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CALIFORNIA.

i.osnos: I'KiXTKD nv

Sl'OTTISWODKH ASI) CO.. SKW-STKKKT SQl'.\RK
AXIl i'AllI.IAUEXT STIIKKT

SIX MONTHS

CALIFORNIA.

J. G. PLAYER-FROWD.

LONDON :

L N G M A N S, GREEN, AND C G.

1872.

All liy/ils rise r ie,l.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION

SAN FRANCISCO

SALT LAKE CITY

CALIFORNIA

GEOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA

THE GEYSERS .

YESOMIT^ VALLEY .

THE lilG TREES

MINES AND MINING .

MINES IN THE STATE OF NEVADA

WHITE riNE MINES .

QUICKSILVER, ETC. .

AGRICULTURE IN CALIFORNIA

WINE

SERICULTURE, BEET SUGAR, OLIVES,
ZOOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA .
FLORA OF CALIFORNIA

ETC.

PAOB
1

109

122

128

130

142

147

152

102

7514-54

SIX MOXTDS IX CALIFOENIA.

ixrnoDucTiON.

Before the completion of tlie railroad from the Atlantic
to the Pacific Oceans, the countries lying west of the
Rocky Mountains Avere terra incognita, or at best onlv
known to those few whom the love of adventure and gain
had drawn to those distant lands. California especially,
being the most celebrated, had been the most misrepre-
sented. By the majority the land was regarded as teem-
ing with gold and abounding in iniquity ; a paradise for
paupers, and a refuge for the scum of the earth. To a
certain extent this was true. Labour was very well paid,
the profits of business Avere very large, gold abounded in
the mines, and poverty springing from want of work wa»
nidcnown. Flush times naturally induced lavishness in
the style of living, and prodigality led to intemperance ;
but, to-day, San Francisco is as orderly a city as any in
the Union, — certainly more so than New York.

The number of travellers attracted to California during
the last year has been very great, and I anticipate a large
increase for the year to come. l\Iy visit to that country
has been so interesting, and attended with so much plea-
sure, that I have been induced to publish a slight sketch
of my experiences, not only as a guide to the traveller,

2 SIX MO.VTIIS IX CALIIYjRXIA.

but also .as an inducement to those uncertain where to go,
to enjoy the trip from ocean to ocean, and the wondrously
beautiful country they will find at the extreme western
end of the line.

I have not sought to be abstruse, nor have I designed
to enter into ])r()found dissertations. ]My idea has been
to give a popular narrative of my excursion to the Far
West, in the same way that one would describe a paint-
ing that he has seen and admired to a circle of his
acquaintance. Those who have been accustomed to the
monotony arid conventionalities of European travel, will
find an immense relief and sense of freedom when roam-
m<r amongst the Sierras of California ; and it cannot but
be interesting to visit a state that, less than a quarter of
a ccntui'y since, was hardly known by name, and to-day
takes her place as one of the powers of the American
Continent.

I hardly need detail the trip across the Atlantic. One
voyage is so like another, and, taken in the aggregate,
one set of passengers resembles another so very much,
that the experience of one answers for all. There was
the usual aristocratic set, who sat at the captain's table
and herded together in the daytime ; the man of business
continually passing between the Old World and the New ;
the mysterious passenger Avho appeared to be chased by
a destiny ; the lady who made her appearance four days
after we had sailed, and who was saluted as a new acquaint-
ance ; in short, the various compounds and contrasts that
make up the little world of an ocean-going steamer. For
the first three days it blew almost a gale of wind, but
after that time we had a week of the most lovely Aveather
possible, and our days, nay even a great part of our
nights, were spent upon deck. Nevertheless, we were
not sorry when our captain said at lunch, ' We shall
sight Sandy Hook in about an hour's time.' As may be

NEW YORK. 3

expected, everyone, -with the exception of the old stagers
who went to their cabins to pack up, was on deck, all
strainini^ their eyes through marine glasses in one direc-
tion. Sandy Hook passed, we entered what is called the
North River.

As soon as the custom-house authorities had been dis-
posed of, I drove to the Fifth Avenue Hotel, and, having
made myself comfortable, took a carriage to survey the
city. The first thing that strikes a stranger in New
York is the symmetry of the buildings and the evidences
of great wealth, especially in that quarter of the town
in which my hotel is situated — the houses being either
built of M'hat is there called brown stone, or else of
brick cased with marble. For my part I prefer the solid
honesty of the former. The more costly in appearance
has but the semblance of a marble palace, for the ex-
terior is but slabs of marble, and not the solid blocks
that their form would imply. Another remarkable thing
about New York is the glaring newness that prevails
everywhere. The houses, the shops, the very pavement,
look as though they had been all made by contract and
finished within the hour.

Being anxious to visit California before the heat com-
menced, I lost no time in setting out for the ' States '
and Canada, and a most interesting and instructive tour
I found it. But travellers that have preceded me have
so ably written on the above countries, that a repetition
would only fatigue my readers. I will at once endea-
vour to interest tliose to whom the unsurpassed scenery
of the Sierra Nevada is yet new, by entering on a de-
scription of my journey to the Far West.

Painfully, and with nuich winding, we scale the Sierras.
At Truckee I bade adieu for a Avhile to the Central
Pacific Railroad, and took a carriage for Lake Talioe,
about twelve miles from the line. A lovely drive, not

4 SIX MONTHS I.V CALIFORNIA.

wltlistandinpj the dust, with the f^reat pine groves clothinf^
the luoimtaiu sides, and broad wastes of snow that couhl
be seen high up through openings in the forest, and great
patches of wild flowers, some of them loading the air with
perfume, and mountain rivulets, fed with melted snow,
leaping instinct with life to the plains below, and the air
so pure and nature so lovely, one could not but feel the
influence for good that such scenery engenders. And yet
there was a sense of oppressiveness in the awful silence
that reigned around. Not a sound of life except the
hoof-beals of the hoi'ses and the crunching of the wheels
of my conveyance as we proceeded through the sand of
the mountain road.

Be it understood, most civilised reader, that the word
' road ' must not suggest to your imagination anything
macadamised, fenced, turnpiked, or subject to any of the
impositions or conveniences of the king's highway. Xo
country seat with its well-ordered park, no half-way
house with good accommodation for man and beast,
grace its borders. It is a track leading from one point
to another, variable at the will of the driver, and its
course depending somewhat on the season of the year.
During the dry months the bottoms of the comparatively
level mountain gorges are followed, and your carriage
winds its way amongst white water-washed sand diifts
and huge boulders ; but Avhen the melted snows come
rushing down the ravines, the trail seeks the higher
ground, and digs its way along a wheel-worn shelf on the
side of the hills. In fact, the Avhole country is open
to the traveller to choose his way ; and the safest plan for
the stranger is to follow what are termed ' cattle tracks,'
if they lead in the direction he would go. The half wild
cattle have an Indian instinct for the best and easiest
path along the mountains, and, however tortuous their
trail may appear, depend upon it the grade offers the

THE SIERRAS. 5

greatest facility, and the traveller -will arrive sooner at
his destination than by any other and apparently shorter
])ath.

By the advice of my host I had started at daybreak,
and, as we drove along in the silence, I thought that I
had never seen anything more beautiful. The summits
of the Sierras, or at least such of them as I could see
at intervals through the great pine trees, which, on
my setting out, had looked like phantom mountains, so
shadowy and pale were they in the grey morn, became
flushed with the rising sun. It Avas not exactly rose
colour, so nuich as a warm tint of light, a sense of bright-
ness suft\ising all around and penetrating even into the
gloom of the forest. At the same time the forest was
dark bv contrast. And then arose a stranjre moanincr,
which swept over the to})S of the great ])ine trees. It
Avas the morning breeze coming down from the great
snow-clad peaks as a salutation to the sun ; and the
brightness came down the mountain sides, and suddenly
we were batiied in the sunshine. I got out of my car-
riage and walked among the trees on a most aromatic
surface of dead pine leaves, soft and springy, the contri-
butions of centuries. Here and there one comes upon a
fallen tree, the stem of which has probably been burnt by
some traveller for his night's fire ; but in general they
stand straight as steeples, rigid as monuments, Avith only
the gentle murmur of their upper branches as the early
Avind kisses them as it passes. Below all is the stillness
of death.

An opening in the trees, a turn in the road, and Lake
Tahoc is before me. Not a ripple on its surface. Sur-
rounded on every side by snoAV-clad hills, Avhose sides are
covered with pine forests, all of Avhich are reflected as in
a mirror, it looks like a painted lake. There is a sense
of mystery in its unfathomable depths, a feeling of awe

C. SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

at tlii;^ volume of water suspended six thousand feet in
the air, never varying in its height, never frozen over
like neifijhhourintr hikes, of such rarefied nature that wood
sinks in it and man cannot swim in it, the crater of
an extinct volcano, fire substituted by water, fed by the
everlasting snows, and full of great fish, bred heaven
only knows how, I look upon Lake Tahoe as one of the
most striking objects in Califomian scenery. I should
hardly say Californian, for the boundary line between that
State and Nevada runs through the lake. The name of
this beautiful mountain sheet of water was formerly Lake
Bigler, when a man of that name was governor of the
state, but, alas for popularity ! his party, which was
democratic, went out of power, and his successors gave
the lake the original Indian name of Tahoe.

L^tilitarianism has even invaded this the heart of the
Sierra Nevada. A project is on foot to bring the water
of Lake Tahoe into San Francisco, two hundred and
sixty miles off. A remarkably enterprising engineer,
named Von Schmidt, who has already brought the pre-
sent supply of water to that city, finding that it was not
sufficient in view of the rapidly increasing population,
cast his eyes to this distant but unfailing reservoir, and
determined to bring it to the borders of the Pacific,
distributing its waters to the different mining camps and
towns in its passage to the sea. The river Truckee
flows into and out of the lake, giving two hundred
millions of gallons per diem.

But that was not all. A tunnel some five miles long
was necessary, and the fertile brain of the engineer cast
about for the cheapest way of making it. He went over
to the Central Pacific. He saAv that, by bringing their
line through his tunnel, the company would save eight
miles in distance and one thousand feet in elevation, and
dispense with twenty miles of snow sheds, which is more .

LAKE TAHOE. 7

important still. lie proposed to the company to make
the tunnel jointly with himself; they acceded, and already
the diamond drills are on their way to the scene of ope-
rations. When this project is completed, nay almost
from its very source, its usefulness will be felt. Thou-
sands of mining claims high up in the mountains cannot
be worked for want of water. The canal will pay almost
along every mile of its course ; and the surplus water,
after being used for mining, will irrigate the gardens and
ranches tliat sup])ly the Avants of the miners.

There are two or three smaller lakes connected with
Lake Tahoe, forming a chain unsurpassed in beauty, and
a little steamer [)lics over its calm surface, landing picnic
parties at different points, and taking them up again in
the evening back to the hotel. The old stage road to
Virginia city skirted the borders of the lake, but the
rail has done away -sA-ith that mode of travelling.

I left Lake Tahoe and its comfortable inn with regret.
One could spend a month there most delightfully. The
most picturesque scenery ; excursions in all directions ;
shooting, from grizzly bear to the mountain quail ; lake
fishing and river fishing ; mining, if that may be called
an amusement; in short, the perfect enjoyment of purely
natural scenerj-. Of course the mode of locomotion must
be either on foot or on horse-back, and the latter with
the Californian saddle. An English saddle is all very
well on a smooth road, or when crossing the plains ;
but when you have to go down ravines or up hills at
an angle of forty-five degrees, the high peak fore and
aft is not only a comfort but a necessity. I remember
the distress of one obstinate Briton, who persisted in
retaining his English pigskin. At one time he was
clinging for dear life to his horse's mane, at another his
horse was being nearly thrown down ])y all the weight
being on his shoulders. And yet the first experience

8 SIX MONTHS IS CALirORXIA.

of a CaliCorni.in saddle is anytliiiif^ but aiirreeable. The
f^reat wooden stirrups hang far back, the body is bifur-
cated between two upright wooden saddle-trees or peaks,
like those in a dragoon saddle, only nearer to one another.
There is no possibility of that easy lounge backward
that we can indulge in at home, and, for the first day
or two, the stranger finds the native saddle excessively
fatiguing. Once, however, see a vaqucro or cow-herd,
lasso in hand, in full chase of a wild ox; see him throw
the noose over the animal's horns, and notice how his
horse, the moment it feels the jerk, plants its forefeet
whilst the lariat is wound round the peak of the pommel,
and then you will understand the use of a Californian
saddle. The girths also are different from ours, and the
proper adjustment of the equipment takes a long time to
acquire properly. The Mexican saddle differs slightly
from the native Californian, each being adaj)ted to the
peculiarities of the country ; and I have been informed
that the saddle in use in the Argentine Provinces differs
again from either of these, and for the purpose of hunting
or herding cattle is superior. I have often remarked
in California that the mules had one girth tightlv strapped
round the forepart of the belly, and another as much near
the hindlegs as possible, and not, as in our system, across
the middle. This, especially with pack mules, prevents
the load slijjping, though to a stranger at first sight it
gives the idea of compression, amounting to cruelty ; but
the animal does not appear to suffer.

Once more in the train, and, during the next fourteen
miles, we ascend nearly twelve hundred feet. Two im-
mensely powerful engines perform the arduous task, until
at length Ave reach Summit Station, seven thousand and
seventeen feet above the sea, and only two hundred and
forty miles from San Francisco. Here we pass through
a railroad construction peculiar to the Central Pacific

THE SIERRAS. 9

line, I mean the snow-sheds. Let the reader picture to
himself a long gallery composed of immensely strong up-
rights of timber and great joists of pine wood, the whole
arched Gothic fashion, with here and there small openings,
through which a glorious panorama is seen for an instant
as the train roars its way along. Let him fancy these in
winter, when the storm-king reigns among the Sierras,
when the fierce snow-drifts come like avalanches down
the sides of the mountains, and these massive wooden
shields groan, and creak, and bend under the weight of
the superincumbent snow, as the mighty Avind drives it
over the roof; and fancy the great, screeching engines,
with the line of carriages attached, thundering through
all this, and rivalling the roar of the elements outside,
and then he will understand the grandeur of peril as well
as the might of engineering skill to remedy it. But it is
not only the storm element that is to be dreaded in these
snow galleries. A burning coal from the engine, a care-
loss watchman, or, worse still, the torch of the incendiary,
will easily set fire to the resinous pine timber. The na-
ture of the arched sheds creates a draft, the wind sweeps
in as to a furnace, and there is the roaring of great
flames until the whole is consumed. Suppose that the
fire begins in the centre. The switch-man, only intent
upon watching for the coming train, signals ' all right,'
in it dashes, and the newspapers chronicle ' awi'ul catas-
trophe at the snow-sheds.' Much depends upon the nerve
of the engineer. On one occasion the express train entered
the wooden aisles ; on arriving near the end the driver
saw that they were on fire. To check the train \vt)ul(l be
to risk its stopping in the (lames, lie saw that the fire
had only just connnenced ; lie clapped on all the steam he
])ossibly could; he and the stoker wrapjjcd their blankets
around their heads, and they dashed through the blinding
smoke and fiame. It is exceedingly uncomlbrtablc to be

10 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

stopped at one of tliesc snow-sheds, as sometimes hap-
pens, and to have to wait twelve hours, or more, at the top
of the Sierra Nevada, until the damai^e is repaired, or
another train arrives from the other side.

But the summit is passed, and all the i-ivers and streams
flow Avestward. In six miles we have descended five hun-
dred feet. The pace is awful ; but the scenery, fitfully
snatched from the mouths of tunnels, or on emerging
from deep cuttings, is grand in the extreme. We round
Cape Horn, as it is called ; we are shown the head waters
of the American river, more than two hundred miles
from its mouth ; we wind our way through the Giant's
Gap, through the deep Bloomer Cut ; we go across
Placer County, El Dorado County, Gold Run, Emigrant
Gap, all speaking of the land of promise we were fast
approaching. Ever descending the valley of the Sacra-
mento, which, at Auburn, is only thirteen hundred feet
high, we at length cross the bridge over the American
river, and in three miles more are in Sacramento.

Sacramento is the ca])ital of California. Plere, at pre-
sent, are held the sessions of the legislature ; here the
Supreme Court has its seat. The town is composed of
hotels, lawyers' oflSces, boarding-houses, and bar-rooms.
In the early days of California, Sacramento owed its im-
portance to its being the head of navigation from San
Francisco. It is situated at the junction of the American
and Sacramento rivers, into the former of which the
Feather river empties itself some few miles further up.
All the supplies for the northern mines of California were
formerly sent, either by steamer or sailing vessel, from
San Francisco to Sacramento, whence they were distri-
buted, by immense waggons or on pack mules, all over the
interior. Smaller steamers likewise ascended the Feather
river as far as Marysville, and the Sacramento as far as
Red Blufls. Tiie principal streets were filled, during the

SACRAMENTO. 11

day, with those immense receptacles for inland freif^ht, the
prairie schooners, as they were called, some of them drawn
by eight horses. The day was spent in loading them
by the different storekeepers, or freight agents for the
San Francisco houses, and towards evening they departed
with their several cargoes, generally going some four or
five miles the first night, in order to be able to turn out
their animals to pasture. For slow freight ox-teams were
used, which crawled over the surface of the country to
the monotonous sound of bells hung round the necks of
the cattle. It was a busy scene, towards evening, to see
Sacramento pouring forth its varied articles of merchan-
dise to supply the hard-working gold-producer. It was
like the post-office at St. ]\Iartin's-le-Grand in the palmy
days of mail-coaches. Indeed, from Sacramento many
very crack stages started daily, with their six horses,
driven by Western men, who would go down the mountain
roads full gallop, and, unless anything broke, would take
you safely a long way up the opjwsite slope without
hardly slackening their s])eed. The AVestern stage-driver
is sui generis. Of iron nerve and rough coarse manners,
reckless, and daring, he is yet more to be trusted than a
less bold and more cautious driver. The only way to go
down those mountain grades is to rush it. The turns in
the road are so sharp, and the incline so steep, that to
venture timidly is to risk upsetting tlie coacli. Sometimes,
at a bend in the road, tiie leaders' heads, when there are
six horses, will almost look into the windows of the stage ;
but there sits the driver, with one foot firmly pressed on
the break, his horses well in hand, taking them round the
corners as if he were in an English park, instead of
thundering down a narrow road with only two feet
between his wheels and the edge of a precipice tliree or
four hundred feet straight down.

To return to Sacramento. Notwithstandiuix that its

12 SIX MONTHS I\ CAFJ FORMA.

situation was execrable, tliat the city was annually over-
flowed, that a levee was Iniilt around it at a j^rcat exjjense,
which imperfectly kept out the water, it continued, for
many years, to be the most prosperous city outside of San
Francisco. It was made the state caj)ital in the j)lace of
deserted Benicia. Tier merchants grew rich ; beautiful
liouses and gardens, where the soil was an cxhaustless
alluvium, and the rivers irrigated almost to excess ; fruits
and flowers of wondrous size and beauty — the City of
the Plains, as it was called, was a delightful residence.
The tropical heat was tempered by the evening breeze,
which blew from the Sierras, whose snowy peaks could
be seen rearing their heads miles and miles away ; but
there came a check to this prosperity. In 1861-2 the
great flood came. From Shasta Buttes to the bay of San
Francisco was a sea of turbid fresh water. The broad
tule"^ marshes, that extend from the base of Monte Diablo
to the foot-hills of the Sierras, Avere all under water.
Great islands of these tules, covered with myriads of water
snakes, floated out to sea through the Golden Gate. For
three days no tide entered the harbour of San Francisco.
For three days the waters that descended from the upper
country not only filled the bay of San Francisco but
struggled successfully against the swell of the great Pa-
cific. During that time no vessel could enter the port,
nor could any ship discliai*ge at the submerged wharves.
The salt water fish left the bay, even the oysters migrated
from their beds.

At length the waters subsided, but a great part of
the land in Sacramento Valley was irretrievably ruined.
The waters had brought down a fine white sand or silt,
j)artly from the mines, partly by denudation, Avhich
covered the fertile soil to the depth of some feet. All
the fine gardens surrounding Sacramento were destroyed,

* Bulrush.

SACRAMENTO. 13

as nothing would groAV in the barren sand that covered
them. It was then determined to raise the entire city
six feet, Avhich in most instances was done, although there
are places where the Avork of filling in still goes on.

The railway then came to Sacramento. The Central
Pacific Railroad Company was inaugurated at that ])lace.
INIessrs. Huntington and Crocker were merchants there.
Mr. Stanford, the president of the company, was a
Saci'amento lawyer and governor of the state of Cali-
fornia, and at the present moment Sacramento is virtually
the terminus. But it has changed the nature of the city.
It is no longer the depot for the northern mines. No
more heavily laden teams block up the streets. The
train drops the goods at every station as it passes over
the line, and the storekeeper of the interior now sends
his orders direct to Chicago or San Francisco. Al-
thouojh the nature of the trade of Sacramento is chano-ed,
it is still a flourishing town, and the presence of senators,
politicians, judges, lawyers, and the thousand and one
hangers-on of the legislature or judiciary, tends to in-
crease its importance. Some fine houses belonging to
railway magnates are rising up. The capitol, which has
been building for the last ten years, is an imposing struc-
ture though unfinished. The arrival and departure of
trains creates a certain bustle ; and the town is prettily
laid out with trees planted on each side of many of the
streets.

I was amused at noticing the number of idlers (loafers
they term them here) who hung about the station and
hotels to stare at j)asscngcrs. And they were the same
I)Coplc every day. Their business in life appeared to
be scanning strangers' countenances, or deciphering
the names on their luggage. Having seen the last
traveller disposed of, ihey sigh with a sense of relief, as
if they had discharged a painful duty, and relapse into a

14 SIX .MONTHS I.\ CALIFOIIXIA.

state of torpor till the next train comes in. This Sisyjjhu.s
state of existence is much more noticeable in Sacramento
than in San Francisco ; people are too ])usy in the latter
place, and the inquisitive one would get run down or
pushed aside.

There are two ways of going from Sacramento to
San Francisco — the one by a somewhat circuitous route
by rail, and the other by steamer to Sacramento and
along the bay. Not being pressed for time, I chose the
latter, and had no reason to regret my choice. AVe left
the Avharf on a lovely afternoon at two o'clock. The
steamer was very large, with a saloon its entire length,
and cabins or state rooms, as they arc there called, on
each side looking out on the water. The river was high
and very muddy, owing to the immense quantity of matter
continually pouring into it from the northern mines, more
especially since the system of hydraulic sluicing has been
generally adopted. The banks of the river are low and
lined with white oak, which, however graceful and beau-
tiful in foliage it may be, is of itself useless as timber, and
is only felled for firewood. In many places the stream
had overflovvn its banks, and had cut a channel for itself
across a bend of the river, making a saving of some
miles, so we had the strange spectacle of our steamer
quietly leaving the stream, and taking a kind of steej)le-
chase over the country. The river gradually widened
until we arrived at Rio Vista, where we took on board
hundreds of salmon destined for the San Francisco
market. It was the season just then, and great silvery
salmon were piled upon the deck in Billingsgate pro-
fusion. The fishermen get from two to three pence by the
pound from the market dealers. There are many species
of salmon in California. One kind is very peculiar,
having a snout or projecting upper jaw, giving one the
idea that it shovels in the mud for its food. This sort

SACRAMENTO TO SAX FRANCISCO. 15

is the most inferior for eating. Had an excellent dinnei-
on board, and enjoyed some of our finny passengers from
Rio Vista very much.

Continuing our voyage through a labyrinth of chan-
nels, the Sacramento joins the river San Joaquim, wliich
drains the southern water-shed of California. By refer-
ence to a map of the country, it Avill be seen that the
Sierra Nevadas join the coast range of mountains at a
point near IMount Shasta, thence forming an arc soutii-
■vvards, until the two ranges again come together at San
Bernardino in the lower part of California. Thus it will
be seen that these two ranges of mountains, namely, the
coast range and the Sierra Nevada, enclose an area five
hundred miles in length, by about two hundred in width.
Now the Avhole of the waters that flow from the eastern
slope of the former and the western of the latter, find their
way into this immense basin, the only outlet of which is
the Golden Gate, and the two rivers that act as conduits
are the river Sacramento from the north, and the San
Joaquim, which drains the southern portion of the state.
When this is considered, the great flood before described
is easily comprehended.

We now come to some small bays and then steam througli
a narrow channel, called the Straits of Carquinez. The
Indians have a tradition, that an immense lake formerly
stretched away inland, the waters of which burst their
way into the bay of San Francisco, which again broke
into the Pacific by the Golden Gate. It is certainly true
that the jxeoloixical construction of each side of the strait
is the same, and it has more the appearance of having been
cut by engineering skill tlian by nature. Fresh water
shells are likewise found high up the banks, as well as
distinctly defined l)caches. Further on we arrive at Mare
Island, which is the Sheerness of California. Here are
lying some men-of-war and monitors, and there is a dry

16 SIX MONTHS LV CALIFORNIA.

clock capable of floating the largest frigates. A beautiful
bay succeeded after this. Tiie water was as smooth as
glass. On one side towered Monte Diablo, which rises
from the plains, an almost perfect pyramid, three thousand
eight hundred feet high. On the other side streamed the
coast range of mountains witii tlicir valleys that extend
to the shores of the ocean — valleys literally flowing with
milk and honey, where the cornfield and the vineyard al-
ternate, and where countless herds of fat oxen range among
the wild oats, which are indigenous to the country, some-
times growing six feet high, but, alas ! during a drought,
never appearing above the surface. Woe then to the
grazier who is far from the mountains. He sees his cattle
and sheep lie down to die by thousands, and in one year
he may be reduced from wealth to ruin. The valleys of
the coast range, however, are the richest in California.
Their proximity to the sea ensures a regular supply of
moisture, not in the form of rain" but of mist, the cause of
wdiich will be explained further on.

A curve in the course of the bcautifid waters, and we
see the sun sinking into the bosom of the broad Pacific,
as we gaze through the portals of the Golden Gate.

As the darkness increased the lighthouse on the fort
of Alcatraz Island threw its quivering gleam over the
surface of the waters. Immediately before us lights were
twinkling from ships' masts, and long straight lines of
lamps climbed up a conical hill, and small steamers shot
across our path like meteors, with their cabins brilliant
with light. There was a sound of bells, the shrill whistle
of the engine, the rattling of many carriages, the gleam
of a red lio;ht, and we were o-lidinti; alonir the side of a
pier covered with a sea of anxious faces. Hardly had
we stopped than the owners of these faces were upon us.
They boarded us like pirates, and then arose a Babel of
cries, among mIiIcIi I could distinguish as follows : ' A^ ho

ARRIVE AT SAX TRAXCISCO. 17

•wants to go to the Cosmopolitan ? ' ' Who wants a car-
riage ? ' ' Grand hotel, sir ? ' ' This way for the What
Cheer Coach!' 'Carriage, sir?' 'Take you up for a
dollar, sir I ' ' Want a hand-cart for your luggage, sir ? '

It was impossible to resist. I resigned myself to the
first runner that captured me. I was stunned and be-
wildered, and looked upon him as a deliverer. I begged
him 10 take me out of the din, and protect me as far as
the Grand Hotel. * xill riglit. sir.' ' Here, Bill,' to a
man who en)erged from the confusion of sounds ; ' give
him vour check, sir, and he'll look after your bacrn-ajje.
Come this way.' I stumbled down a gangway following
my guide, who elbowed his way through the crowd, and
waited, wondering Avhether I had done wisely in trusting
the check for my baggage to a stranger. However,
although I was overcharged most egrcgiously, I got
safely to the hotel with all my traps; and having gone
through the ceremony of inscribing my name, and sub-
jecting myself to the criticism of a young man with a
profusion of shirt-bosom and diamond pin, upon whose
decision depended my fate, whether I was to mount one
pair of stairs or five, 1 found myself in a comfortable
room not too high, showing me the precise estimate the
hotel manager had of me.

At length, I said to myself, I am in San Francisco,
the city of which more contradictory reports have
reached England than of any other in the AvorM : at one
time represented as a place to shun, inhabited by tl;e
scum of population ; and again, by other writers, as tlie
paradise of the poor man, where wealth could be acquired
without capital, and competence without too great a
struggle — where rich and poor were regarded alike — where
the climate Mas Italian, and the inhabitants generous,
liberal, and orderly. Kow I can judge for myself.

18 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

SAN FRANCISCO.

Few cities in the world are more favourably situated, in
a commercial point of view, than San Francisco, and she
may well lay claim to the proud title of the Queen City
of the Pacific. From the Columbia river in the north to
Valparaiso in the south, Avith the somewhat doubtful
exception of San Diego, the bay of San Francisco is the
only harbour along the whole line of coast. There are
ports where vessels can enter and load, or discharge cargo,
but no harbour where they can lie in safety for months.
The navies of the whole world can find room here. The
entrance through the Golden Gate, which is rather more
than one mile wide at its narrowest part, is deep and easy
of navigation. The bay of San Francisco proper, that is
to say, not including San Pablo and Suisun bays, ave-
rages eight miles wide, and is fifty miles long. The
whole of its eastern shore is lined with ranches, or farms,
and villages. The town of Oakland is immediately oppo-
site San Francisco, and is the residence of her wealthy
merchants, whose beautiful houses and grounds embellish
this city of oaks.

San Francisco itself is built on a sandy peninsula.
Nature having endoAved it Avith the advantage of geo-
graphical position, refused it the gift of beauty. A range
of loAv sandy dunes stretches from the ocean to the shores
of the bay. A fcAV scrub oaks, whose dwarfed and knotted
branches all point aAvay from the prevailing Avest Avind,
are to be met Avith at rare intervals. The Ceonothus, a
species of privet, is the only indigenous shrub that has
any pretensions to beauty ; and the general view outside

SAN FRANCISCO. 19

the town is desolate in the extreme. For eij^ht months
in the year a stronge breeze, laden with fog, blows in
from the Pacific, and clouds of fine sand accompany
it in its progress over the peninsula. Nevertheless that
which Nature denied, man has conquered for it. The
sandy soil contains a large proportion of iron, and only
needs continual irrigation to groAV any thing. The con-
sequence has been, that, in proportion as the city increased
its boundaries, so has it, as one might say, planted out
the sand. It is true that the labours of those on the
confines are incessantly employed in keeping down the
encroachments of the enemy, for one week's neglect will
ruin the garden ; but they console themselves Avith the
certainty that, ere long, another and extended cordon of
combatants will in their turn protect them.

In 1830 a few adobe huts were scattered alons: the
borders of the bay, and two or three times a year small
trading vessels entered the port for the purpose of bar-
tering manufactured goods for hides or peltry. This was
the signal for a general jollification. It soon became
known that a ship had arrived at Yerba Buena, as San
Francisco Avas then called, for there were plenty of
Indians in those days, and the skipper encouraged them
to spread the news over the inhabited part of that section
of tlie country, which extended from San Jose south to
about Vallcjo north. The Spaniards flocked to the town,
canoes laden with hides skimmed over the bay ; cabal-
leros came galloi)ing in from all parts. There was the
owner of leagues of land under some old Mexican grant,
with countless herds of cattle, proud of the blood of Old
Spain that flowed in his veins, with his silver-mounted
saddle and silver buttons down his oj)en. There were
the Vaqucros, half-Indian, but the boldest riders in
the country. Then the old Padres came to hoar the last
news from the world from which they were separated by

c 2

30 SIX MONTHS L\ CALIFORXIA.

such an expanse of land and sea. .Some few Americans
also might be found, who had wandered over the Rocky
Mountains across the Sierras, and found their way down
the valley of the Sacramento. These, mixed with a
score or two of sailors who had deserted their ships,
chiefly whalers, and who passed an idle desultory life —
sometimes on the water, sometimes on the ranches, and
now and then picking up a seiiorita as a wife and settling
on a slice of her father's or brother's broad lands — these,
I say, with of course the Indians, composed the crowd
that gathered round the arrival from distant lands.
Boots and shoes were in the greatest request, made pos-
sibly from hides taken out of the country on a previous
trip. Printed calicoes and scarfs for the women, and the
numberless little nicknacks that cost so little and sell for
so much, were exchanged for the more solid and valuable
productions of this country. Nor was even gold dust
wanting. In 1842, Don Abel Stearns exchanged goods
for some ounces of the precious metal obtained from an
Indian. The gold was forwarded by this well known
old settler, now no more, to "Washington ; and there is
reason to believe that many others also received it in the
course of trade. It is true that the actual gold fever,
consequent upon gold being found at Fort Sutter only,
broke out in the spring of 1848 ; but there is little doubt
that its existence Avas known to the old Mission Fathers.

Such then was San Francisco in the early days. About
1835 the Hudson's Bay Company founded an agency
here, and their representative built a pretty house, with
a garden and stream of water flowing through it, in what
is now the centre of the city, without a trace left of the
running water.

In 1850 the effect of the gold mines was fully felt, and
San Francisco became a corporate city. The rush had
been immense ; the prices of building material, furniture.

SAX FRANCISCO. 21

and goods of all description ■were fabulous. The as-
sessed value of real and personal estate for that year was
.^21,021,214, an inflation that could not possibly continue ;
consequently tlie assessed value for 1851 was only
;^14,0 16,903, and that in the fiice of a large immigration.
But the tide rolled onwards, and the area of the city
gradually increased, until at length the assessments for
1869-70 were, for real estate ^^69,766,603, and for personal
property ;^44,982,908, making a total of ;^1 14,759,511.

In 1860 the population of San Francisco barely reached
70,000. In 1870 the population, after careful research,
and in consequence of considerable discussion on the sub-
ject, Avas found to be 172,750 souls, of whom 8,000 are
transient ; that is to say, that number enters and leaves
San Francisco daily ; 9,000 are Chinese, and 2,000 are
coloured.

It is questionable whether the year 1870 has seen any
advance in population over 1869 as the following statistics
will tend to prove : —

Tho excess of arrivals of passengers over departures

■was, in 1869 ..... 24,402

In 1870 it was only .... 1;),079

The sales of real estates in ISfiO aniouiitod to . ;g'29,937,717

in 1870 „ . ^15,630,272

The exports of treasure in 18C9 were . . ^.37,287,117

in 1870 „ . . ^S'32,983,140

The sales of mining and other stocks in 1809 were ^S''>9.089,731

„ in 1870 were ^ol.lSO, tilo

The greater excess of arrivals over departures in the
one year, joined to the larger business transactions that
took place in the like respective times, leads me to think
that San Francisco has rather lost than gained in popu-
lation for the last three years. In ])r()portiou to her loss,
however, has been the gain of the interior towns; many
of which, owing to the increased facilities afforded by
the opening up of raih-oads, have suddenly sprung up

22 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORXIA.

to be of some importance ; but on tliis subject I shall
speak more fully when I come to the system of railroads
that interlace California.

TJie plan of San Francisco was laid out by an Irish
engineer called Jasper O'Farrell and an American of the
name of Hoadley. At that time nothing but the north
side of the town was inhabited. It was the nearest to the
Golden Gate. It was the quarter where the wharves were,
at which all the ships discharged their cargoes. The ware-
houses for the storage of goods, such as they were, all
clustered together at that corner. These men, to whom was
entrusted the arrangement of the streets of a future great
city, had no ken to pierce beyond the actual present, and
made their plans regardless either of traffic or popu-
lation. Every street is too narrow, with the exception of
those that the exigency of the case caused to be subse-
quently enlarged; and the consequence has been, that some
streets are almost abandoned, others are inconveniently
crowded, Avhilst the principal thoroughfare had to be made
nearly double its width by buying the property on one
side, and tearing it down to make way for the pavement.

Again, the arrangement of streets running parallel and
at right angles to one another was insisted on. Tiiis is
all very well upon a plane surface, but San Francisco
rejoices in beautiful little hills, one of which, Telegraph
Hill, is, as its name imports, the beacon of the city. It
stands like a sentinel at one corner, and the first good
dwelling-houses were built on its sheltered sides. But
no advantage was to be taken of the natural undulations
of the land, no beautiful terraces were to be laid out,
with the streets winding around the hills in gradual
approach to their sununits, no amphitheatre with its long
sweep of dwelling-houses looking over the moving waters.
Nothing of the sort ; the streets must all go in straight
lines from north to south and from east to west ; the plan

SAN FRAXCISCO. TELEGRAPH HILL. 2:3

of the city looked like a check-duster ; and that which
might have been made as picturesque as Verona was
rendered as uninteresting as Mannlicini.

The northern and north-western part of San Francisco
is bordered on each side by deep Avater. The steep bluff
called Telegraph Hill, before-mentioned, is only adapted
for dwelling-houses, and as such Avas used in the early
days. This arbitrary adoption of straight streets drove
the property owners into the plains that run southward,
or left them the alternative to live perched on a rock,
with a precipice in front of their houses made by the
grading of the street. Nay, even that ])oor privilege Avas
at length denied them. They Avere obliged by enact-
ment to bring their lots to the established grade, as Avell
as to pay j^^'o rata for Avliat Avas termed the im])roveinents
of the streets by cutting away the hill.

This cutting aAvay of Telegraph Hill — this * whittling,'
if I may so term it, of the face of nature — has gone on
till now the poor maimed elevation is reduced to a point,
like a l)adly scraped slate-pencil, great quarries and
scars all round ; streets that arrive frum tlie south and
stop abruptly at a Avail of rock that neither man nor
beast can scale ; the prosecution of the Avork of levelling
stopped on account of the enormous expense, Avhich neither
the corporation nor the property owners Avill incur. There
it stands, a monument of the folly of attempting to do
that at San Francisco Avhich is so successful and con-
venient at Chicago, and a Avarning to those avIio attempt
to improve natural scenery.

From the base of Telegraph Hill, and of course having
imaginary lines running straight over it, lead in parallel
lines the tAVO principal streets of San Francisco, namely,
Montgomery and Kearney Streets. The former, at this
present time the principal business street, although being
rapidly superseded by Cahfornia Street Avhich crosses it

24 Sl.\ .MONTHS l.\ CAI-IFOIIMA.

about midway ; tlic latter beinf,^ the thorouf^hfarc where the
best shops are situated. For years Montgomery Street kept
its supremacy over all. The banks, the hotels, the shops,
the theatres, the restaurants, the clu]).s, all lined its sides.
Its thoroughfares were crowded ; the rents were four
times that of houses or buildings in any other street, until
at length it fell from its greatness. An important move
was decided upon. It Avas determined to widen Kearney
Street its entire length, and thus relieve ^Montgomery
Street of the discomfort of over-crowding. Some two or
three millions of dollars had tO be expended, so an act of
legislature was obtained, and a committee api)ointed to
assess what those whose property was to be taken should
receive, and how much those on the other side of the street
whoderivec. the benefit should pay; for, be it understood,
only one side of the street was pulled down to widen it.
In a year's time, after the adjustment was made, the new
side of Kearney Street Avas a line of the finest build-
ings in the city, the whole laid with wooden blocks and
a broad pavement of asphalt. The shops, or stores as
they are called here, are as magnificent as in European
capitals ; they are brilliantly lighted at night, and the
whole thorouii'hfare is crowded in the evening. Mont-
gomery Street was found too narrow, and the northern
half of it, that is, from Telegraph Hill to California Street,
gradually fell away from its pristine superiority. The
shops began to be ' To Let ; ' or, if a new tenant came, it
was for an inferior genre of business Avhich evidently paid
less rent. The bankers and property owners struggled
as long as they could against the tide of emigration
southward ; but the majority have gone with the stream,
more especially as the lately established joint-stock banks
flourish in all the pomp and vanity of plate-glass in the
new quartier.

But Montgomery Street, on the other side of California

SAX FKANCISCO, ITS STREETS AND BUIIJ)INGS. L'o

Street, presents quite a different appearance. Here are
the irreat hotels, as the Occidental, the Lick House, the
Cojiniopolitan, the Russ House, and the Grand Hotel,
all of them coverinji; acres of ground, and around them
are clustered some of the best shops in San Francisco.
Here are the silversmiths, some of the principal haber-
dashers, tailors ; the traffic being drawn away by its
prosperous neighbour, this part of the street is most
agreeable to stroll in, especially as the entree to the com-
mon hall of the hotels is open to all, and they are always
full of people and newspapers from many parts of the
world. Here too are the bars, which are quite an American
institution, and in some of the hotels fitted up with great
expense and luxury ; although, as in some steamboats, they
sacrifice the machinery to the upholstery, so here occasion-
ally you meet with some where the stuff they give you
to drink is not so rich as the goblet that contains it.

California Street, which I have already referred to, is
the street of wealth. Here are the large banks and incor-
porated bodies, the richest merchants and the gaudiest in-
surance offices, for even here they use the meretricious at-
traction of fiorid architecture. Here also is the Exchange,
a very handsome building, and the Stock Exchange,
which, true to its traditions, is a brawling assemblage in a
large room up a court. Here also are the two principal
clubs, the Union, composed chiefly of gentlemen in busi-
ness ; the other, the Pacific, of lawyers and professional
men. The one is liepublican in politics, the other Demo-
cratic, with a lingering perfume of Secession about its
walls. Higher up the street are the Roman Catholic
and I'rotestant cathedrals; whilst standing aloof from the
two, like a schism, is the Independent or Calvinist church,
lieyond this the street is steep and sandy, although there
are some <«;ood houses commaiidiu'; fine views.

These three are the principal streets of what I will

26 SIX MONTHS IX rALTFORNIA.

call old San Francisco. Formerly, Avhen you left them,
you found yourself wandering among sandhills, coming
upon scattered houses whose proplietic owners Avere
waiting patiently until the city came to them. The city
did come at last, the belt of sand that blocked the southern
part of the town was removed, and jMarket Street was
opened. This is the finest street, and destined to be the
most important in San Francisco. It is ninety feet wide
and five miles long, running in a straight line, on a dead
level from the water's edge, to a spur of the coast range
of mountains. A street railroad runs nearly its entire
length. At the end nearest the city magnificent erections
are in course of construction, or are already finished, and
good houses line at intervals its entire length. The only
objection to it are the blasts of wind that pour daily along
its wide straio-ht avenue, bring-injT clouds of dust in their
train.

The history of the Market Street Railroad, as it was
called, the first street railroad built in San Francisco, and
its effects upon property may not be uninteresting as a
phase of California fortunes. In 1851 a French mer-
chant, whom I will call jNIonsieur P., who had, up to
that time, not been very fortunate in his business, went
to Paris to make arrang-ements with his creditors. He
left San Francisco at the time of its greatest excitement,
when building was going on as rapidly as labour and
capital would allow — when the harbour was full of ships
and the mines full of their sailors — when gold flowed in
from the interior, and flooded out eastward — when interest
was from six to ten per cent, per month, and the capitalists
were literally coining money, for the scarcity of coin
caused many of the banks to issue gold pieces of the
nominal value of five and ten dollars. ]Monsieur P. saw
the savings of his countrymen invested at home and re-
ceiving a yearly interest only equal to that paid monthly

STORY OF MONSIEUR P. 27

in California. He Avas a man of extraordinary activity,
both mentally and bodily, and published everywhere in
France that he was going back to the land of gold, and
would invest any moneys entrusted to him, giving dividends
at certain periods. The people, especially the middle and
lower classes, ever eager to increase their incomes, sub-
scribed to the new scheme; not at first to any great extent;
but when, at the end of the year, dividends to the amount
of twenty -five per cent, had been paid, the success of the
scheme was assured. Those who had hitherto been re-
luctant were now eager, the timid became bold, and the
scoffers the most ardent subscribers. The office in Paris
was besieged by crowds of small shopkeepers with their
earnings, by the workpeople with their savings, but
above all by the demi-monde as well as the monde not
even demi, who went into the scheme with all the eager-
ness of a Avoman and the persistence of a gambler. So
it happened that, in the year of grace 1853, Monsieur P.
found himself at the head of between seven and eight
millions of dollars, owning some of the finest property in
the city, bringing in enormous rents, and also having
bought by the acre almost all the unimproved land lying
south and southwest of the city. His foresight was re-
markable; he knew that San Francisco must stretch out in
that direction, his only error being as to the time it would
take. I may as Avell remark, en passant, that he had
j)reviously offered to buy the whole of Telegraph Hill,
])rovidcd the city government would allow him to change
the streets and lay out that portion of the town according
to his fancy. The city refused, and then he saw that the
north was doomed, and he began \o look southward.

liut, like many a great genius, he had gone too far.
NotAvithstanding the accumulation of his capital, lor he
had been receiving fifty per cent, and paying only
twenty-five per annum, he had overtasked himself. The

28 SIX MONTHS JN CAMFORMA.

(lark (lays of 1850-7 came. Other ca[)ital had flowed
into tlie country, and many other building.s had gone up.
T!ic ominous words to a landhjrd, ' To Let^ began to show
themselves too often. Tenants refused any longer to pay
the exorbitant rents with which they had been burdened.
For the past three years all branches of commerce were
overdone, and real estate went d(>wn like a shot. The hun-
dreds and hundreds of thousands invested in outside lands
brought in nothing but expense; the immense mining
ditches, in which jNIonsieur P. was largely interested, were
(I do not mean the l)un) a continual drain; litigation
for disputed titles to, or obtaining United States patents
for, Spanish grants of property, cost enormous sums, so
the consequence was there was no dividend. In vain
was the state of tlie matter laid before the depositors ; it
was no use assuring them that the affairs would more
than right themselves ; the fact of no dividend, joined to
the mistrust of California prevailing all over Europe,
created a panic, and they clamoured for their capital.
Little by little the fine city property melted away, partly
through mortgages, but chiefly by sales, the largest pur-
chaser being the San Francisco agent of a great Parisian
banker. All was sacrificed to satisfy the creditors,
until at length nothing available was left. Then it
was that Monsieur P. did the only thing that lay
in his power. To use a Californian phrase, ' he shut
down on his liabilities ; ' that is to say, he refused to pay
any more, either principal or interest, until he chobo.
Everything tangible here was made over to other names,
and Monsieur P. sat down with his faith in the future
unabated. Xaturally, the people on the other side were
furious, the more so that, as long as Monsieur P. re-
mained away fi-om France, they were utterly powerless.
Commissions were sent out, powers of attorney the most
stringent were forwarded, but all to no purpose. Mon-

STORY OF MONSIEUR P. 29

sleur P., meanwhile, was not wanting money personally.
He had been one of the earliest founders of the San Fran-
cisco Gas Works, and they were yielding an enormous
income, so that he could continue to live in his wonted
luxury.

As I said, Market Street was opened ; for nearly half
its length it ran throu2;h immense tracts belonixino- to
Monsieur P., but a Avaste of sand lay between them
and the city. His fertile brain suggested tlio only way
of making them immediately available, and that Avas by
building a railroad. With his usual energy he set to work,
interested other energetic men with himself, obtained an
act of the legislature, and in a short time a line drawn
by steam-power was running through his property. This
])ro[)crty increased a thousand-fold, and that which had
been bought for two and a half to five dollars an acre, sold
for two and three hundred dollars the lot of twenty feet
by a hundred. INIonsicur P. organised the system of
homesteads, whereby, by the payment of a monthly sum,
a poor man can acquire a lot. It is true he pays dear
for the convenience, but it is a convenience nevertheless.
To-day many streets are running parallel with iMarket
Street, all going through the estate, four of them having
horse cars. A large town has sprung up and Monsieur
P. is again a millionaire. I understand that through
his agents he has bought up the greater part of his
indebtedness, at a comparatively small percentage, and
devotes a large portion of his income to a liquidation of
the rest, so that he will soon be free from debt with an
immense fortune. He is an exceedingly liberal gentleman,
with the finest gallery of paintings in San Francisco.

The whole of the town south of IMarket Street is one
entire plain, in the centre of which rises a large sugar
bakery, built by an Englishman of the name of Gordon.
He had established a manufactory on a small scale, but

30 SIX MOXTIIS JX CALIFORNIA.

not bcinjj satisfied with its workini:;, lie made an extended
tour in Europe, visiting the various refineries. The
managers of all are exceedingly jealous of strangers, so
that Mr. G. had great diflSculty in obtaining admission, and
when in, could not even make a scratch with his pencil.
He retained everything in his head, however, till he got to
his hotel, when all was written down. In this manner he
constructed these large works, which turn out as good
sugar as any in the world. The raAv material comes
almost from just outside the doors of California, namely,
the Sandwich Islands and Manilla. An immensely high
chimney close by, belching slowly forth a dense yellow
smoke that one is convinced is poisonous, belongs to the
reducing and smelting works of Messrs. Hewston & Co.
They treat the ores and do the assaying for all the great
banks, as well as being engaged by the Mint itself.

The California Mint is a mean little building in a dirty
little street, but a large handsome edifice is rising up out-
side the town.

The theatres of San Francisco are very good, con-
sidering the youth of the city and its distance from any
other. There are only two that can have any pretensions
to rank as ' Theatre Royal ' — the Califoi'nian and the Me-
tropolitan. The first is the most fashionable, but the
acoustic arrangements are defective, and the interior is
the most extraordinary thing I ever saw. The boxes,
that is, the private boxes, are like martlets' nests in the
rock, and open on the walls in all directions without the
least regard to regularity. Then there is a kind of im-
mense basket or corbeille, that is fastened against the
wall ; in fact there are two, one on each side of the house ;
these are called family boxes and hold about twelve.
They are generally filled with the elite of the society ; and
when I saAv, as I once did, two mothers with their brood
of daughters occupying them, and the male scions at

SAN FKANCISCO, ITS THEATRES, 81

the back, I thought of the ' Old woman uho lived in a
shoe.' Generally these are filled with a mixed assem-
blage of proprieties, that gave me an idea of a special
jury in their box. The pit and dress circle melt gra-
dually into one another. There is a slight line of
demarcation, like the one popularly supposed to be the
exclusive property of the town of 13erwick-ujion-Tweed;
but as the price of entry is the same to each, the choice
remains with the payer. Generally a man choses one
when with ladies, and the other when alone. Above that
are strange pigeon holes Avhere humble gentility hears
nothing, but exults in semi-Avorldlincss of privacy. In
the middle is a sea of gallery. On each side of the pro-
scenium are two immense mirrors, slightly inclining to the
audience, and absorbing them all, as it were, in their reflec-
tion. The company is excellent, as good a stock com-
pany as any in London ; and, Avhen a stray star comes
over the rail, they get up plays very creditably.

The Metropolitan, although the oldest theatre in San
Francisco, is the best constructed ; but it is at the wrong
end of the town, and only let to wandering troupes.
They had good French Opera BoufFe when I was there ;
but the theatre w'as dirty, and looked as though it didn't
pay the proprietors, which I believe is the case.

The other theatres are minor, being of the nigo-er
minstrel and melodeon order, where bad jokes, sono-s
and dances, none of them over-refined nor chaste, are
nightly retailed to crowds of men. The places are redo-
lent of bad cigars, stale pipes, staler coats, and unwashed
mankind.

The Chinese theatre is unique. The dresses are of
barbaric splendour, the music is still more barbarous,
being discordant even to a sense of pain; the i)lot is
incomprehensible, but the attention of the audience is
intense.

.'}2 SIX ^[OXTn.S IX CAMIY)RXIA.

The number of rliurclics in San Francisco implies
cither jircat devotion, or immense neces^sity for prayer.
In an area of a ((uarter of a mile square I counted nine
churches, all of different denominations or schisms. There
was Trinity with its Low Church tenets ; St. James, strong
in vestments and chaunted service ; the synagogue El
Emanuel, the new tlcwish branch that would fain, for
convenience and gain, change the Sabbath to Sunday.
It is the most beautifully finished temple inside in this
place. Near is the temple of the old Jews. Then Dr.
Stone's new church, strong in its Calvinism, built of the
English patent artificial stone, and a very pretty church
it is, with strange xVmex'ican devices of roof architecture,
self-supporting. There are two Swedenborgian taber-
nacles, and one coloured church as it is called, the tint
referring of course to the worshippers. The same pre-
vails to a less extent all over the city. The Catholics,
of course, are everywhere and very rich ; fat lands have
descended to them from the Spaniards and Mexicans ;
fat revenues flow to them now from the Irish. I think
that one reason of the number of churches is this, the
richness of the land. There are hardly any poor, nume-
rically speaking, and consequently the ministers of every
denomination flocked here. Their congregations sub-
scribed, built them churches, endowed them with annual
stipends, and the profession prospered exceedingly. Then
was seen the evil of voluntary election by the congrega-
tion, for partisanship arose, from partisanship sprang dis-
cord and canvassing as at a political strife. Finally, the
defeated party marched off with their champion, built
him a new church, and the old story began again. Many
j)eople are so rich and proud that they can afford the
luxurv of having a church under their control like a
pocket borough. As for the parson, unless he is very
superior, he is quite secondary ; it is the vestry which

SAX FRANCISCO, ITS MANUFACTORIES. 33

rules the religion and consciences of the congregation,
because, like that disciple of old, it holds the bag, and the
poor incumbent is dependent on its contents. Talfe the
Swedenborgians for example. There are very few of
that sect here, nevertheless there are two chapels, and
that only because three or four magnates could not agree
upon some mysterious, inscrutable point of doctrine with
the minister (who, by the way, formerly kept a beer-shop),
so a pretty little wooden structure was run up close by
the other, Avhcre doubtless Swedenborg is properly inter-
preted. When the coloured people bought the land for
their church, a very rich Secessionist, whose house was
immediately opposite, offered them a large premium on
their purchase if they would cede the land to him. With
an independence amounting to impertinence they refused,
whereupon he sold his fine property for less than its value
and migrated. I can almost understand it, for the nigorers
make a most infernal row at their devotions.

A section of the eastern front of the city is almost
entirely devoted to iron foundries. It is curious to walk
among them and note the various implements and ma-
chinery used in gold mining. Here the visitors see
ponderous machines for crushing quartz ; there again the
more delicate amalgamator for thoroughly mixing the
pulp or ground quartz with quicksilver. Of this latter
the machines are most numerous, and every foundry has
the exclusive manufacture of one or more patents for
that purpose. So far as I can learn, not one had arrived
at the solution of the great problem. How to extract all
the gold? First of all, the quartz should be reduced to
an impalpable powder, and then thoroughly mixed with
the quicksilver. Eveiy one will tell you that he has
arrived at that desideratum, but his neighbour will pro-
bably tell you the truth about him.

There are other factories in San Francisco, but the

U SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

liigli price of labour forbids the majority of them being
carried on successfully. A cotton mill was attempted at
Oakland -wliicli made a good article of common cloth, but
is now closed, as it did not pay. There is, however, an
extensive woollen factory which makes the finest and
softest blankets I ever saw. These mills were founded
by a Scotchman named McLennan, in 1859, on a small
scale, and have grown with the city and ^vith the popu-
larity of the goods they ])roduce, until now three hundred
horse-power engines, Avorking night and day, are not
sufficient to execute all their orders. From four to five
hundred hands are employed, more than one-half of
whom are white men, women, and boys, the rest China-
men. Without these latter the mills would come to a
stand-still ; an argument, I think, against those who
cry out against the employment of Mongolian labour;
for were these Chinese not working, two or three hun-
dred whites would be thrown out, and a large sum of
money, which is weekly paid out as wages to be spent
among the shopkeepers, would be diverted to pay for
imported goods. I saw some tweeds and plaids quite
as good as any Scotch at this establishment, and they
knit stockings, waistcoats, &c. there also by machinery.
There are about a dozen large breweries here, which
make what they call Lager beer, a horrible frothy washy
beverage, much liked by the Germans, and also by the
lower classes, on account of its being so cheap. The
brewers are almost entirely Germans and have all made
small fortunes. On the whole there is very little beer
drank in comparison with England, and you rarely see it
at the dinner table, very unlike China and India. Bitter
beer is unknown, and some Bass that I called for one day
was sweet, strong, and ropy.

We arrived at length at Omalia, the capital of the
state of Nebraska, which is an uninteresting towa,

OilAHA. 35

notwithstanding the boasting assertions of George Francis
Train, who having bought a tract of land there some
years ago, Avhich he prudently recorded in his wife's name,
has ever since been asserting that he possesses a second
Eden. Here we came across the first real Indians I had
ever seen. They were of the tribe of the Pawnees,
dirty, frightful, and repulsive — long black hair, small
cruel eyes, immensely broad noses, greasy skins, and a
general hang-dog look. Where is the red man of the
forest, the noble Indian of Fenimore Cooper's novels ?
It is true that the natives who hang around the railway
stations or western settlements are the most degraded of
their race ; whiskey and indolence follow in the train of
civilisation.

36 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

SALT LAKE CITY.

On arriving at Ogden, you change trains to proceed to
Salt Lake City. The scenery to the city of the Saints is
very mid and barren ; and no wonder that the Mormons, in
choosing this spot, considered themselves safe from any
inquisitorial traveller ; and how little did Brigham Young
think that, in electing this spot as a resting-place for his
people, in a few years he should draw down the strong
arm of the law, and be forced to obey and observe the
rules and restraints of a country he affected to despise !
What a shadow has now been cast over the dreams of
this arch humbug ! How great are the mighty fallen !
His hold on his ignorant followers is fast passing away,
and in a few years this impostor and his benighted fol-
lowers will be a thing of the past.

What is termed ' Salt Lake City ' is nothing but some
few streets of wooden houses, two or three hotels, the
tabernacle, and the residence of Brigham Young, re-
markable only for the picturesque manner in which the
o-rounds around the residence are laid out.

Being curious to observe how the Mormons concluded
their religious services, and happening to be there on the
Sabbath, I attended the tabernacle — a very large edifice
resembling a gigantic egg in form, the interior very
gloomy, with wooden benches ; and, in front of the organ,
three rows of benches where the apostles sit.

The o-reat feature of this buildius; is the ease with
which a very large congregation can make its exit. The
organ, a remarkably fine-toned instrument, is the largest
in the States.

SALT LAKE CITY. OGDEX. TREASLUE CITY. 37

The sermon was preached by an individual •who evi-
dently had received little or no education, and whose
principal topic from beginning to end was abuse of every
other sect but his own. The ' blessing ' was bestowed
by John Young, eldest son of Brigham, an oleaginous-
looking subject, who seemed to thrive much on the crea-
ture comforts of this Avorld.

So many works have been written on the Mormons,
particularly by that able writer Ilepworth Dixon, that
it would be inflicting a thankless office on those who
may be led to read these pages. In a short time Salt
Lake City will become a very prosperous place, as many
mines have been lately discovered. This district bids
fair to become the centre of extensive mining operations,
and is already drawing the attention of speculators from
the Western country.

At Ogden the beautiful scenery begins. We ai'e now
880 miles from San Francisco. The train rushes along
by promontory Toano, and stops rather longer than
usual at Elko, tliis being the station whence the stages
depart for, or bring passengers from, the famous mining
district of White Pine. The White Pine Mines were
discovered in 1866, and the following year a rush
of miners from all parts of California and Nevada was
made to this new Eldorado. Treasure City, as the
principal town of the new district was called, sprang up
like magic. It mattered not that the transportation of
goods and materials for building was exorbitantly high,
that the road lay over a treeless desert, that the toAvn was
at the top of an almost inaccessible mountain, that there
was no water, that the wind generally blew like a hurri-
cane ; these were disregarded in view of the fact that the
mines were there. The Eberhardt, now the property of
an English company, looked down from its peak upon
the town. The Hidden Treasure, the Aurora, and a host

38 SIX MONTHS IN CALIPORXIA.

of other mines were above, around, and l>clow ; and ten
thousand people flocked to this inhospitable country. In
vain were they warned that it was too early ; that the
snow covered the ground so thickly that prospecting was
a matter of impossibility; everyone thought that the
warning arose from an interested motive, and from a
desire of the informant to secure the choicest claims.
The consequence was, extreme misery and suffering among
those who had not money enough to pay the exorbitant
charges of the so-called hotels. "With the arrival of spring
the multitude dispersed all over the mountains, and, as is
universally the case, the majority of the prospectors were
disappointed. The mines were there, but the expenses of
working them were enormous. The ore proved to be
more rebellious than was expected ; there was a great
deal of what is called base metal met with, so that the
multitvide of fortune hunters melted away like the snow
from the mountains. This is the history of all mining
excitements in California ; and one remarkable circum-
stance attending such life is this, that men will leave
good paying claims, and go hundreds of miles away in the
chance of finding something better. It is the passion of
gambling engendered by the search for gold. Each man
thinks that he is to be the lucky one. Such was the case
with White Pine. The Eberhardt Mine was supposed
to be worth millions, the ledge or vein with its various
spurs and divergencies could be traced in all directions,
why should not another claim prove equally rich, and so
Treasure Hill was honeycombed, but, as I said before,
with disappointment to many.

After leaving Elko we arrive at the Palisades, a most
beautiful part of the road, and one which presented im-
mense engineering difficulties. ' The Palisades ' is an
immense wall of rock, perpendicular in many places, and
the train goes winding in and about pi'ccipices, by the

JOUEXEY THKOUGII THE MINING COUNTRY. 39

sides of canons through tunnels cut In the soHd rock,
until at length Avhat is called the top of the Palisades is
reached, 575 miles from San Francisco, and at an altitude
of 4,800 feet above the level of the sea. The scenery
somewhat reminded me of Matlock on a larger scale, but
without the luxuriant green that gives the charm to our
Derbyshire hills. We have been descending all the time
since leaving Independence, and now rush on past Battle
Mountain, where the stages connect for Austin the centre
of the Humboldt district silver mines, past the sink of the
Carson river, which there disappears perhaps to emerge
on the other side of the Sierra Nevada ; thence, still
descending, until White Plains is reached, 3,900 feet
above the sea. All this while we have been driving by
the force of gravitation, brakes down and engine scream-
ing as it turns the sharp curves. For hours, whenever
a bend in the road rendered it practicable, we had seen
the summits of the Sierra Xevadas covered with per-
petual snow and standing in sharp outline against the
sky. Now we found ourselves among the foothills of
this range and began to ascend. Reno was the first sta-
tion of importance that we reached. From this point
of the line the stage-road for the mines of Virginia City
takes its departure.

I shall have occasion to describe Washoe and the
Comstock lode in another portion of this book treating
of the mines of California and Nevada.

40 SIX MONTHS IN C.VLIFORNIA.

CALIFORNIA.

I NOW come to the more serious task of describing the
Golden State, its climate, geology, zoology, &c., as well
as its mining, agricultural, and other industries. I believe
that many travellers content themselves with a hurried
visit to the wonders and beauties of this distant reo;ion:
at the same time I cannot but tliink, that a detail of its
resources may prove interesting.

First then the climate of California ; and, for the pur-
pose of properly comprehending that, the reader must
discard from his mind any idea of uniformity of climate
and regularity of seasons, such as he is accustomed to
witness in Europe.

On looking at a map of California it will be noticed, as
I have before observed, that its greatest area is enclosed
by the Sierra Xevada mountains on the east and the coast
range on the west, and that these ranges unite or nearly
so north and south. The extreme length of California
from north to south is about 700 miles, extending from
latitude 32° 45' to 42° north, with an averao-e breadth of
180 miles. Now the area enclosed by the ranges of
mountains is more than 500 miles in length, and embraces
almost the whole wealth, both mineral and agricultural, of
the state. Consequently, my remarks will more directly
apply to this portion of California, and I beg attention to
the following facts before I describe the variety of its
climate.

It is known that the currents of air under which the
earth passes in its diurnal revolutions, follow the line of

CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. 41

tlie sun's o-reatest attraction. These currents of air are
drawn towards this line from great distances on each side
of it, and as the earth revolves from west to east they
blow from north-east and south-east, meeting on, and of
course causing a calm at, the line.

Thus when the sun is over the equator in the month of
March, these currents of air blow from some distance
north of the tropic of Cancer and south of the tropic of
Capricorn, in an oblique direction towards this line of
the sun's greatest attraction, and form Avhat are known
as the NE. and SE. trade "winds.

As the earth in its path round the sun gradually brings
the line of attraction north in summer, these currents of
air are carried with it ; so that, about the middle of May,
the cun-ent from the NE. extends as fiir as the 38th or
39tli degree of north latitude, and by June 20, the period
of the sun's greatest inclination, it extends to the northern
part of California and the southern section of Oregon.

These north-east winds, in their progress across the
continent towards the Pacific Ocean, pass over the snow-
capped ridges of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
Nevada, and are of course deprived of all their moisture
by the low temperature of those regions of eternal snow ;
consequently no moisture can be precipitated from them
in the form of dew or rain in a higher temperature than
that to which they have been subjected, for necessarily
no condensation can by any possibility take place. They
therefore pass over the hills and plains of California,
where the temperature is very high in summer, in a very
dry state ; and, so far from being charged with moisture,
they absorb, like a sponge, all that the atmos^jhere and
surface of the earth can yield, until both become appa-
rently perfectly dry.

Thus is the dry season produced in California, which
continues sometunes until after the sun repasses the

42 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

equator in September, when about the middle of No-
vember, the climate being relieved from these north-east
currents of air, the south-west winds set in from the
ocean charged Avith moisture, the rains commence^ and
continue to fall at intervals from about the middle of
November until the middle of April. I have said from
November to April, taking the average rainfall for fifteen
years as my guide ; but in many instances it rains as early
as September and as late as May, although more fre-
quently in September than in October ; on the whole,
the rainy season may be said to be from November to
April inclusive.

Again ; there is an extensive ocean current of cold
water which flows along the coast of California, from the
North Pacific or perhaps Arctic Ocean. I have heard it
stated that it flows from the coasts of China and Japan
northward to the peninsula of Kamtschatka, and, making
a circuit to the eastward, strikes the coast of America in
about 41° or 42°. Be that as it may, it does flow along
the coast, bearing with it a cold current of air, which
appears in the form of fog when it comes in contact with
a higher temperature. Indeed oiF the coast the course of
the current can be followed by the bank of fog that
hangs over it. This current passes south, and is lost in
the tropics.

Towards midday the vast dry surface of the interior
becomes greatly heated, causing an undercurrent of cool
air to rush about that time from the ocean, bringing with
it the dense fog caused by the meeting of the before-
mentioned hot dry NE. wind and that accompanying the
cold northern current. "When the equilibrium is restored
the wind, ceases. Thus for six months, in San Francisco,
there is a warm, sometimes burning, morning ; and a cold,
windy, drizzly afternoon, followed by a clear starlight
nischt.

CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. 43

This is one phase of California climate in San Fran-
cisco. San Francisco may be said to be situated on the
western side of the coast range, so that the NE. trades
seldom reach the city ; but if, as is sometimes the case
towards the time of either of the equinoxes, the north
wind should come creeping along from tlie shores of the
bay, or the east Avind escape through some gorge of the
hills, then it is that the San Franciscan experiences what
is felt during the greater part of the year in the interior ;
unaccustomed to the hot, dry, parching air, with neither
dress nor house fitted to live in, he goes about panting
and complaining ; and the newspapers chronicle the hottest
day of the season, with the thermometer at the usual rate
in Marysville or Sacramento.

This is another and brief phase of San Francisco cli-
mate.

The third phase begins about the middle of September.
The daily fogs no longer sweep over the city ; the Avind
blows fitfully from all quarters, and not, as for the last six
months, uniformly from the west. Frequently in the
morning it is easterly, whilst from force of habit appa-
rently it veers to the Avest in the afternoon. Clouds
gather in the south ; it is generally cloudy in early morn-
ing, contrary to the other season. The air becomes A'cry
soft and balmy, the dews lie longer on the ground and
the springs of water increase in volume. At length the
AA'ind begins to bloAV in gusts from the south-west laden
Avith moisture, and finally down comes the Avclcomc rain.
Every])ody is glad ; almost everybody is uncomfortable,
for they are so little habituated to getting Avet. The
dust of the streets turns to mud, the dried planking of
the pavements SAvells and starts from its confines, the
shrunken roofs leak, workmen are busy making houses
tight for the Avinter, and umbrellas are brought out from
their concealment. The greatest number of rainy days
the Avind is SAY. The heaviest rain comes from the SE.

44 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

The •winter season Is the most dclif^htful in San Fran-
cisco. It rarely happens that ice forms, or even snow
falls. Occasionally snow remains for a few days on the
peak of Monte Diablo, or on the coast range on the other
side of the bay ; but, owing to the proximity of the ocean
and the prevailing southerly Avinds, winter has no terrors,
and the fine days, whereof there are many, are most enjoy-
able. Many families connected with San Francisco go
there from New York during the winter to escape their
own terrible climate.

In the interior it is very different. From the beginning
of May to the end of October, in most years, the sun rises
without a cloud and sets without a shade over his disc.
During the entire day he blazes overhead ; there is not a
breath of wind to temper his rays, nor a drop of rain to
moisten the parched earth. Near the Sierras a most
welcome breeze does come down every evening ; such is
the case at Sacramento, which is near the mountains ;
but quite in the interior, as at Marysville or Oroville,
Stockton, and Millerton, the only solace is the absence of
the sun. This continued dry cloudless weather is very
wearying, but, strange to say, the regular inhabitants
soon get acclimated, and work at noonday as though in a
more temperate clime. This is fortunate, as almost all the
mines are in this region. It will be understood that the
coast gets the rain earlier than the interior, and the coast
ranfje absorbs the rain clouds until it crets so saturated
that it can hold them no longer, when they spread over
the thirsty interior. At length clouds begin to bank up
in the south, and there is a brilliant sunset. That luminary
rises with veiled face, and at length the gates of heaven
are opened and down comes the rain in sheets. The first
rain generally lasts three days at intervals until December
or January, when it is of longer duration. Now it is that
wet diggings are abandoned and the dry gulches and hill-

CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. 45

side claims are worked. No heed whatever is paid to the
driving rain, for the golden opportunity must be seized
ere it flies away, so ditches and dams and reservoirs are
hastily constructed, and no effort spared to coax the water
to remain as long and make itself as useful as possible.
This is applicable to the southern and the lower part of
the northern mines ; but all along the foothills of the
Sierras and in the counties of Del Norte and Klamath,
Trinity, Shasta, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sierra, &c.,
the ice king reigns supreme ; the snow lies from ten to
fifteen feet thick, and drifts to great depths, covering the
tops of the miners' camps in many instances. Some of
the most hardy miners lay in a stock of provisions, keep
the snow clear in front of their log-houses, and wait the
melting of the snows, which is their golden opportunity ;
others, perhaps more prosperous, hibernate in the towns,
generally in San Francisco.

Spring is the season of gladness for all, unless it has
been a dry season, and then every class suffers ; but if the
earth has been properly soaked and the average rain has
fiillen, then the streams are full and the Sierra Nevadas
have a wealth of moisture stored up in their snoAvs that
will not fiiil until June or July. Then it is that the
farmer and the miner are most active, the land is gi'een
with pasturage and brilliant with flowers of many hues.
Even at the end of the year, if the winter has been pro-
pitious, the cattle thrive, for the wild oats that grow above
a man's head dry in the hot sun, and afford excellent
pasturage, whilst the beasts grow fat on the oil of the ripe
seeds of the many grasses and herbs that abound ; so that
what to a stranger appears a barren waste is some-
times the most nourishing for cattle ; but, without the
winter's rain, not a blade appears and the animals perish
by thousands. Another apparent anomaly is, that the
first rains nearly starve the cattle. The moment they

48 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

fall, the seeds are loosened from the grasses, drop to the
ground, and rot or germinate ; the young grass derives no
nutrition, and the herds become as lean as skeletons.

The climate of the extreme south of California, such
as Los Angeles, San Diego, &c., is semi-tropical ; there
are no severe winters, though it suffers sometimes from
extreme drought, and occasional frosts nip the more tender
productions of that part of the country.

A third and intermediate climate is that enjoyed by
the narrow strip between the coast range and the Pacific,
and that of the different valleys running from the bay to
that ocean. I can liken it to nothing better than the
climate of Devonshire. The sea fogs that strike the sum-
mits of the hills keep the air moist, whilst the reflection of
the sun's rays warms it ; innumerable streams trickle do^vn
to the plains, keeping them always green; and, with the ex-
ception of occasional thick and stormy weather, this limited
section enjoys the most charming climate of all the state.

The averao;e range of the thermometer in San Francisco
is from 50° to 70°, but on extraordinary occasions has
fallen from 85° to 46°, and that in twelve hours. Tliis
was owing to the violent restoration of the equilibrium,
the reasons for which have been already given. When
the thermometer at San Francisco is 70° it is 86° at Sacra-
mento and 106° at Millertou, at the head of the valley
of the San Joaquim.

One extraordinary fact connected with the rainfall in
California is, that whereas the rain comes up from the
south, it is invariably first heard of in the north. Thus
the inhabitant of San Francisco, when the telegraph
informs him that it is raining in Portland, Oregon, or up
at Shasta, may look for it in a day or two at his city.
Thunderstorms are of very I'are occurrence, and lightning
only plays its harmless sheet fires occasionally about the
horizon, or round the peak of !i\Ioute Diablo.

CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA. 47

The shortest day of the year at San Francisco is about
nine hours and a half from sunrise to sunset, and fourteen
and three-quarters is the duration of the longest, but
twilight gives about two hours' extra light to each end.

California is subject to mild shocks of earthquakes,
which many weak people seem to connect with its climate,
and are apt to say on the occurrence of a hot day,
' We are sure to have an earthquake.' Now I have con-
versed with many well-observant people on the subject,
and not one of them had noticed any rise in the tempera-
ture of the air, either before or after the occurrence. I
should rather conclude, dare I hazard an opinion on a
subject so very little understood, that as all the shakes
that have happened in the neighbourhood of San Francisco
have followed the line of the coast range, their cause may
be traced to electro-magnetism rather than atmospheric
influences. There have been some sharp shocks in Cali-
fornia since its occupation by the Americans, but none
so severe as in the time of the Spanish rule, Avhen some
of the fine old Mission churches were overthrown; not
that I mean to infer that the change of government has
changed the Plutonic forces, nor that the American is
exempt from the ills that afflicted the Castilian.

The climate of California may be summed up as one
of contrast ; and now that the railroad shortens distance,
you can leave the burning Stockton plains in the morn-
ing, and dine amidst the eternal winter of the Sierras
on the same day ; or leave the orange groves of Los
Angeles, and sleep with the bracing air of tlie Pacific
pouring along the Golden Gate through your chamber
windows. Her climate is like the fortune of many of her
children ; one-half of their California life tliey bask in
the full sunshine of prosierity, and the other they battle
against the blasts and storms of adversity.

48 .SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

THE GEOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA.

To TREAT the subject-matter of this chapter in a purely
scientific manner -would take a volume, and at the same
time would require more scientific knowledge and re-
search than I either possess, or have given to the suljject.
I merely present a slight sketch of the general geological
features of the country, a sort of reminiscence of an ac-
quaintance, not the biography of an intimate relation.

To all foreigners the word California signifies gold,
and, as it was for many years the sole, and still remains
the principal, staple commodity, so will my remarks be
chiefly directed to that precious metal.

California may be said to possess four great mineral
belts. The Copper bearing, the Gravel belt, the Slate
belt, and the Granite belt, the three latter are gold
bearing, each of them having their respective elevations
one above the other. The copper belt is found at a slight
elevation above the level of the sea, and ore has been
worked in Crescent City in the north ; at Grizzly Flat in
El Dorado County ; in Shasta County ; in Nevada
County ; in Xapa County ; at Copperopolis, and at San
Diego. The only mines, however, that attained any im-
portance were those of Copperopolis, where the famous
Union mine is situated ; hence its somewhat composite
name. The amount of ore exported in 1862 was 3,660
tons ; in 1863, 5,553 tons ; in 1865, 17,787 tons ; in 1866,
19,813 tons ; and then prices fell so low in Europe, on ac-
count of Australian and Chilian copper, that, in tlie first
half of 1867, only 3,452 tons were shipped, after which

GEOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA. 49

copper milling drooped, and now has entirely ceased. The
ore that was exported contained about 14 per cent, of metal
on an average. The richer ore, some of it containing a
very high per centage of copper, was reduced in California,
and preparations were making to erect works at or near
Copperopolis, on a very large scale, when the crisis came.
Still there are many who foretell the day Avlien copper
mining will be a great Californian industry, particularly
if, as in some cases, the more precious metala of silver
and gold are found in connection Avith the copper. For
example near Sweetland, in Nevada county, the gold is so
much mixed with the copper that it is a question whether
the mine is a poor gold or a rich copper one. The dust is
worth eleven dollars an ounce. Sulphuret of copper, or
copper pyrites, is found in almost all the gold-bearing
quartz lodes throughout the country, and some fine speci-
mens of malachite have been obtained near Los Angeles.
The auriferous Gravel belt is of much greater impor-
tance. It was in it that the first discoveries of gold were
made. It was the only one Avorked for years, and the only
one supposed to be worth working. To-day we know
that there are two distinct gravel beds in California, the
old and the new ; the neiv beds comprising those surface
dio-frij^SS all over the state, whose boulders are rounded
and pebbles polished by existing streams, and whose gold
has been brought down within a comparatively recent
epoch ; the old exists far below the surface, and has formed
the beds of miy-hticr rivers than now flow alonir the great
basin. They tell the story of young earth ere the Sierras
were formed, and their water-worn rocks speak of the
rolling of mighty waters that have passed away for ever.
But of these further on. Let us return to the new
gravel belt. This belt, as a general rule, is found on the
western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, from two to three
thousand feet above the level of the soa; and at this

50 SIX MONTHS L\ CALU'OKMA.

elevation crold is founfl almost everywhere. The floods
of winter have not only carried it down the gulches, but
sown it broadcast over the land. But, before I go any
further, let me premise that gold of this nature, * placer
gold/ as it is called, is now generally supposed to have
formed part of the mother vein, and to have been disin-
tegrated from it by the action of the elements, or other
natural force. This gold, in many instances, is extremely
fine, and consequently easily gathered up by clay or mixed
with sand ; hence it arises that, in almost any part of the
Placer district, the ' colour ' can be found, though not in
sufficient quantity to make the working of it profitable.
Deep gullies and ravines seam the faces of the mountains.
These gulches cut throufrh the matrix. Their beds are
dry in summer, but when the winter rains come, or the
snow melts, they are filled with a turbid roaring stream
brlnojing: doAvn rocks and trees and all kinds of abrasive
matters. The sides of the gulches are torn away, and the
whole debris is strewn over the gentler slopes of the hills
below. But in these lower ranges exist rivers which
cross these diluvial deposits in all directions, and gather
the richest of the precious stores so rudely torn from the
mountains. Thus arose tAvo separate deposits ; the one
on the numerous table-lands of the foot-hills, which go by
the name of ' Flats,' as Shaw's Flat, Brown's Flat, &c.,
Avhere the gold is fine and universally diffused ; or those
of rivers and creeks, where the gold is coarse, and found
generally below the gravel, such as the mines of the north
fork of the American, the Middle Yuba, Wood's Creek,
Mormon Gulch, &c., all famous for their placer wealth.
As may be supposed, the flat and river diggings are the
easiest to be worked, as well as the numerous jjulches
running from these table lands. Perhaps the richest creek
in all California has been Wood's Creek in Tuolumne
county. It is only ten miles long ; from the earliest mining

GEOLOGY OF CALIFORXIA. 51

(lays it has been worked over and over again, and to-day
is being still worked with success. The liistory of mining
on this creek, which is the history of mining on every
creek in California, will be told under the head of mininj?.
The coarse gold being so much heavier than any other
body that was carried along with it, naturally fell into the
first cavity whose sides were steep enough to allow it to
rest there under the rush of waters, eventually being
covered over with lighter stones, sand, and mud, so that,
on the subsidence of the waters, all that had to be done
was to remove the upper diluvium and arrive at the
precious metal.

But these gravel deposits are of various natures.
Sometimes they are of many strata one above another,
each strata of a different composition from any other, and
the whole from fifty to three hundred feet thick, with
gold in every one of them. Sometimes they are so
strongly cemented with clay as to form a solid con-
glomerate, and again they are as loose as a sea-beach.
Again, auriferous gravel is found mixed with decayed
quartz, as though the vein had been brought bodily down
and buried, where it gradually rotted. And again, frag-
ments of petrified trees and great boulders are found,
with stones of all shapes and sizes, but all water-worn.

The common term for the gold found in these river
beds, creeks, and gravel deposits is ' placer gold,' or
' gold dust,' and is both fine and coarse. The diffei'ent
varieties of fine are scale, grain, shot, flour, and wire gold,
which speak for themselves. The scale gold is sometimes
called float gold, and, from the nature of its formation, is
more generally diffiiscd than any other. The Avire gold
sometimes assumes fantastic, even beautiful forms. I have
seen it twisted together like a tangled skein of silk, and
at other times standing out of a flat surface like the
fronds of moss.

52 SIX MOXTTIS IN CALIFORXIA.

The miners have christened coarse gold after their most
familiar objects, such as buckshot, pea, bean, mocassin,
cucumber seed, pumpkin seed, and some others, but these
are the most common. It is strange how common it is to
find gold like the sole of the foot, the mocassin. All
those of the form of pea, bean, shot, &c. are gold that
has been carried some distance, or been washed by suc-
cessive floods, whereas the wire and float have but lately
been torn from their parents. There is no rule about the
locale of these various sorts. They may be found to-
gether or separately, or side by side, or one shape on one
bank of a river and another on the opposite bank. Gold
takes strange shapes sometimes, especially in the larger
unclassified nuggets. One specimen I saw had precisely
the form of a head of maize, or Indian corn, only each
grain was crystallised gold. Such specimens are exceed-
ingly rare ; indeed, crystals of gold either singly or in
groups are scarce. When found the crystal forms an
octohedron. When the lump of gold has its edges sharp
and rough, look out for the mother lode close by,
especially if it be a small gulch. Coarse gold runs in
pieces of the value of from half a crown to twenty
pounds. Above that amount they become cur ion. The
largest nugget found in California weighed one hundred
and ninety-five pounds troy, which has been beaten by
Australia. One day in the town of Sonora, in the
Southern mines, after a very heavy rain and freshet, a
man was leading his mule cart up the steep principal
street, when his foot struck upon a large stone ; he stooped
down to remove it, and found it was a solid lump of
gold, about twenty-five pounds weight, which had been
exposed by the storm, and many hundreds of people had
passed over it daily. An amusing circumstance connected
with the lucky discovery was that, upon its being made
known, the whole of that portion of the town, including

QUALITIES OF GOLD. 63

the street, was staked off for mining claims in less than
an hour, for miners' law rules pre-eminent. Coarse gold
is never found in quartz, although large gold boulders
have sometimes a considerable quantity of quartz mixed
with them ; but why the gold in quartz, which is supposed
to have furnished the coarse gold, should itself be so
almost infinitesimally fine, has never been determined.

Gold varies in fineness from 500 to 990. The average
is 875 to 880. For gold is never found perfectly pure ;
it is always alloyed with silver, and sometimes Avith copper
and lead. The figure 1000, therefore, is used to denote
pure gold ; but supposing a specimen or bar contains one-
fourth of silver, then it is only 975 ; and one-half baser
metal, then it only ranks as 500 fine. Gold 500 fine
fetches proportionably a higher price than gold 990 fine
(which has only ten per cent, of base metal), on account
of the value of the silver, &c. that goes with it.

As a general rule the gold of the north is finer than
the gold of the south of California. In Placer county,
for example, the gold ranges from about 860 to 930, whilst
Kern river and Mono gold is only about 600, and that
of Walker river, high up in the mountains, is only 560.
The most uniform richness of gold has been found at
Columbia in Tuolumne county ; it ranged from 930 to
970. I shall have occasion to speak of this town in
connection Avith mining. The wiry gold is universally
poor in quality running in the neighbourhood of 750.
A substance valuable in itself yet depreciating gold is
often found with it, and that is iridium. In the north
especially it is so abundant in some districts, that gold is
there worth from a dollar to a dollar and a half less than
other dust in consequence. The gold of i\Iariposa county,
although it is perhaps the richest county in the aggregate,
on account of gold being diffused all over it, is poor and
wiry, and, even when coarse, the quality does not exceed

r,4 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

820. Tlio average is 7G0. In most cases gold taken
from quartz lias more alloy than placer gold.

A fcAV words about the old gravel beds which are of
comparatively recent discovery. In bygone ages, which
may be almost termed pre-scientific, four (at least) great
rivers traversed the then ])ortion of the globe now known
as California. Their direction was from north-west to
south-east; they were from a hundred to five hundred
feet wide. Immense rocks obstructed their flow, and
huge boulders strewed their bottom. To-day the moun-
tains of the Sierras cover them, and they are only partially
exposed where the later rivers and the rents, caused by
subterranean forces, have worn deep ravines, or opened
wide crevices. AVherever such an occurrence has taken
place, the river or ravine has proved to be extremely rich,
and portions of the bed of the old river have always been
found above the point of intersection. In one river a
portion has taken the name of 'The Blue Lead.' It was
first discovered in Sierra county, underlying every other
strata, and walled in by steep banks of hard bed rock,
exactly like the banks of rivers and ravines as we find
them existing at the present time. This bed rock is
water-Avorn like that of any other river, and rounded
quartz and other pebbles are mixed with the blue clay.
Petrified trees and Avood are likewise found. As is the
case in the rivers of the present day, the fine gold is
washed to the banks, whilst the coarse lies in mid stream,
or w^hat Avas mid stream. This river has been traced for
more than twenty miles, and the history of its Avorking
Avill appear under the proper head. At present I can
only say that, could faith exercise her power and cast the
mountains to the bottom of the sea, there Avould be laid
bare an Eldorado Avhich Avould shame California, and the
relics of a past world that Avould be the delight of
geologists. In other parts more particularly, as at pre-

SUBTERRAXEAX RIVERS. 55

sent known, at or rather below the junction of the north
and middle forks of the American river, this subterranean
channel has spread out to a large area, which is being
rapidly developed by means of shafts being sunk and
drift-ways run. AVherever the old bed has been found
the prospectors have found gold ; it is estimated that
there is work enough there for ten thousand men for a
hundred years to come, and that every man can get rich
on the produce of his labour. Looking at all this, one is
irresistibly led to exclaim. Where did the gold come
from ? And is this underlying strata of stones and clay
the lowest of its kind ? And where is the mother vein that
filled these buried crevices ; and whence came this blue
pipe clay, even now sometimes found soft, though in most
cases indurated as hard as stone under tons of superlying
gravel ? The elevation that furnished these rounded and
polished boulders may have been in the heart of the Rocky
Mountains, and the water that flowed over them may
have had its source where the streams now run eastward.
No one can tell ; but mankind here is exceedingly in-
quisitive in the shape of tunnels and drifts, which, like so
many spectrums, pry into the interior and discover the
hidden secrets of the earth.

It is very likely that the course of one of these sub-
terranean rivers lies under or near to the tovni of Sacra-
mento, because on an attempt being made to bore an
artesian well for public use at that place, the workmen
were obliged to desist on account of arriving at a stratum
of boulders which the borers were unable to pass through.
At Stockton, however, they were more successful, and,
after going down a thousand feet, obtained a flow of
water which rose eleven feet above the surface, and
yielded sixty thousand gallons of water daily. A like
attempt was made in San Francisco, but it was abandoned,
although there are two natural artesian springs in the

CO SIX MONTHS l.V CAMFOJiXIA.

city, one of tlicm discovered bubbling up below the level
of former Ingh water now covered with buildings. The
various strata passed through when boring in Stockton
were red and blue clay, mica, sand, gravel with traces of
gold, this latter at a depth of a hundred feet, green stone,
quicksand fifteen feet thick, very coarse sand at a depth
of three hundred and forty feet, and here the workmen
came upon the stump of a red Avood tree besides striking
water. All the way down was but a repetition of this
one stratum following another, of more or less thickness,
and still they ended in sand. The boi'e in San Francisco
came to an interminable stratum of sandstone ; and it was
the opinion of geologists, that it would be useless to go
deeper, as that formation is often many thousand feet in
thickness ; nor is it likely that the gravel and boulder
beds in the neighbourhood of Sacramento will ever be
laid bare, seeing that they are three hundred and fifty
feet below the level of the sea. Another speculative
question now arises. Where did these rivers find their
outlet ? It could not be at the borders of the now Pacific.
We know that there are o;reat fresh water rivers runninjr
in, not into but far out at sea, and we are told of fresh
water bubbling up in mid ocean. May not these lately
developed mysteries throw some light on their presence ?
But I have no right to digress.

The next auriferous belt in point of elevation is the
Slate belt. AVhen I say in point of elevation, I mean
that the slate formation is found higher than the gravel,
although at the same time it likewise underlies it, fre-
quently composing the bed-rock of the gravel placer
diggings, and sometimes cutting them in half, as has been
found by going through the supposed bed-rock, when the
gravel has been found lying under it. Rich quartz veins
traverse the slate belt in all directions, and nothino- can
be more diversified than the dip or inclination of the slate

GEOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA. 67

beds themselves. Sometimes the strata are vertical, at
right angles -with the sky ; again they will form a succes-
sion of angles ; then again they will form a chaos of angles,
crossing and recrossing one another and broken, or by way
of change presenting a smooth lateral unbroken surface.

The last, grandest, most extensive, and least known is
the Granite belt. Far up in the eternal snows and down
to the foiindations of the mighty hills is granite, ever
granite. On the slopes of the Sierras the granite is
intertwined with veins of gold-bearing quartz. It is
supposed that the mother lode is there. It is the theory
of the day that from that source flowed all the gold that
is found in the rivers and streams and gullies and pockets
and table-lands of the lower country. The quantity is
inexhaustible, and the supply goes on day after day, as
time slowly loosens the precious metal from its bonds of
adamant.

The veins in the granite are hardly as yet worked.
There is enough Avork in the quartz mines, of the gravel
and slate formation, to employ the present thousands of
workmen for many years yet to come, and population is
so scarce and labour so dear, that to-day the mountain
mines are not worked to advantage. And yet there are
mines in the Alpine district on the confines of the state
of Nevada, where you can see the gold sparkle in the
crop[)ings of the vein as it bursts out of the earth — hard
and stubborn rock, however, to crush, as befits the rugged
aspect of nature around. I have not seen a more bleak
and wild country in all California than this. Constantly
enveloped in clouds, with a cold wind whistling about
your ears and chilling you to the very marrow, with no
shrub but the ashy-coloured sage brush, with no tree
whatsoever, with precipices for roads and boulders for
j)avcincnt, the mine ought to be rich to repay life up
there. And yet miners do live there and are hapny.

68 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

THE GEYSERS.

At seven o'clock in the morninjr I left San Francisco
in the most convenient ferry steamer I have yet met with
in the United States. The boat was originally con-
structed for the passenger trade between this place and
Sacramento, but the railway has changed all that ; and
now the whole of the inside of the vessel is, as it were,
scooped out, and one spacious carpeted saloon formed, "\vith
seats and plate-glass windows all around. One can either
promenade as at a conversazione, or sit and enjoy the
lovely scenery. For it is lovely as we skirt close to the
shores of Angel Island, covered with wild flowers, which,
as is generally the case in California, grow in patches all
of one species. For example one sees acres of the yellow
lupin, then again a tract covered solely with the gentle
blue nemophila, or the orange of the escholtzia, which is
popularly called the California poppy, so common in this
country is it. Our way lies across the bays of San Pablo
and Suisun until we come to a halt at the town of Vallejo,
called after a Spanish general of that name, who had
immense possessions in land and herds prior to the
American possession of California.

Vallejo is a thorough mushroom town, or rather a suc-
cession of mushroom towns. For a brief period in the
early days of California it was the capital, and the legis-
lative wisdom met there in conclave; and hotels, bar-
rooms, and money abounded, for those were the days of
'the session of a thousand drinks.' But the capital was
removed just when the hall destined for the deliberations

JOURXEY TO THE GEYSERS. VALLEJO, 59

of the senate and assembly was half finished, and It re-
mained for years a melancholy instance of the vanity of
human hopes, being finally broken up for building purposes.
Vallejo rose again as the port of outlet for a large grain
district ; and San Francisco capitalists, after having first
bought half the town for a mere song, erected elevators
there, and loaded their grain ships direct at the wharf.
During the war Vallejo gained in importance also, for the
naval dockyard of Mare Island is only separated from it
by a strip of water about a mile wide. The town finally
made its great spring when it became the terminus of the
Californih, Pacific Railroad, which, becoming incorporated
with the Great Central, and the line going direct to
Sacramento, Vallejo became virtually the terminus be-
tween New York and San Francisco for passenger travel.
The line, however, will be extended to Sancelito, a point
on the opposite side of the Golden Gate from San Fran-
cisco, and distant from it about three miles, and then
Vallejo will droop once more.

Vallejo is a pretty little town covering a conically-
shaped hill, with a church at the top having a high spire,
which makes it quite a landmark. The houses are mostly
painted white, and have pretty little gardens. The only
drawback to the place is the total absence of trees. This
is being remedied by planting, so that the next generation
may reap the benefit.

From Vallejo I pi-oceeded by rail along the beautiful
Napa valley. After leaving the small hills that skirt the
bay, the road appears to be a perfect level ; there are no
cuttings, no embankments, no tunnel ; a level tract of rich
lands stretches on each hand, broken now and then by
clumps of oaks. In the distance, and as if guarding
the head of the valley, towers u}) the beautiful Mount St.
Helena. Level as the road a])pcars to the traveller, it
gradually ascends until, at an elevation of three hundred

60 SIX MONTHS IX CAMKORXIA.

I'cct, the walls of the valley contraet, and the line winds
its way along the sinuosities of the level ground, something
after the fashion of a river, until Calistogais reached, and
there this branch of the railroad ends.

Calistoga is one of the watering-places of California.
It is situated in a circular basin of about a mile in
diameter. The hills that surround it arc covered with
trees and vegetation. The bottom of the basin may be
called a thin crust of earth covering a boiling lake, as if
to keep it hot. Hot springs rise in all directions.
Wherever the ground is penetrated hot water is found.
There are also salses, or mud springs. The extinct crater
of St. Helena forms one of the walls of the basin, and
there is little doubt that the two have subterranean con-
nection. About six years ago this spot was in all its
savage wildness, but having come into the possession of
a well-known San Francisco capitalist named Brannan,
that gentleman determined to develop the natural re-
sources of the place, and has laid out more than a
hundred thousand dollars for that purpose. He began
by building a colony of cottages round the rim of the
basin. Fancy a cottage ornce with a deep balcony,
a drawing-room extending along the entire front, sub-
divided by bedrooms in the rear. Fancy also every
one of these cottages being precisely alike, so much so
that they might have been cast in the same mould. Each
cottaije has a small garden in front, containinij a date
palm and a Monterey cypress. Attached to each is a
small summer house of lattice-work with a little round
table in it and other conveniences, each the facsimile
of its neighbour. There cannot be any bickerings or
jealousy among the guests, for thei'e is no difterence even
in the chairs, the only inconvenience that might arise
being that some belated or bemused visitor might find it
dithcult to decide upon his own particular domicile. To

CALISTOGA. 61

obviate any such mistakes in the daytime, each house
possesses either a classical or historical name, which is
legibly painted over the porch, such as Neptune, Wash-
ington, Helena, Ralston, &c. The grounds are very
prettily laid out, INlr. Brannan having endeavoured to
plant them with every known species of Californian tree.
There is the home garden, and the outer drive around
two pretty little hills which look artificial, they are so
round and smooth. They are named respectively Mounts
Washington and Lincoln, and winding walks lead up to
their tops. A large swimming bath is at the end of the
garden through which tepid Avater is constantly flowing ;
and leading out of it is a skating sink, the inside walls of
which are painted with scenes from the Arctic regions,
sleighing, &c. When the hotel and the cottages are full the
smooth floor is covered with beds for the bachelors ; indeed,
it is one of the airiest, nicest ])laces to sleep in at Calistoga,
where the thermometer stands at 90° in the shade.

Of the Springs themselves I can only say that their
name is legion, and they run about everywhere asking
one to test their medicinal qualities. Directly in front
of the hotel is a reservoir of cold water full of gold fish.
Immediately by its side is an artesian well, which has
been bored to the depth of more than a hundred feet.
The water from this is of the temperature of 175°, and
of course visitors amuse themselves by boiling eggs in
it. It is likely, however, to be filled up with broken
glass, as when a bottle is let down at the end of a long
string with a Aveight to go far down the water (a study
in natural history performed by the majority of the guests),
it generally happens that only the neck of the bottle
returns. The next spring avc come to is of pure soft
hot Avater, and is used exclusively for the laundry Avhich
is built over it. Linen Avashcd in it becomes very Avhite,
and the hot Avater is ever ready Avithout fire or expense.

62 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORMA.

The great fun is tlie swimming bath before mentioned,
Avherc the young ladies take lessons, and one hears a
confused noise of splasli, scream, and lauglitcr. A very
serious-looking atiiiir next claims our attention. AVe enter
a small house, in one corner of which is something like a
sentry-box, and in this sentry-box an iron chair. Ideas of
punishment or im[)risonment for the season present them-
selves to the mind, particularly as there is a square hole at
the side where the incarcerated one might receive his daily
rations. A trap-door is opened, and the mystery is ex-
plained. It is the vapour bath, temperature 195°. The
victim sits on that iron chair doing penance in a white
sheet, the door is closed upon him, and the hole at the side
enables him to put out his head and gasp for life. When he
is sufficiently stuve the bolts are drawn, and what remains
of the man staggers forth into the sunshine. It is a
splendid cure, however, for rheumatism. A line of the
regular hot baths comes next in order, temperature 90°,
the water strongly impregnated Avith iron. About a
hundred yards farther on is a little building which covers
the sulphur bath, the most popular of all. The water is
only moderately warm, but has a tendency to soften the
skin as well as to open the pores to such an extent, that
the bather on emerging, especially if the day be warm,
cannot dry himself so great is the perspiration. The
greater part of the water has the common chalybeate taste
with the usual salutary effects. For my part I think
that half the cure of the invalids that flock to the Springs
arises from good air, cheerful society, good fare, and
absence for the time being of the anxieties of daily life.
He who brings his skeleton with him instead of locking
it up in his safe, may drink a whole mineral spring, sit
an entire day in the sentry-box, and sweat for a week in
the sulphur bath, but he will ever remain in a state of
biliary torpor. The air is so pure, the scenery is so lovely.

CALISTOGA. 63

the ramble through the woods, where the wild flowers
are in such lavish profusion, is so beneficial, that it is not
astonishing the dwellers in cities exult like escaped
prisoners when they come to Calistoga.

In front of the hotel is a large grotto, composed entirely
of the petrified trunks of trees. There is a forest of such
about four miles from the hotel. There are various
orders of trees, including the pine, the mansanita, the oak,
and others : some are prostrate, some upright, but there
they are stone witnesses of a past action of nature. My
theory is that the forest was covered in past ages with a
stream of silicious mud flowing from St. Helena, which
mud penetrated into and petrified these trees. Sub-
sequently the action of time and the elements wore away
the surrounding mud leaving the trees standing. Earth-
quakes and storms have thrown down some, and parasites
wind round the upright stems of others. The fact that
the trees were petrified ere they fell is proved by the cir-
cumstance that those which are prostrate are fractured as
stone pillars would be under similar conditions, not crushed
or split like ordinary trees. Between five or six miles
I'rom Calistoga are the AVhite Sulphur Springs, another
favourite resort for Californians. I Avas strongly recom-
mended to make the ascent of Mount St. Helena and
enjoy the view at sunrise, but I confess that I shunned the
fatigue. I was told that the panorama is superb, with the
whole valley at one's feet, and the bay of San Francisco
like a lake of silver in the distance.

During the season there is splendid shooting in the
neighbourhood of Calistoga. Since the warfare carried
<m by the farmers against coyotes, foxes, and other vermin,
that played such havoc with the small game, it has in-
creased wonderfully ; and it is no uncommon thing to see
colonics of quail running among the chapparal or low
brushwood, and perching on their bi-auches, for the

64 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

California quail porches even in liigh trees. IJotli the
brown bear and the grizzly are to be found up in the
mountains, as well as that delicious bird, Avrongly called
there the prairie hen, when it is in fact more allied to
the capercailzie of Norway, or the large grouse of British
Columbia. There is likewise a species of large hare that
abounds in this neighbourhood : it has immensely long
ears, whence it is vulgarly known by the name of 'Jackass
rabbit.'

Early one morning we left Calistoga in a kind of
char-a-banc, known here by the name of * mud waggon.'
Four good horses carried us over a spur of St. Helena
which gave us a faint idea of the view from the top of
the mountain. After a delightful ride of a few hours we
arrived at Healdsburg, a pretty little agricultural town,
well laid out and embosomed in trees. The town having
been founded by one Heald, he has taken care to hand
his name doAvn to posterity, not only through the name
of the place, but also of the majority of the buildings in
it ; for example we have Heald's Hotel, Heald's Institute,
which is a stationer's shop where they sell newspapers
and fruit, Heald's grocery, &c. Here we were intro-
duced to the renowned Foss, a man who drives faster,
drinks more whiskey, and has fewer accidents than any
stage coachman in California. He was the first man to
drive down the mountain's side to the Geysers before the
present zigzag road was made by Avhich the stage now
goes to the bottom of the valley. I was offered the
choice of going by the coach, or going on to a place called
Ray's, where horses are in readiness to cross the range.
Preferring to trust myself rather than anyone else, I chose
the latter, especially as on horseback one has less dust,
and can enjoy the scenery better. We drove to Ray's,
along a beautiful road through a country like an English
park, studded with clumps of trees with here and there

THE GEYSERS. 65

orchards of peaches and apples and 2)ears, together with
vineyards.

Ray lives by supplying horses to tourists, some five
unhappy Californian specimens of which were standing
with resigned looks awaitino^ our arrival.

Having selected one I got on, and began the winding
ascent of the mountains. The road was very steep, and
here I experienced the virtue of the Californian saddle
with its peak. I also discovered the hitherto hidden
virtue of my beast. No persuasion of whip or spur would
make him deviate from the nearest and best way to the
Geysers. He Avas bred, as were all the others, on the
ranche ; their life has been passed in taking travellers to
the Springs, and they will not be seduced into taking any
of the tempting short cuts leading the unwary to pleasant
pastui'cs but not to their destination. We had left Ray's
about four o'clock, and now the sun began to set. There
was a glorious flood of sunset over Russian River Valley;
a rush of purple light and the mountains of the coast
range grew grey and indistinct, till the moon, Avhich was
nearly at the full, rose slowly, changing the j)urple and
grey to yellow. Ever climbing, sometimes in the shade
of the movmtain, vhen the uncertainty of our Avay and
the gloom gave a sense of danger which engendered
silence, then emerging into the light again, we saw the
road and our party grew chatty and at ease. At length
we reached the top, and then began the real difficulty.
Our path lay along the ridge of the mountain called the
' Hog's Back,' covered with loose stones ; in some places
it is only about two yards wide with a precipice on each
side. Here we had to trust entirely to our horses. This
ridge is three miles in length, but appeared longer. At
last we arrived at the peak round which we skii-ted, and
before us lay the gloom of the forest. Like all California
mountains, one side exposed to the sea breeze was tree-

66 SIX MOXTIIS IX CALIFORNIA.

less, the otlicr looking cast densely wooded. Here wc
bid farewell to the much-prized moonlight, Legan to
descend, and wonder when we should get to the bottom.
Finally my faith in the horses began to be shaken ; it was
so dark, the trees were so high, and their outlines so alike,
that, had it not been for the constant jar on the horse's
shoulder, indicating that it was going down slowly and
steeply, I should have thought that the brute was de-
scribing a circle. At last, when really tired and unmis-
takably cross — when the sameness of the gait and the
dead silence around became very painful — a strange
sound was heard ; a hissing and then a villanous smell
of sulphur. I had hardly time to say, ' By Jove, Ave must
be near the Springs,' when a sudden turn in the road
brought us to a courtyard in the front of an hotel, full of
lights and bustle of unpacking mule trains, unslinging
saddle bags, helping to carry baggage, laughing and talk-
ing and forgetfulness of fatigue in the pleasure of arrival,
all in strange contrast Avith the desolation of the prcA'ious
moment ; and, where the moonlight streamed up the gorge,
it fell upon a column of steam.

The next morning was beautiful. The cold air con-
densed the vapour and it hung over the boiling springs.
The sun had risen, although it had not arrived at the
valley, but the tops of the opposite hills Avere glowing with
its beams. I started on the ascent of the great caiiou, and
toiling along over rocks and through dense brushwood
arrived at the first ebullition, tAvo large pits, seething,
bubbling, and SAvelling, Avith the ground crumbling under
one's feet, higher and higher up the gorge, till I came
to the top, about a mile from its commencement, where
the stream of mingled fresh and sulphurous Avater runs
away, and then the path dips over a ridge. The view
from the top was very striking. You look at the opposite
hills densely Avooded ; you see rising on each side the

THE GEYSEKS. 67

same heavily timbered precipices, from which tliere seems
to be no possibiHty of escape ; whilst all along the canon
is the noise of steam escaping, and great, grey, bare spots
where no vegetation exists ; these are beds of sulphur
nearly pure. Descending carefully, and peering into
innvnnerable boiling s])rings, you arrive at the large
Geyser, which is frightfully impressive. You climb up
scoriae and piles of hot sulphur, and look into an immense
cauldron of black boiling pitch water, always intensely
agitated ; and now and then, as if struggling to get away
from the undercurrent of torment, it makes one vast
upheave, and you fear that it is going to overwhelm you.
I cannot describe this perpetual strife — this fearful
strussle of nature. It is what is n-oinsf on under the
earth's crust laid bare in a small Avay to poor weak man,
who can only look, fear, wonder, and comprehend nothing.
I lowered a bottle ; it split into a thousand pieces. With
a second I was more careful, allowed it to temper, and
filled it. During our descent I collected five different
sorts of water : one like vinegar, strongly impregnated
with alum, used by the Indians as a lotion for the eyes ;
one that deposits green crystals of copper ; one boiling hot,
one clear and tasteless, one of sulphur and iron. In a large
pool you can bathe either in hot water or cold, a spring
of pure cold Avater flows in on one side, on the other boils
up one of the thousand geysers. Immense beds of pure
sulphur cover one side of the caiion, at the bottom of
which a gentle streamlet winds its way out of this valley
of the shadow of death.

68 SIX AIOMIIS IN CALirOKMA.

THE YOSEMITH valley.

What traveller is there that comes to California who
does not^ almost immediately on arrival, ask about the
Yosemite? The ignorance of some is supreme. They
think they can take a carriage from the hotel, and go
there as to a picnic ; just as miners in the olden days,
who used to wander about the outskirts of the town
looking for the diggings. For my part, I confess that
one of my great inducements in visiting California was a
pilgrimage to the valley.

The usual tour formerly was by way of the Big Trees,
thence across the country to Coulterville. Now, how-
ever, in consequence of the railroads to those places being
partially finished, I was advised to go to the Yosemite and
return, doing the Big Trees separately. I recommend
all travellers to do the same, and have as little to do with
stages as possible. The roads are rough and dusty.
There is no limit to the number of passengers ; some
of them Chinese, who smoke execrable cigarettes. In
short a stage journey is an infliction to be borne in
order to travel from one place to another; you are
choked with the dust, starved by the dirt and badness
of the meals, w^earied with the ceaseless jolting, and
bored to death by the monotony of the scenery. Having
thus said I shall never refer to this discomfort again,
only let it be perfectly understood that, when I mention
stage travel, I have suffered as above described.

I left San Francisco at four o'clock in the afternoon
by steamboat for Stockton, preferring this longer way

SHERMAN ISLAND. 69

to the more expeditious rail, as I proposed returning
by that mode of travel. "\Ve steamed along the bay,
retracing my previous path until the mouth of the river
San Joaquim was reached. It Avas a lovely evening,
and the setting sun had a magnificent effect upon old
Monte Diablo as we rounded its base, for the bay literally
winds round the base of the mountain. At the delta
of the river we came to a remarkable instance of fertility,
in the shape of several islands that were formerly tule
marshes, but which have been reclaimed, immense drains
having been dug across them, and being surrounded with
a wall or dyke to resist the encroachments of the tide.
Sherman Island, containing about twenty thousand acres,
was one of the earliest reclaimed, and still remains the
most valuable. Immense crops of grain, potatoes, and beets
are raised, the two latter attaining huge proportions ; and,
to give an idea of the first, I will only say that fifty-eight
acres of wheat yielded more than four thousand bushels
this year, being nearly seventy bushels to the acre.
The soil is inexhaustible being composed of the diluvium
of ages.

Had it not been for the bright stars overhead and the
absolute repose that I enjoyed, I should have found
the latter part of the journey monotonous. The river
winds its way through a boundless expanse of tule
marsh, and the silence is only broken by the throbbing
of our engine, or the croaking of myriads of frogs. There
is no hum of midnight as in the trojjics, where animal
and insect life alike rejoice in the coolness. The river
is the most winding I ever travelled uj)on in my life.
Through the dimness of the night I could see the
great mainsail of a schooner as it apparently drifted
slowly by us, and yet I thought I could distinguish
the banks of the river between us. It was so, that
vessel was going the same way that avc were, and was

70 SIX MONTHS IX CALirORXIA.

five or six miles ahead of us by water but only a ]»istol-
shot distance by land. To a stranger the navigation
of the river is exceedingly difficult, as there are many
sloughs that are larger than the river itself at their
mouths, which might easily be mistaken for the main
stream, and which end in a labyrinth of smaller sloughs
wherein the voyager gets bewildered. A gentleman
from San Francisco who ventured to go up the San
Joaquim in a sloop with only a boy to assist him, got
lost in that way for a Avhole week, and was only rescued
at last by some Mexican fishermen who had seen his
signal from the masthead. A slough (pronounced here
as the word plough) means an arm of the nver that runs
for miles and miles inland ending as I have said.

Stockton is situated on one of these sloughs, and its
position was so chosen because it is the head of deep
water navigation, except during the time of the melting
of the snows, when steamers can go a hundred miles
higher up the river. Stockton formerly enjoyed the
same advantages that have been stated about Sacra-
mento. It was the grand depot for all the southern
mines. Every evening the great plain that stretches
away from the town was alive with the loaded waggons,
and merry -with the sound of the bells of the mule-
trains going to Mokelumne, Sonora, Columbia, Mariposa,
Hornitas, Knight's Ferry, James ToAvn, and the numerous
mining camps so rich in their surface diggings. In this
respect Stockton Avas much more picturesque than Sacra-
mento ; for the whole of the carrying trade encamped
on this plain, and at night the twinkle of many lights,
the song of the muleteer (they were all ^Mexicans),
and his vociferous talk to his animals, the auhnation
of much life, and in the grey morning everything was
astir. Stockton is now the great grain depot for the
valley of the San Joaquim, which is one of the granaries

STOCKTOX. COULTER VI LLE. 71

of California, for the Calaveras county, rich both in
cattle and grain. It is a pretty little city in a great
plain bounded by the foot-hills of the Sierras on une
side and the jNIonte Diablo range on the other. All
its houses have- nice gardens, and their orchards are full
of peach, pear, and cherry trees ; apples don't thrive
well. The peaches are especially delicious. Stockton
is called the City of Windmills. The town depends
upon its wells for water which, according to the American
mauual-labour-saving-systeni, must be mechanically raised
to an elevated tank, and thence distributed according to
the laws of pneumatics.

From Stocktcln we took the train to Modesta, which
is as far as the San Joaquim Valley Branch of the
Central Pacific is made. The road lay for the whole
distance along the great plain, which is brilliant with
flowers in early spring, but then was bare as an adobe
brick, with the exception of here and there a low bush
with bright green leaves, which I was informed was
a datura and a deadly poison ; no cattle will touch it,
and it grows where all other vegetation would perish.
At Modesta I took the stage to Coulterville, where I
joined a party who were going the rest of the journey
on horseback. The livery stablekeeper at this place
has always a supply of horses on hand ready for this
emergency. At daybreak we had the usual allowance
served out of bad coffee, redeemed in this instance, how-
ever, by fresh eggs and good home-made bread, in the
place of those indigestible balls called hot cakes. We
rode after breakfast over barren but wild scenery, large
croppings of trap-rock starting out of the hot hill-side,
oaks without a breath of air to quiver their green leaves ;
fir trees began to occur at intervals, showing that we were
gaining in elevation ; in fact, we were now among the
foot-hills of the Sierras. After ten or twelve miles

72 SIX MONTHS I.V CAIJFORMA.

ri(lin<r Ave (lisinouiitcd, and Avent to sec what is called
Bower Cave, one of those houses that nature builds.
It is about a hundred feet deep, but I would not go
out of my way to see it. After this the scenery became
very fine. Again I was among the grand old pines,
and the whole air Avas aromatic with the smell of the
forest. We turned out of the beaten track to see a small
grove of genuine big trees. Our guide pointed out two
to us which he said bore the name of the ' Siamese
Twins ; ' they are noble trees, and both grow from one
root. The place is called Crane Flat. We slept there,
and the following day set off as early as possible for the
valley. Fifteen miles rough riding through the same
glorious mountain scenery brought us to the heights
above the valley, where avc were recommended to rest
awhile. After that a most fatiguing descent they call
it, but it was more like a fall of five miles in and
out, zig-zag, over rocks and stones, stumbling, stopping,
sliding, everything but falling, till Ave got to the bottom,
and then seven miles more to the hotel.

The Yosamite Valley proper is seven miles long. It
can hardly be called a valley. It is in reality a rift in
the earth's surface. Let the reader fancy such a chasm,
of a Avidth A'arying from one mile to ninety feet, Avith
granite Avails from one thousand to four thousand feet ;
that is to say, from one-fifth to three-quarters of a mile
high. Let him imagine some of these masses of rock to
be detached, and standing in all their solitude like giant
obelisks. Let him picture others cleft from top to
bottom as though by a thunder-bolt. Added to this let
him imagine a river, cold as ice and clear as crystal,
folloAving the Avindiugs of the valley, that same river
having descended as from the clouds Avith the thunder
of a great flood. Let him conceive the most luxuriant
vegetation and the extreme of barrenness, the softest

THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. ITS SCEXERY. 73

carpet of moss and grassy lawns and great ferns and Avild
roses, alternating with the huge scathed rocks, where not
even the lichen will cling, and then he will have a prosaic
idea of the Valley of tlie Yosemitc.

But it is impossible to describe the endless charms
of light and shade and colour and form, or to picture
the sunbeam as it strikes the summit of one of the giant
sentinels, or to note it stealing down the sides of the cold
walls and then filling the whole valley with a flood
of glory, relieved here and there by the deepest shade,
more gloomy still by contrast. Here are spots where
the sun never shines, cold and damp and dripping for
ever, and others where the gorge opens its arms wide
to receive the bridegroom and bask in his rays ; some
where the river hurries along anxious to be free from
its stony prison, and others where it expands into a
still deej) lake, as if for rest and enjoyment of the lovely
scene, for it takes it all in, and in its inmost depths the
whole valley is mirrored.

I have not mentioned the Falls, nor can I think that
any two men can describe them alike. Both the man
who looked upon them practically as good water-power
and he who fainted from excess of emotion on beholding
them were true in their own way, but how different was
their mental vision. For my part I was conscious of
a waving in the air of thin streams of water that looked
like spun glass, elsewhere of an overwhelming sound
of mighty floods, an overpowering sensation that made
me gaze into the unfathomable deep that received them ;
at another time a feeling of being carried away by a
torrent, and yet everything moving but myself. At one
place there was a still stranger feeling of everything
moving but the water.

The reader will perhaps understand this when I detail
the course of the valley, which 1 will now proceed to do.

74 SIX MOXTIIS IN CALIFORNIA.

First of all, as everybody is told l)y the guide, the word
Yosemite is the Indian for Big Grizzly Bear. It is
not one Avord but three or four joined together. There
are two ways of entering the valley, the one by the
Mariposa and the other by the Coulterville trail. The
place where the traveller first strikes the view of the
valley from Coulterville is called ' The Stand-point of
Silence.' That from Mariposa is called ' Inspiration
Point.' True to the trapper instinct of the Western
man the American names everything, and almost all
the names in and about the valley were given by one
Hutchings, who first located the valley and established
the first and for a long time the only hotel there. Con-
sequently he sought the most romantic and captivating
names, and being a bit of a scholar, having edited a
magazine in San Francisco, he did not choose badly,
although perhaps it would have been in better taste
to have adhered more strictly to the significant Indian
names. The view from ' Stand-point ' is very grand.
The valley is a mile below you apparently plumb at
your feet ; a haze covers the lowest part. Immense fir-
trees are dwarfed by the distance. The bridal vale looks
like a stream of water whose flow has been suspended,
for you see no motion, nor at that distance can you hear
the sound of falling waters. The bridal veil is the first
object that is pointed out after you have descended into
the valley. It appears to be a mere vaporous, but
is nevertheless a considerable, volume of water flowing
from a great height. Hardly two days in the year
is this volume the same ; a warm day in spring, or a warm
rain, will melt the snows that feed it ; the contrary will
lock up its sources of supply ; and so it goes on, ever
falling but ever changing, till summer, when it dwindles
to a mist of water and finally ceases altogether. The
Indian name is Pohono, meaning spirit of evil wind.

THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. 7o

Next we come to the Cathedral Rocks, 2,660 feet high,
with the Cathedral Spires, two granite needles, 2,400 feet
in elevation. Then looms the solitary Sentinel Rock,
grey and fissured ; it stands at a bend of the valley as
a watch upon those approaching, and is 3,043 feet above
the river. After tliat climb up some rocks slippery
with spray, yourself drenched Avith it, and at intervals
you will catch a glimpse of the Vernal Falls, which
are only three times as high as Niagara. This is an
immense body of water as green as grass, and it appears
to come down noiselessly till it strikes the basin below.
Not so the Wild Cat Falls, Avhich are not far off, for
they come rushing and whirling and seething, and one
might say scratching their way among great boulders,
some of which they leap over whilst others divide their
waters. For some distance now the journey along the
valley is somewhat fatiguing, and if the traveller be
a good walker he had better dismount. In fict the
whole of the valley is done best on foot, if time and
strength will allow it. Nevada Fall nexts greets us.
It is an immense sheet of water at the early part of the
year, and is the main stream of the river INIerced, the
others being merely branches or forks. This comes
shooting: over a smooth unbroken ledge 700 feet over
our heads, and plunges into a chasm with a roar that
imposes silence. After these falls the valley widens,
and the river here has spread out to the lovely jNlirror
Lake, covering eight acres of ground. It is immensely
deep and as still as death ; the whole of the surrounding
objects are reflected in it with startling distinctness.
The water is so dark, and the objects in the sunshine
are so bright, that their image is mirrored to the minutest
detail. I was told that photograi)hs have been taken
here that for a moment puzzled the beholder which was
the right side up. The last and greatest fall of all is

76 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

very properly named tlic Yosemlte, it is more than half
a mile high, being 2,641 feet above the valley, and
claims to be the highest known waterfall in the world,
although recent travels say that one on the Yellowstone
river surpasses it. The fall is broken near the middle
by a projecting ledge of rock, excepting at the time of
floods, when it shoots with such velocity from above
as entirely to pass beyond the obstacle. Three elegantly
shaped pyramidical rocks now present themselves; they
are christened the Three Brothers, but as they all lean
forward in one direction, the Indians say that they are
playing at leap frog, Avhich is one of their games. The
valley ends Avith the grand old Rock ^lountain now
called El Caj)itan, but by the Indians the Chief. It is
the most massive, grand and majestic of the Avhole series.
The top appears to be flat in the distance, but sheer
down from that 4,000 feet of bold rounded granite bluff.
It stands there like a fortress, grey, gaunt, and com-
manding. Well might the Indian reverence it as the
Head or Chief. The great trees on its summit, as they
show through openings in the mist that is sweeping
over it, appear like nine-pins, and the Three Brothers
that would be giants elsewhere are dwarfs here.

The old mythological Titans recurred to my mind
more than once during my trip up the valley. These
great rocks are so mighty, so desolate, so powerful to
all appearance, and yet so still, so beat upon by storm
and yet remaining in such unmoved majesty, that I
could not but create this as the valley they were confined
in by the younger gods, and that their giant forms were
changed into these gaunt masses of granite.

The ascent of the Sentinel Rock is practicable from
its eastern side, but as it is a long and fatiguing trip, not
giving as good a view of the valley as from Inspiration
Point, I did not undertake it. I have attempted to give

THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. 77

a general description of this wondrous caiion, but the
camera is a more faithful and expressive delineator than
I am, and the numerous photographs that are published
fully illustrate that which 1 have but catalogued. Those
who are weary of European travel will be amply repaid
by visiting California, the greatest of whose attractions,
in point of grandeur of scenery, is without exception the
Yoseraitc Valley.

SIX MO.XTIIS IN CALIFORNIA.

THE BIG TREES.

These I have always called by their popular name, and
the only one they are known by in California, for were I
to inquire the best way of seeing the Sequoia (jirjantea or
the WeUingtonia, I should most probably be told that
they didn't know such a person ; so I will confine myself
to the old familiar term.

I went to Stockton as before on my trip to the Yose-
mite, this time however by rail. Left San Francisco at
four o'clock, crossed the bay to Oakland, jumped into the
cars, and was in Stockton a little after eight. Xothing
very striking on this line excepting the scenery through
Livermore's Pass, Avhich is in the ]Monte Diablo range of
mountains. Early the following morning by train on the
Copperopolis line as far as INlilton, along the plains all the
way. Copperopolis was famous at one time as containing
mines of untold wealth. An immense deposit of copper
was found there ; mines were sunk in all directions ;
claims were taken up, companies formed, and as usual an
excitement took place. The Union Mine "was sold for a
million and a half of dollars. Copper ore was found
everywhere, large quantities were shipped to England,
and all seemed to be flourishing, when the Swansea panic
ensued. Chilian and Australian copper was a drug, and
of course poor little Copperopolis was nowhere. There
is not a sinole mine Avorkino;, nor has one cent been
returned of the hundreds of thousands sunk in develop-
ing them. Still the copper is there and the mines can be
worked should the price rise. From Copperopolis through

murphy's. 79

Calaveras county by stage. I say no more than that
we arrived that evenmg at a very comfortable hotel at
Murphy's. After a capital breakfast the following morn-
ino- I hired a horse and set off for the Trees. I should
mention before hand that Murphy's was at one time one
of tlie busiest mining camps in the southern district.
Millions of dollars have been taken out from the streams
and gulches that surround it. CroAvds of people filled its
streets nightly, shopping, drinking, and gambling. To-
day all is quiet. A few companies are working deep
claims, there is some little hydraulic washing going on,
but to all intents and pui-poses the town of Murphy's is
a dead letter. "Whether ]\Iurphy remains there I know
not ; whether he is alive I did not inquire, but should he
be in the spirit Avorld his ghost will flit in melancholy
mood among empty stores and shanties and houses which
don't even take the trouble to announce themselves as
' To let ' — they are so hopeless, so forlorn.

I did not enjoy a ride during my whole stay in Cali-
fornia more than this. The fresh morning air came down
from the })ine-clad mountains, everything was in perfect
harmony with the equilibrium of my physical self. I
had slept well, had enjoyed a good breakfast, my horse
appeared to be a good animal, and I was going to see one
of the wonders of California.

The road was a gradual ascent ; by its side ran a braw-
ling brook, just as one sees in England, and the first road-
i^ide streamlet that 1 had met with in California. It Avas
side by side with mc for about three miles, leaping and
dancing, sometimes shaking the tips of large ferns as they
slanted over its suriace, and then sliding down great smooth
slabs of stone, or clattering over the small talk of pebbles.
I loved that little brook. jSfy romance was somewhat
dis})cllcd on arriving at the top of a ridge, by the discovery
that it was only the waste water of a ditch, or flume, that

80 SIX ^fo^•TIIs ix California.

was carrying part of the north fork of the Stanislaus river
to some mines in the mountains.

]\Iy way now lay across a broad plateau laid out in one
of nature's parks. Immense oaks of every variety, horse
chesnuts, the numerous species of fir trees (conspicuous
among them the Douglas pine), which in height but not
in girth rivals the Seijuoia gujantea. Under my horse's
feet the softest sward covered with pine leaves, that are
always dry and always aromatic. The very air was life-
giving, and, as I wended my almost noiseless way, no
sound of beast or bird broke upon the silence save the
mournful cooing of the mountain wood-pigeon, which
grows to a large size in these altitudes. The distant
landscape, as seen through vista after vista, was grand
in the extreme — the long roll of the foot-hills gradually
melting into the great plains, the mists that hung over
these shining in the sun like an ocean ; and, on the
other hand, almost over my head, the cold sharp white
peaks of the Sierras. For a time the mountain chain
would appear to be broken, but, far in the distance, the
eye would light upon what appeared to be a marble city in
the heavens, of white domes and palaces and spires, such
as the apostle of the Apocalypse was permitted to behold.
It is the cluster called Castle Peak, sixty miles off, whose
base is hidden by the clouds.

I heard a sound of dogs barking, and it was a relief,
for even beauty becomes monotonous, especially when one
is alone wuth it and jogging along to a certain destination,
which naturally one is anxious to reach.

It was the 'half-Avay house,' where the stages and
travellers stop, for it becomes almost a duty to alight at
the only house on the road, especially a hostel in the
Sierras. The place is owned by a Mexican, and ' tended '
by his housekeeper, who has a considerable degree of
Indian mingled with a squeeze or two of Castilian blood.

THE EIG TREES. 81

They eke out tlicir living by selling lager beer and bad
whiskey to the passers-by and the vaqueros, who watch
the herds that pasture on the table-lands and in the valleys.
She showed me several fine skins of the silver and red fox,
grey wolf, skins of birds, squirrels, &c., and sells them fur
a higher price than you can buy them in the city. But
then the charm of having bought them ou the very spot
from the hands of the hunter, this it is which enhances
their value, and swells the revenue of the landlord of the
half-way house.

Soon after leaving this place the forest becomes denser,
and it is necessary to keep to the trail, for, once lost in
the pathless woods, the chances are that you will be lost
for ever, unless the superior intellect of your horse extri-
cates you from your dilemma. The great straight trees
were here in all their majesty, now and then a dead bough
would fall to the ground and almost startle one by break-
ing the silence. Further on I came to a saw mill. I had
heard the unAvonted sound of labour some two or three
miles off, and the sharp ring of the axe echoed like a
warning among the trunks of the trees. For theu* turn
will come some day, and the more upright the trunk, the
j)urer the grain, and the sounder the heart, the more surely
will the axe be laid to the root. So it is elsewhere, but
I wont moralise. I Avas glad when they told me that I
had only two miles farther to go to the trees. The road
now began to descend, and little streams ran across and
soaked themselves into it, making it rather soft treading
for my horse in some places, but I suppose he Avas accus-
tomed to it as doubtless this was not his first visit. Indeed
I Avas soon conscious that he Avas an old stager from an
increased animation in his gait, and evident desire to fct
to the end of the journey. Presently I arrived at that
mark of civilisation a signpost, on which Avas inscribed,
iu storm-beaten letters, ' To the Dig Trees Hotel.' Down

82 SIX MOXTII.S IX CALIFORXIA.

a little fenced lane, and straight before me stood the first
two of the monarchs of this grove that I had seen — the
* Sentinels ' — the road to the hotel craftily arranged to pass
between them. I was told by everybody that I should
be disappointed in my first view, so I wasn't. They are
not so symmetrical as the Mariposa trees, nor so graceful
as the Douglas pine, but they are awfully grand. Their
tops are all gone, stricken off perchance by the lightnings
that have played among them for fifteen hundred years.
Their summits are ragged and gaunt and riven with the
storms and the hail-beat and the snow drifts of centuries,
but their giant frames are as noble as their stature is vast
and their bulk enormous. Their roots are deep in the
ground, and Avell they need be to resist the blast and draw
up nourishment for the trunk. One thing about these
trees is very striking, and that is the great height at which
the first branch springs from the parent stem. A hundi'ed
and fifty feet from the ground a small sprig apparently
shoots out nearly at right angles, cut it off and a
mighty tree comes thundering down. This is verified by
measuring the limbs of those which are prostrate.

Here is a very pretty hotel, well kept by the same people
as that of Murphy's. No guide is here wanted, so I wan-
dered about untrammelled by one of these necessary
nuisances. The ' Mammoth Tree Grove' is at the bottom
of a shallow basin in the mountains. To be irreverent
to such an ancient fane, I would say a soup plate rather
than a basin, for the bottom is flat and the sides rise very
little above it. The trees are, according to some botanists,
of the same family as the California red wood so much
used for building purposes ; indeed, a scientific gentleman
with whom I became acquainted assured me. that it was
the red wood much increased in size under peculiar
advantages of soil and situation. I am almost inclined to
agree with him. The foliage of the two is precisely alike.

THE BIG TREES. 83

the cone is the same, and the colour and perfume of the
wood are similar. Now the peculiar condition under which
these big trees find themselves eminently conduce to their
growth. The soil is as rich and virgin as undisturbed ac-
cumulation can make it. There is no limit to its depth.
Streams of Avater trickle over its surface and penetrate its
inmost recesses. The floor of the grove is perpetually-
green, and great forests shelter it all around. Xo wonder
then that, with these advantages, the red w^ood, itself a
giant, became greater than the giants the demigods of
the forest.

The proprietors of the grove have named almost every
one of their ninety trees, and I cannot say that I admire
their nomenclature. That they intend it to be final is
evidenced by the fact that they are painted on tablets
which are let into the trees. That they should have
Washington and Lincoln is natural enough, but Avhen one
finds tliese hoary monarchs named after Starr King and
minor unknown California lights, we look upon it in the
light of lese majestc.

There are some redeeming names however. For
instance a group of three that intertwine their topmost
branches is called the ' Three Graces ; ' another is called
' Hercules ' very appropriately, for his trunk is immense.
One other, standing away from the rest, is called the
' Hermit ;' and a noble tree bears the title of the ' Pride of
the Forest.' That is better than localising them.

The average height of the trees is three hundred feet.
One of them, called the ' Horseman's Itide,' has been
prostrate for a long time as the soil has accumulated high
up its sides. It is hollow, and a man on horseback can
ride upright along the cavity for a distance of seventy-five
feet. This tree must have been four hundred and fifty feet
high, and forty feet in diameter. On the stump of the large
tree that was cut down in 1854 a room has been built,

G 2

84 SIX iMOXTilS L\ CALIFOKNIA.

which is thirty feet across. When this tree was separated
from its trunk by dint of five men boring holes and saw-
ing for twenty-two days, the base was so large that the
severed part would not fall ; nothing but a hun-icane
would have lifted it away. However, })y a system of
levers and wedges, tliey at last tipped over this king
refusing to abdicate, and now profane his fallen might by
playing ten-pins, along his body, and a very good ten-pin
alley he makes too.

The wild flowers here are exceedingly beautiful. The
succession of seasons gives a series of species from the
hardy shrub of the north to the warm-coloured, highly
perfumed floAver of the sunny south. Roses and azalias,
snowdrops and most fragrant lilies, the dogwood tree
with its snowy blossoms, all take their turn after the
May sun has melted the snow. In winter the house is
shut up, and left in charge of the motionless sentinels.

The visitor will notice how many of the trees are
damaged by fire at their base, and, on inquiring the reason
of such Vandalism, will be told that it was done by Indians
in the days when no White man trod these wilds. The
grove was a favourite resort for game on account of her-
bage and water. The Indians used to surround it, and
then set fire to the grass which, communicating with the
trunks of the trees, di'ove out the animals. The bark how-
ever I was happy to learn, although fifteen to eighteen
inches thick, is rapidly growing over the burnt spots, and
I was astonished at being shown how much it had grown
on one tree in two years. As an instance of the vitality
of these monsters I may mention, that the tree is yet alive
whose bai'k was stripped off and exhibited at the Syden-
ham Palace, alas ! onlv to be destroved bv fire.

MIXES AND MIXING . 85

MINES AND MINING.

The richest gold mines in the world, and the most
favourably situated. There is gold in Siberia, but it
is obtained amid the severities of the arctic region. There
arc 'Afric's golden sands,' but none but a negro can
collect them. The mines of Australia are devoid of
water compared with those of California, and are more
difficult to mine in consequence of the gold lying at a
great depth. In this state, the miner can work for ten
months of the year with no other shelter than a tent, and
no floor but the bare ground. For six months he can
live under his leafy ramade, made out of the branches
of the chapparal. As regards ' placer ' diggings it is the
luxury of mining, and formerly was more so than at
present.

In the early days, a party say of four or six, left
a mining camp. A mule Avas packed with their tools,
blankets, &c. and a sack of flour and some bacon. Each
of them carried a riiie or gun, and thus equipped they
plunged into the hitherto unknown and unprospccted
country. I will presume them to know something about
mining, and to be able to read ' signs,' and wash a pan of
dirt. They follow one of the forks of a river, and pros-
pect the gulches as they go along. They notice where the
river makes a sudden bend, and forthwith they cut down
a few trees that jrrow on its banks and make a wintj dam •
that is to say, they shunt off the river where the eddy is,

86 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA,

as it rounds tlie corner, and, havinr^ diverted it, prospect
the bottom. If it promises well there they camp. Their
wing dam is strenfrthened, the river bed is exposed, and
some of the party are despatched to the nearest mining
town for a stock of provisions. By and bye other
prospectors would come along, and would be shown how
they were doing without the least hesitation, for there
was no jealousy in those days, no petty concealment
either of good or bad luck, and always a hearty welcome
for the wayfarer. Those were the golden days of Cali-
fornia ere it was scratched and raked and poked into
and burrowed, as it is now. Those were the days of
rockers, and long toms, and coarse gold, that begged to
be dug up and coined and sent on its travels over the
world. Those were the days when men were rich at
noon on Saturday and returned to their claim on Monday
morning cleaned out by the gamblers. Those were the
days when everything w^as paid for in dust, and the scales
were rather in favour of the shopkeeper, and gold was
only worth fourteen and fifteen dollars an ounce in the
mines, at least the agents of the San Francisco bankers
would not give more. Those were the easy, extravagant,
rich, wicked, thoughtless, generous, happy days of Cali-
fornia. They were the early days of gold mining.

To-day it is very different ; mining has become a
science, a labour, a work wherein mere animal force
alone will not suffice ; a work requiring brain, patience,
and capital ; and it is of this last, which has personally
come under my observation that I proceed to speak.
Gold, silver, and quicksilver are the principal products
of the country, and it is with gold that I will begin.

Gold mines may be divided into two generic heads —
placer mines and quartz mines — all others are subservient
to one or the other of these. In placer mining the gold
is found with gravel, sand, clay, or other foreign sub-

MIXES AST) MIXING. 87

stance. In quartz mining the gold is either in veins, or
permeated in quartz. In the first instance the gold is
free, in the second it is imprisoned. In the one case
water is used to cleanse the precious metal from its
impurities, in the other mechanical force is employed to
release it from its bonds.

"Water is the most precious commodity in California,
and nature has bountifully supplied her with it. There
are the American, Sacramento, Yuba, Feather, Bear,
Tuolumne, Stanislaus, San Joaquim, and many other
rivers running through the different mining regions, the
head-waters of which are brought by flumes or ditches
to supply the hydraulic or sluice washings. These two
latter are alone employed in placer mining. A sluice is
a large trough of strong timber, into which the pay dirt
is thrown, and a stream of water passed through. The
trough is slightly inclined, the angle being varied ac-
cording to the nature of the diggings. The general
width of the sluice is from a foot and a half to four feet,
and its depth from eighteen inches to two feet. It is
sometimes a mile long. The end of each trough fits
into the end of the one immediately after it, and the
whole is sufficiently raised from the ground to allow the
miners to turn the dirt over as the water runs through
it. The bottom of the sluice is covered with what are
termed riffle bars, that is, transverse pieces of wood
which catch the heavy gold as the water separates it
from the earth. These riffles are of many sha})es and
devices. Sometimes they are merely strips of wood
nailed across. In others, round })ieces of wood made
of sawn sections of a tree are laid on the bottom, touching
each other at points in the circumference, the intervening
holes being the traj)s for the gold. This is the best
sort as they protect the bottom of the sluice from being
worn away by the stones and gravel, and are easily taken

88 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORXIA.

up and replaced. The sluice being pretty ■well filled
with dirt almost alono; its entire lenjjth, the ■water is
turned on. It dissolves the finer particles of clay and
dirt, washes away the sand, rolls down the stones and
boulders, for everything is shovelled, and men stand all
along to tliroAv out the stones and gravel after they are
washed quite clean. When the water has been running
a certain time quicksilver is introduced at the head of the
flume, which works its way slowly downwards, all through
the dirt, gathering the particles of fine gold in its course,
and formino; an amalgam which sinks into one of the
riffle holes. Were the gold coarse the quick.silver
would not be wanted ; but as every species of earth is
thrown into the sluice, from the top dirt down to that
resting on the bed rock, of necessity much fine gold
is mixed Avith it, for as a general maxim it may be
laid down that surface dirt contains only fine gold, and
the deeper you go the coarser the gold becomes. Well,
man and w^ater go on working away all day, he supplying
the waste made by the water, and the quicksilver goes
stealing about picking up stray particles, and the boulders
are jerked out wdth a blunt fork when they get bright
and clean. Young miners use their fingers at first for
that purpose, but they soon leave off when the cracks
come in their hands. This goes on sometimes for a
fortnight, sometimes for a month, the sluice being watched
at night, for there are always inquisitive people who
like to peep into the riffles, and have no scruple at
helping themselves. At the end of this fortnight or
month, called a * run,' comes the cleaning up. No more
dirt is thrown in, and the water is allowed to flow till
it runs out of the end quite clear. The riffles are taken
up one after another, and that which has lodged in them
washed down until it can be scooped up with a kind of
large spoon and put into a pan. This is the most

MIXES AND ilLXIXG. 89

interesting and important moment for the miners. It is
a kind of holiday as Avell, for the labour is little or
nothing. The body of them follow the riffles to the end,
leaning anxiously over the sluice until the last batch
of amalgam, or lumps of coarse gold, are taken out ;
that is, Avhen they are all partners, as Avas more the
case formerly than now. To-day a sluice claim is often
owned by one or two who hire labour to work it.

Ground sluicing is a primitive but very rapid way
of mining. Suppose a small dry gulch runs up the sides
of the hill, Avater is brought to its head and flushed
along it, while workmen stir up the bottom as the stream
flows along, so as to wash aAvay the clay and sand and
gi'avel, and leave the gold comparatively bare. This is
rather a wasteful method of mining, and can only be
used when the gulch is rich and the gold coarse.

But the most powerful placer mining agent is the
hydraulic power. A stream of water is led to a small
reservoir connecting with a hose of from four to ten
inches in diameter. This hose is made of very heavy
duck sometimes strengthened with iron bands. The
nozzle is like that of a fire or garden engine narrowing
to its end. Two men hold it, the water is let on! The
nozzle is turned towards the side of a hill and im-
mediately it begins to melt away. Great care, however,
must be taken not to brinjr too much of the overhancins
cliff down at once. The Avhole system is undermining
or sapping the base, so they i)lay away below, and with
the usual improvidence of miners and anxiety to bring
down as much earth as possiI)le, they frequently go too
far and get buried. AVhen that is the case they have to
be washed out in their turn. It is incredible what this
hydraulic power will j)crform. At Tmibuctoo miles of
the mountains' sides are washed away. The Yuba, into
which run all the tailings, or waste earth, has its bed

90 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

raised seventy feet by tliis cause alone. With two
hundred inches of water, two hundred and fifty thousand
cubic feet of dirt can be washed in a working week.
Now supposing the cubic foot to contain only one cent
of gold, that would make a good sura. But three cents
a foot may be taken as a low average, so it will be seen
that a company of miners can afford to spend a small
capital in bringing water to such a claim. The water,
however, is generally brought by another company, who
charge the miners for the use of it at rates varying from
twenty to fifty cents an inch. The force with which
the stream issues from the nozzle of the hose is so great
that it would kill a man instantly did it strike him.

There are at present more than five thousand miles of
artificial watercourses in California for mining purposes.
The average size of these ditches is eight feet wide at the
top, six at the bottom, and three feet deep, with a grade
of from twelve to eighteen feet to the mile. These
flumes traverse the mountains in all directions, sometimes
crossing ravines on the delicate yet strong trestle work
that the Americans have brought to perfection. Along
the Truckee ditch a flume eight miles long hangs on the
side of a canon. Of late iron pipes have been used;
formerly all the flumes Avcre of inch and a half planking.
These ditches have cost in the neighbourhood twenty mil-
lions of dollars ; and they have rendered mines available
for working that would have remained untouched by pick
or shovel to this day.

An inch of water in the mines is not a very well
defined measurement, for the methods of delivering it
differ in almost every camp. In many instances an
"opening, one inch high and twenty-four long, is made
with a pressure of six inches, which would give twenty-
four inches. So that here an inch of water is that
quantity which passes through an aperture of a square

MIXES AND MIXIXG. 91

inch under a six-inch pressure. That -svould give 2,274
cubic feet in twenty-four hours. Now a cubic foot
being nearly seven and a half gallons, it Avould be equal
to 17,055 gallons in that time. In Eldorado county
there is no pressure, but the aperture is three inches
high and one wide. It will be obvious to all that the
flow depends upon the pressure.

It is not easy to estimate the average cost of washing
by the hydraulic process, as the nature of the material
acted upon varies so considerably. The earth may be
hard or soft, stubborn cement or loose gravel. With
one pipe, of an inch and a half or two inches diameter,
a boy can excavate and wash as much earth in one day
as ten men. In some gravel claims the same force will
wash as much as twenty men could do. At other places
the strong cement has to be blasted before the hose
is brought into play. In some claims one pipe will
bring down as much material as three pipes will wash
away, whilst others require three pipes to bring down
that which one pipe can wash away. By washing away,
I mean of course passing the loosened dirt through the
sluice. Take for example a claim that uses 300 inches
of water, and estimate, as is generally done, an inch of
water to be equivalent to a supply of 145 lbs. a minute,
or 8,700 lbs. an hour, then 300 inches Avill supi)ly 15,000
tons in a day of twelve hours. It is calculated that the
water removes one-fifth of its weight, which would give
3,000 tons of earth displaced daily, and that by two men,
giving 1,500 tons to the man. The following calculation
has been made of the relative expense of washing a
cubic yard of gravel : —

By liiind in tlio tin pan, about |^15'00
By tlie rocker . . „ 4 00

By the Lonf^ Tom . „ J-OO

By the sluice . . „ -St

By hydraulic washing „ 'OG

92 SIX MOXTIIS IX CALIFORNIA.

This includes the cost of the water. Tlic Blue Gravel
Company, at Smartsvillc, used more than seventeen
millions of i^allons to wash 980,000 cubic yards of j^ravel,
and paid for water during forty-three months ;i?.'37,261,
paying at the rate of fifteen cents per inch, and the cubic
yard of gravel costing less than six cents to wash. In
the Middle Yuba district, where water is twenty cents,
it costs seven and a half cents to mine a cubic yard.

Another branch of mining is sometimes practised on a
large scale. This is called ' tail sluicing.' I think that
I have before stated, that tailings are the earth, stones,
and gravel that flow out of the sluice, and Avhich, though
ti'eated as worthless, were always known to contain more
or less gold. Now many companies working the same
lode frequently unite to make a tail-race, which must
have sufficient fall in order to carry of the refuse matter ;
whereupon another company gathers these tailings, and
passes them through another course of sluicing. The
following description of one of the largest of them will
suffice for all. It is called the Teaff sluice, and is situated
at Dutch Flat. The total length is 5,500 feet of this
2,500 feet are 5^ feet wide and 26 inches deep in a
tunnel ; the remaining 3,000 feet are 6 feet wide. It cost
55,000 dollars, and was four years making. Several
companies deliver their tailings into it with an aggregate
of 1,550 inches of water. The bottom is paved with
boulders fourteen inches deep, and the incline is ten inches
in twelve feet. The descent is broken at intervals of 120
feet by drops or dumps two feet and a half high in the
tunnel and five feet outside. These serve to break up
the masses of cemented pebbles and thus liberate the gold.
The force of the current in this sluice is such that boul-
ders of rock ten and fifteen inches and even twenty inches
in diameter would be swept along at the rate of nearly ten
miles an hour. This constant pounding and attrition of

MINES AXD MIXING. 93

the paved bottom of the sluice by the rolling rocks and
gravel wear it away rapidly ; this wear being as much as
two inches in depth every three months, and half of the
paving stones become broken so as to be unfit for use.

From fifteen to twenty pounds of quicksilver are put
into the sluice every evening, but as the sluice contmually
catches that metal swept from the claims above, the
owners are never obliged to buy any. They take out
more than they put in.

Rock suitable for paving is also selected out of the
boulders swept down from the other sluices. They are
stopped by a strong iron grating ])laccd across the mouth
of the sluice in an inclined j)osition. The spaces between
the bars measure eight inches, so that only the largest
boulders are excluded. A Chinaman standing by the
grate examines every boulder that stops, and saves those
suitable for pavement.

I had no means of ascertaining the earnings of this
company but they are believed to be considerable, as a
great deal of fine gold escapes from the claims above, and
the company have comparatively little labour to perform,
that being already done for them.

One hydraulic company,! Avas informed, washed 224,000
cubic feet of dirt in six days, using two hundred inches
of water, and emi)loying ten men. The wages of the men
amounted, at four dollars a day each, to two hundred and
forty dollars ; the Avater cost three hundred dollars ; the
waste of quicksilver and sluice about a lumdred dollars
more, making a total expenditure of six hundred and
fifty dollars. They cleared \\p 3,000 dollars. The dirt
contained one cent and a fifth per cubic loot.

I should have mentioned that the amalfjam of jrold and
quicksilver is retorted after it is taken from the sluice,
and the quicksilver thereby saved after having been
separated from the gold. Some miuers less careful only

94 SIX MONTHS I.V CALIFORXIA.

roast their amalgam in an open pan, and allow the fumes
of the mercury to esca])e.

The action of quicksilver on gold is very curious.
It does not mix with it like silver or copper, but as it
were granulates it, separating the gold into minute par-
ticles, so that it crumbles to the touch and loses its
malleability, which is never restored till the quicksilver
is driven off by heat.

River mining was formerly much in favour in Cali-
fornia. It is the most risky of all the styles of mining.
The company either made a fortune or lost one, and
beino- in the nature of ffamblino; and takingr lonor odds,
suited the Californian miner exactly. It is impossible
to prospect a river other than on its banks. The only
guide is the geological formation. For example a river
rushes through a narrow gorge, and on emerging spreads
out to more than its usual breadth. Here one may
reasonably expect to find gold, which has been brought
down as through a sluice. Again ; a ridge of rocks
crosses the river, or rather the river flows over them.
They form in fact a natural riffle, and it can easily be
supposed that gold Avill be found in the crevices above
and below them. In another place the water, after
passing through a series of rapids, forms a bank of sand,
mud, and gravel, which it has washed down. This is
called a bar, and is the pet speculation of the Californian
miner. No sooner had one found a bar in a river than
he forthwith gathered his chums together and im])arted
his discovery. They immediately sold their claims for
what they Avould fetch, and set to work to turn the river.
Everything conspires to throAv difficulties in the way of
river mining. It can only be done when the river is at
its lowest. All the snow must be melted in the moun-
tains. The work can hardly begin before June, and
must be finished before September. They set to work

MIXES AXD MINING. 95

with a will. As many labourers as their means will
allow are hired. From daybreak to sunset there is no
cessation of labour. Slowly and surely the massive dam
progresses. A Avide ditch is cut it" ])0ssible in the bank
of the river. When, as is generally the case, the sides
are too steep and rocky to allow of a canal being cut, a
portion of the river must serve for that purpose. At
length, in the middle of August, the dam is finished. The
river flows by the side of its ancient bed to rejoin it about
half a mile lower down. The bed of the stream is bare.
The sluice boxes are laid along the centre. Prospecting
with the pan is going on in holes and crevices. All hands
are busy shovelling in the dirt. The sluice box, deftly
made in the dam, is opened. For a week the water
flow^s down the race — a week of ho])e and fear — a week
the end of Avhich will declare whether their labour and
money have been spent in vain. That such is often the
case the names of many tell. We meet Avith Poverty
Bar, Last Chance, Greenhorn, &c. But, on the other
hand, miners point exvdtingly to Yuba Dam, to Long
Bar, and many others that have yielded millions. But
supposing our bar turns out to be rich. Washing is
neglected^ unless the force is large, for the more important
task of strengthening the dam against the floods of Avinter.
For the rains Avill be on soon, and the springs Avill begin
to rise. Very fcAV dams AA'ithstand the Avinter torrents.
They don't mind ; they knoAv that the gold is there ; the
claim remains their OAvn, and next year tliey i)atiently re-
commence their labours, and so continue until the Avhole
river bed is Avorked out. It is a strano;e sioht these
river beds Avith the huge boulders, and the crevices full of
gravel, and pools of standing Avater, and little streamlets
trickling about, for the bed is never quite dry ; and there
is a sti'angc feeling of being beloAv the level of the Avater,
for over the dam you sec the banked-up river, and have a

9a SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

sense of clanger. Suppose the dam should burst ? Every-
where is motion and bustle, excepting on Sunday, for very
few miners work on that day. Hough and sometimes dis-
solute as he is, the miner rarely works on the day of rest.
When I have seen such they were foreigners, generally
Frenchmen.

So it is that to-day engineering and mechanical skill
have supplanted the old gold washing machines. From
the hand washing pan (battea) of the Mexican and Indian
came the rocker or cradle of the White man ; that was
improved to the Long Tom ending with the sluice and
hydraulic power. And with these changes the nature of
the mines is changed. There is no longer a scraping of
the surface until what was called bed rock is reached ; the
whole surface of gulch and ravine and creek and flat is
worked out, or at most so little left as to be deemed only
worth working by the Chinese. A peculiar instance of
how thoroughly the placer diggings have been worked is
evidenced in Shaw's Flat, an exceedingly rich plateau in
the county of Tuolumne. In 1851 this Avas a beautiful
level park, studded with trees, among them many noble
cedars. In 1860 the whole plain, from four to five miles
across, Avas one scene of gaunt desolation. The entire
dirt had been washed aAvay, not a single tree remained.
ShaAv's Flat, once proverbial for the richness of its mines,
Avas silent and solitary. The bed rock Avas composed of
limestone. The head-Avaters of the river Stanislaus had
been brought to bear upon the soil, and had Avashed every
grain of it through Dragoon gulch into the lowlands.
Nothing remained but the Avhite bare rocks that looked
like tombstones, the more so as they Avere of all shapes,
some of them flat, others peaked, others needle-shaped, and
some arched. A small toAA-n had spx'ung up during the brief
and brilliant prosperity of that place, but not a sign of life
Avas noAV seen in the cluster of wooden houses. They will
stand there until some drunken traveller, either for mis-

MIXES AXD MIXIXG. 97

chief or by negligence, will drop a lighted match against
the dry walls and put the town out of its misery. A few
ashes will mark the spot where the bar-room, the general
store, the gambling-house and the Baptist chapel once
stood. Xo one will miss them, and the fact of their
destruction will hardly be mentioned in the local papers.
Fortunes have been made here, but the fiice of the
country is ruined for centuries.

At the foot of this table mountain flows Wood's Creek,
of which mention has been already made. No creek in
California has yielded so universally and been so rich as
this. From its source in the mountains near Columbia
to its junction with a tributary of the Stanislaus, it has
been mined since the earliest days of California. Small
towns have been built on its banks, and the busiest of a
most mixed population have swarmed all over its bed.
It is estimated that nearly equal to one year's production
of all the mines of California has been taken out of this
little creek and the gulches that run into it. It has uiven
rise to the question absvuxl as it may appear : Does gold
grow ? For nine months of the year the bed of the river,
its banks and gulches, are washed and scraped and sluiced
and every pocket emj^tied. Down comes the rain, and
the snow^s melt, and the gentle creek is swollen to the
importance of a river. When the waters have subsided
the gold is found in its wonted spots, not so rich as iu
the days of yore but still repaying the worker. A com-
pany has lately been formed to sluice the Avhole creek
from one end to the other. It is urged that it is not yet
half-worked out, that miners have never fairly gone down
to the bed-rock, and so they are going to lay that bare
also.

The working of theold river beds may be classed as a
separate branch of mining. I have ])artially alluded to
one of them wheu treating of the hydraulic washing, for

98 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

that Blue Lead referred to belongs to one of these, and its
course has been traced for nearly a hundred miles, though
it is only mined for a portion of its entire length on
account of superposed mountains. Wherever it has
shown itself a hue and cry has been raised, claims have
been taken up, shafts sunk, tunnels bored into the moun-
tains with drift ways seeking the continuation, every one
animated with the hope of striking the hidden bed,
certain of being rich the moment that he did so. All that
was necessary was that a little bit of blue clay should
come up in the bucket, and then the shout of Eureka
would be raised, and the finder could either work it or
sell out. Many miners prefer the latter, and then set to
work again to find a further continuation of the myste-
rious stream.

But a still more striking phenomenon is presented by
another of these primeval rivers. It is covered by what
is called ' the dead table mountain.' It runs from near
Silver Mountain m Alpine to Knight's Ferry in Tuolumne
county, and there disappears. A stream of lava must
have filled up the bed as well as the banks of this river,
which at one side were pi-ecipitous. Ages of climatic
action, or more active agencies, have worn away these old
banks, and we have the spectacle of a black wall of basalt
winding its way through the country in some places from
three to eight hundred feet sheer down, in all parts diffi-
cult to scale. For seventy miles this type of a past
mighty destruction pursues its serpentine course. Its flat
surface is a mass of loose scoria3, rendering it very ditficult
and painful for walking. Here and there, where a pro-
jecting crag has accumulated, a light soil may be seen, a
hanging bush or scrub oak ; but, in general, the burnt
sides are utterly barren.

Under its feet, however, lies untold Avealth, which these
basaltic coffers render it very hard to sret at. The old

MIXES ASB MIXING. 99

lava stream covers a river rich in gold. The only way
to reach it is by tunnelling. There is no mistaking the
course of the river. It is there marked as plainly as
though its waters were running to-day. The difficulty
lies in striking; the bed. If the miner goes too hifrh he
works continually in the hard volcanic formation, if too
low he is tunnelling the bed-rock. The real bed is far
below the present surface of the ground, so the workmen
have first to sink a shaft, and then run drift ways until
they find the old stream. It is a trying and expensive
work. Some of the old banks are of solid rock, or of
liu<ie fragments of rock. To overcome this the miners
to-day sink an incline so as to tap the river about the
centre of its bed and then drift every way. Hundreds of
thousands of dollars have been spent in these table moun-
tain tunnels, but with few exceptions the experiment has
not been successful, tlie cxj)enses having been too great.
This great wall built on the ruins of this dead river is
ominous and black as one could fancy the Destroyer
to be.

Another table mountain covering another river whose
history belongs to geology, extends about seventy miles
from Lassens Peak to Oroville. Others have been traced
in different parts of the state. Wherever their beds could
be worked, they have repaid the miner, showing conclu-
sively one thing, that the gold formation is older than the
upheaval of the Sierra Nevadas. In some of these beds
are found rounded boulders of lava and basalt, proving
that volcanic action existed whilst they were Uving
streams, and that it was not one general eruption that
dried up their sources for evei\ The character of their
beds also is dittcrent ; that of the Big Blue Lead contains
large quartz boulders, whilst that of San Juan is gravel,
the i)cbblcs not being larger tiian a small egg.

The like phenomenon was observed at an eruption ol"

100 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

Kilauea in the Sandwich Islands in 1859. Tlie stream
of lava came to a river which was winding its way to
fertilise the ])lains helow. For three days the lava battled
with the snow-fed water and finally prevailed. The line
of eruptive matter filled the bed of the river, and for
some distance followed its course.

I will next draw attention to the quartz mines of
California, her most enduring sources of wealth, and
which are now receiving more particular attention and are
being more rapidly developed in proportion as the placer
mines are being worked out. The supply of quartz in
this state is inexhaustible. The supply of gold-bearing
quartz that will pay for working depends upon the cost
of its extraction. and crushing, as well as the nature of
the machinery and processes employed. Some mines pay
at ten dollars a ton, others lose wath ore at thirty dollars
a ton.

The elevation of quartz lodes is from two thousand to
ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. Their
course is the same as that of the dead rivers, namely from
north-east to south-west. They crop out in all parts
of the surface of the country, on the sides of hills, at the
bottom of caiions, and in the valleys. Gold is found in
large veins and small veins, in veins white as marble, and
in others discoloured by the action of iron. Sometimes
the gold is visible to the naked eye, sometimes the con-
trary ; and yet this latter may be the richest ore. It is
seldom that a vein continues rich for any considerable
distance ; there is invariably a fault or break, particularly
if the vein have chimneys or pockets, which are spots in
the vein where the ore is excessively rich. The richest
part of a lode of auriferous quartz is always on the lower
side of the vein near the foot-wall. The vein, if near the
surface, is generally covered Avith loose fragments of dis-
integrated quartz. The miners usually wash and pound

MIXES AND MIXING, 101

up some of this, and if they don't find gold generally leave
the vein alone. And yet there is nothing so dangerous
as trusting to specimens. They may be worth thousands
of dollars to the ton, and the mine bring in a loss in the
working, Avhilst another lode of less pretensions will bring
in an income for years. The most famous quartz mine in
California for many years v>'as called the Alison Ranch at
Grass Valley. It was owned by a company of Irishmen,
and for a year through gave out rock that yielded a
hundred dollars to the ton. Now, when it is considered
that the famous Mariposa jNIines, formerly belonging to
Colonel Fremont but now worked by a company, only
yield rock worth fourteen dollars to the ton, and yet the
income is ;S'7 5,000 a month, it will be seen how rich the
Alison mine must be. The partners disagreed some four
or five years ago, and the mine was closed. It was re-
o})ened this year, pumped out, and they are working it
again. The Mariposa ]Mines have been continually the
subject of a lawsuit, and have been grossly mismanaged ;
but it is said that some parties have groAvn rich out of tho
complications. The Eureka at Grass Valley is reputed
to be the best managed mine in the state.

According to the official report there were in 1870,
three hundred and thirty quartz mills in full operation in
California. The number of tons crushed by them Avas
1,045,791, and they consumed 211,971 inches of water per
day. This report cannot be absolutely relied upon as the
millowners and miners are now very chary about giving
information for fear of the tax-gatherer. One thing is
certain, that the county of Nevada possesses one-fourth of
all the mills in the fifty counties into which California is
divided. Indeed it may be said that Amador, Calaveras,
Eldorado, Mariposa, Nevada, Placer, and Tuolumne are
the quartz mining counties.

Amador is the smallest county iu the state but has

102 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFOILMA.

some famous mines in it, tlic most noted of -which is the
* Hayward,' now incorporated with other mines, under the
title of the Amador IVIiiiing Company. The history of
tliis mine shows wliat pluck and perseverance will accom-
plish. About 1856 Alvinso Hayward commenced work
on this lode, and for two years continued sinkinf^ shafts,
erecting machinery, and following the course of the vein.
The ore was poor, his funds were exhausted, but he was
sure that he was on the right track, and would not be
discouraged. lie Avent to all his friends for he had many,
and begged, borrowed, and scraped up all the money he
could. All that went. His credit was exhausted. He
could not even buy a pick. He had no money to pay his
workmen, he was in arrear with them. One by one they
withdrew, save one or two who were infected with their
master's enthusiasm. He worked like one of them, suf-
fered privations as they did, but still the mine yielded
nothing. At length when worn out bodily and men-
tally, and almost on the point of giving up the mine in
jdespair, he struck the main lode. Years had passed
away in the meantime, but at length the reward had
come. Of course all was now plain-sailing. jNIoney is
never wanting when money is in sight. In a short time
Mr. Hayward's income was ^$50,000 a month. To-day
he is worth millions, and has never forgotten those who
stood by him in the dark days. Among these was a man
of the name of Coleman, who had kept a huckster's shop
at Amador. He had let Hayward have flour and provi-
sions in limited quantities, for his means were limited,
unto the end. Hayward invited him to San Francisco,
obtained for him an agency for a large coal-oil estab-
lishment in the east, set him up in business with himself
as partner, putting in iS200,000 as capital, and the firm
of Hayward and Coleman prospered exceedingly, the
sole charge of the business being left to Coleman ; who.

MIXES AXD MIXING. 103

however, Avas seized with the demon of jealousy. He
envied the luck, as he called it, of his partner, forgetting
that that luck was his fortune. Everything that Ilay-
ward touched turned to jrold. lie Avas a larffc shareholder
in the Bank of California. In 1868 the land fever was
at its height in San Francisco, and ITayward made a
great deal of money by buying and selling real estate.
He also made bold ventures in mining stocks, carrying
all before him by the sheer weight of capital. Coleman
would do likewise, but he had neither the Aveisfht nor the
acumen of his partner. He went on the Stock Exchange.
The consequence was that, at the end of a year, every-
thing was gone and he Avas ;^300,000 behindhand. In one
day he sold all his stock at a sacrifice, and this was the
first intimation that his partner had of his loss. The
notes of the firm Avere out to the amount of the deficiency,
and the solvent partner had to pay them. Coleman has
now gone into the interior.

The Amador mine is a continuous vein, yielding a
regular grade of ore of little more than tAventy-one dol-
lars to the ton. This is considered the best species of
rock as it goes on in the same Avay for years. The mine
is 1,850 feet long, and the vein of quartz is enclosed on the
east by a AA'all of granite, and on the Avest by one of
slate. The product for the year 1869-70 Avas ;S617,5-12,
and the mill contains seventy-tAvo stamps.

The opening out of this mine caused several other
companies to Avork the continuation of the vein, and some
three or four are doing so AA'itli the like success that
croAvned the labours of IMr. HayAvard ; so that he indi-
rectly benefited the country at the same time he enriched
himself.

The mines of Nevada county are chiefly indebted to
the famous Grass Valley district for their reputation.
Grass Valley Avas the first to be Avorked for its quartz

104 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

mines, and many an English company sufFered in the early
days of ignorance. It is still at the top of the tree, and
still the region where the English most resort. The
nucleus of the miners is composed of Cornishmen, the best
underground miners in the world, but the hardest men to
manage, as the recent strike, which has diminished last
year's returns one-half, fully proves.

The system of mining here is called * the Grass Valley
system,' which is acknowledged to be the most perfect at
present in use. I will endeavour to give a short explana-
tion of it. They have been fifteen years bringing it to
its present state of completeness.

Formerly the amalgamation was formed in the battery,
that is, the quicksilver was added to the quartz whilst.it
was being crushed to a powder, but in this process amalga-
mation is not practised in battery, but the quartz is
crushed to such a fineness as to permit its passage through
the finest screens, and thence over blankets which are
washed out every fifteen minutes. These blanket wash-
ings are passed through two very simple amalgamators,
where a revolving cylinder A\-ith rakes stirs the mass in a
bed of mercury. The skimmings of the amalgamating
boxes are now treated with chemicals, and here one-third
of the gross yield is obtained. The pulp from blankets
and amalgamators has, in the meantime, passed through
two simple contrivances called ' rubbers,' where further
amalgamation is produced by washing and grinding
cylinders covered with amalgamated copper plates (plates
coated with quicksilver), which are moved horizontally by
vibrating arms ; thence through sluice-boxes with riffles
of quicksilver to a discharge-box with self-acting gates,
Avhich is situated immediately over the concentrating
room. Here commences the separation of the sulphurets
Avhich, still mixed with the sand and water, now flow
through a concentrator eighteen feet in diameter. This

MIXES AXD MINIXG. 105

apparatus is an improvement on the ' buddlc ' used in the
tin mines of Cornwall, and is well-adapted to California
mining. The sulphurets settle on the outer rim of the
concentrator, while the sand, Avater, and such fine par-
ticles as have not been caught, pass ofl' through the centre
to the tailpiece of the mill beyond. As a matter of pre-
caution the sulphurets are passed through the buddle.
They are then placed in a * tossing tub,' another Cornish
appliance, and here a further separation takes place. A
stream of water is turned on with the charge in the tub,
and a four-pound hammer striking forcibly and rapidly on
the sides of the tub by its vibrations causes the heavier
particles to sink and settle while the lighter pass off the
edge of the tub to the tail-sluice. The sulpliurets are
now ready for chlorination. The tail-sluice of the mill
has received all the refuse, and still further precautions
are used to prevent the escape of any of the precious
particles. The sluice, more than one hundred feet long, is
divided into three sections, one of which is cleaned while
the tailings are passing over the other two, where the
heavier sands are caught by riffles, and submitted to the
manipulations of a ' hooking trough.' Thus the last sul-
phurets are caught, and the tailings leave the ground of
the company. I am indebted for the above, to a de-
scription of the mill of the Idaho mine. Grass Valley,
furnished by INIr. "\V". A. Skidmore of San Francisco.

Tliis Idalio mine is an extension of the famous Eureka,
which is chiefly owned by two brothers of the name of
\V'att. They are Scotch, and have been in Grass Valley
almost from the beginning, having originally had charge
of the machinery of a quartz mill. The original length
of the Eureka lode was 1,680 feet, but by purchase of
an adjoining claim it is increased to 3,680 feet. The
old Eureka yielded in 1869 ^'361,211 net profits to its
owners. 1870 must not be taken into account, as it was

108 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

the year of the miners' strike. There is a mournful
history in connection with tliis mine. The original
owner, after Avorking it without success, and liaving ex-
hausted all his money, was obliged to abandon it. He
came to San Francisco, Avhere he lived in indigence for
some time, finally cutting his wife's throat and those of his
two children, and then blowing out his own brains. Those
who re-opened the mine struck the ledge only twelve
feet beyond the spot where the poor fellow had ceased
working. He and his family are in the grave, whilst of
the present owners one is state senator and the other
state controller.

Various experiments have been made, and many dif-
ferent apparatus tried, for saving the finest particles
of gold which escape in the common stamp process and
pass oflT in the tailings. The following method by !Mr.
James T. M'Dougall, of Grass Valley, may be interesting.
Mr. M'Doug;all is eno;ao;ed on the waste tailings of the
Eureka and Idaho mines above-mentioned.

The contrivance consists of twelve troughs, each twelve
feet by two and a half, inclined at a slight angle. The
bottom of the troughs, or sluice boxes, are covered with
copper plates amalgamated, and thickly studded with
square iron pegs, about four inches in height and half an
inch square. Over these pegs are placed closely-fitting
copper caps, their outer surface being amalgamated, and
arranged in such a manner that a corner is presented to
the stream. In other words the diagonal of the pegs and
caps is parallel with the sides of the sluice-box. The
waste water from the Eureka and Idaho, from which
the owners have extracted all the gold that they possibly
could with their blankets, copper plates, rubbers, amal-
gamated pans, &c,, is turned through the troughs I have
described. Striking against the pegs, of Avhich the
troughs contain 5,000, the water boils and surges and

MIXES A.VD MIXING. 107

eddies about, so that every atom comes in contact with
the amalgamated surfaces. The precipitation of the gold
is greatly increased by the electrical action induced by
the difference in latent heat between the different metals,
copper, iron, and quicksilver. Amalgam forms rapidly,
and two men are constantly employed in cleaning the
copper caps and plates. Owing to the almost micro-
scopical fineness of the gold particles thus saved, the
amalo;am obtained does not contain as much gold to the
ounce as that ordinarily obtained at the quartz mills.
This of course is to be expected. Mr. M'Dougall can
tell at once Avhat o-rade of ore is beino; worked in the
mill above him. When they are running what they
call poor rock his contrivance saves the most gold ;
when they are crushing rich rock his contrivance does
not do so well. The reason is, that their rock which
they call poor may in reality contain as much gold
as that v/hich they style rich, only it is in much finer
particles and more diffused throughout the entire metal.
The particles are so fine that the mill process cannot
arrest them. In the rich rock the gold is coarser and
they save it. The calculation is, that on an average
ten per cent, of the gold passes away even when the
rock is treated by the best known process.

The principal mines in Grass Valley are the Eureka,
Empire, Idaho, Isorth Star, Union Hill, AVisconsin,
Ilartery, Perrin's, INPCauley's, Gold Hill, and Larcmer's,
and these yielded nearly two million dollars in 1869.

Grass Valley is the most thriving little town in
California. It is prettily situated in a hollow, the sides
of which were formerly covered with fine trees, which
have all dlsapjjcarcd for fuel and buildings; but now the
young trees are growing up, the place does not look
so barren, but still the ugly stumps meet one every-
where. The neifjhbourino: town of Nevada is a larfje

108 SIX MONTHS IX CALirORXIA.

business centre surrounded by mines. It is in contem-
plation to build a narrow gauge railroad from Grass
Valley and Nevada to a point on the Central Pacific.
By this means a great quantity of the ore and sulphurets
that cannot be profitably treated at Grass Valley may be
shipped east or to Europe, and the gold be there ex-
tracted. These sulphurets abound in Grass Valley and
all contain gold ; but they are impracticable to quick-
silver, and cannot be worked there. The furnace must do
that which water and mercury fail to effect, and it
is only in Europe that such appliances are to be found.
They would not pay in California.

The description of one series of quartz mines is the
description of all. Wherever they are carefully and
economically Avorked they have proved an income, if not
a fortune, to their owners. The development of them is
yet in its infancy, and districts as yet unknown may
rival the Grass Valley district.

NEVADA MIXES. 109

MINES IN THE STATE OF NEVADA.

No mining districts on tlie Pacific slope have of late
years excited more attention than those of the state of
Nevada, particularly the mines of the famous Comstock
lode and AVhite Pine, both of these sections of country
having rich silver mines in contradistinction to the gold
fields of California.

The Comstock Lode has up to this time been traced
more than twenty thousand feet, or nearly four miles.
It runs nearly due north and south, and is popularly
divided Into three portions, the northern, the middle, and
the southern ; or, as others style it, the Ophir, the Virginia,
and the Gold Hill. On these two latter portions stand
the towns of Virginia and Gold Hill ; literally stand on
them, for the tunnels and drifts run under the towns,
sometimes with so thin a separation that, as happened in
Virginia City, two or three houses and a church paid a
visit to the depths of the Gould and Curry mine, or at
least went part of the Avay down.

The northern or Ophir division extends from the Utah
to the Chollar Potosi mine, a length of 12,170 feet,
RTid was the portion first worked, it being there that the
first rich ore was discovered. This portion contains four
distinctly separate bodies of ore, or chimneys as they are
sometimes called, on all of which Avork is still jroinff on.
The first body north contains ore of a low grade running
from three to fifteen dollars a ton. There are thousands
of tons uncovered and unworked in this body. The Sierra
Nevada is the principal mine in it. In the next of

no 8IX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

the four bfidics we come upon the rich Opliir mine, which
yielded in former times immense quantities of good ore.
The upper levels of this mine are nearly exhausted and
deejier shafts have not warranted their continuance. AVhen
this mine was first worked, the great width of the vein
rendered it necessary to leave massive pillars of rich ore,
to prevent the chance of the mine caving in. These
pillars are now being worked. In fact the whole of that
portion of the mine is being cleaned up. The southern
portion of this second body has hardly been worked as
yet. It appears to contain a large body of ore but of
comparatively low grade with that of its neighbour. It
will come in some day. The third body contains the
famed Gould, and Curry mine : which dethroned the
Ophir from its place as king of the Comstock lode.
Savage and Plale and Norcross, all in this same body, are
silver princes, and these three have yielded nearly fifteen
millions of dollars. For the present they are nearly
exhausted, unless a body of fresh ore is struck in the
lower levels Avhich are now being sunk. It is natural
that some check should occur, as the daily extraction of
ore for the last eight years has been at the rate of
650 tons.

These three mines are down about a thousand feet, and
lately two of them, the Hale and Xorcross and Savage,
have struck a fresh body of ore of considerable extent,
but not of such good quality as in the upper levels, being
mixed with baser metal.

The fourth body contains the Chollar Potosi mine
which is sunk to a de})th of 1,220 feet below the surface,
where the owners found no encouragement to go deeper.
The mine is a fair, not rich mine, with ore worth from
sixteen to thirty dollars a ton, the low grade ore pre-
ponderating. This failui-e in the deep levels has led to
more careful exploration of those nearer the surface, and

NEVADA MINES. Ill

in almost every instance bodies of ore have been found
that had been neglected or overlooked in the eagerness
to penetrate the unknown depths.

Next conies the middle or Virn;Inia lode, contalninjj
the Bullion, Exchequer, Alpha, Treglone, and Imperial
North. These have all been respectable mines, but are
now, according to present appearances, worked out. They
are now mining back ground, and occasionally a body
of ore is met with which gives a temporary flash of
excitement that soon subsides. They are all of them
groping away at their lower levels from 1,000 to 1,400
feet deep, but without much success.

I Avill leave them, and turning sharp round the base
of Mount Davidson come to the Southern or Gold Hill
mines, the rich, irregular, coquettish, delusive mines
of Gold Hill. More speculation in shares and more
fortunes have been made and lost in these mines than in
any of the others. Yellow Jacket, Crown Point, and
Kentuck were supposed to be under the conti-ol of the
Bank of California. The bank made all the advances
for working them, and in return they were obliged to
ship all their bullion through the bank. That joint stock
corporation having a majority of votes could elect what
officers it pleased for these mines, could control rej)orts
about ore, had first news of any rich strike ; in fact,
had information that enabled it to buy or sell according
to its judgment. Then came one morning a telegram,
* The Yellow Jacket is on fire,' followed by other tele-
grams : * The fire has extended to the Crown Point and
Kentuck.' There was great loss of life in the lower
levels, as they were cut off by the fire which commenced
in the third level.

At the date of the fire (April 7, 1869) Yellow Jacket
had 5,000 tons of twenty-seven dollar ore exposed on its
nine hundred foot level. Kentuck had 12,000 tons of

112 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

thirty dollar ore exposed between the seven and nine
hundred feet level ; but the fire, which a year after was
only partially extinct, has destroyed the timber work and
caused the caving of much of the partially worked ground
between the six and nine hundred feet levels, especially
in the Kentuck mine. It is only with great difficulty
and the utmost care that Avork can be carried on in the
neighbourhood of the burnt and charred mass of timbers ;
the suspension of artificial ventilation, by the shafts
being choked up, leaving the workmen to labour in an
atmosphere pregnant with carbonic oxide, and innume-
rable obstacles of all sorts cause work to proceed very
slowly. These troubles over, there is still a large body
of rich ore, averaging thirty dollars to the ton, to be
w'orked, and Yellow Jacket has lately discovered a new
body of ore having no communication with others, and
showing a different quality of rock with a considerable
intermixture of baser metals. The Crown Point has
gone deeper than any of the Gold Hill mines, but at its
1,100 feet level came to hot water, 120° Fahrenheit,
which is regarded as a sure indication of ])Oor ore. This
fact was proved in the North Ophir, where the workmen
came to hot water at a depth of 562 feet, and thereafter
found nothing but limestone and iron pyrites.

All the observed phenomena tend to indicate that the
present deepest workings of the Comstock lode are in
a comparatively barren zone of the vein, which seems
moreover to be characterised by a change in the gangue,
from predominant quartz to predominant carbonate and
sulphate of lime. The appearance of limestone in the
vein may be connected directly with a change in its
metalliferous character. It is quite a common phe-
nomenon to find the zone between two sorts of gangue to
be comparatively barren, but this appearance need not
discourage the expectation of finding new metalliferous
deposits under it.

. NEVADA MIXES. 113

The barren zone, now penetrated by the deeper work-
ings on tlie Comstock, is cither one of transition, or one
of temporary variation. The quartzose gangue has by no
means disappeared. It only threatens to do so, or at least
to become permanently subordinate. The line on the
other hand threatens to become permanently predominant,
and has thus far proved unfavourable to the occurrence
of ore in the forms and combinations hitherto characteristic
of the vein. In this mixed condition of things, the vein
matter being neither one thing nor the other, it is not
surprising that the portion of ore has so greatly di-
minished. Indeed I may say, for the purpose of illustra-
tion, that the calcareous minerals are, as it Avere, them-
selves playing the part of ore to the quartz.

Therefore we may reasonably expect one of two things :
either the unpleasant mixture of lime Avill prove to
be local and temporary, and the vein will resume again
in depth its original matrix, or the change now threatened
will continue until the carbonate and sulphate of lime are
permanently jiredomiuant as gangue.

In the former case the chances are in favour of a
briefer continuance of the barren interval and of a subse-
quent recurrence of ore-bodies similar in character and
distribution to those already exploited. In favour of this
supposition, Ave have the universal prevalence of quartz as
a vein material through the silver-bearing regions, and the
comparatively infrequent appearances in large quantities,
under such conditions, of the carbonate or sulphate of
lime. Moreover there has not been observed, so far as I
know, any decided change in the country rock, such as
might be expected (though not of absolute necessity) to
herald or accompany a complete change in gangue. There
is some encouragement i'or this view, in the fact that in
mines lying a mile and a half and two miles east of the
Comstock, the veins contain in their southern portion

114 SIX MOXTIIS IX CALIFORNIA.

heavy layers of lime rock, which yield in depth to
quartz.

In case of the complete change of the gangue and the
permanent prevalence of lime, the character of the ores
and the manner of their distribution would probably suf-
fer a complete change also. To carry out my former
illustration I Avill say, that the ores in depth would have
to bear the same relation to lime that the present ores bear
to quartz. This relation science cannot now actually
determine. It is surmised to be partly chemical, partly
electrical and partly mechanical ; and it is certainly
dependent also upon the manner in which the vein fissure
was filled as well as the succession and relative duration
of the different entrances of vein-matter. The nature of
the ore that might be expected on a lime gangue on the
Comstock, is however practically indicated by the modi-
fications already observed in those parts of the vein where
lime forms a considerable portion of the gangue ; and
judging from that we may expect more widely dissemi-
nated ore of lower grade, containing more base metal, and
more difficult of treatment than has in general been
hitherto the case.

I am indebted for the above as well as for much
valuable information to the able report on Mines and
Mining by Professor Rossiter AV. Raymond, editor of
the ' Engineering and Mining Journal,' New York.

I may as well mention here that the gangue is the
mineral or earthy substance inclosing the metallic ore in
the vein, and countrg rock is the rock of which all the sur-
rounding strata to the vein is composed, for a vein is a
foreign substance injected into the country or native rock,
so that whenever the country rock is reached the vein
with its walls, &c. ceases, and the mine exists no longer.

At the end of October, 1871, the company had pene-
trated 2,450 feet, chiefly through hard porphyry.

NEVADA MIXES. 116

Their progress is consequently slow, not exceeding
three feet daily. They are consequently expecting to
tap some cross vein, and of late indications of the neigh-
bourhood of such have been met with. The moment
they come upon a body of ore, it is not improbable that
the discovery will be rich enough to finish the tunnel, and
when they arrive at the Comstock lode, the tunnel will
be from five to twelve hundred feet below the present
mines, and thereby effectually drain them which is the
great desideratum. By Act of Congress all mines bene-
fited by the Sutro tunnel are to pay a royalty of two
dollars a ton to the company. Congress also granted an
area of land at the mouth of the tunnel, containing one
thousand two hundred and eighty acres, which, after the
completion of the tunnel, will be the site of a town, as
sufficient water will floAv out of the cutting to supply
mills for crushing the ore.

The. tunnel will be fourteen feet wide by twelve high,
and will have a double track railroad to run the cars in
and out. The cars will carry five tons, and be drawn by
a wire rope, worked by a stationary engine at the tunnel's
mouth. The whole work wnll be finished in about two
years, and the cost vriW be three millions of dollars. This
undertakino; if carx'ied out will be most interesting in a
geological point of view, and Avill effectually determine
the question as to the nature of the Comstock lode two
thousand feet below the surface. That this great fissure
does extend deep into the bowels of the earth no one
doubts, and human ingenuity cannot pierce its dc[)ths ; at
the same time the Sutro tunnel will prospect sufficiently
to enable the miner to judge whether lie is Avarranted in
sinking deeper or working up from the tunnel to connect
with his shaft overhead.

I incline to think that the palmy days of the Comstock
re over. So much of vein as has been worked displayed

I 2

110 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORXIA.

on its surface a width varying from 200 to 800 feet, hut
in its downward course the walls approach one another,
until in some places they almost unite, a thin layer of
clay only remainino; hetwecn them. Chimneys, however,
are found to exist here and there which may communicate
with the mysterious subterranean source of the vein itself,
if, as many do, we take these chimneys to he the vent
throuo;h which the matter formino; the led^e was forced
up during the period of volcanic activity which pro-
duced it.

After all the Comstock lode has done its duty in con-
tributing to the wealth of nations. For nine years it has
averaged a yeai*ly production of more than eleven mil-
lions of dollars. The Ophir group has given ten rail-
lions ; the Gould and Curry constellation fifty millions,
and Gold Hill forty-five millions of dollars. This has
been drawn from less than one-fourth of the actual face
of the lode, being all that, under present costs of work-
ing, would give a profit. With increased facilities, an
immense body of low grade ore, ranging from eight to
twelve dollars to the ton, would be brought into play.
The first step to reduction in charges has been taken by
the mills themselves. They have considerably lowered
the price of crushing. The second step is in a more per-
fect manipulation of the ores. At present the loss is fully
twenty-five per cent. The third desideratum is railroad
communication with the outside world. The last has
been inaugurated by the construction of the first section
of the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, eighteen miles from
Vu'ginia to the Carson river. There is no water at the Com-
stock, and almost all the mills for crushing the ore are on
that river. Formerly the ore had to be carted along the
rough roads at great expense from the mine to the mill.
Now it is dumped into the train of waggons, and carried to
its destination at one quarter the expense. It is esti-

NEVADA MIXES. 117

mated that the saving this year in the reduction of Washoe
ores will be fully fifty per cent. The projected narrow
gauge line from Virginia to Reno on the Central Pacific,
will be a glorious thing for the Comstock, and it will be
finished ere long. Not only is the freight of ore lessened
from the mine to the mill, but the freight of lumber, &c.,
from Carson to Virginia, is reduced. The lumber comes
from beyond the river, as there is not, nor ever was, a
stick in the barren country that surrounds the Comstock
lode.

The Sutro tunnel is one of those jrigantic schemes that
only a valuable prize like the Comstock could inspire.
This tunnel commences at a point some nineteen thousand
feet from the line of outcroppings of the Comstock.

There are other mines outside the Comstock which
under careful management and reduced rates for crush-
ing will pay very Avell. Such is the Flowery district in
the low lands west of the great lode, which has twelve to
fifteen dollar ores. In this mine the principal matrix is
quartz ; Avhilst in the Occidental, more to the south, lime
predominates.

Some three miles south from Gold Ilill is Devil's Gate,
a remarkable cleft in the trap rock, through which the
road passes. Here some mines have been unprofitably
worked. Silver City is about half a mile further on,
and near here is the Daney mine, which, at one time, was
in great favour on the Stock Exchange, but has fallen
away considerably of late although it is still worked, and
now and then gives out fitful signs of life. The Julia is
a humble dci)endent of this mine, and follows the fortunes
of the Daney. Its princijjal occupation for the last two
years has been levying assessments, and the chief occupa-
tion of the secretary, advertising the shares as delinquent.

Such is a brief description of the great Comstock lode
as it is to-day, but how different from the scene in former

118 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

(lays. In 18.57 mysterious parties were seen going along
the Truckee and through the peaceful agricultural vil-
lage of Carson, where rough Western men congregated
of an evening or on Sundays to read the newspapers,
talk politics, and drink whiskey. These parties all
directed their steps to the foot of tlie peak of Mount
Davidson, which rises in isolated grandeur and barren-
ness above the surrounding hills. They were not fanners
or they wouldn't go to that bleak waste, where only one
or two streams painfully trickled over the bare stones.
They were not miners exactly, for there were city faces
among them, witness Mr. Donald Davidson, after whom
the hill was named, and who, spite of his sixty winters, was
the first to scale its steep sides and plant a staff on the
spot, and the broad cloth of Judge H. was ill-adapted for
the mountains. However, the next year, the mystery
was solved. Some Mexicans, who owned the only spring
of water, sold it to a company for a strip of mining land
they themselves selected, and which was portion of a
large district taken up by the company. These same
Mexicans had previously helped the company to sink
prospecting shafts and generally develope the lode. So
it was, that simultaneously the Ophir and the Mexican
mines were opened. The Mexicans, "\vith that knowledge
of indications that seems almost inherent to them, had the
richest strip of the whole section, and very soon began to
turn out the most beautiful specimens of silver ore — a
greyish purple rock, fairly bursting with silver, and very
heavy in the hand. Of course the thing could not long
be kept a secret. Machinery and lumber had to be
transported over the Sierra Xevadas. A road had to be
made, workmen had to be transported. Ore was sent to
San Francisco to be essayed, and very soon the excite-
ment besan. The railroad to Folsom was one stream of
cars, carrying passengers, goods, tools, and machinery.

NEVADA MINES. 119

The station resembled the camp of a great army. The
road to Placerville was crowded with pedestrians, eques-
trians, and travellers by cart or coach. Thence they
diverged, each seeking his way to AVashoe by his favourite
pass. Some going by the Douner pass, these, by the
way, having come through the city of Nevada in Cali-
fornia. Others went through the beautiful Strawberry
Valley, which is a miniature Yosemite, along the shore
of Lake Tahoe, down the steep Geiger grade, through
Carson city, and up to the land of promise. The lines
from Placerville and Nevada city being opposition, the
stagecoaches used to race all the way, one by the
Douner pass, and the other by the Carson pass. A
crowd would assemble to witness their arrival, and al-
though each had travelled some hundred and odd miles
over the Nevadas, they usually came in, in ordinary
weather, within half an hour of one another. The line
from Nevada in California was the best in winter. It
crossed the north fork of the Yuba, and for about fifty
miles the road Avas one of great beauty, but aAvfully
dangerous, owing to the way they galloped donn the
steep grades. The pass through the Sierras was very
grand, after which Douner Lake was reached, and then
full gallop as fast as the horses could tear along the banks
of the winding Truckec for about twelve miles, when a
long plain, evidently formerly the bed of a lake, stretches
to Steam-boat Springs, where a tedious winding road of
seven miles is ascended at a walk, and the traveller is
seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. Thence
he rushes down a thousand feet to Virginia City.

18G0-61 saw this toAvn in its palmy days. Shares of
impracticable mines, in impossible places, found eager
buyers. "Wherever an outcrop of foreign rock aj)])oared,
the claim was taken up, so that poor old storm-beaten
Mount Davidson was covered over with notices of claims.

120 SIX ifONTIIS IX CALIFORNIA.

and lookcfl from tlic town like a woman's head in curl-
papers. The Comstock lode had been taken up long be-
fore, in many instances more than once, and the lawyers
flocked to a feast of litii^ation. The Ophir, Gould, and
Curry were yielding millions. The ]\Iexican mine had
been bouglft. by a New York capitalist. The superin-
tendent of the Gould and Curry built himself a splendid
house, magnificently furnished, and gave parties every
day. The superintendent of the Ophir, who had 5,000
dollars a month, drove his four horses in from the Avorks,
eight miles distant, daily to the mine. Nothing but
champagne of the best brands, and that in inconceivable
quantities, could reconcile men to live six thousand feet
above the level of the sea, in the most bleak and arid
countiy, away from everywhere, exposed to Indian
attacks, and fever, and ague, and rheumatism, brought on
by bad water, and those gentle gales that cut your face
with the gravel they bring along with them, and which
were facetiously baptized ' Washoe Zephyrs.' Gold Hill,
which was at first not supposed to be on the Comstock,
was beginning to become a power, spite of the varying
character of its ores. Ail was the intoxication of sudden
wealth. Bar-rooms abounded, but there was not much
gambling, I should say card-playing, for daily life was
the fiercest sort of gamblino;.

Wild as it is, and treeless and bleak as is the country,
the view from the line of the Comstock ledsre looking
east is awfully grand, especially when the setting sun
falls on the high mountains in Humboldt county. A
thousand feet or more below you stretches what appears
to be a valley, but what is, in reality, a more gentle
grade of the elevation you are standing upon. Miles
away and the mountains begin to rise again, and they
pile and pile upon one another, all of a clear purple,
until the eye looks over them into space. For the air is

NEVADA MIXES. 121

SO rarefied there, and the country so utterly devoid of
water, that the atmosphere is as clear as glass, so tha
there is no dim horizon. You see as far as the confor-
mation of the earth -will allow, and then earth tui-ns over
and the pure ether remains beyond. An immense ex-
panse of the globe's hardest surface is before you.

At that time Ophir was $5000 a share, Gould and Curry
one-third more. Enormous dividends were being paid ;
great fortunes were amassed, and yet of all those who
flourished and revelled and lavished their money like
water, very few indeed have any of it left. They didn't
know when to leave off. When the mines bejxan to jrrow
less I'ich, and dividends began to diminish, nay when even
the ominous Avord assessment began to be whispered, they
would not take warning and realise. They stuck to the
ship and have gone down with her. ]\Iany of them hypo-
thecated their stock for half its value, in order to buy
more in that or in other mines; the consequence was,
that when the fall came their stock was all sold, for San
Francisco money-lenders know nothing about prospects,
have nothing sanguine in their temperaments, nor any
feeling in their hearts. They look at the market value
and act accordingly.

To-day Ophir is $2^ and levying assessments, and
Gould and Curry $105, neither of them having paid any
dividends for some years.

122 SIX MONTHS L\ CALIFORNIA.

WHITE PINE MINES.

I HAVE already incidentally mentioned the "White Pine
district. Next to the mines of the Comstock, those of
"White Pine have attracted the greatest attention of late
years. All the signs and indications of the Comstock
fail in this district as the majority of the deposits are
connected with the stratification of the limestone. So
far no deep fissure veins have been discovered, and the
ore is found in layers, up to two hundred feet in width.
In one respect only the ore of White Pine resembles that
of the Comstock. It is silver, but there the resemblance
stops. The whole of Treasure Hill is limestone, but
mixed and jumbled up with broken fragments of slate,
brecchia, or angular fragments of silicified limestone,
cemented together with calc spar, which latter generally
fills up all the interstices, but which, as it does not con-
tain any silver, is probably the latest infiltration. The
silver ore is generally in the form of a chloride, but fre-
quently as a sulphuret, and is even found as native silver
incrusting the brecchia, penetrating the crevices in
threads and films, as well as aggregated here and there in
chambers or pockets. And although the occurrence of
rich bodies of ore, like those of the Eberhardt mine, is
not frequent, yet the White Pine limestone is a favourable
matrix for such, and they may be found at any time or
place where cavities large enough to contain them have
been formed by the disintegration or solution or erosion
of the rock, and where the metalliferous fluids have had
sufficient access.

WHITE FIXE MINES. 123

The ore is spread so irregularly in the AA^iitc Pine
Mines, that it is not astonishing that more than ten thou-
sand claims are recorded as having been located, claims
which yield from a few hundred pounds of ore per month
up to those which give thirty or forty tons a day. The
whole district embraces an area of about twelve square
miles, and the principal towns are Hamilton, the county
seat, Treasui'e City, and Sherman, containing respec-
tively 5000, 4000, and 2000 inhabitants; add to this
about four thousand scattered about on the hills, and we
have about 15,000 as the floating population of this part
of Nevada. The principal mines are at the top of Trea-
sure Hill, White Pine Mountains. This is a broad range,
consisting sometimes of two or three parallel ridges, at
one place close together, at another far apart. The sum-
mits of the two nearest ridges of AVhite Pine iSIines are
five miles apart. Between these two sum.mits rises Trea-
sure Hill, 1,500 feet from its immediate base, but 10,000
feet above the level of the sea. Its base from north to
south extends three miles, from east to west only one
mile. The summit is a narrow ridge from north to
south, a mile and a half long, terminating sharply at its
southern end by a clear cut of precipitous descent; at
the north it is very steep, but not so sheer down to the
base. The body of the mountain, as I said before, is
composed of limestone strata, which was originally hori-
zontal, but was subsequently lifted, so that the strata
now slope at an angle of 30° toward the west. The
east end consequently presents all the jagged ends of
these strata so ui)hcaved. It is among these croppings
that the mine called Hidden Treasure is situated, the
Emersley also and the PocotUlo, all of them magnates in
the market.

At the same time this upheaval of the limestone beds
was not gradual nor even. Marks of resistance appear

124 .SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

on tlie Avestcrn slope, and fractured lines and long abra-
sions of the parent bed. The upheaving force was un-
equal, so that where the greatest effort was made the rock
is lifted higlier, and the separated part has fallen under it
as under a towering cliff. And all along the edges of
these broken prostrate ledges are the signs of the grating
and grinding of the rocks, impotent to resist the IMutonic
force that raised them from their level. At the south
end of this western slope there is one of these broken
ledges forming a sj^ur pointing heavenwards, and the
fractured part almost retaining its original level. Here is
the Eherhoi-dt, lower down are the California, oNIazeppa,
&c., and here centres the richness of the White Pine
Mines.

In another part of the west side is a ledge that has
not been much acted upon by subterranean forces, and in
consequence has not only preserved its lateral character,
but any inequality arising from partial disturbance has
been filled up by the erosion of the strata above. This
strata is unequal in its hardness, and being continually
exposed to the action of the elements is consequently
constantly loosened and carried do^^^l by the heavy rains
or melting snows, and lodged upon this plateau, forming
what is called Pogoniss Flat. I must here explain that
the word Pogoniss means in Indian one of those mild
zephyrs before referred to, where, unless your hair is
strongly rooted, you are liable to become bald on turning
a corner ; one of those gentle gales that leave no trace
behind them of the swooped-up property, be it shanty or
tent, save the place where it stood ; in short, a AVhite
Pine hurricane, which bloAvs about as often as it rains in
England. However, on this flat, underground and away
from the captivating zephyr, men are mining in the
Pogoniss, Othello, and Glacier mines. Round the corner
is another flat called Chloride Flat, and again Bromide

WHITE PINE MIXES. 125

and Bonner Flats. This last is called after an Enixlish
engineer of superior talents and integrity. He was en-
gaged by all the great companies, but, alas ! died in the
height of his renown and prosperity.

At the south end, on the west side of the summit, close
to Treasure City, in fact, partly in tlie town itself, is the
Aurora consolidated mine, which was located about the
same time as the Eberhardt, namely, in the autumn of
1867. After that comes the South Aurora, Avliich has
always been a popular mine. Shafts have been sunk
along its entire length (800 feet), and mineral found for
400 feet -vWthout intermission. The Chloride Flat, before
mentioned, has been taken up by a company, who have
commenced work on a large scale. This company is
backed and controlled by the Bank of California. It was
found that the ore in this flat was deposited in horizontal
strata, one overlying the other, separated only by sheets
of limestone. The consequence is that the manner of
working is extremely simple. A shaft is sunk, and when
it strikes the layer of ore, drifts are run in all directions,
and the mineral sent to the surface ; when that is ex-
hausted, the shaft again pierces the limestone until the
miners' strike the silver ore again, when the process is
repeated. There is a certain cake made in France, con-
taining alternate layers of sponge cake and jam, which
exactly elucidates this mine, if one may compare small
things witli great, the jam being the ore hien cntnidu. It
is a rolly-poly chloride of silver pudding, done flat.
This ore is very rich, sometimes assaying as high as
^27,000 a ton. The deepest shaft is only 145 feet, and
the shafts pierce the ground in all directions.

The California, another noted White Pine mine, is
about a mile from the Eberhardt. It is very rich, both
in chloride and bromide of silver, ranging frt)m i^.'jOO to
^*1000 a ton in value. There are hosts of other mines,

126 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

but I will conclude with a description of the King Mine
of the AVhite Pine district.

At the south end of Treasure Hill, quite at its summit,
an immense break runs east and west across the strata. A
chasm, 200 feet wide, was opened there at some distant
epoch. South of this chasm the ground is some 300 feet
loAver than at the northern side — is in fact comparatively
level, forming a kind of shelf in the mountain. In this
chasm and on this shelf nature has placed the Eberhardt
mine. The whole chasm is filled with ore and gangue,
the latter composed (as may be found in the lower levels
of the Comstock) of limestone, quartz, and spar. The
ore proper is very irregularly deposited, lying sometimes
in horizontal sheets, at other times occurring in the shape
of pockets of various sizes and forms. Large lumps of
chloride of silver, weighing over a hundred pounds, are
found so pure that a nail may easily be driven into any
part of them, and a silver coin laid upon them and struck
smartly with a hammer leaves its impression. While
there is a large quantity of ore of this exceeding rich-
ness, there is a hundred fold more of the value of about a
hundred dollars a ton, wherein, of course, lies the real
profit. The Blue Belle shaft is one of the richest in the
mine.

I mustn't leave out the Hidden Treasure however, for
it has a romantic history, being shown to a compassionate
blacksmith by a grateful Indian. When the Indian took
him, and showed the rough, worn, and twisted outcrop-
pings, the honest man was so bewildered with the forma-
tion, that he could not understand how to locate his
claim, and Avas obliged to confide his secret to a practical
miner. The deposit of ore is quite flat at the top, and
then dips at an angle of forty -five degrees. This mine is
full of horn silver, which is a nearly pure chloride. It is a
good mine, and easily worked.

WHITE PINE MINES. 127

The followinix is the averaQ;e value of the ore of the
mines above-named.

Name of Mine. Yield per ton.

Aurora $92-2o

Consolidated Chloride . . . 91'50

Eberhardt 390-0

Hidden Treasure .... lOO'O

Mazeppa 307'0

California 1500

The average value of the mines of any importance is
about ;^98 a ton.

There are hundreds of mines scattered all over the dis-
trict. There are the base metal range, the mines about
Hamilton City, &c. In fact, it may be laid down as a
general axiom, that from Salt Lake City to the great
desert of the Colorado is one rich belt of silver ore. It
extends from Washoe on the west to the land of the
Mormons on the cast, thence narrowing toAvards the
range of the Humboldt Mountains it strikes that jxranite
dyke of the North Colorado, which, Avitli its wonderful
canon, cuts as it were the argentiferous belt only to
allow it to appear again in the little-worked, but well-
authenticated as to wealth, mines of New Mexico, called
the San Diego Mines. These lie on the frontiers of Arizona
and New Mexico, in the midst of hostile Indians ; and,
although the ore costs from sixty to seventy dollars per
ton to send it from the mine to the river, yet it pays the
owners to transport it even at that exceedingly high
rate.

North of the White Pine district come the territories
of Montana and Idaho, where the ore and deposits are
gold, and which I have not visited.

128 SIX MONTHS L\ CALIFORNIA.

QUICKSILVER, ETC.

The mines of quicksilver are chiefly confined to three
companies. The ore of quicksilver, as is well known, is
called cinnabar, and rich specimens hold the mercury
suspended in small globules. It is from this cinnabar
that the brilliant vermilion is obtained. The ore itself is
a sulphuret, and the process is, to drive off the sulphur
with the fumes of the quicksilver, and then to allow the
sulphur to escape and condense the mercury.

The principal mine is that of New Almaden in Santa
Cruz county. It was formerly owned by the English
house of Barron & Co., but after a prolonged and expen-
sive lawsuit they were ejected by the United States
Government, although they had been in undisturbed
possession for many years. It is now the property of an
American company. The production of quicksilver for
the year 1869 was as follows: —

New Almaden. Newldria. Eedington. Other Mines. Total.

Flasks. Flasks. Flasks. Flasks. Flasks.

16,898 10,315 5,500 1,000 33,713

which, at 76i lbs. to the flask, gives 2,579,044 lbs.

The yield of quicksilver for 1868 was 43,000 flasks, or
3,268,000 lbs. This difference of a million of pounds
was caused as follows : In 1868 the New xVlmaden Mine
was worked for the exclusive benefit of the shareholders,
and consequently was driven to its utmost extent. At
the end of that year, however, the Bank of California
and Messrs. Barron made a contract for five years with
the New Almaden Comj)auy, to take all their quicksilver

QUICKSILVER, BORAX, ASPHALTE, ETC. 120

produced during that term at a certain price per flask.
This being concluded, and they having the entire control
of the market, advanced the price about three dollars a
flask. The miners must come to them, quicksilver is as
necessary as bread, but the New Almaden do not over-
work themselves in the production.

Borax is obtained from a small lake of that name near
Clear Lake. The water of this lake is strongly impreg-
nated with borate of soda, and the divers bring up large
crystals of borax nearly pure from the bottom. About
four thousand cases are exported yearly, worth from
twenty to twenty-five dollars a case.

There are many beds of asphaltum in the southern
portion of the state. They are extensively Avorked for
pavements, roofing, &c. Petroleum has likewise been
found and exploited in a slight degree, but not with any
great success.

130 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

AGPdCULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.

After the first fierce excitement of the mines had sub-
sided, and the population of California was numbered by
thousands, men began to reflect that there were other
ways of getting gold out of the earth than washing gravel
for it. Naturally the first application of labour in that
direction was the cultivation of market gardens in the
precincts of the large cities for the supply of the in-
habitants. A small field, part of which is now a florist's
garden and the remainder covered vdt\\ handsome dwel-
lings, was pointed out to me at the Mission Dolores, about
three miles from San Francisco, the owner of which made
a comfortable fortune in 1850-51 by cabbages alone.
Another at Half Moon Bay cleared 10,000 dollars a year
by his onions. Potatoes, both sweet and Irish, were im-
ported from Honolulu ; and flour, barley, and oats from
the Eastern States, Chili, and Australia. Barley was
more used for horse-feed than oats in those days, and the
price frequently rose to eight cents a pound. The flour
market was entirely in the hands of speculators, who now
and then forestalled the market to such an extent, that
the price rose in the mines to fifteen and twenty dollars
the hundred pounds, costing in Chili from five to six
dollars. Naturally the AYestern immigrants turned their
attention to farming, and the fertile lands that line the
eastern sides of the bay of San Francisco soon began to
have their waving crops of grain. The only difficulty in

AGRICULTURE IN CALIFORXIA. 131

the way of settlers at that time was the title to the laud.
There Avere so many obscure, if not doubtful, Spanish
titles, so many heirs, so many litigants that men hesitated
about laying out their money in improvements. But the
Vallejos, the Pachecos, and some others of the old Spanish
families had held their own, or at least a portion of their
leagues of land, and they farmed sections out on half
shares ; that is, a farmer took, say, a thousand acres, put
in the seed, and gave half the crop to the owner of the
soil. Various flour-mills sprang up all over the country.
James Lick, who had made a fortune in real estate in
San Francisco, built a mill the timber of which was maho-
gany, and which to-day turns out as good flour as any
in the state. In the city of San Francisco three or four
steam flour-mills were erected, the largest of which is
now used as a brewery. The high price of labour and
the want of laud communication for a long time confined
grain culture to the i)lains and valleys that border the
bay or the navigable rivers, and the same reason enabled
the millers of Chili to compete successfully with their
Californian rivals.

The first shipment of flour and wlicat Avas made to Xcw
York about 1856. It found little favour at first with the
eastern and English millers, it was so hard and gritty
that they could not grind it ; but by degrees it began to
be appreciated, as it was found that the grain yielded
more flour, and the bakers discovered that this flour
absorbed more water than any other in the working it.
Consequently the demand increased, the millers altered
their millstones to grind this dry hard wheat, and to-day
California wheat ranks as high as any in the markets of
the world. The following table will show the increase in
the export of this article. It is taken from the circular
of the leading corn-broker in San Francisco.

K 2

132

SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

Export of California Wheat for the past Eleven Years from
June to June.

Wheat.

Flonr.

100 III. sacks.

EarrelH, 200 lbs

1861

. 1,528,226

179,652

1862 .

775,053

82,001

1863 .

. 1,159,748

141,488

1864 .

984,941

158,225

1865 .

23,818

52,424

1866 .

. 1,044,826

249.857

1867 .

. 3,642,505

485,493

1868 .

. 3,773,002

426,157

1869 .

. 4,373,213

459,923

1870 .

. 4,864,590

354,106

1871 .

. 3,583,124

194,763

Thus it will be seen, that although there have been fluc-
tuations consequent chiefly upon high prices in California,
forbidding shipments, the export of California cereals in
good years has been steadily on the increase. This year's
shipments will show a great falling off. The season has
been one of the driest ever known in the state, and
coming on the heels of a past dry year, the effect on the
farming interests has been most disastrous. Last year
showed a deficiency in receipts over the year preceding of
1,900,000 dollars, notwithstanding a much larger breadth
of land was put into grain than the year before ; and this
year, although more than a million of acres has been
planted in wheat alone, which under favourable circum-
stances would have produced over and above the require-
ments of the country, a surplus for export of something
like 600,000 tons, will bai^ely leave 100,000 tons for that
purpose.

Up to November 1869 no class of working-men in the
world were in better condition than the agriculturists of
California. They had had quite a succession of favour-
able seasons ; they had realised good prices for their farm
products of every description ; they were not only free
from debt, but had a large aggregate of realised capital

AGEICULTUEE IX CALIFORNIA. 133

in hard coin lying in bank. It appeared as if farming in
California was one of the most profitable avocations in the
world, and so it was till the speculators came in, and a rush
being made by those who were engaged in other pursuits
as well as by those already engaged in fanning to buy land,
these speculators, having secured the most available lands,
resold it to them at high prices, so that not only was all
their spare money invested in the land, but a heavy
residue remained in the shape of debt secured on the new
purchase. The farmer became rich in acres, but poor in
purse ; his balance at his bankers -was light, but his mort-
gage was heavy. Had the seasons continued favourable
all might have been well, but, as it turned out, an immense
amount of capital in the shape both of money and labour
was invested in the purchase and cultivation of new lands
which yielded nothing, and the farmer at present is poor.
He is not, however, positively broken nor discouraged,
and there is hardly a part of the state where one good
crop will not put him in easy circumstances. The unfor-
tunate part of this drought is, that it has fallen most
severely on the San Joaquim Valley, where the great bulk
of the newly purchased lands is situated, and the crop
there is a total failure. The landowners and fai-mers,
however, of that widely spread district have leagued
together to secure themselves against future contingen-
cies of this nature, by an entire change in their system
of agriculture, esj)ecially by the construction of large
irrifratine: canals. The fi|;eolo5!;ical formation of tliis as
well as of other valleys in Calilornia is as if nature had
formed them for the work of irrigation, and once the
system completed, the product of wheat will be enormously
increased, and the yield to a great extent hidepeudent of
the seasons.

With all this bad year, California is not otherwise than
prosperous. Suppose that she exports 100,000 tons of

134 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

wheat, that at two cents a pound, wlilch is a fair [jricc, will
bring in 400,000 dollars. The wool clip this year under the
present very high rates will produce at least 10,000,000
dollars. The Avine and minor products will bring iu
2,000,000 dollars more, so that the exports of the state
will amount to 16,000,000 dollars, which is not so very
bad for a young state of less than half-a-million of in-
habitants, and after two years' drought. This is export
only, be it remembered, and does not include the amount
retained for home consumption.

Of the 160,000 square miles composing the area of
California about one-third are arable, whereof about
16,000 are in the coast valleys, 30,000 in the lowlands
of the Sacramento basin, 12,000 in the foot-hills and
valleys of the Sierra Nevada, and 2,000 in the Klamath
basin. The rest is desert and mountain. This amount
of tillable land is equal to 40,000,000 acres, and hardly
a million and a half acres are actually under cultivation for
all purposes, including orchards, gardens, &c. It is true
that a portion of this land, say one-fourth of it, is not so
rich as the generality of laud in this part of the world,
and at present a large amount is too far removed from a
market to render its cultivation profitable. This objec-
tion is being rajndly done away with by the network of
railroads that are extending themselves all over the
state. Another serious impediment, however, to farming
in California is the insecurity of titles. Partly by fraud,
partly by mortgage, almost the whole of the old Spanish
grants have passed into the hands of the Americans.
To-day innumerable claimants arise in the persons of the
numberless descendants of these Mexicans, and it is not
an unfrequent thing to see in an action to quiet title,
one plaintiff and from a hundred and fifty to two hundred
defendants ; as, for instance, John Smith v. Jesus ]\Iaria
Castro, Conception Castro, &c., and all the tribe of

AGRICULTURE IX CALIFORXIA. 135

Castros married and unmarried, their wives, their children,
the collateral branches, all must be made parties to the
suit, for if unfortunately a single defendant be omitted,
then some sharp practitioner buys his claim, and forth-
^v'ith commences an action for a two-hundredth undivided
share of one-fifth of the whole estate, sometimes twenty
leagues in extent, and thus a cloud is cast on the whole.
Another drawback is, that all the best lands are now in
the hands of the great capitalists and railroad corpora-
tions. The government price is a dollar and a quarter
an acre, the purchaser not to pre-empt more than a
hundred and sixty acres. But there are certain things
called school-warrants, that is to say, so many sections
out of every district are set apart by the Government
for the purpose of being sold, and the produce applied
for the support of the public schools. These warrants
were all bought up and the lands covered, as the term is,
%vith them. The consequence is, that the lowest price of
land in the San Joaquim Valley is now five dollars an acre,
and on the line of the railroad now constructing from
Stockton it is from ten to thirty dollars, according to its
distance from that town. It is true that land in Illinois,
which originally cost a dollar and a quarter, now sells for
forty dollars the acre ; the fact is a drawback to immigration.

There are certain tablelands among the Sierras that
are fertile and can be partially cultivated, owing to their
proximity to mining towns. Such, for example, is the
beautiful Honey Lake Valley, about sixty miles long and
ten wide, at an elevation of 4,500 feet above the level
of the sea. The valley is shut in by mountains, has
little or no drainage, and in wet weather is rather swamj)y,
but is a haven of refuge for cattle in a dry season.

The soil of the Sacramento Valley is a sandy loam
mixed here and there with gravel. It is not so rich
as other parts of California, besides being subject to

136 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

overflow, Avliich instead of enriching the soil as elsewhere,
has the contrary effect. The north part of the San
Joaquim Valley is somewhat better, and towards the
south, in the neighbourhood of Tulare Lake, very fertile
land is found. I cannot resist inserting the following
rapturous description of this spot, taken from a local
paper,

* Tulare Valley. — There are one thousand sections of
land in Tulare Valley, watered by four creeks, yielding a
vegetation unsurpassed in Egypt, overflowed like the banks
of the Nile, and as fertile as they are. The country is
peopled by gentle savages, emulous of serving the AVhites.
These thousand sections are peculiarly different from
most lands ; there is not a stone to be found upon them
— not a pebble — Indians here, women grown and men,
have never seen a stone, but the far-fetched round-
pounding stone of the squaws to grind their acorns with.

'Down from the Xevadas the Avater clear and cold
comes from its birthplace of snows, and pursuing its
course arrives at the valley of Tules, and spreads over
its bosom for miles in a swamp, then issuing from the
swamp by several high banked channels, irrigates the
country in every direction ; each of these channels again and
again loses itself in swamps, and escapes from them by many
rivulets, till the lonely Kaweah of the mountains is
four creeks at Woodsville, ten creeks at Visalia, and
debouches into Tulare Lake by a thousand little mouths,
some above and some below ground, having in its
checkered course bestowed wealth and fertility on un-
numbered acres.'

If the above does not bring settlers and purchasers
that way, then is fine writing Avasted in vain. I may as
well add in a postscript, that there is not a tree visible
for miles and miles, not a blade of grass to be seen at
this moment.

AGRICULTURE IX CALIFORNIA. 137

The gem of California, however, is Pajaro Valley.
Its crops of grain are unsurpassed by any in the state.
A field of one hundred acres in this valley produced
90,000 bushels of barley, and one acre of it yielded 149
bushels. Its potatoes are only excelled by those of
Bodega on the coast of the Pacific. Sunol Valley is
also very rich. The county of Santa Cruz is fertile
throughout, rich in its alluvial plains, rich in its red -wood
forests, rich in its tan bark, rich in never-failing streams.
It is a favourite resort for sea-bathing by invalids, as
there are steamers between it and San Francisco, as well
as a lovely ride over the mountains. Russian River
Valley is, as a whole, the most productive in the entire
state, not only on account of its great size, but also for
its adaptability to grow anything, particularly maize.
It produces more of this latter cereal than the whole
of California together. This valley is also a great hog-
raising district. The droves are turned, at the proper
season, into the forests of oaks that abound in one
portion of the valley ; the hogs get very fat on the
acorns, and Russian River hams and bacon command the
first price in the market. Near the mouth of Russian
River is Bodega plain, where the potatoes grow to an
astonishing size. Russian River, I may mention, is
called after a colony of that nation who settled there
in the beginning of this century, and had they been
properly seconded by their government the coinage of
this country might have been the double-headed eagle to-
day. It does not appear that these Russians were aware
of the existence of the bay of San Francisco, but had
landed at Sir Francis Drake's bay, and thence pro-
ceeded inland.

The numerous valleys formed by the spurs of the
INIonte Diablo range are very fertile, particularly San
Ramon and Amador Valleys. In the south the river

138 SIX MONTUS IN CALIFORNIA.

San Gabriel sinks into the. ground at a place called ' The
Monte,' and after flowing underground for some two or
three miles, reappears, the place where it sinks is con-
tinually moist, and the soil very good.

The principal kind of wheat cultivated here is the
Chili, the next the Australian. A small quantity of
Egyptian wheat is grown by the Italians for the manu-
facture of maccaroni, but three-fourths of the entire crop
is gro^vn from these two former. The quality of wheat
varies very much in different parts of the state, but as a
general rule Californian wdieat may be passed as posses-
sing considerable gluten, flintiness, plumpness, and weight.

The climate of California is peculiarly adapted for
economical wheat culture. The farmer needs no bam,
in many parts he has neither a fence nor a drain to make.
A perambulating reaping machine goes from farm to
farm of those whose acres or whose means are not enough
to have their own. The crop is gathered into a heap
in the middle of the field, where it lies to dry and acquire
that brittleness which is its peculiar quality. In course
of time the threshing macliine comes along ; the farmer
sacks his wheat and piles it up on the same ground. He
has no fear either of rain or dew. He leaves it there till
he finds a market, and then ships it by a sloop or barge
to the wharf at San Francisco. Frequently he sells it
as it stands, piled up on the ground, and the purchaser
carts it away. After the first rain the farmer ploughs,
not very deeply for the soil is still rich, and then he sits
down and prays for rain.

In some of the more early sown districts the land is
beginning to suffer from the constant demands upon it.
Year after year the plough has turned over its surface,
and the imvarying seed wheat sown, so that of late the
yield per acre has been gradually lessening. The system
of rotation of crops and fallow ploughing has been

AGRICULTURE IX CALIFORXIA. 139

neglected, not even deep ploughing has been prac-
tised, and the subsoil plough is unknown in California.
Lands that in 1859 produced sixty to sixty-five bushels
to the acre, now only yield thirty to thirty-five or about
one-half.

Another very economical system of fanning, which
succeeds very well in California, is that called raising a
volunteer crop. This is especially the case with barley.
Volunteer crops are those grown from the seed which
falls out in harvesting, consequently there is no sowing
nor even ploughing in all cases. It is sometimes only
harrowed. Barley has been known to volunteer five
years in succession and the last crop a good one.

There are two seasons for sowing, knoA\Ti by the name
of the early and the late. The early is in November
and December, the late from February to April. The
most certain crops are those sown early, the largest those
sown late. It is all a matter of chance, a species of
gambling. The early sower takes advantage of the
November rains, and puts in his grain. If copious rains
fall in that month and in Decemljcr, he is all right, he
can do without any more rain, indeed, if the wet weather
returns in the early spring, he loses, and vice versa the
late sower wins. In a wet season the highlands tlu'ivc,
in a dry season naturally the lowlands.

The next important industry in California is wool, the
growth of the trade in which corresponds with the pro-
gress of California, and which, from a comparatively
limited field of o])erations, has become highly important.
The native Californian sheep were of a degenerate breed,
and produced only a coarse blanket and carpet wool. The
flocks were chiefly confined to the southern counties, such
as Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and St. Luis ()bis])0.
After the discovery of gold and the admission of Cali-
fornia into the Union, fine breeds of American sheep

140 SIX MOXTnS IN CALIFORNIA.

were brouglit from the other side of the liocky Mountains,
and crossed with the native sheep. Later still, superior
breeds of Merino and others came by steamer, so that by
dint of crossing and Aveeding, the quality of the present
sheep is very fair, though not equal to that either of
Australia or New Zealand. The first export of Califor-
nia wool was made in 1853-54 and amounted to 175,000
lbs., value 14,000 dollars.

In 1855 the exports were 360,000 lbs. value j^36,000
For 1856 „ „ 600,000 „ „ 80,500
For 1857 „ „ 1,100,"000 „ „ 165,000
And so on until in 1869 „ „ 13,747,000 „ „ 2,370,165
And 1870 „ „ 19,237,871 „ „ 3,655,000

The exports for the first half of 1871, 12,575,924 lbs.
value ,^3,772,777.

From the above it will be seen how rapid has been the
progress in this commodity. It will be noticed likewise
that although the amount exported for the first six months
of the year is but tAvo-thirds of the whole of last year's
exports, yet its value is greater. This is owing to the
rapid rise in the price of this staple commodity. Now,
taking the fleece of wool at four pounds, Avhich is the
average weight, it will be seen that there are more than
three million sheep in the state. This, however, is below
the mark, as many sheep are not sheared until the
autumn, and some not sheared at all. Upon the whole I
should think that the number of head of sheep in Cali-
fornia exceeds four millions. Notwithstanding the occa-
sional dry seasons, when the sheep perish by thousands,
all those who have taken good care of their flocks have
prospered, and many have grown wealthy.

The largest flocks of sheep are in the southern part of
the state, and the best quality of wool comes from the
north. This is natural as the climate is colder, and I
find the Oregon wool very superior to the Calif ornian.

AGRICULTUEE IX CALIFORXIA. 141

Klamath, Humboldt, Trinity, Tehama, jSIendociuo, and
Yuba counties, where no sheep formerly ranged, send the
best wool ; the reason for this being obvious, for their
flocks came over the mountains direct from the east, and
have never intermingled with the inferior California sheep.
The quantity received so far, however, from these counties
is small, whilst, as an evidence of the wealth in flocks
south, some twenty growers in San Juan average 20,000
dollars each a year from their avooI alone, without reckon-
ing their increase in lambs which is very great. The dry
season has affected the wool this year, and the staple is
short. Fleeces which, as I before said, average in ordi-
nary years four pounds in weight, only avei'age three
pounds this year. They are freer from burrs than usual,
ho"\vevor.

The different woollen mills of California consume rather
more than five million pounds of wool annually. One of
them, and the largest, uses two-thirds of the whole. It
is a joint-stock compan}^ under the title of the Mission
and Pacific "Woollen ISIills. They make the most beauti-
ful blankets I ever saw, and gained the gold medal at the
Paris Industrial Exhibition. It seems strange that the
first prize for blankets should be won at this out of the
way place.

Formerly all the wool was sent by sailing vessels round
Cape Horn to New York and England. When the
Pacific jSIail Steamship Company increased their cany-
ing fi^cilitics, at the same time reducing their rates of
freight, it was sent by way of the Isthmus of Panama.
To-day the greater part, indeed almost all the wool goes
by the Central Pacific Ilailroad. The freight is two and
a half cents currency by rail, two cents gold by steamer,
and one cent per sailing vessel. The rail is prclerred
on account of celerity and delivery of the merchandise in
better condition.

142 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

WINE.

The next important industry in California is the manu-
facture of Avine. In fact it has been said that the pro-
ductions of California, irrespective of her gold, are the
three Ws — wheat, wool, and wine.

In the early days of California, which the Xewcomes
call the fossil age, grapes were the golden fruits of the
vineyards. To-day, the fermented juice is the grand
desideratum. When gi-apes were a dollar a bunch,
nobody thought of making wine, save and except for
home consumption. When grapes began to rot on the
ground for Avant of buyers, on account of the tons that
poured into the market, then groAvers turned their atten-
tion to wine-making.

I don't think that I have hitherto sufficiently insisted
on the fact, that it was the southern part of Califoraia
which was the only settled and civilised portion be-
fore the discovery of gold. Beyond the bay of San
Francisco, south to Los Angeles and San Diego, nothing
was known. The great valley of the Sacramento was
inhabited by Indians, elk, bears, wolves, antelope, and
smaller game and A^ermin, whilst at Monterey, Santa Bar-
bara, San Gabriel, and Los Angeles in the south, the
old Missions, with their broad and fertile lands cultivated
by baptized Indians, afforded a comfortable home to the
Spanish Padres. San Eafael, the farthest ecclesiastical
establishment north, is only tAventy miles from San Fran-
cisco, although there are monastic buildings at Sonoma,
a few miles further. But the seat of all the power lay

TTIXE. 143

south. Monterey was the capital, and tlie beautiful
gardens where fig trees and olives abounded were only
to be found at the Missions. Here too were the vine-
yards. The consequence was that in the beginning all
the grapes came from Los Angeles as the port, and the
variety of grape was known as the Mission grape. It
has been also called the Malaga grape, but from researches
I am inclined to think that this is a misnomer. The old
Fathers came from Catalonia; naturally the vines that
they Avould order to be sent to them by the ship that
arrived biennially from Europe, would be those which
they knew at home, and the grape that is called the ]Mis-
sion grape is most probably the Catalan, Avhich makes the
Beni Carlo Avine. The diiference of soil and climate has
somewhat changed the character of the grape, but as the
cuttings had to undergo a long voyage, only the most
hardy would survive, and they have produced a vine of
wondrous strength and bearing. There are vines in these
Missions that are eighty years old, and show no signs of
decreasiufT vig-our.

Vineyards paying so well, of course every farmer had
one. But as it takes four years before the young vine is
strong enough to bear fruit, so in the meantime the old
vineyards, as I said before, coined money. At length
from north, east, south, and west, the grapes began to
pour into San Francisco, and then growers began to think
of turning their surplusage into wine.

Then arose the fallacy (Xoah derived), that he who
could plant the vine and gather the grapes, could also
tread the winepress and manufacture the wine ; not only
manufacture, but bring it to market. In other words, the
happy, contented, not over-wealthy husbandman of Los
Angeles found himself transfonned, by the force of cir-
cumstances, into grower, manufacturer, and merchant,
with a limited capital and still uiorc limited knowledge,

144 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

either of manipulation or business. The good man tasted
his grapes as they ripened in the genial sun of tlie south,
pronounced them very good, forthwith houi^ht what he
considered the necessary utensils, and made his wine. A
tanner makes a bad shoemaker, and a miller isn't fit to be
a baker, and so he found out that a vine-grower is not a
•wine mercliant or manufacturer. The consequence of
this conglomeration of pursuits, joined to want of skill,
caused the early wines of California to be crude, alcoho-
lic, and unpalatable. The planter-manufacturer w^aited a
reasonable time until, as he thought, fermentation had
done its work, and then bunged up his Avine in casks and
placed it either in a cellar where a thorough draught passed
through, or in a wooden shed where it was roasted all day
and frozen all night. If the wine didn't go sour, or fer-
mentation didn't recommence, or the whole aifair didn't
turn to a ropey insipidity, the fortunate vintner was left
with a liquid that ' must be pure,' for it was made from
the pure juice of the grape, and nothing added but what,
as I have stated above, was crude, alcoholic, and unpa-
latable.

Vines will grow anywhere in California, but certain
species thrive under certain conditions better than others,
and this question should be carefully attended to. The
old Mission grape was grateful to the taste, sweet, and
saccharine, planted as it was on the low^ rich bottom lands
of the southern valleys. Take the same vine to the foot-
hills of the Sierras, and plant it in a calcareous, gravelly,
soil, where it struggles for existence among rocks and
stones, and you have a grape not so good to eat, but one
that makes a far better wine than its pampered brother of
the lowlands. The latter makes a stronger spirit, but the
other has drawn its life from the mountain air and stony
soil, and is not of the earth, earthy. Now the grape is
indigenous in California. It is to be found growing like

WINES. 145

a bramlile on the banks of the Sacramento. It is to he found
most pleasantly in the ravines of the foot-hills, generally
over some pool formed by the trickling of a mountain
brook. It twines among the lower branches of the trees,
and over the bushes that surround the water. If undis-
turbed, hundreds of quail congregate there at sunset.
The grape is small and acrid, yet mixed with foreign
grapes in cei'tain proportions makes an excellent wine,
somewhat resembling the Avine of the Khone in flavour.

The early wines of California were all falsified being
mixed with strong foreign wines. The Los Angeles wine
was not good enough to send out in its natural state, so
the dealers doctored it, and these compounds went by the
name of Califoi'nia wine, brinn-infj no credit to the
country. Meanwhile it was found that the mining
towns in the mountains grew better grapes than the old
Missions, and that the valleys of the coast range made
better Avine than any. For some entei'prising landowners,
pi'ominent among whom Avas a Hungarian named Colonel
Harasthy, had gone to Europe and returned with cut-
tings of vine from the finest vineyards of the old world —
cuttinjTs from the district of the !Medoc, from Burirundv,
from the Rhine, the Moselle, as Avell as from his own
country. And they throve Avonderfully. Ilis vineyards
are in the beautiful vale of Sonoma, Sonoma meaning
in the Indian tongue ' ]\Ioon Valley,' the valley Avhere the
moon loves to linger. To-day, the relative jn-oportions
of the product of the four great Avine-growing districts,
viz. Sonoma Valley, Napa Valley, Los Angeles, and El-
dorado, may be classed by the folloAving figures — 41, 38,
14, 11. There is Avine made uoav at the ' I'oza caliente'
(hot spring) vineyard, Avhitdi, if kept long enougli, will
equal good Avines of the Klione. In fact st)me foreigners
Avere deceived Avhcn they tasted it, and pronounced it an
imported article.

140 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORNIA.

The amount of -wine manufactured last year was six
millions of f^allons. The crop this year will be large, for
the droufrht so fatal to "-rain has been beneficial to the
vineyards. It is estimated that at least eight millions of
gallons will be made in 1871, which at the low average
price of thirty cents a gallon, will add 2,400,000 dollars
to the capital of the country. About one-twentieth part of
the wine has hitherto been distilled into brandy, this year
it is highly probable that one-tenth will be distilled, espe-
cially if the price keeps low, as the number of distilleries
is increasing in the state, and brandy is less expensive
to store, and more easily taken care of than wine. As
far as I have had experience, the brandy does not com-
pare favourably with that of France.

SERICTLTUEE. 147

SERICULTURE, BEET SUGAR, OLIVES, ETC.

Among the minor branches of industry at present in
California, but one that is likely to become of consider-
able importance, is silkworm raising. For some years
past, owing to a disease, the nature of which has puzzled
scientific men, and the cure for which has baffled the
most experienced sericulturists, the worm in Italy has
been gradually dying out, and the Italian growers have
been scouring the whole Avorld in search of new and
healthy eggs. They are to be found in Florida, in
Louisiana, Peru, Japan, China, taking California en route
for those last two countries.

A Frenchman, of the name of Prevost, was the first to
draw attention to the practicability of rearing the silk-
worm in California. He had a large nursery garden,
near San Jose, and planted some mulberry trees. His
efforts were much aided by Mr. Hentsch, a banker of
San Francisco, who sent to France for the best eggs that
could be procured. INIr. Prevost, though an earnest
enthusiast, yet was not practically enough acquainted
with the subject. He grew the mulberry, he hatched his
silkworms, he produced his cocoons, but the quality of
the silk was not good, and his eggs were unproductive.
However, he had proved the possibility, and the state
offered a i)remium of ,^300 for every thousand mulberry-
trees of a certain age, and a like premium for every hun-
dred thousand cocoons. The consequence was, tiiat
every farmer planted mulberry-trees, regardless of soil,
situation, or quality. The state premium was the price

146 SIX MOXTIIS IN CALIFORNIA.

of a good crop, and so the state found out, for mulberry-
trees poured in, or rather claims for premiums multiplied
so fast, that the Government was obliged to cry enough
and rescind its enactment. Mulberry-trees had been
sown like peas, and the greater number to the acre the
greater the farmer's profit. The favourite plant was the
Murus multicaulis, which is of very rapid growth, and
throws out immense leaves. This species, when planted
in wet land, as many were in the Sacramento Valley,
shot up like Jonah's gourd, but the leaves were nothing
but water, and the silkworm, which is a greedy feeder,
literally died of dropsy. Mr. Hoag, of Sacramento,
planted upAvards of a million trees of this Multicaulis, but
has never been successful in rearing the worm. The two
species of mulberry best adapted for sericulture are the
Morns alba and the Morus vwretti, both of them originally
from China, but now almost indigenous in Italy through
centuries of cultivation. As I said, not only in early
moruculture were the sites and species wrongly chosen,
but the trees were planted so closely together that when
they grew up neither light nor air could penetrate be-
tween their thickly-interlaced branches, and sunshine is
essential to the leaf; the consequence was that the state
became charged Avith inefficient cocooneries and unhealthy
worms. Even had the Multicaulis been the best species,
so great was the hurry of the growers to obtain the pre-
mium, that they fed their worms on leaves that were
picked from too young trees, so that they produced weak,
soft cocoons. In T8G0, an unknoAvn grower introduced
certain eggs from Montauban in France, which for a
time gave excellent results, but, being badly reared every-
Avhere, the quality has much deteriorated. The cocoon
resembled much that which is called Macedonia in Italy,
here known by the name of the Yellow California. The
California Silk Cultivation Society, whose mulberry

SERICULTURE. 149

groves and cocoonery are on the line of rail between San
Francisco and Sacramento, sold over three millions of
eggs to some Italians on their -way home from Japan,
none of which turned out well. A scrower in the south
sent a small lot of engs to Sijjnor Ccrruti, the Italian
consul of this place, Avho takes a great interest in sericul-
ture, and to whom I am indebted for valuable informa-
tion. Mr. Cerruti forwarded them to Turin, but when
they arrived it was found that the majority of them had
hatched on the voyage, nevertheless, so great Avas the
interest taken in California silkworms, that the remaining
eggs were divided among the sericulturists in that city,
to be carefully nursed and attended to. By the last
accounts they were all thriving well, having passed
through their third stage of growth, with only one more
to pass through ere arriving at maturity.

INIeanwhile the Italians in California had not been idle,
and Mr. Larco, a wealthy merchant of San Francisco,
has laid out the most perfect establishment for silk-raising
in the state. The whole has been under the superinten-
dence of Signor Cerruti, who thoroughly understands the
art, as well as of practical workmen imported from Italy.
Forty acres of land are devoted to mulberry-trees. The
land is beautifully situated in a basiu surrounded by the
foot-hills of the coast range. The ground was laid out in
1868, and from twelve to sixteen thousand mulberry-
trees planted, which will be in their full maturity next
year, and twenty thousand more in eighteen months.
The species planted were Morns niha and Morns niorrff/,
with some few varieties from China by way of experiment.
None of the trees are nearer one another than sixteen
feet, and Mr. Ccrruti even advises wider planting, in
order to economise the intervening spaces for cereals.
For the first year the mulberry-tree requires irrigation,
after that the roots, which strike downward, find ciioiigli

160 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

moisture in the earth. Mr. Larco's cocoonery is all that
is excellent. Its caj)acity is G00,000 silkworms, ])roduc-
ing more than two thousand pounds of cocoons, which at
the low price of $5 a pound, gives a nice income without
counting the increase of eggs, and this only upon forty of
Mr. Larco's ranch of 1,200 acres. Although the estab-
lishment is only three years old, it has already turned out
a quality of silk superior to anything we have yet had in
California.

With respect to the disease among the worms in Italy,
I learnt that some very interesting experiments have
been made by Professor Susanno of Milan, who has
determined that it is not the mulberry that affects the
worm, bvit that the disease is latent in the animal itself.
Whereupon the Professor has adopted what he calls a
* systeme cellulaire.' He takes a quantity of eggs, and
subjects each one to a careful microscopic examination.
Every one that shows the slightest symptom of disease is
destroyed, and only those preserved that are to all
appearance healthy. As soon as the worm is hatched,
the microscope is again brought into play, and the same
winnowing process gone through. The selected Avorms
are then separately brought away (cellulaire), and se-
lected cocoons set aside. The female moths thus pro-
duced are kept apart, and their eggs noted. Immediately
she has done laying she is cut open, and her intenial
organs carefully examined by the microscope, for it is
thence, says Professor Susanno, that the disease emanates.
The eggs of those moths only that present a healthy
appearance are preserved, and in this manner it is to be
hoped that in two years' time the ravages of the silkworm
disease may be repaired.

The cultivation of the White or Sugar Beet in Cali-
fornia, and its manufacture into sugar, is as yet in its
infancy. A company, called ' the Beet Sugar Company,'
have established works at Alvarado, and these have been

BEET SUGAR. THE OLIVE. 151

in operation one season. They have succeeded in obtain-
ing rather more than seven per cent, of sugar from the
beets. The yield of beets is about twenty tons (2,000 lbs.)
to the acre, giving therefore 2,800 lbs. of sugar to the
acre. The company operated upon 3,000 tons last season,
which yielded 400,000 lbs. of sugar and 15,000 gallons of
molasses. In the coming season tlie company will work
the produce of 400 acres belonging to them, as well as of
200 acres contracted for at ,$3 '50 per ton, delivered at the
factory. When the works are not engaged on beets they
refine imported raw sugars, so that they are never idle.

The opium poppy is likewise successfully raised in
California, but in small quantities.

The olive has always thriven well in the soutli, and
none of the old Missions were without their olive grove.
If tradition speaks true, the old Padres were not without
their olive branches as well. For the first ten years of the
American occupation the groves were neglected. The
Mission lands were the subject of litigation, but now
attention is directed to the cultivation of this very profit-
able branch of agriculture.

In Santa Barbara Valley, Messrs. Fcrnald, Blanchard,
and Towle have two thousand olive-trees of six years'
growth, which will bring them in from ten to twelve
thousand dollars, and the jiroduct of the neighbourhood is
estimated at a hundred thousand gallons of oil, worth
about two dollars a gallon. The tree that makes the
best oil bears a small fruit, but the large Spanish olive is
the best for eating, though Freiu-hnien prefer their small
round species. The Spanish olive, however, has a higher
flavour.

The process of extracting the oil is very sinijilo, the
olives being squeezed in a common pri'ss, and then
strained through hair bags, so tliat any farmer can manu-
facture the oil. lie has only to let it clarify in earthen
or stone vessels.

162 SIX MO-MIIS IN CALIFOILVIA.

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA.

Before the occupation of California by the Americans
the country abounded with many species of animals,
that are now, if not extinct, at least driven to the moun-
tains or the recesses of the forests. In 1849 vast herds
of elk roamed over the valleys of the San Joaquim and
Sacramento, and venison was as cheap as butcher's meat.
To-day not one is to be found in the great basin from
Shasta to San Diego, and only occasionally do the hunters
come across a solitary specimen in the coast range, north
of San Francisco. In the old days the traveller to the
mines would see long files of the antelope, or the deer
would look out with large wondering eyes from a clump
of oaks, but to-day only the trees remain.

The elk is similar to the extinct Irish deer. It is an
animal Avith the body of a horse and the head of a stag.
It is about seven feet long by five feet high, and when
full grown weighs from eight to twelve hundred pounds.
The antlers are very large and handsome, with eight and
sometimes nine tines, and young elk are very good eating.
The venison of the deer is not so good except under the
exceptional case of a fat buck being met with ; but in
general the meat is lean and tough. Young antelope on
the other hand are very delicious, and the animal more
elegant than the deer ; they move differently also, the
deer bucks in bounds, Avhilst the antelope canters. The
antelope is gregarious and follow their leader, whilst the
deer move about accordinfj to their volition.

In the southern part of the Tulare are flocks of an

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALU'OILMA. 153

animal that may be said to be a cross between the deer
and sheep. It is called the mountain sheep, and is ex-
ceedingly difficult to get at, living in almost inaccessible
places, and being besides exceedingly wild. It is much
larger than either a sheep or deer, weighing between
three and four hundred pounds, has no wool but only a
coarse brown hair. The horns are something like a
crescent in shape, and it is affirmed — although I never
saw it — that the animal will throw himself from a high
precipice, alighting on these horns without suffering the
least injury.

But the king of beasts and the pride of California is
the grizzly bear ( Ursus horribilis). It weighs sometimes
over two thousand pounds, and one monster that was on
exhibition, I was told, weighed fully two thousand five
hundred. This beast was nearly five feet high by about
eight feet long, and more grey than other smaller ones
that I have seen, which inclined more to a brown colour.
The head is small in comparison with the body, and the
nose is pointed, which together with its small sharp eye
n-ives the animal a look of good-natured cunning. Indeed
the grizzly cannot be ranked among the savage animals,
for it never attacks man unless wounded, or when a
mother with cubs. The mighty strength of the grizzly
bear lies in its paws, great massive limbs ending Avith
almost a hand, with long claws that look like the teeth of
an iron rake. Woe betide the man who gets a pat with
one of these paws, the importance of which to the animal
as a food-getter may be evidenced when one comes across
the broad hole he has dug in the ground seeking for
roots.

Of course the ambition of every Californian sportsman
is to kill a grizzly, and that is one of the reasons why
this bear, who used to roam witiiin ten miles of San Fran-
cisco, is now only to be met with in the mountains,

154 SIX MONTHS JX CALIFORNIA.

exccptlnr^ tlurliifr severe ■winters, when the snow lies low,
and hunger drives him to prowl around the ranelies. It
is then that the grizzly becomes carnivorous, his favourite
food being pig ; but occasionally the hunter, after track-
ing a wounded deer, will think it prudent to retire when
he finds that a grizzly has appropriated his game. As I
said, the bear rarely attacks a man, at the same time he
can carry a vast quantity of lead. The first shot rarely
kills him. The best place to aim at is behind the shoulder.
Now suppose a man with a good repeating rifle follows
* bear tracks ' into the chapparal or brushwood, which the
grizzly chiefly inhabits. It is almost always on the side
of a hill. His first endeavour is to rjet above the bear
for a reason you will know shortly ; but in case he should
come upon him unawares, or see him moving up the hill,
stopping every now and then to dig up a root, the tempt>
atlon is too strong, and he waits till he thinks he sees
the shoulder, and then blazes away. There Is a fierce
not exactly a roar, but what one might call a bear swear-
ing, and then crash he comes through the bushes. It's
no use running now, for a grizzly can beat a horse down
hill. Up hill his immense weight and unwieldy shape
gives man the advantage, that is why it is better to be
above him, but he runs and rolls and tumbles down hill
at a fearful pace. Now he has arrived In front of the
hunter, and rears on his haunches. This is the time
to give it him again, just inside of the foreleg. If he
knocks him over, all right, if not, pat, and he is down,
and the bear begins to mumble him. The best plan is to
feign death, when after a time the bear will go away.

Many marvellous stories are told about bear hunts.
One of them was recounted me by a gentleman whose
veracity I have no reason to doubt. He was liding in
the neighbourhood of Santa Barbara, looking after small
game, when suddenly he came upon a huge grizzly. The

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALIFOKXIA. IW

bear stood still and eyed him, not showing any inclina-
tion to move away. Ilis gun was only loaded with wire
cartridge and No. 8 shot. Pie took good aim and fired,
breaking the bear's hind leg. The grizzly made great
efforts to get at him, dragging itself" by its forelegs. My
narrator drew his revolver, which they always carry with
them in the country and fired three shots in the region of
the heart before he killed him. He has the skin as a
trophy. Another story was told me by an Irish gentle-
man named Tobin, whom I met in company with some
friends. He said that he was with a large party hunting
bear in the mountains near Mendocino when, feeling
tired, he returned to camp, laid down his rifle and fell
asleep. lie was awakened by a noise, and looking up
saw an immense grizzly sitting on his rifle and staring at
him with all his eyes. lie lay perfectly still for a minute,
mentally revolving his peculiar position, and then, quick
as lightning, sprang to his feet, giving an Indian war
whoop. He had two reasons for this; some of the party
mio;ht be in the neighbourhood and would come to his
rescue, and of course the other Avas to frighten the bear.
It had that effect ; the bear jumped back a few paces,
he seized his rifle, shot it through the heart, and then
fainted away. When he came to his senses the bear was
nowhere to be seen, but there were tracks into the l)ushes.
One of the gentlemen present whispered to me tliat he
was told by Judge H., who was of the jcirty, that
when they came back they found ]\Ir. Tobin half asleej),
and a good hole made in a demijohn of whiskey.

But the grizzly will rank with the dodo some of these
early days.

There are also the bro\\ni bear and the cinnamon bear,
both fiercer though not so powerful as the grizzly. They
are also both climbers, and live in the forests, whilst the
grizzly seldom clind)s, and prefers to live in the chapiiaral.

150 SIX MONTHS IX CALIFORXIA.

Tlic animal next in size is vulgarly called the CalifDr-
nian lion, being in reality a puma. It is an ugly, skulk-
ing, dirty-brown brute, and kills sheep and deer. There
are wolves, foxes, red, grey, and common. The red
fox's skin is very soft and handsome.

An animal allied to the fox and the dog, called coyote,
was very numerous, and indeed is still often to be met
with in the interior. It is the most hungry, cadaverous,
unhappy, and predatory animal in California. It is also
the most hunted, and trapped, and tortured. The coyotes
hunt in flocks during the night-time. Their cry is some-
what similar to that of a pack of hounds only with a tone
of starving misery. There is something very melan-
choly to hear them in the still midnight when one is
camping out in the woods. At first there is one sharp
impatient hunger-drawn bark, followed by a whimpering,
and then a chorus of prolonged howls, growing fainter and
fainter as the pack passes up some ravine. One feels
almost sad to hear this cry drawn forth by a gnawing
craving want of food. I have seen many coyotes killed,
and never found one that was not a mass of skin and
bone. They are awful thieves however, and will hide all
day in a hen-roost if there are no dogs about. There is
also a species of wild cat, very fierce, larger than the
domestic animal and with a short tail, that is very trouble-
some about a farmyard, especially as dogs are very shy
of them. The only way is to train the dogs to tree them,
/ and then bringr them down with a shot sun.

California is not so rich in fur-bearing animals as the
countries lying more north ; still there is some peltry yet
left. Beaver are getting scarcer every year, not that they
are trapped as they were some half century back, but
they have receded before civilisation. A few years ago
their marks were visible on the trees that lined the
Sacramento and Feather rivers, but they have gone away

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA. 157

perhaps to the head -waters of these rivers, or into the
tule marshes where man is now preparing to follow them.
The California beaver always was a degenerate scion of
the family, contented to live in a hole on the bank of a
river, and not build a city like his forefathers.

But the sea-otter still exists, thouixh the jrreat value
of its skin causes it to be cruelly hunted. The finest
skins are worth from eighty to a hundred dollars a-piece,
and the old Hudson's Bay Company used to measure
them on gun-barrels, and give the Indians who brought
them a Birmingham musket in exchange which cost about
ten or twelve shillings. The fur is beautiful in colour,
and softness ; it can be stroked either way, and the rich
' sable-grizzled ' is the favourite tint ; the darker the
better. The sea-otter is extraordinary in its habits, and
fiies in the face of custom. It swims on its back, sleeps
on its back, has forepaws like a quadruped, yet never
comes on shore.

At jNIonterey the sea-otter is still hunted, but along the
coast, as far as the Columbia river, it is rarely to be
found. The land-otter formerly abounded in the large
rivers and lakes, and is very similar to the Englii-h
variety. The racoon is very common, and is frequently
domesticated, more as a pet than for any use that can be
made of it. liats abound everywhere, but the large
bi'own rat predominates. They come out of the ships.
I saw one the half of whose body was white and tlic
upper half brown. There are all sorts of mice, from tin-
delicate field mouse to the round hump-backed cujjboard
depredator.

The squirrel family is largely represented, and most
heartily cursed by the iarmer. There is a very large,
handsome, grey squirrel, whose tail is one-third larger
than its body, that lives up in the i)ine trees, lie
is harmless, but the ground squirrels burrow in tlic

158 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

ground in colonies of thousands, and cat everything that
is grown ; they have able assistants in the gophers — half
rat, half squirrel — which burrow, and only cat the roots
of grain or plants, so that the farmer or planter only
knows that the underground enemy has been at work
when the plant withers. These gophers have pouches on
each side of their cheeks. Like all mischievous things,
they, as well as the ground squirrels, breed like rabbits,
and some ranches have been deserted on account of their
ravages. A fierce war is raged against them, and a
premium paid for their skins, which has had the effect of
thinning them a little. One smart Yankee farmer, whose
place was infested with ground squirrels, circulated a
notice in his neighbourhood to the effect, that the ' Cali-
fornia Glove Factory ' would give a certain price for
squirrel skins. All the boys and unemployed men turned
out, and hunted and dug out and trapped the vermin
until the Glove Factory was obliged to publish an ad-
vertisement disclaiming any idea or even possibility of
making gloves out of squirrel skins, more especially as
the majority sent to them were riddled with small shot.

I have already mentioned the large hare or jackass-
rabbit as it is called. Its colour is darker on the back
than the English hare, and it has not so much meat on
the back as that. It is from twenty to twenty-five inches
long. There is another species, equally large, which
is perfectly white in Avintcr, and of a light yellowish
grey with white belly in summer. There is likewise
a little bit of a rabbit that is never longer than a foot,
and is found in great numbers about the bushes. It is
capital sport shooting them, but it takes a very good shot
as they are as quick as squirrels. They make an excel-
lent stew, however.

Of birds there are the common golden eagle, which is to
be found all over the continent, and the bald eagle. Then

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALIFORXIA. 159

there is the vulture, which is an enormous bird, mea-
suring nine and even ten feet across the winfrs. There
are many varieties of hawks, from the fish-liawk down to
the small sparrow-hawk. Of owls there are nine species,
from the great staring brown owl to the little dwarf owl
that lives in the hole of the ground squirrel, sometimes
with a rattlesnake for companion. There is a strauiie
species of woodpecker here called by the Spaniards car-
pintero. It bores holes in the soft bark of the pine trees
with geometrical precision, and therein deposits an acorn,
the bark in its growth slightly covers the acorn, and
encloses it so firmly as to render it impossible to pull It
out. This is the Avinter supply for the bird and for the
squirrels too, who run up and steal them. It has a
strange sound among the woods in autumn to hear these
birds tapping in all directions, and the noise of these
carpenters is the only thing heard in the forest.

There are no real song-birds, such as we in England
call songsters, in California. In the spring some linnets
get up a few joy-notes, but there is nothing like our
early lark, or thrush, or even robin. There Is a mocking-
bird in that state, but it even is a bad imitation of liIs
Mexican brother. The consequence of this absence of
song-birds is, that the bird-fanciers abound In San Fran-
cisco, and one sees shops full of canaries and Australian
mocking-birds, and other importations. Canaries sell
from three to five dollars each. Some very pi-ctty
humming-birds, but the most conunon wears a humble
brown suit. The sandhill crane is a beautiful bird,
pure Avhite, and shaped like a flamingo. This sjiccles
lives in large flocks, chiefly on the shallow side of the
bend of a river, they are very shy birds. The two
species of quail, the mountain and comnum, arc both
very elegantly plumed. Tiie mountain quail is as large
as a small partridge, which it nuich resembles, with a

160 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

black licad surmounted with a plume of two feathers
three iiiehe.s loii<(. The breast is mottled like that of a
partridge, but across the breast is a deep horse-shoe
shaped mark of the colour of iron mould. It looks like
a brand. The common or valley quail is like the moun-
tain only smaller. They are always called quail in
California, but I should rather call them partridges. The
meat is like that of the European partridge, but more
dry. There are three or four species of grouse, but they
are finer and more abundant in British Columbia. There
are ducks innumerable. Mallard, widgeon, teal, spoon-
bill, canvass back, water hen, and geese from the small
white to the great grey hunker. Wild swans are occasion-
ally seen, and bittern, herons, and the grey plover. Snipe
shooting used to be very good in the marshes in the
ueio'hbourhood of San Francisco, but civilisation has
driven away the wandering bird. There is also a large
curlew, wdiich is sold in the markets for woodcock. Some
rocky islands named the Farralones, off the coast, arp
frequented by swarms of murres or boobies, and once a
year an expedition is fitted out at San Francisco for the
purpose of taking their eggs. The egg hunters rush on
shore, drive away the gulls and murres, and gather all
the eggs they can. For the next week the markets are
full of baskets of these large, green, ugly, spotted eggs,
which are sold cheap, as they are strong and only fit to
make an omelet of where garlic is liberally used.

The fish of California, as a general rule, are inferior
to those either of Europe or of the North Pacific. There
is neither mackerel, sole, turbot, nor whiting, but in
return there is the pompouueau, one of tlie most delicious
fish I ever tasted. It is of the shape and size of a
small flounder, as firm as a sole, and more delicate in
flavour than a red mullet. Formerly these fish sold for
ten shillings a-piece in San Francisco, to-day they are

THE ZOOLOGY OF CALIFORNIA. 161

about sixpence to ninepeuce. There are eight different
sorts of salmon, but only one, the silver-salmon, can
be called good eating. The sturgeon is very common,
and is chiefly eaten by the Chinese. There is likewise
a manufactory of caviare in San Francisco. The great
supply to the San Francisco Billingsgate, however, is
called by the generic name of rock fish, embracing the
great mullet, a sort of garnet, and red staring fish with
enormously large heads and mouths in pro[)ortiou to
their body. The bass is also plentiful, but I must not
forget the sardine, which is as large as a small herring,
and delicious eating. The herring is soft and inferior.
There is a species of viviparous fish which holds its
young perfectly formed in an abdominal pouch.

Next to the flea the most common insect in California
is the mosquito, as visitors to the Yosemitc will have
experienced. People emerge from the valley like small-
pox patients, and the dainty gnat prefers the tenderest
skin. The only venomous insects are the scorpion,
centipede, and tarantula, or ground-spider. There are
plenty of water and land snakes, but none are dangerous
excepting the rattlesnake already mentioned. On the
whole, California is not rich in her zoology.

162 SIX MOXTIIS IX CALIFORNIA.

THE FLORA OF CALIFORNIA.

That which I said witli respect to the fauna of that
state is still more applicable to its flora. With the ex-
ception of varieties of ])ine and a large bay-tree, called
the Callfornian laurel, California has nothing to boast
of in the way of forest trees. Of the pines, the first of
course is the Sequoia girjanten, or big trees, already de-
scribed, and the red wood which, as I have before said, is
surmised to be the same species growing under less
favourable circumstances. Then there is the magnificent
Douglas pine, the sugar pine, the white pine, &c., all
good timber trees. There are also varieties of cedars,
beautiful wild-looking^ trees of no great value. There is
a tree, called the Monterey cypress, which has been
largely imported from the south of California to adorn
the gardens and cemeteries of San Francisco, although it
is not so handsome as many other ornamental trees. As
for the oaks, they are only fit for shade and firewood.
The white oak has long spreading branches, and bears
very large acorns, but it is rare to find a sound tree, and
the timber is worthless. The black or evergreen oak is
nearly as large, not so handsome, and equally useless.
The horse chesnut hardly attains to the dignity of a tree.
Its blossoms are handsome, and the nuts large. The
madrona is an elegant tree, swaying about on its long,
thin, red-barked stem, like a tree that had overgrown
itself. I have mentioned wild grapes. There are deli-
cious little wild-strawberries, like the English hautboys.
They used to be numerous in the hills around San Fran-

THE FLORA OF CALIFORNIA. 103

CISCO, and still abound a few miles down the coast. They
lose their flavour when cultivateil. The blackberries
are very large ; and the wild goosclwn-y insignificant. A
very large white raspberry grows wild in Oregon, but it
has little flavour.

The wild flowers of California are more remarkable for
their abundance than for their variety. Acres upon acres
will be sc'cn covered with one species. There are the
flaunting eseholtzia, the gentle ])lue neniophihi, which
sometimes makes a plain look like the reflection of the
sky, large patches of sunflower, a brushwood of the blue
ceonotluis, like our English privet, there are asclepias, and
euphorbias, and the prickly pear, and the evening prim-
rose, and lupins innumerable, from the fragrant yellow to
tlae bright-eyed dwarf, with blue and white blossoms.
The columbine abounds, as likewise many species of
ferns, especially the graceful adiantura. But it is in the
mountains that the pride of California flowers grow, for
there the great lilies cover the ground for miles, and the
white azalia snows itself in all directions. The large lily
of the Sierra Nevada is somewhat similar to the Japanese
lily, and Is equally fragrant In the foot-hills is found
a remarkably elegant species of lily, of a pale crimsoa
colour and shajied somewhat like a snowdrop. There is
also a rhododendron in the mountains, but all attempts to
rear it in San FrancLsco have failed. Violets are com-
mon, and a curious species of fraxilla. The white forgefr-
me-not Ls everywhere, but the flower-seeker must beware
of the yedra or poison oak. lie sees l)ef(ire him a
straight wand-like shrub, three or four feet high, with
beautiful leaves, sometimes of a bright scarlet, covering
its stem. Let him beware of adding that to his collec-
tion, or the following day his face may be swollen up so
that his eyes are almost closed, and he looks like the
winner in a prize, whilst acute pains and swellings arise

164 SIX MONTHS IN CALIFORNIA.

in the most sensitive parts of the body. Some pcoi)le
can handle the yedra with impunity, whilst others are
affected if they only pass to leeward of the plant. It
abounds everywhere, and one species is a parasite. The
flower is rather pretty, of a light greenish colour. The
A(/ave Americana r:^YOws wWd in the south of California.
Yet, as I said before, Nature has not been prodigal in
that state, and except in the valleys and mountains,
there are no flowers left after June. All is dry and
burnt. But no sooner does the welcome rain come, than
the latent life springs up in all its green beauty, and
before February is over the ground is tinted with the
early flowers. The three following months revel in the
most luxuriant vegetation, and then the gay flowers leave
the scene to recruit for the next season's enjoyment of
life.

I.ON'DON : I-KINTKI) TIT

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INDEX

ACTOS'S Mcdem Cookery W

Allen's Four Discourses cjt C'liry#ojtoin .. 512

AT,LIK.S on Formation of Christendom .... il

Alpine Giiiile (The) '•«

Ah.nold's ^tnnuul of English Literature .. "

AILNOTT'S Elements of Physics 1'

Autl;o::;y ami C< iiMiinec 1"

Autumn Holidays of n Country Parson .... '■'

AVUE's Treasury of Bible Kuowled;;e 20

Bacon's Essays, by TVhatei.t «

Life and Letters, by Spi'.ddixo .. li

'Works, edited by Spkddixo !'•

Bain's Lo?ic, Deductive and Inductive .... 10
.Mental and Mural Science 1"

on the Senses and lutclkct I'>

Baud's Alpiue Guide 2'

Bayldon's Rents and TiUaKea l"

Beaten Tracks '•-

BKCKJvU'sCliaricles and Callus 21

BKNFKy's Sanskrit Dictionary i*

Beienakd on British Neutrality I

Bl-M:T»n lliftnri.al Trutli :i

BljkCK's Treatise on Brewiiie 2-*

Blacki-EY's Gcrinaii-EuKlieh Dicliuuary .. 8

Blaink's Rural Sports 26

Veterinary Art 27

JiLciXAM's .Metals M

Boom's Saint-Simon ■'!

BOULTBKE on 3U Articles 1!'

BocRNEon Screw Propeller IB

Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine . IS

Handbook of Steam Lnuine .... 18

Improvements iu the btcam

£n?ine I '^

Treatise on the Steam Eneine .. lo

Examples of Modern Eiitines .. IH

EowDLEK's Family SllAKSl'KARK 26

Boy u's Reminiscences 4

-Bramley-MC'Oue's Six bisters ol tlie

Valleys 21

3rande's Dictiouary of Science, Li.cra-

ture, and Art II

iBuAY's -Manual of Anthropolo^-y lo

Philosophy of Necessity 10

on Force 10

(Mrs.) lliu-tland Forest 53

■rownk'b ExpoMtionof the 39 Articles.... 19

■ i;'; IXKI.'s Lileol ilKUNEI 4

ii vCKi.E's History ol Civilization I

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.-y— Maternal Manajeinenl of Cbildren 2h

"'.NKEN'S God in History 3

1_ Prayers I;.

>nKE'8 Vicissitudes of i amilies :>

(ETON'S Chriatiau Church 4

^net LaipyeT 5-

SJti'BELl.'h No; \va> v;

I Oarxota'k> emoirsof Pombal 4

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] Cats' and Farmk's Moral Emblems H

' Chanced Aspects of Unchanjcd TrutJ.s .... 9

^ ChesNEY's Indian Polity 3

Waterloo Campaign 2

, Chorale Book fur England ;6

Clirist the Consoler l.i

1 CLOfGli's Lives from Plutarch 2

I COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch 21

i CiiLLlNiavooij's Vision of Creation 2"i

I Commonplace Philosopher h

CoxiNOTON's Translation of the .Kntid.... t6

CoNTAXSEAf'sFreuch-EnglisltDiotionariei t>

CoNYUEAliK and HowsoN's St. Paul JO

Cotton's lUichopi Life s

Cooper's Surgical Dictionary Ji

CoPL.\ND's Dictionary ol Practical Medicine 15

Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulji:.... 9

Co.v's .\ryan .Mythology 3

.Manual of ilythology , 2i

Tale of the Great Penian War a

Talcsof Ancient Greece 24

and Jones's I'.ipular Rimianees .... si

Cresy's Encyclopaidia of Civil Enginetiice 17

Critical Essays of a Country Parson y

Crook ES on Uctt-Koot Sugar lii

's C'licmical .\Ma lysis u

CULLEY's Handbook of Telegraphy J7

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in the timeof Cai.vin 3

Davi iisoN's Introduction to New Testa-nent 2U

Dead Shot (The), by Marksman ii.

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Uyeu's City of Rome ;

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' G.ithic Revival 17

Elements of Boluiiy 13

EllicuTT on the Revision of the English

New Testament Ji

Commentary on Ephcsiuni .... it

Commentary on Gulatiani .... ^.)

Pastoral Eiitt. 20

Philii I ans.kc in

Thetfa\'r.iar» 2l»

Lectures on the Lile tl Christ., tu

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's Applicationsof Iron 1"

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Faraday's Life and Letters 4

Fabkab's Families of Speech 9

Chapters on Language 7

Felkis on Hosiery and Lace Manufacturej H

FESSELL's Book of the Roach 27

FiTZWTGBAM on Horses and Stables 27

Fowler's Collieries and Colliers Z^

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Freshfield's Travels in the Caucasus.... 22

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GAMr.EE on Ilorse-Shoeing 27

Oasot's Elementary Physics 12

Natural riiilosiiiihy IS

OiLBEBT's Cadore, or Titian's Country 22

Gilbert and Churchill's Dolomites .... 23

GiRDLESTOSE'S Bible Synonymea 19

GLEDSTOSE'S LifeofWHITEFIELD S

GODDARD's Wonderful Stories 24

Goldsmith's Poems, Illustrated 2(")

GOODEVE'S Mechanism 11

GRAH.UI's Autohiography of MiLTOX .... 1

Viewof Literature and Art .... 2

Gbast'S Home Politics 3

Ethics of Aristotle '<

Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 9

Gray's Anatomy '*

GREESHOW on Bronchitis 15

Griffin's Algehra and Trigonometry .... 11

Griffith's Fundamentals 19

Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces .. 12

GUBKET'sChaptersof French History .... 2

GwlLT'a Encyclopaedia of Architecture .... 17

Hampoex's (Bishop) Memorials j

Hark oq Election of Representatives 7

HaRTWI5's Harmonies of Xature 13

Polar World 13

. Sea and its Living Wonders . . 13

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Hewitt on Diseases of Women H

Ho DOSOS's Theory of Practice 10

TimeandSpace 10

Holi.an;i's Recollections 5

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HomeiThe'i at Heatherbrae 21

HOBN-E's Introduction to the Scriptures.... 20

How we Spent the Summer 22

HOWITT's Australian Discovery 23

Mad War Planet 2>i

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Visitsto Remarkable Places.... 23

nl'BXEn'S Memoir of SIxtus V I

HcoilF.s's (W.)Manual ofGeoKraphy .... II

UCME'HEsiayt 1)

Treatise on Human Nature 10

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Mabsh ALL'S Physioloey 15

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Metevard's Cnmp <>f Englishmen .'•

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Perriso's Churches and Creeds 19

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Rkeve's Koyal and Kcpublican France .. 2

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Rivers' Rose Amateur's Guide 13

Rogers's Corresiiondence of Greysou ••

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Rose's Ignatius Loyola 2

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