GOV. PUBS. PHYS. SCI. LIBRARY OAKABA DEPARTMENT OF MINES MIXES BBAXOH Hoir. W. TEMPtKMAN, Mi.visTBa; A. p. Low, LL.D., Dbputt Ministbe; EuoKNB Haansi^ Ph.D., DnscitMi. ^fmfk CHRYSOTILE-ASBESTOS ITS OCCURRENCE, EXPLOITATION, MILLING, AND USES BY Frits CirlEel, U£. OTTAWA QOVEBNMENT PUINTING BUBSIU 1910 7068 ca:n^ada department of mines MINES BRANCH Hon. W. Templeman, Minister; A. P. Low, LL.D., Deputy Minister j Eugene Haanel, Ph.D., Director. CHRYSOTILE-ASBESTOS ITS OCCURRENCE, EXPLOITATION, MILLING, AND USES Fritz Cirkel, M.E. SBCOisriD EDiTio:sr "'"'"mm OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1910 No. 69 7068— IJ LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. To Dr. EuGEXE Ha.\>el, Director of Mines, Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa. SiR^ — I beg to submit herewith, a second and enhirged edition of my report on 'Asbestos : Its Occurrence, Exploitation, and Uses ' — the first edition of which was issued in 1905. The entire text has been practical!}' re-written, and many new facts and illustrations added. I have to express my indebtedness to the quarry and mill owners, managers and mill-men, and to the makers of machinery used in the manufacture of asbestos products, for their invariable courtesy, and valuable assistance rendered in the gathering of important data utilized in the preparation of this treatise. In addition, permit me to tender to you. Sir, my gratitude for many valuable suggestions, and for kindly criticism of important parts of the manuscript. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, (Signed) Fritz Cirkel. Montreal^ January 15, 1930. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page INTEODUCTORY 11 CHAPTER I. Historical 14 Physical and chemical properties of asbestos li Asbestos minerals: — 18 Antophyllite 18 Amphibole: — 19 Tremolite, actinolite, asbestos, mountain leather, and crocidolite. . .. 19 Serpentine :— 22 Picrolite, soapstone (talc), and chrysotile 25 Physical properties of chrysotile 29 Chemical composition of chrysotile 31 Summary of asbestos minerals 32 CHAPTER II. Canadian serpentine areas : — 34 Laurentian serpentines 34 Chrysotile-asbestos in the Laurentian 36 Characteristics of the Laurentian deposits 37 Description of typical occurrences 37 Localities of Laurentian chrysotile-asbestos 39 Huronian serpentines 40 Cambrian serpentines 41 Broughton, Thetford, and Black Lake areas 43 Rock forming minera;ls of the serpentine range 45 Chemical composition of Cambrian serpentine 48 Vein, and slip fibre 48 Discoloration and alteration of fibre 53 Metallic minerals associated with Canadian chrysotile-asbestos 53 Productive serpentine range: — 54 Broughton serpentine 54 Tlietford serpentine 64 The great vein fibre belt 67 Vein fibre and slip fibre belts compared 72 Present economic features of the vein fibre belt 72 Granitic dikes 75 Danville, Eastman, and Vermont serpentines 76 Asbestos fibre compared with other organic and inorganic fibres 81 Origin of chrysotile-asbestos 87 Depth of asbestos deposits 95 CIIAPTKIi J 11. Page. Quarrying of asbestos 103 Advantages and disadvantages of open-cast work 103 Removal of overburden 105 Quarry work 106 Explosives 107 Effect and cost of hand drilling 107 Effect and cost of machine drilling 107 Electric, drills 108 Separation and romoval of rock and ore.. . . 109 Construction of boom derricks 110 Construction of cable derricks Ill Hoisting engines 114 Efficiency of hoisting plants 114 Haulage and dumping . 115 General hoisting and hauling arrangements, and position of cable derricks.. 115 Eecent improvements in hoisting appliances 116 Compressed air 118 Drainage 119 CHAPTER IV. The dressing of asbestos for the market 120 Hand dressing 120 Mechanical treatment: history 121 Apparatus used in the separation of asbestos 123 Drying of the mill rock 123 The drying problem 124 Rock breakers 127 Jaw breakers 127 Rotary crusher 128 Spindle or gyrating breakers 129 Final crushing 130 Rolls 130 Fiberizers 132 Cyclones 132 Pulverizers 135 Fans 135 Accessories for mills 136 Summary of principles in the separation of asbestos 138 General feat\ires of the mills in the district 143 Plant 144 Electricity as a motive power 146 Compagnie Hydraulique St. Francois 149 Shawinigan Water and Power Company 149 Motors 150 Amount of power used 150 Cost of labour in mills 151 Percentage of milling material in total rock mined 152 Percentage of fibre in the milling rock 153 Percentage of crude in the total rock mined 153 Grades 153 Cost of mill and mine equipment 154 Mine equipment 156 (HTAPTER V. Page. Cost of extraction, market, prices, statistics, and status of the asbestos industry.. 158 Cost of extraction 158 Market and prices 158 Statistics 160 Imports of asbestos goods 168 Status of the industry 168 CHAPTER VI. Asbestos mines and prospects 175 Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation (Ltd.) 175 Beaver quarries 17G British Canadian quarries 177 Dominion quarries 179 King quarries 181 Standard quarries 183 The Asbestos and Asbestic Company, Limited 184 Belmina Consolidated Asbestos Company, Limited 184 Beaudoin and Audette Asbestos Company 186 Bell Asbestos Company 187 Berlin Asbestos Company 189 Black Lake Consolidated Asbestos Company.. .. 189 The Imperial Asbestos Company 191 Boston Asbestos Company 191 Broughton Asbestos Fibre Company 192 Coleraine Exploration Company (operations suspended) 193 D'Israeli Asbestos Company 194 Eastern Townships Asbestos Company 194 The Erontenac Asbestos Mining Company 195 The Jacobs Asbestos Mining Company of Thetford, Limited 196 The Johnson Asbestos Company 198 The Ling Asbestos Company 200 The Robertson Asbestos Company 200 Asbestos locations and prospects 202 CHAPTER VII. Asbestos m foreign countries: — 214 United States 214 Philippine islands 221 Newfoundland 221 Riussia and Siberia 222 Mongolia 229 Finland 230 Italy 230 France 234 Cyprus 234 Queensland 234 South Australia 235 New South Wales 2.35 Western Australia 236 Asbestos iu t'oieigu couutiies: Continued — Page. New Zealand 239 West;Griqualaiid (Africa) 239 Transvaal (District of Carolina) 241 Natal 243 Rhodesia 243 Matabeleland (Africa) 243 India 243 Japan 244 CHAPTEE VIII. Commercial applications of asbestos 245 Steam packing 247 Metallic asbestos packing 248 Asbestos cloth..- 250 Asbestos rope and yarn 252 Asbestos as an insulating material 253 Kemovable boiler covering 259 Asbestos cement felting 260 Asbestos mattresses 261 Asbestos mill-board 262 Asbestos writing paper 264 Linii^g of furnaces 264 Firebrick 264 A-bestos as a building material 265 Asbestos cement slate 268 Wall plaster and asbestic 276 Asbestos paints 278 Asbestos board 278 Testing asbestos board 278 Asbestolith tiling for floors , 278 Asbestos protected metal 279 Asbestos in electrical machinery 280 Miscellaneous uses and manufacturing processes 281 Treatment of asbestos for rendering it waterproof 284 Improved treatment of asbestos diaphragms to enable them to resist dis- integration 284 Application of asbestos to the manufacture of fire resisting and refractory materials used in building construction, etc 284 Process of using fibrous asbestos in the form of a liquid or plastic mass. . 284 Process for making moist rolls of asbestos, suitable for spinning 285 Behaviour of asbestos in non-luminous flames 285 Alaniifacture of fibrous fireproof sheets 286 Binding of asbestos fibre 286 Preparation of asbestos articles from finely divided asbestos, without the use of binding agents 286 Use of asbestos in mines 286 BIBLTOCRAPFY 290 APPENDIX 292 INDEX 303 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. ILLUSTEATIONS. Phoiographs. Page. Plate I. Canadian clirysotile-asbestos Frontispiece. II. First asbestos mill at Black Lake 16 III. Italian (hornblende) asbestos.. .; 20 IV. Picrolite 24 V. Black Lake village and vicinage: showing the milling plant of the British Canadian qnarry in background 42 VI. Serpentine close to asbestos vein. Dr. Eeed's mine 46 VII. Eock 18" away from asbestos vein 46 VIII. Serpentine close to asbestos vein, Imperial Asbestos Co., Black Lake. 46 IX. Eock 18" away from asbestos vein 46 X. Serpentine close to asbestos vein, Sonthwark mine. Black Lake 46 XI. Eock 15" away from asbestos vein 46 XII. Serpentine close to asbestos vein. Standard quarry, Black Lake 46 XIII. Eock 15" away from asbestos vein.. 46 XIV. Peculiar forking of chrysotile-asbestos veins 48 XV. Seamy partings containing asbestos veins, from Black Lake Consoli- dated Asbestos Company's Southwark mines 48 XVI. Eibbon structure of chrysotile-asbestos 52 XVII. Peculiar species of serpentine from lot 13, range XI, Broughton, Que. 62 XVIII. Spun glass 86 XIX. Thetford fibre 86 XX. Black Lake fibre 86 XXI. Black Lake fibre fracture 86 XXII. Templeton asbestos fibre 86 XXIII. Thetford fibre ends 86 XXIV. Break in Thetford fibre 86 XXV. Fibre from the Urals, Eussia 86 XXVI. Fibre from the Aosta valley, Italy 86 XXVII. Asbestos fibre from West Griqualand, South Africa 86 XXVIII. Break in asbestos fibre from West Griqualand, South Africa 86 XXIX. Fibre from the Carolina district, Transvaal 86 XXX. Fibre from Pilbarra district. Western Australia 86 XXXI. Break in fibre from the Pilbarra district. Western Australia 86 XXXII. Fibre from Casper mountain, Wyoming, U.S. A 86 XXXIII. Break in fibre from Casper mountain, Wyoming, U.S.A 86 XXXIV. Large quarry of the British Canadian (Amalgamated Asbestos Cor- poration), Black Lake 104 XXXV. Typical construction of cable tower 110 XXXVI. Jenckes cable hoist 114 XXXVII. Arrangement of cable supports at King's quarry of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Thetford 116 XXXVIII. Ore pockets and pan conveyer installed at the quarries of the Jacobs Asbestos Mining Company, Thetford, Que 118 XXXIX. Eotary dryer 122 XL. Cummer dryer 126 XLI. Butterworth and Low rotary crusher 128 XLII. Gates rotary crusher 130 XLIIT. Milling plant at the Beaver quarries of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Thetford 1^2 8 Plate: Continued — Page. XLIV. Bunch of fiberized asbestos, ready for the market 144 XLV. Mill at the Dominion quarry of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corpora- tion, Black Lake 148 XL VI. Arrangement of electric motors for cyclones in the British Canadian mill of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Black Lake.. .. 150 XLVII. Mill No. 1, King's quarry of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Thetford 151 XLVIll. Mill building of the Frontenac Asbestos Mining Company, during construction 156 XLIX. The Beaver quarry: Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Thetford.. 174 L. Milling plant at British Canadian quarries of the Amalgamated As- bestos Corporation, Black Lake 178 LI. King's quarry of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation: looking west, Thetford 182 LII. Mill at the Standard quarries of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corpora- tion, Black Lake 184 LIII. Mining and milling plant of the Berlin Asbestos Company, near Eobertson station, Que 188 LIV. Plant of Broughton Asbestos Fibre Companj^ East Broughton 192 LV. Fiberizing plant of the Black Lake Consolidated Asbestos Company, Black Lake 194 LVI. New mill of the Eobertson Asbestos Company, Robertson 200 LVII. View of Russian asbestos quarry 222 LVIII. Transport of asbestos rock from quari y to mill in Russian asbestos quarries 226 LIX. Step-like exploitation of Russian asbestos quarries 228 LX. Specimen of asbestos from Uralit mines, near Bajenowa station, Asiatic Russia 230 LXT. Asbestos reef in the Carolina district of the Transvaal 242 LXII. In the Carolina district of the Transvaal : nearer view of the drive on the asbestos reef ^42 LXIII. Thetford building covered with asbestos slate 266 LXIV. Carded chrysotile-asbestos : resembling silk fibre 272 LXV. General arrangements of electric apparatus for heat testing piirposes. 292 LXVI. Asbestos woven heating net and coils of fine wire on zinc plate.. .. 292 Drawings. FiGUREl. 1. Laurentian asbestos deposits 37 2. Profile of asbestos-bearing formation at Black Lake and Thetford .. 43 3. Typical asbestos veins 49 4. Section through northeast parts of lots 13 and 14, range VIT, Broughton.. .. 57 5. Section through productive part of lot 2, range V, Thetford 64 6. Cut tlirough hill south of Black Lake station, Que 68 7. Section through vein fibre belt in direction of Poudrier road 73 8. Fibre of raw silk 81 9. Fibre of sheep's wool 82 10. Filaments of raw cotton 82 11. Spun glass 83 12. Quartz fibre 83 13. Section of seamy parting 93 9 FxGORE: Continued — Page. 14. Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation 98 15. Section of seamy i^artiug, showing disposition of mineral luatter through segregation 98 16. Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation 99 17. Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation 99 18. Section of large quarry: King Bros., Thetford 106 19. Boom derrick 110 20. Incline cable hoisting plant Ill 21. Horizontal cable hoisting plant Ill 22. Two-leg support for cable derrick 112 23. Carrier for cable hoisting 113 24. Construction of transport boxes 113 25. Anchorage of carrier rope 114 26. New mining method introduced in Bell mines 117 27. Campbell's rotary dryer 125 28. Sturtevant rotary crusher 128 29. Fiberizer : Jenckes Machine Company 131 30. Laurie cyclone fiberizer 133 31. Section through new Pharo cyclone 134 32. Sturtevant, 42" horizontal, direct running Emery mill 135 33. Fan for taking up fibre from shaking screen 136 34. Collector 137 35. Collecting and settling chamber 138 .36. Modern asbestos separation plant 139 37. Chart 1 140 38. " II HO 39. " III 140 40. " IV 140 41. " V 140 42. (Magnet for picking steel from ore 141 43. Double shaking screen 142 44. Typical sloping mill 143 45. Typical flat mill 144 46. Milling plant: British-Canadian quarries (Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation) 145 47. Surface plant: Frontenac Asbestos Mining Company, East Broughton, Que.. 147 48. Diagram: production of asbestos and asbestic 1880-1909 163 49. Diagram: value of production of asbestos and asbestic 1880-1909 165 50. Diagram: average prices of asbestos and asbestic 1880-1909 166 51. Occurrence of asbestos in Pilbarra district. Western Australia 237 52. Asbestos packing in stuflBng box of steam cylinder 248 53. Asbestos packing in joints of steam pipes 249 54. Various kinds of asbestos packing 250 55. Asbestos air-cell steam pipe covering 254 56. Asbestos magnesia pipe covering 255 57. Asbestos magnesia pipe covering 255 58. Asbestos felt covering 256 59. Chart for calculating difference in loss between bare and asbestos covered pipe 257 10 Figure: Continued — Page. 60. Asbestos cement applied to steam pipes 258 61. " felt 259 62. " roofing Ml 259 63. " cement applied on boilers 2C0 64. " " " " 260 65. " air-cell covering 261 66. " wired mattress for covering boilers, etc 261 67. " mill-board 262 68. " wood graining and finishing 266 69. " wood for building construction 267 70. Door and door frame made of asbestos wood 267 71. Freight sheds of the Boston and Maine railway, Boston, Mass. (Covered with asbestos slates) 268 72. Arrangement of asbestos slates on roof 269 73. Eesidence covered with asbestos slate 270 74. Residence covered with asbestos stucco (asbestic) 276 75. Construction of asbestos protected metal 279 76. Asbestos protected metal corrugated ridge capping 280 77. Asbestos protected metal flat ridge capping 280 78. (a) Omelette pan, consisting of two steel plates with sheet of asbestos be- tween 283 (b) Stove mat 283 (c) Iron holder 283 79. Asbestos brake 283 80. Insulating frame for conductivity test 293 81. Frame for air gap experiments 294 82. Diagrammatic section for conductivity test 295 83. Diagrammatic section for air-gap experiments 296 84. Heat diagram for yellow pine tests: square feet per hour 297 85. " " " yellow pine tests: per hour 298 g6. " " " silicate cotton: square feet per hour 299 87. " " " silicate cotton; cooling curves 300 88. " " " air-jacket: square feet per hour 301 Maps. No. 78. Map of Asbestos Region, Province of Quebec, 1910 End. 86. Map showing general distribution of serpentine in the Eastern Townships 42 CHRYSOTILE-ASBESTOS ITS OCCURRENCE, EXPLOITATION, MILLING, AND USES BY Fritz Cirkel, M.E. INTRODUCTORY. The asbestos industry of Canada has made phenomenal progress in develop- ment and expansion since the winter of 1904-5. This is manifest upon com- paring the statistical returns of 1904 with those of 1909. In 1904 the output of asbestos amounted to 35,479 tons, valued at $1,186,795; whereas in 1909 it was 63,349 tons, valued at $2,284,857 — an increase in tonnage of 27,870 tons, and in value of $1,098,062. This rapid advance has been primarily due to the discovery of additional deposits, and to the new uses to which asbestos has been applied. As a consequence, new quarries have been opened, new mills established, the annual output largely increased, and the asbestos industry placed on a firmer basis than in any time in its history. Indeed, so great has been the public and commercial interest evoked in this subject, that the first edition of the writer's monograph on ' Asbestos : Its Occurrence, Exploitation, and Uses '■ — pub- fished in 1905 — has been completely exhausted, and a new, enlarged, up-to-date edition urgently called for. In this second edition the writer has endeavoured to give a general account of the asbestos deposits in the Province of Quebec, together with a description of their exploitation— embodying all changes and improvements which have been made during the last five years. In the method of milling asbestos, very few changes have been made : the general design of the machinery employed being practically the same. In several instances, however, improvements have been made in the installation of separa- tion units, which has largely increased the capacity of the mills; in others there has been a more complete separation of the rock from the delicate asbestos fibre; while in other cases, certain mechanical alterations have produced a higher percentage of the superior class of mill fibre. Valuable deposits of asbestos have been discovered in the townships of Broughton and Thetford, and added to the productive quarries already in exis- tence; while a number of the older quarries — which, some twenty years ago, were worked for ' crude ' — have been re-opened : and several of these gave such promise of remunerative working, that additional mills have been erected thereon. 12 Owing to the great interest manifested in the possible extent of the serpen- tine, an eifort has been made to delimit the productive area of the serpentine belt of Quebec — which, for over thirty years, has been so extensively exploited. This task was very difficult, owing to the heavy humus which almost universally covers the formation. In many instances shallow openings and pits gave evi- dence of the existence of productive areas; but the actual extent could not be determined without systematic investigation. Parallel with this inability to make accurate or even approximate deductions as to the extent of known deposits, from the direct evidence afforded by nature, was the equally di3icult problem of the determination of depth. In the examination of magnetic iron ore deposits, for example, the magni- tude of the ore bodj' can be approximately determined by magnetometric sur- veying; but in the case of asbestos, exact science has not yet discovered any inethod whereby it is possible to forecast the depth of any mine or quarry. This lack of scientific method is largely due to the fact that, asbestos is one of those minerals which, owing to its limited occurrence over the globe, has not been studied profoundly: hence the literature thereon is very meagre, and no method of determining the actual depth of asbestos has ever been pub- lished. Perceiving the supreme importance of solving the problem of depth determination, in its varied aspects, a chapter in the following pages has been devoted to the question — ' Is asbestos likely to be found at loiver depths?' Based npon data gathered in a careful practical study of the asbestos field in the Province of Quebec, the writer has endeavoured to set forth his views on this question : reasoning by analogy as to what relation the known quantities already opened near the surface bear to the still deeper and unexplored parts. And while the writer does not claim that his statement of the case covers the subject as fully as might be expected, yet he conceives that in this way, profitable in- quiry and discussion may be stimulated, and that other geologists and mining engineers may be led to express their views also, and thus accelerate the solu- tion of this important problem in the economics of the asbestos industry. During the course of the above-mentioned studies, the writer was enabled to gather important data which not only throw additional light on the obscure origin of asbestos, but go far towards explaining its geological formation. These research data, together with a condensed account of the asbestos deposits in the Province of Quebec; a description of their exploitation, and a record of the changes and improvements made during the last five years, should render this treatise useful both as a text book and as a work of reference. Almost every page has been re-written, except the descriptions of existing machinery. In the preparation of the chapter dealing with the practical uses to which asbestos is being applied, special care has been taken to present only such information as came direct from manufacturers, and persons whose veracity could be relied upon. A new feature, not only of academic but of technical interest, is the repro- duction of a number of microphotographs and drawings, showing the fibre structure, etc., of chrysotile-asbestos in its varied forms; while the photo-en- 13 gravings of deposits, quarries, plauts, etc., are all uew : taken either by the author, or by a reliable, local photographer. One word more. In many technical publications the term ' asbestos mines ' is used. This is a terminological error ; since these so-called ' mines,' are only open quarries, similar to ordinary stone quarries, as the various photographic v^iews interspersed throughout the text will show. In this second edition, there- fore, ' quarry ' is applied instead of ' mine.' Y068— 2 14 CIIAPTEK I. HISTORY, AND PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPEETIES OF ASBESTOS. Historical. The use of asbestos can be traced back to ancient times. The Romans drew their supplies from the Italian Alps, and even from the Ural. They imagined it to be of vegetable origin : the highly silky appearance and unctuous feel giving them the impression that it was an organic substance. It is said that cremation cloth, in which dead bodies were enwrapped to be consumed by fire, was made of asbestos. It appears, however, that the high cost of making this asbestos cloth militated against its general use. Pliny refers to It as a rare and costly cloth — ' linum vivum^ — ' the funeral dress of kings ' he calls it : evidently assuming that it was of vegetable origin. The fibre used came from the Italian Alps and was called ' amianthus.' It was apparently very difiicult to spin, on account of its shortness; but judging from a piece of asbestos cloth on exhibition in the Vatican, and which is said to have originated in the days of ancient Rome, it is certain that vegetable fibre was intermixed with the real asbestos fibre in the making of so-called asbestos cloths. There is, moreover, according to Sir E. J. Smith, in the library of the Vatican, a winding sheet of Italian asbestos, which, although very coarsely made, is of a very soft and silky texture. This piece of cloth— perfectly preserved — was, together with some ashes, found in a sarcophagus in the Via Praenestina in 1702. It was subsequently placed in the Vatican Library by order of Clement XL It appears that some vegetable fibre was used with real asbestos fibre in the making of the cloth; because it is reported that, when fire was applied at one end of the cloth, it burned with brightness, but leaving the real mineral fibre intact. When Marco Polo was travelling in the thirteenth century through Siberia — at that time known as the Great Empire of Tartary — he was shown some cloth that withstood the action of fire. 'Marco found that it was made of a fibrous mineral called ' amianthus,' which resembled the Italian asbestos. Upon further investigation he found that, the ore from which this fibre was extracted, was first dried, then pounded in a mortar, and after the impurities had been elim- inated, the pure silky fibre left was used in a spinning process, the modus oper- andi of which is unknown. The fibre referred to in Marco Polo's travels, was long, beautifully white, and silky; and probably belonged to the variety known to-day as * hornblende asbestos.' This same variety is found in Corsica. Before its real value became known, it was used as a packing tow, and Dana reports that Dolomiea when packing up minerals for his collection on that island, used it in tying the boxes. Quenstedt, Handbuoh der Mineralogic. 15 That asbestos was used in ancient times as lamp wicks is recorded by Plutarch, who called them ' perpetual ' ; for the reason that the wicks never seemed to wear out. These lamps were principally used by the Vestal Virgins. The wicks, made of delicate asbestos fibre, formed small tubes through which the oil passed, while the wick itseK remained intact. Pausanian mentions a lamp that was filled with oil only once a year ; he evidently attributes to the oil what should have been credited to the wick — ^which was not consumed at all. He notes that the wick was made of ' Carpasian ' linen, referring to a mineral fibre obtained from Carpasius in Cyprus. It is said that Kirchner the German philosopher used in his library a lamp which had a wick made of ' amianthus.' Whatever the uses of asbestos may have been in days of old, it is certain that its peculiar non-combustible and spinning qualities were recognized and taken advantage of from the first; but it remained for modern times to make the mineral of com- mercial utility and an important factor in the industrial market of the world. Although the discovery of this mineral is attributed to the Romans, who, as already related, mined it in a small way in the Alps, the knowledge of its existence — which may not have been more than local — apparently lapsed. Only in a few instances is it mentioned, or its utilization referred to in the litera- ture of the middle ages. It appears that in the year 1720, asbestos was dis- covered in the Ural mountains; and forty years later — under the reign of Peter I — a factory for the manufacture of asbestos articles was established near the Naviansky works. But the known uses were so few, and the demand so limited, that the industry subsequently disappeared; and it was not until some forty years ago that technical interest in the mineral was revived in Europe. In the domain of applied mechanics its non-combustible properties were no sooner realized, than investigation of its nature and utility was begun in earnest — with a view to its application on a commercial scale. Since 18G0, the search for asbestos has been incessant; the exploitation and development of the deposits discovered remarkable; and the progress made in the invention of mechanical methods for refining and preparing the mineral for utilization in the industrial world simply marvellous. The first modern attempt to exploit asbestos deposits was made in the Aosta valley of the Italian Alps by a London syndicate, for the purpose of experiment- ing on a large scale; and almost simultaneously with the exploitation in Italy asbestos was discovered in the Des Plantes River region, between St. Joseph and St. Francis villages, Province of Quebec. At the exhibition in London, in 1862, a specimen of fine, silky-fibred asbestos from the above locality was exhibited. The extension of the belt of serpentine rocks in which the mineral was known to occur had been traced with some care from the Vermont boundary in the township of Potton, to, and beyond the Chaudiere river; but the deposits of asbestos discovered were comparatively limited. All attempts to work them profitably failed, and during the next fifteen years nothing was done in the way of exploration or exploitation. In 1877, however, asbestos was found in another district in Quebec; this time in the serpentine hills of Thetford and Coleraine. The credit of this dis- 7068— 2J 36 covery is claimed by Mr. Robei't Ward; although by others it is stated that the first find was made by a French Canadian named Fecteau. Following closely upon this discovery several parties secured areas both at Thetford and Black Lake in Coleraine township, close to the line of the Quebec Central railway, which, for some miles, runs through a belt of serpentine. Large fires having swept over the country, destroying all forests, the discovery of veins was facili- tated by the weathering of the mineral on the surface. Mining operations on a small scale commenced in 1878, and in this year fifty tons were produced; but it was difiicult to find a market. The quality of the fibre mined was excellent, and the width of the veins everything that could be desired: being from J" up to 2", 3", and sometimes 4". This justified the expectation that large deposits of the mineral might exist in that locality, though their true importance and value were not ascertained for several years later. Shipments of the better grades to London created quite a sensation in the British market; hence extensive tests and investigations were made, with the result that, on account of its exceptional spinning qualities, high prices were soon established, and the race for the acquisition of additional areas likely to contain the valuable mineral began. The land upon which the asbestos was found was considered of very little practical value, either for agricultural or any other purposes, and mining operations were rapidly extended. The prin- cipal areas in which the asbestos-bearing serpentine was found to occur were lots 26, 27, and 28, near the line between ranges V and VI of Thetford, and in the township of Coleraine near Black Lake station, four miles southwest of Thetford station, in an area previously unsui-veyed; but adjoining, ou the southwest, range B, also on lots 27 and 28, range B; and on lot 32, range C. All these areas were speedily secured, as well as most of the serpentine-bearing ground extending southeastward from the Quebec Central railway towards Caribou lake, and for several miles along the Poudrier road. During the next twelve years a rapid development of the asbestos industry was witnessed. The mines were operated on a large scale; while prospectors were busy exploring the hills of the surrounding country for new deposits of the mineral. Villages sprang up in the vicinity of the mines as if by magic, al- though the country — physically speaking — was sterile and very rough. Prior to the beginning of mining operations, the population consisted of only a few scat- tered families, but now increased to several thousands, and the whole country showed all the marks of industrial activity and prosperity. Li 1885, it was reported that seven quarries were in operation, which pro- duced during the same season an aggregate of about l.-iOO tons of asbestos. The prices obtained for the different grades were: first quality, $S0 per ton at the mines; second quality, $60; third quality, $40, and the lower grade — suitable only for pulp — $10. The total number of men employed by the various operating companies was 350; distributed as follows: King Bros., 40; Boston Asbestos Packing Company, lO'O; the Johnson Company, 100; Ward Bros., 20; Lionais & Company, 40, and Trwin & Hoiipor, 50. Dating from 1885, a gradual increase in tlie prices took place: especially for the first and second (pialities. Tn 1000. about $300 was realized for the first m.s Pq bo 17 quality. This, and other economic features in connexion with the industry, served to give a powerful impetus to the development of the existing asbestos resources : additional mines were opened ; the demand for the mineral continued brisk for a time; and properties were sold at a high figure. At a meeting of the Bell Asbestos Co., Limited, held January 30, 1889, at the Cannon Street Hotel, London, England, the Chairman — Mr. John Bell, announced a dividend of 22J per cent on the capital stock of the Company for the year 1888, and said that the large growth of the asbestos business in general promised even better prospects for the curreiit year. But this state of affairs did not continue long; prices began to dj'op grad- ually, the demand slackened, and it was discovered that the prevailing methods of hand extraction were faulty, inadequate, and expensive : especially with regard to the lower grades. As a matter of fact, under prevailing price conditions, only those quarries which were working on rich ground, and had a large percentage of crude asbestos, had a chance to live, and carry on operations with a profit. The natural outcome of these adverse conditions was obvious : many quarries producing only a very small percentage of the higher grades were forced to shut down; and this, together with serious difficulties accentuated by overproduction and a consequent fall in prices, caused the industry to receive a severe set back in the middle of the nineties. For some years the industry languished, and this had a depressing effect on all except those who would not be discouraged, or who were naturally optimistic. Those engaged in the quarries and those having the development of the industry at heart perceived that only one thing could save the industry, namely, a more economic production ; hence they began to exercise their inventive powers ; the result being that, mechanical treatment of the lower grades of asbestos gradually displaced hand-cobbing: and this method, in the course of years, was applied with such conspicuous success that, to-day, every quarry in the district is equipped with a complete milling and fiberizing plant. By means of this im- proved process, all the smaller fibre — which in the earlier years was left in the rock and thrown into the dump — ^was saved; and as new demands for this short material sprang up, the life of a quarry was prolonged, and its operations per- formed with greater ease and economy. As a result of these innovations, fifteen quarries and nineteen mills, with a capacity of 8,520 tons of asbestos rock per day, are operating at the present time in the Province of Quebec; and it is confidently predicted, that the capacity of the quarries and mills will be largely increased during the course of the year 1910. The flourishing condition of the asbestos industry is a striking example of what human ingenuity can accomplish when applied in the right direction. The quarrying and production of asbestos in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, is, to-day, one of the most prosperous industries in the Dominion of Canada. Previous to the discovery of this mineral, the district was but sparsely populated — ^being in a like condition to the famous Cobalt region prior to the discovery of silver — but continued success in exploitation and development has attracted thither a large mining and trading class, hence the population has 18 rapidly' increased during the last ten years. Tliis result was brought about by the excellent quality of the product of the quarries; the practically unlimited supply of the mineral; the imtiring efforts which wore made by the proprietors and managers, to effect mechanical separation, and last but not least by the opening out of the Quebec Central railway, which runs through the region. In- deed, it is doubtful whether the Canadian asbestos industry would have attained its present prominence and prosperity had it not been for the transportation facilities afforded from the beginning by that railway. The author knows of no mining camp in Canada, where transportation facilities are as convenient as in the asbestos region of Quebec. The productive asbestos area — as determined by the author — now extends over twenty-two miles. In all this stretch, not one productive quarry is located farther than one mile from the raiWay track; and as the latter runs, generally, parallel to the asbestos range, and since there is still room along the belt for the opening up of more quarries, every new estab- lishment will participate in these special transportation facilities. Unless for- eign asbestos fields yet unknown, having equal ease of access, produce the same quality and quantity of the mineral as the serpentine region of Quebec, the Canadian asbestos industry will continue to be the chief source of the world's supply. During the last twelve years, new fields have been discovered in various parts of the globe; but as a matter of fact, none of the deposits so far discovered, produce asbestos which compares favourably with the Canadian article, either in quality or quantity. Asbestos Minerals. Under the term ' asbestos "" is understood, generally, a group of minerals the fibrous, crystalline structure of which, combined with special qualities and characteristic appearance, entirely differentiates them from any other minerals. Some varieties possess such fine, silky, elastic fibre, that they can be carded, spun, and woven similar to wool, flax, or silk; hence, owing to this property, the mineral has been called a ' mineralogical vegetable ' ; also ' a physical paradox.' In mineralogy, three minerals are classified under the term ' asbestos ' : namely, antophyllite, amphibole, and serpentine. Chemically, the two first-men- tioned minerals much resemble each other; being silicates of lime and magnesia, and alumina : compounds of silica with an earthy base, generally represented by the formula IlSi03 ; while the last — serpentine, is a hydrated silicate of magnesia, represented by the formula 3MgO, 2SiO„ 2H,0. ANTOPHYLLITE. Of the antophyllite variety, it must be said that — as far as the writer is aware — little of it is used commercially; inasmuch as it is only of mineralogical importance, it will not be dealt with further. ^ The term ' asbestos ' is derived from the Greek, and signifies ' imquenchable,' ' inextinguishable,' ' inconsumable.' It is defined in a French work as, ' mineral filamenteux et incombustible.' The Germans call it ' steinflachs ' (stone flax) ; and the Italians ' amiantho ' — from the Greek ' amiantos,' signifying ' undefiled, pure, incorruptible;' the French-Canadian calls it ' pierre a cotton' (cotton stone), in allu- sion to its similarity in appearance to cotton. 19 AMPHIBOLE. The amphibole mineral includes five varieties, namely : — (1) Tremolite. (2) Actinolite. (3) Asbestos. (4) Mountain leather, moiintain wood, and mountain cork. (5) Crocidolite. The three first-mentioned varieties of this amphibole group are very similar in their external appearance and chemical composition, but the so-called asbestos can be readily distinguished from tremolite and actinolite by its long slendel flexible fibres, which are easily separated by ones fingers. Tremolite.— This is a calcium magnesium amphibole 3MgO SiO^ CaO SiO^ = 5T-7 silica, 28-9 magnesia, and 13-4 lime. It occurs in metamorphic rocks, in long, stout, blade-like crystals, of dark grey colour; also in long thin fibrous and columnar masses. Its commercial application is very limited. It is, how- ever, frequently used as a substitute for actinolite, in the manufacture of a fibrous wall powder, and of mineral wool. Actinolite. — (' Strahlstein ') is chemically a silicate of iron, calcium, and magnesium 3(Mg Fe) O SiO^ CaO SiO,. It also occurs in metamorphic rocks, usually in fibrous and radiated crystalline masses, of a bright green colour. The specific gravity is 3 - 3-2. The fibrous variety is often mistaken for true asbes- tos; but it never has the same fibrous texture as asbestos. It occurs in the town- ship of Elzevir, Hastings county, Ont., also in the State of Maine and many other places in America, and elsewhere. It is found chiefly in magnesian rocks, such as talc, steatite, and serpentine, and is used for a variety of purposes, notably for weighting paper, roofing, and for various forms of adulteration. In Elzevir township, Hastings county, the actinolite deposits are closely associated with a blackish green hornblende rock, which runs in ridges in a northeasterly direction, bounded on both sides by granites. The width of these hornblende belts is from 250 to 500 feet. The whole area is affected by faults. Zone patches, veinlike occurrences of an asbestiform mineral, and a fibrous horn- blende, are frequent. An analysis of this mineral made by Professor Coleman of Toronto, gave the following results : — Silica 61-82 Magnesia 23 Eerrous oxide 6 Lime 1 Alumina 1 "Water 5 This mineral has been mined intermittently from 1884 to 1903, near the village of Actinolite, and the output hauled to the village of Bridgewater, a dis- tance of about eight miles, where a mill operated by water-power ground all material, and separated it into four grades: Nos. I and II being employed for boiler coverings; and No. Ill, which is finely ground, for plaster. There were 20 t\vo companies operating in the district: the 'International Asbestos Company' with head offices in New York, and the ' Joseph James Company ' of Actinolite. It is claimed that from 30 per cent to 40 per cent of all the rock mined went through the mill, and that of this about 10 per cent was extracted as fibre. Actinolite is also found in some of the hornblende rocks of the Sudbury district, where the writer found fibre measuring from 6 to 10 inches long. The market for this mineral is, however, very limited; and the prices are, as a rule, not satisfactory. For this reason, mining is carried on spasmodically, and even then on a very limited scale. The following analyses of samples of hornblende minerals from different localities* will illustrate the chemical percentage of the composition : — SiO., Al,03 FeoOa FeO 0-2 I 57 5 1-3 0-2 11 56- 1 12 9-8 5-5 Ill 41- 9 11-7 2-5 14 3 IV 43-8 4-4 3-8 33-4 V 55-6 151 31 G-8 MgO CaO Na„0 H,0 To XyO* 0-7 1-3 9-8 j 0-6 0-2 1-9 01 0-6 2-7 0-7 0-8 2-6 81 01 1-5 i,3 9-5 Total. 100 99 99 100 100 * Small quantities of minor components. I Treniolite, Richville, Gouverneur, New York. II Actinolite, l.()(.IY OF THE CANADIAN SERPENTINE AKEAS. Inasmuch as the study of the occurrence of asbestos ores involves an investi- gation of the serpentine rocks, the writer, before- entering into a consideration of the deposits — as such, has deemed it advisable to set forth a brief description of the various serpentines found in southeastern Quebec: based upon investiga- tions made by Messrs. N. Giroux, Dr. Bayley, Dr. Bell, Dr. Harrington, Hugh Fletcher, Dr. R. W. Ells, Dr. A. P. Low, and Dr. Frank D. Adams — also his own — covering a period of over twenty years. The most important, and the one which is also the most interesting from a geological point of view, is the Archaean group of serpentines, consisting of the Laurentian, the Huronian, and the Cambrian serpentines. Laiirentian Serpentines. The Laurentian serpentines are confined to the great Laurentian formation which covers the larger part of eastern Canada. They are mostly associated with crystalline limestone, and occur in the latter disseminated in grains varying in size;occasionally in scattered masses; and sometimes in interstratified beds. As a general rule these serpentines vary in colour from a light green up to very dark green shades. Pale yellow, and some greyish serpentines are very frequent; they contain occasionally red patches caused by the decomposition of iron pyrites present in the rock. The Laurentian serpentine contains less oxide of iron and more water than ordinary serpentines. The most easterly occurrence of Laurentian serpentine is near Pisarinco- cove. New Brunswick : where crystalline limestones, grey, and beautiful white, alternate with quartzites, and diorites, and sometimes with argillites. Amongst these rocks serpentine can be perceived very frequently, but it does not occur in large masses. At one point, limestone is enclosed in a bed of diorite, and both rocks are traversed by veins of serpentine containing ' chrysotile-asbestos.' On the west side of the narrows of the St. John river, small patches of serpentine can be noticed in crystalline limestones, with a conglonerate of limestone pebbles. Farther westward in the Ottawa valley, in the townships of Grenville and Templeton, there has been qviite a development of crystalline limestone contain- ing scattered masses of serpentine of irregular ellipsoid form. Serpentine rocks similar to those mentioned are found in the Seigniory of La Petite Nation, which adjoins the township of Grenville. In the vicinity of Calumet falls, on the Ottawa river, pale green serpentine, associated with brown phlogopite and apatite in the white crystalline limestone, occurs quite frequently. Still farther westward, crossing the Ottawa river, we find serpentine in the township of Ramsay, Lanark county. Province of Ontario, about thirty 35 miles southwest of the township of Templeton. The surface of the serpentine in the latter vicinity is of a beautiful amber colour, but in most places the mineral is disseminated through a white crystalline limestone. In Lanark township serpentine is interstratified with limestone, and forms a rock of striking beauty. In the towaiship of Dalhousie, on lots 23 and 24, concession III, the serpentine is interlaminated with a granular crystalline limestone. Farther south of the township of Dalhousie, in the township of South Sherbrooke, spotted serpentine limestone resembling those at Templeton may be noticed. In North Burgess, adjoining Dalhousie township, an almost pure serpentine has been found. About twenty miles farther south, in the township of Loughborough, county of Frontenac, white, and coarsely crystalline dolomite is seen on lot 4, concession X; also in Wollaston or Hatchet lake; and at the head of Reindeer lake, serpentine of probable Laurentian age is reported to occur. Dr. A. C. Lawson, of the Geolo- gical Survey, reports having met serpentine in the Keewatin area, on the west side of Clearwater lake, a tributary of Rainy lake. This rock is massive, and occurs there in a band, immediately followed to the west by hornblende schist, and to the east by another band of green hornblendic schists and altered traps. Another mass of serpentine, in a very analogous position, is seen on South bay of Lake Despair, and Dr. Lawson reports this as occurring with some degree of persistency in the middle portion of the Keewatin trough, and thinks these serpentines are the altered remains of olivine rocks. A small boss of this rock was also examined by Dr. Lawson at the southwest end of Sucker lake, coming in with green schists. Mr. W. S. Bayley, of the Geological Survey, has made microscopical exami- nations of these serpentines, and says that in many of them the forms of the original olivine can be clearly seen, although there is no trace of the mineral left. Dr. Lawson reports serpentine to be more largely developed on the island and shore of Shoal Lake narrows than elsewhere in the Lake of the Woods region. He mentions also a boss of serpentine projecting through the black hornblende schists in the immediate vicinity of their contact with the gneiss. Many minerals are associated with the Laurentian serpentine, but very few are in workable quantity. Small quantities of chrysotile have been mined for asbestos in the township of Templeton, but the fibre was so short, that these works were soon abandoned. Further particulars about this chrysotile-asbestos will be found on pages 36 to 40. The magnetic iron ore formerly smelted at the Marmora iron furnace was obtained from lot 8, concession I, of Behnont. This deposit consists of a succession of beds of ore, interstratified with layers of greenish taleoid slate and crystalline limestone : with which are associated serpentine, chlorite, diallage, and a greenish epidotic rock. Iron of a superior quality was manufactured from the ores of this deposit. Pyrallolite, a mineral similar to steatite in chemical composition, softness, and refractory properties, is often met with in the Laurentian series. A bed of it, associated with serpentine, occurs between the gneiss and the limestone on lot 13, range V, of Grenville. It may be traced from thence into range VI, 36 and appears to be in considerable quantity. The colour of this mineral is generally greenish-white, or sea-green; some varieties of it being nearly white, and having the translucency of porcelain. Very dark coloured, nearly black varieties, have also been found, and this mineral is capable of being turned in a lathe and worked like soapstone: having been made into small vases, ink- stands and similar articles. Much of the figure-stone, or ' pagodite,' which is carved by the Chinese into various ornaments, appears to be pyrallolite. It was used by the aborigines to make pipes and ornaments. The serpentine of lot 13, range V, Grenville, and of some parts of the town- ship of Burgess, is of a pale green colour, marked with spots of iron oxide, and forms a fine ornamental stone. Inasmuch as serpentine has been used for various commercial purposes, and sometimes in large quantities — especially as a plaster and roofing material — it may be of interest to give some additional information regarding its physical and chemical properties. The Laurentian serpentines have a lower specific gravity and contain less oxide of iron and more combined water than ordinary serpentine. The following analyses of some of them show their chemical composition^ No. I is from Grenville, taken from a white crystalline limestone ; its colour varies from honey yellow to oil green, and its density is 2-47 — 2-52. No. II is a similar serpentine of a pale wax yellow, from Calumet island; its density is 2-36 — ^2-38. No. Ill consists of grains of honey yellow serpentine, separated by dilute nitric acid from a white lamellar dolomite from Grenville. No. IV is the reddish brown serpentine rock, or ophiolite of Burgess: — Constituents. I. 11. III. IV. SiO-, MgO reO + Fe.,0;, H„o....: 39-34 43 02 1-80 15 09 41-20 43 52 0-80 15-40 44 10 40 -05 115 14 70 29-80 38-40 7-92 13-80 99-25 100-92 100 00 99-92 Chrysotile-Asbestos in the Laurentian. The presence of asbestos in the crystalline rocks of the Laurentian formation has been known for over forty years, and mining was attempted from time to time, but was found unprofitable, owing to the limited extent of the deposits. But as there still appears to be some difference of opinion regarding the char- acter of these deposits, the writer — who has spent several years in their investi- gation — will give a brief resume of the operations conducted in that locality and the results obtained. * Geological Survey. 1863, page 472. 37 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LAUREXTIAX DEPOSITS. In the Laurentian formation, the serpentine in which asbestos occurs is closely associated with the crystalline limestone that traverses the gneiss in the form of bands in a generally northeast, southwesterly direction. These crystalline limestone bands occur at intervals, and constitute one of the main parts of the so-called Grenville series: extending from Ottawa eastward for several hundi-ed miles. The occurrence of asbestos serpentine, however, is so far restricted to the country north of Ottawa. The following is a description of the occurrences, and of the operations carried on in the township of Templeton. DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL OCCURRENCES AND OPERATIONS ON LOT 11, RANGE YU., TOWN- SHIP OF TEMPLETON, FIFTEEN MILES NORTHEAST FROM OTTAWA. The rock in which the asbestos serpentine deposits occur forms a large stratum of massive crystalline limestone, about 700 feet wide, striking in a northeast and southwesterly direction, bordered on both sides by red, grey, and white orthoclase gneiss. The crystalline limestone contains a nimiber of acces- sory minerals, such as small crystals of mica, iron pyrites, small veins of gra- phite, pockets of hematite; while grains of serpentine are disseminated through the whole rock. The asbestos deposits frequently assume the form of concretionary masses, sometimes like rounded boulders; as disconnected patches or pockets of small extent, from 12" up to 3 feet diameter; as irregular masses of limited extent; and as deposits with ring-like or elliptical sections, having a diameter from 3 to 50 feet, and serpentine walls varying from 6" up to 3 feet thick. (See Fig. 1.) /,,*^\ >.z.=i; g5« Mym' ;■■/-■ -~7'^ v. .-:■■■■ ir}\^^-~ I' •I'-,-"- 'vCl' Fig. 1. — Laurentian asbestos deposits. They sometimes present masses of yellowish green, spotted with crimson or blood red patches formed by disseminated peroxide of iron. The general outline of these deposits on the surface is in the form of zu ellipse; though in different places straight veins of small extent have been observed. In the elliptical deposits, a sharp, defined line can be recognized between the deposits and the associated limestone, and the veins generally follow the contours of the deposits. 38 The serpentine has a light green, yellow green, and dark green colour; but it is difficult to say which is the characteristic colour for the occurrence of asbestos. A greyish green colour is very often seen in the larger deposits. Small fissures through the serpentine — caused by the mechanical action of the water — are very numerous, and for this reason the material splits up, hence can not be obtained in dimensions suitable for ornamental purposes. The fresh sei'pentine contains much water, and is easily separable froiu the asbestos. Some light green varieties are soft, and have a peculiarly unctuous aspect. Asbestos is found in small veins or layers, usually following the contours of the outer coat of the serpentine deposit, and ranging in thickness from a fraction of an inch to half an inch, and sometimes even more. They run in parallel layers, which may split up and form a larger number of veins, or coalesce. The veins are sometimes displaced out of their natural positions and cut off by faults, as observed in several places ; but such a displacement is seldom larger than 6 feet. In many cases, instead of fibrous veins, asbestiform matter of a white colour, and of the same characteristic structure, is met with. It has an unctuous aspect, and shows, occasionally, the gradual change to the fibrous variety. The asbestos itself has a very fine, silky fibre, and is admirably adapted for spinning. It has a marked wavy lustre, and light yellow, light green colour — seldom a dark green, and is very transparent : a sure indication of the absence of impurities. Chemical analysis shows that the Laurentian asbestos contains very little oxide of iron: much less than any other asbestos found in Canada. Black-blue varieties with a very silky fibre of from 1-|" to 2" long, have been observed in one place only, at a depth of 60 feet. This is, however, an exception to the general rule. As to the number of these asbestos serpentine deposits, thej' are irregularly distributed through the whole limestone strata; but on account of the lack of leading indications it is difficult to say which part of the limestone contains workable deposits, even if the asbestos outcrops on the surface. As an illustra- tion of this fact it may be mentioned that, in one place five deposits were out- cropping on the surface, containing fibre measuring from i" to 1^" in length, and the opinion prevailed that this spot — according to these indica- tions — probably contained workable deposits. Upon exploiting the latter, how- ever, it was found that all the veins were of very limited extent, and on account of the concretionary form of the deposits they terminated at a depth of 10 feet. Sinking further, to a depth of 40 feet, revealed nothing of value, except some beautiful coloured masses of serpentine. Amongst the deposits fovmd on this property there was one specialh' remark- able. This deposit — which outcropped on the surface in elliptical form, with the larger diameter 50 feet, and serpentine walls of a width of 2'-6" to 3 feet, and containing excellent fibre of from :}" to 1^" in length — continued to a depth of 60 feet, in great regularity. At this depth a drift was run along one of the walls, and it was found that the character and horizontal extension of the deposit were precisely similar to those exposed on the surface. In sinking, however, the asbestos veins gradually disappeared, the serpentine 39 being broken up into smaller pockets and bunches, containing here and there a few small stringers of the mineral. Most of the other deposits found on this property did not show a larger diameter than 20 feet. It was often observed that, asbestos of 1" and 2" in length on the surface, disappeared when the vein was followed towards depth. The percentage of fibre in the serpentine, as determined by the writer in the mills at Buckingham, was very satisfactory: sometimes more than 15 per cent of the milling material; but the latter was not plentiful, and the bulk of fibre extracted was small. The deposit at Denholm, near the Gatineau, is similar to that in Templeton as regards the mode of occurrence; but it appears that at one place the accumu- lation of asbestos deposits was large, and warranted, for some time, the expendi- ture in quarrying. It is reported that from one shaft which was sunk to a depth of over 160 feet in one year, 25 tons of fibre and crude, and 850 tons of asbestos cement of very fine quality were produced, and that a profit of $6,000 was made, after paying all expenses. LOCALITIES OF LAURENTIAN CHRYSOTILE-ASBESTOS. Among the many localities where the Laurentian asbestos has been found to occur, the following may be mentioned: — Township of Portland West, county of Ottawa, lot 16, range V. The chry- sotile occurs in two principal bands, one of which is near the brow of a ridge of limestone, having a band of serpentine near the contact with the gneiss and with a dike of white granite or pegmatite along the contact. The elevation of this ridge is about 60 feet above the road. At its base, and in the serpentine band there are from twenty-five to thirty small veins in a space of 2 to 3 feet. Most of these are mere threads, but some reach a thickness of i" or even more. The band of limestone is here exposed for a breadth of about 150 yards, and a second narrow band of asbestos-bearing rock occurs near the eastern edge of the area, which terminates against a mass of red granite-gneiss. In this area the concretionary looking masses of serpentine are not observed. Several areas of serpentine, with small quantities of chrysotile, have been found at various points. About three miles north of St. Andre Avellin, Cote St, Pierre, a band of limestone occurs between two dikes of greenstone. The contact between the limestone and the greenstone (diorite) is marked by a zone of serpentine, in which small veins of chrysotile are seen. The lower portion of the limestone has small grains of serpentine distributed throughout. Among other deposits may be mentioned : lot 14, range VII ; lot 2, range VIII; and lot 16, range V, all in the township of Templeton. In the township of Wentworth, on lot 20, range IX, south of Silver lake, the belt of crystalline limestones which extends eastward from Lost river to Sixteen Island lake, contains in its lowest part, near an intrusive pyroxene, a narrow band of serpentine with several small veins of chrysotile, on which an attempt at mining was made some fifteen years ago. Some of these veins are *" thick. White granite dikes occur also in the vicinity. 7068—4 40 On Blanche lake, in the township of Mulgrave, similar serpentine deposits occur with small quantities of asbestos, as also on the east side of Grill lake; but it may be said that, of all those yet examined in. this district the quantity is too small to render its extraction profitable. Serpentine occurs similarly at several points along the Ottawa river, in the rear of ' Pointe au Chene.' A mill was erected at this place eighteen years ago, to separate the fibre. The amount of fibre, however, was too small for successful treatment, hence the w^orks were closed. Mr. W. II. Collins^ describes some occurrences of serpentine on Foot and Firth lakes, in the Gowganda Mining Division. He reports as follows: — ' In the Keewatin area between Firth and Obushkong lakes there occur masses of a basic igneous rock thro.ugh whose decomposition serpentine and asbestos have been developed. Two bodies were found. One of these, lying east of Foot lake, and 20 chains from Obushkong, was traced for a width of 4 chains, but nothing was learned of its north and south extent. It con- sists very largely of green serpentine, traversed by a network of fine, white, weathering veins of asbestos. ]\rore extensive outcrops exist along the east shore of Firth lake. At somewhat more than a mile from the foot of the lake and near a small log shack at the water's edge a considerable mass of partially decomposed wehrlite, serpentine, and asbestos is visible.' Huronian Serpentines. The PItironian serpentines are little known, and of limited extent. According to investigations made by the Geological Survey, serpentine of Huronian age occurs at two points in Charlotte county, New Brunswick. Northeast of St. Stephen, dark grey, dioritic rocks occur, containing serpentine, diallage, and chromic oxide. About two miles north of St. Stephen may be seen ledges of coarse-grained, dark grey, granitoid diorite, having thin layers of picrolite or fibrous serpentine in the joints, as well as serpentinous matter in the body of the rock. In crossing these ledges towards St. Stephen, the rock becomes some- what darker, and portions are met with exhibiting thin lamination ; the laminae being separated by layers of serpentine about |" in thickness. There seems to be some doubt as to the age of these serpentinous rocks; and although sup- posed to be of Laurentian age, they are being placed under the head of Huronian rocks. The presence of chromic oxide in them and the want of crystalline lime- stone in their association with other rocks gives them quite a different character to those of the Laurentian series of this Province. In a northwest direction from those last mentioned, the first known outcrops of these serpentines are on Lake Abitibi, where they are found to be associated with micaceous horn- blende, and chloritic schists; fine-grained hard quartzites, diorites, and dioritic schists. A little island in this lake is composed of strongly magnetic serpentine, with splintery fracture, having a resinous lustre, and weathering dull white. An analysis of it was made by Dr. Harrington, who found it to contain grains of chrome iron ore, and a very small quantity of nickel, besides silica, alumina, magnesia, and protoxide of iron. ' Report on the ' Gowganda Mining Division,' Geological Survey, Ottawa. 1909, p 46. 41 According to Dr. Bell there is, in the middle of Pigeon lake, at about one mile from the lower end of it, a small island composed of very dark green ser- pentine, with strings of calcspar and chrysotile. It weathers rusty, and Dr. Harrington, on analysis, found it to contain oxide of chromium both in the form of small grains, and in chemical combination with the rest of the rock. No mineral of economic importance has yet been found in these serpentines ; but perhaps when the country where they are more abundantly met with is settled, deposits of asbestos may yet be discovered. The Pre-Cambrian serpentines seem to be limited to the almost extreme easterly portion of the Dominion. Mr. Hugh Fletcher reports serpentine to occur in three different places : — (1) In Macdonald brook, Cape Breton island, where white, pyritous crystalline limestone, lemon yellow serpentine limestone, and pale-green, brown-weathering limestone, and tremolite in small fibrous tufts, occur be- tween bluish-grey and red felsite and bluish-porphyritic felsite; (2) on Kel- vin brook, in the same island: a cliff of coarse, reddish felsite, associated with greenish and red, mottled, soft serpentine, is in immediate contact with reddish coarse grit and conglomerate along an irregular line which runs northeast 9°; and (3) on Campbell brook, eastern Nova Scotia: some white crystalline limestone appears, some beds of which are covered on the surface with large knobs of light-greenish and white serpentine, but the hills are composed mainly of syenite.' ' These resemble very much the Laurentian serpentines in colour and in their association with crystalline limestones. No minerals of economic value were found in them.' Cambrian Serpentines. The Cambrian serpentines are those which are confined to the great ser- pentine belt that extends from southern Vermont to Gaspe, in the Province of Quebec. They are by far the most important in the Dominion: not only on account of their very interesting geological structure, and in being an altered metamorphic rock, but because they contain economic minerals in abundance, especially asbestos, and chrome iron ore. This serpentine belt may be divided into three areas : — (1) The area covering part of the townships of Bolton, Orford, Brompton, Melbourne, and Danville. (2) The Thetford-Black Lake area, covering part of the townships of Ham, "Wolfestown, Coleraine, Thetford, and Broughton. (3) The area covering a part of the Gaspe peninsula. The first area — which may be termed the southwestern area — commences with the International Boundary line in Potton, and extends through the town- ship of the same name, through Bolton, Orford, Brompton, Melbourne, and Danville, and is characterized by a chain of hills extending also beyond the boundary into Vermont. These serpentines, which are closely allied to a contigu- ous band of diorite and dioritic rocks, appear in irregular, but generally well-de- 7068— 4^ 42 fined masses ; and although showing here and tliere in most of that distance, they do not deviate from their northeastward direction, but follow the general trend of all the formation — which is northeast. Along the course of this belt of ser- pentine, chrysotile exists at different points; also in several places in the town- ships of Bolton, Brompton, and Melbourne. Further particulars regarding these deposits will be found on pages 77 and 78. It must be mentioned that the area under consideration is largely covered with heavy humus and forest growth, so that on this account prospecting is very difficult and almost impossible. The true value of this area as regards the occurrence of asbestos can only be surmised. It is evident, therefore, that unless the heavy forests are destroyed by fire, and the soil removed — as in Black Lake and Thetford — there is little chance that the presence of the mineral in paying quantities will ever be established. The second, and most important asbestos field from an economic point of view, is generally termed the Black Lake-Thetford area. It commences with several small knolls of serpentine north of the Chaudiere river, and in the vicinity of that river, between the villages of St. Joseph and St. Francis. In the townships of Broughton, Thetford, Coleraine, Wolfestown, and Ham, a great development of serpentine rocks can be observed : forming at times mountain masses from 700 to 1,000 feet above the surrounding country, and contributing largely to the generally rugged character of the latter by their sharp outlines and weathered surfaces. This is the largest field of serpentine to be seen along the Atlantic seaboard of North America : and, at present, the most important one in Canada; since it contains all the productive asbestos and chrome iron ore mines in the Dominion. The serpentine mountains of the townships of Ireland and Coleraine extend over a width of from five to six miles; with a spur towards Little Lake St. Francis. Small outcrops of serpentine can be noticed on the Riviere des Plantes, and in range V, of Cranborne, on the Etchemin river. Nearly all the productive mines of asbestos are located in this region, more especially in the townships of Coleraine, Thetford, and Broughton, and although only one large workable deposit has been discovered outside this locality, at Danville, there is no reason whatever why, with extended and more vigorous exploration work, additional productive serpentine cannot be found. Most of the serpentines that occur in the first and second areas, as described above, are associated with dioritic rocks at many points throughout the town- ships: sometimes in masses of large extent, as in the Big Ham and the Little Ham mountains, and in the peaks along the western side of Lake Memphra- magog; also in others as dikes. With these are often associated agglomerated eerpentines and serpentinous breccias. In the third area — that of the Gaspe peninsula — the serpentine presents a very large development, especially in the Shickshock Mountain range: Mount Albert and Smith mountain. It is found in bands sometimes a few yards in width, interstratified with the slates and sandstones, and sometimes with diorites, in conjunction with which it forms knoll-like hills, or elongated ridges of considerable extent. The western portion is too hard and siliceous to give much promise of asbestos; but some portions of Mount Albert have shown small veins along with deposits of chrome iron ore. i£ /s eo ^erpenJUne Map No 86. MAP SHOWING GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF SERPENTINE IN THE EASTERN TOWNSHIPS. QUE, BY FRITZ CIRKEL, ME, PQ pq 43 In the eastern portion of the peninsula, at Mount Serpentine on the Dart- mouth river, a few miles from its mouth, iMr. J. Obalski^ has discovered some veins of asbestos in a band of serpentine associated with hornblende rock. This mountain rises to a height of 1,600 feet above sea-level, and is surroimded by the sandy and calcareous beds of the Siluro-Devonian system of that region. The area under question has never been carefully explored with a view to ascertaining the presence of the mineral in quantity, owing largely to the diffi- culty of access. Serpentine has been discovered in Lake Chibougamau, on Asbestus island; and judging from the little work which has been done so far, it seems that the rock containing asbestos fibre resembles very much the Black Lake-Thetford serpentine. Its extent is not known ; but from reports which have been submitted to the writer, the region has been overestimated. On the north shore of McKenzie bay there is a continuous development of fine, greenish serpentine; and Mr. Obalski entertains the opinion that, regular prospecting work might lead to the discovery of asbestos mines. Broughton, Thetford, and Black Lake Areas. The present workable asbestos deposits are— as far as exploration work has shown, and, with the exception of the ' Danville ' quarries — confined to the great serpentine range which strikes through the townships of Broughton, Thetford, and Coleraine, in a direction northeast 85°. Leaving some scattered deposits in the townships of Wolfestown and Ireland out of consideration, the total length of this productive serpentine belt is twenty-three miles, with a Fig. 2. — Profile of asbestos-bearing formation at Black Lake and Thetford. width varying from 100 feet in the extreme easterly part, to 6,000 feet in the Black Lake area. The serpentine belt as a whole, however, in many places far exceeds the width indicated above. In the township of Broughton, for instance, this width ranges from 200 to 1,000 feet; while the greatest width so far deter- mined in the township of Coleraine is 3J miles. In presenting a geological description of this serpentine range, which has become famous by reason of its unlimited supply of the finest quality of asbestos; it must here be stated that, the main objective in its examination was, to find out whether ^ Inspector of Mines, Province of Quebec. 44 the deposits scattered over the country — especially in Broughton and Thetford — constituted parts of a continuous belt. If this were found to be the case, it would be a great incentive to exploration, and probably lead to the discovery of new deposits. In the investigation of this serpentine belt many new facts have been brought to light: especially with regard to their individual richness; their extent; their general character; their relation to the country rock; and the quality of the asbestos disclosed in different parts of the range. The productive serpentine of the Eastern Townships is confined to the southeasterly part of what is now generally considered as the Cambrian forma- tion : which occupies the greater part of that section of the country. This southeasterly part has a width of from five to fifteen miles : commencing in the townships of Shipton and Ham, and continuing in a northeasterly direction, beyond the Chaudiere river, into the county of Bellechasse. The metamorphic character of the rocks constituting this formation pre- cludes the discovery of traces of organisms; in fact, great thicknesses of strata examined are, apparently, devoid of any sign of past organic life. The Cambrian rocks so far met with — more especially in the serpentine region now under consideration — consist of quartzites, impregnated heavily with small pockets and veins of quartz; greenish chloritic schists and slates, and mica schists. At several places a sub-crystalline limestone cuts through the series : in the township of Broughton, along the road to West Broughton, from Broughton station, and also north of Beauce Junction. In all these localities they are asso- ciated with black slates and quartzites, and have been burned for lime. To the northwest, this southeasterly part of the Cambrian series is underlaid by the rocks of a central anticlinal : the Pre-Cambrian, which constitute the oldest rocks in the Eastern Townships. The anticlinal axis of this series has a general northeasterly trend : commencing at the townships of Wolfestown and Halifax, and continuing through Leeds township to the Chaudiere river, thus forming the nucleus along which the rocks of this series are grouped. The rocks which constitute this Pre-Cambrian system are composed mostly of altered sedimentary rocks or chlorite, micaceous schist, slates, sandstones, etc. — as may be observed in the townships of Ireland, Inverness, and Leeds ; also of green slates, sometimes dark coloured and highly schistose, with a great variety of quartz in irregular veins. Volcanic rocks are frequently met with in the Cambrian, and they constitute in the majority of cases the lofty peaks which rise so abruptly above the sur- rounding country: for instance, Broughton mountain, located in the south- erly corner of the township of Broughton; and Moose mountain, in the north- westerly part of the township of Cranbourne, and several others. These volcanic rocks are composed mostly of trap rocks, of greenish, greyish, or brownish colours. The serpentine rocks may be found in almost any portion of this easterly part of the Cambrian formation; and they are invariably associated either with quartzitic rocks or with the greenish schists, or dark slates. The productive serpentines are, as a general rule, associated with two different groups of rock: namely, the concretionary, and the massive diorites or black or greenish slates, 45 with hard schistose quartzites and greenish schists, as in the townships of Coleraine, Thetford, and Broughton. Small areas of serpentine are also asso- ciated with chloritic and mica schists, and in a few localities with talcose minerals like soapstone. The latter are very conspicuous in Leeds, also in Broughton and Thetford townships. As to the physical aspect and configuration of the country which the pro- ductive serpentine traverses, it may be described as essentially ' a miners' country.' Mountain ranges of considerable height and lateral extent alternate with low lying narrow river valleys: their general direction being southwest northeast. Great fires have at times swept over this country, and denuded it of its dense forest growth: destroying everything in its path: sometimes causing the disintegration of rocks, which facilitated the prospectors' work. This, and the fertilizing eifect of the alkalis left by the burning of the wood and coarse stubble growths, has doubtless been the main reason why the available ground along the wide, gently rising mountain slopes suitable for agricultural pursuits, has been so quickly taken up. The scenery of the rolling benchlands and hills, with their variously coloured landscape in the summer, is very picturesque and pleasing. Rock Forming Minerals of the Serpentine Range. As mentioned on page 23, serpentine is a hydrated silica of magnesia resulting from the alteration of magnesian rocks, infusible, and as a rock proper, without crystallization: its formula is 3MgO, 2SiO,, SH.O, that is, silica 44-1, magnesia 43-00, and water 12-9=100. It is a hydrated peridotite;^ because it sometimes exhibits the characteristic form of crystals of peridotite, the essential constituent of which is olivine. In the latter, under the action of carbonated or heated waters containing silica, the iron instead of being peroxidized is fre- quently carried off: some of the magnesia being removed at the same time; the resulting rock-mass is serpentine. The process of alteration can be illustrated by the following equations. In the case of alteration through carbonic acid waters: — 2Mg, SiO, + 2H,0+C0, = H, Mg, SIO, + MgC03, and in the case of alteration through heated waters containing silica: — 3Mg, SiO, 4- 4H,0 + SiO, = 2H, Mg, Si,0,. From the first equation it would appear that magnesite MgCOj is a fre- quent associate of serpentine as a result of the alteration of the original rock mass; but in the Eastern Townships very little magnesite is met with, and it has evidently been taken into solution by a surplus of carbonated waters. The rock minerals which constitute the serpentine formation in the Eastern Townships, are generally distinguished as: — Dunite: Olivine alone and its alteration product — serpentine. Pyroxenite: Pyroxenes alone, and Peridotite: Pyroxenes and olivine. 1 Derived from ' Peridot ' the French name for olivine. 46 Occasionally all three minerals occur independently of each other; also together in the transition stage from one mineral to another. Megascopically it is difficult to distinguish one from another; but they can be readily recognized when submitted to microscopic examination. It may be affirmed that, the first essential requisite in the formation of asbestos fibre is the complete alteration of the dunite into serpentine; if there is no alteration, there is no asbestos; which explains the existence of barren stretches of serpentine, devoid of any asbestos fibre. In the great vein fibre belt the asbestos veins are invariably embedded in seamy rock partings, which intersect the serpentine in almost every direction. Many of these carry minute veins of the fibred material, of little commercial use, but the majority of them contain veins from \" to 3" and S" wide. They easily separate from the rock-mass, are highly fissured, and when exposed to air for some time tarnish a peculiar white, sometimes bluish-white colour. Examination under the microscope of the rock sections constituting these partings, shows that they constitute complete alterations from dunite (olivine) into serpentine. Farther away, however, from the part- ings, the rock, as a general rule, is composed of pyroxene and olivine. The writer has had quite a number of slides made of serpentine rocks taken from the partings, and at about 15" to 18" away from them — under the microscope, the difference in the alteration in both classes of specimens is rather striking. These slides were submitted to the Mines Branch for examination; and Dr. Alfred W. G. Wilson, of the staff, summarized his observations in the following points : — (Plate No. VI.) Sample taken near to asbestos vein. Dr. Reed's mine, Black Lake. ' Serpentine formed by the alteration of olivine. Small masses of magnetite appear in the upper right hand corner of the plate.' (Plate No. VII.) Sample taken at a point 18" from seamy parting. ' In the centre, and completely surrounded by olivine, are two crystals of a partly altered orthorhombic pyroxene, now bastite. The olivine is traversed by a network of fractures. Serpentinization has taken place only along the fracture lines.' (Plate No. Vin.) Sample taken from seamy parting close to asbestos vein, property of the Imperial Asbestos Company, Black Lake. ' Bastite, a groundmass of serpentine, derived from olivine. The whole section is traversed by minute veins of asbestos. All of the original mineral constituents of the rock appear to have been altered.' (Plate No. IX.) Sample taken from point 18" away from seamy parting. * The alteration of the mineral constituents is not complete. Small cores of olivine are seen surrounded by serpentine — particularly along the left side of the photograph. The central portion consists largely of bastite. There are Plate VI. Miciophotograph of serpentine close to asbestos vein, Dr. Reed's mine. Magnified 50 diameters. For description see page 46. Plate VIT. Microphotograph of rock 18 inches away from asbestos vein. Magni- fied 35 diameters. For description see page 46. Plate VIII. Microphoto^raph of serpentine close to asbestos vein, Impeiial Asbestos Co. , Bla.ck Lake. Magnified 20 diameters. For description see page 46. Plate IX. Microphotograph of rock 18 inches away from asbestos vein. Magni- fied 20 diameters. For description see page 46. 7068—5 Platf X. Microphotograph of serpentine close to asbestos vein, Southwark mine, Black Lake. Magnified 35 diameters. For description see page 47. 7068— 5 i Plate XI. ^E^? Hi 1 H 1 ^K''^^ i t^S__^_^^^^^^^^^^K^w IW"'^ ^|H|| ^^^^^^^1 ^^E^-??-^^'^ j^^^^K^f^ \ ^1^4 \Sv^ ^^^^^^H ^^H ^H^^ m/^ \'^ A •*-^^V •v&r ^ j^ l^^^^^l ■ " ''\ 'f ^8^1 1 ^^^r^^i • f t' ■4 t 1 \ , f * f -'^mSk I ^■8^^* lk< ^>:^ ^ 1 •^ ' "'*^i'"'! ^ 1 i.^y-*;r'^ 1' ^ SHjpMK^'-t ^N j^" •t'^^ 9 E .- ^^^ i f^ ^9H|^^^ *^ p: £^ ^^fl ^^Ht~ "^.j ^^^yk 1 1 1 Microphotograph of rock 15 inches away from asbe&tos vein. Magni- fied 35 diameters. For description see page 4". p. 47 Plate XI I. Hi v"'iS ■■ i^'^^Sj^B ^BF~^^^ ^ " ' ' -~ - :-% it '^^^H ^5^'- ■ -.^^ ^^^^■|||B||^HJk|^.vk59 ~ ^ ' E^^^.'^ --•'l^rv'd ^H|^^^^R^^HBIKjir < ' .^/B^^Skk:'- ' '^^I^Vl ."^^KES^gJS W^r^m -«UhJ^^^^9M^^|H ^K ;^ ' - ' ^^^9I^?^H ^^^H^^l ^Iki^ "I^^BH B^"~€' '^ «.^^^^^^^H ^^■i^.:)/> ^^^^^^^^^1 ^^^^^^^^i^ "''^ ' ,.'■ t.^g^^^H ^^^KX: ■ -;^ ajj^^^^^^l ^^^^^^^^^KkZ^' i mm ]Microi)horograiih of serpentine close to asbestos vein. Standard quarry. Black Lake. Magnified 20 diameters. For description, see page 47. Plate XIII. Microphotograph of rock 15 inches away from asbestos vein. Magni- fied 40 diameters. For description, see page 47. 47 also a few particles of magnetite and some cliromite shown, but the latter is not distinguishable in the plate.' (Plate No. X.) Sample taken from seamy parting containing asbestos vein. Southwark, Black Lake. ' The rock has been almost completely altered to bastite and serpentine. The two large crystals on the lower left hand side are bastite.' (Plate No. XL) Sample taken from a point 15" away from seamy parting. ' Serpentinization has only taken place along the fracture lines through the olivine. In the section a few crystals of a rhombic pyroxene, altered to bastite on the margins, also occur.' (Plate No. XII.) Sample taken from seamy parting containing asbestos vein. Standard Quarries, Black Lake. ' The rock has been completely altered to serpentine with the liberation of a small amount of magnetic oxide of iron.' (Plate No. XIII.) Sample taken from a point 15" away from seamy parting. ' Small anhedra of olivine forming cores in a mass of serpentine. Small particles and strings of magnetite occur throughout the section.' Under the microscope, olivine appears to be sometimes full of fissures, along which the alteration into serpentine takes place. This has the appearance of a finely fibrous fringe, and the fibres as a general rule are at right angles to the boundary planes. This forms the nucleus of serpentinization; the latter proceeding gradually until the whole is converted into a mass of serpentine with fibres irregularly distributed throughout. Under the microscope it can often be noticed that whenever olivine crystals have undergone partial decom- position, irregular cracks are formed, which are filled with asbestos; the fibres being arranged in the manner above described. 48 Chemical Composition of Cambrian Serpentine. All that has been said regarding the physical and chemical qualities of serpentine in general on pages 22 and 23 may be applied to Cambrian ser- pentine in particular. A number of analyses of serpentine of the Eastern Townships is subjoined : — Localities. SiO„ Scriieiitine from Black Lake. . .. Thetford . . ! .' Serpentine from East Brough- tou (not associated with " slip" fibre) Serpentine from Mansonville, Que .Serpentine from Benoit loca- tion, Eastman district . ... Serpentine from Richmond. . . Fibrous serpentine from lot 2, range V, Thetford Lime serpentine from lot 14, range XIII, Broughton . . . AI2O3 Fe^O^ 39-60 41 20 38-90 39-20 1 4.5 0-53 2-01 0-99 41 10 1-02 37-80 1-83 36-00 38-00 1-55 2-89 40-76 41 15 46-60 13-21 3-44 3-74 3-75 3 53 2-97 2-5S 7-27 9 55 7-49 305 2 52 2-70 FeO 99 0-99 4-44 402 0-99 80 2 33 1-32 0-49 10-82 12 35 MgO 40 71 40-96 42 93 44 02 H,0 Authority. 42 -98 Dr. M. 73 -47 ■85 Hersey 13 60 These analyses will serve to show the general character of the serpentines in different parts of the Townships. The chemical composition of the respective samples is somewhat variable: the general predominance of magnesia and silica being significant; while the content of Fe.Oj seems to increase in the varieties which, so far, have not been proven to contain asbestos in paying quantities. A considerable decrease in the content of water and magnesia, with a corres- ponding increase in lime, alumina, and iron is noticeable in the ' lime ' varieties of serpentine. Before dealing with the asbestos belt proper it will be necessary to call attention to two different conditions in which the chrysotile-asbestos is met with in the Eastern Townships, namely: — Vein Fibre and Slip Fibre. The term ' vein ' fibre is applied to the deposition of asbestos fibre in fissures at right angles to the enclosed walls : forming regular veins. These veins inter- sect portions of the serpentine in every direction; no matter whether there are folds or bedding planes in the enclosing formation: indeed they occur without any special arrangement, cutting each other also; but as a general rule they follow straight lines. Sometimes they split up in several smaller veins, or coalesce and form a larger vein. Certain peculiar arrangements, however, can be perceived in some of the areas: at, for instance, the King quarry, in the to\\Tiship of Ireland, where the serpentine appears to be regularly stratified almost in the manner o Platk XV. : /:^ ,p^ i^I^C^.- , W '■ *" ~ > • ^^^^^^-lf« i'^'*'- -.r V 3;; k Seamy partings (a) containing asbestos veins, from Soiithwark Mines, Black Lake Consolidated Asbestos Co. 49 of sandstone or quartz in layers — dipping to the northwest; while the veins of asbestos apparently follow what in sedimentary rocks would be regarded as bedding planes. In several other places the veins cut the rock in an almost W^^ Fk;. 3. — Typical asbestos veins. (a) Regular vein. (b) Crossing of veins. (c) Drawn out vein in fault or slickenside. (d) Seauiy parting containing vein in middle. (e) Forking of vein. (f) Two veins divided by small seam of chrome iron ore, and serpentine. (g) Ribbon-like arrangement of small veins. horizontal direction, and when found in a knoll, can be traced across from one side of the hill to the other, nearly on the same jilane; but as a rule the veins are irregularly placed. The thickness of the veins varies from mere threads up to several inches; but it may be said that the largest bulk of the asbestos quarried is between \" and \" in length. The longer fibre is very often divided in the middle by a seam of serpentine carrying magnetic, or chrome iron ore. As a rule, in most of the mines, the asbestos can be easily separated from the rock; but in some veins the fibre appears to be ' frozen ' to the rock, hence its complete separation is very difiicult. Most of the asbestos veins possessing oommercial qualities are embedded in seamy partings of the serjientine measuring from 4" to 6'' wide; the veins running, as a rule, parallel to the selvage planes. This is a character- istic feature of the Black Lake and Thetford district, to be found nowhere else. Wlien freshly mined, these seamy partings — which separate with ease from the adjacent serpentine — can hardly be detected; but when exposed for some time to atmospheric action, they tarnish bluish-white, and can be readily distinguished from the surrounding rock. The cause of this peculiar colour is not well established: an effort to analyse these finely coloured films was not successful. It seems probable, however, that the serpentine of the seamy partings, which is an almost complete alteration of the original olivine rock, disintegrates more easily when exposed to atmospheric action than the other serpentine rock, and, as a result of this disintegration, a fine film of magnesite is formed on the V06S— 6 50 surface. These tarnisherl, seamy partings can be well recognized in the older quarries; and in some of them^ — like in quarry No. 8 of the old 'Union' mine, now of the 'Black Lake Consolidated' — a regular network of these 'partings' or ' veinholders ' may be seen. An analysis of chrysotile-asbestos, and of the seamy partings in which it was embedded, gave the following percentage composition: — Chemical Symbols. SiO„. Al/O, . Fe^O,. FeO... MgO.. HoO.. Asbestos. SerpentiiK'. 3'J 60 .39-20 None 99 2-58 2- 97 1-62 4 (12 41 -99 44 (12 14 44 8-85 The question of the width of the asbestos veins in the Canadian asbestos district is one of great importance, since the value of a mine, or the profits of the same — -all other considerations being equal — depend to a great extent upon this quality. As a general rule, wide veins that are |" and over in length, deliver spinning fibre of an excellent quality, which commands the highest prices and finds a ready market; often even in times of depression, or over production. The short varieties, however, which constitute the bulk of the production, and are the backbone of all the enterprises, are less valuable ; for in times of general business depression the effect is seriously felt, in the over- stocking of the market, and consequent drop in prices. On the other hand it must be said that, the width or thickness of a vein, in situ, is no criterion of the length of the fibre : and in many cases it is very difficult to distinguish the length by the naked eye because it often happens that the fine fibres are separated at right angles by fine films of serpentine; or sometimes by minute bands of serpentine charged with chrome iron ore, or magnetite; and sometimes even without any perceptible layer of rock : the only indication of this being an irregular, scarcely visible line, readily detected by the expert. In several places the serpentine contains iron ore disseminated in fine minute particles ; while the associated asbestos fibre contains the same iron not in an undis- seminated condition; but usually concentrated towards the middle of the vein. The veins are sometimes displaced by the action of faults and slickensides in the serpentine: giving the impression that the fibre is of considerable length; whereas when closely examined it is found that they carry fibre of the usual length, but drawn out along the fissures. Sometimes a long woody fibre can be observed, deposited in a fissure between two rock portions. This woody material — usually termed hornblende by the miner — is in reality a picrolite, and is found principally in the mines at Thetford and East Broughton. A peculiar occurrence of asbestos is noticed in the Megantic mine at Coleraine. Here the serpentine "for several feet is laced with small, minute veins of asbestos A'" to i" in thickness, exhibiting thus, a ribbon-like structure. 51 This same mode of occurrence can also be noticed in some quarries at Black Lake, and in one occurrence near Richmond: lot 6, range XV, Cleveland. In the underground works of the Bell Asbestos Company, a unique oppor- tunity is afforded for studying the occurrence of asbestos veins in general. Tn the writer's opinion, there is no place in southern Quebec where there is such a heterogeneous mass of asbestos veins exposed : and offering such great facilities for observation. It would be beyond the scope of this treatise, and would serve no useful purpose to enter here into a detailed, general description of these asbestos veins. A few points of technical interest, however, have been brought to light from this system of tunnelling and drifting. While the majority of the veins exposed seem to be concentrated in most irregular fashion — as des- cribed above — to limited portions of the serpentine, forming so to speak regular pay chutes, available for exploitation; in some of the accumulations it seemed as if the formation of the fissures and subsequent deposition of the asbestos had been going on with a certain regularity. Thus, in the easterly part of the underground works a cross-cut was noticed, where some fifteen veins, measuring- all the way from |" to 3" thick, were all parallel to each other, the veins dipping at an angle of 40°, and the spaces between then, being from G" to 15" wide. The most peculiar feature, however, was the intersection of these parallel veins by a second system of veins running almost perpendicular to the former. From the arrangement of the fibre at the points of intersection in both systems, the writer concluded that the veins in the second system were younger than those in the first; and since this is a very important point in connexion with the original deposition of the fibre, this observation Avill be dealt with further in the chapter on the Origin of Asbestos. As far as experience lias shown, ' vein ' fibre alwaj's contains the ' chrysotile ' variety ; whereas the hornblendic or amphibole variety has not been found in veins, but always in a 'drawn out condition, in fissures, or along fracture planes. The colour of the Ivein fibre freshly mined is white, sometimes of a creamy tint; but in situ it •comprises all shades of green, from a very light-yellow green, as in the mines iand outcrops east of the Thetford mines, in the township of Thetford, to a dark green-blue shade in the Thetford-Black Lake quarries. The principal quality of the Canadian vein fibre is its great flexibility and silkiness, and it may be affirmed that, as far as the writer can judge, by a comparative study of fibres from many parts of the globe, there is not one "instance where the fibre approaches the Canadian — especially that from Thet- ford^in its silkiness and delicacy of structure. There are deposits outside Canada which, at first sight, seem to equal the Canadian variety: as regards the length and the beautiful pearly, wavy shades; but immediately the single fibres are separated by the fingers, the harsh, glassy, and sometimes brittle qualities become at once apparent ; they do not spin to perfection ; the necessary flexibility is wanting, and, as a general rule, only a small percentage of the fibre can be used for spinning. As to the acid resisting qualities of Canadian chrysotile, compared with the hornblende varieties, the reader is referred to page 30, where full information on that subjest is given. 7068—64 52 The second variety of Canadian chrysotile, tlie so-called 'slip fibre/ occurs, as a general rule, in the serpentine formation, in slickensided fault planes, caused hy the moving or slipping of one rock portion along its contact with another portion. The fibre, so produced, is bedded on the fracture or slipping plane in a flat position, hence the name ' sii]) ' fibre. The relation between ' vein ' and ' slip ' fibre seems to be plainly established, and as a general rule both varieties when separated from the rock, and worked out into mill fibre, present very few differences as far as length and quality are concerned. When freshly mined, the slip fibre exhibits many peculiarities. On sight, its drawn out condition — the overlapping of the single, fine threads — would lead to the inference that, the fibre is longer than the general run of vein fibre; but upon closer oxamijinliim this is seen not 1o he the case. When subjected to micro- scopical examination, it is pcirceived that the fibres, although closely adhering- to each other, terminate at a certain length, and that the apparent continuation of the same thread is in reality another fibre underlying the former. In most cases, however, an abrupt termination of a group of fibres overlying another group can be clearly noticed. While the fibres are, almost invariably, arranged throughout the fissured serpentine in every direction; but on the same fracture plane — no matter how small — a definite iiarallelism of the threads may be observed; and while this is immaterial as far as the ultimate percentage of extraction is concerned, it presents an important point in the discussion of the origin — w'hich will be treated in a subsequent chapter. As a general rule the fibres over a certain plane are drawn out, and as noted above, all in the same direction, and in such a manner that, the whole surface appears to be coated with asbestos; while in some cases this coating takes the shape of a film, in others it is |-", sometimes |" thick. A few cases have actually come under the notice of the writer where little grooves and hollows in the rock — several inches square — were filled with fibre -J" and f" wide, all arranged in the same direction, and in the plane of fraction. It frequently happens that two asbestos coated rock surfaces meet vmder a pointed or almost right angle. In these cases an accumulation of asbestos fibre in the form oi' rich bunches will be noticed; the fibres in most cases being arranged in most irregular fashion. The slip fibre is frequently intermixed with picrolite — the other form of fibrous serpentine; and although its outward appearance is similar to that of the real ehrysotile fibre, its physical qualities, i.e., harshness and brittleness, are such as to exclude it from the uses to which the good fibre is applied. But inasmuch as it is difficult for the miner to discriminate in the pit between good and bad fibre, a considerable quantity of the picrolite found in association with good fibre goes to the mill for treatment, and in this way a certain percentage of the material is always mixed with the mill fibre. The colour of the slip fibre varies a great deal. Freshly mined, and separated by the fingers, the fibre has generally a beautiful white colour ; whereas in situ it is light green, cream, or even deep white. Fibre near the surface is, as a general rule, discoloured, and has a brownish tint. Plate XVI. Kibbon structure of chrysotile-asbesto.s. 53 The occurrence of the ' slip ' fibre variety is confined to that part of the serpentine belt stretching from range III, Broughton, to lot 17, range IV, Thet- ford, a distance of fourteen miles. Discoloration and Alteration of Fibre Discoloration of the asbestos, and alteration of the fibre itself, can be observed everywhere throughout the region. This is due to three causes: (1) to atmospheric influences, and action of water; (2j to large forest fires, which swept over the region, and (3) to the presence of intrusive dikes. A change of colour is very often observed on the siu-face, especially where the rock is shattered by intrusive dikes or some other causes : permitting water, generally charged with oxide of iron, to filtrate through the rock along lines of fracture, and to discolour the fibre. A discoloration, and to some extent a harshness of the fibre, is observed on the outcropping of deposits which have been swept by large bush fires. But we also find, sometimes, harsh fibre and brittle fibres at depth; and this condition may in a large measure be attributed either to the action of water or to the presence of intrusive dikes. In one mine in the township of Coleraine — now out of ojDeratioa — the fibre occurs in seamy partings of pyroxene, the latter from 3" to 6" wide. Getting through the serpentine in irregular fashion. The pyroxene allows, through the many fissures it contains, the circulation of water, charged apparently with slight quantities of oxide of iron, and as a consequence much of the fibre is of a brownish tint: a condition not appreciated by the miner. This was observed down to a depth of 50 feet, and seemed still continuous towards depth. As to the discoloration and alteration of the fibre through the presence of intrusive dikes, it must be stated that, as noted elseivhere, dissipation of water from the fibre causes brittleness and harshness, and it appears that the heated intrusive magma of the dike has had the same influence upon the asbestos veins as the forest fires have had on the surface outcroppings. namely, in dip- sipating some of the water contained in the fibre, thus destroying its silkiness and fine texture, and rendering it brittle and harsh. This condition, however, was not observed in every case where there is a granulite dike: in many instances no such alteration has taken place, and the fibre occurs in its normal condition. A discoloration of the fibre — to such an extent as to affect seriously its sale — such as we sometimes see in foreign countries, has not been discovered in the Canadian asbestos region. A strong discoloration is a serious handicap. At one time the opinion prevailed that asbestos from any country — if it were of the chrysotile variety, and regardless of its outward colour^was a sufficient guarantee to the manufacturer that it contained all qualities essential for its successful commercial application; but experience has changed all this: off- coloured asbestos is economically comparable with off-coloured gems; advanced oxidation and iron lessen its utility. Metallic Minerals Associated with Canadian Chrysotile-Asbestos. There are only two metallic minerals occasionally associated with asbestos: magnetite and chromite. Both are sometimes found, as fine specks and grains, 54 accompanying the asbestos veins, and often constituting the partings which divide the veins into two stringers. These are admixtures, however, not at all welcomed by the miner; since they involve extra cobbing of the fibre by special apparatus, to separate the latter from these impurities. Chromite is often found in pockety deposits in the middle of the productive serpentine; but, hither- to, has never been found associated witli the latter in such quantities as to be profitably mined. An interesting feature in connexion with the occurrence of asbestos has been noticed in the lower pit of the Megantic quarry, on one of the serpentine hills, 1^ miles west of Coleraine station : here, mica of the muscovite variety, in small plates, occurs in considerable quantity in direct contact with the asbestos fibre — a feature observed nowhere else. PRODUCTIVE SEEPENTINE RANGE. Broughton Serpentine. The asbestos range proper ctjnnnenees in the northwesterly part of the third range of Broughton, about 2-| miles west from Tring Junction. (See map attached hereto.) Although there are a few small serpentine knolls scattered over ranges I and II; in none of them has asbestos of sufficient length and quantity been found. No development work has been done on any of the serpentine occurrences, and the writer is safe in stating that the outlook for the discovery of economic deposits is not encouraging. The rock encountered in ranges I and II consists principally of highly siliceous, schistose, fine-grained, greenish or greyish white rocks, changing from a gabbro to granitic and gneissic varie- ties. Their general strike varies between a north-south and northeast, dipping to the west and north; in fact, no regular uniform strike and dip is noticeable until near the westerly part of range III. Here, most of the rocks consist of the regular, greenish, Cambrian schists, of a strike north-south, with a dip of 50° to the west: here and there penetrated by small patches of serpentine. On lot 13 of the same range, the latter are more conspicuous than elsewhere. The serpentine commences about 300 feet from the main road, between lots 12 and 13, and continues to outcrop down the slope of the mountain at intervals, liaving a width of 500 feet. The outcrops all show a highly decomposed, soft, brownish serpentine, emerging in one or two places into a talcose rock of unctuous feel. The mountainous slope is heavily covered with humus, and for this reason the exact width of the serpentine belt could not be measured. In one place, at a distance of about 800 feet from the main road, close to the concession line, the highly schistose and crushed serpentine is productive of slip fibre of good quality. It appears that the serpentine, although of con- siderable width, is interrupted by tracts of Cambrian schists. Getting through the formation in a northeasterly sense. The next outcrops of the serpentine belt to the northwest we find on the adjacent lot No. 13, range IV. Although the gently rising mountain side is heavily covered w'ith bushes, several small outcrops could be perceived, indicat- ing the continuation of the belt; and towards the middle of the property, at 55 a distance of 400 feet from the main road, a number of large outcrops and pits in solid serpentine, called the ' Miller ' mine, are productive of slip fibre. The serpentine, as can be seen in the big pit, consists of parallel layers of a solid rock with a strike northeast 50°, and with a dip of 45° to the north. The bedding of this serpentine is generally well marked by large parallel joint planes. Between these are minor stratification lines, indicating cross bedding, which often depart as much as 40° and 50° from parallelism with the principal and true bedding plane. It is evident that these bedding planes have been caused by the sudden cooling of the serpentine magma; but it is also evident that no subsequent internal shifting, displacement, or faulting took place. There are lines of lamination in the mass which curve and bend about in an intricate manner, and which are due to secondary causes; these must be dis- criminated from the original bedding or deposition planes. The belt is here at least 150 feet wide, as a small pit in serpentine 140 feet south of the pit above referred to is entirely in a schistose, light-green serpentine. The accom.- panying country rock consists of the usual greenish schists, striking northeast, with a steep dip to the south. The southwesterly extension of the belt can be traced in the westerly part of lot 13 on lot 13c. The mountain slope is here heavily covered with dense bushes for several thousand feet in the direction of the belt; and with the exception of one small outcrop, no further trace of the latter could be observed until we arrived at a distance of about 1,000 feet from the fourth concession line, where we found three pits recently made in a highly fissured schistose serpentine, highly chajged with a beautiful white slip fibre, sometimes of an unctuous feel and aspect. All efforts to determine the width of the belt were in vain, for the humus is very heavy, while the bushes considerably impede any progress. Small boulders of serpentine containing small, but good, slip fibre were found strewn over the westerly part in the direction of the belt; and while this is of minor importance, it is nevertheless indicative of the probabilities of that district\ Farther to the southwest, on lot 13, range V, not far from the concession line, in a pit worked by the Boston Asbestos Company, the belt outcrops again, and is productive of excellent slip fibre. This belt exhibits features of an economic character observed nowhere else in the district, except on lot 2, range V, Thetford. The highly fissured, but otherwise comparatively solid serpentine, is heavily charged with a beautiful, white asbestos fibre rarely seen in the district. The serpentine here may be truly called 'fibrous'; and while not all the fibre produced from this pit possesses the requisite commercial qualities — especially as regards tensile strength — this apparent disadvantage is more than counterbalanced by the large extraction. The southerly boundary of the belt is constituted of green, and black striped slates and shales, also by green and grey slates, dipping under an angle of 65° to the soitth. Their strike is regular throughout, and the succession of the strata is tolerably uniform. To the ^ Since writing the above, several outcrops of asbestos serpentine have been located in the westerly corner of the lot, and this evidently shows that the productive belt outcrops at intervals in lense-shaped bodies; since no continuation of the above occur- rence could be established on the northerly part of lot 13, range V. 56 north most of the adjacent country rock is occupied by dark quartz, striped slate, and shales, underlain by green and grey slates, cut through by quartz veins; while the serpentine towards the northerly boundary is less fissured and has a more solid, compact character ; exhibiting, however, in several places, a good, commercial quality of asbestos. The width of the productive belt between walls is 185 feet; but judging from present indications it is likely that small detached lense-shaped bodies of serpentine accompanying the main belt will be found in the northerly part of the lot. Proceeding farther to the southwest, we find no outcrops of the serpentine until we reach the pits of the Boston Asbestos Company, on the westerly part of lot 13 ; here, the southerly contact of the belt is well defined, and can be followed for almost 1,000 feet. Its dip is steep to the south, and its strike varies a little in different parts of the property; from northeast 55° in the extreme east, to northeast 70° in the centre, and to northeast 62° to the west; continuing right into the property of the Frontenac asbestos property in the east half of lot 13, range VI. Several pits opened along the line of contact, show the serpentine occurring in a highly shattered and schistose dry condition, different from any of the productive serpentines in the district. In one of the pits a bed of dark, slippery soapstone occurs in a width of from 3 to 8 feet; which, when freshly mined, is hard and compact; but when exposed to atmos- pheric action, becomes tarnished, and disintegrates into a coarse clayey powder. This substance appears to be a decomposition product: its unctuous feel sug- gesting the loss of silica and a consequent preponderance of magnesia. It apparently contains also dolomite and some actinolite, and crystals of magnetite have been found in it. Its presence, however, in the serpentine is very annoying to the miner, as its slippery, soft condition renders work in the pit very dangerous. Besides, no reasonable depth can be obtained in a comparatively small quarry, on account of frequent cave-ins, which generally occur without any warning. Irregular, gashy veins and stringers of a pure white, ferruginous dolomite intersect this blue talc and the serpentine, and their presence must be pro- nounced purely accidental since they have seldom been met with in other parts of the serpentine belt. What connexion these two minerals have with the serpentine is not well established; it suffices, however, to state that, slip fibre of good quality has been found in serpentine close to this talc; but further investi- gations towards depth have not been made. The southerly contact of the belt consists of greenish, chloritic and mica- ceous schists, with a steep dip to the south; while the northerly contact is not well defined, and changes its contour within small intervals, and dioritic intru- sions are noticed cutting the chloritic schists at right angles to the north. The southwesterly continuation of the serpentine belt is concealed for about half a mile until we reach the large outcrops on the property of the Frontenac Asbestos Company, east half of lot 13, range IV. Here the serpentine outcrops on several places : some of them not strictly in the direction of the belt, but it is surmised that all the outcrops distributed over a width of 500 feet 57 cc 3uq p-j CE 68 emanate from the same source. The main lielt, however, seems to be confined to a stretch of serpentine in tiie northerly part of the property, its widtii is here 132 feet, and it has been traced entirely on this lot for a length of 2,300 feet. The contact of this main belt to the south is well defined: its strike towards the Eoston quarry — beginning from the Frontenac quarries, is northwest 68° ; and towards the Quebec quarry to the west northeast 60° ; it maintains all through a dip of 65° to the south. The rocks constituting the main part of the forma- tion are grey, siliceous, and mica schists, and green and black striped schists, together with some conglomerates, greenish, chloritic shales, sometimes dark coloured and highly schistose, having a great quantity of quartz in irregular veins. They are generally much twisted and banded, but all possess a high dip. The serpentine of the main belt below the surface is of a compact, solid charac- ter : numerous fissures intersect the main mass in every direction, and these contain a greyish asbestos fibre of the ' slip ' variety. There seems to be a gradual improvement of the quality and quantity of the fibre when approaching the southerly contact. The main serpentine belt of the ' Frontenac ' extends straight into the adjoining property, owned by the Ling Asbestos Company. At a distance of 560 feet from the main village road the serpentine belt has been explored and opened to a considerable extent by the above Company. Its southerly contact with the slate and schist formation is well defined: having a strike northeast 50°, with a dip to 'the south 65°. The northerly contact, however, as far as could be ascertained, exhibits sinuosities, produced by the varying strike at short intervals of the country rock. The latter, both to the south and to the north, is composed of similar rocks to those observed on the ' Frontenac ' pro- perty, but their position relative to each other could not be made out owing to the heavy overburden. The serpentine on this property, which has now pro- duced for a number of years a large tonnage of excellent asbestos fibre, presents here some noteworthy features ; and since the latter is characteristic of the whole region, a detailed description may be advisable. The serpentine presents a light green rock, highly fissured, and at places schistose; slickensides as the result of thrust movements are frequent, and, as a rule, present highly i:)olished surfaces. Tte dip of the cleavage in the serpentine is to the southeast, conforming with that of the grejTsh schistose altered slates which enclose the productive rock. A very light green material — a variety of ' picrolite ' in a drawn out condition, and having the structure of wood — is often met with along the cracks and thrust planes; while a fibrous picrolite forms in many cases a thick coating of the latter, or fills fine interstices in the serpentine. A uniform distribution of the asbestos slip fibre is nowhere observed; at intervals, however, chutes of ser- pentine without any regular arrangement and highly charged with fibre, occur. These chutes may have the form of big lenses — from 5 to 15 feet larger axis — or they may form small pockets. Again, they are met with as enriched zones along a fracture plane of slickenside. This peculiar deposition of the richer asbestos rock does not mean that the lean portions of the serpentine contain no fibre at all; on the contrary, it has been found that the whole lean mass is 59 fibrous to a more or less extent, and that no mistake is being made in sending all the serpentine through the mill. Apart from the occurrence of slip fibre some small veins of asbestos are occasionally met with; and while the fibre in these veins show in almost all cases more or less the effects of pressure or thrust movement of the rocks, it is nevertheless of a fine, silky quality; its only difference from the Thetford fibre being its grass-green colour, when in situ. As a general rule, a gradual enrichment of the asbestos chutes is observed towards the contacts with the country rock; and this is specially noticeable along the southerly contact line where a greater preponderance of fissured serpentine has been observed than elsewhere. Although the serpentine is, generally, highly fissured, foliated, and schistose, allowing a free circulation of surface water, some parts are met with which are very compact and massive, and give, indeed, as much trouble in their forced disintegration as any hard portions in the Thetford serpentine. The serpentine is more or less impure ; owing to the presence of other miner- als which are mixed with it. Among these may be mentioned the remains of the magnesia silicates, from w^hich it has been formed, namely, olivine, pyroxene, and hornblende. Metallic looking specks, or crystals of ores are common: i.e., magnetic and chromite. Talc or soapstone has been found occasionally as a solid rock or as bluish soft decomposed material, resembling clay, the latter in narrow fissures. Proceeding farther west the serpentine belt widens out considerably; and on the next property worked by the ' Eastern Townships Asbestos Company,' towards the road between ranges VI, and VII, its approximate width as measured in the road is 90O feet. Both the southerly and northerly contacts are covered with a lieavy overburden; but outcrops of serpentine and country rock at intervals indicate that the strike of 'the former is approximately northeast 15°. This con- tact enters lot 14, range VII, close to its northeasterly corner, and makes then a sharp turn to the southwest. The northerly contact forms almost a ■straight line from the ' Quebec ' mine to the concession road VI- VII, and has a strike northeast 50°. The main exploration and development work has been done at a distance of 75 feet from the northerly contact, in a series of pits ar- ranged in a parallel line to the latter. 'Ko special features were noted in this «eri>entine, other than those already described as occurring at the '' Quebec ' quarry, except, perhaps, that band-like soapstone deposits, set through the ser- pentine in irregular fashion, are of more frequent occurrence.^ Crossing the concession road VI-VII, we find on the next lot, Xo. 13, the greatest width of the Broughton serpentine belt; measured by a line running through the easterly corner in a straight east and west direction : the width of ^ Since writing the above the Company has opened a pit on the southeasterly con- tact close to the main road, this contact composed of the regular blackish slates, and observed and described in connexion with the ' Quebec ' and ' Frontenac ' mines, tips towards the east under an angle of 65° and appears to he well defined. Beautiful crude ' vein fibre ' asbestos J" wide has been found all along the contact and it is expected that quite a ciuantity of this quality will be encountered, judging from results of the development work on the adjacent property, lot 14, range VIT, in the ' Fraser ' mine. 60 the belt licre leing iibout 1,000 feet. Farther towards the southwest it is again tapering down, and the southeasterly contact, which has a straight, southerly course in lot 13, range VI, makes a sharp turn, entering lot 14, range VII, and maintains for some distance a strike of northeast 60°. The contact here is well defined, dipping to the south under an angle of 65° ; and consists of a soft talcose rock from 1 to 2 feet wide, accompanied by the usual greenish chloritic schists. Several strongly developed asbestos veins occur all along this contact; ixnd by reason of their individual richness and silkiness of fibre, represent — from a niineralogical and geological point of view — the most conspicuous occurrence of asbestos fibre in the whole Broughton serpentine belt. The principal vein has been explored and worked downward by tkree inclined shafts, the deepest of which is reported to be 90 feet, with a system of drifts — -the works being known under the name of ' Fraser ' mine. It follows down conformably with the country rock within the range of the contact zone; but its habitus and be- haviour are irregular : it splits up into narrow stringers, which again may coal- esce and form a bigger vein for some distance, or may lose themselves in fine stringers through the serpentine. At some places this vein attains a thickness of several inches, and the fibre is then beautifully soft and silky. Proceeding from the contact towards the road and beyond in a northwesterly direction we find a strong development of 'slip' fibred serpentine; and judging from the various outcrops and prospecting pits the width of this productive fibred zone is at least 260 feet, which covers also a part of lot 13. Figure 4 shows an ideal section through the formation. The continuation of the productive belt to the southwest is found in the quarries of the ' Broughton Asbestos Fibre Company,' which occupy an area located in the southwesterly corner of lot 13, range VIL Here, the southerly contact towards the slate and schist formation follows close to the southwesterly boundary line on lot 14, and presents the same outward features as observed at the ' Fraser ' mine. The working quarries are all located along this contact ; and, owing to the southerly dip of the lattei* — which varies between 55° and 65° to the south — the fibrous serpentine body increases with depth, occupying thus more and more ground of the property belonging to the ' Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation.' The general features of the productive serpentine area are about the same as those observed in the quarry of the ' Ling Asbestos Company.' It appears, however, that the 'vein' fibre variety is more strongly developed; the thickness of some of these veins sometimes reaching 1" to li", and a good percentage of 'crude' is occasionally obtained. The serpentine shows also, numerous crushed veins along its cleavage and schistosity. The colour of the fibre in situ is a light green and white; but others are found which exhibit a fading amber colour; while some of the asbestos is dark coloured, coming from a dark coloured serpentine; however, all these varie- ties become white in colour when exposed to the light, and produce a fibre of good quality. In the upper part of the most westerly quarry a dark, soft, and clayey material appears in fissures between rock portions, in a thickness of from' 3" to 6", which becomes quite hard when exposed to the air. This 61 dark material is apparently a decomposition product of serpentine, mixed with fragmentary, disintegrated portions of soapstone. The approximate boundary of the serpentine belt to the north takes an almost southerly course from the concession road VI- VII, down to the division line of lot 13, on range VII, thus redvicing gradually the width of the belt, along the division line noted above, from over l,tXK) feet to about 450 feet. Proceeding farther to the southwest, we find quite a number of natural outcrops, pits, and excavations on the Tanguay lot, which in a more or less degree indicate the position and continuation of the productive belt. The exploration work is con- fined to the soutbeasterly corner of the lot, and extends over an area measuring 1,300 feet long by 400 feet wide. A very noteworthy feature of this property is the occurrence of excellent vein fibre similar to the Black Lake asbestos, in a dark massive serpentine. This is the only deposit — known to the writer — along the Broughton belt, that shows some of the distinct features of the massive ser- pentine which is so productive of good vein fibre; but how far or how deep this condition in the otherwise much crushed and fissured rock extends must remain, at the present moment, a matter of conjecture, since the develoj)ment work is of very limited exten't. Some 400 feet farther west, the character of the serpen- tine changes : instead of the dark, massive rock, is found a highly coloured, schistose, and fissured serpentine, which, as far as the several small pits in that region indicate, is productive of picrolite of long woody fibre and ligniform serpentine. This long fibred, exceedingly smooth and elastic material has, it appears, found no regular commercial application, as j'et; but it is likely that some day appropriate use will be found for it in the arts. Proceeding still farther west on this property, we find an extensive development of slip fibre rock: the serpentine appears massive, and hard, though highly fissured and saturated with a silky fibre, and much resembles the variety met with on the Ling prop- erty. As to both the northerly and southerly contacts of the belt* they are con- cealed under the heavy drift; no protruding rocks of any kind can be noticed, but the writer has reason to believe that both these contacts run approximately parallel to the division line of lots 13 and 14, in the manner indicated on the accompanying map. Proceeding farther southwest, on lot 13, range VII. and its immediate vicinity to the north and south, we find a heavy overlnirden covered with bushes, but no outcrops of any kind can be perceived that give a clue to the position of the underlying rocks. Along the concession road VII- VIII, a succession of greenish schists and slates was observed, but no serpen- tine. The first outcrops of the latter are to be seen on lot 13, range VIII, about 1,500 feet in from the concession road in a little gully 109 feet wide, which traverses the property in an east-west direction. Here, the southerly contact of the belt can be noticed in several places, and proceeding farther about 1,000 feet along the middle line of the property we come to several outcrops of ser- pentine, exhibiting fibrous rock of productive quality. The accompanying green schists and slate of the southerly contact dip 65° to the south; their strike is northeast 55°, and the width of the productive serpentine about 125 feet. The next outcrops of serpentine are found in the extreme westerly portion in the property 62 to the north of the fiist-wcbl division line. Here, over an areii 3U0 feet long by 110 feet wide, eight outcrops show the existence of a fibrous serpentine belt, producing material similar to that mined elsewhere in the district. Although highly fibrous and fissured the serpentine is compact and quite solid, and when freshly mined presents a yellowish greenish colour. Some of the fibre extracted exhibits great silkiness and elasticity, and the very small amount of discoloured fibre on the surface — generally brought about by atmospheric action — is sur- prising. No contact with the adjacent schist formation could be noticed any- where; but along the concession road VIII-IX, and on lot No. 13, in range IX, a number of widely separated serpentine outcrops indicate that the serpentine belt on lot 13, range VIII, must become wider as we proceed in westerly direction; although the northerly contact seems to retain its straight line and follow the east-westerly division line of the lot. Thus on lot 13, range IX, the width of the belt is found to be at least several hundred feet; but frequently interrupted by bands of country rock, parallel to the contacts. Owing to the heavy overburden, tihe exact position of the productive belt could not be deter- mined ; but there is every reason to believe that it crosses the concession road in its full width into the lot last mentioned: deduced from the fact that some of the best looking outcrops of fibrous serpentine are found on the roadside. The northerly contact of the serpentine belt takes a straight westerly turn, be- ginning from the concession road, and traversing the line between lots 12 and 13, at a distance of 1,500 feet from the road. This contact follows approximately the northerly fringe of a little gully, from 50 to 75 feet wide; it is, however, entirely lost sight of on lot 12. The serpentine on this lot, and along the gully above noted, is concealed from view by the heavy drift material ; bvit a few out- crops and pits close to the division line of lots 12 and 13 exhibit its excellent productive quality. The serpentine appears to be highly schistose, fractured, and full of fine fissures filled with a white, soft, and silky asbestos slip fibre. When freshly mined the material has a white, chalky appearance, an unctuous feel, and the fibre seems to run through the rock in every conceivable direction. Proceeding farther to the west on lots 12 and 13, no further outcrops are noticeable which could assist in locating the serpentine belt; only a few serpen- tinized rocks, quartzites, and gabbros can be seen, but no true serpentine appears until we arrive at the northeasterly part of lot 13, range X. Here, a steep, hilly range crosses this and the adjoining properties in a northerly direction, and several small prospecting pits which have been put down in the vicinity of the east-westerly division line in the overlying heavy humus exhibited a dark green, dry looking, brittle serpentine of great schistosity. Occasionally, fine asbestos slip fibre may be seen in the fractural interstices, assuming, at places, such an extent as to be of economic value. The width of the serpentine belt so far establ'shed is 250 feet, but it is still continuous towards the north and south, under the heavy overburden. It is reported that serpentine also occurs on lot 12, on the same mountain range; but a careful search failed to discover any outcrops or pits. The next outcrop of serpentine to the west occurs on lot 14, range XI. near the east-west middle line, and about 750 feet from the main road. Judging Plate XVII. Microphotograph of a peculiar species of serpentine, from lot 13, range 11, Broughton. Magnified 20 diameters. For description see page 63. 7068- 63 from the colour, and the general aspect, this serpentine seems to have passed through a number of alteration stages; and while the asbestiform matter arranged in veins resembles, at first sight, the ' Thetford ' occurrence, upon closer exam- ination it is found to contain a soft, white material of silky lustre, with ligni- form, brittle structure of no economic value. This mineral, which is of very rare occurrence, as well as the accompanying serpentine, has been analysed and gave the following results : — Asbestiform Authority. Mineral. SiO, AloOa 41 13 2 10 16 12 3 15 21 52 82 78 77 40 44 2 7 8 1!) 11 4 83 36 35 90 05 85 17 Dr. Milton Hersey, Montreal. Feo'Og FeO CaO MgO H2O In comparing this analysis with those of the normal species of serpentine asbestos, we find, that while the content of magnesia has been reduced from an average of 40 to an average of about 12 per cent, a new constituent has entered into the chemical composition, namely, lime, to the extent of from 16-78 to 19-05 per cent. The serpentine has not the ordinary characteristics so com- monly found in the true species : it is of a pale grey colour, is soft, and when ex- posed to atmospheric action, tarnishes slightly ; cracks and interstices are filled with calcite, and it appears as if this mineral is found in the rock wherever dis- placement or disturbances have taken place. The asbestiform mineral is composed of fine silky threads, arranged in parallel, columnar fashion, vertical to the boundary planes. On account of its large content of lime, the writer has given it the name 'Lime Asbestos.' (See page 32). The writer submitted a slide of this peculiar serpentine to Dr. Alfred W. G. Wilson of the Mines Branch for examination, and his observations are as fol- lows : — ' This slide contains a pyroxene associated with a much altered plagi- oclase feldspar. Pale green secondary serpentine is present in large amount. On looking over the analysis, I note the presence of a larger amount of ALOj and of CaO than is usually found in the serpentine. These two, in part at least, were probably associated in the original plagioclase feldspar. The rock is properly called a pyroxenite. In the field it undoubtedly re- sembles serx)entine; in larger saraples, no doubt, the pyroxene crystals could be distinguished. On weathered surfaces they would stand out as small rough points.' The rocks observed in this region differ in character considerably from those observed all along the contact of the ' Broughton ' serpentine belt, and the Pre- Cambrian character which was noticed there, seems to be entirely absent in the present area; these rocks consist of serpentinized, greyish quartizites, alternating with feldspathic, quartzose rocks, and with black slates, and chloritic rocks. Their ' 7068— 7J 64 general strike is east and west; but they are occasionally cut by beds of greyish limestone, with a north-south strike, in which the original strike is always some- what diverted. No more outcrops of serpentine can be seen until close to the town line between the townships of Broughton and Thetford. That part of the country is covered with tilled ground, and with bushes, and for this reason exploration work is greatly handicapped. The contacts which formerly could be followed very closely disappear from view in ranges X and XI, in fact, much of the territory just considered is taken up by rocks above mentioned. The last natural outcrops of serpentine in ' Broughton ' township are probably located in the southwesterly corner of lot 12, range XI: they exhibit vein and slip fibre intermingled with each other. The writer was unable to determine whether these outcrops were big boulders or not; but the exploration work now being carried on will determine their true character. Thetford Serpentine Proceeding farther southwest into the township of Thetford there is on lot 1, range V, quite a stretch of tilled ground; but no outcrops are visible. A careful search, however, over this property, in the presumed direction of the belt, resulted in the discovery of several excellent float specimens of vein asbestos and serpentine. The outcrops of serpentine were found towards the western boun- dary line of the lot, about 1,500 feet north from the main road, and near the farmers' outhouses. Here, a knoll of serpentine protrudes quite prominently above the flat rising ground, and in one place near the barn some ' slip ' fibre was detected. Worthy of mention, also, was the finding of a big block of ser- pentine, containing a number of veins of asbestos Y', f", and -|" S N Fig. 5. — Section through productive part of h)t 2, range V, Thetford (Berlin Asbestos Co.). (Scale 1 inch to 50 feet. ) (a) (^uartzose slate and quartzite. (b) Highlj' fractured serpentine with " slip " fibre. (c) Soapstone. (d) Unproductive serpentine. (e) Green and black slates, quartzitic rocks. thick. The fibre is white and silkj-, and compares favourably with the ore mined in Thetford and Black Lake; and, from present indications, it is quite ■evident that, this belt is several hundred feet wide. On the next lot, No. 2, there is even a greater development of the serpentine: as six pits made in the heavy 65 ■soil by the ' Bei'lin Asbestos Company' have disclosed the existence of excellent ' slip ' fibre rock, extending — so far as work at this moment has demonstrated — over a length of 450 feet, and a width of over 150 feet. The belt still continues in all four directions of the compass, under the heavy drift; and it is probable that it will prove to be quite an extensive, productive, asbestos deposit : further development will undoubtedly demonstrate this. The serpentine tapped by these pits is somewhat different from that generallj^ met in the ' Broughton ' district. Wliile its schistosity, cleavage, and other general characteristics are about the same, its colour and fibrosity are different : freshly mined rock, when dried, is a cream-white colour. This is, perhaps, due to the presence of finely divided talc or soapstone, or, to a partial leaching out of the magnesia in the serpentine, caused by carbonic acid waters, and resulting in the formation of magnesite. The rock is highly fissured, filled with fine crevices and interstices; the latter forming, generally, the receptacle of the fibre. The highly fibrous nature of the rock is evidenced in a pronounced degree; and although picrolite and actinolite appear to be abundant throughout the rock, excellent mill and spinning fibre is also present. Bands of a greyish-green, pure soapstone are frequently found in the ser- pentine and adjacent country rock: and judging from the quality of the surface samples, there is reason to believe that, some day, this mineral, if prop- erly prepared, may find a ready sale. On the west half of lot 2, range V, the continuation of the serpentine belt has been established through several pits ; the bottom of the principal pit, which is about 12 feet deep, is in a highly schistose, dark green, fissured serpentine, which, on fractured surfaces, is covered with a thick ,film of asbestos ' slip ' fibre. On lot 3, range V, nothing can be seen in the way of serpentine in situ; but on lot 4, quite a quantity of float serpentine is found — in some instances carrying good asbestos fibre. In lot 4, towards the centre, a big boulder can be noticed, and which, by reason of its different composition from the underlying formation, must have been deposited here by glacial action. This boulder is com- posed of rock fragments, probably of a serpentine gabbro from 12" to 2'-6" thick, which are cemented together by pyroxenic rock matter. Proceeding towards lot 5, we find here also the serpentine outcropping on the lower part of the slope of the hilly range. The quality in a pit only 25 feet long, by 8 feet wide, is of a dry, brittle, schistose character with some ' slip ' fibre irregularly distributed throughout. Like conditions exist in a pit 125 feet farther west; the southern border of the serpentine in which is composed of a greenish, Cambrian schist, having a northeast strike and a dip of 42° south. The lower portion of the hill and a part of 'the lower flat appear to be also occupied by serpentine — judging from the numerous float fragments which are dug up in ploughing the field. On lot 6, close to the mountainous range, many cross-cuts and pits demon- strate the existence of at least two serpentine bands. The lower one, in which a pit 20 X 30 feet, and several smaller ones have been made, has a width of 50 feet, which can be measured between quartzose Cambrian slates: the latter hav- 66 iiig an east-westerly strike, with a dip of 60° south. The serpentine, which is of a dark green colour, is highly fissured: containing small veins of calcite, a ferruginous dolomite, and some asbestos fibre of the ' slip ' variety. Higher up on the hill several pits have been opened up in soapstone; but whether this rock is directly associated with serpentine, or whether it forms band-like deposits similar to those on lot 2, of the same range, could not be determined with cer- tainty; judging, however, from the sporadic occurrence of the mineral all over the mountainous range, it appears that its distribution is quite extensive. Proceeding farther in a southwesterly direction, we find on lot 9, about 3,000 feet from the main road, and at the foot of the hilly range, outcrops of serpen- tine, which, by reason of their content of beautiful asbestos vein fibre, promise to rank in the future as producing quarries. While all the deposits so far de- scribed belong to the ' slip ' fibre variety, this is the first one in the belt that exhibits almost exclusively the vein character, and it is safe to assume that the vein fibre belt commences with this deposit. This serpentine is 95 feet wide, has a strike northeast of 60°, and is bounded on both sides by Cambrian schists, similar to those observed in Broughton. The serpentine outcrops on lot 10, close to the line in the direction of the belt, the productive lengith of the latter so far determined being 300 feet. From this point on, proceeding southwest, the serpentine disappears completely for aTaout 30 acres under the heavy drift, reappearing again at lot 13, range V, where considerable work has been done in the westerly part of the property, on the slope of the hilly range. The belt has here a width of at least 275 feet, is opened through a number of prospecting trenches, all over a length of 600 feet, and vein fibre is found in almost all the pits — some of it not quite formed. In a rock cut 150 feet long, quite a qviantity of slip fibre can be perceived, together with fine veins of asbestos. The serpentine is highly fissured, is of a light green colour; and slickensided surfaces — as the direct result of rock movements — are plentiful. Outcrops of serpentine were reported to occur on lots 11, 12, and 13, range IV; but the writer was not able to locate any, except a number of big boulders which contained some excellent veilis of fibre on lot 13. No further trace of the belt can be found in the westerly part of range V; but on lots 16 and 17 serpentine outcrops again, in a width of 650 feet, not far from the range line IV- V. The Robertson Asbestos Company, owners of these properties, have expended considerable money in clearing and opening up the ground, with the result that, a productive area has been established measuring 1,100 feet long by 650 feet wide, and which is still continuous towards the north- east and southwest, under the heavy drift. The serpentine, although yet of a light greenish colour, approximates to the ' Thetf ord ' variety in its content of asbestos veins. Parts of the rock seem to contain a dense network of veins, with greenish, highly silky, and elastic fibre. Close to the surface the rock is much shattered, and to some extent decomposed; but towards depth the serpentine becomes solid, yielding also a higher percentage of fibre. The southerly contact is composed of greenish, hard, Cambrian slate, occasionally intersected by quartz stringers, with a strike 62° northeast, having a dip of 48° south. 67 The serpentine seems to terminate west of these properties; for no outcrops have been noticed proceeding in a southwesterly direction until near to lot 23, ranges V and VI, where the great serpentine belt of Thetford and Black Lake commences. There are several scattered occurrences of serpentine in the southerly part of Thetford township, but, being only of secondary importance, they will here only be briefly dealt with. Commencing with the most southerly occurrences on range X, a narrow serpentine belt of a varied character, beginning in the southerly part of lot S, strikes through the country in a southwesterly direction — almost parallel with the range lines. On the lot just mentioned, the rock is not true serpentine; it is a greyish, soft lime serpentine, in which part of the mag- nesia has been replaced by lime, similar to the variety found on lot 14, range XI, Broughton, and further described on page 63. An adit in a knoll of serpentine shows a number of veins of a fibrous, silky, but brittle material. Slender prisms of quartz are frequently seen in association with the fibrous threads, and in some cases crystals from i" to 1" diameter could be noticed. Serpentine rock of the variety just described was found as far as lot 10, (same range) ;; but several openings made in agricultural land not far from the main road disclosed a dark serpentine on lots 6, Y, and 10 — whether these were boulders or solid rock could not be determined. Serpentine rock -masses bordered by diabase rocks are met with on the north- easterly border of Clapham lake, ranges VII, and IX, and on several lots in range VH; but so far most of the rocks found are of the harder unproductive variety, and the writer believes that it is improbable that asbestos in paying quantities will ever be discovered in that locality. The Great Vein Fibre Belt. The ' vein ' fibre belt, on account of its magnitude, outstanding physical features, and economic characteristics, is the predominant source of the great Canadian asbestos industry; and, at the present time, of the asbestos commerce of the world. It was in this belt that the first asbestos of commercial quality was mined thirty years ago; it was here that the mining and refining of this material passed through the evolutionary stages of trial, experiment, and eco- nomic achievement: and all this on such a scale of magnitude, that the story forms an important chapter of industrial history. Moreover, the almost prodigal extent of these deposits, combined with their transcendant qualities, has not only given Canada the command of the markets of the world; but the origin and cause of this magnificent concentration of Xatiire's gift of asbestos has baffled scientists everywhere, and stimulated the search for the mineral all over the globe. The writer has examined samples sent to him for examination from Gowganda, and Chibougamau — both localities in Canada; California, Arizona, Casper mountains, and Wyoming — all in the United States; Philippine islands; Pilbarra district — "Western Australia; India; Transvaal, and Griqualand — South Africa; Yeneseisk district — Siberia; Mongolia; Ural mountains; Italy; and 68 Austria; but he has yet to see asbestos fibre which eciuals, as regards its fine sillcy quality, and tensile strength, that produced in the Thetford-Black Lake district, in the Province of Queb-^c. In giving a description of this ' vein ' fibre belt it may be mentioned that, the writer has found unusual difficulty in delimiting the boundaries of the same, owing to the heavy drift material, and dense bushes which cover the sur- face. The contact lines of the serpentine and the country rock are mostly ap- proximately conjectural ; the prominent hill features, however, many of them caused through upheavals of the serpentine, having aided a great deal in their determination. The country between Thetford and Black Lake — a distance of about five miles — is mostly taken up by serpentine and allied rocks ; although there are quite a number of granite hills intersecting the latter, and it has been deemed advisable not to make any distinction in the colours on the map, but simply to indicate the presence of the granite hills in certain spots. The great ' fibre ' belt commences in the southerly part of lot 23, in range V, of Thetford. Before an investigation of this productive belt was made, it was thought that all tlie outcrops of asbestos on lots 2, 6, 9, and 13 were located in one and the same continuous belt, which would also connect with the belt under consideration, but a diligent search has failed to locate any intermediate outcrops or connexions between lots 13 and 23. This barren stretch is taken up by quartzitic and feldspathic schist, flanked to the southeast by slates of various colours; purple, black, green, and grey; together vpith sandstones, quartz- iferous schists, and conglomerates. The Northern Contact. — Following first, the northerly boundary of the belt, and beginning on lot 23, range V, Thetford, the contact takes a strict westerly course, crossing successively tlie railway tracks and the Thetford river on lots 24 and 25 (same range), and remaining on the right bank of the river probably as far as lot 26, range VIII, township of Ireland. On lot 23, an extensive development of greenish rocks, mostly composed of serpentine gabbros and a dark brittle non-productive serpentine can be noticed, and quite a number of small hills composed of these rocks have been worked to some extent in the search for asbestos; but without success. In the lower part of the same lot a light green serpentine was noticed, which carried small stringers of a silky asbestos. Many boulders of serpentine were encountered, which in a more or less degree ex- hibited asbestos stringers. On lot 24, a very dark green serpentine is largely developed, but so far has not proved to be of any economic value. Crossing to the right bank of the river on lot 25, we find the country strewn with numerous boulders of quartzitic, feldspathic, dioritic character, l^o serpentine could be observed; but from the fact that the river exhibits in some places a greenish gabbro, in places serpen- tinized, it is fair to assume that the contact is not far from the course of the river, probably on the right bank of the latter. Some outcrops of unproductive serpentine were noticed on the bank of the river towards the town line Thet- ford-Ireland, and farther up the Ireland road, running between the concessions X and XI. A dump of fibrous serpentine wasspon — the result of well digging — 7068-p. 68 Fig. 6.— Cut through tlie hill south of Black Lake station. 69 not far from the line between lots 2-i and 25, in range IX. Xothiug further re- garding the extent of this serpentine formation can be said, but there seems to be good reason to believe that this outcrop forms the approximate northerly boun- dary of the belt; because, proceeding farther up (to the northwest) the Ireland road, we find no more traces of serpentine; dark greenish slates with numerous quartz stringers, felsites, and quartzitic schists take its place, their geaeral strike being northeast 52°, with an almost vertical dip. Proceeding farther in a southwesterly dire'ction, following approximately the course of the river, we find quite a number of serpentine boulders; but no serpentine in situ. If these numerous boulders can be taken as an indication, it is very probable that the northerly contact of the belt follows the course of the river, perhaps on the right side of the latter. Thick bushes and underbrush prevent an intelligent study 6i that part of the country until we reach a point about three-quarters of a mile east of Black Lake. A stretch of open country, here and there inter- rupted by paitches of underbrush and bushes, begins and continues for about two miles. Xo actual conta'cts can be noted anywhere; but serpentine bouldea'S are plentiful, and judging from serpentine outcrops on the gently rising slope to the south, it seems likely the contact follows along the left bank of the river. Some efforts have been made to mine asbestos close to the main road to Coler- aine, not far from the village, but without any material success. Proceeding still farther west, we find that while the northeasterly shore is taken up ,by s-andy beaches covered with bushes, the southern shore has laimerous serpentine exposures, which constitute the foothills of the great ser- pentine range to the south. Crossing the lake from the mouth of the Thetford riveir in a westerly direction, we find exposures of very dark green, hard serpen- tine, on the west shore for a stretch of about 150 feet; but owing to the heavy bushes covering the ground no further trace of the same can be found farther in. West of Black Lake the country is difiicult of access, due to dense bushes. and the continu,ance of the northern fringe of the belt is indicated by the ser- pentine hill on lo't 24, range III, of I/reland, where asbestos mining has been going on for several years ; but owing to lack of -transportation facilities, has been suspended. Proceeding farther west we have outcrops on lot 25, range I, and lot 24, range II, of Wolfestown. On the former, upon the banks of ,a creek, a large development of dark green, massive serpentine can be noticed, exhibiting small asbesitos veins. On lot 24, a steep mountainous range is wholly composed of serpentine, and on the crest of the same several openings in serpentine — known as the 'Belmina' mines — disclose quite a number of asbestos veins. The Southern Contact. — Beginning in the southeastern part of lot 23, range V, and proceeding westward, we have quite a number of hills which are com- posed wholly of serpentine, and one hill on lot 25, not far from the main road, forms quite an extensive promontory overlooking the whole valley of the Thet- ford river. With the exception, however, of these hilly ridges, no indication of serpentine in situ can le noticed; the country as far as the concession road between ranges "VTT and VIII, being very heavily 'covered wi'th d.rift material and bushes. Ascending up the gently rising slope on the road between lots 25 70 and 26, we perceived a great number of boulders, and these increased in number as we proceeded, especially on lots 25 and 2G. They are composed mostly of serpentine, some of them with small asbestos veins; and it is reported that recently a shaft "was sunk on lot 26. in which asbestos veins were encountered. "From the meagre outcrops of country rock observed above the higher conces- sion road it appears that quartzitic felsitic schists with granitic, dioritic dikes, flank the southe'asterly portion of the great serpentine belt; theia- strike generally conforms approximately to the supposed and concealed contact of the serpentine belt, namely northeast 20° ; but on the hilly road on range VIII, leading to the summit of the mountain, the strike changes to north-south with a dip to the west. Grossing the town and county line in range VIII, we have quite 'an exitensive development of serpentine on lots 18 and 19, range C of Coleraine; this serpentine is of the non-produotivc variety, and some work done on the same many years ago has failed to produce any results. It is flanked to the east by dioritic 'and felsitic rocks, sometimes emerging into a pure quartzite, and forming i)rominent tall features in the landscape of the surrounding country. The next large outcrop of serpentine is found on lots 16 and ,17, range A, Coleraine. Here, extensive quarry work has been done by the Canadian Chrome Company, over several acres of ground, with 'the result that, workable deposits of chrome iron ore have been located and worked for a number of years. The serpentine encountered here is somewhat different from that met with along the northern contact, since it is of a light green colour, much more brittle, hard, and highly fissured and slickensided as the results of great rock movements. No more outcrops of serpentine were seen to the south of those just mentioned. The surrounding country is heavily drift-covered, and dense bushes — especially to the south — are frequent. In the accompanying map sheet the supposed con- tact is put down between lots 15 and 16, but the writer is not at all sure whether the limits should not be extended farther south. The next largest outcrops of serpentine forming prominent hill features are encountered on lots 19 and 20, range A, as far as lot 23, east of the Poudrier road; and it is safe to say that these hills constitute the western wing of the tongue-shaped serpentine belt in the eastern part of Coleraine. In the western part of lot 23, range A, a con- siderable development of serpentine is noticed, and considerable work on a small hilly range towards lot 24, has disclosed good serpentine rock, with beautiful asbestos veins. Diabase, gabbro, and pyroxenite are frequent all along the serpentine belt ; but proceeding farther north as far as lots 27 and 28, they become less and less frequent, and are replaced by granitic dikes of considerable dimensions. They constitute most of the dome-shaped hills which can be seen from the old Poudrier road, and occupy a great part of lots 27, 28. and 29. Turning now to the country west of the Poudrier road we can follow quite an extensive but low range of serpentine, the southeasterly wing of the great Black Lake productive belt. This low range has a course almost south, is interrupted occasionally by extensive dikes of granite, and to some extent, has been explored for asbestos with success. At the ' Southwark ' mines on lots 27 and 28, range B, for instance, broad rock faces in some of the older pits show quite a con- 71 siderable development of excellent asbestos fibre. On lot 24 of the same range (B), and on others in the vicinity, good serpentine of the regular productive Black Lake type was noticed: some of it intersected by small veins of asbestos. The extent of the serpentine to the east of Caribou lake cannot be deter- mined at the present moment, due to almost insurmountable difficulties en- countered in the attempt to penetrate the dense bushes which cover that part -of the country. It is probable that the serpentine extends as far as lot 13, range XIII. There are two outcrops, one on lot 13, range B, belonging to the 'American Chrome Company,' and another on lot 13, range XIII; but as no outcrops appear in the northerly part of range XIII, it is difficult to say whether tliere is a direct connexion between these outcrops and the southerly part of the main serpentine belt. The northerly banks of Caribou lake are occupied by serpentine, and considerable work has been done here to open up chrome iron ore deposits, which appear to occur quite frequently along the shore. It appears that the contact line runs somewhere between a small island and the northern shore, because the rocks in the former are mostly composed of dioritic and granitic intrusions. The south shore of Caribou lake is composed mostly of diorite, and a big hill in a direction southwest 10° from the island, several hundred feet from the shore, is composed entirely of this rock. All the country north and west of Caribou lake, as far as Black lake, is occupied by serpentine, and the southwesterly contact line appears to run from the lower outlet of Caribou lake to the upper inlet of Black lake. The railway cut on lot 10, of range XIX, NW, is entirely composed of serpentine, as are all the numerous outcrops on lots 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The contact then probably swings northeast, then north- Avest, as indicated on the map, and crosses in its turn to west of the lake. Its southwesterly course is probably along the northwesterly slope of the big Oak mountain, a hilly range three-quarters of a mile long, entirely composed of diorite. Many outcrops of asbestos and chrome iron ore have been located all along the southern slope of the Big Ireland mountain : the most westerly of which appear to be those of the ' Premier Mining Company,' lon Block B. From the ^ Premier ' mine northward the country is occupied by steep rocky mountain ranges, from 400 to 500 feet high; some of which are heavily covered with bushes and underbrush. Serpentine is the principal rock to be met with; it is flanked to the south and west by diorite: emerging sometimes in a quartz diorite; but following the Coleraine road northward we find a great development of greenish Cambrian schists, with a strike east-west. The western limit of the great serpentine belt is made up of a number of elongated hills which reach a height of about 400 to 500 feet, and following in the main a line parallel to the highway at a distance of about three-quarters of a mile from the latter. The most easterly occurrence of productive serpentine in the great vein- fibre belt is on lots 23 and 24, range II, Wolfestown, known as the ' Belmina ' mines. In the southern part of the township of Coleraine there is a considerable development of serpentine, as indicated on the map, especially between Little 72 St. Francis lake and another small lake li miles to the east; but seeing t^jat only chrome iron ore is being mined, and that no asbestos has ever been dis- covered here, a further description of this belt has been omitted. Based upon the foregoing delimitation of the productive vein-fibre belt, there is a length of twelve miles from lot 23, range V, Thetford, to lot 23, range II, of Wolfestown ; the greatest width being 3i miles, as indicated by a line run- ning along the concession road between ranges A and C, Coleraine. It is possible that the serpentine extends farther than the limits laid du>vn in tho map sheet, for reasons already explained; but from past exploration work it is safe t(* assume that, in the future, little additional productive ground will be added to- that indicated. Vein Fibre and Slip Fibre Belts Compared. Based upon the foregoing discussion and description we arrive at the follow- ing summary of the outstanding economic features of both the ' vein-fibre ' and ' slip fibre ' belts : — "Vein fibre " belt, or Typus Thetford. " Slip fibre " belt, or Typus Broughton. Asbestos occurs in seamy partings of the rock-mass, which represent the highest degree of serpen tinization. No seamy partings in serpentine. Presence of asbestos in " veins." Presence of asbestos as "slip fibre." Presence of economic chromite deposits. No chromite deposits. Main constituents of rock-mass, generally termed serpentine : peridotite, olivine, ser- pentine-gabbro, true serpentine, pyroxenite. Almost complete serpentinization ; scattered presence of soapstone. Presence of granitic dikes. No granitic dikes. PRESENT ECONOMIC FEATURES OF THE VEIN FIBKI:: i'.El.T. A glance over that part of the map sheet covering this serpentine belt wi'I show that all the rich producing asbestos mines are located within li miles from the northern fringe; and that along the southern border quite a number of chrome iron ore deposits will be noted; a fact which tends to the general induction that, wherever the ground is productive of chrome iron ore, asbestos, is scarce. It is true that in shaft No. 1 of the Black Lake Chrome and Asbestos Com- pany, asbestos veins of a good quality have been discovered at a depth of about 400 feet, in association with chrome iron ore deposits. This shaft is located on the roiad leading from Black lake (from the old chrome mill) to Caribou lake 73 Z jaAiy pio_j|34j_ M'^-LL a a l^-i-I^^D isqand) ay^ yji-/£; d/ f JOJ^^HX P^°H Aj ^ c s •2.S.S- c c c & 0. » S 2 «« "1^ o ' 0^ 0:1 0; ^ Qj « i/2 .y; cQ O «:■ C S cS ^ O T! O) <*-. hll UJ 74 ti'oout one-quarter of a mile from the track of the Quebec Central railway; but inasmuch as no actual mining for asbestos has been done in that shaft, so far, it remains to be demonstrated whether asbestos deposits of economic quantities occur together with productive chrome iron ore deposits. The discovery, how- ever, is an important one for the district as a whole, showing as it does, that asbestos of good quality may confidently be expected at that depth, which will be dealt with further in the discussion on origins. Diligent search and prospecting work, which has been carried on for many years all over this vein fibre belt, has brought to light the fact that, all the chrome iron ore deposits have been found within a certain zone, which, roughly speaking, starts from a point north of Oak mountain on Block A; traverses the upper arm of the lake; takes in all the chrome discoveries east of the railway, and ends in the deposits of the Canadian Chrome Company, on lots 16 and 17, range A. The approximate length of this zone is 6^ miles, and its greatest width in block A, east of the lake, Coleraine, 1^ miles. In order to determine the probable productive acreage of asbestos in that part of the serpentine belt, the writer has estimated the acreage occupied by the chrome iron ore belt as follows : — Acres. Total acreage of serpentine belt 17,300 Approximate area of chrome iron ore . . . 3,500 13,800 Deduct from this, 10 per cent for the granite dikes, dioritic intrusions, and serpentine gabbros, diabase, etc., which occur throughout the belt, and we have a total acreage of the vein fibre belt of 12,420. Of this amount only 1,100 acres are under development at the present time. Hence there are to-day, available for exploratory work, 11,320 acres. Parts of this area are known to contain excellent deposits of asbestos; and it is likely that additional ground may be located by diligent, systematic search. This area of 11,320 acres does not seem to be large; but it must be remembered that asbestos deposits wherever they are found in paying quantities, occupy whole blocks of the formation; consequently the available tonnage in any new mine may soon reach large proportions, al- though occupying a far smaller area on the surface in proportion to its yield than many another mine of low grade material. In this serpentine belt two centres of asbestos occurrences are established, namely, Thetford and Black Lake, the distance between these two villages being five miles. It is a peculiar fact that — with the exception of the Southwark quar- ries — the whole stretch of ground between these two centres has not produced one single working mine. Whether this fact is to be attributed wholly to the un- productive character of the ground, or to the lack of systematic exploration work, the writer is unable to say. The ground is thickly covered with over- burden and bushes, hence this may be one of the causes why more asbestos ground has not been opened up. Both the producing centres have been very success- ful ; principally due to the excellent fibre the quarries produce. To the casual 75 observer asbestos fibre from Black Lake and Thetf ord might be the same. Manu- facturers do not discriminate between one or the other — especially in the mill fibre. There are, however, a few slight differences, and while these may not influence the productive character of the districts mentioned, they are worth mentioning. The great silkiness of the Thetford fibre when freshly mined is lacking in the Black Lake variety; its colour when in situ is white, or yellowish- while, with a light-green tint; while the Black Lake fibre is dark green; seamy partings are more frequent, and the length of the fibre, generally, remains a little below the Thetford. As a matter of fact the finest mineralogical specimens of chrysotile-asbestos comt from Thetford. And having examined specimens of asbestos received from all points of the compass, the writer is forced to the conclusion that there is not one locality, either in the Eastern Townships or in the whole world, that can produce, at the present day, chrysotile-asbestos comparable to this so-called ' physical paradox ' from Thetford : with its wonderfully slender, delicate, crys- tals and threads. As to the serpentine occurring in the region under consideration, apparently several varieties can be recognized, which differ in importance as sources of supply: one is of the regular Thetford serpentine, with a greyish-green colour; of medium softness; tarnishing to some extent white with a blue hue when ex- posed to atmospheric action; it is compact, massive when in situ, affected by fissures and faults, some of them of considerable extent. This is the variety in which all the commercial asbestos is found; it forms a great mountain range about 6O0 feet high east of the town of Black Lake, where sixteen quarries are now in operation; it also forms the main body of proiactive serpeitine upon which the town of Thetford is built, and where, for many years, the finest asbestos known has been produced. The other, or non-productive variety, is a siliceous rock with a grass-green colour, much harder than the Thetford variety; when exposed to the air it tarn- ishes reddish-brown; it is brittle, much more fissured, and slickensides are plentiful throughout the rock; and they are generally characterized and iden- tified by their association with wood-like aggregations of hard picrolite. This variety may be seen along the southern fringe of the big belt in range XIX, ]S \V . "West of Caribou lake — along the north shore — on the southerly slope of the big Black Lake serpentine range, there is another rock which is frequently taken for serpentine, and many prospect pits have been sunk in the same. This rock occurs along the mountainous range between Black Lake and Thetford. and is characterized by the wavy greenish shades which it produces when polished. It is not true serpentine, but fine-grained gabbro which to some extent has undergone serpentinization; it is much harder than ordinary serpentine, is less fissured and faulted, and never contains asbestos veins. Granitic Dikes. The serpentine is often cut by intrusive dikes of granite, which, as they fill fissures in the formation, appear to be of younger origin than the surrounding 76 rock. i\lr. J. A. Dresser' takes a ditfereut view as regards their age. lie ad- mits the intrusion of these granitic dikes in some parts of Thetford and Dan- ville, but maintains, at the same time, that much of the granite found through- out the region appears to be nearly, if not quite, contemporaneous with the parent rock of the serpentine. Mr. Dresser, however, advances this view only tentatively, owing to the lack of sufficient field study. These granitic dikes are more frequent in the Black Lake region than in Thetford, and if their dimensions are large they interfere considerably with the systematic progress of the quarry work. They range in size from small bands of 1 and 2 feet, up to large intrusions of 50, 100, and 150 feet wide, and even more. Some of these form conspicuous hills between the villages of Thet- ford and Black Lake. Very often these intrusive dikes can be seen in, or close to asbestos deposits : exerting, as they do, quite a favourable influence upon the presence of the mineral. Sometimes these dikes cut off good asbestos chutes entirely; but, as a general rule, good ground is found on the other side of the dike mass by driving through the same. The ' Bell ' mines afford an excellent example of this economic procedure. Here, the northwesterly wall of the main pit — which is 190 feet deep — is formed by a large intrusive dike, and all alongside this good asbestos ground was encountered. For the purpose of exploring the formation towards the north, on the other (northwesterly) side of the wall, a tunnel was driven from the bottom of the pit ascending with a grade of 12 per cent, and the result — as far as the discovery of good asbestos ground was concerned — was quite a revelation to the owners; since not only did they find very rich ground all along the dike for a distance of 800 feet, with signs of still continuing, but this ground extended farther north for about 500 feet. These granitic dikes cut the serpentine in almost every direction. Their dip is mostly vertical, but in several cases nearly horizontal beddings may be observed. The most extensive continuous dike so far observed in the district is the 'one which starts with and takes in the little rocky island in the centre of Black lake. Its general strike is northeast 65°, and large outcrops of this dike may be seen in the railway cutting below Black Lake station, near the Dominion mill of the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, terminating in a big outcrop at the foot of the big hill on the properties of the Black Lake Consoli- dated (below the Union pits). Its total length is 2 J miles, and its width varies from 50 to 250 feet. The Danville-Eastman-Vermont Serpentine Belt. Numerous outcrops of serpentine confined to a comparatively narrow but long strip of country occupied by the Cambrian formation, have been grouped together by the writer under the above name. These outcrops, although they appear to be all separated and detached from each other, form apparently part of the same belt; because of their relative location to each other and to the rather complex ^ Transactions Can. Mining Inst., Vol. XII, page 173. series of rocks belonging to different formations, as well as their arrangement in one location line taking the form of a fiat curve, suggest their origin from one common source. It is quite probable, therefore, that outcrops which now appear entirely isolated, may yet be found to be connected with each other by intrusions of serpentine which are now concealed from view by the heavy humus covering the same. The large serpentine outcrops, so far known, form part of a chain of hills and knolls distributed at intervals over a distance of sixty-two miles; the most northerly intrusions being those of the Tingwick mines, lots 20 and 21, range XI, (:f the township of Tingwick ; while the most southerly ones are the outcrops near Mansonville, close to the Vermont boundary. From the first-named location — called the ' Doucet ' and ' Martin ' mines — the chain of serpentine hills takes a southwesterly course, covering the following lots : — Lot 27, ranges X and XI, Tingwick. Lots 7 and 8, range I, Shipton. The Danville mines: — Lots 9 and 10, range III, Shipton. Lots 9, 10, and 11, range V, Shipton. Lots 8 and 9, range IX, Shipton. Lot 7, range XIII, Cleveland. Lots 5 and 6, range XIV, Cleveland. Lot 5, range XV, Cleveland. Lots 19 and 20, range V, Melbourne. Lots 21, 22, and 2.3, range IV, Melbourne : comprising the Rockland slate quarries. Lots 17 and 18, range III, Melbourne. Lots 16 and 17, range II, Melbourne. Lots 15 and 16, range I, Melbourne. From this last continuous serpentine range in Melbourne, the chain of out- crops takes a more southerly course, and comprises a number of small detached knolls in the township of Brompton; until we find a whole stretch of serpentine on both sides of Brompton lake. From here, the trend of the belt swings a little more to the west, and covers a number of serpentine hills and knolls on the southeast side of Long lake, in the township of Orford. The next outcrops are found around Orford lake and at the foot of Orford mountain, and straight west from here south of the town of Eastman in the township of Bolton. With few interruptions the serpentine continues from lots 1 and 2, in range VII; comprising the ' Benoit ' and ' Parker ' asbestos properties on the west side of Trousers lake, until on Orford lake we reach the Esty asbestos outcrops near Bolton Centre, about eight miles from Eastman, and comprising lots 19 and 20, range VIII. Continuing from thence strictly to the south, we find some small unimportant detached areas to the west of Lake Memphremagog ; the last being the serpentine outcrops south of Mansonville, close to the Vermont (United States) boundary. 7068—8 78 The Cambrian formation through which the serpentine intrusions, just des- cribed, appear, presents a great variety of characteristics: embracing slates, of all colours, sandstones, quartzites, quartziferous schists, and conglomerates. The quartzose rocks resemble those of the Sillery sandstones of the Quebec group; the slates are purple, black, green, and grey in colour; the conglom- erates are, as a rule, classified into two kinds — those largely composed of pebbles of granitoid rocks, quartzites, and slates, while the other group is largely made up of diorite pebbles in a dark groundmass. Most of these rocks, especially in the northerly portion, are flanked by ridges of crystalline schists and gneissic rocks. In the southerly portion, the dioritic or related rocks form the easterly flank to the Cambrian rocks, and at many places serpentine merges gradually into these dioritic masses. This can be well seen to the west of Lake Memphre- magog; these masses are associated primarily with the Cambrian, but also with the Pre-Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian, and even Silurian, strata. Where the alteration of diorite into serpentine took place the rock is generally fine-grained in the upper parts; while the lower parts are mostly coarse-grained. No chrysotile-asbestos of any value in either of these kinds of rocks has so far been found. The productive value of this long serpentine belt, which is interrupted in nimierous places by rocks of the Cambrian, has not been established yet to its fullest extent; since access to many of these serpentine ridges is extremely difficult, and since the area under question is largely covered with a heavy overburden and forest growth, rendering prospecting ineffective. It is evident, however, that if the thick forests were removed by fire — as in the Thetford-Black Lake area — much valuable asbestos ground would probably be located, Chrysotile-asbestos has been discovered, and is partly mined in six places over this belt: namely, on lots 20 and 21, range XI, of the township of Tingwick (the Doucet and Martin mines) ; on lots 9 and 10, range III, in the township of Shipton (so-called ' Danville ' mines) ; on lots 5 and 6, ranges XIV and XV, township of Cleveland; on the 'Parker' and 'Benoit' lots in range VII, town- ship of Bolton; the Esty asbestos outcrops near Bolton Centre, and the asbestos outcrops near Mansonville. A description of all these occurrences will be found on pages 209-213. 79 'd C 03 V ? (i o C - "o >, ^ 'E >. . >-. >-. u >-, o c *^ K a; •-^ '". 2 r* 01 ,s ee •r X OJ t 05 < g 6 ■/■ -- 1 t 1 X '^ ^ s co" 'So _, h^ J C > §;a ■: ;^ ■ Tt< © © 00 © © t" ^] ^ w ; ec t^03 lO to (N o © ■v © © .OC © t~i:J<00 W lb 1—1 1—1 O O' (>-T ec •^ •* ■^c<5 b (N cobib eo-^ ioib-^ CO IM CO 00 00 iH i-( .- 1-1 rH r- CO — ~7^ e<5 S o O I-IN 00 cc 1— © t^ i^ in © i^ o c; iM c; cc 't At C<1 b b i-ib.^ t- CO CO CO IM Oi c^ f^ C<1 c 3i© IM • O © 00 in CO r-i © rt iH ec (M t-T -H cc (M -* • l-rH O ■^ ©© O^ 1— ( i-( 1-1 i-i ■<»< 1« ^ bbb ; ■^co t. 'r^aii^hi 1-1 1-1 T^ ^ . ©10© ■* t^ © © © cc 'S' -^ 1-1 © t^ C<1 IM > : ^ C >~ S^-o a: >>.<•!= § i i > -a > ^ u G 0) 11 -5 t _l o "h D CS tC 1 1 ■5 , c « oi i: c ca 0) O C t,^*— s 1 1 1 1 < if. C \l ft. eg 1 s « S a c .S h- -a' 1 1 _g .2 S •jaquin^ '-' IM cc ■* lO o t- 00 © © 7068— 8^ 80 H p^ S ' '■ Q Si— 1 — -<^ O '^ M 2^ . ■ : : o . . . . S « ! ■ ! " II : : • : be c« : ^ : : Jt O S > HT3 1 1 "i c3 X s Is ■x '^ c3 = --n'SD'b i c i '^ oj cc ^2 f q — - o ^ ill 0) X J2 t- a: 1 s f- ■ so ^ ' 3 '■B ■ C Hi 4^^ C" c U ■=^ P^2HH i> HWpqpah-: W W HHPP2KP « ^ •jyqumjsj I 81 Asbestos Fibre compared with other Organic and Inorganic Fibres. In comparing asbestos with any other fine organic or inorganic fibre, struc- tural differences cannot be at once perceived with the naked eye; but when these fibres are placed under the lens or microscope, certain peculiarities in their structure may be at once recognized. For instance, fine silk threads and crude Thetford asbestos fibre, laid side l)y side, appear at first sight to be identical; whereas the former is of organic, while the latter is of inorganic origin. Manufacturers of asbestos goods, how- FiG. 8. — Fibre of raw silk. ever, realized at once the totally different character of these fibres when thej'' commenced to spin the asbestos; they found that special treatment had to be applied, and special machinery designed in order to make the very fine threads, of which the fibre is composed, adhere together; thus facilitating the manufac- ture of fine asbestos yarn to be used in spinning. Wool fibre, cotton fibre, silk threads, spun glass, quartz fibre, etc., all possess the same outward characteris- tics as asbestos fibre: they may be drawn out in fine threads, to be used in spinning. The question naturally arises, therefore, as to what constitutes the structural difference between all these delicately fibred materials. We perceive at once the difference in wool, cotton, and silk, when they are made up in gar- ments, but the case is entirely different when single, minute threads are laid side by side. As stated above, with the naked eye differentiation is almost im- possible, and microscopical examination has to be resorted to. The sheep's wool fibre illustrated in Fig. 9, magnified 600 diameters, has a peculiar serrated and notched appearance, similar to some plants of the corniferous type. The outer structure is formed by irregular shaped, scaly bands, or plates, which over- lap each other. These peculiar projections act like teeth, and cause the wool 82 iibre to cling together when twisted. The manufacturers have recognized the ^alue of these scaly bands and the more numerous they are the higher are the prices paid for such qualities. In fine Saxon 'wool it is said that on one lineal Fig. !). — Fibre of sheep's wool. Magnified 600 diameters, inch of thread there are no less than 2,723 of these scaly bands — -technically called imbrications; whereas in Leicester wool they are said to number only 1,860. Cotton fibre, especially the raw filaments, as seen under the lens, has a Fig. 10. — Filaments of raw cotton. much twisted appearance, and its structural difference from asbestos fibre con- sists in the irregular and rough surfaces, which render it readily adaptable for sip inning. The usual method of determining the quality of cotton fibre, by feel- ing it with the fingers, is necessarily a very crude one; because — according to 83 T. Gray^ — the thickness of ordinary cotton fibre varies from %oo to ^/4ooo of an inch. ' Mississippi ' delta fibre, which is considered, at present, the finest cotton Fig. 11. — Spun glass. in the world, presents under the microscope a beautiful structure, and perfect development. The actual length of this fibre is Moo of an inch. Fig. 12.— Quartz fibre. According to the authority above quoted, from 300 to 800 twists of cylin- drical tubes are in one lineal inch of cotton fibre. ^ A lecture delivered before the ' Franklin Institute.' 84 Mr. James Thompson' describes cotton fibre as follows: — * The filaments of cotton are transparent glassy tubes, flattened and twisted round their own axis. A section of the filament resembles a figure of 8, the tube, originally cylindrical, having collapsed most in the middle, forming semi-tubes on each side, which give to the fibre when viewed in certain lights the appearance of a flat ribbon with a hem or border on each side. The twisted and corkscrew form of the filament of cotton distinguishes it from all other vegetable fibres.' Silk fibre possesses a multitude of peculiarities which, under the lens and microscope, distinguish it readily from any other flbre, organic or inorganic. In the first place, each silk thread is composed of two separate filaments, which are cemented together longitudinally by the secretion from a small gland situated near the pores, and the quality of tho silk deponds primarily on the character of these secretions. Silk fibre on the surface resembles a fine glass rod; the line of junction of the two filaments is mada parcaptible by a fine groove, which is filled by the secretion — a gelatinous substance. Silk fibre is not, as generally supposed, of great smoothness; but yet possesses no rough surfaces, since it is twisted spirally. It can be readily spun, but cannot be felted unless mixed with some foreign material. C. V. Boys^ states that, two silk filaments, when separated and washed, ex- hibited remarkable tensile strength: they were able to sustain a weight of 60 grains before breaking. This authority says that the carrying power is equal to from 10 to 20 tons per square inch. It is said that artificial silk has many advantages over natural silk, and much importance is given to a process invented some twelve years ago by Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, Paris, and Dr. Lehner, at Bratford. However, so far the introduction of this new article has made no great strides, and every year witnesses an increase in the importation of raw silk into the United States, and Canada, from China — the home of the silk worm. Having described the principal organic fibres which very closely resemble asbestos fibre in outward appearance, it is now purposed to describe the physical appearance of asbestos fibre itself, and to indicate where it differs from similar substances. A number of microphotographs have been made of asbestos flbre from dif- ferent Canadian asbestos fields, as well as from foreign countries. In all these illustrations it will le perceived that, asbestos fibre is almost identical in struc- ture with the organic fibres already described: namely, that each apparently single fibre is actually composed of a series of fine filaments. Under a very .powerful microscope they are seen to be composed of even finer fibres, and for micrometrical purposes, fibres of ^/^ooo of an inch in diameter have been success- fully employed in the laboratory. Asbestos fibre has no rough, imbricated sur- face like wool fibre; but resembles a fine polished metal rod, free from any serrated parts, and is altogether wanting in the clinging projections common to the organic fibres already described: which explains the difficulty of the early manufacturers in their first attempts to spin it. The tensile strength, however, of fibre asbestos is quite equal to that of silk fibre. The writer, in the ^ James Thompson on ' Mixmmy Clothes,' 1891. * Paper read before the Royal Institution in June, 1889. 85 prosecution of his studies ou this subject, suggested to Dr. Haanel, Director of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines — the advisability of the Dominion Government building a special machine for the purpose of determining the breaking strength of the fibres; this was done, but unfortunately the tests failed entirely, owing to the fact that each thread, as already explained, is composed of a series of exceedingly fine, minute filaments, which, when torn, slip past each other instead of breaking. In the asbestos industry generally, tensile strength tests are made in the factories with asbestos yarn or rope : and although absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these tests, yet they are sufficieritly accurate for all practical purposes. Many difficulties were encountered in the attempt to study the character of .the fibre under the microscope. When asbestos fibre is finely drawn out and separated into threads, or spider-like filaments, their highly refractive qualities are at once apparent, and render the detection of irregularities in the structure of the filaments, or their special characteristics for the purpose of differentia- tion, extremely difficult. Optically, all asbestos fibres show extinctions parallel with the axis of elongation: they are devoid of any pleochroic qualities. The outlines of the fibres, when examined under high, microscopic powers, are round, prismatic, and piolygonal; but the majority are polygonal or round. All fibres exhibit — when examined under a common lens — the same characteristics o1' * crowding ' : that is, grouping together 'of numerous fine threads within what appears to be a single fibre. The actual size of the fibres of all varieties — i.e. the diameter — is consequently indefinite, and although careful measurements have been made, which show that the smallest diameter so far determined is 0-00075 millimetre, it can be demonstrated that even the finest filament meas- ured is composed of fine threads, evidencing that its division is infinitesimal. The writer has had the diameters of the smallest obtainable fibre of many asbestos varieties determined by Dr. H. T. Barnes, Professor of Physics, McGill University, who kindly consented to undertake this work, and furnished the f ollo'wing data : — Locality. Canada — Thetford Black Lake Broughton . . Templeton St. Adrien Carded asbestos United States — Grand cafion, Arizona Casper mountain, Wyoming. Russia — Ural mountains Siberia — Yenisei river Africa — West Griqualand Transvaal (Carolina district) Western Australia — Pilbarra district ^ 25 Millimetres = 1 inch. Smallest Diameter Millimetres ^. 001 001 0015 0015 002 001 00075 00075 0- 00075 001 009 0015 0015 Number of Fibres Per Lineal Inch. 25,000 25,000 16,650 16,650 12,500 25,000 33,325 33,325 33,325 25,000 27,775 16,650 16,650 Much diliiculty was experienced in obtaining some of the microphotographs of fibres; since their highly refractive qualities made a 'clean-cut' impregnation on the films an impossibility; and it was necessary to use polarized light only, the single exposures being six hours. A glance at the 16 microphotographs will show that, the fibres taken from the localities indicated, differ somewhat from each other physically. The following is a general description of the characteris- tics of each exposure. In Plate XVIII several filaments of ' spun glass ' are shown. Under high microscopic power the rod-like metallic nature is at once apparent: some of the threads are hollow, in contradistinction to asbestos fibre. Plate XIX shows Thetford. fibre. The two strings, respectively, marked a and h in the ' micro,' although composed of thousands of individual fibres, have each, all the characteristics of perfect crystals : the entire bundle exhibiting the optical qualities of a single fibre. The Thetford fibres are beautiful in appearance; and when drawn out with the finger have an unctuous feel: in fact possess all the qualities of genuine silk fibre. When in situ, they can be distinguished in most cases from any other asbestos fibre; but when drawn out, or subjected to mechanical treatment they lose their distinctiveness. In the ' micro ' one bundle (a) is shown broken, and the fine ends can be readily seen. The two fibre bundles have been subjected to torsional movements and display immediately over the twisted points their numerous composite fine filaments, which appear in the ' micro ' as dark lines across the fibres. In Plates XX and XXI Black Lake fibre is photographed, showing on one, a fracture across the fibre, and in the other the broken ends of a bundle of fibres. Of special interest in Plate XXI is the infinitesimally fine fibres of which the bundle is composed, Plate XXII illustrates a fine bundle of fibres from the Laurentian deposits, twenty miles north of Ottawa. In contradistinction to the Thetford and Black Lake fibre, its rod-like, smooth surface, resembles that of a polished metal ; and on account of its exceptional refractive qualities the fibre, when exposed to polar- ized light, is very difficult to photograph. The nature of what is supposed to be single fibre threads is seen in Plate XXIII. This ' micro ' is highly interesting; for it shows distinctly that the fibres are not, as is generally supposed, all like polished steel rods, but fine imbrications and apparently rough undulating sur- faces are plentiful. These fibres resemble more a rough wooden stick with notches and many other irregularities ; but it is quite clear that even if these in any way detract from their smoothness, they add, in reality, very little to their spinning qualifications, which presupposes the existence of a considerable number of teeth- like imbrications on the surface. Plate XXrV represents a break in a single fibre, the fracture being repre- sented by the white portion in the centre of the photo. It illustrates again in a general way the extremely fine division of the fibre — specially noticeable above the fractures. Plates XXV and XXVI, fibres from Russia, and Italy, are illustrated. No imbrications or any other surface irregularities in the fibre can be seen; and Plate XVITI. Plate XIX. iSjiun glass. Magnified 200 diameters. Thetford tibre. Magnified 250 diameters. Plate XX. Plate XXI. Black Lake fibre. Magnified 350 diameters. Black Lake fibre fracture. Magnified 350 diameters. Plate XXII. Plate XXIII. I. Templeton asbestos fibre. Magnified 350 dia- Thetford fibre ends. Magnified 200 diameters, meters. Plate XXIV Plate XXV Break in Thetford fibre. IMagnified 200 dia- Fibre from the Urals, Russia. Magnified 200 meters, diameters. Platk XXVI. Pr.ATE XXVII. Fibre from Aosta valley, Italy. Magnified Asbestos fibre from West Griqualand, South 100 diumeteis. Africa. Magnified 250 diameters. Plate XXVIII. Plate XXIX. Break in asbestos fibre from West Griqua- Fibre from the Carolina district, Transvaal, land, South Africa. Magnified 350 dia- Magnified 200 diameters, moters. Plate XXX. Plate XXXI. Fibre from the Pilbarra district, Western Break in fibre from the Pilbarra district, Australia. Magnified 200 diameters. Western Australi... Magnified 150 dia- meters. Plate XXXII. Plate XXXIII. Fibre from Casper mountain, Wj'oming, U.S.A. Magnified 150 diameters. rtak 111 tii.ii lioui Camper mountain, Wyo- ming, L'.S. A. ^Magnified 150 diameters. 7068—9 87 under the microscope, no essential difference can be perceived betiveen these and the Canadian fibre. Plates XXVII and XXVIII represent the blue variety of chrysotile from West Griqualand, South Africa. It exhibits a very coarse and fluffy appearance compared -with the Canadian and Russian mineral, and a fracture in the fibre — as represented in Plate XXVIII — shows distinctly the extremely minute fila- ments of which a single fibre is composed. The other microphotographs repi-esent fibres from the Transvaal; Carolina district, Pilbarra, Western Australia; and Casper mountain, Wyoming, U.S.A. These fibres show the harsh, metallic, rod-like structure, which, to some extent, differentiates them from the Canadian varieties. The results of the microscopical investigations so far conducted with fibres from different parts of the world, may be summarized in the following points : — (1) The structure of asbestos fibre outwardly is almost identical with organic fibres, namely, that each apparently single fibre is composed of numerous, ex- ceedingly fine filaments. (2) The difiiculty of spinning asbestos fibre lies in the fact that, unlike silk, cotton, or wool, no imbrications or teeth-like obstructions are in evidence on the surfaces on any asbestos fibre whatsoever. (3) The variations in outward structure of the fibres examined are not . strong enough to form a basis of reliable differentiation. One fact, however, seems to stand out, and that is. the glassy, or metallic, rod-like appearance of many asbestos fibres under high microscopic powers — with the exception of those from Thetford-Black Lake, Canada, and Russia. Origin of Chrysotile-Asbestos. The writer has set forth in the first edition of his Monograph on Asbestos, a synopsis of what was at that time (1904), generally known regarding the origin of chrysotile-asbestos, together with his own ideas and conclusion on the subject. During the last six years, however, several new and important facts have been brought to light, which, although not explaining all the observed phenomena in connexion with the mineral, tend to clear up some important points; especially as regards alteration of pyroxene-olivine to serpentine, and its bearing upon the formation of fissures. Before entering into a dissertation on this subject, how- ever, it may be an advantage to quote the theories already advanced by noted scientists, Mr. Hyde Pratt ^ summarizes his ideas as follows : — ' There is but little information to be had regarding the origin of chry- sotile, the fibrous variety of serpentine. Its occurrence as a fibrous silky product lying in narrow seams in the main mass of serpentine and having almost identically the same chemical composition as the enclosing rock, which is known to be an alteration product and not the primary rock, raises some puzzling questions regarding its formation. There are a number of points to be taken into consideration — the relation of the chrysotile to the serpentine in which it occurs; the relation of the main body of serpentine ^ The United States Geological Survey, 1904, Bulletin on Asbestos. T068— 9i 88 to the enclosing countiy rocks; the mineralogical and chemical relation of the chrysotile to the mass of serpentine; and the origin of the rocks from which the main mass of serpentine has been derived.' ' It can lie conclusively shown in nearly all cases that the serpentine in which the chrysotile-asbestos is found is of igneous origin. Some of the main points leading up to this conclusion are: the presence in the serpentine of the mineral chromite, either as small grains or as segregated masses; the almost entire absence of any carbonates, except those which are of undoubted secondary origin ; the occurrence of small masses of gneiss, granite^ or other rocks entirely surrounded by the serpentine, which have undoubtedly l)een broken off from the main masses of these rocks during the mtrusion of the rock of which the serpentine is an altered f acies ; the blunt, lenticular form which so many of these masses of serpentine are observed to have; and the sharp line of separation of the masses of serpentine from the surrounding country rock.' ' The original rock in cooling would solidify first along its contact with the rocks through which it had penetrated and where it was in contact with any included masses of the country rock that had been broken off during the intrusion of the molten magma. The outer portions of the molten rock would thus cool much more suddenly than the interior portions, and there would be a tendency for them to develop cracks and parting planes. In the alteration of these primary rocks to serpentine, through the agency of aque- ous solution, vapours, etc., there would be perhaps, to some extent at least, a widening of these cracks, but in the end they would be filled with serpen- tine deposited from aqueous solutions from their walls, and the resulting fibrous structure of the serpentine filling these seams represents the nearest approach to a true crystallization that the mineral serpentine assumes, except when it is foimd as pseudomorph after another mineral. It is prob- able that this chrysotile-asbestos may have been formed some time before the complete alteration of the primary rock into serpentine. This is em- phasized by the fact that in the southern part of the United States where these basic magnesian rocks have been but partly altered to serpentine, seams of chrysotile-asbestos are occasionally found, and that in other cases seams of serpentine are found almost entirely enclosed by a peridotite rock which is altered biit little into serpentine. Then again, it may be that in the first alteration of the basic magnesian rocks, the seams and crevices are filled with serpentine which has been derived from the main mass of the basic magnesian rock, and that later, during the process of complete alteration of the rock into serpentine, these seams have become asbestiform, due to the action of aqueous solutions.' ' As one studies these basic magnesian rocks in their primary, or nearly primary condition, as found in the various peridotites of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, it becomes almost immediately evident that these rocks are badly cracked and seamed in proximity to their contact with the country rock through which they have intruded, this being especially true of those containing but little chromite or corundum. During the pro- cess of alteration, these seams and crevices have become filled in some in- stances with a clay-like material; in others, with a compact serpentine; and in still others, with the fibrous variety of serpentine. These seams and crevices have no regularity, they are apt to run in nearly all directions and are not of any considerable length.' ' "With very few exceptions, all the fibres of the asbestos are standing at nearly right angles to the sides of the seam, which would conclusively show that they were not formed by any shearing movement of the rocks. In a few exceptional instances, chrysotile-asbestos has been reported where the fibres were lying lengthwise with the seams, and in these cases there may have been shearing movements of the rocks, which have resulted in the formation of a fibrous serpentine.' ' Another point of interest to be noted is that in those bodies of ser- pentine containing a large quantity of chromite, corundum, genthite, or garnerite, there is little or no chrysotile serpentine. This would seem to indicate that the chromite and corundum had in their separation from the molten magma interfered with the extensive formation of the cracks which are necessary to the formation of the chrysotile serpentine.' Dr. R. W. Ells of the Geological Survey, Canada, gives his opinion as follows : — ' The asbestos veins which traverse the serpentine in all directions in the asbestos-bearing portion, probably owe their origin to fissures which have been formed~in the rock-mass as a result of some one of the several periods of movement. That some of them were formed prior to the final crushing is probable, since occasional veins are found in the crushed condition; the greater part of these veins, however, is but little disturbed, and the fibres are still at right angles to the sides of the fissure.' ' The intrusion of the white granite dikes has probably exercised some influence in this direction, since often in the mining, as the dikes are ap- proached the veins increase in number, as if the rock had been opened up by their action. Sometimes masses of granite invade the serpentine and cut off the asbestos-bearing rock entirely, so that the workings have to be aban- doned. When a face of good asbestos rock has been cut off by the action of faults, good ground is generally found again by driving for a short distance through the barren wall.' ' In whatever way the fissures were caused, and it is very probable that they have been formed by the great processes of metamorphism to which the rocks were exposed in the change from dioritic matter to serpentine, the vein asbestos appears more naturally to have been produced by a process of segregation of serpentinous matter from the sides of the fissure very much as ordinary quartz in many mineral veins is known to have been pro- duced, the segregated or infiltrated matter gradually filling the original fissure and meeting at or near the centre, in proof of which the presence of a comb or particles of iron is very often found occupying the centre of the vein, and quite frequently these iron grains assume sufficient size to form a regular parting of iron ore in the fibre. In this respect asbestos veins resemble very closely mineral veins with quartz or calcite which fre- quently contain alternate layers of ore on either side of a central comb of crystals. The arrangement also of the fibre at right angles to the sides of the containing fissure, except where the rock has been disturbed, is con- firmatory evidence in the same direction.' Mr. George Merrill holds that the crevices in the serpentine are due to shrinkage, such as is incidental to the change of a highly hydTated colloidal substance into a less hydrated and more solid form, and perhaps also to a loss of silica, as suggested by Professor Kemp. He compares them to the shrinkage cracks which appear in clay on drying, or those which result from the shrinkage of a gelatinous mass of iron carbonate, as in the so-called septarian nodules of clay-ironstone. The masses of serpentine are supposed to have undergone a process of hydration and swelling, with a subsequent shrinkage which produced cracks. 90 As to the filling of these cracks, Merrill refers to a fibrous structure formed under quite similar conditions in gypi^uni, and als^o, l)ut more rarely, in calcite. In the first-named the crystallization apparently takes place by a pro- cess of growth from one of the walls; considerable force having been manifes- ted; sufiicient to rupture the rock-mass in which it is taking place. Whether or not such conditions existed in the case of asbestos veins still awaits proof. Mr. Merrill, continuing his argument says: 'It is noted, however, that veins of any considerable width rarely show continuous fibres extending from side to side. In most cases the continuity is interrupted by small fragments of the wall rock; or again, where this is lacking, there exists at some intermediate point between the walls, a break or line of separation, as though the crystal fibres had been pushed outward from either wall until their extremities met. In many such cases the growth has continued until the fibres are pushed past one another to a slight extent, the line of contact thus becoming jagged or saw-like. Again, there are other indications of pressure from the direction of the walls, manifesting itself most frequently in a crimpling of the fibres.' In a later publication, Mr. iMerrilP refers again to this subject as follows: — ' There is, however, apparently no doubt that they are altered highly magnesian igneous rock. Now% the process of hydration (serpentinization) in rock of this class must, provided there is no loss of material by solution, result in expansion. T. S. Hunt showed that the passage of olivine into serpentine under such conditions would result in an increase in bulk amount- ing to 33 per cent. That some material is almost invariably lost we have abundant proof. Nevertheless, expansion at some stage in the serpentiniz- ing process usually results, and it is to the incidental readjustment of the rock-mass that is commonly attributed the characteristic jointed condition and the slickensided surfaces.' Mr. Merrill mentions further, that in the course of a discussion between Professor T. X. Dale and T. F. Kemp, the suggestion was made that the fissures might be the result of tension, or a stretching movement; or that they are either due to dynamic causes, or produced by shrinkage, due to a loss of silica in the process of alteration. Dr. A. P. Low, (' The Chibovigamaii Mining Region,' Geological Survey Re- port, 1906), expresses himself on the subject as follows: — * The cracks were probably formed by shrinkage of the mass and per- haps in part by the crushing action of the same pressure which lengthened and flattened the serpentine areas, and at the same time made the associa- ted rocks schistose. The asbestos appears to the writer to have been de- posited in the cracks under great pressure from superheated waters, which, penetrating the rock, absorbed the material of the serpentine mitil the solu- tion became a saturated one. With cooling, the mineral would be deposited in the cracks. In the Thetford and Black Lake areas, masses and dikes of granite have been intruded into the serpentine, and these probably account for the necessary pressure and heated waters to form the asbestos there.' Mr. John A. Dresser*, does not believe in the theory of the formation of fissures and subsequent deposition of asbestos fibre therein ; he argues : — ' While the veins run in all directions through the rock, the larger veins are usually those along joint planes. Of these, the horizontal series, which * Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. IG. pages 131-136. ^Canadian Mining Tpstitiite, Vol.'XTI, 1909, pages 170-171. 91 are sometimes over two inches wide and extend for 100 to 200 feet, could never have been open fissures, nor is it conceivable that small areas of rich ground occasionally found where there may be 12 or 14 per cent of asbestos could ever have had as many open fissures as they now have filled veins. It, therefore, seems most probable that a process of replacement of the wall rock has gone on contemporaneously with the deposition of asbestos. The film of iron ore, or the parting so common in the veins, would thus be the beginning of the vein, and the chrysotile crystals by growing outward on either side would thus have formed the wider veins as the serx)entinization of the wall rock advanced. The asbestos can only have been formed after the serpentinization of adjacent parts of the rock.' The theories advanced by the foregoing authorities clear up many points in connexion with the formation of fissures in the serpentine, and deposition of asbestos fibre therein; but there are still many questions to be answered. Assuming that the serpentine in the Eastern Townships is an alteration pro- duct of highly magnesian igneous rock, an important point remains to be ex- plained, and that is, the relation between the increase in volume through hydra- tion, and the formation of these fissures as receptacles for the fibre. Bearing on the above, Sterry Hmit^ has shown that, the alteration of olivine into^ serpentine would result in an increase of volume amounting to over 30 per cent. Kow, admitting that some of the silica — or even if all that material — is lost in the process of hydration, there must still have been a great expansion at some stage of the process, and this expansion must at the same time mean increased pressure in the interior of the rock, since the surrounding formation undoubtedly hemmed in these rocks, and did not allow of an easy expanse through increase in volume. It was thus impossible that fissures could have been formed at this stage. It seems probable, however, that as soon as the process of alteration was finished, a readjustment in the rock-masses took place; but in the opinion of the writer, this readjustment resulted in the formation of joints and sliekensides, just as we find them, at the present time, in the quarries. This theory is substantiated by the fact that, in the mines at Thetford, numerous places can be seen where these fissures (now asbestos veins V cut right through joints and sliekensides. The next question arising is, how have these fissures been formed? Was it through shrinkage due to a loss in silica, or due to shrinkage of the rock mass through cooling? Now, if the cracks were formed through the loss of silica, they would have been formed during the process of alteration, that is, before the joints and sliekensides were formed; but this would have been im- possible — as already explained. The most rational explanation, and the one which seems to gain most sup- port is, that the formation of cracks was caused by cooling and shrinkage of the rock-masses, similar to the formation of cracks caused by the shrinkage of a gelatinous mass of iron carbonate, in the so-called septarian nodules of clay iron- stone — as suggested by Merrill. It is also probable, however, that the intrusion of those granitic dikes so frequently met with in the serpentine masses has caused, ^ Mineral Physiology and Physiography, page 506. 92 or facilitated, to a great extent, the formatiuii of numerous fissures in the imme- diate proximity of these intrusions : by rapid dehydration due to the agency of heat. The fact outlined in a preceding paragraph, namely, that very frequently an accumulation of asbestos veins can be noticed in approaching these intrusive dikes, seems to substantiate this theory. The latter presupposes the presence of water in greater quantities than is admissible in the formation of serpentine; but this condition is quite probable, since the rock-masses must have all been in a semi-magmatic state, in order to undergo these varied changes. The assumption, however, that the fissures in their entirety are the result of a cooling oil in the rock-mass, where the latter was in contact with the country rock which it had penetrated, cannot be very well upheld, in view of the fact that in many portions of the serpentine — even when in contact with the country rock, no asbestos veins are found; while in the same serpentine mass — sometimes far from the contact — a large number of veins may occur. With regard to the manner in which these cavities or fissures were filled, it must be stated that this is a subject upon which only one or two opinions have, hitherto, been advanced : due to the fact that the formation of such wonderfully delicate and silky fibre has no parallel in nature. G. P. MerrilP speaks of a similar crystallization as taking place in gyi^sum and calcite under almost identical conditions. In the first-named, the crystal- lization apparejitly takes place by a process of growth from one of the walls, considerable force being manifested, sufiicient it may be to rupture the rock-mass in which it takes place. It is questionable, however, whether such conditions existed in the case of asbestos; hence we have to turn to other observations for an adequate explanation. We know that asbestos fibre is an example of fibrous crystallization due to crystallizing across a fissure ; but why it is so finely fibrous, or how it gained its present form, cannot be explained to satisfaction. Dana refers to this point only in a general way in his Systematic Mineralogy, 1850: vSection II, Theoretical Crystallogeny, page 124, as follows : — * In aggregated crystallizations there is a mass of material entering into the solid state together, and no opportunity exists for single crystals to perfect themselves. While a liquid mass is cooling, whenever the tempera- ture of solidification is reached, at numberless points throughout the mass, crystallization will begin, and together an aggregation of crowded crystals or grains is produced, with no external regularity of form; in other words the granular structure. The same will happen in a crystallizing solution if the process goes on rapidly. ' When a solution is spread thinly over a large surface, minute crys- talline points encrust the whole, and if the solution be gradually supplied, as crystallization goes on, it is obvious that the minute points may elongate into crowded prisms of fibres, producing a fibrous structure. Such a structure is common in narrow seams in rocks, and the fibres are usually elongated across the seam.' ^ The formation of gvpsum in caves. Proc. United States National Museum, Vol. XXII, 1894, page 81. 93 It seems that this paragraph refers to chrysotile; because the crystals of the same are elongated across the seam in the precise mode described. Possibly the fibres of chrysotile, like those of other fibrous minerals, have been produced by a like process of crystallization to that which formed the long circular crystals occasionally found in quartz. Chrysotile may have been an extreme example of crystallization which took place mider conditions of high temperature and ex- treme pressure. Mr. Gosselet\ referring to crystalline minerals generally, holds that they owe their origin to the action of superheated water in the rock : a view in which Dana concurs; for he admits that the cause of metamorphic changes is subterranean heat, together with moisture and pressure. It is a well-known fact that rapidity of cooling tends to produce the glassy condition of minerals; while slow cooling is the condition most favourable to crystallization, and for this reason : if we presuppose an intense heat, extreme pressure, and a slow pro- cess of cooling, a fine delicate crystallization will be the ultimate result. It is very probable, therefore, that in the case under consideration, the serpentine has passed through all the above-mentioned stages, and produced what is now called the ' mineralogical paradox.' But another important question now arises: what is the source of the vein filling? In answering this question it must be stated that observations in the field have greatly strengthened the belief of the writer that the chrysotile fibre A BCD FEFDCB A Fig. 13.— Sections of seamy parting (natural size) illustrating the successive deposition of mineral matter through segregation. Lot B, Range V, Thetford. (A) Dark green serpentine, containing specks of chrome iron ore. (B) Dark blue serpentine, with grains of chrome iron ore on contact line \vi:h A. (C) Whitish asbestiform matter, with fibrous structure vertical to walls. (D) Layers of pale green serpentine. (E) Dark blue serpentine with grains of chrome iron ore. (F) Fine asbestob laces 1-16 and 1-32 of an inch thick. ^ Report of Geological Congress, 1888 94 lias been funned throuyli segregation of serpentinous matter from the sides of the fissnre. In support of this theory it may be mentioned that, a great number of veins — especially those of larger size — have, in the middle, between the two walls, a parting of serpentinous matter and chrome iron ore; that the arrange- ment of the fibre is at right angles to the sides of the fissure, excepting, of course, those veins wliicji have ])een disturbed; and that further — and this is the most important proof — some of the veins, in which the process of formation of the asbestos has not been completed, exhibit an arrangement of alternate layers of mineral matter from the sides of the walls similar to metalliferous veins, which frequently contain alternate layers of ore on either side of a central comb of mineral. In support of the segregation theory the writer may mention that, he has found a seamy parting with a small asbestos vein, in one of the outcrops on lot 13, range V, Thetf ord, near Robertson station : which shows very clearly that the successive layers of the mineral matter were deposited from aqueous solutions from the walls of serpentine. The latter, when freshly broken, is of a grass-green colour; seems to be softer than the general run of serpentine, and appears to have undergone con- siderable crushing movements. Seamy partings running in all directions occur frequently, sometimes containing fine, silky, asbestos fibre, and at other times holding asbestos which has not completed its process of development and forma- tion. The foregoing discussion of the theories concerning the formation of asbestos fibre, relates only to what was termed on pages 48 and 49, ' vein ' fibre ; but this does not explain the formation of ' slip ' fibre. Observations in the field, however, tend to show that the relation of both varieties seems to be very close : indeed it may be stated that everything affirmed with regard to ' vein ' fibre may be cogent- ly applied to ' slip ' fibre also. That the class of fibre generally called the ' Brough- ton ' fibre was originally ' vein ' fibre, is substantiated by the presence of whole blocks of massive serpentine having regular vein fibre inside the ' slip ' fibre zone. On the Tanguay property, lot 13, range VII, Broughton, for instance, the writer observed in a pit 14 feet deep, close to the easterly corner of the lot. massive serpentine, with a series of parallel asbestos veins distributed over a small area 5 by 8 feet. These veins are from :}" to g" thick, delivering a high grade ' crude ' fibre, and show no effects of disturbance of any kind. The ser- pentine itself exhibits no slickensides, joints, or fissures, and seems to have escaped the crushing movement or re-adjusting forces, whose effects are so well displayed in all other pits of that region. On the edges of the massive serpentine, however, a gradual change may be observed: the veins split up, are lacerated, shifted out of their position, and merge gradually into 'slip' fibre; a condition in which almost all asbestos is found in the immediate vicinity. Further evidence to that effect has been noticed in the pits of the ' Ling Asbestos Company,' and the ' Broughton Asbestos Fibre Company.' As a result of numerous observations in the field, it seems now pretty well established that the peculiai'ly crushed, and highly slickensided * slip ' fibre serpentine of Brough- 95 ton is the result of the secondary readjustment, which took place immediately after the crystallization of the fibre in veins. Both rock and veins must have been in a semi-magmatic condition during this period, and pressure may have aided this process of physical alterations of the mass in a marked degree. No indications are seen in the field to warrant the hypothesis that these magmatic intrusions, and subsequent alterations of the rocks were attended by any great disruptive force; because, if such were the case, the adjacent strata would be all twisted, contorted, and thrust asunder; whereas, as a matter of fact, all rocks accompanying this serpentine belt do not show anj" effects of violent disrupture; but all correspond to a certain strike and dip, as is pretty well observed on the southerly contact in all the mines of the district. For this reason it appears more reasonable to suppose that, the original rock — olivine — arose quietly from below, increased its volume slowly through hydration, and afterw^ards went through the stages of alteration above outlined. Depth of Asbestos Deposits. ' Asbestos found at a depth of 400 feet.' This is the latest important news from the asbestos district, in the Eastern Townships of the Province of Quebec. This intelligence is significant, in virtue of the fact that, the greatest depth of the present asbestos mine workings is about 200 feet. The discovery of asbestos at this greater depth was made as follows : — ■ When the Black Lake Chrome and Asbestos Company, near Black Lake, had completed the sinking of their shaft to a depth of 400 feet — which shaft had been sunk with a view to exploring their great chrome iron ore body, they ran in a drift passing through a deposit of chromite and serpentine, and finally striking a series of 'asbestos' veins of from 5" to i" thickness: the asbestos being of great silkiness and flexibility. This ' strike,' however, w'ould not be of great general interest, were it not for its bearing on the important economic question in connexion with asbestos, deposits. Before entering into a discussion on this subject, it should be stated that, the question of the pemianence and persistency of asbestos deposits is a delicate one. It is a question concerning which few geologists or engineers familiar with existing conditions have as yet ventured an opinion ; but from an economic standpoint it is highly desirable that the question of the continuity of asbestos deposits should be given close attention; since the future of a district, which at present is the chief source of the world's supply of asbestos, depends more upon the depth of its known deposits than on the opening of new mines; if, therefore, the writer ventures an opinion on this subject, based primarily on observations in the field, he does so more with a view to stimulate discussion, than to present new and extravagant theories. To the miner familiar with the mining of minerals other than asbestos, it will appear strange that a district whose history extends back for over thirty years possesses no record of any kind regarding the character of asbestos deposits ^ Pappr read by Fritz Cirkel before the March, 1909, meeting of the Canadian Mining Institute 96 below a depth of 200 feet. As a matter of fact, there is no visible evidence in any existing asbestos quarry of the extension of the deposits below a depth of 225 feet; and it is no less remarkable that this new discovery was made accidentally, in a mine of another class of mineral. If, however, we consider the methods employed in the exploitation of asbestos quarries, and also the difficulty, or rather impossibility of testing the deposits by diamond drilling, due to the fibrous nature of the rock and mineral, it will be at once apparent, that this lack of knowledge is due to causes arising solely out of the peculiar occurrence of the mineral. To treat the subject under consideration from a practical standpoint, it will be necessary to consider the results already obtained at the present known depths, and ascertain what deductions, if any, can be made therefrom. In conjunction with this inquiry, reference should also be made to the genesis and structural geology of the deposits, as well as to the character of the formations with which they are associated. Before a company organized to mine asbestos commences operations, it is necessary to consider such questions as (1) the amount of mineral available; (2) the cost of its extraction; (3) the cost of refining; and (4) the probable profits. These are, of course, considerations common to all branches of mining, irrespective of the character or class of the mineral occurrence. In almost all classes of mining, the methods of exploitation are characterized by the prepara- tion for the stoping or winning of the mineral through shafts and drifts. Ex- ploration by diamond drilling is frequently resorted to, in order to ascertain the value of the property, before any considerable expenditure is made in the in- stallation of costly mining and milling plants. The examining engineer is thus usually enabled to form reasonably accurate conclusions from available data. In asbestos mining, however, the case is difi^erent. Here, the extensive, but mostly low grade ore bodies, do not admit of underground working such as is generally employed in mining of other minerals; and in the opinion of the writer, only in the richer asbestos mines can the method of underground mining — as inaugurated at Thetford by Mr. George Smith, the general manager of the ' Bell Asbestos Company ' — be followed. The usual practice is, to start quarrying on a promising spot, and this quarry is gradually widened and deepened as work progresses. In the majority of cases, however, the claims, or undeveloped properties in the district, have nothing more to show than surface outcrops; and only occasionally have pits been opened to depths of, say, 15 to 20 feet, to thus afford some grounds on which to base an estimate of probable value. The inquiry may then suggest itself : ' why not open up these prospects by sinking shafts on the ore bodies? ' The reply to such a query would be that, the very irregular character of asbestos chutes, both in lateral and vertical directions, does not admit of intelligent exploration by deep shafts: for example, if a shaft is started on what is considered an excellent surface showing, it may be expected that immediately beneath the surface a lean chute will be encountered; and if by chance it is found that this lean chute extends vertically for some distance, the conclusion to be drawn from these conditions v:ould certainly not be favour- 97 able; whereas it is possible, that had this shaft been sunk not over, say, 25 feet away, the results might have been entirely favourable. A striking example of this is afforded by a shaft sunk by the Bell Asbestos Company, twelve years ago, and which was carried down to a depth of 137 feet on the westerly part of this property. The ground penetrated did not pay to work, hence it was concluded that this particular part of the property was of little value. How erroneous this conclusion was, has been demonstrated by the excellent showings exposed through- out the great underground workings at that very part; in fact, the very portion of the property originally condemned has since proved to be, the writer ventures to state, by far the richest asbestos ground over discovered in the district. But in discussing the question of the depth of asbestos deposits, the only evidence from which we may deduce conclusions is that gathered in the develop- ment work so far undertaken in the working mines of the Eastern Townships. From these operations we have learned the following facts: — (1) That the asbestos occurs as ' vein ' or ' slip ' fibre in pay chutes: occurr- ing irregularly in the serpentine; the high grade material alternating with the lean, or with serpentine, poor in asbestos. (2) That often rich pay chutes are encountered when approaching a granite dike, or near the contact with the schist formation. (3) That the quality of asbestos found at a depth of 200 feet, or — as in the case of the new discovery above referred to — at the greater depth of approxi- mately 400 feet is the same, or nearly so as that found on the surface. (4) That wherever there is a large lateral extension of serpentine, and in the latter an asbestos pay chute, the lateral extension of which, on the surface, is more than 100 feet in both directions; this pay chute almost invariably, with occasional interruptions of lean serpentine, continues at depth. (5) That exploration work by shafts, unless large roomy drifts are run in connexion therewith, is entirely misleading; and in the majority of cases is of doubtful value as a means of developing a property. Referring to the statement in regard to the lateral extension of the serpen- tine, it should be emphasized that this is an important factor in determining the continuity of the deposit; since small strips or lodes of serpentine are con- taminated and interrupted in their continuity by trap-like portions of the adja- cent country rock, which are never expected to be present in an extensive development of serpentine (except granite intrusion) like that of Thetford and Black Lake. As experience has shown, this interruption in the narrow serpen- tine lodes may sometimes take the form of permanent displacements, and may cut off at increased depth an asbestos deposit, which, on the surface, evinced all the usual characteristics of a pay chute. The serpentine belt which stretches from range III, Broughton, with a few ' surface ' interruptions, through the townships of Broughton and Thetf ord-Black Lake area, affords great opportunities and scope for the study of the question of the permanence of the asbestos deposits, and the following facts are herewith submitted : — 98 At the ' Quebec ' mine, now ' Ling ' Asbestos Company, the fibrous rock, found on the surface in small shallow pits, continued in both a lateral and Fig. 14. — Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation. vertical direction along the contact with the schist formation, and the rock is now mined in a quarry about 300 feet long, 125 feet wide, and 65 feet deep. At the ' Broughton ' proi:)erty the fibrous serpentine, which appeared only in a few Fig. 15.— Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation. places on the surface, was found to extend all along the contact, and the quarries are now 85 feet deep. In both cases the fissured and fibrous condition, as observed on the surface, was found to continue as depth was attained, and although there may, perhaps, be an occasional change in the quantity of the vein Fig. 16. — Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation. fibre — as in the case of the ' Broughton ' — this does not in any way influence the general conditions in regard to the occurrence at depth in these places. Fig. 17. — Section of seamy parting, showing disposition of mineral matter through segregation. The great quarries of the ' King,' ' Bell,' " Johnson,' and ' Beaver ' at Thetf ord, and also the deep quarries of the ' British Canadian,' show conclusively that with depth no marked change in the quality or riclniess of the asbestos chutes takes 100 place; indeed, at a depth of 200 feet tliey appear as continuous and as rich as at any time in the history of these mines; while the new discovery of asbestos at a depth of 400 feet in the shaft of the Black Lake Chrome and Asbestos Com- pany, leads to the conclusion that asbestos deposits are not shallow in their occurrence. The study of the geological conditions of the district has now fairly well established the fact that the serpentine of the Eastern Townships — the mother rock of chrysotile-asbestos — is a secondary rock. It is the alteration product of olivine (dunite) — a rock mineral of igneous origin. It can be conclusively shown that in nearly all cases this anhydrous olivine rock was changed gradually into serpentine, or a hydrous silicate of magnesia, and that subsequently through the action of certain agencies, fissures were formed and filled with an asbestos-bear- ing solution, which gave rise to the ultimate crystallization of the fibre. For the purpose of gaining a better conception of these physical and chemi- cal changes, and their bearing upon the persistency of the deposits, it will be necessary to state briefly their probable causation. Sterry Hunt^ shows that the alteration of olivine into serpentine would re- sult in an increase of volume amounting to over 30 per cent. Admitting that some of the silica, or even of the material is lost in the process of hydration, there must have been, at some time, a great expansion in the mass, and this expansion must at the same time have caused increased pressure in the interior of the rock, since, manifestly, the surrounding formation did not allow of an easy expanse through increase in volume. It was thus impossible that fissures could have been formed at this stage of the process. There seems to be no question that as soon as the process of alteration was finished, a readjustment of the rock-masses took place, and this readjustment resulted in the formation of joints and slickensides, such as we find in the quarries to-day; and not as is generally supposed in the formation of fissures. This theory is substantiated by the fact that, in the quarries at Thetford, numer- ous places can be seen where these fissures (asbestos veins) cross directly through joints and slickensides. The next question is, how have these fissures been formed ? Was it through shrinkage due to a loss in silica, or due to shrinkage of the rock-mass through cooling? Now, if these fissures were formed through the loss of silica, they would have been formed during the process of alteration, that is, before the joints and slickensides were formed, but the impossibility of this is shown above. The most rational explanation, and the one which seems to gain the most support is, that the formation of cracks is caused through cooling and shrinkage of the rock-masses similar to the formation of cracks through shrinkage of a gelatinous mass of iron carbonate in the so-called septarian nodules of clay iron- stone, as suggested by Merrill. However, it is also probable that the intrusion of the granite dikes so frequently met with in the serpentine masses has caused or facilitated to a great extent the formation of numerous fissures in the imme- diate proximity of these intrusions, by rapid dehydration through the agency of ' ^rinera! Physiology and Physiography, page oOfi. 101 heat. The fact that very frequently an accumulation of asbestos veins can be noticed when approaching these intrusive dikes seems to substantiate this theory. It is obvious from a geological point of view, that all these radical changes, which were perhaps brought about during long geological intervals, took place not only on, or near the surface, but also in depth; it is impossible to imagine that the changes in the character of the rock, namely, the alteration into serpen- tine; the subsequent readjustment of the rock; the forming of fissures; and the ultimate filling of the latter with a crystallization of the serpentine solution should have been confined only to rock portions near the surface, hence we are justified in assuming that these changes must have affected the whole system; that is, they must have extended to great depth; for we cannot conceive of any influence coming from the surface, or being exerted near the latter, which could have evolved such conditions. There exists a great difference in the quality of serpentine and the fibre found in the Thetf ord and in the Broughton district : and much interest is being manifested, at present, in the question as to the relation, if any, between the two occurrences. Recent investigations have shown — and this is amply supported by the discoveries which have been made during the last year or two — that the Broughton serpentine belt, although frequently interrupted in its course in the townships of Broughton and Thetf ord, has some connexion with the big Thetf ord- Black Lake serpentine hills; and further, that a gradual change can be noticed in the ' slip ' fibre quality of the asbestos found at Broughton to the ' vein ' fibre quality as found in the westerly i^art of Thetford. This, evidently, goes to show that there exists a genetic relationship be- tween the two occurrences; indeed, it seems very probable that the serpentine belt, throughout its extent, has its origin in one common source; but that at Broughton, where the ' slip ' asbestos fibre is produced, additional changes and readjustments have brought about the prevailing conditions. In order to make this clearer a first attempt has been made by the writer to tabulate the successive changes which the original rock in all probability underwent. ''(1) Intrusion of olivine (dunite) through the earth crust from below. (2) Gradual alteration of the rock to serpentine through hydration, and perhaps loss of silica, increase in volunae. (3) Slow readjustment of the rock-masses, resulting in the formation of joints and slickensides. (4) Subsequent formation of fissures as receptacles for asbestos fibre, through shrinkage of the rock, and also through injection of granite dikes. (5) Infiltration of serpentinous solution from the sides of the wall through process of segregation, and subsequent slow crystalli- zation of chrysotile. (6) Second slow readjustment of the magmatic rock-mass, and forma- tion of ' slip ' fibre. The writer has gone more fully into the question of origin than he at first intended ; but this was deemed necessary in order to follow step by step the altera- 7068—10 o ^< o pq 102 tion and successive changes of the original roclv-niass, and also to snow that these most radical changes must have affected the serpentine not only near the surface but also to a considerable depth. To what depth these rock-masses have been affected by all these changes, in order to produce what is known as asbestos rock, must remain a matter of sur- mise; but, judging from the results which have been set forth, I venture the opinion that these workable asbestos deposits extend to considerable depth, pro- bably to several thousand feet. Mr. John A. Dresser' expresses himself as follows on the subject of depth of asbestos deposits: — ' The question of the depth of asbestos deposits in the Eastern Town- ships depends in a large degree for its solution on the form taken by the eruptive rock from which the serpentine has been derived. This has not yet been satisfactorily determined. The form may have been a sheet or laccolith, intruded between beds of older rock. In that case the sheet would be more or less nearly horizontal in position, and would not have reached the surface until it was uncovered by the erosion of the overlying beds. 'Or it may have been an intrusive mass of rock — which was brought to the surface and has since had its upper portions removed by erosion. ' In the former case the depth of the asbestos would necessarily be limited by the thickness of the intruded sheet, but in the latter case, the serpentine, and consequently the asbestos, might continue to an indefinite depth. ' The other factors necessary to the occurrence of asbestos are the segre- gation of olivine in the original rock, and the alteration of the olivine to serpentine. Of the first it may be said that olivine is a mineral character- istic of the lowest known depths of the earth's crust ; and of the second, that serpentinization is a deep-seated process, which, unlike weathering, does not depend on the action of the atmosphere to produce it. ' Therefore, except for the possibility of reaching the floor of a sheet, it seems safe to conclude that the asbestos deposits of the Eastern Townships will continue for as great a depth as they can be profitably mined.' 1 Trans. Canadian :\Iining Institute, Vol. XII, 1909, page 203. 103 CHAPTER III. QUAERYING OF ASBESTOS. The work of extracting the asbestos from the rock in which it occurs, and converting it into a saleable article, will be described under the following heads : — (1) The quarrying proper, that is, the blasting, separating the dead from the useful material, hoisting the same from the pits, and transporting it to the cobbing sheds or mills. (2) The cobbing or dressing of the better qualities, that is, the separation of the fibre by hand from the adhering rock particles ; together with the mechan- ical treatment, in mills, of all rock or fine material containing fibre; grading of products; and subsequent transportation of product over railways, and by ship- ping to the markets of the world. It is important that all the different stages through which asbestos has to pass until it is a finished product, be treated separately; since these involve the entire expenditure from the winning of the crude material in the rock, up to final delivery to the consumer. The success of a qiiarry depends to a very large extent upon not only the peculiar qualities of the mineral, and the mode of its occurrence — which differs so widely from those of any other known mineral — but also upon careful, economic, and intelligent direction of the various opera- tions enumerated. Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-cast Work. Xearly all the companies employ the method of open-cast work as the means for exploitation of asbestos deposits; for in spite of all its disadvantages — especi- ally in severe winter weather — it has proved itself to be the most convenient and cheapest method hitherto employed. Its advantages over underground work may be summarized thus: — (1\ Easier supervision. (2) Xo trouble as regards ventilation, the men are always working in the open air. (3) Easier lay out of works in larger steps and stopes than is usually pos- sible in underground works. (4) Xo timbering is necessary. (5) Complete extraction of all the asbestos encountered in the rock; no loss in the form of pillars. The principal disadvantages of open-cast work are : — (1) The removal of all the waste rock resulting from dikes and barren zones of serpentine. (2") Exposure of men to the inclemency of the weather: work is interfered with ; amount of work done reduced considerably ; or even stopped by bad weather : such as heavy rain, snow, or extreme cold, etc. (3) Curtailment of dumping groimd on properties of limited extent. 7068—101 104 However, recent experience in a prominent quarry at Thetford seems to demonstrate that open-cast work, under certain conditions, may be replaced by regular underground methods: and although all the difficulties in connexion with their general application— such as we are accustomed to find in lode mining —are not wholly overcome, it seems reasonable to assume, that before long, the larger and richer mines, at least, may follow suit. The question of underground mining has been taken up spasmodically by different companies in the district. At the ' Union ' quarry, some twenty years ago, a somewhat extensive tunnel was run during the winter from the foot of a hill, and a shaft sunk in connexion with the same; but the facts, as regards the results, are not definitely known. ]n the old Broughton (Fraser) mine a shaft was sunk to a depth of 100 feet along an excellent asbestos vein near the con- tact with the slate formation, and it is reported that the results were satisfac- tory for the first 75 feet; but owing to the irregular character of the vein below that depth, work had to be abandoned. Seven years ago, the Bell Asbestos Company, sunk at Thetford a roomy shaft in the western part of the property close to the King quarry ; but this experiment was not successful, since the shaft went through an apparently barren zone, and little hope was entertained as to finding better conditions in the immediate environment. For a long period after this experience, underground work was looked upon in the district as an impossibility. It was affirmed in support of this contention that, the asbestos pay chutes were distributed in a very irregular fashion, indeed so irregularly that no economic system could be brought into operation; and, moreover, that due to this cause also, valuable ground, or perhaps pillars com- posed entirely of valuable deposits, would have to be sacrificed for the sake of safety. It was further maintained, that on account of the highly slippery con- dition of the serpentine, only narrow drifts could be rvui ; otherwise a great amount of timber would be necessitated in order to support the ground so pene- trated, and that in consequence of this, the cost of extraction per ton of ore would be excessive. The underground work, however, inaugurated and success- fully carried on by Mr. Geo. Smith, M.E., at the Bell quarries, seems to demon- strate that not all of the contentions hitherto brought forward can be substan- tiated; indeed it has been shown, that after all not so much timber is used, in spite of the fact that all the drifts are very large, much larger than in any other class of underground mining. Further, the question of valuable pillars for the purpose of safety may be regulated to satisfaction, since the running of a sys- tem of approximately parallel drifts in different levels, admits of a thorough study of the ground preparatory to the winning of the mineral proper. As to the employment of timber in the drifts, it may here be stated, that the total length of underground work in the mines of the Bell Asbestos Company, is now li miles, and the writer, who inspected these drifts twice, noticed very little in any of them. No accidents caused by a falling roof have occurred so far, for a rigid inspection is made almost daily of all the workings. With increasing depth, however, conditions in that direction will probably materially change; the rock pressure will increase, necessitating, perhaps, heavy timbering, where to-day nothing of the kind is required. 3 Q 105 The great advantage of this mining method over quarry work is the con- venience with which the work can be carried on during the winter. In open works, to win the asbestos through ice and snow, and sometimes very cold weather, reduces enormouslj^ the working results ; the drying of the ore, which is mixed most of the time with snow and ice, requires almost three times the amount of fuel needed at ordinary tim.es; while the transmission of compressed air, and more especially steam, to the pit bottom, has its great difficulties. For this reason it is questionable whether it pays at all to work some of the quarries in severe winter season. As a matter of fact, if prices are not specially tempting, a number of them close down altogether. One of the greatest hindrances in the way of economic open quarry work is the selection of a suitable dumping ground. Many mines which have little ground at their disposal, find considerable difficulty in solving this problem. In the early days of asbestos quarrying, when very little engineering skill was dis- played, and little thought was given to projected efficiency, most of the dumps were placed quite close to the quarry, as was the case in most instances. This accumulated waste rock had to be removed, when it was found that the ground so covered contained large asbestos-bearing zones. To-day — in some of the quarries on ground specially bought for that pur^jose — long, horizontal, gravity tramways are built to remove the dumps as far away as possible. The question of the disposition of the dumps is daily becoming of increasing importance; in fact some of the companies which formerly treated this subject as a secondary matter are beginning to give it earnest attention ; they find out that they are cramped for room, and that large amounts of money must be spent to relieve the situation : in order to secure a continuation of the works on the lines already adopted. In underground mining excellent facilities for the placing of dead rock are afforded; since a system similar to the methods employed in wide lode mining may be introduced, whereby stopes can be filled conveniently with the debris. This would also secure safety against unexpected caveins, and would, in addi- tion, greatly increase the general working economy of the mine. However, taking into consideration all the advantages of both methods, to- gether with their disadvantages, it must be said that the open quarry method remains the favourite of the miner, and will, doubtless, be retained as long as circumstances permit. Moreover, there seems to be no doubt that the applica- tion of the underground method — as introduced by Mr. Geo. Smith — will be confined only to such mines as work on approved rich ground, and the practical working sphere of which permits of gradual expansion. It will thus be seen, that in future the probability is, that the richer mines may employ the combined quarry and underground method: the one preferably for the summer season, and the other for the winter. Additional details regarding the underground system, as used by the Bell Asbestos Company, will be found on page 188. Removal of Overburden. The first operation in opening a quarry is, the removal of the soil which covers most of the asbestos-bearing areas, which varies in thickness from a few 106 feet up to 25 feet. In Black Lake, the crest and slope of the large serpentine ridge is for the greater part covered with a thin layer of humus, thus rendering prospecting work comparatively easy; the lower ground of this locality, however — the area hetwcen Black Lake and Thetford — is covered to considerable depth with soil, while at Thetford, the thickness of the overlying soil is, in some places, 15 to 20 feet. The removal of this soil for open quarry work is performed only in the summer time; the winter, on account of frost and snow, being too severe for this class of work. The soil is generally cleared off with pick and shovel, and loaded into large dumping cars on trucks which are laid for this special purpose close to the work, and shifted when required. Several of the larger Thetford companies employ steam shovels for this pur- pose: thus bringing down the cost of moving a cubic yard of soil to a minimum. Quarry Work. As a rule the quarries in the smaller mines have a very irregular shape: most of them following the trend of the asbestos-bearing zones; while the lean serpentine, or intrusive dikes are left as pillars. In the larger mines, however, where the locations of the asbestos-bearing and lean rock, and the location and extent of intrusive dikes have for years been more fully studied, the quarries have, generally, a more regular outline : as at the King, and Bell pits, Thetford ; also at the large quarry in Danville. 7550- ./ N Fig. is. — Section of King Bros." large quarry at Thetford. At these quarries, no discrimination has been made between dikes, lean or rich portions of the serpentine; no pillars of any rock have been left, for the reason that these would only prevent mining with advantage towards depth. The shape of the quarries is rectangular : and while the outlines of the walls are not strictly in conformity with that shape, nevertheless the execution and the pro- gress of the work in the pits indicates that, a definite system has been followed in late years. The principal advantage of the system employed in these mines lies in the fact that, generally, a number of different zones — ^both lean and asbes- tos-bearing — are thus laid open, hence the work, also the supply of the ore, can be regulated to better advantage according to requirements. As a general rule, in all the larger pits the rock is taken down in a series of benches, stopes, and terraces, which vary in dimensions according to the size of each pit. A good illustration of systematic progress in quarry work is the long pit of the King quarry of the ' Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation,' at Thetford. 'This pit has a length of 1,350 feet, and an approximate average width of 350 feet. The height of the benches and stopes varies from 5 to 30 and 40 107 feet in the deepest part; while the length of the terraces varies between 50 and 250 feet. Explosives. The great bulk of the dynamite used in the asbestos quarries contains 40 per cent of nitroglycerine; the cartridges being, as a rule, 8" long, by 1^" dia- meter, and are packed in boxes of 50 pounds, containing from So to 95 cartridges. The price is from 14 to 15 cents per pound. Effect and Cost of Hand-drilling. Hand-drilling is still in use in the smaller quarries and prospects, also for block-holing. As a rule, three men are employed with 1" octagonal steel, and six or seven pound hammers. The average capacity in hard serpentine or granite is from 15 to 18 feet per shift; and the cost per foot — including explosives — from 24 to 28 cents. In some of the mines block-holing is done by one m.an only: using I" steel, and three to four pound, short handled hammers. The capacity is from T to 9 feet per daj', and the cost — including explosives — about 20 cents per foot. Effect and Cost of Machine-drilling. In nearly all the quarries, machine-drilling is in vogue for the breaking of the rock in situ. The proper placing of the bore-holes is a very important factor in obtaining the best results from blasting in asbestos rock. To do this, it is necessary that the operator has a thorough knowledge of the position of the strata, and the position and trend of cracks and fissures. To obtain this know- ledge the in-telligent miner examines the rock attentively, and carefully ascer- tains for each blast the position of any joints and fissures in the rock; to enable him to form a judgment as to the proper direction to be given to the bore-hole, and the free sides available for the best results; but it happens, too often, that two miners will have different opinions as to the proper charge for a certain shot. The result is, very frequently, a waste of explosives, which sometimes assumes considerable proportions. Where the rock is massive, and the walls of the benches to be taken down vertical, the direction of the holes is vertical, or nearly so; and when the rock is much fissured, the holes have, generally, an in- clined position according to the largest fissures and the bulk of the rock to be taken down. When blasting benches having several free sides, the bore-holes are arranged in rows, and they are as nearly as possible parallel with the largest free side, so as to obtain the deepest bore-hole, and thus be able to use, relatively, the smallest quantity of explosives. In order that the charge may be as fully utilized as possible, due regard is given to the contour of the free sides and the longest line of resistance. The bore-holes in this case are generally made vertical, so that the explosion will not have to lift the rock it breaks down, but will allow it to fall by itself, and thus give less work afterwards in removing. The depth of holes ranges between 8 and 10 feet, and in the case of ex- ceptionally large faces, 12 and 15 feet. The charges of the drill holes vary, of 108 coui-se, accordiiifi' to the position of the latter, quality and (luaiitity of rock as outlined above; but, as a general rule, in the course of ordinary work — where the faces are free on one side — from 0-4r) to O.,") ixniud of dynamite are used for every foot drilled. The rock drills in use are mostly of the Ingersoll and Rand types, with 3^" cjdinder, and a stroke of Gf". Electric Drills. Lately, electric percussion drills have come into use; but many improve- ments will have to be made on the present design before their use will become general. Most of the manufacturers have adopted the following method: power is conveyed from an electric motor — which is placed either on the drill carriage, or in a box lying on the floor — to the drill by a flexible shaft. Compression springs are placed in the rear of the carriage; the drill carriage being released when the springs have been compressed to a certain pressure, and the drill is thrown forward by the force of the expanding springs. There are springs in front of the carriage also, which force the drill back after the blow has been struck ; and there is the usual shifting arrangement, which comes into operation as the drill returns; by means of which, rotation is effected. In another form of drill — known as the box drill — air is compressed inside a cylinder forming the drill carriage : the drill being held in front and working in guides as usual, while the compression of the air is accomplished by an electric motor attached to the back of the drill. In another percussion drill the following principle has been introduced : motion is communicated to the drill by means of a solid plunger, around which two coils of wire are fixed; electric currents passing through the coils. The plunger is pulled back by the current passing into one coil, which, in "receding, compresses a strong spiral spring in the rear. It is forced forward by the current in the other coil, aided by the force of the expanding spiral spring. The use of electric drills in the asbestos quarries has several advantages over those actuated by steam or compressed air : especially in the winter time ; since there is no loss through transmission, and the working effects are generally much higher. For block-holing, little giant drills are used : the diameter of the piston is only 1|", length of stroke 3|", and depth of the holes drilled from 1 to 2 feet. The steel usually employed is octagonal in shape, 1|" in diameter for the larger, and §" for the smaller drills. In starting, a short, steel, primary drill called the starter is used, and when this reaches its limit, a longer piece is sub- stituted; this is followed by a still longer piece, and the process continued until the desired depth of the hole is reached. The diameter of the hole at the beginning made by the starter is, for the larger machine, 2§"; which is gradually reduced by using successively, steel of smaller diameter — l|j", at a depth of 10 feet. As a rule, two sets of steel are provided for each machine; so that one set may be sharpened while the other is being used. 109 The motive power for actuating rock drills is usually compressed air, or steam.; but in utilizing the latter, there is a large loss from condensation in transmitting steam from boilers to the drills : especially in the usually severe winter seasons, when all the main pipes require to be covered with insulating material, which entails extra cost. Compressed air has a great advantage over steam : the loss in transmission is small, hence the amount of drilling done is comparatively high. The operat- ing results with steam drills are from 40 to 45 feet, per shift of ten hours. The total cost per foot — including power, labour, and explosives, at present prices of fuel — is from 15 to 18 cents; not including, however, wear and tear of machinery and interest on capital involved. In nearly all the quarries the firing of shots is performed by means of elec- tric batteries. There are a few instances where one-hole blasting is still in vogue. In support of this practice it is urged that not alone is a saving of ex- plosives effected, but that the expense of picking them up is less ; because the asbestos veins are less liable to be smashed to small fragments, and widely scat- tered. The expenditure for explosives per ton of rock broken, in mines where the rock is of a solid, massive character, is SJ cents per ton ; in mines where the rock is much fissured and shattered, as in the East Broughton mines, the cost is a little less. Each pound of dynamite brings down, on the average, from 4-25 to 5 tons of rock. Separation and Removal of Rock and Ore. After the firing of shots, the broken material undergoes a hand-sorting pro- cess; which is different in every quarry, according to the grades to be produced, and the ground worked. Where no crude or hand-cobbed fibre is produced, all the rock containing fibre, together with the fines scattered all over the pit, is sent to the mill; but in quarries where the different qualities of crude are pro- duced, the material to be treated comprises : — (1) The long asbestos fibre, and pieces of rock containing the same. (2) The milling material, or rock, containing the shorter fibre. (3) Fine material, and the scrapings of the pits resulting from blasting and breaking up the rock by means of sledge hammers. (4) Dead rock. The material specified in Xo. 1 is sent to the cobbing sheds, and the material indicated in Nos. 2 and 3 is sent to the mill : the fines going first, however, to the dryer. If the bottom of the quarry is on the same level as the top of the dump, the removal of the debris is simple : the latter is loaded directly into dumping cars, or on a platform, and subsequently placed, by means of a small derrick, on trucks, and then delivered to its destination; but in most cases where deep mining is going on heavy boom and cable derricks are employed. 110 Construction of Boom Derricks. Boom derricks are employed in only a few of the smaller mines, or where dumps have to be worked over again. Quarries of large dimensions do not, generally, admit of the successful application of boom derricks; on account of their very limited working radius. Fig. 19 — Boom derrick. A boom derrick (Fig. 19) consists of a mast held in a vertical position by means of guy ropes or legs. To provide for the rotation of the mast about its vertical axis, the lower end of it is pivoted into a socket of the fixed bed-plate. A boom or arm is hinged to the foot of the mast immediately above the pivot. The farther end of the boom, which carries the load, is suspended from the top ill of the mast by ropes, which pass over pulleys to permit the variation of the inclination of the boom to the mast. The lengtli of the boom is from 30 to 50 feet; its working radius is naturally limited and can hardly be extended more than 50 feet. Construction of Cable Derricks. A cable stretched from the top of a well guyed frame or mast to some point across the working pit, along which the load is to be transferred, constitutes the main feature upon which the cable-derrick is constructed. A carrier suspended from the cable by a system of pulleys travels along the cable, and may be arrested, lowered to pick up the load, and rehoisted at any point between the limits of the cable. In this manner the load is transported along the cable. Fio. 20 —Incline cable hoisting plant. The cables may span a distance of 400 feet, are made of crucible steel, and are from \\" to 2" diameter: depending on the length of the span and load to be carried. The ropes for hoisting are from |" to f " diameter. Fig. 21 — Horizontal cable hoisting plant. The cable ways may be either inclined (Fig. 20) or horizontal (Fig. 21 j. In the case of the inclined cable way the carrier is provided usually with one rope: the fall rope, which is also used as a hauling rope. To prevent the carrier moving along the cable when the load is raised, it is necessary that the angle of inclination of the cable be at least 30°, to render the component of the force of gravity of the load acting down the cable of sufficient intensity to retain the carriage in position until the load arrives at the stop on the cable. 112 On stopping the carriage at any point on its upward journey, the load may be lowered and dumped, after which the carriage returns down the incline to the stop. It is generally necessary, however, to provide a bridle or link, (e), pivoted to a wooden clamp on the carrier rope over the dumping point, which link is raised by a cord, (/), and dropped over the hook on the end of the carriage before dumping, and afterwards released to allow the carriage to return. To obtain control of the carriage so that a load may be picked up or lowered at any point on the line, without shifting the stops on the carrier rope, a third rope or extra haiiling or tail rope, 2" diameter, is required; which is attached to the carriage and wound in at the same speed as the fall rope after the load has been lifted, and by means of which the carriage may be restrained in its movement down the incline on the return trip, or made to stop over any point in its range of travel for loading or unloading purposes. By making the hauling rope endless : that is, by passing it from the carriage around the separate winding drum on the hoist and around a sheave on the farthest end of the cable way, the latter may be used in a horizontal, instead of inclined position. In some quarries the inclined, and in others, horizontal cable-ways, with tail rope are utilized. Miners generally prefer the horizontal to the inclined cable-ways, on account of the ease with which the carriage may be stopped at any desired point from the hoist; while with the inclined cable- way a constant shifting of the stopping log on the cable rope is necessary. Fig. 22. — Two-leg support for cable derrick. (A) Carrier rope. (B) Lifting rope. (C) Hauling lopes. (D) Guy ropes. The support for the cable consists either of a pyramid, constructed of four legs fitted and bolted securely; or of two legs held in vertical position by |" guy ropes arranged in the manner illustrated in Fig. 22. On the top of these supports are placed the sheaves for the carrier and haul rope. It is claimed for the pyramid-shaped supports that they are very rigid, and strong, and do not 113 require any guy ropes; while the two leg supports are of simpler construction and can be more easily removed. Single mast supports were perceived in one mine; but they are exceptions to the general rule. f: Fig. 23. -Carrier for cable hoisting. The cable carriage (Fig. 23) is substantially constructed of wrought iron, and is yet comparatively light. The running wheels are of cast iron, have flanges, and, as a rule, are provided with anti-friction bearings. The hoisting wheels are of cast iron, 18" to 24" diameter, in order to reduce the wear on the hoisting rope, and to enable the gin block to lower as freely as possible. Fig. 24. — Construction of transport boxes. The boxes for hoisting are made of 2" hardwood, and hold, generally, be- tween 16 to 20 cubic feet of rock, weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds. The bot- tom is covered with \" steel plate; while in some quarries the outside corners are covered and protected by heavy flanges (Fig. 24). It is claimed that a box of the above construction in ordinary work does not last longer than from six to eight months. One company has attempted to use boxes made of iron; but it appears that the experiment was not successful. 7068—11 114 The heavy cable is fastened at both ends, either to a system of heavy wooden legs loaded with stones (Fig. 25), or to a large iron bar securely fastened in a drill hole in the solid rock. Fig. 25. — Anchorage of carrier rope. For the purpose of stretching the cable from time to time a turnbuckle is inserted at one end of the cable, in the manner illustrated, in Fig. 25. Hoisting Engines. All hoists used in the district are of the double cylinder type, with reversible friction drums. In boom and inclined cable derricks one drum hoist is sufficient; while cable derricks with tail-ropes require two drums. The newest type of a cable-way hoist is shown in Plate XXXVI. This hoist has friction drums mounted on one axle, with brakes worked by hand lever and link motion; the narrow and curved drum serving for the endless tail rope. This hoist is called the special cable-way engine, and on account of its simple construction is lower in price than the engines with separate drums, hence is replacing the latter every^vhere. Efficiency of Hoisting Plants. The number of tons of rock which can be raised from a quarry by means of a cable derrick depends upon the depth of the pit, the distance to be hauled, and the capacity of the machinery. As a rule, however, the distance in nearly all the quarries does not exceed 400 feet; while the greatest depth so far attained is 185 feet. Taking these figures as a basis, and assuming the load to be one ton, and the capacity of the hoist 40 horse-power, an average of from 240 to 300 tons can be raised in a ten hour shift. It must be understood though, that a cable derrick is used also for other purposes : for instance, the lifting and shifting of heavy pieces of rock in the quarry in order to clear the working face after blast- ing. On account of the work entailed through the separation of the useful from the dead material in the bottom of the pit, a cable derrick is very seldom used to its full capacity. In order, therefore, to provide for a steadj' supply of ore in all the quarries, a larger number of cable derricks than the regular output Plate' XXXVI. Jenckes cable hoist. 7068— 11 J 115 capacity indicates, are employed and stationed along the quarries. In illustra- tion of this, it may be cited that one company treating about 300 tons of asbestos rock in the mill and raising for this purpose as an average 500 tons, has em- ployed eight cable derricks. Haulage and Dumping. The dumping cars in use are of two classes : (1) those hauled by men or by horses, and (2) those hauled by power. Dumping cars of the first class consist of a truck and a movable box, constructed for a '2Q" gauge, and holding from one-half to one ton. The box cars for power haulage hold from three to six tons of rock. They are furnished with brakes and such mechanism as will permit the tilting of the box to both sides of the track. The gauge of the latter is 42". In all the larger quarries haulage is being done by small 10 and 12 ton locomotives ; and it is claimed that not only is the cost of transport per ton considerably reduced, but that accidents are very few. The first introduction of these small locomotives was made by Mr. George Smith, in 1895, who used in their construction two cylinders from an old hoisting engine, in connexion with gearing motion. The experiment was suc- cessful from the start, and since that time most of the larger mines have been using this class of locomotives. The main advantage of these geared locomotives is the great ease with which very sharp curves are taken; while their general construction is such as to reduce all repairs to a minimum. It is claimed that in some of the mines each locomotive makes from 50 to 60 miles a day. The diameter of the cylinders is 8", with 10" stroke. The engine is fitted with steel frame, saddle tank, and steam brake. The steel rails employed are of either 19 pounds to the yard, for light dump- ing cars ; or 45 pounds, for mechanical haulage. General Hoisting and Hauling Arrangement and Position of Cable Derricks. The position of the cable derricks is determined by the location and number of working points in the pit, and changes with the shifting of operations. Where the quarry is of rectangular shape, all the supports and hoisting engines are, as a rule, placed on one side of the pit; the former usually all on one row near the border of the pit, leaving, however, enough space for the passage of dumping cars. A good illustration of this arrangement is the large ' King ' pit of the Amalga- mated Asbestos Corporation at Thetford. The derricks employed here are all of the tail-rope type ; the cables being stretched nearly parallel at fixed intervals over the pit; while all the hoists — some of them are grouped together in one building — are stationed back of the supports. In cases where the pits have an irregular shape, and curved outline, an effort is generally made to place the hoists and supports on one central spot, from whence all the cable-ways can be operated. 116 The tracks for the haulage of dumping cars are generally laid alongside, and close to the borders of the quarries. Generally, two tracks are close to each other; one for the loaded and the other for the empty cars. In some of the mines the tracks are of an ascending grade towards the pit; allowing the loaded cars to descend by gravity for some distance to a shunting yard, where they are sorted and delivered to their destination. An ingenious device for the disposal of the mill rock from the pits, the only one of its kind in the district, has been installed at the quarries of the ' Jacobs Asbestos Mining Company,' of Thetford. (See Plate XXXVII). Here the boxes coming from the pits by way of cable derricks are dumped into a system of ore pockets which empty into a pan conveyer below. The latter transports the ore directly to the ore bin of the mill. There are altogether installed 7 cable der- ricks with as many ore pockets. The conveyer has a total length of 325 feet, and consists of heavy steel pans 30" wide, each pan being reinforced by angle iron. Its velocity is 40 feet per minute. The signalling from the pits to the hoists in shallow workings is effected by shouting; but where the pits are deep, and where the operations cannot be noticed by the engineer, boys are stationed at points of vantage on the border of the pit, who convey the signals either by electric bells or by means of a galvanized wire to a hammer which strikes a bell, the number of strokes indicating what is re- quired. Each engineer stationed at a hoisting engine marks the number of box loads he has hoisted during the shift, and the summary report of all the hoisting engineers' records must tally with the number of cars delivered at the different stations; i.e., at the cobbing shed, the dryer, the mill, and the dumping ground. Recent Improvements in Hoisting Appliances. The suspended cable — which replaces the boom derrick in all cases where a wider range of operations is required — with its travelling, hoisting, and pro- pelling lines, possesses many advantages. First of all, the main cable, suspended high over the quarry from the terminal towers, provides a roadway entirely inde- pendent of obstructions and of the condition of the surface. Having no other supports than those provided at the terminals, it has one clear span, hence there is no interference with the passage of trains, waggons, or other work carried on within the range. With a suitable equipment in the way of engine, sheaves, carriers, and skips, almost any kind of hoisting may be carried on with a certain amount of speed, and over a comparatively large range. It comes here in direct and successful competition with the boom derrick; for it does the same work with a substantial saving in operating expenses. Upon watching closely the operations of these cable derricks, however, we find that they also have their serious drawbacks: and this is more apparent the greater the quantity of low grade material handled. In order to work simultaneously at many points in a big quarry it is necessary to install quite a number of these cable-ways. In one Q hI.:*^vja-^'-^ 118 pit, measuring over 1,000 feet in length, twelve cableways are being operated, and this necessitates twelve different hoisting units : each consisting of cableway hoist, cable tower, two or three heavy cables, and other accessories. Moreover, thr operating expenses; the permanent watch necessary to keep these units in good order to • prevent any accident; the time lost by the men in the quarry — as is generally the case — in watching the arrival or departure of the hoisting skips; are all factors which, when considered in the proper light, tend to offset, to some extent, the apparent advantages that at first sight appear. These negative facts are now recognized by engineers, hence efforts have alreadj' been made to do away, to a very large extent, with the cableways in cases where larger quantities of rock are to be handled, and to substitute a tramway service instead — where the location of the quarry permits of such a course. The *Bell' people, at Thetford, are the first to be credited with this innovation. When the present proprietors — Messrs. Keasbey and Mattison — took over the prop- erty several years ago, their manager, Mr. Geo. Smith, made a proposal to connect their great quarry with the mill : which was located at a distance of 1,100 feet, by rail through a tunnel, allowing at the same time a thorough exploration of a long stretch of virgin serpentine. This plan was at once accepted and executed, with the result that to-day all the rock, instead of being hoisted by cable derricks, is hauled in large 5 ton cars over a tramway through a tunnel to the mill. The advantages of this hoisting system are manifest, and need no further com- ment. There are a number of quarries in the district, the location of which permits the introduction of a similar tramway service; and although the initial expenditure of making a tunnel or open-cut in connexion with the tramway may be high, yet the operating expenses are so low, compared with that of ordinary cable derricks, that the money invested may be considered well spent. Compressed Air. In some of the larger mines the motive power for actuating rock drills and hoists is compressed air : generally supplied by straight-line air compressors. In order to secure uniformity of pressure, and to get rid of the water, and im- purities, the air is led from the compressor into a receiver, which is generally supplied with a safety valve, and pressure gauge, also a cock for letting off the water which gradually collects. Where the distance of the pit from the air compressor is long — over 500 feet, a second receiver is installed about half way, for the purpose above indicated. The capacity of an air compressor is generally estimated by the number of rock drills it can supply. There are 3, 7, 14, and 20 drill, air compressors, all of which are employed in the asbestos region. The pressure usually produced for air drills is 80 pounds. The straight-line air compressors which are extensively used in the district, have the great disadvantage of consuming too much steam. They are now being superseded by the duplex, compound steam-air compressors, manufactured by the Rand Drill Company, which are constructed on more economical lines. o 119 Drainage. The serpentine rock, as a rule, does not carry much water. Most of the water comes from the surface, and is collected at the deepest point, in a sump. A duplex pump of the smaller size is generally stationed at some point of the quarry; is well protected against shots, and suffices to keep the water in the sump at bay by being operated only a few hours a day. 120 CHAPTER lY. THE DEESSING OF ASBESTOS FOR THE MARKET. Under the term dressing is generally understood the process by which the miner converts his mineral into a saleable article, or by which he extracts a marketable product from it. This process in the case of asbestos is divided into, (1) hand dressing; and (2) mechanical dressing. Hand Dressing. Since mechanical dressing is practised in all the quarries, hand dressing is confined to the cobbing of No. I, and No. II grades only. Some mines make only No. I crude, measuring over |" in length; while in others, besides the above, a No. II grade is made measuring from ^j^" to |" in length. As already mentioned above, the separation of the useful from, the use- less material is made in the pits after blasting: the larger pieces of rock being- broken up, and the fibre gathered into boxes and sent to the dressing sheds; while the so-called fines and stones containing small fibre are sent to the mill for mechanical treatment. In some of the larger quarries the process of hand-cobbing — as a result of many years experience — is worked out to great perfection. The following is a description of the hand-cobbing process pursued for over fifteen years in one of the principal quarries. There are two cobbing-sheds at this mine: one in which men only, and another in which girls only, are employed. The men's cobbing-shed receives all rock containing the longer fibre. Small one-hand sledge hammers weighing from six to seven pounds are used in breaking up the rock, the longer fibre being screened by a sieve with li" holes, and sent to the girls' cobbing-shed; while the screenings, and the rock containing small fibre, are delivered to the mill. In the girls' finishing-shed — which receives besides the products of the men's cobbing-shed also the loose pieces of fibre from the pits — the girls are seated at long tables, having underneath a series of compartments for the recep- tion of the Nos. I and II fibre. The hammers used in breaking up the rock and freeing the fibre from the same, weigh from 3 to 4i pounds, and the steel plates upon which this work is done are 10" to 12" square, and |" thick. In order to get rid of all adhering rock particles, the No. I fibre is cleaned by a sieve with -h." holes, and the No. II fibre by a sieve with |" holes. All refuse from the cobbing table and screenings is sent to the mill for mechanical treatment. The crude fibre ready for the market is put up in bags holding 100 pounds. The cost of cobbing the crude varies considerably, due to the character of the rock in which the asbestos is found, and according to the care exercised in 121 freeing the fibre from rock particles. While in some quarries the cost per ton may be only $10; in others it runs up as high as $25. No average cost can be specified, since the exigencies of the market determine to a large extent the state into which the different grades have to be worked. It is not claimed that the process outlined above effects a complete separa- tion of the fibre from the rock, for the crude still contains some 5 or even 10 per cent of rock; but it is the outcome of some fifteen years' experience, and has given better results as to extraction and cost than any other known method. Most of the companies working on ground containing a limited quantity of crude, do very little hand-cobbing, and extract only No. I, the balance being subjected to mechanical treatment, which accomplishes the extraction of the fibre, with a saving of time and labour. Mechanical Treatment. HISTORY. The first attempt to solve the dilficult problem of extracting the mineral from the rock by means of machinery, made in 1889, was by the Scottish Canadian Asbestos Company; now owned by the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation. This plant consisted of a 50 horse-power engine, Blake crusher, travelling picking- tables, a set of Cornish rolls, revolving screens, elevators, shakers, and two large blowers. This mill was erected according to the plans of Mr. Earle C. Bacon, Engineer, New York. In 1890, Mr. E. T. Hopper — at that time managing- director of the ' Anglo-Canadian Asbestos Company,' of Black Lake — experi- mented with the ore in a small mill : consisting of a ' Blake ' crusher, rolls, shak- ing screens, and a fan, and succeeded in producing a fibre of marketable quality. In 1890 and 1891 the ' American Asbestos Comj)any,' (Union mines) — now owned by the ' Black Lake Consolidated Asbestos Company ' — began experiments with the ore. The main object of this Company was, to do away with the almost indistinguishable No. Ill grade. This, however, was diflicult to realize, unless the fibre could be thoroughly loosened and freed from the rock. The method adopted was as follows : the rock first passed through a ' Blake ' crusher, falling upon an inclined shaking frame which separated all the loose fibre and dust from the larger pieces of the asbestos rock; the fibre going directly to a cleaning and grading machine, while the asbestos rock dropped on a revolving picking table. Here the barren rock was separated from the asbestos by hand. The latter was then dried in drying kilns, and sent to the fine roll crushers. The crushed material went over cleaning and grading machines which con- sisted of a set of inclined sieves in rapid shaking motion, in connexion with blowers, fans, etc., the remaining unbroken stone and fibre going again through a set of still finer rolls. The results obtained in this mill were not satisfactory, as the fibre so pro- duced still contained a large amount of rock particles and dust. King Bros., at Thetford, were the next to introduce machinery for the pur- pose of extracting small fibre from large pieces of rock in the dumps; which in 122 the beginning of the industry did not warrant the expenditure for block-holing and further handling. The plant consisted of a ' Blake ' crusher, from which the material was con- vej'ed to a set of Cornish rolls; a revolving screen then cleaned the fibre from dust. But this object was not fully accomplished owing to the failure of the rolls to crush the rock sufficiently. An additional blowing and screening appara- tus was installed, which gave better satisfaction. In 1893, the writer treated about ten carloads of asbestos rock, containing small fibre, received from the ' Templeton Asbestos Mining Company;' which was operating at that time the asbestos mines in Perkins Mills to the north of Ottawa. The mill used was located at Buckingham, and had been previously employed in the grinding and screening of phosphate rock. It consisted of a system of Blake crushers, Cornish rolls, a pulverizer, and screens, and after many changes — especially in the screening devices — the method worked entirely satis- factorily in liberating the ore from the rock; but a complete extraction of the fibre was not effected, owing to the lack of the necessary sactioa apparatus. When the latter was about to be installed, the mines shut down, and the experi- ments were consequently discontinued. All the experiments carried on in the above mills conclusively demonstrated the great difficulty in freeing the fibre entirely from the dust and adliering rock particles. Owing, therefore, to the imperfect quality of the fibre so produced; the unwillingness of the manufacturer to buy prepared fibre at that time; and also owing to the trouble with the customs authorities of the foreign countries, who considered the fibred asbestos as a manufactured article, hence levied a duty thereon of 25 per cent ad valorem, the mechanical preparation appeared to come to a standstill. In 1892, 1893, and 1894, several large shipments of prepared asbestos were made, and although the quality was not up to the expectations of the manufac- turers, nevertheless, some of the latter realized the immense importance of the new innovation, having for its object the saving of the freight charges by the elimination of the rock in the different qualities of crude, which, in some cases, amounted to from about 15 to 20 per cent of the total weight. On the other hand, it was manifestly of the utmost importance for the mine owners to succeed in mechanical separation; since the large dumps resulting from the earlier operations contained a very large amount of short fibre, and did not warrant the comparatively large expenditure involved in extracting by hand- cobbing; and the saving of which would represent a valuable asset when the mechanical process of separation of the fibre became a success. The Bell Asbestos Company, under the management of Mr. George Smith, commenced to experiment with the mineral in 1893, with the result that, a mill was built in the following year, treating small quantities of asbestos rock with success. Other companies followed suit, and shipments of fiberized material com- menced in earnest in 1895, and 1896. From the last-named year on, the process of extraction has been steadily improved. Mills of large capacity were built; the percentage of crude became insignificant compared with the large output of the p^ 7068—12 *>■:.. >t! 123 fiberized article, and to-day every mine of importance is equipped with a com- plete milling and fiberizing plant. Owing to the success of the mechanical treatment of the ore in extracting all the fibre from the rock, the life of an asbestos quarry, compared with that of some ten or fifteen years ago, is much prolonged; its operation is attended with fewer difficulties, and companies working on poorer ground, who had been obliged to shut down, were enabled to resume operations. Apparatus Used in the Separation of Asbestos. Before entering into a description of the different milling plants, and methods in use, it is necessary, in order to fully understand the working prin- ciples of the same, to describe the different classes of apparatus which, according to experience, have given the best results in mechanical separation. DRYING OF the MILL ROCK. The mill rock and fines coming from the pits and cobbing sheds contain a great deal of moisture, and before this material can be subjected to further treatment, it has to be thoroughly dried. Various methods of drying the mill rock are applied: — (1) Exposure to the air. (2) Steam pipes. (3) Rotary dryers. (1) Drying hy Exposure to the Air. — The material is spread over a large wooden platform in a layer 2" or 3" thick, as at the Johnson mine in Thetford. If the weather is favourable a sufficient amount of moisture evap- orates naturally to render the mineral fit for treatment by the different processes of crushing and blowing; but a wet season interferes with the work, while drying by this process during the winter is impossible. This method is unstable and unreliable, and, for this reason, its application is very limited. (2) Drying hy Steam Pipes. — A number of 14", or 2" steam pipes are arranged parallel to each other, close together on the floor of a shed, and joined at the ends to form a continuous length : one end terminating in a pipe of larger dimensions, connected with the exhaust of some steam engine; the other end leading into the open air. A track runs through the middle of the shed, allow- ing the fines to be unloaded at any point desired. All dried material is shoveled into an elevator placed at a convenient point in the centre of the shed, which de- livers the same through a chute to the crusher of the mill. The advantages of this simple method may be summarized as follows : — - (1) No power is required. (2) No extra fuel for drying. (3) There are hardly any repairs. (4) Danger from fire is eliminated. (3) Rotary Dryer. — The rotary dryer, as illustrated in Plate XXXIX, con- sists of a long cylinder made of strong boiler plate, resting, and turning on its 7068—12* 124 ends on friction rollers. In order to allow the shell to expand, and at the same- time to prevent it from sliding, these friction rollers are flat at the upper end and grooved at the lower end of the cylinder. The length of the shell is from 30 to 40 feet; the diameter from 2'-G" to 4 feet, and its inclination 7°. The whole is bricked in, leaving only the ends of the cylinder with the friction rollers out- side. The space between the arch and the cylinder is 6". The drying is assisted by longitudinal blades, which lift the material, and allow the same to fall through a current of hot air which circulates through the cylinder. The fire is either placed directly under the shell or, in an extra brick case, at the side, on the lower end of the cylinder, allowing the heated air to play round the shell and escape through a chimney placed at the other end of the dryer. Sometimes, fires are made at both ends, the chimney in this case being placed in the middle of the apparatus. The cylinder is made to revolve from 6 to 8 revolutions per minute. The ore, which is charged by hand or by automatic arrangement, travels along slowly, is stirred up by the inside blades, and, as a rule, discharges into the elevator to the ore bin. The capacity of this rotary dryer ranges from 50 to 75 tons per shift: according to size, and the content of moisture in the material. The cylinder is kept in motion either by an endless chain round the lower end, or by gearing transmission, as illustrated in the p^ate. The main advantage of a rotary dryer over all other drying methods is, its continuous operation, and its adaptability for the handling of a large quantity of ore in a comparatively short time. This device has its faults, however, also : the principal one being the necessity of frequent repairs caused by the bulging and twisting of the boiler plates. Where the charging is done automatically, one man is sufficient to attend to the whole apparatus, otherwise, two men are needed. The 'Campbell' Dryer, Fig. 27.^ — The principle applied to the construction of this dryer is the same as that used in the one above described, the only difference being, that instead of one, five small tubes — each of 15" diameter — are arranged in a parallel position around a main axis, the whole making from 6 to 7 revolutions per minute. The standard size is 4^-6 " diameter by 35 feet long. This dryer, on account of its great efficiency, is gradually replacing the one tube dryer. Its drying surface is 714 square feet; and compared with a one tube dryer, 4 feet diameter, of the same length, and having a drying surface of only 439 square feet, it does 1-62 times more work for the same amount of fuel con- sumed. The Drying Problem. The drying problem has occupied the attention of the companies ever since the first year mechanical separation was inaugurated. Many devices have been tried; but, as a matter of fact, in almost every instance, after the spending of much money, the companies returned to the old ' rotary,' which has now been im- proved upon by ' Campbell ' of Sherbrooke. The principal defect in all these rotaries is, their great consumption of fuel. If exact figures were available, they would show that the cost of drying varies from 2 to 15 cents per ton. There is. 125 126 in the opinion of the writer, no fault in the construction of the apparatus as a whole; and under proper care it is as satisfactory as may be expected under the circumstances; but the principle involved of burning fuel under free access of air, is manifestly faulty and uneconomical. There are three sources of losses : — (1) Incomplete combustion. (2) Heat escaping in exhaust gasses; and (3) Heat carried away by dried rock. As a general rule, in an open fire such as we find under a rotary dryer, this access of air is not regulated according to conditions prevailing in the combus- tion chambers. In the majority of cases an entirely inadequate combustion of the fuel is the result. The shell becomes coated on its outer surface: first with a fine film of carbon; which is subsequently covered with another film as combus- tion progresses, and so on, until finally a thick mantle of soot separates the material to be dried from the fire. This thick coating is a non-conductor of heat, hence instead of communicating the heat to the shell and the material inside of the same, it absorbs a great deal of it with the consequent result that the material is not properly dried. This loss of heat due to incomplete combustion is generally ignored; but it is, nevertheless, a considerable item. To prevent this loss of carbon, large combustion chambers must be supplied in order to produce a perfect mixture and chemical combination of the oxygen with the carbon monoxide. But the largest loss of heat — amounting sometimes to 30 per cent and more — occurs in the exhaust gases ; especially in dryers where natural draft is used to burn the fuel. Here, as in every steam boiler, the temperature of the exhaust gases is rarely below 400° F; sometimes it is over 600°, or even more. In order to overcome these losses an exhaust fan should be placed at the upper end of the dryer; so that the gases are drawn against the flow of the material to be dried; in this case the heat is in constant contact with the cold and wet material. Condensation of the steam takes place; but the loss is very small, since the heat liberated in the condensation is entirely consumed by the rock and aids to some extent in drying the latter in the process. If, on the other hand, the cur- rent of the gases is reversed, that is to say, that the draw of the gases is with the flow of the drying rock, experience shows that a temperature of at least 212° F must be had in the exhaust, so that no condensation may occur and no mois- ture deposited upon the rock to be dried. The heat up to 212°, carried out with the dried rock, cannot be considered as loss, or should not be charged against the efficiency of the dryer ; because that temperature is about the minimum required for the rapid drying of the material. All heat, however, above that temperature of 212°, is unnecessary and, therefore, should be considered as a loss. Another serious defect in the operation of the * rotary ' used in the district is the insufficient draft inside the tube, or the slow replacement of the moist, by dry air. In very rainy days the mill material is saturated with water, and the latter when coming in contact with the hot shell of the dryer is evaporated, filling the tube, so to speak, with steam. As the natural draft is not strong enough to draw off the latter quickly, the material in the tube is constantly ai'-'-t.'VVJi.'MJiimti-.*— *- I' — * 127 moved around in a steam bath, with the result that the drying of the material is greatly retarded thereby, necessitating a comparatively large amount of extra fuel per ton. If care were taken to draw off the moisture immediately it is produced in the tube, the material would dry much quicker, and the cost per ton dried, would, as a consequence, be far less than it is with the present arrange- ment in the mills. One dryer which seems to a certain extent to overcome the two principal difficulties mentioned, and which has been used successfully in drying other material, such as peat, gypsum, lignite, and all kinds of chemicals, is the ' Cum- mer dryer,' illustrated in Plate XL. This apparatus is a ' direct heat ' dryer, and does away with the loss of heat radiation through the incomplete combustion of the fuel gases. Briefly, this dryer consists of a steel plate cylinder revolving on steel rolls or trunnions. An exhaust fan conveniently placed on top of the furnace draws the gases through apertures, covered with a cast-iron hood or cap, and made into the shell of the cylinder into the latter, as indicated in the plate. The material on entering the cylinder commences to dry and in travelling towards the end loses more and more of its moisture. A sufficient number of hoods are placed alongside the shell to allow about three-fourths of the heated air and gases to enter the cylinder : the balance entering the latter through the rear or lower end. The result is, that there is, here, hardly any circulation, and for this reason little, or no dust is blown out in the discharge of the material. The temperature of the heated air and gases is gradually lowered by the cold air coming through the registers in the side of the brick walls. The air, gases, and moisture, thus pass in oppo- site directions over the drying material by way of the exhaust fan into the open air. The capacity of a ' Cummer dryer ' of a medium size is 400 tons in 24 hours; and it is guaranteed by the manufacturers that only one ton of com- bustible is used for every 100 tons of rock dried. Several of the new ' Cummer ' dryers are installed in new mills, and the results are being watched with a great deal of interest. Rock Breakers. The rock breakers employed in the district are of two classes : — (1) The jaw breakers, which are intermittent machines. (2) The rotary and spindle, or gyrating breakers, which are continuous machines. Jaw Breakers. — The first crusher through which the rock has to pass is in- variably a jaw crusher of large size. This is a machine for reducing rock prepa- ratory to fine crushing by rolls. It is durable and simple to operate. The rock is crushed between jaws : one stationary ; the other swinging, and driven by a powerful toggle movement. The adjustment of the jaws and the size of the rock leaving the crusher is determined by the character of the apparatus used in subsequent treatment. One rock crusher alone may be used to prepare the rock for the rolls, gyratory or rotary crvishers; but for a larger capacity it is preferable to use two sizes with a screen between; since the second crusher relieves the subsequent apparatus of a great deal of work. 128 Inasmuch as the large size and irregularity of the feed-rock generally, does not admit of automatic feeding, the jaw breakers are fed by hand and shovel; in many cases by a chute, sloping from the bottom of a bin, the attendant pulling forward the ore in the chute with a rake or pick. The jaw breakers may be divided into two different types, according to the movement of the jaws : — (1) Those which are pivoted above: giving the lower part of the jaw the greatest movement. (2) Those which are pivoted below: giving the upper part of the jaw the greatest movement. To the former class belong the 'Blake' crushers; to the latter the 'Dodge' crushers. The movement of the lower part of the jaw is greater in the Blake crusher, and the result is, that a product of various sizes must drop from the machine; whereas in the Dodge crusher the movement is greater at the top of the jaw, the lower part remaining nearly stationary, hence the product leaving the machine is of nearly uniform size — determined by the distance the jaws are set apart. This explains the higher capacity of the Blake; while the Dodge crusher delivers more fines, and a more uniform product. The jaw crushers are manufactured in many sizes: those most in use in the district have openings varying from 16" x 10" to 30" x 15". The capacity for each size varies according to the product desired. Fig. 28. — Sturtovant Rotary Crusher. Rotary Crusher. — The rotary crusher has recently been introduced into a number of new mills, and is usually fed with the product from the jaw breakers. A section of the machine is shown in Fig. 28. Plate XLI. Butterworth and Low rotary crusher. 129 Description. — The vertical shaft (1) carrying the driving gear ("3) runs in & large oil pot bearing (10) thoroughly protected from dust. The crushing cone (21) is supported from the top by large ball bearings which promote easy running -and durability. This cone is raised or lowered by a screw (26) from the top and the range of adjustment for wear or to size output is large. The scrapers (17, 18, 19, and 20), require no change, except replacement for wear, and are conveniently reached without dismantling the machine. Having no fly-wheel, this crusher is not subjected to fly-wheel shocks in case of sudden stoppage. The machine is made in three sizes, of which size No. 2 with a hop- per opening of 20" x 30" is the one mostly in use. The capacity of this size is from 8 to 12 tons per hour; the horse-power required is from 15 to 20', and the revolutions per minute 250. The rotary crusher manvifactured by Butterworth and Low, Grand Rapids, Mich., is a heavy machine of the coffee mill type, and consists of two parts (Plate XLI) : an upper part. A, for coarse crushing, and a lower part, B, for fine crush- ing. All the crushing surfaces are of hard chilled iron. This apparatus will re- ■ceive rock up to 6" to 7" diameter, and reduce it — if desired — to an average size of kernels of corn. Its capacity is from 7 to 13 tons an hour, and the horse-power required from 8 to 11. Several improvements have been made since the first edition of this mono- graph was written ; the principal one being the possibility of lowering the bottom of the machine together with the shaft, discharge pan, and lower and upper burrs, for the purpose of cleaning the mill. Millmen claim that this apparatus, on account of its compact and heavy construction — its weight being 6,000 pounds — and of the drop base, allowing quick access for cleaning out or replacements, gives little trouble, is very efficient, and is specially adapted for grinding asbestos rock. The Spindle or Gyrating Breakers. — Among these are several types; but the most common form used in the district is the Gates type (Plate XLII). It consists of a bottom plate: (1) a bottom shell, (2^ including a chute (32) for the crushed ore; a top shell; (3) a two-armed spider, (6) fvirnishing the bearing for spindle (25). This spindle can be raised or lowered by a screw (24) in the bottom plate. The lower end of this spindle is a journal and finds a bearing in the eccentric hub, firmly attached to bevel gear (9). While the interior surface of the hub is an eccentric bearing for the spindle journal, the exterior surface is a journal, which is concentric with the gear and finds its bearing in the bottom plate. When the bevel wheel revolves, the spindle is free to gyrate or rotate in the eccentric (8). Practically it rotates until ore is fed between the crushing surface (18 and 19), it then gyrates. The gyrating motion causes the head (18) to approach and recede from the concaves (19), and owing to the fact that the spindle acts as a lever with one end in the spider, it will cause a greater movement at the lower end than at its upper end, and produces a crushing action by pressure iTpon the lumps of rock. The angle of gyration varies a little, requiring a small amount of play in 130 tlie upi)er and lower joui'nals. The total vertical movement of the spindle is 3i" in the larger breakers, and 2" in the smaller ones. The larger lumps as broken, fall a short distance to a fresh bearing, to be broken again by the next act of compression; and this is repeated until they are broken fine enough to pass between the concaves and the head at the narrowest point. The ore then passes out over the chute. The Gates crusher is made in five sizes, the smallest one having a receiving opening of 8" x 30" ; the largest one 21" x 76". The two sizes chiefly in use in the district have openings of 8" x 30" and 10" x 38", with respective capacities of 15 to 40 tons of rock per hour, according to the product desired. The number of revolutions of the driving pulleys is from 350 to 400 per minute, and the power required from 15 to 25 horse-power. Final Crushing. The machines for final crushing receive the ore from the rock breakers and rotary gyrating crushers, and are suitable for separating the fibre from the waste preparatory to the separation by exhaust fans. They act on the principle of crushing by direct pressure, as in the rolls, or by centrifugal force, as in the fiberizers and cyclones. The chief parts which enter into the construction of a pair of rolls, are two shafts upon which are usually mounted permanent cores of soft cast-iron, carrying shells of rolled steel or chilled iron, which constitute the crushing sur- faces. One shaft revolves in fixed; the other in movable boxes. In some rolls the shells are made of manganese steel, which has an extraor- dinary hardness and toughness, and lasts much longer than those made of ordinary steel or chilled iron. The shaft in the movable boxes is held towards the fixed boxes by powerful springs : the degree of approach being regulated generally by compression bolts. The space between the rolls varies from practically nothing up to |". The relation between the diameter of the ore fed and the space between the rolls, that is to say, the amount of reduction, is of great importance if the rolls are to do their work. In some mills the ore is fed in nut size; in others, in much smaller lumps, and the spaces between the rolls are adjusted accordingly. Some rolls receive the ore from the breakers; others from a rotary or gyrat- ing crusher, and others again from a first pair of rolls. They are, however, rarely fed with lumps larger than If" in diameter; generally with an admixture of fine grains. In taking the rock for the rolls from a breaker or other apparatus, the supply of ore is regulated and the output limited; but it often happens that a sudden rush of ore will choke the rolls, hence, unless they are supplied with an extraordinary amount of power and strength — which is generally not the case — they will break, especially those which are driven by gears and pulleys. In some mills, to avoid these troubles indicated, feeders are used, kept con- stantly full of material, which is fed to the rolls by an oscillating gate. Small Plate XLIT. Gates crusher, manufactured by the AUis-Chahiiers Co., Chicago, 111. 13] Q? O 7068—13 132 scrapers are also used in several cases to remove the adhering fines from the face of the rolls at the lowest point in their revolution. There are two designs for the driving mechanism of rolls: one is the gearing motion, the other by a belt drive. In the gearing mechanism one roll is con- nected on one side by finger gears, and on the other by pinions. In the case of the belt drive, each roll is driven by a large pulley. These pulleys are driven either by one open and one crossed belt from the same shaft, or by two open belts from separate shafts running in opposite directions. When a crossed belt is used, it always drives the adjustable roll. Some mill men prefer corrugated rolls. It is claimed that the corrugated surfaces produce a sort of grinding action, thus crushing the rock finer and liberating more fibre. However, opinion amongst mill men differs on this point. In some mills corrugated rolls have been installed and w^orked for some time, but they have been subsequently replaced, for some reason or another, by rolls with flat surfaces. Crushing rolls are made in five sizes : having from 12" x 10" to 36" x 18" rolls. The minimum and maximum capacities are 1 and 8 tons, respectively, per hour: according to the desired product; from 5 to 20 horse-power being re- quired for the purpose. All rolls make from 125 to 150 revolutions per minute. FIBERIZERS. The machinery so far described has for its main object the liberation of the asbestos fibre from the rock by repeated crushing; but in order to make the mineral more amenable to the exhaust and pnemnatic process — which will be dealt with presently — it is necessary that the coarse fibre or stone asbestos, which for the most part leaves all the previous apparatus in the form of small lumps, be divided and split into fine fibre of feather-like weight and appearance. This operation, and the work of crushing still finer the small lumps coming from the crushing apparatus, is performed in so-called fiberizers, of which there are two kinds in vise, the cylindrical beaters and the cyclones. ' Jenclces' Fiherizer or Beater, Fig. 29. — This consists of a cylindrical shell (d^ made of steel plate with cast-iron heads and steel plate liners, composed of halves, and hinged together so as to facilitate opening for cleaning and repairs; and a shaft (h) with eight arms (c). The shaft is turned round at the ends in the pulley and bearings; the arms are made of heavy steel bars, carrying at the cuter ends chilled iron beaters, the faces of which are made on an angle so as to drive the material from the feed (d) to the discharge end (e). This machine runs about 30O revolutions per minute. CYCLONES. The cyclone machine is now used in almost every asbestos mill, and forms one of the integral parts of asbestos separation. When this apparatus was first introduced, its working i^rinciple was not well understood and appreciated. It had also faults in construction ; but experience soon brought forward essential improvements, with the result that, the asbestos industry has, to-day, a fiberizer, 133 without which the efficiency of the mills would be considerably reduced. It is true that the cyclone by its violent action tears up a part of the fibre; but as long as there is no other apparatus which will do the work better, the cyclone will stay, and be one of the chief appliances in asbestos separation. This apparatus is simple in construction. It consists of two beaters. A, (Fig. 30) of the screw propeller type, driven at a speed of 2;000 to 2,500 revolu- FiG. 30. — Laurie Cyclone Fiberizer. tions per minute, in opposite directions, in a east-iron chamber or case, B. The material is regularly fed through the feed holes, C, and the whirlwind created by the beater hurls the particles against each other with such violence that they are almost instantly reduced to fine grains, or even to impalpable powder. A fan connected with the apparatus causes a suction in the interior, air being supplied through the little vent holes, D, and all material reduced to about jteanut size and smaller, is thrown out through the discharge pipe E. As a rule, the discharged material falls on a shaking screen, and the latter is placed together with the discharge pipe in an air-tight box, connected with an exhaust fan. Although the blades are generally made of chilled iron, they wear out very rapidly, and have to be replaced every ten or fourteen days — according to usage and quality. The capacity of a cyclone depends upon the conditions of the rock; the average size of rock charged, and the product desired. In mills where the rock is hard and tough, only from 25 to 30 tons can be put through in a 10 hour shift. In others, from 40 to 50, and even 60 tons can be treated. As a rule, the size of the rock charged is not larger than a walnut ; while the bulk of the discharge is about peanut size. 7068—131 134 Many attempts have been made to improve the cyclone ; they are all directed towards preserving the natural length of the fibre by eliminating or reducing the tearing effect vphich the rapid revolving motion of the blades exercises upon the mill material. At the time of this writing two different types of cyclones are being tried: one the invention of Mr. Pharo at the Beaver mines and the other one designed by Mr. Torrey of Black Lake. The Pharo cyclone is essentially a cyclone of the old style with these altera- tions : the hood above the discharge end E (Fig. 31) is cut off immediately above the latter, and the crushing blades or beaters rotate in the same direction. Several of these cyclones have been in constant use for over four months at the Fig. 31.— Section through new Pharo Cyclone. Beaver mills and have given good satisfaction. They possess several advan- tages over the old type: they require less power, only 35 to 40 horse-power. 135 against the old one of 70 and 75. The average life of the beaters in the old cyclone was 80 to 100 hours, in the new cyclone it is from 500 to 600 hours. These cyclones have the advantage also of convenient regulation, because a gate on the discharge end allows the material which is thrown against chilled cast- iron bars fastened to the cover to be crushed to the desired size. PULVERIZERS. In some mills the tailings are ground to a very line powder used for plaster- ing, in so-called Emery mills. These mills, as illustrated in Fig. 32, are made either with horizontal or with vertical stones. In the horizontal emery mill the Fig. 32. — 42" Sturtevant horizontal, direct running Emery Mill. bedstone A is bolted strongly to the top case B, and is lowered with it directly upon the runner stone C, with which it is then in perfect adjustment. The clamp ring D is then tightened, and grasps the bedstone case, firmly holding it and its stone immovably in position. The runner can now be lowered away from the bedstone by the hand wheel E to such a distance as gives the fineness of grinding required. This simple and accurate adjustment of the mill stones is of special value, since it ensures good results with ordinary help. The stone makes from 300 to 350 revolutions per minute; the capacity of a 42" mill is from 1 to 3 tons per hour, necessitating 18 horse-power approximately. In the vertical Emery mill the adjustment of the stones for coarse or fine grinding is accomplished by turning a hand wheel at the end of the shaft. A 30" mill having a capacity of from 2 to 4 tons per hour, according to fineness desired, requires from 18 to 20 horse-power to run it, and makes abovit 650 revo- lutions per minute. FANS. All fiberized asbestos is taken up from the screens by suction fans, and is blown into collectors or settling chambers. 136 For this purpose the suction pipe A, (Fig. 33) of fan B, ends in a flattened attachment which tapers in one direction from a diameter of 12" of the pipe A to G", and Midcn* in a direction iicrpendicular to the former, to the width of the Fig. 33. — Fan for taking up fibre from shalving screen. shaking screen C. The fans are made of heavy galvanized iron, are 30, 35, and 40" diameter, and make from 1,800 to 2,200 revolutions per minute. In all the mills there is so much floating dust that extra fans are needed to remove the same. ACCESSORIES FOR MILLS. Screens. — There are two kinds of screens in use: flat and cylindrical. Both are made of wire or perforated galvanized iron. The oscillating movement of the shaking screens is generally caused by eccentrics; the wooden frames being supported from suspending rods. The screens are used in all sizes, from 3x6, € X 12, and 10 x 20 feet. The number of pulsations varies in the mills from 200 up to 300 per minute. Apart from the sizing of the rock and the elimination of the sand, the principal purpose of the shakers is the complete separation of the fiberized asbestos from the rock after it has passed the crushing machines and beaters. The oscillating movement causes the fiberized material in its downward course to come on top of the rock, thus allowing the fans to suck up the fibre and place the same in collectors or depositing chambers. The revolving screens are iiearly everywhere used for the grading of the fibre only. They have arms moving in opposite directions, mounted on a double shaft, for the purpose of loosening the fibre in order to effect a better separa- tion through different meshes, of which the wire cloth is composed. 137 Conveyers.- — The conveyers used in the mills are all of the endless belt or chain type, which move the product to be conveyed, forward. The belt conveyer consists of an endless belt, generally a rubber belt, running on two pulleys or drums, with intermediate supporting rollers. They are extensively used now, for the transport of the dried and crushed ore to the mill proper; for the trans- port of the tailings from the mills, and as continuous picking tables. Bucket elevators, consisting of a series of steel buckets hung on trunnions between two parallel link belts, are mostly used between dryer and crushers and fiberizing machines, to deliver the product from one apparatus to the other. Collectors and Settling Chambers. — The asbestos fibre is blown by fans into collectors or settling chambers. The construction of a collector is shown in Fig. 34. The fibre enters the upper part of the collector through A, the dust escaping through an inverted chimney B, and the fibre falling through discharge tube C onto a conveyer or into a grading revolving screen. The collectors are B A Fig. 34.— Collector. generally made of galvanized iron, in sizes ranging from 3'-6 " to 6 feet diam- eter. As a rule, every collector receives the product of one screen, the larger collectors sometimes from two screens. The settling chamber consists of a room with a longitudinal hopper, at the bottom of which is installed a conveyer (Fig. 35). The fibre enters through the pipes. A, on the sides of the chamber, and falls onto the conveyer, B ; the dust escaping through the vent holes, C. All collectors and settling chambers are generally placed near the roof. In some mills the dust emanating from the collectors — on account of its content of 138 very fine short fibre — is collected in large receptacles placed under the roof of the mill building, and is used in connexion with the manufacture of finishing plaster. IT — ^f 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 r— I 1 — "^ 1 — Fig. 35. — Collecting and settling chamber. Ore Bins. — The varying production of ore in the mines calls for receiving bins large enough to serve for storage when the mine is producing more than the mill can treat, and thus provide ore for the mill when none is received. At most of the quarries, mining is done only for one shift; while milling is going on for two shifts. A common rule for the size of bins is that tney shall hold at least the output of the mining operations for two shifts; although they are often of much larger capacity. Intermediate bins are used in some mills to act as reservoirs, so that a temporary stoppage of one part of the mill will not neces- .«^itatfi the stoppage of the parts preceding and following. SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES IN THE SEPARATION OF ASBESTOS. Having described individually the variovis kinds of apparatus which find application in the asbestos mills, there now remains the consideration of the mill as a whole : including the various combinations of principles ; the different arrangement of apparatus; and general items, such as power, costs, etc., and mil' testing. Although the method applied in asbestos separation is practically' the sam in every mill, no two mills are built alike. The serpentine in the di:Terent localities varies in hardness and toughness; one quarry extracts Nos. I and IT grade by hand; another only No. I grader, while others have abolished hand haw/ }'^^/^ r^^. " *.jy" * '- .-^-^-->--'j-v ! . ' ^ w ^^> > ' -.. ^^"^ ,...iB>^>j*.. -^^-j- ■ ^^ ' ^^J- ' Jg ^i' 139 cobbing entirely, and send the whole output of the quarry through the mill. In some mills two qualities are produced; in others four or sometimes five. These factors, combined with other minor considerations, dictate to a certain extent the course of the treatment which has to be followed, and the kind of apparatus to be employed. In order to illustrate the working of the serpentine method generally adopted, a description of a typical mill is given, which, by reason of its simple construc- tion, will it is hoped, facilitate the study of the principles involved. A plan showing the arrangement of this mill is given in Fig. 36. No. I and No. II crude are hand-cobbed, and the balance of the asbestos material is sent to the mill for treatment. The serpentine used is massive, and of the usual hardness as foxrnd in the Black Lake and Thetford districts. Two qualities are made in the mill with an additional grade out of the tailings of the shaking screens. First Part of Separation. All the asbestos rock and fines produced at the mines are dumped into ore bin (a\, then crushed in jaw breaker (b) raised by means of bucket elevator (c) to a chute which empties into rotary dryer (d). A bucket elevator (e) raises the material to a belt conveyer (f), transporting it back to the other side of the dryer and delivering it to the second dryer (g). The end of the latter is per- forated, and efl^ects a division of the rock into ' mediiun ' and ' rough.' The ' rough ' is again crushed in a second jaw breaker, while the ' medium ' or under- size falls directly upon the belt conveyer (h), which also takes up all the crushed material from the breaker. The belt conveyer then delivers all the crushed material to two ore bins (k^) and (k^), which discharge through an automatic feeder to the Butterworth and Low crusher (1). A bucket conveyer (m^ dis- charges the rock into a fiberizer (nV and after thorough diminution the material falls on a screen (o), where a fan (p^) takes up all the liberated fibre and de- posits the same into collector (s^). The residue from screen (o) is delivered to cyclones (q) ; the discharge of the latter is thrown on screens (r^) ; here two separations of sand and fibre are effected, the fibre being taken up by fan (p") and deposited into collector (s^), the sand disappearing under the screens into a hopper, which empties on the sand conveyer (u). Second Part of Separation. All fibre extracted from the rock is now placed in collectors (s') and (s°). From here, it passes through a grading screen (t'), having arms within, moving in opposite directions. In this screen two grades are made : long fibre thrown on screen (r°), and short fibre (or undersize) thrown on screen (r'). These screens effect a partial separation of the sand from the fibre ; t^e former falling on the sand conveyer (u) and the latter being svicked up ana placed into collec- tors (s') and (s*). From collector (s^) the fibre is again screened in revolving screen (t^), the oversize constituting now fibre No. I, and the undersize being again treated on an oscillating screen (r^) in order to get rid of the sand. What- 140 ever fibre remains on this screen is taken up by fan (p'') and is deposited in collector (s'). The No. II fibre which is in collector (s*) goes through the same process of clearing as the No. I fibre, described above, and the final results are a Nos. II and III grade, in addition to the No. I grade referred to. The following chart, No. I, represents in graphic form a summary of the foregoing descriptive outline of the various stag^^ through which the longer fibre has to pass before it is ready for the market. There are various other combinations, as will be seen from the mill schemes laid out in charts II, III, IV, and V, and furthermore, new combinations may suggest themselves. Theoretically, the principles introduced would allow a perfect separation of all the asbestos from the rock, and of the different grades; but practically this is very difficult to accomplish, and is rarely attained. In looking over the above-mentioned charts, we find that the principal object in the first stages of the process is to eliminate the sand through the shaking screens, and to have as much fibre taken up by the fans as is practically possible. We learn also that many combinations of the crushing machinery are used; but the jaw crusher always forms the initial step, followed by a rotary or Gates crusher; while the last stages of the process are practically the same in all the mills, with very few deviations. In mill IV, a picking table is inserted between duplex crusher and elevator. These picking tables consist of an endless rubber belt of a width varying between 18" and 24"; and turning on a wide cone or pulley, with a length of from 12 to 18 feet. Boys are stationed along the belt, picking up the dead rock, long asbestos fibre, and pieces of iron, or rubbish which may have fallen accidentally into the ore. In mines which produce much crude, this arrangement is very important, as the long fibre which was hidden in the rock before breaking can be removed and saved as crude. It is also of equal importance that all the rock which con- tains no fibre be taken out, to relieve the subsequent operations from unneces- sary work. In the extraction of pieces of steel and iron from the ore, powerful magnets are employed. An effective design for this purpose is in use in some of the Montana mines\ and its adoption in the asbestos mills of Quebec will not meet with any difficulty. The magnet can either be placed over the conveyer belt, or over the shaking screens. The metal to be removed consists of pieces of steel, bolts, track spikes, and castings from the machine drills. In fact any iron that may get into the ore on its way from the stope to the mill. The magnet used consists of a cast-iron part (a) 4" thick, 20" high, and 20" wide. It is wound with 19 layers of No. 10 double cotton-covered copper wire (c), with 2,300 turns on each pole. The current used is 5 amperes, at 125 volts. The pole faces (b) are 2" x 6" x 24", and are spaced 6" apart. The magnet is suspended from a carriage (e) and supi)orted on a track (d) at right angles to ^ ' The Engineering and Mining Journal.' 1909, page 1238. Fibre. CHART I. Nfaterial from Pit Containing Longer Fibre ^ Rook containing Rock containing long 6bre small fibre Men cobbing shed. Mill, /^ Long Sbre. Small stones with long fibre 3/16" screen. Fibre stones, with fines. Stone with Refuse Rock small fibre. and fines Dump. Mil). Girl cobbing shed. 1 Fibi«. II Fibre. Refuse and fines. 9/16" screen 1^0. I Fibre i_ 3/S" screen. No. II Fibre. Fines. L_^ 1 Di^er. "^ Refase Rock and to fines dump. Mill. CHART II. Ore bin i Blake crasher — 1 Rotary dryer, 30 feet long, 3 feet diameter- i Backet elevator — i Rotary criishcr — Fiberizer, 11 f«jet long, 3 feet diameter— i Backet elevator— i Screen, 1/16" holes — y^ ■ < 1/16" > 1/16" 1 Cyclone — 1 Shaking screen, 1/16" — Fibre drawn by fan 1/16" 1/16" Sand to damp. Fibre drawn by fan t ^ Collector I. i Revolving screen, arms revolving in opposite direction, witli 516" holes — < ft/16" (No. II grade I i Shaking screen — No. 12 mesh. y 5/16" .N'o. r gr.ide) i Shaking screen — .Vo. 10 mesh. Tailings. Fibre. Tai i Taken up by fan -* ^ Shaking screen — No. 12 mesh Tajten up by fan Co Collector II. Shaking screen — Fine asbestos powder. Taken up by fan Tailings. To Col lector 111 No. 1 1 fibre oi paper slock. Ready foi market No. I Fibre, ready for market. Horizontal emery mill. Asbestos finishing powder. CHART III. i Ore bin. i Blake crusher i Revolviug dryer with screen at one end. Rotai-}' crnaber, Shaking ecreeo^ < ] 16" < !'■ < 2" > 2" Second set First of rolls. set of I rolls. 1 < Shaking re ] Shaking < 1 screen. re < M6" 1 > 1,10" Fit \ 8" > 1 S" Fib i J Eleva J Single fit Suctio ntan Suction fan erizer Shaking bcreea < i;i6" > 1/16" Elevator i Belt rolls Shaking screen Fibre i < 1 itj- > > I n Don ble Kibi-e i Suction fan. i_ Bberizev. i Shaking < 1/32" > 1 32" \ Fibre Suction fa I 1 /^Settling chamber Conveyer to sand shed. Lnd slied. I, Conveyer i" shakiDg screens / * /<. 1(32 / 1 4 < l/ie- Fibre / 1 / t^uctioD fan / \ / Hopper \ Revolving grading < i;4" 1/2" Grade Grade Grade- No. III. No. II. No. I. CHART IV. Pit and cobbin" shed i Ore bri) i Jaw crusher I First rotary dryer i Second rotary dryer i Duplex cru.sher 1 Picking table ■ i Elevator 1/16" Sand to sand abed 7068—14 500 lOD ore bio i Rotary crusher 1 Sbakiog screeen l/HV J > I/16- I Geared rolls I -Shaking screen > > 1/16- i Belt rolls i Shaking screen — » >1/1G" Fibre i Cyclone Shaking screen > 1/16" \ Fibre I Suction fan I Suction fan Collector .Shaking screen , r 1 ""' Suction fan. i Hopper Revolving screen A. < 1/32'- < ]/2" 1 Bagging > 1/2- i Baggiug Fine fibre store Grade No II. Grade No. I. CHART V. Pit and cobbing sheds ♦ Bin i Duplex crusher i Rotary dryer i Elevator i Belt conveyer i Second rotary dryer with screen at lower end. !e small Jaw crasher \ J < 116" Belt conveyer i SOO ton ore bin i Butterworth and Low crusher i Elevator i Shaking scree n Belt rolls 1st set i Elevator I - Shaking screen » > 1/lG" Fibre I Suction fan Belt rolls I 2nd set ^ i Elevator .1 -Shakiigsc een — * >1/10' Fibre I Suction fan - Cyclone , ^* I lb" Fibre -J ^ , uction fan ^^ Sand to sand shed ■i 1/32" y ^r Collector I Hopiier 1 Conveyer 4 Shaking screen s Fibre Suction fan Hopper . 4 Shakin;; screens < 1/32" ^ Fine fibre store < 5 10" Bagging 1 Grade No. II. > 5 16 " Bagging \ Grade No. 1. Y068— 14i 141 the belt. When a number of pieces of iron are collected on the magnet, the entire apparatus is moved to one side, the current cut off, and all the iron is dropped to the floor. The magnet is suspended 6" to 8" above the belt, and is Fig. 42. — Magiiet for picking steel from ore. adjustable by the means of turnbuckles (f). This magnet will pick up pieces of steel weighing as much as 10 pounds; this prevents trouble and breakage at the rolls. In designing a mill, due attention must be given principally to the crushing department; since mistakes made here have very serious results, either in the quality of the fibre produced, or in the low percentage of extraction. Experience shows that crushing of the rock before drying is absolutely necessary in order to ensure complete drying of the rock in wet seasons. As a general rule, one or even two Blake crushers are placed before the dryer, and one at the discharge end of the latter. The drying and most of the coarse crushing is now all done in a separate building; because, when placed in the upper part of the mill build- ing, the power toggle movement of the jaw breaker causes a heavy vibration in the structure of the building, hence, heavy construction is necessary. A new departure in mill construction may be seen in the plant of the Robertson As- bestos Company, between Robertson and Thetford stations. Here the whole 142 plant is divided into three parts : the dryer and crusher building; the re-crusher; and the cyclone building. This is the first time that this division in three sep- arate departments has been made. There are other new noticeable features in this mill. The rock coming from the dryer passes through tvpo gyratory and one rotary crusher, having shaking screens between, for the purpose of abstracting, by means of suction, whatever fibre there has been liberated through crushing. We notice that the rock passes through not less than five different crushing apparatus before it enters the cyclone; and three in nearly all other mills; it is only exceptionally that four crushing machines are used for the same purpose. It is urged in support of this innovation that the cyclone, which receives only ore of uniform size — smaller than a walnut — will treat a far higher tonnage of ore, doing at the same time, better and more uniform work. There can be no question that through the emplojTnent of the designs indi- cated above, the efficiency of a mill is increased; while much breakage in the different pieces of apparatus — especially in fast revolving machines like the cyclone — is prevented.^ Of the fiberizing machines the cyclone appears to be the most extensively used in the mills. In some of the newer mills other machinery has been introduced to take the place of the cyclone. This is shown on chart for mill No. Ill, where the fine crushing is represented as being done by two pairs of belt rolls, in connexion with single, and double cylindrical, fiberizing appara- tus. In another mill the material passes twice in succession through a set of rotary crushers and a beater of recent design ; the construction of which is kept a secret. It is claimed for this new departure that the fibre is not torn up so much, and that the repairs are less, and not so costly as those in the cyclone machines. The different grades of fibre are, as a rule, made in most of the mills at the end of the process, by sizing in shaking screens, or in revolving screens with arms moving in opposite directions. A new departure in the extraction of tlm fibre from the screen, and the elimination of the sand, was made several years Fig. 43.— Double Shaking Screen, ago in a mill of new construction. The experiment failed; but for the novelty of the idea, and for the purpose of calling attention to the mistakes involved in its application, the device is again described and illustrated. The material after being crushed successively in a jaw and rotary crusher, and a beater, falls on a * Since writing the above several changes in this mill have been made, and at the same time the capacity increased from 2 to 6 cyclones. o* 143 double shaking screen, as illustrated in Fig. 43 : the upper one having ^^ " and the lower one ig" .mesh, allowing the sand to pass away. The fibre is graded in this way into No. I and Xo. II. Each grade is taken up at the end of each screen by suction fans, and deposited in separate . collectors. The overtlow from both screens passes again through a rotary crusher and beater and a double screen as before; while the two grades of fibre, so. produced, are taken up and deposited in collectors. The principal trouble in this device was, the difficulty of gaining access to the lower screen : it was blocked so frequentlj' that its usefulness soon vanished. The sand from all the shaking . screens falls generally into a long hopper, having a rubber belt conveyer at the bottom, which transports all material to the outside. Where the dumping groimd is not on the same. level with the mill, the sand is carried by conveyers into elevated sand-sheds or large reservoirs, from which cars are loaded and sent . to the dump. At the British Canadian quarries the sand is transported through a 658 ft. rubber conveyer to the dmnp; from thence it is carried away through sluicing; a turbine pump actuated by a 75 horse-power electric motor placed at the river bank furnishing the necessary water through a 6" main 1,000 feet long, to the top of the dump. In the mills at Danville the bulk of the sand and tailings from the shaking screens is manufactured into ashestic : a fine asbestos powder which enters now largely into the construction and inside finish of fireproof buildings. In one of the largest mills recently erected, all the tailings are pulverized in giant, vertical, Emery mills. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MILLS IX THE DISTRICT. With a few exceptions, the mills visited by the writer are located near the quarries: that is, within 500 feet; indicating that the transportation of the ore to the mill is a most important factor. In the general arrangement of all the newer mills due consideration has been given to the dumping ground, with a view to preventing the covering of valuable ground. Eor this reason the mills have been built away from the quarries. With regard to the sites on which mills are built, we may distinguish be- tween (1) a sloping or terraced site (Eig. 44) ; a flat site (Fig. 45). In the Fig. 44.— Typical Sloping :\Iill. (a) Pit. (c) Mill. (b) Dryer. (d) Storehouse. former case advantage is taken of the sloping condition of the ground, all mater- ial being conveyed by gravity, and heavy elevators are few. An example of this 144 kind is the old mill of the Union quarry, now of the Black Lake Consolidated Asbestos Company at Black Lake. Fig. 45.— Typical Flat Mill. (a) Dryer. (b) Elevator. (c) Mill. (d) Sand conveyer. (e) Sand shed. (f) Elevated track. Mills on the flat ground, however, are the common rule. The disadvantages are, that more elevators are required; which wear out rapidly; causing stoppages of the mill on account of breakage, and annoying the mill man. An asbestos separation plant is usually designed in the form of a three or four story building. The ore is received in a large ore bin, placed in the upper part of the building, or in an annex : allowing the ore to pass through the crush- ing machinery by gravity; elevators being used between the apparatus for mid- dlings and for recrushing. In the majority of cases, however, the ore passes on straight without recrushing in the same apparatus. Sometimes all the fine crush- ing apparatus and fiberizers are placed in one line and on one floor, as at the mill of the Johnson Asbestos Company at Black Lake. Small elevators convey the material from one apparatus to another; and it is claimed for this arrangement, that the machinery can be watched better, and is more accessible than when placed on different levels. The screens receiving the material from the crushers are, as a rule, placed all on one floor, for the purpose of greater accessibility; while an endeavour is made to do the same in all the newer mills with the shak- ing screens for the fibre. In mills of recent construction — in order to avoid complete stoppage caused by breakage of machinery or otherwise — the whole milling plant is divided into two portions, and constructed on precisely the same lines; but run independently of each other. This innovation was noted in the mills recently built at East Broughton and at the ' British Canadian ' quarries. In the latter this principle is even carried further : the two sections are again divided into different parts, each one embracing a certain group of machinery run by special electric motors. In the mill proper the six cyclones are all placed in one line on one side of the building; the electric motors actuating the same being all in one separate com- partment close 'by. This is an arrangement of apparatus to be recommended on account of its great accessibility, uniform division, and the protection of the motors against flying dust. (See Fig. 46.) Plant. In addition to the mill itself, auxiliary buildings are used. The boilers are generally placed in a separate building; the mill engine and all accessory mach- Plate XLIV. Bunch of fiberized asbestos, ready for the market. 145 Fig. 46.— Milling plant of the British Canadian Quarries (Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation.) 146 iuery — such as dynamos and compressor — in a shed adjoining the mill; while the rotary dryer, on account of the danger from fire, is located in a shed at some dis- tance from the mill. As a rule, a carpenter, millwright, and machine re]Jair shop is run in connexion with the mill. The store houses are all separate huildings with rail connexion. The plant of the British Canadian Quarries at Black Lake, is housed in six buildings (Fig. 46): a dryer and a crusher building; the mill proper; the store house; finishing cobbing-shed; the machine repair shop, and coal bunkers. Most of the buildings are constructed of wood on solid concrete foundations; and are either boarded vertically and the cracks battened, or they are double- boarded: the boards covering joints in every case. The new mill of the 'Domin- ion' quarries is covered with asbestos protected metal. The new office and mill buildings of the Bell quarries are covered with asbestos, slate, and shingles, manufactured by the Keasbey and Mattison Company, of Ambler, Pa. The roofs of the mills are generally made of tar-paper, and galvanized iron, or sometimes of asbestos shingles; thereby saving high premiums for insurance. One mill is covered with corrugated iron; but the disadvantage arising out of the application of the latter is, that the building is somewhat difficult to heat in winter, owing to its high conductivity. In some of the newer mills the dryer buildings are made of brick, with iron roof; or entirely of iron, as at the Beaver quarries. Some mills are painted, others are not. In the former case red or grey min- eral paint is the kind most used, which not only aids in preserving the wood from decay, but also protects it, to some extent, from fire. All mining and milling plants are now provided with the necessary appliances to guard against destruc- tion by fire. For this purpose duplex pumps are kept constantly under steam, while hydrants and hose are placed at different points throughout the mill. The Asbestos and Asbestic Company, at Danville, having suffered from a disastrous fire in the year 1900, which destroyed their milling plant, keep a large duplex pump with a capacity of 1,000 gallons per minute steadily under steam, in order to be prepared in case of fire. At the milT of the British Canadian quarries a turbine pump, delivering 500 gallons of water per minute, and stationed at a dis- tance of about 800 feet on the river bank, distributes the water through. 4 hydrants all over the works. Electricity as a Motive Power The great advance made in the science of electricity, together with the facil- ities which nature has provided in the form of water power — especially in the Province of Quebec — has opened up an immense field of application as a motive power in mining and milling. When the St. Francis Hydraulic Power Company, in 1904, had finished the building of a power station at the rapids of the St. Francis river, about six miles distant from Black Lake, and the erection of a transmission line to the asbestos district, the feasibility of such an undertaking was questioned; since — so it was argued — all the quarries were provided with adequate steam power for all their needs. The conservatism of mining engineers 14i pnou 148 and mine managers at once asserted itself; they reasoned that they could not afford to install new machinery, however good it might seem, having to consider before all other things, the getting out of the mineral; unless they were quite sure of the superiority of electricity over steam; and unless they were also quite sure that this innovation would not interfere, even temporarily, with the output. The American Asbestos Company — now the Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation — of Black Lake, w-ere the first concern to make use of hydro-electric power in the running of their mines and mills. They at once realized the enormous advan- tages which electric energy has over steam power; especially in a district where the fuel question was a constant source of trouble to those who were responsible for the economical running of large industrial establishments. Wood as fuel was getting very scarce, while the supply of coal was becoming very unsatisfac- tory ; indeed, it was no unusual occurrence, that a mine had to suspend operations during the winter, entirely owing to the lack of that commodity. The prohibi- tive cost of coal fuel ; the long haul of the latter from Pennsylvania ; the block- ades on the railways in the winter; as well as the annoyances through coal miners strikes, render the use of coal almost prohibitive; hence the advent of electric energy as a motive power has removed almost all these constant annoy- ances to which the works were periodically subjected when coal was used. That the American Asbestos Company had made no mistake from the start, was clearly evidenced by the adoption of electric motive power for their mines and mills by other operating companies. It was even soon realized that the limited supply of electricity was not sufficient for requirements and the increased de- mand brought a new electric company into the field, namely, the Shawinigan Power Company. This Company owns and operates an extensive water power in Shawenegan, at a distance of over ninety miles from Thetf ord on the north side of the St. Lawrence river. Their new transmission line cuts right across coun- try; strikes first the mines west of Coleraine sitation, and extends via Black Lake, Thetford, Robertson, as far as East Broughton, a total distance of 90 miles. Besides the elimination of all the disadvantages enumerated above, the cost per horse-power per year produced electrically, is cheaper than produced by steam; the former is now $25 per horse-power per year; whereas the cost in steam plants^where the best steam saving appliances and devices are installed — is $35 ; and in plants where no such appliances are in use, as high as $47. The main advantages of electricity, as compared with steam or compressed air, may be summarized as follows: — The difficulty of conducting steam, compressed air, or hydraulic pressure, over long distances, and the great losses which are invariably incident to their transmission, are sufficiently well known. It is in this respect that electricity is pre-eminent in its economic advantage : namely, the ease and simplicity with which it can be transmitted over long distances — either above or under ground. The transmission lines are flexible, and much cheaper than either of the three forms of energy mentioned; while the current can be subdivided into any desired form without corresponding increase in the losses. The effective condition of the line can always be easily controlled from the central station; whereas losses 7068—15 149 by leakage with other forms of transmission are unavoidable — even with the best supervision. Owing to the flexibility and facility of the application of the electric current to large as well as to small machinery, it lends itself pre-eminently to all the motive wants in mining work. Electrical apparatus are generally less bulky and less costly than power machines which use a different form of energy. They, therefore, do not require expensive foundations, but can be set up, almost any- where, within easy reach of the mechanical appliances which they drive. More- over, the efficiency of electric machinery is high, so that the energy is used to better advantage. The main point of view, of course, in the planning of an electric central station for mining purposes, is the possibility of distributing the current in such a manner that all the machines which are to be driven electrically can be served in the best possible manner in view of their location and the work which they have to perform. Owing to the convenience of applying electric energy to all kinds of mining machinery, it has been made possible — on account of the ease with which the electric current can be measured — to ascertain exactly the amount of power absorbed by the various mining machines, under different conditions of operation. This is an important feature, and makes it possible to calculate the reserve capacity to be allowed with much greater accuracy than formerly, when rule of thumb methods were in vogiie. ' Compagnie Hydraulique St. Francois.' The power house of this Company is located on the St. Francis river, 2^ miles from D'Tsraeli station. It is a solid brick building, with heavy concrete foundations, the tail-race being cut in solid rock. Two generators of 1,000 horse-power each, and six transformers (2,-±00 to 15,000 volts) are installed. During the summer season an auxiliary steam plant of 1,700 horse-power, and a third generator of 1,000 horse-power, will be added. The length of the transmission lines is as follows: — From D'Israeli to Black Lake (6 No. 4 wires, 15,000 volts) .... 8 miles. From Black Lake to Thetford (3 No. 4 wires, 15,000 volts) .... 4 " Branch lines in Black Lake and Thetford mines (6 No. 4 wires, 2,400 volts) 4 " Total length of transmission 16 " Two transformer stations have been built: one in Thetford and the other in Black Lake. The Thetford station contains four transformers, 250 kw. each, housed in a solid brick building; and the Black Lake station, six transformers of 250 kw. each, in a building constructed of wood and lined inside with asbestos slate. The step down in these transformers, Avhich are equipped with auto- matic switches, etc., is from 15,000 to 2,400 volts. The Shawinigan Water and Power Company. This Company controls the second largest water-power plant in the Dominion. In its vast development power, and possibilities of further enlargement, Shaw- 7068—15* 150 iuigau falls is surpassed only by Niagara falls. Already 100,000 horse-power 13 being developed, and of this, 10,000 horse-power is reserved for the supply of the jisbestos mines in the Eastern Townships of Quebec. The Shawenegan falls are located on the north shore of the St. Lawrence river, at a distance of twenty-two miles from Three Rivers: forming the connecting link between the upper and lower portion of the St. Maurice river. The first sub-station along tne transmission line, connecting the mines with the falls, is located at Victoriaville, at a distance of seventy miles from the falls. From here, two separate transmission lines branch off: one supplying the mines near Asbestos, at a distance of twenty-five miles from the falls; and the other supplying Thetford, as the distribution cen- tre for almost all the asbestos mined in the district, at a distance of forty miles. From Thetford, two branch transmission lines have been constructed: one to East Broughton, twenty miles long; the other to Coleraine, via Black Lake, sixteen miles long. The sum total of the distances to w^iich electric energy is transmitted from Shawenegan falls to the various asbestos mines in the Province of Quebec is 171 miles. There are sub-stations at Three Rivers, Victoriaville, Asbestos, Thetford Mines and Black Lake, Coleraine, Robertson, and East Broughton. The voltage carried on these lines is 50,000; but crossing the St. Lawrence river the trans- mission line is composed of three submarine cables, the voltage being reduced from 50,000 to 25,000, followed by a subsequent step up to the original 50,000. At the mines, this voltage is reduced to 2,400, and power is delivered to con- sumers as a three-phase, alternating current 2,200, 30 cycles. Power is contracted for at a rate of $25 per electric horse-power, for all the year round. Motors. Nearly all the mills 'built prior to the advent of the hydro-electric age, and ■which are now driven by electric energy, were originally laid out and constructed for steam power, hence, had to be altered to suit the new conditions. For this reason the distribution of power in those mills, through electric motors, is neces- sarily not of a very economic and advantageous character, and many losses are incurred, caused by faults in transmission. In some of the mills one large motor serves to drive the mill proper ; while in others the principle of power division is carried to an extreme degree. For instance, in one mill of a capacity of 500 tons, 12 motors were counted — the largest being 125 horse-power capacity. It would serve no practical purpose to consider the matter of power distribu- tion through the mill, since this depends largely upon the objects in view; the division of the mill into units, and many other factors. Amount of Power Used. The horse-power required per ton of ore treated in a double shift varies, of course, in the different mills with the quantity and kin.l of rock treated; with 6^ - ^ -7 a i o 2 i: 151 the apparatus employed ; and it will even vary in the same mill, owing to slight changes of velocity or of the speed of feeding and discharge, and also in the size of the material fed to the breakers. For these reasons, average figures cannot be applied to every individual mill, and they can, therefore, be only of general value. Most of the mills have sufficient reserve capacity to obviate the necessity of forcing any of the machinery, and even permit the temporary suspension of a machine for adjustment and repairs. Deduced from the data at the disposal of the writer, it appears that for every ton of rock crushed and treated, 1 to 1-25 horse-power is, on an average, required; so that a mill treating about 250 tons of asbestos rock in two shifts per day requires a capacity of the machinery of from 250 to 310 horse-power; pro- viding at the same time a sufficient reserve capacity. From Y5 to 90 per cent of the power originally supplied is used in crushing alone; the balance is consumed in screening and blowing. The capacity of a mill is generally expressed in the number of cyclones (or their equivalent) installed : each cyclone having an average crushing capacity of about 120 tons per double shift. Most of the mills in operation have two and three cyclones ; the largest mill in the district con- tains eight cyclones. Cost of Labour in Mills. The cost of labour employed in the mills varies as much as the power neces- sary to run them. While some mills are laid out and constructed so that little attendance is necessary; others are cramped in room, the machines employed are not easily accessible, and the general machinery is such, that it requires extra help to preserve its integrity. If exact figures in this respect were at hand, they would show that the number of tons treated per man varies greatly even in mills of practically the same construction. This variation depends upon the following factors:— (1) The difference in the care exercised in the manufacture of the different grades. (2) The size of the plant; since a large mill can always be run with less labour per ton, and hence more economically than a small one. (3) On the favourable location and design of the mill to minimize labour costs. However, in the absence of accurate data on all the mills, the two following examples are given, showing the labour employed in mills which have a fairly modern plant, and working under ordinary conditions. One mill treats 150 tons of asbestos rock per day, or 75 tons in one shift. The labour employed per shift to run this plant is as follows: — 152 1 c'liyiiiccr $ 2 25 1 fireman 1 75 1 inillwrifilit 4 50 1 forcnuui 2 25 1 oiler and helper 1 75 3 men feedinji' crusher, $1.5! 1 4 50 1 fireman on dryer 1 50 1 sandman 1 50 3 men for hagsinK. $1.50 4 50 13 men $ 24 50 The total aniovuit expended on wages is, therefore, $24.50, or, $24.50 -=- 75 =0.33 per ton of milling rock. This mill produced as an average, 7 tons of fibre, hence the labour expended amounted to $24.50-^ 7 = $3.50 per ton. In another mill 250 tons of rock, on an average, are treated in two shifts. The labour employed is as follows : — 1 engineer $ 2 25 2 firemen 3 50 1 millwright 4 50 1 foreman 2 25 3 helpers, $1.50 4 50 2 sandmen, $1.50 3 00 3 men feeding crusher, $1.50 4 50 2 men for dryer, $1.50 3 00 4 men for bagging, $1.50 6 00 19 men $ 33 50 The average cost of labour in this ease amounted to $33.50 ^- 125 = 0.29 per ton. The mill produced, on an average, 10 tons of asbestos fibre per shift: the cost of labour amounted, therefore, to $33-50 -^ 10 = $3.35 per ton. The capacity of a mill and the quality of the product depend largely upon the intelligence and reliability of the men employed in the various departments. A saving made in the wages may be more than offset by losses in the efficiency of the machine, due to ignorance or neglect. So many various considerations enter into the successful accomplishment of the separation of asbestos from the rock and the production of very fine grades of fibre, that it would be out of place to generalize on the subject of wages ex- :)ended in the mills. Percentage of Milling Material in Total Rock Mined. There is considerable variation in the quality of the rock mined. While one mine may deliver a high percentage of crude and a poor milling rock, another may not produce any crude at all, yielding, however, a milling material rich in fibre. The quarries at Black Lake and Thetford produce crude and mill fibre; whereas those at East Broughton deliver mill fibre only. It is evident from the facts presented in the chapter dealing with the occurrence of the mineral that the percentage of milling rock in the total rock n:ined varies from day to day in 163 every quarry; unless special precautions are taken to mine only a certain chute of ore of known quality. The mill has to depend upon the quarry for a regular supply of ore, and any changes in the condition of the latter are felt at once in the mill. In the Broughton district, where the slip fibre occurs, almost all the rock mined goes through the mill; whereas in all the other or 'vein' fibre quarries the lowest percentage of asbestos milling rock of the total rock mined is 20 per cent, the highest 80 per cent. On an average, the milling rock furnished by these quarries may be taken as from 30 to 60 per cent of all the rock mined. Percentage of Fibre in the Milling Rock. The variation in the percentage of fibre in the milliiig rock is just as great as in the percentage of milling rock in the total rock mined. In the Thetford and Black Lake quarries an extraction of from 6 to 10 per cent of the milling rock is effected in the majority of mills. There are exceptions of higher extrac- tion, but generally speaking, rock of fairly good milling quality should yield a percentage within the above-mentioned limits. In the Broughton or slip fibre quarries, an extraction of from 7 to 12 per cent is made. A considerable quan- tity of the fibre produced is somewhat shorter than that produced in the Thetford quarries; but as previously stated, all the rock mined passes, generally, through the mill. Percentage of Crude in the Total Rock Mined. The production of crude has lessened to a very large extent, owing to the general introduction of mechanical treatment; and is practised now, only in a few mines that work on richer ground. In these quarries- — as a general rule — the quantity of crude of Xos. I and II quality can be put down as from 0-25 to 0-75 per cent of the total rock mined; but it is known that one or two quarries produce a somewhat higher percentage than this. From 1901 to 1909 inclusive, according to statistics furnished by the Quebec Bureau of Mines, there were produced : — 35,544 tons of crude 125,423 " mill fibre 269,688 " paper stock 430,655 " asbestos. According to these figures the production of crude amounted to 8-25 per cent of the total production. Grades. The output of the quarries is, to a certain extent, differentially graded. As to the rule, there are only No. I and No. II qualities made; the former measur- ing about 1" and the latter from |" to 1" in length. The milling fibre is generally divided into three grades ; but sometimes,. additional grades are made, having special qualities. The qualities of the general 154 run are designated as follows : first grade (spinning fibre) ; second grade, and the third grade, (paper stock). The percentage oi" extraction of the different grades in the mills varies according to the demands made for certain qualities. Some quarries, after ex- tracting all the very short fibre, produce what is known as a run of mine grade; while others make two or three, and others again, even five grades. For this reason it would be difficult to give figures of the percentage extractions ; but according to the above cumulative statistics, the quarries produced for a period of eight consecutive years : — 125,423 tons of mill fibre 269,688 tons of paper stock Total 395,111 tons, or, expressed in per cent : — 32 per cent mill fibre. 68 " paper stock. Cost of Mill and Mine Equipment. The cost of a mill depends largely upon its capacity ; upon the general design and internal arrangements of the mill buildings for the purpose of economizing labour: thus simplifying the whole milling plant; upon the character of the mill site; heaviness of construction; care in the manner of erection; and finally, upon the cost of the material and machinery — which fluctuates from time to tima The cost increases, of course, with the capacity ; but not in the same proportion. The cost per ton of ore treated becomes less with an increase of the capacity; since such items as insurance, taxes, management, and general business expenses increase comparatively very little with the capacity. Further, the increase of the capacity brings down the cost per ton, and allows poorer ore to be milled. This will, of course, cut down the average percentage extraction of asbestos, and at the same time the profit per ton; but the total profit with the larger quantity and the lower yield per ton will be greater than the total profit with the smaller quantity and the higher extraction per ton. There is also considerable saving in a large mill from buying supplies in large quantities; and from the making of repairs on a large scale. The general design is also an important factor, be- cause the method of drying and crushing varies with the conditions of the quarries as well as with the commercial objective regarding the production of certain grades in view. Another important factor in the construction costs is the mill site: a steep slope will require expensive masonry; which is not required when the mill is built on flat ground. Upon the location of the mill depend also the cost of haul- age per ton to the mill, and the disposition of the mill tailings. The details in the interior construction of the mill, as well as in the selec- tion of the materials used, are also important items. Some mills use heavier machinery than others, and require for this reason, heavier foundations. Further, mills built at a time of general prosperity will cost more than if built at a time ^ — I — r |j ' wj» .A A :/. 1. ». *■ -rft-rrVt-*' o ■of general depression. They will also cost more when they are required to be :finished within a short specified time, than when reasonable time is allowed. ITowever, an extremely long time used for construction may be objectionable on account of the loss of interest on the capital invested. Only one example of the cost of a mill is given; and while the writer be- lieves that the data submitted are reliable, it is to be used merely as an approxi- mate estimate of the cost of a new mill. This particular mill is built large enough for the installation of four cyclone units; but for the beginning only two cyclone units are installed, having an initial capacity of 240 tons per day of 24 hours. The ground upon which the buildings stand is fairly flat ; the distance from the next railway station being one mile. Clearing ground, excavation, and leveling $ 600 Concrete foundations: for mill building. . . . 120 cubic yards " piers 6 '' " crackers 2 " " cyclones 5 " " ore bin 4 " " dryer and crusher 10 " 147 Per cubic yard, $8 , 1,176 Lumber used in construction : — Mill building, 60 x 110 feet 155,000 feet. Ore bin 20,000 " Belt conveyer house 6,050 " Dryer building, 46 x 70 feet ore shoots and supports 26,400 " Blacksmith and carpenter shop 7,250 " 300 ft. dump bridge 31,000 " Divers sheds, etc 25,000 " 271,600 " $35 per 1,000 feet, erected 9,506 Building supplies, hardware, etc., sashes 775 Machinery and apparatus : — 1 Jen ekes Farrel rock crusher (No. IIB), size 30" x 15" fitted with chilled iron jaw plates 2,242 2 dryer shells, 30" diameter x 35" long, complete with all iron- work grates and one smokestack for each dryer 1,000 1 small single strand 12" x 6" bucket elevator, 15 ft. centres. . . . 125 1 revolving rock sizing trommel, special 42" diameter x 8 feet long, steel shell with 1" perforation 350 2 Gates gyratories, at $1,100 2,200 1 belt conveyer, 18" wide. 110 ft. centres to mill hopper. . . . 590 2 Butterworth and Low crackers at $715 1 430 2 fiberizers, 30" diameter x 6 feet long, at $550 1,100 2 cyclones, at $600 1,200 1 sandbelt conveyer, 18" x 36 ft. centres, complete 220 2 revolving grading screens, 32" diameter x 12 feet long, perfora- ted with f " round holes, made of steel plate, gauge No. 18. . 500 156 1 small type, double strand, perfect discharge bucket elevator, 34 ft. centres, from gyratory to cracker 460 2 belt conveyers, 10 and 15 ft. centres 176 2 100 horse-power, 2,200 volt, 3 phase, 3,600 alts., 6 pole, 6,000 K. P.M., C.C.L. induction motors, complete with slide rails, pulley, and starting panel to contain circuit breaker with overload and no-voltage release. 1 150 horse-power, 2,200 volt, 3 phase, 3,600 alts., 6 pole, 600 K.P.M., C.C.L. induction motor, complete with slide rails, pulley and starting jmnel to contain circuit breaker with overload and no- voltage release. 1 10 horse-power, 2,200 volt, 3 phase, 3,600 alts, motor. 1 50 horse-power, 2,200 volt, 3 phase, 3,600 alts., 4 pole, 900 R.P.M., C.C.L. induction motor, complete with slide rails, pullej' and starting device. 2 5 kw. transformers, 2,000/200 volt primary, 210/120 volt secon- dary for use with the above 10 horse-power motor, complete with fuse blocks, hanger irons, and oil. Total cost of motors 7,500 Shafts, pulleys, journals, hangers, bolts, sieves, screens, and divers apparatus: fans, collectors, etc., total 6,750 Installation of machinery and apparatus : including superintendence 8,445 Cartage, freight, and unforeseen expenses 5,340 Total mil] eriuipment $ 51,685 Mine Equipment. For the beginning of operations, from three to foui cable hoists will be sufficient, as a general rule, to supply a mill of the above description with all material needed; for which purpose, additional machinery: compressor, cable derricks, air drills, etc., must be installed. The following figures represent a fair estimate of the cost of the entire equipment : — 2 sets of cable machinery, each set consisting of one 50 horse-power cable hoist, and one 60 horse-power Westinghouse motor: 600 revolutions, variable speed, 3 phase, 6 pole, 2,450 alt., at $2,225 4,450 2 cable derricks, complete with all accessories, at $500 1,000 2 sheds for hoists 90 Leveling for tracks, construction of bridges, tracks and sleepers all over property 565 Machine, carpenter and blacksmith shop, apparatus and tools, total 2,250 1 10 h.p. motor 450 2 teams of horses, wagon, harness, blankets, etc., at $600 1,200 ]\riners tools, steel shovels, picks 400 2 air drills, and tripods, at $242 484 Hose, and other pipes 300 10 dumping cars, etc 250 7 drill air compressors 2,680 1 air receiver 150 1 125 h.p. motor 2,500 Freight, cartage, installation of compressors and motor, shed for same 725 Other expenses not specified 1,850 Total mine equipment $ 19,344 .2^ S a; ir bo ic.5 o 2; 157 In addition to the above expenditure for mill and mine equipment, a certain sum is required as working capital until the establishment is on a self-sustaining basis. This depends, of course, on the accessibility of the deposits; sIitcc those located on a slope above the mill can be mined for about half the cost of those won on shallow ground If we add to the above-mentioned sum, therefore, say $15,000 as working capital, we have the following figures • — Mill equipment $ 51,685 Mine equipment 19,344 Working capital 15,000 Total capital required $ 86,029 (Exclusive of purchase price of property). Some of the milling and mining plants of the same capacity have cost a great deal more than the figures cited above. One case is known where a four 'cyclone mill with mine equipment cost nearly $175,000. Another six cyclone mill recently built, cost over $200,000. 7068—16 15S CHAPTER V. COST OF EXTRACTION, MARKET, PRICES, STATISTICS, AND STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY. Cost of Extraction. In the operation of asbestos quarries and mills the cost of mining and mill- ing is obviously a matter of great importance. A number of important factors enter into it : — (1) The quantity of ore treated. (2) Cost of labour. (3) The quality of the ground in which the quarrj' is being worked. Owing to the variation of the latter, the total cost wull vary in different mines, hence any generalization as to the comparative cost of quarrying and treatment, per ton of asbestos, would be f iitile ; being matters entirely dependent upon the quality of the rock, the percentage of fibre contained therein, and the kind of plant employed. In the first edition of this monograph one example of costs was given, in which a quarry was operated under supposed normal conditions; but it must be admitted that the term 'normal' is not well applied to asbestos mining; since the conditions of two quarries may be entirely different, yet the ultimate finan- cial results, that is the profits, might be the same, or nearly so. For this, and other reasons, therefore, no detailed statement of expenses of any one quarry is submitted; simply a statement of reliable, eclectic, general facts: — ■ In the Broughton district, where almost all the rock passes through the mill, and no ' crude ' is produced, the cost of production of one ton of fibre — based on an 8 per cent extraction — may be put at from $12.50 to $14 a ton : . including all expenses caused by mill repairs — administration expenses are not included in this item. In the Thetf ord and Black Lake quarries, where the production of ' crude ' enters into the mine costs, the average cost of extraction — crude and mill fibre combined — may be placed at from $20 to $27 per ton, exclusive of expenses for management, offices, insurance, marketing, amortization, etc. Market and Prices. The chief markets for Canadian asbestos are the United States, England, Germany, and France, and to a lesser degree, Eussia, and Italy. Most of the mill fibre and paper stock is sold at present in the United States; while large quantities of ' crude ' are consumed by the European countries. That the general excellence of the Canadian mineral is now universally acknowledged, is evidenced by the fact that, most of the civilized countries — keeping pace with the development of new^ applications — import asbestos in large quantities; and every 169 year witnesses a considerable increase in the exports of this mineral. Canada thus dominates the asbestos markets of the world. A previous writer on the subject ventured to predict that other countries, where mining was carried on someAvhat extensively some six or eight years ago, would, in time, successfully compete with the Quebec quarries, and that the monopoly thus far held by Canada would be weakened and even destroyed; and that, as a consequence, the prices would drop to a lower figure. But nothing of the kind has happened; and although new discoveries of asbestos are frequently reported, they have invariably proved to be either unimportant in extent, or of unsuitable quality; and thus the profitable extraction of large quantities of asbestos is still confined to Canada. A glance at the statistics of the world's productions for 1908 will show that Canada delivered 82-6 per cent of the total supply, and there is every reason to believe that the Dominion will continue to maintain this monopoly for some time to come : an inevitable conclusion after reviewing the existing condition of the asbestos industries in all parts of the globe. It must be admitted that Russia increases its output every year, but the facts must not be lost sight of, (1) that in that part of the asbestos region the ground is swampy, shallow, and not drained, hence the pits fill rapidly with water; (2) that the ground is heavily covered with forest and overburden; and (3) that the working season lasts only from May to October. Moreover, the transportation charges of Russian asbestos to the seaboard amount to $25 or $30 per ton, and consequently, only competition in the higher grades may be feared; but not in the Canadian mill product, which sells at from $25 to $50 per ton. Another important fact bearing on this question of commercial supremacy is, that for reasons of their own, the German and Austrian manufacturers buy the Canadian ' crude ' in preference to the Russian ; although the latter is cheaper. The heaviest buyer of the Canadian mill fibre is the United States. Accord- ing to the reports of the United States' Geological Survey in 1908, over half of the Canadian production went to that country. The writer has gleaned from interviews with men who have made the com- mercial aspect of asbestos their life-long study, that the Canadian asbestos indus- try has nothing serious to fear from competition on the part of foreign countries ; owing to the superior quality of the Canadian product. Judging from the many samples sent in from all parts of the world, for examination, the writer ventures the opinion that, no asbestos hitherto discovered, combines such silkiness and length as that found in Thetf ord. As evidence of faith in the future of the Canadian asbestos industry, it may be mentioned that not only are new quarries being constantly opened, and mill- ing plants being erected at the present time; but some of the older establish- ments are actually acquiring additional asbestos ground, and increasing consid- erably their output by the erection of new mills of large capacity, details of which will be found in the chapter dealing with the working quarries. In spite of the periodical slump in prices — due to caiises attributable, for the most part, to the 7068— 16i IGO financial manipulatiuiis of Iniyers in tlie cun^umiiig countries — it is a fact that prices for all grades have advanced about 40 per cent during the past five years. A table showing the price conditions over a period of fourteen years will illus- trate this, without further comment. The prices paid at present, per ton of 2,000 pounds, are as follows: — No. I crude asbestos $275 No. II crude asbestos 160 No. I mill fibre 100 to $110 Run of mine mill fibre 45 to 50 No. II mill fibre 22 to 45 No. Ill mill fibre 10 to 14 The shipping points for Europe are Montreal, during the navigation season; and St. John, N. B., during the winter. The freight rates are regulated by the quality of the goods shipped and also by their volume per short ton. They were for 1909-10 as follows :— Thetf ord Mines to London : — Crude asbestos, measurement 40 cubic feet, through rate 30-71 cents per 100 pounds — of which, 20 cents represents inland, and 10-71 cents, ocean freight. Asbestos fibre, measurement 70 cubic feet, through rate 28-40 cents per 100 pounds — of which, 15 cents represents inland and 13-40 cents, ocean freight. Asbestos fibre, measurement 90 cubic feet, through rate 31-07 cents per 100 pounds — of which, 15 cents represents inland, and 16-07 cents, ocean freight. The port of Quebec has, hitherto, been in disfavour as a shipping point; for the reason that the goods have to be transhipped by wagon and iejfvyhoat from Levis — the westward railway terminus to the Quebec side — necessitating an extra outlay of 4i cents per 100 pounds. Statistics. The following tables of production and values since the year 1880 are com- puted from the returns of the Geological Survey ' Section of Mines ' ; and subse- quently from the statistical returns published by the Mines Branch of the Department of ]\lines. Ottawa; and also from the puhlications of the Quebec Bureau of ]\Iines. 161 PEODUCTION OF ASBESTOS IN CANADA. 1880-1895. Calendar Year. Tons (2,000 lbs.) Value . Average value per ton. 1880 1881 380 540 810 955 1,141 2,440 3,458 4,619 4,404 6,113 9,S60 9,279 6,082 6,331 7,630 8,756 S 24,700 35,100 52,650 68,750 75,097 142,441 206,251 226,976 255,007 426,554 1,260,240 999, h78 390,462 310,156 420,825 368,175 $ cts. 65 00 65 00 1882 65 00 1883 71 99 1884 65 82 1885 58 38 1886 59 64 1887 48 92 1888 . 57 90 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 69 78 127 81 107 76 64 20 86 81 55 15 1895 42 05 PRO^njCTION OF ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC IN CANADA, 1896-1909. Calendar Year. 1896- 1897- 1898- 1899- 1900- 1901- 1902- 1903- 1904- 1905- 1906- 1907- 1908 1909- - Asbestos . -Asbestic. . -Asbestos . -Asbestic. . -Asbestos . -Asbestic. . -Asbestos . -Asbestic . -Asbestos . -Asbestic. - Asbestos . -Asbestic . -Asbestos . - Asbestic . -Asbestos. -Asbesiic. -Asbestos . -Asbestic . -Asbestos . -Asbestic . -Asbestos. -Asbestic . -Asbestos. - Asbestic -Asbestos . -Asbestic . -Asbestos . -Asbestic . Tons (2,000 lbs.) Value. 10,892 1,358 13,202 17,240 16,124 7,661 17,790 7,746 21,621 7,520 32,892 7,325 30,219 10,197 31,129 10,548 35,068 13,087 50,670 17,594 59,283 20,127 62,018 28,519 66,548 24,225 63,349 23,951 423,066 6,790 399, .^'28 45,840 475,131 16,066 468,635 17,214 729,886 18,545 1,248,645 11,114 1,126,688 21,631 915,888 13,869 1,154,566 13,00() 1,486,359 16,900 1,970,878 17,230 2,482,984 22,059 2,555,361 17,974 2,284,587 17,186 Asbestos. Average value per ton. $ cts. 38 84 29 99 29 47 26 34 33 76 37 96 37 28 Asbestic. Average value per ton. 29 42 34 08' 29 J<3 33 52' 39 99 38 40 36 07 $ cts. 5 00 2 66 2 10 2 22 2 47 1 52 2 20 1 31 1 00 96 1 11 72 74 72 162 STATISTICAL RETURNS TOR 1901-9: AS PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND MINES, PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 1901. 1902. Tons. Crutle No. 1 2,083 Crude No. II , 2,660 Fibre ] 14,659 Paper stock I 14,054 I 33,456 Asbestic I 6,831 Value. S 348,579 263,855 450,193 211,688 Tons. Value. 1,274,315 10,114 1,319 3,131 15,502 10,682 S 240,401 305,312 412,388 203,869 30,634 9,764 1,161,970 12,783 Crude No. I Crude No. II Fibre Paper stock . . Asbestic. . . . 1903. 1904. Tons. 930 2, .354 9,650 16,327 Value. 117,847 227,919 311,248 259,956 Tons Value. 29,261 9,906 916,970 13,292 1,645 2,727 7,771 23,336 35,479 13,149 251,818 265,961 229,801 439,215 1.186,795 13,124 Crude No. I Crude No. II Fibre Paper stock . Asbestic . . . 1905. 1906. Tons. 1,340 2,258 10,707 34,6.55 Value. 48,960 1,920 221,325 248,785 386,440 624,900 Tons. Value. 1,477 2,450 18,542 39,906 324,380 321,355 815,962 681,956 1,476,450 31,100 62,375 21,119 2,143,653 18,875 1907. 1908. Tons. Crude No. Crude No. ' Fibre Paper stock Asbestic. . . 1,487 2,938 19,905 37,655 Value. .367,438 462,323 780,013 846,145 61,985 29,193 2,455,919 27,292 Tons. Value. 900 2,771 13,911 47,574 65,lr7 24,011 261,216 438,305 716,811 1,135,264 1909. Tons. Value. 912 2,162 14,776 45,499 246,655 328,855 785,731 923,346 2,551,596 17,970 63,349 23,951 2,284,587 17,188 163 Year ^SdO 1 rsst 1662 |T nsi \ 1 .«. f AS/tf V /55e y 7SR7 \ \ 4" ~r - - - fsaa [ /S<59 \ «90 S / - -- -4- -\- ^692 ( /^^^^ /90/ •' ? ,eo2 T V ^ /3o3 1 < s^ . /SO*!' ^ S ■n f9oS ■ "- >.^ f9oe -^ ^"^-N^ '507 " ■; • -:>,- 1S06 -'■ 1 > ^905 1. :1 5^ 5 ,*. ,0 J^ .% -^ .t .$ .^ .^ .5- -5 _ Fig. 48.— Production of Asbestos and Asbestic, 1880-1909. 104 According to the foregoing statistics, the total production of the quarries for the period from 1901 to 1909, inclusive, was composed of: — 35,544 tons of crude, 125,423 tons of fibre. 269,688 tons of paper stock. SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION. Year. Crude. Tons. 4,743 4,450 3,284 4,372 3,598 3,927 4,425 3,671 3,074 Fibre. Paper Stock 1901 Tons. 14,059 15,502 9,650 7,771 10,707 18,542 19,905 13,911 14,776 Tous. 14,054 1902 1903 1904 10,682 16,327 23,336 1905 1906 1907 34.665 39,906 37,655 1908 1909 47,574 45,499 Total 35,544 125,423 269,688 ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CRUDE AND MILL STOCK, 1903-1 9C9. Calendar Year. Crude. MiJ,L Stock. Short Tons. Value. Per ton. Short Tons. Value. Per ton. 1903 3,1.34 4,410 ^767 3,841 4,427 3,345i 3,074" 361,867 534,874 472,859 635,345 830,632 669,232 .575,510 S ots. 115 46 121 28 125 53 165 41 191 97 200 04 187 22 27,995 31,201 46,902 56,920 57,803 63,202 60,275 S 554,021 678,628 1,013,500 1.401,083 i; 654, 135 1,886,121^ 1,709,077 $ cts. 19 79 1904 21 75 1905 21 61 1906 24 61 1907. 28 62 1908 1909 29 84 28 35 ANNUAL EXPORTS— CALENDAR YEARS, 1892-1908. Calendar Year. Tons. Value. Value, per ton. Calendar Year. Tons. Value. Value per ton. 1892 1893 5,380 5,917 7,987 7,442 11,842 15,570 15,340 17,-83 16,993 $ 373,103 338,707 477,837 421,690 567,967 473.274 494,012 473,148 693,105 $ cts. 69 35 57 24 59 82 56 66 47 96 30 40 32 19 26 46 39 61 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 32,269 31,074 31,781 37,272 47,031 59,854 56,753 61,210 1,069,918 995,071 891.033 1,160,887 1,386,115 1,689,2.57 1,669,299 1,842,763 S cts. 33 16 32 02 1894 1895 1896 28 04 31 14 29 47 1897 1898 1899 1900 1906 1907 1908 28 22 29 41 30 11 165 I I f I i i 1 1 i 9oGf s°&t hoet •toei zoe/ to&/ 006/- 969* l 1G6 < C . M CO 3 a; OS P/ '■'>J{ 167 2 X >rr < 73 a) i Pa2 i m 0) O) 5 C -3^ m-i-iir;v;v:x~. ■M-r-r— 1 K C5 CO -^ lO ■^^•* ^ c X oi- x^x^x^r^t-- C o' m" cc" -f' cf lo' x' irT -»-' -♦ -^r' x' t^' ■■^'' x" th O ^ ,-- r- 1-1 ■^l fM C-TM CCC-l -I- TT lO C o H X 0- -J3 c S H ^,^00^ so 1 I- ri X O CO c-iin 5 '^ g o § s ^ 1-1 Ci t- X CO X O H ceo© I-IL--X I-i 1-1 § 1-1 Tons. 358 1,463 1.1.57 c c X t^rHlCO^-. -rO'^l-lin.MO t^ -# CO t~ r-l 05 O -f tH (M X l^ coiric^iMr^xc-. coioc^cot^ C-f 'M' of .-T rH CO*" ■^' 3 o o oq Tf< lo '^ -+< :o 3-- o t^ -r «q CO th '-<__co_^i- r-Ti-Tr- 0 3^ t~ -.T © 1-1 iM rt< (M lO 'x'^Tio'o'in IT X i 1 X 5- c< c- c cr Ov 1 G r- IT 1- + -* * © 1-1 * o 05 » X -^ ~ CO c^ lo o -f i^ ;d o t^ CO t~l:^TH^t^©l^©©C0iMC0t^t-O" ._ _ --,_., -^ .« ^ (^^ '^J^ "©'x'-o' ©^OOiCOi-IOimC-l-fXiOi i(W or©'~©'co''©'"'!rT-H''io"-p i-Tr^j _ w ^ ^ '0;XrHi-li00i»C0OXrHl^©C0»0X Tjii*<100'J<'*Xi-iC5~COlOlMt^l-.X t- CD CI 'f 1— I -* 50 CO -^ 1— ' © X h- © t~ I— t^ 1-1 lO CO © X X © 05 X CO 'Ji © ~ t^ m (M'^lOt~"+C5©t^t^C0'— '©©jX05-f > CO ©* -jD •* i-T cT t ~ co' iC ©" x" ©' ©r of :f" ©' ' Tt< -^ © tC © 01 -f -^ lO © © CO lO Ol © © CO 01 I-l CO CO CO '*' t^ t^ t^ t~ © l~ CO OQ CO in©iarHocoi-(x©50 t^ Tf O rH I , — lO t- t^ lO ©. © -f CO X © t^ © CO o; ^f co' i-T x' ©' co' co" i-T r-^ © (M C<1(M CO 01 CI rH t-T© ©■ «OX©OCr o' r-T ©" oT ©' cf 'cq rH^ ■* 1-1 XX X CI ■* CO 1-1 IM rH Cq — ^ ^H — H t-lft©C1Cq©CDC1©lO ©TfrflrHtOCIrHl-l'^rH COCIt^iifXm-^^XiX O © © X CQ © X t^ O rH rH X ■*! © © © © rH CI CI CO CO -C t~ in © XrHClTl<05Cnin cicox©coo;'*-*t-^©©Tf©cqcoi^ o©©coci^©t^©©-t.CO©©-Hrf'-.r!©COCOX rH CI rH CI rH CI CI CI CI C^ CI »0©t~X05©rHdCO'!»"10tOt^X©©! 168 Imports of Asbestos Goods. Canada does not, as yet, manufacture all the asbestos goods required for home consumption. The following table will show the value of goods imported since the year 1885 :— IMPORTS FISCAL YEAES 1885-1910. Fiscal Year. Value. Fiscal Year. Value. $ 20,021 26,094 23,900 19,032 26,389 32,607 43,455 50,829 52,464 Fiscal Year. Value. 1885 1886 1887 674 6,831 7,836 8,793 9,943 1.3,250 13,298 14,090 19,181 $ 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904... 1905 1906 1907 (9 months). . . 1908 1909 1910 $ 75,465 83,827 116,8.36 137 974 1888 1889 1''7 .509 1890 190 980 1891 1892 181,710 198 756 1893 Status of the Industry. Since the publication of the first edition of my Monograph on Asbestos, in 1904, the industry has experienced great expansion. Owing to fresh discoveries, new, productive ground has been added — espec- ially in the Broughton and Thetford districts; while asbestos deposits located some twenty years ago, when mechanical separation was unknown, have been developed, and put on a productive basis. Four new quarries and mills have thus been added to the list of producers, and the mining and milling capacities of almost all the quarries which were working in 1904 have been considerably increased : in two cases, even doubled. 169 * 125,000 460,300 1,349,804 o b ©lOQO © t-o 1,500 4,200 12,000 d !E « a: as o d 1 © 00- 02 c«f Mill Capacities (120 tons per day per Cyclone. ) Tons. 900 3,600 8, .520 Number of Cyclones or tlieir equival- ent installed. O r-l Mills in Operation. 6 16(d) 19 (e) Mines in Operation. 3 Authorized Capitalization of Producing Companies. €& c © c ilDso .5-2 'S s II £5 32 si cc 1 C c 5 £ 0. -/I r« ? ^ B li 3J -^ ^ ^ a 1 1 c S 0) t » 1 §<: H _ , — . ^ ^■~~. , ^ ji. 'U ~i 170 WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF ASBESTOS SINCE 1902 IN GROSS (METRIC) TONS. — 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 27,414 912 4,. 507 28,240 805 5,G24 32,300 1,343 7,502 4.5,967 2,820 5,770 1,490 55,122 1,538 9,201 56,364 60.372 UniU'd States Russia : Ural. ... 592 9,500 849 10,540 Cape Colony Cyprus 41 276' 373 454 473 19 548 89 770 330 40 Transvaal Rhodesia 25 120 32,874 .34,945 41,.524 56,507 66,353 67,093 73,046 171 *«-. 1 ^ &-2;2.i c ■f X ,^ t« :S-C « a; Percenti Canad Worl Produc o CO t- ■M 1 cc t- X s o M o; z> . ^ *n rs i c y r- o -T cc rt F— S i. o o ^ ^ 2 -■ "5 5 g 3 -f" 'J' x^ > ''?, -•-* t- IM -r <' ii _o w iC o 'u 22 ^ i~ 1 0) ^ ^ Hi^ s o i~ yT 5 ct o i-TJ c -c tr O 01 o sas ■* X c3 P Ph C5 ^ C^ O 2 ~' ~-' x k' • S r7^ o O © ■!f ^^ o o ■5<5 c o lO ^ c3 — ^o cf n x' cS •■ o-s cc X ^ c . .1-1 s c t^ X nad due crea 5 -r ^ •^ ^-j rf n ? = 1/ cf c ./ .:s n ; •-r ^ ■M -§ ^1 -*-^ ^ t^ C* t" cc C<1 i- o 3- ^" f^ 5 dj 1^ 1 53 X ^- ^ *— 172 The following table shows the increase in the production of mill fibre, and the gradual increase in prices for 'crude' as well as 'mill stock': — ■ Crude. Mill Stock Value. Tons. Value . Per ton. Tons. Per ton. 1903 3,284 4,372 3,598 3,927 4,425 3,671 3,074 $ 345.:'66 517,779 465,110 645,735 829,761 699,521 575,510 $ cts. 105 29 118 43 129 26 l(i4 43 187 51 190 55 187 22 25,977 31,107 45,362 58,448 57,560 61,485 60,275 571,204 669,016 1,011,340 1,497,918 1,626,158 1,852,075 1,709,077 $ cts. 21 98 1904 21 50 1905 1906 1907 22 29 25 62 28 73 1908 30 12 1909 28 35 The above table shows a gradual increase in the total production ; but this in- crease is confined exclusively to the mill fibre. The production of crude is, to- day, about the same as it was eight years ago; but its value per ton has nearly doubled. The remarkable feature is, the increase in the value of the production of the mill fibre over that of the ' crude ' ; whereas five years ago the total value of the mill stock was only $200,000 more than that of crude: it now exceeds the crude by $1,200,000. Five mills are under construction at present, containing twenty-six cyclones. These establishments are to be in operation by the spring of 1910. An output oi 120 tons per cyclone per day, will mean an additional increase in capacity of 3,120 tons of rock; and assuming an extraction of 5 per cent the total pro- duction of asbestos per day will be 156 tons. It must be mentioned, however, that the above figures indicate the maximum capacity of all the mills in the district; and that in practice their maximum out- put is never attained, owing (1) to the fact that in all the newer mills a number of cyclones are installed for emergency purposes only, hence, are not all the time in actual use; (2) that some mines work on poorer ground than others, which often necessitates a curtailment of operations, and sometimes temporary suspen- sion; and (3) that the demand for the material is subject to caprice. Again, operations during the severe winter seasons in some mines are suspended, while ir! others they are actually curtailed. Kew applications and uses for the material are discovered continually; especially since the paper stock or the short fibre has been put on the market — through improved methods of separation. A product which absorbs at the present time large quantities of the medium grade mill fibre is ' asbestos slate ' ; and It is principally the enormous absorption of mill fibre in the manufacture of the article specified, that has caused such a phenomenal expansion in the asbestos industry of late. This ' asbestos slate ' is, to-day, the most important arti'^le on the list of manufactured asbestos goods; and as in the past, so in the immediate future, it is likely to become increasingly in demand. 173 The asbestos industry, as a whole, has taken an altogether di'^ereut aspect since the introduction, some fourteen years ago, of mechanical separation, which has enabled the operator to extract the small fibre from the rock. Quarries which cannot produce the high grade of ' crude ' qualities, have a chauce to realize on the abundant quantities of small fibre stored in the mill rock; while in the case of the larger and richer mines, additional profits can be made. It is, of course, possible, that if all the new mines and mills put their pro- duct on the market simultaneously, over production and a consequent drop in prices may follow. However, the ever increasing consumption of asbestos in the manufacture of slate, as well as the constant discovery of new uses, augur well for a continually increasing demand; in spite of temporary lulls such as we witness in other line of business; hence for this reason, no serious results need be anticipated. Again, the transportation facilities are so great, that it may be stated here, that no mining camp on the North American continent can compare in that respect with the Canadian asbestos quarries. It so happens that the productive belt follows closely the sinuosities and winding course of the railway, which by the way, was established before the asbestos mines were discovered. There is, at the present time, no working quarry farther than IJ miles from the railway line. And now one word with regard to the future of the Canadian supply. The economic question is of great importance, and has already occupied the attention of those who like to speculate on the extent of the resources. After an exten- sive investigation all over the Quebec asbestos field for several seasons past, the writer has come to the conclusion that, the available productive area compared with the whole serpentine belt is indeed small. Exploration work carried on over a number of years all over the serpentine belt has failed to add materially to the already productive area. It is true, quite a number of discoveries have been made in the Eastman and Richmond districts; but their commercial value has not been established in any one instance. However, six new, and promising discoveries have been made in the Black Lake, Thetford, and Broughton districts during the past five years. On some of those deposits, milling plants are now being erected ; while others are under development, with a view to their exploita- tion. Several new mills are being placed on ground which has been known for over twenty years ; having been operated at a time when mechanical appliances had not been generally introduced. All these large mills now under construction will, when fully operated, increase the production about 33 per cent; while the newly discovered deposits, as well as the very large ore reserves on the mines in active operation, will take care of any further demand — through increased con- sumption — for many, many, years to come. As an example of the extent of some of these ore reserves, the writer, from personal investigation and surveys, is able to state that, in one of the quarries in Black Lake there are 44,377,500 tons of asbestos rock in sight above the railway track, ready for immediate exploitation. Deducting 50 per cent from this for waste rock, it means that there are in sight 22,000,000 tons of asbestos mill rock ; a quantity sufficient to keep a milling plant with a daily capacity of 4,000 tons running for almost twenty-two years — less 200,000 tons per annum deducted on account of the severe winter season. 7068—17 174 Much speculation is being manifested at the present time, with regard to the depth of the asbestos deposits. Excepting in the case of one of the chrome iron ore mines, where asbestos was encountered at a depth of 400 feet, there is no tangible evidence, in any operating asbestos mine, of the presence of asbestos below a depth of 200 feet — the lowest level so far attained in one of the older quarries. However, from a geologic point of view, there is some ground for the belief that, asbestos deposits are deep-seated : in other words, that asbestos may yet be found at considerable depth. Further particulars in connexion with this subject will be found on pages 94-102. < 7068— 17i 175 CHAPTER VL ASBESTOS MINES AND PROSPECTS. Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation, Limited. Locality. — Thetford and Black Lake, Que. President. — Thos. MacDougaU, Esq., Montreal. Secretary Treasurer. — R. P. Doucet, Montreal. General Manager. — ^R. H. Martin, Kew York. Consulting Engineer. — Earle C. Bacon, New York. Mining Engineer. — Fritz Cirkel, Montreal. Head Office. — 163 St. James Street, Montreal. Incorporated. — Under the laws of the Dominion of Canada, 1909. Authorized Capital. — Bonds authorized $ 15,000,000 Reserved for future requirements 7,500,000 Issued $ 7,500,000 Stock: 7 per cent cumulative preference shares, par value $100 1,875,000 Common stock: par value $100 8,125,000 $ 17,500,000 Mining lands held. — 8,091 acres in the Thetford and Black Lake asbestos areas. Number of men employed. — 1,525; in busy season about 2,000. This Corporation bought, in the beginning of 1909, all the assets and stock in trade, etc., of the mines then working under the following names : King Asbes- tos Mines, and Beaver Asbestos Company, at Thetford; and the British Canadian Asbestos Company, Limited, Dominion Asbestos Company, Limited, and Stand- ard Asbestos Company, Limited, at Black Lake. The Company have plans laid out that will enable them to greatly increase, in the near future, the output of the properties acquired. The plants of the bigger properties like the King and the British Canadian, are being thoroughly over- hauled; the milling plant of the Beaver is being enlarged to such an extent that the production will be increased from 375 tons to 700 tons of asbestos per month ; at the Standard new crushers and more modern machinery have been put in, per- mitting an output of 500 tons per month, instead of 250 tons as heretofore. The Dominion, which had scarcely been worked in former years, has, since its acqui- sition by this Corporation, made many improvements, and it is expected that this property will have an average outpiit of from 550 to 600 tons per month. 176 The mills and quarrit's are coiiiieeted by five miles of railway, vested in the private ownership of the (^rporation, which is worked by 8 locomotives, 250 cars, and the necessary associated equipment. With a view to securing a larger amount of labour, and looking after the welfare of the employes in a more effective manner, the Company intends erect- ing large boarding houses, both at Black Lake and at the Thetford quarries. With the completion of all these improvements, this Corporation will be in a position to increase its output fully 25 per cent, in the year 1910, and thus keep pace with the great demand for its products. In this connexion it may be stated that, this Company, at the end of the year 1909, had over $3,000,000 worth of imfilled orders on hand. A description of all the quarries and milling plants is given in the following pages : — THE BEAVER QUARRIES. Locality. — Thetford, Que. Manager. — A. E. Martin. Mining .lands. — 500 acres, comprising lots 31 and 32, range C, Coleraine, and lot 36, range XI, Ireland. Ntimher of men employed. — Average, 175. These quarries were formerly worked by the Beaver Asbestos Company — one of the oldest concerns working in this district. Operations were from time to time suspended, depending upon market conditions ; but the milling plant, some years ago, was kept very busy working over rich dumps which had accumu- lated from the early operations. For several years past the quarry and mill have been kept in operation. Additional good asbestos ground was discovered last year. The principal pit is centrally located, not far from the Quebec Central Railway track ; and the milling plant immediately adjoins the latter. This main pit measures about 700 x 250 feet, by 80 feet deep : its main axis having a strike northwest 40°. Seven cable derricks, of the tail rope type, are placed in one row on the westerly side of the big pit. The 'No. 2 pit measures about 40 x 50 feet by 40 feet deep, and is located close to the northwesterly end of the latter, with which i<- will be connected in the near future. Six machine drills, actuated by com- pressed air, are in commission. The hoists for the cable derricks — 7 in number, are placed in one central power house; they are all run by steam generated in one of the big boilers of the power house. The mill is driven by a 300 horse-power electric motor, and has a capacity of 400 tons in two shifts. The equipment consists of 1 Campbell dryer placed in a separate building, jaw crusher, rotary crusher, 3 cyclones, and all accessories. The milling ore is received in a skip from a hopper, into which the ore coming from the mine is dumped. This skip is hoisted to the top of the mill and the ore delivered thence to the crushers. The power house is attached to the mill, and contains an auxiliary plant consisting of 5 boilers : three of which have a capacity of 100 horse-power each, and two of 150 horse-power each ; or a total of 600 horse-power. This whole plant can be put in operation at two hours 177 notice. One 14 drill air compressor driven by a 100 horse-power motor, and placed in the same building, furnishes air for the drills.^ The main track of the Quebec Central railway, with a siding, runs alongside the large store shed, and otifers great facilities for handling the output and the sand. The sand is delivered automatically by means of a chain scraper direct into the railway cars. A machine repair and carpenter shop located close to the mill make up the balance of the plant. The Company have built on the south side of the track, 35 dwellings, and leased them to their workingmen. There is also a beautiful villa for the manager, with the superintendent's house on the premises. THE BRITISH CANADIAN QUARRIES. Locality. — Black Lake, Que. Manager. — B. Bennet. Number of men employed. — Full working force, 600. These quarries were formerly operated by the British Canadian Asbestos Company; who took over in the beginning of 1908 all the assets of the American Asbestos Company. When this Company commenced operations in 1903, the task before them was very difficult; the properties had only been partially tested: there was no mining equipment; no mill on the premises. In less than a year, however, the Company had two pits fully equipped and in operation, while a new mill substantially constructed, and of large capacity, handled the output, which on some days attained 500 tons of asbestos rock, or two carloads of asbestos. The Company, realizing the expanse of the applications of asbestos and the consequent demand upon the asbestos industry, gradually acquired additional property; and in 1907 consummated a deal whereby the properties of the Glasgow and Montreal; the United; and the Manhattan, were absorbed. This involved the acquisition of 200 acres of valuable ground; and led to a considerable in- crease in the production of ' crude ' asbestos ; hence, although formerly the mill had all it could do to handle the milling material from the various pits, the additional ' crude ' coming from the new pits provided an asset which enhanced the value of the undertaking in a considerable measure. The works may be divided into three sections: (1) the upper — comprising the old pits of the newly acquired ground of the Glasgow and Montreal, and the 3ilanhattan; (2) the centre — containing all the pits formerly worked by the American Asbestos Company; and (3~) the lower — comprising all the refining works, repair shops, and accessory buildings close to the Quebec Central Rail- way track. In the upper section, the highest pit on the mountain slope is located on the old Glasgow and Montreal ground, and measures 100 x 130 feet and 60 feet deep. The other three pits of the upper section are located just below the one above referred to, and vary in size from 75 x 100 feet to 125 x 200 feet, and the depth from 50 to 90 feet. One power house erected in a central spot supplies all the steam used for 4 hoists and cable derricks, 2 boom derricks, 3 steam drills, and 2 duplex pumps ; and consists of two boilers, each of 50 horse-power capacity. ^ Since writing the above the whole plant of the Beaver has been overhauled and changed, and its capacity increased to 600 tons per day. 178 Four cobbing sheds located at convenient places receive all the crude. The mill material from the pits, and all waste from the cobbing sheds are transported by means of a 5 ton self dumping steel skip, down a tramway — 1,600 feet long, operated by a GO horse-power Bacon hoist — to a hopper, from whence they are loaded into 4 ton dumping cars and carried down, to the large mill. The middle section comprises two large pits : the more easterly one measuring about 200 X 150 feet, and 100 feet deep ; and the other one — the largest pit on the property — 400 x 200 feet, and 50 feet deep. The easterly pit is served by 2 cable derricks of the tail rope type, operated by 2 electric hoists, and 2 boilers of 35 horse-power; each of which supplies steam to pumps and drills. The big pit is operated by 4 cable derricks, 1 boom derrick, 2 drills, and 5 hoists; the latter being supplied with steam from a central power station having 2 boilers of 150 horse-power, each. Of other equipment, the middle section may be mentioned, and consists of a locomotive house for 3 engines, containing also a 35 horse-power boiler, and pump for the supply of a water tank; a dynamite house — located half-way between the lower and upper pits; one large ore hopper, measuring 50 x 75 feet, served by 5 ton dumping cars on two tracks on top of hopper, with a total capacity of 1,000 tons. This ore house is located some dis- tance below the big pits. A 350 ft. inclined tramway, with self-dumping cars, operated by a powerful 60 horse-power hoist, connects the hopper and mill. The lower section comprises the extensive trestle work for the railway tracks ; several cobbing sheds; a dryer building; a crusher building; the mill proper with ore bin; the dust chamber; the stock house; the big cobbing house; the machine repair shop; the coal bunkers, and all accessory sheds and buildings in connexion with the transport of the sand. The milling process employed at the present time is the concrete result of several years experience and special experimenting on a large scale, and embodies the most modern features in the art of asbestos refining. The original mill as built in 1903 and 1904 had to be entirely remodelled and rebuilt, in order to meet the existing conditions and exigencies of the market; and even lately, consider- able alterations were made. It will serve no purpose to enter here into details of the refining method ; suffice it to state that, the capacity of the mill is 720 tons of mill rock per day, and that there are nov? installed : 2 Campbell rotary dryers ; two big jaw crushers; a large gyratory mill, and six cyclones. The whole estab- lishment is driven electrically: the crushing department by a 100 horse-power; the dryers by a 50 horse-power motor, and the mill proper by seven 100, one 50, and two 10 horse-power motors, the total motive energy amounting to 820 horse- power. A 350 ton ore bin is placed between the crusher buildings and the mill proper, and distributes the asbestos rock directly to the cyclones. Of the other build- ings in the lower section may be mentioned a complete machine repair shop con- taining all tools, metal, and wood working appliances, operated by a 25 horse- power electric motor; a large store shed capable of housing 20 carloads of asbestos • — located on the main line of the Quebec Central railway; and a large central cobbing shed which receives the crude for additional treatment from all the smaller cobbing sheds distributed over the propertj". O" o 179 A novel feature of the works is, the manner in which the surplus sand — not sold — is disposed of. This sand is raised by an endless belt conveyer into a hopper on the elevated tracks, and is then carried by a 660 ft. centre to centre rubber belt conveyer to the end of the big dump, in the direction of the river. A turbine pump placed close to the latter, and driven by a 75 horse-power motor, forces water through a 6" main, 1,000 feet long, to the top of the dump and the end of the belt conveyer ; and from the latter is then sluiced down the valley by means of a powerful stream. The turbine pump, which can be driven by steam, in case of emergency, delivers water also to the main milling plant for fire protection. Haulage of waste rock and ore all over the property is effected by three nar- row gauge locomotives, and 60 4-ton dumping cars, the total length of track being 2^ miles. The Company has a number of small, well designed cottages erec- ted for its officers and men in the immediate vicinity of the mill, which by their neat condition contribute in a large measure to the pleasing appearance of Black Lake. The future policy in the development of the property is directed towards the exploration and opening up of the valuable ground below the upper pits: now covered by the immense dumps, resulting from the earlier operations. For this purpose an adit is driven from a convenient point below the dumps, 10 feet wide by 12 feet high, in the direction of the lower ' Manhattan ' pit. This adit will have a length of 500 feet, and will connect with this pit by an upraise 30 feet high. This is an important step in the right direction; because it affords an opportunity not only of finding out what this ground actually contains, but a number of other advantages are gained thereby, namely, provision for under- ground work during the winter season, and cheap exploitation of the greater part of the upper asbestos bearing portion of the property. The operations of the American Asbestos Company, and of its successor, the British Canadian Company, have been successful from the start. In 1907 the property produced about 5,000 tons of asbestos of all grades; the net profit for that year being $82,000, and for the year 1908, $142,000. THE DOMIXIOX QUARRIES. Locality. — Black Lake, Que., on the mountain range south of Black Lake, adjacent to the Standard and British Canadian mines. Superintendent. — W. A. Clearihue, Black Lake, Que. Number of men employed. — Full force about 300. There are a number of pits located on this property which have been pre- viously operated on a considerable scale for the extraction of crude asbestos. The two lower pits have a total length of about 200 feet, and a width varying from 40 to 60 feet. The depth of these pits varies from 15 to 25 feet. A large num- ber of veins of crude asbestos and milling fibre are in evidence over practically the whole face of the pits; and from these, the Dominion mill at present draws a large proportion of its supply of milling rock. At a distance of about 300 feet 180 from the above quarries, in a southeasterly direction, the productive serpentine formation has been worked for crude asbestos. The tvpo upper pits — which are at present used for the storage of water — have a depth of from 40 to 60 feet. To the west of these pits several shallow openings and excavations exhibit veins of crude asbestos and milling fibre, all serving to demonstrate the continuation of the productive formation in that direction. In addition to the pits and openings enumerated, natural outcroppings are in evidence on the mountain slope. It can thus be conservatively figured that the total area of productive rock already developed on the Dominion property extends over a surface of 600 feet in length by about TOO feet in width. Beyond the elevation in a southeasterly direction, no effort has yet been made towards development; but asbestos has been found at a distance of 800 feet farther in a southerly direction, towards the crest of the hill, beyond the highest opening which has been made upon the Dominion property. This fact indicates that the asbestos-bearing rock on the Dominion property extends prac- tically to the crest of the mountain range, which would more than double the productive area mentioned above. (See Fig. 6, page 74.) A profile through the hill from the lowest workings on the plateau, to the point at which the present development has been carried on this property, shows a difi^erence in elevation of about 200 feet. The physical advantages in the development are easily apparent to those familiar with the method employed in operations in the asbestos district; and future workings on the property will facilitate the opening of very large quarry faces, in such a manner as to provide natural drainage for the pits, and also for the transportation by gravity of the rock to the mill and dumps. This will constitute a very material saving in the cost of operations. The pits are at present operated by three cable derricks, and two boom derricks, fully equipped with hoisting apparatus, boilers, steam drills, etc. The crusher and dryer building, 32 x 72 feet, contains one large jaw crusher, and two duplex crushers, together with rotary dryers, furnaces, etc., complete. A belt conveyer runs from the building to a large ore bin adjacent to the mill proper, about 100 feet distant. This bin is of very heavy construction, and has a capacity of about 800 tons of milling rock. This is one of the specially advan- tageous features of the plant. The Dominion mill has recently been completed, and is located in close proximity to the pits. This is the largest and most substantial structure of its kind in the district, 120 feet by 60 feet, four stories high with basement, with foundations of heavy concrete: the whole being of the most modern type of mill construction. All the buildings above described are covered — both roof and sides — with asbestos protected metal, affording good fire protection. The mill equipment consists of the following mechanical appliances : one pair of heavy rolls, 24" x 40", having a guaranteed crushing capacity of 25 tons per hour ; the capacity of which can be raised to between 40 and 50 tons per hour — as recent tests of the apparatus have demonstrated; two pairs of rolls, 15" X 30", are placed on the third floor; and two pairs of rolls, of the same dimen- 181 sious, on the second floor; four special machines placed on the first and second floors; ten special fibre collectors 8'-G" diameter by 12 feet high; two asbes- tos separators, together with the necessary conveying apparatus, screens, fans, etc. The power equipment consists of a 100 horse-power motor for the operation of the dryers and crushers; a 300 horse-power motor for the operation of the mill proper, and one 10 horse-power motor for the operation of the conveying belt be- tween the crushing house and the ore bin. The capacity of the machinery already installed is about 500 tons of milling rock per day of twenty hours. All the buildings referred to have been constructed of sufiicient size and strength to permit of the installation of an additional unit, so that the present capacity can be doubled when occasion may warrant. The system of separation in this mill is entirely different from that em- ployed generally in asbestos mills; the cyclone machine — a most important appara- tus in the asbestos mills — has been entirely dispensed with, and a system of rolls employed instead. The first pair of rolls has a crushing capacity of 25 tons of rock per hour; and two succeeding pairs of rolls finish the crushing to such fineness that all fibre in the rock is liberated. The advantage of this system consists in the preservation of the original natural fibre. A sample of this re- fined asbestos compared with asbestos from a cyclone mill showed quite a differ- ent appearance : exhibiting most of the coarse fibre — resembling ' crude,' and thus containing a higher percentage of long fibre. It may be added that the location of the pits on a mountain slope offers great adavntages in the way of handling and transporting the ore to the mill, and in working the pits. There is no necessity for deep mining for some time to come, and if no mistakes are made in the system of exploitation, the gradually rising asbestos ground to a height of over 300 feet should provide exceptional facilities for cheap mining, in fact, should reduce the mining cost per ton of ore to the lowest possible figure. The advantages of the Dominion quarries in that respect are manifestly superior to anything in the district. In addition to the above, there are upon this property, a commodious dwell- ing for the superintendent, and a boarding house for employes. THE KING QUARRIES. Locality. — Thetford, Que. Operating principally on lot 26, ranges V and VI, Thetford. Manager. — B. J. Bennett. Men employed. — Average, 700 persons. The main quarry, which is now 1,350 feet long by 300 feet wide, and 190 feet deep, has been in operation for about twenty-five years : work having been begun in 1879, in a little ridge on the site of the present quarry. It is reported that this large quarry has contributed one-third of the total production since the inception of the industry. A section of this pit, along its main strike, is shown on Fig. 18, page 106. Work towards depth and to the sides is conducted from a number of terraces ; some of them attain, occasionally, a depth of 50 feet. The main trend of the big quarry is northwest 25° ; and while the walls 182 of tany, gave an extraction of 935 pounds of fibre, or 6-5 per cent. The extraction of No. I fibre was very high, and amounted to over 1-1 per cent — a result not often obtained in mines of this class. Southwest half of Lot 13, Range IV, Broughton — hnown as the Roy Outcrops. About 1,000 feet in a northeasterly direction from the concession road — IV- V, 3 smaU pits show the extension of the belt in a southwesterly direction, with the serpentine much shattered, due to atmospheric agencies : it appears talcose, and when exposed to the air takes a white tarnish. Some good slip fibre was seen in the cracks and interstices of the serpentine; a small percentage of it being- brittle. The property is covered heavily with bushes, and no further investiga- tions could be made. Northeast half of Lot IS, Range Y. A good deal of prospecting and exploration has been done all over this prop- erty, with the result that, close to the southwest-northeast division line of the property, good slip fibre similar to the occurrence on the southeasterly part — now worked by the Boston Asbestos Company, was discovered in a small pit, close to the northern contact with the schist formation. The results so far obtained encourage further exploration and development work. Northeast — (East\ part of Lot 13, Range VII, Broughton. This property is located between that of the Broughton Asbestos Fibre Com- pany, to the southwest, and that of the Eastern Townships Asbestos Company, to the northeast. There is a large development of serpentine on this property; containing towards the southern boundary, and more especially to the southwest, a productive stretch of asbestos rock. Several small pits have been made in that portion, exhibiting milling material of good quality. This stretch is a continua- 204 tion of the productive asbestos rock now worked by the Broughton Asbestos Fibre Company, and also of the Montreal and Glasgow asbestos property to the south. Lot IJf., Range VII, Broughton. This is the old Eraser property, which was worked some years ago. The serpentine has a slaty structure, and contains a number of small veins in one of the outcrops. Mining, however, has been confined to a peculiar vein which was developed on the southeast margin of the serpentine, close to the contact with the overlying schistose slates, which have at this place a dip to the southeast, at an angle of 65°. The asbestos vein, which in places assumes a thickness of 10" and 12", fol- lows a wall of soft talcose rock of soapstone, from 12" to 14" thick. The quality of the asbestos is excellent; but the veins are irregular, splitting up sometimes into fine strings disseminated through the serpentine, and at other places uniting and forming a continuous lead for about IQO feet. Some of the shorter fibre appears to be somewhat stiff and hard in texture. Wherever the vein assumed a large size, the fibre was soft and silky. Three shafts were sunk to a depth of 60, 62, and 78 feet, respectively, following the slope of the soapstone. Southwest half of Lot 13, Range VII, known as the Tanguay Lot. Close to the northeast, southwest range division line in the southeastern corner of the property, a number of pits, made several years ago, are in good asbestos ground, on the continuous belt of which the Broughton Asbestos Fibre Company is now working. The principal opening measures 40 x 28 feet, with a depth of 14 feet. The bottom of this pit, which was freed from water at the re- quest of the writer, exhibits fine asbestos veins from \" to |" thick. The serpentine here is a massive rock; shows few signs of dislocation and fracture; and exhibits excellent asbestos — a silky fibre, which would yield a fine quality of ' crude.' The southern and eastern walls contain milling material in a crushed serpentine; while the western wall shows rich asbestos mill stuff, also yielding some ' crude.' The continuation of the productive belt towards the southwest, is shown in 15 pits, made over a length of 500 feet: all showing, more or less, the occurrence of the ' slip ' fibre quality. There are, in the opinion of the writer, enough outcrops and pits on this property to warrant the erection of a milling jjlant. Southwest half of Lot 13, Range VIII, Broughton, known as the ' Taschereau' property. This property has since been acquired by the Montreal Asbestos Company. In the centre of this property, several pits, over a distance of 125 feet, are made in a crushed and highly fissured serpentine ; the fissures containing drawn out asbestos fibre — similar to the occurrences on the Tanguay property. At a distance of 1,250 feet along the division line of the property, in a southwesterly direction, the productive serpentine outcrops on a number of places. Eight pits 205 over a stretch of 550 feet towards the concession road are in fibrous serpentine of good milling quality. Plans for the erection of a 300 ton mill have been pre- pared. The Champlain Asbestos Company recently took over the property, and the installation of a complete mining and milling plant is contemplated in the near future. Northwest liaJf of Lot IS, Range IX, Broughton. A considerable development of serpentine exists in the northeasterly extrem- ity near the concession road VIII-IX ; the width of the serpentine, with a few interruptions of country rock, being from 600 to 800 feet. No work of any kind has been done on this property ; but several places have been found which bid fair to become likely producers of fibrous serpentine. This is a westerly continua- tion of the fibrous serpentine belt explored on the ' Taschereau ' property ; several good outcrops occur also along the concession road above named. Close to the northerly division line, between lots 12 and 13, and about 1,500 feet from the farmhouse of ' Lef ebvre,' a small pit has been sunk in good fibrous serpentine; which, when dry, takes a white tarnish, and exhibits asbestos ' slip ' fibre of good quality. Lot 13, Range X, BroiigJiton. A hilly, well wooded ridge, crosses this property near the northeast boundary line, in a north-south direction. This ridge is composed, mostly, of a dark green highly fissured and at places schistose serpentine. Along the middle line of the lot several excavations were made on the steep slope of the mountain, and a fibrous serpentine, similar to that in East Broughton, was encountered. The ex- tent of this fibrous rock appears to be considerable; but in the absence of any extended work on the property, figures as to size of the deposit can not be given. East half of Lot 2, Range V , Thetford. This property has since been acquired by the Berlin Asbestos Company, and a 4 cyclone plant is in course of construction. A continuation of the productive asbestos range has been discovered on this lot, near the western division line. Three pits have been opened over a distance of 150 feet in the direction of the belt. They all exhibit greenish schistose ser- pentine, containing a white, silky asbestos ' slip ' fibre, of good quality. In the easterly part of the lot, float asbestos has been found; indicating that the pro- ductive belt probably runs across the property. The development of serpentine on this property is probably extensive. ^Yest half of Lot 2. Range Y, Thetford. Several excavations in the easterly part of the property exhibit a fibrous serpentine rock similar to the rock found on the next lot. The principal pit meas- ures 8 X 10 feet, the bottom being in good fibrous material. 7068—20 20G Lot 0, Eancje V. Thetford. Thib property has since Iceu acquired by the Beaudoiu and Audette Asbestos Company, and a milling plant is in course of erection. At the foot of a mountainous ridge, the serpentine outcrops on several places, and continues across the lot into the adjacent lot to the west — No. 10. The grou)id near the western boundary has been stripped over an area of 120 x 60 feet, and in one place a pit was sunk some 10 feet deep in a rich accumulation of asbestos veins. The fibre when freshly mined is of a greenish colour, and is somewhat different from that found in Thetford and Black Lake; but when worked up into fibre material appears to possess all the requisite qualities of a good commercial article. The width of the productive serpentine between walls of country rock at the place above referred to, is about 100 feet. The length of the productive belt so far available is 250 feet ; but it seems likely that additional productive ground may be discovered farther up the mountain. Lot 10, Bange Y, Thetford. Towards the easterly boundary in the direction of lot 9, a pit sunk in ser- pentine several feet deep exhibits a number of asbestos veins of excellent quality. No effort, however, has been made to determine the exact dimensions of the l)roductive belt. Lot IS, Range V, Thetford. In the northerly part of this property, some development work has been done over an area 750 x 450 feet. This work consists of 8 trenches, one open-cut, and one pit, all located on the slope of a hilly ridge. The principal pit on the foot of the hill measures 85 x 25 feet — (depth on account of water not measurable.) The easterly side of the pit exhibits solid, massive serpentine; and over a space of 8 X 6 feet, and 18 feet long, good asbestos fibre, from Y' to f" can be seen; which yields, besides some crude, good milling material. The dump close to this pit contains milling rock and waste; the latter, evidently, not having been kept apart. The next important work is an open-cut, at a distance of 450 feet in an easterly direction from the pit above referred to. This cut has a length of 150 feet, is 6 feet at the entrance and 20 feet wide at the face of the cut, with a height of the latter of 15 feet. The serpentine is highly schistose; but contains some good ' slip ' fibre and vein fibre — the latter predominating. The other trenches, located between this cut and the pit, serve to show the quality of the rock all along the slope of the hill; and it appears probable that a large deposit of good mill rock exists in this portion of the property. Near Kinnears Mills, in the township of Leeds, several outcrops of serpen- tine have been found; but, so far. not much asbestos has been found in them. In the concession of Ste. Catherine on the road east of St. Sylvestre, some ex- ploration work was done, but nothing of Importance was found. 207 East of the railway, in Tlietford, serpentine is seen on lots 10 and 11, range VII; on lots 14, 15, and 16, range VIII; lots 14, and 15, range IX; and on lots 5, 7, 9, and 10, range X, The rocks in all these places do not belong to the productive variety. In Adstock several outcrops of serpentine can be found; but the rock seems to lack asbestos, in paying quantities. Lot 26, Range A, Coleraine. — Here, several large pits have been opened; but most of them are now under water. Indications of veins are quite numerous; but the rock as a whole appears to belong to the harder and drier variety, indi- cating an approach to the comparatively barren belt farther to the southeast. A number of short fibre veins occur in this area ; but, generally, the output appears to be mostly milling material. On lot 25 a little work of an exploratory character has been done, and the rock here also appears to be of the harder quality. Lot 21, Range A, C olei^aine.— Several pits have been opened on a ridge of serpentine, which strikes in an eastern direction through the country. From one pit, measuring 75 feet long, 50 feet wide, and of shallow depth, about 1,000 tons of rock have been taken, which carried good fibre, short, and long, yielding a large percentage of milling material. The serpentine is conspicuous, on account of the occurrence of distinct seamy partings, generally of a whitish colour, most of which carry in the middle, very fine, silky, veins of asbestos. In the bottom of one excavation a number of veins of very fine fibre were noticed, reaching in places, a thickness of I2" and 2". There are a number of dikes of granite cutting the serpentine on this property, and it appears that in the vicinity of these dikes milling material, as a general rule, is plentiful. Many shallow openings, made all over the property on outcrops, show more or less the occurrence of the mineral. Lot 32, Range A, Coleraine. — Some work of an exploratory character has been done on this lot, known as the Hayden property. The rock is a somewhat slaty serpentine of good character ; but nowhere exhibits such massiveness as that of the Thetford areas. A good showing of veins was found, and the fibre appears to be of satisfactory quality. Lot 23, Range B, Coleraine. — An excellent asbestos fibre, very similar to the beautiful Thetford variety, has been found in the northwesterly part of the prop- erty. Several pits along the line between lots 23 and 24, show quite a number of veins. However, not enough work has been done to determine the extent of the productive formation. Lots 2k. and 25, Range III, Ireland. — This property was at one time operated by King Bros., of Thetford. The elevation of the openings above lake level is about 800 feet. The serpentine here, presents a roughly bedded appearance, with a dip to the northwest of 35° to 40° ; in which the fibre was also found in zones, varying in length from i" to 1". 7068— 204 208 Some No. I and No. II ' crude ' was obtained, and about 500 tons of asbestos were extracted and shipped to Coleraine station, a distance of five miles. On lot 2G, range III, there is a knoll of serpentine in which a number of veins of short fibre can be seen. Around the sides of Silver mountain, which is the prominent peak west of the lake, small veins were also disclosed, but the dis- trict as a whole appears to be unproductive, and no serious mining has been attempted. Asbestos has been found on one of the islands of Nicolet lake, township of South Ham. The serpentine rock which forms the large island rises abruptly out of the water to the height of 70 feet, and is apparently seamed all through with fine asbestos veins. Quite a number of openings have been made, and they all show more or less that the serpentine contains likely asbestos rock of some value. The serpentine in some places has a steatitic feel and appearance, and some of the fibre apparently contains finely divided steatite. Picrolite is met with occasionally: this is generally brittle, and in some places emerges into moun- tain leather. Lot 13, Range VI, township of Ham — Two miles from St. Adrien Village. From the various outcrops, excavations, blastings, and other indications, it appears that the serpentine belt strikes through the lot in its southern part in an almost east-westerly direction, having a width approximately estimated at 12.5 feet. Its southerly boundary cannot be accurately established, on account of the heavy humus covering the formation ; but the northerly contact can be well recog- nized in a hilly ridge striking east and west, and which is composed of the quartzose Cambrian rocks, having the same strike, and a steep southerly dip. Most of the work on the property has been done on the southerly margin of the serpentine belt, and consists of 5 cuts, blastings, and excavations. The most southerly cut is a trench 5 feet wide, and about 20 feet long. Cut No. II is located at a distance of 230 feet in a westerly direction from No. I, and consists of a rock cut in the hillside, 15 feet long, and 8 feet wide, with a face 15 feet high. Small veins |", i", and |" thick, occur in irregular fashion through a dark green, hard serpentine. No crude was observed. No. Ill constitutes a blasting on the side of the little hill, measuring 18 feet long, and 12 feet high. This rock face exposes a good showing of asbestos. Eight asbestos veins — three of wliich contained asbestos over Ih," long — occur almost parallel to each other, at intervals of from 2 to 3 feet, with a dip of r-bout 45° to the southeast. Small veins measuring |", |", and J", may be seen farther back of the rock face on the hillside for about 10 feet wide ; but no asbes- tos could be seen beyond this. The quality of asbestos seems to be good ; but when compared with the Thetford-Blaek Lake fibre has a glossy, almost vitreous aspect, when freshly broken, and the fibre, when drawn out, is of a white colour, lacking in silkiness. The serpentine is hard, and wherever the veins occur, black streaks accompany the same. It seems that in a more or less degree all these veins are confined to these darkened portions, that is. portions where a complete perpentinization has taken place. 209 Picrolite — a hard fibrous material, more or less brittle — may be seen in cracks or slickensided surfaces, and it seems that this product here is the direct result of the grinding movement of the rock mass. Xo. IV is located at a distance of 100 feet, in northwesterly direction from No. Ill, and consists of a rock cut into the serpentine hill. Small veins inter- mixed at places with picrolite can be perceived in irregular conformation over the rock face. The mass constitutes milling material of satisfactory quality. Xo. V is an excavation of the soil, several feet deep, at a distance of 420 feet in a northwesterly direction from No. IV. Serpentine was struck; but no asbes- tos was found. This excavation is located on lot 12, close to the division line between 12, and 13, range VI. So far it has been shown that, the length of the serpentine belt is 815 feet, and its width at least 105 feet. The distance from the next railway station — Weedon, on the Quebec Central railway, is twenty miles. The profitable ex- ploitation of this occurrence depends to a great extent on better transportation facilities. Bras du Sud-Ouest. — The outcrops on the Chaudiere river at the Bras du Sud-Ouest, present also different features from those in Thetf ord and Black Lake. Here, in many places, the rock is a serpentine breccia; being only partially ser- pentinized as an alteration apparently from a pyroxenic mass. At several places where the serpentine is better displayed, small veins of an impure asbestos are seen; but these are of no economic importance. The associated rocks are black, rusty slates, with bands of hard grits, and slate conglomerate. Diorite and gran- ite are found in the immediate vicinity. Des Plantes River. — Some asbestos has been found on the Des Plantes river,, on the north side of the Chaudiere, half a mile from the latter. Here, black and grey altered slates and quartzites are in contact with a dark, slaty serpentine, which is cut by dikes of a white granite. Some small veins of asbestos can be seen, but as no further work has been done on these outcrops, no definite opinion can be expressed. Soiiie encouraging features have been noticed on a property higher up the river, close to High Falls. Here, an open-cut was made in a knoll of serpentine, and quite a number of veins, though small, were encountered. The serpentine here has a different character from that met with in the property above described, in being compact, massive, and in showing vein fibre, instead of the slip fibre variety. More work must be done, however, before a definite estimate of the extent of the deposit can be given. Near Brompton Lal'e. — On lot 26, and half of lot 25, range IX, Brompton — comprising in all 350 acres, some work was done, in 1889, by the Brompton Asbestos Company, a Montreal corporation. It was reported that some of the fibre is of excellent quality. The rock is associated with great masses of diorite and slate containing white garnets and differs in many points from that of Thet- ford and Black Lake. It is harder, and darker coloured; and in places becomes talcose in appearance. The veins are often brittle, and without the fibrous character. The area, as a whole, has not been productive to any great extent. 210 The Eastman Locations. — A good deal of exploratory work was done in the years 1906, 1907, and 1908, around Eastman — a station on the Canadian Pacific railway, twenty-eight miles from Sherbrooke, and seventy-eight miles from Mon- treal. The serpentine belt south of this locality was the object of special atten- tion, with the result that some promising outcrops were located. Ijot 2, Range XI, Bolton. Two bands of a group of parallel asbestos stringers y up to |" thick, occur in a dark green massive serpentine on the side of a precipitous mountain, not far from Orford lake. This occurrence was opened up for over 15 feet by some blasting, and a small open-cut. A similar occurrence was noticed at a distance of 1,000 feet in a northeasterly direction; but there was not enough work done to study the extent of the deposit. (Juite a lot of work has been done on different parts of the property. The principal opening is in the centre of the lot on the side of a bluff, 40 feet wide, and from 6 to 8 feet high. The serpentine here is very hard, and siliceous; but at one place some narrow veins of asbestos were noticed; and parts of the dumps exliibit some good milling material. At a distance of 450 feet from this opening, and in a southerly direction, a pit 2-5 X 10 feet and several feet deep is in dark green, massive serpentine, con- taining some irregular small veins of asbestos. All the other places show similar conditions, and it appears that some of the asbestos partakes of the brittle character of the enclosing serpentine. Lot 9, Range VII, Bolton — Called the Parker Lot. Some work has been done on this lot, along a knoll of serpentine which is flanked to the east by hard siliceous country rock. An open-cut has been made along the side of the hill for a length of about 160 feet, and almost parallel to the contact with the country formation. This quarry exhibits a much fissured fibrous serpentine; asbestos stringers are frequent, and it seems possible that milling material in sufficient quantities may be encountered to keep a milling plant running. The westerly extension of the serpentine is very likely to be found in the flat to the west. The northerly extension of the serpentine belt can be seen in the denuded portions of a hilly range 250 feet distant, and here, on the slope of a little hill, small veins of asbestos have been found. Further development work should be done on this deposit to determine the actual value of the occurrence. The foundations for the milling plant have already been laid: close to a little lake at a distance of about 600 feet in a southerly direction from the mine. This property has been acquired by the Brome County Asbestos Development Company. Lot 10, Range VII — known as the Benoit Lot. The serpentine formation outcrops west of Trousers lake in the shape of sev- eral parallel, rocky, and steep ranges. The one most easterly, strikes in a north- 211 easterly direction through the country, and is approximately 400 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 100 feet high. Both the easterly and westerly sides of this ridge are steep and rocky, and the serpentine is well exposed. On the western side of this ridge is an adit 15 feet high, 12 feet wide, and 20 feet deep. The serpentine is of a dark green and grey colour; is harder than the ordinary run of serpentine; and contains, occasionally, some small veins of asbestos. The productive char- acter of this rock has not, as yet, been established. This property is now owned by the Brome County Asbestos Development Company. Among the other asbestos outcrops in the vicinity may be mentioned, spec- ially, the John Carpenter deposit on cadastral lot 948, north of Trousers lake, about three-fourths of a mile from the main road leading to St. Etienne, on the side of a low ridge with northeasterly strike. About 80 feet of blasting has been done all along the brow of the hill, in a dark green serpentine, which on the surface is in a crushed and foliated condition; but which becomes massive at a depth of a few feet. The exposed rock exhibits asbestos in a number of veins measuring from iV" to |" thick. The dumps from the blasting operations showed a fair percentage of asbestos fibre all through. The asbestos, though yielding some silky fibre, is to some extent brittle, and breaks up when subjected to mechanical force. Asbestos has been discovered on cadastral lot No. 967, belonging to E. T. Esty; also on lots 744, 768, 967, and 971, belonging to the Peasley family. These lots are located west of Lake Xick, near Bolton Centre. The lots are occupied by a high, hilly, comparatively well wooded, range of serpentine, on which prospecting work has disclosed some ten occurrences of asbestos fibre. The serpentine is massive, and of a very dark, almost black-green colour, and shows no signs of displacements and contortions. In some of the outcrops— especially on lot 969 — i" and y veins could be seen on the freshly blasted rock face; some of the fibre breaking up when subjected to force. The Mansonville Locations. Near Mansonville in the township of Potton, not far from the Vermont boundary line, several properties were examined; but with few exceptions the veins were not of sufilcient magnitude to encourage actual development work. On one property about three-fourths of a mile from the village, an extensive hilly ridge of serpentine occurs, with asbestos veins i" and |" thick, distributed through the rock-mass. Most of these veins were embedded in a bright green hornblende rock, forming, so to speak, seamy partings in the serpentine from I" to I" thick. The Richmond Locations. Some prospecting has been done over the serpentine range located in the immediate vicinity of the flag station— Coris— on the main line between Mon- treal and Sherbrooke, on the Grand Trunk railway, four miles east of the town of 212 liiehniond, and eighty miles from Montreal. Tlie area pruspeeted covers 600 acres, and more particularly the southwest half of lot 5, range XIV; the south- west half of lot G, range XIV, and the whole of lots 5 and 6, range XV, of the township of Cleveland, county of Kichmond. Blasting has been done on several places along the eastern slope of the mountainous range: on lot 6, on ranges XIV and XV. The most westerly deposit is located at a distance of about 1,500 feet in a northeasterly direction from the railway track near the foot of the hill. The opening was blasted along the hill- 5':ide in serpentine: the exposed rock face being 40 feet wide, and from 12 to 15 feet high. Asbestos veins occur along the rock face over a width of 3 feet : they are all parallel to each other, and are from ^" to |" thick. This whole accumiu- lation has the appearance of a lode, with distinct selvage planes striking north- east 70°, having a steep dip towards the north. Part of this asbestos serpentine lode has been mined, and the dumps near by contain some milling material. Another opening was made near the division line, on lot 6, between ranges XIV and XV; it was blasted along the hillside, 50 feet wide, and from 10 to 15 feet high; and quite a number of asbestos veins were laid open — most of them rfrom I" to I" thick. The property being located close to the main line of the Grand Trunk railway, possesses excellent transportation facilities. Shipton. Lot 12, Range V, Shipton. — In the northerly part of the lot, serpentine occurs; flanked by granite towards the west. This property was worked some fifteen years ago. Recently, operations were resumed, and a pit — measuring 20 X 25 feet, and 5 feet deep, was worked. Quite a number of asbestos veins and stringers could be seen in a dark green serpentine; the extent of the latter being evidently large. Lot 9, Range VIII, Shipton. — Not far from the 'pinnacle,' a stretch of ser- pentine has been explored, with the result that quite a number of small asbestos veins, occurring at intervals through the rock, were located. Similar occurrences to those reported in the township of Shipton may be seen on lot 12, range V; also on lots 9 and 10, range X, in the same township; some of them look quite promising, but it is recommended that more work should be done. Tingwick. Lots 20 and 21, Range VI. — A serpentine belt crosses these properties close to the centre; and considerable development work has been done on No. 20, near the boundary line between the lots. All the pits at the time of examina- tion were full of water; but the writer was able to see from several strippings that the serpentine is interwoven with asbestos veins \" and \" thick. This was specially noticeable on strippings from 10 to 20 feet wide around a pit measuring 40 X 50 feet. At another pit, at a distance of 150 feet in a westerly direction, similar conditions were noticed. This property is equipped with a small cyclone 213 mill; with a power house containing 2 boilers and steam engines; 1 saw mill; and a sleeping and cooking house. At present, operations are suspended. This serpentine crosses also lot 21, and can be closely studied near the creek which traverses it. It shows in different sections — especially in a little pit close to the creek — quite a considerable accumulation of asbestos veins, which, although the majority are small, would provide material for a mill of considerable magni- tude. The writer believes that two cuts on both sides of the creek into the serpentine would open up the property in a comparatively short time, and demonstrate its value. These two asbestos locations are nine miles from the next railway station — Danville. Lake Chibougamau. On Asbestus island a variety of serpentine occurs similar to that of Black Lake ; but whether it contains enough asbestos to warrant exploitation on a large scale is still an open question. Mr. Dulieux, M.E., Montreal, who made a visit to the Chibougamau region, expresses himself as follows on the subject^ : — ' Numerous attempts have been made to discover asbestos, for nearly everywhere in the serpentine are to be found small quantities of fibrous matter in the fissures. Except on the asbestos island, situated in the west part of Mackenzie bay, the prospectors have nowhere shown the existence of asbestos in marketable quantities. ' Asbestus island in its central portion consists of a green serpentine, impure and highly magnetic. Veins of a purer serpentine and lighter in colour, accompanied by veins of garnetiferous pyroxene, are found on an elevation on the highest part of the island. It is at this level, in close proximity to the veins of pyroxene, that the finest asbestos on the island is to be found. Certain pieces of serpentine in close contact with the pyroxene rock contain a high percentage of silky asbestos in little parallel veins. Unfortunately this proportion of asbestos diminishes very quickly in going away from the contact. ' Open-cuts were made on the .south slope of the island into the impure serpentine. At the time of my visit the cuts showed only a few thin veins of asbestos as well as veins of picrolite (hard asbestos). On the dump, how- ever, I could see blocks of serpentine thrown out during former operations, among which were fragments showing some fine veins of half to three- quarters of an inch in width.' Mr. Dulieux's conclusions are : — ' ITp to this date asbestos is not found in marketable quantities except on the asbestos island in Mackenzie bay.' It may be mentioned that the distance of this mineral zone frona Lake St. John is 170 miles. It is understood that a beginning will be made with the construction of a railway to that country during the summer of 1910. ^ The ' Chibougamau District ' ; paper read before the Annual Meeting of the Cana- dian Mining Institute, March, 1909. 214 CHAPTER VII. ASBESTOS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. United States. The production of asbestos in the United States is about 1 per cent of the Canadian, and becomes wholly unimportant when we consider that this 1 per- centage consists only of a low grade material; a grade which is not produced in any of the Canadian mines. The total output of the United States is composed of the variety which is generally known, mineralogically, under the name of ' am- phibole ' : the average price of which, in 1907, was only $18 per ton ; whereas the average price realized for the Canadian product, in the same year, was about $40 per ton. The United States, in 1906, produced 1,695 short tons of asbestos; but in 1907 the output decreased to 653 tons — a decline of over 61 per cent. The value of the asbestos (in part estimated), in 1907, was $11,899, and in 1908, $19,624. Nearly all of the output came from the Sail Moiuitain, and Hollywood mines in. Georgia and Vermont : which were the only States that furnished asbestos for the market in 1908 ; and nearly half of the quantity produced was exported. The imports in 1907 were : — Unmanufactured, $1,104,109, against $1,010,454 in 1906; manufactured, $200,371, against $65,716 in 1900. Total, $1,316,379 in 1907, against $1,076,170 in 1906. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1908, there were 50,503 tons of un- manufactured asbestos imported from Canada into the United States. This would seem to show that approximately 51 per cent (valued at about $1,314,337) of the total production of Canada, in 1908, went to the United States. During the same period the total importations of asbestos by that country, from Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom — the only other countries from which asbestos was obtained — amounted to less than $2,000. In 1907, the United States took 73 per cent of the total Canadian production : the falling off in 1908 being due to the great financial depression which was felt in all classes of industry. WYOMING. Asbestos has been known to exist on Casper mountain, and in the adjacent ranges in Natrona county, in the State of Wyoming, for many years; but no commercial vise was made of these deposits until the year 1908. The North American Asbestos Company has secured 1,000 acres of land on Casper mountain — seven miles south of the town of Casper, and has been pushing development work there during the past season. The main tunnel has shown a mass of asbestos rock 20 feet wide, and the full extent of the deposit is not yet 215 determined. The formation is serpentine, in granite and schist, the Lands rang- ing up to 200 feet wide, with the asbestos showing for some two miles along their course. The Wyoming Construction Asbestos Company has property on Casper mountain, and on Smith creek, where their principal quarries will be located. The asbestos has been opened there by cuts and strippings, and shows a formation similar to the Casper Mountain deposits, the serpentine stripped showing a width of about 300 feet. Mr. T. S. Diller^ reports on the Wyoming asbestos deposits as follows: — ' There are two districts of asbestos bearing rocks in the Casper region — one on Casper mountain, nine miles directly south of Casper, embracing approximately an area equal to three sections, and the other half as large on Smith creek, 30 miles southeast of Casper. ' In both districts the asbestos occurs in serpentine almost wholly in the form of cross fibre veins. It is chiefly chrysotile, but the fact that some of it has a considerable degree of brittleness suggests that it may be amphi- bole. This is true especially of the small quantity of slip fibre which occurs minute parallel veins of asbestos, which range from a mere fibre to 5", in thickness. The larger ones are generally jointed or banded parallel to the vein walls, thus parting the fibre into shorter lengths. ' The most common type of asbestos bearing rock is banded by numerous minute porallel veins of asbestos, which range from a mere fibre to i", rarely Y% in. thickness. These cross-fibre veins are so abundant in places that they form from 20 to 50 per cent of the banded rock. The belts of banded rock range from a foot to several feet in thickness. ' Much of the serpentine is covered by soil. Weathering is deep and impairs the asbestos near the surface. The best exposures of fibre are in some of the deeper shafts. This does not mean that the quantity of asbestos increases with the depth, but to some extent the quality may improve. ' The highest grades, Nos. 1 and 2 crude, are practically absent from most of the area already prospected, but there are locally considerable masses of rock suitable for milling. They constitute, however, a small per- centage of the whole body of the serpentine. ' The serpentine is cut by the granite of the same region, and although the intrusion of the granite may be regarded as resulting in the formation of much of the asbestos, yet it must not be forgotten that the granite limits the serpentine.' NORTH CAROLINA. A discovery of asbestos is reported at Taylorsville near the Tredell county line, North Carolina: the extent of which is not yet known. In Yancey county, of the same State, about eight miles west of Spruce Pine, ■on the road to Burnsville, near the junction of the North and the South Toe rivers, chrysotile-asbestos has been found in some quantity on a hill which rises about 300 feet above the surrounding country. The fibre is of good quality : and although little work has been done on the deposit, the serpentine has been proved to contain asbestos for a distance of 250 feet in length, by 50 to 75 feet in width. A tunnel running about 35 feet below the outcrop, encountered the same chryso- tile-asbestos at that depth. 1 Extract of Mineral Resources of United States for 1907. 216 ARIZONA. lu 1DU3, a deposit of chrysotile-asbestos was found in Arizona, at the head of Pinto creek, twenty-three miles west of Globe, Gila county. This deposit was located by Mr. M. L. Shackelford, of Prescott, Arizona. The asbestos bearing serpentine can be traced for over three miles, and the asbestos deposits are as a rule found on the contact with the country rock. Samples of this asbestos have teen examined, and were found to be of good quality; the fibres varying from a fraction of an inch to 2" and 3" in length. The only work done on this deposit up to the present time was one year's assessment work; so that there is not very much known, as yet, regarding the extent of the deposit, or the per- centage of asbestos that can be obtained in mining. Within the last few years deposits have been found on the north side of the Grand Canon, twenty-five miles northwest of Grand Canon station, in the vicinity of Bass Ferry. The Grand Canon at this point is 4,500 feet deep, and the asbes- tos occurs about 450 feet above the bottom. Mr. T. S. Diller^ reports on these occurrences as follows : — ' The Grand caiion exposes an excellent section of the Carboniferous, Cambrian, Algonkian, and Archaean rocks. The Algonkian is markedly un- conformable with the overlying Cambrian as well as the underlying Archaean, and forms a wedge-shaped mass with its edge along the canon near its bottom, and thickening rapidly to the north. The asbestos occurs in the basal portion of the Algonkian. This is made up, first, of a few feet of siliceous conglomerate, overlaid by about 50 feet of variously coloured fine shaly beds, locally calcareous or serpentinous. Then follows 15 feet of whitish limestone containing layers and nodules of serpentine with more or less asbestos. ' Above the asbestos limestone comes a heavy layer of compact diabase about 200 feet thick, and above the diabase is a bed of limestone and shaly rocks similar to those immediately below the diabase. A little asbestos may be seen in the limestone above the diabase, but it is much more abun- dant in the lower limestone. ' The asbestos bearing limestone below the diabase varies considerably from place to place, but for the most part, has approximately the following section: compact limestone, 1-8 feet, serpentine with veins of asbestos, 1-2 feet, banded whitish limestone, 12 feet. ' The upper and lower portions of the limestone may contain some bands and nodules of serpentine, but they are not as persistent as the intermediate layer of serpentine, in which is found nearly all the asbestos. It occurs in cross-fibre veins which lie parallel to the bedding in the limestone. ' The cross-fibre veins range from a small fraction of an inch to about 3" in width, and are remarkable for their golden yellow colour, as well as for the tensile strength of the fibre. ' The overlying diabase looks unaltered, and at its contact with the limestone is distinct, except where the top of the limestone is serpentine. ' The facts observed in the field appear to indicate that the serpentine which includes the asbestos (chrysotile) is derived from some mineral in the limestone and not from the diabase. Conclusive evidence concerning its derivation cannot be obtained until the rocks are examined in the labora- 1 Ibid. 217 tory. If the suggested conclusion proves to be true, the Grand Caiiou asbestos affords a type quite different in origin from any yet found at other localities in the United States. ' Four asbestos claims have been taken up, one on the upper and three on the lower limestone, along which the thin belt of included asbestos bear- ing serpentine has been prospected in a number of shallow open-cuts for over half a mile. The continuity of the narrow asbestos belt is very irregu- lar, and disappears locally, but it is abundant enough in places to suggest the probability that jSTos. 1 and 2 crude fibre, carefully selected from the veins, may be mined to a small extent at a profit. It does not seem at all probable, however, considering the limited quantity, location, and distribu- tion of the deposit, that it would pay the mill.' CALIFORNIA. Prospecting continues in the large mass of serpentine cut by the caiiou of American river, two miles east of Towle, on the Southern Pacific railway, in Tlacer county, Cal. The canon is more than 1,000 feet deep, and affords excel- lent exposures. Several tunnels have been run into the steep slope to the depth of 100 feet, or more. Small veins of short, cross fibre, and irregular sheets of strong flexible slip fibre have been discovered; but they are too sparsely distri- buted to be mined with profit for the fibre" alone. Several deposits have been opened up lately near Green Valley, not far from Alta. It is reported that Eastern capital is interested, and that the mine will loe thoroughly developed. TEXAS. According to Mr. T. S. Diller^ a dull, greenish amphibole asbestos — possibly ^ctinolite — found in Texas, is mixed with other ingredients to maUo asbestos paint. \7RGINIA. Bedford county, Virginia, has been reported as producing asbestos for a number of years; but did not produce any in 1907. The quarries — located in Bedford and Franklin counties — are now inactive and the mill at Bedford City, for fiberizing material, is closed. The Bedford asbestos quarries are on the Hubbard farms, twelve miles south •of Bedford City, and are spread over two areas : one, about 2 acres, and the other, 5 acres. The asbestos rock is of two types: one — like that of Sail mountain, Ga. — is •essentially fibrous, and amphibole ; while the other is peridotite, composed chiefly •of a granular mineral which appears to be olivine, with numerous acidular crys- tals, and fibrous bundles of anthophyllite. In the amphibolite the fibres are arranged in groups or bundles lying in all ■directions — mass fibre similar to that of the Sail Mountain mines of Georgia. 1 Extracts fram Report of Mr. T. S. Diller, United States Mineral Resources for 1907. 218 Only a small deposit ol' it occui's in the Bedlord region. In the northern part of the area, a vertical dike-like mass of this amphibolite, 5 feet wide with a strike north 80° west, lies parallel to the schistosity between masses of pyroxene-horn- blende schist. It seems most probable that the amphibolite, composed of mas& fibre asbestos, at Bedford, Virginia, and Sail mountain, Georgia, is derived from pyroxenite; but the evidence favouring this view cannot be considered in this paper. The peridotite type of asbestos rock is cut by a few small veins of cross fibre anthophyllite, from |" to |" in length. The fibre is flexible, and somewhat elas- tic ; but it has numerous cross fractures, and unlike chrysotile, is short and brittle. This rock is cut also by occasional planes of shearing, along which there have been developed vein-like masses of slip fibre, which lie parallel to the plane of slipping. These are the masses which attract the attention of the prospectors,, and are the parts that have been mined. They are locally 18" thick, and have a length along the strike of about 30 feet. How far they have been followed in depth could not be learned, and the holes were filled with water at the time of the writer's visit. These masses of slip fibre are very irregular, and, as far a? yet known, too small to furnish a reliable basis of mining operations. Franklin County. — A small quantity (40 tons) of slip fibre has been mined near Eocky mound, in Franklin county. The vein, with strike south 50° east, and steep dip to the northeast, lies parallel to the schistose structure of the enclosing amphibolite. It has been mined out in a shaft nearly 40 feet in depth. The amphibolite is much altered. Its principal constituent is acidular crystals, and fibrous bundles of a colourless mineral with cleavage like amphibolite. It looks very like anthophyllite; but has inclined extinction, hence is probably tremolite. All these asbestos bearing rocks of the Rocky Mountain region are practi- cally amphibolite. Locally, it contains some olivine, and is much altered to chlorite and serpentine. In none of the outcrops prospected does the amphibolite contain a sufficiently large percentage of asbestos to indicate clearly the proba- bility of profitable mining. There are two belts of amphibolite lying between masses of mica schist which has a remarkably regular cleavage ; so" that it can be split into thin slabs, yards in extent, and has been quarried for curbing and flagging. The schistose structure is not nearly so prominent in the amphibolite as in the neighbouring mica schists. There is a large development of serpentine on Belvedere mountain, in the extreme western portion of Lowell. Several discoveries of short asbestos fibre were made in 1893, and were regarded as sufficiently encouraging to warrant the erection of a milling plant on the southeastern slope of Momit Belvedere; but the venture was not successful. According to Prof. Kemp\ the asbestos occurs in * United States Mineral Kesonrces, 1900, page 862. 219 two distinct and contrasted varieties. In one case it forms veins which ramify in every direction through the serpentine. The asbestos fibres are perpendicular, or at a high angle to the walls, and vary from a maximum length, of |" — as at ])resent exposed — down to not more than i^" . The variety is similar in all respects to the Canadian product; but it is only met in the prospects owned by Mr. Tucker, at Tuckers mill, and near Lowell. The second variety of asbestos is ' slip ' fibre ; because it occurs on the slickensided surface common to the ex- posure of serpentine, which is characteristic all the world over. These fibres form layers of varying thickness, seldom more than \" ; but inasmuch as they run parallel to the slickensided surfaces, they may, themselves, be of several lengths, from a fraction of an inch to 3" or 4". The fibre is coarser than that of the vein, hence does not furnish so good a grain ; it is, however, more abun- • dant. A milling plant has recently been erected by the Lowell Lumber and Asbestos Company — with Mr. William Gallagher as president — on the southern slope of Belvedere mountain, on what was formerly known as the Tucker property, and since the autumn of 1909, has been in constant operation. The mine is located at an elevation of 1,500 feet above sea-level, and about 50O feet over the surround- ing country. The productive belt is abovit 300 feet wide. The serpentine is of greenish, mottled colour, and in its outward appearance is entirely different from that of Black Lake and Thetford. It carries asbestos veins up to 1" thick; but the fibre, as a rule, is divided in the middle, parallel to the walls, by a seamy parting of serpentine, sometimes containing fine grains of magnetite, and chrome iron ore. At the time of the writer's visit, in March, 1910, the main working pit, which represents an open-cut, was 75 feet wide, with a rock face of 40 feet. These veins ramify through the rock in irregular fashion, and some rich rock is occasionally met with. About one-half of the serpentine goes to the dump, and the balance is a milling material of good quality. No ' crude ' is obtained. The mill is capable of treating about 200 tons per day, and the fibre produced compares favourably with that found in Canadian mines. The absence of an electric power plant, and the distance of twelve miles from the next railway sta- tion, Johnson — on a branch of the ' Boston-Maine ' — is somewhat of a handicap to the economical exploitation of the deposits; but plans are under consideration for the construction of a hydro-electric power plant, on a tributary of the Mis- sisquoi river, three miles distant; also for the construction of a branch railway line. The mine produces between 15 and 20 tons of fibre per day. GEORGIA. The principal part of the asbestos production in the United States comes from the Sail Mountain quarry in White county: owned by the Sail Mountain Asbestos Company. Mining was first commenced in 1894; and subsequently a small mill was built producing about 10 tons a day. Mr. T. S. Diller^ reports on these and other occurrences as follows: — 1 Ibid. 220 ' The asbestos mined at Sail inoiiiitiiiu is mass fibre. It is of an entirely (litl'erent t,V])e from the most part of that mined elsevvhere in the United States or Canada. The rock is amphibolite, its whole mass is made up of f?roui)s or bundles of more or less radial, fibrous asbestos, which ranges in length from 1^" down to a small fraction of an inch. ' These radial fibres tend to form spherical bunches, but with interferent crystallization these bodies are only imperfectly developed, and in most eases the radial structnre is lost in an irregular accumulation of fibrous sheaves or bunches running in all directions and giving the rock an aspect of coarse granular crystallization. None of the fibrous amphibolite masses are schistose, though near the edge they sometimes pass into talc schist with definite fissile structure. ' The fibrous amphibolite, composed of anthophyllite where best devel- oped and freshest in the Sail Mountain mines, is greyish white, and com- posed so largely of asbestos fibre that according to the estimate of the superintendent, S. B. Logan, considerably over 90 per cent of the original rock is realized as fibre. ' Besides a little talc and carbonate of lime, the best ro3k contains numerous small grains of pyrite and magnetite, which, upon alteration stain the fibre brown with iron oxide, and in the course of time the whole mass softens without losing its fibrous structure. The tensile strength of the fibre is reduced in this change, but sufficient strength still remains to make the fibre useful as a binder when mixed with other material. ' The occurrence and persistence of these masses of fibrous amphibolite is a matter of prime importance, and the mines at Sail mountain throw considerable light upon the subject. Within an area a little more than one- eighth mile square, there are six separate masses, each one roughly elliptical in shape. Three of these, embracing the most important, are in line, with their longer axes approximately parallel and running north 80° east. They are all embedded in gneiss which is well exposed at many points in the mine, and in places appears to be cut by the amphibolite as an eruptive. ' The largest mass of amphibolite (the original discovery) had a length of about 75 feet, and a width, near the middle, of 50 feet. It is nearly mined out at depth of 50 feet, and unless a small remnant at the south- west corner shows connexion downward, as seems improbable from the course of the walls exposed, the mass is completely cut off below by the gneiss. ' The two smallest masses have been completely removed, showing a continuous exposure of the decomposed gneissoid rocks beneath. The rela- tions of the three remaining amphibolite bodies to the gneiss have not been fully determined. The quality of the remaining bodies is inferior to that of the largest body, but they will supply the mill for some years to come. ' Cleveland and Soque. — Near Cleveland, five miles southwest of Sail mountain, there is a group of comparatively small, undeveloped masses of fibrous amphibolite, like that of Sail mountain. These are in a belt, trending about 41° east, almost directly towards the Sail Mountain locality. They are surrounded by gneiss. The Sail Mountain Company owns this prop- erty and hauls the material to the Sail Mountain mill. ' Near Soque. seven miles northeast of Sail mountain, are small areas of exposed amphibolite with short fibre. The amphibolite is here associated in the same ledge with a fresh rock that is composed chiefly of a mineral which appears to be pyroxene or olivine, with numerous acidular crystals and fibrous bundles of orthorhombic amphibolite, probably anthophyllite. 221 ' The rocks, like those of Bedford and Rocky Mount, Va., and unlike those of Sail mountain, and Cleveland, Ga., have been sheared, and locally, on the planes of shearing, contain considerable slip fibre, which attracted the attention of the prospectors. The strike of the amphibolite belt, as well as of the plane of shearing, is approximately north 70° west. Several other localities of the same material occur farther northeast, in Haber- sham and Eabun counties. One of them, the Miller property, was worked many years ago, but as far as known they are not of economic importance. * Hollywood mine. — A small production of asbestos, in 1907, was reported, by the National Asbestos Company, from a mine near Hollywood, in Haber- sham county, Ga., where a new mill was operated for a few mouths and then closed. The rock is firm and comparatively fresh. The least altered portion is composed of coarse granular pyroxene and acidular fibrous amphibolite (asbestos), with much talc, chlorite, and magnetite.' Philippine Islands. In the Philip-pine Journal of Science, also in the Far Eastern Review for June, 1907, Warren D. Smith gives an account of prospects of asbestos in Ilocos Norte, in the northern part of the island of Luzon. There has been no produc- tion, nor, indeed, much definite prospecting. It is certain, however, that there is a large mass of pyroxenite and serpentine in that region; and it contains locally some asbestos, part of which is fibrous serpentine; but most of it is of the amphibole type. It appears that the asbestos is sufficiently abundant to jus- tify thorough prospecting with a view to determining its workability. The asbestos is of two varieties, the ' parellel ' and the ' cross ' fibre, with the former predominating. The ' cross ' fibre variety — probably ' chrysotile ' — has not been found so far in any quantities ; but the other quality, according to Mr. Smith, is found in several places, and consists largely of the minerals ' an- thophyllite ' and ' tremolite,' both belonging to the ' amphibole ' group. Newfoundland. In the beginning of the nineties, last century, some excitement amongst asbestos men was caused by the alleged discovery of fine asbestos in large quan- tities in the serpentines on the west coast, chiefly in the vicinity of Port au Port bay. The rocks with which asbestos bearing serpentines are most commonly associated in the Province of Quebec, form a considerable belt along the west coast of Newfoundland. In these rocks, which consist of slates, sandstones, diorites, and tremolites, are also to be seen large masses of serpentine similar to that at Thetford. Here and there, also, are huge mountains of magnesian lime- stone, and in the region of Grand lake, and other isolated sections, are found carboniferous basins. Still, this entire area, extending about 100 miles north and south, and the entire width of the island east and west, can be safely called a serpentine country; and contains — according to Mr. Jas. P. Howley's estimate — 5,097 square miles of serpentine rocks. Mr. C. E. Willis\ of Halifax, and Mr. Hobert Jones,* of London, England, have spent considerable time in the investi- 1 Canadian Mining Review, 1893, page 207. " ' Asbestos,^ by K. Jones, 1897. page 55. 7068—21 222 gation of these asbestos deposits, and a brief account, therefore, ol their character may be opportune. The serpentines, with the granulite dikes which everywhere intersect the country rock, contain vast deposits of minerals, and are, to-day, with the excep- tion of the immediate coast line, nearly virgin fields for the prospector and miner. The existence of asbestos in this great belt of serpentine has long been known, and several well known geologists in their writings have predicted that it would be discovered in quantities sufficiently large to be of economic value. On the eastern coast of Port au Port bay, rising out of the sea to a nearly vertical height of 1,800 feet, is a mountain known as Bluff Head. This mountain deter- mines the southern boundary of the serpentines. Por many miles north, the coast line is precipitous and lofty, culminating at Cape Gregory in a bluff nearly 2,500 feet high. At Bluff Head, and extending for about one mile north, the beach is com- posed of conglomerate, very hard, and highly polished on the surface by the action of the surf which breaks upon it. The beach is strewn with boulders of all sizes, which have fallen down from the cliffs, and nearly all of them contain seams of asbestos, while the conglomerate of the beach itself is filled with it. It was here that the asbestos first attracted much notice. Long known to the fishermen of the neighbourhood as ' cotton rock,' it came to the knowledge of the Honourable Daniel Cleary of St. Johns, who equipped a small expedition to do some prospecting in the neighbourhood. A great many claims were at once secured, and in a short time some thirty square miles were taken up by prospectors and speculators. Development work was started; but it appears that no operations on a large scale were conducted on any of the properties. Most of the development work was done by the Halifax Asbes- tos Company. The work extended for many hundred feet along a gulch through the surface drift. In each opening, small veins of asbestos were found ; while the surface drift, which varied from 3 to 12 feet in depth, was in most cases satura- ted with loose fibre, entirely free from the matrix ; the result of the decomposition of the serpentine through the action of frost and weather. The fibre is mostly short ; specimens, however, of 2" in length, have occasion- ally been found. It is claimed that the peculiar green tinge of the asbestos; the colour and composition of the serpentine; the granulite dikes, and many other geological peculiarities go to prove the remarkable similarity of this region to the asbestos region of Quebec. However, as already stated, nothing beyond work of an exploratory character has been undertaken on any of the properties, and on account of the remoteness of the districts, and the sporadic and erratic occurrence of the asbestos, there is no likelihood that Newfoundland will ever become ' Quebec's greatest rival ere long,' as an enthusiast puts it. Russia and Siberia. The Russian (Ural) asbestos is becoming in a small way a competitor with the Canadian asbestos; but only in the spinning quality. The freight charges « 7068— 21i 223 -tfrom the Russian mines to the seaboard are so high, namely, from $30 to $35 per ton, that the lower grades cannot be shipped economically, and, therefore, do not compete seriously with the Canadian fibre. The Russian lower grades are used, like the Thetford mill fibre, for the manufacture of shingles, and are absorbed principally in home consumption. These lower grades are cleaned by a certain washing process, of which little is known, but it is a noteworthy fact that the Russian asbestos is remarkably free from rock matter. Russian asbes- tos is mostly sold in Europe ; some of it is used by the ' Bell ' people of London ; also by Messrs. Turner and Company, of Glasgow. About 1,000 tons are used annually in the United States; the larger portion being used in Germany. The history of the Russian asbestos is not generally known. About 190 years ago — in 1720, asbestos was discovered in the Ural mountains, and 40 years later, under the reign of ' Peter the Great,' there was established, near the Neviansky works, a factory for the manufacture of asbestos articles; but the applications and uses for the mineral were very limited, hence the industry almost disappeared. It was not until twenty-five years, after the discoveries in Canada became known, that asbestos mining in the Urals was revived. The chief indus- try is now centred along the Sysert river, 30 versts from the Sysertsky works on the ' Asbestos mountain,' which is entirely composed of serpentine. The prin- cipal quarries are near the station of Baskenovo ; the companies established at this centre comprise: — (1) Poklevsky-Koziell Successors — producing 200,000 poods^ per annum; (2) Baron Girardeau-de-Soukanton — 150,000 poods per annum; (3) Korevo — 130,000 poods per annum; (4) Kreutzer & Devallet — 15,000 poods per annum; and (5) Baron Kusov — 1,000 poods per annum. According to Professor A. A. Inostrantxey* — a well known Russian geolo- gist — the strip runs approximately 9 versts, and is about 600 sajens wide. There are others who afiirm that the asbestos layers are 10 versts in length, and about 2 versts wide. Operations are everj^vhere on the surface, the width of layer not being precisely determined. The asbestos fibres are perpendicular to the surface of the vein, and are easily separated from the ore. The whole locality represents a sort of underground cobweb of asbestos, penetrating everywhere into the clefts and slits of the predominant serpentine. About 20 poods of pure asbestos is obtained from a cubic sajen of ore, i.e., approximately from 2 to 3 per cent. This asbestos is of excellent quality; it gives a thin, elastic, and strong fibre, from which a soft wadding is prepared. Pokleffsky's works are making thereof, different sorts of yarn. From a short- haired asbestos are prepared sheets for fireproof roofs, trimming walls, etc. The long-haired is worked separately from the short-haired. The long-haired is un- wound on runners, and sifted on sieves with holes 2 square centimetres, on which the fibres remain; which are used for making an asbestos cartoon. The short- ^1 pood=36 pounds. 62 poods=l ton, of 2,240 pounds. 1 verst = 500 sajens, or 0-66 mile. 9 roubles 45 kopecks=£l. 1,000,000 roubles =£105,767. 2 London Mining Journal, July 4, 1908, page 8. 224 haired asbestos is crumpled on light crushing mills; the fibres being precipitated in sloping recesses, and the turbid sediment sent to the precipitating reservoirs. The fibres of asbestos are worked like wool and cotton on combing machines, and jig-mills; and then a yarn is manufactured on spinning looms, which is afterwards worked into asbestos twist and rope. The statistics show that the production of asbestos in the Ural mountains has been steadily increasing during the last fifteen years : — ■ Poods. 64,654 34,027 (>3,022 47,815 62,407 101,6.33 164,430 Poods. 1893 1894 1895 1896 1900 1901 1902 1906 234,756 268,537 275,183 489,680 1897 1898 1899 1907 1908 571,194 = 9,3.56 gross tons 9,500 tons (estimated). The exportation of Russian asbestos has not increased materially in the last three years. This seems to indicate, that the foreign manufacturers have not yet taken seriously to the employment of Russian asbestos in place of the Canadian product. In the year 1907' the total Russian exports were 453,760 poods, valued at 1,070,122 roubles. The distribution was as follows: — To Germany To United Kingdom . To Austria To Holland To France Poods, 140,471 93,273 160,991 27,951 15,029 Value. Houbles. 440,725 281,121 166,149 84,762 48,792 The exports from Russia for the last four years were as follows; 1906. 402,000 840,000 1907. 1908. 1909. Up to end of Nov., only. Poods. .. 453,000 1,070,000 453,000 1,131,000 451,000 Value in roubles 1,129,000 ^ From Russian Official Export Returns. 225 The imports of asbestos: crude, fibre, and manufactured, for 1906, 1907, and 1908, were as follows: — In lumps, poods ... Value in roubles In powder or fibre, poods Value in roubles In form of pasteboard, poods Value in roubles ... In form of yarn or manufactures except pasteboard, poods. Value in roubles 1906. 15,000 48,000 6,000 22,000 10,000 74,000 9,000 86,000 1907. less than 1,000 1,000 5,000 16,000 7,000 43,000 8,000 75,000 1908. 4,000 16,000 7,000 25,000 8,000 57,000 7,000 70,000 The selling price of asbestos in the Ural depends on the quality of the fibres. Some time ago asbestos of the best quality was sold at 3-20 rbl. per pood; second quality 1-50 rbl.; and third quality from 1-20 rbl., to 1-50 rbl., per pood. Now- adays, the prices are much higher. But these figures refer only to small parcels, it being impossible to obtain large amounts ; because all the above-mentioned large concerns have contracted ahead for the sale of their output. Owing to the increase in prices, and the demand for asbestos, miners have begun to prospect other localities in the Ural. Thus in 1907, the Local Board of State Domains has issued to Mr. S. A. Podiakonov, Mining Engineer, nine- teen permit certificates, to enable him to prospect for asbestos on the grounds of the Bashkirs, in the Province of Orenburg. Considerable finds of asbestos of great body and fine quality have been made in the Orenburg (Russia) district, covering large areas. The discovery refers to two places, named Peyan-tchin and Ak-Zigit, respectively; the area of the latter asbestiferous ground being estimated at 48 square versts. The deposits are found in the form of large strata of serpentine, amongst siliceous schist and porphyry. The strata are intersected by many veins of serpen- tine, which contains the asbestos. These veins in many cases rise right to the surface; and where the ground is stony, and there is no soil on the top, they are quite visible. The veins extend to various lengths: varying from 350 to 1,400 feet, and even 2,100 feet ; and it has been found that at that depth the mineral does not change in form, and that the quality even improves. The fibre taken singly seems to be quite white; but in bulk the colour is olive green. It is beautifully soft and woolly. The average content in asbestos is 15 per cent; but at times, it reaches as high as 80 per cent. As regards quality, it resembles chrysotile. It is a striking fact, that at depth the quality of the fibre improves. The second deposit pre- sents conditions and wealth of content similar to those of the first described, and to all appearance the volume of the reserves is equally large. It is added that two other areas are now being investigated, and that they show signs similar to those above enumerated. The quarries are located in the Orsk district and are owned by the South Urals Asbestos Company, which Company has already built a factory and other 226 buildings on the ground. The properties are rented from the Bashkirs for a period of forty years. The rent of 10 kopecks per pood of asbestos is payable only on what the Company admits to be usable; but there is to be no payment for the first two years, except the over-all rent of 7 roubles 50 kopecks per verst. Besides the above-mentioned concerns in the Ural, asbestos is mined by the joint stock company ' Isolator,' established in 1899. The asbestos mines of this Company are situated in the Miasski mining district in the south of the Ural; but the output in 1907 amounted to only 3,500 poods. There are rumors that recently rich deposits of asbestos have been discovered in the Atlay Mining district, belonging to His Majesty's Cabinet. The con- cession for working these layers has been granted to Ymshenetzki Bros., Ural miners, who established a joint stock company 'Uralite'; but failed, and had to liquidate. The prospecting of these beds gave good results, and the firm are now looking for capital for the organization of their new enterprise. Discoveries of asbestos were also made in the Yeniseisk province; but the results of the operations undertaken by some Paris capitalists are now known. Eecent reports are to the effect, that the principal asbestos deposits in the Urals have been sold to a German syndicate. The Korieff mine, the Poklieffsk mines, and the mines of Baron-de-Soukanton are said to have passed into Ger- man control. The Poklieffsk property includes the only mill operated in the whole region. The total annual output of the properties mentioned is about 470,000 poods, or 8,460 short tons; which is more than 80 per cent of the entire Russian yearly production. The Ural deposits contain a large amount of white-yellowish, sometimes pale olive green, long fibre. Its quality, however, is not very high, and the mineral is used almost entirely in Europe to mix with Canadian chrysotile. For some pur- poses where an inferior grade can. be utilized the Russian brand is used without any mixture; in the majority of asbestos goods manufactured, however, three- fourths Canadian asbestos is mixed with one-fourth Russian. A report recently issued by Krijanousky on the ' Occurrence of Serpentine and Asbestos on the Beresovski, Kamenski, and Monoten Estates in the Ural Mountains,' translated by Mr. J. S. Diller, and published in the Mineral Re- sources Report of the United States, contains some interesting data regarding the deposits, and the asbestos industry generally. Extracts from this report are hereby presented: — ' The principal mines in Russia, as described by Krijanousky, are located about 57 miles north of Ekaterinburg, in the Ural mountains. According to Krijanousky's map, the mining district has a length of about 18 miles north and south and a width of from 2 to 3 miles. The mines are limited to a mass of serpentine, which is bounded by schist or slate on the west and by granite on the east. In the northern and southern parts of this mining region the mines are not as productive as those in the middle portion of the field, where the mines of Baron Girard and Korff are situated. ' The gneiss of the serpentine is suggested by the associated diallage. The serpentine is cut by dikes of diabase as well as porphyry, and by a few veins of quartz. The asbestos is not found everywhere in the serpentine, but is confined to ellipsoidal portions which invariably have their longer axis north and south, these portions sometimes attaining a length of 3,500 feet 227 and a width of 1,000 feet. Generally within each ellipsoid the eastern and western borders are less rich than the central portion running north and south. The veins of cross-fibre asbestos run generally north and south with vertical dips, although some of the veins are nearly horizontal. Masses of slip fibre are present, but not abundant. The richest ellipsoidal masses bearing asbestos occur in the middle part of the field. Where richest, the yield is from 42 to 55 pounds of asbestos per cubic yard; while in the other mines to the north and south the yield is from 28 to 33 pounds per cubic yard. ' Krijanousky describes in detail the Russian method of milling asbestos and grading it in preparation for the market. The fibre is separated into five grades, according to length, ranging from 4 centimetres down to about one-half centimetre. His paper is the most important the writer has found regarding Russian asbestos. ' The actively producing mines of the Ural, as already stated, are north of Ekaterinburg. Although actively mined for only about 20 miles, asbestos has been reported at many localities to the south for a distance of 200 miles from Ekaterinburg to Orenburg, where active prospecting is now going on. ' In Siberia, although an output is reported from only one mining region — that of the Minusinsk, on the Yenisei river — asbestos is reported from many localities in the Altai Mountain region and to the southward, but of the real value of these deposits little knowledge is yet available. ' Of late years Russia has become an important producer of asbestos. The mines are as yet of only local development, but the abundance of the asbestos, its relations to market, and the cheapness of labour indicate that Russia will appear in the not distant future a much larger producer than to-day. ' In general, it should be said, however, of the Russian asbestos that it is much harsher to the touch than that of Canada and less suitable for spinning. This may be due, at least in part, to the fact that the mines are in shallow, open-cuts and the rocks decidedly affected by weathering. The region is flat and not well drained, so that the open, shallow mining pits encounter an abundance of water, which is greatly to their disadvantage. Furthermore, much of the region is covered with glacial drift and forest and the working season is short and interrupted. The working season lasts from May to October, but as most of the workmen are farmers, who must attend to their farms in July and August, the mine work is interrupted for two months. The mines are said to employ 15,000 men, chiefly peasants. 'According to Consul-General Hunter Sharp's report from Moscow, February 12, 1909, there was in 1905 a total output of 7,894 tons of asbestos from the Russian mines, which varied in price f.o.b. at the mines from $25 to $117 per ton. The greater part, 6,495 tons, came from the Perm district of the Urals; the remainder, 1,490 tons, came from the Minusinsk mining district on Yenisei river, not far from the Trans-Siberian railway. ' Asbestos was discovered in the Ural mountains nearly two hundred years ago, but it was not until about 1885, when Baron Girard took hold of the matter, that systematic development began. The methods employed at first were primitive, but they have steadily advanced until at the present time some of the mines have modern equipment with electric power. ' The mines are broad, shallow, open-cuts, and the serpentine is generally so soft as to be easily mined with a pick. In the deepest workings, 70 feet, the rocks are becoming more solid, and explosives have to be used. 228 ' The growth of the Russian asbestos mines is indicated by comparing" the total output of 1,167 tons in 1893 with 10,308' tons, the output in 1907,. a relative advance which approaches that of Canada for the same period.' Fresh discoveries have recently been' made in the Province of Yeniseisk,- Siberia ; and tlic following is an abstract of a report by a German engineer on these occurrences : — These deposits are located in the district of Askisk, on the right bank of the River Kamyschto, a branch of the river Yenisei, Province of Yeniseisk. Their distance in a straight line from the river Yenisei is fifty-two miles, and about 105- miles from the Chinese boundary. The asbestos containing formation takes in the foothills of the Ssajansk mountains in the vicinity of the Kamyschto river. Exploration work consisting of prospecting trenches, canals, and drifts, shows the existence of asbestos in many places: partly outcropping, and partly covered by alluvial overburden. The min- eral is found in both the serpentine form in situ, as well as in fine fluffy fibre; the latter the result of an atmospheric disintegration. The most explored terri- tory is sixteen miles square; while on another sixteen miles square asbestos has also been located; but very little work has been done. The containing rock is serpentine, accompanied by crystalline limestone. The asbestos veins have- a thickness up to 2", and are arranged in the serpentine in parallel layers. This asbestos has a silky appearance, with a yellowish colour; and when fiberized be- tween ones fingers, produces white, finely divided threads. These deposits are located in a very hilly country, divided by deep interven- ing valleys. The summits of the hills are devoid of any covering, and clearly expose the asbestos bearing formation for a considerable distance. The relief of the country offers cheap mining in quarries and in tunnels along the serpen- tine asbestos gangues; and on account of the solid character of the rock, not much timbering is required in the workings. Wood for supports in the under- ground works can be procured in sufficient quantities, in close proximity. Workmen can be obtained from the local population, or from the gold mines, ■which are being operated now, at a distance of about three miles. At the start it would, perhaps, be better to import miners from the Urals ; but later the looal miners may be added to supplement the working force. Fuel for power purposes can be obtained from coal mines located at a dis- tance of twenty-eight miles from the locality. Transportation of asbestos may be effected for five months during the opeir weather, on a wagon road to the banks of the Yenisei river; and then by boat to the railway station Krasnoyarsk. The total cost of the transport is 20 kopecks- per pood, or about $6 per ton. It is estimated that the freight charges from Krasnoyarsk to London will be in the neighbourhood of $25 per ton; hence the- total cost of transport per gross ton from the mines to London will be about $31. In his resume, the author of this report says there is an excellent chance for the establishment of a profitable industry. He dwells at length upon the underground methods of mining these serpentine asbestos gangues, through tun- ^ From other sources it appears that only 9,356 gross tons -were raised. 229 uels, galleries, etc. ; and winds up by saying that, through this manner of winning the mineral, the cost of production can be considerably reduced. The Krasnoyaretz says, that in Krasnoyarsk, a joint stock company has been formed amongst the local mining firms and some French contractors for the purpose of working the asbestos deposits in the Minusinsk district, near the village cf Batterei. The deposit, says ' The Journal,' is a ' very ' rich one, and all the local circumstances favour its development, particularly as it lies in a very popu- lous district, about 10 or 12 versts from the Yenisei river. It was also reported in 1907 that an asbestos discovery had been made near the Aliberovsk graphite mine in the Tunkinsk district. SIBERIA. It was reported in the middle of 1903, that discoveries of asbestos deposits had been made in different parts of Siberia; the principal one being situated in the Irkutsk district, 1^ miles from the Ivitoi river : and a company has been organized to develop them. Preliminary tests are said to show that at a depth of one foot, the asbestos is equal in quality to the Canadian, and superior to the Italian product. The Kitoi river affords ample water power and cheap trans- portation to the railway, Mongolia. According to Mr. Riehle — Manager of the Frontenac Asbestos Company, East Broughton, Que. — who made a trip to the Ural mountains and Mongolia on behalf of the ' Asbest and Gummiwerke,' Alfred Calmon of Hamburg — asbestos occurs in Mongolia in a country located at a distance covered by a 25 days over- land journey south of Lake Baikal. The whole region is very hilly, and some parts are even mountainous. It is very inhospitable, and is heavily covered with forests, and the valleys are all swamps, through which travelling is exceedingly difficult. Some of the mountains attain a height of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. A nomadic tribe of Mongolians — the Buriats, not industrious, and not very intelli- gent, roam through the country, herding oattle for a living. Asbestos occurs in the Boo-koo-sun mountains and in the El-cheer and the Otkinsky Karoo ranges. The most important occurrence lies in the El-cheer range. Here the serpentine is, as a rule, massive, but very much decomposed. Freshly broken, it is a semi-opaque rock of a greenish tint; but when exposed to the air, loses its colour; changing to grey. The asbestos is of a brownish tint, and of excellent quality: the fibre being from i" to Ij" long. No mining has been attempted in these inhospitable regions ; and on account of their remoteness it is not very likely to be undertaken in the near future. About three day's journey due south from the Mongolian frontier in Krasnoyarsk, some brownish- yellow asbestos has been found in concretionary masses, of a similar character to those in Templeton. The veins, however, cannot be distinguished well in the rock, owing to the similarity of colour; only when the asbestos is fiberized by hand is the true composition of the rock revealed. No mining is carried on in this country, owing to its inaccessibility. 230 Finland. In the beginning of 1904, a communication was received calling attention to the occurrence of asbestos of commercial quality in central Finland. A com- pany was organized to explore these deposits, and operations were subsequently carried on for some time. In colour the asbestos is pure white, and by its soft fibrous nature is suited for spinning, and for the manufacture into board, and insulating materials. The property is situated about half way between Kuopio and Toensu : near the railway connecting these towns. No reports regarding this undertaking have been received lately. Italy. There is very little asbestos being mined in Italy : in fact the Italian manu- facturers of asbestos import Canadian fibre. The native asbestos belongs to the hornblende variety, which occupies pockets and chutes in serpentine. It is, to some extent, brittle, and only a small percentage of it can be applied to spinning. The United Asbestos Company, of London, England, is about the only Company that uses it to any extent. There is none sold in the United States at the present time. A few carloads only, are now annually used by manufacturers in Germany. The Italian fibre is mostly applied in the manufacture of mill-board; it is also utilized in spinning, but is chiefly mixed with cotton, or fine copper wire. In ancient times it was used for making grave-clothes, and the Museum at Naples contains several of the shrouds for wrapping corpses. All these garments con- tain cotton in a more less degree. Prior to 1880, asbestos was only mined in Italy; but the uses being very limited, on account of the exorbitant prices asked for good fibre, the production, with very few variations, remained the same; but when Canada — with its vast resources of asbestos, entered the market, the whole industry assumed a different aspect. Italian producers soon found that they could not compete with the Canadian mineral for the following reasons: (1) mining is very difficult on account of hand labour: which is compulsory owing to the character of the ground; (2) supply is very uncertain; and (3) the fibre is much more difficult to deal with than the Canadian asbestos, requiring different and more compli- cated machinery. Further, it is also reported that the quantity of the better class of fibre is limited. Although the two species of asbestos — the Canadian and Italian — are so entirely different in their physical characteristics, chemically speaking they are very similar, and for certain applications may replace each other. Italian asbestos is a fibrous form of hornblende, and is different both in form and appearance from the Canadian species, which is generally termed chrysotile. Both the Canadian and Italian varieties possess some fine qualities and charac- teristics, and each finds its special application. Manufacturers even say that, in some cases, a mixture of both gives better results; and is superior to the best quality of either of them used separately. Plate LX. Specimen of asbestos from the Uralit mines, nearBajenowa station, Asiatic Russia. The specimen is a conglomerate of asbestos. decoTnposed serpentine, roots, and fibre from the surface vegetation. This class of material is found in considerable quantity, and mnst be treated by wet process to prepare it for the market. 7068—22 231 The chemical composition of Italian asbestos is very nearly the same as that of the Canadian mineral, as may be seen from the comparative analysis made by Professor J. T. Donald, of Montreal, page 80. According to Mr. Alfred Fisher' — the General Manager of the oldest asbes- tos company in existence, namely, the United Asbestos Company of London, England — Italian asbestos mining may be considered to have commenced with the nineteenth century. We find that about one hundred years ago, two enterprising citizens of north Italy conceived the idea that what had been done in ancient times might be undertaken for modern requirements; and that a cloth made of this material would answer well for various purposes. They carried out some experiments in Lombardy, which, to a certain extent, were considered satisfactory, and which earned for them some honorary distinctions from Napoleon I; who was always ready to encourage science, art, and industry. The numerous dynastic crises, however, which kept this part of Europe in a perpetual state of disquietude, pre- vented the development of the trials, and for a further space of years asbestos seems to have been looked upon as a material of some interest to the curious, and to the mineralogist and geologist, but of little or no practical, commercial, value. It was not until the year 1866, that Signor Albonico, having given some attention to this product of the mountains of his native Province, put himself into communication with a highly cultured and intelligent Florentine cleric. Canon del Corona, with a view to obtaining his assistance in developing the economic uses of asbestos. They were subsequently joined by a distinguished Roman nobleman, the Marquis di Baviera. The result of their researches and experiments was, that they produced some asbestos cloth and paper, and were in hopes of obtaining a contract from the Italian Government for the supply of the latter for bank notes and other securi- ties. In this enterprise they failed; and whatever prospects they may have had of better success in other directions, these prospects were frustrated by the out- break of the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Signor Albonico had, however, obtained concessions from several communes giving the right to work deposits of this material on their respective properties; and having transferred his rights to the Canon del Corona and the Marquis di Baviera, he thenceforward acted as their agent until the mines and mining rights were transferred to other parties. The first district in which asbestos of commercial value was obtained, was the Susa valley, which is approached from France through the famous Mont Cenis tunnel. On emerging from the tunnel on the Italian side, the line follows the southern mountain slope with a gradual descent, overlooking the town of Susa, which gives its name to the valley .> At a point in the centre of the valley, and on the northern mountain slope, are the places from which the floss asbestos fibre — the appearance of which in gas stoves is familiar to us — is obtained. In the same locality is also found a fine, white powder of asbestos, used for paint 1 Paper read at a meeting of the I-Qstitute of Marine Engineers, Stratford, Eng., April 12, 1892. 7068—224 232 and other purposes. The ground from which these materials are obtained is about ten miles square in extent, and the works are carried on at a height of from. C,000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level. The temperature is, of course, low at such an elevation; but the inliabitants are hardy, robust, and industrious. The works are reached by nude-paths for some distance; but the remainder of the way has to be travelled on foot, and from four to five hours are required for the journey from the plain on which the railway and high road are situated. The first work done here in recent times dates from 1870. The method by which the material is brought down the mountain side is, by loading it on a kind of toboggan or sledge, which slides as easily over the rocks as over snow; and so expert are the inhabi- tants at this work, that two men can bring down 8 hundredweight of asbestos- in three hours. The second district — in the Aosta valley, commences at Ivrea, a town of some- importance, about forty miles in a nearly northern direction from Turin. From Ivrea to Chatillon — a distance of a little under thirty miles — the railway passes through the heart of the asbestos properties, which flank it on either side, the direction being northwesterly; and at the latter town (Chatillon) the valley trends sharply to the west until the city of Aosta, the ancient Augusta, is reached. The history of the asbestos mining industry in this Province is as follows : — In the year 1849, Signer Antonio Re, of Rome, finding himself implicated in certain political troubles, took refuge in this valley, where he lived for many years. In 1873, he became aware of the proceedings of the Marquis di Baviera and the Canon del Corona, and set to work to investigate the question of asbestos in the Aosta valley. He, like others, was aware of its existence; but until then the mineral found in this district had been considered of inferior quality, and not serviceable for industrial purposes; hence no trouble was taken with it. In the year named, however. Signer Re undertook a search for some better qualities; and having assured himself that such could be found in abundance he opened communication with the London parties, and they, being satisfied with the material, started working on a large scale. It is impossible to give, with any degree of exactitude, the extent of the asbestos bearing ground in the Aosta valley; but as the valley is some seventy- five miles in length, and varies in width from five to forty miles, some idea may be formed of it. Notwithstanding the large quantity of asbestos that has been already obtained, enormous deposits remain untouched, and the yield may almost be considered inexhaustible. The quality of asbestos in the Aosta valley is not, however, similar to that in the Susa valley ; but it is of the kind known as ' grey fibre.' It is long, strong, and soapy to the touch, and is similar to that obtained in the third, and perhaps- most important of the vast asbestos areas. The third district is situated in that portion of Lombardy known as the Valtellina. To reach it from the valley last described (Aosta), it is necessary to return to Turin. From thence a railway journey of about three hours and a half brings one to Milan. A further journey by rail of about two hours, brings one to Como, at the foot of the lake of that name. The route, is then by steamer to Colico, situated at nearly the northern extremity of the lake; or by a new line- 233 direct from Como to Sondrio — the chief town of the district. The line is now open. The railway follows the course of the river Adda. An affluent of the Adda — the Mallero — flows through the valley of Val Malenco. In this valley and in others branching out from it to the east, are the asbestos mines. It was in this region that Signor Albonico commenced his researches. The district is divided into five Communes, and the asbestos properties have ftn area of about 25,000 acres, or nearly forty square miles. The population numbers about 7,000, of whom a large proportion is engaged in asbestos mining. Throughout the whole of this extensive area the mineral is found in abundance, and of the finest quality. There is in the United Asbestos Company's exhibit at the Crystal Palace a specimen of the crude mineral in one piece, which, for quality, was considered to be the finest in the world and which weighed forty- five pounds; but even this is far surpassed by a block from the same Company's mines, weighing nearly 3^ hundredweights. For a distance of eleven miles of the twenty which form the length of the Val Malenco, there is a good carriage road; but beyond that the ascent to the mines is by following mere goat-paths; and as the slope of the mountains is steep, the labour of bringing the mineral to the road at the bottom of the valley is very great. The surface of the ground is, for about one-third of its extent, pasture and woodland; the remainder being bare rock, which admits of easy examination and trial. The greater part of these mountains is as yet unexi^lored; but indications have been observed which lead to the conclusion that the supply of asbestos is. practically inexhaustible. The height above sea-level of this mine, so far opened out, varies from 3,600' feet to 7,200 feet. The climate is, for such an elevation, comparatively mild;, there being some places at a height of 6,000 feet where work can be carried on during the whole year. The inhabitants work willingly at the asbestos mines, in spite of possible danger from landslides and avalanches, which, however, are now almost unknown. For a long time the opinion was held that at a certain depth, greater or less according to circumstances, the veins of asbestos would terminate in the serpen- tine rock; but recent experience has proved, that by following the direction of the vein, it is recovered. The fibre at the greater depths is of better quality, and less indurated than that near the surface. The work is carried on by means of shafts and galleries; dynamite being used for blasting purposes. The Italian ore is taken out in lumps, forming hard, closely compacted bundles of fibres, varying from light grey to brown. Sometimes threads of many feet may be drawn from such bundles, and the fibre then has the appearance of flax. All asbestos mined during the day is dried, bagged up, and transported to the factories without any further preparation. The crude asbestos is separated into three grades: (1) the long fibre for spinning and weaving; (2) the short fibred material for the manufacture of mill-board and paper; and (3) the shortest kinds, being reserved for other purposes. 234 Recently, a discovery of asbestos was reported at Mount San Victoreo, near Lanzo, Torino, and the quality is said to be fairly good.^ France.' Small deposits of asbestos are worked in the Pyrenees, in Dauphine and in tlie island of Corsica. The production last year is not reported. Cyprus (In the Mediterranean).^ The Cyprian Mining Company — an Austrian corporation with a capital of about 400,000 crowns (about £16,700), has been formed to exploit the asbestos deposits at Trodos, Cyprus, which are stated to be very extensive. The Com- pany have secured important concessions and mining rights from the Cyprian government, and have already begun work on a limited scale. A first consign- ment of about 30 tons found a ready sale at good prices, the asbestos being of good quality, and this will improve as the mine is opened up. Under the terms of their license from the Government, the Company were bound to export within the first year of their operations, a minimum of 75 tons of asbestos. Up to March 1, 1909, they had exported 457 tons, on which a royalty of 10 per cent was paid to the Government. The Company have expressed themselves as well satisfied with the result of their prospecting and preliminary operations; further importations of machinery are being made, and there is every prospect of a very extensive business being carried on. Their success has given a great impetus to the prospecting for minerals, and 57 prospecting licenses were issued during the year to persons in search of copper, asbestos, magnesite, coal, and similar deposits. Queensland. For many years asbestos has been known to occur in the serpentine belt which extends in a northwesterly direction from Balnagowan, near Keppel bay, to Yamba, Princhester, and Marlborough, in the Rockhampton district. Near Princhester there are some old workings which were opened many years ago to determine the character of the asbestos deposits there. The country rock is serpentine, and the veins of asbestos occur in all sizes up to 12" or more in thickness. The asbestos in the larger veins is coarse in tex- ture; but one sample from a seam about 2" thick, showed asbestos of much finer quality. All the samples were much iron-stained, and partly decomposed by the action of surface water, the workings not being deep enough to obtain the asbes- tos unaltered. Messrs. Hall and Stokes, in a paper read before the Royal Society of Queens- land,* described the asbestos deposits occurring near the junction of Tilpal, Princhester, and Glen Prairie; and in their summary regarding the occurrence 1 Mineral Industry, 1906, page 56. 2 Engineerinpr and Mining Journal, .Tune 20, 1908, page 1,250. 'Report of the High Commissioner for Cyprus for 1908-9. * Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1890 to 1893, Vols. VII, VIII, and IX, page 120. 235 of asbestos and the prospects of establishing an asbestos industry, state their belief ' that, on proper search being made, veins of asbestos of good quality and payable size will be discovered and that a permanent industry will be the result.' They also think that ' a wide knowledge of the modes of occurrence and methods of working may lead to search being made in other serpentine areas.' The material obtained recently, when microscopically examined, showed the fibres to be finer than the best quality of Italian asbestos; but no further com- parison could be made, as the sample was too much decomposed; neither, for the same reason, could the structure of the individual fibres be examined to determine their fitness for weaving purposes. South Australia.^ Asbestos has been mined in this country at Red hill, about nine miles easterly from Broken hill, in the Rockwell paddock, where for a long time pros- pecting had been going on on the side of the hill, in which asbestiform rock was known to exist. Several veins of true asbestos similar to the Italian variety have been discovered, and mining has been carried on for some time by the Australian Asbestos Manufacturing Company. It is reported that specimens 28" in length have been found. The staple article ranges from a striated salmon tinted variety — known as picrolite — from near the surface; to a beautifully white, flossy fibre of considerable length and good tensile strength, taken from the shallow depth of 20 feet. On the top of the hill, veins of coarse chrysotile — the Canadian variety — are found in a ferruginous gangue of what appears to be chrome iron ore. Lower down, a promising vein has been opened; while to the eastward is a deposit of amianthus which seems to be of considerable extent. A discovery of asbestos has been made on government lands ten miles from Hawker, on the old Arkoba station. South Australia, and several tons of sub- stance have been mined. The asbestos seems to be a ' crocidolite ' or ' blue asbes- tos,' as found in Griqualand, South Africa. Mr. W. S. Chapman, Manager of the Adelaide School of Mines and Industries, has given the following assay : — Water 3-71 Silica 51-33 Alumina 3-93 Ferric oxide 17-66 Ferrous oxide 4-10 Lime 1-32 Magnesia 12-18 Soda 5-91 Potash 0-13 100-27 New South Wales.' Liversedge reports a dark green coloured asbestiform mineral; but no min- ing has been attempted. As a rule, asbestos in this country is closely associated ^ Canadian Mining Review, 1891, page 200. 2 " Asbestos," by Jones, 1897, page 73. 236 with chrome iron ore deposits and other minerals. The colour of the asbestos is generally white, or of a light greenish blue, densely compacted; but easily sepa- rated into fibres. The Native Asbestos Company, established for working up the Australian ores, is located at Melbourne, Victoria. Western Australia. Much interest is now centred in the new discoveries made in the Pilbarra district. The Pilbarra Asbestos Company of London, England, have selected leases amounting to a total acreage of 316 acres, and the latest reports show that they have sunk shafts to a depth of 140 feet, have proved the continuance of the ore lode towards depth, and the existence of large quantities of lode matter in various degrees of richness in both of the Company's lodes that are traceable on the leased territory. It appears that for the extraction of ' crude,' a considerable quantity of lode matter has to be raised, which at the present time, as no milling- plant is on the premises, has to be stored away. A large sample sent to the office of the writer, for examination, indicates that, although much of the fibre does not possess the high degree of tensile strength found in Canadian asbestos, yet some good crude may be secured. The samples examined, showed a highly brilliant, wavy lustre, rarely found in the Canadian, except in the Laurentian or Templeton asbestos ; while the length of the fibre ranged from a fraction of an inch to 5". The fibre is a chrysotile-asbestos ; the crystallization in all the samples examined having taken place vertical to the walls. A ribbon-like structure, similar to the Canadian Laurentian asbestos, seems to be the predomi- nant feature of the occurrence; the smaller fibre evidently furnishing an excellent material for milling. '' Mr. Herbert Soanes, Asbestos Specialist, of Perth, Western Australia, has made quite an extensive study of the ' Pilbarra ' deposits, and has placed consider- able data at the disposal of the writer. An abstract of his private r.*port is hereby presented : — ' The geological belts, of which there are several, in one of which the " Great Golden Mile Gold-Mines " occur, are found to run in a northerly and southerly direction, for a distance of from twelve to fifteen hundred miles, and each with a breadth of from twenty miles upwards. The geolo- gical age attributed to the latter and a parallel belt is ' Archsean,' and this series is considered to be more largely developed here than in any other portion of the world. "In the immediate vicinity of the discovery the serpentines are largely developed, occurring in large parallel dikes of from a few to eighty chains in width, with dikes of diorite, and numerous razorbacks of laminated chert, as roughly shown upon plan attached hereto. ' The various formations as described — with perhaps the serpeutine predominating — trend in a northeast by southwest direction, and have a lateral measurement of several miles, whilst their linear extension is con- siderably more, but owing to the limited nature of the departmental field work accomplished, it is quite impossible to supply anything more than a very approximate indication of its extent. * Again, referring to the rough sketch plan, it would certainly appear that the two lodes No. 1 and No. 2, as indicated thereon, are contact lodes. 237 ■ pecttuTes c fiJte. CdiZTzir y. Fig. 51. — Occurrence of asbestos in Pilbarra district, Western Australia. (By Herbert Soanes, Perth, W.A.) 238 which from development work carried out to a depth of 80 feet in the case of the former and 140 in the latter, and from the exposing of good clean walls in each case, would appear to substantiate. ' The surface of these lodes, No. 1 and No. 2, are about upon a level, whilst that of No. 3 is elevated quite 100 feet above the former, and which occurs within a few feet of the contact of the serpentine with the laminated chert dike, about 100 feet in width, and although this latter lode is not too clearly defined, it would appear to vary from 1 to 4 feet in width and to have a linear extension of approximately 400 feet. ' The serpentine formation lying between No. 3 and No. 2 lodes has a varying width of from 120 feet to 180 feet, and the colour is also found to vary from an olive green to a purplish hue; the latter variety under the microscope is seen to be a massive structureless serpentine with numerous inclusions of black and brown iron ore. The sample examined was taken from near the surface and may have been found to have altered considerably at depth. ' The No. 2 lode, upon which the most of the work has been expended, has a width of from 2 to 6 feet, or an average in the vicinity of 4 feet, and is found to be of a lenticular nature. It can be traced along its outcrop for a distance of at least 50 chains (3,300 feet), and although the fibre in the outcrop cannot be said to be continuous, it is significant to note that, at the 140 ft. level, where some 250 feet of driving has been accomplished, the fibrous veins have not only been found to have improved in quality beyond expectation, but the quantity has improved also, and the fibrous matter has become continuous. ' In the writer's opinion, there can be little doubt that the great majority of the hand cobbing ore will be found to occur in the lens form, the length of which to estimate would at the moment be mere conjecture. However, one of these lenses, which was worked near the surface, was said to have had a length of about 25 feet, whilst at the 140 ft. level, the identical lens had been proved some 20 feet, and was still in the face when operations were suspended for the time being, which under the circumstances was very unfortunate, seeing that this work must prove a most important develop- ment, proving as it would whether the lens which is said to be dipping away to the northeast at an angle of about 45 degrees, is lengthening or shorten- ing at that depth, and although this is the only high-grade lens exposed so far, there can scarcely be a shadow of doubt that this characteristic will be found upon development to be repeated at intervals along the lodes. ' It is estimated that the high-grade lens referred to above will produce 50 per cent of fibre of all grades, including a high return of No. 1 and No. 2 grades, whilst the remainder of the lode opened up will return quite 30 per cent of all grades, although owing to the lack of a treatment plant, these estimates must be taken as approximate. However, I am of the opinion that the lower grade matter will not produce in proportion the same amount of the higher grades of fibre. ' The formation found between No. 2 and No. 1 lodes varies in width between 60 feet and 90 feet, and with the exception of a few feet upon either of the contact sides of each lode it is not completely serpentinized, as demonstrated by a sample taken from a depth of 20 feet, which still preserves some of the structure of the original rock in the shape of partly altered olivine crystals, and grains of ilmenite with leucoxene. Another sample taken from near the surface and the lode, upon examination was found to consist largely of serpentine, and appeared to approach in character the serpentinized augite picrites of some parts of Cornwall. 239 ' No. 1 lode is very similar in character to No. 2, and outcrops for a considerable distance, being very little short of the No. 2 lode; but owing to the limited amount of work done upon this lode, very little data are avail- able. It has, however, been sunk upon to a depth of about 80 feet, and its dip ascertained to coincide with that of the No. 2 lode, which is about 75 degrees to the southeast, and its walls to be quite smooth. The fibre content is estimated at about 30 per cent, and together with the whole of the lode matter will probably find its way to the mill. ' In summing up the possibilities of these two lodes, I venture to state that upon development, I would not be surprised to find their linear exten- sion from 100 chains or more, and development work should be pushed on to a few feet below water level — which has so far not been attained — and the subsequent cross-cutting from the No. 1 to the No. 2 and No. 3 lodes." The production of asbestos in the ' Pilbarra ' district, in 1908, amounted to 40 tons, valued at £1,000. The Standard of Empire, London, published an announcement that asbestos had been discovered in Gundagai. Upon the recommendation of a European expert, 40 tons of asbestos were sent to Germany to test its commercial qualities and value. The prices are said to be parallel with those for the Canadian product. It is claimed that the quality is superior to the Russian and Italian. Machinery is said to have been ordered for the treatment of the lower grade material. New Zealand.^ Some time ago, an Auckland syndicate acquired an asbestos area in the Takaka district, near Motueka: from which they took out 3 tons, and consigned the same to customers in England, and are reported to have received a return of £20 per ton, with the advice that if the ore had been more carefully prepared it would have realized considerably more. In the opinion of the highest recognized authority in Canada — who has examined the deposit — the quality of the asbestos is first-class. The syndicate will now deal with the question of development. West Griqualand — Africa. Asbestos has long been known to occur in West Griqualand; and at one time mining was carried on over an area of 30,000 acres. The asbestos, accord- ing to Mr. H. T. Odds, has a peculiar lavender blue colour ; caused by the large proportion of iron protoxide it contains. It differs from the other varieties of asbestos, such as the Italian, Canadian, and Russian, not only on account of its blue colour, but in being of lower specific gravity. It is generally found in veins, seldom less than 2", and more often 4" and 5" wide, formed of closely compacted parallel fibres which run from wall to wall of the vein, without break or fault. The grain is very fine, and even in the rough state the fibres are sin- gularly distinct. The fibres are somewhat elastic, and easily separable by the fingers. Several veins have been found, regular in extent, and the fibre always lies at right angles to the sides of the deposit. The enclosing rock is a dark brown shale. The character of the rock varies considerably : in some places it is 1 ' The Standard ' London, February 4, 1909. 240 soft, in others hard. The better quality of asbestos occurs iu the hard rock. The composition of the asbestos is given as: — Silica 51.1 Protoxide of iron 35-8 Silica 51-1 Magnesia 2-3 Water 3-9 The output during the year 1898 was on an average about 100 tons a month, and the prospects for an increase seemed very bright. Native labour was em- ployed under European supervision. Very little skilled labour was required; the mining being mostly surface work, or by shallow adits run in the sides of the hills. The cost of extraction of one ton of asbestos, even with the primitive mining methods, was on an average only $24. It has most of the striking qualities of white asbestos: is uninflammable, heat proof, and unaffected by atmospheric influences, and is a non-conducting material. It is stronger than the ordinary asbestos. In cobbing it breaks away from the matrix with a clean fracture and without any fragments of the latter adhering. It is a most efficient covering for preventing loss of heat and con- densation, and consequently, in the economizing of fuel. The following gives the average results of two sets of experiments made in 1896. Column No. I shows results with bare pipes; No. 2, with pipe covered with blue asbestos mat- tress, having 1" asbestos cord over it; No. 3, pipe covered with 1|" blue asbestos cord, having small asbestos string between: — Description. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Pounds water condensed per hour Pounds water condensed per sq. ft. per hour 12,225 1,638 3,152 0,437 3,484 0,484 In the above experiments the average steam pressure was 95 pounds; the average engine room temperature 57° ; and the surface of each pipe 7-2 square feet. The asbestos can also be used for packings and joint materials. The wool is capable of being spun into very fine yarn of great tensile strength : which can be woven into netting twine, ropes, and cordage of all kinds. A composition is also made from the blue asbestos for rendering cement and other materials un- attackable by acid liquors or vapours. Notwithstanding all these merits, the business connected with the exploi- tation of these deposits has not been prosperous. At the annual meeting of the Cape Asbestos Company on October 11, 1898, it was stated that the operations of the previous year showed a loss of £3,808. Although the blue Cape asbestos was claimed to be as good as, or superior to, the white or Canadian asbestos for many special purposes, it was nevertheless admitted that the introduction of this mineral into the trade was not making the rapid progress that was looked for. In 1908 the sales amounted to £9,000; in 1899, to £15,000; in 1900 to £15,550, while the first six months of 1901 indicated a business of £9,000. To cover, however, all the expenses, sales of at least £25,000 would be required. 241 In 1902^ according to official reports, the production sank to £1,600, and in 1903 nothing was stated in the reports. " Recent advices from Griqualand seem to indicate that asbestos mining has heen revived in 1907 and 1908 : and the following extract from a report published in the 'Money Market Review,' London, June 26, 1909, will be found inter- esting : — ' Satisfactory progress was made by the " Cape Asbestos Company " in 1908, notwithstanding the general trade depression. The year's opera- tions yielded a net profit of £6,900, after deducting the sum of £3,800 for depreciation, so that the directors are able to wipe off the debit balance remaining a year ago as well as the remainder of the goodwill of the Com- pany's ' Turin ' business. A credit balance of £2,100 is then shown, and the directors propose to carry it forward. The company, though established in 1893, has never yet been able to pay a dividend, but if recent progress is maintained, the payment of a maiden distribution should soon be possible.' Apart from the ' Cape Asbestos Company ' another syndicate has taken up asbestos mining and it is reported that the production which in 1908 was 300 Ions will be considerably increased during 1909. ' The prices for ' Cape ' asbestos range from 600 to 1,300 marks ($140 to ;$310) per ton. The ' Blue Cape ' asbestos, is used principally for insulating pur- poses, in the manufacture of mattresses and boiler coverings. Transvaal (District of Carolina). The discovery of asbestos in this district, in 1906, has attracted some atten- tion, and quite a number of properties have been taken up. They are located about twenty miles from Carolina, in the low veldt ; the first discovery having been made at Diepgezet, and Silver Kop. It is further asserted that the asbestos is •of excellent quality, and can — according to the report — be separated and cleaned without the aid of machinery. The asbestos occurs in serpentine, cutting a cherty formation with bands of manganiferous earth. The latter, on account of its loose condition, is likely to give considerable trouble in mining. The mode of working the asbestos on a large scale has not been decided upon. MJining and shipping, it is said, may 'Cost as much £20 per ton, and a profit of from £15 to £20 is anticipated in view ■of the excellent market conditions. According to the statement of the miners, the only treatment necessary is ' cobbing.' This it is believed will not cost more than 10s. per ton. No expensive machinery is required. The nearest railway station is Wonderfontein, about fifty miles distant; but the new Springs East- ward line will bring the property within half that distance. Native labour is at present scarce. The Carolina asbestos is of abnormal width — according to ex- perts report, and equal to the finest in the world. There are now three companies in the field, viz. ; The Transvaal Asbestos Syndicate — now absorbed by the Consolidated Gold Fields; The South African iMinerals Option Syndicate — a subsidy of the Bechuanaland Exploration 242 Company, and The Anglo-Swiss Asbestos Company. On one of the properties: that of the Consolidated Gold Fields, it is estimated that there are 150,000 tons of asbestos in sight. This property comprises the Diepgezet farm, in extent about 7,000 acres. Samples of the asbestos from this property were sent out to England and America, and the replies were received that a ready market existed' for the class of material submitted. A 10 ton shipment of almost entire outcrop stuff was made to England, and £21 per long ton was realized. An offer was made for the better class of stuff from Germany at £40, and from England at £45 per long ton. The South African Minerals Option Syndicate, owns the Victoria and Rietfontein farms, and on each of these asbestos has been discovered — in several places. The Anglo-Swiss Company are working near Goodverwaaht, and it is reported that the mine contains about 200,000 tons of asbestos of No. 1 quality. In view of the little work which has been done on the property, this statement cannot be taken seriously. Latest reports from the Carolina fields' are less favourable. The Carolina Asbestos Company, which has an issued capital of £40,000, and owns the rights to all asbestos on the farm Diepgezet, No. 33 Carolina district, made a profit of only £20, during the twelve months ended September 30, 1908. Mr. Leslie Sim- son, the superintending engineer, is of the opinion that, considering the scarcity of native labour, the results obtained have been satisfactory. The asbestos at the end of the present workings is of good quality. Mr. Graham Prentice — the manager, in the course of his report, shows that 673 feet of driving was done at a cost of 24s. 4d. per foot, or about 10s. per foot less than for that accomplished to the end of the previous year. For every ton of asbestos recovered, 42 tons had to be mined; or 7^ tons more than previously. Altogether, 281 tons were recovered. The cost of ' cob- bing ' was £3 9s. 8d. per ton, compared with £5 15s. Od. The term 'cobbing ' is used to cover all operations in the process of recovering the asbestos from the containing rock. Sixty-two per cent of the asbestos recovered was over 1" in length; for the last six months of the year, however, the asbestos over 1" only averaged 40 per cent. The latter percentage is approximately what may be ex- pected in future under the present conditions of working. The fluff obtained by sieving the free fibre out of the fines, constituted 14 per cent of the year's output; but 38 per cent of the output for the last three months of the year. The proportion of fluff is likely to increase; because the fibre in the stopes farthest in the hill comes away from the serpentine more readily than it did in the outside workings. A much larger proportion is set free when the rock is blasted down ; which naturally increases the quantity of fibre in the fines, and decreases the quantity of lumps to be cobbed. The Mining Journal, of London, October 30, 1909, has this to say regarding the Carolina Asbestos deposits: — ' It is understood that Messrs. Wernher, Beit and Co., of London, are having the Carolina asbestos deposits examined with a view to taking 1 ' African World,' January 9, 1909. Plate LXI. Asbestos reef in the Carolina district of the Trans- vaal. On the left, the mouth of a drive and the dump of waste rock. Plate LXII. In the Ciirulina district of the Transvaal. Nearer view of the drive en the asbestos reef. 243 a hand in their development should the report be sufficiently encouraging. These deposits were discovered about five years ago, and although thin the quality is said to be such as to make them payable. The drawback hitherto seems to be that the companies working the deposits have not had sufficient capital at their command to turn the deposits to the best account, a fair amount finding its way to the dimip through want of proper mechanical treatment. A short time ago it was understood that the " Caro- lina Asbestos Company," controlled by the " Consolidated Gold Fields," was about to introduce machinery for this purpose, but the proposal seems to have fallen through. The " Anglo-Swiss Company " having spent most of their capital on buildings, etc., and little on the mine, closed down some time ago, and the " Carolina Development Syndicate " followed suit about six months ago, after having, as they thought, done sufficient work to enable them to form a company to exploit the property on proper lines. Success did not seem to attend their efforts in this direction, but it is hoped that soon all the different asbestos mines in the " Carolina " district will be at work again.' Natal. In 1907 some asbestos discoveries at the Denny Dalton mine attracted some attention. It was stated at the time, that the width of the lode was between 6" and 3'-6" ; but that the quality extracted was not of the silky variety like that from Canada and Italy. Rhodesia. Occurrences of asbestos — discovered in 1908, are being opened in the Victoria district. A syndicate has just issued a report of operations from August of last year to the end of March, 1909 ; which shows that about 120 tons have been exported to England. In addition, there was mined about 100 tons of lower grade fibre, which has been stacked on the property, awaiting the time when it can be handled at a profit. It would seem from advices issued by the manager that not only can a monthly output of 30 tons of best grade fibre be maintained; but that a new quarry containing larger and richer material than that now being worked is about to be opened up. The production for 1909 amounted to 550 tons, valued at £2,725. Mataheleland. (Africa.) A syndicate has been formed in London to work the Belingwe asbestos de- posits. 1,500 feet of trenching has been done on a block of claims, with promis- ing results. India. According to the Indian Trade Journal, several Marwaris of the Central Provinces are reported to be about to form a syndicate for the manufacture of asbestos goods. It appears that a mine exists near Kamptee, which requires development, and that the promoters of the syndicate are negotiating with cer- tain Bengali scientists in Calcutta with a view to experiments being undertaken. 7068—23 244 with the raw material, which is believed to be of the very best quality. Accord- ing to a recent geological report on the mineral products of India, asbestos is an Indian mineral which has not yet got beyond the prospecting stage, though attempts to work the product have been made in Merwara in Rajputana, Gariwal in the United Provinces, and the Hessan District of Mysore. According to Dr. Watt, asbestos is found in the Gokak Taluks in the Belgaum district in the Southern Mahratta countrj-N It is also obtainable in quantities in the country to the south and west of the Kurrum river, Afghanistan.^ Japan. A recent report from the Canadian Trade Commissioner says, that asbestos is produced at several places in Japan, especially in Kiushiu; but that the quality does not compare favorably with the production of foreign countries. The local production should perhaps be classed as a kind of serpentine. Although good material was once produced in Nagasaki in the Kiushiu district, the mine seems to be exhausted now. As the Japanese asbestos is not suitable for manufac- turing purposes when taken alone, foreign material is imported for the purpose of mixing with the local product. It is difficult to get exact figures as they are not specified in the Customs' returns. Asbestos sheets, a maniif actured article, were imported in 1907 to the amount of 428,671 pounds, valued at 41,843 yen ($20,921) ; Germany being the leading country of supply. Under the item 'Pack- ing for Engines,' which contains a large quantity of asbestos, the value of imports for 1906 is given at 392,863 yen ($196,481), and for 1907 at 295,501 yen ($147,720). The principal customer for asbestos sheeting or packing is the navy; large manufacturing establishments also use it. There is an encouraging future for this business on account of the general expansion of the industries which use asbestos materials, and there will also be a good market for the raw material. The most important manufacturer of asbestos articles in Japan is the ' Japan Asbestos Company,' with headquarters at Osaka. 1 The writer has obtained a sample of the Indian asbestos. It is of a yellowish tint; and in appearance similar to the Italian asbestos; but has no tensile strength. 245 CHAPTER VIII. COMMEKCIAL APPLICATIONS OF ASBESTOS. The manufacture of asbestos goods forms at present a very important indus- try, both in Europe and on the North American continent; and it appears that a stimulus was given in that direction through the discovery of asbestos in Canada. Up to 1878, goods manufactured of asbestos were few, owing to the diificulty of spinning. The only kind of asbestos of commercial value known at that time was the Italian variety. The manufacture of articles of merchandise, composed wholly or in part of asbestos fibre, is steadily increasing in both volume and in the number of manufacturers; and as it is being utilized in many of the luxurious appointments of modern life, since it is recognized as an important factor of safety, there can be no doubt that new uses will continue to be made, and that there will be a constantly growing demand for the mineral. According to Mr. Alfred Fisher — the General Manager of the United Asbestos Company, London — asbestos was first used in the United States in the year 1868-9, in con- nexion with the manufacture of roofing felt and cement; but it was reserved to some enterprising Scotchman to bring asbestos first to the notice of engineers in Great Britain. A Company was formed in the year 1871, called the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company, Limited: works were established in Glasgow, and operations commenced. Through the services of the priest Corona, the Marquis di Baviera, Signer Albonico, and Messrs. Furse Bros., of Eome, proper- ties and concessions from the communal authorities to work asbestos in Italy, were obtained; and when, a few years later, another Company called the Italo- English Pure Asbestos Company, of London, came into existence, backed up by powerful influence: secured mining rights, and established a manufactory in Turin; keen competition for supremacy commenced. The result was, that in the year 1880 all these Companies were amalgamated by the formation of the United Asbestos Company, Limited, under the presidency of Sir James Allport, of the Midland railway. The rapid progress made since the beginning of 1880, is seen from the con- sumption of the Canadian mineral, which increases every year. The extent to which certain asbestos goods were to become commercial necessities, was clearly demonstrated when the great fire occurred at the Iroquois Theatre, Chicago. All asbestos dealers and manufacturers were kept busy for a considerable time in filling orders for fireproof theatre curtains, and like material. The application of asbestos seems to vary greatly in different countries. While in the United States large quantities of short fibre are used in the manu- facture of pipe coverings of all descriptions ; the European market principally calls for long fibre to be used for spinning, braiding, and weaving. In giving a synopsis of what is generally known regarding the uses to which asbestos is now being applied, it must be remembered that any attempt to collect 7068— 23i 246 reliable data is a difficult undertaking; arising out of the desire on the part of the manufacturers to keep everything secret in connexion with the bringing out of a new and useful article. For this reason the writer is not able to give absolutely reliable data; but on the more important points has endeavoured to obtain opinions from two or three different parties — where such was possible. • The principal application of asbestos pertains to the manufacture of mill- board, paper covering, etc., and allied articles: a nvmiber of which are described in the following pages. Fully 65 per cent of the asbestos mill stock is utilized in the manufacture of these articles alone ; but it will not be long before the as- bestos slate or shingle business which is just commencing to be felt, will push its way more and more to the front. Indeed, it is not too much to say that the time is not far distant when fully 75 per cent of all asbestos produced in the world will be used in the manufacture of asbestos slates and shingles. The asbestos slate business is only four years old; but during that short space of time, the demand for these articles has increased to such an extent that, factories for this purpose are being established all over the world. Originally the invention of an Austrian, Mr. Ludwig Hatschek, of Bockla- brueck, Austria, it soon found its way into Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Belgium, and the United States. The progress made in the manufacture of these articles has been astonishing. Hatschek's factory, at Bocklabrueck, alone, pro- duced last year, 70,000,000 square feet. As already stated in the chapter on the ' Status of the Asbestos Industry,' the future expansion of the asbestos industry depends largely upon the manufacture of asbestos slate; for which greater quan- tities of mill fibre are required year after year. Indeed, Mr. Hatschek, perceiving the enormous quantities of cement used in his slate factories, has now established his own cement works in connexion with his asbestos works. The outcry as to the decadence of the British asbestos industry is rather contradicted by the fact of the enormous strides the ' British Uralite Company ' is making — despite foreign competition — in the production of their asbestos slate : which is a fireproof material. Their output is large, as instanced by 200,000 tiles having just been shipped to Argentina — to one order; and 70,000 feet to a West Indian port: this is quite independent of home consumption. They have so arranged their plant — which was supplied by a large engineering firm near London — to produce 1,000 tiles per hour, and this is hardly deemed sufficient for the orders in hand. There are several asbestos slate factories in the United States ; but only one factory, namely, that of Messrs. Keasbey and Mattison, of Ambler, Pa., which manufactures according to the ' Hatschek ' formula and patents. Already substitutes have been produced for asbestos. Hair or other organic fibres have been used in the manufacture of shingles. Experience has proved, however, that in every instance this organic matter decays, and produces spaces in the shingles, which renders them brittle, and lacking in homogeneity. A further application which seems to increase every day is the manufac- ture of ornamental wall decorations; the longer fibres of asbestos are used for this purpose, and beautiful ornaments are made by a combination process, jirincipally in France and Germany. 247 The manufacture of asbestos wood is one of the modern achievements in the application of asbestos fibre, and the firm of Johns Manville Company, of New York, have a special department for the purpose. It is used principally for electrical insulation, switchboards, fittings, etc. Still shorter fibre is used in the manufacture of ' Alignum,' a new species of asbestos wool, used specially for window shutters, sashes, and doors. Another application in which short fibre is used, is ' Asbestolit ' flooring, which has been put down in several of the New York hotels, and which, apart from the beautiful finish it takes, seems to possess excellent qualities with regard to durability. The floor of the ' Old Astor House ' is made entirely of this material. In the manufacture of all these articles, namely ' Asbestos Wood,' ' Alignum and 'Asbestolit,' a certain amount of cement is used with short asbestos fibre; and as the demand for these articles increases the asbestos mines of Canada, which as a general rule have always a surplus of short fibre on hand, will in the future have a good opportunity of disposing of large quantities of this material. The question is often asked ' how much capital is invested in asbestos fac- tories all over the world?' This, of course, is a difficult question to answer, owing to the unwillingness of the manufacturers to give reliable information on that subject; but from a general estimate it appears that outside of Japan not less than $60,000,000 are invested in asbestos manufacturing establishments. Steam Packing. The earliest modern application of asbestos to engineering purposes was in the manufacture of an improved gland packing. At first this was mostly in the form of mill-board; but the various modifications of this special manufac- ture, now in demand, are so many that it would be useless to attempt to enumer- ate more than the principal cases. As in the application of any other material, freedom from impurity is the essential quality in asbestos. When the manufac- ture of the packing was first commenced, it was frequently found that the fibres were more or less charged with minute particles of pyrites, magnetite, and other metallic impurities; which caused the piston-rods to be scored by the packing. The damage thus occasioned was at first erroneously attributed to the action of the asbestos itself rather than to the impurities contained in it. Immediately the real cause of this scoring or scratching was discovered it became necessary — in order to prevent it — not only to select the most suitable kind of asbestos for this special purpose; but also to thoroughly cleanse it from all gritty matter before spinning. In order to effectually accomplish this object, special machinery had to be designed. As soon as this was done, the yarn produced was pure, and capable of being woven into any kind of fabric. Another important point in the manufacture of asbestos packing is, that it shall not become hard in the gland. Whatever the material may be which is used for this purpose, it is a 248 matter of primary importance that, under the action of steam or heat, it shall retain its smooth, slippery condition; and its nature remain unaltered, however high the pressure or velocity of the steam to which it may be subjected. The characteristic qualities of asbestos admirably fit it for such purposes as these: its inherent lubricating property rendering it additionally valuable; since by its use a perfectly pure piston packing can now be produced, through which the rod slides with a minimum of friction. Other important features are: (1) that it does not require frequent renewing; (2) regularity in the motion of the piston is preserved; (3) all the machinery connected with it runs with perfect smoothness, and (4) its elastic nature keeps the joints tight longer than any other kind of packing. Every manufacturer of asbestos goods has now his special asbestos packing; and as in these days of high speed ocean records, reliability is the supreme quality requisite in a packing, many devices have been invented to meet all the exigencies of modern requirements. Metallic Asbestos Packing. Owing to the modern use of higher steam pressures in manufacturing pro- cesses, the employment of asbestos packing has become a necessity; because packing made from organic substances burns out, and quickly becomes unre- liable. Asbestos packing is, therefore, employed in nearly all high pressure plants, as well as very generally upon the war ships of the navies of the world, and the use of packings of this class is constantly increasing. Most of the various packings, in all the ordinary forms, are too well known to need descrip- tion here; and metallic packings are used wherever such goods are required. These are made with a fine brass wire in the centre of every thread of asbestos in both warp and weft: the wire adding greatly to the strength of the cloth, while the wires themselves are completely protected. Hydraulic pipe made of the same material is of such a dense and close character as to be remarkably suitable for this class of work. Fig. 52. —Asbestos packing in .stuffing box of steam cylinder. Asbestos piston-rod packing is composed of good long fibre asbestos, spun into strands and combined with a patented elastic core into any desired size; so as to form a compact and durable packing for locomotives, marine and sta- tionary engines, valve stems, oil pumps, expansion joints, etc. It requires less oil than any other, being, to a great extent, self-lubricating, and, for this pur- 249 pose, will, it is claimed, outwear any other packing. It is easily applied, and is indestructible by acids, long exposure to dampness, or any degree of heat. Lubricating oils made from petroleum, work as well with asbestos packing as does either lard or sperm. In the application for these purposes the heat resisting qualities of asbestos have been found to make it specially suitable for super-heated steam in the large triple and quadruple expansion engines used on fast ocean steamers. As- bestos packing has stood the test where all other packings — such as soapstone, flax, cotton, and even metallic packings have failed. It is durable, reliable, and economical : durable, in that it is not affected by the heat or moisture and less than other packings by friction and pressure; reliable, because it does not re- quire to be frequently renewed, the regularity of motion in the piston is pre- served, and as a consequence all the machinery connected with it runs more smoothly; and economical, for the reason that being to some extent self -lubri- cating a saving in oil is effected, and from its elasticity, caused by its fibrous nature, the joint is kept perfectly tight a longer time than with any other class of packing. The commonest form of asbestos packing is made by either twist- ing or braiding asbestos wick or yarn together into a rope; but a large number of other kinds of asbestos packings are on the market. Wire is sometimes used Fig. 53. —Asbestos packing in joints of steam pipes. to increase the durability and strength of the packing; while to increase the elasticity, an india-rubber core is sometimes inserted. To add to the lubricat- ing property of asbestos packing, it is often manufactured with a filling of pow- dered soapstone or graphite. A very superior kind of asbestos packing consists of asbestos cloth rolled into any desired thickness, with rubber between the layers. In a similar manner, by uniting layers of asbestos cloth, a flat packing — generally called asbestos and rubber sheeting — is made, which can be cut into rings of any shape and form to serve as a superior flat joint packing, instead of mill-boards. Asbestos tape made in a similar way as the sheeting, can be bent into the form of a ring and used for the same purpose as the sheeting; having the advantage of leaving no waste to the consumer. Such packings of combined asbestos and rubber are very much in use, owing to the advantage they have over the ordinary asbestos packing, in being more resistant to moisture and withstanding a still higher pressure. A so-called asbestos block packing is m.ade by uniting a number of layers of asbestos cloth by means of india-rubber. 250 then placing a flat rubber back crossways at the edge of the layers and covering three sides by a cotton cloth, leaving one side of uncovered asbestos in contact with the piston rod. The rubber back increases the elasticity of the packing, ij-,if Fig. 54. — Various kinds of asbestos packing. while the friction acts against the edges of a number of asbestos cloth layers. This packing has great power to withstand steam pressure. There are a number of devices of steam packing used in stuffing boxes on the market. In one of these every asbestos thread has a core of fine wire, thus presenting a uniform surface of asbestos to the moving parts, rendering the packing suitable for wet or dry steam, and adding greatly to its strength and durability. Asbestos Cloth. Asbestos yarn, composed of pure asbestos fibre of the highest quality, is woven into cloth of varying construction, weight, and thickness, which, in turn, is made into safety drop curtains for theatres, amusement halls, and the like. About 1,000 of these curtains are made each year : the largest one in the world (at the Hippodrome, New York), as well as nearly all the others, being made of 251 asbestos fibre from Thetford Mines, which is well suited for this high class of work. Asbestos cloth is also used as a wall lining or covering in some theatres, where municipal regulations require it; while there is a strong inclination to use it for the production of theatrical scenery generally, as well as of curtains. An increasingly extensive use of cloth, mill-boards, asbestos building lumber, wood, etc., has recently sprung up, in the insulation against fire of the thousands of moving picture shows which are being introduced throughout all civilized coun- tries. With the enactment of more stringent municipal ordinances, the em- ployment of large additional quantities of asbestos will necessarily be required; since there is no material so practically suitable for this insulation, and for the protection of the public, as regards the preservation of both life and property, as asbestos. Asbestos cloth is also coated with rubber, and used for the manufacture of gaskets, sheet packings, etc., its employment being greatly stimulated by the higher steam pressures which the use of steel boilers enables the manufacturer or steamship owner to risk. Under these conditions, nothing can replace asbes- tos, the use of which is necessarily in increasing demand because of the modern desire for speed — which is well-nigh universal. Another field of use for asbestos cloth, which has immense possibilities, is, the employment of this cloth for the large mangles in hotels and steam laundries, as the constant dampness has no effect upon asbestos manufactures. The de- mand for this class of goods has never yet been supplied; due largely to the initial cost of installing the necessary machinery, and the anticipated diffi- culty of obtaining a regular and uniform supply of crude asbestos; so that a factory installed for the production of such asbestos cloths might be conducted without cessation. Asbestos cloth is also coming into use in the automobile industry, and bids fair to become an important factor in the business. For this purpose, only the highest grades of Thetford Mines crude are employed; and this branch of the industry can scarcely succeed without this important and unique source of supply. Asbestos cloth is used, however, in so many lines of trade and commerce, that it is difficult to do more than dilate upon the main uses to which this branch of asbestos manufacture is applied. Suffice to say that, new uses are being constantly found for this unique cloth, requiring all the crude asbestos produced by the existing quarries. Concerning the spinning of asbestos it must be said that there are various difficulties to be overcome : (1) the fibre has not sufficient strength to withstand all the operations to which other fibres, of vegetable origin, such as flax, cotton, etc., or of animal origin, such as wool, silk, etc., have to be submitted. More- over, a difficulty is found in preventing the asbestos fibres in the thread from slipping past each other. While fibres like those of wool, flax, etc., have a rough surface, the surface of a single asbestos fibre is as smooth as that of glass threads ; so that in trying to twist a number of single fibres together they slip. Continuous study of, and experimentation on, the nature of the asbestos fibre have to a certain extent 252 overcome these difficulties, and the manufacturers have succeeded in turning out a single asbestos thread, which, although not weighing more than an ounce per 100 yards, is of considerable strength. It may not be out of place to mention, that investigations made by various municipalities in the United States regarding the safety drop curtains supposed to have been made of asbestos have shown that in many cases, very little asbestos was used in their construction, and that the materials employed were found to have been heavy jute, linen or cotton sheeting, or canvas. Garments made of asbestos cloth are used as a protection against fire, and also against injuries from acids. As to the former application, while its adop- tion on account of the great expense involved is not likely to be effected fcr general use by fire departments ; at least two men should be provided with asbes- tos suits, to enable them to enter burning buildings in case of necessity. These asbestos suits for firemen are provided with asbestos masks, which not only protect the face, but also the smoke respirators. A complete asbestos fireman's suit consists of a pair of strong boots pro- tected by an iron sole; asbestos trousers and gaiters, pocket, apron, gloves, mask, and head gear. Several tests were made recently in London before a Commission at the instigation of the Association of London Dyers and Cleaners, who have con- stantly to guard against fire hazards of a very serious nature. The objective of the tests is given as follows: — To ascertain the effect of the application of asbestos cloths, sand, and steam, upon petrol and various burning materials; but principally upon burning petrol: and more particularly under conditions which would be met in processes em- ployed on the premises of dyers and cleaners. The following is a summary of the results of the tests by the Committee : — The tests demonstrated the complete efficiency of asbestos cloths in putting out burning spirit vapour. In the case of burning materials it was demonstrated that asbestos cloths could be of use in confining fire until other appliances were brought into play. Note. — The efficiency of sand was demonstrated where it can be employed to soak up spirit — the vapour of which is ignited. The efficiency of steam, as applied, was demonstrated where a building in which the fire is burning can be closed up, so as to exclude as much draught as possible. As to the lesson of the tests, Mr. Percy Collins, one of the members of the Commission, writing on the subject, says in his preamble: — ' The application of the asbestos cloths was certainly effective, and fully demonstrated their great utility in subduing fires caused by spirit vapour. They showed that where trade processes need the employment of a volatile spirit, these asbestos cloths form a most valuable first-aid appliance.' Asbestos Rope and Yarn. Fireproof asbestos ropes in use in fire departments are generally of two kinds : one entirely of asbestos, the other with a core of steel wire which greatly adds to its strength. ' 253 Tests have been made by the German government with Wertheims (Frank- fort) wire-cored asbestos ropes, and it was found that a |" asbestos rope with steel wire core, carried nearly 2,000 pounds; and then, only one of the seventy odd strands of which the rope consisted broke. These tests made by the German government are also interesting regarding the stretching of the asbestos ropes. With a weight of 100 kilograms attached, the |" rope only stretched ts per cent; with a weight of 400 pounds it stretched less than 1 per cent. The asbestos rope without the steel wire core is sufficiently strong for ordinary fireman's purposes. A i" rope will carry fully 200 pounds; a |" rope ■over 300 pounds, and 1" rope is safe for 500 pounds. The weight of these ropes runs as follows : — i" rope, weight about 10 pounds per 100 feet. f" rope, weight about 20 pounds per 100 feet. 1" rope, weight about 40 pounds per 100 feet, li" rope, weight about 70 pounds per 100 feet. The wire core does not materially increase the weight. The ropes are by no means heavy, are very strong, and can be conveniently Tised as life lines. They are not slippery, and are not injured by water. Asbestos yarn is now a staple article in the maniifacturing of asbestos goods. Messrs. Keasbey and Mattison, of Ambler, Pa., U.S.A., produce a pure asbestos yarn weighing all the way from 300 to 1,800 yards to the pound. Asbestos Twine for laboratory work. — This is a strong, hard-finished, three- strand twine, about iV" diameter. It is fire and acid-proof, and its uses are similar to those of asbestos cord. Asbestos Sewing Twine. — A very fine, strong, finished twine, used for sew- ing asbestos cloth, and for binding materials exposed to the action of fire or acids; also for philosophical and chemical apparatus; It is also adapted for insulating electric wires, etc. Asbestos Incandescent Lamp Thread. — ^Composed of pure asbestos fibres, formed into a very fine thread, possessing a high degree of tensile strength, specially adapted for suspending incandescent lamp mantles, holding metals subjected to acid baths, etc. Asbestos as an Insulating Material. Non-heat-conducting coverings for application to steam pipes, boilers, and all heated surfaces, from which it is desired to prevent radiation, are manufac- tured to the extent of many millions of feet, each year. These are composed either entirely or in part of asbestos fibre, of varying degrees of quality. Mag- nesia coverings, it is true, are the accepted type of covering — commanding the highest degree of efficiency — yet even in the manufacture of these, from 10 to 15 per cent of long asbestos fibre is necessarily used as a binder; while on the other hand, non-heat-conducting asbestos coverings for steam pipes and boilers are manufactured, consisting of asbestos fibre alone. The coverings applied to 254 the steam piping underneath our modern railway sleeping and parlour cars — known technically as * train-pipe ' covering — are composed of pure asbestos fibre : and svich coverings will doubtless continue to be employed while coal is burned. Fig. 55. — Asbestos air-cell steam pipe covering. Asbestos is used in various ways for the purpose of preventing the radia- tion of heat from pipes, boilers, tanks, etc. As an insulating material, it is claimed to be superior to most of the other non-conducting materials: (1) be- cause of its capability of resisting heat; and (2) because, being fibrous, it ad- heres better to smooth surfaces than do powdery substances. Numerous varie- ties of pipe and boiler coverings are on the market, and the large number of companies who make this class of manufacture a specialty is evidence of the com- mercial importance this article has attained in the United States. The use of asbestos for felting purposes, runs through a large number of modifications. ' Fibre felts,' as they are technically styled, are composed of pure asbestos fibre, and are used in large quantities for insulating the heat radiating surfaces of automobiles, particularly the steam driven motor cars; while the felts are very generally employed for wrapping around small pipes; the insulation of electric service wires ; and the manufacture of sad iron holders,, etc. Experiments have long shown the great economy effected by covering steam pipes. The waste of heat in using 100 feet of 2" pipe uncovered for the con- veyance of steam from TO to 80 pounds pressure, for one year of 3,000 working hours, costs $16, with coal at $2 per ton. But by using the least efficient of insulating coverings this loss is reduced to about one-fourth of that amount, and with the best procurable to about $2.50 per year. Other experiments have shown that the loss incurred by using uncovered or inefficiently covered steam pipes is considerably more, and probably the truth lies between the two; for a steam pipe is usually under pressure for more than ten hours a day, and coal cannot always be had for so low a price as that mentioned. A square foot of uncovered pipe, filled with steam at 100 pounds pressure, will radiate and dissipate in one year the heat put into 3,716 pounds of steam by the economic combustion of 398 pounds of coal. Thus, 10 square feet of bare pipe corresponds approximately to the waste of two tons of coal per annum. 255 To sum up: pipe and boiler coverings prevent radiation of heat and conse- quent condensation of steam. Tig. 56. — Asbestos magnesia pipe covering. This means: (1) Saving in cost of fuel. (2) Increase of power and general efficiency. (3) Reduced temperature and greater comfort in surrounding atmosphere. In fact, more satisfactory results from any steam plant. Fig. 57. — Asbestos magnesia pipe covering. Further, it must be remembered that the loss by radiation varies according to the surface exposed, and the difference in temperature between the two bodies. The condensation which takes place in a steam pipe has two very ser- ious features: (1) if it be carried into the cylinder, a serious breakdown ■ may result; and (2) it must be borne in mind that only about one-tenth of the heat energy in the steam is available for producing power, consequently every unit lost by radiation from a steam pipe leading to an engine, means the loss of ten times as much heat from the coal burnt. This may appear enormous, but it is nevertheless true, and even much more so in the case of the commoner type of engines; because in these, the available part of the heat is often not over one- 256 twentieth part of the whole. In such cases it is no uncommon thing to find one-half of the coal thrown away, by allowing the boilers and steam pipes to re- main unprotected, A very practical test to ascertain the loss of heat from uncovered steam pipes and those covered with asbestos coverings was conducted by L. A. Upson, Superintendent, and Chief Engineer Steele, of the Hartford Carpet Company, with the following results: — A room having a very even temperature and free from draughts or air currents was selected, close to the boilers, where steam could be taken from the top of the main pipe, and free from water of condensation. A suitable vessel connected to 120 running feet of 2" steam pipe was arranged to collect the water of condensation. A short section of the pipe was enclosed in a suitable box, with a glass in the side for the purpose of reading the rise in temperature, as indicated by a thermometer placed therein. Fig. 58. — Asbestos felt covering. Steam was first blown through the pipe and receiver, until both were free from the water of condensation; which was caused by heating the pipe and re- ceiver. The valve was then closed, 10 hour trials were made, and the water carefully collected and weighed — with the following results : — Average steam-pressure Average temperature of room Average temperatuie of box. . Water condensed No. 1. 7!» 70 167 862 No. 2. 77 69 80 222 No. 3 80 pounds 70 degrees 107 degrees 480 pounds Each trial as given above, was for 10 hours: 120 feet of 2" pipe; No. 1 pipe uncovered; No. 2 pipe covered with asbestos; No. 3 pipe covered with plas- tic material. 257 It will be seen from the above, that the loss by radiation greatly exceeds that usually estimated for uncovered pipes; but it agrees very vrell with the trials made upon machines carrying high steam pressures. The saving by covering the pipes is very satisfactory, and in the second trial the temperature in the enclosed box was but little higher than that of the room. On the accompanying chart (Fig. 59) the radiation has been taken as 2-Y5 B.T.U., per square foot of heating surface of bare pipe per hour, for each Fah- renheit degree of difference between the temperature of the steam in the pipe — — j- 7 / y ^ p^ ~ •ilo 1 / / / /' lec _ 1 / ,/ / /^ *W_ / / / / y '' .^ •m^ / / / / / y § / h s\ / / z' X / y , ' ' y'*> fit H~> ■^J / / y y -^ X ' P^ ,< / Jy V '-^ / y y x . ' l.iZ/> ^ f y / K / y y y^ ^ ■ ^ffa / % / t / V <^ / /^ y y y i- k»o f / \k } ^ /^ ^ / /* y y > - l^e. / V .f/ / ^v. / .^ ^ r ^ " i^^i, / / } >< ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^2X0 f / t/^ r ,v f^ V' V ' ^ ^ — ' Uoo / J / / ' y A f"^ y ^^ , '' ' — ' ' f^'f ' y \,^ y i' W V' y^ l\ ,2 ^ ^ -^ V'*" / r / y ^ k^i \ pt *H k ■^ _^ ' - ' __^ - ./*» / y / y y *J ^ 1 \ » " .— — - V>o // / y X f ^ ^ ^' '. 1 " ^ ^ ■^ 1 r'i tl1> l. . " * u - ■^ '_ — ■^ " IV />. <^> ' , , ■ " 1- •" y ib d. .— -• " •i" ??'■ «/■ it J 'J--J ^ .= i-s"-" "" ' 1i ^ i 1 „ 5t 1 S 1 p Un^ of P,|,;«^ ia F«a CHART FOR CALCULATING DIFFERENCE IN LOSS BETWEEN bare: and asbestos covered pipe J^ote: CondensaiioTi inAshesfcS'Caverecl Steam.Pipe tTw.S : " *• Bare. " •" *" Fig. 59. and that of the air outside it.' This figure is probably a minimum : it particu- larly refers to pressures of less than 100 pounds, and has been arrived at after considering available data. A steam gauge pressure of 100 pounds and an average air pressure of 77° F have been taken. The equivalent condensation per square foot of bare pipe per hour==0-82 pound of steam arrived at as follows: steam gauge pressure, 100 pounds per square inch; temperature of steam at above pressures, 338° F; average tem- perature of air, 77° F; difference, 261° F; loss per square foot per hour =261x2-75=717 B.T.U. 1 Abstract of an article by W. R. Degenhardt in the ' Monthly Journal ' of the Chamber of Mines of Western Australia, June 30, 1909. 258 To change oue pound of water at a temperature of 338° F, into steam at 338° F requires 877 B.T.U. Therefore, the loss by condensa- 717 tion per square foot of bare pipe per hour is — _L =0-82 pound. This result forms the basis for constructing the full line plottings in the chart. With asbestos-covered steam pipes the loss by condensation may be taken as one-fourth that of a similar uncovered surface, and it is on this basis that the dotted line plottings have been made. By taking any of the sizes of steam pipe indicated, and following the ordi- nates for length to the corresponding abscissae for pounds of steam lost per hour, the difference in loss between bare and asbestos-covered piping can readily be perceived. The plottings can be taken only as approximate; but should serve to indicate in any particular line of steam piping, whether a closer investiga- tion would be justified. The common way of preventing the radiation of heat from pipes, boilers, etc., is, to mix loose asbestos fibre, after freeing it fairly well from stone admix- tures, with other materials which either serve to increase the non-conducting qualities of asbestos or to make the composition adhere better to the surface of the pipes. Such a mixture made into a uniform paste with water, is laid on smoothly by means of a trowel as a thin covering around the pipe. Several layers are usually put on, allowing each to dry thoroughly before the next is applied. To finish off, canvas or oil-cloth is used, which prevents the covering from falling off, should it become cracked in the course of time. The Canadian Asbestos Company manufactures an asbestos cement com- posed of 90 per cent of asbestos fibre : which forms a light porous covering, partaking of the nature of a felt and cement, and is applied while heated to the boiler or pipe surfaces. ^ ■^^^ Fig. 60. — Asbestos cement applied to steam pipes. Another mode for using asbestos for covering pipes is effected by forming it into sectional pieces, which are placed on the pipes and connected by means of 259 iron bands or canvas (Fig. 58). This mode of applying asbestos has the unique advantage not only of being easily put on and taken off the pipes ; but the same covering may be used for a considerable length of time. Special sectional pieces of such covering are made to fit elbows, tees, crosses, and other fittings. Fig. 61. — Asbestos felt. The sectional pipe covering, as illustrated in Fig. 60, is composed of a moulded asbestos core 4" thick, and i" of corrugated wool felt; which binds the moulded portion, making it tough and durable. This form of construction makes an excellent non-conductor. On larger surfaces it is better to cut from a sheet of 1" fine felt, sufficient to cover the iron, and after wiring the same, to partly finish with asbestos cement in two coats. (Fig, 63). 3 plv BROOKS H.W.J -r^ ^Q Fig. 62. — Asbestos roofing felt Removable Boiler Covering. Throughout the non-civilized world, where the locomotive penetrates as the advance guard of civilization, these engines must be protected from loss of heat and the excessive consumption of coal or wood. This is done by blanketing the engine with asbestos mattresses: firm, light structures, made of asbestos cloth, and stuffed with asbestos fibres; since such clothing is tough and firm, may be easily handled, removed for repairs to stay bolts, crown sheets, etc., and re-applied by unskilled labour, without injury to the fabric. In India, and throughout the East generally, all locomotives are covered with mattresses or 7068—24 260 ' clothing ' as it is called, consisting wholly of asbestos. In the United States and Canada, as well as in Great Britain, some 75,000 locomotives are now in service, covered with ' Magnesia Laggings,' 15 per cent of which consists of long asbestos fibre. The Asbestos Covering, manufactured by the Johns Manville Company, of New York, is made of successive layers of plain and corrugated asbestos felt, which, on account of the numerous air cells thiis produced, effectually prevents radiation (Fig. 65). Fig. 63. — Asbestos cement applied on boilers. Ashestos Cement Felting. — This felting is composed of asbestos fibre, infus- orial earth, and a cementing compound. It is applied with a trowel to steam pipes, boilers, etc., while heated. (Fig. 64.) Fig. 64. — Asbestos cement applied on boilers. The expansion and contraction of large sheet metal surfaces are often so great as to injure pure cement coverings. In placing asbestos felt sheets next to the iron, however, this difficulty is entirely overcome. For pressures of 125 261 pounds and upwards, the following covering is recommended by the Johns Man- ville Company: first, next to the iron, place 2" asbestos felt sheeting, wire the same on, then cover with mesh wire and finish with I" coat of cement. FKt. G.J. — AsbesttLS air-cell cuvering. Asbestos Mattresses. — The subject of covering steam boilers and pipes in Great Britain has been brought into special prominence by the rule of the Board of Trade, in London, to the effect that all steam pipes and boilers of marine engines shall be tested at certain intervals by hydraulic pressure, to double the working pressure. Before testing the pipes and boilers, the cover must be re- moved. This rule points to the desirability of producing satisfactory remov- able boiler and pipe covering. The idea of making quilts or mattresses com- posed of asbestos cloth filled or stuffed with non-conducting material is not new; for this was done in London as early as 1885. But the way in which these quilts or mattresses were prepared was somewhat defective, as the fibre or other material with which they were filled shifted its position ; the result being, that Fig. Q6. — Asbe&tos wired mattress for covering boilers, etc. some parts of the mattress became choked, and other parts empty. All these de- fects have been removed, and the mattresses as they are now made — especially 7068—244 262 for modern warships — are effective and durable. The weight of this covering is only 1^ pounds to the square foot: is easily applied, and may be removed and replaced without trouble. It is made in blocks of standard size 6" x 36", and 1" thick, upwards. The method of application is very simple, as can be seen by reference to Fig. 66. Wires are passed around the boiler at about -1" from the ends of every course of blocks. A special T-hook or fastening engages the wires, and the blocks are slipped iinder the hook, which holds them firmly in place. This method of fastening permits the removal, when necessary, of a single block, without dis- turbing the others. Asbestos Mill-board. ]\ranufactured into mill-board, asbestos finds a variety of uses. The mill- board serves as a joint packing for steam pipes, cylinder covers, steam chest covers, etc., and is greatly appreciated for its durability, economy, and cleanli- ness. It will adapt itself to uneven surfaces and forms a perfectly tight joint, which, with very little care, can be removed and replaced without injury. For special purposes — especially when there is much water in the steam pipes — asbestos mill-board can, by special treatment, be made perfectly waterproof. As- bestos mill-board is also used for other purposes, such as th construction of fireproof deed boxes, etc. (Fig. 67). Fig. 67. — Asbestos mill-board. The manufacture of asbestos mill-board is somewhat similar to that of ordinary cardl)oard. In the works of the United Asbestos Company, London, the asbestos fibre, after some preliminary treatment, is run with water into the tanks of beating engines. Each of these tanks is provided with a rotating beater, which maintains a thorough circulation, taking up the fibre, opening and drawing it out. and then sending it forward to be soaked for a time until it comes round again to the beater. The binding ingredients are here added and 263 thoroughly mixed with the fibre, when the pulp is passed iuto the vat of the mill-board or paper machine; where it is kept in a state of agitation until grad- ually drawn off. The water passes through a fine wire gauze on a revolving cylinder, leaving a thin coating of pulp on the cylinder. This is then trans- ferred by means of an endless band to a second rotating cylinder, where it gradually accumulates until the desired thickness has been reached. It is finally cut across and removed in the form of a square sheet of m.ill-board. As the sheets contain a large percentage of moisture, they are next placed between sheets of zinc and passed under hydraulic pressure, then hung in drying rooms, where the final pressure is applied, the edges trimmed, and they are then ready for the market. In this process the chemical composition of the asbestos undergoes little if any change, and with the exception of the binding materials which have been added, chemical analysis shows the composition of the best mill-boards to be practically the same as the fibre from which they are made. It will be observed that nothing would be easier than to adulterate mill-board pulp while in the beating engines, and as a matter of fact large quantities of china-clay, and other ingredients, are used by some manufactiu-ers in this process. It has the effect, not only of increasing the weight, but also of reducing the cost, to the detriment, however, of the finished article. A patent has been granted to T. H. Ibbotson, East Greenwich ; and R. ]Mel- drum, Blackheath, England, covering a pi-ocess for the manufacture of mill-board asbestos fibre.^ The main features of this patented article are as follows :— Asbestos of |" to 2" long (100 pounds) is thoroughly mixed in a beating machine with a magnesiiim chloride solution, having a specific gravity 1-25 to 1'5 (250 to 500 gallons). Finely divided magnesium oxide (50 to 150 pounds), which should weigh at least 25 pounds to the bushel, is then added, and the mixing continued. The pulp obtained is filtered, and the comparatively dry residue left on the filter-bed is subjected in a hydraulic press to a pressure of 200 to 300 pounds per square inch, and allowed to dry in the air. The hard slabs obtained are next washed with water, to remove soluble salts, then im- mersed in a 20 per cent sodium or potassium silicate solution, and subsequently immersed for fifteen minutes in a magnesium chloride solution. They are then aid dried, and afterwards treated with the silicate solution. The process described in the United States Patent 694,859" is improved by thoroughly incorporating fibrous asbestos and powdered sulphur into a pulp with water, and forming the pulp into paper, mill-board, or ether convenient article. The water is then removed, and the dried product saturated with a suitable oil. The material is subsequently subjected to a vul- canizing process by the carefully regulated action of heat, a temperature of about 300° E being maintained for a definite time. Asbestos mill-boards are used in enormous quantities in the stove and range industry: all modern ranges having their oven doors lined with this material. ^ Chemical Industry, 1903, page 1,088. 2 Journal Society of Chemical Industr y, 1906, Vol. 2, page 1,069. 264 They are also used as flat packings for steam pipe joints and gaskets, also in many other departments of modern industry. Asbestos Writing Paper. The manufacture of paper from asbestos has met with many difficulties owing to the natural affinity of asbestos for water. Only a few kinds of asbestos are suited for the production of a good paper and then special treatment of the fibre is necessary. Most of the paper made contains only about one-third of its weight of asbestos. It is reported that a good class of asbestos paper was at one time made in Paris; but the principal defect of all asbestos papers is the nat- ural tendency to work up more like blotting paper than ordinary writing paper. It is difficult to obtain a glassy surface of the paper to enable the pen to glide smoothly over it and prevent the ink from running. An invention to remedy this defect w'ould certainly tend to stimulate the manufacture of asbestos paper. Much has been accomplished in this direction; but still, even the best writing paper produced is too tender, and although itself fireproof, the w^riting upon it does not withstand a red heat. Lining of Furnaces. Inasmuch as asbestos is one of the most refractory substances known, it is advantageously used in a variety of ways for the lining of furnaces. When the metal and fire are together — as in the cupola, or blast furnace — it constitutes a most enduring and heat-confining lining, and is particularly adapted for use where the metals or ores contain sulphides, as sulphides have no effect on asbes- tos.^ As linings for furnaces and kilns, and for use in the manufacture of crucibles, a patent has been granted for an improved refractory material com- posed of a mixture of the aluminous asbestos from Natal with fireclay : in the proportion of one part of asbestos to four of fireclay. Both are finely pulverized, and formed into the desired shapes while in a plastic state. The patentee states that if a material of greater fii-e-resisting properties is required, the worn out * saggers ' are pulverized and a fresh supply of fireclay, equal to double the amount of powder ' sagger ' is added. When this material is exposed to extra- ordinary heat it does not crack; but, on the other hand, tends to fuse and bind its particles closer together. Another convenient property of the material is, that it is capable of resisting the attacks of atmospheric and chemical substan- ces, such as damp, sewage, etc. This special form of asbestos is stated to be additionally valuable both on account of its cheapness and the convenient form in which it is imported. Firebriclc. — The Canadian Asbestos Company manufacture a firebrick which is pronounced to be a perfect substitute for and a great improvement on, the conventional fireclay trick. It is intended for lining and relining all styles of cooking stoves, ranges, heaters, etc. It is also invaluable for lining doors of boilers, furnaces, and setting up firebrick in stone walls, etc. 1 Jones, ' Asbestos,' page 218 265 It has many advantages over ordinary firebrick: (Ij it costs less; (2) it is always ready for nse; (3) conforms to irregular surfaces; (4) can be easily applied; (5) does not burn out, and (6) clinkers will not adhere to it. Asbestos has been used in the manufacture of fireproof bricks, and tests made by the British Fire Prevention Committee (Stone, February, 1901) on gypsine, a fireproof material composed of hydraulic lime, sand, and asbestos pressed into bricks, showed remarkably good results. One side of a 9" partition of gypsine bricks, set in hydraulic mortar, and lightly coated with a layer of fireclay, was submitted for an hour to a temperature which reached 2,050 F. The material was in no way affected, and the temperature of the outer surface was never sufficiently high to ignite a match held against it. Asbestos, in its fibrous form, or in a finely divided state, is filled with an extraordinary number of air-cells, and for this reason contains in itself every requisite for a perfect non-conducting covering; by using it in this way, there- fore, in its pure and fibrous form, without any admixture of foreign material, the most satisfactory results are obtained. Asbestos as a Building Material. The trend of modern architectural and municipal thought is in the direc- tion of fireproofing, and the utilization of fire retarding materials generally, in the erection of buildings. In this type of construction, asbestos plays an ever increasing part. About 30,000 tons of asbestos paper are used in building con- struction alone each year; and a proper regard for the protection of life, upon the part of municipal authorities, would result in the sale of at least 100,000 tons per annum, in the principal cities of the United States, alone. Asbestos is a natural heat insulator; and its siUvy fibres are capable of man- ipulation into any form. It is unaffected by extreme VP'eather conditions; ia absolutely fireproof, and is only moderate in cost. Commencing at the very foundation of modern buildings, asbestos and its by-products enter largely into their construction; and are used throughout: exterior and interior — even as a roof covering. Various new lines of bviilding materials have been introduced into the trade, the chief constituent of which is asbestos. After the first-floor joists of a modern residence are put in place, asbestos plaster can be used in conjunction with either wood or metal lathing as a ' scratch ' coat on the ceiling of the cellar. Thus used, it offers a positive fire barrier between floors, hence is the most satisfactory form of plastering known. Between all floors, and between the outside boarding and clapboards, the nse of asbestos sheeting papers and sheeting quilts has met with universal suc- cess. These have many advantages over other products, owing to their natural fire-resisting properties. They not only prevent the transmission of sound waves between rooms, but will effect a considerable saving in fuel when placed upon the side walls of wooden structures. Similar felts are also used on roofs, under shingles and slates, and ensure a comfortable building throughout the entire year. 266 Two asbestos specialties recently introduced on the market are, ' Transite ' and ' Electrobestos ' ; manufactured by the Johns Manville Oompany of New York. Transite is a dense, smooth, rigid mass of asbestos fibre, compressed into sheets, mouldings, and panels of various thicknesses from J" to il", and rang- ing in standard sizes up to 3'-6" x 7 feet. Tt can be sawed, chiselled, planed, Fig. 68. — Asbestos wood-graining and finishing. and machine-tooled; will hold screws, and can be handled like wood in every X)articular; but is, of course, absolutely incombustible. It can be stained, painted, and decorated, has strong wearing qualities, and is superior to metal in many applications, as it is not affected by acids, gases, or weather. Electrobestos is an agglutinated mixture of asbestos and non-conducting materials; which can be moulded into all shapes required by the electrical in- dustry. It possesses to a high degree the qualities of incombustibility, non- conductivity, and non-absorption of moisture, and is being extensively used in connexion with electric lighting, the heating of buildings, and in street cars. A recent United States Patent (No. 769,087) issued to T. H. Ibotson and E. Meldrum, of England, covers a process of making asbestos boards. Asbestos fibre is made into a pulp with magnesia, and the mixture is treated with an alkaline-silicate solution before being pressed into shape. Asbestos building lumber, asbestos wood, asbestos boards, and similar manu- factured articles, are employed to a large extent in the protection of electric short circuiting of trolley or electric cars; for fireproofing, and for general pro- tective purposes. When these asbestos products are saturated with asphalt com- pounds, they become useful for general electric uses : cut-outs, switchboards, etc. One of the largest uses in the future, for asbestos fibre generally, will be its employment in the manufacture of asbestos roofing slates : hundreds of mil- lions of which have already been made, and which promises to be the largest future use for clean, short fibre. The present demand for asbestos fibre in the manufacture of these slates, amounts to about 10.000 tons per year; and the 267 demand for asbestos fibre for this particular purpose is increasing daily. It ought to be five times as great, and there is little doubt that in the course of Fig. 69. — Asbestos wood for building construction. time, the demand will be greatly increased. A Canadian factory for the manu- facture of asbestos slates has jvist been equipped at Lachine, Que., drawing all its asbestos supply from Thetford Mines and Black Lake. Fig. 70. — Door and door frame made of asbestos wood. 268 ASBESTOS CEMENT SLATE. This is practically iiulestructiblc Ity atmospheric inlluences, so that main- tenance expenses for roofs covered with this material are excluded. For a period of three months the asbestos cement slate absorbs, and assim- ilates moisture in exactly the same ratio as the best natural slate. After that time the absorption ceases altogether, and the material becomes impervious, indestructible, and as hard as iron. The stringy asbestos fibres, which, by the characteristic peculiarity of a patented process, are embedded cross-wise in the cement paste, have exactly the same effect as concrete-steel constructions. They impart to the asbestos slate extremely high physical strength, indifference to blow and shock, and great elasticity; which properties are of the same impor- tance to conveyance, and the laying of the asbestos slates, as they are to their durability and length of service. The insulating capability of asbestos when brought to bear either upon heat or cold, imparts an increased importance to asbestos cement slate, not only in Fig. 71.— Freight sheds of the Boston and Maine railway, Boston, Mass. (Covered with asbestos slates.) its suitability for the tropics — where it is commonly used as a substitute for corrugated iron; but also for the continental climate, where it is economically used in workshops, in dwelling rooms, and particularly in garrets, which, with ether roof coverings, would have to remain unoccupied. The fireproof quality of asbestos renders asbestos cement slate a thoroughly fireproof material, which, owing to its strictly scientific manufacture, can not become either cracked, rent, or scaled in case of fire. A series of tests were made with asbestos and magnesia building lumber by Mr. George Sever, New York.^ This material was manufactured by Keasbey and Mattison, of Ambler, Pa., for whom the tests were made. ^ United States Mineral Resources, 1904, pages 1,125-1,136. 269 270 The first two tests demonstrated that as regards electrical resistance, mag- nesia board as an insulating- material is a little more satisfactory than asbestos board. In the third test the material was siil)jeft('d t(j the heat of an arc lamp of 500 watts for 20 seconds. The magnesia board seemed to stand the test better than the one made of the asbestos; because the face of the latter was considerably atfected, the strength of the fibres having been destroyed. In the following test — No. 4, asbestos showed itself to be a far superior non- conductor of heat than magnesia. The boards were held V' away from the centre of the /s" upright carbons of an arc lamp, and a piece of white tissue paper was placed on the side of the material away from the arc lamp. Fig. 73. — Residence covered with asbestos slate. In test No. 5, it was shown that asbestos board withstands heavy blows better than magnesia board. These vibratory strength tests were made by nailing pieces of asbestos and magnesia board firmly to a wooden base, and then noting the effect of blows from a two-pound hammer, delivered at the rate of 70 blows per minute, on the mass of the material : — VIBRATORY TESTS ON ASBESTOS AND MAGNESIA LUMBER. Specimen No. 1 3 9 11 17 19 37 39 45 47 25 27 Material. Asbestos. . Magnesia. Average Thickness. Inches. 2770 2818 1548 1576 5185 5207 2550 2520 1130 1120 4!tlO 0-4 or Layer c^, :, rJne-yiTrre -, ,, .^^ V^inc Sheets \.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\N\\S\\\\\\\\\\\\VX\X^\ / ) «y - Wood Cover Fir,. 82. material not more than IJ" thick, there can be hardly any doubt that the flux of heat through the central 6" square over which the temperature of the faces is determined is uniform, normal to the surface, and of density equal to half the watts dissipated in the heating-net per unit area. With slabs V thick it will be seen that although the total amount of material required for the test is small, the value obtained for the heat conductivity of each slab will really be the average of 36 cubic inches of the material. In all cases the difference of tem- perature between the faces was measured for each of the slabs, thereby making- sure that the heat-flow through each slab was approximately equal, and enabling the average coefiicient to be determined for a total of 72 cubic inches of material •divided between two separate specimens, although the total number of tempera- ture observations involved is only two, and these can be taken immediately one after the other by simply changing over the plug connexions to the Wheatstone bridge. When the apparatus is once got together, the introduction of fresh specimens is only the work of a few minutes. If it is desired to test some loose material, such as powdered cork or silicate cotton, two more wood frames, similar to those in Fig. 80 are used for retaining it in position. As soon as the material is in position and the heating coil and fine-wire coils are connected up, a suitable heating current is switched on and the appara- tus left until the steady state is attained. The time necessary for this may be anything from 12 hours to two days, depending on the nature of the material and the magnitude of the heating current. In Fig. 84 are shown the results of a series of tests on boards of yellow pine 1" thick. The heat escaping, expressed in B.T.U. per square foot per hour, is shown, in relation to degrees Fahrenheit. The B.T.U. per square foot per hour "have been arrived at by multiplying the watts dissipated in the resistance by 296 3-4 and dividing by twice the area of the heating-net. The difference in tem- perature in degrees Fahrenheit has been obtained by multiplying the percentage increase of resistance between the various coils of fine copper wire found by the Wheatstone bridge by 4-5. Curve (1) shows the mean difference of temperature between the inside and outside faces of the boards in an enclosed test, as shown in the diagrammatic section, Fig. 82. We see tliat when the temperature difference between the faces is 50° Fahrenheit the number of B.T.U. escaping per square loot per hour is 52. Hence, under the existing temperature conditions, the termal conductivity, defined as the quantity of heat measured in B.T.U. , which pass per hour through a cross-section of 1 square foot, when the temperature gradient is 1° Fahrenheit per inch, is 52/5(>=l-04. It will be noticed that the curve (1), in common with all similar curves obtained for other materials tested, is slightly convex to the temperature axis, thereby confirming Nusselt's result, that the conductivity of heat insulators increases with rise of temperature. Curve (2) of Fig. 83 shows the difference of temperature between the inside faces of the boards and the external air when the apparatus is arranged so that Dia jS rcim malic /Seeh'orr T^oj-yfir (^ap Ex pf'? uuuuuuui ) ^ Fi'HTne Fi^ 81 Ashesloff Millbogrd \A'VV\^;\AAAA)\y 3 > ^ Ffoyne Fig 81 ^/i2/l,o^.t^ ) ^ ^ -Woool Cover Fig. 83. the outside surfaces of the boards are uncovered. Curve (3) of the same figure has been obtained by plotting the temperature intercepts between curves (1) and (2) for different heat fluxes, and the abscissae of this curve accordingly represent the drops in temperature which occur at the outer surfaces. The way in which curve (3) bends up shows how very incorrect Xewton's law of cooling becomes as soon as the drop in temperature exceeds 40° or 50° Fahrenheit. We can now make an attempt to predict the amount of heat that will pass through a partition made of various thicknesses of this material, when certain specified differences of air temperature exist on the two sides. For any definite heat flux, the difference in temperature between the two faces of the partition will be the corresponding abscissa of curve (1) increased or decreased in simple proportion to the thickness; the corresponding abscissa of curve (3) is assumed 297 to be the drop of temperature at the surface that will occur on each side of the partition. For example, suppose we have a partition of yellow pine 1^" thick, and the heat flux penetrating it is 40 B.T.U. per square foot per hour, we find — referring- to curve (1) of Fig. 84 — the drop in temperature in the wood itself must be 1^" x 38"=57° Fahrenheit, and that the drop in temperature at each face will be approximately the corresponding abscissa of curve (3), viz., 26° Fahrenheit. The difference in air temperature between the two sides of the partition is accordingly (57+2x26)° Fahrenheit=109° Fahrenheit. A more practical aspect of the same problem is : given the difference in air temperature existing on the two sides of the partition, to find the heat-loss for different thicknesses of wood. The curves in Fig. 86, deduced after the manner indicated above, make it possible to read off the answer to this question at a glance. From the shape of the curves it is evident that after a moderate thick- ness of wood, increasing the thickness only improves the insulation at a very slow rate. Results from these curves must, however, be accepted with caution, for radiation will differ somewhat on the two sides, due to the different nature of the bodies involved and their difference in absolute temperature. Also, the trans- fer of heat by air contact will be very sensitive to convection currents, the precise nature of which is difficult to foresee, but will most probably be some- what different on the two sides. Accordingly, the amount of error involved in assuming that the drops of temperature at the two surfaces are the same, and each equal to the drop found in the laboratory experiment, is not easy to judge. f2a //^'ne»« FhTtrenheit (£) SurfhiceBfojo HEAT DIAGRAM FOR YELLOW PINE TESTS : SQUARE FEET PER HOUR. Fig. 84. In more usual conditions of cold-storage construction, however, these doubt- ful surface effects have much less relative importance. Suppose, for instance, that the insulation consists of a layer of silicate cotton 10" thick confined be- tween wood boards. From Fig. 86 it is seen that a total temperature difference of 100° Fahrenheit (i.e., a temperature gradient of 10° Fahrenheit per inch) 298 would oiily produce a heat flux of about 5 B.Th.U. per square foot per hour. With this low density of heat flux, curve (3) of Fig. 84 shows a temperature drop of less than 4° Fahrenheit, so that the combined temperature drop at the two outer surfaces is less than 8° Fahrenheit — i.e., less than 7-5 per cent of the total. The following table shows the specific gravity and coefficient of heat con- ductivity as determined by the apparatus described for a number of different materials : — Material. Spec. Grav. Coefficient of Heat Conductivity at 50 to 75° Centigrade. Yellow pine across grain S60 013 Teak across grain 1 515 051 049 166 330 256 141 113 240 023 Expansit Schrot No. I No. II 055 061 Compressed cork slabs 060 Silicate cotton or slag wool Asbestos sheet, h" tliick r 1 1 [Mean value 07 1 J 0-25 Asbestos mill-board, g" thick Air-jacket in the vertical plane, 1" mill-board wide, walls of asbestos 1 075 014to01 026 toO-31 The specific gravity of the loose materials was obtained by weighing the amount introduced into the apparatus. In all cases, except for the asbestos, the Q B Th.U. 8 ^ y pet houf 2 1 8 M 3 i ?a •1- ?? / A f / / X X / / y / \/ K ' 1 i / / / / J «^ 3 *> / / 1 / f / A i;„ / \ / / J / i / > r J f ha / ^ / / <^ / I f' J f I / •>5 ^ S HEAT DIAGRAM FOE YELLOW PINE TESTS : Fig. 85. PER HOUR. thickness of which is specifically stated, the tests were made on solid slabs or layers of material 1" thick. The temperature of the inside surfaces of the in- sulating material varied from 50 to 75° Centigrade. The atmospheric tem- perature was about 17° Centigrade. In cases where the increase of conductivity 299 with rise of temperature was found considerable, values are given for both limits of temperature. To facilitate comparison with the results of Nusselt, the conduc- tivities given in the table have been expressed in kilogramme-calories passing per hour through a cross-section of 1 square metre when the temperature gradient Si 7 z cafe Cotton OJSpee fz) » Qrav o.rtd 1 1 / (ii rao y ^ f*J / / y p / J J f «5 J f A f i / / / O ifO ^o '*^ *^^ ■*"*' HEAT DIAGRAM FOR SILICATE COTTON: SQUARE FEET PER HOUR. Fig. 86. is 1° Centigrade per metre. To convert the conductivities into B.T.U. per square foot per hour for a temperature gradient of 1° Fahrenheit per inch, the figures given in the table must be multiplied by 8-'05. Thus for yellow pine, 0-13x8 -05=1 -04 nearly, as previously obtained from Fig, 85. The specially prepared cork known as ' Expansit,' for samples of which the author is indebted to Messrs. Grunzweig and Hartmann of Ludwigshafen, is seen to be a wonderfully light and efficient insulator. The material as tested consisted of small granules, but it can also be obtained in block form. When Expansit Schrot No. I was put under the test, the first observations gave a con- ductivity as high as 0-06, which gradually fell until 0-055 was reached. The reason for this improvement in insulating resistance of almost 10 per cent, was found to be due to the expulsion of moisture, although the granules appeared to be quite dry when first introduced into the apparatus. This instance, typical of many subsequent experiences, serves to show the deleterious effect of moisture on heat-insulators. When the Expansit was removed from the apparatus it was found that water had been driven to the outer surfaces and the granules were all caked together, so that the final result is probably not so good as would have been obtained had the material been dried before it was introduced into the apparatus. 7068—27 300 The somewhat higher conductivity of Expansit Schrot No. II, is due to the larger size of the granules composing it. The most efficient grain size is a point of much interest. The heat-insulating effect produced by a porous material is apparently duo to the fact that the space which it occupies Cfno7rft£i C/t/rv^ffS OJ £:x^3 ^ "^ ff/ O iO 'to ^ so TOO TZO JM'irrutes HEAT DIAGRAM FOE SILICATE COTTON: COOLING CURVES. Fig 87. consists mainly of air split up into such a fine state of subdivisions that convec- tion is prevented by viscosity. The more minute the pores the more hampered will be the movement of the occluded air; but a limit will be reached when the pores are made so small that the benefit derived from this cause is counter- balanced by the increased conduction of heat that takes place through the sub- stance of the material itself. From the researches of Clark Maxwell and Win- kelmann it appears that the conductivity of perfectly still air is only about 0-02, wliich may be taken as the ideal towards which the conductivity of actual porous insulating material can only approach. The author understands from Professor O. Knoblauch, of Munich, that a conductivity as low as 0-033 has been obtained for Expansit of very fine grain, which is getting very close to the ideal figure. To test the fireproof qualities of Expansit, a shallow layer of Schrot No. I was put in an open tray and placed on an electric heater. "Wlien a temperature of 500° Fahrenheit was reached the material began to smoke. Heating was continued until the temperature rose to 650° Fahrenheit, by which time the material was smouldering briskly, but did not catch fire. The heating current was then switched off and the charred material allowed to cool. A subsequent test showed that the treatment the material had undergone had raised its con- ductivity about Y per cent. 301 Silicate cotton was experimented with in four different densities. Results for the highest and lowest densities, representative of very loose and very firm packing, are shown in Fig. 87. It will be seen that loose packing makes slightly the best insulator for small differences of temperature; but firm packing is much the best when the temperature difference is considerable. On the whole the re- jiir *Jac7cet 3oo ■/»7. 1 — ML f3i / *0- 1 / i\ Ti \i 1 V. / ■ / ■7 / V \y f - I // // \ ^ V ! 1 // / / / r y / / / y / / / Ji ^ ^ / \ o 7S sv rr foo ns fso DIAGRAMATIC SECTION: SQUARE FEET PER HOUR. Fig 88. suits indicate that it is advisable to pack the silicate cotton as firmly as possible, especially as this ensures that the material will not afterwards subside, so as to leave holes which cannot afterwards be filled up. After a temperature difference of 120° Fahrenheit the curve of the loosely-packed silicate cotton bends up in a way which resembles the curve obtained for an unfilled air-gap. Besides having a low conductivity, and apart from considerations of cost, durability, etc., it is desirable that the material employed for insulating cold stores should have a high specific heat; for walls having considerable capacity for heat will keep down the temperature for some time, should the refrigerating machinery be temporarily stopped. The apparatus described above for measur- ing conductivity is also well suited for getting comparative values for heat-in- sulators from this point of view. A steady state is established with some speci- fied internal temperature, the heating-current is then switched off and the rate of fall of internal temperature determined by taking readings periodically, the conditions of cooling being in all cases the same. Fig. 87 shows comparative cooling curves obtained in this way for Expansit Schrot No. II and silicate cotton density 0-113. The results show that Expansit is superior from this point of view as well as being a better insulator, in spite of the fact that, volume for volume, it is less than half the weight of the silicate cotton. Results for asbestos lead one to the conclusion that its value as a heat-insu- lator is due rather to its fireproof qualities than to its low conductivity, which indeed appears to be no lower than the conductivity of wood. 7068—274 302 To make experiments on the conductivity of a simple air-jacket, two double- thicknesses of thin asbestos mill-board were inserted in the positions usually occupied by the slabs of insulating material to be tested; curve (1) of Fig. 88 was obtained with this arrangement. Frames as shown in Fig. 81 were now inserted in the position indicated in the diagrammatic section shown in Fig. 83, eo that a central air jacket 9" x 9" was introduced on either side, surrounded by a marginal dead air space about li" wide. With this arrangement curve (2) was obtained. Curve (3) was constructed by plotting the intercepts between the curves (1) and (2), and must represent very approximately the difference in temperature between opposite walls of the air-jackets. It is at once evident that an air-jacket of this description is a very poor insulator even for small differences cf temperature, and that the conductivity increases enormously as the tempera- ture difference is increased. Curves (2) and (3) refer to an air-jacket with vertical walls; as convection must have a great deal to do with the transfer of heat from one wall of the air- jacket to the other, it is clear that an air-jacket between horizontal walls will act differently. The effect was tried of turning over the apparatus bodily from the vertical to the horizontal plane. The temperature differences for the jacket that was now uppermost rose from curve (2) to curve (4), while for the jacket that was underneath the temperature differences fell from the curve (2) to curve (5). The explanation of these results appears to be that currents of hot air rising freely from the upper horizontal surface of the apparatus enabled the heat to be carried off with only a small difference in temperature between the top of the jacket and the outside air. On the other hand, the hot air produced hy the heat conducted through the bottom horizontal surfaces, instead of being displaced by cold air, remained in contact with the lower surface, with the re- sult that the outside wall of the lower jacket rose in temperature, thereby dimin- ishing the difference in temperature between the two walls of the jacket. The heat conductivity of the two jackets can no longer be calculated, for the ratio in which the total heat dissipated divides itself between the two jackets is no longer known. No doubt by far the greater portion of the heat flux rises verti- cally through the top jacket. In conclusion, the author would like to acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor J. E. Henderson, D.Sc, who originally suggested the form of testing apparatus employed. INDEX. A Page. A.bitibij Lake, serpentine outcrops at 40 Accessories in use in asbestos mills 136 Actinolite 19, 20, 32, 33 " found at Sudbury 20 Adams, Dr. Frank D., investigation of serpentine areas 34 Africa, asbestos in 239 " " samples from 67 " microphotograph of fibre from 87 " work in Matabeleland 213 Agricultural land 45 Alignum 247 Alps, asbestos obtained from 14 Amalgamated Asbestos Corporation 60, 121, 175 " " " hoisting and hauling arrangement 115 " " " introduction of electric po.ver 148 long pit of 106 American Asbestos Company 121, 177, 179 " " " introduction of electric power 148 American Chrome Company 71 Amianthus lamp wick 15 " resemblance to asbestos 14 " where found 29 Amphibole 18, 19, 20, 32, 214 Analysis, Abitibi Lake serpentine 40 " African asbestos 240 " asbestiform mineral from Elzevir 19 " asbestos 31 " " and associated minerals in tabulated form 79, 80 " Broughton serpentine and asbestiform mineral 63 " chrysotile-asbestos 50 crocidolite 21, 22 " decomposed serpentine 24 " hornblende minerals 20 " Italian asbestos. Prof. Donald 231 " Larurentian serpentine 36 " mountain cork 21 " picrolite 25 *' Pigeon Lake chrysotile 41 " serpentine. Eastern Townships 48 " soapstone 28 Anglo-Canadian Asbestos Company 121 Anglo-Swiss Asbestos Company 242, 243 Anthophyllite 18, 32 Aosta valley of Alps, asbestos in 15, 232 304 Page. Appendix 292 Arizona, asbestos in 216 " " samples from 67 Asbestic, manufactured at Danville 143, 276 " production of in Canada 161, 162 Asbestocel 277 Asbestolit 247 Asbestolith-tiling 278 Asbestos, amphibole and clnysotile varieties contrasted 33 " analyses of 31 " and Asbestic Company, Danville 181 " " " " loss by fire 146 " and asbestic, diagram of production 163 of values 165, 166 production of in Canada 1896-1908 161 " apparatus used in separation of 123 " applications of 245 " area available for exploration 74 " articles, early factory for manufacture of 15 " as a heat insulator 292 " " refractory material 284 " Austrian preference for Canadian 159 " behaviour of in non-luminous flames 285 blue 21, 30, 239, 240, 241 Canada chief producer 23,159 Canadian product the best 18, 51, 68, 159 " changes through which rock passed tabulated 101 " character, etc., of chrysotile 29 character of 20, 33 " cloth, ancient use of 14 " " as fireproof material 252 " cost of extraction 158 decline of the industry 17 " deposits, character of 97 " " depth of 95 " " permanence of 97 " difficulty of determining depth of deposits 12 " discoloration and alteration of 53 " discovery of attributed to the Eomans 15 " " in Province of Quebec 15 " dressing of for market 120 " export, statistics of 164, 167 " fibre, characteristics of 85 " " compared with other fibres 81 " " found in all quarters of globe 23 " " machine for testing 85 " " microscopical investigations summarized 87 " " separation of from rock 109 " fireproof sheet, mamifacture of 286 " former monograph on 11 " freight rates on 160 " from Quebec exhibited in London in 1862 15 305 Page. Asbestos, future of the industry 17£ " German preference for Canadian 159 " goods, statistics of imports of ' 168 " grades of 153 " growth of the industry in Quebec 16, 159 " high grade found only in Canada 23 " history of 14 " in foreign countries 214 " industry, expansion of 11, 168 " insulation, economy of 253, 286 " lamp wicks in ancient times 15 " locations and prospects 202 " manufacture, capital invested 247 " manufactures, growth of 245 " markets for 158 " meaning of the word 18 " methods of milling improved 11 " mill at Bridgewater 19 " mill-board fire tests 271 " mills, general features of 143 " " under construction ( 172 " minerals defined 18 " Mining, and Manufacturing Company 185, 186 " new applications of 172, 173 " new fields being discovered 23 " number of men employed in 1885 16 " origin of 1- " possibilities as to over production 173 " preparation of to resist acids 286 " present production of in Quebec 17 prices of 16, 158, 160, 214 production of in Canada 1880-1895 161 " productive area of in Quebec 18 " " region defined 42 " quarry, not mine 13 " quarrying 103, 109 " resistance to acids 30 " Russian output increasing 159 Shingle, Slate and Sheathing Company 188 slate 172 " South African, character of 22 " spinning, method of 285 " statistical returns 162, 164 ■" statistics of 160 " status of the industry 169 " structure of 12 •" substitutes for 216 " summary of minerals grouped imder term 32 " table of increase of production 171, 172 " Tempi eton serpentines 38 Thetford fibre best in world 75 306 Pagfc. Asbestos, Thetford fibre silky in character 75 " United States largest purchaser of Canadian 159 " use of in mines 286 " veins, width of 50 " world's production of 170 Asbestus island. Lake Chibougamau 213 Assay, South Australian asbestos 235 Australia, analysis of asbestos 31 " asbestos samples from 67 " microphotograph of fibre from 87 " South, asbestos in 235 " Western, asbestos in 236 Austrailian Asbestos Manufacturing Company 235 Austria, asbestos samples from 67 B Bacon, Earle C, plans for mill 121 " Frederic, testing of heat insulating materials 292 Barnes, Dr. H. T., investigation of asbestos fibres by 85 Bastard asbestos, see Picrolite. Bayley, Dr., examinations of serpentine rocks 35 " " investigation of serpentine areas 34 Beaudoin and Audette Asbestos Company 186, 206 Beaver Asbestos Company 175, 176 " " quarries 176 Bechuanaland Exploration Company 241 Bell Asbestos Company 17, 97, 122, 187 " " " method of mining 96 " " " new mining method 118 " " " shaft sunk by 104 " " " use of asbestos slate and shingles 146 " " " works, favourable opportunity for observation 51 Bell, Dr., chrysotile in Pigeon lake 41 " " investigation of serpentine areas 34 Belmina Consolidated Asbestos Company 184 " mines 69, 71, 186 Benoit asbestos property 77,78, 210 Berlin Asbestos Company 05, 189, 205 Bibliography 290 Black Lake area 43 " " asbestos, analysis of 31 at 16, 42 " " " superior quality of 68 " " Cambrian serpentines at 41 " " centre of asbestos occurrences 74 " " Chrome and Asbestos Company 72, 190, 193 " " " " " depth of deposits 95, 100 " " Consolidated Asbestos Company 121, 189, ]91 " " " " " character of mill 144 " " cost of production at 158 " " seamy partings characteristic of 49 " " tabulation of changes through which rock passed 101 307 l»age Blake crusher 128 Block-holing 107 Bolton township, Cambrian serpentines in .. ..41, 210 " " chrysotile in 42, 78 Boston Asbestos Company ..55,56,58,191,203 Boys, C. v., characters of silk fibre 84 Bras du Sud Quest, outcrops at 209 British-Canadian Asbestos Company 175, 176, 177 " " quarries 177 plan of milling plant 145, 146 " " " process at 143, 144 British Fire Prevention Committee, experiments with asbestos bricks 265 British Uralite Company 246 Brome County Asbestos Development Company 210, 211 Brompton Asbestos Company 209 " lake, deposits near 209 " township, Cambrian serpentines in 41 " " chrysotile in 42 Broughton, analysis of asbestos 31 " area 43 " Asbestos Fibre Company 60, 192 " " " " pits, evidence as to origin of asbestos.. .. 94 " deposits of asbestos in 11 " district, cost of prod^uction in 158 " locations and prospects 203 " property, depth of quarries 98 " serpentine range 54 " " " section 57 " soapstone at 28 " tabulation of changes through which rock passed 101 " township, Cambrian serpentines in 41, 42 Buckingham, mill at 122 Butterworth and Low rotary crusher 129 C California, asbestos in 217 Cambrian serpentines 41, 78 " " chemical composition 48 Campbell rotary dryer 124, 125 Canadian Chrome Company 70 Cape Asbestos Company 240, 241 Carolina Asbestos Company 242, 243 " district, see Transvaal. Carpenter, John, deposit • 211 Caspasius in Cyprus, mineral fibre obtained from 15 Casper mountains, asbestos in 214, 215 " " " samples from 67 Ceilinite 277 Champlain Asbestos Company 205 Chapman, W. S., assay of Australian asbestos 235 Chibougamau lake, asbestos samples from 67 " " serpentine at 43. 213 308 Page. Chrome iron ore, accompaniment of asbestos 53 " serpentine 24, 40, 41, 42, 49, 59, 70, 71 " " mineral at St. Francis lake 72 with asbestos at Mt. Albert 42 Clirysotile, character, use, etc 29 " form of serpentine 23, 33 Chrj'sotile-asbestos in Laurentian 36 " " mined in Danville belt 78 " " origin of 87 " " see also Asbestos. Cleary, Hon. Daniel, asbestos prospecting in Newfoundland 222 Cleveland township, chrysotile-a.sbestos mined in 78 " " locations in 212 Cliche asbestos property 202 Cobbing 120, 241 Coleman, Prof., analysis of asbestiforni mineral 19 Coleraine, asbestos deposits in 207 " " found in 15 " Cambrian serpentines in 41, 42 " Exploration Company 193 " serpentine mountains of 42 Collins, W. H., serpentine in Gowganda Mining Division 40 Compagnie Hydraulique St. Francois 149 Compressed air for operating 118 Consolidated Gold Fields 241, 242, 243 Continental Light, Heat and Power Company 195 Corsica, hornblende asbestos found in 14 Cost of extraction of asbestos 158 " mill and mine equipment 154 Cranborne township, serpentine in 42 Crocidolite 21, 32 " found in Australia 22 " tensile strength of 22 Cummer dryer 127 Cyclone fiberizers 132 Cyprian Mining Company 234 Cyprus, asbestos in 234 D Dale, Prof. T. N., suggestion as to origin of asbestos 90 Dana, J. D., view as to origin of asbestos 92 Danville, analysis of asbestos 31 " Asbestos Company 276 " Cambrian serpentines in 41 " Eastman-Vermont serpentine belt 76 " mines 77, 78 Darling, Chas. R., tests respecting heat-insulation 292 Denholm, deposit at 39 Derricks 110 Des Plantes river, outcrops at 209 309 Page. Diller, T. S., report on Arizona asbestos 216 " " Georgia asbestos 219 " " Texas asbestos 217 " Wyoming asbestos 215 " translation of report on Russian asbestos 226 D'Israeli Asbestos Company 194 Dodge crusher 128 Donald, Dr. J. T., analysis of asbestos 31 " " Italian asbestos 231 " " picrolite 25 Doucet mines 77, 78 Drainage 119 Dresser, J. A., opinion as to age of granitic dikes 76 " " " asbestos deposits 102 " " " origin of asbestos 90 Dressing of asbestos for market 120 Drilling, hand, machine, etc 107 Drills in use 108 Drying problem 124 Dominion Asbestos Company 175 " quarries 179 " " system of separation distinctive 181 " " use of asbestos protected metal 146 Dulieux, Mr., report on Chibougamau region 213 E East Broughton, division of plant at 144 Eastern Townships Asbestos Company 59, 194 Eastman locations 210 Electric drills ,. ... .. 108 Electricity as a motive power 146 Electrobestos 266 Ells, Dr. R. W., investigation of serpentine areas 34 " theory of origin of asbestos 89 Elzevir township, actinolite deposits of 19 Engines, hoisting 114 Equipment, cost of 154 Esty asbestos outcrops 77,78 " E. T 21J Expansit as an insulator 299 Explosives ' 107 Exports of asbestos 164, 167 F Pans in use in asbestos mills 136 Eecteau, — , find of asbestos by 16 Einland, asbestos in 230 Eischer, Alfred, experiments with crocidolite 21 Eisher, Alfred, manager ot oldest asbestos company 231 Eletcher, Hugh, investigation of serpentine areas 34, 41 310 Page. France, asbestos in 234 Fraser asbestos mine 60, 195, 204 French chalk, see Soapstone. Frontenac Asbestos Company 56, 58, 195 " " " plan of surface plant 147 G Gaspe peninsula, Cambrian serpentines in 41, 42 Gates crusher 129 Georgia, asbestos in 21^ Giroux, N., investigation of serpentine areas 34 Glasgow Asbestos Company 177 Gosselet, Mr., origin of asbestos 93 Gowganda, asbestos samples from 67 " Mining Division, serpentine in 40 Grades of asbestos 1^3 Granitic dikes in serpentine 75 Griqualand, see Africa. H Halifax Asbestos Company 222 Ham township, Cambrian serpentines in 41, 42, 208 Hand-drilling 107 Harrington, Dr., analysis of Lake Abitibi serpentine 40 " " Pigeon lake chrysotile 41 " investigation of serpentine areas 34 Hayden property 207 Henderson, Prof. J. R., suggestions acknowledged 302 Hersey, Dr. Milton, analyses of asbestos ■.. .. 31 " analyses of serpentine, etc 63 " analysis of picrolite 25 Hoisting plants 114, 116 Hopper, R. T 121 Hornblende asbestos 14, 20, 32, 230 Howley, Jas. P., estimate of serpentine in Newfoundland 221 Hunt, Sterry, alteration of olivine into serpentine 100 " theory of origin of asbestos 91 Huronian serpentines 40 Imperial Asbestos Company 46, 190, 191 Imports of asbestos goods 168 India, asbestos in 243 " " samples from 67 Insulating materials, testing of 292 International Asbestos Company 20 Ireland township, serpentine and asbestos in 207 " " " mountains of 42 Iron, see Chrome iron ore. Iron ore in association with serpentine 35 311 Page. Italian fibre, microphotograph of 86 Italo-Englisli Pure Asbestos Company 245 Italy, analysis of asbestos 31 " asbestos in 230 " asbestos samples fiom 67 Jacobs Asbestos Mining Company of Thetford 196 " conveying and dumping device.. .. 116 Japan Asbestos Company 2H " asbestos production in 244 Jenckes fiberizer 131, 132 Johns Man ville Company, of New York 247 Johnson Asbestos Company 198 " " " mill 144 " " " pioneers 198 Jones, Robert, investigation of Newfoundland deposits 221 Joseph James Company 20 K Keasbey and Mattison, Messrs 118, 187, 246, 253 Kemp, Prof., asbestos in Vermont 218 Kemp, T. F., suggestion as to origin of asbestos 90 King Asbestos mines I75 " " " largest equipment in district 182 " Bros., introduction of machinery 121 " " property in Ireland operated by 207 " quarries 181 " quarry, serpentine stratified in 48 Kinnears Mills, serpentine near 206 Kirchner, use of amianthus lampwick I5 L Labour, cost of in mills 151 Lanirentian fibre, microphotograph of 8G " serpentine 34 " " characteristics of 37 Laurie cyclone fiberizer I33 Lawson, Dr. A. C, reports on Laurentian serpentine 35 Lime asbestos 32, 63 Ling Asbestos Company 58, 93, 200 " property 61, 194, 195 " " evidence at as to origin of asbestos 94 Low, Dr. A. P., investigation of serpentine areas 34 " " theory of origin of asbestos 90 Lowell Lumber and Asbestos Company 219 M Machine-drilling j07 Magnetic iron ore associated with asbestos 53 56 " " " serpentine 49, 59 312 Page. Magnets, use of in asbestos mills 140 Manderite ^'' Manhattan Asbestos Company 177 Mansonville serpentine outcrops ". '8, 211 Marco Polo, asbestos cloth seen by in travels 14 Martin mines