
 matter in the soil lime acts benefi- 
 cially ; and tlie richer the land which 
 does not contain carbonate of lime 
 already, the more powerful the effect 
 of liming. But experience has pro- 
 ved that lime has little effect on poor 
 soils in wheat, until they are first ma- 
 nured with animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances. To produce good wheat, 
 then, the land should be gradually 
 brought to the proper degree of fer- 
 tility, by abundant manuring, for pre- 
 paratory crops, which will not suffer 
 from an over-dose of dung, and will 
 leave in the soil a sufficient quantity 
 of humus, intimately blended with it, 
 for a crop of wheat. Clover is a 
 plant which will bear a considerable 
 forcing, and so are beans, and both 
 are an excellent preparation for 
 wheat. The roots left in the ground 
 from a good crop of either decay 
 slowly, and thus furnish a regular 
 supply of food for the wheat sown in 
 the next season. Potatoes, also, 
 admit of much forcing, but the neces- 
 sary loosening of the soil for this crop 
 renders it less fit as a preparation for 
 wheat. Experience has fully proved 
 that, as a general rule, it is better to 
 sow barley and clover after potatoes, 
 and let the latter be succeeded by 
 wheat. 
 
 " Improved chemical analysis has 
 discovered various substances in mi- 
 nute quantities in the grains and 
 straw of wheat ; and this has led to 
 the doctrine that these substances, 
 being essential to its formation, must 
 be excellent manures for it, if they 
 do not already exist in the soil in 
 sufficient quantities. Most of these 
 substances are found in all soils 
 which contain a due proportion of 
 clay. Silica, in a very minutely-divi- 
 ded state, and probably in combina- 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 tion with soda or potass, seems one 
 of the most important to give due 
 strengtl) to the straw ; and licnce, in 
 some soils, potashes or wood-ashes 
 whicii contain it may l)c advanta- 
 geously used as irianures to the wheat. 
 The analysis ol' the ashes of grains 
 of wheat chosen out of the ears, by 
 Theodore de Saussure, gives the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 Potass ]5 
 
 Phosphate of potass 32 
 
 Muriutc of potass 0-lC 
 
 Sulphate of potass a trace. 
 
 Earthy phosphates 445 
 
 Silica 0-5 
 
 Metallic oxides 0-25 
 
 Loss 7-59 
 
 TUiT^ 
 
 " The analysis of the ashes of the 
 straw gave the following results : 
 
 Potass 12-5 
 
 Phosphate of potass 5 
 
 Muriate of potass 3 
 
 Sulphate of potass 2 
 
 Eartliy phosphates 62 
 
 Earthy carbonates I 
 
 Silica 61-5 
 
 Metallic oxides 1 
 
 Loss 7 '8 
 
 TotT 
 " The analysis of the ashes of the 
 whole plant, when in blossom, gives 
 of 
 
 Soluble salts 41 
 
 Earthy phosphates 10-75 
 
 Earthy carbonates 025 
 
 Silica 26 
 
 Metallic oxides 05 
 
 Loss 2 1 5 
 
 100- 
 
 "By comparing these results, it 
 will appear that, from the time of 
 flowering to the maturity of the seed, 
 a portion of the soluble salts is re- 1 
 placed by earthy phosphates ; that | 
 silica accumulates in the straw, but | 
 not in the grain ; and as potass is ; 
 the principal moans of rendering the 
 silica soluble, it is an imiiortant in- 
 gredient in a wheat soil, as well as 
 the phosphoric acid. This last is 
 found chiefly in bone earth and ani- , 
 mal manures. 1 
 
 " Although wheat thrives best on ! 
 heavy soils, and, without due prepar- ' 
 ation, produces only scanty and un- 
 certain crops in those wluch are nat- 
 urally light and loose, it may be made 
 to give a very good return in soils , 
 
 [ which would once have been thought 
 j fitted only for the growth of rye and 
 j oats ; but then the texture and com- 
 [ ])Osition of th(!se soils must have been 
 greatly improved by judicious tillage 
 and manuring. A\'hile tlu; heavy soils 
 are repeatedly ploughed and pulver- 
 ized to render them mellow, the light- 
 er are rendered more compact by 
 marling, where this can be readily 
 done, by adding composts in whicli 
 the princii)al earth is clay, and espe- 
 cially by such plants as have sub- 
 stantial and long roots, by which the 
 soil is kept together, such as clover, 
 lucern, sainfoin, and other grasses. 
 If these i)lants have been well manu- 
 red, and cover the ground well, keep- 
 ing in the moisture, the soil will have 
 become sufficiently compact to bear 
 wheat. One ploughing is then quite 
 sufficient ; and if a heavy land-press- 
 er is made to follow two ploughs and 
 press in the furrows, so as to leave 
 deep, smooth drills, eight or nine 
 inches apart, in which the seed can 
 find a solid bed, there will be every 
 probability of a good crop of wheat, 
 which will come up in regular rows, 
 the roots being at such a depth as 
 to run no risk of wanting moisture 
 till the stem has arisen to its full 
 height and the ear is formed ; a few 
 showers at that critical time will 
 make the grain swell, and ensure a 
 good crop. 
 
 " On some soils it may not be ju- 
 dicious to attempt to sow wheat; 
 hut these are the poorest loose sands, 
 which naturally would bear only oats 
 and buckwheat ; on these, unless 
 they can be abundantly marled, it is 
 much better to sow rye. When 
 wheat is sown on light soils in good 
 heart, it grows vigorously in spring, 
 if it has not been injured by the frost, 
 which is very apt to raise up tho 
 roots and throw them out of the 
 ground. The driving of sheep ovci 
 the field presses the roots into the 
 ground, and prevents this throwing 
 out ; but a vigorous growth of straw 
 is not always a sure sign of a good 
 crop at harvest, as many farmers 
 know by sad experience ; what would 
 be advisable in heavy soils is not al- 
 855 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 ways so in ligliter. A heavy rolling 
 in sprinjr after a light harrowing is 
 very usclul at a time when the sur- 
 face is moist. It clo.ses the pores 
 and eheciis the evaporation ; and the 
 tigliter the surface can he made, the 
 hotter chance tlicre is of a fair crop. 
 Tlie Norfoli< rotation, as it is gener- 
 ally called, in which wheat is sown 
 after clover, is the only one well 
 adapted for wheat on light soils. 
 The manure havin;^ heen put ahun- 
 dantly for the turni|)s or roots, and 
 the land being freed from weeds, the 
 barley which follows is generally a 
 good crop ; and the clover, which is 
 sown in this, is trodden in the reap- 
 ing and carrying of the barley ; and 
 there is only one ploughing from the 
 time the barley is sown to the sow- 
 ing of the wheat. If this be dibbled 
 on the turned sward of the clover, 
 the land will receive another tread- 
 ing by the dibblers, the seed will be 
 regularly deposited at a proper depth, 
 and no preparation of light land can 
 be more likely to produce good wheat. 
 On heavy soils the process must be 
 varied ; the surface, instead of being 
 rendered more coinpact, will often 
 be so bound as to require to be stir- 
 red by harrowing or hoeing before 
 the wheat plant can properly tiller. 
 If a farmer is anxious to have good 
 crops of wheat, he must not rest sat- 
 isfied after he has plouglied, manured, 
 and sown ; he must watch the growth 
 of this important crop daily, and use 
 the means which experience and ob- 
 servation have suggested to assist 
 the growth and to remove the caus- 
 es of failure. 
 
 "In heavy soils nothing is more 
 detrimental than excess of moisture. 
 Even in well-drained fields the water 
 will stand too long in the furrows if 
 there is not a proper outlet for it. 
 Tlie furroAvs should be well cleared 
 out with the spade as soon as the 
 seed is sown, drilled, or dibbled, the 
 earth being thrown evenly over the 
 surface of the stitches, and not left 
 in an unsightly ridge, which crumbles 
 down with tiie furrow at the first 
 frost. In proper places and at regu- 
 lar distances, deeper water-furrows 
 856 
 
 ' should he dug out after the plough 
 has ploughed a deep furrow in the 
 intended line ; and this should then be 
 finished as is said above ; so that if 
 a heavy fall of rain should come sud- 
 denly, the water will have a regular 
 course and outlet into the ditches 
 which lie in the lowest part of the 
 land, without soaking into the soil, 
 which is already too retentive of 
 moisture. It is chiefly in spring and 
 when snow melts that there should 
 be a daily inspection of the wheat- 
 fields. An experienced eye, going 
 along the bottom of the ridges of a 
 large field, will discover at once 
 whether there is any stoppage of the 
 water ; and by means of a spade or 
 shovel it will be remedied with little 
 trouble. \^'hen the surface binds, 
 as it does in some soils, and jire- 
 vents the access of air to the roots, 
 the land is harrowed, and in a few 
 days the effect will be apparent. 
 
 " Soils which lie on a very porous 
 subsoil, or which, by artificial drain- 
 ing, have been so dried and mellow- 
 ed that horses can go over the land 
 at all times without making such an 
 impression as will retain water if it 
 rains, may be laid flat, without more 
 open furrows than are necessary for 
 the convenience of ploughing with a 
 fixed turn-furrow ; and thus a con 
 siderable portion is made productive 
 which would be taken up by furrows, 
 and, perhaps, produce w-eeds. But 
 if the soil is of a tenacious quality, 
 easily compressed when moist, and 
 horses cannot safely be allowed to 
 pass over it when wet, it is absolute- 
 ly necessary to divide the land into 
 stitches, or beds with furrows be- 
 tween them, in which the horses can 
 walk while they draw harrows or 
 any other implement over the land. 
 All the implements should be so con- 
 structed tliat, if they have wheels, 
 these may run in the furrows, so 
 that nothing will disturb the even- 
 ness of the stitches, which should 
 have a gentle slope from the centre to- 
 wards the two furrows which bound 
 it. For spring crops this is not so 
 essential, although it is advisable not 
 to deviate from the usual form, even 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 when barley and clover are sown : 
 because, when the surface is laid in 
 double stitches, as is somt'times done, 
 it is not very easy to lay it in narrow 
 stitches again, at one ploughing, for 
 wheat. No doubt a very expert 
 ploughman would do so, but it is not 
 often that many expert ploughmen 
 are on the same farm. Even in very 
 light soils, as in Flanders, narrow 
 stitciies with deep intervals are 
 thought most advantageous. 
 
 " It is a very common notion that 
 good wheat and bean land is not well 
 adapted to the growth of roots, espe- 
 cially of such as are usually fed off 
 the land by sheep, because the tread- 
 ing of animals is injurious in winter 
 and spring, when these crops are 
 usually wanted ; and if they are cart- 
 ed ofl; the wheels and the horses 
 make such impressions as are equal- 
 ly detrimental, or more so. But all 
 roots, even the white turnip, will 
 grow luxuriantly on heavy soils, well 
 prepared and manured ; and they 
 may be so managed as to be taken 
 oft' before the winter. The bulbs 
 will not be so large, but they will be 
 more succulent, and may be kept in 
 various ways till they are wanted for 
 the cattle. The land, being plough- 
 ed immediately on the removal of 
 the roots, will be v.ell prepared for 
 wheat, or, when mellowed by the 
 winter's frost, may be sown in spring 
 with beans, barley, or oats. The 
 manure will be incorporated with the 
 soil, even if it has been put on in a 
 very fresh state for the roots, which 
 can only be recommended on very 
 compact soils. If the root crops are 
 well cleaned, fallows may be avoid- 
 ed, or, at least, recur very seldom, 
 and tlien only v. hen weeds have ac- 
 cumulated from neglect. 
 
 "When the wheat has blossomed, 
 and the grain in the ear is fully form- 
 ed, it should be watched, and as soon 
 as the seed feels of the consistence 
 of tough dough, and the straw is dry 
 and yellow below the ear, it should 
 be reaped. The skin of the grain 
 will be thinner, and its substance 
 will harden readily, by mere drying, 
 while the straw is better fodder for 
 4C2 
 
 the cattle. It is found by experience 
 that the increase of (lour hy adopting 
 this method is very considerable. 
 
 " It was the custom of our fore 
 fathers to cut the straw half way be- 
 tween the ear and the ground ;' and 
 their reason was, that thus less room 
 was required in the barn, and no 
 seeds of weeds were carried there 
 in the straw ; but the loss of half the 
 straw, which might have afforded lit- 
 ter or fodder for cattle, was over- 
 looked : and if the weeds were not 
 taken into the barn, where they could 
 do little harm, except giving a little 
 more trouble in winnowing and sift- 
 ing the corn, they were left to shed 
 their seeds on the land, and thus per- 
 petuate its foulness, or add much to 
 the labour of weeding the succeed- 
 ing crops. The stubble or haulms had 
 to be mown or raked off before the 
 land could be well ploughed ; and, 
 although this might make a very good 
 shelter for cattle in a yard,' when 
 made into haulm-walls, as they are 
 sometimes called, there was a great 
 loss of labour in thus going twice 
 over the field. The most approved 
 mode of reaping now is that which 
 is called fagging or bagging (see 
 Harvest) ; but the most expeditious 
 is mowing, which, by means of a cra- 
 dle scythe, may be done so regularly 
 as to allow all the corn to be tied up 
 in sheaves without any loss. The 
 weeds are tied up with the corn, and 
 when the whole is thrashed, the 
 seeds of the latter are winnowed out 
 and burned ; thus they cannot infest 
 the land, and there is double the quan- 
 tity of straw to convert into manure : 
 a matter of great importance where 
 cattle are fed on turnips in the yard, 
 chiefly for the sake of their dung. 
 
 " The choosing of wheat for seed 
 is a matter of great importance. 
 Some farmers liKe to change their 
 seed often ; others sow the produce 
 of their own land continually, and 
 both seem persuaded that their meth- 
 od is the best. The fact is, that it is 
 not always the finest wheat which 
 makes the best seed ; but il depends 
 on the nature of the land on which it 
 grew. vSome soils are renowned fai 
 8f>7 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 and wide for producing good seed, 
 and it is well known that this seed 
 degenerates in otlier soils, so that 
 the original soil is resorted to for 
 fresh seed. Many places have been 
 noted for this peculiarity, and among 
 them we may mention Genesee, New- 
 York ; the wheat which grows there 
 is sold for seed at a price considera- 
 bly above the average. It has been 
 asserted of late, and we have no rea- 
 son to doubt the assertion, that the 
 various noted seed-wheats, when 
 analyzed, are found to contain the 
 different elements of which they are 
 composed in nearly the same propor- 
 tion, especially the starch and glu- 
 ten. For bread, that which contains 
 most gluten is preferred, as we ob- 
 served before ; but to produce a per- 
 fect vegetation there should be no 
 excess of this substance, nor any de- 
 ficiency. The seed, also, should have 
 come to perfect maturity. This last 
 is usually obtained by beating the 
 sheaves over a block of wood or a 
 cask, without untying them, by which 
 means the ripest seeds fall out. The 
 proportion between the starch and 
 gluten is easily ascertained by care- 
 fully washing the flour when the 
 wheat has been ground. It is most 
 convenient to tie up the flour in a 
 cloth, which, shaken and beaten in 
 water, will let all the starch pass 
 through, and retain only the gluten. 
 The operation should be continued 
 as long as the water is tinged with 
 the white starch. Anyone can read- 
 ily make the experiment ; and as 
 soft wheats vary much in the propor- 
 tion of the gluten they contain, the 
 difference will be readily ascertained. 
 This leads to a practical conclusion ; 
 if we \\'ish to grow any peculiar sort 
 of wheat for seed, and if we find 
 that, by our preparation of the soil, 
 or its original composition, we pro- 
 duce a wheat in which the gluten and 
 starch are in a different proportion 
 from that of the original seed, we may 
 conclude that this is owing to more 
 or less animal or vegetable manure 
 in the soil ; and by increasing the 
 one or the other, we may bring our 
 wheat to have all the properties of I 
 858 
 
 the original seed. This is a valuable 
 discovery, and deserves to be fully 
 confirmed by experience. The glu- 
 ten varies from 10 to 35 per cent. 
 
 "Diseases. — While the wheat is 
 growing, it is exposed to various ac- 
 cidents, which it is often difficult to 
 foresee, and more difficult to guard 
 against. The smut and burned ear 
 are diseases which may be generally 
 prevented by a proper preparation of 
 the seed before it is sown. (See 
 Stnut.) Many corrosive substances 
 have been recommended to steep the 
 seed in, such as blue vitriol and arse- 
 nic, and those who have used these 
 steeps place great confidence in them. 
 It seems, however, that washing the 
 seed well with plain water, or with 
 salt and water, and afterward drying 
 it with quicklime, sufficiently destroys 
 the germ of the snuit to prevent its 
 propagation. The most common steep 
 is water in which so much salt has 
 been dissolved as will enable it to float 
 an egg. In this the seed may be left for 
 twelve hours or more, and then spread 
 on a floor, and mixed with as much 
 quicklime as will absorb the moisture, 
 and allow it to be sown or drilled, with- 
 out the grains adheringto one another. 
 " In the second volume of the 
 ' Journal of the Royal Society of Agri- 
 culture of England,' Part I., is a val- 
 uable paper, by the Rev. T. S. Hens- 
 low, on the diseases of wheat. He 
 describes the different fungi which 
 produce the various diseases of pep- 
 per brand, dust brand, rust, and mil- 
 dew ; he doubts the truth of the as- 
 sertion that Berbery trees or bushes 
 cause mildew in wheat which grows 
 near them, although this is believed 
 by many farmers. 
 
 "The ergot in wheat is an excres- 
 cence from the ear, like a small horn, 
 into which the seed is transformed. 
 It has a poisonous quality, and is 
 medicinal. See Ergot. 
 
 ' Another disease of the seed is 
 called ear-cockles, and is caused by 
 extremely minute insects, like eels, 
 which fill the skin of the seeds instead 
 of flour. This insect, which is call- 
 ed Vibrio trilici, is described by Mr. 
 Bauer in the ' Philosophical Trans- 
 
WHE 
 
 WHE 
 
 actions' for 1823. This disease is 
 not so common as the smut and pep- 
 per brand, It^ probable, according 
 to Mr. lIenslo\v, that the animalcules 
 may be killed by exposing the grain 
 to a certain heat, so as not to destroy 
 its power ol" vegetation, but sufficient 
 to kill the vibrio." 
 
 The chiiick bug, in the Southern 
 States, is often more destructive than 
 the Hessian fiy. 
 
 " Great attention has been lately 
 paid to tlie introduction of the best 
 and most prolific varieties of wheat, 
 and by merely observing what cars ap- 
 pear much superior to others in a held 
 of ripe wheat, and collecting these to 
 be sown separately in a garden or por- 
 tion of a field, the variety, which may 
 have been produced by some fortui- 
 tous impregnation, or some peculiarity 
 in the spot where it grew, is perpet- 
 uated. By carefully selecting the 
 seed which is best adapted to tlie 
 soil, by a more careful and garden-like 
 cultivation, and by adding those ma- 
 nures which are found most adapted 
 to favour its perfect vegetation, crops 
 of wheat have been raised which, at ; 
 one time, would have been thought 
 miraculous." 
 
 WHEAT, CULTIVATION IN ! 
 ^^'ESTER^• NEW-YORK. The fol- ' 
 lowing, from General Harmon, is I 
 worthy of great attention from its 
 practical value : i 
 
 " The soil that I have under culti- j 
 vation is probably as well adapted to ; 
 the producing of as fine a quality of j 
 wheat as any in the world. It is a | 
 gravelly loam, with limestone of small ! 
 size gravel up to several pounds each. ' 
 It is what has been called the hard ! 
 oak openings. My rotation is of three j 
 years shift. Clover is invariably sown ' 
 on wheat in March or April, about 
 eight pounds to the acre ; and as : 
 soon as the ground is dry in April, sow 
 one bushel of plaster to the acre. 
 The next year pasture or mow ; the 
 third year, in June, plough seven or 
 eight inches deep. The clover should 
 be mostly eaten off when ploughed. I 
 The turning under of a great growth 
 of clover 1 believe to be injurious to 
 the next crop of wheat. If fed offi 
 
 i with sheep, the manure they drop is 
 worth more to tlie wheat crop tiian 
 if it had been turned under in its 
 green state. In turning under green 
 clover, there is in the next crop fre- 
 quently a coarseness in tlie leaf and 
 ! straw that is not favourable to the 
 I production of a fine quality. 1 go 
 over the ground thus ploughed with 
 I the cultivator harrow three or four 
 I times by the first of September ; then 
 cross-plough, and sow on the furrow 
 from the 10th to the loth of the 
 month ; then harrow it in with the cul- 
 tivator harrow. It buries the wheat 
 deeper than the common harrow, giv- 
 ing the plant a more vigorous appear- 
 ance, and rendering it less liable to in- 
 jury by the thawing and freezing in 
 March and April. M'heat, for seed, 
 should be selected from that part of 
 the field tliat is iirst ripe and where it 
 ripens evenly. All lodged or rusty 
 straw should be rejected, for wheat 
 from such straw does not fully malu; e. 
 It will grow as soon as any other, 
 but wheat of superior quality is se.- 
 dom obtained tVom such seed. A,l 
 small or imperfect kernels should b.i 
 sifted out, and nothing but the pure 
 seed sown. Twenty-four hours be- 
 fore the wheat is sown it should be 
 washed in a brine as strong as salt 
 will make it. After draining a few- 
 minutes, mix with each bushel two 
 quarts of newly-slacked lime, and 
 then sow one and one fourth bushels 
 to the acre. The above is ray cours.e 
 of operation. My average crop for 
 several years past has been over 20 
 bushels per acre, of very superior 
 quality, mostly sold for seed ; the 
 past season over 1100 bushels. My 
 price has uniformly been twenty-five 
 cents over the millers. One great 
 difficulty in the way of farmers im- 
 proving their wheat crops is, the sow- 
 ing of poor grain mixed with other 
 seeds, and believing that Wheat turns 
 to chess. While at the State Fair, 
 at Poughkecpsie, last fall, I saw sev- 
 eral barrels of wheat, of different va- 
 rieties, all mixed with so much cockle 
 and chess, that a Wheatland miller 
 would not take such for flouring as 
 first quality. The man that had it 
 
^^'HE 
 
 WHE 
 
 said it was sent to him from Western 
 New-York for seed, and he was try- 
 ing to sell it as such. As U>ng as 
 such seed is sown, we shall have 
 those farmers that believe wheat will 
 degenerate into chess. In selecting 
 the best winter variety, 1 will name 
 the ones that I believe will do best 
 on the different soils where wheat is 
 sown. There are some varieties that 
 succeed hotter on some soils than 
 others. If the soil is rich clay loam, 
 it is important to sow a small and 
 early variety : the Kentucky white, 
 better known as Hutchinson wheat ; 
 Mediterranean; or Wheatland red. If 
 sandy, gravelly loam, the improved 
 white Flint, old Genesee red, Chaff 
 bald, Saul's wheat, and Flint. In se- 
 lecting the variety that will do best 
 on all soils, I am confident the im- 
 proved white Flmt stands first for the 
 quantity and siiperior quality, produ- 
 cing more flour of superior quality 
 than any other of nearly forty differ- 
 ent varieties that I have had under 
 cultivation. I know of no spring va- 
 riety that will come up to the winter 
 where they succeed well. In some 
 sections of country none but spring 
 varieties will succeed. The Black 
 Sea red, Chaff bearded, are the hard- 
 iest and most productive "f any of 
 the spring varieties of good quality. 
 The Tea wheat is a very beautiful 
 spring wheat, white, chaff bald, berry 
 white. It is not as productive as the 
 Black Sea ; the qualitv is superior." 
 
 WHEAT, COW. S'ee Cow Wheat. 
 
 WHEAT GRASSES. Grasses of 
 the same genus as wheat {Tnlicuin), 
 of which the couch grass (7'. repcns) 
 is best known. They are not indige- 
 nous in the United States, and, al- 
 though very nutritious, are not ob- 
 jects of special cultivation. 
 
 WHEAT, INSECTS OF. The 
 two most severe enemies are species 
 of Cccidomyia, a genus resembling 
 the gnat. 
 
 Tlie Hessian fli/ {C. destructor), Fig., 
 b, is represented of the natural size 
 at c; it has a black head, thorax, and 
 wings, with a brownisii tjody. Two 
 generations appear in the year : the 
 first in spring, the second in Septem- 
 8G0 
 
 her and October. The females lay 
 their eggs on the young shoots of 
 spring or fall wheat. The worm, 
 which is hatched in a few days, de- 
 scends to the lower parts of the stem 
 near the earth, where they become 
 changed into grubs of the size and 
 appearance of a flaxseed (d) ; here 
 the winter generation remain, and 
 are converted into winged insects in 
 spring. They destroy the plant by 
 sucking its juices, and hinder the de- 
 j velopment of flower steins. The most 
 effective means to avoid this fly is by 
 selecting wheat with a tough straw, 
 \ as the Mediterranean, by sowing ear- 
 j ly, and preparing the ground and seed, 
 I so as to give it a good start. Scat- 
 j tering lime, and using nutritious ma- 
 nures, such as guano, early in the 
 { spring, may do good. Close feeding 
 i by sheep is also adopted where the 
 ' grubs are found early. Burning the 
 infected straw is a preventive. The 
 Hessian fly is attacked by ichneumon 
 flies, which deposite their eggs in the 
 } body of the grub. 
 
 The wheat midge, or Jlij (C. tritici), 
 Fig., a, has been of late a severe pest 
 in the Northern and Eastern States. 
 It is smaller (c) than the Hessian fly, 
 of a yellow colour, with clear wings. 
 They are seen in June, when the 
 wheat is in flower, and the eggs are 
 deposited during dusk in the scales 
 of the chaff. The maggots (/) are 
 of a yellow colour, changing to brown, 
 and eat the young seed as it is form- 
 ed, g represents one of the worms 
 magnified. The maggots fall to the 
 
WHE 
 
 WHE 
 
 ground to change into chrysales, and 
 aio protected in the soil until the 
 next season, when tliey come forth in 
 spring. 
 
 Fumigations with sulphur and 
 smoke have been tried during the 
 evening to destroy the worms ; the 
 success is, however, only partial. 
 Sprinkling lime and ashes is much 
 better : a mixture of half a bushel of 
 each may be used to tlie acre. The 
 lime should he water-slacked. After 
 an invasion of these destructive in- 
 sects, the stubble should be burned, 
 the soil ploughed dee[), and no wheat 
 sown for one or more seasons. Early 
 or late sowing wdl do little towards 
 saving a crop of wheat, for it ap- 
 pears that the midge lives for thirty- 
 nine days. 
 
 The English papers mention an- 
 other insect, tiie Ascius pumilanus, 
 which attacks wheat in the same way 
 as the Hessian fly. 
 
 In Virginia, and some other South- 
 ern States, the chinck hvg is often 
 destructive. See that insect. 
 
 The wheat weevils found in the 
 United States are the Calandra {Cur- 
 culio) granaria and ori/z(e; they are 
 both readily destroyed by kiln-drying, 
 at 150° to ISO - Fahr. A figure of the 
 former will be found in the article on 
 insects. 
 
 Besides these, other insects are 
 occasionally found in smaller quan- 
 tities, preying on the roots and young 
 stem, but they seldom produce the 
 destruction of the crop. 
 
 WHEEL and AXLE. A common 
 mechanical contrivance for raising 
 weights, especially water from wells ; 
 the advantage is increased by en- 
 larging the wheel and diminishing 
 the axle, hut always with a loss of 
 time. The best form for great me- 
 chanical advantage is that represent- 
 ed in the figure. 
 
 WHEELBARROW. A light car- 
 riage driven by a man and moving on 
 one wheel. It is made of .stout jjlank 
 for carrying st(Uie and earth, and is 
 lighter and larger for the transporta- 
 tion of grain. 
 
 WHEEL PLOUGH. A plough 
 with a wheel m the heel to dinunish 
 the friction of the sole. See rUmsli. 
 
 W HEELS OF CARRl AOES. 
 The wheel consists of three parts : 
 the nave, centre, or hub ; the spokes ; 
 and the circumference, or felloes, 
 bounded with its iron tire. The ma- 
 terials may be of iron or wood ; if the 
 latter, elm or white oak is preferred 
 for the nave, white oak for the spokes, 
 and ash for the felloes. The centre 
 of the nave is furnished with an iion 
 box to receive the axletree. The 
 wood should be thoroughly seasoned, 
 and the framing of the wheel set to- 
 gether some weeks before the tire is 
 put on. The manner of setting tlie 
 tire is well known ; it is healed in a 
 brush fire until nearly red hot, and 
 then placed over the felloes and at 
 once chilled with water. It should 
 be so set as to allow the nails used 
 to fasten it to be driven into the 
 spokes. Great improvements have 
 been made in the axle, which is en- 
 closed in iron or of wrought iron : 
 the latest im[)rovement is that of sur- 
 rounding it with a systein of friction 
 wheels, which lie between the box 
 and axle, and reduce the friction to 
 a minimum. 
 
 The advantage of the wheel is two- 
 fold. " In the first place, they greatly 
 diminish the friction on the ground 
 by transferring it from the circum- 
 ference to the nave and axle ; and in 
 the second place, they serve to raise 
 the carriage more easily over obsta- 
 cles and asperities met with on the 
 roads. The friction is diminished in 
 the proportion of the circumference 
 of the axle to that of the wheel ; and 
 hence the larger the wheel, and the 
 smaller the axle, the less is the fric- 
 tion. Large wheels are, therefore, 
 best adapted for surmounting inequal- 
 ities of the road. There are, howev- 
 er, circumstances which prescribe 
 liuiits to llic height of the wheels of 
 861 
 
WHE 
 
 WHI 
 
 carriages. If the radius exceeds the 
 height of that part of the horse to 
 whicli the traces are attached, the 
 line of traction will he inclined to the 
 horizon, and part of the power will 
 be exerted in pressing tlie wheel 
 against the ground. The hest aver- 
 age size of wheels is considered to 
 be about six feet in diameter. The 
 fore wheels of carriages and wagons 
 in this country are usually much too 
 small. 
 
 " Cylindrical wheels are best adapt- 
 ed for level roads ; and the breadth 
 of the rim should be considerable (not 
 less than three inches), to prevent 
 liieir sinking into the ground. In 
 hilly and uneven roads a slight incli- 
 nation of the spokes, called dishing, 
 tends to give strength to the wheel ; 
 but it is very frequently carried to 
 excess." 
 
 " Carriages with four wheels are 
 much more advantageous than car- 
 riages with two wheels, as carts ; for 
 with two wheels, it is plain the tiller 
 horse carries part of the weight in 
 one way or other; in going down lull 
 the weight bears upon the horse, and 
 in going up hill the weight falls the 
 other wa)* and lifts the horse, which 
 is still worse. Besides, as the wheels 
 sink into the holes in the roads, some- 
 times on one side, sometimes on the 
 other, the shafts strike against the 
 horse's sides, which destroys many 
 animals ; moreover, when one of the 
 wheels sinks into a hole or rut, half 
 the weight falls that way, which en- 
 dangers the overturning of the car- 
 nage." 
 
 Mr. Scripture, of New-York, has 
 recently patented a carriage wheel 
 which i)romises well. It is furnished 
 with two separate hubs, which can 
 be screwed together ; by this means 
 the pressure of the spokes on the fel- 
 h)es and tire is easily regulated, and 
 the tire can neither become bound 
 nor .so loose as to want cutting. 
 
 WHEEL-SHAPED COROLLA. 
 A rotate corolla : it is monopetalous, 
 with a spreading border and very 
 short tube. 
 
 WHEEL WORK. A combination 
 of wheels for the purpose of increas- , 
 862 
 
 ing speed or gaining power. Motion 
 is communicated from the circumfe- 
 rence of one wheel to the axis or pin- 
 ion of another by teeth, belts, or oc- 
 casionally by friction. The teeth of 
 all the wheels and pinions in the 
 work must be of the same size ; they 
 should also be smooth on their surfa- 
 ces, and curved gradually to the sum- 
 mit to diminish friction. " Toothed 
 wheels are of three kinds : spur 
 ivhccls, crown wheels, and bevelled 
 wheels. When the teeth are raised 
 upon the edge of the wheel, or are 
 perpendicular to the axis, the wheel 
 is a spur wheel ; when they are rais- 
 ed parallel to the axis, or perpendic- 
 ular to the plane of the wheel, it is a 
 crown wheel ; and when they are 
 raised on a surface inclined to the 
 plane of the wheel, it is called a bev- 
 elled wheel. The combination of a 
 crown wheel, with a spur wheel as 
 pinion, is used when it is required to 
 communicate motion round one axis 
 to another at right angles to it." 
 
 WHEEZING IN HORSES. 
 Broken wind. 
 
 WHELP. The voung of the dog. 
 WHETHERING. Retention of 
 the after-birth in cows. It should be 
 removed by hand if retained too long, 
 as the decomposition of the substance 
 will otherwise destroy the animal. 
 
 WHETSTONE. A silicious slate 
 used for whetting implements. 
 
 WHEY. The watery parts of 
 milk containing the sugar of milk, 
 with a little casein and saline mat- 
 ters. It is fermentable, and made 
 by some of the Asiatics into an in- 
 toxicating drink. In the dairy there 
 are two kinds of whey ; that which 
 is clear and separates from the milk 
 when rennet is added, and that which 
 is pressed out from the curd. The 
 latter is white, and used to make 
 whey butter or cottage cheese. See 
 Butter. Whey is used for feeding 
 hogs, and given in Scotland even to 
 horses. 
 
 WHEY BUTTER. See Butter. 
 WHIN. Gorse. See Furze. 
 WHINSTONE. A kind of basalt. 
 WHIP GRAFTING. Tongue 
 grafting. See Grafting. 
 
WHI 
 
 WIL 
 
 WHIPPING OUT GRAIN. Stri- 
 king the ears against a stone or the 
 edge of a board till the corn is sep- 
 arated from the straw. 
 
 WHIPPLE-TREE. A swinging 
 tree. The bar to which the traces of 
 the horse are fastened. 
 
 ^VHIRLBONE. The knee pan. 
 
 uated near the joints. It is very dif- 
 ficult to manage. 
 
 WHITE VITRIOL. Sulphate of 
 zinc. It is a powerful emetic, and is 
 also vised in lotions. 
 
 WHITEWASH. Awash of milk 
 of lime with size, to enable it to ad- 
 here. Whitewashing not only ini- 
 
 In the horse, the articulation of the proves the appearance of wood-work, 
 thigh bone in the pelvis ; the ace- but protects it from the weather and 
 
 tabulum. 
 
 WHIRLWIND. A revolving wind, 
 blowing to a centre. The tornado is 
 a violent whirlwind. 
 
 msccts. It is a good means of puri- 
 fying rooms in which substances of a 
 bad odour have been stored. 
 WHITE WEED. The larger per- 
 
 WHISKEY. A strong spirit dis- I ennial May weed {Chrysanthemum), 
 tilled from the fermented mash of occurring in wheat fields and mead- 
 corn, barlev, wheat, or other grains. I ows. 
 
 WHITE ARSENIC. Common ■ WHITE WOOD. The tulip-tree, 
 arsenic, arsenious acid. It has been WHITING. Prepared chalk, for 
 recommended for dusting grain after > cleaning brasses and silver 
 
 brining, but should never be used ; 
 for other substances, as blue vitriol, 
 answer muchbetter, and are not so 
 dangerous. 
 
 WHITE CEDAR. See Cedar. 
 
 WHITE CROPS. Grain crops ; 
 the Cercalia. They are exhausting, 
 from the quantity of seed they form, 
 
 WHITLOW. A painful inflamma- 
 tion near the bone, tending to suppu- 
 ration. 
 
 WHITLOW GRASS. The genus 
 Draha : cruciferous plants, some of 
 which are ornamental. 
 
 WHORL. In botany, an arrange- 
 ment of leaves orother organs around 
 
 and are foul crops, from allowing | the stem, and apparently on the same 
 weeds to grow among them. White . level, as the leaves of madder, 
 crops require to be followed by clean WHORTLEBERRY. The genus 
 crops, and should be preceded by root Vaccinium, yielding the berries called 
 crops, as far as practicable. • bilberries, huckleberries, and whor- 
 
 WHITE-LEAD. Carbonate of tleberries. The plants are small 
 lead, a valuable pigment, but liable to , shrubs, often es'ergreen, and growing 
 adulteration with sulphate of barytes. \ in rocky v.-astes or boggy places. The 
 
 This is detected by mixing a sample 
 with dilute nitric acid, which will dis- 
 solve all the true white -lead and 
 
 leaves contain much tannin, and turn 
 red when dead. They are readily 
 propagated by root suckers, by root 
 
 leave the barytes. It is the basis of or stem cuttings, or seed. 
 
 all colours used in common painting, 
 
 WHITE PRECIPITATE. A vio- 
 lent mercurial poison, used in oint- 
 ments for destroying vermin. 
 
 WHITE ROOT. Asclepms Inbe- 
 rosa. Colic or pleurisy root ; but- 
 terfly weed. It is used in domestic 
 practice as a cathartic, diaphoretic, 
 and expectorant. 
 
 WHITE SCOUR. Diarrhoea. 
 
 A\' H I T E THORN. The haw- 
 thorn. 
 
 WICKET GATE. A small, light 
 gate for the passage of men and hor- 
 ses onlv. and not for wagons. 
 
 ! WILD INDIGO. Baptism tincfo- 
 ria. A perennial leguminous plant, 
 with wedge-ovate leaves, and yellow 
 terminal racemes, flowering in July. 
 It grows three feet high, is common 
 
 : in the woods throughout the States, 
 
 j and affords a good amount of indigo 
 
 ! dye. 
 
 i WILDING. Young trees produ- 
 
 A\'HITE TOP. Agrostis alba. A ccd from seeds naturally distributed, 
 grass verv similar to red top. , WILD PEAR. The June beny. 
 
 A\'Hri E SWELLING. An indo- WILD RICE. Ztzaina aqualica. 
 lent, scrofulous tumour, usually sit- , Water oats. See Rice, wild. 
 
 863 
 
WIN 
 
 WIN 
 
 WILLOW. The genus Saliz, con- 1 
 taining thiity-five species indigenous ' 
 to the United States. They are , 
 amentaceous and dicEcious trees and I 
 shrubs, growing for the most ])art in i 
 swampy lands. The genus iuchides 
 large trees, as the 6'. Babylonica, I 
 weeping-willow, and some shrubs of j 
 only a few inches height. The light i 
 and elegant appearance of many spe- \ 
 cies have introduced them into shrub- [ 
 heries and parks, as the .S'. vilcilina, 
 yellow willow ; S. alba, white willow ; 
 <S'. Russcliiana, the Leicester or Bed- 
 ford willow : the last is also valua- 
 ble for timber, the tannin of its bark, 
 and the proportion of salicine it con- 
 tains, and is therefore extensively 
 cultivated in England. 
 
 The wood of most of our willows 
 is of no service except for charcoal, 
 and of this they produce a kind pre- 
 ferred for the manufacture of gun- 
 powder. The commonest species are 
 S. nigra, the root of which is very 
 bitter, and used as a domestic medi- 
 cine ; S. luciJa, or shining willow, 
 the twigs of which are used for coarse 
 baskets. The bark of some kinds is 
 used for domestic dyeing, and produ- 
 ces a yellowish red colour. In the 
 north of Europe the .S'. alba is put to 
 a variety of purposes : the bark is 
 employed for tanning and dyeing, and 
 the leaves and young shoots used as 
 fodder, both in the fresh and dried 
 state. See Osier, for basket willows ; 
 also Sallow. Nearly all the species 
 are readily propagated by cuttings 
 placed in a moist soil or well watered. 
 
 WILLOW HERB. The genus 
 EpUobmm, perennial herbs, growing 
 in wet soils : a few are cultivated 
 for their flowers. 
 
 WILLOW LICE. Aphidians, plant 
 lice. 
 
 WILLOW WE ED. An annual 
 weed. Polygonum lapalhifolium, grow- 
 ing in wet, light, arable lands. The 
 seed resembles a small buckwheat ; 
 they are relished by birds and hogs. 
 
 WINCH. A bent or rectangular 
 handle for turning an axis, attached 
 to grindstones, the windlass, and 
 other machines. 
 
 WIND. The motion of large por- 
 8o4 
 
 tions of atmospheric air. It occurs 
 with a velocity differing from a few 
 miles to sixty or more miles the min- 
 ute. The origin of winds is usually 
 referred to the unequal temperature 
 imparted to the earth's surface by the 
 sun ; this not only varies with the 
 latitude, but with the elevation, geo- 
 logical character, and extent of wa- 
 ter, and, secondly, to the sudden con- 
 densation of large quantities o{ its 
 vapour. The excess in expansion of 
 the air produced at any place causes 
 an upward current, which affects the 
 bulk of air lying around, and gener- 
 ates a motion from all points to the 
 centre. In seeking the centre, the 
 motion is spiral or centripetal, ac- 
 cording to the best theories. Winds 
 are of interest to the farmer from the 
 meteoric effects they produce, as 
 rain, snow, frost, increase of the 
 drying power, and hail. A body of 
 air in motion increases the evapora- 
 tion of water from the land and plants 
 even to double the extent of the or- 
 dinary action at the same tempera- 
 ture ; this increases their coldness, 
 and may produce frost even during a 
 mild season ; in hot, dry weather, 
 plants wither more rapidly during 
 windy weather. For this reason, 
 tender plants require shelter from 
 rough winds. Tiie character of any 
 wind is dependant upon the country 
 over which it passes ; those which 
 sweep over hundreds of miles of the 
 sea or lakes are usually surcharged 
 with moisture, and produce rain if 
 they pass into a northern region, as 
 in the case of our southwestern 
 storms. Winds which sweep over 
 hot, dry deserts become simooms ; 
 their contact withers vegetation in a 
 few minutes. So winds produce 
 coldness which come from snowj' 
 districts, and warmth when they come 
 from the south. The study of the 
 peculiarities of every wind, and the 
 season of its prevalence, is to the 
 farmer one of the most important ob- 
 jects, and, taken in connexion with 
 the fluctuations of the barometer and 
 thermometer, will after a time enable 
 him to foretell rain for many hours 
 before its appearance. 
 
WIN 
 
 WIN 
 
 WIND FLOWER. Anemone Vir- 
 giniana. A wood flower. 
 
 WIND GAUGE. See Anemometer. 
 
 WIND IN HORSES. Respira- 
 tion. See Broken Wind. 
 
 WIND GALLS. Small tumours 
 near the fetlocks of horses, produced 
 by strains and over-driving : they 
 contain a serous lluid. The animal 
 should have rest : astringent lotions 
 may be used, and a bandage applied 
 very tight. If they do not disappear, 
 a little blistering ointment may be 
 applied near them. 
 
 WINDLASS. .\ simple mechani- 
 cal contrivance, of the wheel and axle 
 kind, the winch, D C B, being the 
 representative of the wheel (Fig.). 
 c 
 
 BFV. 
 
 In heavy windlasses, as those em- 
 ployed on shipboard, the axis is large, 
 and moved by levers inserted into ; 
 mortices cut into it at convenient ■ 
 distances. A strong windlass, made ! 
 by taking the trunk of a tree for the ] 
 axis, and adjustuig it lengthwise i 
 against the stems of two trees, might 
 be used in tearing up stumps. This i 
 a.xis siiould be pierced with mortices 
 and turned with handspikes; it should i 
 also be furnished with ratchets (pauls) j 
 or wedges, to hinder it from turning 
 backward when the handspikes are | 
 out. A strong chain made fust in the 
 stump, and to the windlass, will af- j 
 ford a means of acting upon the for- ' 
 mer, and, by cutting the longest roots 
 at a little distance, it may be drawn ' 
 out sutliciently to permit the use of 
 the plough. 
 
 WINDMILL. "In mechanics, a 
 mill which receives its motion from 
 the wind. The building containing 
 the machinery is usually circular. To 
 the extremity of the principal axis, or 
 wind shaft, are attached rectangular 
 frames (generally five), on which 
 canva.'js is usually stretched to form 
 the sails The surfaces of the sails 
 i D 
 
 are not perpendicular to the axis, but 
 inclined to it at a certain angle, about 
 72° at the extremities nearest to the 
 axle, and 83° at the farther extremi- 
 ties ; so that their form is in some 
 degree twisted, and difi'erent from a 
 plane surface. The wind-shaft is in- 
 clined to the horizon in an angle of 
 from 8° to 15°, principally with a 
 view to allow room for the action of 
 the wind at the lower part, where it 
 would be weakened if the sails came 
 too nearly in contact with the build- 
 ing. 
 
 " As the direction of the wind is 
 constantly changing, some apparatus 
 is required for bringing the axle and 
 sails into their proper position. This 
 is sometimes effected by supporting 
 the machinery on a strong vertical 
 axis, the pivot of which moves in a 
 socket firmly fixed in the ground, so 
 that the whole structure may be turn- 
 ed round by a lever. But it is now 
 usual to construct the building with 
 a movea!)le roof, which revolves upon 
 friction rollers ; and the shaft, being 
 fixed in the roof, is brought round 
 along with it. The roof is brought 
 into the required position by means 
 of a small vane wheel, furnished with 
 wind sails, which turns round when 
 the wind strikes on either side of it, 
 and drives a pinion which works into 
 the teeth of a large crown wheel 
 connected with and surrounding the 
 moveable roof." 
 
 This is the vertical windmill, but 
 sometimes the sails are fixed on a 
 horizontal axis. Windmills are sel- 
 dom made because of their inferiority 
 to water and horse, or steam power 
 mills. The internal machinery is the 
 same as that of the water-mill. 
 
 WINDROW. A line or rovr of 
 grass, peat, or produce exposed to 
 dry. The unfilled borders of a field. 
 
 WINE. See Vine. 
 ' WINE STONE. Crude tartar, 
 argal. 
 
 I WINGS. Alee. In botany, the 
 side petals of pea-like flowers, the 
 membranous expansions of the seeds 
 ' of the ash, alanthus, parsnip, and oth- 
 er seeds. 
 
 1 WINLE STRAWS Bents, the 
 665 
 
WIN 
 
 WIR 
 
 withered flower-stalks of grasses 
 standing in meadows. 
 
 WINNOWING. The separation 
 of wheat or grain from cliatf, an- 
 ciently performed hy throwing up 
 shovelfuls into the air on a windy day, 
 but now accomplished by the fan. 
 
 WINNOWING MACHINE. The 
 wheat or grain fun. A machine for 
 separating grain from chaff", and 
 cleaning wheat from cockle, cheat, 
 and other small seeds. It consists 
 of a frame-work enclosing a fan, 
 which is moved by a crank and 
 wheel-work on the outside. Tiie 
 grain faWs from a hopper at the top 
 of the machine upon a sieve, to which 
 a jogging motion is given hy the 
 crank ; in this way it is sifted from 
 stones or bodies larger than the grain. 
 The current of wind produced by the 
 fan blowing over the sieve drives out 
 all light particles of chaff". The seeds 
 which pass down from the sieve fall 
 on the upper parts of an inclined 
 shaking screen of wire, set too close 
 for the transmission of plump grains, 
 but allowing shrivelled seed, cockle, 
 &c., to pass through. A machine is 
 provided with three screens and 
 sieves to enable the farmer to use it 
 for different grain. Forty to fifty 
 bushels can be cleaned in an hour 
 with the common fans. 
 
 The English winnowing machines 
 are combined with smut machines, 
 and are therefore much more expen- 
 sive and complicated. The follow- 
 ing description is of Mr. Salter's pat- 
 ent : 
 
 " The undressed grain from the 
 hopper passes through a cylindrical 
 sieve, having within it a rotary spin- 
 dle, upon which short, blunt arms are 
 arranged in a spiral direction ; these 
 agitate the grain as it passes along, 
 and thus separate the small dirt and 
 dust as well as the awns of barley, 
 which fall through in a closed box or 
 cupboard. The cylinder is placed in 
 a slanting direction, and is provided 
 at each end with slides, which regu- 
 late the quantity and speed with 
 which the grain shall pass. Through 
 the slide aperture at the lower cad, 
 the grain is introduced upon other 
 866 
 
 sieves, which, having a backward and 
 forward motion, distribute it equally 
 over their surface, when it is sub- 
 jected to the blast of the fan, driving 
 obliquely through the sieves ; this 
 carries the chaff' out of the machine ; 
 the grain falls on a screen, which, 
 having a similar motion to the sieves, 
 separates from it all small seeds, and 
 the dross corn is carried away in a 
 division formed for the purpose. The 
 grain, dross corn, and chaff are thus 
 all thorougly separated from each 
 other, and the dust, dirt, and small 
 seeds, having fallen in an enclosed 
 box from the cylinder, may be entire- 
 ly removed." 
 
 WINTER BERRY. Prinos vcr- 
 (iciHalis. False alder, a shrub of four 
 to eight feet, with permanent red ber- 
 ries, adapted to shrubberies. 
 
 WINTER CRESS. Barharca prce- 
 cox. An indigenous, perennial, cru- 
 ciferous plant, growing in the Nor- 
 thern and Eastern States, near spring 
 branches. It is very similar to wa- 
 ter-cress, but more pungent in fla- 
 vour. B. vulgaris, also indigenous, 
 is the water-radish, or rocket. 
 
 WINTER GREEN. The genus 
 Chimaphtla ; pretty Alpine plants. 
 They are perennial, with long roots, 
 and grow in the shade of woods. The 
 C. umhellata, pipsissiwa, is used in 
 domestic medicine as a tonic and as- 
 tringent. 
 
 WINTER PROUD. A term ap- 
 plied to wheat or barley which ap- 
 pears too forward in winter, and 
 hence frequently gets injured, and 
 yields a poor harvest. 
 
 WIPERS. " In some kinds of ma- 
 chinery, as oil mills, powder mills, 
 fulling mills, pieces projecting gen- 
 erally from horizontal axles, for the 
 purpose of raising stampers, pound- 
 ers, or heavy pistons, in vertical di- 
 rections, and then leaving them to 
 fall by their own weight. The prin- 
 cipal object to be attended to in the 
 construction of wipers is to give them 
 such a form that the weight shall be 
 raised with a uniform force and ve- 
 locity." 
 
 WIRE GRASS. Several grasses 
 are so called, but the true wire grass 
 
WOA 
 
 WOA 
 
 is the Eleusine Iiidica, an annual, flow- 
 ering in spilces. 
 
 W I R E WORM. Elatcr segctis. 
 See Insects. The following plan for 
 the destruction of wire-worms is by 
 a practical farmer, Mr. Tarrant : He 
 cleans the infested field of all weeds 
 and roots, and drills white mustard 
 seed, keeping the land hoed, and by 
 the end of the season finds the worms 
 entirely gone. — {British Farm. Mag., 
 1831.) 
 
 WISP. A small bundle of hay or 
 straw. 
 
 WITHE. A flexible twig or bough. 
 
 WITHERITE. Mineral carbonate 
 of baryta. 
 
 WITHERS. The high portion of 
 an animal's back over the shoulders. 
 Horses with high withers are said 
 to have the fore hand well up ; they 
 go high above the ground, and are 
 quick and safe. In draught horses 
 the breadth or weight of the fore 
 hand is desirable. 
 
 The word is sometimes applied to 
 the womb of the cow. Casting the 
 u-ithcrs is inversion and protrusion of 
 the womb. It should be returned by 
 the hand and arm, and maintained in 
 its place by a roll of linen introduced 
 into the vagina in a wet state. The 
 animal must be kept quiet and free 
 from fever. 
 
 W A D. Isatis tinctoria. See 
 Fig. " It has been greatly superseded 
 
 by iodigo, which gives a stronger 
 
 and finer blue ; but on some soils it 
 might be still cultivated to great ad- 
 vantage, especially as it is said to im- 
 prove the quality and colour of indi- 
 go when mi.ved with it in a certain 
 proportion. 
 
 "The woad is a plant of the natu- 
 ral order of the Crnafcra. It has a 
 strong tap-root, which lasts two years. 
 The height of the plant, when in per- 
 fection, is from three to four feet. It 
 throws out many branches from the 
 upper part of the stem. The leaves 
 are alternate and smooth. The flow- 
 ers are yellow, in panicles at the ex- 
 tremity of the branches. The fruit is 
 a heart-shaped pod, with two valves, 
 containing one seed only. It grows 
 well on the borders of the Baltic, and 
 is very hardy. 
 
 " It is still cultivated to a consid- 
 erable extent in the south of France 
 and Flanders. It requires a good 
 substantial soil of considerable depth 
 and fertility ; for the larger and more 
 numerous the leaves are, the more 
 profit is derived from the plant. A 
 wet clay soil is not at all suited to 
 its growth, nor a loose sandy one. 
 
 " When it was largely cultivated in 
 England, old pastures ploughed up 
 atTorded the best soil for the woad to 
 grow in. To have good woad. the 
 land should be naturally very rich, or 
 much manure should be intimately 
 mixed with it some time before. No- 
 thing but completely decomposed 
 dung should be used, or compost 
 made on purpose a long time before. 
 
 "The land, having been prepared 
 by repeated ploughings, and perfectly 
 clean, is laid into narrow beds with 
 deep intervals. On these beds the 
 seed is sown as early in spring as 
 possible. It is sometimes sown broad- 
 cast, and the plants thinned out ; but 
 sowing it in drills, two rows on a 
 four-feet bed, is much the best prac- 
 tice. The drills are one foot from the 
 edge, with two feet clear between 
 them ; some make iive-feet beds, and 
 there is an interval of thirty inches 
 between the rows, which allows of 
 better cleaning, and gives the plants 
 more room to spread. When the 
 plants are come up iu the rows, they 
 867 
 
WOAD. 
 
 must be thinned out by hand, leaving 
 the strongest about two iVet apart : 
 the leaves will soon fill up the inter- 
 vals. They begin to ripen in June. 
 They are fit to gather wlicn they be- 
 gin to droop and become yellowish : 
 This should be done in very dry weath- 
 er, and alter the dew is off. The 
 leaves of the woad are either twisted 
 off close to the stems, or cut down 
 with a sickle. Great care must be 
 taken that no dirt or earth adheres to 
 them. Some recommend taking off 
 the lower leaves first, when they ap- 
 pear ripe by drooping and turning 
 yellow, and letting the upper leaves 
 remain till they show the same ap- 
 pearance ; then nothing but ripe 
 leaves will be gathered. This strip- 
 ping may be repeated two or three 
 times, as the leaves grow again. I'lie 
 plants destined for seed are only strip- 
 ped once or twice, for fear of weak- 
 ening them. It might probably be ad- 
 vantageous not to strip them at all, 
 but to leave the whole strength for 
 the formation of the seed, which will 
 be larger and produce finer plants the 
 next year. 
 
 " The first gathering of the leaves 
 is the best ; they should therefore be 
 kept separate, to obtain the best dye. 
 As soon as the leaves are gathered 
 the beds should be well and deeply 
 hoed or dug, to give a fresh impulse 
 to the roots. 
 
 '• The leaves are naturally full of 
 sap, and soon begin to decompose if 
 laid in a heap. They should there- 
 fore be partially dried, and imme- 
 diately carried to the mill to be man- 
 ufactured. 
 
 " There is a variety of this plant 
 cultivated in Flanders and about Va- 
 lenciennes, which has seeds of a 
 violet colour, and the leaves very 
 smooth ; it is larger than the other, 
 and gives a better dye. It is that 
 which is cultivated near Avignon, 
 ■whence the best woad dye is procu- 
 red. The leaves are ground in a mill, 
 like an oil mill, into a paste, which, 
 when quite uniform and smooth, is 
 laid in heaps under a shed, and pressed 
 with the hands or feet into a mass : 
 each addition is carefully joined to 
 tC8 
 
 the preceding, so that the whole crop 
 forms a long heap. A fermentation 
 is soon established, by which the blue 
 dye is separated. A black crust is 
 formed all over the heap, which keeps 
 in the gases produced. If any part 
 of this crust is cracked, it must be 
 immediately stopped up with some 
 of the paste. It takes a fortnight to 
 complete the operation. When the 
 disengagement of gas ceases, which 
 is soon perceived by the smell, the 
 heap is broken up, the crust is mixed 
 with the inside, and small portions, 
 like bricks of about one pound weight, 
 arc made up with the hands by press- 
 ure in a mould, which, when dry, 
 are fit for sale. As great attention 
 is required both in the growing and 
 preparing of the woad, it is best done 
 by those who make a trade of it, 
 and have the necessary experience. 
 When the crop succeeds, the profit 
 is very considerable ; but, like all oth- 
 er crops, it is liable to many acci- 
 dents. 
 
 "Woad is often shamefully adul- 
 terated with earth and other impuri- 
 ties. In Germany the process of pre- 
 paring the woad is somewhat differ- 
 ent. The leaves are first washed, 
 and then put into a tub three quarters 
 full of water, and kept under water 
 by blocks of wood laid on them. l"he 
 fermentation soon begins, and is 
 shown by a blue scum on the water. 
 When it has gone on to a certain 
 point, the water is drawn off below, 
 and it comes away of a deep green. 
 It is strained through a cloth, the re- 
 maining leaves are waslied with fresh 
 water, and this is added to the first. 
 Lime-water is now added, in the pro- 
 portion of two or three pounds for 
 every ten pounds of leaves used, and 
 the mixture is well shaken for some 
 time ; the dye is deposited in the 
 form of a powder, as starch is ; the 
 water is decanted off, and the thick 
 part at the bottom is filtered through 
 very tine cloths ; the powder which 
 remains is washed repeatedly, tdl the 
 water comes off without being dis- 
 ccdoured. The residue is cut into 
 squares and set to dry. If there is too 
 much water added, the dye is iiife- 
 
woo 
 
 AVOO 
 
 rior ; and if not enough, there is less 
 of it. '1 he exact (|iianlity can only be 
 derided by practice and exi)erience. 
 "Tlie seed will vegetate wjien two 
 years old, but cannot be depended on 
 after that. 
 
 " Woad is also occasionally sown 
 as food for cattle ; and as everything, 
 old and new, has been brought for- 
 ward by the late renewed zeal for 
 agriculture, it has been reconnnend- 
 ed for thi-s purpose under its French 
 name of ' Pastel.' Its vigorous 
 growth and hardy nature have rec- 
 ommended it ; but it will only grow 
 in very rich soils. There are many 
 other plants as vigorous and hanly, 
 which will thrive well in inferior 
 soils, and therefore are to be pre- 
 ferred. But for its dye, this plant 
 is well worthy of the attention of 
 those who have good rich and deep 
 soils." 
 
 WOLF. On the prairies much loss 
 is sustained by shepherds from the 
 attacks of wolves ; these may be de- 
 stroyed in the same way as the fox, 
 or poisoned by sprinkling twenty 
 grains of arsenic on some offal placed 
 in their way. Some use a quarter of 
 a grain of strychnine, inserted in a 
 l)i(>ce of meat. 
 
 WOLF'S BANE. Monk's hood. 
 
 WOLLASTONITE. A species of 
 prismatic augite. 
 
 W O O D. The substance of the 
 trunk of exogenous trees ; it consists 
 of an internal hard and coloured por- 
 tion, the heart-wood (duramen), and 
 an external, softer, and more perish- 1 
 able part, the new wood, sap w'ood, I 
 or alburnum. It consists of woody | 
 fibre and ducts. (See Timber, and the 
 different trees.) The composition of 
 oak wood, according to Gay Lussac, 
 is, carbon, 52-5; oxygen, -11-8; hy- 
 drogen, 5 7 per cent. Wood decays 
 slowly, and yields water and carbonic 
 acid when in contact with air. 
 
 WOOD ASHES. The saline bod- 
 ies of trees : they are obtained for 
 their potash. Oak and hickory ashes 
 contain from twenty to twenty-five 
 per cent, of real potash, and yield the 
 best ashes. As a manure, ten bush- 
 els of fresh ashes to the acre in com- 
 4D3 
 
 ' post are enough, hut if unleached, 
 twenty or more may be employed. 
 See A.shes and I'ola.sh. 
 
 WOODBINE The honeysuckle. 
 
 WOOD S O R R E L. The genus 
 Oxalis, the leaves of which are sour, 
 and contain oxalate of potash : tliey 
 grow in rich, shady places. Many 
 species bear beautiful fiowers. 
 
 WOOD WASPS. The saw flics. 
 
 WOOD WAXEN. Gcmsia tniclo- 
 ria. Dyer's broom, a perennial legu- 
 minous plant, with yellow flowers, 
 growing one foot high, leaves lanceo- 
 late, smooth, stem round, uprigl^J, 
 without spines. It is exotic, but 
 grows readily in the Northern and 
 Eastern States The plant in flower 
 yields a yellow dye, which is fixed 
 by solution of tin or acetate of alu- 
 mina. It may be readily rai«ed from 
 seed, in drills a foot apart, and the 
 plants kept clean bv the cultivator. 
 
 WOODY FIBRE. Very slender, 
 tapering cellular tissue, containing 
 lignin, and forming, when compacted 
 together, the tough fibre of hemp, flax, 
 and vegetables, as well as the bulk 
 of wo.id. 
 
 W^OOL. Hair which is somewhat 
 curled and possesses the quality of 
 felting ; this results from numerous 
 serratures on the staple. For the 
 qualities of wool, see Sheep. The 
 value of wool depends upon the fine- 
 ness, felting quality, and trueness of 
 the staple, which arc explained in the 
 article on Sherp ; but the quality of a 
 fleece is not the same throughout : it 
 is, indeed, divisible into four parcels. 
 In some ijarts of Europe it is the cus- 
 tom for the farmer to make the sep- 
 aration, but in the United States this 
 is left to the manufacturers. The 
 only preparation necessary is to re- 
 move burs, tags, and the coarse hairs 
 of the legs, which is done before 
 shearing. The sheep is washed a 
 week or ten days before shearing, in 
 a cistern or trough, or, w-liat is prefer- 
 al)le, n running stream ; the tags are 
 first removed, and the wa.shing made 
 perfect by squeezing the wool. In 
 the case of Merino bucks a little soft 
 soap may be used, for the cleaner 
 the wool the higher the price obtain- 
 869 
 
WOOL. 
 
 ed. In Spain, it is the custom to 
 
 sweat the sheep the night before 
 shearing, by keeping as large a num- 
 ber as can he crowded together in a 
 hut : the wool is removed the next 
 day witliout being washed, that op- 
 eration being conducted afterward. 
 The wool is first sorted into three 
 parcels ; in some places these parcels 
 contain the different qualities : 1st, 
 superfine picklock (rcjinn), taken from 
 the back, flanks, and sides of the 
 neck ; 2d, fine ifma), from the 
 breast, belly, sides of the haunches, 
 and upper part of the neck ; 3d, 
 third kind (iercera), from the cheeks, 
 upper part of the throat, the fore legs 
 above the knee, the hams, and back 
 of the haunches ; the fourth quality, 
 or cayda, is refuse, and is from the 
 tail, rump, lower parts of the legs, and 
 between the legs. The assorted par- 
 cels are hence treated separately : 
 first they are beaten on hurdles ; then 
 placed in vats containing water heat- 
 ed to 120= Fahrenheit, where they 
 are stirred with sticks ; then removed 
 to drain and transferred to a running 
 stream ; here the wool is pressed by 
 the feet of the workmen, and finally 
 thrown out to dry on the grass : in a 
 few days of hot, dry weather it be- 
 comes sufficiently dry to be packed. 
 When sheep are washed, as with us, 
 the wool is by no means so clean ; 
 indeed, Spanish Merino wool by 
 scouring only loses ten per cent., 
 whereas American Merino loses for- 
 ty per cent. The washed sheep are 
 transferred to clean meadows, and if 
 fed in sheds, they should be laid with 
 clean straw. If the weather he fine, 
 in a week the fleece will be dry, and 
 a new secretion of j'olk will have in- 
 creased its weight. 
 
 The shearing must be postponed 
 to fine, warm, settled weather, and 
 may take place in a well-lighted barn, 
 the floor of which is spread with 
 straw and then covered with a can- 
 vass ; but a clean sward is well 
 enougli. {See Shearing.) The fleece 
 is to be removed carefully, tiie wool 
 cut truly, and not clipped irregularly, 
 but severed with each stroke of the 
 ehears. A good workman can man- 
 670 
 
 age 25 to 30 sheep a day of the Me 
 
 rino breed. All tags, burs, and hail 
 about the legs should be removed 
 before bringing the sheep on the can- 
 vass, which is to be done with man- 
 agement, and not violently. The re- 
 moval of hair is important, as it af- 
 fords shelter to ticks, and may hide 
 diseases of the skin. After shearing, 
 the sheep should be classified, accord- 
 ing to the wool they produce, their 
 healthiness and form, and marked so 
 as to carry out the views of their 
 owner. They may be marked with 
 a ho-t iron on the forehead, or with 
 an ointment of lampblack and lard : 
 tar is objectionable on the wool-bear- 
 ing parts. 
 
 The fleeces are piled one on the 
 other until the shearing is done ; or 
 they may be removed by a new hand, 
 and carried to a table, one by one, to 
 be rolled. With each fleece the loose 
 locks are taken, but the hair of th.e 
 legs separated and placed in a bag or 
 elsewhere. The fleece is carefully 
 spread out on the table, the ragged 
 portions on the edges are separated, 
 and, with all the loose wool, thrown 
 into the middle. The workman next 
 presses the sides inward, so as to 
 condense the wool ; the sides and 
 ends are then turned over, so that 
 the folded fleece forms an oblong two 
 or three feet long and one and a half 
 feet wide ; this is drawn to the front 
 edge of the table and rolled, during 
 which the assistance of a boy is ne- 
 cessary to press the wool together 
 and condense it; the roll is finally 
 tied with a stout twine. The fleeces 
 are preserved in a well- ventilated loft. 
 When sold, they are put up in bales : 
 these are made of burlaps ; a piece 
 of a yard wide and three yards long 
 is used for a sack. The sack is kept 
 open by a hoop, and the fleeces press- 
 ed down by a man until the bag is 
 nearly full ; it is then made up and 
 sewed along the top. 
 
 The weight of a fleece, and the price 
 it fetches in the market per pound, 
 are subject to considerable difference. 
 The following represents the average 
 fleece : Saxons, 2 to 3 lbs. ; Merinos, 
 2.i to 3 lbs. ; South Downs, 3 to 4 lbs ; 
 
woo 
 
 new Leieesters, 6 to 7 lbs. ; Cots- 
 volds, 7 to 8 lbs. ; Lincolns, 8 to 10 
 I!js. The price of wool per pound, as 
 reported in 1845, was, Saxony, 35 to 
 50 cents ; pure Merino, 30 to 35 
 cents ; liaK-biood Merino, 25 to 30 
 cents ; common country sheep, 20 to 
 25 cents. Tlie wool of the English 
 kinds are not separated, but are worth 
 about the same as the half-breed Me- 
 rinos. 
 
 WOOL-GROWING. In the arti- 
 cle Food, we remarked that provender 
 differed in its effects, some kinds, as 
 the oily seeds, producing rapid fatten- 
 ing ; others, as the dry grains, serv- 
 ing to sustain strength. The fod- 
 ders best calculated to increase the 
 
 WOR 
 
 } weight of wool may be ascertained 
 J theoretically by considering the com- 
 position of that staple (see Wovllcn 
 Rags) ; it is there seen tlial 100 lbs , in 
 the ordinary state, contain 177 nitro- 
 gen, a quantity unusually large. The 
 inference is, therefore, 'that azotized 
 or nitrogen food is best calculated for 
 the increase of wool, and that pease, 
 beans, rye, barley, may be judiciously 
 I given. On this point theory is also 
 abundantly confirmed by the experi- 
 ments of M. de Ilaumer, of Silesia. 
 The following table exhibits the value 
 of 1000 lbs. of vari<)us fodders in in 
 creasing the live weight, producing 
 wool and tallow- : the sheep were 
 Saxons : 
 
 
 
 Inrreaseof 
 
 Prod need 
 
 Produced 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 Kinds of food. 
 
 weight in 
 live animal. 
 
 w 
 
 rioi. 
 
 
 OW. 
 
 per cent, 
 in food. 
 
 IIjs. 
 
 r,z. 
 
 U.S. o7.. 
 
 1000 noun 
 
 lis of raw potatoes, with salt . . . 
 
 46J 
 
 6 
 
 b? 
 
 12 
 
 5i 
 
 0-36 
 
 1000 " 
 
 " " without salt 
 
 44 
 
 t) 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 m 
 
 0-36 
 
 1000 " 
 
 raw mangold wurzel . . . 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 3* 
 
 6 
 
 5i 
 
 0.21 
 
 1000 " 
 
 pease 
 
 134 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 6 
 
 3 83 
 
 1000 " 
 
 wheat 
 
 155 
 
 13 
 
 I3i 59 
 
 9 
 
 209 
 
 1000 " 
 
 rye, with salt 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 14i 35 
 
 lU 
 
 200 
 
 1000 " 
 
 rye, without salt 
 
 83 
 
 12 
 
 lOi 33 
 
 Hi, 
 
 2-00 
 
 1000 " 
 
 oats 
 
 14fi 
 
 9 
 
 12 40 
 
 8 
 
 1 TO 
 
 1000 " 
 
 barter 
 
 136 
 
 11 
 
 fiA 60 
 
 1 
 
 1-90 
 
 1000 " 
 
 buckwheat 
 
 no 
 
 10 
 
 U 33 
 
 8 
 
 210 
 
 1000 « 
 
 good hav . 
 
 58 
 
 7 
 
 lOi 12 
 
 14 
 
 115 
 
 1000 " 
 
 hav, with straw, without otlier 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fodder 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 8 6 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 1000 " 
 
 whiskey still-grains or wash . 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 The daily ration of the sheep is 
 i-egulated in the same way as for cat- 
 t(e ; two per cent, of the weight be- 
 ing allowed for those in an ordinary 
 state, and more for such as are put 
 up to fatten ; 2 to 2i lbs. of hay, or 
 its equivalent in other fodders, are 
 about the average. In M. de Rau- 
 mer's experiments the animals were 
 permitted to eat all they would, and 
 tlie result shows that they took each 
 daily of potatoes, sliced, 7 lbs., with 
 straw ; mangold, 8 lbs., with straw ; 
 pease and beans, 2 lbs. : these should 
 be soaked in water or steamed, to en- 
 able the sheep to chew them ; wheat, 
 rye, barley, oats, from 2 to 21 lbs. ; 
 buckwheat, 3 lbs. : in every instance 
 where dry fodders were given, the 
 animals required two or three quarts 
 of water. 
 
 WOOLLEN RAGS. They are 
 used as manure, at the rate of half a 
 ton to the acre, citlier alone, chop- 
 
 ped into pieces not exceeding half an 
 inch square, or in compost. The hop, 
 tobacco, turnips, and plants requiring 
 much putrescent manure, are most 
 benefited. Wool is almost identical 
 in composition with hair, horns, and 
 feathers : it consists of 506 carbon ; 
 7 hydrogen ; 17-7 nitrogen, and 247 
 oxygen, with a very small amount 
 ofash. The rags alone will show 
 good effects for four or five years. 
 In their decay, 100 pounds produce 
 20 pounds of ammoia, which is liber- 
 ated in the form of carbonate. When 
 rotted in compost, 200 pounds will be 
 enough to the acre, spread as a top- 
 dressing on growing plants. 
 
 WOOL SHEARS. Sheep shears. 
 
 WOR.M. A common name for cat- 
 erpillars and the tribe Vermes. See 
 Cm/ Worm, Wire Worm. 
 
 W'OR.MING. An operation per- 
 formed on puppies, consisting in the 
 removal of a vermiform ligament from 
 871 
 
wou 
 
 FAM 
 
 under the tongue : it is sometimes 
 supposed to prevent madness, hut, in 
 faet, mert^Iy biealvs them of their hab- 
 it of gnawini,'. 
 
 WORM SEED. Goosefoot, Jeru- 
 salem oak. An oil is distilled from 
 the seeds, and called worm-seed oil : 
 it is exceedingly nauseous, and is giv- 
 en to children in the dose of five to 
 ten droi)s, and followed by cathartics. 
 See Goosefoot. 
 
 WORMS, INTESTINAL. There 
 are many species infesting animals, 
 especially horses. The principal are 
 hots; lumbrici, or round, long worms, 
 resembling the earthworm; ascandes, 
 which are slender and with flattened 
 heads, and ttsnicE, or tape worms. 
 
 The etfects of worms are soon seen 
 in the health of animals ; they get 
 poor, low-spirited, and weak, notwith- 
 standing their appetite is often vo- 
 racious. As soon as these symptoms 
 are discovered, measures must be ta- 
 ken for the expulsion of the worms : 
 this is n.ot easily accomplished, but 
 purgatives containing calomel, jalap, 
 and aloes are most effective. The 
 tape worm must be previously killed 
 by doses of turpentine ; for this pur- 
 pose, a wine-glassful should be giv- 
 en at intervals of six hours, three 
 or four times, until portions of the 
 worm are evacuated by the purge. 
 See Bots, Horse. 
 
 WORxMWOOD. The genus Arte- 
 misia, including southernwood, mug- 
 wort, &c. Tliey are composite, bit- 
 ter perennials, with a strong, rank 
 odour, and have been much used as 
 tonic bitters, and some species are 
 vermifuges. Common wormwood is 
 A. absinthnim : the French flavour a 
 cordial with it. The seeds of any of 
 the species grow readily in the Uni- 
 ted States : they are also propagated 
 by root slips. 
 
 WORT. A decoction of malt ; an 
 old name for an herb. 
 
 WO ULFE'S APPARATUS. A 
 series of two or three necked bottles, 
 connected by intermediate tubes, used 
 in the chemical laboratory for impreg- 
 nating water and other liquids with 
 various gases or vapours. 
 
 WOUND. A division of the soft 
 872 
 
 parts. If it he a clean cut or incised 
 wound, all tiiat is necessary is to 
 wash the parts with tepid water to 
 remove all dirt, and bring the sides 
 of the wound together with sticking 
 plaster. Torn and contused wounds 
 do not heal so kindly, but often run 
 into suppuration. If an artery be di- 
 vided, it is flrst to be tied with a silk 
 thread before the wound is closed. 
 
 W U N D W O R T. The genus 
 Stachys, weeds of little account. 
 
 WROUGHT. Materials which 
 have been brought to a surface by 
 hammering or other labour. 
 
 X. 
 
 XANTHINE (from ^avdoc, yellmc). 
 A yellow colouring principle in mad- 
 der. 
 
 XANTHOPHYL (from ^avdoQ, and 
 <pv?L?Mv, a leaf). The yellow colour- 
 ing matter of autumnal foliage. 
 
 XYLITE (from ^vlov, wood). Lig- 
 nonc, an empyreumatic spirit exist- 
 ing in the products of vinegar distil- 
 led from wood. 
 
 XYLOPHAGANS, XYLOPHA- 
 GA (from ^vlov, and ^ayw, I eat). A 
 tribe of coleopterous insects, compre- 
 hending those of which the larva; de- 
 vour the wood of trees in which they 
 are developed ; also applied to a fam- 
 ily of dipterous insects, the larva; 
 of which have similarly destructive 
 habits. 
 
 XYLOPHILANS, XILOPHILI 
 (from ^vT^ov, and (j>iXeu, I love). A 
 tribe of beetles, consisting of those 
 which live on decayed wood. 
 
 XYLOTROGES, XYLOTROGI 
 (from ^v?^ov, and rpuyo, I gnaw). A 
 tribe of serricorn beetles, compre- 
 hending those which perforate timber. 
 
 YAK. The Himalayan bison, re- 
 sembling the buffiilo, three and a half 
 feet high, and with flue, long hair. 
 
 YAM. The tuber of the Ihoscorea 
 sativa, alata, and other species. It is 
 similar to the sweet potato, but much 
 larger. The cultivation is the same, 
 only that a stake is driven near each 
 plant, to allow the stem to climb. 
 
 YAM ROOT. Dioscorea villosa. 
 
YEL 
 
 YEL 
 
 An indigenous perennial climbing 
 plant, of the same geiuis as the yam. 
 
 YARD DUNG. Farmyard ma- 
 nure. 
 
 YARD OF LAND. A measure 
 varying from 15 to 34 acres. 
 
 YARROW. The genus Achillea. 
 Bitter, aromatic weeds, of the com- 
 posite family. They are wholesome, 
 and are found in good pastures, es- 
 pecially A. millefolium, common yar- 
 row. They have been recommended 
 for cultivation. 
 
 YEARLINGS. Calves and other 
 stock one year old. 
 
 YEAST, BARM. The substance 
 produced during the vinous ferment- 
 ation of vegetable juices and decoc- 
 tions, rising partly to the surface, in 
 the form of a frothy, flocculcnt, and 
 somewhat viscid matter, insoluble in 
 water and alcohol, and gradually pu- 
 trefying in a warm atmosphere. It 
 excites fermentation, and accelerates 
 the process when added to saccha- 
 rine liquors. It is changed gluten 
 and other protein compounds in in- 
 cipient decomposition. 
 
 Artificial yeast, or that made with- 
 out recourse to the introduction of a 
 portion of yeast, is very important in 
 families. The following recipe gives 
 a good yeast : Boil a handful of hops 
 in three pints of water ; add three 
 mashed boiled potatoes, strain, and 
 mix with a cupful of flour; set aside 
 to cool, and tlicu add a lea-spoonful 
 of sugar, and bottle up for use. A 
 more permanent ferment is made by 
 boiling a quantity of wheat bran and 
 hops in water ; the decoction is not 
 long in fermenting, and when this 
 has taken place, throw in a sufficient 
 portion of bran to form the whole into 
 a thick paste, which work into balls, 
 and afterward dry by a slow heat. 
 When wanted for use, they are bro- 
 ken, and boiling water is poured upon 
 them ; having stood a jjroper time, 
 the fluid is decanted, and m a lit state 
 for leavening bread. In the place of 
 bran, Indian corn meal may be used, 
 if a little of a previous ferment be 
 broken up in the mass. 
 
 YELLOW DYES. Persian ber- 
 ries, weld, quercitron bark, fustic, 
 
 turmeric, dyer's broom, annotta, wil- 
 low leaves, berberry roots, are the 
 principal vegetable dyes. Chrome 
 yellow, oxide of iron, sulphurels of 
 antimony and arsenic, and nitric acid 
 are obtained from the mineral king- 
 dom. Solutions of alum and tin are 
 used as mordants. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER. A bilious re- 
 mittent fever of a malignant kind. 
 It attacks animals as well as men, 
 but does not so readily destroy them. 
 Large doses of calomel, with bleed- 
 ing, m the earliest stages, form the 
 best treatment ; but in the later sta- 
 ges the system is often so prostrated 
 that it re(piires sustenance from spir- 
 ituous licjuors and carbonate of am- 
 monia. 
 
 YELLOW RATTLE. The weed 
 lihi n a n t hits cristagalii . 
 
 YELLOWS. Jaundice, irritation 
 of the liver, attended with a yellow- 
 ness of the eyeballs. A calomel 
 purge is necessary, and bleeding, if 
 there be fever. 
 
 YELLOWS IN TREES. This, 
 which is called a disease of trees, is 
 only an effect produced by different 
 causes, such as plant lice, worms at 
 the root or in the bark, and improper 
 soils. The leaves turn yellow, and nu- 
 trition being cut off", they usually die. 
 Whenever this symptom is seen du- 
 ring early summer, the tree should 
 be thoroughly examined, to ascertain 
 the cause, and treated accordingly. 
 Scraping the bark, making an incis- 
 ion from the branches to the root, and 
 washing the stem, root, and large 
 branches with solution of whale-oil 
 soap may be found serviceable. Plant 
 lice are to be smoked with tabacco. 
 See Plant Lice, Borers, and Scale In- 
 sects. Peach trees are very liable to 
 this ailment in the Northern States. 
 
 Y E L L O W S E E D. The weed 
 Thiaspi campcstrc, false flax, mithri- 
 date mustar<i, a cruciferous annual 
 with mustard-flavoured pods, which 
 abounds in flax fiolds, and is very 
 troublesome. It can only be avoided 
 by screening the flax seed carefully, 
 and omitting the cultivation of flax 
 for a season, introducing cleaning or 
 hoed crops instead. 
 
 873 
 
YOL 
 
 ZEO 
 
 YELLOW TOP. White top. 
 
 Agros/is alha. 
 
 YELLOW WASH. An applica- 
 tion to ulcers. Jt is made l)y adding 
 a draclun of lime-water to two grains 
 of corrosive sublimate dissolved in 
 one ounce of water. 
 
 YELLOW WEED. The butter- 
 cups, or Ranunculus, are so called. 
 
 YELLOW WOOD. Vngdm lulca. 
 A medium-sized leguminous tree of 
 West Tennessee, seldom attaining 
 forty feet, and growing in rich, deep 
 soils. The leaves are large, smooth, 
 pinnate ; the flowers in pendulous 
 clusters, like the locust, and white. 
 It is a highly ornamental tree, and 
 an infusion of the bark affords a yel- 
 low dye. 
 
 YEW. The genus Taxus, conif- 
 erous trees and shrubs, with ever- 
 green, small leaves, of slow growth, 
 but producing very hard, strong wood, 
 formerly reputed for bows, and now- 
 used in cabinet-work. The T. bac- 
 cala is the yew-tree ; the T. Canaden- 
 sis is a shrub of five feet. They make 
 good hedges, but the leaves are poi- 
 sonous. 
 
 YOKE. A frame of wood fixed 
 with bows over the necks of oxen, 
 whereby they are coupled together, 
 or yoked. It is sometimes written 
 "yoak," and is composed, 1. Of a thick 
 piece of wood that passes over the 
 neck, and is properly called the 
 "yoke ;■' 2. Of a bow, which encom- 
 passes the neck ; and, 3. Of the 
 " wreathings,'' or "stitchings," that 
 serve to connect the whole. Besides 
 these parts, there are employed a 
 ring, denominated the " yoke-ring," 
 and a chain for securing the traces. 
 For a new method of yoking, see Ox 
 Yoke. 
 
 Yoke is also an old measure of 
 land, the quantity ploughed in a day 
 by a couple of oxen. 
 
 YOLK. The yellow of the egg. 
 An animal soap, also called gum, se- 
 creted by the skin of sheep, and per- 
 vading the wool. The finest fleeces 
 contain most yolk, especially that of 
 the Merinos. It is readily softened 
 by warm water, and may be washed 
 out without trouble ; but there re- 
 874 
 
 mains an oil among the wool, which 
 is only separated with trouble. Tlie 
 amount varies from twenty to fifty 
 [jer cent, of the fleece, and is most in 
 warm climates and fine fleeces. 
 
 YTTRIL.M. The metallic base of 
 yttria, a rare earth resembling alu- 
 mina. 
 
 YUCCA. Adam's needle, bear's 
 grass. A genus of shrubl)y, liliaceous 
 plants, with large, rigid leaves, inhab- 
 iting the sandy sea-coasts of Georgia 
 and the South. The Sisal hemp is 
 of this genus, and the leaves of all 
 the species may be wrought into a 
 long staple. l"he Y. glonosa, petre, 
 is celebrated for its magnificent in- 
 florescence, and yields sti'ong hemp. 
 The roots of some species abound in 
 farina, and w'ere used by the Indians 
 for food. 
 
 YULE. Christmas. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZAMIA. A genus of cycadeous 
 trees, the stems of which yield a kind 
 of sago. The Z. integrifulia and Z. 
 pumila grow in Florida, and furnish 
 sago, or what is improperly called ar 
 row-root. 
 
 ZAPZIEGER CHEESE. Sap 
 sago. See Cheese. 
 
 ZEA. The generic name of the 
 Indian corn (Z. 7nays). 
 
 ZEBRA. The zebra is of the size 
 and general appearance of the mule, 
 but with a skin striped with brown, or 
 black and white : it has not been do- 
 mesticated. 
 
 ZEDOARY. Curcuma Zedoaria. 
 An East Indian plant, of the same 
 family as the ginger, but producing 
 rhizomes not quite as pungent. 
 
 Z E C K S T E I N. A magnesian 
 limestone, lying below the red sand- 
 stone. 
 
 ZEIN. The azotized product of 
 Indian corn, similar to albumen. 
 
 ZENITH. The vertical point in 
 the sky of any place ; the point im- 
 mediately overhead. 
 
 ZEOLITE. A family of minerals 
 which fuse and boil before the blow- 
 pipe ; they are silicates of alumina 
 and lime, or soda with water. The 
 soda zeolite is called Nalrohte. 
 
ZIZ 
 
 ZERO. Nothing; it is used to 
 designate the 0" jwint of graduated 
 scales, as the thermometer, areome- 
 ter, and usually means a degree equal 
 to a given lest ; thus, the zero oftiic 
 areometer is the specitic gravity of 
 IKire water at 59° Fahr. ; the zero 
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer is the 
 temperature of snow mixed with 
 salt. The zero of the Centigrade 
 and Reaumer scales is the freezing 
 point. Degrees ahove zero are plus 
 (-J-), below it minus ( — ). 
 
 ZERUMBET. An East Indian 
 rhizome, similar to ginger. 
 
 ZIMO.ME. That part of the glu- 
 ten of wheat which is insoluble in al- 
 cohol. 
 
 ZINC. Spelter. A valuable met- 
 al for rooting and the construction 
 of vessels, such as are made of tin 
 plate, than which it is more durable 
 and stronger. In chemistry, it is of 
 great use for the construction of gal- 
 vanic circles and batteries, forming 
 the positive surface or pole of single 
 circles. It is rapidly acted on by the 
 strong acids, and forms an oxide 
 which combines with most acids. Of 
 its salts, the suJphaie, or white vit- 
 riol, is most employed ; it is emetic 
 and irritant, and used chiefly in lo- 
 tions. See Pharmacopeia. Calamine 
 is an impure native carbonate of zinc. 
 Tutty is an impure artiticial oxide. 
 
 ZIXCOUS, ZINCOID, ZLNCODE. 
 Resembling zinc. This term is used 
 to designate any metal or other body 
 which, in a galvanic circle, occupies 
 the place of the zinc. It is the same 
 as positive metal or pole, positive 
 electrode, anode, and the derivatives. 
 Zincnlysis means the same as elec- 
 trolysis ; zincolyte, as electrolyte. 
 These terms are indeed to be prefer- 
 red over those previously in exist- 
 ence, because they refer to tlie zinc 
 element, or its substitute, as the ori- 
 gin of the galvanic action. 
 
 ZINGIBER. The generic name 
 of the ginger plant (Z. qfficuialis). 
 
 ZIRCOATU.M. A rare metal, the 
 base of zirconium. 
 
 ZIZANIA. Wild rice. Sec Rice, 
 WUd. 
 
 ZIZIPHUS. The generic name of 
 
 200 
 
 the shrubs yielding the jujube (Z.ju 
 juha). 
 
 ZONE (from ^uvn, a bell). A word 
 much used by naturalists to denote a 
 band or stripe running around any 
 object. In geography, a division of 
 the earth's surface. There are five 
 great zones. The tropic or torrid 
 ■zone, occupying the central or equa- 
 torial regions of the earth to a dis- 
 tance of 23^ degrees north and south, 
 and therefore having a width of 47 
 degrees. The north temperate zone 
 lies between 23^ N. lat and 66^ N. 
 lat., and occupies 43° of latitude. The 
 south temperate zone lies in the same 
 space on the south side of the globe. 
 The north and south frigid zones oc- 
 cupy the space beyond 66^ degrees 
 to the poles ; they are also called the 
 arctic and antarctic regions. 
 
 ZOOLOGY (from ^uov, an animal, 
 and /.oyog. a discourse). The history 
 and classification of animals. The 
 objects of the animal kingdom are so 
 extremely variaus that a classifica- 
 tion of them is one of the severest 
 labours. Numerous suggestions have 
 been made as a basis for classifica- 
 tion, but the advance of knowledge 
 has shown them all to be wanting in 
 comprehensiveness. When it is re- 
 membered that under the term ani- 
 mal is grouped thousands of species 
 differing from the scarcely organized 
 and imperceptible dots of jelly called 
 monads, to the most complicated quad- 
 rupeds, the difficulties of classifica- 
 tion will be apparent. The following 
 view by Professor Owen is the most 
 complete we have seen. 
 
 In this there are four primary di- 
 visions, or sub-kingdoms : 1. Verte- 
 brafa, or animals furnished with a 
 regular back bone : 2d. Artieulata, 
 animals which contain no internal 
 skeleton, but are covered with a crust 
 or shell made of distinct parts or ar- 
 ticulations, as the lobster ; 3d. Mol- 
 lusca, animals destitute of skeleton or 
 articulations, but usually inhabiting 
 shells ; and, 4th. Radiala, animals of 
 the lowest organization, destitute of 
 an internal respiratory organ, and 
 having a nervous system composed 
 of mere lines, which are often radia- 
 875 
 
zoo 
 
 ted from a centre. These sub-king- 
 doms contain each several classes, as 
 may be seen in the table. 
 
 Kingdom Ani.malia. 
 Sub-kingdom Vertcbrata. 
 Class Mammalia, mammals. 
 AvES, birds. 
 Reptilia, reptiles. 
 Pisces, fishes. 
 
 Sub-kingdom ArticuJata, 
 Class Crustacea, such as lobsters. 
 Arachnida, spiders. 
 Insecta, insects. 
 Anellata, loorms. 
 CiRRiPEDiA, barnacles. 
 
 Sub-kingdom Mollusca. 
 Class Cephalopoda, with a cartilagi- 
 nous head. 
 
 Gasteropoda, with an organ 
 forlocomotion situated under 
 the stomach, as the snail. 
 
 Pteropoda, organs of locomo- 
 tion two membranous fins, 
 situated at the sides of the 
 neck. 
 
 Lamellibranchiata, without 
 head, the gills disposed in 
 bands, as oysters. 
 
 Brachiopoda, without head, en- 
 closed in a mantle, with two 
 fleshy arms. 
 
 Tunicata, without head, with- 
 out shell, covered with a 
 membrane. 
 
 Sub-kingdom Radiata. 
 Nematoneura, nerves apparent. 
 876 
 
 ZYM 
 
 Acrita, nerves rudimentary. 
 Class EcHiNODERMA (Cuvicr), those 
 furnished with a crust. 
 
 AcALEPHA(Cuvier),those\vhich 
 are witiiout crust. 
 
 Ccelelmintha (Owen)^ Ento- 
 zoa, with a distinct alimen- 
 tary canal. 
 
 Sterklmintha (Owen), without 
 a separate abdommal cavity, 
 hydatids. 
 
 Ciliobrachiata (Farre), with a 
 distinct abdomen and anus. 
 
 Nudibrachiata (Farre), corals 
 without intestines or sepa- 
 rate anus. 
 
 RoTiFERA (Ehrenb.), Infusoria, 
 furnished with a nervous sys- 
 tem, a distinct abdominal 
 cavity, and cdliae around the 
 mouth. 
 
 PoLVGASTRA (Ehrcnb), Infuso- 
 ria, a simple jelly containing 
 many cavities or stomachs. 
 
 ZOONOMY. General animal 
 physiology. 
 
 ZOOPHYTES, ZOOPHYTA (from 
 fwoi', and <ivTov, a plant). Plant-like 
 animals, as the corals, corallines, 
 sponges. 
 
 ZU.MIC ACID. An acid found in 
 sour bread, and other vegetable bod- 
 ies, resembling the lactic acid. 
 
 ZYGO.MA. The zygomatic pro- 
 cess of the temporal bone, which, 
 with the molar or cheek bone, forms 
 the zygomatic fossa or cavity under 
 the temple. 
 
 ZYMOME. Zimome. 
 
 i 
 
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 ®l)e U0mance of ^adjting 
 
 Voyage the First. By Joseph C. Hakt. 12mo. 
 
 iHobel men. 
 
 Modeled by Horace Mayhew. With numerous Comic Illustrations. 
 18mo, Paper. 25 cents. 
 
 Sketches of various characters smartly executed, and one of the steam-boat and rail-way 
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 acquainted with the higher classes of society. — London Literary Gazette. 
 
 ®I}e ittoral. Social, anii Professional Duties of ^ttor- 
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 By Samuel Waeren, Esq., F.R.S. 18mo, Muslin. cents. 
 
 ^oro anb STlicn. 
 
 A Tale. By Samuel Warren, Esq., F.R.S. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents; 
 Paper, 50 cents. 
 
 Dr. Warren's skill is of a peculiar kind ; it is earnest and emphatic. This tale excites 
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 <:^rabian J^igl)ts' Entertainments. 
 
 Newly Translated and arranged for Family Reading, vi^ith Explanatory 
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 Fifty volumes of books of travel extant will not convey the instruction concerning the sin- 
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 tales, and in the correct and beautiful engravings. This edition will be valued by the accom- 
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 all that is interesting to know of the followers of Mohammed. — Neio York Sun. 
 
 Mrs. ittarkljam's ^istor^ of irance. 
 
 Prepared for the Use of Schools, with a supplementary Chapter, bringing 
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 as school histories ; it has been stated that upward of 56,000 copies of her excellent series 
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 too strongly recommended as adapted for youth. 
 
 2:i)c ^istorg of Congress, jBiograpljical anir political: 
 
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Popular Literature Puhlislied hy Harper Sf Brothers. 3 
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 •^Baltimore AmeHcan. 
 
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 toutl)cring ^eigl)t0. 
 
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 We strongly recommend all our readers who love novelty to get this story, for we can prom- 
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 Or, Adventures in the Camanche Country in Search of a Gold Mine. By 
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 It has incidents enough for a score of novels. — Mirror. 
 
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 Crowded with the wildest adventures, it has that reality which makes Melville's " South 
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 Or, Pen and Pencil Sketches of English Society. By Wm. Makepeace 
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 aa indispensable companion to " The Story of the Battle of Waterloo." — Athemcum. 
 
4 Popular Literature Published by Harper Sf Brothers. 
 
 Coiterings in ^urc^ae; 
 
 Or, Sketches of Travel in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, 
 Prussia, Great Britain, and Ireland. With an Appendix, containing Ob- 
 servations on European Charities and Medical Institutions. By J. W. 
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 2ri)c Sattle 0f Btiena bista, 
 
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 The best description that has yet appeared of one of the most distinguished battles fought 
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 Man anb Iji© ittotiDe©. 
 
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 losophy. — Cincinnati Herald. 
 
 a;i)e tenant of toilbfdl ^a\\. 
 
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 ©moo; or, a Narrative of ^bocntnres in t\)c SoutI) Qeas. 
 
 By Herman Melville. 12mo, Muslin, $1 25 ; Paper, $1 00. 
 Musing the other day over our matinal hyson, we suddenly found ourselves in the entertain- 
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 book is excellent quite first-rate. — Blackwood. 
 
Popular Literature Published by Harper Sf Brothers. 5 
 £ife of ittoiamc Cati)arin£ Qlborna. 
 
 Including some leading Facts and Traits in her Religious Experience. To- 
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 ilXilton's Poetical ttJorks. 
 
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 The present production is the most valuable that has appeared from the pen of Mr. Simms, 
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6 Popular Literature PuhlisJied hy Harper ^ Brotlters. 
 
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 ©braarb bernon: iUn Cousin's Qtorg. 
 
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 ilXarg ©rower; 
 
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 This is a temperance tale conceived with terrible fidelity to truth and life ; well adapted to 
 
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iJaluablc anb ^ttractbc New lUorks 
 
 RECENTLY PUBLISHED BV 
 
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 J^upton's SliJijrnturcs in fHrjrico anXi the iiocfes 
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 " Iww and Then" is a graceful and firm movement forward on the part of Mr. Warren. Fev» 
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 We scarcely remember a work in the whole range of modern fiction so thrilling in its char- 
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 Hamartfnc's iJ^fstorg of tlic dffroutrists. 
 
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 Simms'.s 3lifc of Chcbnlicr iJanartr. 
 
 " THE GOOD KNIGHT." — " SA.NS PEUR ET SANS KEPROCHB." 
 
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 Chevalier Bayard is one of the most romantic and attractive figures in history, and Mr. 
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 agreeable qaaintness quite appropriate to the theme. — Tribune. 
 
 The Chevalier Uayard stands in history as a type of the noblest properties of the chivalry 
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 alry which, as illustrating the peculiarities of a marked era of the history of civilization, is 
 well worth the study of the literary man and the Christian. There are several well-conceived 
 embellishments, which adorn the beautiful pages of the volume. — Ncxo York Evangelist. 
 
2 New Works PublisJied by Harper S,- Brotliers. 
 
 Scenes at aiWajsIu'ngton. 
 
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 This is a graphic picture of scenes and persons, " saying^s and doings," at the Capitol half 
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 J^cl^iUc'js "#moo-/' or, Sliiljcnturcjs tn tlic Pacific, 
 
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 J^is.s Hattroe's Court of Stouts the iFourteentfi., 
 
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 The most romantic and dramatic portion of the history of France. — Albany Atlas. 
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New Works PvilisJied brj Harper ^- Brothers. S 
 
 );k. i^arbcrs jjFrcsh CSlcaniufls. 
 
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 This is decidedly the most a^rec^ble book of the season. It reminds one by an occasional 
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 All will agree that Sonthey is the best biographer in our language : his life of Wesley is 
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 Biore gratifying enjoyment than to go over the biography from beginning to end ; we have 
 found It a great treat. — Literary Gazette. 
 
 Smith's (Consular Cities of China, 
 
 Illustrated with numerous Engravings. 12mo, Muslin, $1 25 ; Paper, $1 00. 
 
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 This work is written in a graceful, flowing style, in an amiable spint, and indicates an nn- 
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 esting and valuable information. — Neto York Recorder. 
 
 33'Ksracirs SCmcnitCcs of attcraturc. 
 
 2 vols. 12mo, Muslin. §1 50. 
 
 In many respects this is the most valuable of all the literary productions of its erudite and 
 carious author. It abounds in acute and learned criticisms upon authors and their works, and 
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 shows the influence of authors and their views upon the age in which they lived. It is charm; 
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 ^rotonc's Etcfttnos of a C^lhalCng Cruise, 
 
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 Quite worthy to be the companion of Dana's " Two Years before the Mast." — Edin. Review, 
 This 13 a minute and apparently faithful account of the romantic and exciting, but danger- 
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 often subjected by the tyranny of the officers, are described with the truth and graphic powef 
 which personal experience alone could give. — Christian Intelligencer, 
 
 iirof, ja^Jham's Memoirs of fHatramc Cfuoon. 
 
 M'ith Portraits. 2 vols. 12mn, Muslin. $2 00. 
 
 The subject of this remarkable biography was a woman of rich endowments ; her suffer- 
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 He writings and life constitute a bright page in the history of that period. Her life was 
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 Schlrgcrs iShtlosophn of JLitt anXf aaneuajjr, 
 
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 For a book to replenish wisdom and solidify the cast of your mind's habit, we scarce know 
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 consent, passed into a sort of philosophic gospel. — N. P. Willis. 
 
Neiv Works Published by Harper Sf Brothers. 
 
 ISojjK'iS EclcctCc f^iorfil PiilosoiJUg. 
 
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 into our private liliraries ; and I have no doubt may be used with advantage in our literary in- 
 ititutioiis of every grude. — Prof. Mandeville, Hamilton College, New York. 
 
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 The work has an additional advantage, which no other of the kind can possess, of suggest- 
 ing to the pupil the works and authors where the various topics are more extensively treated. 
 It is, in fact, an excellent guide-book for an exploration of the wide and tangled field of moral 
 science. — Biblical Repository. 
 
 JSogVs KUctoric antr 2litcr»ir|) itxiiizimu 
 
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 This is a valuable school-book. It contains, in a small compass, the cream of the more la- 
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 sition of useful knowledge. This work is highly recommended by the Secretary of Slate. — 
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 With nearly 300 Illustrations. I2mo, Sheep. 75 cents. 
 For a concise, lucid, and complete analysis of this delightful science, this manual must take 
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 writers on chemistry have their appropriate notice in the present volume, and, as far as wo 
 have beenabl* to ascertain, Dr. Draper has given in a succinct form the best arranged system 
 of chemical lore yet ottered to the student. The origin of the present work was the outline 
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 Draper's S'cpt^tcoft on Jiatural PiilosoiJUg. 
 
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 This new work of Dr. Di aper's is well deserving the grateful acknowledgment of teachers ; 
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 This book ought certainly to be universally introduced to the youth of the state, whose his- 
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 guage : and here we have a large and very carefully-prepared volume, which, while it is not 
 deficient in point of style and language, will impress upon the youthful learner's mind that 
 sort of knowledge which is most of all essential, as well as interesting, to the citizens of this 
 great state. — Methodist Quarterly Review. 
 
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 12mo, half Bound, 70 cents ; Muslin, 60 cents. 
 
 It gives excellent rules, which are so simple that all may understand them, and »o strikingly 
 necessary that all must respect tliern. In fact, the work is in keeping with the progress of 
 the age, and is therefore a great improvement on all that have gone before it of the same class. 
 The selections, by the way, are all gems. — Farmer and Mechanic. 
 

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