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 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 BY 
 
 C. H. GRANDGENT, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY, 
 
 Revised and Enlarged 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A.: 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. 
 
 1910
 
 Copyright^ 1887 and igo4, 
 By C. H. GRANDGENT.
 
 MM 
 13 04- 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Tffls volume is the result of an attempt to put into convenient 
 ^ form and the smallest possible compass all the grammar that the 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ ordinary student of Itahan will need. Short as the book is, it con- 
 Tt* tains some paragraphs which beginners will probably skip : the 
 ^ longer lists of words and endings, and a great part of the chapters 
 5 on suffixes and irregular verbs will be useful mainly for reference. 
 The vocabularies cover the twenty-one exercises; they are not 
 tt: intended to include words explained in the notes, nor proper 
 m names that are exactly the same in Italian and in English. 
 ^ I have endeavored to make the book represent the Italian lau- 
 ti- guage as it is spoken and written at the present day ; the exercises 
 £ are taken chiefly from reading-books lately prepared for Tuscan 
 g schools. Still, I have tried to give also as many obsolete forms as 
 students of the Italian classics will require. 
 
 It has been my aim throughout to make the rules clear for all 
 classes of pupils, even for those ignorant of other foreign languages, 
 provided they understand the technical words commonly used in 
 grammars. With this object in view, I have ascribed to the Ital- 
 ian vowels the pronunciation of the English ones that are most 
 like them : an accurate description of the Itahan sounds would, I 
 fear, prove confusing to beginners who have had no training in 
 phonetics. It will be easy for the instructor to explain not only 
 
 ;jrK^ 
 
 251837
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 the vowels, but some of the consonants, and the division o! 
 words into syllables, much better than can be done in a book 
 like this. 
 
 The authorities I have consulted most are the dictionaries of 
 Fanfani, Rigutini and Fanfani, Fomari {Nuovo B azzanni), and 
 Tommaseo and Bellini. I have made but little use of other gram- 
 mars ; I am, however, indebted to Toscani for some ideas and a 
 few of my examples. The chapters on syntax, and the treatment 
 of irregular verbs, pronouns, suffixes, and the plural of words in 
 -co and -go are almost entirely the result of originai work. 
 
 In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Nash, 
 of Harvard, to my friend and teacher, Sig. Filippo Orlando, of 
 Florence, and to the gentlemen who assisted me in correcting 
 the proof-sheets ; and I wish above all to thank Professor Sheldon, 
 of Harvard, and Professor Bendelari, of Yale, without whose aid and 
 encouragement I should scarcely have ventured to offer this book 
 to the public. 
 
 Cambridge, September, 1887. 
 
 NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 To facilitate the use of this book with classes I have included 
 in it a full set of Lessons and Exercises, the latter being taken in 
 large part from my Italian Composition. The Italian texts at the 
 end of the chapters, in the body of the Grammar, can be used to 
 advantage at the outset of the course for practice in pronuncia- 
 tion and reading at sight. The English exercises in the body of 
 the book should be reserved for reviews. 
 
 Cambridge, May, 1904.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 » 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lessons and Exercises ix-xxxiv 
 
 Pronunciation 1-7 
 
 Articles 7-11 
 
 The Definite Article 7-10 
 
 The Indefinite Article c lo 
 
 Exercises I, 2 II 
 
 Nouns 11-17 
 
 Gender 12-13 
 
 Nvunber 13-16 
 
 Exercises 3, 4 16-17 
 
 Adjectives 18-23 
 
 Gender and Number 18-20 
 
 Comparison 20-22 
 
 Exercises 5, 6 22-23 
 
 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES ; NUMERALS 23-29 
 
 Augmentative and Diminutive Endings 23-25 
 
 Numerals 25-28 
 
 Exercises 7, 8 28-29 
 
 Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, and Possessive Pro- 
 nouns 30-35 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns dP-Z^ 
 
 Interrogative Pronoims 31 
 
 Relative Pronouns Z^-ZZ 
 
 Possessive Pronouns 33""34 
 
 Exercises 9, lO 35 
 
 Personal Pronouns 36-46 
 
 Conjunctive Forms 36-40
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Disjunctive Forms 40-42 
 
 Forms of Address 43-44 
 
 Exercises 1 1, 12 44-46 
 
 AUXILIARY Verbs 47-55 
 
 Auxiliaries of Voice and Tense 47-53 
 
 Essere 47 
 
 Avere 48 
 
 Modal Auxiliaries 53-54 
 
 Exercises 13, 14 54-55 
 
 Regular and Irregular Verbs 55-65 
 
 The Regular Verb 56-59 
 
 First Conjugation 56-57 
 
 Second and Third Conjugations 57-58 
 
 Fourth Conjugation 58-59 
 
 The Irregular Verb 60-63 
 
 Porre 60-61 
 
 Exercises 15, 16 63-65 
 
 Moods and Tenses 65-74 
 
 Infinitive and Participle 65-68 
 
 Past, Present, and Future 68-69 
 
 Conditional 69 
 
 Subjunctive 69-72 
 
 Exercises 17, 18 72-74 
 
 Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Adverbs 74-84 
 
 Conjunctions 74-76 
 
 Prepositions 76-80 
 
 Adverbs 80-82 
 
 Exercises 19, 20 83-84 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns 84-87 
 
 Exercise 21 87 
 
 List of Irregular Verbs arranged according to Conjugation 88-100 
 First Conjugation 89-90 
 
 J Second Conjugation 90-93
 
 CONTENTS. VU 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Third Conjugation 93-98 
 
 Present Regular 93-96 
 
 Present Irregular 96-98 
 
 Fourth Conjugation 99-100 
 
 Present Regular 99 
 
 Present Irregular 99-100 
 
 Alphabetical List of Irregular and Defective Verbs 101-105 
 
 Italla.n-English Vocabulary 107-1 14 
 
 English-Itallan Vocabulary 115-121 
 
 Appendix 123-127 
 
 Additional Notes on Pronunciation 1 23-1 25 
 
 Inflections of the Voice 126-127 
 
 Index 129-132
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. 
 
 Note. — The following forty-one lessons furnish, in the form of refer^ 
 ences to the body of the Gra7n?nar, a course of study in the rudiments 
 of Italian. The numbers refer to paragraphs : they include all sub- 
 divisions in the sa?ne type, all examples, and all paradigms, belonging to 
 them ; but they do not comprise subdivisions in finer print unless these 
 are expressly mentioned. The exercise following each lesson is to be 
 used in connection with it ; the exercises in the body of the book are 
 reserved for review work. 
 
 LESSON 1. 
 
 Pronunciation : 1 ; 2 ; 2, ^ ; 3 ; 4, including the fine print 
 
 except S, tì^j 6 j 6; 7; 8. Pronounce all the examples several 
 
 times. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 Pronounce this text : — 
 
 Quando è fréddo è inverno. Neil' inverno cade la néve, e 
 
 When it-is cold it-is winter. In-the winter falls the snow, and 
 
 gli àlberi sono sènza foglie e i giardini non hanno fióri. Dòpo, 
 
 the trees are without leaves and the gardens have-no flowers. Later, 
 
 r ària comincia a riscaldare, nelle campagne si vedono 1' èrbe 
 
 the air begins to grow-warm, in-the fields are-seen grass 
 
 e i fióri, negli òrti nàscono i baccèlli, i pisèlH, pòi le ciHège ; 
 
 and flowers, in-the gardens co7ne-forth string-beans, ^eas, then cherries; 
 
 gli uccèlli cantano, non si patisce piìi fréddo, si sta veramente 
 
 the birds sing, we-do-not-suffer any-more cold, we-are really 
 
 bène, e allóra è primavèra. Finisce la primavèra, comincia 
 
 comfortable, and then it-is spring. Ends the spring, begins 
 
 il caldo ; il sóle brucia ; nella campagna si vedono le spighe del 
 
 the heat; the sun burns; in-the country we-see the ears of 
 
 grano, ci sono tante bèlle frutta, mèle, pére, susine, albicòcche, 
 
 corn, there are many fine fruits, apples, pears, plums, apricots, 
 
 pèsche. Quésto tèmpo si chiama estate. Il caldo va via, e 
 
 peaches. This time is-called summer. The heat goes away, and 
 
 ritorna 1' ària cóme nella primavèra ; le viti sono càriche 
 
 becomes-again the air as in-the spring; the vines are laden 
 
 d' uva, i fichi cominciano a darci i lóro dólci frutti ; ma a 
 
 with grapes, the fig-trees begin to give-us their sweet fruit ; but 
 
 pòco a pòco si rifa un pò' fréddo, gli àlberi pèrdono le fòglie, 
 
 little by little it-grows-again a little cold, the trees lose their leaves, 
 
 il vènto soffia assai ; e quésto tèmpo si chiama autunno. 
 
 \fie wind blows hard; and this time is-called autumn.
 
 X ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON 2. 
 Review Lesson i. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 Pronounce this text : — 
 
 1. Vi parlerò di Vittorio Alfièri, e ne ammirerete la fòrte 
 
 I-shall-speak-to-you of Victor Alfieri, and you-will-admire-his strong 
 
 e costante volontà. Égli èra nàto nel mille settecènto quaranta- 
 nni firm will. He was born in J74g 
 
 nòve di nòbile famiglia piemontése M èra cónte. Allóra sì 
 
 of a-noble family of-Piedmont ; he-was a-count. Then people 
 
 credeva che bastasse èssere nòbili per valére qualcòsa ; perciò 
 
 believed that it-sufficed to-be noble in-order-to be-worth something ; therefore 
 
 i più dèi nòbili non istudiàvano/ o studiavano - alla pèggio, perchè 
 
 tnost of-the nobles did-not-sttidy , or studied carelessly, because 
 
 tanto la nobiltà dava lóro diritto alle càriche e àgli onori, anche 
 
 their-mere-rank gave them a-right to offices and to honors, even 
 
 se èrano ignoranti. L' Alfièri, da giovinétto, fu mésso a studiare 
 
 if they-were ignorant. Alfieri, as a-lad, was put to study 
 
 all' Accadèmia di Torino ; ma égli dòpo qualche anno ne usci 
 
 ai-the Academy of Turin; but he after a-few-years came-out 
 
 sènza saper ^ nulla di nulla, non ostante che avesse un bèl- 
 
 without knowing anything-at-all, nottviìhstanding that he-had a fine 
 
 V ingégno, perchè né anche l' ingégno può valére sènza lo stùdio. 
 
 mind, because not even talent can avail without study. 
 
 Uscito pertanto dall' Accadèmia viaggiò per l' Italia, la 
 
 Haviftg-cojne-out, then, from-the Academy, he-travelled througJi Italy, 
 
 Frància e T Inghilterra. 
 
 France, and England. 
 
 2. Giùnto all' età di véntisètte anni, aprì, cóme sì dice, 
 
 Raving-arrived at-the age of ^ 27 years, he-opened, as people-say, 
 
 gli òcchi, e s' accòrse della sua ignoranza. Vittorio si vergognò * 
 
 his-eyes, and became-aware of his ignorance. Victor was-thoroughly- 
 
 altaménte di sé stésso; sperò che studiando avrebbe potuto^ 
 
 ashamed of himself; he-hoped that by-studying he-might 
 
 giovare all' onore d' Itàha ; e allóra fece il generóso^ propòsito 
 
 add to-the glory of Italy ; and then he-made the lofty resolve 
 
 di mutar ^ vita : determinò di abbandonare gli usi e i costumi 
 
 to change his-life : he-deterfnifted to give-up the habits and the customs 
 
 della nòbile gioventù dèi suoi tèmpi, di lasciar^ tutto per 
 
 of-the noble yojtth of his times, to leave everytJiing in-order-to 
 
 istudiàre.^ A far^ dèi buòni propòsiti ci vuòl^ pòco; il fòrte 
 
 study. To make good resolutions takes but-little ; the diflculiy 
 
 sta nel mantenérli. E non è mica un affàr di nulla, quando ùn^ 
 
 lies in keeping-them. And it-is-not at-all an easy-matter, when a
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. xi 
 
 persóna per lungo córso di anni ha contratto cèrte abitùdini 
 
 person through a-long course of years has fortned certain habits 
 
 e cèrti costumi, e si è avvezzata a vivere in tal mòdo, 
 
 a7id certain customs, and has-accustomed-hiìnself to living in such a-way, 
 
 non è mica, dico, un affàr di nulla un bèi giórno mutar vita, 
 
 it-is-not at-all, I-say, an easy-matter one fine day to-change one's-ii/e, 
 
 e diventar uòmo tutto affatto divèrso da quello di prima. 
 
 and become a-man entirely different from one's former-self. 
 
 3. Grandi sfòrzi dovè fare Vittorio Alfièri per mutar vita: 
 
 Great efforts Victor- A Ifieri-had-to-make to change his-life : 
 
 vi basti sapere che siccóme non si sentiva tanta fòrza d' ànimo 
 
 suffice-it-to-say that as he-did-not-feel so-much strength of mind 
 
 da proseguire^ a studiare, allorché per le sue abitùdini avrebbe 
 
 as-to continue to study, when from-force-of-habit he-would- 
 
 sentito il desidèrio ^ d' uscir ^ di casa e di andare a divertirsi, 
 
 have-felt the desire of going-out and going to amuse-himself 
 
 r Alfièri si faceva dal servitóre legare alla poltróna. È véro 
 
 Alfieri had-himself tied-by-his-servant to-his arm-chair. It-is true 
 
 che a pòco a pòco la volontà prése ^ il di sópra : a pòco a 
 
 that little by little his will got the upper-hand: little by 
 
 pòco, s' intènde, V Alfièri non ebbe più bisógno di ricórrere a 
 
 little, you-under stand. Alfieri had-no-more need of resorting to 
 
 quésti mèzzi ^''; e ciò appunto pròva quanto è véro che nulla 
 
 this means ; and this just proves how-true-it-is that nothing 
 
 è difficile a chi vuole. Così^ 1' Alfièri che si mise a studiare 
 
 is hard to him-who wills. Thus Alfieri, who began to study 
 
 a véntisètte anni, pure potè arrivare ad èssere il più bravo 
 
 at 27 years, was-yet-able to-come to be the best 
 
 scrittóre di tragèdie dell' ItàHa; ed è una delle glòrie del 
 
 writer of tragedies in Italy ; and he-is one of-the glories of 
 
 nòstro paese. ^ Ma se quando aveva fatto il proponiménto di 
 
 our country. But if when he-had m.ade the resolve to 
 
 mutar vita e di studiare, 1' Alfièri, conoscendo quanti sfòrzi 
 
 change his-life and to study. Alfieri, knowing what efforts 
 
 gH ci sarebbero voluti^ per mantenére la proméssa, invéce di 
 
 it-would-require to keep his promise, instead of 
 
 farsi legare alla poltróna avesse détto : non mi riesce, né 
 
 \aving-himself-tied to-his arin-chair, had said '* I-can't," neither 
 
 égU sarebbe diventato quell' uòmo sómmo che fu, né 
 
 would-he-have-become that great-man that he-was^ nor 
 
 V Italia potrebbe óra vantare un così* gran poèta. 
 
 could-Italy now boast-of such-a great poet. 
 
 1 See 4, S, e. ^ The verb is studiare : in Italian a word beginning with 
 * plus another consonant, if it is immediately preceded by a word ending in a
 
 XU ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 consonant, prefixes i to the s ; Italians are averse to a group of three conso- 
 nants of which the middle one is s. ^ An infinitive often drops its final e in 
 the interior of a phrase. ^ The reflexive verb vergognarsi (' to shame one's 
 self) means 'to be ashamed.' ^ The compound conditional, in idiomatic 
 Italian, is very often used in place of the simple conditional : avrebbe potuto 
 giovare (*he might have helped') really means 'he might help' ; so ci sareb- 
 bero voluti (' there would have been required ') means * there would be needed.' 
 ^ a vuole, shortened here to ci vuol, means literally ' there requires ' or * there 
 is needed.' 7 See 4, S, b. 8 See 4, S, a. ^ S as in ' mason ' (4, S, d). 
 10 See 4, Z, a. 
 
 LESSON 3. 
 
 The inflection of essere : 53, a. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. 
 
 [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] 
 
 I. Where ^ are the birds? — 2. It was winter. — 3. We^ are 
 in the spring. — 4. The vines will be laden with grapes. — 5. 
 Where ^ would you ^ be in the winter ? — 6. You ^ are without 
 flowers. — 7. Without the sun it would be cold. — 8. The 
 flowers were in the fields. — 9. Where ^ were you ^ in the spring ? 
 
 — 10. I ^ was in the country. 
 
 1 I^ave. 2 These personal pronouns need not be translated. 
 
 LESSON 4. 
 
 The inflection of avere : 53, ò. 
 
 EXERCISE 4. 
 [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] 
 
 I. I * have no flowers. — 2. When will they ' have leaves ? — 
 3. He ^ had apples and pears. — 4. You 1 would have no leaves. 
 
 — 5. The spring has no snow. — 6. Have you^ the ears of
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XUl 
 
 com ? — 7. They ^ had no figs. — 8. When will he ^ have the 
 birds ? — 9. I ^ should have plums and peaches. — 10. The trees 
 had no leaves. 
 
 1 These personal pronouns need not be translated. 
 LESSON 5. 
 
 Articles and nouns : 9 ; 10, ayb\ 11 ; 12 ; 12, a ; 14, 
 
 ayb\ 15; 17; 18; 19 (in general, nouns in o are mas- 
 culine, nouns in a or u are feminine) ; 22 ; 23 ; 24 ; 25 ; 
 51, 2. 
 
 EXERCISE 5. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar.l 
 
 I. A comer. — 2. Some corners. — 3. Some rooms. — 4. The 
 corner of a room. — 5. We are in the corner of the room. — 6. A 
 man in a room. — 7. The man is in the room. — 8. The men are 
 in the rooms. — 9. I have a gun. — 10. You have the gun. — 
 II. With the guns. — 12. A city. — 13. To the city and for the 
 cities. — 14. Some birds on a branch. — 15. The birds are on 
 the branches of the trees. — 16. The roots of the trees in the 
 wood. — 17. The days of the month. — 18. The months of a 
 year. — 19. The weeks of the year. — 20. For the countries of 
 the earth. — 21. The prisons in the cities of the kings. — 22. 
 With the son of the uncle.^ — 23. The uncles ^ are with the 
 fathers of the boys. — 24. The poem ^ is written * by the boy's 
 uncle. — 25. The words are in the poem ^ written^ by the two 
 poets.* 
 
 1 Zw. 2 Foima, m. 3 Scrifto. * Foéia. 
 
 LESSON 6. 
 
 A 
 
 Essere and avere : 53, a,b\ 54 ; 76 ; 80, i.
 
 XIV ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 6. 
 
 [Based on the first paragraph of Exercise 2, p. x.] 
 
 I. He is a count. — 2. They are noble. — 3. You would be a 
 count. — 4. We shall be noble. — 5. You have been ignorant. — 
 6. We shall have had the office.^ — 7. They had had offices and 
 honors. — 8. You are ignorant because you have not studied.^ 
 — 9. He had^ the office ^ because he had been a count. — 10. 
 People don't think* that he has^ a great mind. — 11. He has 
 had the office,^ and therefore he has not studied.^ — 12. You 
 would have had the office/ if you had* studied.*^ — 13. People 
 thought that he was® born in 1749. — 14. If we had* studied,'^ 
 we should not be ignorant. — 15. If you were* ignorant, you 
 would be put' to study. — 16. Even if we are ignorant, ye shall 
 have offices and honors, because we have been noble. — 17. 
 Although they are ^ of noble family, they are not ignorant, be- 
 cause they have studied.^ — 18. I was * noble, but I was ^ put 
 to study, because, as a lad, I had ^ a great mind. — 19. Al- 
 though we had * not travelled,® we should not have been igno- 
 rant, if we had * studied.^ — 20. If you have travelled,' you will 
 have offices and honors, although you have ^ not studied,^ be- 
 cause you will not be ignorant. 
 
 1 La càrica. 2 Studiato. » Preterite. * Non si créde (see 86). ^ Pres. 
 subj. 6 Imp. subj. ' Méssi^ plural. ^ imp. ind. ^ Viaggiato. 
 
 LESSON 7. 
 
 Regular verbs of the first conjugation : 69; 59, a, 
 
 EXERCISE 7. 
 
 [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] 
 I. The birds sang in the spring. — 2. Let us begin to sing. — 
 3. In the winter the wind will blow hard. — 4. When will they
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XV 
 
 begin to give us their sweet fruit ? — 5. The sun would burn the 
 vines. — 6. When will you sing? — 7. The wind began to blow. 
 — 8. I burn the ears of corn. — 9. I began to sing. — 10. Sing 
 when the wind blows. — 11. I begin to speak. — 12. If^ he 
 sang,^ I should not speak. — 13. If ^ they spoke,'^ we should 
 begin to sing. — 14. Although* the wind blows* hard, we shall 
 sing. — 15. Although* you sing,* we begin to speak. 
 
 1 Se. 2 Imp. subj. ^ Benché. ^ Pres. subj. 
 
 LESSON a 
 
 Regular verbs of the second and third conjugations : 60 
 (the list of verbs at the top of p. 58 need not be learned). 
 
 EXERCISE 8. 
 [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] 
 
 I. The flowers fall in the winter. — 2. The trees lost their 
 leaves. — 3. He sees the sun. — 4. Do you believe that ^ I see ^ 
 the cherries Ì — 5. He did not believe that ^ the vines lost ^ their 
 sweet fruit. — 6. I do not believe that ^ you fall.^ — 7. See the 
 trees : they have lost their leaves. — 8. We shall lose the flowers. 
 — 9. When I see the birds, it is spring. — 10. Would you believe 
 that he had * seen the trees without flowers ? — 11. The peas 
 will come forth* in the spring. — 12. They would not come 
 forth * without the sun. — 13. When the snow goes away, we see 
 the peas come forth * in the fields. 
 
 1 Che. 2 Pres. subj. ^ Imp. subj. * The infinitive is nàscere. 
 
 LESSON 9. 
 
 Regular verbs of the fourth conjugation : 61.
 
 XVI ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 9. 
 
 [Based on Exercise i, p. ix.] 
 
 I. We felt the cold. — 2. Do you feel the wind? — 3. The 
 winter and the spring will end. — 4. The birds would not feel 
 the heat. — 5. The flowers suffer ^ when the wind blows. — 6. 
 The birds suffered in the winter. — 7. I do not suffer any more 
 heat. — 8. I do not believe that ^ he suffers.^ — 9. Do you be- 
 lieve that ^ he feels ^ the cold ì — 10. The summer and the autumn 
 ended. 
 
 1 CAe. 2 Soffrire is inflected in the pres. like sentire. ^ Pres. subj. 
 
 LESSON 10. 
 
 Adjectives and pronouns : 26 ; 27 ; 28 ; 29 ; 30 ; 31 ; 
 33 ; 43 ; 43, ^ ; 44 ; 45. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 
 Grammar.^ 
 
 I. The poor are always unfortunate. — 2. The high trees are 
 far from the great cities. — 3. The most beautiful plant has the 
 smallest flower. — 4. The largest villa is mine, the smallest is 
 his, and the lowest is theirs. — 5. Many good fathers are now 
 poorer, but their boys and their girls ^ are always honest. — 
 6. Who were the good girls ^ who spoke to the unhappy sailor ? 
 
 — 7. Whose are the big clubs of which the little boy spoke .? 
 
 — 8. Which are the hard'^ lessons ^ that our poor boys finished 
 in two days ? — 9. What is the beautiful story * her little girls 1 
 believe ? — 10. In what far part of your great city are the rooms 
 of the honest merchant, to whom the largest ships of the world 
 belong * ? 
 
 1 Ragazza. 2 Difficile. ^ Lezióne, f. * Stòria, i. ^ Appartengono,
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XVIl 
 
 LESSON 11. 
 
 Parlare and crédere : 59 '; 59, a ; 60 (the list of verbs at 
 the top of p. 58 need not be learned) ; 62; 77; 77, ^ ; 54, d. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 [Based on the first two paragraphs of Exercise 2, p. x. Viaggiare is conju- 
 gated with avére^ 
 
 I. I shall not leave Italy. — 2. They determined^ to become 
 noble. — 3. They would not leave France. — 4. He will be 
 ashamed of himself. — 5. Let them leave ^ England. — 6. It is 
 enough to abandon certain habits. — 7. He doesn't believe that 
 Alfieri is ashamed '^ of himself. — 8. They did not believe ^ that 
 w^e were studying.* — 9. We hoped* that they would travel 
 through France. — 10. We do not believe that they are study- 
 ing.^ — II. They speak to you of Victor, and you admire his 
 strong will. — 12. I shall not believe that you have ^ changed 
 your way of living. — 13. If we spoke * to you of Victor, you 
 would admire his firm will. — 14. Do not believe that the cus- 
 toms of aristocratic youth increase '^ the glory of Italy. — 15. 
 Study, and you will become an entirely different man from what 
 you are. — 16. We abandoned ^ the habits of aristocratic youth, 
 and travelled^ through France and England. — 17. Let him not 
 believe ^ that we admire ^ the customs of his times. — 18. They 
 think that studying is enough ^ to change one's mode of life. — 
 19. If I believed * that studying was ^ enough, I should abandon 
 the customs of youth. — 20. If I had ^ not travelled, I should not 
 believe that most of the aristocrats leave ^ everything in order 
 to study. 
 
 1 Preterite. 2 Pres, subj. ^ j^p^ ind. 4 jmp. subj. 
 
 LESSON 12. 
 
 Regular verbs : 59 ; 59, ^ ; 60 ; 61 ; 62 ; 63 ; 72 ; 75 ; 
 read 47.
 
 XVlll ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 12. 
 
 [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] 
 
 I. We know Alfieri. — 2. They amuse themselves. — 3. Let 
 them tie ^ themselves to the arm-chair. — 4. They will know the 
 best writer in Italy. — 5. Feel a desire to make great efforts. — 
 6. They tied ^ themselves to the arm-chair. — 7. He knew ^ what 
 efforts it would cost him. — 8. Changing one's way of living 
 isn't enough. — 9. It wasn't enough ' for you to go on studying. 
 — 10. When he studies, he doesn't feel a desire to amuse him- 
 self.* — II. By * studying you will come to be one of the glories 
 of our country. — 12. If he tied ^ himself to the arm-chair, he 
 would feel a desire to study. — 13. As he no longer needs to 
 resort to this means, let him amuse ^ himself. — 14. As he didn't 
 amuse ^ himself, he felt ^ a desire to go out of doors. — 15. If 
 you knew ^ Alfieri, you would feel a desire to change your mode 
 of life. — 16. If he felt* strong-minded enough to study, he 
 would become the greatest writer in Italy. — 17. Change your 
 way of living, and you will feel a desire to become a great poet. 
 — 18. It isn't true that he knows ^ what efforts it will cost him. — 
 19. If we had * not felt a desire to go out of doors, we should 
 not know such a great poet. — 20. By ^ amusing himself,* he will 
 come, little by little, to need to make great efforts. 
 
 1 Pres. subj, 2 Pret. 3 imp. ind. * Add si to the end of the verb. 
 5 Omit. ^ Imp. subj. 
 
 LESSON 13. 
 
 Review Lesson i. 
 
 EXERCISE 13. 
 Pronounce Exercise 2. Inflect the future of ammirare, the 
 conditional of studiare, the present indicative of viaggiare, the 
 preterite of vergognare, the imperfect indicative of sperare, the im- 
 perfect subjunctive of giovare, the imperative of mutare, the pre-
 
 tESSONS AND EXERCISES. XIX 
 
 sent subjunctive of determinare {determini^ etc.), the future of 
 abbandonare^ the conditional of lasciare^ the present indicative 
 of legare^ the preterite oi proseguire. 
 
 LESSON 14. 
 
 Conjunctive personal pronouns : 46 ; 47 ; 48 (study this 
 paragraph with the greatest care), with footnotes ; 48, ^, b, 
 c\ 49; 50; 86. 
 
 EXERCISE 14- 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar^ 
 
 I. He will finish it. — 2. I speak to myself. — 3. You believe 
 one another. — 4. The boys have the same clubs that belong^ to 
 us. — 5. Speak of it to them. — 6. We speak of them to him. — 
 7. Your poor father had a beautiful carriage : he sent'^ it to me. 
 — 8. You have a large plant : give it to me. — 9. The Italian 
 had some birds : he sent^ them to you. — 10. I speak to him : 
 he believes me. — 11. I begin to ^ speak to them. — 12. You have 
 some parrots : give them to him. — 13. He had a bird : he sent ^ 
 it to them. — 14. I have sent^ it to her. — 15. You have some 
 little birds : give me some. 
 
 1 Appartengono. 2 Use mandare. ^ A. 
 
 LESSON 15. 
 
 Irregular verbs ; andare : 64 ; 65 ; 66 ; 66, b\ 67 ; 93 ; 
 
 92, a, b, c, d,f{^. S7) ; 92, i ; 78, d. 
 
 EXERCISE 15. 
 
 Inflect the present indicative of condurre {conducéndo, conduco^, 
 the present subjunctive of dire {dicendo, died), the imperfect indi- 
 cative of fare {facendo), the imperfect subjunctive of muòvere
 
 XX ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 {movendo)^ the preterite of piacére {piacqui)^ the imperative of 
 scuòtere iscotèndo), the future oifdre, the conditional of trarre. 
 
 LESSON 16. 
 
 Review Lesson 15. 
 
 EXERCISE 16. 
 
 [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] 
 
 I. Keep on studying. — 2. We resorted^ to this means. — 3. 
 You went ^ out of doors. — 4. They were beginning ^ to study. — 
 5. Go and have yourself ^ tied to the arm-chair. — 6. Let them 
 go and amuse themselves. — 7. You no longer resort to this 
 means. — 8. Let us go and amuse ourselves.* — 9. We knew^ 
 what efforts would be necessary, — 10. We went^ and tied our- 
 selves* to the arm-chairs. — 11. When I go to study, I do not 
 need to resort to these means. — 12. Alfieri went^ and had him- 
 self tied to the arm-chair 13. By^ going to study, we shall 
 
 come to be great poets. — 14. When I felt ^ a desire to go out 
 of doors, I used to go^ and study. — 15. If our will got ^ the 
 upper hand, we should go and study. — 16. If we went® and 
 studied, we should not need to change our mode of life. — 17. 
 When your will gets ' the upper hand, you will go and study. — 
 18. If Alfieri had ^ gone to amuse himself, Italy would not now 
 have so great a poet. — 19. When they go and study, they no 
 longer need to have themselves tied to their arm-chairs. — 20. 
 If they kept ® their promise, they would not need to have them- 
 selves tied to the arm-chair. 
 
 1 Imp. ind. 2 pret. 3 Vi. * Ci. ^ Omit. « Imp. subj. ' Future. 
 8 Imp. subj. of èssere. 
 
 LESSON 17. 
 
 Disjunctive personal pronouns : 51 ; 61, 3 ; 52 ; 73 ; 74; 
 revievi^ Lesson 14.
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXI 
 
 EXERCISE 17. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar.^ 
 
 I. He spoke of it to us, to you, and to them. — 2. They be- 
 lieve us. — 3. They speak of themselves, and we speak of our- 
 selves. — 4. She has finished it. — 5. Who will speak with me ? 
 
 — 6. You are very good, Mr. B. — 7. I speak to you, little boy, 
 and to him. — 8. He is the boy of whom I spoke. — 9. Madam,i 
 you have been ^ very unfortunate. — jo. Little boys, you will be 
 surprised. — 11. I begin, Mr. B., to believe your words. — 12. 
 They have spoken of it to us and to you. — 13. Do not think of ® 
 them : think of * her. — 14. Will you speak of it to him or to me ? 
 — 15. Mr. B. and Mr. D., you are unfortunate: the great trees 
 near your villa belong * to two merchants, and not to you. 
 
 1 Signóra. ^ Fern. ^ A. * Appartengono. 
 
 LESSON 18. 
 
 The whole chapter on Personal Pronouns (pp. 36-44), 
 except the Exercises at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 18. 
 
 [Based on the second paragraph of Exercise 2. In all sentences in which 
 the second person is used, translate it in three ways.] 
 
 I. Open your eyes, and you will be thoroughly ashamed of 
 yourselves. — 2. Do not open them ; if ^ you opened ^ them, you 
 would be ashamed. — 3. They have left us ; do not abandon us. 
 
 — 4. I have determined to accustom myself to live in such a 
 way. — 5. By ^ accustoming yourself to study, you will become 
 an entirely different man. — 6. I hope so * ; I am ashamed to ^ 
 live in such a way. — 7. They had accustomed themselves to 
 leave everything. — 8. Are you ashamed to give up your habits ? 
 
 — 9. He says so* to me and to you ; he has determined to give
 
 XXli ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 them up. — IO. Does he say so * to you ? — ii. He will leave it 
 to us. — 12. She might leave them to me. — 13. He wishes to ^ 
 keep them. — 14. It will not be at all an easy matter for® you. 
 — 15. I should be ashamed of it. 
 
 1 Se. 2 Imp. subj. 3 Omit. ^ » it.' 5 /?/. 6 p^r. 
 
 LESSON 19. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the first conjugation : 92, i, 2, 3, 4 ; 
 read 79, b (including i, 2, 3, pp. 77 and yd>). 
 
 EXERCISE 19. 
 
 [Based on Exercise 2.] 
 I. Let us give them the offices. — 2. We have made good 
 resolutions. — 3. They had not given the office to Alfieri. — 4. I 
 don't go and study : I am ^ talking. — 5. We shall be ^ admiring 
 Alfieri's tragedies. — 6. If I made ^ good resolutions, I should go 
 and study. — 7. I don't think that the difficulty lies ^ in making 
 good resolutions. — 8. If he were ^ always * talking, he would not 
 do anything.^ — 9. Do everything, but don't go and live in such 
 a way. — 10. We do not believe that rank gives® them a right 
 to everything. — 11. By® giving them everything, he would be 
 able to change his mode of life. — 12. You used to go' and 
 study, and that gave'' you ^ a right to the greatest honors. — 13. 
 If you went ^ and amused yourself,^ they would not give you* 
 the office. — 14. They used to make' good resolutions, but the 
 difficulty was' in keeping them. — 15. If we gave ^ them the 
 office, the difficulty would be in making them study. — 16. By® 
 resolving to abandon the customs of aristocratic youth, he would 
 do himself^ honor. — 17. When you make '^^ a good ^^ resolution, 
 you will go and study ; and then they will give you ^ everything. 
 — 18. Let them resolve to study, and let them go to the Acad- 
 emy of Turin. — 19. Their rank gives them a right to offices, even 
 if they do not resolve to change their way of living. — 20. He
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXlll 
 
 did not resolve ^^ to study, but went ^'^ and amused himself ; and 
 therefore they did not give ^^ him offices nor honors. 
 
 1 Vses^dre. ^ Imp. subj. ^ Pres. subj. ^ Sempre. ^ AYdla. ^ Omit. 
 7 Imp. ind. 8 Vi. 9 Si. i*^ Future. " Buon (29, c). 12 Pret. 
 
 LESSON 20. 
 
 The whole chapter on Articles (pp. 7-10), except the 
 Exercises at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 20. 
 [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] 
 
 I. I am a poet. — 2. Alfieri, a writer who began to study at 
 twenty-seven, became a great poet. — 3. Habits bind us. — 4. 
 Writers have to resort to this means. — 5. The mind makes 
 an effort. — 6. Great efforts are hard. — 7. He goes to amuse 
 himself with the poets. — 8. Knowing the habits of writers, I 
 had him tied to his arm-chair. — 9. Mr. Alfieri studies in my 
 arm-chair. — 10. Mr. Alfieri, you will go to Italy. 
 
 LESSON 21. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the second conjugation : 92, 5-14 ; 67 
 (study the examples v^rith particular care) ; 54, a. Note 
 XhdX piacére is intransitive : ' it pleases him ' =^ gli piace. 
 
 EXERCISE 21. 
 
 [Based on Exercise i.] 
 I. He does not know when string beans come forth. — 2. 
 The snow fell in the winter. — 3. The fig-trees ought to have 
 given us their sweet fruit. — 4. They are sitting in the gardens. 
 — 5. You will see them in the spring. — 6. The leaves would be 
 lying in the fields. — 7. Do you like apricots ^ ? — 8. Be silent ! 
 I do not like fruit. — 9. Birds are wont to sing in the spring. — 
 10. I ought to begin. 
 
 1 ' Do apricots please you .'' '
 
 XXIV ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON 22. 
 
 Review Lesson 21. 
 
 EXERCISE 22. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar.^ 
 
 I. We have had^ to keep still : we do not know his name. — 
 2. It fell ^ and lay ^ three days on the ground. — 3. He was 
 sitting^ in the room where his brother lay.^ — 4. When I see* 
 them, I shall have ^ to keep still, because I do not know their 
 names. — 5. He saw^ me, but I didn't suit^ him. — 6. Do 
 you know where he is sitting Ì — 7. They are lying under the 
 table : don't you see them ? — 8. If I saw ^ him, I should have ^ 
 to speak to him. — 9. They will not know where we have seen 
 them. — 10. See her: she doesn't know that we have ^ come 
 back. — II. Has she seen these plants? Do they suit her? — 
 12. He doesn't believe that I know' his name. — 13. Let us see 
 where they are going. — 14. It lies there, where it has * fallen. — 
 15. When I saw^ that they had ^ fallen, I was silent.^ — 16. You 
 saw ^ my coat: how ^ did it suit^ you? — 17. If we had ^ seen 
 them fall, we should know where they are. — 18. He didn't be- 
 lieve ^ that they were lying ^ on the table. — 19. They don't be- 
 lieve that you see • them. — 20. If they keep still, we shall not 
 know where they have been. 
 
 1 Use dovére. 2 prgt. 3 j^np, ind. 4 Future. ^ Imp. subj. 
 
 ^ Use essere. ' Pres. subj. ^ Cóme. 
 
 LESSON 23. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the second conjugation: 92, 15-23; 
 67; 45, c. Dolere takes an indirect object.
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXV 
 
 EXERCISE 23. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar J\ 
 
 I. My eyes pain me ; I don't want to stay. — 2. We shall not 
 be able to persuade him ; he doesn't want to keep still. — 3. If 
 we were not able ^ to stay, it would grieve him very much.^ — 4. 
 They were in the habit ^ of staying ^ five days. — 5. If he were 
 holding ^ it, he would let ^ it fall. — 6. They seem large, but 
 they cannot be good. — 7. He wanted^ to go, but he could ^ 
 not: I held^ him. — 8. You will not persuade me : I shall not 
 be willing to do it. — 9. We saw ^ them : they are not worth any- 
 thing.' — 10. If he doesn't want to stay, I'll hold him. — 11. He 
 remained^ three days, because his head pained^ him. — 12. It 
 grieved® me, but I had ^ to do it. — 13. I don't believe that it 
 hurts ^ him very much.^ — 14. If you wish it, they will stay with 
 you. — IS- I have seen them this year ; they seemed ^ very little 
 to me : I should have thought that they were not worth ^ any- 
 thing.'^ — 16. You don't believe that he is willing ^ to stay. — 17. 
 If you wanted ^ to stay, you wouldn't be able to sit down. — 18. 
 If you don't believe that I can ^ keep still, don't remain here. — 
 19. He cannot stay: he has to go and study. — 20. Let them 
 remain there, if they don't want to come back. 
 
 1 Imp. subj. 2 Mólto. 3 Imp. ind. * ' Of staying ' = ' (to) stay.' 
 5 Lasciare. ^ Pret. "^ Ménte. ^ Pres. subj. 
 
 LESSON 24. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs : 53, a, b \ 54 ; 54, a,b,c,d,e\ 55 ; 57 ; 
 read the synopses in 56. Note that andare is conjugated 
 with essere.
 
 XXVI ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 24. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Graf?i?nar.^ 
 
 I. I shall have finished the poem.-^ — 2. They had built ^ a 
 city. — 3. We should have spoken.^ — 4. He will have gone. — 
 5. You would have come.'* — 6. The poor boys who have come * 
 to the city have spoken of it to their mothers. — 7. We have 
 finished our questions, but they have been very short. — 8. The 
 villas which the boy's father has built ^ are the most beautiful 
 in the world. — 9. The great ^ duke has gone to speak to the 
 unhappy sailors who have come ^ to our city. — 10. If I had^ 
 come,* they would have sent me to the city. — 11. I do not be- 
 lieve that he has ' come.* — 12. We should not have believed 
 that you had ^ spoken of it to him. — 13. If I had * spoken of it, 
 he would have sent it to me. — 14. If they had^ sent it to her, 
 she would have come * to speak of it to me. — 15. We believed 
 that the largest prisons in the city had ^ been built ^ by an un- 
 happy king, whose father was an Italian duke. 
 
 1 See Ex. 5, note 2. 2 Use cost?'uire. ^ Two translations. * Venire, p. p. 
 veneto, aux. èssere. ^ See 29, c. ^ Imp. subj. '^ Pres. subj. 
 
 LESSON 25. 
 
 Regular verbs : 58 ; 58, ^ ; 59 ; 59, a\ 60 ; 61 ; 62 ; 
 
 63 ; read 77, d^f^ gy h. Sentire means " to feel." 
 
 EXERCISE 25. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar. \ 
 
 I. The year ends with December. — 2. We speak of these 
 things, but you don't believe us. — 3. I don't believe that the 
 year ends ^ with December. — 4. Finish all the things that you 
 have begun. — 5. He didn't believe ^ that we felt ^ the heat. — 6. 
 You related * many things, but I didn't believe * them all. —
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXVU 
 
 7. They feel the heat, but they don't observe the smoke. — 8. If 
 he hastened,^ they would flee. — 9. The water boils, but we don't 
 feel the heat. — 10. What prevents us from ^ observing these 
 objects? — II. Let us hasten : they will eat^ everything. — 12. 
 If I repeated ^ these things, you would learn them. — 13. Let 
 them believe everything : they will not prevent me from ^ think- 
 ing. — 14. You haven't learned those things : I repeat them to 
 you. — 15. You don't believe that he repeats ^ everything. — 16. 
 Observe them : they are hastening ; where are they fleeing ? — 
 17. I didn't finish* it: they prevented^ me from ^ hastening. 
 — 18. If he thought^ that you were not observing^ him, he 
 would eat ^ everything. — 19. Learn everything, and repeat it to 
 me in' two days. — 20. We shall study three years ; by ^ study- 
 ing we shall learn everything. 
 
 1 Pres. subj. 2 j^np. ind. ^ Imp. subj. * Pret. ^ Z>/, with infin. 
 ** Mangiare, ^ Fra. ^ Omit. 
 
 LESSON 26. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the third conjugation : 92, 24-73 
 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses and all verbs 
 marked poetical or rare) ; 69 ; 70 ; 91, a. 
 
 EXERCISE 26. 
 
 [Based on the first paragraph of Exercise 2. The forms of irregular verbs 
 not yet learned may be found in the List, pp. loi ff.] 
 
 If I should speak ^ to you of Victor, you would admire his 
 strong, firm will. He was born ^ in 1749, of a noble family of 
 Piedmont ; he is a count. Nowadays ^ we don't believe that 
 being noble is enough* to make us worth something ; therefore 
 most young men study, and are worth something, because they 
 know that, if they are ignorant, their rank alone will not give 
 them a right to offices and honors. But Victor, as a lad, studied 
 carelessly; and, although he has* a fine mind, he is ignorant, 
 and doesn't know anything at all. We sent him to the Academy
 
 XXVlll ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 of Turin. But he didn't know tliat talent is of no use without 
 study ; and a few years later he came out without having studied 
 nor even travelled, and without knowing that study is worth 
 something. He didn't admire the Academy, and he didn't 
 speak of it ; he couldn't study, and he didn't know anything at 
 all, because he thought it was enough^ to have a fine mind. He 
 was noble, but they didn't give^ him offices nor honors, because 
 he was ignorant. 
 
 1 Imp. subj. 2 pret. s Oggidì. * Pres. subj. ^ j^np^ gubj. 
 
 LESSON 27. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the third conjugation : 92, 75-124 
 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses and all verbs 
 marked poetical or rare) ; 87 ; ^S\ 89. 
 
 EXERCISE 27. 
 
 [Based on the second paragraph of Exercise 2. The forms of irregular verbs 
 not yet learned may be found in the List. Vivere is conjugated with avére?^ 
 
 He arrived at the age of twenty-seven, and then, one fine 
 day, he opened his eyes. Now 1 he is thoroughly ashamed of 
 himself, and hopes that by changing his mode of life he will be 
 able to become an entirely different man from what he has 
 been. He has perceived his ignorance, and has resolved to 
 give up the habits that he has formed during a long course of 
 years ; he has determined to accustom himself to study. He 
 says to himself : " It will not cost much to make good resolu- 
 tions ; the difficulty will be in keeping them. But I shall keep 
 them — I shall accustom myself to living in an entirely different 
 way from formerly — I shall leave everything in order to study. 
 I resolve to change my mode of life. It will be no small matter, 
 because I have lived hitherto^ in an entirely different way ; and 
 when we live in such a way, we form ' certain customs — but I 
 shall not notice it : by studying and keeping my good resolu- 
 tions I shall accustom myself to such a life. I will do it. I
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. Xxix 
 
 should like to be a credit to Italy. I perceive my ignorance, 
 and I am ashamed of myself." 
 
 1 Adèsso. 2 Finóra. 3 See p. 97, no. 132. 
 
 LESSON 28. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the third conjugation: 92, 126-148 
 (omitting forms enclosed in parentheses). 
 
 EXERCISE 28. 
 
 [Based on the third paragraph of Exercise 2.] 
 Victor knew that he would have to make great efforts, that it 
 wasn't enough to feel a desire to study, and that he would have 
 need of great strength of mind ; but he said ^ to himself that 
 little by little his will would get the upper hand, and that by 
 continuing to study he would come to be a good writer. He 
 understood and perceived what efforts it would cost him ; but he 
 resolved to change his mode of life, and he kept his promise. It 
 is true that it cost him great efforts. He no longer went ^ out of 
 doors. When he felt a desire to amuse himself instead of study- 
 ing, he had to have himself tied to his arm-chair. But little by 
 little he became a great poet, and came to have no more need of 
 having himself tied. Then ^ he knew that he had got the upper 
 hand, and said * to himself : '' I shall not resort to this means 
 any longer : I have no more need of it. I shall begin to study, I 
 shall resolve to go on, and I shall keep my promise. I can and 
 will do it. I have changed my way of living. It has been hard 
 — I know what efforts it has cost me ; but now^ I shall not tie 
 myself any more. I make promises and keep them : my will 
 has got the upper hand." 
 
 1 Diceva. 2 Usciva. 3 Allóra. 4 /p/jj.^, 5 ó^^. 
 
 LESSON 29. 
 Personal pronouns: 46 ; 47 ; 47, ^; 48 ; 48, a, b, c, 
 d\ 49 ; 50 ; 51 ; 51, a,b\ 52 ; 55.
 
 XXX ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 29. 
 
 [Based on Exercise i. Translate the second person in three ways.] 
 I. When will you begin to sing to us ? — 2. Have you burned 
 yourself ? — 3. Seeing you in the garden, I called you. — 4. Fin- 
 ish it in the summer. — 5. Having finished them, you will give 
 them to us. — 6. Do not give it to them. — 7. I should have given 
 them to you. — 8. Give me your cherries. — 9. Have you any of 
 these pears .'* — 10. Give her some. — 11. What is your name ^ ? 
 
 — 12. I could have given it to you. — 13. Is it necessary to give 
 it tome ? — 14. I should make him begin it. — 15. Give it to me. 
 
 — 16. Sing it to them. — 17. Do not burn yourself. — 18, lam 
 calling: is it you .'' — 19. I gave it to you and to him. — 20. 
 Have you lost your apples ? — 21. I ought to have called you. — 
 22. Let her see it. — 23. You can see me, but I cannot see you. 
 
 — 24. He sees the birds, but they do not see him. — 25. Let me 
 see some. 
 
 1 ' How (cóme) do you call yourself .-* ' 
 
 LESSON 30. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation : 92, 149-161 ; 
 82 ; 84. Morire is conjugated v^ith essere. 
 
 EXERCISE 30. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 
 Grammar^ 
 
 I. See Naples^ and then die. — 2. They opened the window. 
 
 — 3. Let them cover themselves and remain covered. — 4. We 
 don't open the door ; the wind has opened it. — 5. If I sew all ^ 
 day, I shall die. — 6. They have built a great village. — 7. If 
 they die, we shall bury them in the grove. — 8. I don't believe 
 that you are dying.' — 9. What are they filling ? They offer me 
 water. — 10. The boy has died, and his parents are burying him. 
 — II. He will fill it, and then he will offer it to you. — 12. Our 
 
 friends, who died last year, are buried in the wood. — 13. Do
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXXI 
 
 you believe that he is building^ a villa ? — 14. If I suffered* as 
 my parents have suffered, I should die. — 15. While they were 
 building^ the city, many men died. — 16. He suffered^ always, 
 because he didn't digest ^ the food. — 17. Offer him bread : per- 
 haps he will digest it. — 18. We suffer — we are too unfortunate : 
 let us die. — 19. I eat** this bread because you have offered it 
 to me ; but I don't digest it. — 20. If he dies, he will not be 
 buried, but the birds will cover him with ' leaves. 
 
 1 Nàpoli. 2 < All the.' ^ pj-gg gubj. * Imp. subj. ^ Imp. ind. 
 * Mangiare. ' Di. 
 
 LESSON 31. 
 Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation : 92, 162-168. 
 
 EXERCISE 31. 
 
 [The words are to be found in the English-Italian vocabulary of the 
 Grammar^ 
 
 I. You tell it to me, but I don't hear you. — 2. I go out every 
 day. — 3. Hear me : I shall tell you everything. — 4. We went 
 up, but our friends didn't come. — 5. He tells me that they 
 have ^ come. — 6. He opens the door, but he doesn't go out. — 
 7. I tell you that he will come. — 8. Thus speaking, I open the 
 door and go out. — 9. They told him that you would come. — 
 
 10. He built himself a villa in the grove, and then he died. — 
 
 11. We told them that he had built a villa. — 12. We come, 
 we go up, and we come out, but we don't disappear. — 13. We 
 have told him that you are coming. — 14. I come here to see 
 everything: they are building me a villa. — 15. If I told '^ you 
 everything, you would die. — 16. You^ have opened the door; 
 but if you^ go out, you * die. — 17. They come and disappear. 
 Where do they go .'* Tell me, do they all die ì — 18. I don't 
 believe that they are going up.* Let them come, and they shall 
 hear me. I shall say to them : " I came, I saw, I conquered.* " 
 — 19. He says that he will come; he comes; he disappears;
 
 XXXll ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 and we do not know where he has ^ gone. — 20. He came — I 
 heard him open the door ; he went up, and then he disappeared. 
 I came out, but I did not see him : he had ^ died. We came 
 here to find him, and we buried him in the wood. 
 
 1 Use hsere. 2 Imp. subj. ^ Second pers. sing. * Pres. subj. ^ Vincere^ 
 irreg. verb. 
 
 LESSON 32. 
 
 The whole chapter on Auxiliary Verbs (pp. 47-54), except 
 Exercise 13 at the end. See also 42. 
 
 EXERCISE 32. 
 Translate Exercise 14 on p. 55. 
 
 LESSON 33. 
 
 Regular verbs, and irregular verbs of the fourth conjuga- 
 tion : 58 ; 58, tì! ; 59 ; 59, a,b\ 60 ; 61 ; 62 ; 63 ; 63, ^ ; 
 92, 149-168. 
 
 EXERCISE 33. 
 
 Translate Exercise 16 on pp. 64, 65. 
 
 LESSON 34. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the first and second conjugations: 66, 
 a,byC\ 68, a, b\ 92, a, b, c, d\ 92, 1-23. 
 
 EXERCISE 34. 
 Inflect : the preterite of fare, sapere^ dovére, vedére, piacére, 
 dolere, rimanére, tenére, valére, volére, parére, potére, persuadére ; 
 the imperfect indicative and subjunctive of fare, giacere, volére ; 
 the imperative of vedére^ rimanére, tenére. 
 
 LESSON 35. 
 
 Irregular verbs of the third conjugation : 92, eyf,g\ 92, 
 24-148.
 
 LESSONS AND EXERCISES. XXXlll 
 
 EXERCISE 35. 
 Translate the first half of Exercise i8 on p. 73. 
 
 LESSON 36. 
 
 The whole chapter on- Moods and Tenses (pp. 65-72). 
 
 EXERCISE 36. 
 
 Translate the second half of Exercise 18 on pp. 73, 74. 
 
 LESSON 37. 
 
 The whole chapter on Nouns and the whole chapter on 
 Adjectives (pp. 11-22), except Exercise 6 at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 37. 
 
 Translate Exercises 2 (p. 11) and 4 (p. 17). 
 
 LESSON 38. 
 
 The whole chapter on Demonstrative, Interrogative, Rela- 
 tive, and Possessive Pronouns (pp. 30-34) ; the whole chap- 
 ter on Indefinite Pronouns (pp. 84-87), except the long list 
 on p. 86 and the Exercise at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 38. 
 
 Translate Exercises 6 (p. 23) and 10 (p. 35). 
 
 LESSON 39. 
 
 The whole chapter on Personal Pronouns (pp. 36-44), ex- 
 cept Exercise 1 1 at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 39. 
 Translate Exercise 12 on pp. 45, 46.
 
 XXXIV ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON 40. 
 
 The whole chapter on Augmentatives, Diminutives, and 
 Numerals (pp. 23-28), except Exercise 7 at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 40. 
 Translate Exercise 8 on p. 29. 
 
 LESSON 41. 
 
 The whole chapter on Conjunctions, Prepositions, and 
 Adverbs (pp. 74-82), except the two long lists and Exercise 
 19 at the end. 
 
 EXERCISE 41. 
 Translate Exercise 20 on p. 84.
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 1. The Italian alphabet has the same letters as the 
 English, except that ky Wy Xy and y do not occur in 
 modern Italian. 
 
 2. The Italians distinguish seven vowels : ^, close ^, 
 open Cy iy close Oy open Oy u\ each of which always has 
 the same sound, no matter what may be its position in 
 the word, and never tends, as do the English long vowels, 
 to become a diphthong. Italian vowels are all pronounced 
 very quickly ; hence there is but little difference in quan- 
 tity between accented and unaccented sounds. English- 
 speaking students must carefully avoid drawling the ac- 
 cented and slighting the unaccented syllables ; they should 
 try to give to every Italian vowel about the length of i in 
 *' bitter." 
 
 A is nearly like a in "father" : as favUy cannuy cassa^ 
 palla. 
 
 E, close, is nearly like a in "fate": as bevey verey stelle^ 
 messe. 
 
 E, open, may be formed by trying to pronounce e in 
 **beir' with the mouth very wide open: as belluy amenay 
 feray pensa.
 
 2 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 I is nearly like ee in "feet" : as miri, vini, fissiy spilli. 
 
 O, close, is nearly like o in "mope": as dopo, dove, 
 bollo, sotto. 
 
 O, open, is nearly like aw in "saw" pronounced with 
 the mouth wide open : as no, odi, poi, donna. 
 
 U is nearly like oo in "boot " : as una, cura, nulla, ruppi. 
 
 a. The letters / and u are sometimes used to represent conso- 
 nant sounds (see 4) ; but in formulating rules they are always 
 counted as vowels. 
 
 3. As close and open vowels are not distinguished in 
 spelling, some rules are necessary : — 
 
 (i) Unaccented e and are always close : as marey 
 "sea" ; amo, "I love." 
 
 (2) E and are close in all monosyllables * ending in a 
 consonant : as con, "with " ; non, "not " ; per, "for." 
 
 (3) In monosyllables * and oxytones f ending in a vowel, 
 final e is close, final o is open: as che, "what"; me, "me"; 
 re, " king " ; credè, " he believed " ; perchè, " why " ; do, " I 
 give"; Po, "Po"; sarò, "I shall be"; andò, "he went." 
 Exceptions : final e is open in ^ = "is," re — "re," interjec- 
 tions (as aimè, "alas"; che, "nonsense"), proper names (as 
 Noè, "Noah"), and foreign words (as caffè, "coffee") ; final 
 o is close in lo and 0. 
 
 (4) Accented e and are always open in the groups ie 
 and uo : as piede, "foot"; fuoco, "fire." E and standing 
 for ie and uo are open : as ven=. viene, "he comes" ; cor- 
 ettore, "heart." 
 
 * Not including shortened forms of words that regularly have more than 
 one syllable. 
 
 t Words accented on the last syllable.
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 3 
 
 (5) In words that have always formed a part of the 
 spoken language, accented e is nearly always close when 
 it represents Latin è or i^ open when it represents Latin è 
 or CB ; accented is nearly always close when it represents 
 Latin or /?, open when it represents Latin o or ati. In 
 book words accented e and o are usually open. 
 
 In all cases not covered by the first three rules, the 
 quality of e and will be marked in this book, an acute 
 accent (^) denoting the close, a circumflex (^) the open 
 sound : as avére^ " to have " ; meno, ** less " ; tiene, " he 
 holds"; /tetOy ** happy"; poeta, "poet"; óra, "hour"; 
 mol/o, " much " ; buòno, " good " ; pòco, " little " ; mòto^ 
 "motion." 
 
 4. B, f, m, p, q, v are pronounced as in English. 
 
 C before e or i sounds like ch in " chin " ; elsewhere it 
 is always like English k : as cima, " top " ; càfne, " how " ; 
 {ia/ce, "sweet." G before e or t sounds like g- in "gem " ; 
 elsewhere it is always like £• in "go": as gatto, "cat"; 
 gente, "people"; spingi, "push." 
 
 a. A r<r or a gg before e or i has merely the sound of ch in 
 " chin " or g in "gem " prolonged : 2l% facce, " faces " ; légge, " law." 
 
 D, 1, n, t are pronounced further forward in the mouth 
 than in English ; the tip of the tongue should touch the 
 back of the upper front teeth : as alto, " high " ; dato, 
 "given"; luna, "moon"; nudo, "naked"; tuòno, "thunder." 
 H is always silent : as ahi, "oh!" ha, "he has." 
 I, unaccented, before a vowel, sounds like English y\ 
 as ieri, "yesterday"; paio, "pair"; più,, "more." In 
 the groups eia, ciò, ciu, già, gio, giù, an unaccented i 
 serves only to show that the ^ or ^ is soft : as faccia^
 
 4 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 " face " ; guancia, ** cheek " ; ciòy " that " ; giiiy " down " ; 
 mangia, " eat " ; raggio, ** ray." 
 
 J is merely another way of writing i. 
 
 N before a ^ or a hard <; or ^ has the sound of Eng. 
 lish ng : as banca {bang-ka), ** bank " ; dunque {dung-kwe), 
 "therefore"; lungo {hmg-go), "long." 
 
 R is always rolled, the point of the tongue vibrating 
 against the teeth : as caro, *' dear " ; rósso, '* red " ; per, 
 "for." When r is double or followed by a consonant, 
 the trill is prolonged : as carro, " cart " ; burro, " butter " ; 
 marróne, "chestnut"; came, "meat"; pòrta, "door." 
 
 S IS generally pronounced nearly like English s in "see," 
 but with a somewhat sharper sound : as so, " I know " ; 
 spillo, " pin." 
 
 Initial s before a sonant {b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v) has a 
 sound intermediate between s and English z : as sdruccio- 
 lare, "to slip"; slitta, "sleigh." 
 
 A single s between vowels has, in most words, the sound 
 of English z: as caso, "case"; causa, "cause"; viso, "face." 
 But in the following cases it is pronounced like s in "see," 
 " mason " : — 
 
 a. In annusare, àsino, casa, Chiusi, còsa, così, desiderio, naso, 
 par asito, péso, Pisa, pisello, pòsa, ripòso, riso, susina, and their 
 derivatives, and in some uncommon words. 
 
 b. After the prefixes de-, di-* pre-, pro-, re-, ri-, tra-* : as de- 
 sistere, diségno, presùmere, proseguire, reservare, risolvere, tra- 
 sudare. 
 
 e. In the adjective ending -òso and the adjective and substan- 
 tive ending -ése : as noióso, " troublesome " ; inglése, " English " ; 
 mése, "month." But in cortése, francése, lucchése, marchése, paese, 
 palése, the s is like English z. 
 
 * Not to be confounded with dis-, iras- : disonòre, trasandare.
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 5 
 
 d. In the preterites and past participles of chièdere, chiùdere, 
 nascóndere, pórre, ràdere, ridere, rimanére, rispóndere, ródere, and 
 ali verbs in -endere ; and in their compounds and derivatives : as 
 chièsi, socchiuso, nascóse, rispósero, rasóio, rimase, corrispósi^ 
 rósero, accési, réso, scésa. Exceptions to this rule are derìdere^ 
 verbs in -eludere, and derivatives of ródere. 
 
 U, unaccented, before a vowel, sounds like English w : 
 as òuono, "good" ; guardare, "to look" ; può, "he can." 
 
 z and zz are generally pronounced like a long and vig- 
 orous is : as alzare, " to lift " ; azióne, " action " ; prezzo^ 
 "price"; zio, "uncle." 
 
 In the following cases, however, z and zz sound like a 
 prolonged dz : — 
 
 a. In azzurro, dozzina, mèzzo, pranzo, ribrézzo, romanzo, zèlo, 
 and many less common words. 
 
 b. In verbs in -izzare (as utilizzare, "to utilize") ; except attiz- 
 zare^ dirizzare, guizzare, rizzare, stizzare, and their compounds, 
 and a few uncommon words. 
 
 6. The following combinations are to be noted : — 
 
 Ch (used only before e and i) is always like English k\ 
 as fichi (plural of fico, "fig"). Sch is like sk : as schérzo y 
 "sport." 
 
 Gh (used only before e and i) is always like 'English g in 
 "go" : as aghi (plural of ago, "needle"). 
 
 Gli (written gl if the following vowel be i) is nearly lik:; 
 English Hi in "million": as figlio, "son"; figli, "sons." 
 But in Anglia, geroglifico, glicerina, negligere and its deriv- 
 atives, and a few uncommon words borrowed from the 
 Greek or Latin, gl is like English gl, 
 
 Gn is nearly like ni in " onion " : as ógni, "every." 
 
 Qu is always like kw : as quésto^ "this."
 
 6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Se before e and i is nearly like sh in " ship " : as uscire^ 
 "to go out." Before all other letters it is pronounced sk\ 
 2(.s scudluy "school"; schérno, "contempt." 
 
 6. Every letter in Italian is distinctly and separately 
 sounded ; the only exceptions are h, silent / (see 4), and 
 the combinations mentioned in 5. Ex. : arte, "art"; firma, 
 "signature"; y?^;'/^, "theft"; giórno, "day"; verso, "toward"; 
 andai, "I went"; dura, "breeze"; bugie, "lies"; Europa, 
 " Europe " ; miei, " my " ; paura, " fear " ; sentii, " I felt " ; 
 suoi, "his." 
 
 Where a double consonant is written, both letters must 
 be sounded, the first at the end of the preceding, the 
 second at the beginning of the following syllable : as anno, 
 "year"; babbo, "father"; fatto, "done"; mésso, "put"; 
 quello, "that." For rr, zz, and soft cc and^^, see 4. 
 
 L, m, n, and r, when preceded by an accented vowel 
 and followed by another consonant, are prolonged : as 
 alto {all-to), "high"; sempre {semm-pre), "always"; tanto 
 {tann-to), "so much"; parte {parr-te), "part." 
 
 7. The accent is nearly always the same as in Latin. 
 In this book it will always be noted. Of the signs written 
 here, students need use only the grave (^), which is placed 
 on the last syllable of oxytones and on some monosyllables ; 
 Italian writers do not agree as to the use of the other marks ; 
 some use the acute, and not the grave, on final e. 
 
 8. Italian words are divided in such a way that, if pos- 
 sible, every syllable shall begin with a consonant : as ta-vo- 
 li-no, ^^X.'àkAo,'' ', frat-tdn-to, "meanwhile"; al-l' uo-mo, "to 
 the man"; nar-rd-re, "to relate" ; viez-zo, "half"; cdc-cia, 
 "hunt"; dg-gi, "to-day."
 
 ARTICLES. 7 
 
 In the groups s -j- consonant, consonant + r, those men- 
 tioned in 5, and c/, fl, gl, pi, both consonants belong to the 
 following syllable. I = y and u = w go with the following 
 vowel ; dz, du, ez, ezi, oi are not separated. Ex. : al-V dzi-ra, 
 a-vrb, bi-só-gno, ca-stz-ghz, del-V dc-qua, in-chio-strOy miéiy 
 mi-glió-rey ri-fiét-te-rey te-d-troy tuoi. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 9. The article is not declined, but it agrees with its 
 substantive in gender and number 
 
 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 10. Masculine : — 
 
 a. Sing, ily pi. /, before a word beginning with any consonant 
 except s impure * and z. 
 
 b. Sing, loy pi. gliy before a vowel or s impure or z.f 
 
 Before a vowel lo becomes /' ; gli becomes gV before i. 
 
 Ex. : II pddre, the father; i padri, the fathers. 
 Lo stésso padre, the same father. 
 Lo sciame, the swarm ; gli sciami, the swarms. 
 Lo zio, the uncle ; gli zii, the uncles. 
 D uòmo, the man ; gV insètti, the insects. 
 
 11. Feminine: — 
 Sing, lay pi. le. 
 
 Before a vowel la becomes /'; le becomes /' before e. 
 Ex. : La mddre, the mother ; le madri, the mothers. 
 
 Z' óra, the hour ; le óre, the hours ; /' èrbe, the herbs. 
 
 * That is, s followed by another consonant. 
 
 t Li is sometimes used for gli. Some writers use il, i before z and before 
 see- or sci-. In poetry lo is often used for //.
 
 8 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 12. When the definite article is preceded by one of the 
 prepositions di, da, a, iuy con, su, per, the article and prepo- 
 sition are generally contracted into one word, as shown in 
 the following table {con, per are often uncontracted) : — 
 
 
 IL 
 
 ^ 
 
 LO 
 
 GLI 
 
 LA 
 
 LE 
 
 l' 
 
 Di, of 
 
 del 
 
 dèi or de' 
 
 dèlio 
 
 degli 
 
 della 
 
 dèlie 
 
 dell' 
 
 Da, by 
 
 dal 
 
 dai or da' 
 
 dallo 
 
 dagli 
 
 dàlia 
 
 dàlie 
 
 dall' 
 
 A, to 
 
 al 
 
 ài or a' 
 
 allo 
 
 àgli 
 
 alla 
 
 alle 
 
 all' 
 
 /«, in 
 
 nel 
 
 nei or né' 
 
 nello 
 
 negli 
 
 nella 
 
 nelle 
 
 nelP 
 
 Cotiy with 
 
 col 
 
 eòi or co' 
 
 còllo 
 
 càgli 
 
 còlla 
 
 còlle 
 
 coli' 
 
 Su, on 
 
 sul 
 
 sui or su' 
 
 sullo 
 
 sugli 
 
 sulla 
 
 sulle 
 
 sull' 
 
 Per, for 
 
 pel 
 
 pei or// 
 
 per lo 
 
 per gli 
 
 per la 
 
 per le 
 
 per V 
 
 Ex. : Del padre, of the father ; dai padri, by the fathers. 
 
 Allo spècchio, to the mirror ; negli spècchi, in the mirrors. 
 Còlla madre, with the mother ; còlle madri, with the mothers. 
 StdV uòmo, on the man ; per gli uòmini, for the men. 
 
 a. The word " some " is frequently rendered in Italian by dì 
 with the definite article. This is called the partitive genitive. 
 
 Ex. : Datemi del vino, give me some wine. 
 Delle bèlle còse, some fine things. 
 
 13. In the following cases the definite article is used in 
 Italian, though not in English : — 
 
 a. Before the possessive pronouns : as // nòstro giardino, " our 
 garden" ; / suoi fratèlli, "his brothers." When, however, the pos- 
 sessive quahfies an otherwise unmodified noun in the singular ex- 
 pressing relationship, the article is generally omitted : as mia 
 madre, "my mother." For a fuller statement see 45, a. 
 
 b. Before an abstract noun or one denoting a whole class, 
 unless the sense is partitive.
 
 ARTICLES. 9 
 
 Ex. : L'uomo propóne, man proposes. 
 
 I fióri nàscono dal séme, flowers spring from the seed. 
 
 La mòrte è il peggióre dei mali, death is the worst of evils. 
 
 c. Before a noun and adjective used either in a specific or in 
 a general (but not in a partitive) sense. 
 
 Ex. : L'anno scórso, last year (i. e., the last year). 
 
 II pòvero Luigi non viene, (the) poor Lewis doesn't come. 
 Gli uòmini buòni, good men (/. e., all good men). 
 
 d. Before a title followed by a proper name : as la regina Vit- 
 toria, " Queen Victoria " ; // signor Bruni, " Mr. Brown." It is 
 not used, however, before Don, Messer, and Ser. 
 
 e. Before family names ; often before given names of women ; 
 occasionally before given names of well-known men. 
 
 Ex. : // Bianchi e mòrto, White is dead ; la Patti canta. Patti sings. 
 Conósco V Olivia, I know Olivia ; Dante or // Dante, Dante. 
 
 f. Before names of countries and continents : as la Svizzera, 
 " Switzerland " ; alP Italia, " to Italy " ; per P Europa, " for 
 Europe." But the article is omitted after in in phrases that 
 denote going to or dwelling in a country ; and often after di or 
 in when the preposition with the name of a country is equivalent 
 to an adjective of nationality : as vado i?i Germania, " I go to Ger- 
 many " ; rimango in Frància, " I remain in France " ; la regina 
 d' Inghilterra, " the queen of England " ; il vino di Spagna, " the 
 wine of Spain " ; il teatro in Italia, " the drama in Italy." 
 
 In all the above cases (beginning with 13, a) the article, 
 unless it v^rould be employed in English, is omitted when 
 the noun is used as a vocative or is modified by a numeral 
 or a pronominal adjective. It is often omitted in lists. 
 
 Ex. : Quésta stia òpera, this work of his. 
 
 Signóra Mónti, cÓ7ne sta, Mrs. Monti, how do you do? 
 
 Italia, ti rivedo, Italy, I see thee again. 
 
 Fède, speranza, carità, faith, hope, and charity.
 
 IO ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Vieni, amico mio, come, my friend. 
 
 Ha parécchi vizi, he has several bad habits. 
 
 Due bellissimi cani, two very fine dogs. 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 14. Masculine: — 
 
 a. Un before a vowel or any consonant except s impure and s. 
 
 b. Uno before s impure or z. * 
 
 Ex. : Un padre, a father ; un uòmo, a man. 
 
 Un anello, a ring ; ano spècchio, a mirror. 
 (/no sciame, a swarm ; Tino zio, an uncle. 
 
 15. Feminine: — 
 
 Una, which becomes un'' before a vowel. 
 Ex. : Ujta mddre, a mother ; un'' óra, an hour. 
 
 16. In the follov^ing cases the indefinite article, though 
 expressed in English, is omitted in ItaUan : — 
 
 a. Before a predicate noun expressing occupation, rank, or 
 nationality, and not accompanied by an adjective. 
 
 Ex. : Égli è poèta, he is a poet ; sÓ7io 7narchése, I am a marquis. 
 Siete italiano, you are an Italian. 
 
 b. Generally before an antecedent (of a relative clause) used 
 in apposition to a preceding noun modified by a definite article or 
 a demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 Ex. : U Arno, fithne che travèrsa Firenze, the Arno, a river which 
 traverses Florence. 
 
 c. After da meaning " as," " like," or " for." See 79, g. 
 Ex. : Da uòmo, like a man. 
 
 * Some writers use un before z and before see- or sci-.
 
 NOUNS. •' II 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 La parte più alta del nòstro còrpo è il capo. Il capo è attaccato 
 
 highest is is attached 
 
 al còllo, e il còllo è attaccato al trónco. La parte davanti del 
 
 front 
 
 capo si chiama viso. Nel viso ci sono la frónte, gli òcchi, il 
 
 is-called there are eyes 
 
 naso, la bócca, il mento. Cògli òcchi si vedono le còse. Co] 
 
 we-see things 
 
 naso si sentono gli odóri. Còlla bócca si mangia, si béve, si 
 
 we-smell odors we-eat we-drink we- 
 
 respira. Respirare è mandare 1' ària giù nel petto, e pòi riman- 
 
 breathe 
 
 darla fuòri. Nói respiriamo 1' ària. Levate un pésce dall' acqua, 
 
 it We breathe Take 
 
 muore : levate T ària a nói, e nói morremo. 
 
 it-dies take front us shall-die. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 
 Mr. Rossi is a merchant. Leaving Italy, he-went-away last 
 
 è Lasciando partì 
 
 year to France, a country which he-wished to-visit with his brother 
 
 per voleva visitare 
 
 and a friend of the family. But he-returned to Italy the same 
 
 tornò in 
 
 month, saying : "Travelling^ bores-me. Another time I-shall-make 
 
 dicendo viaggiare (m.) mi sécca Un^ altra farò 
 
 a Study of the customs of France. Paris is a big city ; we-have- 
 
 costùnti {ja.. -^S) grande vi abbiami 
 
 seen some ^ fine things ; but I-prefer the land of Garibaldi and 
 
 veduto bèlle f^j^(f. pi.) mi piace piit 
 
 of King Victor Emmanuel." 
 
 1 See 13, b. 2 See 12, a. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 17. Italian nouns are not declined. Possession is de« 
 noted by the preposition di: as lo specchio di mio pddre^ 
 **my father's looking-glass."
 
 12 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 18. There are no neuter nouns in Italian.* 
 
 Nouns denoting males and females keep their natural 
 gender : except guida, " guide " ; guàrdia, "guard " ; per- 
 sóna, " person " ; sentinella, " sentinel " ; spia, " spy " ; ve- 
 détta, " scout" ; which are feminine. 
 
 Ex. : II fratèllo, the brother ; mia sorèlla, my sister. 
 // poèta, the poet ; la poetéssa, the poetess. 
 Una spia, a spy ; la nostra guida, our guide. 
 
 19. Of nouns denoting objects without sex some are 
 masculine, some feminine. Their gender can often be 
 determined by the final letter. All Italian nouns end in 
 a, e, i, 0, or u'.-f — 
 
 a. Those ending in a are feminine ; except colèra, " cholera,'* 
 qualcòsa, " something," Greek neuters in -ma,\ many geographi- 
 cal names, and a few other words, mostly foreign. 
 
 Ex. : Un'' óra, an hour ; un telegramma, a telegram. 
 // Canada, Canada; il sofà, the sofa. 
 
 b. Of those ending in e and / some are masculine, some femi- 
 nine. All ending in -zióne, -gióne, or -tedine are feminine. 
 
 Ex. : // fume, the river ; la pace, peace. 
 
 Un di, a day ; una metròpoli, 3. metropolis. 
 La ragióne, the reason ; la servitùdine, service. 
 
 c. Those ending in o are masculine ; except mano, " hand." 
 Ex. : // ginòcchio, the knee ; la mano, the hand. 
 
 * Latin neuters become masculine in Italian; masculines and feminines 
 retain their Latin gender. This rule has very few exceptions. 
 
 t A few foreign nouns used in Italian end in a consonant: as làpis, 
 "pencil" (J. làpis, "the pencils"). Nouns in -o or -e often drop that vowel 
 if the preceding consonant is /, n,otr: as càne=can, "dog." 
 
 X Mostly scientific terms.
 
 NOUNS. 13 
 
 d. Those ending in u are feminine; except soprappiiiy "sur- 
 plus," and a few foreign words. 
 
 Ex. : La virtù, virtue ; il ba7nbù, bamboo. 
 
 20. Any other part of speech (except an adjective*) 
 used as a noun must be masculine. 
 
 Ex. : // viaggiare, travelling. 
 
 21. Masculine names of trees in ^ or ^ have a feminine 
 form m a Qx e respectively, denoting their fruit ; but il 
 dàttero y "date," il fico, "fig," il limóne, "lemon," il pómo y 
 "apple," are always the same, whether denoting the tree 
 or the fruit. 
 
 Ex. : Un susino, a plum-tree ; una susina, a plum. 
 // nóce, the walnut-tree ; la nóce, the walnut. 
 Quésti fichi, these fig-trees, these figs. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 22. Feminines in unaccented a form their plural by 
 changing a into e. 
 
 Ex. : Lm. strada, the street ; le strade, the streets. 
 Una bugia, a lie ; le bugie, lies. 
 
 a. Feminines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -che and -ghe 
 respectively (the h being inserted merely to indicate that the c 
 and g keep their hard sound) . 
 
 Ex. : UiC oca, a goose ; mólte òche, many geese. 
 
 La bottéga, the shop ; parécchie bottéghe, several shops. 
 
 Adjectives of course have the gender of the nouns they represent.
 
 14 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. Nouns in unaccented -eia and -gia form their plural in -ce 
 and -ge respectively.* 
 
 Ex. : Lagud7tcia, the cheek; le guànce, the cheeks. 
 
 Una ciliègia, a cherry ; tante ciliege, so many cherries. 
 
 23. Masculines in unaccented a and all nouns in unac» 
 cented o and e (not ie) form their plural in L t 
 
 Ex. : Un poèta, a poet ; due poèti, two poets. 
 Z<? ^/«c, the uncle ; gli zìi, the uncles. 
 La mano, the hand ; le mie mani, my hands. 
 Un mése, a month ; tre mési, three months. 
 La cornice, the frame ; quattro cornici, four frames. 
 
 a. Masculines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -chi and -^A/ 
 respectively. 
 
 Ex. : // monarca, the monarch ; / moìiàrchi, the monarchs. 
 // collèga, the colleague ; / colleglli, the colleagues. 
 
 <^. Nouns in unaccented -io form their plural by changing -io 
 to -/ (often written /, /, or //) . 
 
 Ex. : Lo spècchio, the mirror ; gli spècchi, the mirrors. 
 
 // ciliègio, the cherry-tree ; / ciliègi, the cherry-trees. 
 
 c. Nouns in -go form their plural in -ghi. Nouns in -co form 
 their plural in -chi if the penult is accented, otherwise in -ci. 
 
 Ex.' : // castigo, the punishment ; i castighi, the punishments. 
 Un catàlogo, a catalogue ; due catàloghi, two catalogues. 
 // fico, the fig ; cinque fichi, five figs. 
 Antico, ancient ; gli antichi, the ancients. 
 Un mèdico, a doctor ; sèi mèdici, six doctors. 
 
 This rule has a number of exceptions. In the following lists^ 
 words whose irregular plural is rare are omitted. 
 
 * Provincia has Provincie. In general borrowed words and words whose 
 plural is necessarily very rare keep the i : audàcia, audàcie. 
 
 t In old Italian and in poetry words in -elio and -ale often form their plural 
 in -egli or -ei, -agli or -ai : capéllo, capei.
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 15 
 
 (i) Compound nouns in -logo denoting persons engaged in 
 the sciences, and ali compound nouns in -fago form their plural 
 in 'gi* 
 
 Ex.: //yfj'/^?/*?^^», the physiologist ; / ^^^/^/(C^/, physiologists. 
 Antropòfago, cannibal ; antropófagi, cannibals. 
 
 (2) The following words form their plural in -ci, although the 
 penult is accented : — 
 
 amico greco inimico nemico porco f ■ 
 
 Greco has a regular plural in the expression vini grechi. 
 
 (3) The following words form their plural m -chi, although the 
 penult is unaccented : — 
 
 làstrico rammàrico 
 
 mànico risico 
 
 pàrroco sciàtico 
 
 pizzico stomaco 
 
 àbbaco 
 
 
 fàrmaco 
 
 acròstico 
 
 
 indaco 
 
 càrico X 
 
 
 intonaco 
 
 diméntici 
 
 0% 
 
 intrinseco 
 
 strascico 
 tossico 
 tràffico 
 vàlico § 
 
 Acròstico and fàrmaco have also regular plurals. 
 
 d. Some masculines in have an irregular plural in a ; this 
 plural is feminine. They are : centinaio, " hundred " ; migliàio, 
 " thousand " ; miglio, " mile " ; pàio, " pair " ; uovo, " Qgg^ 
 
 Many masculines in have this irregular feminine plural in a 
 besides the regular masculine plural in i. The most common 
 are : bràccio, " arm " ; dito, " finger " ; frutto, " fruit " ; ginocchio, 
 " knee " ; grido, " shout " ; labbro, " lip " ; légno, " wood " ; 77ièm' 
 òro, " member " ; muro, "wall " ; orécchio, " ear " ; osso, " bone." 
 
 * Likewise the rare or obsolete words : fiemmagògo^ idragògo, ttietallùrgo, 
 sirgo (also reg. plur.), sortilego. " Magicians "= mdghi, "magi"= màgi. 
 
 t Likewise the rare words: aprico, lombrico (also reg.), uvamico, vico. 
 
 X Likewise its compounds. 
 
 § Likewise the rare or obsolete words: fldccico, mdntaco (also reg.), 
 estàtico, sjilàccico, stàtico (noun), ùncico.
 
 l6 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Un pàio, a pair ; sètte paia, seven pairs. 
 
 // mio bràccio, my arm ; le tue braccia, thy arms. 
 // labbro, the lip ; le labbra or / labbri, the lips. 
 Un òsso, a bone ; le ossa or gli òssi, the bones. 
 
 Bràccio, ginòcchio, labbro, and orécchio nearly always have the 
 irregular plural when denoting the two arms, knees, lips, or ears 
 belonging to the same body. 
 
 24. All monosyllables, and all nouns ending in ?, ie, «, 
 an accented vowel, or a consonant, are invariable. 
 
 Ex. : // re, the king ; / re, the kings. 
 
 // brindisi, the toast ; i britidisi, the toasts. 
 Una spècie, a kind ; òtto spècie, eight kinds. 
 La virtù, virtue ; le virtil, the virtues. 
 Una città, a city ; dièci città, ten cities. 
 
 26. The following nouns have irregular plurals : bée^ 
 "ox," pi. buoi; dio, "god," pi. déi^ ; móglie, *'wife," pi. 
 mógli; udmOy "man," pi. uòmini. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. 
 
 Gli uccèlli, le farfalle, i pésci, il cane, il micio, le lucèrtole 
 sóno^ tutti animàh. Il gatto e il cane sóno^ animali che hanno ^ 
 quattro gambe, hanno ^ quattro piedi, e però si chiamano'* qua- 
 drùpedi. Il leone è ^ il più bèllo e il più maestóso dèi quadrùpedi. 
 GU uccèlh hanno ^ due zampe ; ed hanno ^ le ah e con le ali vo- 
 lano.^ Anche le farfalle hanno ^ le ah, anche le àpi hanno ^ le ali, 
 e volano.^ Le mósche, le zanzare, le vèspe, e pòi mólti altri ani- 
 malini, slmili a quésti, si chiamano* insètti. Gli uccèlli e gì' in- 
 sètti nàscono^ dalle uova. Tutti quésti animali vivono^ in mèzzo 
 all' ària. I pésci vivono^ in mèzzo all' acqua. I pésci non hanno ^ 
 gambe; hanno ^ dàlie parti quelle alettine; e con quéste piccole 
 
 * The article used with dèi is gli : gli dèi.
 
 NOUNS. 17 
 
 alétte e con la còda nuqtano® e guizzane via nell' acqua, lèsti lèsti 
 cóme un lampo. Quelle alétte si chiamano^ pinne. Le lucèrtole 
 striscian'^ su' muri, hànno^ delle zampine, ma rasenti rasenti al 
 còrpo, e quando si muòvono^'' anche sulla tèrra, strisciano.^^ Le 
 sèrpi non hanno ^ gambe ; e quésti animali che non hanno ^ gambe 
 e che strisciano" sulla tèrra, cóme le lucèrtole e le sèrpi, si chia- 
 mane rèttih. 
 
 ^ ^=:is; sano = ave. ^ Have. ^ They have. * Si chiamano— zxq called. 
 ^ They fly. ^ Are born. ''' Live. ^ They swim. ^ Dart. '^^ Si muòvono 
 — they move. ^^ Crawl, they crawl. 
 
 EXERCISE 4.^ 
 
 Mignonettes are^ bom from the seed. The seed, placed under 
 ground, has^ sprouted; from one side it-has '^ put-out * shoots, 
 which have-spread-out' through^ the ground, and from one side 
 it-has^ sent forth the stalk, the little-branches,^ the leaves, and^ the 
 flowers. Like mignonettes,* many other ^^ plants, herbs, and^ flowers 
 spring^'' from the seed. Flowers, herbs, grain, and trees are- 
 called" vegetables. Vegetables have^ roots, trunk, branches, 
 twigs, leaves, flowers, and^ fruit. Plants first produce^ the flower 
 and then the fruit. The trunk or stalk of plants is^ that^ which 
 rests" on the roots and^^ comes ^^ out from the ground ;^^ it-is- 
 covered^* with^^ branches and with ^^ leaves. Of the stalk of plants, 
 . — for instance, of the trunk of trees, — we-make-use^ for many 
 purposes ; we-make^^ furniture, doors, windows, the beams that 
 support^ ceilings, ships, carriages, and^ cars. The branches of 
 trees are-burned, ^^ and give-us^^ fire. Vegetables in-order- to ^ live 
 have ^ need of earth, of water, and ^ of light. 
 
 ^ See 13, b. 2 is = <?; 2xt. = s6no. ^ Has, it \iz.%=ha\ ha.ve=àanno. 
 * Mésso. 5 Si sano discése. ^ Fra. "^ Ramicélli. ^ Insert " and so." 
 ^ Omit. 1*^ Nàscono. 11 Si chiamano. ^'^ Fanno. ^^ Quello. 1* Pòsa. 
 1° Insert "which." i» Viene. ^^ Insert "and." i» Si ricuòpre. i^ Di. 
 ^ Ci serviamo. ^i Facciamo. 22 Règgono. ^3 £i bruciano. ^ Ci 
 danno. 25 p^^^ 26 Many other = mólte altre.
 
 l8 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ADJECTIVES.* 
 
 26. Adjectives agree with their substantives in gender 
 and number. An adjective modifying two nouns of dif- 
 ferent genders is generally put in the masculine plural. 
 
 Ex. : // gatto è pulito, the cat is neat ; stanze pulite, neat rooms. 
 Una cdsa e un giardino bellini, a pretty house and garden. 
 
 27. Numerai and pronominai adjectives, bello, bravo ^ 
 buòno ^ and the commonest adjectives of size and quantity, 
 precede their nouns ; adjectives of nationality, shape, and 
 material follow. Adjectives whose use is prompted by 
 emotion, and adjectives used in a figurative sense, generally 
 precede. Otherwise, of the noun and adjective, the one that 
 contains the chief idea comes last. 
 
 Ex. : Tròppo pane, too much bread ; le grandi città, great cities. 
 Quésta palla rotónda, this round ball ; due cani, two dogs. 
 La buòna madre, the good mother ; pòver^ uòmo, poor man ! 
 La vòstra gentilissima lèttera, your kind letter. 
 È un uòmo ge?itillssi?no, he is a kind man. 
 
 GENDER AND NUMBER 
 
 28. Adjectives ending in o are masculine, and form 
 their feminine in a. Adjectives in e are invariable in the 
 singular. 
 
 Ex. : Buòno stivalétto, good boot ; buòna scarpa, good shoe. 
 Ragazzo felice, happy boy ; ragazza felice^ happy girl. 
 
 29. Adjectives form their plural in the same way as 
 nouns (see 22, 23). 
 
 Ex. : Sèi buòni cassettóni, six good bureaus; otto buòne seggiole, eight 
 good chairs. 
 Dee uòmini felici, two happy men ; tre dònne felici, three 
 happy women.
 
 ADJECTIVES. 19 
 
 a. Parécchi, " several," has for its feminine parécchie. 
 
 b. Qualche, "some," is used only in the singular, even when 
 the meaning is plural : as qualche volta, *' sometimes." 
 
 c. When preceding a noun, bèllo, " beautiful," has forms sim- 
 ilar to those of the definite article ; and Santo, " Saint," and 
 grande, " great," have corresponding forms in the singular.* 
 Buòno, " good," when preceding its noun, has a singular similar 
 to the indefinite article. The mascuHne of these words (which is 
 the only irregular part) is, therefore, as follows : — 
 
 Before any consonant except s impure or z : bel^ San, gran, buon ; 
 
 pi. bèi, Santi, grandi, buòni. 
 Before s impure or z\ bèllo. Santo, grande, buòno; pi. begli. Santi, 
 
 grandi, buòni. 
 Before a vowel : bell\ Sanf, grand\ buon ; pi. begli. Santi, grandi, 
 
 buòni. 
 
 When used after a noun or in the predicate these adjectives 
 have their full forms {bèllo, bèlli. Santo, Santi, grande, grandi, 
 buòno, buòni). 
 
 Ex. : Un bel quadro, a fine picture ; due bèi lètti, two fine beds. 
 
 Un bèllo scaffale, a fine bookcase ; quattro begli stivali, four 
 
 fine boots. 
 Un belV àndito, a fine hall ; mólti begli orològi, many fine 
 
 clocks. 
 Una bèlla stufa, a fine stove ; parécchie bèlle tènde, several fine 
 
 curtains. 
 Il palazzo è bèllo, the palace is fine ; le sèdie son bèlle, the chairs 
 
 are beautiful. 
 San Pietro, Santo Stefano e Sanf Antonio, St. Peter, St. 
 
 Stephen, and St. Anthony. 
 Un gran fuòco, a big fire ; grandi camini, big fire-places. 
 
 * Gran is, moreover, often used in the fem. sing, (for grande), and some- 
 times in the plur. (for grandi) ; it is regularly used before fem. sing, nouns in 
 ce, and in the expression una gran bella (or brutta) còsa.
 
 20 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 // grande scaldino, the big foot-warmer ; dièci grandi spilli, 
 
 ten big pins. 
 Un grande sciame, a great swarm ; il grande zipolo, the large 
 
 bung. 
 Un grand'' armàdio, a big wardrobe ; vénti grandi àlberi, 
 
 twenty big trees. 
 Una grande càmera, a large bedroom ; cinque grandi finèstre, 
 
 five big windows. 
 Il salòtto è mólto grande, the parlor is very large. 
 Un buon lÙ7ne, a good lamp ; buòni fiammiferi, good matches. 
 // buòno sgabèllo, the good stool ; nòve buòni scolari, nine good 
 
 pupils. 
 // buon òlio, the good oil ; parécchi buòni aghi, several good 
 
 needles. 
 Ù7ta buòna cucina, a good kitchen ; le buòne candéle, the good 
 
 candles. 
 // bambino è buòno, the child is good. 
 
 30. Any adjective of either gender or either number 
 may be used as a noun. 
 
 Ex. : / buòni, the good ; la bèlla, the beautiful woman. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 31. All Italian adjectives form their comparative by 
 prefixing //?)j "more," and their superlative by prefixing 
 the definite article to the comparative. When the superla- 
 tive immediately follows the noun, this article is omitted. 
 
 Ex. : Bèllo, beautiful ; piii, bèllo, more beautiful ; il più bèllo, the 
 most beautiful. 
 Lungo, long ; più hingo, longer ; // più hingo, the longest. 
 Im via più córta, the shortest way. 
 
 a. The following adjectives have an irregular comparison in 
 addition to the regular one : — 
 
 Alto, high ; pii'i alto or superióre; il piii alto or il superióre. 
 Basso, low ; più basso or inferióre ; il più basso or /' inferióre-
 
 ADJECTIVES. 21 
 
 Buòno, good ; piii buòno or jniglióre ; * il più buòno or // 
 
 migliòre. 
 Cattivo, bad ; più cattivo or peggióre ; * il più cattivo or il 
 
 peggióre. 
 Grande, big ; più grdìide or maggióre ; il più grdftde or il 
 
 maggióre. 
 Piccolo, small ; più piccolo or minóre ; il più piccolo or il 
 
 minóre. 
 
 "Higher" and "lower" are commonly rendered hy più dito 
 axid più basso ; superióre and inferióre generally mean " superior " 
 and "inferior." Migliòre and peggióre are more used than più 
 buòno and //// cattivo^ which have the same sense. "Larger" 
 and "smaller" are g^ntxdX\^ piic grande dcaA piii piccolo ; maggióre 
 and minóre usually signify "older " and "younger." 
 
 Ex. : Noi sidmo 7niglióri di lóro, we are better than they. 
 
 Quésta sdla da prdnzo e la più grdnde, this dining-room is the 
 
 biggest. 
 Pietro e il fratèllo 7ninóre, Peter is the youngest brother. 
 
 32. The adverb "less" is expressed by meno, "least" by 
 // meno. "As . . . as," "so . . . as" are tanto . . . qiidntOy 
 tanto . . . cóme, cosi . . . cÓ7ne, or simply quanto. 
 
 Ex. : Quella stdnza è la meno bellina, that room is the least pretty. 
 Pdolo non è tdnto buòno cÓ7ne Roberto, Paul isn't so good as 
 
 Robert. 
 Giovdnni è dito qudnto Filippo, John is as tall as Philip. 
 
 33. "Than" is che. 
 
 Ex. : L albèrgo e più grdnde che bèllo, the hotel is bigger than it is 
 beautiful. 
 
 But before a noun, a pronoun, or a numeral "than" is 
 rendered by the preposition di (see 12). If, however, this 
 "than" is preceded by a word meaning "rather," it is 
 translated che. 
 
 * The adverbs « better " and "worse " are meglio and pèggio.
 
 22 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Riccardo I peggióre di 7ne, Richard is worse than I. 
 Vói siete più ricchi di nói, you are richer than we. 
 Métto di cinque, less than five. 
 Piuttòsto la mòrte che il disonòre, rather death than dishonor. 
 
 Before an inflected verb " than " is eke non or di quel che. 
 If the verb has a negative subject, "than" is che. 
 
 Ex. : Abbaia pill che noti mòrde, he barks more than he bites. 
 Prométto meno di quel che do, I promise less than I give. 
 Più lièto che nessun figlio lo èra stato, happier than any son 
 had been. 
 
 34. *'The more . . . the more," "the less . . . the less" 
 ^XQ più . . .piti, meno . . . meno. "More" and "less" after 
 a number are di più, di meno. In speaking of time, 
 "longer" after a negative is più. 
 
 Ex. : Più stùdio, più imparo, the more I study, the more I learn 
 Trétita giórni di métto, thirty days less. 
 I^on lo vediamo più, we see him no longer. 
 
 EXERCISE 5. 
 
 II sóle è^ un glòbo grandissimo e sèmpre infocato: esso è^ 
 gr.inde óltre un milióne di vòlte più della tèrra ; e dire ^ che 
 a' nòstri òcchi apparisce^ tanto più piccolo ! Anche la luna, che 
 splènde'* durante la nòtte, è^ rotónda, ma è^ mólto più piccola 
 della tèrra, e gira^ intórno a quésta^ contino vaménte. La luna 
 non ha^ luce da sé, ma la ricéve^ dal sóle. Ecco^ perchè la luna 
 óra la vediamo^ e óra non la vediamo^ più, óra ne vediamo^ 
 mèzza, óra uno spicchio, óra un po' più, óra un po' meno, secóndo 
 che di èssa ci si presenta^" una parte maggióre o minóre illumi- 
 nàta dal sóle. Le stélle sóno^ tutti quéi" pùnti luminósi che 
 vediamo^ brillare di^^ nòtte nel firmaménto. Non crediàte,^'^ però, 
 che le stélle siano^ piccole cóme nói le vediamo ^ : ci paiono ^* 
 così piccine per la smisurata distanza che córre ^^ da lóro a nói ; 
 ma le stélle sóno^ grandissime, e ce n'è di quelle^® che sóno^ in-
 
 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 23 
 
 finitamente più grandi del sóle. Gli è^ che il sóle è^ meno lon- 
 tano di èsse dalla tèrra che nói abitiàmo.^^ 
 
 ^ jè=is; sano, siano (subj.) = are; ha — \izs>. ^ To think. ^ n seems. 
 ^ Shines. ^ Turns. ^ jt, ^ £a ricéve = receives it. ^ That is. ^ Fe- 
 diamo = we see; /a vediamo = we see it; /e vediamo = we see them; ne 
 vediamo — we see of it. 1° Ci si presenta = there presents itself to us. 
 11 Those. 12 At. 1^ A^cw crediate = ào not think, i* O" pdiono — they 
 seem to us. ^^ Intervenes, i^ c^ ^' ^ ^^^ ^^^^'//^ = there are some, i''' In- 
 habit. 
 
 EXERCISE 6. 
 
 The moon is^ in the middle of^ the sky. The moon is^ round; 
 it-looks" perfectly round like a melon. And it-looks,^ too, as big 
 as a melon. The moon seems ^ httle because it-is ^ far, far from 
 us who are^ on the earth. The moon renders^ a great service to 
 men: because when everything is^ dark, it'' illumines^ with its 
 beautiful light the earth which we-inhabit.^ The stars are^*^ larger 
 than the moon, but to-look-at-them^^ they-seem^^ smaller, because 
 they-are^° so-much^^ further than the moon. The most beautiful,^^ 
 the most intense^* light comes^^ from the sun. 
 
 ^ È. ^ A. 3 Par or pdre. * Si vede. & Sidmo. 6 Pa. ^ ^ssa. 8 j^i. 
 schidra. ^ Abitidmo. i*^ Sono. " A vedérle. 12 pdiono. 1» Tanto. 
 1^ Both adjectives follow the noun, i^ Viene. 
 
 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES; 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE ENDINGS. 
 
 35. Instead of a word expressing size or quality the 
 Italians often use a suffix. This suffix may be added to a 
 noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When added to an 
 adjective, and generally when added to a noun, it takes 
 the gender of the word to which it is affixed : occasionally,
 
 24 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 however, a suffix with masculine termination is added to 
 a feminine noun, which thereby becomes masculine. A 
 word loses its final vowel before a suffix ; but the preced- 
 ing consonant, if it be c or g, must keep its former quality : 
 as Carlo + ino = Carlino, vóce + one = vocióne^ pòco -f- ino = 
 pochiìio, adagio + ino = adagino. 
 
 a. The commonest ending is -isstmo (fem. -issima), "very," 
 which in general is added only to adjectives and adverbs. Adverbs 
 in -ménte add the -issima before the -ménte (see 85). Any adjec- 
 tive may take it, and it is very often used in cases where it would 
 be entirely superfluous in English. 
 
 Ex. : Largo, wide ; larghisswio, very wide. 
 Bé?ie, well ; benissimo, very well. 
 Grande, big ; gravidissimo, very big. 
 Fa un tempo bellissimo, it's beautiful weather. 
 BellissÌ7naméjtte, very beautifully. 
 
 Ò. The principal suffix denoting bigness is -one; it is always 
 masculine, but has a rare feminine form, -óna, 
 
 Ex. : Libro, book ; librone, big book. 
 
 Cdsa, house ; casójie, large house. 
 Bòccia, decanter ; boccióna, big decanter. 
 
 c. The most important suffixes denoting smallness are -ino, 
 -cino, -icino, -iccino, -étto, -èlio, -cello, -icéllo, -arèllo, -creilo, -óttOy 
 -ùccio, -uzzo, -uòlo, with their fem. -ina, etc. These endings, 
 especially -ùccio, are often used to express affection ; some of 
 them may be used to express pity or contempt. Otto sometimes 
 means " somewhat large " instead of " small." 
 
 Ex. : Sorèlla, sister ; sorellina, little sister. 
 Bèllo, beautiful ; bellino, pretty. 
 Brutto, ugly ; briittino, rather ugly. 
 Piazza, square ; piazzetta, little square. 
 Giorgio, George ; Gior gètto, Geòrgie.
 
 NUMERALS. 2$ 
 
 Campana, bell ; ca7npantllo, little bell. 
 Aquila, eagle ; aquilòtto, eaglet. 
 Casa, house ; casetta, rather large house. 
 Giovanni, John; Giovanmiccio, dear little Johnny. 
 Pdzzo, mad ; pazzarèlla, poor mad woman. 
 Pòvero, poor ; poverini, poor things ! 
 
 d. The ending -àccio denotes worthlessness. 
 
 Ex. : Ròba, stuff, goods; robàccia, trash. 
 
 Tèmpo, weather ; tempaccio, nasty weather. 
 Alfredo, Alfred ; Alfreddccio, naughty Alfred. 
 
 36. Of the endings added to nouns -ino is by far the 
 most common ; the only ones that are freely used to 
 form new compounds are -ino, " little," -one, "great," -ticcio, 
 *'dear," and -àccio, "bad." In very many cases endings 
 lose their character of independent suffixes, and become 
 inseparable parts of certain words, whose meanings they 
 often change : as scala, " stairway " ; scalifio, " stair " ; 
 scaletto, "ladder." Some suffixes (as -nolo) are rarely used 
 except in this way. Others (as -cino, -icino, -èlio, -cèllo» 
 -icèllo, -aréllo, -creilo) cannot be attached to any word at 
 pleasure, their use being determined by precedent or 
 euphony. 
 
 37. Sometimes several suffixes are added at once to the 
 same word : as ladro, "thief"; ladróne^ "terrible thief"; 
 ladroncelloy "terrible little thief." 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 38. The cardinal numerals are : — 
 
 I, 
 
 uno. 
 
 5> 
 
 cinque. 
 
 9, 
 
 nòve. 
 
 13, trédici. 
 
 2, 
 
 dice. 
 
 6, 
 
 Sit. 
 
 lo, 
 
 dièci. 
 
 14, quattórdici 
 
 3» 
 
 tre. 
 
 7, 
 
 sette. 
 
 II, 
 
 ùndici. 
 
 15, quindici. 
 
 4. 
 
 quattro. 
 
 8, 
 
 otto. 
 
 12, 
 
 dódici. 
 
 16» sédici.
 
 26 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 17, diciasette. 
 
 18, diciòtto. 
 
 19, diciatinòve. 
 
 20, vénti. 
 
 21, ventuno or 
 
 22, ventidùe. 
 
 23, ventitré. 
 
 24, ventiquattro. 
 
 25, venticinque. 
 
 26, ventisei. 
 
 27, vefitisétte. 
 
 28, ventòtto or 
 
 29, ventinove. 
 
 30, trénta. 
 
 31, trentuno or 
 
 32, trentadùe. 
 40, quaranta. 
 
 50, cinquanta. 
 
 60, sessanta. 
 
 70, settanta. 
 
 80, ottanta. 
 
 90, novanta. 
 
 100, cento. 
 
 loi, centuno or 
 
 105, centocinque. 
 
 115, cento quindici. 
 
 125, r^«/<> venti' 
 
 cinque. 
 2(X>, dugénto or 
 
 duecènto. 
 250, dugènto citt' 
 
 quanta. 
 300, trecento. 
 400, quattrocento. 
 lOCXD, w///^. 
 2000, a^ji^ w/Za. 
 
 £/>^^ has a femmine ?/;/^ ; when used adjectively it has 
 the same forms as the indefinite article ; so also ventuno, 
 etc. The plural of ;;^///^ is w/Az. "A million " is ?/?? ;;//- 
 //^W or millióne, of which the plural is milióni or millióni. 
 
 (i) No conjunction is used between the different parts 
 of a number: as dugènto quaranta, ''two hundred and 
 forty." No indefinite article is used before ^^/^/^ and mille : 
 as ^/;/^^ //^n, "a hundred books." 
 
 (2) (7^;^/^, dugènto, etc., when followed by another nu- 
 meral of more than two syllables may lose the final syllable 
 -/f? ; as seicènto cinquanta or seicencinqudnta, " six hundred 
 and fifty." 
 
 (3) " Eleven hundred," *' twelve hundred," etc., must be 
 rendered millccènto, 7nille dugènto, etc. : as mille ottocènto 
 ottantasètte, 1887. 
 
 (4) "Both," "all three," etc., are tutti (fern, tutte) e due, 
 tutti (fem. tutte) e tre, etc. 
 
 a. If the noun modified by ventuno, trentuno, etc., follows this 
 numeral, it should be in the singular; if \\. precedes, in the plural. 
 
 Ex. : Sessantina lira or lire sessantuna, 61 francs. 
 
 b. In dates the definite article is prefixed to the number repre- 
 senting the year, if that number follows a preposition, or does not 
 follow the name of a month.
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 27 
 
 Ex. : Nel 7nille ottocènto ottantasétte, in 1887. 
 
 e. "What time is it? " is che óra è? "It is six," etc., is sono 
 J? sèi, etc., ore being understood. "One o'clock" is il tócco, 
 
 Ex. : Sono le due e jnèzzo, it's half-past two. 
 
 Sono le tre e dièci, it's ten minutes past three. 
 
 Ci inducano vénti minuti alle quattro, it's twenty minutes to four. 
 
 Sono le cinque meno un quarto, it's a quarter to five. 
 
 39. The ordinal numerals are : — 
 
 1st, 
 
 primo. 
 
 I2th, 
 
 duodècimo or 
 
 20th, 
 
 ventesimo. 
 
 2d, 
 
 secóndo. 
 
 
 dècimo secóndo. 
 
 2 1st, 
 
 ventesimo primo or 
 
 3d, 
 
 tèrzo. 
 
 13th, 
 
 tredicèsimo or 
 
 
 ventunesimo. 
 
 4th, 
 
 quarto. 
 
 
 dècimo tèrzo. 
 
 22d, 
 
 ventesimo secóndo 
 
 5th, 
 
 quinto. 
 
 14th, 
 
 quattordicèsimo or 
 
 
 or ventiduesimo. 
 
 6th, 
 
 sèsto. 
 
 
 dècimo quarto. 
 
 30th, 
 
 trentesimo. 
 
 7th, 
 
 sèttimo. 
 
 15th, 
 
 quindicèsimo or 
 
 looth, 
 
 centesimo. 
 
 8th, 
 
 ottavo. 
 
 
 dècimo quinto. 
 
 lOISt, 
 
 centesimo primo. 
 
 9th, 
 
 nòno. 
 
 1 6th, 
 
 dècimo sèsto. 
 
 115th, 
 
 centoquindicèsimo. 
 
 loth, 
 
 dècimo. 
 
 17th, 
 
 dècimo sèttimo. 
 
 200th, 
 
 dugentèsimo. 
 
 nth, 
 
 undècimo or 
 
 1 8th, 
 
 dècimo ottavo. 
 
 loooth. 
 
 millèsimo. 
 
 
 dècimo pritjio. 
 
 19th, 
 
 dècimo nòno. 
 
 20OOth, 
 
 duemilèsimo. 
 
 Ali of them form their feminines and plurals like other 
 adjectives in o. 
 
 Ex. : Le settantèsime quinte còse., the 75th things. 
 
 a. Ordinal numerals are used after the words " book," " chap- 
 ter," and the names of rulers ; but no article intervenes. 
 
 Ex. : Carlo secóndo, Charles the Second ; Pio nòno, Pius IX. 
 
 Libro tèrzo, Book the Third ; capitolo quarto, chapter four. 
 
 b. For the day of the month, except the first, a cardinal nunv 
 ber is used. 
 
 Ex. : H dì cinque d'' aprile or // cinque aprile^ the fifth of April. 
 II primo di màggio, the first of May.
 
 28 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 c. " A third," " a fourth," " a fifth," etc., are un tèrzo, un quar- 
 to, un quinto, etc. "Half" is la metà; the adjective "half" is 
 mèzzo, 
 
 40. "A couple" or "a pair" is tm pàio. "A dozen" 
 is una dozzina. The expressions una decina, una ventina, 
 una trentina, etc., un centinaio, tin migliàio, mean "about 
 ten," "about twenty," etc. (see 23, d). "Once," "twice," 
 etc., are una vòlta, due vòlte, etc. 
 
 Ex. : Un pàio di scarpe, a pair of shoes. 
 
 Una cinguantma di persóne, some fifty persons. 
 V ho visto parécchie vòlte, I've seen it several times. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. 
 
 Con l'orològio si véde^ che óre sóno.^ Un giórno è^ venti- 
 quàttr' óre. Cèrte óre del giórno è^ lume, cèrte óre è^ bùio. Un 
 giórno è ^ ventiquàttr' óre, ma sulla móstra dell' orològio, delle óre 
 ce n' è'* segnate dódici, perchè le óre del giórno si contano^ dal- 
 l' una alle dódici, così : tócco, due, tre, quattro, cinque, sèi, sètte, 
 òtto, nòve, dièci, ùndici e dódici. Arrivati a dódici non si se- 
 guita^ a dire trédici, quattórdici, e via fino a ventiquattro ; ma si 
 ricomincia'' da capo dal tócco e si arriva^ fino a dódici. Il cónto 
 tóma^ lo stésso: infatti le óre del giórno son" ventiquattro; e 
 dódici e dódici, sommati insième, formano^*' ventiquattro. Dódici 
 óre sono" la metà del giórno. L' orològio ha^^ dódici óre ; e le 
 ha ^^ segnate giro giro alla móstra. L'ora è ^ sessanta minuti; e 
 r orològio segna" anche i minuti. Quelle righettine tórno tórno 
 alla móstra, fra un' óra e un' altra, sono" i sessanta minuti che 
 formano ^M' óra. La lancétta grande segna" i minuti. La lan- 
 cétta piccina segna" le óre. La lancétta grande ógni óra fa^^ il 
 giro di tutti e sessanta i minuti ; gira^^ tutta la móstra. La lan- 
 cétta piccola ógni óra segna" un nùmero, e a girar tutta la móstra 
 ci métte ^' dódici óre, perchè dódici son" le óre segnate sulla mó-
 
 NUMERALS. 29 
 
 stra. Óra sóno^ le dódici; tutte e due le lancétte sono" sulle 
 dódici. f>a un' óra la lancétta grande avrà ^^ girata tutta la mó- 
 stra, e sarà^ daccapo sul nùmero 12, e la lancétta piccina sarà^^ 
 suir uno. 
 
 1 Si vede = we see. ^ jt is. ^ Is. * Ce n' e = there are. ^ Si contano = are 
 counted. ^ A^<3« j? seguita— v^q. don't go on. '^ 6'z ricomincia = yf e begin 
 over again. ^ ■5'^ arriva — we go. ^ Amounts to. ^^ Make. 11 Are. 
 12 Has. 13 j^g Ila — it has them, i* Marks. ^^ Makes. 1^ It goes around. 
 17 a métte = it takes, i^ ^ill have, i^ Will be. 
 
 EXERCISE 8. 
 
 A year is^ 365 days. Every seven days is^ a week. The days 
 of the week are-called^: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, 
 Thursday, Friday, Saturday. Sunday^ is^ a"* hoHday; the other 
 days we-work,^ and therefore they-are-called^ working-days. The 
 year is-divided^ into twelve months. The months are-called^: 
 January, Februaiy, March, April, May, June, July, August, Sep- 
 tember, October, November, December.-^' The month is^ thirty 
 or thirty-one days.^^ When the month begins,^ it-is-called* the first 
 of the month ; the second day is-called* the second of the month, 
 the third, the third, and so-on^ until the thirtieth or thirty-first. 
 January, March, May, July, August, October, and* December have^" 
 thirty-one days. April, June, September, and'* November have^" 
 thirty days. February is^ the shortest month, because it-has" 
 twenty-eight days only.^ But every four years February has" 
 twenty- nine days ; and that^^ year is-called^ leap-year. The year 
 begins^ from January; January is,^ then," the first month of the 
 year. The year ends^^ with December; so" December is^ the 
 last month of the year. 
 
 1 È. 2 Si chiamano. 3 Use def. article. * Omit. ^ Si lavora. ^ Si divide. 
 7 Comincia. » Si dice. » Cost, i» Hanno. " Ha. 12 Sóli, i^ Si 
 chiama, i* Dtinque. 15 Finisce. 16 Queir, vi Use no article with the 
 names of months, i» See 38, Uno, and 38, a.
 
 30 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, RELA- 
 TIVE, AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 41. For the indefinite pronouns, see 86-91. 
 
 42. (i) The demonstrative pronouns used adjectively 
 are quésto^ "this," and quello or cotesto^ "that." Cotesto 
 (spelled also codesto) is used of objects near the person 
 addressed. Quésto and cotesto are inflected like other 
 adjectives ; but they generally drop o before a vowel. 
 Quello is inflected like bello (see 29, c). 
 
 Ex. : Quesf uòmo, this man ; quéste ragazze^ these girls. 
 
 Quel bambino y that infant ; quéi fanciiilli, those children. 
 QuelV amico, that friend ; quégli spòsi, that couple. 
 Quello zio, that uncle ; quelle signóre, those ladies. 
 
 Quésto and quello are also used substantively for " this," 
 "that," "this one," "that one": "diS fate quésto, non fate 
 quello, "do this, don't do that." 
 
 (2) "This man" is translated by quésti, "that man" 
 by quégli, quéi, or cotesti (rare) ; these words are invaria- 
 ble, refer only to persons, and are used only in the nomi- 
 native singular. Costui and colui mean respectively the 
 same as quésti and quégli, but are not defective, having 
 a feminine singular costei, colèi, and a plural (both genders 
 alike) costóro, colóro. Costui is often used in a deprecia- 
 tive sense. 
 
 Ex. : Quésti I francése e quégli è tedésco, this man is French and 
 that one is German. 
 Chi è costui, who is this fellow ? 
 Pdrlo di colili, I speak of that man.
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 31 
 
 (3) Ciò, "this," "that," is invariable, and represents a 
 whole idea, not a single word: as ciò è véro, "that's so." 
 
 a. Quello and quésto, quégli and quésti mean also " the former," 
 " the latter." 
 
 b. "He who" is colui che, or simply chi. "The one who, 
 whom, which," "that which," "what" is quello che or quel che. 
 
 Ex. : Chi lavora or colui che lavora^ he who works. 
 Quel che dico io, the one I mean. 
 A quel che séfttc, from what I hear. 
 
 43. The interrogative "who," "whom," is chi. "What V 
 used substantively is che, che còsa, or còsa.^ "What.'^" used 
 adjectively is che or quale. "Which.?" is qtidle. Quale 
 has a plural quali ; chi and che are invariable. " How 
 much Ì " is quanto {-a), " how many Ì " is qtmnti {-e). 
 
 Ex. : Chi vedo, whom do I see? 
 
 Di chi parlate, of whom do you speak? 
 Che còsa dice, what does he say ? 
 
 Che or quali libri avete comprato, what books did you buy ? 
 Qiidle di quésti volumi è il primo, which of these volumes is 
 the first? 
 
 a. The interrogative " whose " is di chi. 
 
 Ex. : Di chi è quésto bigliétto, whose card is this ? 
 
 b. In exclamations "what a," "what," are rendered by che or 
 quale without any article. 
 
 Ex. : Che bel paese, what a beautiful country ! 
 
 44. The principal relative pronouns are che, cui, il quale: 
 they are ali applied to both persons and things, and mean 
 "who, "whom," "which," or "that." II quale is inflected 
 
 * Cosa (as cosa dice Ì) is generally avoided in written Italian. Note that chi 
 is used in indirect, as well as in direct questions.
 
 32 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 {la quale, i quali, le quali). Che and cui are invariable: 
 in general che is used only as subject and direct object 
 cui only after prepositions or as indirect object. In poetr>f 
 ónde is often used to signify of which or from which. 
 
 Ex. : La lingua che si pària, the language which we speak. 
 
 D uòmo del quale si tratta, the man of whom we are speaking. 
 Le persóne a cài or alle quali parlo, the persons to whom I 
 
 speak. 
 La scritto di cài parlo, the work I am speaking of. 
 
 (i) As subject or direct object che is preferred to // 
 quale, unless clearness requires the latter. 
 
 (2) The relative " whose " is il cui or del quale. 
 
 Ex. : Una signóra, il cài nóme e Lucia, a lady whose name is Lucy. 
 Un uòmo, le cui figlie conósco, a man whose daughters I know. 
 V autóre, del cui libro si pària, the author whose book we are 
 
 speaking of. 
 Le chièse delle quali si vedono le cùpole, the churches whose 
 
 domes we see. 
 
 (3) The relative cannot be omitted in Italian. 
 Ex. : Le case che ho comprate, the houses I have bought. 
 
 a, " Such ... as " is tale . . . quale ; in poetry tale, quale have 
 a plural tdi, qudi instead of tali, quali. " As much as " is tanto 
 Quanto ; " as many as " is tanti quanti. 
 
 Ex. : Quale è il padre tale è il figlio, as is the father, so is the son, 
 
 Ò. " He who " is chi or colui che (see 42, b). 
 
 Ex. : Chi ha la sanità e ricco, he who has health is rich. 
 
 c. "Whoever" is chiunque; "whatever" as a substantive is 
 tutto quel che or checche, as an adjective quale che, qualùnque che^ 
 qualùnque, per quanto. These words, excepting tutto quel c.ze^ 
 all take the subjunctive. Checché is now but little used.
 
 PRONOUNS. 33 
 
 Ex. : Chiunque siate, whoever you may be. 
 
 Checche facciate, fatelo bène, whatever you do, do it well. 
 TMto quel che volete, whatever you wish. 
 
 Qudli che siano i vòstri motivi, whatever your motives may be 
 Qualùnque siano i suoi talènti, whatever his talents may be. 
 In qualunque stato che io mi trovi, in whatever condition I 
 
 may find myself. 
 Per quante ricchézze égli abbia, whatever riches he may have. 
 
 45. The possessive pronouns are : — 
 
 My : m. 
 
 , il mio, 
 
 {., la mia. 
 
 m. pl.j 
 
 , i miei, 
 
 f.pl. 
 
 , le mie. 
 
 Thy: 
 
 il tuo, 
 
 la tua, 
 
 
 i tuoi. 
 
 
 le tue. 
 
 His, her, its : 
 
 il suo, 
 
 la stia. 
 
 
 i suoi. 
 
 
 le sue. 
 
 Our: 
 
 il nòstro. 
 
 la nòstra, 
 
 
 i nòstriy 
 
 
 le nòstre. 
 
 Your: 
 
 il vòstro, 
 
 la vòstra. 
 
 
 i vòstri. 
 
 
 le vòstre. 
 
 Their: 
 
 il lóro, 
 
 la lóro, 
 
 
 i lóro. 
 
 
 le lóro. 
 
 Lóro is invariable ; the others agree with the object pos- 
 sessed : as il mio naso, '' my nose " ; /a sua bócca, " his, her 
 mouth " ; i vòstri òcchio "your eyes " ; Ic lóro labbra^ *' their 
 lips." 
 
 When the possessive stands alone in the predicate, the 
 article is omitted if the possessive is used adjectively. 
 
 Ex. : Questo cappèllo e 7uio, this hat is mine. 
 
 Quésto cappello è il mìo, this hat is mine {i.e., the one that 
 belongs to me). 
 
 a. The article (unless it might be used in English) is omitted 
 before the possessive : (i) When a numeral, an adjective of quan- 
 tity, or a demonstrative or interrogative adjective precedes it : as 
 due cani suoi, "two dogs of his " (but / due cd?ii suoi, "the two 
 dogs of his " or "his two dogs ") ; mólti miei amici, "many friends 
 of mine" (but i ?nólti miei amici, "the many friends of mine" 
 or "my many friends") ; quésto tuo difètto, "this fault of thine." 
 (2) When the possessive forms part of a title : as Vòstra Maestà,
 
 34 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 "Your Majesty"; Sua Altézza^ "His Highness." (3) When the 
 possessive modifies a noun used in the vocative (in this case the 
 possessive generally follows its noun): as amico mio, "my friend!" 
 (4) The article is generally omitted also when the possessive 
 precedes a noun in the singular expressing relationship : as nostra 
 madre, " our mother." But if the noun has a diminutive ending, 
 or an adjective precedes the noun, the article is not omitted : as 
 il tuo fratellino, "thy little brother"; la vòstra gentilissima so- 
 rella, "your kind sister." (5) The article is omitted also in certain 
 phrases, such as : da parte mia, " for me " ; per amor mio, " for 
 my sake" ; in casa nòstra, "in our house" ; a mòdo suo, "in his 
 own way " ; ^ cólpa vòstra, " it's your fault." 
 
 b. The possessive, when not necessary for clearness, is usually 
 replaced by a definite article. 
 
 Ex. : Cóme sta la mdfnma, how is your mother? 
 
 Ha perduto il giudizio, he ha.s lost his senses. 
 Bàttono i piedi, they stamp their feet. 
 
 c. When the name of the thing possessed is direct object of a 
 verb, the Italians often use instead of the possessive a conjunctive 
 personal pronoun (see 47) and a definite article. If the thing 
 possessed be a part of the body or clothing, this construction is fre- 
 quent, even when the name of the thing is not object of a verb. 
 
 Ex. : Si strappa i capélli, he tears his hair (lit., he tears to himself 
 
 the hairs). 
 Mi tàglio il dito, I cut my finger (I cut to myself the finger). 
 // cane gli agguantò la gamba, the dog seized his leg (seized 
 
 to him the leg). 
 Mi duole il capo, my head aches (to me aches the head). 
 
 d. When the possessor is not the subject of the sentence, " his," 
 " her" are, for the sake of clearness, often rendered di lui, di lèi: 
 as égli non conósce il di lèi cuòre, " he does not know her heart." 
 
 e. " A ... of mine, of thine," etc., is un mio, un tuo, etc. : as 
 una nòstra cugina, "a cousin of ours."
 
 PRONOUNS. 35 
 
 EXERCISE 9. 
 
 Quando cadde ^ 1' impéro, Siena soffri^ meno delle altre città 
 toscane dalle invasiòni dèi bàrbari; ma venne ^ sótto la signoria 
 dèi Longobardi, e pòi fu ^ una delle città libere di Carlomàgno, 
 nei cónti e baróni del quale, arricchiti dàlie tèrre e dai castèlli che 
 diede ^ lòro^ V imperatóre, i nòbili senési crédono^ trovare 1' origine 
 della lóro nobiltà. Quésti ladri forestièri, i cui nidi nei dintórni 
 di Firenze i cittadini di quésto comune cercavano* di distruggere, 
 abbandonarono ^ volontariamente i lóro castèlli nel territòrio senése, 
 ed entrarono ^^ nella città, che da èssi e dai véscovi veniva* abbel- 
 lita di grandi palazzi e governata con una mano di fèrro, finché ^^ 
 i comuni non ^^ si levarono ^ e non ^ fecero ^ prevalére il lóro diritto 
 a participàre nella còsa pùbblica. 
 
 i Fell. 2 Suffered. ^ it came. * Was. 5 Gave. ^ To them. ' Think, 
 believe. ^ Were trying. ^ Abandoned. ^^ Entered. ^ Finché non^=^ 
 until 12 5j levarono = arose. ^^ Made. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. 
 
 Charles V made ^ of Siena a fief for his son Philip II, who ceded- 
 it^ to Cosimo I, and the latter built- there ^ the fort which the 
 Spaniards had-tried-to* construct. The city remained^ under the 
 rule of the good dukes of Lorraine, until Napoleon made-it^ capi- 
 tal of the department of the Ombrone. After the fall of the 
 emperor, it-returned^ under the dominion of the dukes. In* i860 
 it-was^ the first Tuscan city that voted ^" the union of Italy 
 un ier Victor Emmanuel II, the only honest king of whom his- 
 tory speaks." 
 
 ^ Fece. 2 £a cedette. ^ Vi fabbricò. * Avevano voluto. ^ Restò. ^ La 
 fece. "^ Ritornò. » See 38, b. ^ Fu. i» Votasse. " Fctrli, which 
 should precede its subject.
 
 36 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 46. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes, 
 conjunctive and disjunctive : the conjunctive forms are 
 those used as direct object of a verb, and as indirect object 
 without a preposition ; the disjunctive forms are those 
 used as subject of a verb, and as object of a preposition. 
 
 Ex. : Egli ve lo dà per me. 
 
 He to you it gives for me. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 47. Conjunctive pronouns are always unaccented, and 
 cannot be separated from the verb, which they sometimes 
 follow but oftener precede, as will be explained in 48. 
 
 They are used only as direct object of a verb or as indi- 
 rect object without a preposition. The forms are : — 
 
 Mi^ me, to me. Ti, thee, to thee. 
 
 Ci, us, to us.* Vi, you, to you. 
 
 Si (reflexive), himself, to himself; herself, to herself; itself, to itself. 
 
 Si (reflexive), themselves, to themselves. 
 
 Lo, him;* gli, to him.f La, her; le, to her. 
 
 Li, them (masc.) ; lóro, to them.f Le, them (fern.) ; lóro, to them. 
 
 "It" must be rendered by a masculine or feminine form, 
 according to the gender of the noun it represents. " It " 
 representing not a word, but a whole clause, is lo.% 
 
 Ex. : Mi conósce, he knows me ; ti do i libri, I give thee the books. 
 a vedete, you see us ; vi dico tutto, I tell you everything. 
 Si vèste, he dresses himself; si divertono, they amuse them- 
 selves. 
 
 * In old Italian and in poetry ne is often used for ci, and il for lo. 
 t In conversation li is often used for gli, and gli or li for lóro. 
 \ In certain idiomatic phrases la represents an indefinite object : as pa' 
 gdrla cara, "to pay dearly for it."
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 3/ 
 
 Ècco V òro : ve lo do, here's the gold : I give it to you. 
 
 Ècco la palla : la vedo, here's the ball : I see it. 
 
 Came poteva sapere se io veniva o no ? — Lo ha indovinato. — 
 
 " How could he tell whether I was coming or not?" " He 
 
 guessed it." 
 
 (i) It will be seen that the third person (not reflexive) 
 has different forms for the direct and the indirect object. 
 
 Ex. : Lo trovai, I found him ; gli feci un regalo, I made him a 
 
 present ; la lascia, he leaves her ; le scrive, he writes to her. 
 
 Li cercate, you seek them (masc.) ; le salutate, you greet them 
 
 (fern.) ; mandiamo lóro mille saluti, we send them (masc. 
 
 or fern.) a thousand greetings. 
 
 (2) The reflexive pronouns of the first and second per- 
 sons are miy ci ; tiy vi. All plural reflexive pronouns are 
 used also as reciprocal pronouns. A verb is called reflexive 
 when it has as direct ox indirect object a conjmictive pronoun 
 representing the same person as its subject. 
 
 Ex. : Mi defèndo, I defend myself; vi lavate, you wash yourselves. 
 Si fa oìióre, she does herself credit ; si odiano, they hate each 
 other ; ci auiiàmo, we love one another. 
 
 (3) Another conjunctive pronoun is «^,* "of it," "of 
 them" ; it corresponds also to "any," "some" when these 
 words mean "any, some of it," "any, some of them." It 
 is often used pleonastically in Italian. 
 
 Ex. : Ne pària, he speaks of it ; ne ho, I have some. 
 
 Non ne abbiamo, we haven't any ; ne volete, do you want any ? 
 Tu ne approfitti di quésta libertà, you make good use of this 
 liberty. 
 
 a. Vi, "you," and ci and ne, "us," are not distinguished by 
 form nor position from the adverbs vi, ci, meaning " there," 
 "here," "to it," "to them,"t and the adverb ne, "thence" (see 
 
 84) : * as ci vado, " I go there " ; vi è stato, " he has been there." 
 
 » . — —t 
 
 * Cf French en. f Cf. French y. 
 
 ^51837
 
 38 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 48, The conjunctive pronouns, except lórOy immediately 
 precede the verb : as mi vedete^ " you see me " ; 7io7i lo 
 capisco^ "I don't understand him." 
 
 But when the verb is an infinitive,* a positive impera- 
 tive,! 3- present participle, or a past participle used without 
 an auxiliary, the pronoun follows the verb, and is written 
 as one word with it: as per vedérlo^ "to see him"; di 
 averlo veduto y "to have seen him " ; vedeteli, "see them " ; 
 vedendoci y "seeing us"; avendoci veduto, "having seen 
 us"; vedtUotiy "having seen thee." The addition of the 
 pronoun does not change the place of the accent. 
 
 Lóro always follows the verb, but is never united to it : 
 as égli dà lóro del vino, " he gives them some wine " ; par- 
 late lóro, "speak to them." J 
 
 a. When an infinitive depends immediately (without an inter- 
 vening preposition) on another verb, a conjunctive pronoun be- 
 longing to the infinitive may go with either verb : as posso vedérti 
 or // posso vedére, " I can see thee." If both verbs have objects, 
 the main verb regularly takes all conjunctive pronouns : as ve lo 
 sento dire, "I hear you say it." See 55, first paragraph, end. 
 
 If, however, the main verb is impersonal, it cannot take the 
 object of the infinitive : as bisógna farlo, " it is necessary to 
 do it." If the main verb is/are, lasciare, se?ifire, udire, or vedére, 
 it must take the pronoun : as la fa chiamare^ " he has him called." 
 A reflexive pronoun oftenest goes with the main verb. 
 
 If the main verb is fàre^ and the dependent infinitive has a 
 direct object, the object of fare, if it has one, must be indirect : 
 
 * Not the infinitive used — with a negative — as imperative (see 72) : as 
 non lo fare, "do not do it " (second pers. sing.). 
 
 t Not the negative imperative, nor the subjunctive used imperatively (see 
 77, a): as iion U guardate, " do not look at them " ; si règoli, " let him mod- 
 erate himself " (third pers. sing. pres. subj.). 
 
 \ Students should follow strictly all of these rules; but they will find that 
 the first is, in certain cases, not always observed by good Italian writers. In 
 literature a pronoun often follows a verb that begins a sentence.
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 39 
 
 as le fa avere la lèttera, " he lets her have the letter " ; fateli 
 vedére a quel signóre, " let that gentleman see them " ; dovrei 
 farglielo accettare, " I ought to make him accept it." This con- 
 struction is generally used also with lasciare, "to let," and often 
 with sentire and udire, " to hear," and vedére, " to see." Note that 
 the main verb takes all conjunctive pronouns. 
 
 b. When a conjunctive pronoun is joined to an infinitive, that 
 infinitive drops its final e\ if it ends in -rre, it drops -re : as farlo 
 (fare), "to do it" ; coiidunn {condurre), " to conduct you." 
 
 c. The final vowel of mi, ti, si is often, and that of lo, la is 
 nearly always ehded before a verb beginning with a vowel : as 
 /' àjuo, " I love thee " ; /' ho visto, " I've seen him." 
 
 d. All conjunctive pronouns except gli and glie (see 50) double 
 their initial consonant when added to any form of a verb that ends 
 in an accented vowel: as dà?nmi (imper. da' from dare), "give 
 me " ; dillo (imper. di' from dire), " say it" ; parlerolle (antique, 
 for le parlerò), " I shall speak to her." 
 
 e. Pronouns are joined to the interjection ècco, " see here," 
 just as they are joined to the imperative of a verb : as èccomiy 
 " here I am " ; èccotelo prónto, " here it is ready for thee." 
 
 49. When twc conjunctive pronouns come together, the 
 indirect object precedes the direct : as mi vi presenta, "he 
 introduces you to me"; non vuol pre sentàrvÌ77ii, "he will 
 not introduce me to you"; gli si presentò un uòmo, "a 
 man presented himself to him." See, however, 55, end. 
 
 Lóro, however, always comes last : as presentatela lóro, 
 "introduce her to them." 
 
 Ne follows all forms except lóro : as me ne dà, " he gives 
 me some" ; datene lóro, "give them some." 
 
 50. Mi, ti, ci, vi, si change their i to e before lo, la, li, 
 le, ne (pronoun or adverb) ; and if the two words follow the 
 verb, they are joined together : as me lo dice, "he tells me
 
 40 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 it" ; ve ne domando, **I ask you for some" ; manddteceloy 
 "send it to us."* Gli and le ("to her") become glie 
 before lo, la, li, le, ne, and unite with them : as glieli 
 ìndndo, "I send them to him, to her"; voglio darglielo, 
 " I wish to give it to him, to her." 
 
 DISJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 51. These forms are so called because they do not 
 necessarily stand next to the verb. 
 
 Disjunctive pronouns have two cases, nominative and 
 objective. The objective case is used only after preposi- 
 tions (for exceptions, see 51, a, b). 
 
 The disjunctive forms are these : — 
 
 Io,l; me, me. ?"«, thou; /é-, thee. 
 
 Nói, we; nói, us. Vói, you; vói, you. 
 
 ^ Égli, lui, esso, he; lui, esso, him. 
 \ Élla, lèi, èssa, she ; lèi, èssa, her. 
 
 ^ Èssi, lóro (eglino'), they (masc); lóro, èssi, them (masc). 
 \Ésse, lóro (élleno'), they (fem.); lóro, èsse, them (fem.). 
 
 "It" must be rendered by a masculine or feminine 
 form, according to the gender of the noun it represents. 
 " It " as subject of an impersonal verb is regularly not 
 expressed (see, however, 51, h). 
 
 Ex. : La cdsa è grandissima, e intórno ad èssa e' è un giardino, the 
 house is very large, and around it there is a garden. 
 Non è véro, it isuH true ; piòve, it rains. 
 
 (i) The various pronouns of the third person are used 
 as follows. In speaking of things the different forms oi 
 esso are generally employed. In speaking of persons égli 
 
 * In poetry me lo, me ne, etc., often become mei, men, etc. : as tei dico. 
 "I tell thee so "; sen tóma, "he returns thence." Non lo often = noi.
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 4I 
 
 (or esso), élla (or éssci), pi. èssi, èsse are used for the nomi- 
 native in written Italian, but in the spoken language they 
 are replaced by hii, lèi, lóro ; for the objective lui, lèi, lóro 
 are used both in conversation and in writing. Eglino and 
 élleno are antique forms. For *' he who," etc., see 42, b. 
 
 Ex. : Quéste còse sono vére anch' èsse, these things are true, too. 
 Ella pària con lóro, she speaks with them. 
 Lèi è gióvane ma lui è vècchio, she is young, but he is old. 
 Vennero da nói anch èssi, they came to us, too. 
 
 (2) As the Italian verb denotes by its endings the person 
 and number of its subject, the personal pronouns of the 
 nominative case are generally omitted. When expressed 
 (for clearness, emphasis, or euphony), they may precede or 
 follow the verb ; in dependent clauses they nearly always 
 follow. The subject of an interrogative verb usually comes 
 after it, as in English. 
 
 Ex. : Parliamo di Mi, we speak of him ; no7t vddo, I don't go. 
 6"' io fòssi ricco cÓ7ne è égli, if I were rich as he is. 
 
 (3) The disjunctive reflexive pronoun is sè^ which is 
 masculine and feminine, singular and plural. 
 
 Ex. : Lo fecero da si, they did it by themselves. 
 
 a. Use the objective case : (i) When a pronoun of the third 
 person is not subject of an expressed verb : as beato lui, " happy 
 he ! " tanto i genitóri che lui sono ricchi, " his parents as well as 
 he are rich." (2) When the pronoun stands in the predicate 
 after the verb èssere : as credendo ch^ io fòssi te, " thinking I 
 was you." But "it is I," etc., are sono io, sèi tu, è lui, è lèi, 
 siamo nói, siete vói, sono lóro. (3) In the cases mentioned 
 in 51, b.
 
 42 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. (i) Clearness or emphasis occasionally requires the disjunc* 
 tive pronoun instead of the conjunctive ; in this case the conjunc- 
 tive form is often inserted also. 
 
 Ex. : Pdrlo a vói signóre, I speak \Q) you^ sir. 
 Mi piace anche a me, it pleases me too. 
 
 (2) The disjunctive form must always be used when the verb 
 has two direct or two indirect objects. 
 
 Ex. : Vedo lui e lèi, I see him and her. 
 
 Lo do a 7mo pddre e a le, I give it to my father and to thee. 
 
 c. In speaking of a company, a class, or a people nói altri, vói 
 altri (which are also written as one word) are used for nói^ vói. 
 
 Ex. : Nói altri italiani, we Italians. 
 Vói altri pittóri, you painters. 
 
 d. "With me," "with thee," "with himself, herself, them- 
 selves " are either con me, etc., or mèco, téco, séco» 
 
 e. " Myself," " thyself," etc., used for emphasis with a pronoun 
 or noun, are rendered by the adjective stésso. 
 
 Ex. : Nói stéssi la vedéfnmo, we saw her ourselves. 
 
 /. " One another," " each other " is /' un V altro. 
 Ex. : a amid^no V un V altro, we love one another. 
 
 g. In Florence élla is often shortened into la (plural le^, which 
 is used of both persons and things. In poetry égli becomes éi. 
 
 Ex. : La non viene, she doesn't come. 
 
 Pare che la si pòssa tener in mdno, it looks as if it might be 
 held in the hand. 
 
 h. In impersonal phrases like "it is" the subject, "it," is 
 occasionally expressed in Italian ; it is then translated égli^ which 
 in the spoken language is shortened into gli. 
 
 Ex. : Gli è che, it is because.
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 43 
 
 52. (i) The usual form of address in Italy is Élla * (or 
 élld)y objective Lei (or lei) ; in conversation Ella is replaced 
 by Lei (or lèi). This word really means ** it," and takes 
 the verb in the third person ; but an adjective or past par- 
 ticiple modifying it agrees in gender with the person it 
 represents. The plural of Ella is Lóro (or lóro), which 
 takes the verb in the third person plural. 
 
 Ex. : Lèi or Ella è tedésco, signóre, you are German, sir. 
 
 Signorina Néri, Lèi (or Élla) fu lasciata sóla. Miss Neri, you 
 
 were left alone. 
 Sono lièto che La stia bène (see 51, ^), Pm glad you are well. 
 E Lóro, dóve vanno, and you, where are you going? 
 Lóro èrano già partiti, you were already gone. 
 Signorine, lóro sono mólto studióse, young ladies, you are very 
 studious. 
 
 Like other personal pronouns, Ella and Lóro are very 
 often omitted in the nominative. 
 
 Lèi è tròppo gentile or l tròppo gentile, you are too kind. 
 Cóme stanno, how do you (pi.) do? 
 
 The conjunctive forms of Ella are La, Le (or la, le), 
 those of Lóro are Li, Le, Lóro (or li, le, lóro) ; they occupy 
 the same positions and undergo the same modifications as 
 the corresponding pronouns of the third person (see 48, 
 49, 50). The reflexive pronoun of Ella and Lóro is si. 
 
 Ex. : Le prométto di visitarla, I promise (you) to visit you. 
 Glielo do, I give it to you. 
 
 La prrègo d'' accomodarsi, I beg you to seat yourself. 
 Vidi Lèi e il babbo, I saw you and your father (see 51, b, 2). 
 Dico lóro, I tell you (pi.). 
 
 * Standing for Vòstra Signoria, " your lordship " or "ladyship," or some 
 other title of the feminine gender.
 
 44 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Le cercava^ I was looking for you (fem. pi.). 
 Si divertono, signorini, are you enjoying yourselves, young 
 gentlemen? 
 
 The possessive of Ella is Suo (or suo). See 45. 
 Ex. : La Sea gradita lèttera, your welcome letter. 
 
 (2) Vói is the form of address oftenest found in books ; 
 it is used sometimes in conversation also, but only toward 
 inferiors or toward equals with whom one is on familiar 
 terms.* It is employed for both plural and singular 
 (like English "you"), although its verb is always plural; 
 an adjective or participle modifying it agrees in gender 
 and number with the person or persons it represents. 
 
 Ex. : Vói qui, Pietro, You here, Peter? 
 
 Vói siete diti tutti e due, you are tali, both of you. 
 
 (3) In speaking to an intimate friend, a near relative, a 
 child, or an animal the only form of address is tu. Tu is 
 used also, like English "thou," in poetry and poetic prose. 
 The plural of tu is vói. 
 
 Ex. : Ti chiamo Enrico, I call you Henry. 
 Dóve sèi tu, where art thou? 
 Voglio vedérvi, figliuòli miei, my children, I wish to see you. 
 
 EXERCISE 11. 
 
 Tant' è^! diceva^ tra sé un giórno Niccolino; voglio^ vedére 
 se quégli uccellini son'' nàti. Li guardo^ solamente e riscéndo® 
 sùbito. — E Niccolino s' arrampica^ su per queir àlbero, tentando^ 
 d' arrivare al nido per levarsi quella curiosità. Ma sul più bèllo,® 
 sente ^" la vóce del babbo il quale èra" lì prèsso nella viòttola; 
 
 * Though advocated by some of the best writers and speakers of Italian, 
 the use of vói instead of Lei and Lóro has not become general. In Southern 
 Italy, however, vói is the form popularly used.
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 45 
 
 vuole ^ scénder lèsto per non farsi cògliere in fallo, ma nella fùria 
 si smarrisce,^'' gli manca ^"^ il sostégno, precipita ^^ a tèrra, e caden- 
 do ^^ si fa male a^'' un piede. Il dolóre lo fa^^ strillare ; alle grida 
 córrono ^^ il babbo e la mamma che lo raccòlgono^ esclamando ^^ : 
 — Te r abbiamo ^^ détto le cento vòlte che a' nidi non ti dovevi^ 
 voltar nemméno : ècco quel che succède^'* ai curiósi e a' disub- 
 bidiènti. — E sòrte per lui che lo sentirono,^ perchè così poterono^ 
 prónti bagnargli il piede coli* acqua frédda, e dòpo averglielo 
 tenuto in quell' acqua parécchio tèmpo, potéron^ fasciarglielo 
 strétto ; in quésto mòdo e dòpo qualche giórno di ripòso asso- 
 luto, Niccolino potè ^ ricominciare a fare qualche passo per casa. 
 
 1 I don't care, 2 gaid. ^ I want. * Are. ^ I will look at. ® Will come 
 down again. '' Climbs. ^ Trying. ^ Sul più bello = at the criticai mo- 
 ment. 1° He hears. ^^ Was. ^^ pje tries. ^^ He gets confused, i* Fails. 
 1^ He tumbles. ^^ Falling. ^"^ Fa male a = \Q. injures. ^^ Makes, i^ Run. 
 20 Pick up. 21 Exclaiming. 22 \Ye have. 23 ^^^ dovevi = you mustn't. 
 24 Happens. 25 xhey heard. 26 They could. 27 Was able. 
 
 EXERCISE 12. 
 
 [In this exercise Carlino and GoRO use vói; Armando uses vói before 
 GORO enters, Lèi afterwards.] 
 
 Carlino. Sir, we are^ alone. 
 Armando. So it seems ^ {looking^ around). 
 Carlino. I repeat* to you that we are^ alone {louder), 
 Armando. But I telP you that I admit-it.^ 
 Carlino. It is '' time to-raise ^ the mask — 
 Armando. (Oh-my^ ! this-fellow^'' has" recognized me.) 
 Carlino. And to^^ speak plainly. 
 
 Arenando. That is^ what I wanted^ to^^ do, but they inter« 
 rupted'^ me all- the- time .^* 
 
 Carlino. Do^^ you see^^ that grove over- there? 
 Armando. I see^'^ it. 
 
 Carlino. There nobody will-interrupt^^ you. 
 Armando. Must^^ I go there to speak {surprised) ? 
 Carlino. We shall-go^ together.
 
 46 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Enter^^ GoRO with two guns. 
 
 Carlino. {Takifig-^ o?ie of- them) Take-^ the other. 
 
 Armando. Thanks, I am^^ not^'^a-^ hunter. 
 
 Goro. Take-^ it, or-else^^ — {bra?idishmg^ a thick club). 
 
 Armando. Willingly — to-^ satisfy you — excuse-me,^ is^ it 
 loaded ? 
 
 Carlino. To-be-brief,^° you hate^^ me; you must^^ hate me. 
 I hate^ you. So''^ over-there in that grove — at eighty paces 
 from-each-other^ — bang !^ Either you kill^*^ me or I kill^^ you. 
 
 Armando. But I have^ n't^'' these sinister intentions, which- 
 are^^ contrary to my principles. 
 
 Cai'lino. In that^^ case you will-permit^ this-man-to-amuse- 
 himself-by-shaking'*" the dust from your^^ black coat with that 
 club.' 
 
 Armando. No, indeed ; what-are-you-thinking-of '*^ ? It would- 
 be ^^ too much-trouble^ ! {Goro brandishes"^ the club) Be-easy^ 
 with the club. 
 
 Ca7'lino. No? Then ''^ Carolina must "^ be mine. 
 
 Armando. You're-welcome-to-her.^^ 
 
 Carlino. In that^" case we are friends ; but be-off ^^ from^^ here, 
 do-you-understand ^^ ? 
 
 Armando. (What dJ^ nice way they have^ in this country !) 
 
 i Sidino. 2 Pare. ^ Guardando. * Ripeto. ^ Dico. « ]Sle convengo. "^ È. 
 8 To {di) raise to one's self. ... ^ Ahi. 10 See 42, 2. ^ Ha. 12 Volevo. 
 13 Hanno interrótto. 1* Always, i^ Qmit. i^ Vedete. ^^ Vedo, i» inter- 
 romperà. 1^ Devo. 20 Andremo. 21 Prendendo. 22 Prendete. 23 Sono. 
 2* Non, " not," must precede the verb. 25 ggg \q^ a. 26 Altriménti. 
 27 Agitando. 28 Per. 29 Scùsi. 30 AUe córte, ^i Odiate. 32 Dovete. 
 33 Òdio. 34 The one from the other. 35 prun. 36 Ammazzate. 37 ^^^. 
 mazzo. 38 Uq^ 39 Permetterete. *'' That this man amuses {diverta) him- 
 self to shake. *i See 45, c. *2 Seems-it {pare) to you? *3 Sarebbe. 
 4* Incòmodo. ^^ Agita. ^^ Stia buòno. ^^ Dùnque. ^^ Deve. ^9 Take 
 impigli, subj.) her then {pure) for-yourself. ^^ Tal. ^i via. ^2 pfi 
 53 Intendeste. 5* 43, ^. ^5 /^rj^^^^^
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 47 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 53. The irregular verbs essere, ''to be," and avere, "to 
 have," are the ones most used as auxiliaries in Italian. 
 They are conjugated as follows : — 
 
 a. Infinitives: essere, to be; essere stdto, to have been. 
 
 Participles: essendo, heing; essendo stdto, \iz.v'mgh&tn; std^o, been. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Sano, 
 
 Èra, 
 
 Fui, 
 
 Sarò, 
 
 sèi, 
 
 èri, ' 
 
 fosti. 
 
 sardi. 
 
 è, 
 
 èra, 
 
 >> 
 
 sarà, 
 
 siamo, 
 
 eravamo. 
 
 fummo. ' 
 
 saremo. 
 
 siete; 
 
 eravate. 
 
 foste. 
 
 sarete, 
 
 sono. 
 
 èrano. 
 
 furono. 
 
 sardnno. 
 
 PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. PRETERITE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 Sono stdto {stdta), Era stdto {stdta). Fui stdto (stdta). Sarò stdto {stdla), 
 etc. etc. etc. etc. 
 
 iidjno stdti (stdte), eravdmo stdti{stdte), fummo stdti{stdte), saremo stdti{stdte\ 
 etc. etc. etc. etc. 
 
 imperative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 ConditionaL 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 Sia, 
 
 Fòssi, 
 
 Sarei, 
 
 Sit or sia, 
 
 sia. 
 
 fòssi, 
 
 saresti. 
 
 
 sia. 
 
 fòsse. 
 
 sarebbe. 
 
 sidmo, 
 
 sidmo. 
 
 fossimo. 
 
 saremmo^ 
 
 state. 
 
 sidte. 
 
 foste. 
 
 sareste. 
 
 
 siano or sieno. 
 
 fossero. 
 
 sarebbero. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 Sia Stdto (stdta). 
 
 Fòssi stdto (stdta). 
 
 Sarei stdto (stdta\ 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc.
 
 48 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. Infinitives: avere, to hawe; avere avuto, io hzx e hzia. 
 
 Participles: avendo, hawing; avendo avuto, haying ha.d', avuto, had 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 m. 
 
 Aveva, 
 
 Èbbi, 
 
 Avrò, 
 
 hai. 
 
 avevi. 
 
 avesti. 
 
 avrai. 
 
 ha. 
 
 aveva. 
 
 ebbe. 
 
 avrà. 
 
 abbiamo. 
 
 avevamo, 
 
 avemmo. 
 
 avremo. 
 
 avete. 
 
 avevate. 
 
 aveste. 
 
 avrete. 
 
 hanno. 
 
 avevano. 
 
 ebbero. 
 
 avranno. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE PERFECT. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 Ho avuto. 
 
 Aveva avuto, 
 
 Ebbi avuto, 
 
 Avrò avuto, 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 [mperative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 Abbia, 
 
 Avessi, 
 
 Avrei, 
 
 Abbi, 
 
 dbbi or abbia. 
 
 avessi. 
 
 avresti, 
 
 
 abbia, 
 
 avesse. 
 
 avrebbe. 
 
 abbiamo. 
 
 abbiamo. 
 
 avessimo. 
 
 avremmo. 
 
 abbiate. 
 
 abbiate. 
 
 aveste. 
 
 avreste, 
 
 
 abbiano. 
 
 avessero. 
 
 avrebbero. 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 Abbia avuto. 
 
 Avessi avuto. 
 
 Avrei avuto. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 54. (i) The auxiliary of the passive is éssercy "to be." 
 Ex. : Sono amato, I am loved. 
 
 (2) The future ("shall," "will") and the conditional 
 ("should," "would") are formed in Itahan without any 
 auxiliary. 
 
 Ex, : Io andrò ed égli verrà, I shall go, and he will come. 
 Vorrei vedérlo, I should like to see him.
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 49 
 
 (3) The auxiliary of the perfect, pluperfect, preterite 
 perfect, and future perfect tenses is avércy "to have," if 
 the verb be active and transitive. If the verb be passive, 
 reflexive, or reciprocal, the auxiliary is always essere. If 
 the verb be intransitive, the auxiliary is generally essere, 
 but sometimes avére.^ See 47," (2), on p. 37. 
 
 Ex. : Ho parlato, I have spoken. 
 
 Avevano fatto quéste còse, they had done these things. 
 Mi sono fatto male, I have hurt myself. 
 Le dònne si èrano sbagliate, the women had made a mistake. 
 Sarò venuto, I shall have come ; e nevicato, it has snowed. 
 
 a, A past participle used with the auxiliary èssere must agree 
 with its subject in gender and number. But when the verb has a 
 reflexive pronoun as indirect object, and some other word as direct 
 object, the past participle may agree with the subject, or with the 
 direct object, or remain invariable. 
 
 Ex. : La ragazza è tornata, the girl has returned. 
 
 Le dònne si sono disputate, the women have disputed. 
 La sorèlla si è fatta male, our sister has hurt herself. 
 Ci sidìno fatti onore, we have done ourselves credit. 
 Ci siamo data (or dato) paròla d'' onore, we have pledged our 
 word of honor= 
 
 b. A past participle used with avere may or may not agree with 
 its direct object, according to the choice of the writer. It usually 
 does not agree when the object follows ; and it nearly always does 
 agree when the object is a personal pronoun preceding the verb. 
 
 Ex. : La birra che aveva bevuto (or bevuta'), the beer he had drunk. 
 Ho veduto mólte còse, I have seen many things. 
 Li ho trovati, I have found them. 
 
 e. "To be," expressing a state or condition, is often rendered 
 by stare (92, 4), instead of èssere. Stare per or èssere per (fol- 
 lowed by the infinitive) means " to be on the point of." 
 
 * The use of avere with intransitive verbs must be learned by practice.
 
 5P 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Sto bene, Vm well ; cóme sta, how are you? 
 Stava per uscire, I was just going out. 
 
 d. English "am" (or "was") -f- the present participle, when 
 expressing duration, is rendered either by the simple present 
 (or imperfect) or by the same tense oi stare "^ + the present parti- 
 ciple ; when denoting futurity, it is translated by the future (or 
 conditional), sometimes by the present (or imperfect). 
 
 Ex. : Camminava, he was walking; state lavorando, you are working. 
 Leggevano or stavano leggendo, they were reading. 
 Medito or sto fneditdndo, I am meditating. 
 Dice che verrà (or viene), he says he is coming. 
 Disse che verrebbe, he said he was coming. 
 
 e. A verb with the auxiliary "used to" (or "would " = "used 
 to") is translated either by the simple imperfect, or by the infini- 
 tive with solére, " to be accustomed " (92, 14). 
 
 Ex. : Vi andava (or soleva andare) ógni séra, he used to go there 
 every evening. 
 
 /. Venire, "to come" (92, 166), and rimanére, "to remain" 
 (92, 16), are sometimes used as auxiliaries in the simple tenses 
 of the passive, instead of èssere. Andare, "to go" (92, i), is 
 similarly used, but always implying duty or obligation. 
 
 Ex. : / Iddri vennero arrestati, the thieves were arrested. 
 Rimase sorprésa, she was surprised. 
 II fucile non va toccato, the gun mustn't be touched. 
 
 g. The English auxiliary " do " is not expressed in Italian. 
 Ex. : Non viene, he does not come. 
 
 h. "To have a thing done " is far fare una còsa (92, 2). 
 Ex. : // re lo fece ammazzare, the king had him killed. 
 
 * Andare (92, i) and venire (92, 166) are sometimes used instead of stare.
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 5 I 
 
 55. The third person of the passive is very often re- 
 placed by the reflexive construction with si : as si raccóttta, 
 " it is related " ; quésto libro si légge, "this book is read " ; 
 la spada che mi si diéde^ "the sword that was given me " ; 
 quelle còse si facevano^ "those things were done." Many 
 writers always make the verb agree with its subject in 
 number ; but in popular speech the verb is nearly always 
 in the singular when its subject follows (as if si were the 
 subject of the verb, and the original subject were the 
 object) : as si vedono (or vede) moltissime còse, " many 
 things are seen " ; 7ion si può (or possono) leggere quésti 
 libri, "these books can't be read." Si belonging to a depend- 
 ent infinitive always goes with the main verb ; see 48, a. 
 
 The construction with si is generally used also to render 
 the English indefinite " they " followed by a verb : as si 
 dice, "they say." In this sense it is employed with neuter 
 as well as with transitive verbs : as si va spésso, " people 
 often go." See also 63, a. In this construction an ob- 
 ject pronoun may precede si : as lo si fa, "it is done." 
 
 56. Following are synopses of the compound tenses of 
 transitive, neuter, reflexive, and passive verbs. In the para- 
 digms given henceforth these forms will be omitted. 
 
 a. Following is a synopsis of the compound tenses of trovare, 
 " to find," and venire, " to come " : — 
 
 Avere trovato, to have found. Essere venuto, to have come. 
 
 Avendo trovato, having found. Essendo venuto, having come. 
 
 Ho trovato, I have found. Sono venuto, I have come. 
 
 Aveva trovato, I had found. Era venuto, I had come. 
 
 Ebbi trovato, I had found. Eùi venuto, I had come. 
 
 Avrò trovato, I shall have found. Sarò venuto, I shall have come. 
 
 Avrei trovato, I should have found. Sarei venuto, I should have come. 
 
 Abbia trovato, I have found. Sia venuto, I have come. 
 
 Avessi trovato, I had found. Fòssi venuto, I had come.
 
 52 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. Following is a synopsis of the compound tenses of alzarsi 
 ("to raise one's self"), "to get up," and andarsene* "to go 
 
 away. 
 
 Infinitive perfect : Èssersi alzato, 
 
 Participle perfect : Essendosi alzato, 
 
 Indicative perfect : Mi sono alzato, 
 
 PLUPERFECT : Mi era alzato, 
 
 PRETERITE PERFECT : Mi fui alzdto, 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT : Mi Sarò alzato. 
 
 Conditional perfect : Mi sarei alzato. 
 
 Subjunctive perfect : Mi sia alzdto, 
 
 PLUPERFECT : Mi fóssì alzàto. 
 
 Èssersene andato. 
 Essendosene andato. 
 Me ne sono andato. 
 Me ne era andato. 
 Me ne fui andato. 
 Me ne sarò andato. 
 Me ne sarei andato. 
 Me ne sia andato. 
 Me ne fòssi andato. 
 
 €. Following is a synopsis of the entire passive of amare, "to 
 love " : — 
 
 Infinitive present: 
 
 PERFECT : 
 
 Participle present: 
 
 PERFECT : 
 
 Indicative present: 
 
 PERFECT : 
 IMPERFECT : 
 PLUPERFECT : 
 PRETERITE : 
 PRETERITE PERFECT : 
 FUTURE : 
 FUTURE PERFECT: 
 
 Conditional : 
 
 PERFECT : 
 
 Imperative : 
 Subjunctive present: 
 
 PERFECT : 
 IMPERFECT : 
 PLUPERFECT : 
 
 Èssere amato, to be loved. 
 
 Essere stato amato, to have been loved. 
 
 Essendo amato, being loved. 
 
 Essendo stato amato, having been loved. 
 
 Sono amato, I am loved. 
 
 Sono stato amato, I have been loved. 
 
 Èra amato, I was loved. 
 
 Èra stato amato, I had been loved. 
 
 Fui avidto, I was loved. 
 
 Fui stdto amdto, I had been loved. 
 
 Sarò amdto, I shall be loved. 
 
 Sarò stdto amdto, I shall have been loved. 
 
 Sarei amdto, I should be loved. 
 
 Sarei stdto amdto, I should have been loved. 
 
 Sii amdto, be loved. 
 
 Sia amdto, I am loved. 
 
 Sia stdto amdto, I have been loved. 
 
 Fòssi amdto, I were loved. 
 
 Fòssi stdto amdto, I had been loved. 
 
 * Anddrsene is composed of the verb anddre, " to go," the reflexive si, and 
 the adverb ne, "thence" (see 47, «).
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 53 
 
 57. "May," "might," "can," "could" are generally ren- 
 dered by the proper tense oi potére ;* "must," "ought," 
 "shall" = "must," "should" = "ought," by ^^z^/r^;* "will" 
 and "would" expressing volition, by volére* 
 
 Ex. : Può èssere véro, it may be true. 
 
 No?t poteva parlare, he couldn't speak. 
 
 Deve pagarlo, he must pay him, he shall pay him. 
 
 Dovrèbbe farlo, he ought to do it, he should do it. 
 
 Voglio sapere, I will know. 
 
 Non vorrei andare, I wouldn't go. 
 
 No preposition intervenes between these verbs and the 
 dependent infinitive. 
 
 Ex. : Hdtmo potuto dormire, they have been able to sleep. 
 Potremo partire, we shall be able to start. 
 Dové?n7no venire, we had to come. 
 Dovrete trovarla, you will have to find her. 
 Vorrà tornare, he will want to return. 
 Vorrei sapere, I should like to know. 
 
 These verbs are not defective, like the English modal 
 auxiliaries ; hence in Italian the tense is expressed by the 
 auxiliary itself, and not by the dependent infinitive. To 
 find the proper form of potére, dovére, or volére, replace 
 "may," etc., by the correct tense of "to be able" ; "must," 
 etc., by "to be obliged"; "will," etc., by "to want" or "to 
 like " : as " I could have said it " = " I should have {avrei) 
 been able {potuto) to say it {dirloy — avrei potiìto dirlo. 
 
 Ex. : Avrebbe dovuto tacére, he ought to have kept still. 
 Avremmo voluto restare, we would have stayed. 
 
 * See 92, 2i, 8, 19. The auxiliary of these verbs is regularly avere ; but 
 some writers use with them the auxiliary that belongs to the dependent infini- 
 tive : as hdnno potuto venire or sono potuti venire, " they have been able to 
 come."
 
 54 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 a. " Must " is also expressed by the impersonal verb bisognare, 
 "to be necessary," followed by the infinitive or by che, "that," 
 with the subjunctive. "To have to " is avere da. 
 
 Ex. : Bisógna fdr lo, it must be done. 
 
 Bisógna che andiamo, we muS't go. 
 
 Ho da scrivere lina lèttera, I have to write a letter. 
 
 b. "To be able" meaning "to know how" is sapere (see 
 92, 6). " Not to be able to help " doing a thing is non poter a 
 meno di non (with infinitive) or non poter fare a meno di (with 
 infinitive) . 
 
 Ex. : Non seppe farlo, he couldn't do it. 
 
 Sa lèggere e scrivere, he can read and write. 
 
 Non poti a meno di non ridere, he couldn't help laughing. 
 
 EXERCISE 13. 
 
 Giorgétto è un bambino vispo, vispo. E sollécito ; alle sètte è 
 già levato, ed è già andato nel giardino. È màggio, e il giardino 
 è tutto fiorito ; ròse, gigli, viòle mandano ^ un odóre soave. Gior- 
 gétto si strùgge^ di cògliere i fióri ; ma la mamma non vuole ^ : la 
 mamma lo ha lasciato andar nel giardino, a patto che non co- 
 gliesse'' i fióri. A un tratto Giorgétto véde^ una ròsa più bèlla di 
 tutte le altre, non resiste^ più al desidèrio di pigliarla. La mam- 
 ma non lo saprà,^ non lo può^ sapere, — dice^ fi-a sé Giorgétto; 
 e stènde^" la mano al cespùglio, ed è per còglierla. Ma che è 
 stato? Ritira ^Mèsto la mano, e grida,^ e piànge. ^^ La ròsa ha 
 le spine : il suo gambo nascósto tra bellissime fòglie è tutto pièno 
 di spine ; e le spine gli hanno bucato tutta la mano. La mano è 
 sanguinósa ; e Giorgétto piànge,^^ e la mamma óra si avvedrà" che 
 il suo bambino è disobbediènte. 
 
 l Send forth. ^ ig dying. ^ Is willing. * He should pick. ^ Sees. ® Re* 
 sists. ' Will know. ^ Can. ^ Says, i'^ Stretches out. ^^ He draws 
 back. 12 Screams. 13 Qies. i* Will see.
 
 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 55 
 
 EXERCISE 14. 
 
 Silvio Pellico was ^ confined in prison ; and there, in the silence 
 of his^ dungeon, he found ^ a friend, a companion — a spider. Yes, 
 a spider made'' his web in a corner of the prison, and Silvio did^ 
 not-destroy-it^ j on-the-contrary,^ he used-to-throw^ him crumbs'' 
 of bread, and little byhttle he became-so-attached^° to that spider, 
 and the spider to him, that the creature used-to-come-down" from 
 his web and go^^ to find Pelhco,^^ and would-go^^ on his^^ hand 
 ind take^^ food^ from his" fingers. One day the jailer removed ^^ 
 the unhappy Pellico. The prisoner though t-of^" his spider, and 
 said^^: "Now that I am-going-away,^^ he will-come-back^ per- 
 haps, and will-find ^^ the prison empty; or if there-is^ somebody 
 else here,^ he may^* be an enemy of spiders,^ and tear down that 
 beautiful web and crush the poor beast." 
 
 ^ Preterite. 2 gee 45, b. ^ Trovò. ^ Fece. ^ See 54, g. ^ Not to-him it 
 destroyed {disfece). "' Anzi. ^ Buttava : see 54, e. ^ Def. art. ^'^ Tdnto 
 si affezionò. ^^ Si moveva: see 54, e. ^^ Andava, i^ ggg ^3^ g 14 ggg 
 45, c. 15 Prendeva. i^ ^/^^/^ di stanza. 1'^ Pensh a. 18 Disse. 
 
 1® See 54, d: me ne vado. 20 Ritornerà. ^i Troverà. 22 yi sarà. 
 23 Omit. 24 Potrebbe : see 57. 
 
 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 58. Italian verbs are divided into four conjugations, 
 according as the infinitive ending is -are, accented -ere, 
 unaccented -ere (or -rrc), or -ire. Regular verbs of the 
 second and third conjugations are, however, inflected 
 just alike. 
 
 a. The final e of the infinitive may be dropped before any word 
 except one beginning with s impure.* 
 
 * Cf. 10, b; 14, b. Italians find it hard to pronounce three consecutive 
 consonants of which the middle one is s.
 
 56 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE REGULAR VERB. 
 
 59, Parlare, "to speak," will serve as a model for the 
 first conjugation. All compound tenses are omitted (see 
 66): — 
 
 Infinitive and Participles. 
 
 Parlare, parlando, parlato. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Parlo, 
 
 Parlava, 
 
 Parlai, 
 
 Parlerò, 
 
 parli. 
 
 parlavi, 
 
 parlasti, 
 
 parlerai, 
 
 pària. 
 
 parlava. 
 
 parlò, 
 
 parlerà. 
 
 parliamo. 
 
 parlavamo, 
 
 parlammo, 
 
 parleremo. 
 
 parlate. 
 
 parlavate, 
 
 parlaste, 
 
 parlerete. 
 
 parlano. 
 
 parlavano. 
 
 parlarono. 
 
 parleranno. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 Parli, 
 
 Parlassi, 
 
 Parlerei, 
 
 Pària, 
 
 parli, 
 
 parlassi. 
 
 parleresti, 
 
 
 parli, 
 
 parlasse. 
 
 parlerebbe, 
 
 parliamo. 
 
 parliamo. 
 
 parlassimo. 
 
 parleremmo, 
 
 parlate. 
 
 parliate. 
 
 parlaste, 
 
 parlereste. 
 
 
 parlino. 
 
 parlassero. 
 
 parlerebbero. 
 
 a. Verbs whose infinitives end in -care or -gare insert h after 
 the fT or ^ in ali forms where those letters precede e or i: as paghi 
 {pagare), "let him pay"; cercherò {cercare'), "I shall search." 
 Verbs in -ciare and -giare drop the / before e or /: as mangi 
 {mangiare), "thou eatest"; comincerà'^ {cominciare), "he will 
 
 * Some writers retain the i before e : as comincierà.
 
 REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 57 
 
 begin." But all other verbs in -ia7'€ drop the / only before another 
 / : as picchi {picchiare) ^ " let him strike " ; pigli {pigliare)^ " thou 
 takest " ; but picchierà, piglierèi. 
 
 b. The verbs giocare^ rotare, sonare generally change o of the 
 stem into uo in all forms where that vowel is accented : as simii, 
 "let him play"; giuocano, "they play." Rinnovare and tonare 
 may make the same change. The u is sometimes used throughout. 
 
 60. Verbs of the second and third conjugations * are 
 inflected like crédere, "to believe": — 
 
 Infinitive and Participles. 
 
 Credere, credendo, creduto. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Crédo, 
 
 Credeva, 
 
 Credei 
 {credetti). 
 
 Crederò, 
 
 crédi, 
 
 credevi. 
 
 credesti. 
 
 crederai. 
 
 créde. 
 
 credeva, 
 
 credè 
 
 {credette). 
 
 crederà. 
 
 crediamo. 
 
 credevamo. 
 
 credemmo. 
 
 crederemo. 
 
 credete. 
 
 credevate. 
 
 credeste. 
 
 crederete. 
 
 crédono. 
 
 credevano. 
 
 crederono 
 {credettero). 
 
 crederanno. 
 
 imperative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 Créda, 
 
 Credessi, 
 
 Crederei, 
 
 Crédi, 
 
 créda. 
 
 credessi. 
 
 crederesti. 
 
 
 créda. 
 
 credesse. 
 
 crederebbe. 
 
 crediamo. 
 
 crediamo. 
 
 credessimo. 
 
 crederemmo. 
 
 credete. 
 
 crediate. 
 
 credeste. 
 
 credereste. 
 
 
 crédano. 
 
 credessero. 
 
 crederebbero. 
 
 * Most grammars and dictionaries class these two together as the " second 
 conjugation."
 
 58 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR, 
 
 Bàttere, competere, convergere, divergere, lucere, ìnéscere, 
 miètere, pàscere, prùdere, ripetere, stridere, tessere, tèndere, 
 and their compounds do not have in the preterite the 
 forms in parentheses. 
 
 Verbs in -cere and -gere insert after the r or ^ an i before 
 the u of the past participle, but not before the o ox a oi 
 the singular or third person plural of the present indica- 
 tive or subjunctive: as méscere; mésco, mésci, mésce, me^ 
 sciamo, mescete, méscono ; mésca, etc., méscano ; mesciuto. 
 
 61. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation* are inflected 
 like finire, " to finish " : — 
 
 
 Infinitive and Participles. 
 
 
 
 
 Finire, finendo. 
 
 finito. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. PRETERITE. 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Finisco, 
 
 Finiva, Finii, 
 
 
 Finirò, 
 
 finisci. 
 
 finivi, finisti. 
 
 
 finirai. 
 
 finisce. 
 
 finiva, finì. 
 
 
 finirà. 
 
 finiamo. 
 
 finivamo, finimmo. 
 
 
 finiremo. 
 
 finite. 
 
 finivate, finiste. 
 
 
 finirete. 
 
 finiscono. 
 
 finivano. finirono. 
 
 
 finiranno. 
 
 Imperative 
 
 ì. Subjunctive. 
 
 PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 
 Finisca, Finissi, 
 
 
 Finirei, 
 
 Finisci, 
 
 finisca, finissi. 
 
 
 finiresti. 
 
 
 finisca, finisse, 
 
 
 finirebbe. 
 
 finiamo. 
 
 finiamo, finissimo. 
 
 
 finiremmo. 
 
 finite. 
 
 finiate, . finiste. 
 
 
 finireste. 
 
 
 finiscano. finissero. 
 
 
 finirebbero. 
 
 Though inflected like finire in all other 
 
 parts, dormire, 
 
 fuggire,^ pentire, sentire, servire, vestire 
 
 are always, abor- 
 
 * Most grammars and dictionaries call this the " third conjugation." 
 t Fuggire inserts no extra i (see last sentence of 60).
 
 REGULAR VERBS. 59 
 
 rive, bollire, and verbs in -vertire are generally, and assor- 
 birey inghiottire, meìitire, nutrire, tossire are often, in the 
 present indicative, imperative, and subjunctive, conjugated 
 after the model below. Partire and sortire are, when tran- 
 sitive, inflected like finire, when intransitive, like sentire* 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Sento, 
 
 
 Senta, 
 
 sentì, 
 
 Senti, 
 
 senta, 
 
 sente, 
 
 
 senta. 
 
 sentidmoy 
 
 sentiamo^ 
 
 sentiamo. 
 
 sentite. 
 
 sentite. 
 
 sentiate. 
 
 sentono. 
 
 
 sentano. 
 
 62. The present participle of all verbs is invariable. 
 Ex. : Stavamo parlando, we were speaking. 
 
 63. In all conjugations a form of the first person singu- 
 lar of the imperfect indicative ending in o instead of a is 
 nearly always used in conversation, and occurs often in the 
 works of modern authors : as leggevo, " I was reading." 
 
 a. In popular speech the first person plural of all tenses is 
 generally replaced by the third person singular preceded by si : 
 nói altri si créde, ''we believe"; 7iói si èra venuti, "we had 
 come " ; ci si decìse, " we decided (ourselves)." 
 
 b. Final o of the third person plural is frequently omitted : as 
 parlati di lui, " they speak of him." Forms in -anno sometimes 
 drop -no : as dirdn tutto, " they will tell everything." 
 
 c. The imperfect indicative endings -avdmo, -avdte, -evdmo, 
 -evàte, -ivamo, -ivate are often pronounced -dvamo, -dvate, etc. 
 
 d. Occasionally, especially in poetry, -at- is omitted from the 
 ending of the past participle of the first conjugation : destdto = 
 désto. 
 
 * Compounds are conjugated like their simple verbs.
 
 6o 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE IRREGULAR VERB. 
 
 64. Certain parts of Italian irregular verbs are always 
 regular : the example given below will show which they 
 are. Essere (see 53, a) is an exception to all rules. 
 
 65. Many irregular verbs that belong or once belonged 
 to the third conjugation have the infinitive contracted 
 {fare for fdcere, dire for dicere^ condurre for condùcere) : in 
 this case the future and conditional are formed from this 
 contracted infinitive {/arò, direi, condurrebbe), while the 
 present participle, the imperfect indicative and subjunctive, 
 and certain persons of the present and preterite are formed 
 from the uncontracted stem {facendo, diceva, conduciamo), 
 
 66. Pórre i^ox póneré), "to put," a verb of the third 
 conjugation, will serve to show which are the regular and 
 which the irregular parts of irregular verbs : the forms 
 printed in italics are regular in all verbs except dare, dire^ 
 essere, fare, store ; those in Roman type may be irregular. 
 
 Infinitive and Participles. 
 
 Pórre, ponendo, pósto. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Póngo, 
 
 Poneva, 
 
 Pósi, 
 
 Porrò, 
 
 póni. 
 
 ponevi. 
 
 ponesti,^ 
 
 porrai. 
 
 póne. 
 
 poneva. 
 
 póse, 
 
 porrà. 
 
 poniamo. 
 
 ponevamo, 
 
 ponemmo,^ 
 
 porremo, 
 
 ponete* 
 
 ponevate. 
 
 poneste,'^ 
 
 porrete, 
 
 póngono. 
 
 ponevano. 
 
 pósero. 
 
 porranno. 
 
 
 * See 66, 4- 
 
 t See 66, 3- 

 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 6l 
 
 Imperative 
 
 Póni, 
 
 poniamo, 
 ponete. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 Pónga, 
 
 Ponessi* 
 
 Porrei, 
 
 pónga, 
 
 ponessi^ 
 
 porresti, 
 
 pónga, 
 
 ponesse^ 
 
 porrebbe. 
 
 poniamo. 
 
 ponessimo ^ 
 
 porremmo. 
 
 poniate. 
 
 poneste. 
 
 porreste, 
 
 póngano. 
 
 ponessero. 
 
 porrebbero. 
 
 It will be seen that the present participle, the imperfect 
 indicative and subjunctive, and certain persons of th» 
 present and preterite indicative are always regular. 
 
 (i) Dare and stare have in the future and conditional 
 darò, darei ; starò, starei. Otherwise the only irregularity 
 in the future and conditional is that they are contracted in 
 many verbs even when the infinitive is uncontracted : as 
 vedére, "to see," vedrò ; venire, "to come," verrei. 
 
 (2) From the first person singular of the preterite the 
 other irregular persons can be constructed, the third per- 
 son singular by changing the ending i to e, the third per- 
 son plural by adding -ro to the third person singular.f 
 
 (3) The regular persons of the preterite and the whole 
 imperfect subjunctive are slightly irregular in dare and 
 stare, which substitute e for a in those forms (^désti, demmo, 
 déste, dessi ; stesti, stemmo, steste, stéssi). 
 
 (4) Z>/?r (for dicere) and fare (for fàceré) have dite and 
 fate in the second person plural of the present indicative. 
 
 a. Verbs whose stem ends in /, n, or r often drop final e or i 
 in the singular of the present indicative and imperative : as non 
 vuol andare, " he will not go " ; vien qui, " come here." See also 
 63, a, b, c. 
 
 * See 66, 3. 
 
 t This rule applies only to irregular preterites.
 
 62 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 b. The three forms of the imperative are exactly like the cor- 
 responding persons of the present indicative, except in avere, 
 sapere, and volére, where they follow the subjunctive {abbi, abbia- 
 mo, abbiate; sappi, sappiamo, sappiate; vàgli, vogliamo, vogliate), 
 and in andare, dare, dire, fare, and stare, which have in the sin- 
 gular va\ da', di', fa', sta'. 
 
 e. The third person plural of the present indicative can always 
 be constructed from the first person singular, from which can be 
 formed also the whole present subjunctive except the first and 
 second persons plural : these come from the first person plural of 
 the present indicative. Exceptions to this rule are andare, avere, 
 dare, fare, sapere, and stare, which have in the third person plural 
 of the present indicative vanno, hanno, danno, fanno, sanno, 
 stanno ; while avere, dare, sapere, and stare have in the present 
 subjunctive abbia, dia, sappia, stia. 
 
 67. With the aid of the above notes any verb except 
 essere can be constructed from the infinitive, the partici- 
 ples (the present participle often being necessary to show 
 the uncontracted form of the infinitive), the present indic- 
 ative, and the first person singular of the preterite and 
 future. A list of irregular verbs begins on page ZZ. 
 
 a. In general, compound verbs not differing in conjugation 
 from their simple verbs will be omitted from this list. All com- 
 pounds of dare and fare are accented on the same syllable as the 
 simple verbs : as fa, " he does " ; disfà, " he undoes." 
 
 The compounds of stare demand special mention : ristare, 
 soprastàre, sottostare, sovrastare are inflected like stare {rista 
 soprastetti, sottostiano) ; distare has no present participle, is reg- 
 ular in the present of all moods {disto, etc.), but otherwise is 
 inflected like stare {distetti, etc.) ; constare, contrastare, instare, 
 ostare, prestare, restare, sostare are regular throughout {consta^ 
 contrastano, instài, ostarono, presterò, rèsti, sostassi).
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 63 
 
 68. In old Italian and in poetry both regular and irreg- 
 ular verbs differ in many ways from the normal types : 
 some of the commonest variations are given below. 
 
 a. In the first and third persons singular and the third person 
 plural of the imperfect indicative v is often dropped, but never 
 in the first conjugation : voleva = volèa (also volta) ; finivaìio = 
 fintano. Some of these forms are not uncommon in modern 
 prose. 
 
 à. The conditional endings -el, -ebbe, -ebbero are generally re- 
 placed in poetry by -ia, -ia, -iano : crederei = crederla. 
 
 e. The future endings -b, -anno are sometimes replaced by 
 -àggio or -dbbo, -àggiono or -abbono : amerò = ameràggio ; ame- 
 ranno = ameràbbono. 
 
 d. In the third person plural of the preterite -no or -ono is often 
 dropped : amàro?to = annero or arnàr {dX^o amórno, amónno). In 
 the third person singular we find amdo, credéo, sentio. 
 
 e. Final -ero is often replaced by -ono : avrebbero — avrébbono. 
 
 f. In the first person plural final o is often dropped, and then 
 the m sometimes becomes n : andiamo = andiàm or andidn. 
 
 g. In the first person plural of the present indicative -idmo may 
 be replaced by -amo, -émo, or -imo, according to the conjugation. 
 
 h. Final -iano, wherever it occurs (also -éano in the imperfect), 
 may be replaced by -ieno or -ièna : avevano = aviéno. 
 
 i. At the end of a word we often find e for /, sometimes / for e : 
 pensi =■ pènse ; as co lidie = as e olid ti. 
 
 j. E is sometimes added to a word ending in an accented 
 vowel : aìiiò = ambe. 
 
 EXERCISE 15. 
 
 Tanto all' andare quanto al tornare dàlia scuòla, Enrico dà^ 
 nòia a tutti ; picchia i bambini più piccini di lui, tira i sassi a 
 qualche pòvero cane che se ne va^ tranquillamente pel suo viàggio, 
 rompe le piànte del giardino che dève^ traversare per andare a 
 scuòla o per tornare a casa ; insómma è un continuo far malanni.
 
 64 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Il babbo va^ a lavorare la mattina prèsto ; la mamma è malata, e 
 quindi non lo possono'' accompagnare. L' altra mattina però gli 
 segui brutta. Méntre andava a scuòla, vide^ avanti a sé un bam- 
 bino piccino, tutto vestito bène, e che pareva sólo ; Enrico, sènza 
 far tanti discórsi, arriva di diètro, gli piglia il cappèllo e glielo 
 butta in una fónte che èra lì vicina. Il pòvero bambino si métte 
 a piàngere, e Enrico cominciò a scappare. Ma quésta vòlta aveva 
 fatto ^ male i suoi cónti : il bambino non èra sólo, lo accom- 
 pagnava un bel can barbóne. I can barbóni hanno tanto inten- 
 diménto, che fanno ^ altre còse ben più meraviglióse che andare 
 ad accompagnare a scuòla un bambino. Il barbóne dùnque, cóme 
 vide'' il suo padroncino assalito, via diètro ad Enrico che fuggiva; 
 in un àttimo lo raggiùnse,'' e agguantatagli una gamba, lo badava 
 a mòrdere^; Enrico urlava, ma il cane non lo lasciò finché un 
 signóre, che aveva visto ^ tutta la scèna, non lo minacciò col ba- 
 stóne. Enrico ebbe stracciati i calzóni, lacerata la carne della 
 gamba, e fu pòi punito dal maèstro e dai genitóri ; ma da quel 
 giórno a quésta parte non dà^ più nòia a nessuno, avendo vedute 
 che un cane stésso gli aveva insegnato cóme fòsse male molestare 
 gli altri. 
 
 i From dare, 92, 3. 2 Andare, andarsene, 92, i. ^ Dovére, 92, 8. * Po- 
 tére, 92, 21. s Vedére, 92, io. « Fare, 92, 2. ^ Raggiùngere, 92, 138. 
 * He kept biting him. 
 
 EXERCISE 16. 
 
 Have you ever observed what^ happens when a pot of water 
 boils at the fire? The steam of the water rises like so-much 
 smoke, and remains attached to the lid that covers the pot ; when 
 this steam has begun to cool, it becomes^ water once-more,' and 
 falls ^ down again^ drop by drop. In-like-manner* it happens 
 with^ the vapors which the sun and the heat lift from the earth. 
 The vapors rise, collect themselves on^ high in little bubbles, and 
 thus united they form clouds.^ When these clouds are very-much^ 
 charged with* moisture, they resolve themselves into water; and
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 65 
 
 the water, falling^ down again ^ in drops where the wind carries 
 it, forms rain/ So^^ rain' is-only^^ steam turned-back-into ^ 
 water. The cloud, too,^ is-only" a quantity of steam not- very" 
 dense and not- very" high^ in the air. This vapor, by^^ remain- 
 ing low, prevents us sometimes from-seeing ^' objects' even at a^^ 
 small distance from us. 
 
 1 Quello eke. 2 Xo become once more = ritornare. ^ To fall again = rica- 
 scare. * Medesimamente. ^ Per. ^ In. "^ See 13, b. ^ Mólto. ^ Di. 
 10 Dùnque. " Non è altro che. 12 Tornato. 13 />^/. u p(,co. 15 Sol- 
 levato. 1^ Omit, i'' Di vedére. 
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 69. The English present participle used as subject, 
 predicate nominative, or direct object of a verb must be 
 rendered in Italian by the infinitive, nearly always pre- 
 ceded by the definite article. 
 
 Ex. : Mi place il viaggiare, I like travelling. 
 
 Rifarsela cògli animali è da sciòcchi, taking vengeance on ani- 
 mals is folly. 
 
 La nòstra pritna céra fu il cercare una pensióne, our first 
 care was hunting up a boarding-house. 
 
 Odio lo studiare, I hate studying. 
 
 70. The English present participle preceded by a prepo- 
 sition is translated as follov^s : (i) If the preposition is a 
 necessary part of the thought, it is expressed in Italian, 
 and the English present participle is rendered by the 
 infinitive with the definite article. This article is, how- 
 ever, omitted (unless it would be used in English) after 
 the prepositions di, **of"; dòpo di, "after"; invéce di^ 
 "instead of"; prima di, ''before" ; sènza, ''without."
 
 66 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Óltre il fare scarabòcchi scrive mdle, besides making blots 
 
 he writes badly. 
 Paridi contra il trarre ùtile di quella disgràzia, I spoke 
 
 against utilizing that misfortune. 
 // vizio di fiandre, the habit of smoking. 
 Ho r abitùdine di coricarmi tdrdi, I am in the habit of going 
 
 to bed late. 
 Invéce di dirmi ttitto, instead of telling me everything. 
 Prima di morire, before dying. 
 Parliamo sènza riflèttere, we speak without thinking. 
 
 (2) If in English the omission of the preposition, al- 
 though it made the construction awkward, would not 
 essentially change the meaning, the phrase is rendered 
 in Italian by the present participle without any preposition. 
 
 Ex. : Studiando si ifnpdra, (through) studying we learn. 
 
 Dovrei corrispóndere alla sua cortesia ascoltandola, I ought to 
 
 acknowledge her courtesy (by) listening to her. 
 Partendo incontrò un amico, (on) going away he met a friend. 
 Copiando noti fa erróri, (in) copying he makes no mistakes. 
 
 (3) "To amuse one's self by . . ." and "to weary one's 
 self by ... " are divertirsi a . . . and affannarsi a . . . with 
 the infinitive : as si diverte a tirar sassi, " he amuses him> 
 self throwing stones." Some other verbs often take this 
 construction. 
 
 71. Following are some other rules for the use of the 
 
 infinitive and participles. 
 
 a. When any verb is used as an auxiliary, the mood and tense 
 are expressed in that verb, and not in the dependent infinitive 
 (see 57). 
 
 Ex. : Avrei potuto fdrlo, I could have done it. 
 
 b. After fare, " to make " or " to have " (= " to cause "), sen- 
 tire and udire, "to hear," and vedére "to see," the Italian present
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 6/ 
 
 infinitive is used to render an English past participle. After 
 lasciare, " to let," and often after the preposition da an Italian 
 active infinitive is used to translate a passive one in EngHsh. 
 
 Ex. : Si fa capire, he makes himself understood. 
 
 Farò fdre un pàio di scarpe, I shall have a pair of shoes 
 
 made. 
 n ho sentito dire, I have heard it said. 
 Lo vide ammazzare, he saw him killed. 
 Si lascia ingannare, he lets himself be deceived. 
 A^on c" è niènte da fdre, there is nothing to be done. 
 
 c. The Italian past participle is inflected like any other adjec- 
 tive.- The present participle is invariable. When in English the 
 present participle is used adjectively, without any verbal force 
 whatsoever, it is translated, not by the participle, but by a verbal 
 adjective, which can be formed from almost any Italian verb by 
 changing the infinitive ending into -ante for the first conjugation, 
 and into -ènte for the others. This adjective may be used sub- 
 stantively. Some writers have used it as a participle. 
 
 Ex. : Quésti vasi sono rótti, these vases are broken. 
 La dón7ta sta cucendo, the woman is sewing. 
 Stavano parlando, they were speaking. 
 Un animale parlante, a speaking animal. 
 Acqua bollènte, boiling water ; due amanti, two lovers. 
 
 d. A whole protasis is often expressed in Italian by a present 
 participle, or by an infinitive with a. 
 
 Ex. : Andandovi lo vedrebbe, if he went there, he would see it. 
 A bucarsi esce il sàngue, if you prick yourself, blood comes. 
 
 e. Writers sometimes use, instead of a clause in indirect dis- 
 course, an infinitive followed by the word that would have been 
 subject of the clause. 
 
 Ex. : Disse èssere quésto V uòmo che cercavamo, he said this was the 
 man we were looking for.
 
 68 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 72. In negative commands the infinitive is always used 
 instead of the second person singular of the imperative. 
 
 Ex. : Trovalo, find it ; no7i lo trovare, do not find it. 
 
 73. When an action is represented as having taken 
 place and still continuing, the English uses the perfect 
 or pluperfect tense, the Italian the present or imperfect. 
 
 Ex. : Stùdio V italiano da òtto mési, I have studied Italian for eight 
 months. 
 
 74. In subordinate clauses referring to the future and 
 introduced by a conjunction of time, where the present is 
 often used in English, the future tense must be employed 
 in Italian. 
 
 Ex. : Quando vi andrò, glielo dirò, when I go there, I'll tell him. 
 
 a. The future is often used, without any idea of future time, to 
 express probability. 
 
 Ex. : Sarà uscito, he has probably gone out. 
 
 Avrà mólto denaro, he probably has a great deal of money. 
 
 75. The difference between the imperfect and the pret- 
 erite is this : the preterite is used of an event that occurred 
 at a definite date in the past, the imperfect is used in a 
 description or in speaking of an accessory circumstance or 
 an habitual action in past time — the preterite is a narra- 
 tive, the imperfect a descriptive tense. The preterite per- 
 fect is used (instead of the pluperfect) only after conjunc- 
 tions meaning "as soon as" {appéna che, sùbito che, tòsto 
 che), and sometimes after dòpo che, "after."* 
 
 * It is used also in phrases like : in cinque minuti ebbe finita la lèttera, 
 •in five minutes he had the letter finished."
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 69 
 
 £x. : Entrò méntre dormivamo, he came in while we slept. 
 Facevo COSI ógni mattina, I did so every morning. 
 Lo fece r anno scórso, he did it last year. 
 Tosto che V ebbe visto, uscì, as soon as he had seen it, he went 
 
 a. In conversation the perfect is often used instead of the pret- 
 erite, when the event is not remote. 
 
 Ex. : Vi sono andato ièri, I went there yesterday. 
 
 76. The conditional, like the English "should" and 
 "would," has two uses : in indirect discourse after a prin- 
 cipal verb in a past tense it expresses the tense which in 
 direct discourse would be future ; * in the conclusion of a 
 conditional sentence it is used when the protasis is (or, if 
 expressed, would be) in the imperfect subjunctive (see 77). 
 
 Ex. : Disse che lo farebbe, he said he would do it. 
 
 Se fòsse véro lo crederei, if it were true, I should believe it. 
 Quésta casa mi converrebbe, this house would suit me. 
 
 77. When a condition is contrary to fact, or consists of 
 a more or less unlikely supposition referring to future 
 time,t the protasis is in the imperfect (or pluperfect) sub- 
 junctive, the apodosis in the conditional \\ otherwise both 
 protasis and apodosis are in the indicative. 
 
 Ex. : Se V avessi te lo darei, if I had it, I should give it thee. 
 
 Se fosse tomato V avrei veduto, if he had returned, I should 
 
 have seen him. 
 Se venisse 7iói ce ne andrém?no, if he carne, we should go. 
 Se vi andassi morrei, if I should go there, I should die. 
 
 * The perfect of the future or the conditional is sometimes used where the 
 simple tense would be expected : disse che non V avrebbe fatto più, " he said 
 he would do it no more." 
 
 t Rendered in English by the imperfect, or by the auxiliary "should." 
 X The imperfect indicative is occasionally used to replace the imperfect or 
 pluperfect subjunctive of the protasis and the conditional of the apodosis.
 
 70 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Se non è véro è ben trovato^ if it isn't true, it's a good invention. 
 6"^ lo fece sarà punito^ if he did it, he will be punished. 
 
 a. The missing persons of the imperative are supplied from 
 the present subjunctive. The imperfect subjunctive is used to 
 express a wish that is not hkely to be reahzed. 
 
 Ex. : Si accomodi, be seated (sing.) ; stiano zitti, be quiet (plur.). 
 Sia pure, be it so ; vengano sùbito, let them come at once. 
 Fosse pure, would it were so ! 
 
 b. When a relative clause restricts its antecedent to one of all 
 its possible conditions or actions, the verb of that relative clause 
 is in the subjunctive, — the present subjunctive if the verb on 
 which it depends be present or future, the imperfect if it be past 
 or conditional. 
 
 Ex. : Non à è animale più bellino (V un gatto gióvane che fàccia il 
 
 chiasso, there is no animal prettier than a kitten that is at play. 
 
 Dóve troverete un gioviate che spòsi vói, where will you find a 
 
 young man who will marry you ? 
 Vorrei vedére un bel quadro che non fòsse antico, I should like 
 to see a fine picture that is not old. 
 
 c. The verb of a subordinate clause depending on an imper- 
 sonal verb, on a superlative, or on one of the words "first," " last," 
 and "only" is in the subjunctive. This rule does not apply to 
 reflexive verbs, nor to affirmative phrases meaning " it is true " or 
 "it is because." 
 
 Ex. : Bisognò cW io vi andassi, I had to go there. 
 
 E giusto che siano puniti, it's right they should be punished. 
 
 // più bèllo eh'' io conósca, the finest that I know. 
 
 Si vede che 7ion è così, you see it isn't so. 
 
 È véro che ci sono stato, it's true that I've been there. 
 
 d. The subjunctive is used after all conjunctions meaning "al- 
 though," "as if," "unless," "provided that," "in order that," "in 
 such a way that" (denoting purpose), "before," "until" (refer- 
 ring to future), "whenever," "wherever," "without."
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 7I 
 
 Ex. : Benché stia nascósto, lo troverò, dovi'mque sia, although he be 
 
 hidden, I shall find him, wherever he is. 
 Partirò a meno che égli non venga, I shall go unless he 
 
 comes. 
 Lo fece perche io venissi, he did it that I might come. 
 La divise in mòdo che le due parti fossero ngudli, he divided it 
 
 in such a way that the two parts should be equal. 
 Aspetta finche io tórni, wait until I return. 
 
 e. The subjunctive is used after the indefinite words and 
 phrases quale che, qualùnque, chiunque, checche, per quanto. 
 
 Ex. : Chiunque venga, whoever comes. 
 
 Qualùnque disgràzia che succèda, whatever misfortune happens. 
 Per qimnte volte ci vada, however many times I go there. 
 Per quanto ricco égli sia, however rich he may be. 
 
 /. The verb of an indirect question is nearly always in the 
 subjunctive when it depends on a main verb either in a past tense 
 or in the conditional. 
 
 Ex. : Do7ndndano se il re e mòrto, they ask whether the king is 
 dead. 
 Domandò se il padre fòsse liscilo, he asked whether his father 
 was out. 
 
 g. In a clause dependent on a verb of saying the subjunctive 
 is used if the main verb is negative, or interrogative, or in the 
 conditional, or in a past tense. It is generally not used, however, 
 after an affirmative verb in a past tense when the author himself 
 ivishes to imply that the indirect statement is true. 
 
 Ex. : Dice che la còsa è chiarissima, he says the thing is perfectly 
 
 clear. 
 Non dico che quésto sia véro, I don't say this is true. 
 Dissero che lo zio fòsse ammalato, they said their uncle 
 
 was ill. 
 Gli dissi che mi chiamava Enrico, I told him my name was 
 
 Henry.
 
 72 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 A. The subjunctive is used after verbs expressing causation, 
 concession, desire, emotion, prevention, and uncertainty : i.e., after 
 verbs of bringing about ; granting, permitting ; commanding, hop- 
 ing, requesting, wishing ; fearing, regretting, rejoicing ; forbidding, 
 hindering ; being ignorant, denying, disbelieving, doubting, expect- 
 ing, pretending, supposing, suspecting, thinking. But sperare, " to 
 hope," very often does not take the subjunctive. 
 
 Ex. : Non so chi siano, I don't know who they are. 
 
 Vorrei che non fòsse accaduto, I wish it had not happened. 
 Supponiamo che sia provato, let us suppose that it is proved. 
 Spero che verrà, I hope he will come. 
 
 /. Se, "if," is occasionally omitted before an imperfect subjunc- 
 tive ; in this case the subject, if expressed, must follow the verb. 
 
 Ex. : Sarei felice venisse égli, I should be happy, should he come. 
 
 EXERCISE 17. 
 
 La mamma di Alfredo aveva lasciato un anello d' òro sul cas- 
 settóne. Alfredo volle ^ métterselo in dito. Che giudizio ! pre- 
 tèndere che r anello della mamma pòssa ^ stare in un ditino d' un 
 fanciullo ! Se lo mise ^ nel dito gròsso e pòi s' affacciò alla finè- 
 stra; l'anello cascò di sótto, e non se ne seppe* più nulla. La 
 mamma cérca 1' anello, ma non e' èra più ; cérca di qui, di là, dì 
 sópra, cérca per tutto, né 1' anello si può^ trovare. Allóra chiama 
 Alfredo e gli dice^ : — Bambino, dimmi ^ la verità ; hai prèso ^ tu il 
 mio anello? 1' hai pèrso ^ tu? — Alfredo, cattivo, disse ^ di no. La 
 mamma si ricordava bène d' averlo lasciato nel vassoino sul cas- 
 settóne. Non credeva Alfredo capace di dir le bugie, quindi so- 
 spettò che qualcuno T avesse rubato. Ci andava in càsa^ una 
 bambina, figliuola d' un antico suo servitóre, e il sospètto cadde ^'' 
 sópra quésta pòvera creatura. La mamma di Alfredo non la 
 volle ^ più in casa ; ma 1' allontanò con bèlla manièra, e nessuno 
 si avvide" di nulla, perchè quella signóra èra buòna. Però ia
 
 MOODS AND TENSES. 73 
 
 bugia di Alfredo féce^ si che sua madre credesse ladra quella 
 pòvera bambina. Dio perdóni Alfredo, Dio gì' ispiri di rimediare 
 a si brutta azióne ; vàda/^ si butti ài piedi della mamma, le rac- 
 cónti tutto, e non commétta mài più di quéste azionàcce. 
 
 1 From volére, 92, 19. 2 Potére, 92, 21. ^ Méttere, 92, 73. * Sapere, 
 92, 6. 5 Dire, 92, 164. ^ ^^y^.. gee 48, d. ^ Prèndere, 92, 87. 
 8 Pèrdere, 92, 83. ^ There used to come to the house. ^^ Cadére, 
 92, 7. 11 Avvedérsi, 92, io. 12 ^r^^^^ 92, 2. 13 ^«^^r^, 92, i. 
 
 EXERCISE 18. 
 
 We inhabit the earth ; but not all the earth has the same name 
 everywhere: the earth is-dividedMnto five parts, -and every part 
 has its name. The five parts of the earth are-called^ : Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, America, Oceanica. Imagine you-cut-open^ the earth 
 in the middle and place ^ it on a table, in-such-a-way'' that the 
 inside shall-rest^ on the table, and the outside shall-present' itself 
 to your eyes. You will have two circles : in the circle that lies^ 
 at your right are^ Europe, Asia, Africa, and a part of Oceanica; 
 in the circle that Hes^ on-the^ left are'' America and the other 
 part of Oceanica. But the ancients did^ not^*^ beheve that the 
 earth was round, nor did^ they know that its parts were five. 
 They thought that the earth was flat and surrounded by the 
 sea; they knew, moreover,^^ only^ three parts: Europe, Asia, 
 Africa. They never ^^ would have dreamed that the earth was 
 round, and that on^* the side opposite to the-one^^ which they 
 inhabited there ^^ was inhabited land. America was discovered 395 
 years ago by an Italian who was-called^ Christopher Columbus. 
 Christopher Columbus was-bom^^ in a village near Genoa in 1447. 
 His parents were poor ; his father earned hardly enough-to " sup- 
 port the family. However, by-dint ^^ of sacrifices they had^^ him 
 study; and as^ Christopher studied willingly, he grew up a fine^^ 
 boy. When it was time ^^ to-choose ^ a profession, he chose to- 
 be-a^ sailor. In^ those times they beUeved that the world ended
 
 74 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 after Africa ; but Columbus, on-the-contrary,^ persuaded himself 
 that the world ought ^^ not^^ to^*^ end there, and that by continuing 
 to sail, one^ ought -^ to^^ turn and come-back to the same point. 
 
 1 See 55. ^ dì aprire. ^ Di posare. * In mòdo. ^ See 77, d. ^ u^g 
 restare. "^ C è. ^ A. ^ See 54,^. 1° Non, "not," must precede the 
 verb. 11 Pòi. 12 See 82. 13 See 83. i* £,a. 15 Quella. 16 yi^ 
 17 To be horn= nàscere, 92, 77. 18 A fòrza. 19 Use fare, 92, 2. 
 20 Perchè. 21 ^r^z/o. 22 Use def. article. 23 j)i scégliere. ^ Di fare 
 il. 25 Invéce. 26 See 57. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND AD- 
 VERBS. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 78. The principal conjunctions are : 
 
 After, dòpo che. 
 
 Also, anche, pure. 
 
 Although, benché, sebbene, non ostante 
 
 che. 
 And, e. 
 
 As, cóme, quanto (after tanto'). 
 As (= since), siccóme, poiché. 
 As fast as, via via che. 
 As if, còme se, quasi. 
 As long as, finché. 
 As well as, cóme anco. 
 Because, perché. 
 Before, prima che, avanti che. 
 Both . . . and, e ... e. 
 But, ma. 
 
 Either ... or, . . . 0. 
 Even if, anche se, ancorché. 
 Except that, se non che. 
 For, che. 
 
 Granting that, dato che. 
 
 However (= nevertheless), però, pure. 
 
 However (before an adj.), qualùnque^ 
 
 per quanto. 
 If, se (occasionally quando, óve'). 
 In case, cdso. 
 
 In order that, perché, accioché, affinché. 
 Much less, non che. 
 Neither . . . nor, né . . . né. 
 Nevertheless, tuttavia, nondiméno, però. 
 Nor, né, nemméno, neppure. 
 Nor . . . either, nemméno, neppure. 
 Nor even, neanche, neppure. 
 Not to say . . . but even, non che . . . mm^. 
 Or, 0, ovvéro, ossia. 
 Or else, ossia. 
 Provided that, purché. 
 Rather, anzi. 
 Since (temporal), dacché.
 
 CON7UNCTIONS. 75 
 
 Since {cz\x?,2X)y poiché, siccóme. Too, pure, dnche. 
 
 So, dùnque, adùnqtte. Unless, a meno che non, eccetto chi 
 
 So that (result), di mòdo che, sicché. non, senza che. 
 
 So that {= in order Ùì-ò.'C), perchè. Until, finché non. 
 
 Than, che. When, quando. 
 
 That, che. Whence, dónde. 
 
 That (= in order that), perchè. Where, dóve, óve, là dóve. 
 
 Then, dùnque. Wherever, dovunque. 
 
 Therefore, dùnque, però, perciò, adunque Whether, se. 
 
 (at the beginning of a clause). While, méntre, méntre che. 
 
 The final vowel of dnche^ che, dóve, neppure, and óve is 
 generally elided before e or i. 
 
 a. Of the above conjunctions accioche, affinchè, a meno che non, 
 ancorché, avanti che, benché, caso, cóme se, dato che, dovunque, 
 eccètto che non, non ostante che, perchè meaning "in order that," 
 per quanto, prima che, purché, qualùnque, quasi, sebbène, and sènza 
 che are followed by the subjunctive. For the use of che, " that," 
 with the subjunctive, see 77, c,g, h. Cóme is occasionally used 
 for cóme se, and then it takes the subjunctive. Finché when refer- 
 ring to the future sometimes has the sense of finché non, and then 
 it generally takes the subjunctive. Se is followed by the subjunc- 
 tive when it introduces an indirect question or statement depend- 
 ent on a verb in a past tense, or a condition contrary to fact. 
 Quando and óve, meaning " if," frequently take the subjunctive 
 when se would not. — For examples, see 77, c, d,f, g, h. 
 
 b. Che cannot be omitted in ItaHan as " that "is in English : * 
 as disse che fòsse véro, " he said it was true." Se can be omitted 
 before an imperfect subjunctive : see 77, i. 
 
 * It is omitted, however, in the following peculiarly Italian construction : 
 il ragazzo pareva fòsse felice, "the boy seemed to be happy"; that is, be- 
 tween a verb of seeming and the subjunctive dependent on it, when in Eng- 
 lish the construction would be a verb of seeming with a dependent infinitive. 
 It is occasionally omitted also after verbs of wishing, hoping, and fearing : as 
 ipero mi scriva presto, " I hope you will write to me soon."
 
 76 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 c. E and o are often written ed and od before a vowel. 
 Ex. : Mio padre ed io, my father and I. 
 
 d. Between a verb of motion and an infinitive " and " is ren- 
 dered by the preposition a. 
 
 Ex. : Andrò a cercarlo, V\\ go and look for it. 
 
 e. When anche, " also " or " too/' relates to a personal pronoun, 
 the disjunctive form of that pronoun must follow anche, even if 
 some form of the same pronoun has already been expressed. 
 
 Ex. : Andremo anche nói, we shall go too. 
 Parte anch'' égli, he goes away too. 
 Trovai anche lui, I found him too. 
 Vennero anch'' èssi, they came too. 
 Lo or 7ne lo diede anche a me, he gave it to me too. 
 Ti piace anche a te, you like it too. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 79. The principal prepositions are : — 
 
 About (= approximately), circa. 
 About (= around), intórno a, at- 
 tórno a. 
 Above, sópra. 
 According to, secóndo. 
 After, dòpo, dòpo di. 
 Against, contra, cóntro. 
 Along, lungo. 
 Among, fra, tra. 
 Around, intórno a, attórno a. 
 As far 2S,fino a, sino a. 
 As for, per, quanto a, in quanto a. 
 As to, rispètto a. 
 At, a. 
 
 Because of, per motivo di. 
 Before (time), prima di, innanzi. 
 
 Before (place), davanti a, innanzi. 
 
 Behind, diètro. 
 
 Below, sótto. 
 
 Beside (place), accanto a. 
 
 Besides, beside (=in addition to)^ 
 
 óltre. 
 Between, fra, tra. 
 Beyond, óltre, al di là di. 
 By, da, accanto a (= beside). 
 By means of, per mèzzo di. 
 During, durante. 
 Except, tranne, eccètto, fuòri di. 
 For, per. 
 From, da, fin da. 
 In, in. 
 In front of, davanti a. innanzi.
 
 PREPOSITIONS. T} 
 
 Inside of, déntro di. Round and round, tòmo tórno a. 
 
 Instead of, invéce di. Since, da. 
 
 In the midst of, in mézzo a. To, a- 
 
 Into, in. Toward, verso. 
 
 Near, vicino a. Through, per. 
 
 Of, di. Under, sótto. 
 
 On, su (before a vowel, sur"), sópra. Upon, su (before vowels, sur), sópra. 
 
 On this side of, al di qua di. Up to, fino a, sino a. 
 
 On to, su (before vowels, sur)y sópra. With, con. 
 
 Opposite, dirimpetto a. Within, fra, tra. 
 
 Out of, da, di, fuòri di. Within (= inside of), déntro di. 
 
 Outside of, fuòri di. Without, sènza. 
 
 Over, sópra. Without (= outside of), fuòri di. 
 
 When governing a personal pronoun contra^ diètro, dòpo, 
 sénza^ sópra, sótto, and often fra and verso take di after 
 them : as sériza di me, " without me " ; fra di lóro, *' among 
 themselves." After con, in, per, a word beginning with s 
 impure generally prefixes e** : as la strada, **the street " ; 
 in istrada, "in the street." 
 
 a. "To " before the name of a country, after a verb of motion, 
 is in. 
 
 Ex. : Andiamo in Frància, let us go to France. 
 
 b. "To" before an infinitive is rendered in Italian as follows: 
 (i) After the verbs bastare, "suffice"; bisognare, "need"; con- 
 venire, " suit " ; desiderare, " desire " ; dovére, " must," " ought " ; 
 fare, " make " ; lasciare, " let " ; parere, " seem " ; potére, " can," 
 " be able " ; sapere, " know " ; sentire, " hear," " feel " ; solére, 
 " be accustomed " ; udire, " hear " ; vedere, " see " ; and volére, 
 "wish," "to" before a following infinitive is omitted. It is 
 omitted also in exclamations and indirect questions consisting 
 only of an interrogative and an infinitive. 
 
 * Cf. 58, a.
 
 yS ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Dovrei capire, I ought to understand. 
 
 Bisógna pensarci, it is necessary to look out for it. 
 Potremo venire, we shall be able to come. 
 Non sa che fare ne dóve avvòlgersi, he doesn't know what to 
 do nor where to turn. 
 
 (2) After verbs of accustoming, attaining, beginning, compel- 
 ling, continuing, hastening, helping, inviting, learning, prepar- 
 ing, teaching, and after verbs of motion, " to " before a following 
 infinitive is a. 
 
 Ex. : Andranno a vedérla, they will go to see her. 
 Si affrettò a rispóndere, he hastened to reply. 
 
 (3) After all other verbs it is di; but "to" denoting purpose 
 or result is per^ and " to " indicating duty or necessity is da, 
 
 Ex. : Gli dissi di scrivere, I told him to write. 
 Mi è grato di dirlo, I am happy to say so. 
 Légge per divertirsi, he reads to amuse himself. 
 É tròppo basso per arrivarci, he's too short to reach it. 
 Ho qualchecòsa da fare, I have something to do. 
 
 c. " By " denoting the agent is da, 
 
 Ex. : Fu fatto da lui, it was done by him. 
 
 d. " In " is in ; but when expressing future time it is fra, 
 Ex. : Fra tre giórni sarà finito, in three days it will be finished. 
 
 e. "For" is per: as /' ha fatto per me, "he has done it for me." 
 But in the sense of "since," in speaking of past time, "for" is da. 
 "For," meaning "during," is omitted or translated durante. Sen- 
 tences like "it is right for him to do it" must be translated by che 
 with the subjunctive : è giusto che lo fàccia. 
 
 Ex. : Di7nòra da mólti anni a Firenze, he has lived for many years 
 at Florence (see 73). 
 Resterò cinque settimane, I shall stay for five weeks. 
 Piòvve durante un mése, it rained for a month. 
 Bisógna cW lo vada, it is necessary for me to go.
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 79 
 
 /. "From" is da; but before adverbs and sometimes after 
 verbs of departing it is di. In speaking of time it is generally 
 fin da. 
 
 Ex. : E lontano di qua, it is far from here. 
 Esco di casa, I go out of the house. 
 Fin dal principio, from the beginning. 
 
 g. Da has, in addition to the meanings " by," " from," " since," 
 another sense hard to render in Enghsh : it may be translated 
 " as," " characteristic of," " destined for," " such as to," or "suited 
 to," according to the context. Da means also "at the house of" 
 or " to the house of." Da corresponds to English " on " or " at " 
 before the word " side," parte, used in its literal sense. 
 
 Ex. ; Prométto da uòmo d^ onore, I promise as a man of honor. 
 
 // Salvini da Otello, Salvini as Othello. 
 
 Sareste tdtito buòno da venire, would you be so good as to 
 come? 
 
 Quésto è da sciocchi, this is acting like a fool. 
 
 // bambino ha un giudizio da grande, the child has the judg- 
 ment of a grown person. 
 
 La sdla da pranzo, the dining-room. 
 
 Uita tdzza da caffè, a coffee-cup. 
 
 D ho veduto dal Signor Néri, I saw him at Mr. Neri's. 
 
 Viene da me, he comes to my house. 
 
 Da quésta parte, on this side. 
 
 h. A is often used before a noun — not indicating material 
 (which is expressed by di) nor purpose (expressed by dà) — 
 that describes another noun, when in English these two substan- 
 tives would form a compound word. 
 
 Ex. : Una màcchina a vapóre, a steam-engine. 
 Una sèdia a dóndolo, a rocking-chair. 
 Uno sgabèllo a tre piedi, a three-legged stool. 
 
 i. Essere per or stare per means " to be about to." 
 Ex. : Stava per parlare, he was on the point of speaking.
 
 80 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 j. In some idiomatic phrases di is used in Italian when another 
 preposition would be employed in English. 
 
 Ex. : Di giórno, di nòtte, by day, by night. 
 
 Èssere contènto di una còsa, to be satisfied with a thing. 
 
 Vivo di pdne, I live on bread. 
 
 Che faceva delle fòrbici, what did he do with the scissors? 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 80. (i) Adverbs, unless they begin the clause, are gen- 
 erally placed immediately after the verb ; 7wn^ however, 
 always precedes the verb. When a compound tense is 
 used, the adverb nearly always follows the past participle, 
 but già, mài, piti, and sempre usually precede it. See also 
 84. Non precedes a conjunctive and follows a disjunctive 
 pronoun. 
 
 Ex. : Non ci vado mài, I never go there. 
 
 Ho parlato spésso, 1 have often spoken. 
 
 Non ha sèmpre parlato così, he hasn't always talked so. 
 
 Io non lo vedo, I don't see him. 
 
 (2) Adverbs are compared like adjectives (see 31) ; but 
 " better," " worse," ** more," " less " are respectively meglioy 
 peggioy piiiy meno. 
 
 81. *'Yes" is si or già: sì when it expresses real affir- 
 mation, già when it denotes passive assent. " No " is no. 
 " Not " is non, after which a word beginning with s impure 
 generally prefixes i. *' Or not " at the end of a clause is 
 no : as sia véro no, " whether it be true or not." 
 
 Ex. : Le piace ? — Sì. — " Do you like it ? " " Yes." 
 
 Che tempaccio ! — Già. — " What nasty weather ! " " Yes." 
 Sta bène, he is well ; non istà bène, he isn't well.
 
 ADVERBS. 8l 
 
 a. " What? " meaning " what do you say ? " is cóme? Che and 
 the interjection o are often used to introduce questions. 
 
 Ex. ; O perchè non rispondete f — Cóme ? — Che siete sórdo, signóre f 
 — " Why don't you answer ? " " What ? " " Are you deaf, 
 sir?" 
 
 Ò. "Very" is mólto (see, however, 35, a). Instead of using a 
 word or suffix for "very," the ItaHans often repeat the emphasized 
 adjective or adverb. 
 
 Ex.': È mólto bèllo or è bellissÌ7no, it is very beautiful. 
 
 I sudi genitóri èrano pòveri pòveri, his parents were very poor. 
 
 82. "Only" may be translated by the adverb sólo, sol- 
 tanto, or solamente ; or by the adjective sólo. When it modi- 
 fies anything but a verb, it is often rendered by 7ton . . . che, 
 with the whole verb intervening, and with the word modi- 
 fied by "only" immediately after che. 
 
 Ex. : Non ne ho comprato che due, I have bought only two of them. 
 
 83. "Never" is non . . . mài, with the inflected part of the 
 verb intervening. "Just," as an adverb of time, is or óra. 
 " Early " is prèsto, per tèmpo, or di buon óra. " This morn- 
 ing" is stamane ; "last night " is stanòtte. "The day after 
 to-morrow" and "the day before yesterday" are respec- 
 tively domdn V altro and ier V altro. "A week, a fortnight 
 from to-day " are òggi a òtto, a qtiindici. " Ago " is trans- 
 lated hy fa, which follows the substantive of time ; if this 
 substantive is plural, " ago " may be rendered also by sÓ7w 
 {èrano or saranno if the date from which time is counted 
 be past or future). 
 
 Ex. : Non ti ha mài veduto, he has never seen thee. 
 Son arrivati or óra, they have just arrived. 
 Tre anni fa, three years ago ; quattro giórni sono, four days 
 ago.
 
 82 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. : Lunedì èrano due settimane^ two weeks ago Monday. 
 
 Domani saranno cinque 7nési, five months ago to-morrow. 
 
 84. " Here " and " there " when they denote a place 
 already mentioned, and no particular stress is laid upon 
 them, are ci and vi, which are often used in Italian when 
 they would be superfluous in English; "there is," ''there 
 are," etc., are c' è or vi è, ci sono or vi sono, etc. (sometimes 
 vi ha). Ci, vi, and also ne, "thence," occupy the same posi- 
 tions with regard to the verb, and undergo the same changes, 
 as the pronouns ci, vi, ne (48, 50); they precede conjunc- 
 tive pronouns beginning with / or n, and follow all others : 
 ce lo manda, ti ci mando. 
 
 When emphasized, " here " is qui or qua, " there " indi- 
 cating a place near the person addressed is costì or costà, 
 and "there" denoting a point remote from both speaker 
 and hearer is lì or là. 
 
 Ex. : Carlo vi è tornato, Charles has gone back there. 
 Alia scuòla non ci vado, I don't go to school. 
 Vói rimarrete costà, égli resterà laggiìi, ed io non partirò di 
 qui, you will remain where you are, he will stay down there, 
 and I shall not move from here. 
 
 a. " Here I am," " here it is," etc., are eccomi, eccolo, etc. 
 
 86. Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding 
 -ménte to the feminine singular of the corresponding adjec- 
 tive. Adjectives in -le and -re drop their final e in forming 
 the adverb. See 35, a. 
 
 Ex. : Franco, frank ; francamente, frankly. 
 Felice, happy ; felicemente, happily. 
 Piacévole, pleasant ; piacevolmente, pleasantly. 
 
 a. "So" meaming "it" is translated lo : as lo faccio ^ "I do 
 60 " ; lo créde, " he thinks so " ; lo dicono, " they say so."
 
 CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS. 83 
 
 EXERCISE 19. 
 
 Agostino è un golóso di prima riga. Cóme^ vedeva dèi con- 
 fètti, una chicca, delle frutta, sùbito se le pigliava e mangiava 
 sènza permésso, anche se non èrano sue. Infmo ì suoi compagni 
 di scuòla lo rimproveravano di quésto viziacelo. La maèstra 
 pensò di punire Agostino. Un giórno, quando fu 1' óra della 
 ricreazióne, tirò fuòri dàUa sua cassétta de' confètti, e mettendoli 
 nel panière d' Agostino, gli disse ^ : — Quésti lì porterai a casa alla 
 tua sorellina. — Agostino a veder que' confètti féce^ cèrti occhióni 
 gròssi cóme quelli d' un bòve. Non istàva più in sè^ dàlia vòglia 
 di mangiare que' confètti. Era tanto golóso, che se aveva qual- 
 còsa di suo non dava nulla a nessuno ; èra tanto golóso, che aveva 
 la sfacciataggine di mangiare le còse dégh altri; o figuratevi 
 dùnque cóme si struggeva di* mangiar que' confètti eh' èrano nel 
 suo panierino. Finita la refezióne, i bambini vanno ^ nel giardino. 
 Appéna Agostino vede che nella stanza dov' èrano i panierini non 
 e' èra nessuno, sparisce dal giardino, e via a pigHàre i confètti. 
 Ma non ha finito di buttar giù il primo, che ^ sente un amaro, un 
 sapóre così cattivo da non poter règgere ; sputa e rispùta, ma 
 r amaro non se ne andava.^ Era curióso veder Agostino disperato 
 per quel saporàccio. E i compagni chi da un ùscio, chi da un 
 altro, e chi dàlia finèstra che dava sul giardino, stavano a vedérlo, 
 e a ridere di quésta cèha che la maèstra aveva fatto ^ a quel golóso. 
 Allóra la maèstra gli disseti — Vedi, Agostino; ho fatto ^ fare 
 quésti confètti pièni d' assènzio appòsta per te ; vedi a che còsa 
 pòrta 1' ingordigia ! Un altro bambino non ci sarebbe rimasto a^ 
 quésta célia. — Agostino si accòrse^ che la signóra maèstra gli 
 aveva fatta ^ quésta célia per suo bène, e che se non si correggeva 
 diventava lo zimbèllo di tutti. ^ 
 
 ^ When. 2 /)ife^ 8 Hq ^^s beside himself. * He was dying to. ^ An» 
 dare, andarsene. ® Fare. "^ Wouldn't have been taken in by. ^ Ac' 
 corgersi. ^ See footnote (J) on p. 69.
 
 ^A ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISE 20. 
 
 It is related that in by-gone^ times a parrot escaped from a 
 nlla. This parrot had learned to say all-the-time- : ''Who's 
 there ^? who's-there^?" Having-fled'' into a wood, it was flying 
 from one tree to another without knowing where to go. A peas- 
 ant, who by chance was hunting^ in that place, eyed the parrot, 
 and having never seen any^^ birds before^ of this sort, he was^ 
 amazed at-it,^ and took^ all-possible ^° care to aim straight with his 
 gun, so-as-to shoot-it" and carry it to show off as a rare thing. 
 But while the peasant was aiming, the parrot, seeing"* him, repeated 
 his usual question : "Who's-there^? who's-there^?" The-peas- 
 ant's-blood-froze-in-his-veins ^ at those words ; and lowering'* his 
 ^an, and taking-his-hat-from-his-head ^^ he hastened to reply to 
 him, dreadfully" mortified : " Excuse-me,^^ for-mercy's-sake,^^ I 
 took'^ you for a bird ! " 
 
 I Anddii. 2 Always. ^ Chi c' è. * Past participle. ^ ^ càccia. ^ Per 
 V innanzi. "^ Rimase : see 54, /. ^ Ne. ^ Gave himself. 1° Ogni. 
 11 Tirargli. 12 To the peasant not remained blood in-him {addòsso). 
 13 Levatosi di capo il cappello. 1* Tutto. 1* La scusi, i^ For charity 
 17 Had taken, is Omit. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 86. "One," "people," "we," "you," "they," used in an 
 indefinite sense, are rendered in Italian by the reflexive 
 construction with si (see 55). 
 
 Ex. : Si cdnia bène in Italia., they sing well in Italy. 
 
 Si fa cost, you do this way ; se ne parla, people speak of it. 
 Si fanno spésso quéste còse, one often does these things.
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 85 
 
 «7. ''All" as a substantive is tutto {tutti, etc.) : as tace- 
 vano tutti, "all were silent." The adjective *' all," "the 
 whole " is tutto followed by the definite article : as tiitta la 
 terra, "the whole earth" ; tiitto il giórno, "all day" ; tiUte 
 le romàne son belle, "all Roman ladies are beautiful." 
 
 88. "Any," when it really adds nothing to the sense, is 
 omitted : as non ha libri, " he hasn't (any) books " ; volete 
 vino, " do you want (any) wine ? " When, however, this 
 redundant "any" might be replaced by "any of the," it is 
 translated by the partitive genitive (see 12, a) : as volete 
 del vino, " do you want any (of the) wine ì " 
 
 "Any" used substantively in the sense of "any of it," 
 "any of them " is ne (see 47, 3) : as 7t07i ne ho, " I haven't 
 any " ; non 7ie ha piii, " he hasn't any more " ; 7te avete, 
 "have you any? " 
 
 "Any" used adjectively and meaning "any whatsoever" 
 is qualùnque : as lo fa meglio di qualihique altra persóna, 
 "^he does it better than any other person." 
 
 89. "Some," when it adds nothing to the sense, is 
 omitted or rendered by the partitive genitive : as volete 
 burro or volete del burro, "will you have some butter?" 
 
 "Some" meaning "some of it," "some of them" is ne: 
 as ne ha, " he has some." 
 
 Otherwise " some " is alcimo or qualche. Qualche is 
 always singular (even when the meaning is plural), and is 
 never used substantively. Ex. : alcune persóne or qualche 
 persóna, "some persons " ; alcuni lo dicono, " some say so." 
 
 90. "Some , . . others," "the one . . . the other," "one 
 , . . another " are translated by chi . . . chi, altri . . . dltri^ 
 V uno . . . /* àltrot or alcuni . . . alcuni.
 
 86 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Alcuni used in this way is always plural. A verb whose 
 subject is chi or altri (used in this sense) is always singu- 
 lar ; altri is not used after prepositions. But /' uno and 
 /* altro can be used in any case or number. 
 
 Ex. : TMti, chi più tòsto , e chi ménOy morivano, ali died, some 
 sooner, some later. 
 Altri cade, altri fugge, some fall, others flee. 
 Gli Uni son buoni, gli altri cattivi, some are good, others bad. 
 
 91. Following is a list of some other indefinite pro- 
 nouns and adjectives : — 
 
 Anybody, qualcuno, qualchedùno, chic- 
 chessia, pronouns. 
 
 Any more, più, ne . . , più, pron. 
 
 Anything, qualchecòsa, pron. 
 
 Anything else, dltro, pron. 
 
 Both, tutti e due, V uno e V dltro^ am- 
 bedue, pron. or adj. 
 
 Certain, cèrto, adj. 
 
 Each, ógni, ciascuno, ognuno, adj. 
 
 Either, /' uno o V altro, pron. or adj. 
 
 Every, ógni, ciascuno, ognuno, ciasche- 
 duno, adj. 
 
 Everybody, tutti (pi.), ciascheduno, 
 ciascuno, ognuno, pron. 
 
 Everything, tutto, pron. 
 
 Few, a few, pòchi (pi.), pron. or adj. 
 
 However much, (or many) , per quanto 
 {-ti), adj. 
 
 Little, poco, pron. or adj. 
 
 Less, meno, pron. or adj.* 
 
 Many, mólti, pron. or adj.f 
 
 More, più, pron. or adj. 
 
 Much, mólto, pron. or adj. 
 
 Neither, non . . . /' uno né V dltroy né 
 
 V uno né V dltro, pron. or adj. 
 No, non . . . nessuno, non . . . alcuno, 
 
 adj. 
 Nobody, non . . . nessuno, pron. 
 No more, non ne . . , più, pron., non 
 
 . . ,più, adj. 
 None, non ne . . ., pron. 
 Nothing, non . . . niente, non . . . nulla, 
 
 pron. 
 Nothing else, non . . . più niènte, non 
 
 . . . più nulla, pron. 
 Others, altrùi (see 91, d), pron. 
 Several, parécchi (fem. parécchie)^ 
 
 pron. or adj. 
 Somebody, qualchedùno, qualcuno, 
 
 pron. • 
 Something, qualchecòsa, pron. 
 Such, tdle, adj. 
 Such a, un tdle, adj. (but also pron 
 
 in Ital., meaning "so-and-so "). 
 Whatever, qualùnque (invariable), 
 
 adj. 
 
 ♦ " Less " = " smaller " is più piccolo. f " A great many " is moltissimi»
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 8/ 
 
 a. The verb used with nessuno^ alcuno, niènte, nulla (meaning 
 ^no," *' nobody," "nothing") must be preceded by non, "not,'' 
 unless this pronoun or adjective precedes the verb. 
 
 Ex. : ATon ho visto nessuno, I have seen nobody. 
 
 Nessun pòpolo lo possiede^ no people possesses it. 
 
 b. "Nothing " followed by an adjective is niènte di. 
 Ex. : Non avete niènte di buono, you have nothing good. 
 
 e. Ciascuno, ciascheduno, ognuno, nessuno, and alcuno when 
 used adjectively are inflected like uno (see 14, 15). 
 
 d. Altrùi^ " another," " others," " our neighbor," is invariable, 
 and is not used as subject of a verb : as con altrùi, "with other 
 people " ; chi ama altrùi ama se stésso, " he who loves his neigh- 
 bor loves himself." The prepositions di and a are sometimes 
 omitted before it : as la móstro altrùi, " I point her out to 
 others " ; /a vòglia altrùi, " the will of another." 
 
 EXERCISE 21. 
 
 Permutare^! Riccardo dice^ male di qualchedùno. Che 
 brutto vizio è mài quello ! A sentir Riccardo, tutti son àsini, 
 tutti sono cattivi ; di buòni e di bravi non e' è che lui. Ma ora- 
 mài ognuno ha conosciuto di che panni vèste,^ e nessuno gli créde 
 più. Se fòsse bravo e buòno, si guarderebbe dal dir male di quésto 
 e di quello, anche quando ne avesse qualche ragióne. Figuratevi, 
 dùnque, se può* èssere buòno e bravo lui che dice male di tutti ! 
 Sòrte, ripèto, che nessuno gU créde più, e quando si sente dir 
 male di qualchedùno, e si sa^ che e' è Riccardo di mézzo,® ognuno 
 si affretta a rispóndere : Se 1' ha détto^ quel maldicènte di Ric- 
 cardo, non è véro nulla dicèrto. 
 
 1 There he is at it again ! 2 Dire. 8 What sort of a fellow he is. * Po- 
 tére. ^ Sapere. ^ At the bottom of it.
 
 88 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Arranged according to Conjugation.* 
 
 92. This list contains no compound verbs except those 
 which differ in conjugation from their simple verbs and 
 those for which no simple verb exists in Italian. With 
 every verb its irregular forms are given : in the same line 
 with the infinitive are the present participle (if it be needed 
 to show the original form of the infinitive), the first person 
 singular of the preterite indicative, the past participle, and 
 the first person singular of the future indicative (if the 
 future be contracted) ; immediately below are the present 
 indicative, the imperative, and the present subjunctive, if 
 these parts be peculiar. For dare and stare the whole pre- 
 terite and the first person singular of the imperfect sub- 
 junctive are given also. Èssere is irregular throughout. 
 All tenses not mentioned are regtdar. For peculiar endings ^ 
 see 63, 68. Note the following rules : — 
 
 a. If iki^ present participle \s given, the following forms, unless 
 expressly mentioned, are to be constructed from its stem : 2Ì}X pre- 
 terite forms with accented endings^ and the whole imperfect indica- 
 tive and subjunctive. E. g.fdre, pres. ^2iX\.. facendo : hence pret. 2d 
 sing, and ist and 2d ^^X.^ facesti^ facemmo, faceste ; imp. \x\à..^ faceva, 
 etc. ; imp. ^\y}o]., facessi, etc. 
 
 If the present participle is not given, these forms, unless they 
 be mentioned, are to be constructed from the stem of the infini- 
 tive. E. g. venire: pret. venisti, venimmo, veniste ; imp. ind. veniva; 
 imp. subj. venissi. 
 
 b. Preterites in -ài, -éi, -ti, and -étti (except détti and stetti) are 
 
 * Reference to these tables is facilitated by an Alphabetical List of Irregu- 
 lar and Defective Verbs (see page loi). Students are advised not to learn 
 forms in parentheses nor any verbs or forms marked rare ox poetical.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 89 
 
 regular throughout. In all other preterites the third person sin- 
 gular can be formed from the first person by changing final / to e^ 
 and the third person plural by adding -ro to the third person sin- 
 gular. 'E.g. fare, pret./m: 3d sing./^^e, 3d pl./^rero. 
 
 c. If the future is not given, it is to be constructed from the 
 infinitive. The conditional always has the same stem as the 
 future. See 65, p. 60. 
 
 d. The imperative, when not given, is like the corresponding 
 forms of the present indicative. See 66, b^ top of p. 62. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 I. Andare, ^^, andai, andato ; andrò (anderò). 
 
 PRES. 
 
 IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PRES. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 Vado or v6, 
 
 andiamo, 
 
 Va', 
 
 Vada, 
 
 andiamo, 
 
 vai, 
 
 andate, 
 
 andiamo, 
 
 vada, 
 
 andiate, 
 
 va, 
 
 vanno. 
 
 andate. 
 
 vada, 
 
 vadano. 
 
 2. Fare, do, facendo, feci,* fatto ; farò. Fare {formerly also fàcere) 
 was originally a verb of the third cojtjugation : see 92, a. 
 
 PRES. IND. IMPER. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Faccio or io, facciamo. Fa', Fàccia, facciamo, 
 
 fài,t fate, facciamo, fàccia, facciate, 
 
 fa,t fanno. fate. fàccia, facciano. 
 
 3. Dare, ^/z/^, diedi or détti, dato; darò. Imp. subj. dessi. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 PRET. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Dò, 
 
 Diedi or détti. 
 
 
 Dia, 
 
 dai, 
 
 désti, 
 
 Da', 
 
 dia, 
 
 dà, 
 
 diede or dette,:^ 
 
 
 dia, 
 
 diamo, 
 
 demmo, 
 
 diamo, 
 
 diamo, 
 
 date, 
 
 déste, 
 
 date. 
 
 diate, 
 
 danno. 
 
 diedero or dettero.^ 
 
 
 diano or dieno. 
 
 * In poetry we sometimes find a preterite fìi^ fésti, fé or féo, fénimo, fèste, 
 férono or fénno ; and an imp. ind. féa, etc. 
 + Also fdci, fact. 
 X Also die, sing, ; dier or diéro or diérono, pi.
 
 90 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. Stare (67, a), stand, stétti, stato; starò. Imp. sicbj. stéssi. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 PRET. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 St6, 
 
 Stetti, 
 
 
 Stia, 
 
 Stài, 
 
 stesti, 
 
 Sta', 
 
 stia, 
 
 Sta, 
 
 stette, 
 
 
 sti'a. 
 
 stiamo, 
 
 stemmo. 
 
 stiamo. 
 
 stiamo, 
 
 state. 
 
 steste. 
 
 state. 
 
 stiate. 
 
 stanno. 
 
 stettero. 
 
 
 stiano or sti'eno. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 5. Avere, have, ebbi, avuto ; avrò. See 53, b.* 
 
 6. Sapere, know, seppi, saputo ; saprò. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 S8, sappiamo, 
 sài, sapete. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 Sappi, 
 
 sappiamo, 
 
 sappiate. 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Sappia, sappiamo, 
 sappia, sappiate, 
 sappia, sappiano. 
 
 7. Cadére, fall, caddi, caduto ; cadrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 Cado (càggio), cadiamo (caggiàmo), 
 
 càdì, cadete, 
 
 cade, cadono (càggiono). 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 Cada (càggia), cadiamo (caggiàmo), 
 cada (càggia), cadiate (caggiàte), 
 cada (càggia), cadano (càggiano). 
 
 8. Dovére, owe, dovei (dovetti), dovuto ; dovrò. Imperative lacking. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 Devo (debbo or déggio), 
 
 devi (débbi), 
 
 deve (dèbbe), 
 
 dobbiamo (deggiàmo), 
 
 dovete, 
 
 devono (debbono or deggiono).t 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 DSbba (deva or dSggia), 
 
 debba (deva or dèggia), 
 
 debba (deva or dèggia), 
 
 dobbiamo, 
 
 dobbiate, 
 
 debbano (davano or déggiano). 
 
 * In poetry ^n^ find : àggio, àbbo, or dio for ho ; ave for ha ; dggia or dia 
 for abbia ; ei for èbbi ; a future arò, etc., or averò, etc., and similar forms in 
 the conditional. 
 
 f Also dèo, dèi, dèe, dovémo, dovete, dèono or dènno.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. QI 
 
 9. Sedére, sit, sedei or sedetti, seduto. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Siedo or seggo, sediamo (seggiàmo), Sieda or segga, sediamo (seggiàmo), 
 
 siedi, sedete, sieda or segga, sediate, 
 
 siede, siedono or seggono. sieda or segga, siedano or seggano. 
 
 10. Vedére, see, vidi, veduto or visto ; vedrò. Provvedére has a 
 
 future provveder© ; prevedére has prevedere or prevedrò. Ali 
 other compounds are like vedére. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Vedo (veggo or véggio), Veda (vegga or véggia), 
 
 vedi, veda (vegga or véggia), 
 
 vede, veda (vegga or véggia), 
 
 vediamo (veggiàmo), vediamo (veggiamo), 
 
 vedete, vediate (veggiàte), 
 
 vedono (veggono or véggiono). vedano (veggano or véggiano). 
 
 11. Giacere, /?>, giacqui, giaciuto. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Giaccio, giacciamo. Giaccia, giacciamo, 
 
 giaci, giacete, giaccia, giacciate, 
 
 giace, giacciono. giaccia, giacciano. 
 
 12. Piacére, please: like giacere (11). 
 
 13. Tacére, be silent : like giacere (11). 
 
 14. Solére, be wont, solito. No pret., fui., cond., nor imperative. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Soglio, sogliamo. 
 
 Soglia, sogliamo. 
 
 suoli, solete. 
 
 soglia, sogliàte, 
 
 suole, sogliono. 
 
 soglia, sogliano. 
 
 15. Dolere, grieve, dolsi, doluto; dorrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Dolgo (dòglio), dogliamo,* Dolga (doglia), dogliamo,* 
 
 duoli, dolete, dolga (doglia), dogliàte, 
 
 iuole, dolgono (dogliono). dolga (doglia), dolgano (dogliano). 
 
 * Also dolghiàmo : a popular form.
 
 92 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 6. Rimanére, remain, rimasi, rimasto or rimàso; rimarrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Rimango, rimaniamo,* Rimanga, rimaniamo,* 
 
 rimani, rimanete, rimanga, rimaniate, 
 
 rimane, rimangono. rimanga, rimàngano. 
 
 17. Tenére, hold, tenni, tenuto; terrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Tengo, teniamo,* Tenga, teniamo,* 
 
 tieni, tenete, tenga, teniàte, 
 
 tiene, tengono. tenga, tengano. 
 
 18. Valére, be worth, valsi, valuto or valso ; varrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Valgo (vàglio), vagliamo,* Valga (vàglia), vagliamo,* 
 
 vali, valete, valga (vàglia), vagliate, 
 
 vàie, valgono (vàgliono). valga (vàglia), valgano (vagliano). 
 
 19. Volére, wish, vólli,t voluto ; vorrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. IMPER. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Voglio, vogliamo, Vogli, Voglia, vogliamo, 
 
 vu6i,t volete, vogliamo, voglia, vogliate, 
 
 vuole, vogliono. vogliate. voglia, vogliano. 
 
 20. Parére, seem, parvi, parùto or parso ; parrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Pàio, paiamo or pariamo, Paia, paiamo or pariamo, 
 
 pari, paréte, paia, paiate, 
 
 pare, paiono. paia, paiano. 
 
 21. Potére, be able, potei, potuto; potrò.§ No imperative. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Posso, possiamo, Pòssa, possiamo, 
 
 puoi, potete, pòssa, possiate, 
 
 può, Il possono. Il pòssa, possano. 
 
 * PAso rimanghidmo ; tenghiàmo ; valghidmo: popular forms. 
 
 t Also volsi. X Also vuogli or vuòli. 
 
 § In poetry we find a conditional potala. \\ Also puòie ; panno.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 93 
 
 22. Persuadére, persuade, persuasi, persuaso. Pres. persuado, etc. 
 
 23. Calére, matter, càlse, "Saluto. Impersonai. No fut., cond., nor 
 
 imperative. Nat modem. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Cale. Caglia. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 e. All irregular verbs of the third conjugation are accented, m 
 the singular and third person plural of the present indicative and 
 subjunctive, on the same syllable as in the infinitive. 
 
 /. Verbs in -cere and -gere insert no / between the c ox g and 
 the ^ or ^ of the present indicative and subjunctive endings, 
 except in the first person plural of both moods and the second 
 person plural of the subjunctive. Cf. 60, last paragraph. 
 
 g. See chapter on Pronunciation, 4, S, d, 
 
 PRESENT REGULAR. 
 
 24. Accendere, light, accési, accéso. 
 
 25. Afflìggere, afflict, afflissi, afflitto. 
 
 26. Algere, be cold, àlsi. Defective. Rare. 
 Tj. Allùdere, allude, allùsi (alludéi), allùso. 
 
 28. Àrdere, bum, àrsi, àrso. 
 
 29. Arrògere, add, arrósi, arreso or arroto. Defective. Rare. 
 
 30. Assidere, besiege, assisi, assiso. Rare. 
 
 31. Assòlvere, absolve, assolvetti or assolvei or assòlsi, assòlto or 
 
 assoluto. So risòlvere {determine) \ for solvere, dissòlvere, 
 and risòlvere {dissolve), see 107. 
 
 32. Assòrbere, absorb, assórsi {not in use), assórto. Rare. 
 
 33. Avellere, uproot, avulse, avulso. Defective. Rare. 
 
 34. Chiùdere, shut, chiùsi, chiùso. So ali verbs in -chiùdere or 
 
 -elùdere. See, however, 4, S,.^?. 
 
 35. Còlere, revere, cólto or culto. Defective. Rare. 
 
 36. Connèttere, connect, connèssi (connettéi), connèsso (connet- 
 
 tùto). Rare. 
 
 37. Conóscere, know, conóbbi, conosciuto. 
 
 38. Conquidere, conquer, conquisi, conquiso. Rare^
 
 94 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 39. Consùmere, consume, consùnsi, consunto. Rare. Presùmere 
 
 has also presuméi. 
 
 40. Contùndere, bruise, contùsi, contùso. 
 
 41. Córrere, run, córsi, córso. 
 
 42. Créscere, grow, crébbi, cresciuto. 
 
 43. Cuòcere, cook, cocéndo, còssi, còtto. Pres. cuòcio (9/- cuòco, cic.^ 
 
 44. Decidere, decide, decisi, deciso. 
 
 45. Difèndere, defend, difési (difendei), diféso. 
 
 46. Dirigere, direct, diressi, diretto. 
 
 47. Discùtere, discuss, discùssi (discutei), discùsso. 
 
 48. Distinguere, distinguish, distinsi, distinto. 
 
 49. Divìdere, divide, divìsi, diviso. 
 
 50. Elidere, elide, elisi (elidei), eliso. 
 
 51. Elùdere, elude, elùsi (eludei or eludetti), elùso. 
 
 52. Èrgere, erect, èrsi, èrto. Rare. 
 
 53. Esìgere, exact, esigei (esigetti), esatto. 
 
 54. Esistere, exist, esistei (esistetti), esistito. 
 
 55. Espèllere, expel, espulsi, espulso. Rare. 
 
 56. Esplòdere, explode, esplòsi, esplòso. 
 
 57. Esprimere, express, esprèssi, esprèsso. So ali other verbs in 
 
 -primere. Prèmere and its cojnpounds are regi dar. 
 
 58. Fèndere, split, fendei (fendetti or fèssi), fenduto or fésso. 
 
 59. Figgere (fìgere),y?;r, fìssi, fitto. 
 
 60. Fingere, feign, finsi, finto. 
 
 61. Fóndere, melt, fusi (fondéi), fuso (fonduto). 
 
 62. Fràngere, break, frànsi, frànto. 
 
 63. Frìggere, /ry, frissi, fritto. 
 
 64. Genuflèttere, kneel, genuflèssi, genuflèsso. Rare, 
 
 65. Intridere, dihite, intrisi, intriso. 
 
 66. Intrudere, intrude, intrusi, intruso. 
 
 67. Invàdere, invade, invàsi, invàso. 
 
 68. Lèdere, offend, lèsi {not in use^, lèso. Rare. 
 
 69. Lèggere, read, lèssi, lètto. 
 
 70. Lìcere or lécere, be lawful, lécito or licito. Impersonai. De- 
 
 fective. Poetical. 
 
 71. Lùdere, //«y, lùsi, lùso. Rare. 
 
 72. M èrgere, plunge, mèrsi, mèrso. Rare. 
 
 73. Méttere, put, méssi or misi, mésso. 
 
 * In the ist and 2d persons plural of the pres. ind., subj., and impera» 
 tivQ, uo is generally replaced by : cociamo^ etc.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 95 
 
 74. Mòlcere, soothe, mùlse. Defective. Rare. 
 
 75. Mòrdere, bite, mòrsi, mòrso. 
 
 76. Muòvere, move, movendo, mòssi, mòsso. 
 TJ. Nàscere, be born, nàcqui, nàto. 
 
 78. Nascóndere, hide, nascósi, nascósto. 
 
 79. Negligere {see 5, Gli), neglect, neglessi, negletto. 
 
 80. Offendere, offend, offesi, offéso. 
 
 81. Osténdere, show. Defective. Rare. 
 
 82. Percipere, perceive, percétto. Defective. Rare. 
 
 83. Perdere, lose, perdei or perdetti or persi, perduto or pèrso. 
 
 84. Piòvere, rain, piòvve (piove), piovuto. Impersonai. 
 
 85. Pòrgere, present, pòrsi, pòrto. 
 
 86. Prediligere, prefer, predilessi, predilètto. 
 
 87. Prèndere, take, presi, prèso. 
 
 88. Protèggere, protect, protèssi, protètto. 
 
 89. Ràdere, shave, rasi (radei), raso. 
 
 90. Redimere, redeem, redènsi (rediméi), redènto. 
 
 91. Règgere, support, rèssi, rètto. 
 
 92. Rèndere, render, rési (rendei or rendetti), réso (fenduto). 
 
 93. Ridere, laugh, risi, riso. 
 
 94. Riflèttere, reflect, riflettei or riflèssi, riflettuto or riflèsso. Riflèt- 
 
 tere, ''to reflect light,'''' is generally irregular -, riflèttere, "-to 
 meditate^'' is usually regular. 
 
 95. Rifùlgere, shine, rifùlsi. Past part, lacking. Poetical. 
 
 96. Rilucere, shine, rilùssi or rilucéi. Past part, lacking. 
 
 97. Rispóndere, answer, rispósi, rispósto. 
 
 98. Ródere, ^««w, rósi, róso. 
 
 99. Rompere, break, ruppi, rótto. 
 100. Scéndere, descend, scési, scéso. 
 
 IDI. Scindere, sever, scindei or scissi, scisso. 
 
 102. Sciòlvere, breakfast, sciòlsi or sciolvètti, sciòlto. Rare. 
 
 103. Scòrgere, perceive, scòrsi, scòrto. 
 
 104. Scrivere, write, scrissi, scritto. 
 
 105. Scuòtere, shake, scotèndo, scòssi, scòsso.* 
 
 106. Soffólcere, support, soffólse, soffólto. Defective. Rare. 
 
 107. Solvere, undo, solvei (solvetti), soluto. Poetical. So dissòl- 
 
 vere ; for assòlvere and risòlvere {determine) , see ^i. 
 
 108. Sórgere, rise, sórsi, sórto. 
 
 * See page 94, footnote.
 
 go ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 109. Sospendere, sìispend, sospési, sospéso. So appendere, impén- 
 
 dere ; pendere is reg., dipèndere either reg. or irreg. 
 
 110. Spàndere, spili, spandéi or spandétti, spanto. 
 
 111. Spàrgere, scatter, spàrsi, spàrso or sparto. 
 
 112. Spèndere, spend, spési, spéso. 
 
 113. Spèrgere, disperse, spèrsi, spérso. Rare. 
 
 1 14. Spòrgere, project, spòrsi, spòrto. 
 
 115. Strùggere, melt, strùssi, strùtto. 
 
 1 16. Succèdere, happeti, succèssi or succedei, succèsso or succeduto. 
 
 So concedere, which has also concedetti; cèdere audits other 
 compounds are generally regular. 
 
 117. Sùggere, suck, suggéi or sussi. Past part, lacking. Rare. 
 
 118. Tèndere {transitive^, extend, tési, téso. The intrans, verb is 
 
 reg., but has no past participle. 
 
 119. Tèrgere, wipe, tèrsi or tergéi, tèrso. Rare. 
 
 120. Tòrcere, twist, tòrsi, tòrto. 
 
 121. Uccidere, kill, uccisi, ucciso. 
 
 122. Vincere, conquer, vinsi, vinto. 
 
 123. Vivere, live, vissi, vissuto or vivùto ; viverò or vivrò. 
 
 124. Vòlgere, turn, volsi, vòlto. 
 
 125. Vói vere, ^«r/2, volsi, vòlto. Rare. TìtvòìvtxQ. has a past part, 
 
 devoluto. 
 
 PRESENT IRREGULAR. 
 
 126. Èssere, be, fui, stato; sarò. 6V(? 53, a.* 
 
 127. Bére or bévere, drink, bevendo, bévvi (bevétti ^r bevéi), be- 
 
 vuto (beùto) ; berò or beverò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Bévo or beo, beviamo or beiamo, Béva or bea, beviamo or beiamo, 
 
 bévi or bèi, bevete or beéte, béva or bea, beviate or beiate, 
 
 béve or bée, bévono or béono. béva or bea, bévano or beano. 
 
 * In the imperfect indicative èramo is often used for eravamo. We find in 
 poetry : séte for siete ; énno or en for sano (third plur.) ; sie for sia ; erdmo, 
 erdte for eravamo, eravate; u for in the preterite and imperfect subjunc- 
 tive; fòro {ox furono ; fia, fiano ox fieno, for sarà, saranno; fora, forano 
 for sarei, sarebbe, sarebbero; scudo for essendo ; sùto, essùto, or issùto for stdto.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 97 
 
 128. Chiedere, ask, chièsi (chièsi or chiedéi), chiesto. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Chièdo (chièggo),* Chièda (chiègga),* 
 
 chièdi, chièda (chiègga), 
 
 chiède, chièda (chiègga), 
 
 chiediamo, chiediamo, 
 
 chiedete, chiediate, 
 
 chièdono (chièggono).* chièdano (chièggano) .* 
 
 129. Condurre, ì:^;z^z^^/, conducéndo, condussi, condótto ; condurrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Conddco, conduciamo, Conddca, conduciamo, 
 
 condtìci, conducete, conddca, conduciate, 
 
 conddce, conducono. condàca, conddcano. 
 
 130. Nuòcere, harm, nocéndo, nòcqui, nociuto. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Nuoco or noccio, nociamo, Nuoca or noccia, nociamo, 
 
 nuoci, nocete, nuoca crnoccia, nociate, 
 
 nuoce, nuocono <?;' nocciono. nuoca smoccia, nuocano smocciano. 
 
 131. Pórre, /«/, ponendo, pósi, pósto ; porrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Póngo, poniamo (ponghiàmo), Pónga, poniamo (ponghiàmo), 
 
 póni, ponete, pónga, poniate, 
 
 póne, póngono. pónga, póngano. 
 
 132. Trarre (tràere), drag, traendo, trassi, tratto; trarrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Traggo, traiamo or traggiàmo,t Tragga, traiamo or traggiàmo,t 
 
 trai (tràggi), traete, tragga, traiate, 
 
 trae (tràgge), traggono. tragga, traggano. 
 
 133. Veliere (vérre), tear up, vélsi, vélto ; veliero (verrò or velgerò). 
 
 Veliere, which is rare, has not all the forms given here ; but 
 its compound, svellere, has them all. 
 
 * Also chieggio, chieggiono, chieggia, chieggiano. \ Also tragghidmo.
 
 98 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 YèWo or \e\go, velliamo (velgiamo), Velia or vèlga, velliàmo (velgiàmo), 
 velli (velgi), velléte, vèlia or velga, velliàte (velgiàte), 
 
 vèlie (velge), vellono or velgono. velia or velga, vèllano or vèlgano. 
 
 134. Cògliere {corre), gather, còlsi, còlto; coglierò or corrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Còlgo (còglie), cogliamo (colghiàmo), Còlga (cóglia), cogliamo (colghiàmo), 
 
 cògli, cogliete, còlga (coglia), cogliàte, 
 
 còglie, còlgono (cogliono). còlga (cóglia), còlgano (cògliano). 
 
 135. Scégliere (scérre), choose: like cògliere (134). 
 
 136. Sciògliere (sciòrre), untie: like cògliere (134). 
 
 137. Tògliere (tórre), take: like cògliere (134). 
 
 138. Giùngere (giùgnere), to arrive ^ giùnsi, giùnto ; giungerò 
 
 (giugnerò). 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Gidngo (gi tigno), Gidnga (giàgna), 
 
 gidngi (giàgni), giónga (giàgna), 
 
 giùnge (giógne), giùnga (gidgna), 
 
 giungiamo (giugniàmo), giungiamo (gi ugniamo), 
 
 giungete (giugnéte), giungiate (gi ugniate), 
 
 giùngono (gidgnono). giùngano (gidgnano). 
 
 139. Cingere (cignere), ^Vtì?: //^<? giùngere (138). 
 
 140. Mùgnere (mùngere), milk: //-^<? giùngere (138). 
 
 141. Piàngere (piagnere), weep: /z,^^ giùngere (138). 
 
 142. Fingere {pigntro) , paint : /z^(? giùngere (138). 
 
 143. Pùngere (pùgnere) , ^rz^/è ; /z/è<? giùngere (138). 
 
 144. Spègnere (spéngere), extinguish: like giùngere (138), except 
 
 that the forms with gn are as common as those with ng. 
 
 145. Spingere (spìgnere) , ^z/j--^ : /z>t^ giùngere (138). 
 
 146. Stringere (strignere), bÌ7id: like giùngere (138), except that the 
 
 p.p. is strétto or strinto. Costringere has only costretto. 
 
 147. Tingere (tignere), dye: like giùngere (138). 
 143. Ùngere (ùgnere), ^«czVz/ ; /zX'^ giùngere (138).
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 PRESENT REGULAR. 
 
 149. Aprire, open^ aprii or apersi, apèrto. Pres. apro, etc. 
 
 150. Coprire (cuoprìre), cover, coprii or copersi, copèrto. Pres, 
 
 copro (cuópro), etc. 
 
 151. Offrire (offerire), offer ^ offrii (offerii) or offersi, offèrto. Pres. 
 
 offro (offerisco), etc. 
 
 152. Soffrire, suffer : like offrire (151). 
 
 153. Convertire, convert^ convertii or convèrsi, convertito or con- 
 
 vèrso. Pres. converto or convertisco, etc. All other verbs 
 in -vertire are reg. 
 
 154. Costruire (construire), construct, co(n)strùssi or co(n)struii, 
 
 co(n)struito or co(n) strùtto. Pres. co(n)struisco, etc. 
 
 155. Digerire, digest, digerii, digerito (digèsto). /V<?j. digerisco, ^/^. 
 
 156. Esaurire, exhaust, esaurii, esaurito or esàusto. Pres. esau- 
 
 risco, etc. 
 
 157. Seppellire or sepellire, bury, sep(p)ellii, seppellito or sepólto. 
 
 Pres. sep(p)ellisco, etc. 
 
 PRESENT IRREGULAR. 
 
 158. Cucire, sew, cucii, cucito. Pres. cucio or cucisco. This verb 
 
 inserts i before o and a, bid not before e and i. 
 
 159. Sdrucire or sdruscire, rip: like cucire (158). 
 
 160. Empire or empiere, fill, empiendo, empii, empito. All but the 
 
 present from the stem of empire. So compire or compiere, 
 which has also a past part, compiuto. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Émpio (empisco), empiamo, Émpia, empiamo, 
 
 émpi (empisci), empite, émpia, empiate, 
 
 émpie (empisce), empiono (empiscono). émpia, empiano. 
 
 161. Morire, die, morii, mòrto ; morrò or morirò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Muoio (muoro) , moriamo or muoiàmo, Muoia (muora) , moriamo or muoiàmo, 
 
 muori or muoi, morite, muoia (muora), muoiàte, 
 
 muore, muoiono (muorono). muoia (muora), muoiano (muorano).* 
 
 * In ali forms where uo occurs, it may be replaced by 0.
 
 lOO ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 162. Seguire, follow, seguii, seguito. Pres. seguo, gU. The verb is 
 
 generally regular ; but the é may be changed to ié in all forms 
 where it is accented. Proseguire has -seguo or -seguisco. 
 
 163. Sparire, disappear, sparii or sparvi, sparito. Pres. {regular^ 
 
 sparisco, etc. Apparire has apparvi or -si or -fi, apparito or 
 apparso ; comparire has comparvi or -si or -ii, comparso ; 
 otherwise they are like sparire, but they have in the present 
 the additional forms : -pàio, -pare, -paiono; -paia, -paiano. 
 
 164. Dire, say, dicendo, dissi, détto ; dirò. Dire {formerly dicere) 
 belongs really to the third conjugation : dicésti, -èva, -èssi. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 PRES. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 Dico, diciamo, 
 
 Di', 
 
 Dica, 
 
 diciamo, 
 
 dici, dite, 
 
 diciamo, 
 
 dica, 
 
 diciate. 
 
 dice, dicono. 
 
 dite. 
 
 dica, 
 
 dicano. 
 
 165. Salire, ascend, salii or salsi, salito. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Salgo (sali'sco), saliamo (?r sagliàmo,* Salga (salisca), saliamo ^r sagliàmo,* 
 
 sali (salisci), salite, salga (salisca), sagliàte, 
 
 sale (salisce), salgono (saliscono). salga (salisca), salgano (saliscano). 
 
 166. Venire, come, venni, venuto; verrò. 
 
 PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Vengo (vegno), veniamo,* Venga (vegna), veniamo,* 
 
 vieni, venite, venga (vegna), veniate, 
 
 viene, vengono (vègnono). venga (vegna), vengano (vegnano). 
 
 167. Udire, hear, udii, udito; udirò (udrò). 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 Odo, udiamo. 
 
 PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Oda, udiamo, 
 
 odi, udite, 
 ode, odono. 
 
 oda, udiate, 
 oda, odano. 
 
 168. Uscire (escire), go out, uscii, uscito. 
 
 PRES. IND. ^ PRES. SUBJ. 
 
 Esco, usciamo. Esca, usciamo, 
 
 esci, uscite, 8sca, usciate, 
 
 esce, escono. 6sca, escano. 
 
 169. Orire, be born, òrto. Defective. Rare. 
 
 i * Also salghiàmo ; venghiàmo ' popular forms.
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. lOI 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR AND 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 93. Every irregular verb in this list is followed by a 
 number referring to the table of Irregular Verbs arranged 
 according to Conjugation. Obsolete defective verbs that 
 present no irregularity have not been mentioned. 
 
 a. Compound verbs have, in general, been excluded from this 
 list, unless they differ in conjugation from the simple verbs from 
 which they come (see 67, a). The commonest prefixes are : a- 
 (corresponding in meaning to the preposition a) \ as- (= Latin 
 abs-^ ; CO-, cofn-, con-, cor- (= prep, con) ; contra- (= prep. 
 contra) ; de-^ di- (= Lat. de-) ; dis- (= Lat. dis-) ; e-, es- (= Lat. 
 ex) ; /■-, im-, in-, ir- (= prep, in) ; o- {= Lat. ob) ; per- (= prep. 
 per); pre- (=Lat. prae-) \ pro- (=Lat. pro-) \ r-, re-, ri- 
 (= Lat. re-) ; j- (= Lat. ex- or dis-) ; so-, sos-, su- (= Lat. sub) ; 
 sopra-, sopr-, sor- (= prep, sópra) ; sott-, sotto- (= prep, sótto) ; 
 stra- (= Lat. extra) ; tra- (= prep. tra). After several of these 
 prefixes the initial consonant of the simple verb is generally found 
 doubled : a -\- cadére = accadere. S- is sometimes combined with 
 con-, r- with a- or in- : scoscéndere, raccògliere, rincórrere. 
 
 Accadere, see cadére, 7. Andare, i. 
 
 Accendere, 24. Annèttere, see connèttere, 36. 
 
 Acclàdere, see chiddere, 34. Antepórre, see pórre, 131. 
 
 Accorgere, see scorgere, 103. Antivedére, /./. only antiveddto. 
 Acquisire has only acquisi'to. otherwise like vedére, io. 
 
 Addurre, see condurre, 129. Apparire, see sparire, 163. 
 
 Affliggere, 25. Appartenére, see tenére, 17. 
 
 Algere, 26. Appèndere, see sospèndere, 109. 
 
 Allùdere, 27. Aprire, 149. 
 
 Ancldere, see uccidere, 121. Ardere, 28.
 
 102 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Arrògere, 29. 
 
 Ascéndere, see scéndere, 100. 
 
 Asciolvere, see sciolvere, 102. 
 
 Ascóndere, see nascóndere, 78. 
 
 Aspergere, see spergere, 113. 
 
 Assalire, see salire, 165. 
 
 Assidere, 30. 
 
 Assistere, see esistere, 54. 
 
 Assòlvere, 31. 
 
 Assòrbere, 32. 
 
 Assdmere, see constìmere, 39. 
 
 Avèllere, t^^. 
 
 Avere, 5. 
 
 Bére, 127. 
 
 Bévere, see bére, 127. 
 
 Cadére, 7. 
 
 Calére, 23. 
 
 Cèdere, generally reg., sometimes has 
 
 pret. cessi, p.p. cesso. 
 Chiedere, 128. 
 Chiddere, 34. 
 Cignere, see cfngere, 139. 
 Cingere, 139. 
 
 Circoncidere, see decidere, 44. 
 Cogliere, 134. 
 
 Coincìdere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 Colere, 35. 
 
 Collidere, see Iddere, 71. 
 Comparire, see sparire, 163. 
 Competere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 Compiere, see empire, 160. 
 Compire, see empire, 160. 
 Comprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 Concedere, see succedere, 116. 
 Conclddere, see chiddere, 34. 
 Concdtere, see discdtere, 47. 
 Conddrre, 129. 
 Connettere, 36. 
 Conóscere, 37. 
 Conquidere, 38, 
 
 Consistere, see esistere, 54. 
 
 Constare is reg. 
 
 Construire, see costruire, 154. 
 
 Consdmere, 39. 
 
 Contèndere, see tèndere, 118. 
 
 Contrastare is reg. 
 
 Controvèrtere, see Vèrtere. 
 
 Contdndere, 40. 
 
 Convèrgere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 
 Convertire, 153. 
 
 Coprire, 150. 
 
 Corre, see cogliere, 134. 
 
 Córrere, 41. 
 
 Corrispóndere, see rispóndere, 97 
 
 Cospàrgere, see spàrgere, iii. 
 
 Cospèrgere, see spergere, 113. 
 
 Costruire, 154. 
 
 Créscere, 42. 
 
 Cucire, 158. 
 
 Cuocere, 43. 
 
 Cuoprire, see coprire, 150. 
 
 Dare, 3. 
 
 Decidere, 44. 
 
 Deddrre, see conddrre, 129. 
 
 Delinquere, reg. verb, has no p.p., anà 
 
 its pret., delinquetti, is rare. 
 Deprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 Desistere, see esistere, 54. 
 Devòlvere, see vòlvere, 125. 
 Difèndere, 45. 
 Digerire, 155. 
 
 Dipèndere, see sospèndere, 109. 
 Dire, 164. 
 Dirigere, 46. 
 
 Dirimere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 Discéndere, see scéndere, 100. 
 Discdtere, 47. 
 
 Dispèrgere, see spergere, 113. 
 Dissolvere, see solvere, 107. 
 Dissuadere, see persuadére, 22.
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 103 
 
 Distare, reg. in pres. of all moodsy no 
 pres. p., otherwise like stare, 4. 
 
 Distinguere, 48. 
 
 Distrùggere, see strùggere, il 5. 
 
 Divedére, has nothing but injin. 
 
 Divergere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 
 Dividere, 49. 
 
 Dolere, 15. 
 
 Dovére, 8. 
 
 Eleggere, see lèggere, 69. 
 
 Elidere, 50. 
 
 Elùdere, 51. 
 
 Empiere, see empire, 160. 
 
 Empire, 160. 
 
 Èrgere, 52. 
 
 Erigere, see dirigere, 46. 
 
 Esaurire, 156. 
 
 Escire, see uscire, 168. 
 
 Esclùdere, see chiùdere, 34. 
 
 Esigere, 53. 
 
 Esimere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 
 Esistere, 54. 
 
 Espèllere, 55. 
 
 Esplodere, 56. 
 
 Esprimere, 57. 
 
 Èssere, 126. 
 
 Estinguere, see distinguere, 48. 
 
 Evàdere, see invàdere, 67. 
 
 Fare, 2. 
 
 Fèndere, 58. 
 
 Fervere, reg. verb, has no p.p., and is 
 rare except in the third per s. of the 
 pres. and imp. ind. 
 
 Fi'gere, see figgere, 59. 
 
 Figgere, 59. 
 
 Fingere, 60. 
 
 Fóndere, 61. 
 
 Fràngere, 62. 
 
 Friggere, 63. 
 
 Genuflèttere, 64. 
 
 Giacere, 11. 
 
 Gire, defect. : pres. giamo, gite ; imp. 
 
 giva or già, etc.; imper. giamo, 
 
 gite; pres. subj. giamo, giàte; no 
 
 pres. p. ; rest reg. 
 Giùgnere, see giùngere, 138. 
 Giùngere, 138. 
 Illùdere, see lùdere, 71. 
 Impèllere, see espèllere, 55. 
 Impèndere, see sospèndere, 109. 
 Imprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 Incidere, see decidere, 44. 
 Inelùdere, see chiùdere, 34. 
 Incùtere, see discùtere, 47. 
 Indurre, see condurre, 129. 
 Insistere, see esistere, 54. 
 Instare is reg. 
 
 Instruire, see construire, 154. 
 Intèndere, see tèndere, 118. 
 Intercédere, see succèdere, 1 16. 
 Intridere, 65. 
 
 Introdurre, see condurre, 129. 
 Intrudere, 66. 
 Invàdere, 67. 
 Invalére, p.p. only invalso, oikerwist 
 
 like valére, 18. 
 Ire, defect. : pres. ite; imp. iva, etc. ; 
 
 pret. isti, iste, irò; fut. iremo, 
 
 irete, iranno; imper. ite; imp. 
 
 subj. isse, iste, isserò; p.p. ito. 
 Istruire, see costruire, 154. 
 Lécere, see licere, 70. 
 Lèdere, 68. 
 Lèggere, 69. 
 Licere, 70. 
 
 Lucere, reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 Lùdere, 71. 
 
 Mantenére, see tenére, 17. 
 Mèrgere, 72. 
 Méttere, 73.
 
 i04 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Molcere, 74. 
 
 Mordere, 75. 
 
 Morire, 161. 
 
 Mdgnere, 140. 
 
 Mùngere, see mdgnere, 140. 
 
 Muovere, 76. 
 
 Nàscere, 77. 
 
 Nascóndere, 78. 
 
 Negligere, 79. 
 
 Nuocere, 130. 
 
 Offendere, 80. 
 
 Offerire, see offrire, 151. 
 
 Offrire, 151. 
 
 Opprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 
 Orire, 169. 
 
 Ostare is reg. 
 
 Ostèndere, 81. 
 
 Parére, 20. 
 
 Percipere, 82. 
 
 Percuòtere, see scuotere, 105. 
 
 Perdere, 83. 
 
 Permanére, see rimanére, 16. 
 
 Persistere, see esìstere, 54. 
 
 Persuadére, 22. 
 
 Piacére, 12. 
 
 Piagnere, see piàngere, 141. 
 
 Piàngere, 141. 
 
 Pi'gnere, see pfngere, 142. 
 
 Pmgere, 142. 
 
 Piovere, 84. 
 
 Porgere, 85. 
 
 Pórre, 131. 
 
 Pospórre, see pórre, 131. 
 
 Possedére, see sedére, 9. 
 
 Potére, 21. 
 
 Precidere, see decidere, 44. 
 
 Preclùdere, see chiddere, 34. 
 
 Prediligere, 86. 
 
 Premere is reg. 
 
 Prèndere, 87. 
 
 Prestare is reg. 
 
 Presùmere, see consdmere, 39. 
 
 Prevedére, see vedére, io. 
 
 Proddrre, see conddrre, 129. 
 
 Proteggere, 88. 
 
 Provvedére, fut. ana cond. uncon» 
 
 traded, otherwise like vedére, io. 
 Prddere, reg. verb, has no P-p., and i\ 
 
 used only in the third pers, 
 Pdgnere, see pdngere, 143. 
 Pdngere, 143. 
 
 Raccogliere, see cogliere, 134. 
 Ràdere, 89. 
 
 Raggidngere, see gidngere, 138. 
 Recidere, see decidere, 44. 
 Redimere, 90. 
 Reggere, 91. 
 Rèndere, 92. 
 
 Repèllere, see espèllere, 55. 
 Reprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 Resistere, see esistere, 54. 
 Restare is reg. 
 Ridere, 93. 
 
 Riddrre, see conddrre, 129. 
 Riflèttere, 94. 
 Rifdlgere, 95. 
 Rildcere, 96. 
 Rimanére, 16. 
 
 Risolvere (^dissolve'), see solvere, 107. 
 'R\sò\vtxe{determine),seeQS?,ò\yete,'^l 
 Rispóndere, 97. 
 Ristare, see stare, 4. 
 Risdmere, see consdmere, 39. 
 Ródere, 98. 
 Rompere, 99. 
 Salire, 165. 
 Sapere, 6. 
 Scégliere, 135. 
 Scéndere, 100. 
 Scérre, see scégliere, 135.
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 105 
 
 Scfndere, 101 
 
 Sciogliere, 136. 
 
 Sciolvere, 102. 
 
 Sciorre, see sciogliere, 136. 
 
 Scomméttere, see méttere, 73. 
 
 Scoprire, see coprire, 150. 
 
 Scorgere, 103. 
 
 Scrivere, 104. 
 
 Scuòtere, 105. 
 
 Sdrucire, 159. 
 
 Sdruscire, see sdrucire, 159. 
 
 Sedére, 9. 
 
 Sedurre, see conddrre, 129. 
 
 Seguire, 162. 
 
 Sepellire, see seppellire, 157. 
 
 Seppellire, 157. 
 
 SofFeri're, see soffrire, 152. 
 
 Soffólcere, 106. 
 
 Soffrire, 152. 
 
 Solére, 14. 
 
 Solvere, 107. 
 
 Sopprimere, see esprimere, 57. 
 
 Soprastare, see stare, 4. 
 
 Sórgere, 108. 
 
 Sospèndere, 109. 
 
 Sostare is reg. 
 
 Sottostare, see stare, 4. 
 
 Sovrastare, see stare, 4, 
 
 Spàndere, no. 
 
 Spàrgere, ni. 
 
 Sparire, 163. 
 
 Spegnere, 144. 
 
 Spendere, 112. 
 
 Spengere, see spegnere, 144. 
 
 Spérgere, 113. 
 
 Spignere, see spingere, 145. 
 
 Spingere, 145^ 
 
 Sporgere, 114. 
 
 Stare, 4. 
 
 Stridere» reg. verb, has no p.p. 
 
 Strignere, see stringere, 146. 
 
 Stringere, 146. 
 
 Strùggere, 115. 
 
 Subire is reg. : pres. subfsco. 
 
 Succèdere, 116. 
 
 Stìggere, 117. 
 
 Sussistere, see esistere, 54. 
 
 Svèllere, see veliere, 133. 
 
 Tacére, 13. 
 
 Tèndere {trans.), 118. [/./. 
 
 Tèndere (intrans.), reg. verb, has no 
 
 Tenére, 17. 
 
 Tèrgere, 119. 
 
 Tignere, see tingere, 147. 
 
 Tingere, 147. 
 
 Togliere, 137. 
 
 Torcere, 120. 
 
 Torre, see togliere, 137. 
 
 Tradurre, see conddrre, 129. 
 
 Tràere, see trarre, 132. 
 
 Transigere, see esigere, 53. 
 
 Trarre, 132. 
 
 Uccidere, 121. 
 
 Udire, 167. 
 
 Ugnere, see dngere, 148. 
 
 Ùngere, 148. 
 
 Uscire, 168. 
 
 Valére, 18. 
 
 Vedére, io. 
 
 Veliere, 133. 
 
 Venire, 166. 
 
 Vèrre, see veliere, 133. 
 
 Vèrtere, reg. verb, is used only in tht 
 
 pres. and imp. 
 Vilipèndere, see sospèndere, 109. 
 Vincere, 122. 
 Vivere, 123. 
 Volére, 19. 
 Vòlgere, 124. 
 Vòlvere, 125.
 
 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 107 
 
 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 A, to, at, in. 
 
 A', ài, al, etc. = a + art. 
 
 Abbellito, beautified. 
 
 Accompagnare, accompany. 
 
 Accorgersi, perceive. 
 
 Acqua, water. 
 
 Ad, see A. 
 
 Affacciarsi, place one's self {at a 
 
 window). 
 Affrettare, hasten. 
 Agguantare, seize. 
 Agostino, Gus. 
 Àlbero, tree. 
 Ale, wing. 
 Alétta, little wing. 
 Alettlna, little wing. 
 Alfredo, Alfred. 
 Allontanare, send oflf. 
 Allóra, then. 
 Altro, other. 
 Amaro, bitter. 
 Anche, also, even. 
 Andar, see Andare. 
 Andare, go, to go, going. 
 Andarsene, go away. 
 Andato, gone. 
 Anello, ring. 
 Animale, animal. 
 Ammalino, little creature. 
 Antico, old. 
 Ape, bee. 
 Appéna, hardly. 
 
 Appósta, on purpose. 
 Aria, air. 
 
 Arricchito, enriched. 
 Arrivare, arrive. 
 Arrivato, having arrived. 
 Asino, ass. 
 Assalire, attack. 
 Assènzio, wormwood. 
 Assoliito, absolute. 
 Attimo, flash. 
 Avanti a, in front of. 
 Avere, have. 
 Avvedérsi di, perceive. 
 Azionacela, froiti Azióne. 
 Azióne, action. 
 Babbo, father, papa. 
 Badare, keep. 
 Bagnare, bathe. 
 Bambino, child. 
 Bàrbaro, barbarian. 
 Barbóne, water-spaniel. 
 Baróne, baron. 
 Bastóne, stick. 
 Bel, see Bèllo. 
 Bellissimo, very beautiful. 
 Bèllo, beautiful, fine, kind. 
 Ben, see Bène. 
 Bène, well, nicely, much. 
 Bène, good {noun). 
 Bócca, mouth. 
 Bòve, ox. 
 Bravo, worthy.
 
 L08 
 
 Brillare, shine. 
 
 Brutto, ugly. 
 
 Bucato, pricked. 
 
 Bugia, lie. 
 
 Bùio, dark. 
 
 Buòno, good. 
 
 Buttare, throw. Buttar giù = 
 
 swallow. 
 Cadére, fall. 
 Calzóni, trousers. 
 Can, see Cane. 
 Cane, dog, 
 Capace, capable. 
 Capo, head. Da cdpo, daccapo = 
 
 once more. 
 Cappèllo, hat. 
 Carlomagno, Charlemagne. 
 Carne, flesh. 
 Casa, house, home. 
 Cascare, fall. 
 Cassétta, drawer. 
 Cassettóne, bureau. 
 Castèllo, castle. 
 Cattivo, bad, naughty. 
 Célia, trick. 
 Cento, a hundred. 
 Cercare, search. 
 Cèrto, certain, some. 
 Cespu^io, bush. 
 Che, who, which, that. 
 Che, what. Che còsa - what. 
 Che, that. 
 Che, than. 
 
 Chi . . . chi, one . . . another. 
 Chiamare, call. 
 Chicca, sweetmeat. 
 Ci, there. 
 Cinque, five. 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Città, city. 
 
 Cittadino, citizen. 
 
 Coda, tail. 
 
 Cògli, col, etc. — con + art. 
 
 Cògliere, catch, pick. 
 
 Còllo, neck. 
 
 Cóme, as, like, how, when. 
 
 Cominciare, begin. 
 
 Comméttere, commit. 
 
 Compagno, companion. 
 
 Comune, town. Comuni = cova.- 
 mons. 
 
 Con, with. 
 
 Confètti, candy. 
 
 Conóscere, know, find out. 
 
 Cónte, count. 
 
 Continovaménte, continually. 
 
 Continuo, continual. 
 
 Cónto, count. 
 
 Còrpo, body. 
 
 Corrèggersi, reform. 
 
 Còsa, th ing. Còsa pùbblica = gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Così, so, thus. 
 
 Creatura, creature. 
 
 Crédere, believe. 
 
 Cui, whom, whose. 
 
 Curiosità, curiosity. 
 
 Curióso, curious, funny. 
 
 Da, by, from, as to. Ddtle pdrti 
 = at the sides. 
 
 Daccapo, see Capo. 
 
 Dai, dal, etc. = da + art. 
 
 Dare, give, look. 
 
 De', degli, dèi, del, etc. = di 4- art 
 
 Desidèrio, desire. 
 
 Détto, said, told. 
 
 Di, of, than, to, with.
 
 ITALIAN-ENGLISH V0;:ABULARY. 
 
 109 
 
 Dicèrto, surely. 
 
 Di dietro, from behind. 
 
 Dièci, ten. 
 
 Diètro, behind, after. Di diètro = 
 
 from behind. Diètro a = after. 
 Dintórni, neighborhood. 
 Dio, God. 
 D£re, say, speak. 
 Diritto, right. 
 Discórso, talk. 
 Disobbediénte, disobedient. 
 Disperato, desperate. 
 Distanza, distance. 
 Distrùggere, destroy. 
 Disubbidiènte, disobedient. 
 Ditlno, from Dito. 
 Dito, finger. Dito gròsso = thumb. 
 Diventare, become. 
 Dódici, twelve. 
 Dolóre, pain. 
 Dòpo, after. 
 Dóve, where. 
 Dovére, ought, must. 
 Due, two. 
 Dùnque, therefore. 
 Durante, during. 
 E, and. 
 Ecco, this is. 
 Ed, and. 
 Enrico, Henry. 
 Èssa, it. 
 Esse, them. 
 Èssere, be. Èssere per = be 
 
 about to. 
 Èssi, them. 
 Esso, it. 
 Fallo, fault. 
 Fanciullo, child. 
 
 Fare, make, let. 
 
 Farfalla, butterfly. 
 
 Fasciare, bandage. 
 
 Fèrro, iron. 
 
 Figliuòlo, child, son. 
 
 Figurarsi, imagine. 
 
 Finché non, until. 
 
 Finèstra, window. 
 
 Finire, finish. 
 
 Fino a, up to. 
 
 Fióre, flower. 
 
 Fiorito, flowery. 
 
 Firenze, Florence. 
 
 Firmaménto, firmament. 
 
 Fòglia, leaf. 
 
 Fónte, fountain. 
 
 Forestièro, foreign. 
 
 Fra, between, in, to. 
 
 Fréddo, cold. 
 
 Frónte, forehead. 
 
 Frutto, fruit. 
 
 Fuggire, flee. 
 
 Fuòri, out. 
 
 Fùria, haste. 
 
 Gamba, leg. 
 
 Gambo, stem. 
 
 Gatto, cat. 
 
 Genitóri, parents. ' 
 
 Già, already. \ 
 
 Giardino, garden. 
 
 Giglio, lily. 
 
 Giorgétto, Geòrgie. 
 
 Giórno, day. 
 
 Girar, see Girare. 
 
 Girare, go around. 
 
 Girato, gone around. 
 
 Giro, turn, circuit. 
 
 Giro giro a, round and round.
 
 no 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Giù, down. 
 
 Giudizio, judgment, idea. 
 
 Gli, the. 
 
 Gli, it. 
 
 Gli, to him. 
 
 Glie, see Gli, Le. 
 
 Glòbo, globe. 
 
 Golóso, glutton, greedy. 
 
 Governato, governed. 
 
 Grande, big. 
 
 Grandissimo, very big. 
 
 Grido, shout. 
 
 Gròsso, big. 
 
 Guardarsi, refrain. 
 
 I, the. 
 
 II, the. 
 
 Illuminato, illumined. 
 Il quale, who. 
 Imperatóre, emperor. 
 Impèro, empire. 
 
 In, in. 
 
 Infatti, in fact. 
 Infinitamente, infinitely. 
 Infìno, even. 
 Infocato, blazing. 
 ingordigia, gluttony. 
 Insegnare, teach. 
 Insètto, insect. 
 Insième, together. 
 Insomma, in short. 
 Intendiménto, intelligence. 
 Intórno, around {adv.). 
 Intórno a, around {prep.). 
 Invasiòne, invasion. 
 Ispirare, inspire. 
 L', see La, Le, Lo. 
 La, the. 
 Iia, it, her. 
 
 Là, there. Di là = there. 
 
 Lacerare, tear. 
 
 Ladra, thief. 
 
 Ladro, robber. 
 
 Lampo, flash. 
 
 Lancétta, hand. 
 
 Lasciare, leave, let, let go. 
 
 Lasciato, let. 
 
 Lavorare, work. 
 
 Le, the. 
 
 Le, to her, to it. 
 
 Le, them. 
 
 Leone, lion. 
 
 Lèsto, quick. 
 
 Levare, take away. Levarsi {with 
 
 direct object) —■ get rid of. 
 Levato, up. 
 Li, them. 
 Li, there. 
 Libero, free. 
 Lo, the. 
 Lo, him, it. 
 
 Longobardo, Longobard. 
 Lontano, distant. 
 Lóro, them, their. 
 Luce, light. 
 Lucèrtola, lizard. 
 Lui, him, he. 
 Lume, light. 
 Luminóso, luminous. 
 Luna, moon. 
 Ma, but. 
 Madre, mother. 
 Maestóso, majestic. 
 Maèstra, school-mistress. 
 Maèstro, school-master. 
 Màggio, May. 
 Maggióre, larger.
 
 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Mài, ever. Non 7ndi= never. 
 Malanno, harm. Far inalanni 
 
 = mischief-making. 
 Malata, ill. 
 Maldicente, gossip. 
 Male, badly, ill. 
 Male, wicked. 
 Mamma, mother, mamma. 
 Mandare, send. 
 Mangiare, eat. 
 Manièra, manner. 
 Mano, hand. 
 Mattina, morning. 
 Meno, less. 
 Mento, chin. 
 Méntre, while. 
 Meraviglióso, wonderful. 
 Metà, half. 
 Méttere, put. Jlfé^^erst = begin, 
 
 put on. 
 Mézzo, half. 
 Mèzzo, middle. In mèzzo ^ = in 
 
 the middle of. 
 Iflicio, puss, cat. 
 Milióne, million. 
 Minacciare, threaten. 
 Minóre, smaller. 
 Minuto, minute. 
 Mio, my. 
 Mòdo, way. 
 Molestare, annoy. 
 Mólti, many. 
 Mólto, much. 
 Mòrdere, bite. 
 Mósca, fly. 
 Móstra, face. 
 Muro, wall. 
 Mutare, change. 
 
 Nascósto, hidden. 
 
 Naso, nose. 
 
 Nàto, born. 
 
 Ne, of it, for it. 
 
 Né, nor. 
 
 Nei, nel, etc. = in -|- art. 
 
 Nemméno, even. 
 
 Nessuno, nobody. 
 
 Niccolino, Nicholas, Nick. 
 
 Nido, nest. 
 
 No, no. Di no= no. 
 
 Nòbile, noble. 
 
 Nobiltà, nobility. 
 
 Nói, we, us. 
 
 Nòia, trouble. 
 
 Non, not. Non . . . che — oniye 
 
 Nòstro, our. 
 
 Nòtte, night. 
 
 Nòve, nine. 
 
 Nulla, nothing. 
 
 Nùmero, number. 
 
 O, or. 
 
 O, oh. 
 
 Òcchio, eye. 
 
 Occhióne, frojn Òcchio. 
 
 Odóre, odor. 
 
 Ógni, every. 
 
 Ognuno, everybody. 
 
 Oltre, beyond, over. 
 
 Óra, now. 
 
 Óra, houn 
 
 Oramai, at last. 
 
 Origine, origin. 
 
 Òro, gold. 
 
 Orològio, watch. 
 
 Òtto, eight. 
 
 Padroncino, little master. 
 
 Palazzo, palace. 
 
 • A-'^ 
 
 ^c ^-/t
 
 112 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Panière, basket. 
 
 Panierino, from Panière. 
 
 Panni, clothes. 
 
 Parécchio, some. 
 
 Parére, seem. 
 
 Parte, part, side. Dalle pdrti= 
 
 at the sides. A quésta parte = 
 
 to this time. 
 Participàre, participate. 
 Passo, step. 
 Patto, condition. A patto che = 
 
 on condition that. 
 Pel = per il. 
 Pensare, think. 
 Per, for, in order to, on account 
 
 of, through, by. 
 Perchè, why, because. 
 Pèrdere, lose. 
 Perdonare, pardon. 
 Permésso, permission. 
 Però, therefore, however. 
 Pésce, fish. 
 Petto, chest. 
 Piànta, plant. 
 Picchiare, strike. 
 Piccino, tiny, small. 
 Piccolo, little, small. 
 Piede, foot. 
 Pièno, full. 
 Pigliare, take. 
 Pinna, fin. 
 Più, more, most. 
 Po', little. 
 Poi, then, too. 
 Portare, take, bring. 
 Potére, can, be able. 
 Pòvero, poor. 
 Prèndere, take. 
 
 Prèsso, near. 
 Prèsto, early. 
 Pretèndere, expect. 
 Prevalére, prevail. 
 Primo, first. 
 Prónto, quick. 
 Pùbblico, public. 
 Punire, punish. 
 Pùnto, point. 
 Quadrùpede, quadruped. 
 Qualche, some. 
 Qualchedùno, somebody. 
 Qualcòsa, anything. 
 Qualcuno, somebody. 
 Quale, see II quale. 
 Quando, when. 
 Quanto, as much. 
 Quattórdici, fourteen. 
 Quattro, four. 
 Que', quéi, pi. of Quello. 
 Quégli, pi of Quello. 
 Quel, see Quello. 
 Quello, that, that one. 
 Quésto, this, this one. 
 Qui, here. Di qui = here. 
 Quindi, therefore. 
 Raccontare, relate. 
 Raggiùngere, overtake. 
 Ragióne, reason. 
 Rasente, close. 
 Refezióne, lunch. 
 Règgere, stand, endure. 
 Respirare, breathe. 
 Rèttile, reptile. 
 Riccardo, Richard. 
 Ricominciare, begin again. 
 Ricordarsi, remember. 
 Ricreazióne, recess.
 
 ITALIAN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 
 
 113 
 
 Ridere, laugh. 
 
 Riga, line. Di prima riga = first- 
 class. 
 Righettlna, little mark. 
 Rimandare, send back. 
 Rimanére, remain. 
 Rimediare a, atone for. 
 Rimproverare, reprove. 
 Ripètere, repeat. 
 Ripòso, rest. 
 Rispóndere, reply. 
 Risputàre, spit again. 
 Rompere, break. 
 Rósa, rose. 
 Rotóndo, round. 
 Rubare, steal. 
 Sanguinóso, bloody. 
 Sapere, know, hear. 
 Saporàocio, from Sapóre. 
 Sapóre, taste. 
 Sasso, stone. 
 Scappare, run away. 
 Scèna, scene. 
 Scénder, see Scéndere. 
 Scéndere, descend. 
 Scuòla, school. 
 Se, if, whether. 
 Se, see Si. 
 
 Sé, itself, himself, herself. 
 Secóndo che, according as. 
 Segnato, marked. 
 Seguire, turn out. 
 Sèi, six. 
 
 Sèmpre, always. 
 Senése, Sienese. 
 Sentire, taste, hear. 
 Sènza, without. 
 Sèrpe, snake. 
 
 Servitóre, servant. 
 
 Sessanta, sixty. 
 
 Sètte, seven. 
 
 Sfacciatàggine, impudence. 
 
 Si, himself, herself, itself. 
 
 Si, yes, so. 
 
 Signóra, lady. 
 
 Signóre, gentleman. 
 
 Signoria, rule. 
 
 Simile, like. 
 
 Smisurato, boundless. 
 
 Soave, sweet. 
 
 Solamente, only. 
 
 Sóle, sun. 
 
 Sollécito, early, brisk. 
 
 Sólo, alone. 
 
 Sommato, added. ' 
 
 Sópra, on, above. Di sópra ^ 
 
 up, above. 
 Sorèlla, sister. 
 Sorellina, fro7n Sorèlla. 
 Sòrte, lucky. 
 Sospettare, suspect. 
 Sospètto, suspicion. 
 Sostégno, support. 
 Sótto, under. Di sótto = down, 
 
 underneath. 
 Sparire, disappear. 
 Spicchio, slice. 
 Spina, thorn. 
 Sputare, spit. 
 Stanza, room. 
 Stare, stay, stand. 
 Stélla, star. 
 Stésso, himself. 
 Stésso, same. 
 Stésso, even. 
 Stracciare, tear.
 
 114 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Strétto, close, tight. 
 
 Strillare, scream. 
 
 Su, on, up. 
 
 Su', sul, etc. = su + art. 
 
 Sùbito, at once. 
 
 Suo, its, his, her. 
 
 Tanto, so much, so, much. 
 
 Tanto . . . quanto, both . . . and. 
 
 Te, thee, you. 
 
 Tèmpo, time. 
 
 Tenuto, held. 
 
 Tèrra, earth, ground, land. 
 
 Territòrio, territory. 
 
 Ti, thee, you. 
 
 Tirare, throw, draw. Tirar fuòri, 
 take out. 
 
 Tócco, one o'clock. 
 
 Tornare, return, returning. 
 
 Tórno tórno a, round and round. 
 
 Toscano, Tuscan. 
 
 Tra, among, to. 
 
 Tranquillamente, tranquilly. 
 
 Tratto : a un tratto = all at once. 
 
 Traversare, cross. 
 
 Tre, three. 
 
 Trédici, thirteen. 
 
 Trónco, trunk. 
 
 Trovare, find. 
 
 Tu, thou, you. 
 
 Tuo, thy, your. 
 
 Tutto, all. Per tutto = every- 
 where. T/itti e due— both ; tutti 
 e tre = all three ; etc. 
 
 Uccellino, from Uccèllo. 
 
 Uccèllo, bird. 
 
 Un, a, one. 
 
 Una, a, one. 
 
 Ùndici, eleven. 
 
 Uno, a, one. 
 
 Uòvo, ^gg. 
 
 Urlare, yell. 
 
 Ùscio, door. 
 
 Vassoino, tray. 
 
 Vedére, see. 
 
 Ventiquattro, twenty-four. 
 
 Verità, truth. 
 
 Véro, true. 
 
 Véscovo, bishop. 
 
 Vèspa, wasp. 
 
 Vestire, dress. 
 
 Via, off, away, so forth. Some* 
 
 times used instead of a verb of 
 
 jnotion. 
 Viàggio, way, journey. 
 Vicino, near. 
 Viola, violet. 
 Viòttola, path. 
 Viso, face. 
 Vispo, lively. 
 Viziaccio, from Vizio. 
 Vizio, vice. 
 Vóce, voice. 
 Vòglia, desire. 
 Volére, wish. 
 
 Volontariamente, voluntarily. 
 Vòlta, time. 
 Voltar, see Voltare. 
 Voltare, turn. 
 Zampa, paw, foot. 
 Zampina, little paw. 
 Zanzara, mosquito. 
 Zimbèllo, laughing-stock.
 
 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 115 
 
 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 A, un, uno, una. 
 
 Africa, Affrica. 
 
 After, dòpo. 
 
 Ago, fa. 
 
 Aim, mirare. 
 
 Air, ària. 
 
 All, tutto. 
 
 Alone, sólo. 
 
 Although, sebbène. 
 
 Al-ways, sèmpre. 
 
 Amaze, meravigliare. 
 
 America, America. 
 
 An, see A. 
 
 Ancient, antico. 
 
 And, e. ' 
 
 Another, un altro. 
 
 April, aprile, m. 
 
 Around, intórno. 
 
 As, cóme. 
 
 As ... as, quanto, tanto . . . cóme. 
 
 Asia, Asia. 
 
 At, a. 
 
 Attach, attaccare. 
 
 August, agósto. 
 
 Be, èssere, irreg. (53, a). 
 
 Beam, trave, f. or m. 
 
 Beast, béstia. 
 
 Beautiful, bèllo. 
 
 Because, perchè. 
 
 Begin, cominciare. 
 
 Believe, crédere. 
 
 Big, gròsso. 
 
 Bird, uccèllo. 
 
 Black, néro. 
 
 Blood, sangue, m. 
 
 Boil, bollire. 
 
 Born, nàto. PL : nàti, m. ; nate,/. 
 
 Boy, ragazzo. 
 
 Branch, rahio. 
 
 Bread, pane, m. 
 
 Brother, fratèllo, m. 
 
 Bubble, vescichetta. 
 
 But, ma. 
 
 By, da. By chance = per caso. 
 
 Call, chiamare. 
 
 Capital, capitale,/". 
 
 Car, vagóne, w. 
 
 Care, ciira. 
 
 Carriage, carròzza. 
 
 Carry, portare. 
 
 Case, caso. 
 
 Ceiling, palco. 
 
 Chance, caso. By chance = per 
 
 caso. 
 Charged, càrico. 
 Charity, carità,/. 
 Charles, Carlo. 
 Choose, scégliere, z'rreg: 
 Christopher, Cristoforo. 
 Circle, tóndo. 
 City, città,/. 
 Cloud, nuvola. 
 Club, bastóne, m. 
 Coat, àbito.
 
 ii6 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Collect, raccògliere, irreg. 
 
 Columbus, Colómbo. 
 
 Come back, tornare. 
 
 Companion, compagno. 
 
 Confined, tenuto. 
 
 Construct, costruire, irreg. 
 
 Continue, seguitare. 
 
 Contrary, contràrio. 
 
 Cool, raffreddarsi. 
 
 Corner, canto. 
 
 Country, paese, m. 
 
 Cover, coprire, irreg. 
 
 Creature, animale, tn. 
 
 Crumb, briciola. 
 
 Crush, schiacciare. 
 
 Dark, bùio. 
 
 Day, giórno. 
 
 December, dicembre, m. 
 
 Dense, dènso. 
 
 Department, dipartiménto. 
 
 Discover, scoprire, irreg. 
 
 Distance, distanza. 
 
 Divide, dividere, irreg. 
 
 Do, fare, irreg. 
 
 Dominion, dominie. 
 
 Door, ùscio. 
 
 Down, giù. 
 
 Dream, sognare. 
 
 Drop, gócciola. Drop by drop ■ 
 
 a gócciola a gócciola. 
 Duke, dùca, m. 
 Dungeon, carcere,/. 
 Dust, pólvere,/. 
 Earn, guadagnare. 
 Earth, terra. 
 
 Eight hundred, ottocento. 
 Eighty, ottanta. 
 Either ... or, o ... o. 
 
 Emmanuel, Emanuele. 
 
 Emperor, imperatóre, m. 
 
 Empty, vuòto. 
 
 End, terminare. 
 
 Enemy, nemico. 
 
 Escape, scappare. 
 
 Europe, Europa. 
 
 Even, anche. 
 
 Ever, mài. 
 
 Every, ógni. 
 
 Everything, tutto. 
 
 Everywhere, per tutto. 
 
 Eye, no2in, òcchio. 
 
 Eye, vb., occhiare. 
 
 Fall, caduta. 
 
 Family, famiglia,/. 
 
 Far, lontano, adv. and adj. 
 
 Father, padre, m., babbo. 
 
 February, febbràio. 
 
 Fief, fèudo. 
 
 Fifth, quinto. 
 
 Find, trovare. 
 
 Finger, dito. PL dita, /. 
 
 Fire, fuòco. 
 
 First, primo. Adv.., prima. 
 
 Five, cinque. 
 
 Flat, piatto. 
 
 Flee, fuggire. 
 
 Flower, fióre, m. 
 
 Fly, volare. 
 
 Food, mangiare, m. 
 
 For, per. For yourself {conjunct 
 
 Uve) = vi, si. 
 Form, formare. 
 Fort, fortézza. 
 Forth, fuòri. 
 Forty, quaranta. 
 Four, quattro.
 
 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 117 
 
 Pour hundred, quattrocento. 
 
 France, Frància,/. 
 
 Friday, venerdì, m. 
 
 Friend, amico, w., 23, <:, (2). 
 
 From, da. 
 
 Fruit, frutto. 
 
 Furniture, mobilia. 
 
 Genoa, Geneva. 
 
 Give, dare, irreg. 
 
 Go, andare, irreg. 
 
 Good, buòno. 
 
 Grain, grano. 
 
 Great, grande. 
 
 Ground, terra. 
 
 Grove, boschétto. 
 
 Grow up, venir su, irreg. 
 
 Gun, schiòppo, fucile, rn. 
 
 Hand, mano,/". 
 
 Happen, accadere, irreg. 
 
 Hardly, appéna. 
 
 Hasten, affrettarsi. 
 
 Hate, odiare. 
 
 Have, avere, irreg. (53, b). 
 
 He, égli, lui. 
 
 Heat, caldo. 
 
 Her, la, le, lèi. 
 
 Herb, èrba. 
 
 Here, qua. 
 
 High, alto. 
 
 Him, lo, gli, lui. To him = gli, a 
 
 lui. 
 Himself, si. 
 His, suo. 
 History, stòria. 
 Holiday, fèsta. 
 Honest, onèsto. 
 However, tuttavia. 
 Hunter, cacciatóre, m. 
 
 1, 10. 
 
 If, se. 
 
 Imagine, immaginare. 
 
 In, in. 
 
 Indeed, davvéro. 
 
 Inhabit, abitare. 
 
 Inside, didéntro. 
 
 Instance, esémpio. 
 
 Intense^vivo. 
 
 Intention, intenzióne,/. 
 
 Into, in. 
 
 It, lo, la, égli, gli. 
 
 Italian, italiano. 
 
 Italy, Italia,/ 
 
 Its, suo, sua. 
 
 Itself, si. 
 
 Jailer, carcerière, m. 
 
 January, gennàio. 
 
 July, luglio. 
 
 June, giugno. 
 
 King, re, m. 
 
 Know, sapere, irreg., conóscere 
 (= òe acquainted with), irreg. 
 
 Land, paese, m., tèrra. 
 
 Large, grande. 
 
 Last, ùltimo (^precedes noun). 
 Last year = V anno scórso. 
 
 Latter, quésto. T/te latter = qué- 
 sti, m. sing. 
 
 Leaf, fòglia. 
 
 Leap-year, bisestfle, m. 
 
 Learn, imparare. 
 
 Left, sinistra. 
 
 Lid, tèsto. 
 
 Lift, sollevare. 
 
 Light, luce,/ 
 
 Like, cóme. 
 
 Little (= small), piccolo, piccina
 
 Ii8 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Little (— a small gtiatitity), pòco. 
 
 Little by little -■ a pòco a pòco. 
 Iiive, vivere, irreg. 
 Loaded, càrico. 
 
 Lorraine: of Lorraine =\oxQViést. 
 Loud, fòrte. 
 Low, basso. 
 Lower, abbassare. 
 Man, uomo, pi. uomini. 
 Many, mólti, m., mólte,/". 
 March, marzo. 
 Mask, màschera. 
 May, màggio. 
 Me, mi, me. 
 Melon, cocomero. 
 Merchant, mercante, m» 
 Middle, mézzo. 
 Mignonette, amorino. 
 Mine, mio. 
 Moisture, umidità, f» 
 Monday, lunedì, m. 
 Month, mése, m. 
 Moon, luna. 
 More, più. 
 Mortify, mortificare. 
 Most, il più. 
 Mr., signor. 
 My, mio. 
 Name, nóme, m. 
 Napoleon, Napoleóne. 
 Near, vicino a. 
 Need, bisógno. 
 Never, non . . , mài. 
 Nice, gentile. 
 Ninety, novanta. 
 No, no. 
 
 Nobody nessuno. 
 Nor. né. 
 
 Not, non. 
 
 November, novembre. 
 
 Now, óra. 
 
 Object, oggetto. 
 
 Observe, osservare. 
 
 Oceanica, Oceània. 
 
 October, ottóbre. 
 
 Of, di. Ofthem = nt' 
 
 On, sópra, su {^before vow., sur). 
 
 One, lino. 
 
 One's self, si. 
 
 Only, sólo (adj.), non . . . che 
 
 (adv.). 
 Opposite, oppósto. 
 Or, o. 
 
 Other, altro. 
 Ought, dovére, irreg. 
 Out, fuòri. 
 Outside, difuòri, m. 
 Over there, laggiù. 
 Pace, passo. 
 Parents, genitóri, m. pL 
 Paris, Parigi. 
 Parrot, pappagallo. 
 Part, parte,/. 
 Peasant, contadino. 
 Perfectly, pròprio. 
 Perhaps, fórse. 
 Persuade, persuadére, irreg» 
 Philip, Filippo. 
 Place, luògo. 
 Placed, pósto. 
 Plainly, schiettamente. 
 Plant, piànta. 
 Point, pùnto. 
 Poor, pòvero. 
 Pot, péntola. 
 Present, presentare.
 
 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 
 
 119 
 
 Prevent, impedire. 
 
 Principle, principio. 
 
 Prison, prigióne,/". 
 
 Prisoner, prigionièro. 
 
 Profession, professióne,/. 
 
 Purpose, uso. 
 
 Quantity, quantità,/. 
 
 Question, domanda. 
 
 Rain, piòggia. 
 
 Raise, levare. 
 
 Rare, raro. 
 
 Recognized, conosciuto. 
 
 Relate, raccontare. 
 
 Remain, rimanére, irreg.^ restare. 
 
 Repeat, ripètere. 
 
 Reply, rispóndere, irreg. 
 
 Resolve, risciogliere, irreg. 
 
 Rest, posare. 
 
 Right, dèstra. 
 
 Rise, salire, irreg. 
 
 Room, stanza. 
 
 Root, radice, y. 
 
 Round, rotóndo. 
 
 Rule, signoria. 
 
 Sacrifice, sacrifizio. 
 
 Sail, navigare. 
 
 Sailor, marinaro. 
 
 Same, stésso (^precedes noun). 
 
 Satisfy, contentare. 
 
 Saturday, sàbato. 
 
 Say, dire, irreg. 
 
 Sea, mare, m. 
 
 Second, secóndo. 
 
 See, vedére, irreg. 
 
 Seed, séme, m. 
 
 Sent, mandato. 
 
 September, settèmbre, m, 
 
 Service, servizio. 
 
 Seven, sètte. 
 Shake, scuòtere, irr^. 
 Ship, nave,/. 
 Shoot, barba. 
 Short, córto. 
 
 Show off, far vedére, irrég. 
 Side, parte,/. 
 Silence, silènzio. 
 Sinister, sinistro. 
 Sir, signóre, m. 
 Sixty, sessanta. 
 Sky, cielo. 
 
 Small, piccolo, piccfna 
 Smoke, fumo. 
 So, così. 
 So as to, per. 
 Some, qualche. 
 
 Somebody else, qualchedun' al- 
 tro. 
 Sometimes, qualchevolta. 
 So much, tanto. 
 Son, figlio. 
 Sort, sòrta. 
 Spaniard, spagnuolo. 
 Speak, parlare. 
 Spider, ragno, ràgnolo. 
 Sprouted, germogliato. 
 Stalk, fusto. 
 Star, stélla. 
 Steam, vapóre, m. 
 Straight, diritto. 
 Study, notin, stùdio. 
 Study, vb., studiare. 
 Sun, sóle, 7Ji. 
 Sunday, doménica. 
 Support, mantenére, irreg. 
 Surprised, sorprèso. 
 Surround, circondare.
 
 120 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Table, tàvola. 
 
 Take, prèndere, irreg* 
 
 Tear, raschiare. 
 
 Than, che, di. 
 
 Thanks, grazie,/*. pU 
 
 That, conj., che. 
 
 That, rei. pron., che. 
 
 That, demons, pron., quello. 
 
 The, 11, lo, la, i , gli, le. 
 
 Them, li, le, lóro. 0/ them—ii&. 
 
 Then, pòi. 
 
 There, là, lì. 
 
 Therefore, però. 
 
 They, èssi, èsse, Idro. 
 
 Thick, gròsso. 
 
 Thing, còsa. 
 
 Think, pensare. 
 
 Third, tèrzo. 
 
 Thirtieth, trentesimo. 
 
 Thirty, tre'nta. 
 
 Thirty-first, trentesimo primo. 
 
 Thirty-one, trentuno, trentun. 
 
 This, quésto. 
 
 Thousand, mille. 
 
 Three, tre. 
 
 Three hundred, trecento. 
 
 Thursday, giovedì, m. 
 
 Thus, così. 
 
 Time, (^Ex. 2) vòlta; (^Ex. 18 and 
 
 20) tèmpo. 
 To, a. To him = gli. 
 Together, insieme. 
 Too (= also), anche. 
 Too (= excessively)^ tròppo. 
 Tree, àlbero. 
 Trunk, trónco. 
 Tuesday, martedì, m, 
 turn, girare. 
 
 Tuscan, toscano. 
 
 Twelve, dódici. 
 
 Twenty-eight, ventòtto. 
 
 Twenty -nine, ventinòve. 
 
 Twig, ramoscèllo. 
 
 Two, due. 
 
 Under, sótto. 
 
 Unfortunate, infelice. 
 
 Unhappy, sventurato. 
 
 Union, unióne,/". 
 
 Unite, raccògliere, irreg, 
 
 \Jntil, prep., fino a. 
 
 Until, conj., finché . . . non. 
 
 Us, nói, ci {conjunctive). 
 
 Usual, usato. . 
 
 Vapor, vapóre, fn. 
 
 Vegetable, vegetabile, m. 
 
 Very, mólto, tanto. 
 
 Victor, Vittorio. 
 
 Villa, villa. 
 
 Village, villàggio. 
 
 Water, acqua. 
 
 Way (= manner), maniera. 
 
 We, nói. 
 
 Web, téla. 
 
 Wednesday, mercoledì, m. 
 
 Week, settimana. 
 
 What, interrog. and exclam^ 
 
 che. 
 What, rei., quello che. 
 When, quando. 
 Where, dóve. 
 Which, che. 
 While, méntre. 
 Who, rei., che. 
 Whom, rei., cijì. 
 Willingly, volentieri 
 Wind, vènto.
 
 ENGLISH-ITALIAN VOCABULARY. 121 
 
 Window, finèstra. Year, anno. 
 
 With, con. Yes, già. 
 
 Without, sènza. You, vói, vi, Lei, la, le. To you 
 
 Wood, bòsco. = vi, le. 
 
 Word, paróla. Your, vòstro, Suo. 
 
 Working-day, giórno di lavóro. Yourself, vi, si. For yourself =^ 
 
 World, móndo. vi, si.
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 [The numbers prefixed to the following notes refer to the paragraphs of the 
 first chapter in this book.] 
 
 1. The Tuscan names of the letters are : a, bi, ci, di, é, èffe, gi, 
 acca, i, jé or i lungo, èlle, èmme, ènne, ò, pi, cu, èrre, èsse, ti, u, 
 vu or vi, zèta (with z pronounced dz^. They do not change in 
 the plurah Their gender is not fixed ; in general those ending in 
 a ox e are considered as feminine, the others as mascuHne. K, x, 
 y are cappa, iccase, ipsilon, all masculine. 
 
 2. a. The sounds à, è, ó, followed by a single consonant, are 
 somewhat longer than the other vowels : for instance, in data, fero, 
 évo the accented a, e, o are longer than in dàttero, véro, óve. Final 
 accented vowels sound particularly short : as in amò, beltà, caffè. 
 
 ^. In forming i the mouth should be made as broad as possible 
 from side to side. For u and ó the lips should be puckered. For 
 a and è the mouth should be opened very wide. 
 
 3. a. If an adverb in -ménte is formed from an adjective contain- 
 ing è or Ò, this vowel has, in the adverb, a secondary accent, and 
 retains its open sound : as {brève) brèvemente, "briefly"; {nobile) 
 nòbilmente, "nobly." Furthermore, è and o retain their quality in 
 seeming compounds that consist, in reaHty, of two or more sepa- 
 rate words : as tostoche = tòstochè = tosto che, "as soon as." 
 
 /3. Preterites and past participles in -esi, -eso, -osi, -oso have a 
 close <? or ^; except chièsi (also chièsi), esplòsi, esplòso, lèsi (not 
 ased), lèso. 
 
 123
 
 124 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 y. In the suffixes -eccio {-a), -esco {-a), -ese, -essa, -etto {-a), 
 -ezzo {-a), -77ient€, and -mento the e is ahvays close; while in the 
 diminutive suffix -elio {-a), and in the endings -enle, -enza, -erto 
 (or -ero), and -esimo {-a) it is open : as inglése, *' EngHsh " ; pro- 
 babilmente, "probably" ; prudènte, "prudent" ; ventesimo, "twen- 
 tieth." ^ 
 
 8. In the endings -oio, -one, -ore, and in the suffix -oso (-è?) the 
 o is close ; while in the ending -orio, and in -occio (-a), -otto (-a), 
 and -ozzo (-a), used as suffixes to nouns or adjectives, it is open : 
 as vassóio, " tray " ; amóre, " love " ; romitorio, " hermitage " ; 
 casotta, " good-sized house." 
 
 €. In the following cases accented ^ or ^ may have either the 
 close or the open sound : in Giorgio, maestra, maestro, nego (from 
 negare), neve, organo, scendere, senza, siete and sono (from èssere), 
 spegnere, Stefano, vendere ; and in the conditional endings -esH, 
 -emmo, -este. The present subjunctive forms dleno, Steno, stieno 
 are pronounced also dièno, sièfto, stièfio. 
 
 ^. In poetry we often find è for iè, ó for uà : as ven = viene, 
 " he comes " ; cor = cuòre, " heart." 
 
 4. C. a. Between two vowels, of which the second is e or /, 
 single c and single g are, in ordinary Tuscan speech, pronounced 
 respectively like sh in "ship" and si in "vision": as pace, 
 "peace"; stagióne, "season." 
 
 p. Between two vowels, of which the second is a, 0, or u, a 
 single c is, in popular Tuscan speech, sounded nearly like Eng- 
 lish h : as poco (poko), "little" ; di questa cosa {di hwésta hòsa), 
 " of this thing." This pronunciation is regarded as vulgar. 
 
 J. Some writers use /, except after a consonant, for the / that 
 is pronounced y : as jeri for ièri, " yesterday " ; pq/o for pàio, 
 "pair." It is sometimes used also for final i in the plural of 
 words in unaccented -io : as specchj (also specchi and occasionally 
 specchii) for spècchi, " mirrors," plural of spècchio. 
 
 Z. Aside from verbs in -izzàre, z and zz have the value dz in the 
 following words and their derivatives : —
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 125 
 
 arzillo 
 
 frizzo 
 
 magazzino 
 
 romanzo 
 
 zèlo 
 
 azztirro 
 
 garzóne 
 
 manzo 
 
 ronzio 
 
 zenit 
 
 barzeUetta 
 
 gazzella 
 
 mézzo 
 
 rózzo 
 
 zèro 
 
 bizza 
 
 gazzétta 
 
 orizzónte 
 
 zaffiro 
 
 zèta 
 
 brézza 
 
 gónzo 
 
 orzo 
 
 zaffiróne 
 
 zinco 
 
 brónzo 
 
 Làzzaro 
 
 penzolo 
 
 zanzara 
 
 zodiaco 
 
 donzella 
 
 lazzeretto 
 
 pranzo 
 
 zèbra 
 
 zólla 
 
 dozzina 
 
 lazzo 
 
 ribrézzo 
 
 zaffiro 
 
 zdna 
 
 also in ali derivatives of the Greek zoosj and in many uncommon 
 words. 
 
 5. In pronouncing gli and gn the point of the tongue should 
 remain behind the lower teeth : as figlio, " son" ; ógni, "every." 
 
 6. If one of the words mentioned below, or any oxytone ending 
 in a vowel, is closely followed by a word beginning with a conso- 
 nant, this consonant is, in Tuscany, generally pronounced double. 
 The words are :* — 
 
 a 
 
 òìyday 
 
 giù 
 
 o§ 
 
 sópra 
 
 Che 
 
 di', say 
 
 ha 
 
 più 
 
 stat 
 
 Chi 
 
 e 
 
 ho 
 
 qua 
 
 sto 
 
 ciò 
 
 è 
 
 fnfra 
 
 qualche 
 
 su 
 
 cóme 
 
 fat 
 
 intra 
 
 qui 
 
 tet 
 
 contra 
 
 fé, faith 
 
 là 
 
 re 
 
 tra 
 
 da 
 
 fé' = fece 
 
 li 
 
 sa 
 
 tre 
 
 dà, gives 
 
 fo 
 
 ma 
 
 se,»/ 
 
 tu 
 
 da', give 
 
 fra 
 
 mej 
 
 sé 
 
 vat 
 
 do 
 
 fu 
 
 mo* = modo 
 
 si 
 
 vo = vado 
 
 dóve 
 
 già 
 
 né 
 
 so 
 
 vo' = voglio 
 
 Ex. : verrà da me domani {verràddamméddomàni) , "he will come 
 to my house to-morrow." In such cases e is, of course, never 
 pronounced like h (see 4, c, )8) . 
 
 * The materials for this list were taken from D' Ovidio's article in Grober's 
 Grundriss der romanischen Pkilologie, p. 496. 
 
 t Both the imperative sing, and the pres. ind. third sing. 
 
 X The disjunctive form. 
 
 § Both the conjunction " or " and the interrogative particle.
 
 26 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 INFLECTIONS OF THE VOICE. 
 
 1. Italian speech is at once smoother and less monotonous than 
 American : it is less interrupted by breathings, and it has far 
 greater variations of pitch. In order to speak or read Italian well, 
 an American must learn to breathe in speaking as he does in sing- 
 ing ; he must inhale deeply at the beginning of the clause, and not 
 stop again until he reaches the end of it. The following directions 
 may be of use ; they are based on the Tuscan pronunciation, and 
 particularly on that of Siena. 
 
 2. a. The simplest inflection in a declarative sentence is as fol- 
 lows : at the beginning the voice is pitched low ; it rises in the 
 middle (in earnest conversation often to a falsetto), and falls 
 again at the end. The most emphatic word generally receives 
 the highest tone ; if there are no words after it to complete the 
 cadence, the first words of the phrase are often repeated at the 
 end : as me lo dicono tutti me lo dicono ("they all tell me so "), 
 where the u of tutti is an octave higher than the beginning and 
 the close of the sentence. 
 
 /8. When there is a pause on some not particularly emphatic word 
 before the main verb, that word has a slight circumflex accent, the 
 voice rising about one semitone and falling about three : as fuori 
 di città s e' è una bellissima villa \ (" outside the city there's a 
 beautiful villa"), where bellissima has the high pitch, and the a of 
 città has the circumflex. This accent is generally heard whenever 
 modifying clauses or phrases precede the main clause. 
 
 y. Almost all declarative sentences are made up chiefly of these 
 two inflections, the long rise and fall and the short circumflex. 
 Americans must avoid breaking up their sentences by meaningless 
 falling tones. The fall occurs in Italian, as in EngHsh, on a very 
 emphatic word, and at the end of a sentence. It is used, also, 
 with a verb of saying or thinking, followed by a direct quotation ;
 
 INFLECTIONS OF THE VOICE. 127 
 
 and with any word or phrase used as a vocative, except in loud 
 calling (see 4, /3) : as allóra chiama Alfredo e gli dice \ ; Bam- 
 bino \ , dimmi la verità \ {Grammar, Exercise 17), where the 
 syllables/r^, barn, and dim have the highest pitch. 
 
 3. a. Questions to which the answer may be "yes" or "no" 
 have either one of two circumflex accents : in the first the voice 
 
 'rises about five semitones and falls one ; in the second, which is 
 sometimes used in reading and in polite phrases, the voice rises 
 and falls about an octave. Ex. : /' hai visto (" have you seen 
 him?"), where the pitches of /' hai, vi, and sto may be represented 
 by the notes do, fa, mi; ha ben dormito ("did you sleep well?"), 
 where mi is an octave higher than dor and to. The former accent 
 may be heard in the Irish pronunciation of English. 
 
 /8. These inflections are nearly always confined to the last few 
 syllables of the sentence. In some questions, however, they 
 appear twice, generally occurring first on the verb; and occa- 
 sionally the circumflex on the verb is the only one. 
 
 y. Questions that cannot be answered by " yes " or " no " usu- 
 ally begin high, the pitch depending on the emphasis. The voice 
 then falls, but generally rises again at the last syllable, going up 
 about three semitones : as cóme \ hai fatto / (" how did you do 
 it?"). This accent is common among the Irish, and may be 
 heard in England. The final rise is, however, often omitted, 
 especially in very short sentences and in polite phrases : as cóme 
 sta \ (" how do you do ? ") . • 
 
 4. a. Exclamations of surprise begin very high, and sink rap- 
 idly : as senti \ (" no ! " * ) ; un affàr di niènte \ (" you don't say 
 so ! "*), where un has the main stress ; per mio bacco ("I want to 
 know ! " *), with the accent on per. 
 
 ft. In caUing to persons at a distance, the Tuscans sing rather 
 than speak ; the usual tune is do, la, sol, the accented syllable being 
 highest : as Agostina ("Augustine ! ") ; partenza ("all aboard ! "). 
 
 * Popular New England equivalents.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 [The numbers refer to paragraphs. Ap. N. means " Appendix, Additional Notes on Pro 
 nunciation"; Ap. V. stands for " Appendix, Inflections of the Voice."] 
 
 A (letter) : 2; Ap. N., 2. 
 
 A (preposition) : 79; 79, 3, h. 
 
 Accent: 7; 47; 48; 84; 92, e\ 
 
 Ap. V. 
 Accents: 3; 7. 
 Address (Forms of) : 52. 
 Adjectives: 26-34. 
 
 Comparison: 31-34. 
 
 Gender: 26; 28. 
 
 Number; 26; 29. 
 
 Position : 27. 
 
 Used as nouns : 20; 30. 
 Adverbs: 80-85. 
 
 O', vi: 47, a; 84. 
 
 Comparison : 80, 2. 
 
 Manner: 85. 
 
 Ne : 47, a; 56, h. 
 
 Never : 83. 
 
 Not, non: 80, i; 81; 91, a. 
 
 (?«/)/.• 82. 
 
 Position: 80, I. 
 
 So : 85, a. 
 AU: 87. 
 
 Alphabet: i; Ap. N., I. 
 Altrui : Qi, d. 
 Any: 88. 
 Articlea: 9-16. 
 
 Definite : see Definite. 
 
 liidefinite : see Indefinite. 
 Augmentatives : 35-37. 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs : 53-57. 
 Avere: 53, 3; 54,3. 
 Essere: 53, a; 54, i, 3- 
 Compound tenses : 54; 56. 
 Modal auxiliaries : 57. 
 
 Avere: 53,-^; 54,3; 54» '^; 92,5- 
 
 « 
 
 Be: 53, a\ 54, I, 3; 54, a, c, d, f; 
 
 92, 126. 
 Bello : 29, c. 
 Both: 38,4; 91. 
 Buono: 29, c. 
 
 Can : see Modal Auxiliaries. 
 
 Ci (adv.) : 47, a; 84. 
 
 Ci (pron.) : 47-50. 
 
 Close Vowels: 3; Ap. N., 3. 
 
 Comparison : 31-34; 80, 2. 
 
 Adjectives: 31-34. 
 
 Adverbs: 80, 2. 
 
 Irregular: 31, a; 80,2. 
 Compoimd Tenses: 54; 56; 73; 
 
 75- 
 Conditional: 54,2; 62>,b; 76; 77; 
 92, c. 
 Contracted: 65; 66, i; 92, r. 
 Conjugation: 53-68; 92. 
 First: 59. 
 Second: 60. 
 Third: 60. 
 
 129
 
 130 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Fourth: 6i. 
 
 Variations: 63; 66, a; 68. 
 
 Irregular verbs : 64-68; 92. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs : 53-57. 
 
 Compound tenses : 54; 56. 
 
 Compound verbs: 67, a; 93, a. 
 Conjunctions: 78. 
 
 With subjunctive : 77,^; 78, a, <J. 
 Consonants: 4-6; Ap. N., 4-6. 
 Contraction: 12; 23 (f); 5o(*); 
 63,^; 65; 66, i; 68, a. 
 
 Da: 79,c,/,g. 
 Dates : 38, Ò; 39, è. 
 Definite Article : 10-13. 
 
 Form: 10-12. 
 
 Use: 12, a; 13; 38, /J; 39,0; 
 45; 69; 70. 
 Di: 12; 17; n%b,z,f,h,j. 
 Diminutives: 35-37. 
 Do: 54,^. 
 Double Letters : 6. 
 Doubling: 48, af; 93,^; Ap. N., 6. 
 
 E (letter): 3; 68, t,/; Ap. N., 3. 
 E (conjunction) : 78; 78, c. 
 Ecco: 48, e-y 84, a. 
 Essere: 53, a; 54, i, 3; 54, a,c,d; 
 
 92, 126. 
 Exclamations : 43, ^j 79, b\ Ap. 
 
 v., 4. 
 
 For: 79,^. 
 Fractions : 39, c. 
 Future : 54, 2; 68, c\ 74; 77. 
 Contracted: 65; 66, i. 
 
 Gender: 9-1 1; 14-15; 18-21 ; 26; 
 
 28. 
 Grande : 29, c. 
 
 H: 4; 22, a; 23, a, c\ 59, a. 
 Have: 53, <5; 54,3; 54, ^, A; 11, a-, 
 
 92,5- 
 Here: 84. 
 
 I (letter) : 2; 22, b; 23, b\ 59^ o; 
 
 60; 92, /; Ap. N., 2. 
 I (euphonic) : 79; 81. 
 Imperative : 66, b\ 72; 77, a. 
 Imperfect : 
 
 Form: 63; 63, f; 65; 6%,a,h. 
 
 Use: 54,^,^; 73; 75- [77,^- 
 Impersonal Verbs: 51; 51, /4; 
 Indefinite Article : 14-16. 
 
 Form: 14-15. 
 
 Use: 16; 38, i; 43, b. 
 Infinitive : 48, b-, 58; 69-72. 
 
 Contracted: 65. 
 Inflections of the voice : Ap. V. 
 Interrogation : see Questions. 
 Issimo (suffix) : 35, a. 
 It: 47; 51; 51,^- 
 
 Letters: i; Ap. N., i. 
 
 May : see Modal Auxiliaries. 
 Modal Auxiliaries : 57. 
 Moods: 57; 69-77; 78, «• 
 
 Conditional: 54,2; 65; 66,1; 
 68, b; 76; 77. 
 
 Imperative: 66,^; 72; 77, fl. 
 
 Infinitive: 48,(5; 58; 65; 69-72. 
 
 Participle: 54, a, ^; 62; 63,0^; 
 69-71. 
 
 Subjunctive: 44,^; 77; 78, fl. 
 Must : see Modal Auxiliaries. 
 Myself, thyself, etc. : 47, 2; 51, e. 
 
 Ne (adv.) : 47, a; 56, b\ 84. 
 
 Ne (pron.) : 47, 3; 48; 49; 88; 89.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 131 
 
 Neuter Verbs: 54, 3; 56, a. 
 
 Never: 83, 
 
 Non: 80, I; 81; 91, a. 
 
 Not: 80, i; 81. 
 
 Nouns: 17-25. 
 
 Gender: 18-2 1. 
 
 Number: 22-25. 
 Number: 9-1 1; 22-25; 29. 
 Numerals: 38-40. 
 
 Cardinal: 38. 
 
 Ordinal: 39. 
 
 O (letter) : 3; 59. ^5 Ap. N., 3. 
 
 O (conjunction) : 78; 78, c. 
 
 Old Forms: 19 (t); 23(t);47(*); 
 
 48,^; 5o(*); 63,^; 66, a; 
 
 68; 92; Ap. N., 3, C 
 One (indefinite) : 55 ; 86. 
 Only: 82. 
 
 Open Vowels: 3; Ap. N., 3. 
 Ought : see Modal Aiuciliariea. 
 
 Participle: 54, a, b; 62; 63, d; 
 69-71. 
 
 Past: 54,5, 3; 63,^; 71,^. 
 
 Present: 62; 69-71. 
 Partitive Genitive: 12, a-, 88; 89. 
 Passive: 54,1; 54,/; 55; 56, r. 
 Perfect Tenses: 54, 3; 56; 73; 
 
 75- 
 Personal Pronouns : 46-52. 
 Conjunctive: 47-50. 
 
 Form: 47; 48, <:, </; 50 ; 
 
 52,1. 
 Position: 48; 49. 
 Disjunctive: 51-52. 
 
 Omission: 51,2; 51,^. 
 Use: 51; 51, i; $1,0, b,h. 
 Pitch : Ap. V. 
 Plural: 22-25; 29. 
 
 Irregular : 23, d; 25. 
 
 Words in -co and -go : 23, c. 
 Poetic Forms : see Old. 
 Possessive: 17; 45; 52,1. 
 Prefixes : 93, a. 
 Prepositions: 79. 
 
 Da: 79,^,/^. 
 
 To:^g,a,b. [74. 
 
 Present: 65; 66,4; 6^, f, g; 73; 
 Preterite: 60; 65; 66, 2, 3; 68, 
 
 ^, <?; 75- 
 Preterite Perfect : 54,3; 75. 
 Pronouns: 41-52; 86-91. 
 
 Demonstrative : 42. 
 
 Indefinite: 86-91. 
 
 Interrogative, 43. 
 
 Personal : see Personal. 
 
 Possessive : see Possessive. 
 
 Reciprocal : see Reciprocal. 
 
 Reflexive : see Reflexive. 
 
 Relative: 44. ^^^ 
 Pronimciation : 1-8; Ap. N., i-6; 
 Ap. V. 
 
 Quantity : 2; Ap. N., 2. 
 Qualche : 29, b; 89. 
 Questions: 43; 51, 2; 77, / g; 
 
 79, b; 81, a; Ap. V., 3. 
 
 Reciprocal pronouns and verbs: 
 47, 2; 48; 49; 50; 51, 3; 
 51,/; 52, i; 56,3. 
 
 Reflexive Pronouns: 47, 2; 48; 
 49; 50; 51.3; 52, i; 55; 
 
 56, b; 63, a; 86. 
 Reflexive Verbs : 55; 56,^; 63,^7; 
 86. 
 
 Santo : 29, c. 
 ShaU : 54, 2; 57.
 
 132 
 
 Shotad: 54,2; 57; 76; 77. 
 
 Si: 47-50; 52; 55; 56, h'> 63, a-y 
 
 86. 
 So: 85, a. 
 Some: 89. 
 Spelling: 1-8. 
 
 Subjunctive: 44, r; 77; 78,0. 
 Suffixes: 35-37; 85; Ap. N.,3. 
 SyUables: 8. 
 
 Tenses : 
 
 Compound: 54; 56; 73; 
 
 75. 
 
 Future : see Future. 
 
 Imperfect : see Imperfect. 
 
 Present : see Present. 
 
 Preterite : see Preterite. 
 Than: 33. 
 There: 84. 
 Time of day : 38, c. 
 To: 79, a, ^. 
 
 U (letter) : 2; Ap. N^ 2. 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Verbs: 53-77; 92; 93. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs : see Auxiliary. 
 Conjugation : see Conjugation. 
 Lists of irregular verbs : 92; 93. 
 Alphabetical: 93. 
 By conjugations : 92. 
 Moods : see Moods. 
 Tenses : see Tenses. 
 Regular verbs : 55-56; 59-63. 
 Irregular verbs : 64-68; 92. 
 
 Regular parts : 66. 
 
 Compound verbs: 67, ^z; 
 
 93» «• 
 Old forms: 63, </; 68; 92. 
 Vi (adv.) : 47, <z; 84. 
 Vowels: 2-3; Ap. N., 2-3. 
 
 "Whatever : 44, c. 
 
 ViThoever : 44, c. 
 
 "Will: 54,2; 57. 
 
 Would: 54,2; 54,^; 57; 76; 77. 
 
 You: 52; 86.
 
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 Hugo's Quatre-vingt-treize (Fontaine). Vocabulary. 50 cts. 
 
 Champfleury's Le Violon de Faience (Bévenot). 25 cts. 
 
 Gautier's Voyage en Espagne (Steel). 25 cts. 
 
 Balzac's Le Cure de Tours (Super). Vocabulary. 30 cts. 
 
 Balzac: Cinq Scenes de la Comédie Humaine (Wells). 40 cts. 
 
 Contes des Romanciers Naturalistes (Dow and Skinner). Vocab. 55 ct* 
 
 Gréville'S Dosia (Hamilton). Vocabulary. 45 cts. 
 
 Daudet's Le Petit Chose (Super). Vocabulary. 40 cts. 
 
 Daudet's La Belle-Nivemaise (Boielle). Vocabulary. 30 cts. 
 
 Theuriet's Bigarreau (Fontaine). 25 cts. 
 
 Mosset: Trois Comedies (McKenzie). 30 cts. 
 
 Maupassant: Huit Contes Choisis (White). Vocabulary. 30 cts. 
 
 Taine's L' Ancien Regime (Giese). Vocabulary. 65 cts. 
 
 Advanced Selections for Sight Translation (Colin). 15 cts. 
 
 Pe Tocqueville's Voyage en Amérique (Ford). Vocabulary. 40 cts. 
 
 Dumas* La Question d' Argent (Henning). 30 cts. 
 
 Lesage*8 Gil Bias (Sanderson). 40 cts. 
 
 Sarcey's Le Siege de Paris (Spiers). Vocabulary, 45 cts. 
 
 About's La Mère de la Marquise (Brush). Vocabulary. 40 cts. 
 
 Chateaubriand's Atala (Kuhns). Vocabulary. 30 cts. 
 
 Erckmann-Chatrian's Le Juif Polonais (Manley). Vocabulary. 3c cts. 
 
 Feuillet's Roman d'un jeune homme pauvre (Bruner). Vocab. 55 eta 
 
 Labiche's La Cagnotte (Famsworth). 25 cts. 
 
 La Brète's Mon Oncle et Mon Cure (Colin). Vocabulary. 45 cts. 
 
 Dumas' La Tulipe Noire (Fontaine). 40 cts. Vocabulary. 50 ctS. 
 
 Toltaire's Zadig (Babbitt). Vocabulary. 45 cts.
 
 t)eatb's /IDoòern Xanauaoe Sertes. 
 
 ADVANCED FRENCH TEXTS. 
 
 Balzac's Le Pére Goriot (Sanderson). 80 cts. 
 
 Hugo's Hemani (Matzke), 60 cts. 
 
 Hugo's Les Misérables (Super). Abridged. 80 cts. 
 
 Hugo's Poems (Schinz). 80 cts. 
 
 Hugo's Ruy Bias (Garner). 65 cts. 
 
 Racine's Andromaque (Wells). 30 cts. 
 
 Racine's Athalie (Eggert). 30 cts. 
 
 Racine's Esther (Spiers). 25 cts. 
 
 Racine's Les Plaideurs (Wright). 30 cts. 
 
 Racine's Phèdre (Babbitt). 30 cts. 
 
 Comeille's Le Cid (Warren). 30 cts. 
 
 Comeille's Cinna (Matzke). 30 cts. 
 
 Comeille's Horace (Matzke). 30 cts. 
 
 Comeille's Polyeucte (tortier). 30 cts. 
 
 Molière 's L'Avare (Levi). 35 cts. 
 
 Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (Warren). 30 cts. 
 
 Molière's Le Misanthrope (Eggert). 30 cts. 
 
 Molière's Les Femmes Savantes (Fortier). 30 cts. 
 
 Molière's Le Tartuffe (Wright). 30 cts. 
 
 Molière's Le Médecin Malgré Lui (Gasc). 15 cts. 
 
 Molière's Les Précieuses Ridicules (Toy). 25 cts. 
 
 Bornier's La Fille de Roland (Nelson). 30 cts. 
 
 Rostand's La Princesse Lointaine (Borgerhoff). 40 cts. 
 
 Piron's La Métromanie (Delbos). 40 cts. 
 
 Boileau: Selections (Kuhns). 50 cts. 
 
 Bossuet: Selections (Warren). 50 cts. 
 
 Diderot: Selections (Giese). 50 cts. 
 
 La Bruyère : Les Caractères (Warren). 50 cts. 
 
 Pascal: Selections (Warren). 50 cts. 
 
 Lamartine's Meditations (Carme). 55 cts. 
 
 Lesage's Turcaret (Kerr). 30 cts. 
 
 Taine's Introduction à l'Hist. de la Litt. Anglaise. 20 cts. 
 
 Duval's Histoire de la Littérature Frangaise. $1.00. 
 
 Delpit's L'Àge d'Or de la Littérature Frangaise. 90 cts. 
 
 Voltaire's Prose (Cohn and Woodward). $1.00. 
 
 French Prose of the XVIIth Century (Warren). $1.00. 
 
 Maitres de la Critique lit. au XIXe Siede (Comfort). 50 cts. 
 
 La Triade Frangaise. Poems of Lamartine, Musset. and Hugo. 75 cts. 
 
 ROMANCE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 Introduction to Vulgar Latin (Grandgent). $1.50. 
 :!?»-ovensal Phonology and Morphology (Grandgent). $1.50.
 
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