GN 
 
 LiaKARY 
 
 THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 
 
 (THE HUXLEY MEMORIAL LECTURE FOR 1911.) 
 
 BY 
 
 FELIX wm LUSCHAN, M.D., Dk.Ph. 
 
 Professor of Anthroj}ology in the University of Berlin. 
 
 [WITH PLATES XXIV-XXXIII.] 
 
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1] 221 
 
 EXCHANGE 
 
 THE EAELY INHABITANTS OF WESTERN ASIA. 
 
 The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1911. 
 
 By Felix v. Luschan, M.D., Dr.Ph., Professor of Anthropology in the University 
 
 of Berlin. 
 
 Standing on the " New Bridge " in Constantinople near the Mosque of the Sultan 
 Valid^ I have more than once tried to count the languages and dialects spoken by 
 the crowds pressing and pushing between Galata and Stamboul. Turkish and 
 Greek are naturally the most frequently spoken, but one also easily distinguishes 
 much Armenian, Arabic, Kurdish and Persian. We hear the harsh voices of some 
 Circassian soldiers and learn from an Abkhasian friend that he does not understand 
 thtir language and that " it might be " Lesghian. He also tells me that many of 
 his Circassian friends serving in the same regiment are obliged to speak Turkish 
 when they want to understand one another. 
 
 We then meet Albanians, Bulgarians, Eoumanians, and are addressed in 
 Serbo-Croatian by an old priest from Bosnia. You are sure to hear in less 
 than five minutes five other modern European languages, English, French, 
 German, Italian and Piussian, and then your ear is startled by the melodious 
 Spanish of some Spaniole Jews from Salonika, who still retain the idiom spoken in 
 Spain when they were expelled from there more than four hundred years ago, and 
 have thus actually preserved the language spoken by Cervantes. And we hear other 
 Jews on their pilgrimage from Russia and Poland to Jerusalem, speaking their curious 
 Yiddish, a sort of German, that no German could understand without making it a 
 special study. Once on this bridge I had to play the interpreter between a 
 Hungarian gipsy and some Aptals or other gipsies from Anatolia, and an instant 
 later I saw a Dinka eunuch sitting on the motor-car of an Imperial princess and 
 making his selam to a group of equally dark and equally tall Bari or Shilluk. 
 
 Bilin and Nuer also are very commonly spoken by Stamboul eunuchs, and I 
 Was once told by one of my coloured friends there that more than a thousand 
 female servants are living in metropolitan palaces, all coming from Bornu and 
 speaking Kanuri. Another day, on the same bridge, I met some East Indians, 
 speaking, as they told me, Hindi, Hindustani and Gujerati, and trying in vain to 
 come to an understanding with a large troop of African Hajjis returning from 
 Mecca, some of whom were Hausa, others from Zanzibar and the Swahili coast, 
 others from Wadai and Baghirmi. One may also meet on this bridge Mahometans 
 from China and from Indonesia, and, to complete this Babylonian confusion of 
 
 331871 * 
 
222; - .'FjBUX; VON LU!5CHAN. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [2 
 
 languages, some day or other even a Papuan from Doreh or some other place in 
 Dutch New Guinea may appear there on his Hajj to Mecca. 
 
 Not less numerous than the languages are the types one meets in Constanti- 
 nople or in any other of the larger towns in Western Asia, and even within a 
 linguistic group there is generally a most striking diversity of somatic qualities. 
 There are Turks with fair and Turks with dark skin, Greeks with short and Greeks 
 with long heads, Arabs with broad and low noses, and other Arabs with narrow and 
 high noses, Kurds with blue and Kurds with black eyes, and the more one studies 
 the ethnography of the Ottoman Empire the more one sees that " Turks " in 
 reality means nothing else than Mahometan subjects of the Padishah, that " Greeks " 
 means people belonging to the Orthodox church, and that " Arabs " are people 
 speaking Arabic : the somatic difference between a Bedouin from Arabia or 
 Mesopotamia and an "Arab" farmer from near Beyrout is striking, and they 
 have nothing in common except their language. 
 
 Also the study of the modern religions in Western Asia is of no help to us 
 in this labyrinth of types. There are Greeks who look like Mahometans, and many 
 Ansariyeh or other (" Moslem ") sectaries are not to be distinguished from Armenians. 
 Eeligion, too, is here much more closely connected with late historical events than 
 with races or nations, and is only too often of a merely accidental character. 
 
 Even the old historians do not help us. Their anthropological interests were 
 generally trifling, and important statements like the note that the Armenians 
 " TToWa <j}pv<yi^ovaiv rfj (j)covr}," or that a tribe from the Solymian Mountains 
 spoke Phoenician, are extremely rare in the old writers, who give us names like 
 LyCiaus, Carians, Cilicians, and so on, but, generally, do not give us the slightest 
 details as to their place in an anthropological system. 
 
 So we can well understand how, fifty years ago, G. Piosen, then perhaps the 
 best authority on the nations of Asia Minor and Syria, could say that the 
 anthropology of Western Asia would " always remain a mystery." 
 
 Since then minute anthropometric researches and vast excavations have both 
 thrown light on most of the problems connected witli this " mystery," so that it 
 may now be considered as practically solved. 
 
 My own way of proceeding was to eliminate one by one every national or 
 racial element that could be traced as having come from outside, and then to 
 study the remainder. It was my good fortune to begin archaeological and 
 anthropometric fieldwork in Lycia as early as 1881, and since that time I have 
 never ceased to collect all available data connected with the natural history of 
 man in Western Asia. So it is the work of thirty years of which I now beg 
 to give a short account, and this will be done best by beginning with the ostensible 
 foreign elements and then describing the remaining tribes and groups. 
 
 A. Dark Africans. 
 These are naturally by far the easiest to eliminate, and they have only in 
 a very insignificant way contributed to the building up of the white communities 
 
3] Felix von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia.. 223 
 
 in Asia Minor and in Syria, although they have been imported there from the 
 earliest historical times down to our own days. Even now there are few houses of 
 wealthy Mahometans without dark servants, male or female, and without half- 
 caste children of the most various tints. Nowhere, perhaps, with the exception 
 only of Brazil, could miscegenation be better studied than in the large towns of 
 the Levant. Domestic slavery is still flourishing there, and " black ivory " generally 
 comes, as in the old times, from the Upper Nile, but also from Bornu. In the 
 Turkish -speaking south of Asia Minor a dark African is generally called Arab, in 
 Syria Maghrebi or Habeshi. As far as I know, social inferiority is never connected 
 with colour ; half-castes frequently intermarry with whites, but still there is no 
 real Negro permeation of the other natives, probably because that section of the 
 offspring which reverts to Negro qualities does not stand the climate. 
 
 B. Circassians. 
 
 About a million of the Mahometan inhabitants of the Caucasus immigrated 
 into Asia Minor and Syria after the fall of Shamyl. The lot of these muhajir 
 (refugees) was generally a melancholy one ; the Ottoman Government did its best 
 to give them land, but land without a master is rare also in Turkey, and in many 
 places the result was a fight of all against all or a state of regular brigandage, often 
 resulting in the final extinction of the Circassians. Where the land given to them 
 was really masterless, it lay in unhealthy swamps and marshes, where malaria 
 raged and carried them off at a terrible rate year by year. I know a place near 
 Islahiyeh where more than a thousand Circassian families were settled about 1880 ; 
 now only seven of them remain, and these in a wretched state of fever and disease. 
 Only a very few of these Circassian colonies are really thriving, and probably most 
 of these glorious sons of snowy mountains will in a few generations have paid with 
 their lives for their fidelity to Islam. 
 
 Till now the Circassian blood has not seriously influenced that of their Turkish 
 neighbours, and probably never will. The colonists very seldom give their 
 daughters to Turks or Arabs and the " soft Circassian beauties " play a larger part 
 in fiction than in actuality. 
 
 C. Albanians. 
 
 The number of Arnauts or Albanians actually living in Asiatic Turkey is said 
 to be about 100,000. Many of them serve in the army, some are high government 
 officials, a few are even in the diplomatic service and famous for their unusual 
 intelligence. Most of the " kavasses " of the foreign consuls and rich merchants 
 are Arnauts, and so are nearly all the boy-servants in the Turkish bath establish- 
 ments. Most of the large " bans " [caravansaries] in the interior are also managed 
 by Albanians. 
 
 It is easy to separate these Albanians from the great bulk of the other Islamic 
 elements of the Ottoman Empire, because they are all proud of their nationality and 
 
 a 2 
 
224 Felix von Luschan. — The Early InJuihitants of Western Asia. [4 
 
 stick to their native language. They intermarry rarely with aliens and are 
 remarkably homogeneous as to their physical qualities. They are nearly all dark, 
 tall, with large, extremely brachycephalic, skulls, and high and very narrow noses. 
 Somehow connected with the Dinaric race, they have, by long inbreeding and 
 isolation in their nearly inaccessible mountains, acquired their remarkable and 
 quite peculiar type. 
 
 D. Bulgarians. 
 
 The few thousand Bulgarians living in Asiatic Turkey are mostly confined to 
 Constantinople and some towns on the north coast of Asia Minor. Their language 
 and their garb permit us easily to isolate them, and they are so few in number that 
 we may neglect their influence on the somatic qualities of their alien neighbours. 
 
 For the same cause also we may here omit the Eoumanians and Serbs. 
 
 E. Bosnians. 
 
 Since 1879 probably not one Austrian Lloyd steamer has left Trieste for 
 Constantinople, without having on board some Mahometans from Bosnia and 
 Her^iegovina, desirous of escaping Christian rule. They settle by preference near 
 Brussa, and will probably in some generations have a certain influence on the type 
 of the Islamic inhabitants of the neighbourhood. It may therefore be stated here 
 that, though they are called " Turks " in Austria, they have no Turkish blood. 
 They are descendants of the typical South-Slavonic population, which inhabited 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina long before the battle of Kossovo-polye (1389), and were, 
 after the fall of the Servian Empire, forced to turn Mahometans. They do not 
 even speak Turkish, but have preserved their old Serbo-Croatian language. The 
 very few Bosnians, mostly officers, that settled in Asiatic Turkey before the 
 Austrian occupation of Bosnia, may be omitted here. 
 
 E. Franks and Levantines. 
 
 Frenghi [Franconians or Franks] is the common name for the European 
 Christians (and also for syphilis) all over the nearer Orient, and the descendants of 
 European, generally French and Italian, and therefore Eoman Catholic, families are 
 called Levantines. They take only a minimum share in the building up of the 
 Oriental populations. In Marmaritza, near Halikarnassos, where a British Squadron 
 had a winter station for many years, a very great proportion of the children is said 
 to be flaxen-haired, and at Kynyk, the ancient Xanthos in Lycia, I met in 1881 a 
 Mahometan, quite fair, with light blue eyes, of rare intelligence and with nearly a 
 fanatical interest in geographical and archyeological problems. He was born in 
 1841, a year after the second expedition of Sir Charles Fellows at Xanthos. Near 
 Sendjirli I know an Armenian woman who is very fair ; her own people pretend that 
 she is the daughter of an American. But all these are rare exceptions, of no 
 
5] Felix Von LusChaN. — Tlu Uarly Inhabitants of Western Asia. 225 
 
 general importance, and I feel sure that the modern admixture of European blood is 
 in no way responsible for the great number of light-coloured people also in the 
 interior of Asia Minor and Syria. 
 
 That in Oriental towns with very hot summers the death-rate of light-coloured 
 children in Prankish and Levantine families is essentially larger than that of dark- 
 coloured, has been often asserted, and would naturally be of universal anthropo- 
 logical interest if proved by serious statistics. Personally I not do know of one 
 single light-coloured Levantine family in places infected with heavy malaria. 
 
 G. Jews. 
 
 As the Oriental Jews practically never mix with the other Orientals, and so 
 do not contribute in any way to the physical qualities of their Oriental neighbours, 
 they would be of no interest for this paper if we could not trace them back to very 
 early times. But their racial position can only be investigated in connection with 
 the old and oldest anthropology of Syria and Palestine. So for the moment we 
 must here confine ourselves to the statement that there are several very distinct 
 groups of Oriental Jews. 
 
 By far the most numerous are now the Sephardim, speakii)g an early Spanish 
 dialect, and descended chieHy from Jews expelled from Spain by the narrow- 
 minded fanaticism of the fifteenth century. They have contributed not a little to 
 the intellectual and economic development of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Of far less importance are the Ashkcnazim, speaking " Yiddish," and descended 
 from Jews emigrated from ^ Eastern Europe. The difference between these two 
 groups was originally merely geographical and accidental, but now they are holding 
 themselves rigidly apart, and I know of a small Ashkenazic community in south- 
 western Asia Minor, that abstains from meat rather than eat of an animal killed 
 by a Sephardic butcher. I could not learn if there were also differences in creed, 
 but practically these two groups are like different sects, and in most places there is 
 less intercourse between them than there is between Protestants and Catholics in 
 the most backward villages of Central Europe.^ This is perbaps of some impor- 
 tance in connection with the fact that both Ashkenazim and Sephardim are equally 
 distinguished by a complete absence of uniform racial characteristics, just as it is 
 with our Jewish friends in Europe. 
 
 The " enlightened public " of course knows better. Some Jews themselves 
 state that they are " pure Semites, chosen and selected," and even in modern 
 scientific papers one may still read of the complete " uniformity " of the Jewish 
 
 ' R. Aiidree, in his Volkskunde der Jud>in, quotes a passage in the Jewish Chronicle, 1878, 
 where an Asbkenaz asks if " those Portuguese are real Jews, or only a sort of half-castes, but 
 distantly related to our glorious race ? " A Portuguese answers him, " that we are the Jews of 
 the highest caste, as may be best evidenced by the fact that we have always refused to assimilate 
 ourselves with the lower caste— the Tedeschi." So felt the Jews in London and in 1864 the 
 Sephardim of Bucharest bought a churchyard for themselves, to have nothing in common with 
 the Ashkenazim, even after their death 1 
 
226 Felix von LusChaK. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [€ 
 
 type. But this uniformity only exists in the books aiid not in reality. There are 
 Jews with light and with dark eyes, Jews with straight and with curly hair, Jews 
 with high and narrow, and Jews with short and broad, noses ; their cephalic index 
 oscillates between 65 and 98 — as far as this index ever oscillates in the genus 
 homo ! Indeed, since my paper on the anthropological position of the Jews^ there 
 is, as far as I know, no serious anthropologist who still maintains the cranial 
 uniformity of the Jews. It is also conceded that the great majority of the Jews is 
 decidedly brachycephalic, whilst the typical Semites are essentially dolichocephalic. 
 But even giving up the cranial uniformity, one still speaks of the marvellous 
 tenacity, frequency, and distinctiveness of the Jewish type of face. Now this 
 " Jewishness " is much more easily felt than defined, and Joseph Jacobs,^ 1885, 
 was the first to try an exact definition. It is a certain and typical development of 
 the nostrils (Jacobs' " nostrility ") that is the best characteristic of what we 
 generally call " Jewish." 
 
 Weissenberg,^ wanting to prove a specific Jewishness of type relates how 
 he showed some hundred photographs of Kussians and Eussian Jews without 
 distinguishing or peculiar dress, etc., to two friends, a Eussian and a Jew ; the 
 first was correct in 50 per cent., the second in 70 per cent, of his statements. I do 
 not think this experiment very convincing ; Weissenberg should have shown his 
 friends photos of Greeks Armenians, and Persians. The number of correct 
 identifications would then have been certainly very much smaller, and it would 
 have become evident that what "Weissenberg takes to be " Jewishness " is nothing 
 more than Oriental, pure and simple. I shall refer to this statement towards 
 the end of this paper, and meanwhile only want to advert to Table I on p. 17 
 showing in the thick line the cephalic indices of 1,222 Jews ; 52 per cent, of these 
 were Sephardim, whom I measured at Smyrna, at Constantinople, at Makri, and in 
 Ehodes ; the rest were Ashkenazim measured by myself when I was one of the 
 medical assistants in the Allgemeine Krankenhaus at Vienna, Austria. 
 
 Besides these two large groups there are other Jews in Turkey and in Egypt, 
 who have been there since the early times of the Diaspora and longer. But they 
 are few in number and I had no opportunity to measure any of them. 
 
 H. Gipsies, Aptal, etc. 
 
 A small but highly interesting group is formed by the Gipsies and their kin. 
 About 30,000 of them are said to infect Turkey with their disorder and inclination 
 for theft and larceny. On the other side they are cheerful company, men and 
 
 ^ " Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden," Correspondenzhlatt der deutschen anthropol. 
 Gesellschaft, 1892. Also in an Italian translation by Prof. Ugolini in Arch, per V Antropologia e 
 V Etnologia. vol. xxii, 1892. 
 
 == "On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews," Journal Anthropol. Inst., 1885, vol. xv, 
 p. 23 ss. 
 
 3 Glohtos, Bd. 97, 1910, p. 329. 
 
7] Felix von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western "Asia. 227 
 
 women, not seldom with a certain beauty.^ They make baskets and sieves ; the 
 men are mostly blacksmiths and shrewd horsedealers. They are never settled in 
 houses, but wander with their goat-hair tents, in winter-time on the plains, in summer 
 high up in the mountains. I once met a small " village " of about ten gipsy-tents 
 as high as 8,000 feet. Unhappily, nothing is known about their early migrations 
 and history ; they speak Turkish in Asia Minor, Arabic in Syria, and keep secret 
 their own language with so much care that my various and repeated efforts to 
 get at least a few phrases turned out a complete failure.^ 
 
 In Northern Syria I met a kind of Gipsies calling themselves Aptal ; they lay 
 a certain stress upon their 7iot being Gipsies, but I could find no real difference 
 either in their somatic qualities, or in their ethnographic or social standing. 
 Some of them often wander about like Dervishes in groups of four or five, and 
 with a large red or green banner ; others are jugglers and conjurors and play tricks 
 with serpents. 
 
 Gipsies never, or hardly ever, mix with other tribes in Syria or Asia Minor. 
 They naturally pretend to be Mahometans and have Islamic names, but they are 
 always treated with a certain contempt or disesteem. Mahometans hardly ever 
 curse ; but one of their rare abusive phrases is tchingene ^gi^psy. 
 
 Till now, we have been treating of a few isolated groups that are very easily 
 separated from the bulk of the tribes of Western Asia. We now come to some 
 nomadic tribes, who also form quite distinct groups : Turkomans, Yuruks and 
 Kurds. 
 
 I. Turkomans. 
 
 Eeal Turkomans, coming from West Turkestan, are rather rare in Asia Minor, 
 and I never met any in Syria. They travel in quite small groups, one or two 
 families only, and are to be distinguished even at a great distance, as they are 
 the only tribe in Asia Minor which has the leal camel with two humps, all the 
 others having the dromedary. I once met a family of such Turkomans, near Old 
 Limyra in Eastern Lycia, that had come " from near Samarkand." They had been 
 away from home four years and wanted to go as far as Constantinople ; in five or 
 six years more they thought — inshallah — to reach their home. 
 
 Some of these Turkomans have very oblique eyes ; all have small roundish 
 heads and are of low stature, seldom exceeding 160 cm. They do not mix with 
 the native inhabitants. 
 
 * Cf. aome types I published in Petersen and von Luschan, Reisen in Lykien Milyas und 
 Kihyratis, Wieu, C. Gerold's Sohn, 1889. 
 
 2 Henry Minor Huxley {American Anthropologist, vol, iv, 1902, p. 49) examined at 
 Jerusalem a few Gipsies of Syria that spoke Arabic, " but among themselves fluently Gipsy. 
 Many of their words have exactly the same forms as are found in Hindu Gipsy words." I do 
 not know if this statement is confirmed by other explorers. .... - 
 
228 Felix von Luschan.--^/w Marly Inhalitants of IVestern Asia. [8 
 
 J. Yumhs. 
 
 Another nomadic tribe found in Asia Minor in far greater number than the 
 Turkomans, is formed by the Yuruks. The word means " wanderer," and many 
 misunderstandings are due to this ambiguity, as all sorts of " wanderers " have been 
 described as Yuruks, just as settlers in South Africa sometimes speak of " Bushmen," 
 not meaning the real Pygmy-Bushmen, but dark and tall Kafirs living "in the 
 bush." 
 
 I wrote upon the real Yuruks in the Z. f. E. 1886, xviii, Verh. p. 167 ss., 
 and may here refer to this paper and to the plates in Beisen in Lyhien, etc., quoted 
 here (p. 7, note 1). 
 
 They are remarkable for the artificial deformation of their head and their 
 generally long skulls. Their real home is not known. They speak Turkish, and 
 up to the present no trace has been found of their original language. I once 
 suggested that they might be in some distant way related with the Gipsies, with 
 whom at least some of them have a decided and striking somatic resemblance ; it 
 then seemed to me possible that their high moral standard, their serious and 
 decent ways, and their assiduity in work — their wives are famous carpet-makers — 
 might be due to Islam. But this was a mere suggestion, and it might well be 
 that their resemblance to the Gipsies is only quite accidental. I hope that others 
 may be more successful and find legends and traditions, remains of the old 
 language or other material that would permit us to trace the Yuruks back to their 
 real home. 
 
 Meanwhile a sort of jealousy between them and the settled Mahometans 
 excludes intermarriage almost without exception, 
 
 K. Kurds. 
 
 Kurdistan, the land of tlie Kurds, is a vast mountainous territory, nearly twice 
 as large as Greece, in the south-east of the Armenian mountains. Its frontiers are 
 undefined and uncertain, changing with the scattering or gathering of a floating 
 mass of, chiefly, nomadic inhabitants.^ The greater, north-western part is under 
 Ottoman, the south-eastern under Persian, control. We know of no political unity 
 of the Kurds, and, as far as we can trace back their history, they were always 
 forming many different tribes (asJdrets) under independent chiefs, whose strength 
 was only broken in the last century, in Turkey, not without the aid of Moltke, then 
 a young Prussian officer. 
 
 The Kardouchoi and Gordyaeans of the old historians are most probably the 
 direct ancestor3 of the modern Kurds, but we do not know when these tribes first 
 set their foot upon the soil of their present home. The Assyrian annals and careful 
 
 ^ The best statistics on Kurds are due to Mark Sykes, Tram. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 
 xxxvii, 1908, p. 451 ss. 
 
&] i'ELtX VoK LuSCHAN.— ^Ae ^ar/y Inhabitants of Westefn Asia. 229 
 
 excavations on the upper Euphrates and Tigris will probably, at some future time, 
 shed light upon this question. 
 
 Meanwhile it is important to state two facts : The Kurds speak an Aryan 
 language, and they have long heads and generally blue eyes and fair hair. 
 
 I have studied three groups of Kurds, 115 men near Karakush, 26 men on the 
 Nimrud-Dagh, and 80 men from near Sendjirli — all adults. In the Karakush 
 series 71 men were xanthochroic, on the Mmrud-Dagh 15, and in Sendjirli 31, 
 this being 62, 58 and 39 per cent., respectively, and for the whole number of 221 
 adult men, 53 per cent. The cephalic index oscillated, in the case of the 115 
 Karakush Kurds, between 713 and 785, with the Mmrud-Dagh men between 
 723 and 783, and in Sendjirli between 744 and 809, the arithmetic mean being 
 749, 752, and 769. Two good types are reproduced here, Plate XXIV. 
 
 The Kurds from Karakush and from the Nimrud-Dagh live nearly isolated ; 
 I found only one or two small Armenian merchants with them ; the Kurds from 
 Sendjirli stay near " Turkish " and Armenian villages, and it is known that they 
 sometimes steal and marry Armenian wives, and not seldom they intermarry with 
 "Turks" — so it is probable that the Kurds from Sendjirli are less typical than 
 those from Karakush and Nimrud-Dagh.^ I saw many other Kurds on the plain 
 between Kyrykhan and Marash, whom I could not measure, but wlio seemed to be 
 in absolute conformity with the Kurds I had measured. So I may state that the 
 western Kurds are dolichocephalic, with an average index of 75, and with more 
 than 50 per cent, of fair adults — the heads becoming shorter and larger, and the 
 hair and eyes darker, with the increasing admixture of " Turkish " or Armenian 
 blood. 
 
 So much for the loestcrn Kurds ; we are up to the present very ignorant as to 
 the somatic qualities of the eastern Kurds. I have myself only seen a very few 
 Kurds from Persia, but the general impression of some of my scientific friends is 
 that the eastern Kurds show a much higher percentage of darker and round- 
 headed men than the western. 
 
 The language of the Kurds is split into many dialects ; yet two main groups 
 are to be distinguished, a western and an eastern. Both are related to modern 
 Persian and are typically Aryan. So, if we ask for the real native country of the 
 Kurds, there can only he one ansvjer : It must be the same as that of our oivn race, of the 
 race of Northern Europe. It is not my concern here in this paper to treat of the 
 Ayran problem, and I feel myself utterly free from any Pan-Germanic aspirations 
 in the style of Gobiiieau and Chamberlain, but still I believe in an old " blue-eyed, 
 fair-haired, long-headed race as in an impregnable complex and not a synthetic 
 accident."=^ 
 
 ^ The greater number of xanthochroic men on tVie Nimrud-Dagh and in Karakush 
 compared with their smaller number in Sendjirli may be due partly to the splendid, cool, 
 climate of these mountain villages. 
 
 » Verbally quoted from a paper of E. N. Salaman, " Heredity and the Jew," in Journal of 
 Genetics, i, p. 274. The author of this very interesting paper holds the oppo&ite opinion and 
 believes in a "synthetic accident." 
 
2?0 Felix von LuscHAN. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [10 
 
 And can it be mere accident that a few miles north of the actual frontier 
 of modern Kurdish language there is Boghaz-Koi, the old metropolis (A the Hittite 
 Empire, where Hugo Winckler in 1908 found tablets with two political treaties 
 of King Subbiluliuma with Mattiuaza, son of Tusratta, King of Mitanni, and 
 in both these treaties Aryan divinities, Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya, are 
 invoked, together with Hittite divinities, as witnesses and protectors. 
 
 And in the same inscriptions, which date from about 1380 B.C., the King of 
 Mitanni and his people are called Harri, just as nine centuries later in the 
 Achaemenian inscriptions Xerxes and Darius call themselves Har-ri-ya, " Aryans 
 of Aryan stock." 
 
 So the Kurds are the descendants of Aryan Invaders and have maintained their 
 type and their language for more than 3,300 years. 
 
 L. Tahtadji. 
 
 In Lycia there are about 1,000 families, or 5,000 souls, of a people calling 
 themselves Tahtadji or boardcutters — " sawyers." This is indeed their principal 
 occupation. In Western Lycia their Mahometan neighbours call them Allevi, 
 a name that is perhaps connected with the word Ali-Ullahi or Layard's Ali- 
 Ulahiya} meaning people that worship Ali. I treated at large of this curious sect 
 in 1889,- so that I can be brief here. 
 
 They live high up in the mountains, generally in tents covered with felt, 
 sometimes in round [!] houses, and keep rigidly apart from all the other inhabitants 
 of Lycia. They speak Turkish, are officially regarded as Mahometans, and have 
 also Mahometan names, but they have no inner connection with the creed of 
 Mahomet. They believe in metempsychosis and in good and bad. demons. 
 Hares and turkeys are considered as unclean, and the peacock as a sort of 
 incarnation of the devil. 
 
 Their somatic qualities are remarkably homogeneous ; they have a tawny 
 white skin, much hair on the face, straight hair, dark brown eyes, a narrow, 
 generally aquiline nose, and a very short and high head. The cephalic index 
 varies only from 82 to 91 with a maximum frequency of 86. The mean length- 
 height index is 781, the mean facial index, 876. ' A typical skull of a Tahdazi is 
 figured here, Plate XXXIIL 
 
 M. BeUash. 
 
 Whilst the Tahtadji live high up in the mountains of Lycia, a similar sect, the 
 BeUash, dwells in the Lycian towns, principally in Elmaly. Their creed has never 
 been exactly studied, and they are very anxious to keep it secret. Like the 
 
 ^ A. H. Layard, Nineveh, i, p. 296 ss. 
 
 * Petersen and von Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, etc., Wien, C. Gerold's Sohn. Partly 
 reprinted in Archiv f. Anthr., vol. xix, 1890. 
 
11] Felix von LuscHAN. — Tke Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. 231 
 
 Tahtadji they affect a certain affinity with the real Moslems, but they never 
 intermarry with them. 
 
 I published the measurements of 40 adult male Bektash in my paper on the 
 Tahtadji^ and quote from it there, that the cephalic index oscillates only between 
 84 and 89, and the auricular height-index between 74 and 83 with two maxima at 
 75 and 82. The facial index has a very distinct maximum at 86, 
 
 N. Ansariych. 
 
 Exactly corresponding to the Tahtadji and the Bektash in south-western Asia 
 Minor are the Ansariyeh = Nussairiyeh in Northern Syria. 
 
 In some places, as in Antiochia (ad Orontem), they are called Fellah — from 
 their principal occupation, but have no connection with the Fellah of Egypt. All 
 that is known about their creed is exactly parallel to our knowledge of the 
 Tahtadji, and the same tales of nocturnal orgies, Jus primce noctis, and " spiritistic " 
 meetings are told of both groups. 
 
 Many Ansariyeh have also in their general appearance a striking likeness to 
 some Lycian Tahtadji. I measured 15 adult men. Their cranial index varies from 
 80 to 94, with a maximum at 85. Cf. Plate XXV. 
 
 0. Kyzylbash. 
 
 In Upper Mesopotamia and in small groups reaching in the west as far as the 
 High Taurus, near Marash, there is a curious people, living in the midst of Arabs 
 and Kurds, which calls itself Kyzylbash, a word that means " redhead " in literal 
 translation. But there are not more red-haired individuals among them than 
 among their neighbours, and their head-dress is not more red than that of any 
 other Oriental group. So the word cannot mean what it seems to mean, and had 
 its origin perhaps in quite another word in another language ; in the same way that 
 popular etymology made " ridicule " from " reticula " or, in German, mutter-seelen- 
 allein from moi tout seul. Perhaps linguists will one day find out the real origin 
 and meaning of Kyzylbash. 
 
 In some places in Western Kurdistan, people that are exactly like the 
 Kyzylbash are called Yezidi, and protest that they have nothing at all to do with 
 the Kyzylbash ; in other places, so I was told one day at Kiakta on the Boilam 
 Eiver and again near Diarbekr, that Yezidi and Kyzylbash were two words for the 
 same thing, the one being Arabic, the other Turkish. I do not know if this 
 is correct, but, as far as I could ascertain, the creed and the social condition of both 
 groups are fairly identical. Sir A. H. Layard's classic report on this sect is so 
 complete and exhaustive that I have nothing more to add than a few words on the 
 physical characteristics. They are strangely homogeneous. I was able to measure 
 189 adult men ; only three of them had greyish eyes, all the rest had dark brown eyes, 
 dark hair and tawny "white" skin. Their cranial index varies only from 83 
 to 92, with a well defined maximum at 86. The index of the auricular height 
 
 * Cf. note 2 on p. 10. 
 
232 Felix von Luschan.— :7%g Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [12 
 
 varies from 75 to 83, and the facial index from 80 to 90, with a pronounced 
 maximum at 86. I could measm-e only a few noses ; they were all very high and 
 leptorrhine, and so seemed, with few exceptions, all the rest. 
 
 So these Kyzylbash are excessively short and broad-headed in the midst of 
 dolichocephalic Kurds and Arabs ; their nose, too, is much narrower than that of 
 their neighbom's. On the other hand, the Kyzylbash [and the Yezidi] correspond 
 absolutely with the Tahtadji, the Bektash and the Ansariyeh, so that we find a 
 small minority of groups possessing a similar creed and a remarkable uniformity of 
 type, scattered over a vast part of Western Asia. I see no other way to account 
 for this fact than to assume tltat all the members of this sect are the remains of an 
 old homogeneous population, ichich have preserved their religion a.iul have therefore 
 refrained from intermarriage v.nth strangers and so preserved their old physical 
 characteristics. 
 
 Two other sects that are now to be mentioned, the Druses and the Maronites, 
 show in the same way how religious seclusion tends to preserve old physical types. 
 
 P. Druses. 
 
 In the south of Beyrout a great part of the Lebanon and Antilibanos 
 country is inhabited by about 150,000 Druses, who down to our days are to a 
 certain extent independent of the Ottoman Government and enjoy a good many 
 privileges. 
 
 Their secret creed has been studied best by S. de Sacy in 1838,^ and contains, 
 mixed with Jewish, Cliristian and Mahometan elements, a great many pantheistic 
 conceptions, together with curious ideas on metempsychosis and the repeated 
 incarnation of God, and with remains of the old Oriental worship of Nature. They 
 speak Arabic and pass otiicially as " Mahometans," having Islamic names, but they 
 have no inner connection with the leligion of Mahomet. 
 
 Max V. Oppenheim- believes the Druses to be the descendants of " Arabs," 
 immigrated about a.d. 800. 
 
 This hypothesis probably conforms to local tradition, but is in direct contra- 
 diction to the general impression we get from Druses and from Arabs, and from 
 the result of anthropometric researches. I measured fifty-nine adult male Druses, 
 and not one single man fell, as regards his cephalic index, within the range of the 
 real Arab. 
 
 The Druses are all hyper-brachy cephalic, with an index oscillating, like that 
 of the Bektash, between 84 and 89 only, with one single exception, an old, 
 mischievous and half idiotic pensioner, who pretended to have once been first 
 keeper of the Imperial Plate in Constantinople, and to be a real incarnation of Ali. 
 His index was 76 without a suspicion of synostotic sutures ; but he had grey eyes, 
 
 ^ Expose de la religion des Druses, vol. ii, Paris, 1838. 
 
 * Vom Mitielmeer zum Persischen Golf, Eerlin, D. Eeimer, 1899, vol. i, p. iii ss. 
 
18] Felix vo^f Luschan. — The Early Inhalitants of Wcatern Ada. 233 
 
 and fell in many other respects so fully out of the line of the homogeneous rest 
 of my Druses, that it seems safe to drop him entirely. 
 
 The index of the auricular height ranges from 74 to 84 and the facial index 
 from 79 to 92, with a distinct maximum of 86, with fourteen men in fifty-eight. 
 
 Q. Maronites. 
 
 The northern neighbours of the Druses are the Maronites, Christians, generally 
 said to be the descendants of a Monophysite sect, separated from the common 
 Christian Church after the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 4ol. Now this council is 
 certainly of the very greatest importance for ecclesiastical history, as it caused the 
 schism between the Oriental world and the Occidental : the G-reek, the Armenian 
 and the Coptic church separated from the Roman, because the simple understanding 
 and the sound common sense of the Orientals preferred to accept only owe nature in 
 Jesus Christ. But this theological dispute gave the name to the Maronites, for 
 they chose a monk, John Maro, to be their bishop after they separated from Eome, 
 but their physical qualities are much older tlian their religious schism. Indeed, 
 partly through their isolation in the mountains, partly through their not inter- 
 marrying with their Mahometan or Druse neighbours, the Maronites of to-day have 
 preserved an old type in an almost marvellous purity. In no other Oriental group 
 is there a greater number of men with extreme height of the skull and excessive 
 flattening of the occipital region than among the Maronites. They are the best 
 specimens of what C. Toldt^ calls " planoccipital " formation, and very often their 
 occiput is so steep that one is again and again inclined to think of artificial 
 deformation. Indeed I took great care to make sure of this point and examined 
 nearly a hundred babies in their cradles, to ascertain whether or no a particular 
 way of laying the child's head on a cushion might perhaps influence the form of the 
 occiput. No such possibility was found, and we are constrained to regard the 
 extreme "planoccipital " formation of the Maronites (and their relations) as a 
 natural character. Of. the two types here, Plate XXVI. 
 
 I have measured twenty adult males, mostly from Baalbek and from Tarabolus. 
 Their cephalic index ranged from 79 to 91 with an arithmetic mean of 86. The 
 average facial index was 89, the irregular indices running from 75 to 94, with four 
 eases of 87. All were dark. 
 
 Having thus treated of a series of smaller groups we can now proceed to 
 the five great groups of Western Asia — Persians, Arabs, Turks, Greeks and 
 Armenians. 
 
 R. Persians. 
 
 Notwithstanding some recent researches our knowledge of the anthropology of 
 Persia is rather scanty. In a land inhabited by about ten millions, not more than 
 
 1 " Untersuchungeu uber die Brachycephalie der Alpenlandischen Bevolkerung," ia 
 Mitteilungen der Wiener anthropol. GeselL, vol. xl, 1910, p. 69 ss. and p. 197 ss. 
 
2:^4 Felix von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [14 
 
 twenty or thirty men have been regularly measured, and not one skull has been 
 studied. 
 
 Apart from Kurds, Arabs, and Armenians, each numbering from 200,000 to 
 300,000 souls, and smaller groups of Nestorians, Lurs, Gipsies, etc., there are 
 two large ethnical groups in Persia, the Shiite and settled Tajik and the Sunnite 
 and essentially nomadic Ihlat. The latter are Turkomans and so is the actual 
 Dynasty of the Kajar; the Ihlat, being the energetic and vigorous element, are the 
 real masters of the land and of the Tajik, the descendants of the old Persians and 
 Medes. But long continued intermarriage has produced a great many mixed types. 
 Thus the Kajars have sometimes the high aquiline noses quite foreign to real 
 Turkomans. 
 
 The old type seems to be preserved in the Parsi, the descendants of 
 Persians who emigrated to India after the battle of Nahauband (a.d. 640) of much 
 purer form than among any true Persians. They are all short-headed and dark. 
 
 My own measurements are confined to fifteen adult men, Persians of the 
 Diaspora, diplomats, consuls and tobacconists, whom I occasionally met in 
 Constantinople, Smyrna, Ehodes and Adalia. They were all very dark. Their 
 cephalic indices run : 73, 74, 74, 80, 81, 86, 86, 87, 87, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 90. So 
 there is a large majority of brachycephals. I do not lay stress on the three 
 dolichocephalic men, because a great number of Persians whom I saw, without 
 being able to measure, seemed to be brachycephalic. Anyhow it is not impossible 
 that in reality a certain number of Persians — I am very far from saying one-fifth 
 of them — have long skulls. I never saw Persians with light hair and blue eyes, 
 but I am told that in some " noble " families fair types are not very rare. 
 
 We know nothing of the physical characteristics of the Acha^menides, who 
 called themselves " Aryans of Aryan stock " and who brought an Aryan language 
 to Persia ; it is possible that they were fair and dolichocephalic, like the ancestors 
 of the modern Kurds, but they were certainly few in number, and it would therefore 
 be astonishing if their physical characteristics should have persisted among a 
 large section of the actual Persians. Still we must reckon with the possibility 
 that an early " Aryan " invasion was not quite without influence also on the 
 somatic qualities of modern Persians. Meanwhile much serious scientific work 
 must still be done in investigating the anthropology of Persia ere we can 
 replace mere conjecture by actual certainty. 
 
 S. Arabs. 
 
 In dealing with the peoples of Western Asia, in no case is it more important 
 to keep language and race rigidly apart than when treating of the Arabic-speaking 
 people. Friedrich Miiller called all the various elements in Arabia, Palestine, 
 Syria and Mesopotamia " Arabs," merely because they spoke Arabic. Nothing 
 could be more erroneous. The material and mental culture of these tribes and 
 their somatic qualities are widely distinct, and the extent of the Arabic language is 
 infinitely larger than the extent of an Arabic racial element. 
 
15] Felix von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. 235 
 
 But peninsular Arabia is the least-known land in the world, and large regions 
 of it are even now absolute terrce incognitce, so great caution is necessary in forming 
 conclusions, from the measurements of a few dozens of men, concerning the 
 anthropology of a land more than five times as great as France. 
 
 My own measurements are confined to thirty-eight Annezeh-Bedouins, whom I 
 met in 1883 in Aleppo, eighteen other Bedawy, generally Shamr/iar, camel drivers 
 between Mosul and Alexandretta, twenty Mahometan " Arabs " living in the town 
 Hamah, the site of the first Hittite inscriptions published, and fifteen other 
 Mahometans from Syrian towns. Two, unfortunately very small, groups consist of 
 six priests from Gesyra, whom I met in Aleppo, and five men from Hail in Arabia, 
 whom I was able to measure in Constantinople — in all 102 adult men, sixty-one of 
 them real Bedawy and forty-one settled in towns.^ 
 
 The cephalic indices of these " Arabs " ran thus : — 
 
 r38 Annezeh, 
 Bedawy ...< 18 other Bedawy, 
 
 L 5 men from Hail, 
 
 f 20 " Arabs " from Hamah, 
 15 other Mahometans from 
 Syrian towns, 
 6 Priests from Gesyra, 
 
 Settled in towns { 
 
 68 to 78. 
 
 71 to 81. 
 
 70 to 74. 
 
 85 to 89. 
 
 76 to 89. 
 
 83 to 86. 
 
 Kemarkably parallel with the cephalic index is the form of the nose in both 
 these groups. The Bedawy as a rule have short and fairly broad, the other 
 " Arabs " have, with few exceptions, high and narrow noses, often of an aquiline 
 form. 
 
 What we generally call a " Jewish type " is found very seldom among real 
 Bedawy and very often among the " Arabs " in the towns, but it would be difficult 
 to reduce this statement to a statistical form, as the conception of " Jewishness " 
 is too uncertain and precarious. Two typical Bedouins are figured here, Plate XXVII. 
 
 We shall, later on, try to understand the historical connection between these 
 two types, the Bedawy and the other " Arabs." For the moment, we must restrict 
 ourselves to having shown the marked difference that separates them. 
 
 T. Turks. 
 
 It is customary in most European languages to call the Mahometan subjects 
 of the Padishah " Turks." But the word should never be used in this sense 
 without inverted commas ; it is more than ambiguous and easily leads to serious 
 misunderstandings. 
 
 A Turcoman tribe, the Othmanli, commenced from 1289 to conquer a great 
 part of what is now the Ottoman Empire. A good many of the former inhabitants 
 
 1 I have measured seven more " Arabs," but I omit their figures in this statement, 
 because they were of mixed blood or in some way or other pathological. 
 
236 Felix von Luschan. — The Early Lihabitants of Western Asia. [16 
 
 were then forced to speak Turkish and to turn Mahometans. It is easy to under- 
 stand that the descendants of the conquerors and of the conquered renegades 
 intermarried freely, and, as the number of the conquering troops was naturally 
 very much smaller than that of the original population, the great bulk of the 
 ten or fifteen, or perhaps more, millions of so-called " Turks " has now the 
 physical qualities, not of the conquering Othmanli, but of the old pre-Othmanic 
 inhabitants. 
 
 So the anthropology of Turkey is, like that of Hungary, a typical example 
 showing how language, religion, nationality and race are quite distinct couceptions, 
 and it is interesting to see how they are again and again confounded by the general 
 public and by the press. 
 
 In my paper on the Tahtadji,^ I gave tlie indices of 187 " Turks " (Turkish- 
 speaking Mahometans) from Lycia, and was able to show that in the mountain 
 villages, and in some swampy marshes not easy of access, people were generally short- 
 headed, and in the towns and on the coast, long-headed. Since then I have 
 measured 569 more " Turks " from Southern Asia Minor and Northern Syria, so 
 that I can now publish the cephalic indices of 756 adult men ; they run from 69 to 
 96 ; if we count the indices 77 to 81 as mesaticephalic, 172 of these 756 men would 
 be dolichocephalic, 151 mesaticephalic and 433 brachycephalic, with a very 
 pronounced maximum of 77 and 83 men respectively at indices 85 and 86. 
 
 These numbers speak for themselves, but it is perhaps useful to study first 
 the corresponding figures for the two large remaining groups, the Greeks and the 
 Armenians, and then to compare the results. Two very different types of " Turks " 
 are figured here, Plate XXVIII. 
 
 U. Greeks. 
 
 "What has been said of the " Turks " is valid too in absolutely the same way 
 for the " Greeks " of Anatolia and Syria. Some of them are certainly the direct 
 descendants of old Ionian s, Dorians or vEolians, but the greater part are descended 
 from other groups which spoke Greek and had accepted the orthodox religion. 
 
 I must here pass over the interesting ])roblem of the Dorian and Ionian 
 wanderings" and must restrict myself to some measurements taken on a series 
 of 179 adult men calling themselves Greek and belonging to the orthodox church. 
 I published this series in 1890, in my paper on the Tahtadji, and reprint here a 
 graphic table showing the frequency of the cephalic indices. It is very striking 
 to see how the curve shows a maximum of twenty-two men with an index of 
 75, and a second maximum of eighteen men with an index of 88. 
 
 Seventy-nine out of the 179 men are dolicho-, eighty-four are brachy- and 
 only sixteen are mesaticephalic. If we reckon the arithmetic mean for the 
 whole series, we get an average index of about 80, closely conforming to Weisbach's 
 
 1 L.c. here p. 10, note 2. 
 
 * My own private idea is tliat, contrary to the theory of Curtius, the lonians came from 
 Europe and the Dorians from Asia, but I shall treat of this subject in another paper. 
 
17] Fkltx von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. 237 
 
 95 skulls of Asiatic and European Greeks with an average index of 81*2, and with 
 the series of Klon Stephanos,^ who found 80*8 for the Greeks in Europe and 807 for 
 the Asiatic Greeks. 
 
 It is easily understood how dangerous and mystifying such an average index 
 may be, if the material is composed of individuals from two different groups, as it 
 manifestly is. 
 
 I am in possession of ninety-three skulls from a modern Greek cemetery in 
 Adalia ; they show about the same distribution of indices. 
 
 Long before the re-discovery of Mendel and his laws I tried to study the 
 heredity of the cephalic index in the Greek families of Adalia. Here, in the old 
 capital of Pamphylia, there is a large Greek colony, and as I had by good chance 
 been able to give medical help to some of the influential members, I was permitted 
 
 Table T. 
 
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 I 69 I 70 1112131 4|5|6| 7 181 91 80 I 1234567 8990 12 
 
 FREQUK>fCY OK CKPHALIC INDICK.S IN A SERIKS OF 179 ADULT MALK OREKlvri. 
 
 to measure parents, children and other relations in sixty-seven families. The 
 results were striking. I published a short abstract of them in 1889, in the 
 Reisen in Lykien and in 1890 in my paper on the Tahtadji. 
 
 There was a family A ; the father had an index of 87, the mother of 73 ; of 
 the two sons, the elder had an index of 70, the younger 87. In another family, B, the 
 
 * Article on Greece in Diet, encyclop. des sciences med., Paris, 1884. 
 
238 Felix von Luschan. — Tlie Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. 
 
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19] Felix von Luschan. — Thr, Early Inhabitams of Western Asia. 239 
 
 brother of the dead father had an index of 70, the mother 86, a son 82, a daughter 
 75. In a third family, C, both parents were brachycephalic, with indices of 85 and 86. 
 Of their five children, only the youngest daughter was short-headed, with an index 
 of 86, and four elder brothers had long heads with 72, 73, 75 and 73 respectively ; 
 74 was the index of a brotlier of the mother. 
 
 If I now study these sixty-seven families in the light of Mendelian researches, 
 it seems as if neither brachy- nor dolichocephaly were dominant or recessive ; they 
 seem to be transmitted now with equal frequency, and this has probably been the 
 case for more than 2,000 years. At least, that is the age of the Greek colony 
 of Adalia and for sixty or seventy generations short- and long-headed " Greeks " 
 have been freely intermarrying. The result was, in many cases, not a mixture, as 
 if we would mix red and white wine, but it was often a manifest reversion to the 
 original types. I called this process " Entmischung," but one might perhaps just 
 as well say, " Spaltung " or " reversion " or " restitution." 
 
 In this way good old types, once fixed by long inbreeding, do not necessarily 
 get lost by intermaniage, but often return with astonishing energy. 
 
 The short heads of the Asiatic " Greeks " certainly correspond to the short heads 
 of the " Turks " and of all the Moslem Sectaries described at length in this paper. 
 We shall soon learn to know their real origin. The long heads probably do not 
 belong to one uniform type ; some of them are nearly as high as good Anglo-Saxon 
 heads, and can perhaps be compared with the heads of Kurds ; other long heads 
 of Greeks are low, like the heads of Bedawy, and I am inclined to regard them as 
 Semitic. They are indeed chiefly found on the sites of old Semitic colonies. In 
 some of these places, as in Adalia, the women wear their hair in many thin plaits, 
 like the old Assyrians, and they are famous for their " Semitic " appearance. 
 
 As in ancient Greece a great number of individuals seem to have been fair, 
 with blue eyes, I took great care to state whether this were the case with the 
 modern " Greeks " in Asia. I have notes for 580 adults, males and females. In 
 this number there were eight with blue, and twenty-nine with grey or greenish, 
 eyes ; all the rest had brown eyes. There was not one single case of really light- 
 coloured hair,^ but in nearly all the cases of lighter eyes the hair also was less 
 dark than with the other Greeks. 
 
 I did not measure all the Greeks whose eye and hair-colour I noted, but 
 I found that three cases of the blue, and thirteen of the grey or greenish eyes were 
 combined with long heads ; but I noted also several cases of blue eyes with very 
 short heads. So it is evident that head form and pigment are transmitted 
 separately. As the number of long and high heads is much larger than the number 
 of fair complexions it seems permissible to say that with the Asiatic Greeks 
 faifness is recessive in the Mendelian sense. Two different types of " Greeks " are 
 figured here, Plate XXIX. 
 
 ' With the exception of the young men at Synii, who are all flaxen-haired. In summer 
 they dive for sponges, and their hair is bleached by the combined effect of sun and salt water. 
 
240 Felix von Luschan. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [20 
 
 V. Armenians. 
 
 Whilst " Turks " and " Greeks " have been proved to be composed of at least 
 two quite distinct somatic elements, the third of the three great ethnic groups, 
 which form the bulk of the inhabitants of Asia Minor, the Armeniam, is com- 
 paratively homogeneous. 
 
 Of course they also have incorporated in themselves various alien elements, 
 and I know Armenians from Southern Persia who look like Biloch or Dravidians 
 — but as a rule the great mass of the Armenians forms not only a religious, but 
 also a somatic unity. 
 
 Particularly in Northern Syria there are places where Armenians resemble 
 one another like eggs. Keligious seclusion and, in many cases, life in remote 
 mountain villages, have both contributed to prevent intermarriage with strangers, 
 and thus we may assume from the beginning that they represent an old type. 
 
 More frequently than any other group in Western Asia they show the " plan- 
 occipital " form of the profile curve, great brachycephaly with extreme height of 
 the skull and a particularly narrow and high nose. Cf. Plate XXX. 
 
 They are generally dark ; yet of 110 adult men, whom my friend Dr. Assadur 
 Altounyan examined for me in Aleppo, eight had blue, and six " greenish," eyes, 
 and in my own series of twenty-six adult men one had light grey, another greenish, 
 eyes. I have no good statistics on the Armenians from the provinces of Erivan 
 and Nahitshevan in the Kussian Transcaucasia, but a great number of the 
 Armenians, whom I occasionally saw from there, had reddish hair and grey or green 
 eyes. I do not know with what elements they may be mixed, and think it safe to 
 omit them here entirely. Also a few " Catholic " Armenians whom I met at 
 Antiochia (ad Orontem) are to be excepted from my series, as they have a more 
 prominent occiput ; probably they are of mixed origin. If I omit these " Catholics," 
 my series of true Armenians begins with a cephalic index of 83 ami ends with one 
 of 96, the maximum of frequency falling clearly at 88. 
 
 To this extreme brachycephaly corresponds a facial index oscillating between 
 77 and 96, with a maximum frequency of 87 and 88, and with an average of 87*5. 
 
 A series of twenty-six Armenian skulls begins with a cranial index of 81, 
 ending with one of 91. A very typical skull from this series is figured here, Plate 
 XXXIII, and two good types are reproduced here, Plate XXX. 
 
 Siiminary. 
 
 If we now sum up the results of our researches and try to review them in 
 regard to the origin of the different ethnic groups of Western Asia, we need not 
 linger over the Negroes, the Circassians, the Albanians, the Bulgarians, the Bosnians, 
 the Franks and the Levantines. Their origin lies outside the scope of this paper. 
 The same is true of the Gipsies and their kin, but it must be stated that perhaps 
 
21] Felix von Lusgiian. — The Early Inhabitants oj Western 'AM. "'" '2'4i ' •' 
 
 one of the nomadic tribes in Asia Minor, the Yuruks, is in some way or other 
 related with them. 
 
 Of far greater importance are the Kurds. From the great frequency of fair 
 individuals among them, it is evident that their home must be in the north, and it 
 is probable from their Aryan language that they are in some way connected with 
 the Mitanni, who had Aryan divinities about 1380 B.C. 
 
 I am well aware that at present there is no real proof or decisive evidence for 
 this statement, but by way of a working hypothesis, I might be allowed to 
 suggest, that the Kurds, the Amoritcs of the Bible, the Mitanni of the Boghaz-koi 
 tablets and the Tamchit of the old Egyptian texts are, if not identical, at least 
 somehow related to one another.^ About 1500 B.C., or earlier, there seems to have / 
 begun a migration of northern men to Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt, and India. 
 Indeed, we can now connect even Further India with the Mitanni of Central 
 Asia Minor. On the tablets of Boghaz-koi the king of Mitanni not only calls 
 himself and his people harri, but he speaks of his noblemen as mari, and Hugo 
 Winckler and F. C. Andreas^ remind us of the word marya for " young man " or 
 " hero " in the Vedic texts. So we find the same Aryan nobles in Mitanni about 
 1380 B.C., and very much later also in India. 
 
 If really, as it seems, the old texts state that the Amorites and the Tamehu 
 were fair, we should thus get a historic explanation of the great number of xaiitho- 
 chroic people we find down to our time everywhere in Asia Minor and in Syria, and 
 among the modern Jews. 
 
 Resuming now the thread of this paper, we have a great number of different 
 " Moslem " Sectaries spread over a vast part of Western Asia under different names, 
 as Tahtadji, AUevi, Ali-UUahiya, Ansariyeh, Fellah, Kyzylbash, Yezidi and Bektash, 
 speaking the different languages of their orthodox neighbours, Turkish, Arabic and 
 Kurdish, but still absolutely homogeneous as to their somatic characteristics. And 
 to this self-same group belong also the Druses and the Maronites. They also 
 have the enormously high and short " planoccipital " heads and the narrow and 
 high noses we find with the Sectaries. 
 
 Now this same liypsicephalic element with the high aquiline noses, which 
 forms the entire stock of all these Sectaries, we find again in Persia, and in 
 a high percentage among the Turks and the Greeks, and in a still higher 
 among the Armenians — everywhere under circumstances that would make it ^ 
 appear to be old and aboriginal, whilst the dolichocephals seem to represent later 
 immigrations. 
 
 ' The latest migration of a European Tribe to Western Asia is that of the Galatiam. 
 Passing througli Eoumania, where the town of Galatz {Galati iu Eoumaniau) has conserved 
 their name, they crossed the Hellespont about 280 li.c. Angora and Gordion were their 
 principal towns and it is not impossible, that the latter name, and then also that of the 
 Gordyaeans and of the Kurds is linguistically connected with that of the Galatians, who might 
 have had earlier precursors. 
 
 ' Orientalistische lAteraturzeitung , 1910, p. 289 ss. Of. also Ed. Meyer, " Das erste Auftreten 
 der Arier in der Geschichte," in Sitzungsherichte Berliner Akad, der Wmenschaften, 1908, i. 
 
242-"''' TELii'VUN 'LuscHAN. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. [22 
 
 This theory, based entirely on anthropometric research, is confirmed by 
 historic considerations and by the results of modern excavations. We now know 
 that about 1280 B.C., when Khattusil made his peace with Eamses II., there 
 existed a large empire, not much smaller than Germany, reaching from the 
 .(Egsean Sea to Mesopotamia and from Kadesh on the Orontes to the Black Sea. 
 We do not know at present if this Hittite Empire ever had a really homogeneous 
 population, but we have a good many Hittite reliefs, and all these, without one 
 single exception, show us the high and short heads or the characteristic noses of 
 our modern brachycephalic groups. 
 
 When I first upheld in 1902, in my paper on the anthropological 
 position of the Jews, the homogeneous character of these groups, I called them 
 " Armenoids." But there can be no doubt that they are all descended from tribes 
 belonging to the great Hittite Empire. So it is the type of the Hittites that has 
 been preserved in all these groups for more than 3,000 years, and this is certainly 
 a Jewish type, and corresponds with the old Jewish ideal of beauty as we read 
 in the Song of Songs, VII, 4 : " Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon, by the 
 gate of Bath-rabbim, thy nose is like the tower of Lebanon, which looTccth toioard 
 Damascus." 
 
 But this Jewish type is not Semitic and is rarely found among the oidy real 
 Semites, the Bedawy. The Hittite inscriptions have not yet been read, but our 
 Orientalists are unanimous in assundng that there is not the slightest doubt that 
 the Hittite language was not Semitic. These non-Semitic aborigines had their own 
 language, their own writing, and their own religion. Semitic influence is completely 
 absent in the earlier times and is perceptible only later on at different times in the 
 different territories — first in Babylonia, then in Palestine, wheie Abraham is the 
 rip(o<i €7ra)vvfio<i of a Semitic invasion, and still later in Northern Syria. Here my 
 own excavations^ in Sendjirli, the old Samal, have brought to light a Semitic 
 inscription of King Kalamu, son of Yadi, from about 850 B.C., invoking Baal Semed, 
 Baal Haman and Bekuhel. Another inscription of King Panamit from about 
 800 B.C. on a statue of Hadad, praises Hadad himself and four other Semitic 
 divinities. El, Besef, BekubSl and Semes. 
 
 As Tesup, the great chief-god of the Hittites, is not mentioned in any of the 
 Semitic inscriptions of Sendjirli, we may suppose that about 900 B.C., or earlier, 
 independent of the Assyrian conquests, Semitic invaders brought with them their 
 language, tlieir alphabet, their writing, and their religion, to Northern Syria — but 
 we know nothing of their number, and we are not able from historical data to form 
 an exact opinion as to how far these invaders could influence the somatic characters 
 of the old Hittite population. 
 
 I give here (Plate XXXII) the portraits of a later king of Samal, Barrekub, from 
 about 730 B.C. and of his queen. The king lias certainly not a Hittite profile, and 
 he might well himself be of Semitic origin, but probably a great number of his 
 
 1 Ausgrabungen in Semchirli, Parts I-IV. Berlin, Georg Eeimer, 1893-1911. 
 
23] Felix von Lusciian. — The Early Inhabitants of Western 'Xsid. " ^43 
 
 subjects had preserved the old Hittite characteristics, and even the queen herself 
 looks as if she were not quite without Hittite blood.* 
 
 For the present population of Northern Syria, as well as of all Western Asia 
 our anthropometric tables show evidence that this old type is still extant in a 
 high percentage among the actual inhabitants. 
 
 Only as to the primordial home of the Hittites, or however else we may term 
 all these hypsi- and brachycephalic people with the high and narrow nose, is there 
 some difficulty. The "Alpine race" of Central Europe is certainly somehow related 
 to or connected with them and a 'priori it is not easy to determine if the Hittites 
 came from Central Europe or if the " Alpine race " came from Western Asia. I do 
 not know if the first possibility has many champions left now. If so, they might 
 certainly lay stress on the fact, that the modern Armenians and the modern 
 Persians, both typical " Hittites," are now speaking Aryan languages — but we know 
 how often etlmic groups change their language entirely without losing their 
 somatic type, and we can in this special case well imagine that early precursors of 
 the xanthochroic Kurds and their relations may have brought their Aryan language 
 to the old Armenians and Persians, without being able to impress their somatic 
 type upon them. 
 
 We should not forget, too, that Europe is only a small peninsular annexe to 
 Asia, and that there are infinitely more typical " Hittites " in Western Asia than 
 there are in Europe. It seems surer therefore to locate the cradle of the Hittites 
 in Asia, where we find extreme brachycephals as far to the East as Burma and 
 Siani and the Malay Archipelago. 
 
 We could then also understand how the essential somatic difference between 
 the Hittites and the other brachycephalic Asiatics, their high and narrow nose, 
 originated as a merely accidental mutation and was then locally fixed, either by a 
 certain tendency of taste and fashion or by long, perhaps millennial, inbreeding. 
 The " Hittite nose " has finally become a dominant characteristic in the Mendelian 
 sense, and we see it, not only in the actual geographical province of the Alpine 
 race, but often enough also here in England. Certainly, similar noses may originate 
 everywhere, quite independently of the Hittites, by mere mutation, but it seems ' 
 safer to explain by atavism and by Asiatic or Alpine origin noses like those of the 
 late Cardinal Newman, Ptalph Waldo Emerson or Charles Kingsley. 
 
 So, to sum up, we see how all Western Asia was originally inhabited by a 
 homogeneous, melanochroic race, with extreme hypsi-brachycephaly and with a 
 " Hittite " nose. About 4000 B.C. began a Semitic invasion from the south-east, 
 probably from Arabia, by people looking like modern Bedawy. Two thousand years 
 later commenced a second invasion, this time from the north-west, by xanthochroous 
 and long-headed tribes like the modern Kurds, half savage, and in some way or other, 
 perhaps, connected with the historic Harri, Amorites and Tamehu. 
 
 1 Typical portraits of Hittite divinities, excavated at Sendjirli, ai'e here reproduced on 
 Plate XXXI and the rock sculpture of Tbriz {rf. here Plate XXXTI) shows a Hittite God and 
 King, both with extreme " Jewishness." 
 
244 FELIX VON LUSCHAN. — The Early Inhabitants of Western Ada. [24 
 
 The modern " Turks," Greeks and Jews are, all three, equally composed of 
 these three elements, the Hittite, the Semitic and the xanthochroous Nordic. Not 
 so the Armenians and the Persians. They, and still more the Druses, Marouites, 
 and the smaller sectarian groups of Syria and Asia Minor, represent the old Hittite 
 element, and are little, or not at all, influenced by the somatic characters of alien 
 invaders. 
 
 Combinations of Philology with Anthropology have in former times, especially 
 through Friedrich Miiller and his school, often led to serious mistakes. One spoke 
 of Aryan races instead of people with Aryan languages, and one went so far as to 
 speak of Aryan skulls and of Aryan eyes, so that Max Miiller formally protested 
 against the intrusion of linguistics into ethnology, stating that one might just as 
 well speak of a brachycephalic grammar as of an Aryan skull. 
 
 Still there is a solidarity between the Historical Sciences and Natural 
 History, and in proof of this solidarity I have ventured this evening — in tlie spirit 
 and in honour of Thomas Henry Huxley — to give argument and evidence. 
 
 \_Reprtnted from ihe Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, T^ol. XLI, 
 Julfl-Decem ber, 19 1 1 .J 
 
 Harrison and Sons, Prinltrs in Ortlinari/ to His Majesttf, St. Martini' Lane, London. 
 
Joiinial of the Royal Aii(hropo/tjt/icu/ Inslilute, Vol. XLl, 1911, Plate. XXIV, 
 
 lUO, KUltl), NIMRUD-UAOII, 1883. 
 
 BAKU, KURD, NIMllLU-DAGH, 1883. 
 
Journal of fhe Boi/nl Aiifliropnlnr/icftl Tvntiiufe, Vol. XLI, 11)11, Vlate XXV. 
 
 SULO, "KURD," ATYPICAI., K1AKHTA. 
 
 ARMKN'IAX, AIXTAH. 
 
 HABIB, ANSAltlYKIl, SCAXDEUOON. 
 
Journal of the Foi/al Anihropolugical Insfihife, Vol. XLI, 1911, Plate XXVI. 
 
 NEDSHin IIURI, "ARAB, SIIUAFAT, LE15AXUX. 
 
 llJRAIIlil lliN SAID, "ARAB," BEYROOT, 
 
Journal of Hie Rof/al Anfhropolo/j/ical Inxlifufe, Vol. XLT, 1911, Plate XXVII. 
 
 AXXtSKlI — JiEDOUIN FROM NEAR UAUilUAl). 
 
 ANNESEII — BEDOUIN FROM NEAll MOSSOUL. 
 
•) 
 
.Tournnl of the Tini/al Anihrnpohplonl TnfttHute, Vol. XLT, Iftll, Thite XXVTIT. 
 
 HADSCHI SULEIMAN, MAliOMRTAX, GIRMEH (KFHMNA). 
 
 ALI TSHAUSH, MAHOMETAN, AGIILASAN (SEAFH). 
 
Of 
 
Journal of the Royal Anthropoloijical Iiislilu/e, Vol.. ^J{I',A^^lt, P('ale'''2^X'IX\ 
 
 (iEURUIO.S KONSI'ANTIXOU, GREKK, LKV^SSI. 
 
 GEORGIOS GLINIS, UREEK, XIXOS. 
 
OF The 
 UlSlfVERSfT 
 
Journal of the Royal Anthropological iH.slilule, Vol. A LJ, V.)\V, Plate XXX, 
 
 STEFAN, ARMENIAN, KESSAJJ, JJJEUKL AKRAIl. 
 
 
 KYHIAKOS, AUMENIAN, UJEBEL AKUAH. 
 
Jimrmloftlip Tloiinl A))iln-np(,Ioriicnl 1 u.tlUulo, Vol. XLl, 1011, Plate XXXT. 
 
>^OF THE 
 
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Jmtrval of the lioi/al Anthropological Institute, Vol. Xtl, 19if,'Plaie XXJC/l. 
 
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