TN 
 
 IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 
 
 NOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES 
 ITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE 
 MINERAL RESOURCES COMMITTEE OF THE 
 IMPERIAL INSTITUTE WITH THE ASSISTANCE 
 OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STAFF 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 PREPARED JOINTLY WITH 
 
 H.M. PETROLEUM DEPARTMENT 
 
 WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF 
 
 H. B. CRONSHAW, B.A., Ph.D., A.R.S.M, 
 
 MAP AND 3 DIAGRAMS 
 
 LONDON 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 
 
 1921 
 
 Price 55. net 
 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 
 
 MONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE 
 MINERAL RESOURCES COMMITTEE OF THE 
 IMPERIAL INSTITUTE WITH THE ASSISTANCE 
 OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STAFF 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 PREPARED JOINTLY WITH 
 
 H.M. PETROLEUM DEPARTMENT 
 
 WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF 
 
 H. B. CRONSHAW, B.A., Ph.D., A.R.S.M. 
 
 WITH A MAP AND 3 DIAGRAMS 
 
 LONDON 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 
 
 1921 
 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 ''.; 
 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 
 MINERAL SECTION 
 
 THE Imperial Institute is a centre for the exhibition and 
 investigation of minerals with a view to their commercial 
 development and for the supply of information respecting the 
 sources, composition and value of minerals of all kinds. 
 
 The Imperial Institute is provided with Research Labora- 
 tories for the investigation, analysis and assay of minerals, 
 and undertakes reports on the composition and value of minerals, 
 for the information of Governments and producing companies 
 and firms, in communication with the principal users in the 
 United Kingdom and elsewhere in the Empire. 
 
 Important minerals from within the Empire are exhibited 
 in the respective Courts of the Public Exhibition Galleries, 
 and also in the Mineral Reference Collections of the Institute. 
 
 A special staff is engaged in the collection, critical revision 
 and arrangement of all important information respecting 
 supplies of minerals especially within the Empire, new methods 
 of usage and other commercial developments. 
 
 Articles on these and related subjects are periodically 
 published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, and mono- 
 graphs on special subjects are separately published under the 
 direction of the Committee on Mineral Resources. 
 
 461981 
 
 (f. 
 
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 
 Advisory Committee on Mineral Resources 
 
 The Right Hon. VISCOUNT HARCOURT, D.C.L. (Chairman). 
 *Admiral SIR EDMOND SLADE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. (nominated 
 
 by the Admiralty) (V ice-Chairman). 
 EDMUND G. DAVIS, Esq. 
 Professor C. H. DESCH, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.C., Professor of 
 
 Metallurgy, University of Sheffield. 
 *WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN, Esq., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Director 
 
 of the Imperial Institute. 
 Captain A. L. ELSWORTHY, Intelligence Department, War 
 
 Office (nominated by the War Office). 
 *Professor J. W. GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, 
 
 University of Glasgow, formerly Director of the Geological 
 
 Survey, Victoria, Australia. 
 Sir ROBERT HAD FIELD, Bart., F.R.S., Past- President Iron and 
 
 Steel Institute. 
 ARTHUR HUTCHINSON, Esq., O.B.E., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., 
 
 Mineralogical Department, University of Cambridge. 
 W. W. MOYERS, Esq. (Messrs. H. A. Watson & Co. Ltd.). 
 J. F. RONCA, Esq., M.B.E., A.R.C.Sc., A.I.C., Department of 
 
 Industries and Manufactures (nominated by the Board 
 
 of Trade). 
 R. ALLEN, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., Imperial Institute (Secretary). 
 
 * Members of Editorial Sub-Committee. 
 
 MINERAL SECTION 
 
 Principal Members of Staff 
 
 Superintendent 
 R. ALLEN, M.A. (Cantab.), B.Sc. (Lond.), M.Inst.M.M. 
 
 A ssistant Superintendent 
 S. J. JOHNSTONE, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.I.C. 
 
 A ssistants 
 
 W. O. R. WYNN, A.I.C. (Special Assistant). 
 G. E. HOWLING, B.Sc. (Lond.) (Senior Assistant). 
 S. BANN. A. T. FAIRCLOTH. 
 
 F. H. BELL. R. C. GROVES, M.Sc. (Birm.), A.I.C. 
 
 H. BENNETT, B.Sc. (Lond.). E. HALSE, A.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M. 
 
 vi 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE Mineral Resources Committee of the Imperial Institute 
 has arranged for the "issue of this series of Monographs on 
 Mineral Resources in amplification and extension of those 
 which have appeared in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute 
 during the past fifteen years. 
 
 The Monographs are prepared either by members of the 
 Scientific and Technical Staff of the Imperial Institute, or by 
 external contributors, to whom have been available the 
 statistical and other special information relating to mineral 
 resources collected and arranged at the Imperial Institute. 
 
 The object of these Monographs is to give a general account 
 of the occurrences and commercial utilisation of the more 
 important minerals, particularly in the British Empire. No 
 attempt has been made to give details of mining or metallur- 
 gical processes. 
 
 HARCOURT, 
 Chairman Mineral Resources Committee. 
 
 IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, LONDON, S.W.y. 
 July 1920. 
 
 VII 
 
CONTENTS 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 MM 
 
 PETROLEUM: ITS CHARACTERISTICS; OCCUR- 
 RENCES; MINING; REFINING AND USES. 
 DIAGRAMS OF PRODUCTION . > . ,> I 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 (a) BRITISH EMPIRE AND DEPENDENCIES : 
 
 Europe: Great Britain ; Malta . . */ . 15 
 Asia: British Borneo ; Sarawak; Cyprus; India; 
 
 Mesopotamia ; Palestine . . . .16 
 Africa : British Cameroon ; Egypt and Sudan ; 
 
 Gold Coast ; Nigeria ; Somaliland ; South 
 
 Africa . , * . . . . 26 
 North America : Barbados ; British Honduras ; 
 
 Canada ; Newfoundland ; Trinidad . . 30 
 
 South America : British Guiana . . * 38 
 
 Australasia : Australia ; Papua (New Guinea); 
 
 New Zealand . . . , ... * 38 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM (continued) 
 
 (b) FOREIGN COUNTRIES: 
 
 Europe : Galicia (Poland) ; Germany (including 
 Alsace) ; Greece ; Holland ; Italy ; Roumania ; 
 Russia (including Georgia) ; Spain ; Turkey . 42 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 PACK 
 
 (b) FOREIGN COUNTRIES (continued) : 
 
 Asia : Arabia ; China ; Dutch East Indies ; 
 Japan and Formosa ; Persia ; Philippine 
 Islands ; Sakhalin (Russian) ; Syria ; Timor 
 (Portuguese) ...... 55 
 
 Africa : Algeria ; French Cameroon ; French 
 Congo ; Madagascar ; Morocco ; Portuguese 
 West Africa (Angola) ; Tunis ... 64 
 
 North America : Costa Rica ; Cuba ; Guatemala ; 
 Honduras ; Mexico ; San Domingo ; Panama ; 
 United States 67 
 
 South America : Argentina ; Bolivia ; Brazil ; 
 Chile ; Colombia ; Ecuador ; Peru ; Vene- 
 zuela ....... 80 
 
 SKETCH-MAP OF THE PRINCIPAL PETROLEUM DEPOSITS 
 
 OF THE WORLD 89 
 
 REFERENCES TO PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS ON PETROLEUM 90 
 
PETROLEUM 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PETROLEUM : ITS CHARACTERISTICS ; OCCURRENCES ; 
 MINING ; REFINING AND USES. DIAGRAMS OF PRODUCTION 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ONE of the features of the recent war was an extraordinary 
 development of the uses of petroleum in munition factories, 
 motor transport services, aviation, tanks, and warships of 
 all classes ; every phase, in fact, of both naval and military 
 operations led to demands for petroleum products in ever- 
 increasing quantities. With the renewal of peace activities, 
 these requirements seem likely to be maintained, and possibly 
 augmented, since the adoption of fuel oil on a large scale by 
 the mercantile marine may well be regarded as certain. 
 
 As petroleum has thus become a vital necessity in the life 
 of every nation, it has been thought desirable to issue a short 
 summary of the petroleum resources of the Empire and of the 
 world so far as they are at present known. The information 
 has been largely taken from the most recent official reports, 
 though acknowledgment must also be made of the assistance 
 in many points of detail that has been obtained from current 
 standard works on the subject. The disturbed conditions 
 which at present prevail in some countries have made it 
 difficult, if not impossible, to secure the latest and most 
 accurate particulars, but it is hoped that this brief summary 
 may prove a useful source of reference, and enable a compre- 
 
2 INTRODUCTION 
 
 hensive view to be obtained of the resources available to meet 
 the constantly increasing demand. 
 
 Within the last twelve years the output of petroleum has 
 been more than doubled, increasing from about 35,000,000 
 tons in 1907 to about 80,000,000 tons in 1919. The following 
 table shows in metric tons the output of the principal oil- 
 producing countries in the world for the period 1916-1920 : 
 
 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919. 
 
 1920. 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 42,966,737 
 
 47,902,228 
 
 49,357,143 
 
 53,959,857 
 
 63,343,143 
 
 Russia 
 
 10,400,160 
 
 8,362,903 
 
 3,143,960 
 
 3,642,571 
 
 3,483,143 
 
 Mexico 
 
 5,792,245 
 
 7,898,967 
 
 9,118,332 
 
 12,439,000 
 
 22,800,000 
 
 Dutch E. Indies 
 
 1,730,180 
 
 1,687,391 
 
 1,706,675 
 
 2,092,917 
 
 2,250,000 
 
 Roumania 
 
 1,244,093 
 
 5i7,49i 
 
 1,214,219 
 
 905,064 
 
 1,017,382 
 
 Persia 
 
 587,502 
 
 937,902 
 
 1,131,489 
 
 1,194,000 
 
 1,712,267 
 
 British India 
 
 1,188,759 
 
 1,131,038 
 
 1,146,340 
 
 1,222,607 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Galicia 
 
 927,440 
 
 901,910 
 
 678,640 
 
 818,333 
 
 752,528 
 
 Other countries 
 
 1,743,138 
 
 1,812,894 
 
 1,994,175 
 
 1,814,406 
 
 1,153,063 
 
 Total . 
 
 66,580,254 
 
 71,152,724 
 
 69,490,973 
 
 78,088,755 
 
 97,511,526 
 
 It will be observed that the United States has been by far 
 the largest contributor, her share of the world's production 
 increasing from 64% in 1916 to nearly 68% in 1919. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Crude petroleum, or " rock oil," as it occurs in nature, 
 consists of a mixture of complex hydrocarbons, chiefly of 
 the paraffin, benzine and naphthene series. The proportion 
 of the several components varies according to the locality 
 from which the oil is derived, and often, oils from different 
 wells in the same field show variation in composition. 
 
 For practical purposes, crude oils may be considered as 
 belonging to either one of two types : asphaltic oils, which 
 yield on slow distillation a dark asphaltic residue, and paraffin 
 base oils, which yield, on cooling to a low temperature, light- 
 coloured solid hydrocarbons, chiefly of the paraffin series. 
 It must, however, be understood that the two types merge 
 into one another. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM 3 
 
 On subjecting a crude oil to fractional distillation, a series 
 of distillates of different boiling points and specific gravities 
 may be obtained. This operation, carried out on a commercial 
 scale in refineries, is made to yield such fractions as will best 
 fulfil the requirements of trade. Thus a volatile oil, variously 
 described as naphtha, benzine, petrol, gasoline, motor spirit, 
 etc., is the first product of distillation ; this is followed by 
 illuminating or lamp oils, solar oils and lubricating oils as 
 the temperature becomes progressively higher. 
 
 The colour of crude petroleum, when viewed by transmitted 
 light, varies considerably from yellow, green and red, to 
 reddish brown, and through various shades of brown to black. 
 In reflected light it usually exhibits a greenish cast, which 
 enables it to be distinguished from refined oils, which show 
 a bluish fluorescence. 
 
 Oils from certain regions possess characteristic odours. 
 In this way one may recognize petroleums from Pennsylvania, 
 California, Texas, Russia and the East Indies, whilst petroleums 
 from Mexico, Ontario, Ohio and Indiana, which contain 
 sulphur compounds, possess odours which are decidedly 
 disagreeable. 
 
 Crude petroleums usually range in specific gravity from 
 0-820 to 0-940, although lighter and heavier varieties are some- 
 times found. In fact, they may be said to vary through every 
 intermediate gradation, from thick and black liquids with a 
 density greater than water, to light- coloured and highly mobile 
 fluids with a density as low as 0-77. 
 
 THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Crude petroleum is widely distributed in the world, being 
 found in many countries, sometimes only in insignificant 
 amounts, but not infrequently in such quantities as to furnish 
 supplies of great economic importance. 
 
 In its natural state petroleum occurs in bedded or strati- 
 fied sedimentary rocks, and more particularly in those which 
 are of a porous nature. 
 
 The geological distribution of oil in the chief oil-fields 
 is shown in the following table : 
 
THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Geological formation. 
 
 Percentage of 
 total production 
 
 Localities. 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 49.4 
 
 California, Gulf Coast, Russia, Rou- 
 
 
 
 mania, Persia, Dutch E. Indies, Peru, 
 
 
 
 Argentine, Venezuela and most British 
 
 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Upper Cretaceous 
 
 I-O 
 
 Texas, Wyoming, Colorado and Galicia. 
 
 Lower Cretaceous 
 
 
 
 Jurassic 
 
 
 
 Triassic 
 
 
 
 Permian 
 
 
 
 Upper Carboniferous 
 
 !' 
 
 Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Pennsyl- 
 
 
 
 vania. 
 
 Lower Carboniferous 
 
 
 Illinois, part of Appalachian field (U.S. A). 
 
 Upper Devonian 
 
 
 Part of Appalachian field (U.S.A.). 
 
 Devonian 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Silurian 
 
 
 
 Ordovician 
 
 8-1 
 
 Lima-Indiana (U.S.A.). 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that the greatest amounts of petroleum 
 come from the Tertiary, Carboniferous, and Devonian forma- 
 tions, which, as far as geological survey has shown, cover 60% 
 of the earth's surface. 
 
 It appears probable that in most cases the oil has migrated 
 from certain beds, in which it was generated, to others, known 
 as the storage-rocks, which it now occupies, although opinions 
 differ as to the extent of such migration. With regard to 
 the formation of petroleum in nature, little is known, but it 
 is generally agreed that it is in some way connected with 
 complex changes undergone by organic remains, whose exact 
 nature is a subject of dispute, but which were accumulated 
 with the inorganic portion of the sediments making up the 
 bulk of the " generator-rock." Obviously the fatty portion 
 of the organic remains has, by a series of chemical changes 
 under special conditions, whose nature is also disputed, given 
 rise to the liquid hydrocarbons as we find them at the present 
 day. 
 
 Three prime causes gas-pressure, capillary action and 
 gravitation have affected the transference or migration of 
 the oil from the generator-rock to the reservoir-rock, and 
 likewise from one part to another of the latter. Gas, water 
 (usually saline) and oil may be present, either separately 
 
THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM 5 
 
 or together, in the reservoir-rock. Gas-pressure acts equally 
 in all directions, and will force the oil out of the reservoir- 
 rock, where there is a means of escape. Capillary action can 
 produce movement of oil only in dry rocks, and especially 
 in those possessing a close texture. As it is found that the 
 amount of water present in rocks decreases with increase 
 of depth, capillary action may have been an important factor 
 in governing the migration of oil at considerable depths and 
 during the early stages of the history of these movements. As 
 regards the influence of gravitation, in dry rocks oil seeks the 
 lowest part of the bed or beds of the requisite porosity, whilst 
 in wet rocks it tends towards the highest point. 
 
 To prevent the escape of oil from the large accumulations 
 or pools, there must be an overlying series of impervious beds, 
 usually clay or clayey shales, and, moreover, the porous beds 
 themselves must not crop out at, or communicate by means of 
 fissures with, the surface. Sometimes oil-sands are sealed at 
 the outcrop by bitumen, in which case most of the gas will 
 have escaped. The third condition favourable to the accu- 
 mulation of oil is that of a suitable geological structure. 
 The sedimentary rocks are seldom quite horizontal ; they 
 are frequently inclined and often flexured or bent. Such 
 flexures may take the form of anticlines, synclines, domes, or 
 terraces. In folds of the anticlinal type the oil rises towards 
 the apex, whilst, unless the strata are dry, it is absent from 
 the synclines. A fourth factor which occasionally exercises 
 an influence on the distribution of oil, though difficult of 
 determination, is the change of porosity which a bed may 
 undergo from point to point, due to a lack of uniformity in 
 the character of the sediments themselves. 
 
 Besides the important anticlinal structure there may be 
 other special structures which have exercised considerable in- 
 fluence on the localization of oil pools. Hence the selection 
 of oil-bearing areas and the actual location of drilling sites 
 must be based on the knowledge obtained in the course of a 
 more or less extensive investigation by professional geologists. 
 
 In the United States, work of this kind has been carried 
 to a considerable degree of perfection. Contoured maps of 
 underground strata have been prepared from the results of 
 
6 THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM 
 
 boring operations, whereby many local oil pools have been 
 located amidst strata which are usually barren. 
 
 Certain surface " indications," such as oil-seepages, emana- 
 tions of natural gas, mud- volcanoes, outcrops of oily or bitu- 
 minous rocks and asphaltic deposits, are frequently of use to 
 the prospector in his search for oil-bearing areas, but some 
 oil- fields are devoid of such indications, and, even when they 
 do occur, it does not necessarily follow that petroleum will be 
 met with in commercial quantities. This point is liable to 
 be overlooked by persons who are anxious to promote the 
 development of suggested new oil-fields. 
 
 PETROLEUM MINING 
 
 The oil contained within the petroliferous beds is tapped 
 by sinking bore-holes. This is carried out either by the 
 percussion or by the rotary system. Describing the percussion 
 system in very general terms, it may be said to consist of alter- 
 nately raising and lowering a chisel- shaped heavy steel " bit," 
 suspended from one end of a "walking-beam" by means of 
 a cable or a long chain of poles. The rocking motion of the 
 walking-beam is effected by a " band- wheel " driven by a 
 steam engine. The detritus and water are removed by a 
 " sand- pump " and bailer. When a depth has been reached 
 at which the sides of the hole begin to cave in, or water is met 
 with, it is necessary to line the hole with steel casing. A 
 smaller bit is then used for deepening the well, which is carried 
 forward until further caving or influx of water necessitates 
 lowering another " string " of casing, which must be of such 
 a diameter as to pass through the casing previously inserted. 
 This procedure is repeated as often as necessary, the hole thus 
 gradually decreasing in diameter as depth is gained. 
 
 In the rotary system a length of hollow drilling rods, to the 
 lower end of which is attached some form of drilling bit, is 
 mechanically rotated. The detritus is removed by forcing 
 a continuous stream of water through the rods. 
 
 The rotary system, by means of which drilling can be carried 
 on much more rapidly and cheaply than with cable tools, is 
 not, however, well suited for testing unproved fields. The 
 water or liquid mud which is used under high pressure for 
 
PETROLEUM MINING 7 
 
 flushing the hole, tends to drive back any oil met with in the 
 oil-bearing formation, so that it is quite possible to pass through 
 a payable oil sand without its presence being recognized by 
 the drillers. For this reason the ordinary chilled shot or 
 diamond rotary drill as used for coal mining is also unsuitable, 
 notwithstanding the advantage of being able to obtain cores 
 of the strata passed through. 
 
 It is, therefore, customary to drill the initial test-wells by 
 means of cable tools, and after it has been ascertained at what 
 depth the oil horizons occur, the rotary system may be employed 
 with advantage for drilling additional wells, in order to obtain 
 a commercial production of oil. 
 
 Plant can now be obtained which permits of changing from 
 one system to the other, so that the bulk of the drilling can be 
 accomplished by means of the rotary system, and the change 
 to cable tools can be effected when a depth has been reached 
 at which oil may be expected to occur. 
 
 If the wells do not flow of their own accord, they must be 
 pumped. Where a number of wells has to be dealt with, 
 a special mechanical arrangement enables them all to be 
 pumped from a single power-plant, which reduces the cost very 
 considerably. In this way a large series, perhaps consisting 
 of 200 wells, may be profitably worked, even though the yield 
 from each be only a few barrels daily. Other methods of 
 raising the oil are by means of either an air-lift or a bailer. 
 
 The crude oil from the well either flows naturally, or is 
 pumped into a tank situated near at hand. From this tank 
 the oil is conveyed to the refineries by tank cars, or through 
 pipe-lines, or, in some cases, by tank vessels. 
 
 THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Where crude petroleum is not directly employed for fuel, 
 it undergoes a process of fractional distillation in a refinery, 
 whereby various products, or distillates, are obtained which 
 meet trade requirements by falling within certain ranges of 
 boiling-point and specific gravity. There is considerable over- 
 lapping and confusion in the nomenclature of these various 
 commercial products, caused partly by the fact that crude oils 
 2 
 
8 
 
 THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 
 
 from different regions yield different sets of products and in 
 various proportions. 
 
 There has also been a gradual change in the required quality 
 of the various fractions of petroleum, e.g. petrol, which had 
 originally a specific gravity of 0-680 and a final boiling-point 
 of about 125 C., may now have a specific gravity of 0750 or 
 even higher, and a final boiling-point of 225 C. Refining may 
 be partial, the lighter fractions only being taken off and the 
 whole of the residue used as fuel, or the process of distillation 
 may be continued, and gas oil, lubricating oils and paraffin 
 wax also be obtained. Owing to differences of refinery practice 
 and the varying qualities of crude oils, it is impossible to draw 
 up a list of products which is of general application, but the 
 following will give some indication of the characteristics of 
 the various products: 
 
 
 
 Boiling points 
 (C.). 
 
 Flash-point. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Petroleum spirit (gasoline, 
 
 
 
 
 petrol, naphtha, etc.) 
 Burning oil (kerosene or 
 
 Up to 200 
 
 Below 73 F. 
 
 0*650 to 0-750 
 
 " paraffin ") 
 
 150 to 300 
 
 73 F. to noF. 
 
 0-800 to 0-825 
 
 Solar or gas oil 
 Lubricating oils 
 
 250 to 340 
 340 to 500 
 
 150 F. 
 300 F. to 500 F. 
 
 0-865 
 0-900 to 0-950 
 
 Fuel oil . 
 
 Above 300 
 
 150 F. to 200 F. 
 
 0-900 to 0-960 
 
 Not only do the distillates vary to some extent in nature 
 and yield with the character of the crude oil, but a certain 
 variation can be induced by modifying the manner in which 
 the distillation is carried out. 
 
 Although all methods of refining are based on the 
 same fundamental principle, they actually differ in detail, 
 according to the particular nature of the crude oil which has 
 to be treated. Described in very general terms, the modern 
 process is carried out as follows. The crude oil, sometimes 
 previously warmed by waste heat, is introduced into steel 
 cylindrical stills of various designs, which are externally 
 heated by fuel oil sprayed into the fire-box by a jet burner. 
 In many cases steam, superheated if necessary, is admitted 
 by a perforated pipe extending along the base of the still. 
 
THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 9 
 
 As the temperature is progressively raised, the successive dis- 
 tillates are collected in separate storage tanks. It was the 
 practice formerly to carry out the distillation until the residue 
 consisted of oils heavier than solar oil, and then to transfer 
 this residue to a separate and specially- designed still for 
 extracting the various heavy oils. A more modern practice, 
 however, is to effect a complete distillation in one set of stills, 
 which are modified by having a tower-like superstructure 
 through which the vapours pass and become more thoroughly 
 fractionated. As a rule, the greatest possible yield of petroleum 
 spirit and burning oil is desired, though different proportions 
 of products can be obtained according to market demands. 
 The primary distillates require to be re-distilled and purified 
 by acid treatment and agitation before they are fit for sale. 
 
 One result of the demand for light products has been the 
 introduction of special operations known as "cracking" pro- 
 cesses, whereby the heavier types of distillates can be broken 
 down into lighter products. There are three methods of 
 cracking heavy oils, viz. the Rittman process, which consists 
 essentially in heating the vapour under pressure ; the Burton 
 process of heating the oil and condensing under pressure ; and 
 that of heating the oil under pressure. Uncracked oils are of 
 better quality and command a higher price than similar pro- 
 ducts made by the cracking process. 
 
 Another result of the demand for light products has been 
 the recovery of " casing-head " spirit, obtained from the 
 gas given off by most wells producing oil. This gas generally 
 contains light hydrocarbons in suspension, and the two methods 
 generally employed for removing these hydrocarbons consist of 
 
 (a) Absorption of the spirit in oil with subsequent distillation ; 
 
 (b) Compression and refrigeration of the casing-head gas. 
 The first method is generally employed on so-called dry 
 
 gas, i.e. gas containing less than one gallon of spirit per 1,000 
 cubic feet of gas, and the refrigeration method is employed 
 on wet gas containing i gallon or over of spirit per 1,000 
 cubic feet. The total quantity of casing-head spirit produced 
 in the United States during 1918 was 282,535,550 American 
 gallons, which was extracted from 449,108,661,000 cubic feet 
 of gas. 
 
10 THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 
 
 The results obtained by distilling petroleum of the Penn- 
 sylvania type will serve as* an illustration of the nature of 
 the products obtainable from a crude oil. Dry or destructive 
 distillation yields a series of gasoline oils, both normal and 
 cracked ; a normal and cracked series of illuminating oils ; 
 a series of fuel oils ; a series of lubricating or paraffin oils ; 
 paraffin wax, and wax tailings. The products of steam 
 distillation include normal gasoline, illuminating oils, fuel 
 oils, spindle oils, steam cylinder stocks and vaseline. 
 
 THE USES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 
 
 The common uses to which some of the more important 
 products are put are given below : 
 
 Petroleum Spirit. Very light fractions are used as local 
 anaesthetics ; as cleaning solutions ; as solvents for caout- 
 chouc ; and for other industrial purposes ; but the main use of 
 the more volatile products of petroleum is as fuel for internal 
 combustion engines, under the names of gasoline or naphtha 
 (U.S.A.) ; petrol or benzine (U.K.). 
 
 Illuminating Oils (burning oil or kerosene). The different 
 burning oils are known by a great variety of names. Provided 
 the flash-point is satisfactory, the best burning oil is that with 
 the lowest viscosity, lowest iodine absorption, highest gravity, 
 lowest sulphur content, and best colour, i.e. as nearly water- 
 white as possible. 
 
 Fuel Oils. This term includes a very wide range of products, 
 from high-grade oils capable of being used in engines of the 
 Diesel type, to heavy residues which are burnt under boilers. 
 The use of fuel oil is extending very rapidly, particularly for 
 marine purposes, and large numbers of ships are being fitted 
 to burn fuel oil both in internal combustion engines and in 
 furnaces. Increased quantities are being used on rail- 
 roads, in power stations and for smelting works. The 
 characteristics which a fuel oil should possess are : a high 
 calorific value ; a fairly high flash-point ; fluidity at moderately 
 low temperatures ; and freedom from solid matter which might 
 cause trouble with the atomizers. 
 
THE USES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 
 Calorific Values of some Typical Fuel Oils 
 
 11 
 
 Source. 
 
 Specific gravity 
 at 15 C. 
 
 Calorific value 
 Calories. 
 
 Calorific value 
 B.T.U. 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-914 
 
 10,990 
 
 19,780 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-930 
 
 10,790 
 
 19,430 
 
 Burma 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-900 
 
 10,610 
 
 19,100 
 
 Borneo 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-915 
 
 10,780 
 
 19,400 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-952 
 
 io,445 
 
 18,800 
 
 Roumania 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-950 
 
 10,695 
 
 19,250 
 
 California 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-948 
 
 10,400 
 
 18,700 
 
 Persia 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-893 
 
 10,833 
 
 19,500 
 
 Trinidad . 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-942 
 
 10,500 
 
 18,900 
 
 Gas Oil. An oil of a gravity (about 0-865) intermediate 
 between kerosene and fuel oil. It is of low viscosity, and 
 owes its name to its use for enriching coal gas. It is also much 
 in demand as a superior fuel for oil engines of the Diesel and 
 other types. 
 
 Lubricants. Many kinds of lubricating oils in general use 
 are refined from crude petroleum, and range from light spindle 
 oils to solid lubricating greases. 
 
 Wax. Paraffin wax is obtained from crude oils having a 
 paraffin, as distinct from an asphaltic, base. It is used for 
 making wax candles, waterproofing cloth, preserving foodstuffs, 
 insulating purposes, etc. 
 
 The diagrams on the following pages show the quantities 
 of petroleum produced by different countries in recent years. 
 
1910 I9H I9 12 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Russia 
 
 DIAGRAM I. SHOWING PETROLEUM PRODUCTION OF THE THREE 
 LARGEST PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1910-1918. 
 
 (Millions of tons of 2,240 Ib.) 
 Note. For some additional information see table on p. 2. 
 
 12 
 
tyio 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
 
 180< 
 
 J Dutch E.Indies 
 
 Roumania 
 
 India 
 
 Persia 
 
 ralicia (Poland) 
 
 DIAGRAM II. SHOWING PETROLEUM PRODUCTION OF FIVE MINOR 
 
 PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1910-1918. 
 
 (Thousands of tons of 2,240 Ib.) 
 
 Note. For some additional information see table on p. 2. 
 
350 
 
 300 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 I9io 191 1 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
 500 
 
 450 
 
 400 
 
 
 ^fc*^ Argent 
 
 Peru 
 Japan 
 
 Trinidad 
 Egypt 
 
 Germany 
 ina 
 
 Sarawak 
 Canada 
 
 Italy 
 
 DIAGRAM III. SHOWING PETROLEUM PRODUCTION OF NINE SMALLEST 
 PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1910-1918. 
 
 (Thousands of tons of 2,240 Ib.) 
 
CHAPTER II 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 (a) BRITISH EMPIRE AND DEPENDENCIES 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 THE United Kingdom is a comparatively small oil producer, 
 practically all its requirements being drawn from overseas. 
 Until quite recently production was confined to the shale 
 deposits of Scotland, which are dealt with in the Oil Shales 
 monograph of this series. 
 
 Occurrences of natural petroleum have, from time to time, 
 been reported from various parts of the country, and in 
 October, 1918, a systematic search for oil was begun by 
 S. Pearson & Son, acting as agents of H.M. Government, a 
 sum of 1,000,000 being set aside for this purpose. A series 
 of bore-holes was put down in the Chesterfield area, and in 
 May, 1919, a well at Hardstoft came in at a depth of 3,077 
 feet, with a daily flow of about 10 or n barrels of oil, and 
 has since been steadily producing, under natural pressure, at 
 the rate of about 7 barrels daily. 
 
 Tests have been also in progress in North Staffordshire 
 (Apedale and Werrington), and in Scotland (West Calder and 
 D'Arcy). At Kelham, near Newark, a well is being sunk by 
 Oilfields of England, Ltd., and another near King's Lynn, 
 by English Oilfields, Ltd. 
 
 A typical fractionation of the Hardstoft oil is as follows : 
 
 Petrol . 
 Kerosene 
 Gas oil 
 
 Lubricating oil 
 Paraffin wax 
 
 Per cent. 
 10-0 
 
 36-5 
 
 2O-O 
 30-5 
 
 3-0 
 
 Specific gravity, 0-823. 
 Calorific value, 20,290 B.T.U. 
 
 15 
 
16 
 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 A small show of oil was also met with in a boring for coal 
 at Retford. 
 
 Some idea of the requirements, in tons, of the United Kingdom 
 of petroleum products can be gauged from the following table : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production.! 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Difference 
 (Consumption). 
 
 IQI2 
 
 294,699 
 
 1,653,333 
 
 1,948,032 
 
 26,846 
 
 I,92I,l86 
 
 1913 
 
 289,684 
 
 1,962,427 
 
 2,252,111 
 
 16,505 
 
 2,235,606 
 
 1914 
 
 285,464 
 
 2,586,850 
 
 2,872,314 
 
 20,444 
 
 2,851,870 
 
 1915 
 
 263,083 
 
 2,354,079 
 
 2,617,162 
 
 46,079 
 
 2,57 I - 8 3 
 
 1916 
 
 247,472 
 
 3,159,195 
 
 3,406,667 
 
 27,907 
 
 3,378,76o 
 
 1917 
 
 249,598 
 
 4,187,569 
 
 4,437-167 
 
 20,800 
 
 4,416,367 
 
 1918 
 
 242,501 
 
 5,297,984 
 
 5,540,485 
 
 7.074 
 
 5,533,4H 
 
 1919 
 
 213,886 
 
 2,855,535 
 
 3,069,421 
 
 112,977 
 
 2,956,444 
 
 1 Crude oil distilled from oil shale. 
 
 The table on page 17 gives the imports of petroleum 
 products from 1910 to 1919, showing countries of origin. 
 
 MALTA 
 
 It is possible that test drilling will be undertaken on the 
 island as there are rocks of suitable age and structure. 
 
 ASIA 
 
 BRITISH BORNEO 
 
 Along the north-east coast of Borneo, from Sampanmangio 
 Point to the Sadong district, indications of the presence of 
 petroleum, in the Tertiary coal-bearing series, appear at 
 numerous points in British North Borneo, Brunei and 
 Sarawak, as well as on the adjacent islands of Labuan and 
 Mangaloon. 
 
 In Brunei and British North Borneo, both English and 
 Japanese companies are engaged in prospecting for oil. 
 
 Two wells have been sunk on Mangaloon Island, but neither 
 has yet arrived at a depth at which oil could be expected. 
 Of four wells sunk on the Klias Peninsula, two met with small 
 shows of oil, and No. 4 produced a return of 1,200 gallons 
 daily. These well?, however, are not being operated upon 
 at present. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 VO ON 00 00 i- iO CO 
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 O" \ to coco" ON cT 
 vO CO N vO N 
 
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 1,046,953 
 
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18 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 SARAWAK 
 
 The producing field is in the Miri district of Sarawak. A 
 refinery has been erected at Lutong, as well as tank storage, 
 and there are two 8-inch submarine pipe-lines for the ship- 
 ment of products. 
 
 Production has been as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1913 .... . 19,953 
 I9M 45,039 
 
 1915 55,4^0 
 
 1916 ...... 90,570 
 
 1917 76,738 
 
 1918 ...... 71,366 
 
 1919 - . 85,143 
 IQ20 . . 148,633 
 
 The decrease in 1918 compared with 1917 was due to 
 lack of shipping, which also involved the curtailment of plans 
 for a more vigorous drilling programme. 
 
 The following is a typical distillation test of the Sarawak 
 oil: 
 
 Specific gravity ..... 0-924 
 
 Benzine ...... 9% 
 
 Illuminating oil . . . .26% 
 
 Gas Oil 7 % 
 
 Residuals . . . . . 58% 
 
 CYPRUS 
 
 Indications of petroleum in Cyprus seem to be confined to 
 the dark oil-bearing phase of a crystalline limestone formation, 
 probably of Cretaceous age, occurring in the northern mountain 
 range, but the physical character of this rock and the structure 
 are unfavourable to the accumulation of oil on a commercial 
 scale. 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Oil has been found to a small extent in the Punjab and 
 Baluchistan, but the main petroleum-producing region of India 
 is in the east, i.e. in Burma and Assam. 
 
 By far the greatest supply of oil in India comes from Burma, 
 which in 1915 furnished 98% of the total production, whilst 
 69 % of this total yield was from the Yenangyaung oil-field. 
 
INDIA 19 
 
 Burma. In Burma the chief oil-bearing area runs north 
 and south, along the basins of the Irrawadi and Chindwin 
 rivers. In the 400 miles along which indications exist, only 
 isolated spots in a section of the belt about 90 miles long have 
 been found sufficiently profitable for development up to date, 
 the chief fields being Yenangyaung (Magwe district), Singu 
 (Myingyan district), and Yenangyat (Pakokku district). The 
 Yenangyaung field is the most important, its three sections 
 being Twingon, Khodaung, and Berne. All these fields are 
 connected by pipe-lines which continue to the refineries at 
 Rangoon. Other areas in which petroleum occurs are 
 Chindwin, Shwebo, Minbu, Thayetmyo, Prome, Henzada, and 
 the Arakan region, comprising Ramri and other small islands. 
 The work done in these districts has, however, been principally 
 of an exploratory nature, though increasing amounts of oil 
 are now being won from Chindwin and Minbu. 
 
 The oil occurs in anticlines and domes of the Pegu series 
 (Miocene and Oligocene), often projecting as small hill ranges 
 through plains consisting of Irrawadi sandstone (Pliocene) 
 and recent surface deposits. In a few places the Nummulitic 
 series (Eocene) are petroliferous. 
 
 The Yenangyaung field is situated on the left bank of the 
 Irrawadi, about 270 miles north of Rangoon and 130 miles 
 S.S.W. of Mandalay. A denuded dome forms at the surface 
 an elongated ellipse of Pegu beds, surrounded by an outcrop 
 of Irrawadi sandstone. The oil occurs in a complex series 
 of lenses, streaks and beds of sand, varying considerably in 
 thickness at different points and situated at various horizons 
 in impervious clays. In 1914 productive sands were tapped 
 at a depth of nearly 3,000 feet. 
 
 The oil has a specific gravity varying from 0-800 to 
 0-950. 
 
 The following gives a general indication of the composition 
 of the crude oil : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Naphtha ..... 15 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 Solid paraffin 
 Lubricating oils. 
 Loss and coke . 
 
 12-14 
 8-12 
 5 
 
20 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 The Singu field is 30 miles north of Yenangyaung, upon the 
 same bank of the Irrawadi, and the main producing portion 
 of the Yenangyat field lies 30 miles still farther north, upon 
 the opposite bank of the river. Both fields are situated upon 
 a single asymmetric anticlinal fold, which rises and pitches in 
 three places, producing local dome- structures, each of which 
 forms a separate oil-field. At Singu the oil-sands are fairly 
 constant and occupy two main horizons, one at about 1,500 
 feet and the other at 1,850 feet, whilst at Yenangyat there is 
 much inconstancy, which is also characteristic of the Yenang- 
 yaung field. 
 
 Full details of the petroliferous localities within the several 
 districts of Burma may be obtained from the Memoirs of the 
 Geological Survey of India, vol. xl, on the " Oilfields of 
 Burma." 
 
 Assam. The oil-belt of Assam is crescent-shaped and some 
 800 miles in length from the extreme north-east of the province 
 to the islands off the Arakan Coast of Burma. The only fields 
 of commercial value, so far discovered, are those of Digboi, 
 Bappa Pung, Makum, and Badarpur. The oil is confined to 
 the Coal-Measure Series, which consists of alternating shales 
 and sandstones with seams of coal, probably of Oligocene 
 and Miocene ages. These Tertiary rocks are folded gener- 
 ally symmetrically. In places overfolds towards the N.W. 
 occur. 
 
 The petroliferous portion of the Digboi field has an area of 
 about 130 acres and is about 16 miles N.E. of Jaipur. The 
 specific gravity of the oil is about 0-85. On distillation it 
 yields the following percentages : benzine, 10 ; kerosene, 55 ; 
 intermediate oils, 15 ; lubricating oils, 8 ; paraffin wax, 9 ; 
 and coke, 3. The oil is sold locally, but much of the wax 
 is sent to England, and is very suitable for the manufacture 
 of candles for tropical climates. There is a fairly constant 
 oil-horizon at from 1,100 to 1,200 feet, although the main 
 supplies are usually obtained from a depth of from 1,400 to 
 1,700 feet. The structure of the field is probably that of an 
 asymmetrical dome with a W.S.W. axis and an overfold 
 towards the north. 
 
 The Bappa Pung field lies about a mile E.N.E. of Digboi, 
 
INDIA 
 
 21 
 
 and is connected with it by a light railway. Apparently the 
 structure closely resembles that at Digboi. 
 
 The Makum oil-field is situated about 8 miles E.S.E. of 
 Digboi. 
 
 The Badarpur oil-field is close to the town of the same name, 
 on the borders of Sylhet and Cachar. Since 1915 it has been 
 worked by the Burmah Oil Co. Recent data are not available, 
 but it is known that at least 21 wells have been sunk, of which 
 19 were producing in 1919. 
 
 Indications of oil have been observed at several localities 
 along the belt, so that at some future date we may witness 
 a wide extension of productive oil-fields over the oil-belt referred 
 to above. 
 
 The Punjab. Petroliferous beds of Eocene age underlie an 
 extensive area in Northern Punjab, between Rawal Pindi and 
 Shahpur. In 1915, for the first time, the mineral return 
 from the Punjab included an appreciable amount of petroleum ; 
 this was from the newly- discovered field at Khaur. 
 
 The most recent information available regarding this field 
 is that 10 wells have been drilled to a maximum depth of 
 1,650 feet, and that sufficient oil has been proved to warrant 
 the erection of a refinery, which is now being built at Rawal 
 Pindi, and is being connected with the field by a pipe-line 
 42 miles long. 
 
 Production of Petroleum in Punjab, in Imp. gallons 
 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 1915- 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919. 
 
 Attock . 
 Mianwali 
 
 1,400 
 
 950 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 250,000 
 M94 
 
 182,480 
 1,334 
 
 618,598 
 919 
 
 750,000 
 807 
 
 113,360 
 970 
 
 C. S. Middlemiss discusses the possible occurrence of petro- 
 leum in Jammu province. He says that the whole of the belt 
 of stratified rock in Jammu embraces a section of the sub- 
 Himalaya rocks of Tertiary age, from Eocene upwards, which 
 are identified in composition, age and lithological character 
 with those of the petroliferous series in the neighbouring 
 
22 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Rawal Pindi district. They are also identical in age with, 
 but differ in some particulars lithologically from, the petro- 
 liferous series in Assam and in Burma, and also in the newly- 
 discovered fields in Persia. In fact, they form with these 
 known petroleum-bearing areas what is really one continuous 
 but intricately- winding belt of deposits belonging to one com- 
 prehensive geological epoch, that stretches from Persia on 
 the one hand to the extreme south of Burma on the other. 
 It is also equally true that in general characters and in age 
 these rocks exposed in Jammu agree with those of a great 
 proportion of the more distant successful oil-fields of the 
 world, notably with those of California, Peru, Russia, Roumania, 
 Galicia and Sumatra. 
 
 Middlemiss, while examining the area, discovered the Nar 
 Budhan dome, which he found to be strikingly similar to 
 the Khaur dome, and he considers that it is the best place in 
 the whole area for a trial boring. 
 
 Baluchistan. Indications of oil occur at Shoran, 20 miles 
 north of Gandava, in Baluchistan. In Sewestan, the lower 
 Eocene limestones are petroliferous at various points, notably 
 in the Khatan, Harnai and Spintangi districts. Oil-springs 
 occur near the village of Moghal Kot, near the northern border 
 of Baluchistan, and yield a yellowish coloured oil of specific 
 gravity 0*815, containing about 85 % of illuminating oil. 
 
 Between the years 1884 and 1891, various trial borings 
 were put down by the Indian Government in the vicinity of 
 the oil-springs of Khatan, in the Mari Hills, but although 
 bore-holes were put down over 500 feet in depth, and a certain 
 quantity of petroleum was found, the enterprise was abandoned 
 in 1891, being regarded as a failure from a commercial point 
 of view. 
 
 The Khatan oil-springs are situated at the end of a great, 
 bare hill, formed of limestone beds bent into an anticlinal 
 fold, which pitches towards the west. Apparently the springs 
 consist of hot sulphurous matter accompanied by a thick, 
 tarry material escaping from faults and fissures. The district 
 has been examined by the Indian Geological Survey. 
 
 The total annual production of oil in India for the period 
 1908-1919 has been as follows : 
 
INDIA MESOPOTAMIA 
 
 23 
 
 
 Ye 
 
 ar. 
 
 
 
 
 Burma. 
 
 Assam. 
 
 Punjab. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 693,611 
 
 12,972 
 
 2 
 
 
 706,585 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 921,586 
 
 13,123 
 
 3 
 
 
 934,7 12 
 
 1910 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 846,031 
 
 13,283 
 
 4 
 
 
 859,318 
 
 1911 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 888,902 
 
 14,261 
 
 6 
 
 
 903,169 
 
 1912 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 981,341 
 
 14,990 
 
 4 
 
 
 996,335 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,089,062 
 
 18,754 
 
 5 
 
 
 ,107,821 
 
 1914 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,0l8,6l2 
 
 18,754 
 
 5 
 
 
 ,037,37 I 
 
 1915 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,129,168 
 
 l8,2OO 
 
 1,005 
 
 
 ,148,373 
 
 1916 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,167,076 
 
 20,948 
 
 735 
 
 
 ,188,759 
 
 1917 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,091,181 
 
 37,379 
 
 2,478 
 
 
 ,131,038 
 
 1918 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,099,338 
 
 43,999 
 
 3,003 
 
 
 ,146,340 
 
 1919 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,174,995 
 
 47,155 
 
 457 
 
 
 ,222,607 
 
 1920 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,000,000 * 
 
 1 Estimated. 
 
 As a result of trials regarding the relative merits of oil 
 and coal as fuel for locomotives, the engines in the Karachi 
 district of the North- Western Railway are being converted 
 to enable them to burn oil instead of coal. Persian oil is im- 
 ported for this service. 
 
 The imports of all kinds of oil into India during recent 
 years have been as follow : 
 
 Year. 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 
 Tons. 
 
 37 2 ,734 
 289,677 
 
 238,705 
 372,737 
 
 The falling off in 1917 and 1918 was due to the scarcity of 
 shipping facilities. 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA 
 (Mandated Territory) 
 
 The existence of petroleum and asphalt in Mesopotamia 
 has been known since very early times. The oil-field in this 
 country is only part of a petroliferous area which extends 
 through southern Persia to the north end of the Persian Gulf, 
 passes through Mendeli on the Turko- Persian frontier, and 
 crosses the Tigris near El-Fatha. The oil zone follows the 
 river to Mosul, and continues with interruptions to Zakho 
 and the neighbourhood of Van, following the Bothan River. 
 3 
 
24 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 This belt is approximately 1,000 miles long, and covers an 
 area of more than 26,000 square miles. 
 
 Three main oil zones may be distinguished : the southern- 
 most, on the Djebel-Hamrin, which starts at the oil wells of 
 Mendeli and passes over El-Fatha to El-Hadr ; the second, 
 which connects Kifri with Tushurmatu ; and the third con- 
 necting Kerkuk with Garadagh. If the latter is followed in 
 its north-westerly direction it leads directly to the petroleum 
 wells of Tel Kyara. The existence of an oil-belt may perhaps 
 be assumed between the asphalt deposits near Hit, Nephata 
 and Ramadi and the traces of oil in Basrah and Koweit. 
 There are also numerous indications on the islands of the 
 Persian Gulf. 
 
 Geologically, Mesopotamia must be considered a purely 
 marine plain of recent Tertiary age, which has low mountain 
 ridges running in several parallel chains from south-east to 
 north-west, seldom exceeding 200 metres in height, and mainly 
 consisting of sandstone. These ranges, which gradually de- 
 crease in height towards the north, broaden and pass into 
 the alluvial plain to the south of Mosul. 
 
 The Tertiary rocks may be divided into two groups, the 
 principal one consisting of sandstone, containing much gypsum, 
 under which is found grey crystalline limestone belonging 
 to the Lower Tertiary. Salt and salty clays are found in the 
 gypsiferous strata and also in the sandstone overlying the 
 gypsum. No dislocation of these Tertiary layers through 
 eruptive dykes or sills is found in southern or in middle Mesopo- 
 tamia, but to the north of Mosul large basaltic masses stretching 
 from Djezireh to Diabekir have broken through the Num- 
 mulitic chalks of which the lower formation consists. 
 
 Near Mendeli there are thirty pits, none of which is more 
 than about 10 feet deep. The oil, which is dark and thick, 
 gives on distillation about 30% kerosene, the residue being 
 used as fuel. About 300 tons of crude oil are refined annually 
 in this district. In the Tushurmatu district the yield of crude 
 oil is about 700 tons per annum. In the neighbourhood of 
 Kerkuk, over an area of about 37 acres, there are about twenty 
 springs giving an annual yield of approximately 300 tons of 
 crude oil. The strata consist of red sandstones and red 
 
MESOPOTAMIA PALESTINE 25 
 
 saliferous marls with gypsum and intercalated beds of fresh- 
 water limestone with Cyclas (Oswald). 
 
 The largest production is at present obtained from an 
 area of about 246 acres near Tel Kyara, the annual production 
 being about 1,500 tons. Near Zakho there are numerous 
 seepages over an area of about 120 acres, which give a yield 
 of from 250 to 300 tons per annum. Along the Euphrates 
 River the asphalt deposits of Hit and Ramadi have been 
 known from ancient times, the yield of asphalt from the wells 
 near Hit being estimated at about 2,500 tons per annum. 
 
 PALESTINE 
 (Mandated Territory) 
 
 In Palestine, petroleum is found in the bituminous lime- 
 stones of the Upper Cretaceous formation of the Dead Sea 
 and the Jordan Valley, especially in the Lower Danian beds, 
 which are very widely distributed. During the formation of 
 the Jordan rift- valley, the liquid hydrocarbons reached the 
 surface, and by evaporation and oxidation yielded abundant 
 asphalt. The deposits of asphalt extend from the southern 
 end of the Dead Sea, along its western shore, throughout the 
 Jordan Valley to Lebanon, the chief localities being Wadi 
 Mahawat, Wadi Sebbeh, and Nebi Musa, on the Dead Sea. 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is discharged at many points on 
 the belt. 
 
 The asphalt deposits near Hasbeya, on the eastern slope of 
 the Jubel-ed-Dahr (the mountain ridge separating the valley 
 of the Hasbani from that of the Litani), are regularly mined. 
 The output, which is about 380 tons per annum, is exported 
 from Beyrout. 
 
 Oil issues from the cliffs facing the Dead Sea to the north 
 of the confluence of the Nahr Zerka Ma River, and forms an 
 iridescent film on the surface of the lake. 
 
 At several other points on the shores of the Dead Sea as 
 well as of the Lake of Galilee and on each bank of the Jordan 
 Valley, there are numerous hot springs bringing up traces 
 of petroleum, emissions of inflammable gases, mud-volcanoes 
 and deposits of bitumen. 
 
26 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 BRITISH CAMEROON 
 
 Petroleum is reported to have been observed on the Mongo 
 a d Wuri rivers. 
 
 EGYPT AND SUDAN 
 
 The Egyptian oil region lies between 27 10' and 28 10' 
 latitude north, and between 33 and 35 50' longitude east, 
 with outlying districts on the western and south-eastern 
 borders of Sinai ; it runs parallel to the Gulf of Suez and covers 
 a width of from 3 to 12 miles. If the desert plain be included, 
 the area of the region is approximately 3,000 sq. miles, ex- 
 tending from Ismailia to Ras Buras, with a maximum breadth 
 of 30 miles. 
 
 Geologically, the fields resemble those of Persia, most of 
 the petroleum having been obtained from the dolomitic 
 limestones (Miocene), and from the sands (probably Nubian 
 sandstones of Cretaceous age) underlying the gypsum. Hitherto 
 no oil has been found in the lower Miocene limestones. 
 
 The structure of the region assumes the form of a system 
 of rather sharply- flexured, asymmetrical anticlines, with 
 intervening broader and more gently- flexured troughs. The 
 axes of these folds are parallel and have a general trend 
 somewhat north of north-west. The cores of the major 
 anticlines are occupied by granite, porphyry, or schists, from 
 which the sediments dip at 8 to 10 towards the south-west, 
 and at 25 to 35 towards the north-east, and on the steeper 
 sides of these arches, the beds near the apex are greatly reduced 
 in thickness and show evidence of violent dislocation. The 
 existence of secondary anticlines has also been proved. Thus 
 the general structure is fundamentally one of overfolding with 
 phenomena of pinching, production of monoclines and reversed 
 faults. The resistant centre of the fold-system (originated 
 in Middle Miocene times) was along the Gulf of Suez, as the 
 steeper wave-fronts are turned towards it, both on the 
 Egyptian and on the Sinai sides. 
 
 The smell of crude oil is noticeable in some of the upper 
 
EGYPT AND SUDAN 
 
 27 
 
 limestones at Gemsah, along the eastern flank of the Zeit 
 Range near the sea, and especially in the decomposed 
 saccharine limestone of North Zeit. At the foot of the 
 Gharamal Range, oil is also found in a sandstone covering 
 some low outliers. 
 
 Gemsah was the main producing area up to 1914, but since 
 that date its output has greatly diminished, and commercial 
 production is now practically confined to the Hurghada field. 
 
 Development work in Hurghada commenced in 1913. In 
 October, 1914, oil was struck in large quantities at 1,670 feet, 
 but the well sanded up and remained closed to the end of the 
 year. The property now comprises a licensed area, 5 miles 
 square, within which 23 wells have been sunk, 10 of which 
 were productive in 1918. 
 
 The average monthly output for that year amounted to 
 about 22,000 tons. 
 
 The concessions on Jubal and Ranim islands have an area 
 of some six square miles. Five wells have been sunk on the 
 Jubal Islands, and in each, gas and oil were encountered. 
 
 The total production of the two fields since 1911 has been 
 as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 XQII 
 1912 
 1913 
 I9M 
 1915 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,793 
 
 27,962 
 
 12,618 
 
 103,605 
 
 Year. 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 Tons. 
 
 54,800 
 134,700 
 272,494 
 232,148 
 155,578 
 
 Other districts in which prospecting is being carried out are 
 the west side of Gabal Zeit, Jaffatine Island, Ras Bahar 
 (North of Gemsah), Gaysoon Island, Ras Dhib, and at Abu 
 Zenina. 
 
 Storage tanks have been erected at Gemsah, Hurghada 
 and Suez, with a capacity of about 100,000 tons, and at the 
 last-named place there is a refinery capable of treating 
 about 1,000 tons of crude oil per day. Pipe-lines have 
 been laid to deep water at three shipping berths at Port 
 Tewfik. 
 
 The crude oil varies in quality, but that found at Hurghada 
 is a heavy oil with a paraffin base. 
 
28 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 Typical distillation results are : 
 
 
 Gems ah. 
 
 Hurgbada. 
 
 Specific gravity at 62 F. 
 
 0-830 
 
 0-928 
 
 Benzine (below 150 C.) . 
 
 23% 
 
 10% 
 
 Kerosene (i5o-29O C.) .... 
 
 34% 
 
 14% 
 
 Fuel oil (above 290 C.) 
 
 43% 
 
 76% 
 
 The Egyptian Government are understood to have reserved 
 certain areas, and a drilling programme is under consideration. 
 
 Early in 1918, Grabham and Thompson examined the Sudan 
 coast. No surface indications of oil occur. 
 
 So far as the investigations have gone, the structures sug- 
 gest two sites for boring, one of these being on Makawar 
 Island, where an anticlinal fold occurs, and the other on 
 the coast to the E.N.E. of Jebel Abu Shagara, where the crest 
 of an anticline may be expected. 
 
 GOLD COAST 
 
 Petroliferous lands are reported near the coast, in the 
 neighbourhood of Appolonia and Birridaim. Wells have been 
 sunk which prove the existence of various oil horizons, but 
 no commercial quantities have so far been produced. 
 
 NIGERIA 
 
 Indications of petroleum occur in Southern Nigeria, the 
 surface formation consisting of sands and shales of the Tertiary 
 series. With the assistance of the Nigerian Government, 
 drilling was commenced in 1905 in the neighbourhood of the 
 Oni River, Southern Nigeria. Six wells were sunk, but owing 
 to difficulties in shutting off water, the operations were 
 abandoned. 
 
 Extensive deposits of asphalt occur in the Ijebu district. 
 
 SOMALILAND 
 
 H. T. Burls in 1914 reported favourably on the prospects 
 of obtaining oil at Agagwein, 28 miles S.E. from Berbera. 
 
SOMALILAND SOUTH AFRICA 29 
 
 A geological expedition, undertaken in March, 1918, by 
 Beeby Thompson and John Ball, reported the existence in 
 the Daga Shabell area, near Berbera, of a small field of asphaltic 
 oil, rich in benzine and apparently free from sulphur. A 
 series of sedimentary deposits has been located over an area 
 of many square miles, and in the lowest beds of the series 
 oil-impregnated sands are found throughout a thickness of 
 800 feet. The bituminous sands are reported to be pro- 
 gressively rich in oil as the lowest strata are approached. 
 The oil is said to be sweet-smelling, of high grade, and of 
 light density. 
 
 A detailed examination of the field is being carried out. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 The oil possibilities of South Africa were investigated by 
 Cunningham Craig in 1912. He reported that favourable 
 geological structure is found only in a narrow belt at the 
 southern edge of the Karroo System, although north-eastern 
 Natal requires examination in this respect. He considered 
 the Klipplaat area worthy of detailed examination, although 
 he was not sanguine with regard to the prospects of finding 
 oil there. As an outcome of this report, additional investi- 
 gations were carried out in the Klipplaat district for the Geo- 
 logical Survey of South Africa by A. W. Rogers, who concluded 
 that deeper boring south of the main outcrop of the Beaufort 
 beds would not be successful in finding oil ; that it is doubtful 
 whether there is oil to be got from the northern area occupied 
 by the Beaufort beds, and, finally, that there is insufficient 
 evidence of oil under the Karroo to justify deep boring. 
 
 In the district immediately surrounding Port Elizabeth, 
 the geological formation is said to be similar to that of the 
 Caucasus belt, and it has been proposed to sink a test well 
 about 20 miles from the town. 
 
 Traces of oil are reported to have been detected at various 
 places in the Orange Free State, but the indications appear 
 to be the result of igneous action on bituminous shales. 
 
 Traces of petroleum are stated to occur near the junction 
 of the Limpopo and Umzingwani rivers in Rhodesia. 
 
30 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 BARBADOS 
 
 Oil indications in the Scotland district, on the eastern side 
 of the island of Barbados, have been found in the Tertiary 
 strata, which is to some extent faulted and covered with 
 coral limestone. At some places the coral beds are largely 
 mixed with the debris of underlying strata, forming beaches 
 which not infrequently conceal important geological struc- 
 tures and render the following out of pre-coral flexures very 
 difficult. 
 
 Wherever the Scotland beds (Tertiary) are exposed, there 
 is evidence of the existence of petroleum in the form of see- 
 pages of heavy oil, outcrops of oil-sand, and manjak veins ; 
 but unfortunately the Scotland beds are sharply and irregu- 
 larly folded and denuded. Apparently the only hope of 
 obtaining oil is to find localities where the above beds have 
 been preserved from, excessive denudation, and especially 
 along the post-oceanic anticlinal flexures, which presumably 
 involved the underlying strata. There appears to be every 
 probability of moderate productions being obtained in the 
 most favourable localities. 
 
 Fourteen wells have been drilled, but they do not seem 
 to have been carried to sufficient depths. Only a small quan- 
 tity of oil has been obtained from some of the wells. The 
 oil is a fairly high-grade petroleum of asphaltic base and mobile. 
 It contains a good percentage of light oils. 
 
 BRITISH HONDURAS 
 
 Indications of oil have been reported, and a geological 
 examination is in contemplation. 
 
 CANADA 
 
 The areas where oil indications are met with in Canada 
 are very numerous. 
 
 Natural petroleum occurs in Ontario, New Brunswick, 
 Alberta and British Columbia, but the only area where 
 
CANADA 
 
 31 
 
 regular production has, until recently, been obtained is 
 Ontario, of which the principal districts are Mosa, Oil 
 Springs, Petrolia, Bothwell, Tilbury, Moore Township, Sarnia, 
 Dutton, Thamesville, Plympton and Onondaga. 
 The total production since 1901 has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 88,913 
 
 1911 
 
 75,803 
 
 1912 
 
 69,519 
 
 1913 
 
 7 J ,925 
 
 1914 
 
 90,585 
 
 1915 
 
 8l,393 
 
 1916 
 
 112,696 
 
 1917 
 
 75,427 
 
 1918 
 
 60,108 
 
 1919 
 
 45,126 
 
 1920 
 
 Tons. 
 
 41,585 
 34>762 
 
 32,583 
 30,686 
 
 30,781 
 28,303 
 
 30,547 
 43,534 
 34,352 
 28,134 
 
 New Brunswick. Seepages of oil occur widely distributed 
 in New Brunswick, especially where the Albert oil shales 
 come to the surface in Albert and Westmoreland counties. 
 For details concerning localities, etc., Vol. II of the Petroleum 
 and Natural Gas Resources of Canada may be consulted. 
 
 A number of wells sunk in Westmoreland County proved 
 a failure from a commercial point of view. A sample of oil, 
 specific gravity 0-857, examined in 1902 by the Imperial 
 Institute, gave the following percentages : spirit, 5-6; kero- 
 sene, 28-3 ; heavy oils and solid hydrocarbons, 58-2 ; water, 
 7-9. The percentage of solid hydrocarbons is unusually high. 
 
 In the Stony Creek field, Albert County, the gas and oil 
 horizons are confined to the Albert series, which consist 
 of thinly-bedded limestones and dark shales, with intercalated 
 petroliferous sandstones of Lower Carboniferous or Upper 
 Devonian age. Five groups of productive gas and oil-sands 
 have been proved. In some places the strata of the Albert 
 series are nearly horizontal, whilst elsewhere they display 
 folding and faulting. By 1913, 33 wells, ranging from 1,200 
 to 2,060 feet, had been drilled. The Albert series have now 
 been proved to have a maximum thickness of 2,700 feet. In 
 1917 a gusher was brought in having an initial flow of 10,000 
 barrels a day, which was, however, not maintained. The 
 production of petroleum in New Brunswick from 1910 to 1919 
 varied from about 1,000 to 4,200 barrels per annum. 
 
32 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Quebec. There are indications of oil on the Gaspe Penin- 
 sula. Several wells have been drilled in this area, but most 
 of them were practically dry ; the best well only produced 
 in all about 2,000 barrels of oil. The prospects of obtaining 
 oil in profitable amount are not hopeful. There is an absence 
 of any well-defined petroliferous beds, though oil does occur 
 in small quantity in isolated lenticular oil-sands; there is 
 an abundance of salt water ; the rocks are sharply folded and 
 faulted and igneous intrusions are of frequent occurrence. 
 
 Ontario. Most of the oil in commercial quantity is obtained 
 from the Onondaga limestones (Devonian) ; the most success- 
 ful areas lie along the axis of the Cincinnati anticline, a great 
 fold extending northwards from Tennessee through N.W. 
 Ohio, where it is extremely productive, and thence across 
 Western Ontario, from near Littles Point on Lake Erie to 
 near Kettle Point on Lake Huron, passing N.3OE., through 
 Essex, Kent and Lamb ton counties. 
 
 The production in barrels (35 Imp. gal.), from 1913 to 1919, 
 is shown in the following table : 
 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 1915- 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919. 
 
 Lambton County 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Petrolia and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oil Springs) 
 
 155,747 
 
 154,186 
 
 161,368 
 
 142,208 
 
 132,523 
 
 120,358 
 
 124,180 
 
 Kent County 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Bothwell and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tilbury-Romney) 
 
 61,172 
 
 52,491 
 
 46,137 
 
 5, I 53 
 
 39,723 
 
 54,341 
 
 47,790 
 
 Brant County (On- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ondaga) . 
 
 4,172 
 
 2,437 
 
 1,490 
 
 1,617 
 
 382 
 
 1,183 
 
 197 
 
 Elgin County (Dut- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton) 
 
 4,610 
 
 2,190 
 
 5,4 01 
 
 2,852 
 
 2,941 
 
 1,876 
 
 1,272 
 
 Belle River 
 
 464 
 
 1,191 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 448 
 
 
 Middlesex County 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (MosaTownship) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,998 
 
 108,990 
 
 45,860 
 
 Thamesville 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,420 
 
 1,568 
 
 80 1 
 
 Totals. 
 
 226,165 
 
 212,495 
 
 214,442 
 
 196,877 
 
 202,987 
 
 288,764 
 
 220,100 
 
 The production in 1907 was more than three times that of 
 1913. From 1913 to 1916 there was a more or less steady 
 decline, but the outputs of the last three years show an 
 average improvement. This was due to the production 
 of oil in the new fields of Mosa Township and Thamesville. 
 
CANADA 33 
 
 Saskatchewan. Several wells have been drilled on the 
 plains of Saskatchewan by prospectors in search of oil, and at 
 various places rocks have been penetrated containing natural 
 gas in small quantities. It is possible that certain local un- 
 dulations in dip of the Cretaceous strata may yield a 
 certain amount of oil if these folds could be located. In 
 1915 some deep borings put down in the region of South 
 Saskatchewan River, yielded large volumes of gas from an 
 arenaceous member of the lower Benton series. 
 
 Alberta. In Southern Alberta, west of Calgary, lies the 
 foothill country of the Rocky Mountains. Here, according 
 to Bosworth, the sedimentary formations are thrown into 
 a series of successive sharp folds, the plication becoming more 
 intense as it proceeds. It is amongst these folds that the 
 majority of the wells are being drilled, and that small amounts 
 of oil and, in some cases, large quantities of gas, have been 
 obtained. The foothill belt is characterized by steep folds, 
 often overturned, thrusts, faults and a generally complicated 
 structure. Only in the outermost folds, i.e. on the eastern 
 side, are simple anticlines found. Most of the oil indications 
 have occurred in the Dakota and Kootanie formations (Cre- 
 taceous), and the small quantity of oil produced by the 
 Dingman well, during the boom of 1912-14, came from a 
 coal-bearing series, probably belonging to the Kootanie. 
 
 The Dakota beds have a thickness of 1,000 feet, and con- 
 sist of hard sandstone with some shale bands. They are 
 covered by dark shales, and lie over the Kootanie beds, 375 
 feet in thickness, consisting of dark shales, sandstone and 
 important coal seams. Below the Kootanie beds are dark 
 shales of Jurassic age. 
 
 All the rocks of every formation outcrop at the surface, yet 
 there are no seepages of oil, which strongly militates against 
 the possibility of the occurrence of any large quantity of oil 
 in the region. 
 
 Of the many wells drilled in Alberta, during the four years 
 prior to 1917, there are said to be nine in which oil has 
 been found. Two companies have undertaken refining opera- 
 tions on a limited scale, and wells are being deepened to seek 
 a greater supply of oil. Actual production, although not 
 
34 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 of much importance, shows that some progress is being made, 
 the figures for 1918 being about 1,863 tons compared with 
 about 1,214 tons for 1917. 
 
 In Northern Alberta the "tar sands" (Cretaceous) occur 
 geologically below shales and rest on limestone (Devonian). 
 They represent a sandstone formation more or less completely 
 saturated with heavy oil or bitumen. The tar sands form 
 cliffs, sometimes 200 feet or more in height, which are exposed 
 for about 100 miles along the Athabasca River, and are black 
 in colour and plastic. Experiments carried out by Bosworth 
 show that the rock contains some 14 gallons of petroleum 
 per ton, of which 5 % is gasoline. Assuming that the tar 
 sands maintain a constant character over an area of 10,000 
 square miles, the quantity of petroleum available would be 
 nearly 206,000 million tons. 
 
 It is generally believed that the Devonian is the petro- 
 liferous formation from which the Cretaceous tar sands have 
 derived their bituminous contents, and that the particular 
 source of the oil is a bed of black shale, several hundreds of 
 feet in thickness, interbedded with the Devonian rocks. Be- 
 tween 1894 and 1898, three wells, drilled by the Government, 
 struck gas. Tar rock was reached at 1,750 feet, and penetrated 
 to a depth of 87 feet, when thick tar was forced up by the gas, 
 and drilling became impossible. Various private wells have 
 been sunk in the region. Some of these have encountered 
 gas, and others, oil in small quantities. Drilling in this district 
 was reported in 1918 to have been discontinued, but efforts 
 are still being made to extract oil from the tar sands. 
 
 North-West Territories. Indications denoting the presence 
 of oil occur on a large scale along the Mackenzie River ; and 
 on the shores of the Great Slave Lake seepages of oil are 
 found at numerous points. Inland, there are pools of 
 heavy oil and deposits of asphaltum. According to Bos- 
 worth, the source of the oil is a bituminous shale containing 
 palaeozoic plants (Devonian), which is associated with a 
 great thickness of bituminous limestone, and the oil is accumu- 
 lated in overlying sand formations and porous dolomites. 
 
 These territories are remote from civilization and covered 
 by dense forest and muskeg; but, for several years past, the 
 
CANADA NEWFOUNDLAND TRINIDAD 35 
 
 Imperial Oil Company has been drilling at Fort Norman, at the 
 junction of the Great Bear and Mackenzie rivers, has staked 
 out about nine miles on each side of the latter river, including 
 the islands, and has eleven oil-rigs in operation. Early in 
 October, 1920, a flow of high-grade oil, estimated at about 
 500 barrels per day, was struck in the well at Fort Norman 
 at a depth of 800 feet. 
 
 This discovery has caused a great deal of excitement, and 
 will no doubt lead to greatly increased prospecting for oil in 
 the near future, both by private individuals and by companies. 
 
 It has been reported that the proximate analysis of the 
 crude oil is as follows : Gasoline, 22*5 % J illuminating oil, 
 38*5 % ; light lubricating oil, 33-9 % ; and medium lubricating 
 oil, 4-1%. It is stated that a small refinery will be erected at 
 Fort Norman for supplying petrol for aeroplanes and motor- 
 boats. 
 
 British Columbia. Owing to the disturbed geological con- 
 ditions, opinions differ as to the extent of natural oil deposits, 
 of which there are indications on the coast. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 Indications of petroleum have been found on the shores of 
 Parsons Pond, a stretch of salt water in bay .formation, lying 
 between St. Pauls Bay and Portland Creek on the north- 
 west coast, facing the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; attempts at 
 development have not proved a commercial success, but 
 they have recently been resumed. A small production is 
 obtained from three wells by pumping. 
 
 TRINIDAD 
 
 Petroleum in Trinidad is practically confined to the 
 southern part of the island along several more or less clearly 
 defined parallel anticlines running from east to west, and 
 all land south of latitude 10 26' 36" N. has been officially 
 declared oil-bearing. The principal producing area is the 
 Forest Reserve, near Brighton. Other districts are Mayaro, 
 Guayaguayare, Tabaquite and La Brea. There are three 
 
36 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 tenures of land : (i) Crown land, on which oil is the property 
 of the Crown ; (2) alienated land, where oil is also the property 
 of the Crown, although the surface rights are in private 
 hands ; and (3) private land, where oil is the property of the 
 landowner. During 1920, 53,404 feet were drilled on Crown 
 lands as against 23,972 feet on private lands, the number of new 
 wells drilled being 44 on Crown and 23 on private lands, bringing 
 the total number of wells drilled in the colony to December 
 31, 1920, to 523, of which 313 were on Crown lands. 
 
 The southern range of hills, which follows the southern 
 coast, is of Tertiary origin, with here and there pre-Tertiary 
 inliers projecting through the newer rocks. The Tertiary 
 rocks are estimated to be from 6,000 to 6,500 feet thick, and 
 consist chiefly of clays, sands and marls. The upper oil 
 horizon, known as La Brea sands, from which the well-known 
 pitch lake is derived, is exposed in the neighbourhood of 
 La Brea. At from 1,400 to 1,500 feet in depth appears the 
 second oil-bearing belt, the Rio Blanco oil- sand, and at a 
 farther depth, at from 3,600 to 4,000 feet, is the Galeota 
 petroliferous group. A still lower horizon is reported in the 
 neighbourhood of Tabaquite, but this may in reality be a 
 member of the Galeota sand. A feature of the petroliferous 
 area is the mud volcanoes which are of varying sizes and 
 give evidence of widespread gas pressure. 
 
 All the sediments, constituting the three main horizons, 
 are very prone to great variation in character when traced 
 from point to point. Lateral variations and current-bedding 
 give rise to many irregularities in dip, strike and lithological 
 characters of the individual members of the series. The 
 folds of the oil-bearing and associated beds display many 
 disconcerting variations in structure. One and the same fold 
 may be asymmetrical at one point, nearly symmetrical at 
 another, whilst the axis itself may experience frequent changes 
 in direction and pitch. 
 
 The pitch lake has an area of about 100 acres, and there is 
 a constant stream of pitch towards the sea averaging from 
 15 to 18 feet in depth. The working of the lake deposit, of 
 which large quantities are exported annually, is in the hands 
 of a company. It is estimated that the lake contains 158,400 
 
TRINIDAD 
 
 37 
 
 tons of pitch for each foot of depth, which with an average 
 depth of 20 feet would give a total of 3,168,000 tons. 
 
 Numerous oil gushers have from time to time been obtained, 
 principally from the upper horizon, production from the lower 
 horizon being impeded by shifting sand, which tends to 
 crumple up the casing and choke the bore-hole. It is hoped, 
 however, that an effective remedy will be found for this 
 difficulty. 
 
 Most of the oil has an asphalt base, that from the lower 
 sands being much lighter than that produced from the shallow 
 sands. At Tabaquite an oil of paraffin base containing about 
 30% benzine is found. 
 
 The following table gives the results of laboratory tests 
 made on samples taken from bulk shipments of crude oil 
 from some of the principal producing areas in Trinidad : 
 
 
 Forest 
 Reserve. 
 
 Tabaquite. 
 
 Brighton. 
 
 Petroleum spirit 
 
 8-1% 
 
 28-60/0 
 
 6-00/0 
 
 White oil or kerosene ,, r 
 
 7-4% 
 
 12-60/0 
 
 
 Fuel oil and loss 
 
 
 58-8% 
 
 90-9% 
 
 Specific gravity of crude at 15-5 C. 
 
 0-926 
 
 0-8o8 
 
 0-951 
 
 Flash-point of crude . 
 
 59 F. 
 
 Below 45 F. 
 
 74 F. 
 
 Tons. 
 17.516 
 
 39,943 
 70,506 
 90,092 
 H7.0I5 
 93.957 
 
 Year. 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 Tons. 
 129,903 
 224,324 
 291,489 
 257.746 
 297.588 
 
 The production in Trinidad since 1911 has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1910-1 
 
 1911-2 
 
 I9I2-3 
 
 I9I3-4 
 
 I9I4-5 
 
 19 ! 5 (9 months) 
 
 In 1918 the chief producing company had a production of 
 154,179 tons, or more than 50% of the total output of the 
 Colony. The next largest outputs were 83,054, 18,282 and 
 16,478 tons respectively. 
 
 Pipe-lines run from the fields to the ports of shipment 
 Brighton, Point e a Pierre, Point Fortin and Claxton Bay. 
 
 Exports since 1912 have been as follow : 
 
 Year. 
 I9I2-3 . 
 
 I9I3-4 - 
 I9M-5 - 
 
 1915 (9 months) 
 1916 
 
 Tons. 
 
 17,183 
 54,28l 
 48,769 
 
 57, 14 
 136,620 
 
 Year. 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 Tons. 
 151,112 
 182,757 
 196,876 
 142,375 
 
38 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Local industries are turning their attention to oil fuel as 
 a substitute for coal, and the Government railways have con- 
 verted some of their locomotives to oil firing. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 BRITISH GUIANA 
 
 There have been frequent reports of the existence of petroleum 
 deposits in British Guiana, particularly in the north-west 
 in the region of the Waini River. Several exploration 
 licences have been granted, but so far as is known no results 
 have been obtained. Negotiations have been in progress 
 for a concession granting exploration rights over 2,000 square 
 miles, with the option of choosing therefrom an area of 100,000 
 acres for final prospecting and development, if the results 
 of a geological investigation should be favourable. A detailed 
 geological survey of the area is being carried out. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Although efforts have from tune to time been made to 
 locate deposits of natural petroleum in Australia, no success 
 has yet been attained. 
 
 In Queensland test wells have been sunk, although geological 
 reports have hitherto not been favourable to the existence 
 of free petroleum. It is considered by some experts, however, 
 that the wells have not been sunk deep enough to make the 
 tests conclusive, and further trials are now being carried out 
 at Roma, in the north-east of Maranoa province, where a 
 considerable flow of gas has been struck. 
 
 In New South Wales the Industrial Boring Company put 
 down a bore during 1919, on a site near Penrith, to a depth of 
 2,600 feet. 
 
 The Commonwealth Government has offered a reward of 
 10,000 for the discovery of natural oil in commercial quan- 
 tities in Australia, and a bonus of 5,000 has been offered 
 by the South Australian Government to the person or company 
 that first obtains 100,000 gallons of crude petroleum from a 
 
AUSTRALIA PAPUA (NEW GUINEA) 39 
 
 well situated in South Australia, the oil to contain not less 
 than 90 % of products obtainable by distillation. 
 
 PAPUA (NEW GUINEA) 
 
 In British New Guinea evidences of petroleum occur along 
 a coastal belt some 8 to 12 miles wide, from the delta of the 
 Purari River almost to Yule Island, surface indications being 
 dotted over an area of about 1,500 square miles. 
 
 In 1919 the British and Australian Governments agreed 
 to co-operate in order to develop this territory. Several wells 
 had been previously sunk in order to prove whether oil existed, 
 these experimental borings being based on a geological survey 
 carried out by Arthur Wade. Fair shows of oil were met with, 
 but considerable difficulty was encountered in drilling through 
 the soft Tertiary formation, which caved badly while drilling 
 was in progress. 
 
 The official record of results shows that two of the bore-holes 
 yielded gas only, four gave a small production of oil, while 
 No. 7 well struck oil at 185 feet, with a flow of 25 gallons 
 per day. 
 
 The strata appear to be of Miocene age, consisting of a series 
 of mud-stones and sandstones, with occasional thin bands 
 of limestone. 
 
 The British and Australian Governments have now handed 
 over the whole work of prospecting in Papua to the Anglo- 
 Persian Oil Company as their agents. 
 
 The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, on taking over the work, 
 decided that further geological investigation was necessary, 
 and sent out an expedition which is making a detailed survey. 
 This has indicated that favourable results might be expected by 
 drilling, not in the Upoia district, but in the oil-belt further 
 to the east, which has been hitherto untested, and where a 
 promising anticline has been located. 
 
 The sample of oil from this field, examined at the Imperial 
 Institute in 1913, had a reddish-brown colour and a specific 
 gravity of 0-802. On distillation the crude oil yielded : 
 
 Per cent. 
 Petroleum spirit ..... 32-5 
 
 Kerosene . . . . . .58-7 
 
 Lubricating oils and solid hydrocarbons . 8-8 
 
 4 
 
40 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 In late German New Guinea, oil indications exist between 
 Eitape and Beaken Bay, the principal being near Amuloi 
 on a tributary of the Halikamak River, which enters the sea 
 east of Smein village, 60 miles from Eitape, and also near the 
 village of Matapau, about 2 miles from the mouth of the 
 Wakip or Tiain River, which enters the sea about 40 miles east 
 of Eitape. 
 
 A rough survey of this area has shown the principal forma- 
 tions to be alluvial deposits of gravel, sand and clay, outcrops 
 of hard slaty clay, and sandstone varying from fine-grained 
 to coarse material, running into grits, conglomerates, breccias 
 and limestone. 
 
 The indications near Matapau are the most important, 
 excavations showing the whole surface, sand and gravels, 
 to be heavily saturated with oil, which appears to be of paraffin 
 base. It is dark brown in colour, a good rust solvent and 
 lubricant, and burns with a reddish flame. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 Indications of oil have been found in Taranaki province, 
 North Island. The superficial deposits of andesite lavas 
 and fragmentals and recent sandy debris, shroud the sedi- 
 mentary rocks, which consist of claystones, sandstones, and 
 fine conglomerates ranging probably from Pliocene to Miocene 
 age, for a radius of about ten miles from Moturoa. Beyond 
 this, to the east and north-east of Moturoa, the sedimentary 
 rocks appear at the surface as alternating beds, and are trace- 
 able to Mohau, 50 miles from Moturoa, the beds passing down- 
 wards, probably conformably, into limestones, claystones 
 and sandstones, with coal seams. Structurally these rocks 
 seem to form part of a great monoclinal fold, dipping from 
 Mohau towards Moturoa, with minor cross- structures in the 
 form of anticlines and synclines of sufficient importance to 
 have influenced the position of subterranean reservoirs of 
 petroleum. 
 
 A large number of holes have been drilled to depths of from 
 2,000 to 5,000 feet, but so far without any commercial suc- 
 cess, although oil has been obtained in small quantities. Fur- 
 
NEW ZEALAND 41 
 
 ther efforts are being made to develop the field with Govern- 
 ment assistance. Operations have also been carried out in the 
 Gisborne and Wairarapa districts, North Island, and at Kotuku 
 and Chertsey, South Island. At Kotuku small flows of oil 
 have been obtained at shallow depths, but so far no wells 
 have given profitable results. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM (continued) 
 
 (b) FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 EUROPE 
 
 GALICIA (POLAND) 
 
 THE oil-bearing territory of Galicia extends from the borders 
 of Bukowina in the east across almost the whole length of 
 the country to the Silesian frontier on the west. It may be 
 conveniently divided into three main sections : 
 
 The eastern area comprising the districts of Stanislawow, 
 Kolomea and Kosmacz. 
 
 The central eastern area including the Boryslaw, Tustano- 
 wice and Mraznica fields. 
 
 The western area extending through Lisko, Sanok, Krosno, 
 Jaslo and Gorlice as far as the frontier of Silesia. 
 
 Seepages of oil in various parts of Galicia have been known 
 for many years, and exploitation by means of hand-dug wells 
 took place at Bobrka as far back as 1850. After the 
 introduction of mechanical drilling, development was very 
 rapid, oil being found in quantity in the first instance at 
 Sloboda-Rungurska and subsequently at Schodnica and 
 Potok. 
 
 The oil occurs in rocks of 
 
 (1) Lower Oligocene age, as in Boryslaw, Tustanowice, 
 Rypne, Perchinska, etc. 
 
 (2) Cretaceous age, as in Kosmacz, Grabownica, etc. 
 
 (3) Eocene age, as in Boryslaw, Tustanowice, Sloboda- 
 Rungurska, etc. 
 
 The geology is very complex, being characterized by 
 sharply-compressed, irregular, overthrust folds, and in some 
 
 42 
 
GALICIA (POLAND) 
 
 43 
 
 places by serious faulting. The Eocene, which is very persis- 
 tent, yields the largest supplies of oil. Lithologically, the 
 rocks are largely shales and sandstones, with, occasionally, 
 conglomerates, and, more rarely, limestones, but the sequence 
 of the series is rendered inconstant by unconformities of greater 
 or less importance, and beds of identical character occur at 
 different horizons, whilst contemporaneous deposits in adjacent 
 regions show considerable differences in character. The 
 anticline of the Boryslaw field is an asymmetrical fold, which 
 is considerably faulted along both the strike and dip, and 
 pitches towards the east. The older formations are thrust 
 over the productive Oligocene beds. 
 
 The richest fields that have so far been discovered and 
 exploited are those of the Boryslaw-Tustanowice area, which 
 began to produce in 1901, and have continued till the 
 present day to yield about 90% of the total annual output 
 of Galicia. 
 
 Production reached its high-water mark in 1909, when 
 the total output exceeded 2,000,000 tons, 92% of which came 
 from the Boryslaw-Tustanowice field. Since that time the 
 production has steadily declined, owing to the natural exhaus- 
 tion of many of the wells and more particularly to the influx 
 of water which began in 1911 in the Tustanowice area. 
 
 The total Galician production from 1900 to 1920 has been 
 as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1900 
 
 
 326,334 
 
 1907 
 
 1901 
 
 
 425,200 
 
 1908 
 
 I9O2 
 
 
 576,060 
 
 1909 
 
 1903 
 
 
 726,971 
 
 1910 
 
 1904 
 
 
 827,117 
 
 I9II 
 
 1905 
 
 
 801,796 
 
 1912 
 
 1906 
 
 
 727.239 
 
 1913 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 
 ,175,974 
 
 1914 
 
 
 655,614 
 
 
 ,754,022 
 
 1915 
 
 
 676,942 
 
 
 ,086,341 
 
 1916 
 
 
 927,440 
 
 
 ,762,560 
 
 1917 
 
 
 901,910 
 
 
 ,458,275 
 
 1918 
 
 
 678,640 
 
 
 ,187,007 
 
 1919 
 
 
 8l8,333 
 
 ] 
 
 [,113,400 
 
 1920 
 
 
 752,528 
 
 Speaking generally, the damage suffered by the Galician 
 oil-fields during the war was relatively small. Some properties 
 were damaged by the Austrians to prevent their falling into 
 Russian hands, but the greater part of the destruction that 
 took place was due to the Russians, who, on retiring from 
 Central Galicia in May, 1915, burnt down about 200 wells in 
 Tustanowice and destroyed a considerable number of steel tanks 
 at Boryslaw. The Maryampol refinery was also demolished 
 
44 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 at this time. In 1917, when the Russians finally retired from 
 East Galicia, they also destroyed a part of the refinery and 
 tank farm at Peczyniczyn. 
 
 On the re-occupation of the fields by the Austrians, with 
 the help of the Germans they made great efforts to re-establish 
 the industry and increase the output. The production of 
 the whole of Galicia, however, was in January, 1920, con- 
 siderably less than half that of 1909. This was due in 
 some measure to lack of machinery and other necessary 
 plant ; when these are forthcoming and drilling begins again 
 in earnest, there is every reason to believe that the production 
 may rise to something like the pre-war level. 
 
 The present production of Eastern Galicia is about 3,000 
 tons a month, and that of the western fields between 4,000 and 
 5,000 tons. In the latter area there are about 1,000 producing 
 wells, a quarter of which, giving rather more than half the 
 total production, belong to French interests. The following 
 figures show the production of the Krosno- Jaslo district since 
 1910 : 
 
 Year. Metric tons. 
 
 1910 
 IQII 
 1912 
 1913 
 I9M 
 
 65,323 
 63,345 
 59,528 
 66,905 
 57.512 
 
 Year. Metric tons. 
 
 1915 .... 33,547 
 
 1916 .... 61,116 
 
 1917 .... 51,854 
 
 1918 .... 57,651 
 
 It has been estimated that 1,500,000,000 kronen are in- 
 vested in the oil industry of Galicia, and that at the end of 
 1918 this was held approximately as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 Germans and Austrians . . 55 
 
 French . 
 
 British 
 
 Poles . 
 
 Other nationalities . 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Since the termination of the war, however, the French 
 and Belgians are reported to have extended their interests 
 considerably. 
 
 The greater part of the Galician crude oil is refined in the 
 country, principally in Drohobycz, where the State refinery 
 and two other refineries are able to treat about 500,000 tons 
 
GALICIA (POLAND) 45 
 
 annually. There are large refineries also at Limanow, 
 Trzebinia, Glinik Maryampolski, Jaslo, Krosno, Jedlicze, 
 Ustrzyki, Lwow and Peczyniczyn, and numerous smaller ones 
 in various parts of the country. The estimated total yearly 
 capacity of the Galician refineries is about 1,000,000 tons. 
 Before the war more than half the refined products were 
 exported to Germany and Austria- Hungary. 
 
 According to recent statistics, there are about 8,000 work- 
 men engaged on the various Galician oil-fields, most of 
 them being recruited from the Polish peasants of Western 
 Galicia. The Ruthenian element among the oil workers does 
 not appear to exceed 2 or 3%. 
 
 The technical difficulties of drilling in Galicia are very 
 considerable, owing to the geological formation of the oil-fields, 
 whose structure is said to be the most complicated in the world. 
 
 The obstacles due to these intricate geological conditions 
 were for long enhanced by the difficulty of obtaining good 
 casing, and it was only after the introduction of the Canadian 
 system of drilling by W. H. McGarvey that progress began 
 to be made. With the old one-metre-square hand-dug wells 
 a depth of about 320 feet could be attained, and with the 
 cable drilling system about 650 feet ; but, by the adoption 
 of a modified Canadian system, wells have been drilled to 
 a depth of nearly 5,000 feet. In 1913 there were, in fact, 
 in the Boryslaw-Tustanowice district alone, 252 wells over 
 4,000 feet deep. 
 
 The crude oil of the Boryslaw field forms the standard grade 
 for Galicia. It is of good quality, with specific gravity from 
 0-850 to 0-860, and yields all the usual commercial products, 
 including from 6 to 10 % benzine, from 30 to 35 % kerosene, 
 about 20% lubricating oils, and 6 to 7% wax. Its colour 
 varies from light green to dark amber and black. Bitkow, 
 in East Galicia, yields a light grade oil with specific gravity 
 of 0-760 to 0-770, and a benzine content in some wells of 
 60 or even 70%. 
 
 Many of the wells in Western Galicia, e.g. the shallow wells 
 of the Brzozow-Grabownica district, also yield an oil with 
 a very high benzine content, not infrequently over 50%. 
 There are numerous gas wells in Galicia, more especially 
 
46 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 in the central fields, though several rich wells have recently 
 been drilled in the neighbourhood of Menczinka, in Western 
 Galicia, one of which yields from 7,000 to 10,000 cubic feet of 
 gas per minute. 
 
 According to Austrian law, which is still in force, oil deposits 
 in Galicia are the property of the landowners, who are free 
 to dispose of the rights of exploitation. The usual lease 
 is for a period of 25 years, often with the option of prolonga- 
 tion for 10 years. The proprietor of the land receives a pro- 
 duction royalty, which varies from 6 to 18 % in Eastern and 
 Western Galicia, and from 20 to 22 % in the Boryslaw district. 
 Much speculation takes place in the sale of shares in these 
 production royalties, which are known as " bruttos," and 
 are constantly changing hands in the market. 
 
 At the present time the Galician oil industry is labouring 
 under great difficulties, which are enhanced by the unsettled 
 political condition of the country. Working material is almost 
 unprocurable, the wages demanded by the workmen are very 
 high, and the cost of refining has increased greatly on account 
 of the high price of coal. With the return of normal con- 
 ditions, however, there appears to be little doubt that production 
 will increase and the industry recover much of its former 
 prosperity. There are said to be extensive fields that have 
 so far hardly been exploited at all, and much deep-drilling 
 may still be profitably carried out in districts already partially 
 exploited. Areas which are considered capable of great 
 development are situated in the districts of Kolomea, Nad- 
 worna and Dolina in Eastern Galicia, and in the neighbourhood 
 of Sanok, Krosno, Jaslo and Brzozow in the west. Drilling 
 in the eastern part of Galicia is generally much deeper than 
 in the western, where 2,300 feet is considered to be about 
 the maximum depth. 
 
 Bukowina. A broad belt of Neocomian and Cretaceous 
 rocks crosses the Bukowina in South-Eastern Galicia from 
 south-east to north-west, and is thrown into a series of folds. 
 It is stated that the Neocomian shales are oil-bearing 
 in the three principal anticlinal members of these folds. 
 Several wells have been drilled in the Watra Moldawitza 
 district. 
 
GERMANY (INCLUDING ALSACE) 
 
 47 
 
 GERMANY (INCLUDING ALSACE) 
 
 Oil has been found for many years at Wietz and other 
 places around Hanover (Prussia), Tegernsee in Bavaria, 
 and Pechelbronn, Ohlungen and other localities in Lower 
 Alsace, the Prussian and Alsatian fields being the most im- 
 portant. In the Prussian fields the oil is associated with 
 Mesozoic strata, and is said to come chiefly from limestone 
 and sandstone belonging to the Upper Jurassic, or to transi- 
 tional beds between the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations. 
 From shallow depths the oil has a specific gravity of 0-940, 
 but at greater depths it becomes lighter. 
 
 In Bavaria the oil is found in Eocene marls and sandstones, 
 the specific gravity being about 0-812 ; in Alsace in thin 
 seams of sandstones and sandy shale of Tertiary and Mesozoic 
 age ; Pechelbronn, the principal field, yields an oil of specific 
 gravity of 0-880. The oil from Ohlungen is somewhat lighter 
 and contains a considerable proportion of solid hydrocarbons. 
 
 The wells, as a rule, are long-lived, though their production 
 is not large. 
 
 Production (so far as the figures are available) has been 
 as follows : 
 
 
 i 
 
 r ear. 
 
 
 
 
 Alsace. 
 
 Other districts. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1901 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 19,997 
 
 Metric tons. 
 24,098 
 
 Metric tons. 
 44,095 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,205 
 
 29,520 
 
 49,725 
 
 1903 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,947 
 
 4^733 
 
 62,680 
 
 1904 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,016 
 
 67,604 
 
 89,620 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21,128 
 
 57,74i 
 
 78,869 
 
 1906 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,1541 
 
 59,196 
 
 8l,350 
 
 1907 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26,124! 
 
 80,255 
 
 106,379 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28,898! 
 
 113,002 
 
 141,900 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29,726! 
 
 113,518 
 
 143,244 
 
 1910 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 145,168 
 
 1911 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 142,992 
 
 1912 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 144,961 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140,000* 
 
 1914 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140,000* 
 
 1915 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43,176 
 
 
 
 
 
 1916 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1917 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 46,911 
 
 
 
 
 
 1918 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 l8o,000 2 
 
 1919 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 47,225 
 
 32,775 
 
 80,000 
 
 1920 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 54,9io 
 
 30,000 
 
 84,910 
 
 1 Includes Bavaria. 
 
 Estimated. 
 
48 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 The Alsace field was at first worked by drainage, by means 
 of a system of galleries, but subsequently boring operations 
 were carried out. Plant has also been installed for washing 
 the bituminous sand, the oil from the field being treated in 
 refineries at Pechelbronn, Soultz, Biblisheim and Durrenbach. 
 Recently a well has been brought in near Pechelbronn yielding 
 about 30 tons of petroleum daily. 
 
 In 1916, on the advice of Paul de Chambrier, an attempt was 
 made at Pechelbronn to drive galleries into a bed already 
 exhausted by borings. The results are said to have surpassed 
 all expectations. In one district the oil obtained by galleries 
 amounted in 3j years to 51,080 tons, as compared with 21,000 
 tons in 10 years from drilled wells. 
 
 A recent attempt to find petroleum in the Oldenburg district, 
 near Bloh, has been successful. 
 
 GREECE 
 
 Oil indications occur along the west coast of Greece at 
 Kyparissia, Messenia province, at Kyllene (opposite the 
 island of Zante), in the Paxos and Corfu islands, near Argos 
 and Janina, in Epirus, and along a line from Jania to Selenitza 
 in Albania. A boring by the Greek Government in 1893 at 
 Kieri, in the island of Zante, yielded a small quantity of crude 
 oil mixed with salt water ; this well was abandoned, but 
 subsequently 4 wells were sunk by a French syndicate, 
 and a yield of about 40 tons of crude oil per annum has been 
 obtained since 1914. 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 The only evidence of the possible existence of petroleum 
 in Holland has been afforded by the discovery of natural 
 gas at Velsen, province of Overijssel. The quantity yielded, 
 however, is quite small about 500 cubic feet per hour. 
 
 ITALY 
 
 The principal districts containing oil indications are in 
 North and Central Italy. 
 
ITALY ROUMANIA 
 
 49 
 
 In North Italy the Emilia zone, covering the districts of 
 Parma, Piacenza, Bologna, Modena and Reggio, has produced 
 oil for many years, the productive formation being in strata 
 of various ages Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. 
 
 Indications have also been reported around Pavia in 
 Lombardy, and in 1914 two prospecting licences were granted 
 covering the districts of Retarbido and Revanazzano. 
 
 In Central Italy the oil zone is approximately midway between 
 Rome and Naples, and extends from Gaeta on the west to 
 Cherita on the east. It is divided by the Apennine Mountains 
 into two basins, Ceprano on the west and Abruzzi on the east. 
 Little has been done in the east owing to the disturbed geo- 
 logical conditions ; oil has, however, been found in the Ceprano 
 basin, in the west, where the geological formation is well 
 defined by the outcropping of petroliferous rocks. Here 
 the oil occurs in Miocene and Eocene strata, and is believed 
 to be connected with deeper reservoirs. A small production 
 has been obtained at San Giovanni d'Incarico, Caserta pro- 
 vince, at a depth of 1,300 feet, and tests are also reported at 
 Pilsa, near Gaeta. 
 
 In Sicily there are deposits of bituminous clay near Basia 
 (Messina), in the Alcantara Valley, near Nicosia and Ravenusa, 
 and also deposits of asphaltic and bituminous limestone near 
 Ragusa. 
 
 The total production of Italian crude oil for the years 
 1901-1920, has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 IQOI 
 IQ02 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 2,246 
 
 1908 
 
 2,633 
 
 1909 
 
 2,486 
 
 1910 
 
 3,543 
 
 1911 
 
 6,123 
 
 1912 
 
 7,45i 
 
 1913 
 
 8,327 
 
 1914 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 7,088 
 
 1915 
 
 5,895 
 
 1916 
 
 7,069 
 
 1917 
 
 10,390 
 
 1918 
 
 7479 
 
 1919 
 
 6,564 
 
 1920 
 
 5,542 
 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 
 6,105 
 
 7,036 
 
 7,000* 
 
 7,000 * 
 
 5,320 
 
 5,400 
 
 1 Estimated. 
 
 ROUMANIA 
 
 The petroleum region of Roumania seems continuous from 
 the Serbian frontier on the Danube to the Bukowina, the 
 
50 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 principal producing areas being Prahova, Dambovitza, Buzeu 
 and Bacau. Of these, Prahova is the most important (pro- 
 ducing about 85% of the total output), its chief fields being 
 Moreni, Bustenari, Campina, Baicoi and Taintea. 
 
 The oil occurs principally in the Miocene and Pliocene 
 series, but the Eocene and Oligocene contribute largely to the 
 total production, and the Neocomian and Cretaceous rocks 
 may eventually prove to contain valuable stores of oil. The 
 strata consist chiefly of marly shales alternating with beds 
 of sand or sandy clay, and occasional seams of pebbles. Lime- 
 stone and compact sandstone are less frequently found. Gyp- 
 sum and rock-salt are common, and apparently present in 
 every part of the series. The fields are characterized by narrow, 
 sharp and eccentric folding, and in places, as at Moreni, 
 by much faulting. 
 
 Extensions of the Bustenari field to Bordeni in the south, 
 of the Moreni field to Doichesti and Bana, and of the Baicoi 
 field as far as Ferbatori, have already been proved, together 
 with a new field at Ochiuri in the Dambovitza area. 
 
 The Roumanian production for the years 1910-1920 has 
 been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 IQIO 
 1911 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1,352,289 
 
 1916 . 
 
 1,544,072 
 
 1917 
 
 1,806,942 
 
 1918 . 
 
 1,885,225 
 
 1919 . 
 
 1.783,947 
 
 1920 . 
 
 1,673,145 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,244,093 
 
 517,491 
 1,214,219 
 
 905,064 
 1,017,382 
 
 The main refining centres are Campina, Ploesti, Buzau and 
 Tergoviste. 
 
 There is storage available to the extent of about 1,765,000 
 tons, and a system of pipe-lines connects the fields with 
 Constanza. During the German occupation of the country 
 the pipe-line to Constanza was interrupted and the oil traffic 
 diverted to Giurgevo by lines which crossed the Danube at 
 Cernavoda. 
 
 When the German invasion of Roumania took place in 
 1916, considerable damage was done by a British Military 
 Mission to the wells, plant and stocks of oil. The Germans 
 worked energetically to restore the output, and in July, 1917, 
 
ROUMANIA RUSSIA (INCLUDING GEORGIA) 51 
 
 obtained a production of approximately 1,470 tons per day, 
 this being increased at the time of the Armistice to about 
 two- thirds of the pre-war production. 
 
 The deposits are worked by numerous companies of various 
 nationalities, including British, French, American, and Dutch. 
 
 The reconstruction of the Roumanian oil industry has been 
 a task of great difficulty, owing to shortage of plant and 
 disorganization of transport, which, until quite recently, 
 prevented the export of petroleum products on any large scale. 
 This resulted in the accumulation of stocks, with consequent 
 decreased production. The high cost of living, moreover, 
 resulted in labour disturbances, which impeded considerably 
 the re- establishment of the industry. 
 
 RUSSIA (INCLUDING GEORGIA) 
 
 The principal oil-bearing regions of Russia are the Caucasus 
 and Ural-Caspian, deposits being found in shaly marls and 
 fine-grained calcareous sandstones in frequent alternations, 
 the sandstones varying from hard rock to practically loose 
 sand. The age of the principal oil-bearing beds is Miocene, 
 and the deeper wells extend into the Oligocene formation. 
 
 In the Ural-Caspian region, indications have been found 
 over an area of about 60,000 square miles, extending from 
 the mouth of the Emba River northwards to Alexandrovsk 
 Gai, and east to Yemir. So far, however, oil in commercial 
 quantities has only been found at Dossor, the production being 
 about 2,\ % of the total Russian output (in 1916 it was about 
 260,000 tons). 
 
 In the Caucasus, the principal districts are : (a) Baku, 
 on the Apsheron Peninsula, including the fields of Balakhany, 
 Saboontchi-Romany, Surakhany, Bibi-Eibat and Binagadi; 
 and (b) the Grosny district, including the Belik extension, 
 situated on the northern slopes of the Caucasus. 
 
 According to A. Beeby Thompson, the oil-bearing strata 
 of the Apsheron Peninsula, on which the Baku oil-field is 
 situated, are covered in many places by a local series of beds, 
 composed mostly of yellow sands and highly fossiliferous 
 limestones, which, apparently, lie conformably over the oil 
 
52 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 series. The latter are composed of grey, blue-grey y and green- 
 grey clays, several variations of sand that are grey when washed, 
 but often darkly discoloured with oil when raised, and sand- 
 stones, many of which are calcareous and sparingly fossili- 
 ferous. The Baku formations are supposed to belong to the 
 Oligocene and Lower Miocene ages. The oil is distributed in 
 belts or zones. In the Saboontchi- Romany district, no less 
 than eight highly-productive belts have been discovered, and 
 in the Bibi-Eibat field, five. The beds of oil-sand are of 
 erratic and irregular occurrence, probably due to the existence 
 of lenticular pockets, which swell out in one direction and 
 then in another, and are not necessarily connected. 
 
 The anticline of the Grosny oil-field coincides approximately 
 with the formation of the hills, whose trend is from north- 
 west to south-east. The petroliferous beds reach the surface 
 about the neighbourhood of the Mamakai region, but in 
 both directions from this point the productive beds become 
 deeper. The slope of the anticline on the north side is exceedingly 
 steep, whilst that of the south side is gentle. 
 
 Several deep borings put down on the north side have failed 
 to penetrate petroliferous strata, which may be due to a fault 
 or to complex folding on that side. The strata are unlike 
 those of Baku, for not only are the deposits highly impreg- 
 nated with lime, which imparts to them a marly character, 
 but the well-defined, highly-petroliferous loose sands, so 
 prevalent in Baku, are quite absent, and in their place are 
 found sandy strata which, when washed, display little in- 
 dications of oil. The Grosny oil strata are not nearly so 
 prolific as those of Baku, for the wells dry up, as a rule, after 
 a brief period of spouting or fair bailing. Five productive 
 belts have been discovered in the field. 
 
 There does not appear to be any evidence in the Russian 
 oil-fields that the synclines are not as productive as the anti- 
 clines. 
 
 The surface of the Ural-Caspian region is occupied by 
 the recent deposits of the Caspian Sea. Permian rocks under- 
 lie the whole of the petroliferous area, but are only occasion- 
 ally exposed as inliers. Unconformably upon the Permian 
 lie Jurassic, followed by Cretaceous rocks. The Tertiary 
 
RUSSIA (INCLUDING GEORGIA) 53 
 
 formation is only sparingly represented at a few points. The 
 complicated system of flexures is probably the result of the 
 two sets of movements, one of which produced the Ural Moun- 
 tains and the other, the Caucasus Mountains. 
 
 The oil from Dossor has a specific gravity of about 0-855 ; 
 from Karatchungal, 0-846 ; from Kara ton, 0-867 ; and from 
 Guriev, 0-882. Trial distillations at the refinery at Rakusha 
 in 1914 gave the following percentages : Gasoline, 0*36 ; 
 kerosene, 23-66 ; residues, 74-92 ; loss, 1-06. The crude oil 
 from Dossor contains a somewhat high percentage of sulphur. 
 The productions from 1912 to 1916 amounted to 16,403, 
 115,838, 268,242, 268,076, and 252,403 tons respectively. 
 
 The Baku production is about 80 % of the total for Russia, 
 and an 8-inch pipe-line with a nominal capacity of about 
 1,000,000 tons of kerosene a year connects the field with the 
 port of Batum. In addition, the Trans-Caucasian Railway can, 
 under normal conditions, handle 1,500,000 tons per annum. 
 
 Grosny produces about 16% of the Russian output, the 
 outlet for which is the port of Novorossisk. The only means 
 of transport is by rail, but a scheme has been put forward 
 for the construction of pipe-lines from the district. 
 
 Oil deposits are being exploited at : 
 
 Ali Tepe, on the island of Cheleken, where there has been 
 a steady decrease of output from 200,000 tons in 1912 to 
 about 50,000 tons in 1916. 
 
 Maikop, in N.W. Caucasus, has been a disappointing field, 
 being " pockety " in nature. Connected by pipe-lines with 
 the field are refineries at Ekaterinoslav of total capacity 
 probably in excess of present requirements. Productions 
 from 1911 to 1917 were, respectively, 125,806, 146,774, 77,777, 
 62,903, 122,580, 33,871 and 32,258 tons. 
 
 Sviatoi, or Holy Island, which shows an increase of produc- 
 tion from 22,000 tons in 1910 to over 120,000 tons in 1916. 
 
 Tchimion and Sel Rokh, in the Ferghana Valley, where in 
 1910 there was an output of 10,000 tons, which was increased 
 to 34,000 tons in 1916. 
 
 Petroliferous territory has also been declared around Uchta 
 (Archangel). 
 
 The production from the Russian fields was at one time the 
 
Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 12,195,508 
 
 1908 
 
 8,883,778 
 
 1915 
 
 9,792,580 
 
 11,505,720 
 
 1909 
 
 9,424,350 
 
 1916 
 
 10,400,160 
 
 10,798,751 
 
 1910 
 
 10,048,082 
 
 1917 
 
 8,362,903 
 
 11,219,522 
 
 I9II 
 
 9,454,813 
 
 1918 
 
 3,143,960 
 
 7,851,467 
 
 1912 
 
 9,717,029 
 
 1919 
 
 3,642,571 
 
 8,413,901 
 
 1913 
 
 8,976,336 
 
 1920 
 
 3,483,143 
 
 8,835,819 
 
 1914 
 
 9,574,360 
 
 
 
 54 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 largest in the world, but in 1916 it was only 15-62% of the 
 world's output, as compared with that of the United States, 
 viz. 64-5 %. 
 
 Production for the years 1901-1920 has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 
 1901 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 The main outlet for supplies from Baku into the interior of 
 Russia is via the Volga, but owing to the political disturbances 
 this was closed for many months and the reconstruction of the 
 industry was completely checked. 
 
 The Russian oil industry has suffered so seriously from 
 the numerous internal upheavals of the past few years that 
 its immediate future cannot be predicted with certainty. 
 
 If any considerable industrial revival took place, the avail- 
 able local production would probably not meet home require- 
 ments, with the result that little oil would be available for 
 export. 
 
 Owing to the impossibility of disposing of its production, 
 the industry was reduced almost to the verge of bankruptcy, 
 the only means of paying wages being by receiving advances 
 in local money on the security of stocks of oil, which accumu- 
 lated to an enormous extent. Since April, 1920, when Baku 
 came under Soviet control, much oil has been sent into the 
 interior of Russia. 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 Deposits of asphalt are found in many parts of Spain in 
 beds of various ages Tertiary, Cretaceous and Jurassic 
 also small quantities of oil have been obtained when boring 
 for salt near Santander in the north. 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 Indications of oil have been found in sandy deposits, appar- 
 ently of Miocene age, along the coast of the Sea of Marmora. 
 
ARABIA CHINA 55 
 
 ASIA 
 
 In dealing with the continents of Asia and Africa, it must 
 be remembered that there is little definite scientific knowledge 
 available regarding the geology of vast territories, e.g. Arabia, 
 China, Siberia, etc., and so the information given is necessarily 
 incomplete. 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 Bituminous deposits occur in the Eocene limestone near 
 Wadi Gharandel, in Arabia Petraea, 40 miles south of Suez, 
 and traces of oil have been met with in the Cretaceous (Nu- 
 bian) sandstones of Wadi el Araba, 30 miles farther south. 
 The indications of this latter district may be due to recent 
 infiltration, as are also very probably those near the southern 
 end of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and on Tiran Island at the 
 mouth of the Gulf of Akabah. Petroleum is also said to occur 
 at many points in the interior of Yemen, and at Benaid el 
 Oar, near Koweit, on the eastern side of Arabia. 
 
 CHINA 
 
 In China are two well-recognized oil-yielding provinces, 
 Shensi and Szechuen, the most important district being in 
 east central Szechuen, west of Tze-liu-ching, about 100 miles 
 west of Chungking and south of Chintu. About 18 miles 
 south of Tze-liu-ching there is also a heavy seepage, and 
 gas is constantly emitted from crevices in the rocks. There 
 are about 50 wells in operation in this province, the majority 
 of which are in the Tze-liu-ching district. The production 
 of the province amounts to about 30,000 barrels a year. 
 
 The production of oil in China has hitherto been entirely 
 incidental to the salt industry, in which it is used as fuel. 
 The wells have been stated to yield from 15 to 50% of oil, 
 and from 50 to 85% of brine, the average proportion being 
 about 33 % oil and 66 % brine. The crude oil so far produced 
 burns with a clear flame and is a good illuminant. 
 
 The geological formations in China as they have been 
 reported, follow : 
 
 Tertiary sandstone, yellow. 
 Limestone, grey. 
 Sandstone, red. 
 5 
 
56 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Oolite, orange-coloured, with petroleum at 600 feet. 
 
 Limestone, yellowish, with gas at 300 feet. 
 
 Marl, bluish grey, iridescent, white Permian chalk with 
 
 brine 12 to 15% at 1,000-1,800 feet. 
 Schists, greenish, strong brine and flow of gas at 2,500- 
 
 3,300 feet. 
 
 Imports of oil mainly consist of kerosene from the United 
 States and the Dutch East Indies. 
 
 There is tank storage at both Hong Kong and Shanghai, 
 principally for fuel oil for bunkering purposes. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES 
 
 The islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Java, rank amongst 
 the most important known sources of petroleum, and indica- 
 tions of oil in commercial quantities have also been found 
 in the Celebes and Ceram islands. 
 
 The principal producing areas are : (a) in Dutch Borneo, 
 the Koetei and Tarakan areas on the east coast, covering about 
 500 sq. miles ; (b) in Sumatra, Langkat in the east, Perlak 
 in Atchin Residency, and Palembang in the south ; and (c) 
 in Java, Semarang, Rembang and Soerabaya provinces in the 
 north-east. 
 
 The oil-bearing strata are of Tertiary age, and generally 
 associated with coal and lignite. 
 
 Borneo crude oil from Koetei has been found to contain 
 an exceptionally high proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons, 
 and is therefore valuable as a source of high explosive material, 
 particularly toluol. Tarakan petroleum is a natural fuel oil, 
 while Sumatra produces an oil very rich in petrol. 
 
 In the Koetei district of Dutch Borneo, the oil occurs 
 mainly in Miocene sandstones, along anticlines with steeply- 
 dipping sides, and is associated with heavy gas-pressure. The 
 shallow sands in the Koetei fields yield heavy oil of 0-970 
 specific gravity, with paraffin. The lighter oils from deeper 
 sources are poor in paraffin, and possess a specific gravity 
 varying between 0-860 and 0-890. 
 
 The specific gravity of the Langkat oil of North Sumatra 
 is given as from 0-771 to 0-857. In South Sumatra, the specific 
 gravity of the oil from Meliamoen is from 0-765 to 0-775, 
 
DUTCH EAST INDIES JAPAN AND FORMOSA 57 
 
 of that from Kampong Minjak, 0792, and of that of the oil 
 from Babat, 0-812 to 0-889. 
 
 In Java, the chief petroliferous horizon occurs at the junction 
 of the Upper and Middle Miocene ; the wells are quite shallow, 
 varying in depth from 500 to 800 feet, and require pumping. 
 The oil has a specific gravity of from 0-825 to 0-916, and is 
 of asphaltic base, yet yields paraffin wax of high melting-point. 
 
 Production (in metric tons) for the period 1905-1920 has 
 been as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dutch 
 Borneo. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Ceram. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 
 439,487 
 
 110,711 
 
 513,630 
 
 _ 
 
 
 ,063,828 
 
 1906 
 
 
 
 
 387,455 
 
 in,378 
 
 602,501 
 
 
 
 
 ,101,334 
 
 1907 
 
 
 
 
 489,151 
 
 142,983 
 
 7 I 3,84i 
 
 
 
 
 ,345,975 
 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 511,049 
 
 137,013 
 
 738,588 
 
 
 
 
 ,386,650 
 
 1909 
 
 
 
 
 411,506 
 
 MO,35I 
 
 922,894 
 
 
 
 
 ,474,751 
 
 1910 
 
 
 
 
 633,472 
 
 142,503 
 
 719,740 
 
 
 
 
 ,495,7 X 5 
 
 1911 
 
 
 
 
 814,707 
 
 172,438 
 
 683,523 
 
 
 
 
 ,670,668 
 
 1912 
 
 
 
 
 671,662 
 
 184,989 
 
 621,481 
 
 
 
 
 ,478,132 
 
 1913 
 
 
 
 
 797, 59 
 
 207,135 
 
 529,947 
 
 82 
 
 
 ,534,223 
 
 1914 
 
 
 
 
 866,718 
 
 226,590 
 
 475,423 
 
 487 
 
 
 ,569,218 
 
 1915 
 
 
 
 
 893,896 
 
 256,838 
 
 491,611 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 ,643,445 
 
 1916 
 
 
 
 
 957,395 
 
 243,442 
 
 526,080 
 
 3,263 
 
 
 ,730,180 
 
 1917 
 
 
 
 
 869,123 
 
 232,636 
 
 583,384 
 
 2,248 
 
 
 ,687,391 
 
 1918 
 
 
 
 
 999,174 
 
 225,879 
 
 478,068 
 
 3,554 
 
 
 1,706,675 
 
 1919 
 
 
 
 
 1,372,006 
 
 235,814 
 
 477,977 
 
 7,120 
 
 
 2,092,917 
 
 1920 
 
 
 
 
 1,455,128 
 
 311,677 
 
 496,351 
 
 20,980 
 
 
 2,284,136 
 
 JAPAN AND FORMOSA 
 
 Japan. The belt of oil-producing territory extends along 
 the west side of North Japan, from the west coast of Sakhalin 
 Island on the north, along the coast of the Sea of Japan, 
 through the west side of the central mountain range of Hok- 
 kaido, thence stretching across the provinces of Mutsu, Ugo, 
 Uzen, Echigo and Shinano, to the Pacific coast of Totomi 
 in the south. The principal producing districts are Akita 
 in the province of Ugo and Niigata in the province of Echigo. 
 The producing sandstones are of Tertiary age, interstratified 
 with beds of slate or shale, and most of the production is 
 obtained from shallow wells less than 700 feet in depth. 
 
 Drilling first took place in Echigo in 1890, when the Nippon 
 Oil Co. successfully brought in a well in the Amaze field, 
 and the development of other districts rapidly followed. The 
 
58 
 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 first gusher was brought in at Kurokawa, in the Akita district, 
 in 1914, with an initial production of 10,000 barrels a day. 
 Several others have since been obtained, and in 1916 a new 
 field was proved along an anticline in the Urayama district, 
 parallel with a similar fold in the I^urokawa field. The out- 
 put has, however, gradually declined, that of 1918 being 
 101,728 tons less than that of 1915. 
 
 The total production for the years 1901-1920 has been as 
 follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 159,527 
 
 1908 
 
 
 294,549 
 
 1915 
 
 172,023 
 
 1909 
 
 
 268,913 
 
 1916 
 
 172,853 
 
 1910 
 
 
 246,748 
 
 1917 
 
 202,782 
 
 1911 
 
 
 248,231 
 
 1918 
 
 210,400 
 
 1912 
 
 
 236,659 
 
 1919 
 
 243,682 
 
 1913 
 
 
 274,844 
 
 1920 
 
 284,886 
 
 1914 
 
 . 
 
 . 388,810 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 442,793 
 425,415 
 411,768 
 342,814 
 285,000 
 280,000 
 
 Formosa. Indications of petroleum, which have been dis- 
 covered in Formosa in about 300 localities, occur in 26 oil belts 
 extending for at least 400 miles along the west coast. The 
 Byoritsu and Tabanti fields in the north have already been 
 proved, and the Nairo and Kosempo fields in Ako district, 
 the Senschuiryo field in Tainancho, and the Rokiyukei field 
 in Kagicho are all being exploited. 
 
 Distillation of an average sample of the oil gave the following 
 results : 
 
 Specific gravity of crude oil . . . 0-8284 
 
 Motor spirit (under 150 C.) . . . 10% 
 
 Kerosene (i5o-3ooC.). ... 80% 
 
 Heavy oil (paraffin and residue) . . 10% 
 
 The production since 1906 has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1906 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 713 
 
 Year. 
 
 Tons. 
 2 586 
 
 1907 
 1908 
 
 
 
 
 / o 
 
 1,090 
 T 186 
 
 1914 
 1915 . 
 
 2,387 
 2.7O2 
 
 1909 
 1910 
 I9II 
 1912 
 
 
 
 
 919 
 520 
 234 
 493 
 
 1916 . 
 
 1917 
 1918 . 
 
 , / v- 
 
 2,753 
 . 2,791 
 1,926 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 The oil-fields of Persia extend in a south-easterly direction 
 along the western and southern sides of the Persian plateau 
 adjoining Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, 
 
PERSIA 59 
 
 cross the Turco- Persian frontier between the Diyaleh (or 
 Sirvan) River and Mendeli, and enter the Persian province 
 of Kermanshah. Thence they run south-east through the 
 provinces of Luristan, Arabistan, and the Bakhtiari country 
 forming the northern area, and the Behbehan Fars and Laristan 
 forming the southern area. 
 
 Recent investigations by H. G. Busk and H. T. Mayo 
 have thrown considerable light on the previously obscure 
 geology of certain of the petroliferous areas in Persia. Mr. 
 H. T. Mayo has kindly furnished particulars from which the 
 following account of the geology of the petroliferous areas 
 in S.W. Persia and the Persian Gulf region has been prepared : 
 
 The petroliferous areas of Persia and the Persian Gulf 
 may be considered under three heads, viz. : 
 
 1. The Bakhtiari Region, in which the main oil-field is 
 situated. 
 
 2. The Ahwaz-Pusht-i-Kuh Region, extending to the Mesopo- 
 tamian frontier. 
 
 3. Qishm Island and the Persian Gulf Region. 
 
 The main stratigraphical divisions throughout these three 
 regions are as follow : 
 
 1. The Asmari Series (Cretaceous to Oligocene) : thickness, 
 2,000 feet, principally massive limestones, succeeded by 
 
 2. The Fars Series (Miocene) : more than 7,000 feet thick, 
 divided into three groups : the Lower Fars, formed of some 
 3,500 feet of massive gypsum, shales, clays and intercalated 
 beds of limestone ; the Middle Fars, consisting of 1,000 feet of 
 clays, shales, intercalated gypsum, limestone and sand- 
 stone ; and the Upper Fars, forming 2,700 feet of clays, 
 shales and intercalated sandstones. The Fars series is over- 
 laid by 
 
 3. The Bakhtiari Series (Pliocene), of which the lower group 
 consists of 13,000 feet or more of clays, sandstone and con- 
 glomerate, and the upper of 2,000 feet of massive conglomerate. 
 
 The principal oil-bearing zone is the Lower Fars group, 
 in which the oil occurs in shelly vesicular limestones ; it 
 also occurs in the Middle Fars group at Dareh-i-Qil, 30 miles 
 N.E. of Maidan-i-Naftun, Marmatain, 10 miles E. of Ram 
 Hormuz, and White Oil Springs, 20 miles S.E. of Maidan-i- 
 
60 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Naftun. Of these localities, Marmatain and White Oil Springs 
 have been tested by the drill, but without very satisfactory 
 results. In the former case the underlying gypsiferous group, 
 and not the Middle Fars, was tested, whilst at White Oil 
 Springs a small show of naturally-refined water-clear oil similar 
 to that seeping at the surface was struck. Residual seepages, 
 from the gypsiferous group, also occur in the upper members 
 of the Asmari series ; oil is doubtfully indigenous in the latter 
 in some cases. 
 
 (1) Bakhtiari Region. The strata of the Fars series were 
 deposited under quiescent conditions in a broad geo- synclinal. 
 Throughout the succeeding Bakhtiari period, there was con- 
 stant but gradual earth-movement, resulting in the formation 
 of a series of synclines and anticlines, the axes of which have 
 a N. W.-S.E. orientation. The Upper Bakhtiari conglomerates, 
 2,000 feet in thickness, have been spread over the finer- grained 
 sediments of the Lower group, often resting unconformably 
 upon the upturned edges of the latter. The structure has 
 also been influenced by post- Pliocene movements, continuing 
 down to the present day, and the whole district has been much 
 affected by faulting and thrust planes. 
 
 Within this area is situated the Maidan-i-Naftun oil-field. 
 This field is characterized by minor folding, but lies in the 
 "open" portion of the Maidan-i-Naftun anticline, which 
 to the N.W. is compressed into omega form. The main 
 producing oil zone is met with at from 1,100 to 1,400 feet. 
 
 (2) The Ahwaz-Pusht-i-Kuh Region presents similar tectonic 
 features to the above, but disturbance has been less intense. 
 The Ahwaz Range is a low and irregular anticlinal line of hills 
 rising out of the Mesopotamian alluvial plain, and striking 
 W.N.W. and E.S.E., through Ahwaz ; it is the farthest recog- 
 nizable outlying fold of the Iranian mountain chain. The fold 
 has been traced for a distance of over 100 miles N.W. and S.E. 
 of Ahwaz. A test well was drilled in 1913, E. of the Karun 
 River, in the neighbourhood of Ahwaz, on the N.E. flank of 
 an asymmetrical but well-developed dome. An approximate 
 correlation with the known stratigraphic sequence was adopted, 
 based on general lithological characters. The lower two 
 or three hundred feet of beds exposed were classed provisionally 
 
PERSIA 61 
 
 as a lower sub-group of the Upper Fars. Later they were 
 recognized as belonging to the Middle Fars passage group, a 
 correlation which has recently been confirmed by the survey 
 of the more remote north-westerly extension of the fold. 
 
 (3) Qishm Island and the Persian Gulf Region. Qishm 
 is the largest island in the Persian Gulf, near its entrance 
 and opposite the coast between Lingah and Bunder Abbas ; 
 it is more than 60 miles long, and has an average breadth 
 of from 8 to 10 miles. The rocks exposed are those of the 
 Hormuz series, the upper group of the Fars series, and the 
 Pliocene Tersai series. 
 
 The Upper Fars beds, a calcareous phase, occupy the greater 
 part of the ground, and are disposed in a series of gentle domes, 
 approximately symmetrical quaquaversals along an axis 
 running through the length of the island. 
 
 The Hormuz series constitutes a roughly circular 'inlier 
 with steep or vertical uppermost beds at the margin. Two 
 distinct rock-groups are included, a basal Namakdan group 
 with massive rock-salt, laminated shales and dolomitic lime- 
 stone, and an upper pyroclastic Pusht-Tumba group of 
 volcanic agglomerates and gypsiferous tuffs. Pilgrim, who 
 made the first geological examination of Qishm Island in 1904, 
 assigned to the Hormuz series a post-Cretaceous, pre-Num- 
 mulite age. : 
 
 There has since been a certain amount of controversy con- 
 cerning both the stratigraphy of Qishm Island and the nature 
 of the tectonic processes responsible for the Hormuz inlier 
 and the Upper Fars domes. The key to the stratigraphy has 
 been found in a study of the adjoining Persian mainland. 
 By this means the pre-Oligocene age, at least, of the Hormuz 
 series has been established. 
 
 A test well on the apex of the Salukh dome, adjoining the 
 Namakdan Hormuz inlier at the N.E. end of the island, was 
 started in 1915. The advantages of this dome are : (i) that it 
 provides a lower initial horizon in the Upper Fars group than 
 any of the other five domes of the island ; and (2) that it 
 possesses the only oil-seepage, the latter occurring near the apex. 
 After passing through the Upper Fars beds, the drill entered 
 first the normal middle, and then the normal gypsiferous 
 
62 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Lower Fars group, as developed on the adjoining mainland. 
 Its depth in January, 1919, was a little over 2,000 feet. Several 
 light shows of gas and oil have recently been encountered. 
 
 The record of the well has thus confirmed the solution of 
 the stratigraphy of the island arrived at from a study of the 
 mainland, namely, concealed progressive overlap, the Middle 
 Fars group overlapping the Lower, and the Upper the Middle, 
 against the older Hormuz series. 
 
 Brief reference only can be made here to the geology of 
 the Persian mainland in the Gulf region. 
 
 A general stratigraphic correlation has been effected from 
 the Indian frontier into Central S.W. Persia. 
 
 A test well, which is being drilled on the Chandragup dome, 
 100 miles W. of Karachi, is designed to test strata which are 
 approximately the stratigraphic equivalent of the petroliferous 
 Lower Fars group of Persia ; incidently, both are approximately 
 to be correlated with the petroliferous Pegu series of Burma, 
 and with the oil-series of Assam. 
 
 Lateral variation along the general line of strike has been 
 traced in the Fars groups by Lister James, between the Bakh- 
 tiari country and the neighbourhood of Bushire. The coastal 
 facies is reduced in thickness and is of deeper-water type 
 than that of the Bakhtiari country. 
 
 Of other areas in the Persian Gulf region, known or believed 
 to be more or less favourably circumstanced as regards oil 
 prospects, mention may be made of Bahrein Island. This 
 island lies in an arm of the Persian Gulf, on the Arabian side, 
 W. of the peninsula of Qatar. The only rocks exposed are 
 compact Eocene limestones with flints, and saliferous marls. 
 The structure is that of a gently elongated dome. Near the 
 apex is an important asphalt deposit, the asphalt emanating 
 from the limestone. 
 
 Oil is conveyed from the Maidan-i-Naftun oil-field about 
 145 miles by two pipe-lines to the refinery situated on the 
 island of Abadan. The original capacity of the pipe-lines is 
 being very considerably increased by additional pumping 
 
PERSIA PHILIPPINE ISLANDS SAKHALIN 63 
 
 stations, and in order to deal with the increased output, 
 extensions to the refinery at Abadan are being carried out, 
 while a refinery is also being erected at Swansea, England. 
 
 The output has increased from less than 100,000 tons in 
 1912 to more than 1,000,000 tons in 1918. 
 
 The oil is of high quality, containing a large percentage 
 of benzine, kerosene and lubricating oils of good quality, fuel 
 oil of unusually high calorific value, and a valuable percent- 
 age of paraffin wax. 
 
 A distillation test gave the following result : 
 
 Specific gravity . *. : 
 Initial boiling point % . 
 Distillation below 100 C. . 
 Distillation between 100 and 150 C. 
 Distillation between 150 and 280 C. 
 Residue . .* , * <- . * " 
 Loss . ' . 
 
 0-840 
 48 C. 
 
 1 1-0% 
 
 12-3% 
 29-6% 
 45-6% 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Petroleum occurs as a very light paraffin-base oil, at various 
 points in the Philippine Islands, notably in the Bondoc Penin- 
 sula, at Toledo and Algeria in the Island of Cebu, and at 
 Tayabas and Luzon. Indications are also reported to occur 
 on the islands of Palawan, Leyte and Mindanao, whilst the 
 islands of Panay, Guimaras, Negros and Bohol appear worthy 
 of further investigations. 
 
 Bondoc Peninsula. American interests recently sent out a 
 geological expedition, and, as a result of favourable reports of 
 petroleum indications, are actively sinking test wells. 
 
 Cebu Island. In 1914 a company was reported as formed for 
 exploiting the petroliferous areas of Toledo. 
 
 SAKHALIN (RUSSIAN) 
 
 For a distance of nearly 200 miles and in a belt 6 to 12 
 miles wide along the Pacific coast of the northern half of 
 Sakhalin, oil indications have been reported in the Tertiary 
 sandstones. Asphalt is found in all stages of density, from 
 the consistency of tar up to a hard, smooth-surfaced mass 
 resembling an asphalt floor. The lake near Oha Creek, 
 
64 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 over 1,000 feet long, 400 feet wide, and from 2 to 6 feet deep, 
 is estimated to contain more than 25,000 tons of a tough 
 asphalt-like substance comparatively free from foreign matter. 
 Little development work has so far been done. 
 
 SYRIA 
 
 Large deposits of asphalt are reported to exist in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Latakia, near the villages of Kferie, Cassab, 
 Ghoman, Chmeisse, Khorbe and Sonlas ; also at Hasbeya, 
 on the Upper Jordan, Sahmur and Ain-et-Tineh, on the Nahr 
 Latini, and another Ain-et-Tineh near Magluda. 
 
 In Northern Syria a petroleum spring has been reported 
 to the south-east of Alexandretta. 
 
 See also " Palestine," p. 25. 
 
 TIMOR (PORTUGUESE) 
 
 Indications of oil have been found in the eastern half of 
 the island of Timor, belonging to Portugal, where limestone 
 is found coated with asphalt and ozokerite, yielding 24% of 
 crude oil, and pools of black viscous oil are found on the 
 surface. 
 
 There are many natural difficulties to be overcome, but it 
 is thought that oil may exist in quantity at a depth of from 
 1,200 to 1,500 feet in a Triassic formation, and investigations 
 are to be made with a view to a practical test later, if the 
 conditions are favourable. Unfortunately, the geological for- 
 mations are much disturbed by earthquake action. Many 
 prospectors of various nationalities have visited Timor, but 
 have abandoned their concessions. 
 
 One sample of oil from Timor, of specific gravity 0-840, 
 gave a flash-point (Abel close test) of 112. Another sample 
 yielded 64-6% of kerosene and about 30% of intermediate 
 lubricating oils. 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 The oil-bearing region of Algeria, of which Messila is the 
 centre, stretches north-east from Nadour to Medjila. There 
 is a large and well-defined anticline consisting of Cartennian 
 
ALGERIA FRENCH CAMEROON MADAGASCAR 65 
 
 marls with occasional bands of sandstone. The oil, of which 
 various beds have been proved, occurs in the Miocene strata. 
 
 Petroleum has been produced in small quantities near 
 Oran, where wells sunk to a depth of 1,400 feet have given 
 small but persistent yields, which have enabled a small refinery 
 to be worked at intervals. 
 
 Producing wells have been sunk in the Messila and Med- 
 jila areas, and also at Nehma, near Relizane, in the Tliouanet 
 district. The oil, which is of good quality and rich in kerosene 
 and intermediate oils, has a dark, reddish-brown colour, very 
 little fluorescence, and a pleasant benzine odour, with an 
 absence of sulphur compounds. A typical analysis is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Specific gravity at 60 F. . 0-820 
 
 Flash-point . . . 50 F. 
 
 Sulphur . . . .0-15% 
 
 Benzine . v . , . . nil to 7-3% 
 
 Kerosene . . . 60-3 to 67-6% 
 
 Intermediate and heavy oils . 29-2% 
 
 FRENCH CAMEROON 
 
 Black bituminous shales, which are easily ignited with slight 
 heating, occur in the Munro district of French Cameroon, near 
 Duala, and seepages of petroleum have been noticed. 
 
 FRENCH CONGO 
 
 Indications of petroleum are reported from the Fernand 
 Bay district and from the Nguni and Ogowai rivers. 
 
 MADAGASCAR 
 
 The existence of oil deposits in the Betsiriry and Sakalava 
 valleys, in the west of Madagascar, has been proved, but no 
 discovery of commercial importance has yet been made. 
 
 Boring operations have been effected in both localities. 
 In 1916, oil was stated to have been found in two wells at 
 Sakalava, and in 1917 oil and gas shows were met with in 
 another well at 450 feet. 
 
66 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 The belt of Tertiary rock in which petroleum is found in 
 Algeria extends across Morocco to the Atlantic coast, and 
 there is, therefore, a probability that similar indications of 
 oil will be found in the latter country. Traces do, in fact, 
 exist in the Fez district at Ulad Aissa, Sherada and Ain Feriba, 
 and heavy oil seepages are also reported in the north-east 
 near the Arab villages of Kohlott, Khairott and Ouled Slama, 
 those at the last-named place being the most important. 
 These oils are of a heavy and bituminous nature, almost 
 black, and ooze out of the ground during wet weather in the 
 form of an emulsion. 
 
 Petroleum has recently been discovered at Djebel Tolfat, 
 near Petit Jean in the French zone, and twelve new shafts 
 were to be sunk in 1920. 
 
 It has been reported that oil has been discovered near 
 Melilla in the Spanish zone, and that the field is to be 
 exploited by a strong Spanish company. 
 
 PORTUGUESE WEST AFRICA (ANGOLA) 
 
 Portuguese official reports as far back as 1844 refer to the 
 existence in Angola of extensive deposits of petroleum, most 
 of which are stated to be near the coast or navigable rivers. 
 In 1915 boring was in progress a few miles from the mouth 
 of the River Dande, to the north of Loanda, but no oil has yet 
 been located. Indications of petroleum occur also at Libollo. 
 It is understood that active development under American 
 auspices is now proceeding. 
 
 TUNIS 
 
 Surface indications and the results of a preliminary test 
 point to the existence of a group of petroliferous rocks in 
 Tunis, but the complex geological structure of the country 
 renders unlikely the production of oil on a commercial scale in 
 the near future. 
 
 The oil indications appear to be situated chiefly within 
 a belt trending south-west from the Mediterranean coast 
 at Bizerta and Tunis to near the Algerian frontier. 
 
COSTA RICA CUBA GUATEMALA HONDURAS 67 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 COSTA RICA 
 
 It is understood that concessions for the development of 
 prospective oil-fields were granted a few years ago to British 
 and American interests over the northern and southern 
 portions of the Republic of Costa Rica respectively, but 
 apparently no definitely successful results have yet been 
 achieved. 
 
 CUBA 
 
 The petroliferous area of Cuba lies between Cape San 
 Antonio, at the western extremity, and a line drawn north 
 and south at about 80 west longitude, east of Santa Clara ; 
 it covers the provinces of Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, 
 Cardenas and Santa Clara, in all of which asphaltic outcrops and 
 petroleum seepages are found. The oil belt is about 700 miles 
 long by 25 miles broad, and runs parallel to the main mountain 
 range. Along the north coast there are several large and 
 deep deposits of high-grade asphalt, but efforts which have 
 been made to find petroleum along the north coast, west of 
 Havana, have not so far been successful. 
 
 Numerous wells have been sunk in different parts of the 
 island, but no considerable production has been obtained. 
 Owing to the scarcity of coal, however, the use of imported 
 fuel oil is making considerable headway. Most of the large 
 sugar mills have already installed oil-burning equipment, 
 and the railway engines are also being modified to use oil. 
 
 GUATEMALA 
 
 Surface indications point to the possibility of oil being 
 obtainable in Guatemala' in the departments of San Marcos and 
 Huehuetenango, and also in the northern and north-eastern 
 parts of the departments of Quiche, Alta Vera, Paz and Izabal. 
 
 HONDURAS 
 
 Honduras is reported to afford numerous and extensive 
 indications of petroleum on the Caribbean coast- line, the most 
 noticeable being at Guare, 66 miles south of Puerto Cortez. 
 
68 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 Miguel Bustamante, the Mexican geologist, divides the 
 Republic of Mexico into three petroliferous zones : (i) the 
 Gulf zone ; (2) the Central zone, and (3) the Pacific zone (in- 
 cluding Lower California). 
 
 The Eastern Sierra Madre separates (i) from (2), and the 
 Western Sierra Madre separates (2) from (3). The principal 
 mountain chains run north-south, but the zones between are 
 subdivided by secondary chains trending approximately 
 east-west. All three zones are characterized by Cretaceous, 
 Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary, and by Tertiary 
 eruptive rocks. In Mexico the eruptive rocks have had con- 
 siderable influence on the accumulation of both oil and coal. 
 The principal oil-fields have hitherto been found in the Gulf 
 zone, especially in the State of Vera Cruz, in Cretaceous 
 and Tertiary formations. In some cases the oil is primary 
 or is indigenous in the former, and in others, secondary, or 
 has migrated from Middle and Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic. 
 Bustamante thinks it very probable that deposits of coal 
 and oil may be met with in economic quantities in the Jurassic 
 and Carboniferous formations, but these formations are very 
 rare, or at any rate of small extension superficially in Mexico. 
 
 According to L. G. Huntley, petroleum in Mexico occurs in 
 the upper part of the Tamasopa limestone, which is some- 
 what porous, usually fractured and of Cretaceous age, as well 
 as in the San Felipe beds of limestone and blue and brown 
 shales, from 200 to 700 feet thick, which overlie it. Above 
 the San Felipe series occur the Mendez marls and shales, from 
 2,000 to 3,000 feet thick. These beds are also petroliferous, 
 but petroleum is not usually found in them in any quantity. 
 Above these are sandy limes and sandstone, and limy and sandy 
 clays of Oligocene age. The Mendez marls and San Felipe 
 shales are probably of Eocene age. Huntley believes the 
 marine marls, known as Mendez marls, to be the origin of the 
 oil found in the lower formation, although this opinion is not 
 shared by Degolyer, Bustamante and other geologists. Oil 
 is found where there is a favourable anticlinal or dome structure, 
 with pronounced fracturing of the formation ; these fractures 
 
MEXICO 69 
 
 (frequently faults of relatively small throw) are usually ac- 
 companied by basaltic intrusions and seepages of asphalt 
 (chapopoteras) and gas. Intersections of strong fractures are 
 frequently accompanied and marked at the surface by conical 
 basalt peaks, which usually represent the " mushrooming " 
 of an igneous rock intrusion. 
 
 The Gulf zone is situated in the coastal plain, and extends 
 from the Tecolutla River in the district of Papantla in the 
 south to the Tamesi River in the north : developments are 
 anticipated, however, both north and south of these limits. 
 
 The principal fields within the area are as follow : 
 
 Ebano, 30 miles west of Tampico port, on the Tampico rail- 
 way. It has a production of about 6,000 barrels a day of low- 
 grade oil, most of which is sold to the National Railways as 
 fuel oil. 
 
 Panuco, 25 miles W.S.W. of Tampico on the Panuco River, 
 where the wells at present drilled are estimated to have a 
 potential production of at least 250,000 barrels daily. Several 
 large gushers have been drilled and extensions of the field 
 proved. The oil is valuable chiefly as fuel for the manufacture 
 of asphalt, and is mostly exported to the United States. There 
 is an 8 -inch pipe-line to Tampico, via Topila. 
 
 Topila, about 17 miles W.S.W. of Tampico, near the Panuco 
 River, has a production of about 2,000 barrels a day. The 
 8-inch pipe-line from Panuco to Tampico passes through the field. 
 
 San Pedro, 75 miles W.S.W. of Tampico, produces a high- 
 grade oil, but it is understood that the field is closed down 
 for the present. 
 
 Juan Casiano, 60 miles south of Tampico. The rapid de- 
 velopments in this and the Potrero del Llano field in 1910 
 were regarded as the first conclusive indications of the existence 
 of large supplies of oil in Mexico. 
 
 Los Naranjos, 3 miles S.W. of Juan Casiano. 
 
 Additional fields adjoining Los Naranjos have been proved 
 by the bringing in of very large wells at Chinampa, Tepetate 
 and Amatlan recently. 
 
 Potrero-Alazan. An extension of the field was proved in 
 1912 by the bringing in of a well at Alazan with an initial yield 
 of 15,000 barrels a day. 
 
70 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 El Alamo, 23 miles S.W. of Tuxpam. An 8- inch line connects 
 the field with Tuxpam Bar, whence the oil is shipped. The 
 production in 1917 was about 7-4% of the total Mexican output 
 for that year. 
 
 Furbero, 45 miles S.W. of Tuxpam. It had an output in 
 1917 of 34,689 barrels. 
 
 According to E. Degolyer, the general structure of the 
 Furbero oil-field is an eastward-dipping monocline, the beds 
 of which are gently folded. The folding took place in Oligocene 
 and post-Oligocene time, and the general strike is N.W.-S.E. 
 A laccolite, or extremely thick sill of gabbro or dolerite, has 
 given rise to the Furbero pool. The sedimentary rocks 
 (shales) had already been folded into an anticline when the in- 
 trusion occurred, which followed closely the bedding planes, and 
 thickened near the crest of the anticline. Above the apex of 
 the intrusion, the metamorphosed shales continue in the form 
 of a pipe or chimney to the surface. 1 Degolyer also states 
 that the determining factor in the accumulation of oil has 
 been the providing of pore space for a reservoir by the meta- 
 morphism accompanying the igneous intrusion of the under- 
 and overlying-shale, which was previously impervious. 
 
 In the Southern region, or southern portion of the Central 
 zone, which comprises the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the 
 Tabasco district, the oil occurs in rock of Pliocene and Pleisto- 
 cene ages, the formation usually being a true quartz sand. 
 Owing to the disturbed political conditions all work was stopped 
 early in 1917, in which year the production was only 23,556 
 barrels. There are fields at Ixhuatlan, Tecuanapa Soledad, San 
 Cristobal, La Reforma and Pichicalco, and promising indica- 
 tions are said to have been found at Campeche, State of 
 Campeche. Prospecting is also being carried out in Yucatan. 
 
 1 The cross-sections of the anticline with laccolite, given by Degolyer. 
 seem to bear a striking resemblance to the well-known saddle-reefs of Bendigo, 
 Victoria, Australia, the essential difference being that the auriferous quartz 
 of the latter is represented by gabbro or dolerite in the former. If the forma- 
 tion at Furbero is really a saddle one, there is a possibility that other lac- 
 colites and oil accumulations occur below those already proved by borings. 
 
MEXICO 71 
 
 In the Pacific zone, petroleum deposits occur in Lower 
 California, where indications have been found at San Miguel, 
 30 miles north of Ensenada, and at Tunta Bonda, a few miles 
 to the south. Oil is also reported to have been struck on 
 an island near the port of Altata, Sinaloa, and there are 
 said to be extensive deposits on the island of Angel de la 
 Guarda, in the Gulf of California. 
 
 Chihuahua. A deposit of a paraffin base oil has been found 
 in Chihuahua, not far from the United States boundary. 
 
 Submarine Deposits. A report recently submitted to the 
 Mexican Government points to the existence of large sub- 
 marine deposits off the coast of Sotaventa. 
 
 Generally speaking, Mexican petroleum is very heavy in 
 the northern fields, but in the south lighter varieties are 
 found. 
 
 The average of 20 samples from the former gave a specific 
 gravity of 0-927, whilst those of oils from the Isthmus of 
 Tehuantepec varied from 0-792 to O'88i. 
 
 The calorific value of Mexican fuel oil of 0-950 specific gravity 
 (at 60 F.) is about 18,900 B.T.U. per Ib. 
 
 According to a United States Government report, Mexican 
 oil is either of an asphaltic, or of mixed asphaltic and paraffin 
 base, and, due to the large amount of asphalt present, it has 
 hitherto been regarded as less suitable than United States 
 oil for the manufacture of high-grade lubricants. The yield 
 of petrol varies from about 12 to 15 % in the lighter grades of 
 crude oil to about 3*5 % in the heavier grades, the amount of 
 kerosene varying from 7 to 4 %. 
 
 Drilling developments in Mexico have been so rapid that, 
 at present, although there is a potential production of about 
 1,500,000 barrels of oil a day, owing to shortage of pipe- 
 lines and loading capacity, the actual production is less 
 6 
 
72 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 than one-fifth of this. The area exploited in obtaining this 
 result is under 6,000,000 acres out of a total of 380,000,000 
 acres of possibly productive land. Recently, some anxiety 
 has been caused by the entry of salt water into some of 
 the Mexican fields, those of Potrero, Alazan and Tepetate 
 being more particularly affected. 
 
 The total Mexican production for the years 1901-1920 has 
 been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1901 
 IQ02 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 tons. 
 
 1,478 
 
 1908 
 
 
 561,843 
 
 1915 
 
 . 4,701,501 
 
 5,743 
 
 1909 
 
 
 387,643 
 
 1916 
 
 5,792,245 
 
 10,768 
 
 1910 
 
 
 519,154 
 
 1917 
 
 . 7,898,967 
 
 17,946 
 
 1911 
 
 
 1,793,257 
 
 1918 
 
 . 9,118,332 
 
 35,893 
 
 1912 
 
 
 2,365,465 
 
 1919 
 
 . 12,439,000 
 
 71,786 
 
 1913 
 
 
 3,670,899 
 
 1920 
 
 . 22,800,000 
 
 143,571 
 
 1914 
 
 
 3,747,915 
 
 
 
 On all oils exported a duty is payable at the rate of 10 % of 
 the value of such oils, the valuation being based on New 
 York market prices and higher rates being proposed. 
 
 Uncertain political conditions in Mexico have greatly 
 interfered with the development of the petroleum industry, 
 and the producing companies have been much alarmed by 
 the introduction of legislation declaring that the subsoil and 
 its contents are the property of the State. This measure has, 
 however, been modified so as to apply only to lands at present 
 in private ownership, respecting which, contracts of explora- 
 tion or exploitation of the subsoil were not taken up before 
 May i, 1917, and all lands in respect of which the owner 
 of the surface had not demonstrated by actual operations 
 before that date his intention to possess the substances of the 
 subsoil. 
 
 Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, under which 
 the Mexican Government based its original claim, reads as 
 follows : 
 
 " Only Mexicans by birth or naturalization, and Mexican 
 companies, have the right to acquire ownership in lands, waters, 
 and their appurtenances, or to obtain concessions to develop 
 mines, waters or mineral fuels in the Republic of Mexico. 
 
MEXICO SAN DOMINGO PANAMA 73 
 
 The nation may grant the same right to foreigners, provided 
 they agree before the Department of Foreign Affairs to be 
 considered Mexicans in respect to such property, and 
 accordingly not to invoke the protection of their Governments 
 in respect of same, under penalty, in case of breach, of for- 
 feiture to the nation of the property so acquired. 
 
 " Within a zone of 100 km. from the frontiers, and of 50 km. 
 from the sea coast, no foreigner shall under any conditions 
 acquire direct ownership of lands and waters." 
 
 SAN DOMINGO 
 
 Indications of petroleum in the form of seepages are found 
 near Azua, in the province of the same name, on the south 
 coast, about 60 miles west of the capital, and also near San 
 Cristobal. An attempt made to develop the Azua area proved 
 unsuccessful owing to difficulties with sea water, but it is 
 understood that American companies are about to make 
 further tests by deep drilling. 
 
 PANAMA 
 
 Prospective oil-fields have been reported to exist in the 
 province of Chiriqui. 
 
 Early in 1917 the National Assembly at Panama authorized 
 the Executive to make concessions of unoccupied territory 
 to persons exploring for oil or gas for terms not to exceed 
 three years, and to make contracts for the working of oil lands 
 for periods of twenty years, subject to renewal or extension 
 for a second period of equal length. 
 
 American companies are understood to have been prospecting 
 for oil in various regions of Panama, especially at Bocas del 
 Toro, in the Colon district. Good indications of oil in payable 
 quantities are reported. 
 
 In August, 1918, it was stated that reinforced concrete 
 oil-tanks were being erected on the Isthmus, the first of these, 
 with a capacity of 55,000 barrels, then being in course of 
 construction at Mount Hope in the Canal Zone. 
 
74 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The oil-fields of the United States are widely scattered 
 throughout the country, the area actually producing covering 
 some 1,500 sq. miles, or less than one-twentieth of one per 
 cent of the area of the country. In addition, about ten times 
 as much is held under lease or in fee in the hope that it may 
 prove oil-bearing, a part of this consisting of the undrilled 
 portions of tracts that are already producing. 
 
 The fields- are generally divided as follow : (i) Appalachian ; 
 (2) Lima-Indiana ; (3) Illinois ; (4) Mid-continent ; (5) Gulf ; 
 (6) Rocky Mountain ; (7) California ; (8) Miscellaneous. The 
 main oil-producing areas may also be grouped in four principal 
 regions : (a) the eastern, including the Appalachian, Lima 
 and Illinois fields ; (b) the south-central, including the Mid- 
 continent and the central Texas Gulf fields ; (c) the Rocky 
 Mountain ; and (d) the western or Californian region. Each 
 of these regions is growing gradually as new fields are from 
 time to time discovered in the surrounding territory. 
 
 As the fields extend, the geographic boundaries become 
 in many cases less distinct, and the separation is gradually 
 being based more and more on fundamental differences in 
 the type of oil produced and its adaptability to refining needs. 
 Thus, the oils of the Appalachian field are in the main of 
 paraffin base, free from asphalt and objectionable sulphur, 
 and yielding by ordinary refining methods high percentages 
 of gasoline and kerosene, the products in greatest demand. 
 Contrasted with them is the petroleum of the Lima- Indiana 
 field, which contains some asphalt, though consisting chiefly 
 of paraffin hydrocarbons, and is contaminated with sulphur 
 compounds, which necessitate special treatment for their 
 elimination. Illinois oils contain various proportions of both 
 asphalt and paraffin, and differ considerably as to specific 
 gravity and distillation products. Sulphur is generally present, 
 but rarely in such form as to necessitate special treatment 
 for its removal. Mid-continent oils vary in composition within 
 wide limits, ranging from asphaltic oils, poor in gasoline and 
 illuminants, to oils in which the asphalt content is negligible 
 and which yield on distillation high percentages of the lighter 
 
UNITED STATES 75 
 
 products. Sulphur is present in various quantities in the 
 lower-grade oils, in certain of which Healdton, for example 
 it exists in a form requiring special treatment for its elimination. 
 Oils from the Gulf field are characterized by relatively high 
 percentages of asphalt and low percentages of the lighter 
 gravity distillation products. Considerable sulphur is present, 
 much of which, however, is in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen 
 and is easily removed by steam before refining or utilizing the 
 oil as fuel. Oils from Wyoming and Colorado are in the main 
 of paraffin base, suitable for refining by ordinary methods. 
 Heavy asphaltic oils of fuel grade are also obtained in certain 
 of the Wyoming fields. The California oils are generally 
 characterized by much asphalt and little or no paraffin, and 
 by varying proportions of sulphur. The chief products are 
 fuel oils, lamp oils, lubricants and asphalt, though low per- 
 centages of naphthas may be derived from certain of the lighter 
 oils, notably those of the Santa Maria, Sespe and Santa Paula 
 fields, in the southern part of the state. 
 
 The oil industry in the United States is generally regarded 
 as having had its beginnings in Pennsylvania in 1859, when 
 E. L. Drake found petroleum at Titusville by boring to a 
 depth of about 70 feet. Small quantities of oil had, however, 
 been produced at various points in Pennsylvania, West Vir- 
 ginia, Kentucky and elsewhere for many years previously. 
 
 Although oil and gas had been known and used for centuries, 
 particularly in Europe, there was practically no development 
 of the industry until the fields of the United States began to 
 be actively exploited. The world's production of petroleum 
 up to 1859 was a few thousand barrels. Two years later, 
 in 1861, the United States alone yielded over 2,000,000 barrels, 1 
 or more than 100 times as much as all the rest of the world 
 foi that year. In recent years the share of this country 
 in the world's production has averaged 66%, and the total 
 yield has been about 4,500,000,000 barrels against 2,500,000,000 
 for the rest of the world. In some quarters there is a belief, 
 based on scientific considerations, that the proportion of the 
 world's production yielded by the United States will soon 
 begin to show a decline. 
 
 1 i barrel = 35 Imp. gal. =42 Amer. gal. 
 
76 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Up to the present, about 4,598,000,000 barrels of crude oil 
 have been extracted, while a recent estimate of that remaining 
 underground in the known fields is 6,740,000,000 barrels. 
 Against the prophecies of exhaustion have to be set the repeated 
 discovery of new fields, such as Gushing, Ranger and Burk- 
 burnett. 
 
 The general development of the oil-fields of the country has 
 proceeded westward, but in 1876 the eastern producing states 
 (Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia) received a 
 noteworthy accession by the entry of California, the western- 
 most and now one of the principal producing states, which thus 
 preceded the central states Kentucky, Illinois, Kansas, Texas, 
 Oklahoma and Louisiana. Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio 
 and West Virginia, together have produced about 1,500,000,000 
 barrels ; California about 1,000,000,000 ; and Oklahoma 
 about 600,000,000. Oklahoma and California are the only 
 states which have in any single year produced more than 
 100,000,000 barrels. Prior to 1906 Oklahoma produced 
 annually less than i% of the total for the country, whereas 
 now it is yielding 25 to 30 %. 
 
 The oil-bearing formations of the United States range in 
 age from Ordovician to Late Tertiary, but the greater part of 
 the production comes from the Carboniferous, Cretaceous and 
 Tertiary. A good deal of oil is found in the Devonian formation 
 in Kentucky and other states, and large quantities in the 
 Ordovician, particularly in the " Trenton rock " of the Lima- 
 Indiana field. The Appalachian and Mid-continent oils are 
 mainly in Carboniferous sandstones, and the Gulf Coast and 
 California oils in Cretaceous and Tertiary sands. 
 
 Geologically, the oil pools of the United States are found 
 in a wide variety of structures, but generally it may be said 
 that the oil- fields occur in major or minor anticlines, occupying 
 the basins formed by the mountain ranges of older formations. 
 Many of the pools, particularly where the rocks are almost 
 perfectly flat, as they are in parts of Pennsylvania and ad- 
 joining states, do not show any close relation to structure ; 
 but, on the other hand, the great majority of the pools through- 
 out the country do show an obvious structural relationship, 
 and the determination of structure has come to play a very 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 77 
 
 important part in the search for new pools. Some large groups 
 of pools are located on major uplifts in the sedimentary basins, 
 such as the Lasalle anticline in Illinois and the broad anti- 
 cline in north-central Texas, upon which the Ranger fields 
 have recently been found. The heights of the minor anti- 
 clines vary from the almost imperceptible undulations of 
 portions of the Appalachian field to the sharp domes and 
 anticlines of the Gulf and Pacific coasts, which are commonly 
 many hundreds of feet in height and have limbs sloping as 
 much as 30 to 50. 
 
 The main characteristics of the regions are shown in the 
 table on page 78. 
 
 The following table gives the production figures for the 
 years 1901-1920 : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 I9OI 
 
 69,389,194 
 
 1908 
 
 178,527,355 
 
 1915 
 
 281,104,104 
 
 I9O2 
 
 88,766,916 
 
 1909 
 
 183,170,874 
 
 1916 
 
 300,767,158 
 
 1903 
 
 100,461,337 
 
 1910 
 
 209,557.248 
 
 1917 
 
 335,315,601 
 
 1904 
 
 117,080,960 
 
 I9II 
 
 220,449,391 
 
 1918 
 
 355.927.7 16 
 
 1905 
 
 134,717.580 
 
 1912 
 
 222,935,044 
 
 1919 
 
 377>7 I 9,ooo 
 
 1906 
 
 126,493,936 
 
 1913 
 
 248,446,230 
 
 1920 
 
 443,402,000 
 
 1907 
 
 166,095,335 
 
 1914 
 
 265,762,535 
 
 
 
 The above totals are divided amongst the various fields 
 as shown in the table on page 79. 
 
 Full details of the production by states and fields are deter- 
 mined and published by the U.S .Geological Survey in a series of 
 annual reports entitled Mineral Resources of the United States. 
 
 Imports. Despite the fact that the United States is the 
 world's principal producer and distributor of petroleum and 
 petroleum products, her import trade in these commodities 
 is steadily increasing. This is especially true with regard to 
 grades of oil desired for use as fuel, including both crude 
 petroleum and "topped crude," available from Mexico. 
 
 The following table shows the imports, in barrels, of crude 
 and refined petroleum for the years 1917-1920 : 
 
 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919. 
 
 1920. 
 
 Crude . <- 
 Refined . ; 
 
 30,126,677 
 1,400,875 
 
 37.735,642 
 1,207,148 
 
 52,821,567 
 x 339,649 
 
 106,175,289 
 2,618,549 
 
 Total . 
 
 31,527.552 
 
 38,942,770 
 
 54,161,216 
 
 108,793,838 
 

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 78 
 
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 79 
 
80 
 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 Exports. The accompanying table gives the exports of 
 crude petroleum and refined products for the years 1908-1920 : 
 
 Exports of Crude and Refined Petroleum 
 (Expressed in barrels of 35 Imp. gallons.) 
 
 Year. 
 
 Crude. 
 
 Naphtha, 
 benzine, gaso- 
 line, etc. 
 
 Illuminating. 
 
 Imbricating. 
 
 Residuum. 
 
 Total exports. 
 
 1908 . 
 
 3,552,143 
 
 1,044,925 
 
 26,881,064 
 
 3.518,305 
 
 1,846,467 
 
 36,842,904 
 
 1909 
 
 4.055.660 
 
 1,637,111 
 
 24,914,309 
 
 3-848,558 
 
 2,903.957 
 
 37,359.595 
 
 1910 . 
 
 4,288,361 
 
 2,397.507 
 
 22,386,833 
 
 3,900,771 
 
 2,800,133 
 
 35.773.605 
 
 I9II . 
 
 4.805,794 
 
 3,268,916 
 
 26,483,212 
 
 4,364,752 
 
 3,189,977 
 
 42,112,651 
 
 1912 . 
 
 4,493,125 
 
 4,428,571 
 
 24,431,862 
 
 5.152,217 
 
 6,338,969 
 
 44,844,744 
 
 1913 
 
 4,630,227 
 
 4,477,221 
 
 26,653,361 
 
 4.943,785 
 
 10,163,622 
 
 50,868,216 
 
 1914 . 
 
 2,969,890 
 
 4,992,680 
 
 24,058,314 
 
 4,563,034 
 
 16,750,188 
 
 53,334,106 
 
 1915 
 
 3.768,163 
 
 6,704,978 
 
 19,934.586 
 
 5,706,631 
 
 19,338,480 
 
 55,452,838 
 
 1916 . 
 
 4. 95.903 
 
 8,473,101 
 
 20,349,721 
 
 6,209,665 
 
 22,954,519 
 
 62,082,909 
 
 1917 . 
 
 4,098,122 
 
 9,901,871 
 
 15, 670.389 
 
 6,677,083 
 
 26,774,384 
 
 63,121,849 
 
 1918 . 
 
 4,900,686 
 
 13,312,509 
 
 11,693,087 
 
 6,126,561 
 
 28,596,442 
 
 64,629,285 
 
 1919 . 
 
 5,924,320 
 
 8,860,309 
 
 23,313,218 
 
 6,542,742 
 
 14,710,698 
 
 59,351,287 
 
 1920 . 
 
 8,044,907 
 
 15,265,855 
 
 20,521,237 
 
 9,782,719 
 
 20,165,712 
 
 73,780,430 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 Petroleum in the Argentine Republic is supposed to underlie 
 areas extending over 8,000 sq. miles, of which 400 sq. miles 
 give superficial evidences. Two regions may be distinguished : 
 '(a) in the west and north-west, along the eastern border of 
 the Andes, covering the provinces of Salta, Jujuy, Tucuman, 
 Mendoza and Neuquen territory ; and (b) on the Atlantic 
 coast, at Comodoro Rivadavia. Indications have also been 
 reported in the provinces of Santa Fe and Buenos Aires. 
 
 The deposits occur principally in Mesozoic formations. 
 In the Mendoza-Neuquen district the oil occurs in shales and 
 sandstones from Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous ; in 
 the Salta- Jujuy district in a series of red-coloured shales 
 and sandstones known as formation petrolifera, of which the 
 age is not known but is presumed to be Lower and Upper 
 Cretaceous ; and in the Comodoro Rivadavia field in rocks of 
 Lower or Upper Cretaceous, known as areniscas abigarradas 
 
ARGENTINA 
 
 81 
 
 or formation de dinosaurios. These deposits are overlaid 
 by marine formations of Tertiary age. 
 
 The producing area is at Comodoro Rivadavia, which is 
 situated on the Gulf of St. George, in the province of Chubut, 
 700 miles from Buenos Aires and 450 miles from Bahia Blanca. 
 The Government has reserved an area extending from the Pico 
 Salamanca in the north, to the border of Santa Cruz territory 
 in the south. 
 
 The oil comes from a coarse, pebbly sandstone of Upper 
 Cretaceous age, which lies on schist and granite, and is un- 
 conformably overlaid by Eocene and later beds. The strata, 
 which are of a clayey and sandy nature, dip at a low angle, 
 not exceeding 12 feet to the mile, and are said to form a 
 broad shallow syncline. 
 
 The output from this field has steadily increased, and repre- 
 sgnts practically the whole of the Argentina production, which 
 from 1907 to 1920 has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 I9II 
 1912 
 1913 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 15 
 
 1914 
 
 1,639 
 
 1915 
 
 2,633 
 
 1916 
 
 2,965 
 
 1917 
 
 1,874 
 
 1918 
 
 6,715 
 
 1919 
 
 18,660 
 
 1920 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 39,357 
 
 73,732 
 
 124,286 
 
 163,533 
 177,626 
 172,169 
 207,301 
 
 The oil is transported by two pipe -lines from the field to a 
 topping plant on the ocean front, and eventually to storage 
 tanks, which are connected with loading racks on a long wharf 
 and with a deep sea loading line. In the absence of rail- 
 ways, transport between Comodoro Rivadavia and Buenos 
 Aires is by tank steamer, and it is now proposed to build a 
 commercial port at the former place. 
 
 The crude oil ranges in specific gravity from 0-940 to 0-922, 
 and on distillation yields the following results : 
 
 Naphtha and gasoline . 
 Illuminating oils . 
 Lubricants, fuel and coke 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 i-5 to 3'5 
 15 to 19 
 77 to 85 
 
 It has very good heating properties and can be used in it 
 
82 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 crude state either by the employment of special burners or 
 directly in internal-combustion engines. 
 
 During the war the Argentina railway companies largely 
 adapted their locomotives to oil fuel burning, thereby using 
 up practically the whole of the domestic production of crude 
 oil. 
 
 New legislation in regard to the petroleum industry has 
 been under consideration, and is understood to declare that all 
 petroleum deposits are State property and that the Executive 
 may itself prospect or exploit, or may do so through provincial 
 governments or private parties. 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 Oil indications are continuous in a belt running north- 
 west and south-east for 100 miles as far as the Argentina 
 boundary at Yacuiba. The zone traverses the eastern pro- 
 vinces of Santa Cruz, Sucre and Tarija, between parallels 
 62 to 64 west longitude, and 19 to 22 south latitude, 
 the traces of oil extending from near Santa Cruz southward 
 through Sauces to Piquirenda Plata and Kuarazuti, in the 
 province of Tarija, and into Northern Argentina. Deposits of 
 good quality are reported at Calacoto on the Arica and La 
 Paz Railway, suggesting a possible continuation of the Titicaca 
 fields of Peru. 
 
 The oil strata seem to be the Lower Cretaceous dolomites, 
 the formation being much folded and faulted. The seepages 
 at Kuarazuti are found in two conglomerate horizons separated 
 by clay slates, the probable thickness of the overlying strata 
 ranging from 160 to 600 feet. 
 
 Practically no development work of any kind has so far 
 been carried out, the commercial exploitation of the oil being 
 almost impossible until the railway reaches the districts 
 in question. Two railroads are projected, one west from the 
 Paraguay River, and a second north from the Argentina frontier. 
 
 The oil is of asphaltic base and varies in composition from 
 specific gravity 0-975, containing 4% gasoline, to specific 
 gravity 0-810, containing 40% gasoline. 
 
BRAZIL CHILE COLOMBIA 83 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 Reports as to the presence in Brazil of petroleum in 
 commercial quantities are numerous, but so far little active 
 development has been engaged in to test the accuracy of 
 any of these reports. 
 
 Activity has chiefly been shown in the state of Rio Grande, 
 and it is reported that, on the strength of a very favourable 
 report from some government engineers, several drilling 
 outfits have been erected in the municipality of Sao Gabriel, 
 the average daily yield of crude oil being between two and three 
 tons. 
 
 In the State of Bahia extensive deposits of asphalt are 
 reported near Cururupu, to the south of Port Ilheos, but 
 have not yet been worked to any great extent. 
 
 Government engineers have also favourably reported on 
 the prospects of finding petroleum in the states of Pernambuco, 
 Alagoas and Sao Paulo. 
 
 CHILE 
 
 Petroleum is reported in the north of Chile in Tarapaca 
 province, near Puerto Porvenir and Agua Fresca in Magellanes 
 territory, and in Punta Arenas province, north-west of Tierra 
 del Fuego. Reports from the latter area state that very good 
 samples of oil have been found at Rio Amarillo. 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 Oil indications in Colombia are widespread, though they 
 are met with more especially in the Caribbean, Magdalena- 
 Santander, Tolima (Upper Magdalena) and Pacific zones. 
 
 The Caribbean zone is divisible into three parts, of which 
 the easiest of access is a band extending from east to west 
 300 miles long by 50 miles wide. 
 
 The Magdalena-Santander zone in the department so named 
 covers an area of about 10,000 sq. miles. Development has 
 been very largely confined to this area. 
 
84 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 The Tolima zone extends over about 7,000 sq. miles, while 
 the Pacific zone consists of a belt from 60 to 70 miles wide, 
 following the coast-line and comprising an area of about 
 1,500 sq. mile.s. 
 
 Legislation governing the petroleum industry has been 
 enacted recently (Law 120 of 1919, see Imp. Inst. Bull. 
 1, 1920, pp. 125-7) : th e State, whilst safeguarding rights 
 that have been already acquired, declares its ownership of 
 the petroleum deposits of the country. Areas are defined 
 in which deposits may be prospected for, or exploited, and a 
 scale of taxes to be paid has been drawn up. Eighty con- 
 cessions were applied for within three days of the passing 
 of the " Hydrocarbons Law," and the country is being pros- 
 pected by 1 60 foreign prospecting parties, according to the 
 Times Trade Supplement, of May 15, 1920. 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 The principal petroleum region in Ecuador is that of 
 Santa Elena, west of Guayaquil. Definite seepages are found 
 in many places over an area of about 600 sq. miles, and it 
 is expected that oil will be found in commercial quantities at 
 a depth of about 1,000 feet. 
 
 Traces of oil exist in Guayas province, and in El Oro province 
 seepages have been observed. There are asphalt deposits 
 on Coquimbo Hill, 13 miles north-east of Cuenca, in Azuay 
 province. Shale deposits on the shore of Abcon Bay are so 
 saturated with oil as to be easily discernible by their heavy 
 black colour. Indications are reported at Atacamas, north of 
 Guayaquil, and on the east flank of the Andes, on the south 
 side of the Pastaza River, 130 miles east by north of Guayaquil, 
 and 40 miles from Canelos. 
 
 The oil-bearing formation, which appears to be of Miocene 
 age, is blue shale of unknown thickness, superficial at some 
 points, and elsewhere covered with marine debris, very spongy 
 and resting on impermeable sandstone. 
 
 The petroleum of Santa Elena has a specific gravity of about 
 0-984, and is dark green in colour. It is a heavy oil, con- 
 taining about 18 % of kerosene. The existence of lighter oil 
 at greater depths is possible. 
 
ECUADOR PERU 
 
 85 
 
 Whilst the annual yield by seepage is estimated at 3,600 
 tons, production in a commerical sense has not really begun. 
 There is, however, considerable activity in prospecting, and 
 rapid development is now anticipated. 
 
 By a reform of the Mining Law which took effect in October, 
 1919, it was decreed that oil deposits which had not then been 
 appropriated, became the property of the State. A pro- 
 duction tax of from 5 to 10 % of the gross production was also 
 fixed. 
 
 PERU 
 
 The Peruvian petroleum fields may be divided into two 
 general districts the Andes, containing the Titicaca field, and 
 the Pacific coast district, including the Zorritos, Lobitos and 
 Negritos fields all in the department of Piura. Petroleum 
 is also found in the districts of Pirin, Chimbote, Jauja, Huan- 
 cavelica and lea ; in fact, it is said to occur at frequent 
 intervals from Tumbez to Lake Titicaca. The total area of 
 oil territory is over 5,000 sq. miles, of which 200 sq. miles 
 are stated to have been proved. 
 
 Production, the greater part of which has come from the 
 Negritos field, has been as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 1900 
 IQOI 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 1905 
 1906 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 Year. 
 
 45,716 
 
 1907 
 
 44,876 
 
 1908 
 
 37,860 
 
 1909 
 
 45,496 
 
 1910 
 
 49,45 
 
 1911 
 
 53,982 
 
 1912 
 
 76,613 
 
 1913 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 
 108,052 
 
 H4,455 
 188,016 
 190,015 
 195,468 
 250,163 
 304,752 
 
 Year. 
 1914 
 1915 
 1916 
 1917 
 1918 
 1919 
 1920 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 
 273,972 
 355,322 
 490,253 
 
 361,917 
 350,000 
 
 343,o 
 360,000 
 
 In Northern Peru oil is reported in sandstones of probable 
 Eocene age, interstratified with clay, shale, etc. The beds 
 of the upper sandstones are grey and coarse and intercalated 
 with red and yellow clays rich in fossils, while those of the 
 lower oil-bearing sandstones are dark and coarse and inter- 
 calated with thick, greenish clay beds, which are non-fossil- 
 iferous and more compact than the upper argillaceous beds. 
 Borings show that deposits may be grouped into three horizons : 
 (i) from 45 feet to 1,000 feet in depth ; (2) from 1,000 feet to 
 
86 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 1,800 feet ; and (3) from 1,800 feet to 3,000 feet. The rocks are 
 considerably broken up, but the formation is generally mono- 
 clinal, with beds dipping eastward. Some anticlines have 
 been located, the Zorritos fields being generally associated with 
 a wide and elongated anticline which extends along the 
 coast. The sea-coast in the Negritos field also corresponds 
 closely with the eastern flanks of a wide and long anticlinal 
 structure. 
 
 According to Deustua, the oilfields of Negritos and Lobitos 
 lie on the eastern flanks of a long and wide anticline, having 
 its axis almost parallel to the coast. Local irregularities are 
 introduced by secondary folds and by dip and strike faults. 
 Thus the structure is essentially monoclinal with the beds 
 dipping eastwards. The oil-bearing sandstones, which are 
 of Tertiary age, are generally lenticular in form and of varied 
 extent. 
 
 The formation in the Titicaca and other fields of the Andean 
 district is, in general, alternating beds of limestone, clay 
 and sandstones, the whole zone resting on a long, well-marked 
 anticlinal flexure extending from the north-west to the south- 
 east. 
 
 This Andean field, which now appears to be abandoned, 
 is in the Puno region, 300 miles from the coast and 8 miles 
 from Lake Titicaca, and extends from Cuzco to the Bolivian 
 boundary. Exploration was most extensive in the region of 
 Pirin, about 3 miles north-west of Pusi. The production, 
 which in 1908 was over 10,000 tons, is now negligible. 
 
 The coastal belt stretches southward from the Ecuadorean 
 frontier as far as Chile. The developed fields, however, 
 extend only from the town of Tumbez, south of the Gulf of 
 Guayaquil, for 180 miles to and beyond Paita, being bounded 
 on the east by a spur of the Andes Mountains. The belt is 
 about 30 miles wide and covers part of the province of Piura. 
 
 The Zorritos field, the oldest and the most northerly one, 
 is about 24 miles south of Tumbez, the producing territory 
 extending along the coast for about 4 miles. Most of the 
 wells are drilled at the water's edge. The greatest depth 
 known to have been reached is 3,020 feet, in Peroles ravine, 
 the majority of the wells being only between 600 feet and 
 
PERU VENEZUELA 87 
 
 2,000 feet deep. There are storage tanks and a refinery at 
 Zorritos. 
 
 The Lobitos field, 60 miles north of Paita, has a proved 
 area of about 25 sq. miles. In 1915, a new field was reported 
 at Punta Restin, 12 miles north of Lobitos. Much of the 
 crude oil from this field is shipped to loco in Vancouver for 
 refining. 
 
 The most southerly and the richest of the developed coastal 
 areas is the Negritos field, 40 miles north of Paita, It includes 
 the Lagunitos field and has an area of about 650 sq. miles. 
 Negritos is the centre of drilling operations, and Talara, 
 1 6 miles distant, is the shipping centre, with refineries, storage 
 tanks and wharves. There are nine large tanks with a total 
 capacity of about 120,000 tons. The Talara refinery has a 
 daily capacity of about 360 tons, and crude oil is also shipped 
 for treatment in Canada and the United States. 
 
 Peruvian oil is rich in gasoline and kerosene, and yields 
 very good lubricants. The oil in the Zorritos and Lobitos 
 fields is of asphalt base, with a specific gravity ranging from 
 0-8110 to 0-8395. That in the Negritos field is of a brown 
 colour, has marked fluorescence and is free from water, 
 while its specific gravity ranges from 0-815 to 0-850 ; it yields 
 less kerosene than the Zorritos oil. The oil from the Titicaca 
 field has a paraffin base and yields about 15 % paraffin wax. 
 
 The greater part of the petroleum output of the country 
 is sent to the United States and Canada, the remainder going 
 to Chile for use in the nitrate industry. 
 
 It is understood that a new law concerning petroleum is 
 at present in preparation, concessions in the meantime only 
 being obtainable by special act of the legislature. The regis- 
 tration of claims in the northern petroleum-bearing district 
 is at present suspended by Government decree. 
 
 VENEZUELA 
 
 As an oil-producing country, Venezuela is considered to 
 have great possibilities, numerous indications being found in 
 the delta of the Orinoco and in the districts of El Pilar and 
 Cumana, as well as around Lake Maracaibo. South of El 
 Pilar are the asphalt deposits of Guanoco, with an asphalt 
 
 7 
 
88 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF PETROLEUM 
 
 lake covering 1,100 acres, the product from which is stated to 
 be much superior to that of the Trinidad pitch lake ; the 
 production in 1912-13 was 61,000 tons. Wells have also been 
 sunk in this field, oil in quantity being expected between the 
 shale and the underlying Punceres limestone ; operations 
 are difficult, however, owing to the unhealthy and swampy 
 character of the region. There also appear to be asphalt 
 and oil deposits on the delta island of Pedernales. It is, 
 however, around Lake Maracaibo, in the districts of Rio 
 Pauji, San Timoteo (Mene Grande field), El Mene and 
 Inciarde, that the most important deposits are found. 
 
 Drilling has been carried on with good results in the Mene 
 Grande field, 16 miles east of the lake, and a refinery has 
 been built at San Lorenzo. In the Perija field, 50 miles 
 west of Lake Maracaibo, oil has been struck in considerable 
 quantities, and the well shut in. Additional test wells are 
 to be put down in this and in the Limon fields. 
 
 Other large concessions have been taken up on the eastern 
 and western sides of Lake Maracaibo, and a large refinery 
 has been built on the neighbouring island of Cura9ao to deal 
 with the production. 
 
 A concession of about 3,000 sq. miles known as Buchivacoa 
 lias been acquired in the State of Falcon, with a frontage to 
 the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 A distillation test of typical Venezuelan oil gave the following 
 results : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Spirit below 100 C. 4'99 
 
 White oil, initial boiling-point 150 C. . 0-67 
 Fuel oil, flash-point 176 F. . . . 74-50 
 Pitchy residue . . . . .15-62 
 Loss and refinery fuel . . . . 4-21 
 
 The productions of petroleum in Venezuela in 1917, 1918 
 and 1919 were 18,255, 50.710 and 64,628 metric tons re- 
 spectively. 
 
REFERENCES TO PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS 
 ON PETROLEUM 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Brame, J. S. S. : " Liquid Fuel and its Combustion," Jour. Inst. 
 
 Petr. Technol., 3, 1917, pp. 194-216. 
 Cadman, John : " Petroleum and its Occurrence," Trans. Inst. 
 
 Min. Eng., 57, 1918-19, pp. 118-24. 
 CampbeU, A. : " Petroleum Refining," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 2, 
 
 1915-16, pp. 274-95. 
 Carter, A. : see Ockenden, Maurice A. 
 Chambrier, Paul de : Exploitation du Petrole par Puits et Galeries, 
 
 Paris, 1921. 
 
 : " Working of Petroleum by means of ' Shafts ' and ' Gal- 
 leries/ " abs ? of paper read before Inst. Petr. Technol., Feb. 15, 
 1921 ; Petr. World, Mar. 1921, pp. 102-10. 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : Oil Finding, London, 2nd ed., 1920. 
 Dalton, L. V. : " On the Origin of Petroleum," Econ. Geology, 4, 
 
 1909, pp. 603-31. 
 
 Downs, A. A. : " Sealing of Water Horizons in Oil Wells by means 
 of the Cementing Process," Engineering, London, Nov. 5, 1920, 
 pp. 596-8. 
 Emmons, W. H. : Geology of Petroleum, New York and London, 
 
 1921. 
 
 Engler, C., and Hoefer, H. : Das Erdol, Leipzig, 1909. 
 Huntley, L. G. : see Johnson, R. H. 
 Johnson, R. H., and Huntley, L. G. : Principles of Oil and Gas 
 
 Production, New York and London, 1916. 
 Jones, W. F. : " Relation of Oil Pools to Ancient Shore Lines," 
 
 Econ. Geology, 15, 1920, pp. 81-7. 
 Lahee, F. H.: " Geologic Factors in Oil Prospecting," Econ. Geology, 
 
 14, 1919, pp. 480-90. 
 
 Lauer, A. W. : " Petrology of Reservoir Rocks and its Influence 
 on the Accumulation of Petroleum," Econ. Geology, 12, 1917, 
 
 P- 435- 
 
 90 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 91 
 
 Mills, R. van A. : " Experimental Studies in Subsurface Relationship 
 
 in Oil and Gas Fields," Econ. Geology, 15, 1920, pp. 389-421. 
 : " Relations of Texture and Bedding to the Movements of 
 
 Oil and Water through Sands," Econ. Geology, 16, 1921, 
 
 pp. 124-41. 
 
 Mineral Industry (New York, annual) . 
 Mitzakis, Marcel : The Oil Encyclopedia, 1912 (Supp. to Petr. 
 
 World). 
 Ockenden, Maurice A, and Carter, Ashley : " Plant used in the 
 
 Percussion Systems of Drilling Oil Wells," Jour. Inst. Petr. 
 
 TechnoL, 5, 1919, pp. 161-213. 
 : " Plant used in the Rotary System of Drilling Oil Wells," 
 
 Jour. Inst. Petr. TechnoL, 6, 1920, pp. 249-80. 
 Panyity, L. S. : Prospecting for Oil and Gas, New York, 1920. 
 Perkin, F. Mollwo : " Sulphur in Petroleum Oils," Jour. Inst. Petr. 
 
 TechnoL, 3, 1916-17, pp. 226-42. 
 
 Redwood, Boverton: A Treatise on Petroleum, London, 3rd ed., 1913. 
 and Eastlake, A. W. : The Petroleum Technologists Pocket- 
 
 Book, London, 1915. 
 Skinner, W. R. : The Oil and Petroleum Manual, London, 1918 
 
 et seq. 
 Stigand, I. A. : " Origin of Petroleum," Min. Mag., 22, 1920, 
 
 pp. 11-22. 
 Stirling, R. : " Air-lift System of Raising Oil," Jour. Inst. Petr. 
 
 TechnoL, 6, 1920, pp. 379-406. 
 Stuart, Murray : " The Sedimentary Deposition of Oil," Rec. Geol. 
 
 Survey India, 40, 1910, pp. 320-33. 
 Thompson, A. Beeby : Petroleum Mining and Oil-Field Develop- 
 
 ment, London, 1910. 
 
 : Oil-Field Development and Petroleum Mining, London, 1916. 
 
 : " The Relationship of Structure and Petrology to the 
 
 Occurrence of Petroleum," Trans. Inst. Min. and Met., 20, 
 
 1910-11, pp. 215-37. 
 Washburne, C. W. : " The Estimation of Oil Reserves," Trans. Am. 
 
 Inst. Min. Eng., 51, 1916, p. 646. 
 Willis, Bailey : " Geologic Distillation of Petroleum," Bull. 157, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Ziegler, Victor : " The Movements of Oil and Gas through Rocks," 
 
 Econ. Geology, 13, 1918, pp. 335-48. 
 : " Geologic and Economic Features of Oil Structure," Econ. 
 
 Geology, 15, 1920, pp. 247-58. 
 : Popular Oil Geology, New York and London, 2nd ed., 1920. 
 
92 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 GENERAL 
 
 Cadman, John : "Oil Resources of the British Empire," Jour. Roy, 
 
 Soc. Arts, 68, 1920, pp. 584-600. 
 Milner, H. B. : " Petroleum Resources of the British Empire/' 
 
 Canadian Min. Jour., 41, Sept. 23, 1920, pp. 716-21. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Campbell, Andrew : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 
 Dalton, W. H. : " On the Oil Prospects of the British Isles," Jour. 
 
 Inst. Petr. Technol., 4, 1917, pp. 37-50. 
 Dunstan, A. E. : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 Forbes-Leslie, W. : " The Occurrence of Petroleum in England," 
 
 Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 3, 1916-17, pp. 152-83. 
 Greene, J. Arthur (Editor) : A Treatise on British Mineral Oil, 
 
 London, 1919 (contributions by E. H. Cunningham Craig, 
 
 W. R. Ormandy, F. Mollwo Perkin, Andrew Campbell, A. E 
 
 Dunstan, and A. H. Seabrook). 
 Illing, V. C. : " Search for Subterranean ' Oil Pools ' in the British 
 
 Isles," Geol. Mag., 56, July 1919, pp. 290-301. 
 Ormandy, W. R. : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 Perkin, F. Mollwo : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 Seabrook, A. H. : see Greene, J. Arthur. 
 Sington, T. : " Search for Petroleum in the Derbyshire Coalfield," 
 
 Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 57, 1918-19, pp. 25-37. 
 Thompson, A. Beeby : " The Oil Well at Husbands Bosworth," 
 
 Jour. Northampton Nat. Hist. Soc., 13, 1906, pp. 267-9. 
 Veatch, A. C. : " Petroleum Resources of Great Britain," Bull. 157, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Walker, W. : " Petroleum in North Staffordshire," Petr. Rev., 24, 
 
 1911, p. 301. 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 Kewley, James : " Crude Oils of Borneo," Inst. Petr. Technol., 
 Mar. 1921, Abs. Petr. World, Apr. 1921. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 93 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Annual Reports on the Mineral Production of India, published in 
 
 the Rec. Geol. Survey, India. 
 
 Annual Statement, Sea-borne Trade of British India. 
 Brown, J. Coggin : " Recent Accounts of the Mud Volcanoes of the 
 
 Arakan Coast, Burma/' Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 37, 1908, 
 
 pp. 264-79. 
 Cotter, G. de P. : " The Structure and Age of the Taungtha Hills, 
 
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 36, 1908, pp. 149-55. 
 
 : " The Southern Part of the Gwegyo Hills, including the 
 
 Payagyigon-Nyashandaung Oilfield," Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 
 
 37, 1909, pp. 225-34. 
 
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 Survey, India, 38, 1909-10, pp. 302-7. 
 : " The Pegu-Eocene Succession in the Minbu District near 
 
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 : " The Geology of the Henzada District, Burma," Rec. Geol. 
 
 Survey, India, 41, 1912, pp. 240-65. 
 Dalton, L. V. : " Notes on the Geology of Burma," Quart. Jour. 
 
 Geol. Soc., 44, 1908, pp. 604-43. 
 Daru, N. D. : " Oil at Jaba, Mianwali District, Punjab," Rec. Geol 
 
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 Holland, T. H. : " On Mineral Oil from the Suleiman Hills," Rec* 
 
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 " Bibliography of the Petroleum Resources of the Punjab 
 
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 Jack, H. S. Maclean : " The Development of the Petroleum Industry 
 
 in Assam," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 3, 1916-17, pp. 263-76. 
 Medlicott, H. B. : " Note on the Occurrence of Petroleum in India/* 
 
 Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 19, 1886, pp. 185-204. 
 Middlemiss, C. S. : " Possible Occurrence of Petroleum in the 
 
 Jammu Province : Preliminary Note on the Nar-Budhan 
 
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 India, 49, 1919, pp. 192-213. 
 Noetling, Fritz : " Report on the Oil-Fields of Twingoung and 
 
 Berne, Burma," Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 22, 1889, pp. 75-136. 
 Oldham, R. D. : " Special Report on the Most Favourable Sites for 
 
 Petroleum Explorations in the Harnai District, Baluchistan/' 
 
 Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 23, 1890, pp. 57-9. 
 
94 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Oldham, R. D.: "Preliminary Report on the Oil Locality near 
 
 Moghal Kot, in the Sherani Country, Suleiman Hills," Rec. 
 
 Geol. Survey India, 24, 1891, pp. 83-4. 
 Pascoe, E. H. : " The Rabat Anticline, near Seiktein, Myingyan 
 
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 : " The Wetchok-Yedwet Pegu Outcrop, Magwe District, 
 
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 Burma," Rec. Geol. Survey, India, 38, 1909, pp. 152-3. 
 : "The Oilfields of Burma," Mem. Geol. Survey, India, 40, 
 
 1912, pp. 1-269. 
 : " The Petroleum Occurrences of Assam and Bengal," Mem. 
 
 Geol. Survey, India, 40, 1914, pp. 270-329. 
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 pp. 249-68. 
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 Lower Burma (including Namayan, Padaung, Taunbogyi and 
 
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 Survey, India, 38, 1909-10, pp. 205-8. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA AND PALESTINE 
 
 Oswald, Felix : "Oil and Asphalt in Palestine, Syria and Meso- 
 potamia," Petr. World, 15, 1918, pp. 459-61. 
 Spieker, E. M. : see under Persia. 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 Altemer, E. : " Gisements de petrole du golfe de Suez," Jour. Petr., 
 
 11, 1911, p. 55. 
 
 Annuaire Statistique de I'Egypte. 
 Chambers, D. M. : " Petroleum in ^Egypten," Petr. Zeitschr., 4, 
 
 1909, p. mo. 
 Dowson, E. M. : Note on the Programme and Policy of the Government 
 
 with regard to the Investigation and Development of the Petroleum 
 
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 Petroleum, Cairo, 1921. 
 Hume, W. F. : Report on the Oilfields Region of Egypt. Survey Dept. 
 
 Ministry of Finance, Egypt, Cairo, 1916. 
 : The Oil Fields of Egypt (abs. from Rept.), Cairo, 1917 (see 
 
 Petr. Times, Oct. 4, n and 18, 1919). 
 , Madgwick, T. G., Moon, F. W., and Sadek, H. : " Preliminary 
 
 General Report of the Occurrences of Petroleum in Western 
 
 Sinai," Petr. Research Bull. 2, Ministry of Finance, Egypt, 1920. 
 : " Preliminary Geological Report on Gebel 
 
 Nezzazat (Western Sinai)," Petr. Research Bull. 3, Ministry 
 
 of Finance, Egypt, 1920. 
 
 " Preliminary Geological Report on Gebel 
 
 Tanka Area," Petr. Research Bull. 4, Ministry of Finance, 
 Egypt, 1920. 
 
 " Preliminary Geological Report on the 
 
 Quseir-Safaga District, particularly the Wadi Mureikha Area," 
 Petr. Research Bull. 5, Ministry of Finance, Egypt, 1920. 
 
 " Preliminary Geological Report on South 
 
 Zeit Area," Petr. Research Bull. 7, Ministry of Finance, Egypt, 
 1920. 
 
 Madgwick, T. G., Moon, F. W., and Sadek, H. : " Preliminary Geo- 
 logical Report on Ras Dib Area," Petr. Research Bull. 8, 
 Ministry of Finance, Egypt, 1920. 
 
96 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 WEST AFRICA 
 
 Anon. : " Die Petroleum Felder in West Afrika," Petr. Zeitschr., 4, 
 
 1909, p. 985. 
 Boorman, T. H. : " Bitumens and Oils in West Africa," Eng. and 
 
 Min. Jour., 87, 1909, p. 1037. 
 Imperial Institute : " The Composition and Value of Natural 
 
 Pitch (Bitumen) from Lagos," Rept. 67, Results Min. Survey 
 
 Southern Nigeria, 1910, pp. 7-15. 
 Imperial Institute : " The Composition and Properties of Mineral 
 
 Pitch from Ijebu District, Lagos," Bull. Imp. Inst., 3, 1905, 
 
 pp. 39-40. 
 : " Crude Petroleum from the Gold Coast," Bull. Imp. Inst., 
 
 10, 1912, pp. 579- 8 3. 
 Parkinson, J. : " The Geology of the West Coast of Africa," Petr. 
 
 World, 6, 1909, p. 260. 
 : " The Age of the Bitumen-bearing Beds of Southern Nigeria," 
 
 Petr. World, 7, 1910, p. 322. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA 
 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : Report on Petroleum Prospects in the 
 
 Union of South Africa, Pretoria, 1914. 
 Kellner, G. I. : " Petroleum in Orange River Colony," Zeitschr. 
 
 prakt. Geologie, 16, 1908, p. 283. 
 Rogers, A. W. : " Report on the Prospect of Finding Oil in Southern 
 
 Karroo," Mem. 8, Geol. Survey, South, Africa, 1917. 
 Sandberg, C. G. S. : " The Oil Prospects of Central British South 
 
 Africa," Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 35, 1908, p. 545. 
 Sawyer, A. R. : " Petroleum Occurrences in the Orange River 
 
 Colony," Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 30, 1906, p. 541. 
 Stephen, M. J. : " Notes on the Occurrence of Oil in South Africa," 
 
 Trans. Geol. Soc., South Africa, 8, 1905, p. 28. 
 : " Petroleum Prospects in South Africa," Petr. Rev., 18, 1908, 
 
 p. 187. 
 
 BARBADOS 
 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : Report on the Oil Fields of Barbados, 
 
 Barbados, 1913. 
 : "The Prospective Oilfields of Barbados," Jour. Inst. Petr. 
 
 Technol., 4, 1918, pp. 68-78. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 97 
 
 CANADA 
 
 Annual Reports of the Mineral Production of Canada, Dept. of Mines, 
 
 Mines' Branch. 
 Bell, Robert : " The Tar Sands of the Athabaska River, Canada/' 
 
 Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 38, 1907, p. 838. 
 Bosworth, T. O. : " ^he Oil Fields of Western Canada/' Petr. 
 
 World, 12, 1915, pp. 85-92. 
 
 Camsell, C. : " Boring Operations for Oil in the Vicinity of Van- 
 couver, British Columbia/' Summ. Rept. Canada Geol. Survey, 
 
 1918, Part B, pp. 22-5. 
 Clapp, F. G., and others : " Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources 
 
 of Canada," Rept. 291, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines' Branch , 
 
 1914, 2 vols. 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : " The Prospective Oilfields of Western 
 
 Canada," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 1, 1915, pp. 127-45. 
 : " The Puzzle of the Calgary Field," Petr. World, 12, 1915, 
 
 PP- 335-6- 
 : " Search for Petroleum in Western Canada," Canadian Min. 
 
 Jour., Aug. 13, 1920, pp. 668-9. 
 Dowling, D. B. : " Correlation and Geologic Structure of the Alberta 
 
 Oil Fields," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 51, 1915, pp. 353-63. 
 : " Viking- Athabaska Gas Field," Summ. Rept. Canada Geol. 
 
 Survey, 1917, Part C, pp. 5-6. 
 : Slipper, S. E., and McLearn, F. H. : " Investigations in the 
 
 Gas and Oilfields of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba/' 
 
 Mem. 116, Canada Geol. Survey, 1919. 
 Ells, R. W. : "The Oil Fields of Gaspe," i$th Ann. Rept., New 
 
 Series, Canada Geol. Survey, 1903, pp. 34060. 
 Ells, S. C. : " Preliminary Report on the Bituminous Sands of 
 
 Northern Alberta," Rept. 281, Canada Dept. Mines, Mines' 
 
 Branch, 1914. 
 Mackenzie, J. D. : " Geology of Graham Island, British Columbia," 
 
 Mem. 88, Canada Geol. Survey, 1916. 
 McLearn, F. H., see Dowling, D. B. 
 McQueen, A. M. : " Petroleum in Ontario," Bull. 91, Canadian 
 
 Min. Inst., Nov. 1919, pp. 1137-40. 
 Malcolm, Wyatt : "Oil and Gas Prospects of the North- Western 
 
 Provinces of Canada," Mem. 29, Canada Geol. Survey, 1913. 
 : " The Oil and Gas Fields of Ontario and Quebec," Mem. 81, 
 
 Canada Geol. Survey, 1915. 
 
98 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Pearce, N. C. : " Petroleum in the Western Province of Canada," 
 
 Canadian Min. Jour., 40, Sept. 10, 1919, pp. 673-6. 
 Slipper, S. E. : " Oil and Gas, Alberta," Summ. Rept. Canada Geol. 
 
 Survey, 1916, pp. 114-34. 
 : "Oil Production, Sheep River Area," Summ. Rept. Canada 
 
 Geol. Survey, 1917, Part C, pp. 4-5. 
 : " Viking Gas Field," Summ. Rept. Canada Geol. Survey, 1917, 
 
 Part C, pp. 6-9. 
 see Dowling, D. B. 
 
 Stansfield, John: "The Petrolia Oil Field, Ontario," Trans. 
 
 Canadian Min. Inst., 19, 1916. 
 Summ. Rept. Canada Geol. Survey, 1907 et seq. 
 Williams, M. Y. : " Oil Prospects of South- Western Ontario," Summ. 
 
 Rept. Canada Geol. Survey, 1917, Part E, pp. 19-25. 
 : "Oil Fields of South- Western Ontario," Summ. Rept. 
 
 Canada Geol. Survey, 1918, Part E, pp. 30-41. 
 : " Geology of Ontario as it Affects Oil and Gas Production," 
 
 Canadian Min. Jour., 40, Sept. 3, 1919, p. 655. 
 
 TRINIDAD 
 
 Annual Administration Reports of Inspector of Mines, Mines' 
 
 Department, Trinidad and Tobago. 
 
 Cadman, John : " Notes on the Development of the Trinidad Oil- 
 fields," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 1, 1915, pp. 99-126. 
 Craig, E. H. Cunningham : " Mayaro-Guayaguayare Oilfield," 
 
 Trinidad and Tobago Council Paper 25, 1905. 
 : " Oilfields of Trinidad," Trinidad and Tobago Council Paper 
 
 119, 1905. 
 : "On the Cedros District," Trinidad and Tobago Council 
 
 Paper 12, 1906. 
 : " The Guapo and La Brea Districts," Trinidad and Tobago 
 
 Council Paper 30, 1906. 
 : " District East of Erin," Trinidad and Tobago Council 
 
 Paper 147, 1906. 
 : "Central and Northern Anticlines (Western Districts)," 
 
 Trinidad and Tobago Council Paper 60, 1907. 
 : " Central Anticline (Central District)," Trinidad and Tobago 
 
 Council Paper 131 of 1907. 
 Imperial Institute : " Petroleum from Trinidad," Bull. Imp. Inst., 
 
 1, 1903, pp. 177-80. 
 : "Natural Pitch or Manjak," Bull. Imp. Inst., 1, 1903, 
 
 pp. 180-2. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 99 
 
 Macready, G. A. : " Petroleum Industry of Trinidad," Bull. 165, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920, pp. 21-22. 
 Thompson, A. Beeby : The Oilfields of Trinidad, London, 1910. 
 
 BRITISH GUIANA 
 U.S. Comm. Kept., Oct. 20, 1916. 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Trade and Customs and Excise Revenue of the Commonwealth of 
 Australia, Melbourne (Annual). 
 
 Wade, A. : " The Supposed Oil-bearing Areas of South Australia/' 
 Bull. 4, Geol. Survey, South Australia, 1915. 
 
 Ward, L. Keith : " Report on the Prospects of Obtaining Supplies 
 of Petroleum by Virey in the Vicinity of Robe and Elsewhere 
 in the South-Eastern Portion of South Australia/' Review 
 of Mining Operations, South Australia, Dept. Mines, No. 25, 
 19*7, PP- 45-54- 
 
 PAPUA (NEW GUINEA) 
 
 Carne, J. E. : " Notes on the Occurrence of Coal, Petroleum and 
 Copper in Papua," Bull. I of the Territory of Papua, 1913 
 (Chap. II, " Petroleum and Natural Gas in Papua, with Notes 
 of their Occurrence in the Dutch-Indies and Elsewhere," 
 pp. 34-82). 
 
 Chapman, Frederick : " Report of a Collection of Cainozoic Fossils 
 from the Oilfields of Papua," Bull. 5 of the Territory of Papua, 
 1918. 
 
 Imperial Institute : " Petroleum in Papua," Bull. Imp. Inst., 13, 
 1915, pp. 185-9. 
 
 Langford, W. G. : " Geology of the Hohoro District, Papuan 
 Oilfield," Bull. 4 of the Territory of Papua, 1918. 
 
 Wade, A. : Report on Petroleum in Papua, Melbourne, 1914 (Abs. 
 Petr. World, 1915, 12, pp. 197-201 and 260-1). 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 Bell, J. M. : " Petroleum in New Zealand," Australian Inst. Min. 
 
 Eng., 13, 1910, p. 84. 
 " C. A. " : " Le Petrole dans la Nouvelle Zelande," Jour. Petr., 10, 
 
 1910, pp. 145-6. 
 
100 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Henry, J. D. : Oilfields of New Zealand, London, 1911. 
 
 Hill, H. : " Oil Wells and Oil Prospects along the East Coast," 
 
 Trans. New Zealand Inst., 39, 1907, pp. 509-20. 
 Rich, F. A. : Report on East Coast Petroleum Fields, 1907. 
 Rolleston, G. H. F. : " Petroleum in New Zealand," Board of 
 
 Trade Jour., 68, 1910, p. 256. 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 Anon. : " Erdolvorkommen in Tschechoslowakien," Petroleum, 
 
 Feb. i, 1920, pp. 559-60. 
 
 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 Couran : " Pechelbronn et les exploitations de petrole en Alsace," 
 
 Bull. Soc. de I'Indus. Min., St. Etienne, Sept.-Oct. 1920, 
 
 pp. 117-38. 
 Chambrier, P. de : " Les Gisements de Petrole d' Alsace," Bull. 
 
 Soc. d'Encour., Jan.-Feb., 1920, pp. 45-70, July-Aug. 1920, 
 
 pp. 458-63. 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Hoffmann, F. A. : " Asphalt-Vorkommen von Limmer bei Hannover 
 und von Vorwohle am Hils," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, 1875, 
 
 PP. 370-9- 
 
 Offermann, H. : " Die Primaren Oellagerstatten im Wietze- 
 Steinf order Erdolgebiete," Petr. Zeitschr., 16, Sept. 20, 1920, 
 PP. 496-9. 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Anon. : " Italy's Petroleum Resources," Petr. World, 13, 1916, 
 
 P. 275- 
 Anon. : "The Petroleum Industry in Italy," Petr. World, 14, 1917, 
 
 P. 556. 
 Lotti, B. : "II bacino petrolifero di Firenzuola in prov. di Firenze," 
 
 Rassegna Min., Oct. 1920, pp. 53-5. 
 Thiel, Georg. : " Das Asphaltkalkgebeit des Pescaratales am 
 
 Nortabhange Majella (Abruzzen)," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologie, 
 
 20, 1912, pp. 169-96. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 101 
 
 POLAND 
 
 Eminowicz, W. : "Oil Industry in Poland," Petr. Times, Aug. 21, 
 
 1920, p. 191. 
 Grzybowski, Jozef : " The Geology of Polish Oilfields (Polish 
 
 Carpathians)," Petr. Times, Aug. 28, 1920, pp. 215-16 (from 
 
 Polish Econ. Bull.). 
 Seldes, J. B. : " Die Naphtalagerstatten der Umgegend von Borys- 
 
 law Justanowice," Petroleum, 16, 1920, pp. 499-503. 
 Uhlig, V. : " Ergebnisse Geologische Aufnehmen in den West- 
 
 galizuchen Karpathen," K.K. Geol. Reichsanstalt, Jahrb. 38, 
 
 1888, pp. 83-264. 
 Zuber, Rudolph : " Die Geologische Verhaltnisse von Boryslaw in 
 
 Ostgalizien," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, 1904, pp. 41-8. 
 : " Die Geologische Verhaltnisse de Erdolzone Opaka-Schod- 
 
 nica-Urye in Ostgalizien," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologie, 1904, 
 
 pp. 86-94. 
 
 ROUMANIA 
 
 Aradi, V. : " Uber die Bildung der Rumanischen Petroleum 
 
 Lagerstatten," Organ. Verein. Bohr-techniker, 15, 1908. 
 Dalton, L. V. : "A Sketch of the Geology of the Baku and European 
 
 Oilfields," Econ. Geology, 14, 1909, pp. 89-117. 
 Hennion, C. : " The New Baicoi Field of Roumania," Petr. World, 
 
 13, 1916, pp. 375-6. 
 Kanitz, J. : On the Growth of the Roumanian Petroleum Industry, 
 
 see Petroleum, 2, 1902, pp. 604-8, 658-61, 712-3, 818-20. 
 Masterson, T. S. : " The Petroleum Industry in Roumania," Jour. 
 
 Inst. Petr. Technol., 4, 1918, pp. 79-93. 
 Preiswerk, H. : " Ueber den Geologischen Bau du Region der 
 
 Schlammvulkane und Olfelder von Berca und Beciu bei 
 
 Buzeu in Riimanien," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologie, 20, 1912, 
 
 pp. 86-95. 
 Stefanescu, S. : Etude sur les Terrains Tertiaires de Roumanie, 
 
 Lille, 1897. 
 Weinstein, L. : " Die Rumanische Petroleum Industrie," Festschr. 
 
 III. Internal . Petr. Kongr., 1907, pp. 11-32. 
 
102 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 RUSSIA (INCLUDING GEORGIA) 
 
 Adiassevich, A. : " Oilfields of Russia," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. 
 
 Eng., 48, 1914, p. 613. 
 Aldebert, P. : "La situation petrolifere actuelle au Caucase ; de 
 
 Maikop, Grosny, et Bakou," Bull. Soc. des Ingen. Civils de 
 
 France, Jan.-Mar. 1920, pp. 125-53. 
 Behr, F. M. : " Das Vorkommen von Erdol, Erdolgasen und 
 
 Brandschiefern in den Baltischen Ostseeprovinzen Estland, 
 
 Lioland und Kurland," Petroleum, May i, 1919, pp. 705-11. 
 Calder, WiUiam : "The Maikop Oil Field, South Russia," Trans. 
 
 Inst. Min. Eng., 48, 1915, pp. 321-47. 
 Dalton, L. V. : "A Sketch of the Geology of the Baku and European 
 
 Oilfields," Econ. Geol., 4, 1909, pp. 89-117. 
 Ghambashidze, D. : " The Russian Petroleum Industry and its 
 
 Prospects," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 4, 1918, pp. 158-84. 
 Hautpick, E. de : " Oilfields of the Crimea," Min. Jour., 29, May 
 
 1920, pp. 400-1. 
 
 Holiday, F. A. : " The Uralsk Province and its Oilfields (Ural- 
 Caspian Oilfields)," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol., 2, 1915-16, 
 
 pp. 87-117. 
 Huntley, L. G. : "Baku Oilfields," Econ. Geology, 11, 1916, 
 
 pp. 279-83. 
 Kayden, E. M. : " Petroleum Industry of Russia," Eng. and Min. 
 
 Jour., 109, June 19, 1920, pp. 1365-70. 
 Knapp, Arthur : " Drilling and Production Technique in the Baku 
 
 Oil Fields," Bull. 157, Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Stahl, A. F. : On the Grosney Oilfields, see Petroleum, 1, 1900, 
 
 P- 365- 
 : On the Voznessensk Oilfields and the Tiflis Oilfields, see 
 
 Petroleum, 1, 1901, p. 480. 
 : On some Russian Oilfields in Embryo, see Petroleum, 1, 1901, 
 
 pp. 621-2. 
 Thompson, A. B. : The Oilfields of Russia and the Russian Petroleum 
 
 Industry, London, 1904. 
 : " Oilfields of Russia," Bull. 161, Am. Inst. Min. and Met. 
 
 Eng., 1920. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES 
 
 Emmons, H. H., and Gruner, J. W. : " The Sanga Sanga Oil Field 
 of Borneo," Eng. and Min. Jour., Ill, Mar. 5, 1921, pp. 431-2. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 103 
 
 Jezler, H. : " Das Oilfield Sanga Sanga in Koetel, Mederal-Ost- 
 Borneo," Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, 24, 1916, pp. 77-85 and 
 
 113-25- 
 
 Kewley, James : " The Crude Oils of Borneo " (paper read before 
 the Inst. Petr. Technol., Mar. 1921, abs. Petr. World, Apr. 
 1921, p. 137. 
 
 JAPAN AND FORMOSA 
 
 Anon. : " Oilfields of Japan," Petr. World, 1914, pp. 323-5, 389-92. 
 Anon. : U.S. Official Returns, Petr. World, 1917, p. 117. 
 Clements, J. Morgan : " Petroleum in Japan," Econ. GeoL, 13, 
 
 1918, pp. 512-23. 
 Iki, T. : " Preliminary Note on the Geology of Echigo Oil Field," 
 
 Geol. Soc. Japan, Mem. 2, pp. 29-57, Tokyo, 1910. 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 Busk, H. G., and Mayo, H. T. : " Some Notes on the Geology of the 
 Persian Oilfields," Jour. Inst. Petr. Technol. , 5, 1918, pp. 3-26. 
 
 Hunter, C. M. : " Oilfields of Persia," Bull. 158, Am. Inst. Min. and 
 Met. Eng., 1920. 
 
 Spieker, E. M. : " Petroleum in Persia and the Near East," Eng. 
 and Min. Jour., 110, Aug. 14, 1920, pp. 316-23. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Pratt, W. E. : " Occurrence of Petroleum in the Philippines," 
 
 Econ. Geol., 11, 1916, pp. 246-65. 
 Smith, Warren du Pre : " Petroleum in the Philippines," Bull. 158, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 
 CUBA 
 
 De Golyer, E. : " The Geology of Cuban Petroleum Deposits," 
 Bull. Assoc. Am. Petr. Geol., 2, 1917, pp. 133-67. 
 
 Peckham, H. E. : " Bituminous Deposits of Cuba," Am. Jour. Sci., 
 4th Ser., 12, 1901, pp. 33-41. 
 
 Vaughan, T. N. : " Bitumen in Cuba," Eng. and Min. Jour., 73, 
 1902, p. 344. 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 Ball, S. H. : " The Tampico Oil Field, Mexico," Eng. and Min. 
 
 Jour., 91, May 13, 1911, pp. 958-61. 
 Bustamante, Miguel : "El Petroleo en la Republica Mexicana, 
 
 8 
 
104 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 estudio geologico economico sobre los yacimientos petroliferos 
 
 Mexicanos," Bol. 35, Inst. Gepl. de Mexico, 1918 (Part I). 
 Degolyer, E. : "The Furbero Oilfield, Mexico/' Bull. 105, Am. 
 
 Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, pp. 1899-1911. 
 
 : " The Significance of Certain Mexican Oil Field Tempera- 
 tures," Econ. Geology, 13, 1918, pp. 275-301. 
 Dumble, E. T. : " The Occurrences of Petroleum in Eastern Mexico 
 
 as Contrasted with Those in Texas and Louisiana/' Bull. 104, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, p. 1623. 
 
 Garfias, V. R. : " The Effect of Igneous Intrusions on the Accumu- 
 lation of Oil in North- Western Mexico," Jour. Geology, 20, 1912, 
 
 p. 666. 
 : " The Oil Region of North-Eastern Mexico," Econ. Geology, 
 
 10, 1915, pp. 195-224. 
 , and Hawley, F. J. : " Tunnel and Anticlinal-ring Structure 
 
 Associated with Igneous Intrusions in the Mexican Oil Fields," 
 
 Bull. 128, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Aug. 1917, p. 1147. 
 Huntley, L. G. : " The Mexican Oilfields," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. 
 
 Eng., 52, 1915, pp. 281-322. 
 Ordonez, Ezequiel : " Occurrence and Prospects of Oil in Mexico," 
 
 Eng. and Min. Jour., 89, May 14, 1910, p. 1020. 
 : " The Oil Fields of Mexico/' Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. t 
 
 50, 1914, pp. 859-69. 
 Redfield, A. H. : " The Isthmian Oil Fields of Mexico," Eng. and 
 
 Min. Jour., Ill, Mar. 19, 1921, pp. 510-14. 
 Stewart, P. C. A. : " The Petroleum Industry of Mexico," Jour. 
 
 Inst. Petr. Technol., 2, 1915, pp. 7-43. 
 Villarello, J. D. : " Algunas Regiones Petroliferas de Mexico," 
 
 Bol. 26, Inst. geol. Mexico, 1908. 
 White, I. C. : " Gulf Coast Petroleum Fields of Mexico between the 
 
 Tamesi and Tuxpan Rivers," Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 24, 1913, 
 
 PP. 253-74- 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Arnold, Ralph : see Eldridge, G. H. 
 
 , and Garfias, V. R. : " Geology and Technology of the Cali- 
 
 fornian Oil Fields," Bull. 87, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1914 
 Bacon, R. F., and Hamor, W. A. : The American Petroleum Industry, 
 
 New York and London, 1916. 
 Beal, Carl H. : " Geologic Structure in the Gushing Oil and Gas 
 
 Field," Bull. 128, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1917. 
 Bennett, H. R. : see Stephenson, E. A. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 105 
 
 Blackwelder, E. B. : " The Origin of Central Kansas Oil Domes," 
 
 Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol., 4, No. i, 1920, pp. 89-94. 
 Bosworth, T. O. : The Geology of the Mid-Continental Oil Fields, 
 
 New York, 1920. 
 Bownocker, J. A. : " Petroleum in Ohio and Indiana," Bull. Geol. 
 
 Soc. America, 28, 1917, pp. 667-76. 
 Brokaw, Albert D. : " Preliminary Report on Southern Illinois," 
 
 Bull. 35, Illinois Geol. Survey, 1916. 
 Bybee, H. P. : see Udden, J. A. 
 Clapp, F. G. : " Geology of Cement Oil Field " (Oklahoma), Bull. 
 
 158, Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Collier, J. A. : " Anticlines near Maverick Springs, Fremont Co., 
 
 Wyoming," Bull. 711 H, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. to Econ. 
 
 Geology, 1919, pp. 149-66. 
 Eldridge, G. H., and Arnold, Ralph : " The Santa Clara Valley, 
 
 Puente Hills, and Los Angeles Oil Districts, Southern 
 
 California," Bull. 309, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p. 140. 
 Fenneman, N. M. : " Oil Fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast 
 
 Plain," Bull. 282, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1906, p. 74. 
 Freeman, O. W. : " Oilfields in Central Montana," Eng. and Min. 
 
 Jour., 109, Apr. 17, 1920, pp. 936-8. 
 Fuller, Myron L. : " Appalachian Oil Fields," Bull. Geol. Soc. 
 
 America, 28, 1917, pp. 617-54. 
 : " Relation of Oil to Carbon Ratios of Pennsylvania Coals 
 
 in North Texas," Econ. Geology, 14, 1919, p. 538. 
 : " Carbon Ratios in Carboniferous Coals of Oklahoma, and 
 
 their Relation to Petroleum," Econ. Geology, 15, 1920, pp. 
 
 225-35- 
 Gardner, J. H. : " Mid-Continent Oil Fields," Bull. Geol. Soc. 
 
 America, 28, 1917, pp. 685-720. 
 Glenn, L. C. : " Oilfields of Kentucky and Tennessee," Bull. 157, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Hancock, E. T. : " Upton Thornton Oil Field, Wyoming," Bull. 
 
 716 B, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. to Econ. Geology, Part II, 
 
 Apr. 29, 1920, pp. 17-34. 
 : " Mull Creek Oil Field, Wyoming," Butt. 716 C, U.S. Geol. 
 
 Survey, Contrib. to Econ. Geology, Part II, July 27, 1920, 
 
 PP- 35-53- 
 Hares, C. J. : " Anticlines in Central Wyoming," Bull. 641 /, U.S. 
 
 Geol. Survey, 1916. 
 Harris, G. D. : " Oil and Gas in Louisiana," Bull. 429, U., Geol, 
 
 Survey, 1910, p. 8, 
 
106 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Kay, F. H. : " Oil Fields of Illinois," Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 28, 
 
 1917, pp. 655-66. 
 Knox, J. K. : " Probable Oil Resources of New Mexico," Eng. and 
 
 Min. Jour., 110, July 10, 1920, pp. 69-74. 
 Matson, G. C., and Hopkins, O. B. : " The Corsicana Oil and Gas 
 
 Fields, Texas," Bull. 661, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1918, p. 239. 
 Matteson, W. G. : " Review of the Development of the New Oil- 
 fields in Central Texas during 1918," Econ. Geology, 19, 1919, 
 
 pp. 95-146. 
 Mineral Resources of the United States, Part II, Non-Metals, U.S. 
 
 Geol. Survey (Annual). 
 Miser, Hugh D. : " Structure of the Waynesboro Quadrangle with 
 
 Special Reference to Oil and Gas," Bull. Tennessee Geol. Survey, 
 
 1917. 
 Moore, R. C. : " Petroleum Resources of Kansas," Bull. 158, Am. 
 
 Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Neal, R. O. : " Petroleum Hydrology Applied to the Mid-Continent 
 
 Field," Bull. 145, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1919. 
 Pack, R. W. : " The Sunset Midway Oil Field," Prof. Paper 116, 
 
 U.S. Geol. Survey, 1920, pp. 9-173. 
 Rich, John L. : " Oil and Gas in the Birds' Quadrangle, Illinois," 
 
 Bull. 33, Illinois State Geol. Survey, 1916. 
 : " Oil and Gas in the Vincennes Quadrangle," Bull. 33, Illinois 
 
 State Geol. Survey, 1917. 
 Rogers, G. S. : " The Sunset Midway Oil Field, California," Prof. 
 
 Paper 117, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1919, pp. 37-42. 
 Rowe, J. P. : " Oil and Gas in Montana," Eng. and Min. Jour., 110, 
 
 Aug. 28, 1920, pp. 412-7. 
 Semmes, Douglas R. : " Oil Possibilities in Northern Alabama," 
 
 Bull. 159, Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 St. Clair, S. : " Irvine Oil District, Kentucky," Bull. 151, Am. Inst. 
 
 Min. and Met. Eng., 1919. 
 
 Stebinger, Eugene : " Anticlines in the Blackfeet Indian Reserva- 
 tion, Montana," Bull. 641, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1916, pp. 281-305. 
 Stephenson, E. A., and Bennett, H. R. : " Ranger Oilfield, Texas," 
 
 Eng. and Min. Jour., 109, May 15, 1920, pp. 1121-9. 
 Udden, J. A., and Bybee, H. P. : " The Thrall Oil Field," Bull. 66, 
 
 Univ. Texas, 1916. 
 Wegemann, C. H. : " Petroleum in Wyoming," Eng. and Min. Jour., 
 
 109, June 26, 1920, pp. 1417-19. 
 : "The Salt Creek Oil Field, Wyoming," Butt. 670, U.S. 
 
 Geol. Survey, 1911, p. 36, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 107 
 
 Wheeler, H. A. : " Oilfields of Northern Texas," Eng. and Min. 
 Jour., 109, Mar. 27, 1920, pp. 741-7, and June 12, 1920, 
 
 pp. 1317-19- 
 Wheeler, H. A : " Influence of Faulting in the Illinois Oilfields," 
 
 Eng. and Min. Jour., Ill, Jan. i, 1921, pp. 22-24. 
 Ziegler, Victor : " The Pilot Butte Oil Field, Fremont County, 
 
 Wyoming," Bull. 13, Wyoming Geol. Survey, 1916. 
 : " The Byron Oil and Gas Field, Big Horn County, Wyoming," 
 
 Bull. 14, Wyoming Geol. Survey, 1917. 
 : " The Oregon Basin Gas and Oil Field, Pack Co., Wyoming," 
 
 Bull. 15, Wyoming Geol. Survey, 1917. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA (GENERAL) 
 
 Arnold, Ralph : " Conservation of the Oil and Gas Resources of the 
 
 Americas," Proc. 2nd Pan-Am. Sci. Cong., 3, 1917, pp. 207-37 ; 
 
 Econ. Geology, 11, 1916, pp. 203-22, 299-326. 
 Clapp, F. G. : " Review of Present Knowledge Regarding the 
 
 Petroleum Resources of South America," Bull. 130, Am. Inst. 
 
 Min. Eng., 1917. 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 Anon. : " Argentine's Petroleum Industry," Pelr. Times, July 17 
 
 and Aug. 7, 1920, pp. 63-4 and 141-3. 
 Brackebusch, L. : " Estudios sobre la Formacion Petrolifera de 
 
 Jujuy," Bol. Acad. Nac. de Cien. en Cordoba, 5, 1883, pp. 
 
 137-84- 
 Bonarelli, Guido : "La Estructura Geologica y los Yacirnientos 
 
 Petroliferos del Distrito Minero de Oran, Prov. de Salta," 
 
 Bol. 9, Minist. Agr. Min. Geol. eHidr., Ser. B (Geologia), 1914. 
 : " Las Sierras Subandinas del Alto y Aguaragiie y los Yaci- 
 
 mientos Petroliferos del Distrito Minero de Tartagal, Dept. de 
 
 Oran, Prov. de Salta," An. Minist. Agr. Seccion Geol. Min. y 
 
 Min., 8, 1913. 
 Clapp, F. G. : " The Oil Resources of Argentina," Petr. World, 15, 
 
 1918, pp. 54-6. 
 : " The Occurrence of Oil in the North Argentine-Bolivian 
 
 Field," Bull. 148, Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1919. 
 Hermitte, Enrique M. : " Area de Distribucion de las Yacirnientos 
 
 Petroliferos y Estado Actual de su Exploitation en la 
 
 Argentina," Proc. 2nd Pan-Am. Sci. Cong., 8, 1917, pp. 116-29. 
 
108 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Herold, S. C. : " Petroleum in the Argentine Republic/' Bull. 158, 
 
 Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., 1920. 
 Pedroso, Fernando de : " Informe sobre el Estado de la Exploracion 
 
 y Exploitacion de los Yacimientos Petroliferos del Distrito 
 
 Minero de Comodora Rivadavia," Bol. 6, Minist. Agr. Min. 
 
 Geol. e Hidr., Ser. A (Minas), 1915. 
 Windhausen, Anselmo : " Los Yacimientos Petroliferos de la Zona 
 
 Andina," Bol. 15, Minist. Agr. Min. Geol. e Hidr., Ser. B, 1916. 
 Zuber, R. : " Informe sobre los Terrenos Petroliferos del Dept. de 
 
 San Rafael," Bol. Acad. Nac. de Cien. en Cordoba, 12, 1892, 
 
 pp. 321 et seq. 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 Clapp, F. G. : " The Oil Resources of Brazil and Bolivia/' Petr. 
 World, 15, 1918, pp. 333-5- 
 
 Herold, Stanley C. : " The Economic and Geologic Conditions 
 Pertaining to the Occurrence of Oil in the North Argentine- 
 Bolivia Field of South America," Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 
 1918, pp. 1503-22. 
 
 Schiller, Walther : " Contribution al Conocimiento de la Formation 
 Petrolifera (Cretaceo) de Bolivia del Sud.," Rev. del Mus. La 
 Plata, Univ. Nac. La Plata, 20, 1913, pp. 168-97. 
 
 BRAZIL 
 See Clapp, F. G. (Bolivia). 
 
 CHILE 
 
 Briiggen : " Bericht iiber die Erdolindustrie Chile," Petr. Zeitschr., 
 
 July 10, 1920, pp. 267-8. 
 Fuenzalida, J. del C. : " Estudios Petroliferos en la Region de 
 
 Magellanes," Bol. Insp. Geog. Min., Min. Indus. Obras Publicas, 
 
 Afio 10, 1914, pp. 5-13. 
 Machado, Miguel R. : " Estudios de los Terrenos Petroliferos de 
 
 Magallanes," Bol. I, Mus. Nac. Chile, 3, 1911, pp. 3-14. 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 Clute, W. S. : " Development of Petroleum in Colombia/' Min. and 
 Oil Bull., Dec. 1920, pp. 777-80 and 808. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 
 
 Imperial Institute : " New Petroleum Law in Colombia," Bull. Imp. 
 
 Inst., 1, 1920, pp. 125-7. 
 Redfield, A. H. : " Petroleum in the Republic of Colombia," Eng. 
 
 and Min. Jour., Sept. n, 1920, pp. 529-31. 
 White, Jay : " Petroleum Deposits of Colombia," Min. World, 31, 
 
 1909, p. 650. 
 White, K. D. : " Oil Development in Colombia, South America," 
 
 Bull. South-Western Assoc. Petr. GeoL, 1, 1917, pp. 157-9. 
 See also Venezuela. 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 Brodie, W. M. : " Petroleum in Ecuador," Eng. and Min. Jour., 
 
 107, May 31, 1919, pp. 941-4. 
 Wolf, W. A. : " Sketch of the Geology of Ecuador," Min. and Sci. 
 
 Press, 105, 1912, pp. no-i. 
 
 PERU 
 
 Anon. : " The Oil Resources of Peru," Petr. World, 15, 1918, 
 
 pp. 24-7 and 70-2. 
 Alayza y Paz Soldan, Francisco : " Petroleo del Peru," Bol. Soc. 
 
 Nac. Min., Ser. 3, 28, 1916, pp. 318-43. 
 Deustua, R. A. : "La Industria del Petroleo en el Peru durante 
 
 1915," 2nd Pan-Am. Sci. Cong., Proc., 8, 1917, pp. 
 
 962-82. 
 : " Los Petroleos del Peru y de Oklahoma, Kansas," Inf. 
 
 Mem. Ing. Peru, May 1920, 22, pp. 149-67. 
 : " Estado Actual y Porvenir de la Industria Petrolifera en el 
 
 Peru," Bol. Soc. Ing., 14, 1912, pp. 57-90, 109-32, 195-218, 
 
 269-86, 428-30 ; and Bol. Soc. Nac. Min., 3d. Ser., 24, 1912, 
 
 PP. 274-317. 
 Marsters, V. F. : " Informe Preliminar sobre la Zona Petrolifera 
 
 del Norte del Peru," Bol. Cuerpo Ing. Min. Peru, No. 50, 1907. 
 Moreno, Fred. : " Informe sobre los Yacimientos de Petroleo en el 
 
 Depart amen to de Piura," Bol. Soc. Geog. Lima, 3, 1893, 
 
 PP. 283-343. 
 Jimenez, J. V. : " Los Yacimientos de Petroleo del Depart amento 
 
 de Piura," Bol. Minist. Fomento, Afio 4, Sept. 1906, pp. 83-123. 
 : "La Industria del Petroleo en el Peru," Annales Soc. Cien. 
 
 Argentina, 73, 1912, pp. 120-54. 
 
 f 
 
110 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 VENEZUELA 
 
 Dalton, L. V. : " On the Geology of Venezuela," Geol. Mag., 1912, 
 pp. 203-10 ; see also Venezuela, London, 1912. 
 
 Huhn, G. A. : " Oil Fields of Venezuela and Colombia/ 1 Petr. 
 World, June 1920, pp. 244-6. 
 
 Redfield, A. H. : " Petroleum and Asphalt in Venezuela/' Eng. 
 and Min. Jour., Ill, Feb. 19 and 26, 1921, pp. 354-7 and 
 
 393-5- 
 
 Totten, Ralph J. : " Petroleum in Venezuela/' Eng. and Min. 
 Jour., 90, 1910, pp. 506-7. 
 
 ADDENDA 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Collier, A. J. : " Oil in the Warm Springs and Hamilton Domes, 
 
 near Thermopolis, Wyoming," Bull. 711 D, U.S. Geol. Survey, 
 
 Contrib. to Econ. Geology, Part II, Jan. 16, 1920, pp. 61-73. 
 Hancock, E. T. : " Geology and Oil and Gas Prospects of the Lake 
 
 Basin Field, Montana," Bull. 691 D, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. 
 
 to Econ. Geology, Part II, July 17, 1918, pp. 111-47. 
 : " Geology and Oil and Gas Prospects of the Huntley Field, 
 
 Montana," Bull. 711 G, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. to Econ. 
 
 Geology, Part II, Feb. 28, 1920, pp. 105-48. 
 : " The Lance Creek Oil and Gas Field, Niobrara County, 
 
 Wyoming," Bull. 716 E, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. to Econ. 
 
 Geology, Part II, Dec. 13, 1920, pp. 91-122. 
 Kew, William S. W. : " Structure and Oil Resources of the Simi 
 
 Valley, Southern California," Bull. 691 M, U.S. Geol. Survey, 
 
 Contrib. to Econ. Geology, Part II, April 9, 1919, pp. 323-47. 
 Stebinger, Eugene : "Oil and Gas Geology of the Birch Creek-Sun 
 
 River Area, North- Western Montana," Bull. 691 E, U.S. Geol. 
 
 Survey, Contrib. to Econ. Geology, Part II, Aug. 13, 1918, pp. 
 
 149-84. 
 Winchester, Dean E. : " Geology of Alamosa Creek Valley, Socorro 
 
 County, New Mexico, with special reference to the Occurrence 
 
 of Oil and Gas," Bull. 716 A, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contrib. to 
 
 Econ. Geology, Part II, May 12, 1920, pp. 1-15. 
 
 Printed by Haxell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England. 
 

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