m?^^

 
 I 
 
 I
 
 :.■> - ; ■ 
 
 ■r^.. -/^K.■.^■ 
 
 
 v«>.'r-- 
 
 Jl
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 Comprising Sketches of Parishes, Towns, 
 
 Events, Institutions, and Persons, 
 
 Arranged in Cyclopedic 
 
 Form 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 ALCEE FORTIER, LIT. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES 
 IN TULANE UNIVERSITY 
 
 IN THREE VOLUMES 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 Century Historical Association 
 1914
 
 Copyright, 1914 
 
 BY 
 
 CENTURY HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL EDITION
 
 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Till' |)iirpose of tliis work is to give a coucn-tc knowledge of the 
 State of Louisiana — a record of the social, political, industrial and 
 institutional development of its people — in such a way as to conihine 
 the best features of the popular history, for continuous reading, with 
 the cyclopedic style for ready ivference. 
 
 It has been said that, "If history can be made immediately accessible, 
 without in any way impairing its accuracy and readableness, a forward 
 movement has been made in popularizing its study." It is hoped and 
 believed that the methods herein employed will accomplish this end, 
 and that the work will receive alike the endorsement of the serious 
 student of history and the busy man of affairs. 
 
 In the selection of titles or captions for the vai-ious topics inchuled 
 in the work, the compilers have endeavored to select such as a majority 
 of readers would be likely to look for, but in order to facilitate the 
 work of those who may seek information under some other heading, or 
 in cases where a subject is but a subdivision of a larger theme, cross 
 references have been freely used. 
 
 Considerable biographical matter has been included in the form of 
 brief sketches of those who have left the impress of their lives upon the 
 state's history. In the first two volumes the aim has been to include in 
 the biographical mention of men now living only such as have held 
 official position, or who in some other way have been unusually promi- 
 nent in promoting the progress and development of the state or some 
 of its institutions. In this connection it is well to state that the editor 
 is responsible only for those biographies that are intimately interwoven 
 with the history of the state along the lines above suggested. 
 
 The editor and his assistants desire to express here their apprecia- 
 tion of the courtesies shown them in the preparation of the work by 
 the officers of various societies, such as the Bankers', Bar, Medical, 
 Press and Teachers' associations, the fraternal orders, and the libra- 
 rians and attaches of the Louisiana State, the New Orleans Public and 
 the Howard Mimiorial libraries. They also desire to acknowledge their 
 indebtedness to the following works:
 
 Offirlal l'iil)lir(ilioiis.—lA"/\>i\nU\-i- Journal.s, Reports of tlu' Slate 
 Departments, Govenioi-s" Messages. Proeeediiigs of the State ami Con- 
 stitutional Conventions, Session Laws of Louisiana. Reports of the 
 State Supreme Court. American State Papei-s. Reports of llie U. S. 
 Census IJurean and tlie lUireau of Ethnology. Congressional Record, 
 Congressional Direefory. and the Records of the V. S. War l)i'|iarl- 
 ment. 
 
 IJislaiir.s of Laiiisiann. — Franc.-ois X. JIartiii. Charles Gayarre. 
 Alcee Fortiei-. John IS. S. Dimiti'y. ]\Iaurice Thonipsou, Goodspeed's 
 Memoirs of Louisiana. W. IL Perrin's History of Sontliwestern Louisi- 
 ana. ljonner"s History of Louisiana, etc. 
 
 MiscellaneoHS. — Shea's Translation of Hennepin's Description of 
 Louisiana. Latour's Historical Jlemoir of the War in Louisiana and 
 Wi'st Florida. Pierre ]\Iargry's Works, pul)lished hy act of the l'. S. 
 Congress, Darby 's Louisiana. Hrackeuridge's Views of Louisiana with 
 a Journal of a \'oyage up the jMissouri rive)- in 1811. Stoddard's 
 Sketches of Louisiana. French's Collections. Publications of the 
 Louisiana Historical Society, Grace King's New Orleans, the Place 
 and the People. Norman's New Orleans and Environs, iiarnwell's New 
 Orleans Hook. Fortier's Louisiana Studies, Monette's Valley of the 
 ^Mississippi. Hamilton's Colonial Mobile, Marcy's Exploration of the 
 Red River. Alexander II. Sti'phens" History of the War Between 
 the States. Confederate Military History, National Cyclopedia of 
 American Biography, Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia. Newspaper 
 I-'''iles, Pamphlets, Manuscripts, etc. In the archives of the Louisiana 
 Historical Society are to he fouml important manuscript documents 
 relating to the histoi'y of Louisiana during the French and Spanish 
 dominations. 
 
 ALCKE FORTIER, l-JdUor.
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 A 
 
 Abbeville, the capital of Vermiliou parish, is located in the north- 
 eastern part of the parish on the Southern Pacific K. K., near the 
 point where that line crosses Bayou Vermilion, which bayou is 
 navigable for steamers of moderate capacity, thus adding to Abbe- 
 ville's transportation facilities. The site of the city was originally 
 the plantation of Joseph Le Blanc, which was purchased by Father 
 Megret, who remodeled the Le Blanc residence and converted it 
 into a Roman Catholic chapel. Abbeville was incorporated by act 
 of the legislature in 1850 and two years later was made the parish 
 seat by the same authority. The Abbeville of today is one of the 
 thriving cities of southwestern Louisiana. The population accord- 
 ing to the United States census of 1910 was 2,907. It has important 
 manufactures of cotton seed oil, brick, etc., two banks, several large 
 mercantile establishments, good waterworks, well-kept streets and 
 sidewalks, both public and private schools, and is the trading center 
 for a large and prosperous agricultural district. The Catholic 
 church is the prevailing^ religion, the large convent there having 
 been erected in 1885, though there are also churches of other de- 
 nominations. 
 
 Abeille. — ^L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orleans (The New Orleans 
 Bee) is the oldest newspaper in that city, having been founded in 
 1827. (See Newspapers.) 
 
 Abell, Edmund, a New Orleans lawyer, was a ineral)er of tlie 
 constitutional convention of 1864, and under the provisions of the 
 constitution at that time adopted was made judge of the First 
 district court of New Orleans. In ,the summer of 1866, when an 
 attempt was made to reassemble the convention for the purpose of 
 revising the constitution, his court was the only court of record 
 sitting in New Orleans that had jurisdiction of offenses against the 
 laws of the state. On July 2.3 he charged the grand jury that the 
 convention would be an unlawful assemblage in case it was called 
 together. Acting upon his instructions, the grand jury took steps 
 to find indictments against any and all members of the convention 
 that might assemble. (See Riot of 1866.) On March 19, 1867, 
 Gen. P. H. Shei'idan assumed command of the 5tli military district, 
 with headquarters in New Orleans, and on the 27th he removed 
 Judge Abell as an "obnoxious official who was in his opinion dan- 
 gerous to the peace of tlie community." Judge Abell protested 
 against Sheridan's action, and in defense of his course the preced- 
 ing July, called attention to a letter written by him to Gen. Sher- 
 idan. He claimed that he had always performed his official duties 
 in harmony with the laws, and declared his intention to carry the 
 1—2
 
 18 LOUISIANA 
 
 matter before tiie general government. At tlie time the removal 
 was made, Sheriilau assigned no specific reason for his action. 
 When Judge Al)ell called the attention of President Grant to the 
 ease, the latter demanded of Slieridan an explanation. This brought 
 forth a reply in wliieh Slieridan said : "The court over which Judge 
 Abell presided is the only criminal court in the city of New Orleans, 
 and for a period of at least five mouths previous to July 30t'h he had 
 been educating a large jjortion of tlie community to the pei'petra- 
 tion of tliis outrage, by almost ]>romising no prosecution in his court 
 against the offenders, in case such an event occurred. The records 
 of this court will sliow that he fulfilled his promise, as not one of 
 the guilty ones has been prosecuted." 
 
 Judge Abell wrote to President Grant, denying the charges made 
 by Sheridan, and asking that he and the other officers removed 
 might be permitted to serve until their successors should be chosen 
 under a new constitution as provided for by law, b\it his request 
 passed uniieeded. It appears tliat liis greatest offeuse was in up- 
 holding tile state government created liy the constitution of 1864, 
 when tli(> men who established tliat government would have over- 
 tlirown the constitution because some of its provisions stood in the 
 way of their selfish schemes. 
 
 Abita Springs, a village in the central part of St. Tammany parish, 
 on the Eastern Louisiana R. R., 4 miles east of Covington, the 
 parish seat. It has a money order postoffice : as it lies in the famous 
 "Ozone Belt" has become a well known summer aud wiuter resort. 
 Many people from the northern states, who are affected with pul- 
 nioiiai-y tliseases. winter hei-e. 
 
 Academy of the Sacred Heart. — 'i'he following sketch of this 
 institution, situated in St. James parish, La., is taken from Fay's 
 History of Education in Louisiana as furnished him by the mother 
 superior. The educational institution known under the title, "Or- 
 der of the Sacred Heart," wliich sprang up in France at the close 
 of the Revolution, was introduced into this country in tlu> early 
 years of the nineteenth century by a truly apostolic woman. Phil- 
 ippine Duchesne, a woman endowed wit'li the resistless energy of 
 cliaracter traditional in lier family, and wliieli rendered the name 
 one of historic note during the Reign of Terror. ^ladaine Duchesne 
 sailed from Bordeaux on ^larch 19, 1818, accompanied by four com- 
 panions, one of wliom, Eugenie Ande, had been a brilliant and flat- 
 tered member of the imperial court, which she deserted in. the bloom 
 of youth to devote herself to the service of God in the shadow of 
 the sanctuary. It was only after a voyage of two months and a half 
 that, on tlie 2!1tli of :May, tlie heroic band readied New Orleans, 
 where the first act of the enthusiastic foundress was to kneel and 
 kiss the land she had come to evangelize. Going northward to 
 .Mi.ssouri, then known as Upper Louisiana, she opened her first 
 school in the city of St. Louis, and it was not until 1821, on receiv- 
 ing reinforcements from PVanee, that she returned to Louisiana 
 proper and established at Grand Coteau an educational institution 
 on property presented by a rich and pious lady, the widow of Mr.
 
 LOUISIANA 19 
 
 Charles Smith. Foiir years later, iu 1825, she laid the foundatiou 
 of the present flourishing and widely known institution in the par- 
 ish of St. James known as the Convent of St. Michaels. Establish- 
 ments in Natchitoches and Baton Rouge were founded respectively 
 in 1847 and 1851, while the schools of the order were spreading 
 rapidly in the northern and eastern states. These women of rare 
 refinement and high intellectual culture did not confine their care 
 to the privileged classes who thronged to tlieir schools eager to 
 profit by the advantages presented ; they had crossed t'he ocean 
 to seek and save the children of the wilderness, and they lavished 
 their apostolic labors equally on the negroes and the Indians, with 
 whom they disdained not to dwell among the wilds of the forest 
 and prairies. Recently a second school has been established in the 
 city of New Orleans, and the success attained in all these academies 
 proves them worthy of the renown which attends the order through- 
 out Europe, where it holds the first rank as an educational insti- 
 tution. 
 
 Acadia Parish, one of the new parishes, was created in 1886, dvii'- 
 ing the administration of Gov. Samuel D. JIcEnery, out of the 
 southwestern part of St. Landry parish, and named in memory of 
 the old county of Acadia, settled by the exiled Acadians (q. v.) 
 early in the 18th century. It is situated in the southwestern i)art 
 of the state and is bounded on the north by St. Landry parish; on 
 the east by St, Landry and Lafayette parishes; on the south l)y 
 Vermilion parish; and on the west by Calcasieu parish, from which 
 it is separated by the Mermentau river and Bayou Nezpique. 
 Acadia lies in the very heart of the old "Attakapas District," as all 
 that vast stretch of country from the Atchafalaya river to the 
 Sabine, was known during the French and Spanish occiipancy of 
 Louisiana. The early settlement of and history of St. Landry, 
 Lafayette and Calcasieu parishes includes that of Acadia, as it was 
 not erected as a parish until comparatively a recent date. One of 
 the most interesting historical facts iu regard to the settlement of 
 the parish was the colonization of this portion of the country in 
 1870-71, by German immigrants. Joseph Fabacher of New Or- 
 leans, had amassed a fortune before the war, and when it was de- 
 cided to build a railroad (Southern Pacific) through this section, 
 Fabacher, with keen insight saw in the undeveloped resources of 
 tlie rich country the immense opportunities presented to energetic 
 farmers. He took up great tracts of land, upon which he intended 
 to put a colony of German farmers, l)uilt a large saw-mill, and suc- 
 ceeded in everything but getting the railroad, which missed his 
 land by some distance. He noticed, however, that the Acadian 
 farmers were planting rice in t'he mud, and after making inquiries 
 as to its success, determined to carry out his original idea and plant 
 a German colony to carry on rice culture. In a short time he had 
 some families direct from the "Fatherland" located upon his lands. 
 Their descendants are among the most prosperous farmers of Aca- 
 dia, and rank among the great rice growers of Louisiana. Mr. 
 Fal)acher introduced into the district, the first machine for thresh-
 
 20 LOUISIANA 
 
 iug rice, of wliieh several thousand ear-loads are shipped annually 
 from tlie parish. Aeadia has an undulating surface of 633 square 
 miles, comprising woodland and i)rairie. The soil is fertile and 
 productive, well drained by Bayou Xezpicjue and Queue de Tortue 
 on the south, and tlirough its central portions, l)y Bayous Cannes 
 and Plaquemines Brulee. The general direction of the streams is 
 southwest : they are all quite deep, with high banks, which were 
 originally covered with fine timber. The water supply is ample for 
 all purposes. Tlie prairies are monotonously level, and in summer 
 are eoA-ered with luxuriant grass several feet high. Twenty-five 
 years ago the site of Crowley was a pasture, but when the new 
 parish Mas organized the town was laid out and became the parish 
 seat. It has an ideal location, being half way between New Orleans 
 and Houston. Tex. ^lany Northern people have settled in and 
 around Crowley since the creation of the parish. Some of the other 
 towns in the parish are Rayne. Estherwood, ]Morse, Church Point, 
 Mermenton, Egan and Evangeline. Rice and sugar are the big 
 export crops, as Acadia produces more rice than any other parish 
 in the state, but corn. hay. cotton, oats, tobacco, and all kinds of 
 garden vegetables are grown. Soil and climate combine to make 
 horticulture a profitable industry. Stock-raising is a leading in- 
 dustry, tliousands of slieep and cattle being raised on the prairies, 
 where fine pasture can lie obtained the entire year. ^lany farmers 
 are interested in wool, as sheep thrive and increase remarkably 
 well here. Timber sufficient for all domestic purposes is found 
 along the bayous and coulees. It consists of dift'erent varieties of 
 oak. cypress, cottonwood, elm. gum, ash, siigarwood, sycamore, per- 
 simmon and willow. Oil and gas have been struck in the parish. 
 Tlu're are a number of pajnng wells, and several gushers of con- 
 .sidorable magnitude have been struck. Ample transportation facil- 
 ities are furnished by the Southern Pacific R. R. and the Opelousas, 
 Gidf & Northeastern R. Rs., affording an outlet in every direction 
 for the products of the parish. The United States eensiis for 1910 
 gives the following statistics regarding the parish : Number of 
 farms. 3.222: acreage. 273.932: acres improved. 240.593: value of 
 land exclusive of biiildings, $8,009,986: value of buildings. !^1.060.- 
 577: value of live stock, $1,488,040: total value of all crops, $2,- 
 547.419. The population in 1910 was 31.847. 
 
 Acadians. — In 1605 Port Royal was founded by De Monts. and 
 this was the beginning of the province of Acadia, now known as 
 Nova Scotia. By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Acadia was ceded 
 to Great Britain, but the Acadians still maintained their allegiance 
 to France. In 1749 some 2.500 English immigrants landed on the 
 Acadian peninsida and founded the city of Halifax. The stubborn 
 loyalty of the Acadians to their mother country led to frequent 
 ruptures between them and their English neighbors, and in the fall 
 of 1755 about 4.000 of them were torn from their homes, crowded 
 like cattle on Britisli sliips and transported to the coasts of New 
 Jersey, Delaware. ^Maryland and Virginia, where they were left to 
 shift for themselves as best they could. Manj- of the poor, unfor-
 
 LOUISIANA 21 
 
 timate exiles made their way during the next few years to the 
 French settlements on the lower Mississippi. There seems to be 
 some difference of opinion as to the date when the first Acadians 
 arrived in Louisiana. Martin says it was in 1755, and that they 
 received lands along the Alississippi, the place where they settled 
 afterward becoming known as the "Acadian Coast." Thompson, 
 in his Story of Louisiana, says "Six hundred and fifty of them 
 arrived early in 1756 and were sent to Attakapas and Opeloiisas," 
 but neither of these statements are fully corroborated. Gayarre 
 mentions 650, under the command of Andry, who were sent to 
 Attakapas and Opelousas, but gives the date of their arrival as 
 "between Jan. 1 and May 13, 1765." In a letter written April 6, 
 1764, d'Abbadie speaks of the arrival of four families — 20 persons 
 — from New York, and during the year 1765 Foucault, commissaire 
 ordonnateur, frequently refers to the Acadians in his correspond- 
 ence. On Feb. 28 he wrote that 193 had arrived a few days before; 
 on May 4 he speaks of 80 who had .just arrived and had been sent 
 to the Attakapas, and on the 13th of the same month he mentions 
 48 families, who had been sent to the Opelousas. On Nov. 16, 1766, 
 he notes in a letter the arrival of 216 Acadians, and it was about 
 this time that lands were granted them on both sides of the Mis- 
 sissippi above the German coast, whence they extended their settle- 
 ments to Baton Rouge and Pointe Coupee. In the Revolution of 
 1768 the Acadians were unanimous in their opposition to Spanish 
 i:'ule, many of them taking up arms to aid in the expulsion of Gov. 
 Ulloa. (See Revolution of 1768.) In 1787, after the people had 
 become reconciled to Spanish rule. Gov. Miro ordered a census of 
 the Acadians, which showed at that time 1,587 in the Province of 
 Louisiana. Wbat was known as the Acadian coast is now in St. 
 James parish, though descendants of the early Acadians are to be 
 found in every parish in lower Louisiana. They are described as 
 "generally honest, industrious and deeply religious, and cling 
 tenaciously to the traditions of their ancestors." Among the emi- 
 nent men of Acadian origin, who have achieved prominence in 
 Louisiana, may be mentioned Alexander Mouton, at one time gov- 
 ernor of the state, Joseph A. Breaux, at present chief justice of the 
 supreme court, and Robert Broussard, a member of the house of 
 representatives of the United States. 
 
 Acklen, Joseph Hayes, planter, lawyer and politician, was born 
 at Nashville, Tenn., May 20, 1850. His father was a large sugar 
 planter in Louisiana, and his liirtli occurred during a visit of his 
 parents at Nashville. He was educated by private tutors at "Bel- 
 mont," the summer home of his parents at Nashville; at Burling- 
 ton college, and finally graduated successfully from two foreign 
 universities. Returning to America he graduated from the law 
 department of the Columbian university at Lebanon, Tenn., and 
 commenced the practice of law at Nashville, where he continued 
 for several years. Later he removed to Memphis, Tenn., and aban- 
 doned the practice of law to personally superintend his sugar plan- 
 tations in Louisiana. He was elected to the 45th Congress and re-
 
 22 LOUISIANA 
 
 ek'oti'd to tlif 46tli as a Democrat, and at the close of his second 
 term resumed his law practice at Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 Acknowledgments. — (See Deeds.) 
 
 Actions. — All actions are commenced by petition, which must be 
 addressed to the proper judge. The petition mu.st contain the name, 
 surname and place of residence of plaiutitt" and defendant : a clear 
 statement of the cause of action : a prayer for citation to issue to 
 the defendant, and for judgment in conformity with the allega- 
 tions of the petition, and must he signed either by the plaintiff or 
 his attorney. Citation is then issued by the clerk, addressed to 
 the defendant, requiring him to comply with the demand of the 
 plaintiff, or tile his answer in writing within 10 days from the date 
 of service, if his residence be within 10 miles of the court-house, 
 with an additional delay of one day for every additional 10 miles. 
 A certified copy of the petition must accompany tliis citation. This, 
 together with the citation, must be served by the sheriff or his 
 deputy. Service can never be made by publication, except in the 
 case of proceedings in rem. At the expiration of the above men- 
 tioned period, if the defendant does not appear or answer, plaintiflF 
 may cause a judgment to be entered against him by default, and 
 after tlie lapse of two judicial days, prove up his claim and obtain 
 final judgment. Judgments by default can be confirmed on ex part;' 
 aflfidavits when founded on aceoimts. In other cases proof must be 
 taken contradictorily with the defendant. In city courts in Nev,- 
 Orleans a default may be taken in four days after citation, and the 
 judgment proved up and made final after two judicial days from 
 the day of default. In justices" courts in the country parishes, a 
 delay of 10 days from the day of service is given the defendant to 
 file his answer, after which judgment by default can be entered 
 and confirmed on proof of claim being made. 
 
 Acme, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Concordia par- 
 ish, is located on the Black river, about 14 miles west of Bougere, 
 which is the most convenient railroad station. 
 
 Acy, a money order post-hamlet in the central part of Ascension 
 jiarish, is about 4V4 miles northeast of Brittany, the nearest rail- 
 road town. 
 
 Ada is a post-hamlet of Grant pari.sh, about ;{ miles west of 
 Hcntley. wliich is tlie nearest railroad station. 
 
 Adair, Gen. John, was born in Chester county, S. C, in 1758. 
 Wlirii he was about twenty years he went to Kentucky, where he 
 served in the legislature and held a commission in the militia. In 
 180.J he was elected to the U. S. senate from Kentucky and served 
 in that body iintil the following year, when he came to Louisiana. 
 Late in the year 1806 he was arrested by Gen. Wilkinson's order and 
 sent north for complicity in the Burr conspiracy, but subsequently 
 returned to Louisiana. He conuiianded the Kentucky riflemen in 
 the battle of New Orleans and won a flattering encomium from 
 Gen. Jackson for liis skill and bravery. The Louisiana legislature 
 gave him a vote of thanks on Feb. 2, 1815, for the gallant part he 
 played in that engagement. From 1831 to 1833 he was a repre-
 
 LOUISIANA 23 
 
 sentative iu Congress from Kentucky and served on the committee 
 on military affairs. His death occurred May 19, 1850. 
 
 Adams, Daniel W., soldier, was one of the gallant leaders in the 
 military operations of Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama and Missis- 
 sippi. When the war broke out he entered the service of the Con- 
 federate States as second lieutenant of Mississippi state troops, 
 and on Oct. 30, 1861, was commissioned colonel of the 1st regiment, 
 Louisiana infantry, at Pensacola, in the brigade of Gen. Gladden. 
 Later 'lie served at Molnle, and in the spring of 1862, served under 
 Bragg around Corinth. He was wounded on the first day's battle 
 at Shiloh ; on May 23, 1862, was commissioned brigadier-general, 
 and recovered in time to lead his command in tlie Kentucky cam- 
 paign. On Dec. 31 he was again wounded, at the battle of Mur- 
 freesboro, but recovered and led the brigade in the second day's 
 battle at Cliickamauga, where he was again wounded. Gen. D. II. 
 Hill coiinnented upon his gallantry as follows: "Brigadier-General 
 Adams was for the third time severely wounded. It was difficult 
 for me to decide which the most to admire, his courage in the field, 
 or his unparalleled cheerfulness under sufl:'ering. " Soon after re- 
 covering from his wounds he was exchanged and commanded a cav- 
 alry brigade operating in northern Alabama and ]\Iississippi. In 
 Sept., 1864, he was given command of the district of central Ala- 
 bama, and on j\rarch 11, 1865, of the entire state north of the Gulf 
 department. He evacuated IMontgomery and fought a battle at 
 Columbus on April 16. After peace was restored he settled in New 
 Orleans and engaged in business. His death occurred in New Or- 
 leans, La., June 14, 1872. 
 
 Address to Laussat. — (See Laussat.) 
 
 Adeline, a post-village of St. Mary parish, is a station on the 
 Southern Pacific R. R., about 10 miles northwest of Franklin, the 
 nearest banking town. It is in the great sugar district and has con- 
 siderable sugar manufactories. The population is 750. 
 
 Afton, a post-village of Tensas parish, is located in the extreme 
 nortlii-astern part of Bayou Vidal, which forms the boundary l)e- 
 tween Tensas and ^Madison parishes. 
 
 Agricultural College. — (See State University.) 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Stations. — (See State University.) 
 
 Agricultural Society. — The first state agricultural society of Lou- 
 isiana was called into existence officially on March 29, 1833, when 
 the general assembly passed an act incorporating such an institu- 
 tion, and naming as incorporators the following well known gentle- 
 men : Lucien La Branche, Robert C. Nicholas, Thomas Butler, 
 John S. David, Henry Johnson, Jaques Dupre, William B. Wilkin- 
 son, Henry Bry, George Eustis, A. Porter, Jr., V. Allain, Sr., J. B. 
 Milligan, A. Fuselier, Sr., J. H. Shepherd, V. Patin, Phanor Prud- 
 homme and John Compton. The management of affairs was vested 
 in a board of 13 directors, and the act named A. B. Roman, Joseph 
 Nicholas, Edmond J. Forstall and Charles Derbigny as members 
 of the first board. Any one might become a member of the society 
 upon the payment of an annual membersliip fee of $10. The right
 
 24 LOUISIANA 
 
 of the state to subscribe for stock of the Loiiisiaua state bank to 
 the amount of $400,000 was ceded to the bank for an equivalent, 
 ■wliich was transferred to the society, and further encouragement 
 was given the enterprise on Jan. 25, 1834, when the legislature, by 
 the adoption of a resolution to that etfect, tendered the society the 
 free use of a room in the state house "until required for piiblic iise." 
 For some reason the society did not prosper, and on ]\Iarcli S. 1841, 
 the act of incorporation was repealed, all subscriptions to be re- 
 fimded to the stockholders, the property of the society to be sold 
 by tlie treasurer of state, and the books and records to be turned 
 over to the state library. 
 
 Shortly after tliis society went out of existence the Agricultural 
 and ^Mechanical society was organized. It erected the l)uildiug in 
 New Orleans now occupied by the Washingtou Artillery as an 
 armory and gave a great impetus to tlie agricultural interests of the 
 state by holding annual fairs and offering prizes for the best agri- 
 cultural displays, etc. Judge P. A. Rost was for many years presi- 
 dent of tliis society, which continued its operations until the break- 
 ing out of tlie Civil war. (See Fairs.) 
 
 The present State Agricultural society was orgauized in 1888, 
 largely througli the efforts and influence of Prof. W. C. Stiibbs. who 
 for many years was the director of tlie agricultural experiment sta- 
 tion. The first president of the society was Gen. J. L. Brent ; the 
 second was Dr. Frierson; the third was John Dymond, editor of 
 the Louisiana Sugar Planter; the fourth was Col. Cliarles Shuler, 
 now commissioner of agriculture and immigration, and the fifth and 
 present president is Charles Moore. By article 306 of the t-onstitu- 
 tion of 1898 the state board of agriculture and immigration was 
 given control and direction of all state organizations for the im- 
 provement of agriculture, farmers' institutes, fairs, etc., and since 
 the adoption of that constitution the argricultural society has 
 worked in harmony with the state board in the study of condi- 
 tions pertaining to agricultural subjects, such as insect pests, fer- 
 tilizers, drainage, etc. 
 
 Agriculture. — Exclusive of water, the area of Louisiana is 45.440 
 square miles or 29,081,600 acres. For agricultural purposes the land 
 may be divided into seven classes, the acreage of each being as fol- 
 lows : Alluvial lands, 8,483,200; oak and hickorv uplands, 5,185,- 
 920; long leaf pine hills, 4,852,480; long leaf pine flats, 1,635,840; 
 bluffs and bluft" prairies, 3,672,960; central prairie region, 502,400; 
 coast marslies, 4,748,800. The alluvial region proper includes the 
 valleys of tlie ilississippi and Red rivers, with their outlying bayous, 
 though the lands classed as coast marshes are also of alluvial for- 
 mation. 
 
 Beginning at tlie northern boundary of the state, the alluvial 
 lands of the Mi.ssissippi include the parishes of East Carroll. Madi- 
 son, Tensas, Concordia, the greater part of Avoyelles, Pointe Coupee, 
 West Baton Rouge. Iberville, Ascension, Assumption, St. James, St. 
 John, St. Charles. Jefferson, Orleans, St. Bernard. Plaquemines, La- 
 fourche, Terrebonne, and parts of Morehoiise, Ouachita, Union, West
 
 LOUISIANA 25 
 
 Carroll, Richland, Franklin, Caldwell, Catahoula, St. Laudry, St. 
 Martin, West Feliciana and East Baton Rouge. The alluvial lands of 
 the Red river form a narrow border on each side of the sti-eam, extend- 
 ing to parts of the parishes of Caddo, Bossier, Red River, De Soto,. 
 Natchitoches, Grant and Rapides. Another narrow strip of alluvial 
 land is found along the Sabine river in the extreme western part of 
 the state. 
 
 The oak and hickory uplands (sometimes called the good uplands) 
 lie chiefly in the northwestern part of the state. The parishes of 
 Sabine, De Soto, Red River, Caddo, Bossier, Webster, Claiborne, Bien- 
 ville, Lincoln, Jackson and Union consist largely of oak and hickory 
 iiplands, while lai'ge tracts are to be found in the parishes of Ouachita 
 and Caldwell, and smaller ones in Winn, Morehouse and Natchitoches. 
 East of the Mississippi, the parish of East Feliciana is composed al- 
 most wholly of this class of land, the tract extending into the parishes 
 of West Feliciana and East Baton Rouge. In all the upland parishes 
 some alluvial land is found along the streams. 
 
 West of the Mississippi and north of the Red river is a large area 
 of long leaf pine hills, including practically all of Grant and Winn 
 parishes, the western parts of Caldwell and Catahoula, the southeast- 
 ern part of Jack.son, the northern part of Natchitoches, a triangular 
 shaped tract in the southern part of Bienville, and the northeastern 
 part of Rapides. South of the Red river the hills embrace the parish 
 of Vernon, the northern part of Calcasieu and St. Landry, the western 
 part of Rapides, the southern part of Natchitoches, and the south- 
 eastern part of Sabine. East of the Mississippi the parish of Wash- 
 ington, the greater portions of St. Helena and Tangipahoa, and the 
 northern part of St. Tammany lie in the long leaf pine hills. 
 
 South of this formation on both sides of the Mississippi lie the long 
 leaf pine flats, including on the west the central portion of Calcasieu 
 parish, and on the east the eastern half of Livingston and the southern 
 parts of St. Helena, Tangipahoa and St. Tammany. 
 
 In the state are three well defined areas of bluff lands. The first, 
 which lies east of the Mississippi, embraces the western half of Living- 
 ston parish, nearly all the parishes of West Feliciana and East Baton 
 Rouge, and a small tract in the southwestern part of East Feliciana. 
 On the west side of the Mississippi the larger bluff land region lies in 
 the parishes of West Carroll, Richland and Franklin, extending south- 
 ward a short distance into the parish of Catahoula. The third and 
 smallest area of bluff lands lies between the Little and Red rivers in 
 the northwestern part of Avoyelles and the eastern part of Rapides. 
 
 The central prairie region lies west of Bayou Teche and south of 
 Bayou Coeodrie, extending to the western boundary of the state, and 
 on the south to the sea marshes. This region, in many respects the 
 most beautiful part of Louisiana, includes the old Opelousas and Atta- 
 kapas countries, now defined by Acadia parish, the southern part of 
 Calcasieu, the southwestern part of St. Landry, and the northern 
 part of Vermilion. Most of the inhabitants of this section are of Aca- 
 dian descent, of whom it has been said "Cafe noir is their nectar and 
 Perique tobacco their ambrosia."
 
 26 LOUISIANA 
 
 The coast marshes lie along the southern border of the state, extend- 
 ing from Mississippi on the east to Texas on the west, and include 
 portions of the parishes of Orleans. St. Bernard. Plaquemines. Jeffer- 
 son. Terrebonne. Lafourche. St. Mary. Iberia. Vermilion and Cam- 
 eron. In some instances the marshes follow the courses of the bayous 
 far inland, parts of St. James. St. John the Baptist and St. Charles 
 lying within the coast marsh region. 
 
 For fertility of soil and diversity of products, Louisiana is entitled 
 to stand at the head of the list of states. In the northern part of the 
 alluvial region, as in the good uplands, cotton is the principal crop, 
 though in the latter section corn. oats, forage crops and tobacco are 
 grown and truck farming is carried on to a considerable extent. South 
 of the 31st parallel, which forms the boundary between Mississippi 
 and Louisiana from the Pearl river to the Slississippi. sugar-cane, 
 com and rice are the leading products, and along the coast marshes 
 tropical fruits — oranges, figs, etc. — thrive well. (See Horticulture.) 
 The poorest soil in the state is that of the long leaf pine hills. The 
 same crops are raised here, however, as in other parts of the state, 
 though the yield is somewhat less. The lands of this class are well 
 adapted to grazing, and the pine land parishes lead in live stock 
 raising. 
 
 From the earliest history of Louisiana agriculture has been the prin- 
 cipal occupation of her people. The first reliable agricultural statis- 
 tics taken by the U. S. government was in the census of 1850. when 
 the number of farms in the state was reported to be 13,432. Ten 
 years later the number had increased to 17.328. Dxiring the following 
 decade the agricultural interests of the whole South suffered severely 
 from the Civil war. Markets were destroyed : investments in slaves 
 were lost : large areas of land went out of cultivation ; the value of 
 all agricultural lands depreciated : impi-ovements in many cases were 
 totally demolished : and at the close of the war the planters found 
 themselves bankrupt, without credit or a sufficient amount of working 
 capital. Notwithstanding all these drawbacks, in the year 1870 there 
 were 28,481 Louisiana farms in successful operation. In 1880 the 
 number had increased to 48.292. and by 1890 to 62.294. The U. S. 
 census report for 1900 says: "In the South Central division the 
 number of farms added in the last ten years was twice as great as in 
 the largest agricultiiral division, the North Central, and the per cent 
 of increase in the former division was nearly four times as great as 
 in the latter, and over twice that for the United States. As no farms 
 were reported for Indian Territory in 1890. the per cent of increase in 
 the decade can not be expressed for that territory. Among the other 
 states and territories, the greatest percentages of gain are sho^Ti in 
 Oklahoma. Louisiana. Mississippi and Texas, in the order mentioned." 
 
 The United States census report for 1910 contains the following 
 summaries pertaining to agriculture and its principal crops in 
 Louisiana : 
 
 Louisiana ranks twenty-fourth in population and thirty-first in 
 land area among the states and territories of continental United States. 
 The entire area of the state lies at an altitude of less than 500 feet
 
 LOUISIANA 27 
 
 above sea level, while the average altitude is estimated at 100 feet. 
 Nearly one-third of the state consists of the alluvial bottom 
 lands of the Mississippi and Red rivers and their principal 
 tributaries. Only a small portion of these alluvial bottoms rises more 
 than 50 feet above tide level. The northern and northwestern por- 
 tions of the state and a small area in the extreme eastern portion com- 
 prise the rolling to somewhat hilly Coastal Plain region bordering the 
 alluvial bottoms. Immediately along the eastern bank of the Missis- 
 sippi river there occurs a small area of the silty yellow loam known 
 as loess. The southwestern portion of the state comprises a low un- 
 dulating portion of the Coastal Plain, principally occupied by prai- 
 ries, although in part timbered. Within the alluvial bottoms fine 
 sandy loams and loam .soils occur at the higher elevations immediately 
 along the principal streams, while the lower elevations are occupied 
 by heavy silty clays or clay soils. Wherever drainage has been per- 
 fected these soils of the alluvial bottoms have proved to be of high 
 fertility. The soils of the rolling Coastal Plain are chiefly sands and 
 sandy loams, although some clay soils are also found. A large part of 
 the rolling Coastal Plain is still forested. The soil of the loess region 
 is a yellow or gray silty loam. The prairie region in the southwestern 
 portion of the state is occupied principally by a gray silty loam soil, 
 which has been irrigated extensively for the production of rice. A small 
 proportion of the state is comprised within the Flatwoods section of the 
 Coastal Plain. Of the state's entire land area more than one-third 
 (35.9 per cent) is in farms. The percentage varies widely in the 
 different parishes, but the most common is from 20 to 40 per cent, 
 that being the proportion in 24 parishes well disti'ibuted over the 
 state. Only 9 parishes have less than 20 per cent of their land in 
 farms. The proportion is from 40 to 80 per cent in 7 others. Clai- 
 borne Parish, located on the northern boundary of the state, has over 
 80 per cent of its land in farms, while in Lafayette Parish, in the 
 south central part of the state, the percentage is over 90. 
 
 For the state as a whole, the average value of farm land per acre 
 is $17.99. In 26 of the parishes the average is from .+10 to $25. All 
 but three of these parishes are in whole or in part located on the 
 alluvial bottom lands of the state. The exceptions are Calcasieu par- 
 ish, in the southwestern part of the state, and Tangipahoa and St. 
 Tammany parishes, in the southwestern part, all three lying in the 
 rolling Coastal Plain. The average value exceeds $25 in 18 parishes, 
 all located in the alluvial bottoms. Sixteen of these parishes show 
 an average of $25 to $50 per acre, and 1, Jefferson, of $50 to $75 ; 
 while in Orleans parish, in which the city of New Orleans is located, 
 the average is over .$230 per acre. In 16 parishes l.ying in the Coastal 
 Plain region the average is less than $10. 
 
 Between 1900 and 1910 there was an increase of 4,577, or 3.9 per 
 cent, in the number of farms in Louisiana, as compared with an in- 
 crease of 19.9 per cent in the population and of 13.1 per cent in the 
 acreage of improved farm land. During the decade the total amount 
 of land in farms decreased by 5.6 per cent. On account of the increase 
 in the number of farms and of the decrease in farm acreage the aver-
 
 28 LOUISIANA 
 
 age size of farms, which was 95.4 acres iu 1900, had decreased to 86.6 
 acres in 1910. Total number of farms iu state, 113,249. 
 
 The total value of farm property, which includes that of land, 
 buildings, implements and machinery, and live stock (domestic ani- 
 mals, poultry, and bees), is $301,221,000, indicating an increase of 
 51.7 per cent since 1900. Laud alone increased in value 74.3 per cent, 
 compared with an increase of 54.8 per cent in the value of live stock 
 and of 48.9 per cent in that of buildings. Implements and machinery 
 decreased in values 33.5 per cent. In considering the increase of 
 value in agriculture the general increase in the prices of commodities 
 in the last 10 years should be borne in mind 
 
 The average value of a farm, including its equipment is $2,499. an 
 increase of 46 per cent since 1900. During the decade the average 
 value of laud per acre increased by $8.25 or almost doubled. 
 
 In the 60 years since 1850 the population of the state has increased 
 by 1,138,626 or 219.9 per cent. The gain has been gi-eater during the 
 last decade than during any other, and the decade of least increase 
 was that between 1860 and 1870. For the entire 60 yeai's since 1850 
 the number of farms increased from 13.422 to 120.546. or at rate 
 averaging 1,785 per year. Between 1890 and 1900 the average rate 
 of increase was 4.668 per year, while during the last decade the num- 
 ber increased at the rate of 458 per year. 
 
 The land surface of Louisiana is approximately 29.061.760 acres, of 
 which area 10,439,481 acres or 35.9 per cent are included in farms. 
 Of the farm acreage, 5,276.016 acres or 50.5 per cent are reported as 
 improved land. The total amoiint of land in farms is less by 619.646 
 acres than that reported in 1900. At that time several hundred thou- 
 sand acres of land iu the extreme southern part of the state, valued at 
 from $1 to $5 per acre, were owned by resident farmers, who reported 
 such land as part of tlieir farms. During the last 10 years, however, 
 non-resident persons have pitrchased large quantities of this land, 
 which not being used for agricultural purposes, is not here reported 
 for 1910. This fact accounts in large part for the decrease noted. The 
 reported acreage of improved farm land has increased by 609.484 or 
 
 13.1 per cent during the last decade. Thus the proportion improved 
 is higher than 1900 — 50.5 per cent, as compared with 42.2 per cent. 
 
 In 1850 the total amouut of laud in farms was 4.989.034 acres or 
 
 17.2 per cent of the land area of the state. During the decade 1850- 
 1860 the farm acreage increased, and in 1860 occupied 32 per cent of 
 the land area, but by 1870 had fallen to 24.2 per cent. During the 30 
 years between 1870 and 1900 the farm acreage increased and at the 
 latter year occupied 38.1 per cent of the land area. 
 
 The improved acreage followed practically the same general move- 
 ment as the total farm acreage, increasing between 1850 and 1860, 
 decreasing during the Civil war decade, and again iuci-easiug after 
 1870. It is to be noted, however, that the ratio of increase in the 
 improved acreage varied from that in the total acreage. Tims the fact 
 that the proportion improved, which was 31.9 per cent in 1850. de- 
 creased to 29.1 per cent in 1860 indicates that during that decade the 
 increase in the total amount of land aud farms was relatively greater
 
 LOUISIANA 29 
 
 than that in the improved farm acreage. Between 1870 and 1910, 
 however, the improved acreage show.s the greater relative increase, the 
 proportion improved, which was 29.1 per cent in 1870, having risen 
 eontinuously to 50.5 per cent in 1910. 
 
 The total valne of live stock on farms, including domestic animals, 
 poultry, and bees, in 1910 was $44,699,000, of which domestic animals 
 contributed $43,315,000. The value of cattle i-epresented 26 per cent 
 of the total value of live stock ; that of horses and mules, 61.3 per 
 cent ; that of swine, 8.6 per cent ; that of sheep and lambs, 0.8 per cent ; 
 and that of poultry 3 per cent, the other classes being insignificant. 
 
 The total value of crops in 1909 was $77,336,000. Of this amount, 
 94.4 per cent was contributed by crops, for which the acreage as well 
 as the value was reported, the remainder consisting of the value of 
 by-products (straw, garden and grass seeds, etc.,) derived from the 
 same land as other crops reported, or of orchard friiits, nuts, forest 
 products, and the like. The combined acreage of crops for which 
 acreage was I'eported was 3,586.348, representing 68 per cent of the 
 total improved lands in farms (5,276,016 acres). Most of the remain- 
 ing is improved pasture, land lying fallow, horse and farm yards, 
 and laud occupied by orchards and vineyards, the acreage for which 
 was not reported. 
 
 The general character of Louisiana agriculture is indicated by the 
 fact that somewhat less than one-third (32 per cent) of the total value 
 of crops in 1909 was contributed by the cereals, somewhat more than 
 one-fourth (26.2 per cent) by cotton, and somewhat less than one- 
 fourth (23 per cent) by sugar crops. The remainder, representing 
 18.8 per cent of the total consisted mostly of potatoes and other vege- 
 tables, of forest prodiicts, and of hay and forage. 
 
 The value of crops in 1909 was 23.4 per cent greater than in 1899. 
 There was an increase of 5.2 per cent in the total acreage of crops 
 for which acreage was reported, all of the crops showing increases 
 with the exception of cotton, the acreage of which showed a material 
 decrease; the greatest absolute increase was in the acreage of cereals. 
 
 The leading crops in the order of their importance as iudged bv 
 value, are cotton, $17,325,000; corn, $16,480,000; rice, $8,053,000; 
 cotton seed (estimated), $2,950,000: hay and forage, .$2,433,000; and 
 sweet potatoes and yams, $2,950,000. It will be observed, however, 
 that several crops, particularly sugar, the most important crop of the 
 state, statistics for which appear elsewhere, are more important than 
 some of the crops mentioned. 
 
 The total quantity of orchard fruits produced in 1909 was 393,000 
 bushels valued at $314,400. Peaches and nectarines contributed 
 about three-fourths of this quantity ; pears, apples and plums and 
 prunes most of the remainder. The production of tropical fruits in 
 1909 was valued at $320,974; that of grapes amounted to 106.595 
 pounds, valued at $6,099. and that of nuts to 796 pounds, valued at 
 $73,169. 
 
 The total value of sugar cane products in 1909 was $17,753,000 as 
 compared with $14,627,000 in 1899, while the value of sorghum cane 
 and sirup was $34,277 in 1909, as compared with $18,367 in 1899.
 
 30 LOUISIANA 
 
 On April I, 1880, the legislature passed an act creating a bureau 
 of agriculture "to provide for the distrilmtion of any seeds that 
 the government of the United States may desire to introduce; 
 make arrangements for the importation of seeds that may be val- 
 uable to the state; or for the exc'hange of seeds witli foreign couu- 
 Iries or other states." The bureau was also to study the various 
 insects atfecting the crops, plants and fruits of the state; to investi- 
 gate and report upon the possibilities and profits of dairy farming, 
 the culture of wool, silk, bees, etc. ; to in(iuire into the subject of 
 irrigation and how the state might derive profit from it, and in 
 fact to exercise a sort of general supervision over the agricultural 
 industries of the state. An annual appropriation of $6,000 was 
 made to defray the expenses of the bureau, and under its influence 
 the agriculture of the state has taken a wider range, the prodiicts 
 becoming moi'e diversified every year since its estalilishmeut. 
 
 A writer in ■"Current Events,'' in discussing the agricultural ad- 
 vantages and prospects of Louisiana, says : ' " The longer growing 
 season makes possible the cultivation of more than one crop on the 
 same laud the same year, and hence double the efficiency can be 
 obtained than from lands where the growing season is short. The 
 money value «l)tained per acre, according to the U. S. census, is 
 higher in Louisiana than in any other state in the Union. The gen- 
 eral farmer, stock raiser, fruit grower or truck raiser can not go 
 amiss in Louisiana. As a general farmer lie has a greater range 
 of production than can be found in any other state, and being in 
 position to ad.just his crops to the needs of the markets, he can 
 produce what is needed and cut out that of which there is an excess. 
 Therefore his market is always good, because rarely if ever over- 
 stocked with any one product. The opportunities of the stock raiser 
 are e([ually good. The climate permits grazing longer here than 
 elsewhere and also permits tlie largest production of forage at the 
 smallest cost. While the fruit grower may not successfully grow a 
 winter apple, he has possibilities in the early summer varieties, 
 which bring hig'h prices in the Northern markets; has a bonanza 
 in peaclies, plums and strawberries and almost an exclusive market. 
 * * * The truck raiser can have strawl)erries in the Chicago 
 market by the middle of February, cabbage and cauliflower in Jan- 
 uary, February and ^larch ; root crops, l)eans and pi>as in Febi-u- 
 ary and ^larch, and Irish potatoes in April, ^felons and cante 
 loupes can reach the Northern markets long l)efore anyone else has 
 any, and he need not worry about the prices he can obtain. If he 
 operates in colonies so that suffici(>nt can be produced to ship in 
 carload lots, the buyer will be at his farm early and late." (See 
 also the articles on Cotton, Corn, Rice, Tobacco, Jute, etc.) 
 
 Aime, Valcour, a sugar planter of St. James parish, was a native 
 of Louisiana, where he M-as born of parents of French origin, in 
 1798. He was a man of very methodical liabits. one of which was 
 to keep a 'Tlantalion Diary," giving a record of his experiments 
 in sugar culture, the various changes in temperature, and many 
 other interesting ])artienlars bearing on a planter's life and oecu-
 
 LOUISIANA 31 
 
 pation. He was a pioueer in refining sugar directly from the cane- 
 jiiice, and liy his experiments and efforts in this direction did much 
 to promote the sugar industry of the state. On this subject he was 
 a recognized authority, and he was a frequent contributor to De 
 Bow's Review, his articles on sugar and the sugar-cane being widely 
 read by those interested in that line of activity. He was a philan- 
 thropist and gave large sums of money to religious and educational 
 institutions, having been the principal founder of Jefferson college 
 in St. James parisJi. His flower garden was the most beautiful in 
 Louisiana. His oldest daughter, ilrs. Florent Fortier was the 
 mother of Prof. Alcee Fortier. Mr. Aime died in 1867. 
 
 Aimwell, a post-hamlet of Catahoula parish, is aliout 15 iiul(>s 
 west of Harrisonburg, the parish seat. 
 
 Ajax, a little post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is not far from the De Soto parish line and about 10 
 miles northeast of Pleasant Hill, which is the most convenient rail- 
 road station. 
 
 Akers (R. R. name Manchac), is a money order postofRce and a 
 station on the Illinois Central R. R. in the extreme southern part of 
 Tangipahoa parish. It is the center of a large truck farming 
 district. 
 
 Albemarle, one of the principal towns of Assumption parish, is a 
 station on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 6 miles southeast of 
 Napoleonville. It has a money order postoffice, an express office, 
 some good mercantile establishments, is a shipping point of consid- 
 erable importance, and has a population of about 1100. 
 
 Alberta, a village and station in the southwestern part of Bien- 
 ville parish, is about 12 miles southwest of Bienville. It is located 
 on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R.. at tlie edge of the western long 
 leaf yellow pine district, and luis an express office, a money order 
 postoffice and telegraph facilities. 
 
 Alden Bridge, a village of Bossier parish, is a station on the St. 
 Louis Soutliwestern R. R. about 18 miles north of Shreveport and 
 5 miles east of the Red river. It has a money order postoffice and is 
 the trading center for a considerable district. Its po]iiilati(iii is 
 about 300. 
 
 Alderman, Edwin Anderson, edui-atoi', president of Tulane Uni- 
 versity, U)00-04, was born in Wilmington, N. C, May 15, 1861, son 
 of James and Susan Alderman. He was educated at Bethel military 
 academy, Warrenton, Va., entered the University of North Caro- 
 lina in 1878, and graduated four years later with special honors in 
 Latin and English literature. After graduating he accepted the 
 position of superintendent of t'he Goldsboro high school and three 
 years later that of superintendent of tlie Goldsboro schools. He 
 next became superintendent of the Asheville and Newton normal 
 schools, holding that position frotn 1885 to 1888. In 1889 he be- 
 came assistant superintendent of schools in North Carolina and 
 while holding that position carried on a vigorous campaign of the 
 entire state in the interests of public education, training of teachers, 
 and the establishment of a state normal college, w^hich was built
 
 32 LOUISIANA 
 
 in 1892, aud iu which he was appointed professor of history and 
 literature. In 1893 he went to the University of North Carolina 
 as professor of pedagogy ; was superintendent of the summer school 
 there for three years; was elected president of the University of 
 North Carolina in 1896. and held tliat position until 1900, when he 
 succeeded William P. Johnson as president of Tulane University, 
 but resigned in 1904 to become the head of the University of Vir- 
 ginia. In 1893 Mr. Alderman was a member of the board of A'isitors 
 to tlic U. S. military academy at AVest Point. He is vice-president 
 of tlie National Educational association, an honorary member of 
 the Maryland Historical society, and a member of the Southern 
 education board. In 1896, he published the "Life of William 
 Hooper," and a "School History of North Carolina." 
 
 Alexandria, the capital of Rapides parish and one of tlie prin- 
 cipal cities of Louisiana, occiipies a beautiful site on the right bank 
 of the Red river in the northeastern part of the parish, 80 feet 
 above the level of the sea. The town was platted by and received 
 its name from Alexander Fulton, who was the first merchant. 
 Among the early merchants were Antoine Boissat and M. Labat, 
 who came over from France with Marshal Rochambeau and took 
 part in the Revolutionary war, locating in Louisiana after the inde- 
 pendence of the United States was established. Alexandria was 
 made the seat of justice when Rapides parish was created in 1807. 
 A Catholic church was erected in 1817. In 1818 John Casson do- 
 nated grounds for a college, and two years later the College of 
 Rapides was opened for students. The college buildings were in 
 ruins iu 1860. The Bank of Louisiana was established at Alexan- 
 dria in 1821 and continued in successful operation until 1846. In 
 May, 1844. a Protestant Episcopal church was organized. The 
 "State Seminary" was located here by an act of the legislature of 
 1855, and the institution was opened on Jan. 2, 1860, with Col. 
 William T. Sherman as its official head. A severe storm in April, 
 1861. destroyed the market-house, Parker's hotel and several other 
 buildings. On May 13, 1864, a destructive fire broke out, and before 
 it could be brought under control a large part of tlie town was 
 consumed. The place was occupied at the time by the Federal 
 troops and it was rumored that the fire was started by order of 
 Gen. Banks. This is hardly probable, bowever, as the soldiers ex- 
 erted ever.y effort to extinguish the flames and save property. An- 
 other bad fire occurred in :\Iay, 1879, Imt in spite of storms and 
 fires Alexandria has forged steadily to the front until it occupies 
 a position well up in the list of Louisiana cities, with a population 
 of 11,213, census of 1910. The toAvn was first incorporated in 1851, 
 a new charter was granted by the act of Sept. 29, 1868, and in 1882 
 Alexandria Avas incorporated as a city. The street railway company 
 was organized in 1881. a year before the city cbarter was obtained. 
 At the present time Alexandria is one of the most progressive cities 
 of the South, and is a favorite place for holding conventions, as- it 
 is easily reached by tlie Red river steamers and seven lines of rail- 
 way, viz. : The Chicago. Rock Island & Pacific : the Louisiana Rail-
 
 LOUISIANA 33 
 
 way & Navigation company ; tlie Louisiana & Arkansas ; the South- 
 ern Pacific ; the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern ; the St. Louis, 
 Watkins & Gulf, and the Texas & Pacific. The Eapides parish 
 courthouse is one of the finest and best appointed in the whole state, 
 and the other public buildings are substantial structures of modern 
 design and tasteful architecture. The city has three banks, large iron 
 works, boiler and engine manufactories, cotton seed oil mills, an 
 ice factory, wholesale and retail mercantile concerns, 1 daily and 
 4 weekly papers, a sanitarium, waterworks, a good lighting sys- 
 tem, and is an important depot for naval stores, 
 
 Alexton (R, R. name Alma), a post-town and station in the north- 
 ern part of Lincoln parish, on the Arkansas Southern R. R., about 
 10 miles north of Ruston, the parish seat. 
 
 Alice, a post-hamlet of West Feliciana parish, situated in the 
 northeastern part of the parish on Thompson's creek, about 3 miles 
 east of Laurel Hill, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Allemands, a village in the western part of St. Charles parish, 
 on Bayou Des- Allemands, about 30 miles southAvest of New Orleans. 
 It is a station on the main line of the Southern Pacific R. R., and 
 has a money order postofBce and express office. Tlie population is 
 350. 
 
 Allen, a post-liamlet in the western part of Natchitoches parish, 
 about 6 miles south of Timon, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Allen, Henry Watkins, lawyer, soldier and statesman, was born 
 in Prince Edward county, Va., April 29, 1820, the son of a phy- 
 sician. In his boyhood he removed with his parents to Missouri, and 
 was educated at Rlarion college. Througli a misunderstanding with 
 his father, he left home in his 20th year and established a school at 
 Grand Gulf, Miss., which he conducted for about two years, study- 
 ing law in the meantime. In 1842, soon after his admission to the 
 bar. Gen. Sam Houston, president of the Texas republic, called foi: 
 troops, and young Allen raised a company and went to Texas. 
 There he acquitted himself in a manner that won the confidence of 
 his men and the respect of his superior officers. After a few months 
 in Texas he returned to Mississippi, married Miss Salome Anne 
 Crane of Rodney, and resumed his law practice. In 1846 he was 
 elected to the Mississippi legislature. Soon after the expiration of 
 his term he removed to Louisiana and became a planter. In 1853 
 he was elected to the legislature of that state, and the next year 
 went to Harvard to complete his legal education by a higher course 
 in law, but he became so much interested in the struggle of the 
 Italians for independence that he sailed for Europe with the inten- 
 tion of aiding them. The trouble was over, however, before he 
 arrived. He then made a tour of Europe, and on his return home 
 published a book entitled "The Travels of a Sugar Planter." He 
 was again elected to the legislature, where he made a reputation 
 that extended throughout the state. When the Civil war broke out 
 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate army and 
 was stationed at Ship island, but preferring more active service 
 he asked to be transferred and was commissioned colonel of the 
 1—3
 
 34 LOUISIANA 
 
 4th La. inl'auti-y. He was wounded at Sliiloli ; superiut ended tlic 
 construction of fortitieations at Vieksburg under heavy fire ; was 
 wounded in both legs by a shell at Baton Rouge on Aug. 5, 1862. 
 In Sept., 1863, lie was commissioned brigadier-general by President 
 Davis and ordered to report to Gen. Kirby Smith at Shreveport, 
 La. In the following November he was elected governor of Louis- 
 iana as a Confederate, and in Jan., 1864, retired from the army to 
 assume the duties of that office. On June 2, 1865, he gave up the 
 office of governor and went to the City of Mexico, where he estab- 
 lished a newspaper called The Mexican Times. Gen. Allen died in 
 that city on April 22, 1866. Ilis remains were brought to Loiiisiana 
 and were placed under a monument erected in front of the state 
 liouse at Baton Rouge. 
 
 Allen's Administration. — At the time Gov. Allen entered upon 
 tlie duties of bis office tbe Federal army was in possession of the 
 city of New Orleans and the adjacent country. He therefore estab- 
 lished his seat of government at Shreveport, where his adminis- 
 tration began on Jan. 25, 1864. In his message to the legislature 
 the next day he said.: "Start the hammer and the loom. Let the 
 furnace smoke and the anvil ring. Stimulate capitalists to embark 
 in these indTistrial pursuits at home ; for while the blockade stands 
 you cannot get such articles as you now need so much, iiuless you 
 make tliem yourselves. If one half of the capital that has been sent 
 to foreign lands, in running the blockade, had been invested in 
 manufactories at home, our country would be this day in a far 
 better condition. I, therefore, finally recommend that you establish 
 a mining and manufacturing bureau (to which may be attached 
 a laboratory for preparing indigenous medicines), and place at its 
 head men of intelligence, of energy, of undoubted honesty. This 
 is a great ;nidertaking; but we are a great people, and should be 
 equal to any emergency. On the field we are the equals of any in 
 the world. Let us learn a lesson from the enemy and profit by their 
 example. They manufacture everything at home. It is not too late 
 for us to begin. We have immense resources. We can save the 
 currency and the country. We will. It rests with you to say it 
 shall be done." 
 
 On March 4, 1864, another civil government was established for 
 that portion of the state within the Federal lines, with I^Fiehael 
 TTabn as governor. AVhile this government (See Hahn's Adminis- 
 tration) was wrangling over political questions, and adopting meas- 
 ures that in some instances amounted to persecution against the 
 Confederates, Allen's administration, which extended to three- 
 fourths of the state, was trying in every po.ssible way to ameliorate 
 the condition of the people. Gov. Allen established state stores, 
 factories, etc.; a state dispensary to furnish pure medicines at cost; 
 provided for the payment of the cotton tax to the Confederate gov- 
 ernment in kind : opened trade Avith Texas and ]\Iexico, whereby 
 cotton was exchanged for clothing, medicines and other necessities; 
 and distributed cotton cards among the women of the state that 
 they mi^ht be able to produce homespun clothing for the families.
 
 LOUISIANA 35 
 
 He was tireless in liis efforts to relieve the wants of the people, and 
 was always on tlie alert in the protection of their rights. Inside 
 the Federal lines martial law prevailed and the writ of habeas cor- 
 pus had been suspended. This had not been done by Gen. Smith, 
 but occasional conflicts arose between the civil and military author- 
 ities, and in these cases the governor used all his skill find energy 
 to avert any encroachment on civil rights. By the exercise of power 
 that was almost dictatorial he suppressed the traffic in intoxicat- 
 ing liquors, his success in this direction being imprecedented, and 
 many a dollar tliat would have been spent to satisfy some poor 
 man's appetite for drink was made to serve a better piu'posc. In 
 Dec, 1864, the governor wrote to Gen. Smith, earnestly protesting 
 against tlie proposed destruction of cotton in sections of the state 
 liable to Federal invasion. He insisted that if it was right to de- 
 stroy the cotton l)elouging to an individual citizen to keep it from 
 falling into the liands of the enemy, it was equally right to destroy 
 all individual property tliat the enemy could use. He thouglit that 
 the cotton might be .iudiciously left as an inducement for the 
 enemy to make an incursion into Confederate territory, as that was 
 supposed to have been the chief incentive to Gen. Banks in his raid 
 up the Red river, "a diversion of the Federal forces," said he, "that 
 contributed immensely to oiir great success in tlie now closing cam- 
 paign of 1864. A similar Federal diversion in 1865 would be cheaply 
 bought at the cost of every bale of cotton west of the Mississippi." 
 This letter was the means of saving a large quantity of cotton. 
 ^ The spring of 1865 witnessed the close of the long and disastrous 
 war. Gen. Smith surrendered to the Federal authorities on May 26, 
 and Gov. Allen determined to go to Mexico. On June 2 he published 
 his farewell address to the people of Louisiana — an address full of 
 pathos and expressions of love for his fellow-countrymen, as tlie fol- 
 lowing extracts sliow: "I have thought it my duty to address you a 
 few words in parting from yon, perhaps forever. My administration 
 as governor of Louisiana closes this day. The war is over, the con- 
 test is ended, the soldiers are disbanded and gone to tlieir homes, and 
 now there is in Louisiana no opposition whatever to the constitution 
 and laws of the United States. Until order shall be established, and 
 society with all its safeguards fully restored, I would advise that j'ou 
 form yourselves into companies and .squads for the purpose of pro- 
 tecting your families from outrage and insult, and your propert.v from 
 spoliation. A few bad men can do much mischief and destroy much 
 property. Within a short while the United States authorities will 
 no doubt send an armed force to any part of the state where you may 
 re<|uire it, for your protection. 
 
 "Mj' countrymen, we have for four long years waged a war which 
 we deemed to be .just in the sight of high heaven. We have not been 
 the best, the wisest, nor the bravest people of the world, but we have 
 suffered more and borne our sufferings with greater fortitude than 
 any people on the face of God's green earth. Now let us show to the 
 world that, as we have fought like men, like men we can make peace. 
 Let there be no acts of violence, no heart-burnings, no intemperate
 
 36 LOUISIANA 
 
 language, but with manly di-riiity submit to the inevitable course of 
 events. * * * Let u.s not talk of despair, nor whine about our 
 misfortuues. but with strong arms and stout hearts adapt oiirselves 
 to the circumstances which surround us. 
 
 "If my voice could be heard and heeded at Wa.shington I would 
 say, 'Spare this distracted land, oh, spare this afflicted people. In 
 the name of bleeding Immanit.y, they have suffered enough!' But, 
 my countrymen, this cannot be. I am one of the proscribed — I must 
 go into exile. I have stood by you. fought for you. and stayed with 
 you up to the very last moment, and now I leave you with a heavy 
 heart. The high trust with wliich yoii have honored me is this day 
 returned. I leave the office of governor with clean hands, and with the 
 conscious pride of having done my duty. All the officers of state, and 
 all the employees in its various departments, have rendered their final 
 accounts, made full and complete statements. I thank them for their 
 uniform kindness to -me and their patriotic devotion to the .several 
 duties assigned them. These accounts are in the hands of Col. John 
 jM. Sandidge. I invite the closest scrutiny, not only of these papers, 
 but of all my acts as governor of Louisiana. 
 
 "I go into exile not as did the ancient Romans, to lead back foreign 
 armies against my native land, but rather to avoid persecution and the 
 crown of martyrdom. I go to seek repose for my shattered limbs. It 
 is my prayer to God, that this counti-y may be blessed with permanent 
 peace, and that real prosperity, general happiness, and lasting con- 
 tentment may unite all who have elected to live lander the flag of a 
 common country. If possible, forget the past. Look forward to the 
 future. Act with candor and discretion, and you will live to ble.ss 
 him who. in parting, gives you this last advice." 
 
 Allen Parish. — This is one of the parishes recently formed from 
 Calcasieu and is bounded on the north by Vernon and Kapides, on 
 the east by Evangeline, on the south by Jeff Davis, and on the west 
 by Calcasieu and Beauregard parishes. It contains about 700 
 square miles and is one in which there is much timber and a large 
 area of good laud that is being rapidly developed. The last sta- 
 tistics for agriculture by the U. S. census include this area with 
 Calcasieu. The parish seat is Oberlin, and Kinder, in the soiithern 
 liart. is a lumber town of much importance. 
 
 Allentown, a village in the southeastern part of Bossier parish, 
 is on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles by 
 rail east of Shreveport. It is a money order postoffice. 
 
 Alma, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of St. Tammany 
 parish, near the Tchefuncte river, is about 4 miles northwest of Foi- 
 som. the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Almadane, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Vernon 
 parish, near the Sabine river, is about 17 miles southwest of Neame, 
 the nearest railroad station. It is a trading center for a large agri- 
 cultural district and in 1900 reported a population of 53. 
 
 Almonester, Don Andres, who in the days of Spanish supremacy 
 in Louisiana held the offices of royal notary and alferez real, was one 
 of the most public-spirited men in New Orleans. He was born at
 
 LOUISIANA 37 
 
 Mayrena, Andalusia, about 1723, and came to Louisiana soon after 
 the province was ceded to Spain. In 1770 the government reserva- 
 tions on either side of the plaza were granted to the city of New 
 Orleans, with the understanding tliat the ground rents should be a 
 source of perpetual revenue. Almonester leased the reservations, tore 
 down the old barracks and in their place put up two rows of stores, 
 which for a long time formed the principal retail district of the city. 
 After the great fire of March 21. 1788, which destroyed, among many 
 other buildings, the Spanish school house, he gave the free use of a 
 room that the school might continue. Among his other benefactions 
 were the new charity hospital, to replace the one blown down by the 
 hurricane of 1779; the chapel of the Ursulines; the St. Louis cathe- 
 dral, which took the place of the parish church that was destro.yed 
 by the fire above mentioned; and the cabildo (q. v.), for which he was 
 repaid, the total cost of these structures being in the neighborhood of 
 $200,000. He died at New Orleans on April 26, 1796, and was buried 
 in the cathedral which he had founded. He was the father of Madame 
 de Pontalba, who built the buildings on both sides of Jackson Square, 
 known as the ' ' Pontalba buildings. ' ' 
 
 Aloha, a village in the western part of Grant parish, is on the 
 Red river, about 7 miles northwest of Colfax, the parish seat. It 
 has a money order postoffice, an express office, and is situated at the 
 junction of two branches of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany's lines. 
 
 Alpha, a post-village in the extreme southeast corner of Red 
 River parish, is the terminus of a branch of the Louisiana Railway 
 & Navigation company that connects with the main line of that 
 system at Grappe's Bluff. 
 
 Alsatia, a A'illage in the southeastern part of Bast Carroll parish, 
 is near the Mississippi river. It is a money order postoffice and a 
 station on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R. 
 
 Alto, a village of Richland parish, is situated on the Boeuf river, 
 about 10 miles southwest of Rayville, the parish seat, and 4 miles 
 northwest of Mangham, t'he nearest railroad station. It is a money 
 order postoffice and h'as a population of 200. 
 
 Alton, a village and station in the southeastern part of St. Tam- 
 jnany parish, is on the New Orleans & Northeastern R. R. It has 
 a money order postoffice. 
 
 Ama, a village of St. Charles parish, on the Mississippi river, 
 about 1 mile north of Sellers, the nearest railroad station. It has 
 a money order postoffice, some mercantile interests, and a popula- 
 tion of 500. 
 
 Amelia (R. R. name Boeuf), a village in the extreme eastern 
 part of St. IMary parish, is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R., 
 about 8 miles east of Morgan City. It has a money order postoffice, 
 an express office, and a population of 300. 
 
 American Governors. — Following is a list of those who have held 
 the office of governor under the American domination : William 
 C. C. Claiborne, governor of the Territory of Orleans, 180-1-12 ; 
 "William C. C. Claiborne, governor of the State of Louisiana, 1812-
 
 38 LOUISIANA 
 
 16; Jiu-ques Villere, 1816-20: Thomas B. Kobertson, 1820-24 (re- 
 signed; ; Henry !S. Thibodaux, one month of unexpired term of 
 Kobertson; Henrv Johnson, 1824-28; Pierre Derbigny, 1828-20 
 (died in office) ; *Armand Beauvais, Oct. 7, 1829, to Jan. 14, 1830, 
 and Jacques Dupre, Jan., 1830, to Jan., 1831, (unexpired term of 
 Derbigny) ; Andre Bienvenu Roman, 1831-35 ; Edward D. White, 
 1835-39 ; Andre Bienvenu Roman, 1839-43 ; Alexandre Mouton, 
 1843-46 ; Isaac Johnson, 1846-50 : Joseph M. Walker, 1850-53 : Paul 
 0. Hebert, 1853-56; Robert C. Wvckliffe, 1856-60; Thomas 0. Moore, 
 1860-64; George F. Shepley, 1862-64 (appointed by the Federals as 
 military governor) ; Henry W. Allen, 1864-65 (elected as a Confed- 
 erate) ;" Michael Hahn, 1864-65 (elected as a Federal. Feb. 22, 1864, 
 served to ilarch 4, 1865) ; J. Madison Wells. 1865-67 (removed by 
 Gen. Sheridan) ; Benjamin F. Flanders, 1867 (appointed when 
 Wells was removed and served until Jan., 1868) ; Joshua Baker, 
 1868 (appointed bv Gen. Hancock to succeed Flanders and served 
 until June, 1868) ;'Henry C. Warmoth, 1868-73: John McEnery (de 
 jure), 1873-77: William P. Kellogg (de facto), 1873-77; Francis 
 T. NichoUs, 1877-80; Loiiis A. Wiltz, 1880-81 (died in office) ; Sam- 
 uel D. IMeEnerv, 1881-88 (succeeded Wiltz as lieutenant-governor, 
 elected in 1884^ ; Francis T. Nicholls, 1888-92; Murphv J. Foster, 
 1892-1900; William W. Heard. 3900-04; Newton C. Blanchard, 1904- 
 08: Jared Y. Sanders. 1908-12; Luther E. Hall, 1912—. 
 
 Amesville, a village of Jefferson parish, is located on the right 
 bank of the Mississippi river about 9 miles above New Orleans, ft 
 is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., has a money order post- 
 office, an express office, and a population of 250. 
 
 Amiens, Treaty of. — (See Treaties.) 
 
 Amite, the seat of justice of Tangipahoa parish, is situated on the 
 main line of the Illinois Central R. R., a little west of the Tangi- 
 pahoa river, in the west-central part of the pai-ish. The town grew 
 ■up after the railroad was bixilt and was incorporated, but this 
 charter was annulled and a new one granted in 1876. When Tangi- 
 pahoa parish was created in 1869, Amite was chosen for the parish 
 seat. For some years court was held in the upper story of a biis- 
 iness block; the present court house was completed in 1884. Amite 
 is an important station on tlie Illinois Central R. R., and is a ship- 
 ping point of considerable importance for lumber and small fruits. 
 In the early spring strawberries and garden vegetables are shipped 
 by car-load lots. There are several manufacturing establishments 
 in the town, the gin factory is one of the largest in the state, giv- 
 ing employment to several hundred men. Amite has good public 
 schools and the Amite City seminary, which provides for the higher 
 education of the children. The Protestant denominations are rep- 
 resented by the Baptist, Presbyterian and Episcopal churches 
 while the (Catholics have a fine church. Amite has two banks and 
 is the banking point for a considerable district of pine land in tlK- 
 nortliern and western part of the parish. There are telegraph, ex- 
 press and teleplione offices in the town and in 1910 it had a popu- 
 lation of 1,677 inhabitants.
 
 LOUISIANA 39 
 
 Anabel is a post-liamlet in the southern part of Ouachita parish, 
 on Cypress creek, a tributary of the Ouachita river, and about 6 
 mik'S soutli of Lapine, the nearest raih-oad station. 
 
 Anchor, a village in the eastern part of Pointe Coupee parish, is 
 on the Mississippi river, and about 2 miles east of St. Clair, the 
 nearest railroad town. It has a money order postoffice and a popu- 
 lation of about 250. 
 
 Anderson, Thomas C, politician, was somewhat active during; 
 the reconstruction days. In 1868 he was appointed a member of 
 the retui-uing board and served until 1872, when he was nominated 
 for state senator, which rendered him ineligilile to act as a return- 
 ing officer. He was reappointed on the board in 1873, and on Jan. 
 28, 1878, was brought to trial for uttering forged and counterfeit 
 returns from Vernon parish in the election of Nov. 7, 1876. On 
 Feb. 1, after the trial had proceeded for four days, he applied to 
 Justice Bradley of the U. S. supreme court for a writ of "habeas 
 corpus cum causa" to remove the case from the state court to the 
 U. S. circuit court, but the application was denied. The trial then 
 proceeded and the .jury, after a short absence from the court room, 
 returned a verdict of guilty, but recommended the defendant to the 
 clemency of the court. Anderson was sentenced to two years' im- 
 prisonment in the penitentiary, but the state supreme court subse- 
 quently set aside the verdict — "not because the act charged was 
 not committed, but because, when committed, it constituted no 
 crime known to the laws of the I'nited States." He does not appear 
 to have figured to any great extent in Louisiana aifairs after this 
 event. 
 
 Andrepont, a post-hamlet of Evangeline parish, is about 12 miles 
 northwest of Opelousas, the parish seat, with which it is connected 
 by telephone. , 
 
 Andrew, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Vermilion parish, 
 is about 5 miles northeast of Kaplan, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Angie, a village in the northeastern part of Washington parish, 
 is a station on the main line of the New Orleans Great Northern R. 
 R., and about 4 miles west of the Pearl river. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express service, and a population of 346. 
 
 Angola, a village in the extreme nort'hwestern part of West Feli- 
 ciana parish, is on the ]Mississippi river, has a money order post- 
 office, and is a station on the main line of the Louisiana Railway 
 & Navigation company. 
 
 Ansley, a post-town and station in the northwestern part of Jack- 
 son parish, is on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R., about 5 
 miles north of Quitman. It has an express office and telephone ser- 
 vice, and some retail stores. 
 
 Antioch, a post-hamlet in tlie east-central part of Claiborne par- 
 ish, is about 8 miles southwest of Summerfield, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Antiquities. — (See Archeology.) 
 
 Antoine, Pere. — (See Sedella, Antonio.) 
 
 Antonio, a post-hamlet and station in the east-central part of
 
 40 LOUISIANA 
 
 Grant parish, is a station on the St. Louis. Iron ^Mountain & South- 
 ern K. R., about 20 miles north of Alexandria. 
 
 Antrim, a village in the northwestern part of Bossier parish, is 
 situated at the junction of the St. Louis Southwestern and the Red 
 River & Rocky Mountain railroads, about 15 miles north of Benton 
 and 5 miles east of the Red river. It has a money order postoffice 
 and is a trading center for a considerable cotton district. Its pop- 
 ulation is 250. 
 
 April, a post-liamlet in the extreme northwest corner of Calca- 
 sieu parish, is about 3 miles east of the Sabine river and 6 miles 
 north of Neale, the nearest railroad town. 
 
 Arabi, a village in the extreme northwestern part of St. Bernard 
 pari.sh, is located on the left bank of the Mississippi river, some 
 8 or 9 miles below New Orleans. It has an international money 
 order postoiBce and is a station on the Louisiana Southern R. R. 
 
 Arbitration. State Board of. — On July 12, 1894, the general assem- 
 bly passed an act authorizing the governor to appoint five competent 
 persons — two of whom should be employers, two employees, and the 
 fifth to be appointed upon the recommendation of the other four— to 
 serve as a state board of arbitration for the adjustment of disputes 
 between employers and laborers. Two members of the board were to 
 be appointed for 2 years; two for 3 years, and one for 4 years, and 
 the governor was given power to fill vacancies. The act pro\'ided that 
 any employer of 20 or more persons, or the employees of any indi- 
 vidual, firm or corporation, might apply to the board for an adjudi- 
 cation of differences, in which case the board was required to visit the 
 locality, hear statements, make inquiries, advise the parties to the 
 controversy what to do, and to render a written decision in all cases. 
 The board was also requii-ed to publish the time and place of hearing 
 complaints, and was given power to summon witnesses or to oi-der an 
 examination of books and papers, so far as the same might relate to 
 the points in dispute. 
 
 It was further provided in the act that, whenever any strike or 
 lockout occuiTed or was imminent, the mayor of the city or judge of 
 the parish district court should at once notify the board of arbitration, 
 which should endeavor to effect an amicable settlement of the ques- 
 tions at issue, ilembers of the board were to draw compensation at 
 the rate of $5 a day and actual expenses for the time actively em- 
 ployed in the adjustment of labor troubles, and the board was required 
 to report to the governor biennially. During the years succeeding the 
 passage of this act the services of the board were frequently called 
 into reciuisition, and in a majority of such cases their decisions were 
 accepted by the employer and the employees at variance. 
 
 "With some slight modifications, this law was still in force in July, 
 1908, when the relations between the steamship agents on one side aiid 
 the screwnnen, stevedores and longshoremen on the other became 
 somewhat strained. On July 6, while the general assembly was in .ses- 
 .sion at Baton Rouge, a conference of the steamship agents and the 
 .several labor organizations above mentioned was held in that city, and 
 an agreement was reached for the appointment of a permanent state
 
 LOUISIANA 41 
 
 board of arbitration. Accordingly, on the 16th Gov. Sanders ap- 
 pointed W. B. Thomp.son, president of the New Orleans cotton ex- 
 change, and E. H. Kohnke, a flour merchant, to represent the em- 
 ployers, and Rnfns M. Ruiz of the longshoremen and H. D. French 
 of the brotherhood of railway conductors on the part of organized 
 labor. The next day these four men met and agreed without dissent 
 upon H. G. Hester, secretary of the cotton exchange, as the fifth mem- 
 ber of the board. (See Labor Troubles.) 
 
 Arbor Day. — The general assembly of 1904 created a department 
 of forestry, and the act directed parish school boards to provide for 
 teaching forestry in the public schools by textbooks or lectures, or 
 both, and also to provide for an "arbor day," when trees should be 
 planted on the school gi-ounds, etc. The act, however, failed to name 
 the day on which these ceremonies should be observed, and the state 
 board of education, in Nov., 1905, designated the second Friday in 
 the month of January of each year as "Arbor Day," on which day 
 "those in charge of the public schools and institutions of learning un- 
 der state control, or state patronage, shall give information to pupils 
 and students on the subject of forestry, its value and interest to the 
 state, and encourage the planting of forest trees and the protection of 
 song birds." 
 
 Arbroth, a village in the northern part of West Baton Rouge 
 parish, is situated on the Mississippi river, about a mile east of the 
 railroad station of the same name. It has a money order postoffiee and 
 a population of 300. 
 
 Arcadia, the seat of government of Bienville parish, is situated 
 in the northeastern part of the parish on the main line of the Vicks- 
 burg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R. Before the railroad was built, 
 Arcadia was only a small village on the stage coach route between 
 Monroe and El Paso, but after the railroad was completed in 1884 it 
 began to grow rapidly, and in 1892, the parish seat was removed from 
 Sparta and located here. It draws a large trade from the surrounding 
 rich fai'ming district, being located on one of the most fertile high- 
 lands in Louisiana. A postoffiee was established here in 1866 ; in 1883 
 a seminary was established under the title of the Arcadia E. A. S. Male 
 college ; three years later the Arcadia Male and Female college was 
 founded ; in 1890 the Arcadia State bank was organized, and its offi- 
 cers have endeavored to build up the interests of the town. Arcadia 
 has a money order postoffiee, express office and telegraph facilities*and 
 now has a population of 1,079. 
 
 Archaeology. — The word archaeology is derived from two Greek 
 words, "archaios. " from the beginning, and "logos," a discourse. A 
 recent writer on the .subject says: "The name is now very generally 
 given to the study which was formerly known as that of 'antiquities.' 
 The term is well enough understood, althoiigh its meaning is not at all 
 definitely fixed. In its widest sense, it includes the knowledge of the 
 origin, language, religion, laws, institutions, literature, science, arts, 
 manners, customs — everything, in a word, that can be learned of the 
 ancient life and being of a people. * * * In its narrower but 
 perhaps more popular signification, Archseology is understood to mean
 
 42 LOUISIANA 
 
 the discovery, preservation, collection, arraugemeut. authentication, 
 publication, description, interpretation, or elucidation of the materials 
 from which a knowledge of the ancient condition of a country is to 
 be attained." 
 
 The arehipologist makes liis investigations by the study of fossil 
 remains, ruins. nioni;ments. inscriptions, etc. : by written manuscripts 
 (palaeography); and by printed books (bibliography). The world 
 was old before the archffological history of Louisiana began to be writ- 
 ten. Conse(|uently there have been found in the state but few relics of 
 sufficient importance to command the serious attention of the anti- 
 quary. Jlention is made in the article on Geological Survey of the 
 paper read before the American Philosophical society in 1832. relat- 
 ing to the bones of a lizard-like animal found in the Tertiary forma- 
 tion of Louisiana. Such bones of extinct animals have been found at 
 various points in the state, but none of them date back to an earlier 
 geologic period than the upper Tertiary era. Bones of the mastodon 
 giganteus, an animal which survived to a late Pleistocene date, have 
 been found on Avery island : bones and teeth of the giant sloth (Mylo- 
 don), also of the Pleistocene period, on Avery and Joor islands, and 
 many bones of an extinct species of hoi-se have been found in different 
 places. Jlost of these bones are preserved in the museum of the 
 Tulaiie university of Louisiana. On Avery island wood in a perfectly 
 sound state was found with the bones of tlie mastodon, and on the 
 same island ancient potteiy. bones and shells have been found a few 
 feet below the surface by persons engaged in sinking shafts for the 
 salt mines. 
 
 There was a tradition among the Indians of the Opelousas country 
 that a great many years ago a huge animal inhabited the prairie in 
 the northern part of the present parish of Lafayette and the eastern 
 part of St. Landry; that when this great animal died the carrion 
 crows came to feed upon the carcass, and that notwith.standing the 
 crows came in large numbers, it was a long time before the last vestige 
 of the body was consumed. It was from this tradition that the Carrion 
 Crow bayou, the district and town of Carencro received their names. 
 
 A few relics of past and gone inhabitants have been found, includ- 
 ing stone arrow and spear heads near Amite, in Tangipahoa parish; 
 a carved stone pipe in the parish of Terrebonne ; and a few obsidian 
 knives, though but few historically important specimens of the mound- 
 builders" work have been discovered. Hilgard, in his "Supplemen- 
 tary and Final Report of a Geological Feeonnoisance of the State of 
 Louisiana." made in May and June. 1869. speaks of mounds on the 
 prairie between Opelousas and Ville Platte. lie says: ''On this prai- 
 rie we first observed, in considerable numbers, those singular rounded 
 hillocks which dot so large a portion, both of the prairies and wood- 
 lands of southwestern Louisiana and adjoining portions of Texas. 
 "With a maximum elevation of about 2 feet above the general surface, 
 they have a diameter varying from a few feet to 20 or 30; their num- 
 ber defies calculation. They do not show in their internal structure 
 any vestige of their mode of origin : or rather, being totally devoid of 
 structure of any kind; they merely prove by their material that there
 
 LOUISIANA 43 
 
 has been a mixing up of the surface soil with from 2 to 4 feet of the 
 subsoil. They are altogether independent of formations underlying 
 at a greater depth, and it seems impossible to assign to them any other 
 origin than that historically known of their brethren in Texas, viz. : 
 that of ant hills. As to the physical or moral causes of the wholesale 
 slaughter or emigration of this once teeming population, deponent 
 saith not. Perhaps some of the aboriginal Attakapas tribes might, 
 if consulted, still be able to bear testimony on the subject." Prof. 
 George Williamson, of the Louisiana state normal school, and Prof. 
 George Beyer, of the Tulane universitj^ have made important studies 
 in the archaeology of Louisiana relating to the Indians.- (See also 
 Geology. ) 
 
 Archer (R. K. name Spencer), a post-hamlet and station in the 
 southeastern part of Union parish, is situated on the St. Louis, Iron 
 Mountain & Southern R. R., about 15 miles east of Farmerville, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 Archibald, a village and station in the southeastern part of Rich- 
 land parish, is a station on the New Orleans & Northwestern R. R., 
 about 10 miles south of Rayville, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffice and is a trading center for a considerable district. 
 
 Areola, a village and station in the nortiiwest part of Tangipahoa 
 parish, is on the main line of the Illinois Central R. R., about 4 miles 
 north of Amite, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 telegraph and express offices, and is situated in one of the great berry 
 raising districts of the south. Its population is 100. 
 
 Argo, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Catahoula parish, 
 is located on the Black river, about 16 miles west of Bougere, Con- 
 cordia parish, which is the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Ariel, a hamlet in the western part of Lafourche parish, is situated 
 on the Bayou Lafourche, 4 miles southwest of Lafourche Crossing. 
 Ewing \s the nearest railroad station. It has a money order post- 
 office and a population of 150. 
 
 Arizona, a town in the central part of Claiborne parish, is situated 
 on a branch of the Bayou D'Arbonnc, about 6 miles east of Homer, 
 the parish seat and nearest railroad station and banking town. Ari- 
 zona was incorporated on March 1, 1869. It has a money order post- 
 office and a population of 50. 
 
 Arkana, a post-hamlet and station on the northern border of Bos 
 sier parish, is on the St. Louis Southwestern R. R., about a mile 
 south of the Arkansas line. 
 
 Arkansas Post. — "This Post," says Dumont in his Historical Mem- 
 oirs, "is properly only a continuation of the establishment formed 
 by the French around the house which Joutel and his companions 
 
 reached in the month of July, 1687 Prom that time to the 
 
 present the nation has always remained in possession of that ter- 
 ritory; and when j\I. Le Blanc sent men to take possession of the 
 grant made him on the Yasouz river, 140 leagues from the capital, 
 the little garrison, kept till then by the company (Western) at that 
 place, retired to the Acancas post, then commanded by the Sieur 
 de la Boulaye. There is no fort in the place, only four or five
 
 44 LOUISIANA 
 
 palisades, a little guard house and a cabin, Avhich serves as a store- 
 house. This French post was established as a stopping place for 
 those going from the capital to the Illinois." The post was located 
 some three leagues from the mouth of the Arkansas river, and 
 only a few leagues from where the Arkansas or Quapaw ludians 
 had their habitations. When Law's German colonists came to 
 occupy his extensive grant on the Arkansas, they established them- 
 selves about a leagiie from the post, where was a beautiful plain 
 surrounded by fertile valleys, and watered by a little stream of 
 fine, clear, wholesome water. Upon the downfall of Law all but 
 a few of the Germans abandoned the settlement and returned to 
 New Orleans, and the Company of the Indies took possession of 
 all of Law's effects at his concession. When la Harpe visited the 
 settlement on the Arkansas in 1722 during his .iourney of explo- 
 ration up the river, he found the post nearly deserted and in a 
 struggling condition. 
 
 Armagh, a post-hamlet in the western part of Concordia parish 
 on the Black river, about 12 miles west of Fish Pond, the nearest 
 railroad station. 
 
 Armant, Leopold L., soldier, was a native of Louisiana. He en- 
 tered the Confederate army as a member of the ISth La. volunteer 
 infantry, and upon the reorganization of the regiment in Oct., 
 1862, was made colonel. A few days later, in command of liis reg- 
 iment, he was with Gen. IMouton in resisting the advance of Gen. 
 Godfrey Weitzel into the Lafourche country. Later he joined 
 Gen. Taylor in the Red river valley and lost his life in the battle 
 of Mansfield, April 8, 1864. Early in the charge of Moiiton's divis- 
 ion he received a wound in the arm. Changing his sword to his 
 sound hand he cheered on his men. when he was again slig'htly 
 wounded and almost immediately afterward a ball pierced his 
 brea.st, killing him instantly. Tlie Confederate Military History 
 says: "Armant, of the 18th, received three wounds, the last one 
 killing him, while the sword of defiance still gleamed in his hand." 
 Thus ended fhe life of a brave man. His memory is still honored 
 by civilians and revered by the survivors of his old regiment — men 
 who followed cheerfully wherever he led. 
 
 Armide, a post-hamlet in the southeastei-n part of St. Landry 
 parish, is a station on the division of the Southern Pacific R. R. 
 that runs from Port Barre to Cades. 
 
 Armistead, a post-hamlet in the western part of Bienville parish, 
 is situated aboiit half-way between Lake Bistineau and Thomas, 
 which is the nearest railway station. 
 
 Amaudville, one of the old towns of St. Landry parish, was in- 
 corporated on Feb. 17, 1870. It is situated in the southeastern part 
 of the parish, on Bayoii Teche and is a station on the branch line 
 of the Southern Pacific R. R. running from Port Barre to Cades. It 
 has a money order postoffice and is the trading center of a rich 
 farming district. Its population is 279. 
 
 Ascension Parish. — This parisli was created in 1807 when the 
 first territorial legislature divided Orleans territory into 19 parishes
 
 LOUISIANA 45 
 
 and was named after the old ecclesiastical district of Ascension. 
 It has an area of 310 square miles, is situated iu the southeastern 
 part of the state, and is divided by the Mississippi river, which 
 flows through the southwestern portion. It is bounded on the north 
 by East Baton Rouge parisli, on the east and northeast by Living- 
 ston ; on the south by St. James and Assumption parishes, and on 
 the west by Iberville parish. The surface is about equally divided 
 between alluvial land and wooded swamp, and the soil is exceed- 
 ingly rich and highly productive. It is drained by the Mississippi 
 and Amite rivers. Bayous Manchac and Les Acadians, and other 
 smaller water courses. Ascension was first settled about 1763 by 
 a colony of exiled Acadians, and became known as the second 
 "Acadian Coast." The descendants of these pioneers are many of the 
 most prominent and influential families of the parish today. "The 
 parish of Ascension," was the name given the ecclesiastical division, 
 by the promoters of the Catholic church, sent to America by Charles 
 III of Spain. It formed a part of Comte d 'Acadia until the division 
 of the territory of Orleans into parishes in 1807, when it was incoi-po- 
 rated as one of the original 19 parishes. Donaldsonville has been the 
 seat of justice since the foundation of the parish. A.scension has done 
 much for public education ; there are many public schools ; two higher 
 academies at Donaldsonville, one for w'hite and one for colored chil- 
 dren ; the brothers of the Sacred Heart established a school in Donald- 
 sonville in 1887 ; the Convent of the Sisters of St. Vincent, founded 
 in 1848, has done much for the education and training of girls, and 
 the sisters of the Holy Family have a school for the education of col- 
 ored children. The Catholic religion predominates throughout the 
 parish. Ascension Catholic church of Donaldsonville was founded in 
 1772 by Angelus a Reuillagodos, a Capuchiu father. The church of 
 the Sacred Heart of Jesus, at New River, was founded by Father Les- 
 saichere, in 1864. The alluvial lands lying on both sides of the Missis- 
 sippi river are as rich and valuable for the production of sugar-cane 
 as any in the state, and Assumption parish has some of the largest and 
 best equipped sugar plantations in Louisiana. Since 1861 .sugar has 
 been the chief product, especially on the right bank of the river, 
 where the production has increased from 50 to 100 per cent. Since 
 the Civil war the growing popularity of rice culture has tended to 
 cut down the .sugar produced on the left bank of the Mississippi as 
 rice was not cultivated to any great extent before 1868. The other 
 productions of the parish are cotton, corn, hay, oats, sweet and Irish 
 potatoes, tobacco and garden truck. While horticulture is not one of 
 the chief industries, sucli fruits and nuts as the orange, fig, pome- 
 granate, plum, pear, peach, grape, prune, and pecan grow rapidly in 
 the mild climate and rich soil. Game is plentiful and fish abound 
 in the streams. Lumber of a fine quality is produced from the cypress 
 swamps, and the ash, oak, willow and cottonwood which grow on 
 higher ground. Transportation is provided thi'ough the center of the 
 parish by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, in the south- 
 western part by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R., which runs 
 from northwest to southeast along the east bank of the river, and by
 
 46 LOUISIANA 
 
 the Texas & Pacific R. R.. and its branches on the west side of the 
 river, while the steamboats on the Mississippi river aflford cheap traus- 
 portatiou by water. The following statistics regarding the farms, 
 manufactiu-es and population of the parish are taken from the United 
 States census for 1910: Number of farms, 1.170: acreage. 104.253; 
 improved, 57.119: value of land exclusive of buildings. ^3.149,870; 
 value of farm buildings. $884.325 : value of live stock. $460.762 : value 
 of all crops. $1,334,203. The population for 1910 was 23.887. 
 
 Ashland, a village near the northern border of Natchitoches 
 parish, is a station on the main line of the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R. 
 It has a money postoffice and some retail stores. 
 
 Ashly, a post-village in the northeastern part of ^Madison parish, 
 is about 2 miles south of Mausford. the nearest railroad station, and 
 5 miles northeast of Tallulah, the parish seat. 
 
 Ashton, a post-village of St. ]Mary parish, is a station on the 
 Southern Pacific R. R.. about 8 miles northwest of Franklin, the par- 
 ish seat. It has a money order postoflfice and is the trading center of 
 a rich farming district. 
 
 Ashwood, a hamlet in the nortlieastern part of Tensas parish, is 
 on the west bank of the Jlississippi river and 4 miles east of Somer- 
 set, the nearest railroad town. It has a money order postoffice and 
 is a landing for steamboats. 
 
 Assumption Parish is an irregular shaped parish in the southern 
 part of the state. It is bounded on the north by Iberville and Ascen- 
 sion parishes: on the east by St. James and Labourclie parishes: on 
 the .south by Terrebonne parish, and on the west by Grand lake, which 
 separates it from the parishes of St. I\Iary and St. ^lartin. The parish 
 has an extreme length of 25 and an extreme width of 18 miles, which 
 gives it a land surface of 485 square miles. It is drained by Bayous 
 Lafourche, Grant and Vincent, and by Grand river and Grand lake, 
 which flows south to the gulf. Under French and Spanish rule As- 
 sumption formed a part of the "Lafourche Settlement." The first pei-- 
 manent settlements in this region were made by the French and Span- 
 ish about the middle of the 18th century along the Lafourche, be- 
 tween the present towns of Donaldsonville and Napoleonville. From 
 1755 to 1765. the population was increased by the immigration of the 
 exiled Acadians, who had been torn from their homes in Acadia, and 
 sought Louisiana, over which floated the lilied banner of France. To 
 achieve this purpose they overcame many difficulties, traveled over- 
 land more than 1.000 miles through a wilderness until they reached 
 the Tennessee river, where they hastily constructed boats and em- 
 barked. ]iassing from the Tennessee river to the ^Mississippi, and down 
 it to Plaiiuemines bayou, where they were met by friends and kind- 
 ness. JIany families settled along the Teche and Lafourche ; cleared 
 their lands and built comfortable homes, and their descendants are 
 still numerous in the parish today. In 1785 Assumption had a popu- 
 lation of 646. By an act of the legislature of Orleans territory in 1807, 
 Assumption was created the Sth parish of the territory. " ! . . .From 
 that portion of the settlement of Lafourche lying nearest the river, 
 to contain one-half the population of the settlement." Napoleonville, 
 situated on Bayou Lafourche, at about the center of the parish, is the
 
 LOUISIANA 47 
 
 parish seat. In 1823, John Toley, Aiigustin and Thomas Piigh and 
 D. M. Williamson were aliont the only Americans in the parish. Mr. 
 Guillet, Dr. Joseph Martin, Mr. Tournillon, and Joseph La Lande 
 were prominent French citizens. The soil of the entire parish is alln- 
 vial and divided into three classes; sandy loam, mixed soil, in which 
 sand and humus are about e(|ual. and black land, in which there is 
 little or no sand. The inhabitants call this "terre gras, " which means 
 fat land. Each grade, except "terre gras" has its advantages for 
 different crops. This black land grows fine clover for pasture, is well 
 adapted to rice, and causes cane to ripen earlier than other soil, but 
 is objectionable because it stiffens, making it hard to cultivate and 
 drain. The sandy loam is of a warmer and more durable nature than 
 the mixed soil. The most valuable land of the parish lies along Bayou 
 Lafourche, extending back from SO to 100 acres; no better land than 
 this is to be found in the state. In proportion to its area. Assumption 
 parish produces more sugar than any parish of Louisiana. Rice cul- 
 ture has been introduced since the war, and is a large and growing 
 industry. In 1900 there were about four times as many acres in cane 
 as in rice or corn, and considerable in meadow and pasture. 
 
 Aswell, James Benjamin, of Natchitoches, was born in Jackson 
 Parish, Dccendier 23, 1869. He graduated from Peabody Normal 
 College in 1892 receiving the degree of A. B. and A. M., also from 
 the University of Nashville in 1893-1898. Mr. Aswell taught 
 country school, high school, did graduate work at the University 
 of Chicago, specialized in literature, pedagogy and political science. 
 He became state institute conductor 1897-1900, and president of 
 Louisiana Industrial Institute 1900-1904. He was elected twice to 
 the office of state superintendent of public education without op- 
 position 1904-1908, and was elected Chancellor of University of 
 Miss, in 1907. He served 1908-11 as President of State Normal 
 School, receiving the degree of LL. D. from the University of Ar- 
 kansas. In 1907 he married Miss P^lla Poster, of Mansfield, and 
 they have two children. ]\Ir. Aswell reorganized the State Public 
 School System, and was elected to 63rd Congrses. 
 
 The following statistics concerning the parish were taken from the 
 U. S. census for 1900 : Number of farms in the pai-ish, 448 ; acreage 
 in farms, 95,142; acres improved. 54.069; value of land and improve- 
 ments, exclusive of buildings $3,777,210; value of farm buildings, 
 $831,385 ; value of live stock, .$661,645 ; total value of all crops, $2,314,- 
 363. The population for 1910 was 24,128. 
 
 Asylums. — The necessity for public institutions for the protec- 
 tion and care of destitute orjihan children has been particularly great 
 in New Orleans, owing to the ravages of the epidemics which have 
 swept through the city. Families deprived of their breadwinners and 
 children bereft of one or both parents were common sights in the 
 wake of these scourges. There is no city in the country which has 
 so many asylums as New Orleans, nor any in which they receive such 
 enthusiastic support. The a.sylums are managed in some cases by 
 church sisterhoods and in others by governing board.s, composed of 
 public-spirited citizens. Bequests and gifts from charitable persons, 
 proceeds from sales, fairs, etc., with some aid from city and state,
 
 48 LOUISIANA 
 
 furnish the fuiuls necessary for the establishment and support of these 
 institutions. Of beloved memory in New Orleans will always be the 
 well-known benefactors of the orphan child, Julien Poydras, Alexan- 
 der Milne, Sister Regis, Margaret Haughery and John McDonogli. 
 The managers of the orphan asylums make a consistent effort to render 
 the institutions self-supporting, but in some eases this is impossible. 
 When children who have one living parent, half-orphans as they are 
 called, are admitted into an asylum, it is customary for the survivor 
 to pay something toward their support. 
 
 As early as 1817, a society for the relief of destitute orphan chil- 
 dren was incorporated, probal)ly by means of money bequeathed for 
 that jnirpose by Julien Poydras. In 1820. the legislature granted the 
 sum of .$1,000 for the maintenance of the Poydras female asylum in 
 New Orleans. The fii'st directory of New Orleans, published in 1822, 
 when the population of the city was numbered at 40.000. makes the 
 following statement: "The Poydras female orphan asylum, situated 
 at 153 Poydras St., is a neat, new frame building with a large gar- 
 den." This institution commenced its operations in 1816, with 14 
 orphans, which increased in 1826 to 41. Any female child in want, 
 though not an orphan, may be admitted by consent of the board. The 
 constitution declares "that they shall provide a hoiise for the reception 
 of indigent female orphans and widows, which shall be enlarged ac- 
 cording to the income of the society. ' ' This institution was estab- 
 lished by means of a gift from Julien Poydras of the house and large 
 lot upon which it stands and a grant of $4,000 from the legislature. 
 It is in existence to the present day and has two departments, male 
 and female, the former governed by a board of directors and the latter 
 by a board of directresses. 
 
 The next benefactor of the cause was Alexander Milne, by the terms 
 of whose will two asylums were assured to the cit.v. The Milne Asyhim 
 for destitute orphan girls was incorporated Feb. 27. 1839, and the 
 board of managers was composed of Mmes. Claiborne. Hennen. F. "W. 
 Morgan. Pollock, Clay, Kerr, Daunoy, E. A. Canon. IMarigny. Audry, 
 Merle. Nott and Preston, and Misses Bornel and Brunair. The Milne 
 Asylum for destitute orphan boys was incorporated at the same time, 
 with the following directors: Bishop Blanc, Richard Relf. George W. 
 Morgan. Carlisle Pollock, E. A. Canon. Louis Bringier. Charles Cuvel- 
 lier. Wm. C. C. Claiborne, and Hartwell Reed. According to the 
 terms of Mr. Milne's will, these two institutions were to be established 
 at Milneburg and with the society for the relief of destitute orphan 
 boys at Lafayette, Jefferson parish, and tlie Poydras female orphan 
 asylum in New Orleans, were to share the estate in equal fourths. The 
 trust, so far as the asylum for destitute boys is concerned, is managed 
 by the mayor and the assets comprise a large amount of real estate, 
 which of late has been of little value, and some city bonds worth about 
 $3,000. 
 
 The asylum for the relief of destitute orphan boys, incorporated 
 Feb. 4, 1825, received also benefactions from John McDonogh, who 
 conferred upon the society the buildings and grounds on St. Charles 
 avenue, now occupied by the asylum. In the main building a tablet
 
 LOUISIANA 49 
 
 has been erected in his memory. In 1840 Joseph Claude Mary be- 
 queathed $5,000 to the orphans of the 1st Municipality of New Orleans. 
 At last accounts, this beciuest had been turned over to a private cor- 
 poration maintaining a boys' asylum. 
 
 St. Vincent's infant orphan asylum, known as the "Baby Asylum," 
 receives the city foundlings. It is located on Magazine street, and is 
 governed by the Sisters of Charity. There is also the St. Vincent 
 home for destitute boys and the St. Vincent half-orphan asylum. 
 From the baby asylum, girls are transferred to the Camp Street female 
 orphan a.sylum, founded in 1850 by Sister Regis, one of the largest 
 asylums under the control of the Sisters of Charity. The baby asy- 
 lum, the Camp Street asylum, and St. Elizabeth asylum, also man- 
 aged bj' the Sisters of Charity, to which girls are transferred from the 
 Camp Street asylum, were all recipients of the bounty of Margaret 
 Haughery. In the last named the girls are taught sewing and such 
 other branches as will fit them to be useful in homes found for them 
 by the sisters. 
 
 In 1855 the Touro Almshouse association was incorporated. The 
 latter was made possible by the bequest of Judah Touro of $80,000 
 "to prevent mendicity in New Orleans." The almshouse was built 
 in 1860 upon the ground given to the association by R. D. Shepherd, 
 who is said to have saved Mr. Touro from sudden death in an acci- 
 dent. The building burned to the ground while U. S. troops were 
 stationed there in 1864. 
 
 The Girod asylum on the Metaire road was the result of a bequest 
 made by Mayor Nicolas Girod. The Fink home on Camp street for 
 Protestant widows and orphans was established about the same time as 
 the Touro almshouse by means of a bequest of a considerable sum in 
 the will of John B. Fink. The Little Sisters of the Poor have an asy- 
 lum for the aged and infirm on North Johnson street, which is sup- 
 ported entirely by charity. There are two departments, male and 
 female, and the only condition of admittance is extreme poverty. St. 
 Ann's asylum, a retreat for indigent gentlewomen, was founded and 
 endowed "by the generosity of Dr. Mercer, a wealthy and philanthropic 
 citizen of New Orleans. It is situated on Prytania street in a pleasant 
 residence district. 
 
 There is a home for homeless women at 16 Polymnia street and 
 other homes for the aged in different parts of the city. 
 
 A home for orphan girls is maintained by a Protestant Episcopal 
 sisterhood on Jackson street. St. Mary's asylum for orphan boys 
 is located on Chartres street, and has a farm below the city. In the 
 home the boys have instruction in manual training. The Jewish 
 widows' and orphans' asylum is splendidly managed and supported 
 entirely by the Jewish people. The building is a commodious one 
 located on St. Charles avenue, and the children received in this insti- 
 tution are educated in the Jewish faith. 
 
 The House of the Good Shepherd on Bienville street is under the 
 control of the sisters of the Good Shepherd and contains two depart- 
 ments, one composed of young people placed in the institution by their 
 parents and the other of young persons committed to the home by the 
 1—4
 
 50 LOUISIANA 
 
 courts. The building is large and well-appointed and contains school 
 and work rooms, chapel, dormitories, offices, etc. It is designed to 
 accommodate young people whose tendency is to become incorrigibles, 
 with the hope of converting them into good and useful citizens. 
 
 In addition to the asylums mentioned, the following have accom- 
 plished useful work: "La Maison Hospitaliere. " the Beauregard 
 asylum, the Boys' house of refuge, the female asylum of the Immac- 
 ulate Conception, the Faith Home for the aged and destitute, the 
 German Protestant asylum, the House of the Sisters of Christian 
 Charity, the House of Kefuge for destitute girls, the Indigent Colored 
 asylum, the industrial school and model farm of Our Lady of the 
 Holy Cross, the Louisiana Ketreat insane asylum, the New Orleans 
 female orphan asylum, the Protestant orphans' home, the Providence 
 asylum for colored children, the Societe Francaise de Bienfaisanee 
 asylum, the St. Alphonsus orphan asylum, the Shakespeare almshouse, 
 St. Joseph's orphan asylum, and the Father Turgis widows' and or- 
 phans' asylum. 
 
 Athenee Louisianais. — This is a literary society whose chief pur- 
 pose is to preserve the French language in Louisiana. It was Dr. 
 Alfred Mercier. a distinguished physician and writer, who conceived 
 the idea of establishing the society. He spoke of his plan to some of 
 his friends and on Jan. 12, 1876, the Athenee Louisianais was founded, 
 with the following members: Dr. Alfred Mercier, Oliver Carriere, 
 Col. Leon Queyrouze, Dr. Armand Mercier, Dr. J. G. Hava. Auguste 
 Jas, Dr. Charles Turpin, Gen. G. T. Beauregard, Paul Pourehy. Dr. 
 Sabin Martin. Dr. Just Touatre and Judge Arthur Saucier. 
 
 The fii'st officers of the society were: Dr. Armand Mercier. presi- 
 dent; Gen. G. T. Beauregard, vice-president; Dr. Alfi-ed Mercier, 
 secretary-treasurer. The title of secretary-treasurer was changed to 
 that of perpetual secretary, and Dr. Alfred Mercier filled that office 
 until his death in 1894. He had as a worthy successor Bussiere Rouen, 
 
 Dr. Armand Mercier resigned as president iu 1880 and was suc- 
 ceeded by Gen. Beauregard. The latter 's successor was Prof. Alcee 
 Fortier, who was elected in 1892 and was reelected president every 
 year until his death in 1914. 
 
 The present officers are : Bussiere Rouen, pres. ; Edgar Grima, 
 1st vice-pres. ; Chas. F. Claiborne, 2nd vice-pres. ; Lionel C. Diirel, 
 life secretary; Andre Lafargue, asst. secretary. 
 
 The Athenee Louisianais offers annually a gold medal and $50 in 
 ■gold to the winner in a literary contest — an essay written in French 
 on a given subject. It has published since 1876 a magazine which 
 contains a great part of the modern French literature of Louisiana. 
 It is affiliated with the Alliance Frangais of Paris and of the United 
 States. 
 
 Athens is a money order post-village in the southern part of Clai- 
 borne parish, on the Louisiana & Northwestern R. R., 10 miles south 
 of Homer, the parish seat. This town was settled during the third 
 decade of the 19th century. In 1846 a large area of land was given 
 the town for school purposes, and the same year it became the seat 
 of parochial government. On Nov. 7, 1849, the school buildings ia
 
 LOUISIANA 51 
 
 which the ofBees of the parish were located were burned, with all 
 the valuable records of the parish, and the same year the seat of 
 justice was moved to Homer. Athens is one of the most important 
 stations on the railroad. It has express and telegraph offices, a 
 population of 514, and is the trading center of a fine agricultural 
 district. 
 
 Atherton (R. R. name Spitlers), a small post-village in the east- 
 ern part of East Carroll parish, is a station on the St. Louis. Iron 
 Mountain & Southern R. R., about 6 miles south of Lake Provi- 
 dence, the parish seat. 
 
 Atkins, a village in the southeastern part of Bossier parish, on 
 the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, about 20 
 miles southeast of Shreveport. It has a money order postoffiee, 
 is a trading center for a rich cotton district, and has a population 
 of 200. 
 
 Atlanta, a village in the southwestern part of Winn parish, is 
 a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany, about 10 miles southwest of Winnfield, the parish seat. It 
 has a money order postoffice and a population of 311. 
 
 Attakapac. — (See Indians.) 
 
 Aubert, Gen. Dubayet, a distinguished French soldier and diplo- 
 matist, was born in Louisiana on Aug. 17, 1759. His father, who 
 held the rank of ad.jutant-major, was one of the officers sent by Gov. 
 Aubry, at the request of Gen. O'Reilly, in 1769, to arrest Foucault, 
 the French commissary. The son entered the French army at an 
 early age, and during the Revolutionary war served in America. 
 Returning to France, he soon began to take an active interest in 
 public affairs, and in 1789 published a pamphlet opposing the ad- 
 mission of Jews to citizenship. In 1791 he was chosen a member of 
 the legislative assembly and took a prominent part in its delibera- 
 tions. Two years later he was made governor of Mayence, which 
 he was compelled to surrender to the king of Prussia, but not until 
 he had made the best possible defense with the means at his dis- 
 posal. He was then appointed general-in-chief in La Vendee, but 
 after his defeat at Clisson he was severely denounced by some of 
 his countrymen for his failure. He successfully defended himself 
 against his accusers and was again employed at Cherbourg until 
 called to the post of minister of war. After holding this position 
 for three months; he was appointed minister of the French republic 
 at Constantinople, w'here he died on Dee. 17, 1797. 
 
 Aubrey, a post-hamlet in the soiitheastern part of Vernon parish, 
 is about 3 miles east of Pitkin, which is the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Aubry, Capt. Charles, the last Frenchman to serve as governor 
 of Louisiana before the actual commencement of the Spanish dom- 
 ination, had distinguished himself with the French army in Italy 
 before coming to America. In the summer of 1758 he was ordered 
 by the commandant at Fort Chartres to go to the relief of Fort 
 Duquesne (where Pittsbiirg, Pa., now stands), then menaced by a 
 British force under Ma,j. Grant. Aubry ascended the Ohio and on 
 Sept. 14, defeated the British, but the latter received reinforce-
 
 52 LOUISIANA 
 
 ments, when Aubry burned the fort and returned to Fort Chartres. 
 The following year he was captured on the Niagara and upon being 
 released returned to France, where he received the Cross of St. 
 Louis. Again he came to Louisiana and when d'Abbadie died in 
 Feb., 1765. he became acting governor of the province until the 
 arrival of Gov. Ulloa. Jean de Champigny says: "M. Aubry was 
 a little, dry, lean, ugly man, without nobility, dignity or carriage. 
 His face would seem to announce a hypocrite, but in him this vice 
 sprang from excessive goodness, which granted all rather than dis- 
 please; always trembling for the consequences of the most indif- 
 ferent actions, a natural effect of a mind without resource or light ; 
 always allowing itself to be guided, and thus swerving from recti- 
 tude in conduct ; religious througli weakness rather than from prin- 
 ciple; incapable of wishing evil, but doing it through a charitable 
 human weakness; destitute of magnanimity or reflection; a good 
 soldier but a bad leader ; ambitious of honors and dignity, but pos- 
 sessing neither firmness nor capacity to bear the weight." 
 
 After Ulloa 's arrival Aubry became the mouthpiece of the Span- 
 ish governor, proclaiming the law regulating the commerce of the 
 colony — a law, that still further increased the indignation of the 
 people. (See Revolution of 1768.) French soldiers,- commanded by 
 Aubry and under the French colors, remained in service in the pay 
 of Spain, another fact that tended to render Aubry more unpop- 
 ular than ever. When Ulloa left New Orleans in the fall of 1768, 
 Aubry again administered the affairs of the province until Gov. 
 O'Reilly arrived at New Orleans and assumed the reins of govern- 
 ment. Shortly after that Aubry started for France, but the vessel 
 on which he took passage was wrecked at the mouth of the river 
 Garonne and he was lost. It has been stated that he took with him 
 a large sum of money and the public records of the colony of Lou- 
 isiana, but Dr. Gustavus Devron, in a paper read before the Louisi- 
 ana historical society on -May 19, 1897, questions the correctness of 
 this statement so far as the papers are concerned. On that occasion 
 Dr. Devron exhibited tlie certificate of the man who took Aubry 
 in a canoe 21/0 miles below the city, where he went on board his 
 ship. According to this old certificate, Aubiy had with him two 
 chests, each containing at least 10.000 livres, a large sack of money 
 and from 15,000 to 16,000 livres in his purse. Devron thinks that 
 this money was the reward paid him for assisting in establishing 
 Spanish authority and in suppressing the revolution. In his paper 
 he says: "Aubry, through his servile obedience to the orders of 
 his master, Louis XV, became the lacquey of Ulloa-, and his detective, 
 and later became the cowardly informer upon his countrymen on 
 the arrival of the Spanish O'Reilly. * * * Aubry is tlierefore 
 responsible for the executions of Lafreniere, Noyan. Caresse. IMilhet 
 and Marquis, and also for tlie arrest and death of Villere." 
 
 Auburn, a post-hamlet in the northwestern corner of Vernon par- 
 ish, is about 4 miles east of Bayou Toro and 8 miles southwest of 
 Tlornbeck. the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Audubon, John James. — Unique in the best sense of the word was
 
 LOUISIANA 53 
 
 the wonderful genius of John James Audubon, the greatest orni- 
 thologist the world has ever known, of whose picturesque and 
 romantic life Louisiana is proud to claim the earliest and some of 
 the later years. While the life of every frontiersman of his time 
 was fraught with stirring adventure, yet to the travels and experi- 
 ences of this devoted student of the feathered tribe, there attaches 
 a peculiar interest because each incident in itself was subordinate 
 to the discoveries it helped him to make. Each step of his journeys, 
 each hunting expedition, was made memorable by some drawing or 
 mental note which was given to the world in his publications in 
 later years. The "Wanderlust" was in his blood and the call of 
 nature ever sounded in his ears, luring him from his wife and fam- 
 ily to whom he was devoted, and making it impossible for him to 
 follow any ordinary occupation. 
 
 The name of Audubon was not a common one in France when 
 borne by John Audubon, grandfather of tiie naturalist, a fisherman 
 of the little village of Sable d'Olouue, 45 miles south of Nantes, 
 but he did his part to popularize it by conferring it upon 21 chil- 
 dren, of whom the father of John James was the 20th. The latter 
 was sent into the world to seek his fortime with no Capital but his 
 health and strength and for many years followed the sea. He be- 
 came a commodore in the French navy and made a number of voy- 
 ages to America, acquiring at different .times several valualdo 
 estates there. One of these, most delightfully situated near Mande- 
 ville. La., and facing Lake Pontchartraiu, became the home of the 
 French commodore and his young and beautiful bride, nee Anne 
 Moynette, a daughter of a prominent Spanish family of New Or- 
 leans. Here 4 children were born to them, 1 daughter and 3 sons. 
 
 The youngest son, John James, was born May 4, 1780, and dwelt 
 with his parents in Louisiana during his infancy, until the death of 
 his motlier in San Domingo. Thither she accompanied her husband 
 on a visit to one of their estates and was killed during a battle with 
 negroes, who attempted to drive out the white residents. The be- 
 reaved father returned to France with his children, where they were 
 soon placed under the care of a stepmother. 
 
 The boyhood of Audubon in the city of Nantes, was a time to 
 which he looked back with most pleasant recollections. His fond- 
 ness for drawing and the study of natural history was encouraged 
 by his stepmother, who was devoted to the boy, and arrangements 
 were made for him to study drawing with the master David. Al- 
 though his father insisted upon the boy's having a more practical 
 education, Audubon's only very rapid progress was made in those 
 branches to which liis natural instincts inclined him. At the age 
 of 18 years, John James was sent by his father to superintend his 
 estate in Pennsylvania, which was situated on the Perkiomen creek 
 in the eastern part of the state, and bore the name of Mill Grove. 
 Referring to his life at Mill Grove, he writes, "Hunting, fishing, and 
 
 drawing occxipied my every moment Cares I knew not, and 
 
 cared nothing for them. ' ' The ad.joining estate was known as Fat- 
 land Ford and owned and occupied by an Englishman, William
 
 rA LOUISIANA 
 
 BakeM-ell, to ■whose daughter Lucy, Audubou became very much 
 attached and whom he subsequently married. It was during the 
 life at Mill Grove, where Audubon indulged freely in all outdoor 
 sports and studies, that the idea of an American Ornithology took 
 form, for which he collected specimens and studies for more than 
 15 years. Entries in his journal, made at Mill Grove, characterize 
 Audubon as free from vices, thoughtless, pensive, loving and hav- 
 ing a passion for raising all sorts of fowls, fond of dress, dancing 
 and skating. He was very abstemious in his habits in the matter 
 of eating and drinking, which stood him in good stead in his sub- 
 sequent wanderings, and to which he attributed his good health, 
 strength and endurance. 
 
 After a year spent in France and a short time in New York city, 
 where he endeavored to apply himself to commercial pursuits, Au- 
 dubon married Miss Bakewell, sold the Mill Grove farm, and with 
 his bride located in Louisville. Ky., where he engaged in trading 
 with a friend, Mr. Rosier, the father of the noted New Orleans law- 
 yer, Hon. J. Ad. Rosier. The lirm engaged in business in Louis- 
 ville and after a few years moved to Hendersonville, Ky., at which 
 time ^Irs. Audubon with her baby son Victor, retiu-ned to her fa- 
 ther's home for a visit. The business at Hendersonville was not 
 very prosperous and St. Genevieve on the Mississippi became the 
 trading post of the partners. Here ]Mr. Rosier married, and to him 
 Audubon sold his share in the business, returning to Henderson- 
 ville to meet his ^vife. Various business ventiiras in this locality 
 proved unprofitable and Audubon supported his family by drawing 
 crayon portraits, which were in great demand. He was invited to 
 become a curator of the Cincinnati museum which position he ac- 
 cepted, and also opened a drawing school in that city. When his 
 work of preparing birds for the museum was finished, and many 
 of his drawing pupils had become teachers, he was obliged to seek 
 a new occupation. He returned to Kentucky, where his family ac- 
 companied him in his wanderings. At this time he devoted his 
 entire attention to bird stud.v and in pursuit of this occupation ha 
 journeyed south as far as New Orleans, leaving his family in Ken- 
 tucky. In New Orleans he obtained a few commissions for por- 
 traits and was later employed by Mrs. Perrie of Bayou Sara to give 
 lessons in drawing to her daughter. 
 
 In the autumn of 1821, IMrs. Audubon joined her husband in New 
 Orleans and found employment in giving private lessons. Audu- 
 l)on was engaged to teach drawing at Washington, a short dis- 
 tance from Natchez, Miss. It was Mrs. Audubon's dearest wish 
 that he should pursue his ornithological stiidies, and to that end 
 she accepted a situation as teacher in the family of Mrs. Percy, of 
 Bayou Sara. Meanwhile her husband lost no opportunity to study 
 and paint birds and this vocation led to extensive wanderings on 
 his part through the northern and eastern sections of the country. 
 
 In 1826, the great naturalist journeyed to England to arrange for 
 the publication of his American Ornithology, which he named the 
 Birds of America, and which Cuvier called the greatest work of
 
 LOUISIANA 55 
 
 its kind in existence. He succeeded after protracted efforts in both 
 England and France in obtaining a considerable number of sub- 
 scribers at $1,000 a copy. The work was profusely illustrated and 
 comprised 5 volumes of letter press and 5 of engravings. Upon 
 his return to America in 1829 he began collecting material for "An 
 Account of the Habits of Birds of the United States," which fur- 
 nished the object of many a long journey through the wilderness. 
 In 1831 he returned to England, accompanied by his wife, and ar- 
 ranged for the publication of his second great work, which was 
 completed and published in Edinburg in 1839. Audubon with his 
 family returned to New York, where the author devoted himself 
 to the reprint of the Birds of America, and its reduction to 7 octavo 
 volumes. 
 
 With his son Victor, he traveled in 1843 to the Yellowstone 
 river, gathering material for "The Quadrupeds of America," which 
 was published in 3 volumes, in 1846, 1851 and 1854 respectively. 
 The western journey was the last the celebrated naturalist was to 
 undei-take, for within a few years, both mind and sight were seri- 
 ously impaired by old age, and in his delightful 'home on the Hud- 
 son, with his wife and 2 sons near him, Audubon's remaining days 
 were spent. On Jan. 27, 1851, the world's greatest ornithologist 
 passed peacefully away, and four days later his remains were ten- 
 derly laid away in Trinity church cemetery, the resting place he 
 had himself designated. 
 
 During Audubon's frequent and extensive journeys in search of 
 data, he explored wilderness and forests from far northern Labra- 
 dor to southern Florida. He was frequently accompanied on these 
 trips by one or both of his sons, both of whom possessed marked 
 artistic talent. They were of the greatest assistance to him in the 
 preparation of his plates and continued the work of their more 
 famous parent. 
 
 Augustin, J. Numa, soldier, was born in Louisiana in 1874 and 
 was a member of one of the distinguished families of the state, his 
 father, J. Numa Augustin, Sr., having served with distinction in 
 the state senate, and his grandfather was an officer on the staff of 
 Gen. Beauregard during the Civil war. He was educated at "West 
 Point, where he graduated as a lieutenant of infantry and was as- 
 signed to duty with the 24th U. S. regulars. When the Spanish- 
 American war began, Lieut. Aiigustin accompanied his regiment 
 to Cuba, and in the charge at San Juan hill on July 1, 1898, he re- 
 ceived a mortal wound, from which he died the following day. His 
 remains were brought to New Orleans later in the year, and after 
 lying in state at the city hall were buried with military honors on 
 Nov. 20, 1898, a large concourse of people following the funeral 
 cortege to the cemetery. Lieut. Augustin was the only Louisianian 
 that was killed in that war. 
 
 Aurora, a post-hamlet in the western part of Washington parish, 
 is about 3 miles from the Tchefuncte river, and 8 miles southwest 
 of Franklinton, the parish seat and nearest railroad town. 
 
 Austin, a little post-hamlet in the central part of Washington
 
 56 LOUISIANA 
 
 parisli, is about 6 miles southeast of Franklinton, the parish seat, 
 which is the most convenieut railroad station. 
 
 Avaxd (K. K. name Chatliamville), a little village in the eastern 
 part of Jaeksou parish, is a station on the Tremont & Gulf R. R., 
 and is about 10 miles southeast of Vernon, the parish seat. It has 
 a money order postoSiee, an express ofSee, and is the trading point 
 for a considerable section in that part of the parish. 
 
 Avery Island, a village in the southern part of Iberia parish, 
 is the teriuiinis of a branch line of the Southern Pacific R. R. It is 
 about 10 miles southwest of New Iberia, the parish seat, has a 
 money order postotfice, an express office, and a population of 200. 
 The principal industry is salt mining, one of the finest salt mines 
 in the country being located on the island. (See Salt.) 
 
 Avoca (R. R. name Little Texas), a village in the eastern part 
 of Assumption parish, is a station on a branch line of the Southern 
 Pacific R. R., about -4 miles south of Napoleonville, the parish seat. 
 It has a money order postoffice and some retail trade. 
 
 Avoyelles Parisli was estalilished in 1807 as one of the 19 parishes 
 created out of Orleans territory by the first territorial legislature. 
 It has an area of 850 square miles and was named after the Avo- 
 yelles Indians, who lived on the prairie when the French first 
 visited it. It is situated in the central part of the state and is 
 bounded on the north by Rapides and Catahoula parishes; by Con- 
 cordia and Pointe Coupee parishes on the east ; on the south by 
 St. Landry parish, and on the west by Rapides parish. The first 
 settlements were made by the French and Spanish, who began to 
 pass up the Red river early in the IStli century. They were fol- 
 lowed by the Acadians, and other settlers who flocked into Avo- 
 yelles in such great numbers that the commandant of Avoyelles 
 post, Jacques Gagriord, had to protect the Indians. All during the 
 French and Spanish rule of Louisiana, the commandants of this 
 post protected the Indians on their lands against the encroachment 
 of the white settlers. They held about 285 acres of laud near ]\Iarks- 
 ville, until forced out by the whites after Louisiana was ceded to 
 the United States in 1803. The oldest record of the parish is one 
 of the police jury, dated June 24, 1821. In 1825 Judge William 
 Murray opened the first district court of the parish at ^Marksville, 
 the parish seat. Avoyelles academy was established at an early 
 date, and Daniel Webster presided over it in 1842. The ^Marksville 
 high school was started in 1856, and the Convent of the Presenta- 
 tion in 186!). Public scliools are maintained thronghoiit the parish 
 for white and black. The principal water courses are the Red, 
 Saline and Atchafalaya rivers and Bayous Long, Natchitoches, 
 Avoyelles, De Glaize and Rouge. Good water is plentiful in all 
 parts of the parish. The formation is varied, consisting of alluvial 
 land, wooded swamp, prairie and bluff land. The alluvial soil of 
 the river bottoms is very productive. Like all the river pai'ishes 
 the chief products are cotton and cane, though corn, potatoes, rice 
 and sorghum are also grown. Cattle thrive on the uplands and 
 the live stock industry is one of great importance. Avoyelles was
 
 LOUISIANA 57 
 
 heavily timbered in the early days with pine, oak, ash, cypress, 
 gum, elm, poplar, locust, beech and maple. Large tracts of yellow 
 pine still exist, and though millions of feet of lumber have been cut, 
 enough remains to be the source of great wealth in the years to 
 come. Transportation and shipping facilities are good. The Texas 
 Pacific R. R. traverses the southwestern corner, and a branch line 
 runs east from Bunkie through the southern portions of Legonier 
 on the eastern boundary, and then south on the west side of the 
 Atchafalaya river to Woodside. The Louisiana Railway & Naviga- 
 tion company has a line running east and west throvigh the center 
 of the parish from Naples on the eastern boundary to Echo on the 
 western boundary. Cheap transportation is furnished on the Red 
 river by steamboats. Avoyelles is one of the most populous par- 
 ishes in the state, Marksville, the parish seat, is one of the most 
 important towns, others are, Bordelonville, Bunkie, Cottonport, 
 Eola, Evergreen, ]Mansura, Millburn, Moreaviville, Plaucheville, 
 Red Fish, and Simmesport. The following statistics for the parish 
 are taken from the U. S. census for 1910: Number of farms, 4,604; 
 acreage in farms, 207,983 ; acreage under cultivation, 126,440 ; value 
 of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $5,165,167 ; value 
 of farm buildings, $1,286,716; value of live stock, $1,308,759; total 
 value of all crops, $1,989,668. The populatiou for 1910 was 34,102. 
 Ayers (R. R. name Ayers Spur), a post-hamlet and station in the 
 southern part of Sabine parish, is on tlie Kansas City Southern R. 
 R., about 10 miles south of Many, the parish seat and nearest bank- 
 ing town. 
 
 B 
 
 Babington, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Wasliington 
 parish, is situated on Lawrence creek, about 6 miles nortlieast of 
 Frauklintou, tlie parish seat and nearest railroad town. 
 ■ Baby Bonds. — (See Finances, State.) 
 
 Bagley, a post-hainlet of Caddo parish, about 8 miles south of 
 Slireveport, and 1 mile west of Cut Off, the nearest railroad town. 
 
 Bailes, a post-hamlet of Natchitoches parish, is situated on the 
 east shore of Spanish lake, aljout 10 miles west of Natchitoches, the 
 parish seat and nearest railroad town. 
 
 Bailey, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Tangipahoa 
 parish, is situated al)out a mile we.st of the Tchefuncte river and 
 4 miles east of Bolivar, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Baird, Absalom, soldier, was born at Washington, Pa., Aug. 20, 
 1824, graduated at West Point in 1849, and served during the next 
 2 years as second lieutenant in the Seminole war. In 1853 he was 
 promoted to first lieutenant and from that time until 1859 was 
 assistant professor of mathematics at the military academy. Tlie 
 next 2 years were spent on garrison and frontier duty and in March, 
 1861, he was assigned to the command of a light battery at Wash- 
 ington, D. C. From May to Sept., 1862, he commanded a brigade
 
 58 LOUISIANA 
 
 in the Army of the Ohio, then until June, 1863, was in command of 
 the 3d division of the Army of Kentucky, and in 1864 took part in 
 the Atlanta campaign. After the war he was assigned to duty in 
 Loiusiana, and in the absence of Gen. Sheridan, he commanded the 
 troops at New Orleans at the time of the Riot of 1866 (q. v.). In 
 anticipation of trouble, Gen. Baird telegraphed to Edwin M. Stan- 
 ton, the secretary of war, for instructions, but received no reply. 
 In his testimony before a Congressional committee he testitied that 
 neither the mayor of New Orleans nor the lieutenant-governor of 
 the state had asked him for troops to prevent disorder, though 
 both these oflBcials stated that such a request had been made. Soon 
 after the riot Gen. Baird proclaimed martial law, but the mischief 
 had already been done. Fortier says: "He testified that it was 
 his intention to judge of the legality of the decision of the court, if 
 an arrest had been made. If lie could assume such power as this, 
 he could certainly have assumed power either to disperse the con- 
 vention or to protect it.'' Not long after this he was relieved from 
 his command in Louisiana and subsequently served as inspector- 
 general in various departments with the rank of brevet major- 
 general. 
 
 Baird, Samuel T., lawyer and member of Congress, was born at 
 Oak Ridge, La., ilay 5. 1861. He was educated at his home and 
 at Vinccnnes, Ind. ; began to study law in 1879 : was admitted to 
 the bar in 1882 : elected attorney of the sixth judicial district in 
 1884. and served 4 years in that position : elected district judge of 
 the same district in 1888, but after serving upon the bench 4 years 
 he resumed the practice of law. In 1896 he was elected to the state 
 senate, where he served as chairman of the committee on railroads 
 and as a member of the judiciary, lands and levees and elections 
 committees; was chairman of the joint Democratic caucus during 
 the session of the general assembly; temporary chairman of the 
 Democratic state convention in June, 1896 : delegate to the Dem- 
 ocro.tic national convention at Chicago, 1896 : was elected to the 
 55th Congress as a Democrat, and reelected to the 56th Congress, 
 but died April 22, 1899, before that Congress convened. 
 
 Baker, a village in the northwestern part of East Baton Rouge 
 parish, is on a branch of the Amite river about 10 miles north of 
 Baton Rouge, and is a station on the main line of the Yazoo & 
 Mississippi Valley R. R. It has a money order postofBce and one 
 free rural delivery route. Population is 150. 
 
 Baker, Joshua, who was appointed military governor of Louisi- 
 ana by Gen. Hancock in Jan., 1868, was born in the State of Ken- 
 tucky, March 23, 1799. "When he was about 4 years of age his pa- 
 rents ri'moved to Mississippi, and in 1811 located in St. Mary's 
 parish. La. In 1819 he was graduated at the U. S. military acad- 
 emy at West Point, N. Y., where he had served as assistant pro- 
 fessor of engineering, and after graduating was appointed a mem- 
 ber of the board of examiners, which position he held for years. 
 The old court-house at Franklin, and a number of bridges in Lou- 
 isiana were built under his supervision. He finally gave up engi-
 
 LOUISIANA 59 
 
 neering as a profession, studied law at Litchfield, Conn., was admit- 
 ted to the bar in Kentucky, but returned to St. Mary's parish to 
 practice. In 1829 he was elected judge of that parish. He was 
 also interested in the lumber trade and steamboating on the Mis- 
 sissippi. Politically he was a conservative Democrat and did all 
 he could to prevent the State of Louisiana from seceding in 1861. 
 His term as governor of Louisiana was short, as he was succeeded 
 by Gov. Warmoth on July 13, 1868. Mr. Baker died at the resi- 
 dence of his daughter in Lyme, Conn., in 1886. 
 
 Baker's Administration. — The administration of Gov. Baker be- 
 gan with his appointment in Jan., 1868. though the state remained 
 under the military authority of the United States, which was exer- 
 cised with forbearance and discrimination by Gen. W. S. Hancock. 
 In an official communication the governor notified Hancock that 
 the claims against the state at the close of the year 1867 amounted 
 to $1,313,000 in excess of the receipts ; that the state treasury was 
 practically bankrupt ; that the legislature had failed to provide 
 adequate means to meet current expenses; and that, "unless some 
 remedy was applied, the machinery of civil government in the state 
 must stop." "To meet the emergency Gen. Hancock on Feb. 22 
 issued an order directing all license fees, revenues, dues and taxes 
 of the state to be payable and collected in U. S. legal tender notes , 
 requiring tax collectors throughout the state to report immedi- 
 atety and under oath to the state treasurer the kinds and amounts 
 of funds collected by them up to that time ; instructing the auditor 
 and treasurer to apply all moneys received after the promulgation 
 of the order to the payment of salaries of the civil officers of the 
 state, the appropriations made in favor of the charitable and educa- 
 tional institutions, the rent of the Mechanics' Institute, and for the 
 support of the state convicts. A few days later another order 
 directed the destruction of all state notes then in the state treasury, 
 or that might be thereafter received, and instructed the treasurer 
 to apply any surplus that might accumulate, after the payments 
 above described, to the liquidation of outstanding claims. 
 
 On ilarch 10 and 11 he issued orders giving full directions for 
 the registration of voters, and for holding an election on April 17 
 and 18, to vote on the question of ratifying the constitution and to 
 establish civil government. On the 18th of the same month Han- 
 cock was relieved of the command of the district, and on the 25th 
 his successor. Gen. Robert C. Buchanan, issued an order authoriz- 
 ing the election to include members of Congress "and for such 
 state, judicial, parish and municipal officers, and members of the 
 general assembly as are provided for in the constitution to be sub- 
 mitted for ratification." At the election Henry C. Warmoth, a 
 Republican, was elected governor, receiving 64,941 votes to 38,046 
 cast for Taliaferro, his opponent, also a Republican, and Oscar J. 
 Dunn, a negro, was elected lieutenant governor. The new officers 
 were inaugurated on July 13, 1868, though they had been exercis- 
 ing the duties of their respective offices since June 27, when they
 
 60 LOUISIANA 
 
 were appointed by order of Gen. Grant, Gov. Baker being at that 
 time ri>nioved. 
 
 Baldwin, a village in the western part of St. Mary parish, is at 
 the junction of the main and a branch line of the Southern Pacific 
 R. R., about 6 miles northwest of Franklin, the parish seat and 
 nearest banking town. It has a money order postoffice and varied 
 industries such as sugar mauufaetories, shingle mills, etc. Its pop- 
 ulation is 1.000. 
 
 Ball, a village on the northern boundary of Rapides parish, is a 
 station on the St. Louis & Iron ^louutain R. R., about 9 miles north- 
 east of Alexandria, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office and is a shipping point of some importance. 
 
 Ballina, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Concordia 
 parish, is situated on a branch of the Black river, about 5 miles 
 north of Frogmore. which is the most convenient railroad station. 
 
 Balltown, a post-hamlet in the extreme northeastern corner of 
 Washington parish, is near the Pearl river, about -1 miles northeast 
 of Angle, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bancker, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Vermilion parish, 
 is situated on the Bayou Vermilion about 2i/^ miles southeast of 
 Rosehill, the nearest railroad station, and 7 miles south of Abbe- 
 ville, the parish seat and nearest banking town. 
 
 Bancroft, a post-hamlet in Beauregard parish, is about -i miles 
 east of the Sabine river and 5 miles north of Baylor, the nearest 
 railroad station. Population 200. 
 
 Bankers' Association. — The Louisiana Bankers' association was 
 organized ou ^lay 1, I'JOO. Foremost among those in effecting tho 
 organization may be mentioned W. J. Knox of Baton Rouge : J. W. 
 Castles, C. H. Culbertson and J. T. Hayden of New Orleans : G. W. 
 Bolton of Alexandria ; A. D. Foster of Jeanerette ; J. W. Cockerham 
 of Natchitoches ; H. H. Youree of Shreveport ; Aug. Thibault of Don- 
 aldsonville, and L. 0. Broussard of Abbeville. Thirty-one banks were 
 represented in the association at tlie comiuencemeut, and the first offi- 
 cers were: George W. Bolton, Rapides bank. Alexandria, president; 
 R. E. Craig, New Orleans National bank, vice-president; L. 0. 
 Broussard, Bank of Abbeville, secretary; J. P. Suberbielle, State 
 National bank. New Iberia, treasurer. The objects of the association 
 are stated to be "The promotion of business and social relations among 
 banks and bank officers, and the discussion of matters of interest to 
 the banking fraternity." Meetings are held annually, at which offi- 
 cers are elected and delegates chosen to represent the state organiza- 
 tion in the meetings of the American Bankers' as,sociation. At the 
 close of the year 1908 there were 198 Louisiana banks that were mem- 
 bers of the state association. As the association grew in strength and 
 iinportance it was decided to have a vice-president for each of the 
 Congressional districts in the state. The officers for 1908 were as 
 follows : Peter Youree. Shreveport, president ; R. N. Sims, Donaldson- 
 ville. vice-president; L. 0. Broussard. Abbeville, secretary; L. M. 
 Pool, New Orleans, treasurer. The disti-ict vice-presidents were: 1st, 
 A. Breton, New Orleans; 2ud, G. Ad. Blaft'er, New Orleans; 3d, Dr.
 
 LOUISIANA 61 
 
 L. H. Jastremski, Houma ; 4th, Andrew Querbes, Shreveport ; 5th, 
 W. S. Kilpatrick, Monroe; 6th, J. McWilliaras. Plaquemiue; 7th, W. A. 
 Guillemet, Lake Charles. The association, through its social gather- 
 ings and the interchange of ideas, has done a great deal in the way of 
 improving the banking conditions of the state, and it presents to view 
 a striking instance of the truth of the old adage, "In union there is 
 strength. ' ' 
 
 Banking. — At the time Louisiana was ceded to the United States 
 in 1803 the money of the colony consisted chiefly of Spanish coins 
 that came from Mexico and the notes known as "liberanzas. " The 
 purchase of the province by the United States arrested the importa- 
 tion of silver from Mexico, and though the liberanzas were not re- 
 deemed at once, it was generally understood that their discontinuance 
 was only a matter of time. LTnder these circumstances, when the 
 Territory of Orleans was created in 1804, money was scarce and trade 
 languished for lack of a ready medium of exchange. To meet the 
 emergency Gov. Claiborne established the Bank of Louisiana, but the 
 people, who were already greatly dissatisfied over the division of the 
 province, looked upon the new bank as an institution specially de- 
 signed to rob them. Consequently the territorial bank was not the 
 success that its founders anticipated. The last territorial legislature, 
 which assembled in Jan., 1811, granted charters to the Planters' bank 
 and the Bank of Orleans, though the former had been organized some 
 time before. The charter of each was for 15 years; the authorized 
 capital of the Planters' bank was $600,000, payable in specie; that of 
 the Bank of Orleans was .$500,000, "payable in lawful money or notes 
 payable to the directors." These banks met with only slightly better 
 success than their pi-edecessor, but with the admission of Louisiana 
 into the Union the people became better satisfied with their relation- 
 ship to the United States and began to look wnith more favor on banks 
 of is.sue. On March 26, 1823, the charter of the Bank of Orleans was 
 extended to 1847. 
 
 The Louisiana State bank was chartered by the act of March 14, 
 1818, with an authorized capital of $2,000,000, one-fifth of which was 
 to be paid at once "in cash or notes paj-able to the directors," who 
 might also accept mortgages. One-fourth of the stock was reserved to 
 the state, which was to subscribe $100,000 at once and appoint 6 direc- 
 tors out of the 18. The bank was required to establish within six 
 months five branches, to be located at Donaldsonville, St. Prancisville, 
 St. Martinsville, Alexandria and Baton Rouge, each with a capital of 
 $200,000 available for loans. The original charter was to last until 
 1870, but by the act of March 3, 1819, the bank was ordered to liqui- 
 date by March 12, 1822. 
 
 On April 7, 1824, the Bank of the State of Louisiana was granted 
 a charter, but by a supplementary act of Nov. 30, the same year, the 
 name was changed to the Bank of Louisiana. Its capital was fixed at 
 $4,000,000, one-half of which was to be owned by the state, to be paid 
 for by an issue of 5 per cent, bonds at the ratio of $100 in bonds for 
 $83.33 1^3 in stock of the bank, and the governor was to appoint 6 of 
 the 13 directors. The bonds were sold to Thomas Wilson & Co. of
 
 62 LOUISIANA 
 
 London on Oct. 23, 1824. at a profit, the state's share of which was 
 nearly !)<301.000. By the act of ]\Iarch 24. 1827. the bank was ordered 
 to buy bonds with the profits and place them in a sinking fund for the 
 redemption of the original issue, and by the same act the state was 
 given 7 directors out of the 13. The order to buy bonds for the sink- 
 ing fund was evidently not complied with, for on March 7, 1834. the 
 attorney-general of the state was directed by act of the general assem- 
 bly to "'institute suit without delay" against the Bank of Louisiana 
 to compel said bank to place to the credit of the state as available 
 means on July 1 next the amount the state was entitled to in gains or 
 profits made by the bank on the sale of state bonds; such portion a.s 
 the state might be entitled to in the balance of the profit and loss 
 account; and auy other claini and amount which the attorney-general 
 might think was due the state. 
 
 Probably uo banking institution ever chartered by Louisiana was 
 the cau.se of so much trouble and litigation as the Consolidated Asso- 
 ciation of Planters, which was incorporated by the act of March 16, 
 1827, with a capital of $2,000,000. The stock was to be raised by loan, 
 the company selling bonds and taking mortgages from the stockholders 
 for loans made to them. Under this plan the scheme failed, as there 
 was not sufScient capital in the state seeking such an investment, and 
 the company had no credit abroad. By the act of Feb. 19, 1828, the 
 state agreed to lend its bonds to the association to the amount of 
 $2,500,000 as a pledge for the pajTuent of capital borrowed from 
 abroad, and iu return for this favor received 10.000 shares of the stock 
 as a bonus. By the act of April 5. 1843, to liquidate certain property 
 banks, the assets of the association were to be held by the state until 
 the bonds of 1828 could be paid, and the governor was authorized to 
 appoint managere for the bank. In 1847 an annual assessment of $6 
 a share, to run for 17 yeai's, was levied upon the stock of the association 
 for the payment of the bonds. The act of Dec. 20, 1848, made the stock 
 of the association payable in specie or state bonds, and the following 
 year a plan for the final winding up of the association's affairs was 
 arranged. Bonds to the amount of $1,376,000 were issued, the last 
 of which fell due in 1866. the assessment of $6 a share to provide for 
 their payment as they fell due. In 1850 a case was instituted to test 
 the liability of the state as a stockholder. The bank's attorneys argued 
 that as the state had made a million dollars out of its banking opera- 
 tions, it ought to pay one-sixth of the losses in the case of the only 
 banking institution that had been unfortunate, but the court held that 
 the 10,000 shares held by the state, having been given to it as a bonus, 
 were not liable to assessment." (5th La. p. 44.) By means of the fund 
 established by the assessment of 1847. the bonds falling due in 1861 
 were paid, leaving a balance of $550,400. Then came the great Civil 
 war, which paralyzed the business of the South, the last of the bonds 
 in 1866 were not paid, and the affairs of the consolidated were still 
 unsettled iu 1878, when an act was passed levying an assessment of 
 $40 a .share on the stock. This law was declared null by the courts in 
 1883, on the ground that the assessment of 1847 was a contract on 
 the part of the state that the stockholders, by the payment of the
 
 LOUISIANA 63 
 
 assessment of $6 a share, should be relieved of further liability for 
 the state stock issued for the bank. The business of the bank was then 
 settled by eompromise, the expenses of liquidation being heavy, as the 
 salaries and fees from 1876 to 1883 amounted to nearly $60,000. 
 
 The New Orleans Gas Light Company was chartered by the act of 
 Feb. 7, 1829. Four years later the charter was transferred to a larger 
 company and on April 1, 1835, it was granted banking privileges. 
 The capital stock was fixed at $6,000,000, of which the state was 
 authorized to subscribe for any number of shares not to exceed $100,- 
 000, and the city of New Orleans for a like amount, said stock to be 
 paid for by bond issues, and both state and city to be represented on 
 the board of directors. The company was given the exclusive privi- 
 lege of lighting New Orleans, its faubourgs, and the city of Lafayette 
 with gas, and was to spend at least $50,000 annually for four years 
 for the perfection of its gas works. The capital stock was to be ex- 
 empt from taxation for 15 years, and the city was given the right to 
 purchase the works at the expiration of 40 years, the price to be fixed 
 by arbitrators. In case the city decided to exercise this right the bank- 
 ing privileges of the company were to expire 10 years after the sale 
 of the gas works. Branch banks were to be established within one 
 year, with capital as follows: Alexandria, $800,000; Port Hudson, 
 Franklin, Springfield, Napoleonville and Harrisonburg, $300,000 each ; 
 and St. Bernard, $100,000. The president of the bank was required 
 to make annual reports to the general assembly, which was given the 
 power to appoint a joint committee to examine into the bank's afi'airs. 
 On March 14, 1838, the legislative committee reported that "twelve 
 directors of the Gas Light and Banking company owed to it on Dec. 
 23, 1837, $1,400,000 as borrowers and $400,000 as endorsers." The 
 report further stated that a large part of this indebtedness was for 
 "kites or race-horses," and that "exchange operations to a large 
 amount had been agreed to by the president, in which he was himself 
 interested, when no one but the cashier and himself were present, and 
 that the bank owed the Bank of the United States $2,000,000, payable 
 in one and two years. " (Raguet's Register, p. 332.) Upon the request 
 of the stockholders the charter of the company was amended in March, 
 1845, when the banking privileges were surrendered. 
 
 The City bank of New Orleans was incorporated by the act of March 
 3, 1831, the charter to extend to 1850. The capital was fixed at $2,000,- 
 000, divided into shares of $100 each ; the state was to have a credit of 
 $100,000 with the bank; branches were to be established at Baton 
 Rouge and Natchitoches ; the bank was to be subject to legislative ex- 
 amination ; was not to issue any note of a less denomination than $5 ; 
 and was never to suspend redemption in current money of the United 
 States under a penalty of 12 per cent. Two days after this bank was 
 incorporated a charter was granted to the New Orleans Canal and 
 Banking company, with a capital of $4,000,000. It was authorized to 
 cut a canal through the city from Lake Pontchartrain ; was required 
 to loan the state not over $600,000 on bonds payable in from 10 to 
 25 years ; was to establish three branches at certain designated points,
 
 64 LOUISIANA 
 
 and two-thirds of the capital at each l)ranch was to be loaned ou real 
 estate. 
 
 Ou April 2, 1852. the Union Bank of Louisiana was incorporated 
 with an authorized capital of $7,000,000. The plan on which this 
 bank was to be operated was an extension and perfection of the con- 
 solidated association. The capital stock, which was to be exempt from 
 all taxation, was to be subscribed by citizens of Louisiana who were 
 land owners; the state issued bonds equal in amount to the stock, and 
 these bonds were secured by mortgages ; the governor and state senate 
 were to appoint half of the 12 directors; the charter was to expire in 
 25 years, during the last three of which the bank was to wind up its 
 atfairs; it was not to issue any notes for less than $5; and a penalty 
 of 10 per cent, was provided for in ease of suspension. This plan was 
 afterwards adopted in Florida. Arkansas and Mississippi. The Union 
 was the only one of the property banks that escaped li(iuidation \inder 
 the act of 1843. As most of its assets were loaned on real estate it 
 was able to pay the interest on the bonds, and to take up each series as 
 they fell due. Its charter expired in 1857, when it became a free 
 bank and later a national hank. 
 
 Three banks were incorporated by acts of the legislature on April 1, 
 1833, viz.: The Commercial bank of New Orleans, the Citizens' bank 
 of Louisiana, and the Mechanics" and Traders" bank of New Orleans. 
 The first was capitalized at >f;3. 000.000. which was to be exempt from 
 taxation, and the chief object of the company was to supply the city 
 with water. The city was given the right to purchase the waterworks 
 after 35 years, the price to be fixed by arbitration, and if this right 
 was exercised the banking privileges of the company were to expire 
 5 years later. If the city did not buy the waterworks at the given time 
 all banking privileges were to expire within 50 years from the date 
 of the act of incorporation. Operations were to be commenced within 
 twelve months from the passage of the act. and the company was to 
 expend $100,000 anuually until the works were completed. The city 
 of New Orleans was authorized to subscribe for $500,000 of the stock, 
 payable in 40-year bonds, upon which the bank was to pay 5 per cent, 
 interest. The Citizens' bank was capitalized at $12,000,000 in the 
 form of a loan as prescribed by the act ; all subscribers to stock to be 
 secured by mortgages executed in the parishes where the lands were 
 located, and upon which the directoi-s might issue bonds payable in 
 14. 23. 32, 41 and 50 years. The state was entitled to a credit 
 of $500,000, and the company was to enjoy all the rights and privileges 
 usually accorded to banks, in addition to which it was authorized to 
 dig canals, Iniild railroads, etc.. all property of this class to become 
 the property of the state upon the expiration of the charter. The bank 
 was not able to raise the capital according to the original plan and on 
 Jan. 30, 1836, the state was authorized by act of the legislature to 
 take the stock mortgages and issue bonds for four-fifths of the amount 
 of the mortgages thus taken, in return for which the state was to have 
 one-sixth of the profits of the bank, and the corporation was to pay 
 $5,000 annually during the life of the charter to each of three colleges. 
 The stock of the Mechanics' and Traders' bank was fixed at $2,000,000
 
 LOUISIANA 65 
 
 in shares of $50 each, and it was authorized to go into operation when 
 5,000 shares had been subscribed. Of the 13 directors 5 were to be 
 mechanics or traders; mechanics were given the privilege of subscrib- 
 ing for .$200,000 of the stock, and the bank was directed to establish 
 two branches — one at Opelousas with a cajiital of $150,000 and one 
 at Vidalia with .$200,000. 
 
 The legislatures of 1836 and 1837 chartered corporations whose ag- 
 gregate capital amounted to nearly $40,000,000. Thompson, in his 
 Story of Louisiana, says: "The system of chartering public gambling 
 concerns under the title of banking companies was for a long time 
 a source of popular corruption." But this system received a check 
 by the panic of 1837 (See Panics), when several of the banks were 
 forced to suspend. During this period of depression the United States 
 bank bought the Merchants' bank of New Orleans, which had been in- 
 corporated on Feb. 25, 1836, for an agency, paying for it $1,076,500. 
 In April, 1841, the assets of the bank were reported to be worth 
 $906,000, and it was finally sold by the liquidators to Edward Yorke 
 for $575,000. Among the assets was specie to the amount of $334,427, 
 but it could not be used because the charter required one-third of the 
 capital to be kept always in the vaults. 
 
 In his message to the legislature in Jan., 1842, Gov. Roman boldly 
 declared the notion false that the banks of one city must suspend 
 simply because those of another did so. He showed that from Nov. 2, 
 1839, to Oct. 2, 1841, the New Orleans banks reduced their assets 
 $300,000 and increased their liabilities $780,000, and insisted they 
 would continue this course as long as suspension lasted. On Jan. 24 
 he approved an act providing that "no bank note shall be issued which 
 is not payable in specie." On Feb. 4, 1842, the legislature passed an 
 act to regulate banks. Concerning this act, the History of Banking 
 of All Nations says it was "the most remarkable pi'oduced in this 
 period in any state. It is drawn in remarkably clear and direct lan- 
 guage, entirely free from legal verbiage. It leaves the impression of 
 a schoolmaster who, having got tired of confusion, insubordination and 
 misbehavior, takes in hand the duty of restoring order, and distributes 
 punishments, corrections and new orders in the most peremptory 
 manner. ' ' 
 
 By this act all charters were revived provided the banks would pre- 
 pare at once to resume and would obey the rules laid down by the 
 new law. Loans on capital were to be designated as "dead weight" 
 and loans on deposits as "movement of banks." No bank was to 
 increase the former while the whole cash liability was not covered by 
 one-third specie and two-thirds 90-day paper. If any one applied for 
 an extension his account was to be closed and other banks were to be 
 notified ; the same was true of any one whose paper lay protested for 
 10 days, when he was to be discredited and to have no bank credit 
 until he paid in full. The governor was authorized to appoint a board 
 of currency, to consist of three members, each to receive a salary of 
 $4,000 a year, to supervise banks and get weekly statements of their 
 business. Each member of the board was to give bond of $5,000 for 
 the faithful performance of duty, and the board was required to report 
 1—5
 
 66 LOUISIANA 
 
 ainiually to tlio general assembly. Banks might issue post notes, pay- 
 able on Sept. 30, 1842, or twice the amount of specie possessed, the 
 other half to be secured by state bonds or mortgages, and all such 
 notes were to be stamped and registered by the board of eurrenc.v. 
 Solvent banks were to be secured in taking the eurrenc.v of banks in 
 process of liquidation bv the assets of the liquidating banks. Any 
 bank refusing to accept the law within 25 da.vs. and any revived bank 
 failing to comply with its provisions were to be put in liquidation by 
 the board of currency. In short, the entire operations of the banks 
 were to be regulated and controlled by the board. 
 
 New Orleans banks resumed sjiecie payments on ilay IS. 1842. 
 There was immediately a run upon them that amounted almost to a 
 riot, and by June 2 all but three suspended. The treasurv report at 
 this time sa.vs: '"The monetary condition of the city is deplorable 
 beyond description." Another report in September says: "There 
 was a bank revulsion at New Orleans, the most severe probably that 
 was ever felt. The effects extended throughout the Union." (This 
 revulsion was probably due to the retirement of the post notes author- 
 ized by the act of the preceding Febi-uary.) By the act of April 5, 
 1843, all property banks were placed in liquidation except such as 
 could show a clear state of solvenc.v. Under this act any stockholder 
 could clear his liability b.v paying in bonds of the state issued to the 
 bank. As previously stated, the Union bank was the only one that 
 escaped liquidation under this act. The board of currency was also 
 reorganized by the legislature of 1843. doing away with the three mem- 
 bers and appointing the secretary of state and the treasurer as the 
 board, each member to receive a salary of $1,200. 
 
 The constitution of 1845 prohibited the state from pledging its credit 
 to any person or corporation, or from creating any corporation with 
 banking and discounting privileges. In the early 50 's complaint was 
 made that the banking facilities of the state were not sufficient to meet 
 the reijuirements of commerce. In response to this complaint the legis- 
 lature in 1852 passed a law reviving the Citizens' bank as a bank of 
 discount and deposit. The act was vetoed by the governor on the 
 ground that it was unconstitutional, but it was passed over his veto. 
 Doubtless the banking situation had much to do with the making of 
 a new constitution in 1852, by which "Corporations with banking 
 and discounting privileges may be either created by special acts or 
 formed under a general law; but the legislature shall, in lioth cases, 
 provide for the registry of all bills or notes issued and put in circula- 
 tion as money, and shall require ample security for the redemption of 
 the same in .specie," Under this provision of the constitution the 
 legislature by the act of April 30, 1853. established a general s.vstem 
 of free banking in the state. The principal features of the law were 
 as follows : Five or more persons could form a corporation -n-ith the 
 usual privileges, the capital stock to be not less than $100,000. which 
 must be paid up within 12 months after the company began opera- 
 tions; act of corporation to be made a matter of record; each stock- 
 holder to be liable for the full amount of his stock; bills to be en- 
 graved by the auditor of public accounts of Louisiana and counter-
 
 LOUISIANA 67 
 
 signed b.y him ; banks to deposit with the auditor bonds of the United 
 States, the State of Louisiana or the city of New Orleans to secure their 
 circulation ; the securities thus deposited to be open to investigation 
 by a committee of the general assembly ; every bank to keep on hand 
 specie equal to one-third of its cash liabilities; for violation of this 
 provision every director or manager became individually liable for all 
 debts and obligations of the corporation; all banks outside of New 
 Orleans to have an agency in that city for the redemption of its notes; 
 a new currency board was created to supervise the execution of the 
 law ; and lists of stockholders were to be furnished monthly to the state 
 officials. This law remained in force until 1861, when the state con- 
 vention provided that outstanding notes should not equal more than 
 three-fourths of the capital stock, and that notes need not be registered 
 and countersigned by the auditor. 
 
 In 1860 the Bank of the State of Louisiana had the largest specie 
 reserve of any bank in the United States (.$4,133,000) and the 
 Citizens' bank stood second with $3,232,000. According to th*^ 
 Bankers' JMagazine, the banks of the state as a whole had a ratio 
 of $54.46 iu specie to each $100 of notes in circulation, the ratio 
 of Illinois being .$4.25 ; of New York, $20.39 ; and of ilassaehusetts. 
 $21.63. Notwithstanding this splendid showing the New Orleans 
 banks suspended in Sept., 1861. In May, 1862, Gen. Butler issued 
 his order No. 3, forbidding banks "to pay any more Confederate 
 notes to their depositors or creditors, but that all deposits lie paid 
 in bills of the liauk, U. S. treasury notes, gold or silver, authorizin.g 
 them at the same time to receive the Confederate notes for any 
 of their bills until May 27, 1862." Consequently, at the latter date 
 all the banks were carrying a large amount of Confederate notes 
 which they could not dispose of in the ordinary course of business, 
 and many of the notes still remained in their vaults in 1864, others 
 having been invested in Confederate bonds or in cotton, of which 
 commodity the Louisiana State bank had purchased 15,000 bales. 
 Against the Confederate notes thus held the banks were required 
 to issue their own notes, with the results that when Gen. Banks 
 on Marcli 18, 1864, issued his Special Order No. 69, requiring 
 reports from the various banks and departments, nine banks of 
 New Orleans showed a forced circulation of this character amount- 
 ing to $6,715,077. Butler's order was doubtless intended to work a 
 hardship on the banks, and it certainly accomplished its purpose. 
 In 1864 the Bank of Louisiana reported immediate lial)ilities 
 amounting to $3,022,327, and immediate assets of $1,069,162, though 
 it had to its credit within the Confederate lines in Georgia gold to 
 the value of $2,461,395. The tirst national l)ank in Louisiana was 
 organized early in 1864. 
 
 Since the reconstruction the banking laws of Louisiana have been 
 abreast of those passed by the most progressive states of the 
 Union. The act of July 12, 1888, provided that five or more per- 
 sons might form themselves into an association or corporation for 
 conducting a banking business, and when so incorporated should 
 have all the powers and authority usually conferred by law upon
 
 68 LOUISIANA 
 
 institutions of that class. The act further pro^-ided for tlie organ- 
 ization of sa^'iugs banks with a capital stock of $100,000 or more, 
 and trust companies with power to accept and execute trusts, act 
 as receivers, traders, assignees, executors, administrators and depos- 
 itaries, the capital stock to be a security for the safe conduct of 
 their affairs along these lines. It was also provided that deposits 
 made by married women and minors in savings banks might be 
 drawn out upon their order. By the act of July 14. 1898, every 
 bank, banker, or association or corporation doing a banking bus- 
 iness in the state was required to have on hand at all times United 
 States currency equal to one-fourth of all cash liabilities, the other 
 three-fourths to be in lawful money of the United States, bills of 
 exchange, or discount paper maturing within six months. The act 
 of July 6. 1900, required every bank to create a sui'plus fund, and 
 in 1902 the general assemblj' more clearly detined the duties and 
 privileges of the state bank examiner. The gOA^ernor Avas author- 
 ized to order an examination of any bank, the officials of which 
 were required to give the state bank examiner free access to all 
 books, documents, etc., imder a penalty of from $100 to $500 fine 
 for refusal, and also the removal from office of any bank oflicial 
 who might so refuse. 
 
 Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, soldier and statesman, was born at 
 Waltham, !Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. His parents being poor, he worked 
 in the mill, devoting his leisure time to study, thus obtaining a fair 
 education, and finally became editor of a local paper. In 1851-52 
 he was speaker of the ^Massachusetts house of representatives; was 
 president of the state constitutional convention in 1853 ; was elected 
 to Congress that year by a combination of Democrats and Know 
 Nothings; was twice reelected as a Republican, serving until Dec. 
 4, 1857, when he resigned to become governor of IMassachusetts. 
 In 1860 he was made president of tlie Illinois Central railroad com- 
 pany, which position he resigned at the outbreak of the Civil war 
 to accept a commission as major-general of volunteers, having had 
 previous experience as an officer of the state militia. His first 
 service was in Virginia, but on Dec. 16, 1862, he succeeded Gen. 
 Butler in command at New Orleans. His tirst act Avas to issue a 
 proclamation, in which he said: "It is my desire to secure to the 
 people of every class all the privileges of possession and enjoy- 
 ment consistent Avith public safety, or Avhicli it is possible for a 
 beneficent and just government to confer. * * * ]\iy instruc- 
 tions require me to treat as enemies those who are enemies, but I 
 shall gladly treat as friends those Avho are friends. No restrictions 
 Avill be placed iipon the freedom of individiuils Avhich is not imper- 
 atiA'cl.A' demanded by considerations of public safety. * * • Rg. 
 spectful consideration and prompt reparation will be accorded to 
 all persons Avho are Avrouged in body or estate by those under my 
 command." The beginning of his administration Avas marked by 
 a leniency in harmony Avith the spirit of his proclamation — a de- 
 cided contrast to the scA-erity Gen. Butler had deemed it necessary 
 to exercise. Banks releasecl a number of political prisoners that
 
 LOUISIANA 69 
 
 had been arrested and sentenced by Butler, and otherwise indicated 
 that his policy was to be conciliatory. His clemency was abused 
 by some thoughtless persons, and on Dee. 21 he issiied a proclama- 
 tion of warning. Even this did not check the demonstrations, and 
 more decisive measures were adopted, though they were not as 
 austere as the methods of Gen. Butler. In ilay, 1863, Banks con- 
 centrated a force of some 25,000 men at Baton Rouge and invested 
 Port Hudson, which place held out until after the surrender of 
 Vicksburg, when it capitulated, and Banks showed his magnanim- 
 ity by permitting Geu. Gardner, the Confederate commander, to 
 retain liis sword. Early in 1864 an effoi-t was made to reestablish 
 the civil government of the state, a movement to which Banks lent 
 his aid by issuing a proclamation on Jan. 11, ordering an election 
 for state ofScers on Feb. 22. The government inaugurated by this 
 election was not satisfactory to the people (See Hahn's Adminis- 
 tration), though there is no doubt that Gen. Banks was sincere in 
 his desire to see the restoration of civil government. On Feb. 3, 
 1864, he issued a general order which materially assisted the plant- 
 ers in making tei-ms with the negroes by prescribing regulations 
 under which the latter should be employed, and the wages they 
 should receive. He established a board of education for the freed- 
 men and conferred on it the power "to assess and levy a school 
 tax upon real and personal property, etc." (See Freedmen's Bu- 
 reau and Emancipation Proclamation.) In May, 1864, Gen. S. A. 
 Hurlbut was assigned to the command of the Department of the 
 Gulf and Gen. E. R. S. Canby was placed in command of the newly 
 created military division of West Mississippi, which included Lou- 
 isiana. Gen. Banks resigned his commission in the army, returned 
 to Massachusetts and was elected to Congress that fall. By re- 
 peated reelections he remained in Congress until 1877, with the ex- 
 ception of one term, being defeated in 1872, along with the entire 
 Greeley ticket, which he supported. He was then for some time 
 the U. S. marshal for Massachusetts and in 1888 was again elected 
 to Congress, but before the expiration of his term he became 
 afHieted with a mental disorder and was forced to retire from 
 public life. In 1891 Congress voted him an annual pension of 
 $1,200, but he did not live long to en.joy it, as his death occurred 
 at Waltham, Mass., Sept. 1, 1894. 
 
 Baptist Church. — (See Protestant Churches.) 
 
 Bar Association, State. — On May 13, 1847, a number of New Or- 
 leans lawyers assembled in the supreme court chamber pursuant 
 to a previous call for the purpose of organizing a bar association. 
 Judge Watts called the meeting to order, after which Alfred Hen- 
 nen was elected chairman and Thomas A. Clarke secretary. A 
 constitution was adopted, the organization taking the name of 
 "The Law Association of New Orleans," and the following officers 
 were elected : John R. Grymes, president ; Alfred Hennen, vice- 
 president ; Thomas A. Clarke, secretary and treasurer. A commit- 
 tee on membership was appointed and was composed of Pierre 
 Soule, Charles Watts, Christian Roselius, Richard H. Wilde,
 
 70 LOUISIANA 
 
 Echvard Rawlo. Jolm Winthrop and "William H. King. The first 
 annual meeting %yas to be held on Nov. 15, 184^7 (the third Monday), 
 as provided by the constitution, bnt at that time there ivas no 
 (luoruni present and the meeting was adjourned to the 20th. when 
 the secretary reported a membership of 49. This was the beginning 
 of the Louisiana Bar association, the principal objects of -which 
 were to promote good feeling among the members of the profession 
 and provide a library for the use of those belonging to the association. 
 
 A roster of the association on Nov. 17, 1866. includes the names of 
 J. D. Augustin. D. W. Adams. T. L. Bayne. G. A. Breaux. T. A. 
 Clarke. M. M. Cohen. Cyprien Dufour, J. B. Eustis, C. E. Fenner, 
 John Finney. Alfred Hennen. R. II. ilarr, Edward Rawle. Christian 
 Roselius, A. G. and T. J. Semmes. Paul E. Theard, and many others 
 more or less prominent in the profession, all of New Orleans. It ap- 
 pears that another association \\-as formed in 1876. as the minutes for 
 the meeting of May 21. 1881. show that Carleton Hunt. B. R. Forman 
 and "W. E. Murphy introduced amendments to the constitution pro- 
 viding for a change of name to "The New Orleans Law and Bar Asso- 
 ciation.'' and that all members of the association established in 1876, 
 not members of the old association, might become so without payment 
 of fees, provided they signed the constitution of the association and 
 passed a resolution ''merging and consolidating" the new as.sociation 
 into the old. The president ruled that portion of the amendment 
 relating to the consolidation out of order, and the records do not show 
 how the two societies were merged into one. 
 
 On April 29. 1889, the charter of the association was amended, and 
 on Feb. 24, 1898, a resolution was adopted changing the name to the 
 "Louisiana Law Association." Lender this name it continued until 
 Feb. 20, 1899, when the present name of "The Louisiana Bar Asso- 
 ciation" was adopted. Among the distinguished la\\yers who have 
 serred as president of the association appear the names of John R. 
 Grymes, Christian Roselius, E. A. Bradford, J. A. Rozier, and James 
 MeConnell. A list of the secretaries includes Thomas A. Clarke. 
 Thomas L. Bavne, who served for many years, J. 0. Nixon. J. Ward 
 Gurley. AV. S. Benedict and AV. A. Bell. 
 
 Some years ago the custom of having an anniial bar dinner was 
 adopted and has been kept up since. This occasion is one of good- 
 fellowship and has been a potent means of increasing the membership. 
 Officers are elected at the annual meeting in June. The feature of the 
 annual meeting, June 6, 1908, was the address of Hon. Carleton Hunt, 
 in which he reviewed his experience of fifty years as a member of the 
 Louisiana bar. The total membership at that time was 301, of whom 
 191 were residents of New Orleans, 80 were from different towns in 
 the state, and 30 were classed as literary members only. The present 
 officers are B, W. Kernan, pres. : Chas. A. Duchamp, sec.-treas. ; P. 
 M. Milner. vice-pres., 1st dist.; Geo. W. Jack, vice-pres., 2nd dist.: 
 Chas. A. McCoy, vice-pres., 3d dist. ; E. T. "Weeks, vice-pres., 4th 
 dist.. Exec. com.. St. Clair Adams, Johnston Armstrong, "Walter 
 L. Gleason, "Wm. B. Grant, and "Wynne G. Rogers. 
 
 Barataxia, a post-hamlet of Jefferson parish, is located about 16
 
 LOUISIANA 71 
 
 miles south of the city of New Orleans and 3 miles east of Lake 
 Salvador. The nearest railroad station is Jesuit Bend on the line of 
 the New Orleans, Port Jackson & Grand Isle R. R. 
 
 Barataria Bay, lying in the southern part of the parishes of 
 Jefferson and Plaquemines, is ahout 60 miles soiith of New Orleans 
 and some 40 miles westward from Pilot Town, which stands at the 
 entrance of the Southwest pass of the Mississippi river. Across the 
 mouth of the bay stretch the long, narrow islands of Grand Terre 
 and Grand Isle, separating it from the Gulf of Mexico. On these 
 islands, as well as on the numerous smaller ones which intersperse the 
 bay, are vast deposits of a kind of clam shell, placed there by the 
 processes of nature, large quantities of which have been shipped away 
 in recent years to be used as paving material in various cities. Be- 
 tween Grand Isle and Grand Terre is Grand pass, and at the western 
 end of the former there is also a channel which connects with Caminada 
 bay, from which a passage is found connecting with Bayous Lafourche 
 and Terre Bonne. Barataria bay is also connected with the interior , 
 through Bayou St. Denis. Little lake. Bayou Perot and Lake Salvador, 
 thence via Bayou des Allemands and the lake of the same name almost 
 to th§ Mississippi above New Orleans. The islands and marshy shores 
 of this bay were favorite haunts of the naturalist Audubon, who here 
 sought and found great multitudes of sea-fowl, among them the alba- 
 tross, the cormorant and the white pelican. During the early years 
 of the nineteenth century considerable history was made in the vicin- 
 ity of Barataria bay, by reason of a band of smugglers, commanded 
 by Jean Lafitte, who had established their headquarters on the island 
 of Grand Terre, and who had their stronghold in the midst of a 
 group of the shell-mounds above referred to on one of the islands . 
 of the bay. This group of mounds was known as the "Little Tem- 
 ple," such places having been used by the aborigines as sites for 
 their temples and burial places. (See Smugglers and Lafitte.) 
 
 Barbreck, a post-hamlet and station in the northern part of St. 
 Landry parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 20 miles north 
 of Opelousas, the parish seat. It has a population of 100. 
 
 Barham, a village and station on the Kansas City Southern R. 
 R., in the northwest part of Vernon parish, is 14 miles northwest 
 of Leesville, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, tel- 
 egraph and express office, and is the trading center for a consid- 
 erable district. 
 
 Barrow, Alexander, United States senator from Louisiana, was 
 born near Nashville, Tenn., in 1801, and was educated at the U. S. 
 military academy at West Point. After he left the academy he 
 studied law and began practice in Louisville. He became a planter, 
 entered politics, served several years in the state legislature, and 
 in 1841 was chosen U. S. senator from Louisiana as a Whig. He 
 served from Mav 31, 1841, until his death at Baltimore, Md., Dec. 
 29, 1846. 
 
 Barton, a village in the southwestern part of Ascension parish, 
 is about 2 miles west of Donaldsonville, the parish seat, and a mile
 
 72 LOUISIANA 
 
 east of Palo Alto, the nearest railroad station, It has a money 
 order postoffiee, and a population of 125. 
 
 Basile, a post-hamlet in tlie southern part of Evangeline parish, 
 is about 2 miles soutli of Ilawling, wliieh is the most convenient 
 railroad station. Population 200. 
 
 Baskin, a village in the northern part of Franklin parish, is a 
 station on the New Orleans & Northwestern R. R. about 6 miles 
 north of "Winnsboro, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 offiee, an express office, and is a trading center for a considerable 
 district. 
 
 Ba^kinton, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Franklin 
 parish, is a station on the IMangham & Northeastern R. R., about 
 12 miles nortli of Winnsboro, the parish seat. 
 
 Bastrop, the capital of IMorehouse parish, is located in the western 
 part of the parish on the line of the New Orleans & Northwestern 
 R. R. "When the parish Avas created in 1844 the site was selected 
 for a seat of justice and the name Bastrop was given to the town 
 on account of the land in that section having been once included 
 in the grant to Baron de Bastrop. The first settler was TVilliam 
 Gillespie, and the tirst store was established by Archibald Melver. 
 Bastrop was incorporated in 1851, and on Oct. 15 of that year 
 "William Prather began the publication of the "North Loiiisianian," 
 the first newspaper in the town or parish. Bastrop has a money 
 order postoffiee, express and telegraph service, one bank, several 
 good stores, and a population of 854. 
 
 Batchelor, a village and station in the northern part of Pointe 
 Coupee parish, is on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles 
 northwest of New Roads, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffiee, express and telegraph offices, and a population of 200. 
 
 Baton Rouge, the capital of the state and the seat of justice of 
 East Baton Rouge parish, is located on the east bank of the Mis- 
 sissippi river, 120 miles above New Orleans by river, but only 68 
 miles "as the crow liies. " It was founded by the French in 1719 
 and occupies the first high lands the voyageurs found in their 
 ascent of the great river. The words baton rouge translated into 
 English mean "red stick," and according to Du Pratz this name 
 was derived from a large cypress tree which stood on the site of the 
 city when the French first visited the place. This tree had been 
 shorn of nearly all its branches and most of its bark, and as the 
 natural color of the wood of the cypress is red. the denuded trunk 
 of this tree presented the appearance of a gigantic red stick or 
 baton. Another account says the name was taken from a red stake 
 planted on the river bank to mark the boundary line betyeen the 
 hunting grounds of the Houma and Bayou Goula Indians. 
 
 For some years the growth of the settlement at Baton Rouge 
 was slow, but after the "Western Company surrendered its charter 
 in 1732 important additions were made by the arrival of immi-, 
 grants, and when the Acadians were driven from their homes in 
 Nova Scotia about 80 of the exiles settled at Baton Rouge or in the 
 immediate vicinity. At the time France ceded Loiiisiana to Spain
 
 LOUISIANA 73 
 
 in 1762, certain territory east of the Mississippi, including Baton 
 Rouge, was ceded to Great Britain, but when, in May, 1779, Spain 
 declared war against England, Gov. Galvez of Louisiana set about 
 the recovery of this territory (See Spanish Conquest), and on Sept. 
 21, 1779, the English fort at Baton Rouge capitulated. With the 
 exception of the few months that it belonged to the short-lived 
 republic of West Florida, Baton Rouge remained a Spanish pos- 
 session until it passed into the hands of the United States, so that 
 the flags of four nations — France, England, Spain and the United 
 States — have in turn floated over Louisiana's capital city. At the 
 battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 181.5, Baton Rouge and the near-by 
 plantations furnished two companies of volunteers, numbering 168 
 men, who performed their duties bravely and well. 
 
 The first steamboat that ever visited Baton Rouge was the "New 
 Orleans," which arrived there on Jan. 8, 1812, having made the 
 trip from Pittsbiirg, Pa., in 241 hours — a speed which at that time 
 was considered little short of marvelous. Ten years later, or during 
 the year 1822, no less than 8.3 steamers, 174 barges and 441 fliatboats 
 touched at her Avharves, which will give some idea of the growth 
 and importance of her river commerce at that period. 
 
 On Jan. 16, 1816, the Louisiana legislature passed an act pro- 
 viding that "All free white male persons above the age of 21 years, 
 who are freeholders, householders or landowners, within the fol- 
 lowing limits, to-wit: from the mouth of the bayou at the upper 
 part of the town of Baton Rouge (called Garcia's Bayou) and ex- 
 tending on the main branch of said bayou to the distance of 40 
 arpents from the Mississippi, and below commencing at the Mis- 
 sissippi on the town line of the tract of land claimed by Madam 
 Marion, and pursuing the direction of said line to the distance of 
 40 arpents from the ^Mississippi, are hereby authorized to meet and 
 elect five selectmen auually," etc. Under this act an election was 
 accordingly held, and by the legislative enactment of July 6, 1817, 
 the town received its first charter of incorporation. The council 
 provided for in the act met for the first time on April 13, 1818, and 
 organized by the election of the following officers: William Wil- 
 liams, president of the council and mayor ex-officio ; Tliomas C. 
 Stanard, clerk ; D. E. Pintado, treasurer and collector ; and Pierre 
 Jautin, police officer. The first ordinance passed by the council 
 related to taxes and licenses ; the second provided for certain street 
 improvements ; the third ordered the cousti'uction of a combined 
 town hall and market house, and the fourth provided for the pun- 
 ishment of "all disorderly and drunken persons." At the third 
 meeting the council ordered "all bar-rooms, saloons, grogshops, 
 cabarets, billiard rooihs and bowling alleys" to be closed on Sun- 
 day. This ordinance is said to be the first Sunday law ever passed 
 in the Mississippi valley. 
 
 Political and military considerations in 1819 made it necessary 
 for the United States government to quarter a large body of troops 
 in the vicinity of the mouth of the Jlississippi river. After looking 
 over the ground the war department selected Baton Rouge because
 
 74 LOUISIANA 
 
 of its healthful lot-atiou ou the tirst bluffs above the mouth of the 
 river, and the following year the garrison and arsenal buildings 
 necessary for an encampment and military post were completed 
 and occupied. Since 1886 these buildings have been occupied by 
 the Louisiana State University and the Agricultural and Mechan- 
 ical College, one of the best educational institutions of its kind in 
 the South. 
 
 By the provisions of the coustitutiou of 1845, Baton Rouge 
 became the capital of the state in 1849 (See Capital), and conse- 
 quently the city has been since that time more or less of a political 
 storm center. Being the capital, it probably suffered more heavily 
 during the Civil war and the stormy days of reconstruction that 
 followed than it otherwise woiild. At the close of the reconstruc- 
 tion period the city, and the parish in which it is located, were 
 burdened with a heavy debt, which for some years proved a serious 
 handicap to progress. The popiilatJon in 1870, the first U. S. census 
 after the war, was 6,496. With the adjustment of the old debt 
 the development and increase in population were rapid, and in 
 1910 the population was 14.897, while the city is practically on a 
 cash basis, the bonded indebtedness being only about $300,000, a 
 good portion of which was incurred by the provisions for the pur- 
 chase of the waterworks by the city at the expiration of the water 
 companv's contract in 1908. Bank deposits incr(>ascd from a little 
 over $1,000,000 in 1900 to over $2,000,000 in 1907: during the same 
 period the city tax roll increased from .$2,236,000. in round num- 
 bers, to over .$4,000,000, and the postoffiee receipts from $17,021 
 to nearly .$31,.')00. The city has a good public school system; five 
 banking institutions ; four trunk lines of railroad : a large river 
 trade : well paved streets and good .sidewalks ; a good sewer sys- 
 tem : free mail delivery, with rural routes to all parts of the parish ; 
 a fire department 'with electric fire alarm system ; good street rail- 
 way service: daily and weekly newspapers: gas and electric light- 
 ing systems ; hotels and theaters, and churches of all the leading 
 denominations. The principal public buildings and institutions 
 are the state eapitol, the Federal eourtliouse and postoffiee, parish 
 courthouse, city hall, state university, school for deaf mutes, school 
 for the blind, and the agricultural experiment .station. The prin- 
 cipal manufactures are sugar, cotton and lumber. Baton Rouge 
 was the home of Gen. Zachary Taylor, 12th president of the United 
 States, and of his son. Gen. Richard Taylor, who was one of the 
 most (lashing commanders in fhe Confederate army during the 
 Civil war. 
 
 For a time, during the French domination. Baton Rouge was 
 called Dironbourg. from Diron d'Artaguette (q. v.). The British 
 called it New Richmond, but the name Baton Ronge, given by the 
 French, prevailed after the conquest by Galvez and has been re- 
 tained to this day. 
 
 Baton Rouge Revolution.— This is but anothei- name for the West 
 Florida Revolution, under which title a complete account of the 
 event will he found.
 
 LOUISIANA . 75 
 
 Battle, a post-hamlet and station in the central part of East 
 Feliciana parish, is on a branch line of the Yazoo & Mississippi 
 Valley R. K., 5 miles southwest of Clinton, the parish seat. 
 
 Battles. — In the early days several engagements with hostile 
 Indian tribes were fought within the limits of the present State 
 of Louisiana. In Sept., 1779, the British posts at Fort Bute on the 
 Manchac, and at Baton Rouge, were captured by Gov. Galvez 
 after some lighting at each place. The battle of Lake Borgne, Dee. 
 14, 1814, marked the beginning of the British attempt to capture 
 New Orleans. This was followed by the engagements of Dec. 23 
 and 28. 1814, Jan. 1 and 8, 1815, and the bombardment of Fort St. 
 Philip, which was continued imtil Jan. 17. (See War of 1812.) 
 During the War of 1861-65 a large number of actions occurred iu 
 Louisiana. Many of them were mere skirmishes, of which no cir- 
 cumstantial report was made by the commanding officers on cither 
 side. Following is an alphabetical list of tliese battles and skir- 
 mishes, with the date when each occurred : 
 
 Alexander's Creek (near St. Francisville), Oct. 5, '64; Amite 
 River, July 24, '62, April 12 and 17, '63, July 25 and Dec. 12, '64, 
 and March 18, '65 ; Ashton, May 1, '64 ; Ashwood Landing, May 
 1-4, '64; Atchafalaya, June 4, Sept. 8, 9, and 20, '63, July 21, Aug. 
 25, Sept. 17, and Oct. 5, '64; Avoyelles, May 15, '64; Barre's Land- 
 ing, May 22 and Oct. 21, '63 ; Baton Rouge, Aug. 5, 20 and 21, '62, 
 Sept. 19, '63, March 3 and 8, April 15, May 3 and Aug. 29, '64; 
 Bayou Alabama, Sept. 20, '64 ; Bayou Boeuf, April 22, '63, and May 
 7, '64; Baj^ovi Boeuf Crossing, June 24, '63; Bayou Bonfouca, Nov. 
 21, '62, and Jan. 31, '65; BayOu Bourbeau, Nov. 3, '63; Bayou de 
 Glaize, May 18, '64 ; Bayou de Large, May 27, '65 ; Bayou de Paul, 
 April 8, '64; Bayou des Allemands, June 20 and 22, and Sept. 4, 
 '62, and July 18, '63 ; Bayou Fordoche, May 29, '64 ; Bayou Goula, 
 Jan. 24 and May 9, '65 ; Bayou Grand Caillou, Nov. 23, '64 ; Bayou 
 Grossetete, April 2 and June 19, '64 ; Bayou Lamourie, May 6, 7 and 
 12, '64; Bayou Liddell, Oct. 15, '64; Bayou Macon, May 10 and 
 Aug. 24, '63 ; Bayou Maringouin, Sept. 13 and 16, '64 ; Bayou Pierre, 
 May 2-3, '64; Bayou Portage, Nov. 23, '63; Bayou Rapides, March 
 20 and April 26, '64; Bayou Robert, May 8, '64; Bayou Saline, 
 April 14, '64; Bayou Sara, Aug. 10 and 23, '62, Nov. 9, '63, Oct. 3, 
 4, 6, 9 and 10, '64; Bayou Teche, Jan. 14, April 12 and 13, and Oct. 
 3, '63, and March 21 , '65 ; Bayou Tensas, May 9 ,and Aug. 10, '63, 
 July 30 and Aug. 26, '64; Bavou Tunica, Nov. 8, '63; Berwick, 
 June 1, '63, and April 26 and :\iay 1, '64; Berwick Bay, Nov. 1 and 
 6, '62, and June 23. '63 ; Black Bayou, March 19, '64, and May 4, 
 '65; Black River, May 5, '63; Blair's Landing, April 12-13, '64; 
 Bonnet Carre, Oct. 19, '62; Boutte Station, Sept. 5, '62; Boyce's 
 Bridge, l\Iay 14, '63 ; Boyce 's Plantation, May 6, '64 ; Brashear City, 
 June 21 and 23, '63; Brown's Plantation, May 11, '65; Bullitt's 
 Bayou, Sept. 14, '64; Caledonia, May 10. '63; Camp Pratt, Nov. 20 
 and 25, '63 ; Campti, March 26 and April 4, '64 ; Cane River, April 
 26-27, '64; Cane River Crossing, April 23, '64; Carrion Crow Bayou, 
 Oct. 14, 15 and 18, and Nov. 3, 11 and 18, '63; Carroll's Mill (near
 
 76 LOUISIANA 
 
 Pleasant Hill), April 8, '64; Ceuterville, April 12 and 13, aud May 
 25, '63; Chacahonla, June 24, '63, and May 3, '65; ChoL-taw Bayou, 
 April 28, '63 ; Clint ou, :Mav 1 and Nov. 15, '6-4 ; Cloutierville, March 
 29 and 30, and xVpril 22 aud 24, '64 ; Columbia, Feb. 4, '64 ; Coraite 
 River, ilay 2, '63, aud Aug. 25, '64 ; Corao Lauding, June 15-16, 
 '64; Concordia, July 22, '64; Concordia Bayou, Aug. 5, '64; Cotile 
 Landing, .Vpril 25, '64; Covington, July 27, '62; Cross Bayou, July 
 4, "64; Crump's Hill, April 2, '64; Cox's Plantation (near Donald- 
 sonville), July 12-13, "63; Cvpress Creek, March 8, "64; David's 
 Ferrv, May 4-5, '64; Davis' Bend, June 29, '64; Deloach's Bluff, 
 April 26, '64 ; Doualdsonville, Aug. 9 and Sept. 21 aud 25, '62, June 
 28 and Sept. 23, '63, and Feb. 8, '64; Doyal's Plantation, Aug. 5 and 
 Nov. 29, '64; Dunbar's Plantation, April 7 and 15, '63; Dunn's Bay- 
 ou, :\Iay 5, '64; Fair Play (Steamer), Aug. 18, '62; Floyd, Aug. 24, 
 '63 ; Fort Barrancas, Jan. 1, '62 ; Fort Beauregard, JMay 10 and Sept. 
 4, '63; Fort Bisland, April 12-13, '62, and April 12, '64; Fort de 
 Russv, :\Iav 4, 63, aud :Mareli 14, '64; Fort Jackson, April 16 to i\Iay 
 1, '62 ; Fort Livingston, April 27, '62; Fort St. Philip, April 16 to 
 May 1, '62; Geutilly's Plantation, Sept. 1, '64; Goodrich's Landing, 
 June 30, '63, aud March 24, '64; Graham's Plantation, ilay 5, '64; 
 Grand Bayou, April 4, '65 ; Grand Coteau, Oct. 16 aud 19, '63 ; 
 Grand Ecore, April 3, 16 aud 29, '64; Grand Lake, Nov. 23, '63; 
 Grand River, Aug. 15 and 21, '64; Greensburg, ^lay 1, '63; Green- 
 well Springs, Oct. 5, '63; Grossetete, Feb. 19, '64; Hard Times 
 Lauding, April 25 and 29, '63 ; Ilarrisoulnirg, Sept. 4, '63, and 
 March 1 and 4, '64; Henderson's Hill, :\Iarch 21, '64; Hodge's Plan- 
 tation, Sept. 11, '64; Independence Station, JMay 15, '63; Indian 
 Bayou, Nov. 9, '63 ; Indian Bend, April 13, '63 ; Indian Village, Jan. 
 28, '63, and Aug. 6, '64 ; Ii'ish Bend, April 14, '63 ; Jackson, Aug. 
 3, '63, JIarch 3 aud Oct. 5, '64; James' Plantation, April 6 and 8, 
 '63 ; Jeanerette, April 14, '63 ; Labadieville, Sept. 8, '64 ; Lafourche 
 Crossing, June 20-21, '63 ; Lake Borgne, Nov. 22, '63 ; Lake Bruin, 
 April 28, '63; Lake Fausee Pointe, Nov. 18, '64; Lake Providence, 
 May 24 and 27, June 9, 24 aud 28, '63 ; Lake St. Josepli, June 4, '63 ; 
 Lake Verret, Jan. 30, '65; ]Madisouville, July 27, '62, aud Feb. 11, 
 '64; ]\Iagnolia Landing, June 15, '64; ilansiu'a. May 16, '64; Mans- 
 field, April 8, '64; ilarksville Prairie, March 15, '64; jMartin's Lane, 
 Feb. 15, '65; ilillikeu's Bend, Aug. 18, '62, and June 7 aud 25. '63; 
 Jlonett's Ferry, :\Iarch 29-30 and April 23, '64; Moore's Plantation, 
 Mav 1 and 4, '64; iloreauville, ilav 17, '64; ^Morgan's Ferrv, Sept. 
 7 and 20, '63, Julv 28 and Aug. 25," '64; :\loi'gau/;a, :\Iav 24 "aud 30, 
 July 28, Oct. 16, Nov. 23 aud Dec. 4, '64, and Jan. 12 and 15. '65; 
 Morganza Bend, IMarcli 12, '65 ; Mound Plantation, June 24 and 29, 
 '63; Mount Pleasant Landing, May 15, '64; Napoleonville, July 29, 
 '64, and Feb. 10, '65 ; Natchitoches, March 31, April 5 aud 20," and 
 May 5, '64; Nelson's Bridge (near New Iberia), Oct. 4, '63; New 
 Carthage, April 5, '63; Newport Cross-Roads, June 17, '64; New 
 River, Feb. 9, '64; New Texas Road, Dec. 4, '64; Newtown, x\pril 
 16, "64; Old River, Feb. 10, '63; Olive Branch, Aug. 5 and 25. '64; 
 Opelousas, Oct. 30, '63; Orange Grove, July 31, '64; Pass Manehac,
 
 LOUISIANA 77 
 
 June 17 and Sept. 13 and 15, '62; Pattersonville, April 11, '63; 
 Petite Anse Island, Nov. 21-22, '62; Phelps' Bayou, April 26, '63; 
 Pineville, April 24, '64 ; Pin Hook, May 10, '63 ; Plains Store Road, 
 May 21 and 23, '63; Plaquemiue, April 18 and June 18, '63, and 
 Aug. 6, '64; Pleasant Hill, April 7, 9, 12 and 13, '64; Point Pleasant, 
 June 25, '64; Ponehatoula, Sept. 13-15, '62, March 21 and 30 and 
 May 13, '63; Porter's Plantation, April 13, '63; Port Hudson, Aug. 
 29, '62, March 14-15, May 21 to July 8, and Nov. 30, '63, April 7, 
 May 28 (Pest House), and Aug. 29, '64; Raccourei, Nov. 25, '64; 
 Ratlitf's Landing, June 15, '64; Red Chief (Confederate Steamer), 
 May 25, '63 ; Red River, Oct. 14, '63 ; Richland Plantation, Jan. 30, 
 '64; Richmond, Jan. 29, March 31, April 4, and June 15, '63; Rob- 
 erts' Ford, May 2, '63; Rosedale, Sept. 15, '64; St. Charles Court 
 House, Aug. 29, Sept. 7-8, '62, and Oct. 5, '64 ; St. Martinville, Dec. 
 3. '63; St. Mary's (Steamer), July 8, '63; Simsport, June 3, '63, and 
 June 8, '64 ; Southwest Pass, Oct. 12, '61 ; Springfield, May 23, '63 ; 
 Springfield Landing, July 2, '63; Starlight (Confederate Steamer), 
 May 25, '63; Stirling's Plantation, Sept. 12 and 29, '63; Tallulah, 
 Aug. 19, '62; The Park, Feb. 4, '65; Thibodaus, June 20, '63; 
 Thompson's Creek, May 25, '63; Thompson's Plantation, Jan. 23, 
 '65 ; Tiekfaw Bridge, May 16, '63 ; Trinity, Sept. 2, '63, and March 
 1 and 4, '64 ; Tunica Bend, Nov. 8, '63, and April 21, '64 ; Vermilion 
 Bayou, April 17, Oct. 9-10, and Nov. 11, 25, and 30, '63 ; Vermili'ou- 
 vilie, Nov. 5 and 8, '63 ; Vidalia, Sept. 14, '63, Feb. 7 and July 22, 
 '64; Wall's Bridge, (Tiekfaw river). May 1, '63; Washington, April 
 22, May 1, Oct. 24 and 31, '63 ; Waterloo, June 16, '63, and Oct. 20, 
 '64; Waterproof, April 20, '64; Wells' Plantation, May 2 and 6, 
 '64; Williams' Bridge, May 1, '63; Williamsport, Sept. 16 and Nov. 
 25, '64; Wilson's Landing, May 2 and 14, '64; Wilson's Plantation, 
 April 7, '64; Yellow Bayou, May 18, '64; Young's Point, June 7, 
 '63. 
 
 Batture Affair. — When the Jesuits were dispossessed in 1763 and 
 their property was sold for the benefit of the French crown, Ber- 
 trand Gravier purchased a portion of their jjlantations for a farm. 
 Subsequently he laid out a part of his farm in lots and established 
 the faubourg Ste. Marie. In front of the farm and the faubourg 
 was formed an alluvial deposit, or batture, from which the citizens 
 of New Orleans were permitted to take sand and gravel at their 
 pleasure. This privilege was continued until 1804, when John 
 Gravier, then the owner of the property, set up an opposition to 
 the city's claim that the people had that right, a contention in 
 which he was sustained by the superior court of the territory. In 
 1807 Edward Livingston, acting under the decision of the court, 
 purchased a portion of the batture and attempted to make improve- 
 ments thereon, but the people got together and drove away his 
 workmen. On Sept. 1 Livingston appealed to Gov. Claiborne for 
 protection, and the city council urged the governor to prosecute 
 the claim of the United States to the ground under dispute. On 
 the 15tli Livingston again started his men to work, but in a little 
 Avhile a drum was heard summoning the people to the batture.
 
 78 LOUISIANA 
 
 They rallied by thousauds and were quieted oul.y by the appeal of 
 the governor, who addressed them on the spot. Col. JlcCarty and 
 others replied to the governor, in favor of "the rights of the peo- 
 ple" and the case was finally recommitted to the United States 
 courts. On Jan. 24. 1808, Livingston received notice that the pres- 
 ident had ordered the U. S. mar.shal to take possession. Notwith- 
 standing this order, he went on with his improvements, until the 
 militia was called oait to aid the marshal in enforcing the jires- 
 ident's order. Livingston then went to Washington to secure relief, 
 but Congress refused to act in the matter. After Jetferson retired 
 from the presidency Livingston broiight suit against him, and pro- 
 longed litigation followed, which did not come to an end until after 
 the death of both Jetfersou and Livingston, tliough the latter 's 
 heirs ultimately received some benefit from his claim. 
 
 Baylor, a post-hamlet in Beauregard parish, is aboiit 5 miles east 
 of the Sabine river and is the terminus of the Sanders-Trotti Tram 
 Company R. R., which connects with the Kansas City Southern. 
 
 Bayou Barbary, a village in the southern part of Livingston 
 parish, situated on a stream of the same name, which is an aflfluent 
 of the Amite river, about 2 miles from a steamboat landing, and 
 4 miles south of Springville. the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice and a population of 150. 
 
 Bayou Chene, a post-liamlet in tlie southeastern part of St. ^lar- 
 tin parish, is situated on an arm of Lake Chicot, about l.i miles 
 east of St. ilartinville, the parish scat and nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bayou Chicot, a village in the northern part of Evangeline parish, 
 is about 2o miles northwest of Opelousas, and about 5 miles south- 
 east of Turkey Creek, the nearest railroad station. It has a money 
 order postoffice and a jiopulation of 150. 
 
 Bayou Cuirent, a ])ost-hamlet and station in the northeastern 
 part of St. Landry parish, situated on the Atchafalya river, and a 
 branch line of the Texas Pacific E. R., about 9 miles north of Mel- 
 ville. 
 
 Bayou Goula, a village in the eastern part of Iberville parish, is 
 situated on the Mississippi river and the Texas & Pacific R. R., 
 about 8 miles south of Plaquemines, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffice, and varied industries such as shingle, rice, and 
 sugar mills, and is the trading center for a rich farming district. 
 Its population is 900. 
 
 Bayou Lachute (R. R. name Lachute), a post-village in the 
 southeast corner of Caddo parish, is a station on the Texas & 
 Pacific R. R. 
 
 Bayou Lacomb, a village in the southern part of St. Tammany 
 parish, on a sti-eam of the same name, is a station on a division of 
 the New Orleans Great Northern R. R,, about 10 miles west of 
 Slidell and '^ miles north of Lake Pontchartrain. It has a money 
 order post office, and is the center of a considerable lumber district. 
 
 Bayou Pierre, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is about 5 miles west of Timon, the nearest railroad 
 station, and 17 miles northwest of Natchitoches, the parish seat.
 
 LOUISIANA 79 
 
 Bayou Sara, one of the principal towns of the parish of West 
 Feliciana, is located in the southern part of the parish on the Mis- 
 sissippi river, the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany running from Baton Rouge to Angola, and the Woodville 
 division of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. It is an old town, 
 having been iirst incorporated in 1842. This act of incorporation 
 was repealed in May, 1847, but the town was again incorporated 
 in 1850. The population is 630. It has a money order postoffiee, 
 express and telegraph offices, and is an important shipping point. 
 Bayou Sara is practically a part of St. F'rancisville, the parish 
 seat, though it maintains a separate corporate existence. Before 
 the war it was a more important town than St. Francisville, but 
 with the advent of the railroads the greater portion of the trade 
 was diverted to the latter place. 
 
 Bayou Scie, a post-hamlet in the western part of Sabine parish, 
 is a station on the Zwolle & Eastern R. R., about 9 miles northwest 
 of Many, the parish seat. 
 
 Baywood, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of East Baton 
 Rouge parish, is situated on the Amite river, about 5 miles east 
 of Pride, the nearest railroad town. 
 
 Bear, a money order and post-hamlet in Beauregard parish, 
 is a station on the Louisiana & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles north 
 of Lake Charles, the pafish seat. 
 
 Bearcreek, a post-hamlet of Bienville parish, is on a creek of the 
 same name and on the main line of the Louisiana & Northwestern 
 R. R., about 10 miles south of Arcadia, the parish seat. 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, one of the most noted gen- 
 erals of the Confederate army, was born in St. Bernard parish. La., 
 May 28, 1818, his ancestors on both sides having been members of 
 distinguished French families. On -July 1, 1834, he entered the 
 IT. S. military academy at West Point and graduated in 1838, 
 standing second in a class of 45. He entered the army as second 
 lieutenant in the 1st artillery, but was soon attached with the same 
 rank to the corps of engineers. He assisted in the construction of 
 Fort Adams, Newport harbor, R. 1., and the defenses of Pensacola, 
 Fla., and in June, 1839, was promoted to first lieutenant. In this 
 capacity he was engaged in the sm-vey of Barataria bay; the repair 
 of Fort Jackson ; was superintending engineer in the construction 
 of Tower Dupre, the repair of the defenses on the eastern passes to 
 New Orleans, and the repairs of Fort McHenry, Md. In the Mex- 
 ican war he won considerable fame as a strategist and engineer, 
 by his construction of the defenses of Tampieo and in the .siege 
 of Vera Cruz, and on Aug. 20, 1847, was brevetted captain "for 
 gallant and meritorious conduct in the battles of Contreras and 
 Churubusco." At the battle of Chapultepec and the capture of the 
 City of Mexico he distinguished himself, being wounded in the 
 storming of the "Causeway battery" and again at the Belen gate. 
 From that time until 1861 he was engaged as captain, corps of 
 engineers, in the construction and repair of various forts and 
 defenses. On Feb. 20, 1861, he resigned his commission in the U. S.
 
 80 LOUISIANA 
 
 service, having just been appointed superintendent of the military 
 academy at "West Point on Jan. 23. He was placed in command of 
 the Confederate works and forces at Charleston. S. C, and it was 
 by his order that the first shot of the great Civil war was fired, at 
 4:30 a. m. ou April 12. 1861. At the first battle of Manassas, July 
 21, 1861, he was practically in command of the Confederate troops, 
 though he was superseded by Gen. J. E. Johnston during the prog- 
 ress of the engagement. At Shiloh. April 6, 1862, after the death 
 of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, Beauregard assumed command 
 and forced the Federal troops back at all points, being master of 
 the field at dark. The arrival of Gen. Buell's army of the Ohio 
 during the night turned the tide of battle the next day, when the 
 Confederates fell back in good order to Corinth, iliss. This place 
 he successfully defended until ilay 28, when he destroyed all liis 
 .stores and again withdrew in good order from the presence of an 
 overwhelming enemy. Ill health then forced him to retire from 
 active service for a time, but he was again placed in command of 
 Charleston, which place he held against all attempts of Du Font's 
 fleet and Hunter's army for nearly two years. In April, 1864, he 
 was ordered to Richmond, where he organized a little army, de- 
 feated Gen. Butler and held the works at Peter.sburg. In Oct., 
 1864, he was assigned to the command of the division of the West, 
 and in December his department was enlarged to include South 
 Carolina and the coast of Georgia. In Feb., 1865, he was relieved 
 by Gen. J. E. Johnston, whom he assisted during the closing days 
 of the struggle and surrendered with him in April, 1865. In 1866 
 he was tendered the chief command of the armies of Roumania, 
 but declined and spent the remainder of his life in civil pursuits, 
 his only military service being that of ad,iutant-general of Louisi- 
 ana. He served as president of two important railroad companies, 
 and died on Feb. 20, 1893, the last survivor of the full generals of 
 the Confederate army. Gen. Beauregard was regarded as having 
 no superior as a military engineer, and his defense of Charleston 
 was one of the most noteworthy events in the history of wars. He 
 was the author of "Maxims of the Art of "War," published at 
 Charleston in 1863, and a "Report of the Defense of Charleston," 
 published at Richmond in 1864. 
 
 Beauregaxd Parish. — This is one of the new parishes formed in 
 the southwestern part of the state from Calcasieu. It is bounded 
 on the north by Vernon, on the east by Allen, and on the south by 
 Calcasieu parishes, and ou the west by Texas. The parish seat is 
 De Ridder, in the northern part, a town of considerable local im- 
 portance and a railroad center. The parish contains about 1,000 
 square miles, much of which is covered by a splendid growth of 
 timber. Agriculture is making excellent progress and the material 
 wealth is rapidly increasing. 
 
 Beauvais, Armand, acting-governor of the State of Louisiana, 
 1829-1830. was a native of the state and a member of an old and 
 honorable Creole family. His political career began with an elec- 
 tion to the office of justice of the peace in the parish of Ponte
 
 LOUISIANA 81 
 
 Coupee in 1810. In 1814 he was elected a member of the lower 
 house of the state legislature and was twice reelected. From 1822 
 to 1830 he was a .member of tlie state senate, of which body he was 
 president at the time of Gov. Derbigny's death in Oct. 1829, when 
 he succeeded to the executive chair, and served until Jan. 14, 1830, 
 at which time he was succeeded by Jacques Dupre. Mr. Beauvais 
 was a candidate for governor in 1830, but was defeated by Andre 
 B. Roman. In 1833 he was again elected to the state senate, to fill 
 a vacancy caused by the resignation of Mr. Cheneveret, and served 
 until the following year, when he retired from public life. 
 
 Beaver, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Evangeline 
 parish, is aboiit 5 miles east of Oakdale, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and in 1910 reported a population of 70. 
 
 Beech, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of "Winn parish, 
 is near the creek of the same name and aboiit 12 miles east of Winn- 
 field, the parish seat. Castor and Flat Creek are the nearest rail- 
 road stations. 
 
 Begg, a post-hamlet in the central part of St. Landry parish, is 
 a .station on the Southern Pacific K. K., 10 miles north of Opelousas, 
 the parish seat. 
 
 Belair, a post-village in the nortliern part of Plaquemines parish, 
 is located on the east bank of the Mississippi river and is the 
 southern terminus of the Louisiana Southern R. R., the construc- 
 tion of which is contemplated to the mouth of the Mississippi river. 
 It is a trading and shipping point of considerable importance, and 
 has a population of 500. 
 
 Belcher, a village in the northeastern part of Caddo parish, is a 
 station ou the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles north of Shreve- 
 port, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, telegraph 
 and express offices, and is a trading point of some importance. 
 
 Bell City, a village in Jeff Davis parish, is a station on the South- 
 ern Pacific R. R., about 20 miles southeast of Lake Charles, the 
 parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, and is one of the 
 important shipping points in that section of the parish. Popula- 
 tion 200. 
 
 Belle Alliance, one of the principal towns of Assumption parish, 
 is located on Bayou Lafourche and the Texas & Pacific R. R., 
 about 8 miles north of Napoleonville, the parish seat, and within 
 3 miles of the northern boundary of the parish. It has a money 
 order postoffice, express and telegraph offices, a large retail trade, 
 and a population of 800. 
 
 Belle Amie, a postoffice of Lafourche parish, is situated on the 
 east bank of the Bayou Lafourche, some 16 miles southeast of Lock- 
 port, which is the most convenient railroad station. 
 
 Bellechasse, J. D. de Goutin, was appointed chief of militia iu 
 1803 by Laussat, who reported as follows: "In the first place I 
 secured a chief for the militia, and I was lucky indeed in laying my 
 hands on an officer who had served for 24 years, who was not per- 
 sonally well disposed towards the Marquis de Casa Calvo, on 
 account of his having been dismissed from active service on un- 
 1—6
 
 82 LOUISIANA 
 
 favorable terms, aud who enjoyed an excellent reputation and much 
 popularity in the country. He is, besides, the owner of considerable 
 property in the vicinity of the city, and his name is Deville de 
 Goutiu Bellechasse. " On Nov. 30, 1803, Bellechasse was placed 
 in command of the militia, with the rank of colonel, and when the 
 province was transferred to the United States a month later he 
 received from Laussat a gift of 45 pounds of powder from the 
 French stores for his personal use in his hunting trips, a pastime 
 of which he was quite fond. When the act of Congress, establish- 
 ing the Territory of Orleans, took effect on Oct. 1, 1804, Col. Belle- 
 chasse was appointed a member of the legislative council, but 
 having been active in calling public meetings to protest against the 
 division of the province, he declined the seat. On July 30, 1805, 
 he was appointed recorder by Gov. Claiborne. The following No- 
 vember his name was included in a list of citizens recommended to 
 the president from which to make appointments to fill the vacancies 
 in the council, and President Jeffei'sou appointed him to fill one of 
 the places. He was active in securing the passage of the resolution 
 of May 26, 1806, dissolving the legislature, because of the veto of 
 certain acts by Gov. Claiborne, and was one of those who two days 
 later signed the explanation in which they said: "The executive 
 power has doubtless an absolute veto with respect to the particular 
 constitution to be applied to this territory; but if by means of 
 his veto his will, aud only his will, is to be our supreme law. let 
 him reign alone and without, disguise." On Sept. 15, 1807, Col. 
 Bellechasse addressed the crowd assembled on the batture, assert- 
 ing in his si^eeeh the right of the people to use the batture as com- 
 mon property, and it was chiefly through his iufluence that the 
 settlement of the question. was referred to the national government. 
 He was a delegate to the first constitutional convention, which met 
 on Nov. i, 1811, and framed the constitution under which the State 
 of Louisiana was admitted into the Union. 
 
 Belle Helene, a village of Ascension parish, is a station on the 
 Yazoo & ^Mississippi Valley R. R., about 6 miles north of Donald- 
 sonville, the parish seat. It has a money order postofiice and a 
 population of 150. 
 
 Bellerose. a village of Assumption parish, is situated on Bayou 
 Lafourche, 7 miles north of Napoleouville, the parish seat, aud 
 about halfway between Belle Alliance and Bin-bank, the nearest 
 railroad stations. It has a money order postofiSce and a population 
 of 500. 
 
 Bellevue, a post-village situated in the eastern part of Bossier 
 parish on Bayou Bodcau, was selected as the first seat of justice 
 of the parish in Feb., 1843, and named Fredonia. In July of the 
 same year the name of Society Hill was adopted, but was shortly 
 afterward changed again to Bellevue. The town was incorporated 
 soon after its foundation, but the work of the council was of a 
 very desultory character. In 1888 an election was held to determine 
 the removal of the seat of justice and some years later it was re- 
 moved to Benton. Within the past few years a railroad has been
 
 LOUISIANA 83 
 
 built throiigli to the town, and it has become a shipping point of 
 some importance. 
 
 Bells Store, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of East 
 Feliciana parish, is about 4 miles soutliAvest of Ethel, the nearest 
 railroad town. 
 
 Bellwood, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is situated on a confluent of the Red river, about 
 6 miles southeast of Ingram, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Belmont, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Sabine parish, is 
 about 5 miles northwest of Beck, the nearest railroad station, and 
 10 miles north of Many, the parish seat. 
 
 Beluche, Captain, a Creole, was a member of Latitte's band of 
 smugglers, who had their headcjuarters at Barataria bay. In the 
 battle of New Orleans on Jan. 8, 1815, in connection with Capt. 
 You, also one of Lafitte's men, he commanded Battery No. 3 and 
 rendered valiant assistance in repelling Col. Rennie's assault on 
 the right of the American line, for which he received honorable 
 mention in Gen. Jackson's report. After the war Capt. Beluche, 
 with the other "pirates" who took part in defending the city 
 against the British, was pardoned by President Madison. He went 
 to Cartagena and subsecjuently became a commodore in the Colom- 
 bian, navy. 
 
 Benham, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of East Carroll 
 parish, is situated on the Mississippi river, about 4 miles above 
 Lake Providence, the parish seat and nearest railroad station. 
 
 Benjamin, Judah Philip, lawyer and statesman, was born on the 
 island of Santa Cruz (or St. Croix), one of the virgin group of the 
 "West Indies, Aug. 11, 1811. His parents were English Jews, who 
 sailed from England in 1811 with the intention of locating in New 
 Orleans, but owing to the hostile attitude of Great Britain toward 
 the United States were obliged to .land at Santa Cruz, and it was 
 during their temporai-y residence on that island that Judah was 
 born. After the war of 1812 the family settled at "Wilmington, 
 N. C. At the age of 14 years the son entered Yale college, where 
 he studied for 3 years, but did not graduate. He then came with 
 his parents to New Orleans, where he studied law and in 1832, 
 shortly after reaching his majority, he was admitted to the bar. 
 Not finding an abundance of clients at first, he engaged in teaching 
 school and in a compilation of a digest of the cases decided by 
 the local courts, chiefly for his personal use, though he later added 
 a digest of the cases in the supreme court and in 1834 published the 
 result of his labors under the title of "A Digest of Reported Deci- 
 sions of the Supreme Court of the Late Territory of Orleans, and of 
 the Supreme Court of Louisiana." This work drew attention to 
 him as an attorney, gave him a successful practice, and in 1840 he 
 became a member of the renowned law firm of Slidell, Benjamin & 
 Conrad. As a member of the Louisiana constitutional convention 
 of 1845 he made himself prominent by his advocacy of a provision 
 requiring the governors of the state to be citizens born in the 
 United States. In 1847 Mr. Benjamin was retained as counsel by
 
 84 LOUISIANA 
 
 the U. S. commission to investigate the Spanish titles under which 
 the early settlers of California claimed their lands. At the close of 
 this investigation he was admitted to practice in the U. S. supreme 
 court and located in Washington, D. C, tliough he still claimed his 
 residence in Louisiana. In 1848 he was one of the presidential 
 electors from that state; was elected to the L^. S. senate in 1852; 
 reelected in 1859, and served until after Louisiana seceded from the 
 Union, when he resigned. He was originally elected to the senate 
 as a "Whig, but became a Democrat on account of the position of 
 the two parties on the question of .slavery. "When the provisional 
 government of the Confederate States was formed in Feb., 1861, 
 Mr. Benjamin was appointed attorney-general, and in the following 
 August he was made secretary of war. A committee of the Con- 
 federate Congress investigated his department and reported his 
 conduct of the office as incompetent, and he resigned, but was 
 immediately appointed secretary of state, in which capacity he won 
 the reputation of being the "brains of the Confederacy." After 
 the war he went to England, landing at Liverpool in Sept., 1865. 
 He decided to make England his home and at once set to work 
 studying English law. On Jan. 13, 1866, he became a student at 
 Lincoln's inn, Loudon, and a few months later was admitted to 
 the bar, being then 55 years of age. Clients came slowly at first 
 and he added to his meager income b.y writing for the newspapers 
 and magazines. In 1867 he published "A Treatise on the Law of 
 Sale of Personal Property," which brought him into prominence, 
 the work being accepted as an authority on this subject through- 
 out England. His practice now increased, he gave up his news- 
 paper and magazine work, and in 1872 he was made queen's counsel. 
 His practice was now confined to liriefs on appeal, and he appeared 
 only before the house of lords and the pri\y council. On June 30, 
 1883, he withdrew from practice on account of failing health and 
 joined his wife and daughter in Paris, France, where he died on 
 May S, 1884. The legislatiire of Louisiana on Oct. 12, 1864, adopted 
 a resolution exempting j\Ir. Benjamin, along with others, from 
 amnesty, and this action doubtless wielded an influence in driving 
 him into exile. His meraorj' is still revered in Louisiana as an hon- 
 est, fearless and able man. 
 
 Benson, a vllage in the southern part of De Soto parish, is a 
 station on the Kansas City & Southern R. R., about 10 miles south 
 of Mansfield, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 telegraph and express service, and is the trading center for a con- 
 siderable district. The population is 200. 
 
 Bentley, a post-village in the eastern part of Grant parish, is 
 located at the junction of the Louisiana & Arkansas and Big Creek 
 railroads, about 12 miles east of Colfax, the parish seat. 
 
 Benton, the capital of Bossier parish, is located in the western 
 part of the parish on the line of the St. Louis Southwestern R. R., 
 near the Red river, and about 12 miles north of Shreveport. It 
 was selected as the pari.sh seat by an election in Sept., 1888, but 
 through some fault in the law of 1882 authorizing the removal
 
 LOUISIANA 85 
 
 from Bellevne, the latter place continued to hold the courthouse 
 for some years after the election. The tirst numljer of the "Bossier 
 Times," the first newspaper, Avas issued on Sept. 17, 1857, by- 
 Mitchell & Lowry. Benton was incorporated soon after it became 
 the parish seat and in 1910 had a population of 318. The discovery 
 of natural gas near the towu since that census was taken has added 
 to the importance of Benton and the present population is much 
 larger. The town has a bank, a money order postoffice, telegraph 
 and express offices, several good mercantile houses, good schools 
 and churches, and does a considerable business in the manufacture 
 and shipment of lumber, etc. 
 
 Bermuda, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Natchitoches par- 
 ish, is situated on the Red river, about 3 miles east of Brevelle, the 
 nearest railroad station and 10 miles southeast of Natchitoches, the 
 parish seat. It has a population of 200. 
 
 Bermudez, Edward E., chief .justice of the Louisiana Supreme 
 Court from 1881 to 1892, was born iu the city of New Orleans, 
 Jan. 19, 1832, a son of Joacliim and Emma (Troxler) Bermudez, 
 the former of Spanisli and the latter of French and German descent. 
 He was educated at Boyer's academy and Spring Hill college, 
 ]Moliile, Ala., wliere he graduated with honors in May, 1851, after 
 which he studied law iu the office of Judge Monroe, of Kentucky, 
 and in the fall of 1851 was admitted to the bar. He then completed 
 the course in tlie law department of the University of Louisiana, 
 was admitted to practice iu the Louisiana supreme court in 1853, 
 and shortly afterward in the supreme court of the United States. 
 In 1861 he was a delegate to the state convention that passed the 
 ordinance of secession, and was one of the first citizens of the state 
 to offer his services as a soldier to uphold the cause of the Con- 
 federacy, entering the army as a lieutenant in the 1st Louisiana 
 infantry. He became judge advocate of the brigade; served as 
 adjutant, provost-marshal-general, and post commandant at Mobile, 
 and after the cessation of hostilities held the position of assistant 
 city attorney of New Orleans until removed by Gen. Sheridan. His 
 elevation to the chief justicesliip in 1881 gave universal satisfaction, 
 both to the members of tlie Imr and the general piiblic. A promi- 
 nent Louisiana lawyer said of him: "He is profoimdly versed in 
 civil law. To say that he is the best civilian of Louisiana would be 
 offensive to some ; to say that he is one of the best, may not be 
 doing him justice. We will therefore make no comparison and will 
 simply say that he is a great civilian, and would be considered so 
 iu any country where the civil law is extensively studied." In 1889 
 Judge Bermudez visited Paris and was honored with a seat, by the 
 president, on the bench of the court of cessation, and permitted to 
 assist at a consultation of the judges after hearing the evidence 
 and arguments in a case. He was also honored in the same way by 
 the court of assizes. In 1892 he was succeeded by ex-Gov. Francis 
 T. Nicholls, as chief justice. 
 
 Bernice, a village in the southwestern part of Union parish, is 
 a station on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R., about 15 miles
 
 86 LOUISIANA 
 
 west of Farmcrville, the parish seat. It has a mouey order post- 
 office, an express office, telephone and telegraph facilities, and a 
 population of 781. 
 
 Berry, a post-hamlet in the extreme southwestern part of Cam- 
 eron parish, is about 6 miles from the Sabine river. 4 miles from 
 the CtuU' of Jlexico. Sabine. Tex., is the nearest railroad town. 
 
 Bertie, a village in the eastern part of Assumption parish, is sit- 
 uated on the Bayou Lafourche, about 4 miles southeast of Napol- 
 eonville. the parish seat, and a sliort distance west of the Southern 
 Pacific R. E. It has a monev order postoffice, and a population 
 of 175. 
 
 Bertrandville, a post-village of Plaquemines parish, is a station 
 on the Louisiana Southern R. R., 4 miles northwest of Belair. 
 
 Berwick, a town in the eastern part of St. Jlary parish, is on the 
 Southern Pacific R. R., about 2 miles west of Jlorgan City, the 
 nearest banking town. It has a money order postoffice. telegraph 
 station and express office, and is a trading center for a rich farming 
 district. Its population is 2,183. 
 
 Bethany, a village near the western boundary of Caddo parish, 
 is about 6 miles southwest of Greenwood, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 18 miles southwest of Shreveport, the parish seat. It 
 has a mouey order postoffice and a population of 150. 
 
 Bethlehem, a post-village in the southwestern part of Claiborne 
 parish, is tlie eastern terminus of tlie Blackman & Dorcheat, or the 
 Dorcheat Valley R. R.. and is about 8 miles southwest of Homer, 
 the parish seat. 
 
 Betty, a post-hamlet in the 'southeastern part of Franklin parish, 
 is sitiiated on Bayou Macon, about 6 miles east of Gilbert, the near- 
 est railroad towna. 
 
 Bienville, an incorporated town in the central part of Bienville 
 parish, is a station on the Louisiana & Northwest R. R. It has a 
 }uoney order postoffice and a po])ulation of 60fi. 
 
 Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de, souutimes called 
 "The Father of Louisiana," was born at Montreal. Canada, Feb. 
 24, 1680, a son of Charles and Catherine (Primot) Le Moyne, and 
 one of a family of fourteen children, viz: Charles, Jr.. Sieur de Lon- 
 gueil; Jaccfiies, Sieur de Ste. Helene; Pierre, Sieur d 'Iberville; Paul, 
 Sieur de ]\Iaricourt ; Francois. Sieur de Bienville I : Joseph, Sieur 
 de Seriguy; Louis, Sieur de Chateauguay I; Jean Baptiste, Sieur 
 de Bienville II; Antoine. Sieur de Chateauguay II: Francois Marie, 
 Sieur de Sauvolle ; Catherine Jeanne, jMarie Anne, Gabriel, and a 
 child that died on the day of its birth. The father, Sieur de 
 Longueil, Sr., was one of the French pioneers in Canada and lived 
 for some time among the Iluron Indians. His sons all grew under 
 the hardy influences of the frontier, and all in later life filled im- 
 portant positions in the French army or navy. Jean Baptiste 
 (Bienville) entered the French navy while still a mere boy, and 
 while serving on the ship Pelican was severely wounded in an action 
 otf the coast of New England. At the close of the war he went to 
 France with his brother Pierre (d 'Iberville), and when the latter
 
 LOUISIANA 87 
 
 was chosen to command the expedition sent out by Lonis XIV 
 to found a colony in Louisiana, Bienville accompanied him. When 
 Iberville returned to France in May, 1699, Bienville was appointed 
 "king's lieutenant" and made second in command to Sauvolle, who 
 was left in charge of the colony. In this capacity Bienville con- 
 ducted excursions to various tribes of Indians and explored the 
 streams in the vicinity of Biloxi, where the colony had been planted. 
 It was while returning from one of these expeditions that he met 
 and turned back a company of Englishmen who were seeking to 
 establish a settlement on the Mississippi river. (See English Turn.) 
 In 1700 he was in command of the fort erected by his brother on 
 the jMississippi river, and in Jan., 1702, pursuant to orders from the 
 king, he founded a colony at Mobile, leaving 20 soldiers under 
 Boisbriant at Biloxi. At Mobile he met his brothers, Serigny and 
 Chateauguay and Nicolas de la Salle, who was to serve as intendant 
 or eommissaire of the new colony. About the middle of January, 
 Bienville and Serigny went up the river some 18 leagues, where 
 they began the erection of a fort and storehouse. 
 
 Bienville now had great difficulty in providing substinenee and in 
 keeping down dissensions. La Salle, the intendant, and de la Vente, 
 the vicar-general, being especially active in intrigues against Bien- 
 ville and his two brothers, finally denouncing them to the French 
 ministry. Early in Feb., 1708, news came that Bienville had been 
 removed and De Muys appointed to succeed him, but the latter had 
 died at Havana while en route to Mobile. Diron d'Artaguette, who 
 had been appointed to succeed La Salle as intendant, arrived 
 on Feb. 10, with instructions to investigate the charges against 
 Bienville, and also bore a warrant for his arrest in ease he was found 
 guilty. Bienville wanted to go to France and face the charges, 
 but the captain of the Renommee would not take him, as he Avas 
 still governor. After a thorough investigation, d'Artaguette sub- 
 mitted a report completely exonerating Bienville. When the grant 
 to Crozat was made, Sept. 14, 1712, Bienville was named as "com- 
 mander of the Mississippi and its tributaries," or lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor, and was second in command to Cadillac, the governor of 
 Louisiana appointed by Crozat. Cadillac soon grew jealous of Bien- 
 ville's popularity and sent him on an expedition against the Natchez 
 Indians, who had murdered some Frenchmen near their village 
 (now Natchez, Miss.). He built Fort Rosalie (q. v.), left it in charge 
 of an officer named Pailloux, and returned to Mobile to iind that 
 Cadillac had been removed and L'Epinay appointed to succeed him. 
 The new governor had not arrived, however, and by virtue of his 
 rank of lieutenant-governor Bienville assumed control of affairs, 
 which caused great rejoicing among the people. On March 9, 1717, 
 L'Epinay arrived with three ships bearing three companies of in- 
 fantry and 50 colonists. The new governor brought with him the 
 Cross of St. Louis, which the king bestowed upon Bienville as a 
 special reward for his long and efficient services in upholding the 
 French ascendency on the ilississippi. L'Epinay also brought to 
 Bienville a grant of title to Horn island, but Bienville had expected
 
 88 LOUISIAXA 
 
 more. While he appreciated the honoi- conferred iipou him by the 
 brilliant Cross of St. Lonis. he wanted to be governor of the colony- 
 he had labored so persistently to place upon firm foundation. The 
 people, too, -were disappointed, and L'Epinay found himself con- 
 fronted on every hand by insubordination. In Aug., 1717, Crozat 
 surrendered his charter, L'Epinay returned to France, and again 
 Bienville was left in control. Crozat was succeeded by the Western 
 company and on Feb. 9, 1718, three ships sent out by that company 
 arrived at ^Mobile with troops, supplies, and Bienville's commission 
 as commandant-general, or governor. About the time that Crozat 
 gave up his grant a hurricane choked up the harbor at Mobile 
 with sand, making it a difficult matter for vessels to land, and the 
 headquarters of the colony were taken back to Biloxi. One of the 
 first official acts of Bienville upon becoming governor was to es- 
 tablish a colony on the Mississippi river, with a view to making 
 it the seat of government. He selected the site where the city oi 
 New Orleans now stands, set 50 men to work at clearing the ground, 
 and prepared to move thither, but the superior council interposed 
 an objection. Thus matters stood imtil in April, 1722, when Bien- 
 ville called attention to the disadvantages of New Biloxi, ships 
 being compelled to imload at Ship island, which made it necessary 
 to reliandle all freight, whereas, at New Orleans, ships could come 
 directly up the river to the landing without having to transfer 
 their cargoes. The council now consented to Bienville's plan, and 
 in August he took up his official residence there. In the meantime, 
 his brother Serigny arrived^April 19, 1719 — with a French man- 
 of-war, bringing the news of the declaration of Avar between France 
 and Spain, and bearing an order for Bienville to go at once and 
 capture the Spanish post at Peusacola. In May he sailed into 
 Pensacola bay with three war vessels and a sloop carrying 230 men, 
 and before this force the Spanish surrendered without resistance. 
 The place was afterward recaptured by the Spanish, but Avas re- 
 taken by Bienville, who also sent detachments to guard the frontier 
 of upper Louisiana from an invasion from Mexico. 
 
 In Jan., 1724, as the result of a conspiracy against him, Bienville 
 was ordered to France to answer accusations, and Boisbriant Avas 
 sent doAvn from Fort Chartres to administer the aft'airs of the colony 
 iintil the arrival of Go\-. Peiuer, wlio assumed the duties of th-3 
 office in Oct., 1726. BienA'ille did not succeed in clearing himself 
 of the charges against him for some time, but in 1733 he Avas rein- 
 stated as governor and commandant-general, and returned to New 
 Orleans. He continued as governor for about ten years, during 
 Avhieh time he was actiA'e in prosecuting Avars against the Indians 
 and in promoting the peace and prosperity of the colony. He Avas 
 unsuccessful in an expedition against the ChickasaAvs, was super- 
 seded in 1743 liy the Marquis de Vaiidreuil and left Louisiana, ncA^er 
 to return. Ilis last public serA'ice Avas in connection Avith the trans- 
 fer of Louisiana from France to Spain under the treaty of Nov., 
 1762, Avhen he appeared Avith Jean ^lilhet l)efore the Duke of Choi- 
 seul to urge an arrangement that would not separate the colonists
 
 LOUISIANA 89 
 
 from the government of France. Upon being informed that it was 
 impossible to grant the petition, it is said that Bienville, then nearly 
 85 years old, Ijurst into tears, fell npou his knees and piteously 
 begged the duke "for a reconsideration of the decree against the 
 colony," but in vain. He died in Paris on Marcli 7, 1768, and was 
 bnried with military honors in the cemetery of Montmartre. 
 
 Bienville Parish was created out of the original territory of Clai- 
 borne parish in 1848, during the administration of Gov. Isaac John- 
 son, and named in honor of Bienville, "The father of Louisiana." 
 The parish has an area of 832 square miles, is located in the north- 
 western part of the state, and its geographical outline is extremely 
 irregular. On the north it is bounded by Webster, Claiborne and 
 Lincoln parislies ; on the east by Lincoln and Jackson parishes ; on 
 the south by Winn, Natchitoches and Red River parishes, and on 
 the west by Red River, Bossier and Webster parishes. Bienville 
 is one of the "good upland" parishes because most of its formation 
 is good upland, of red sandy clays and some rich bottom lands. 
 The soil is fertile and productive, and is drained by Lake Bistineau 
 on the west, by Bayous Blacklake and Saline in the central part, by 
 the Dugdemona river and its tributaries along the eastern boun- 
 dary, all of Avhicli tlow south. The water supply is abundant, as 
 there are many springs and creeks with their numerous branches. 
 The real settlement of the parish goes back to the early '30s, when 
 Irish immigrant families from the south Atlantic states began to 
 settle in this part of the country. Sparta was selected as the parish 
 seat in 1849, but the courthouse was not built until 1854. In 1892 
 the seat of justice was changed to Arcadia. The oldest parish 
 records that are preserved date back to 1850. Mount Lebanon is 
 an old college town, incorporated in 1854. The university there 
 was established by the Louisiana Baptist society. There are a 
 number of educational institutions in the parish, among which are 
 the Arcadia Llale and Female college, and the Gibsland Collegiate 
 institute of the IMethodist Episcopal church. South. Bienville lias 
 some deposits of iron ore and abounds in salt licks, in addition to 
 which there are large deposits of fire-clay, potter's clay, marl and 
 green sand. Cotton is the chief product, though corn, oats, hay, 
 sorghum and garden vegetables are all paying crops. Large areas 
 are devoted to diversified farming, and as the timber is cut live 
 stock is becoming a more important industry. Post oak and short 
 leaf pine are prevailing timber, mingled with other varieties of 
 oak and hickory, as well as many soft wood trees. Up to a few 
 years ago there still remained 150,000 acres of virgin forest. The 
 fruits and nuts of this northern parish differ some from the south- 
 ern parishes, those most profitably grown are apples, pears, peaches, 
 plums, pecans, quinces, grapes and figs. Very good transportation 
 and shipping facilities are afforded by the Vicksburg, Shreveport 
 & Pacific R. R., which crosses the northern part of the parish, nearly 
 parallel to the northern boundary; the Louisiana & Northwest 
 R. R., which runs south from Gibsland through the center of the 
 parish, connecting on the north with the Cotton Belt line and on
 
 90 LOUISIANA 
 
 the south with the Texas & Pacific R. R.. and the Louisiana Railway 
 & Navigation company. The Louisiana & Ai-kansas R. R. angles 
 from northwest to southeast across the western part of the parish, 
 and is nearly paralleled farther west by the Shreveport, Alexandria 
 & Southwestern R. R,, while the Noi-thern Louisiana & Gulf R. R. 
 taps the extreme southeastern corner. An oiitlet is thus furnished 
 in every direction to the markets of north, west and south. Arcadia, 
 situated in the northeastern part of the parish on the Vicksbi;rg, 
 Shreveport & Pacifie R. R.. is the parish seat. Other towns of 
 importance are Alberta, Bienville, Gibsland, !Mount Lebanon, Ring- 
 gold, Armistead, Sparta, Taylor and Liberty Hill. The following 
 data concerning the farms, manufactures and population of the 
 parish are taken from the U. S. census for 1900: Number of farms, 
 2,973 : acreage, 294,980 ; acres under cultivation, 122,661 ; value of 
 land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $2,097,324; value of 
 farm buildings, $1,005.589 ; value of live stock, $777.387 : total value 
 of all crops, $1,469,001. 
 
 Bigbend (R. R. name Cordes), a post -village in the eastern part 
 of Avoyelles parish, is a station on the line of tlie Louisiana Rail- 
 way & Navigation company, about 15 miles southeast of Marks- 
 ville. the parish seat. 
 
 Bigcane, a post-village in tlie northeastern part of St. Landry 
 parish, situated on Bayou Rouge, a confluent of the Atchafalaya 
 river, about 5 miles east of ]\Iorrow, the nearest railroad station. 
 It has a money order postoffice. 
 
 Bills of Exchange. — (See Notes.) 
 
 Biloxi. — This was the name of the first French establishment in 
 Louisiana, and was so called by Iberville for the small tribe of In- 
 dians which then inliabited the region bordering on the bay of that 
 name. The word Biloxi was somewhat loosely applied by the early 
 French chroniclers, and was made to include both Old and New 
 Biloxi, as well as the civil and military district of that name, estab- 
 lished in 1723. (For an account of Iberville's first establishment, 
 see Iberville, Sauvole, Bienville, Fort Jlaurepas, etc.) Sauvole dates 
 his interesting "Journal Historique." "au Fort du Biloxi." The 
 headquarters of -the infant colony only remained at Biloxi until the 
 close of 1701, when Bienville removed to the ilobile, having a small 
 garrison and a few settlers at the old fort, and the principal estab- 
 lishment was for many years at Dauphine island. During the 
 years succeeding the formation of the Western company, hundreds 
 of settlers for the concessions, as well as a large number of soldiers 
 for the various posts and many mechanics and other workmen, were 
 transported to Louisiana. The accommodations on Dauphine island 
 were inadequate to care for the many new ai-rivals, and in Feb., 
 1718. Bienville chose a site for his new capital 30 leagues from the 
 mouth of the ]\Iississippi, where New Orleans now stands, which 
 could also be reached by way of Lake Pontchartrain and Bayou St. 
 John. There was, however, dissension among the members of the 
 superior council or directorate of the company, Legac and others 
 being opposed to any establishment away from the sea coast. It
 
 LOUISIANA 91 
 
 should 1)P kept in mind by the reader that prior to 1720-21, prac- 
 tically all the eolouists were being housed, cared for and fed at the 
 expense of the company, and there was no serious effort made to 
 work the various concessions or grants, prior to 1720. Enormous 
 quantities of provisions and supplies were being constantly sent 
 from France to supply the wants of the colonists and almost noth- 
 ing was being done in the way of agriculture. Indeed, it was gen- 
 erally believed that the coast region east and west of Biloxi was 
 barren and sterile and would not repay tillage. Such was the gen- 
 eral condition of affairs when steps were taken to remove the head- 
 quarters of tlie colony in 1719 to Old Biloxi, so-called because of 
 Iberville's old fort there, and also to distinguish it from the later 
 establishment at New Biloxi, one league distant on the west side of 
 the bay, on the point of land opposite Deer island. Here, in Nov., 
 1719, according to Dumont, cabins were built for the soldiers, dwel- 
 lings for the commandant and officers, magazines, and even a cis- 
 tern, and as soon as preparations were sufficiently advanced, every- 
 body, and everything was transported thither from Dauphine island. 
 Headquarters only remained at Old Biloxi for a short period. Bien- 
 ville had caused a new fort to be built at New Biloxi, which was 
 named Fort Louis, in honor of the king. Moreover, an accidental 
 fire destroyed the fox't at Old Biloxi, as well as some of the cabins. 
 La Hai'pe states in his Journal that "on the 9th of September 
 (1721) M. de Bienville left Old Biloxi, to go to Port Louis (New 
 Biloxi, where the engineers had prepared accommodations for him 
 in an old warehouse." Many of the colonists narrowly escaped 
 death by famine at this time, as the same historian states that, on 
 the 14th, "provisions having failed, the troops were sent to the 
 Pearl river and to the Pascagoulas, to live among the Indians." 
 This famine is assigned by Dumont as one of the reasons for trans- 
 ferring the colony from Old to New Biloxi. So great was the pre- 
 vailing want "that the commandant was obliged to send the sol- 
 diers, workmen, and even officei-s, to the nearest Indians of the 
 country, that of the Biloxis and Pascagoulas, who received them 
 Avith great pleasure, and supported them quite well, not indeed with 
 bread, but with good hominy and sagamity, boiled with good store 
 of meat or 1iear oil. As for the concessioners, each remained at his 
 place, living not over well, being brought down to beans and peas 
 in no great quantity. To increase the dilemma, there arrived at 
 this juncture a vessel loaded with negroes, who were distributed to 
 such as could support them. At last the famine was so severe that 
 a great number died, some from eating herbs they did not know, 
 and which, instead of prolonging life, produced death; others from 
 eating oysters, which they went and gathered on the seashore. 
 Most of those found dead by the heaps of shells were Germans. At 
 last in the height of the scourge came the Venus, loaded exclusively 
 Avitli provisions, and followed immediately by two other vessels. 
 Meanwhile, in April, 1721, the engineer Pauger Avas sent by Bien- 
 A'ille to the mouth of the Mississippi to sound the passes. He re- 
 ported that he had found 12 feet of water on the bar and urged
 
 92 LOUISIANA 
 
 Bienville to use his influence Avitli the company to have the fort at 
 Biloxi abandoned, and to fix the headquarters and principal set- 
 tlement at New Orleans. This desirable end was finally accom- 
 plished in 1722, though thousands of colonists down to 1732 made 
 their first landing on the soil of Louisiana at Biloxi, and the fine 
 harbor of Ship island was used by French ships for manj^ j'ears 
 longer. 
 
 Biloxis. — (See Indians.) 
 
 Biologic Station. — (See Gulf Biologic Station.) 
 
 Bird Day. — (See Game Laws.) 
 
 Blackburn, a post-hamlet in the western part of Claiborne parish, 
 is about 5 miles west of Camp, the nearest nailroad station, and 9 
 miles northwest of Homer, the parish seat. 
 
 Blackburn, William Jasper, member of Congress, Avas born in 
 Arkansas, July 24. 1820: was educated in the public schools: learned 
 the printing trade, and established the Homer Iliad, at Homer, La. 
 He was so strong in his attacks against the slavery question that 
 his office was twice mobbed. In 1818 he was sent as a delegate to 
 the state constitutional convention, and was elected a representa- 
 tive from Louisiana to the 40th Congress, as a Republican, serving 
 from July 18, 1868, to March 3, 1869. 
 
 Black Code. — -The negro popiilation became an important element 
 iu tlie community cpiite early in tlie history of the colony. A few 
 Africans were brought over during the Crozat regime, and when, 
 in 1717, the "Western Company was chartered to manage the alfairs 
 of the colony, one of the conditions imposed upon it was the im- 
 portation of 3,000 slaves for service on the various plantations. 
 African slaves had become numerous enough in 1721 to warrant 
 the enactment of special legislation for their management and con- 
 trol. By direction of the company, in March, 1724, Bienville there- 
 fore promulgated a Black Code, the essential provisions of which 
 remained in force until 1803, and many of which were embodied in 
 the later American Black Code. Says Gayarre: "Its first and third 
 articles were, it must be confessed, strangely irrelevant to the 
 matter in consideration. Thus, the first declared that the Jews 
 were forever expelled from the colony; and the third, that the 
 Eoman Catholic religion was the only religious creed which would 
 be tolerated iu Louisiana. By what concatenation of causes or of 
 ideas, these provisions concerning the supremacy of the Roman 
 Catholic religion and the expulsion of the Jews came to be inserted 
 into the Black Code, it is diificult to imagine." 
 
 Art. 1. Decrees the expubsiou of the Jews from the colony. 
 
 Art. 2. IMakes it imperative on masters to impart religious in- 
 struction to their slaves. 
 
 Art. 3. Permits the exercises of the Roman Catholic creed only. 
 Every other mode of worship is prohibited. 
 
 Art. 4. Negroes placed \mder a direction or supervision of any 
 other person than a Catholic, are liable to confiseatiou. 
 
 Art. 5. Sundays and holy days are to be strictly observed. All 
 negroes found at work on these days are to be confiscated.
 
 LOUISIANA 93 
 
 Art. 6. We forbid our white subjects, of both sexes, to marry 
 with the blacks, under the penalty of being fined and subjected to 
 some other arbitrary punishment. We forbid all curates, priests, 
 or missionaries of oiu- secular or regular clergy, and even our chap- 
 lains in our navy, to sanction such marriages. We also forbid all 
 our white subjects, and even the manumitted or free-born blacks, 
 to live in a state of concubinage with slaves. Should there be 
 any issue from this kind of intercourse, it is our will that the per- 
 son so offending, and the master of the slave, should pay each a 
 fine of 300 livres. Should said issue be the result of the concu- 
 binage of the master with his slave, said master shall not only 
 pay the fine, but be deprived of the slave, and of the children, who 
 shall be adjudged to the hospital of the locality, and said slaves 
 shall be forever incapable of being set free. But, should this ilUcit 
 intercourse have existed between a free black and his slave, when 
 said free black had no legitimate wife, and should said black marry 
 said slave according to the forms prescribed by the church, said 
 slave shall be thereby set free, and the children shall also become 
 free and legitimate ; and in such a case, there shall be no application 
 of the penalties mentioned in the present article. 
 
 Art. 7. The ceremonies and forms prescribed by the ordinance 
 of Blois, and by the edict of 1639, for marriages, shall be observed 
 both with regard to free persons and to slaves. But the consent of 
 the father and mother of the slave is not necessary; that of the 
 master shall be the only one required. 
 
 Art. 8. We forbid all curates to proceed to effect marriages 
 between slaves without proof of the consent of their masters; and 
 we also forbid all masters to force their slaves into any marriage 
 against their will. 
 
 Art. 9. Children, issued from the marriage of slaves, shall fol- 
 low the condition of their parents, and shall belong to the master 
 of the wife and not of the husband, if the husband and wife have 
 different masters. 
 
 Art. 10. If the husband be a slave, and the wife a free woman, 
 it is our will that their children, of whatever sex they may be, shall 
 share the condition of their mother, and be as free as she, notwith- 
 standing the servitude of their father; and if the father be free and 
 the mother a slave, the children shall all be slaves. 
 
 Art. 11. Masters shall have their Christian slaves buried in con- 
 secrated ground. 
 
 Art. 12. We forbid slaves to carry offensive weapons or heavy 
 sticks, under penalty of being whipped, and of having said weap- 
 ons confiscated for the benefit of the person seizing the same. An 
 exception is made in favor of those slaves who are sent a hunting 
 or a shooting by their masters, and who carry with them a written 
 permission to that effect, or are designated by some known mark 
 or badge. 
 
 Art. 13. We forbid slaves belonging to different masters to 
 gather in crowds either by day or by night, under the pretext of a 
 wedding, or for any other cause, either at the dwelling or on the
 
 94 LOUISIANA 
 
 grouuds of oue of their masters, or elsewhere, aud much less on the 
 highways or in secluded places, under the penalty of corporal pun- 
 ishment, which shall not be less than the whip. In case of frecjuent 
 otfenses of the kind, the offenders shall be branded with the mark 
 of the flower de luce, and should there be. aggravating circum- 
 stances, capital punishment may be applied, at the discretion of 
 our judges. We command all our .subjects, be they officers or not, 
 to seize all such offenders, to arrest and conduct them to prison, 
 although there should be no judgment against them. 
 
 Art. 14. ^Masters who shall be convicted of having permitted or 
 tolerated such gatherings as aforesaid, composed of other slaves 
 than their own, shall be sentenced individually, to indemnify their 
 neighbors for the damage occasioned by said gatherings, and to 
 pay, for the first time, a fine of 30 livres, and double that sum on 
 the repetition of the ofi'ense. 
 
 Art. 15. We forbid negroes to sell any commodities, provisions, 
 or produce of any kind, without the written permission of their 
 masters, or without w^earing their known marks or badges, and 
 any persons purchasing anything from negroes in violation of this 
 article, shall be sentenced to pay a fine of 1,500 livres. 
 
 Art. 16, 17, 18 and 19. Provide at length for the clothing of 
 slaves and for their subsistence. 
 
 Art. 20. Slaves who shall not be properly fed, clad, and provided 
 for by their masters, may give information thereof to the attorney- 
 general or the superior council, or to all the other officers of jus- 
 tice of an inferior jurisdiction, and may put the written exposition 
 of their wrongs into their hands; upon which information, and 
 even ex-officio, should the iuformatiou come from auotlier ciuarter, 
 the attorney-general shall prosecute said masters without charging 
 any costs to the complainants. It is our will that this regulation be 
 observed in all accusations for crimes or barbarous and inhuman 
 treatment l)rought by slaves against their masters. 
 
 Art. 21. Slaves who are disabled from working, either by old 
 age, disease, or otherwise, be the disease incurable or not, shall be 
 fed and provided for by their masters,- and in ease they should have 
 been abandoned by said masters, said slaves shall be adjudged to 
 the nearest hospital, to which said masters shall be obliged to pay 
 eight cents a day for the food and maintenance of each one of these 
 slaves: and for the payment of this sum, said hospital shall have a 
 lieu on the plantation of the master. 
 
 Art. 22. We declare tliat slaves can have no right to any kind of 
 property, and that all they acciuire either by their own industry, 
 or by the liberality of others, or by any other means or title what- 
 ever, shall be the full property of their masters ; and the children 
 of said slaves, their fathers and mothers, their kindred or other 
 relations, either free or .slaves, shall have no pretentions or claims 
 tliereto, eitlier through testamentary dispositions or donations 
 inter vivos : which dispositions and donations we declare null and 
 void, and also wliatever promises they maj' have made, or whatever 
 obligations they may have subscribed to, as having been entered
 
 LOUISIANA 95 
 
 into by persons incapable of disposing of any thing, and of par- 
 ticipating to any contract. 
 
 Art. 23. Masters shall be responsible for what their slaves have 
 done by their command, and also for what transactions they have 
 permitted their slaves to do in their shops, in the particular line of 
 commerce with which they are intrusted ; and in case said slaves 
 should have acted without the order or authorization of their mas- 
 ters, said masters shall be responsible only for so much as has 
 turned to their profit; and if said masters have not profited by the 
 doing or transaction of their slaves, the peculiura which the masters 
 have permitted the slaves to own, shall be subjected to all claims 
 against said slaves, after deduction made by the masters of what 
 may be due to them ; and if said peculium should consist, in whole 
 or in part, of merchandises in which the slaves had permission to 
 traffic, the masters shall only come in for their share in common 
 with the other creditors. 
 
 Art. 24. Slaves shall be incapable of all public functions, and of 
 being constituted agents for any other person than their own mas- 
 ters, with powers to manage or conduct any kind of trade ; nor can 
 they serve as arbitrators or experts; nor shall they be called to 
 give their testimony either in civil or in criminal cases, except 
 when it shall be a matter of necessity, and only in default of white 
 people ; but in no ease shall they be permitted to serve as witnesses 
 either for or against their masters. 
 
 Art. 25. Slaves shall never be parties to civil suits, either as plain- 
 tiffs or defendants, nor shall they be allowed to appear as com- 
 plainants in criminal cases, but their masters shall have the right to 
 act for them in civil matters, and in criminal ones, t(5 demand pun- 
 ishment and reparation for such outrages and excesses as their 
 slaves may have suffered from. 
 
 Art. 26. Slaves may be prosecuted criminally, without their mas- 
 ters being made parties to the trial, except they should be indicted 
 as accomplices ; and said slaves shall be tried, at first, by the judges 
 of ordinary jurisdiction, if there be any, and on appeal, by the 
 superior council, with the same rules, formalties, and proceedings 
 observed for free persons, save the exceptions mentioned hereafter. 
 
 Art. 27. The slave who, having struck his master, his mistress, 
 or the husband of his mistress, or their children, shall have pro- 
 duced a bruise, or the shedding of blood in the face, shall suffer 
 capital punishment. 
 
 Art. 28. With regard to outrages or acts of violence committed 
 l)y slaves against free persons, it is our will that they be punished 
 with severity, and even with death, should the case require it. 
 
 Art. 29. Thefts of importance, and even the stealing of horses, 
 mares, mi;les, oxen or cows, when executed by slaves or manumit- 
 ted persons, shall make the offender liable to corporal, and even 
 capital punishment, according to the circumstances of the case. 
 
 Art. 30. The stealing of sheep, goats, hogs, poultry, grain, fod- 
 der, peas, beans, or other vegetables, produce, or provisions, when 
 committed by slaves, shall be punished according to the circum-
 
 96 LOUISIANA 
 
 stances of the case ; and the judges may sentence them, if necessary, 
 to be wliipped by the public executioner, and branded with the 
 mark of the flower de luce. 
 
 Art. 31. In cases of thefts committed or damages done by their 
 slaves, ma.sters, besides the corporal punishment inflicted on their 
 slaves, shall be bound to make amends for the injuries resulting 
 from the acts of said slaves, unless they prefer abandoning them to 
 the sufferer. They shall be bound to make this choice in three days 
 from the time of the conviction of the negroes; if not, this privi- 
 lege shall be forever forfeited. 
 
 Art. 32. The runaway slave, who shall continue to be so for one 
 month from the day of his being denounced to the officers of jus- 
 tice, shall have his ears cut off, and shall be branded \dth the 
 flower de luce on the shoulder; and on the second offense of the 
 same nature, persisted in during one month from the day of his 
 being denounced, he shall be hamstrung, and be marked with the 
 flower de luce on the other shoulder. In the third offense, he shall 
 suffer death. 
 
 Art. 33. Slaves Avho shall have made themselves liable to the pen- 
 alty of the whip, the flower de luce brand, and ear cutting, shall be 
 tried, in the last resort, by the ordinary judges of the inferior courts, 
 and shall undergo the sentence passed upon them without there 
 being an appeal to the superior council, in confirmation or reversal 
 of judgment, notwithstanding the article 26th of the present code, 
 which shall be applicable only to those judgments in which the slave 
 convicted is sentenced to be hamstrung or to suffer death. 
 
 Art. 34. Freed or free-born negroes, who shall have afforded 
 refuge in their houses to fugitive slaves, shall be sentenced to pay 
 to the masters of said slaves, the sum of 30 livres a day for every 
 day during which they shall have concealed said fugitives ; and all 
 other free persons, guilty of the same offense, shall pay a fine of 
 10 livres a day as aforesaid: and should the freed or free-born 
 negroes not be able to pay the fine herein specified, they shall be 
 reduced to the condition of slaves, and he sold as such. Should the 
 price of the sale exceed the sum mentioned in the judgment, the 
 surplus be delivered to the hospital. 
 
 Art. 35. We permit our subjects in this colony, who may have 
 slaves concealed in any place whatever, to have them sought after 
 by such persons and in such a way as they may deem proper, or to 
 proceed themselves to such researches as they may think best. 
 
 Art. 36. The slave who is sentenced to suffer death on the de- 
 nunciation of his master, shall, when that master is not an accom- 
 plice to his crime, be appraised before his execution by two of the 
 principal inhabitants of the locality, who shall l)e specially ap- 
 pointed by the judge, and the amount of said appraisement shall 
 be paid to the master. To raise this sum, a proportional tax shall 
 be laid on every slave, and shall be collected by the persons invested 
 with that authority. 
 
 Art. 37. We forbid all the officers of the superior council, and 
 all OUT other officers of justice in this colony, to take any fees or
 
 LOUISIANA 97 
 
 receive any perquisites in criminal suits against slaves, under the 
 penalty, in so doing, of being dealt with as guilty of extortion. 
 
 Art. 38. We also forbid all our subjects in this colony, whatever 
 their condition or rank may be, to apply, on their own private 
 authority, the rack to their slaves, under any pretense whatever, 
 and to mutilate said slaves in any one of their limbs, or in any part 
 of their bodies, under the penalty of the confiscation of said slaves ; 
 and said mastei's, so offending, shall be liable to a criminal prose- 
 cution. We only permit masters, when they think that the case 
 requires it, to put their slaves in irons, and to have them whipped 
 with rods or ropes. 
 
 Art. 39. We command our officers of justice in this colony to 
 institute criminal process against masters and overseers who shall 
 have killed or mutilated their slaves, when in their power and under 
 their supervision, and to punish said murder according to the atro- 
 city of the circumstances; and in case the offense shall be a pardon- 
 able one, we permit them to pardon said master and overseers 
 without it being necessary to obtain from us letters patent of par- 
 don. 
 
 Art. 40. Slaves shall be held in laAv as movables, and as such, 
 they shall be part of the community of acquests between husband 
 and wife ; they shall not be liable to be seized under any mortgage 
 whatever ; and they shall be equally divided among the co-heirs 
 witliout admitting from any one of said heirs any claims founded 
 on principut or right of primogeniture, or dowry. 
 
 Arts. 41, 42, are entirely concerned with ji;dicial forms and pro- 
 ceedings. 
 
 Art. 43. Husbands and wives shall not be seized and sold sepa- 
 rately when belonging to the same m^ister; and their children, 
 when under 14 years of age, shall not be separated from their pa- 
 rents and such seizures and sales shall be null and void. The pres- 
 ent articles shall apply to voluntary sales, and in case such sales 
 should take place in violation of the law, the seller shall be deprived 
 of the slave he has illegally retained, and said slave shall be ad- 
 judged to the purchaser without any additional price being re- 
 quired. 
 
 Art. 44. Slaves 14 years old, and from this age up to 60, who 
 are settled on lands and plantations, and are at present working 
 on them, shall not be liable to seizure for debt, except for what 
 may be due out of the purchase money agreed to be paid for them, 
 unless said grounds or plantations should also be distressed, and 
 any seizure and judicial sale of a real estate, without including the 
 slaves of the aforesaid age who ai-e part of said estate, shall be 
 deemed null and Void. 
 
 Arts. 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, Relate to certain formalities to be observed 
 in jiidicial proceedings. 
 
 Art. 50. Masters, when 25 years old, shall have the power to 
 
 manumit their slaves, either by testamentary dispositions, or by 
 
 acts inter vivos. But, as there may be mercenary masters disposed 
 
 to set a price on the liberation of their slaves; and whereas slaves, 
 
 1—7
 
 98 LOUISIANA 
 
 with a view to acquire the necessary means to purchase their free- 
 dom, may be tempted to commit theft or deeds of plunder, no per- 
 son, whatever may be his rank and condition, shall be permitted 
 to set free his slaves, without obtaining from the superior council 
 a decree of permission to that effect; whicli permission shall be 
 granted M'ithout costs, wlicn the motives for the setting free of said 
 slaves, as specified in the petition of the master, shall appear legit- 
 imate to the tribunal. All future acts for the emancipation of 
 slaves, which may be made without this permission, shall be null; 
 and the slaves so tree shall not be entitled to their freedom ; they 
 shall, on the contrary, continue to be held as slaves: but they shall 
 be taken away from their former masters, and confiscated for the 
 benefit of tlie India Company. 
 
 Art. 51. However, sliould slaves be appointed by their masters 
 tutors to their cliildren, said slaves shall be lield and regarded as 
 being thereby set free to all intents and purposes. 
 
 Art. 52. We declare that the acts for the enfranchisement of 
 slaves, passed according to the forms above described, shall be 
 equivalent to an act of naturalization, when said slaves are not 
 born in our colony of Louisiana, and they shall enjoy all the rights 
 and privileges inherent to our subjects born in our kingdom, or in 
 any land or country under our dominion. We declare, however, 
 that all manumitted slaves, and all free-born negroes, are incapable 
 of receiving donations, either by testamentary dispositions, or by 
 acts inter vivos from the whites. Said donations shall be null and 
 void, and the objects so donated shall be applied to the benefits of 
 the nearest hospital. 
 
 Art. 53. We command all manumitted slaves to show the pro- 
 foundest respect to their former masters, to their widows and chil- 
 dren, and any injury or insult offered by said manumitted slaves 
 to their former masters, their widows or children, shall be pun- 
 ished with more severity than if it had been ott'ered to any other 
 person. We, however, declare them exempt from the discharge of 
 all duties or services, and from the payment of taxes or fees, or 
 anything else which their former masters might, in their quality of 
 patrons, claim either in relation to their persons, or to their per- 
 sonal or real estate, cither during the life or after the death of said 
 manumitted slaves. 
 
 Art. 54. We grant to manumitted slaves th(< same right, privi- 
 leges, and innnnnities which are enjoyed by free-boi-n ])ersons. It 
 is our pleasure that their merit in having accpiired their freedom, 
 shall produce in their favor, not only with regard to their persons, 
 but also to their property, the same eft'ects wliich our other sub- 
 jects derive from the happy circumstance of their having been born 
 free. 
 
 Fazende, Brusle Perry, ^^ „,^, ^.,„j^, ^j ^,,^, j.j^g 
 
 March, 1(^4. liienville, De la Chaise. 
 
 In the regulation of police published Feb. 18, 175], by Gov. 
 Vaudreuil and Michel de la Rouvilliere the iutendant-coramissary,
 
 LOUISIANA 99 
 
 Articles 10 to 30 have special reference to the treatment and' control 
 of negroes, and are an amplification of certain provisions of the 
 Black Code, especially of Articles 12 to 15 inclusive. The stringent 
 legislation here embodied prohibits under severe penalties tlie sale 
 of intoxicants to negroes, the harlioring of slaves for unlawful pur- 
 poses, trade dealings with slaves who are not specifically authorized 
 by their masters to luiy and sell, all essemblies of negroes owned 
 by different masters either in town or country, the carrying by any 
 negro of a cane, rod, or stick, etc. Any white person is author- 
 ized to stop a negro or slave, either in New Orleans, or in the coun- 
 try during the day, and particularly during the night, and com- 
 pel the said negro or slave to show his written pass; the abuse of 
 horses and their stealing by negroes is the subject of a separate 
 article ; another article is intended to prevent masters from treating 
 their slaves with undue lenity, and still another article aims to 
 enforce proper respect and submission on the part of the blacks 
 toward the whites, branding and whipping being the penalties im- 
 posed for ahy insolence shown. Such protection as was afforded 
 the blacks is embodied in Article 30, wliich recites, "A private per- 
 son, a soldier, or any other individual, has not the right to ill-treat 
 a negro who is guilty of no offense towards him. In certain cases, 
 the person offended may arrest him, and ask tliat he be dealt with 
 according to the dictates of justice, because the negro is subject 
 only to the police regulations of tiie country and to the tri!)unal 
 of his own master, (,'onsequently, and in compliance with the or- 
 ders of his Majesty, we forbid that any one should take the liberty 
 to ill-treat .slaves ; and for any violence of this prohibition, the 
 person so offending shall undergo an arbitrary punishment, accord- 
 ing to the circinnstauces of the ease." 
 
 When Gen. O'Reilly as.sumed control of the colony in the name 
 of Spain, he issued a special proclamation reenacting most of tlie 
 French legislation with reference to the negroes. 
 
 Blackcreek, a post-hamlet in the central part of Grant parish, is 
 about 6 miles northwest of Bentley, the nearest railroad station, 
 and the same distance northeast of Colfax, the parish seat. 
 
 Blackwell, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of St. Tam- 
 many parish, is about 5 miles north of Folsom, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Blairstown, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of East Felici- 
 ana parish, is situated on a confluent of the Amite river, about 5 
 miles north of Pride, the nearest railroad station, and 9 miles south- 
 ea.st of Clinton, the parish seat. 
 
 Blanc, Antoine, 1st Roman Catholic archbishop of New Orleans, 
 was born at Sury, France, Oct. 11, 1792. He was one of the first 
 priests ordained after the Restoration in France. In order to 
 escape military couscrijition he received special dispensation and 
 was ordained in 1817 before he had reached canonical age. He was 
 one of the missionaries who volunteered for the Louisiana mission- 
 ary field and accompanied Bishop Dubourg (q. v.) to the United 
 States. With 30 other priests, he was entertained by Charles Car-
 
 100 LOUISIANA 
 
 roll of Carrollton, ild., for two months, before they Avent to Balti- 
 more to join Bishop Dubourg for the trip ■west. At first Father 
 Blanc had charge of the Vincennes mission, but in 1820 was called 
 to New Orleans and after that was stationed at Natchez, Pointe 
 Coupee and Baton Rouge. He was appointed assistant vicar-gen- 
 eral of the diocese of New Orleans, was raised in 1832 to coadju- 
 tor-bishop and when Bishop Neckere died in 1833, was appointed 
 administrator of the diocese. Two years later he was appointed 
 bishop and consecrated in the cathedral on Nov. 22. 1835. At that 
 time the diocese of New Orleans included Louisiana and Missis- 
 sippi, and in 1838 Texas was placed vuider the jurisdiction of the 
 See of New Orleans. During his administration Bishop Blanc suc- 
 ceeded in having both Texas and Mississippi made into separate 
 and independent dioceses. While in office he established a diocesan 
 seminary, introduced the Jesuit Lazarist and Redemptionist orders, 
 the Christian Brothers, Sisters of Charity and several other Cath- 
 olic orders. He established 2 colleges, 9 free schools, 13 orphan 
 asyhims and 3 chiirches. The number of churches and priests in 
 the diocese more than doubled while he was bishop and when New 
 Orleans was erected into an arch-diocese in 1850, he was raised to 
 archbishop. He attended the 1st, 2d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th pro- 
 Aancial councils at Baltimore and the 1st plenary council in 1852. 
 The 1st council he attended as theologian, the others as prelate. 
 He called and presided over, as metropolitan, tlie 1st provincial 
 coimcil of New Orleans. In 1855, he went to Rome to attend the 
 assemblv of cardinals, archbishops and bishops called together by 
 Pius IX. He died in New Orleans. June 20, 1860. 
 
 Blanchaxd, a village in the central part of Caddo parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 9 miles northwest of 
 Shreveport. It has a money order postoffice, telegraph and express 
 service, is the trading center of a considerable district, and in 1910 
 had a population of 200. 
 
 Blanchard, Albert G., soldier, was born iu Charleston, Mass., in 
 1810. where he received his early education. "When cpiite young, 
 he entered the U. S. military academy, where he graduated in 1829. 
 While at the academy he was a classmate of Robert E. Lee and 
 Joseph E. Johnston. After graduating he was appointed brevet 
 second lieutenant of the 3d infantry, and served on the frontier 
 from 1829 to 1840, when he resigned from the army to engage in 
 mercantile pursuits, and also served as director of public schools 
 in Louisiana from 1843 to 1845. When war broke out witli Mexico 
 he again entered the service of the United States, as captain of 
 Louisiana volunteers, iMay 15, 1846, and won distinction at 
 Monterey and the siege of Vera Cruz. He was offered an appoint- 
 ment in the regular army but declined in order to accept a com- 
 mission as major of the 12th Louisiana infantry, ]\Iay 27, 1847. 
 After the war he returned to New Orleans and taught in the pub- 
 lic schools until 1850. For several years lie was employed as a sur- 
 veyor, and from 1854 to 1861 was secretary and treasurer of the 
 New Orleans & Carrollton, and the Jefferson & Lake Pontchartrain
 
 LOUISIANA 101 
 
 railroad companies. Gen. Blanchard .sympathized with the South 
 and entei'ed the' service of his adopted state as colonel of the 1st 
 Louisiana infantry. He served with his command in Virginia; in 
 May, 1861, was placed in command of two divisions of Iluger's 
 forces ; was promoted to brigadier-general and placed in command 
 of a brigade at Portsmouth, Va. In April, 1862, he took part in the 
 operations around South Mills. Later he was in command of 
 Drewry's bluff. After the war he returned to New Orleans, and 
 was surveyor and civil engineer from 1866 to 1870. He was dep- 
 uty surveyor of the city of New Orleans from 1870 to 1878, and 
 assistant surveyor from 1878 to 1891. He died in New Orleans, 
 La., June 21, 1891. 
 
 Blanchaxd, Newton Grain, governor of Louisiana from 1904 to 
 1908, was born on Jan. 29, 1849, in Rapides parish. La., where his 
 boyhood was passed on a cotton plantation. His early education 
 was acquired 'in private schools and the Louisiana state iiniversity, 
 and in 1870 he graduated in the law department of the University 
 of Louisiana (now Tulane) at New Orleans. He began practice at 
 Shreveport in 1871, became a successful attorney, and in 1876 was 
 elected chairman of the Democratic committee of Caddo parish 
 Three years later he was chosen a delegate to the constitutional con- 
 vention, in which he was made cliairman of the committee on Fed- 
 eral relations. With the rank of major he served on the staff of 
 Gov. Wiltz and Gov. McEnery, and at the same time was the Lou- 
 isiana trustee of the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn. 
 In 1880 he was elected to the lower house of Congress and served 
 continuously in that body until 1893, when he was elected to the 
 U. S. Senate. While in the house he was for some time chairman 
 of the committee on rivers and harbors, and as such wielded great 
 influence in securing appropriations for the improvement of the 
 levees along the ^Mississippi river, thus preventing, or at least re- 
 ducing to a minimum, the damage done by disastrous floods. In 
 1897 he left the senate to accept a place as associate justice of the 
 Louisiana supreme court and remained upon the bench until 1904, 
 when he was elected governor for a term of four years. Mr. 
 Blanchard is a Democrat who is always ready to obey the behests 
 of his party, whether as an officeholder, a delegate to conventions, 
 or as member of the national committee, in which organization he 
 ably represented the State of Louisiana for several years. 
 
 Blanchard's Administration. — Gov. Blanchard and Lieut.-Gov. 
 Sanders were inducted into office on May 16, 1904. In his inaugural 
 message the new governor devoted considerable attention to the 
 subject of education, especially recommending legislation in the 
 interests of the primary schools. He suggested that the state issue 
 40 or 45 year bonds to the amount of $1,000,000 for the purpose of 
 improving her educational institutions, and concluded this part of 
 his message by saying: "It was never truer than now that tlie 
 education of the poorest is the chief concern of a state." He ex- 
 pressed himself in favor of legislation that would secure better 
 roads in the rural districts ; advocated the enactment of a primary
 
 102 LOUISIANA 
 
 elpc'tion law: promised a rigid enforcement of law and order, and 
 that there should be no lynching nor mob violence during his ad- 
 ministration if tlie military at his command could prevent it; con- 
 curred in Gov. Heard's recommendation in his retiring message 
 that the state debt be refunded on a 3 per cent basis; and advo- 
 cated the extension of the elective franchise. "There is no doiibt," 
 said he, "that many people in the state hold to the opinion that 
 many of the existing offices, now appointive, should be made 
 elective, and are desirous that this should be done. I recommend 
 that action on this line be taken." 
 
 The general assembly to which this message was delivered had 
 met on ilay 9, 1904, one week liefore Gov. Blanchard was inaugu- 
 rated. Act No. 113, passed at this session, created a department of 
 forestry, to consist of the register of the laud office and four citi- 
 zens of the state to be appointed by the governor for a term of 
 four years; the register to be ex-offieio commissioner of forestry, 
 for which he was to receive an addition of $500 to his annual salary, 
 the other four members of the department to receive only actual 
 expenses, not exceeding $100 each per annum. The act made it 
 the duty of the department to inquire into and report on the forest 
 conditions in the state, with reference to the preservation of the 
 forests already existing and the reforesting of denuded lands. The 
 register, in his qapacity of commissioner, Avas to have charge of 
 the preservation of the forests, and his orders were to be supreme. 
 He was authorized to appoint a deputy,' to be known as the cliief 
 fire warden, with a salary of $500 a year, who was charged with 
 the enforcement of the law. Police jurors were constituted fire 
 wardens, who were to assemble on the orders of the eliief tire war- 
 den in case of forest fires, and were to receive $2 per day for each 
 day actually employed in fighting fires. Any person AvilfuUy, 
 negligently or carelessly setting fire to woods, or near woods, was 
 liable to a fine not exceeding $100, to which might l)e added impris- 
 onment for not more than three months, all fines to be paid into the 
 parish treasiiry where the oifense occurred, and to be used in en- 
 forcing the provisions of the act. It was also directed that parish 
 school boards provide for teaching forestry in the jinblic schools, 
 and for an arlior day (q. v.), when forest trees should be planted 
 on the school grounds, etc. In 1906 Gov. Blanchard tried to have 
 the law amended so as to limit the cut of timber by lumber com- 
 panies to trees larger than 10 or 12 inches in diameter, but the in- 
 fluence of the milling interests was strong enough to prevent the 
 passage of the bill. 
 
 On July 5, 1904, the governor approved an act creating the state 
 board of charities and corrections, to consist of the governor and 
 five citizens to lie apjioiuted by him — one for 6 years, one for 5 
 years, one for 4 years, one for 3 years and one for 2 years, after 
 which all appointments Avere to be for 6 years, excejit in cases of 
 vacancies, when the appointment was not to extend beyond the 
 expiration of the original term. The governor was designated as 
 chairman of the board, Avhose duties were defined as merely visit-
 
 LOUISIANA 103 
 
 orial. The board was authorized and required to visit all iustitu- 
 tions — state, parish or municipal — of a charitable, eleemosynary, 
 correctional or reformatory character, and to report annually to the 
 governor and to each session of the legislature, making such sugges- 
 tions regarding the management of the institutions as the members 
 might deem proper, provided said suggestions were concurred in by 
 a majority of the members of the boards in control of the institu- 
 tions affected by them. Local officers of the various institutions 
 coming within the provisions of the act were directed to furnish 
 the board of charities and corrections all information, etc. 
 
 On the same date Gov. Blanchard also approved an act estab- 
 lishing a state reform school for the accommodation of male per- 
 sons under the age of 18 years, who might be convicted of any 
 crime except murder, manslaughter or rape, such imprisonment not 
 to entail the forfeiture of civil rights. The governor was author- 
 ized to appoint, with the advice and consent of the senate, three 
 commissioners to locate the school, provided, that the location 
 selected should not be within 30 miles of tlie state penitentiary or 
 any of the convict farms. The commissioners thus appointed were 
 required to serve Avithout compensation other than actual expenses 
 incurred in the discharge of their duties; to adopt for the institu- 
 tion a system of discipline that should be humane and reformatory 
 in character; and to report annually to the governor. They were 
 given authority to release on parole any inmate of the school whose 
 conduct in their judgment merited such treatment, the paroled 
 person to be rearrested if his parole was broken. To carry out the 
 provisions of the act an appropriation of $20,000 was made ; $5,000 
 oi;t of the revenues of 1906, $10,000 out of the revenues of 1907, and 
 $5,000 out of the revenues of 1908. The commissioners purchased 
 about 193 acres of land on the Ouachita river, a short distance below 
 the eit.y of Monroe, paying therefor $9,646, and here the school was 
 established. In liis nu='ssage to the legislature on May 12, 1908, 
 Gov. ]-}lancliard said: "On this site a substantial building is under 
 construction and nearly tinished. This institution is managed by 
 a board of three commissioners who are displaying most commend- 
 able zeal in the work, besides progressive ideas and good business 
 judgment. Two of them, with my approval, visited similar insti- 
 tutions in the Eastern and Northern portions of our country in 
 order to ol)serve the arrangenu^iit of the Iniildings and to l)eeome 
 more fully informed in the matter of the management of such 
 schools." By the act of July 9, 1908, the name of the school was 
 changed to that of the "Louisiana Training Institute." 
 
 The law of 1902, creating the Vieksburg Military Commission, 
 inadvertently omitted the 3d, 17th, 21st, 26th, 27th, 28th (29th), 
 and 31st Louisiana regimeiits. In 1904 it was amended so as to in- 
 clude these organizations and give them representation on the 
 commission. 
 
 In July, 1905, the report of a few eases of yellow fever in New 
 Orleans caused the Mississippi authorities to establish a quarantine 
 against the State of Louisiana. Toward the close of the month
 
 104 LOUISIANA 
 
 Gov. Blanchard received uotice tliat bodies of Mississippi militia, 
 iiniformed and armed, were constantly crossing the Pearl river; 
 that the drawbridge of the Louisville & Nashville railroad over the 
 Rigolets was kept closed by order of the Mississippi quarantine of- 
 ficers and opened only to such boats as they directed; and that 
 Mississippi patrol boats were committing acts of trespass and in- 
 timidation in Louisiana waters upon Louisiana fishermen and tlieir 
 boats. The governor immediately ordered Brig.-Gen. Arsene Peril- 
 liat of his staii" and Capt. J. TV. Bostick. commanding the state naval 
 brigade, to investigate the report, and at the same time notified 
 the governor of ^Mississippi of his action. After a luirried investi- 
 gation Capt. Bostick reported that the drawbridge was kept closed 
 by the patrol boat Grace ; that IS schooners from Louisiana ports 
 •had been stopped at the Rigolets and forcibly towed over to Ship 
 island; that militiamen, uniformed and armed, were in the habit 
 of going daily to Dunbar, La., for mail and supplies, or to take the 
 train ; and that the patrol boat Cartryne had issued orders to Louis- 
 iana fishermen who desired to go out into Lake Borgne to remain 
 inside the pass at Chef Menteur. 
 
 On Thursday morning, A\ig. 3, Capt. Bostick received telegraphic 
 orders from the governor "to look after Rigolets and bridge imme- 
 diately and hurry forward preparation of flotilla strong enough to 
 protect state's rights." The governor also telegraphed to Sheriflf 
 Long of Orleans parish and Sheriff Niuiez of St. Bernard parish 
 to confer with Capt. Bostick, proceed to Rigolets and arrest any 
 Mississippi patrol boats found interfering with commerce. Upon 
 receiving his orders Capt. Bostick sent Lieuts. T. D. ]\Iiller and 
 John Chaffe, with l-i enlisted men and 4 civilians, to the Rigolets 
 with instructions to prevent all interference with the bridge, fish- 
 ermen or shipping, and directed Lieiit. Ernest D. Ivy to take 12 
 men and proceed down the ^Mississippi river on the power launch 
 Tom to Lake Borgne canal, where he was to report to Sheriff Nunez. 
 Troops were also sent by train to the Rigolets. 
 
 Early on Friday morning, Aug. 4, Lieut. Ivy captured the patrol 
 launch Tipsy, eonmianded by Capt. English, near the Lake Borgne 
 canal, where it was stationed to prevent the fishermen at Chef 
 Menteur from going into Lake Borgne. Capt. Bostick arrived at 
 the Rigolets early on the morning of the 4th and was hailed by the 
 patrol boat Grace, commanded by Walter Blunt. Bostick ordered 
 the Grace alongside his launch, the ilarie, and lashed the boats 
 together, but found that Sheriff' Long, who had gone to the Rigolets 
 on Thursday afternoon, had returned to New Orleans. As he had 
 no authority to make arrests he ordered the Grace to the Pearl 
 river and admonished Blunt that he must not interfere with the 
 passage of boats. About 2 p. m. the Grace came back and Blunt 
 showed documents signed by Surgeon Wasdin of the marine hos- 
 pital service and Capt. Chaytor of the U. S. revenue cutter Winona, 
 stating that the Grace was acting under instructions to warn all 
 vessels not to enter ^lississippi waters unless they were willing to 
 go to Ship island for detention. Bostick informed the captain of
 
 LOUISIANA 105 
 
 the Grace that he would not be permitted to seize vessels in Lou- 
 isiana waters nor interfere with fishermen, but must confine him- 
 self to warning vessels not to land in Mississippi without first go- 
 ing to Ship island, and then telegraphed to the governor for in- 
 structions, remaining in the vicinity of the Rigolets to see that his 
 injunctions were obeyed. In due time he received from Gov. 
 Blanchard the following message : 
 
 "Inform captain of Grace that as long as he confines his opera- 
 tions to strictly quarantine patrol duty, which is to see that no 
 vessels from Louisiana land at Mississippi gulf ports, unless going 
 first into detention, he will not be molested, but any interference 
 other than this with Louisiana vessels, or harassing of Louisiana 
 fishermen or hunters, or interfering with drawbridge at Rigolets, 
 will result in his prompt arrest and prosecution in the Louisiana 
 courts. This applies to captain of Winona as well, and all other 
 commanders of patrol boats doing quarantine duty in Louisiana 
 waters when such commanders exceed the authority given them 
 by the marine hospital bureau, and violate state statutes. Their 
 being aboard vessels in the service of the bureau will not exempt 
 them from arrest. You will send a copy of this dispatch by mail 
 to U. S. Surgean Wasdin of Gulfport, and furuisli copies to captain 
 of Winona and other patrol boats. I am communicating same to 
 Washington authorities, with whom I am in touch." 
 
 Capt. Bostick sent the copies as directed and prepared to enforce 
 the governor's orders by calling out 111 men, with 2 automatic 
 machine guns ai)d 13,000 rounds of ball cartridges. The prompt 
 and decisive action of the governor and Capt. Bostick resulted in 
 amended instructions being issued to the commanders of the patrol 
 boats, and the famous "shotgun quarantine" was thereafter con- 
 ducted with more regard for the rights of Louisiana fishermen and 
 shipping. 
 
 In his message to the general assembly of 1906 Gov. Blanchard 
 discussed at length the revenue system of the state, recommending 
 the equalization of assessments, the reduction of the tax rate, and 
 an amendment to the constitution that woi;ld permit the election 
 of the members of the state board of appraisers — one from each 
 Congressional district — instead of the method then in vogue. He 
 also recommended the elimination or repeal of article 236 of the 
 state constitution, relating to the inheritance tax, and urged the 
 enactment of laws for the protection of the mineral deposits and the 
 promotion of the mining industry of the state. In response to his 
 suggestions the state board of equalization was created, the state 
 tax reduced from 6 to 5 mills, and the maximum rate of municipal 
 and parochial taxation reduced from 10 to 8 mills. At this ses- 
 sion a law Avas passed providing for school libraries. When it went 
 into effect there were in the country schools of the state about 21,- 
 000 volumes in their libraries. Two years later, by the operation 
 of this law, the number had been increased to about 100,000. Parr 
 ish school boards were authorized to issue bonds for public school 
 purposes, to be secured by special taxes voted therefor, and as a
 
 106 LOUISIANA 
 
 result of this law over 200 schoolhoiises were erected during the 
 year 1907. 
 
 Another act of the legislature of 1906 was to provide a state 
 teacher's certificate, good for 10 years, and the creation of a state 
 board of examiners for conducting examinations for such certifi- 
 cate. In his message to tlie next session of the general assembly 
 the governor said: "This certificate is stimulating teachers to a 
 higlier grade of professional work." 
 
 By act No. 190, approved July 11, 1906, Louisiana formally ac- 
 cepted the invitation of the State of Virginia to participate in the 
 Jamestown exposition. The act authorized a commission of five 
 persons to represent the state. Three of these commissioners were 
 named in the act and the other two Avere appointed by the governor. 
 (See Expositions.) 
 
 On Ang. 7. 1907, Geronimo Garcia arrived in New Orleans from 
 Cuba. An investigation developed the fact that an agent of the 
 state board of agriculture and immigration had paid Garcia 's pass- 
 age money and had given him the assurance that he would find 
 employment in Louisiana. U. S. Atty.-Gen. Bonaparte decided that 
 states have no more right than corporations or individuals to solicit 
 immigration in this manner, and Garcia was excluded. 
 
 On Nov. 11, 1907, the general assembly was convened in extraor- 
 dinary session hy the proclamation of the governor "to consider 
 measures relating to banking corporations and kindred legislation." 
 Probably the most important act of the session was one requiring 
 state, parish and municipal funds to be deposited with a -fiscal 
 agency or agencies — a bank or banks chartered by the laws of the 
 State of Louisiana or the United States and domiciled in the state 
 — oft'eriug the highest rate of interest therefor and giving satisfac- 
 tory' security. Concerning the acts of the special session increasing 
 scliool revenues. Gov. Blanchard said in his message of !May 12, 
 1908: "The parish superintendents were made treasurers of school 
 funds, and thus the scliool saved in commissions formerly paid the 
 treasurers annually, !}!30,000. The assessors' commissions on special 
 school taxes were reduced to 1 per cent and the tax collectors' 
 commissions on special school taxes were abolished altogether, 
 thus saving to the school fund on local school taxes, if!33,000. The 
 amount of commissions formerly paid assessors and tax collectors 
 from school funds other than local taxes, but now saved to tlie 
 schools, $20,600. The decision of the supreme court concerning 
 commissions on fines in criminal cases heretofore collected by dis- 
 trict attorneys adds to the school funds, $18,000. Total saved an- 
 nually $101,600." 
 
 In Dec. 1907, the .ietties of the Southwest pass were completed. 
 They were begun in 1903 and cost $2,700,000. Hostility on the part 
 of negroes toward Italian laborers employed at Chathamville. a 
 little village in the eastern part of Jackson jiarish, culminated in 
 a riot on Dee. 14-, 1907, when 2 Italians were shot, the negroes be- 
 ing the aggressors. The next day the rioting was renewed, another 
 Italian was killed and several were in.iured. Complaint was made to
 
 LOUISIANA 107 
 
 the Italian consul at New Orleans, who appealed to Gov. Blan- 
 chard to have the perpetrators arrested and punished, but as it 
 was highly improbalile that the right persons could be found, the 
 governor refused to take any action. 
 
 At the state election on April 21, 1908, Jared Y. Sanders, who 
 had been lieutenant-governor during Blanchard's administration, 
 was elected governor, and on May 12 Gov. Blanchard's retiring 
 message was read before the two liouses of the general assembly. 
 In it he pointed out that during his term of office two-thirds of the 
 patronage formerly in the hands of the executive had been taken 
 away from him and restored to the people. The supreme court 
 justices, the register of the state land office, the 65 assessors in the 
 state, all the members of the parish school boards, and the state 
 tax collectors of New Orleans, all of which were appointal)le by the 
 governor at the beginning of his administration, are now elected 
 by the people, and vacancies in the offices of district judge, district 
 attorney, clerk of the court, sheriff, coi'oner and police juror, are 
 now to be filled by election, unless the vacancies oeciu" within one 
 year of the expiration of the terms of such offices. On the subject 
 of education he announced that the amount of special school taxes 
 had been increased from $84,000 in 1903 to $1,700,000 in 1907; 
 that the length of the average school term had been increased diu'- 
 iug the same period oue month each year ; that the number of school 
 children enrolled had increased by 65,498 ; that the salaries of 
 teachers had been materially increased, thereby insuring a better 
 class of instructors; and that the total amount expended for 
 school purposes had increased from $1,551,2.32 in 1903 to .$3,481,275 
 in 1907. Said he: "The same vigorous prosecution of school woi'k 
 during the next four years as was the ease dixring the four years 
 just ending will confirm our leadership in education. But we should 
 be careful to keep the work to the essentials. Fads and nonessen- 
 tials .should be kept out. The too great tendency toward 'paternal- 
 ism' in ediTcation should be checked. * * * If I were asked 
 what levied the highest tax on the state, I would answer illiteracy 
 first; bad roads next." 
 
 In concluding his message the governor said: "Louisiana is a 
 prosperous commonwealth of the American Union. She was never 
 in a better condition than now industriallv. commercially and in a 
 general biisiness way. Her resources are great and are being de- 
 veloped rapidly, attracting capital and men of enterprise. Her ad- 
 vance along the highway of civilization will be accelerated by wise 
 laws and their vigorous enforcement." 
 
 Blanche, a post-hamlet in the extreme southern portion of Rap- 
 ides parish, is a station on the main line of the St. Louis, Watkins 
 & Gulf R. R. 
 
 Blankston (R. R. name Corey), a post-hamlet in the northern 
 part of Caldwell parish, is situated on the Ouachita river and the 
 St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R., about 12 miles north 
 of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 
 Blanque, Jean, a native of New Orleans and a member of one of
 
 108 LOUISIANA 
 
 the distiuguished ereole families, was one of the committee ap- 
 pointed by Laussat to meet the American commissioners, Claiborne 
 and Wilkinson, in Dec, 1803, at their camp 2 miles from the city 
 and escort tlieiu to Lanssat's house. I\Ir. Blanque was present at 
 the ceremonies of the transfer of Louisiana to the United States; 
 was active in promoting the common weal during the territorial 
 days; was a delegate to the constitutional convention of 1811, and 
 helped to frame the organic law under which Louisiana was ad- 
 mitted into the Union as a state. It was he who received from 
 Jean Lafitte and delivered to Gov. Claiborne the documents giving 
 the information of the intention of the British to capture the city 
 of New Orleans. At that time he was a member of the state leg- 
 islati;re and a leader in the house. On Sept. 15, 1814, he was an 
 active participant in the meeting at Tremoulet's coffee-house, was 
 one of the nine members of the committee of public defense ap- 
 pointed at that meeting, and was unremitting in liis efforts to pro- 
 tect the city from the invading army. On Dec. 15, 1814, he intro- 
 duced in the house the address to the people of Louisiana, calling 
 upon them to "Rush to arms, enlist promptly under the banner of 
 Gen. Jackson — of that brave chief who is to command you ; give 
 him all your confidence ; the success he has alreadv obtained as- 
 sure yoti that to march under his standards is to march to vic- 
 tory." The address concludes: "Your representatives have sup- 
 plied the executive with all the pecuniary means which he required 
 of them for the defense of the state, and they will give you the 
 example of devotion which they expect of you.". 
 
 Notwithstanding these patriotic utterances and his energy in 
 promoting measures for the protection of New Orleans, Mr. Blan- 
 que was one of those accused of treason M'hen the rumor became 
 current that the legislature was ready to capitulate and surrender 
 the city to the enemy, but it is not likely that there was any real 
 foundation for the charge. Jean Lafitte knew him, and knew his 
 devotion to his country, when he entrusted him with private doc- 
 uments, and Marigny, in his memoir, pays a high tribute to Mr. 
 Blanque 's integrity, patriotism and courage. 
 
 Blenk, James Hubert, Roman Catholic archbishop, was born in 
 Neustadt, Bavaria, Aug. 6, 1856. He is the son of James and 
 Catherine (Wiedemann') Blenk, and received his education at St. 
 James college, Baltimore, and at Jefferson college. Convent, La. 
 After completing his- collegiate studies he entered the Society of 
 St. Mary, in 1874, and took a course of theology at the Alarist 
 houses of studies in France and Ireland and a course at the Cath- 
 olic university of Ireland at Dublin. In 1885, he Avas ordained 
 priest, and the same year was appointed to a professorship at Jef- 
 ferson college, Convent, La. He served as a professor until 1S91, 
 wnen he was made president of the college, holding this position 
 until 1896. The next year he became rector of Holy Name of St. 
 Mary cliureh at Algiers, La., but upon being appointed auditor to 
 the apostolic delegation to Porto Rico and Cuba, in 1898, he left 
 Ijouisiana. On July 2, 1899, he was consecrated bishop of Porto
 
 LOUISIANA 109 
 
 Rico and performed the duties of this office until made archbishop 
 of New Orleans, July 2, 1906. On April 24, 1907, he received the 
 pallium. Archbishop Blenk has been foremost in every movement 
 undertaken for the moral uplifting of the people of Louisiana. On 
 April 13, 1909, on the eve of his departiire for Rome, he was ten- 
 dered a reception at the St. Charles hotel under the auspices of 
 Mrs. W. J. Behan and other ladies of New Orleans. The meeting 
 was largely attended. Charles Janvier presided, and addresses 
 were delivered by Judge F. A. Monroe in the name of the non- 
 Catholics, and by Prof. Alcee Fortier in the name of the Catholics. 
 Mrs. Behan presented the archbishop a large Easter egg beautifully 
 decorated, containing nearly $2,000 — subscribed by the Catholics 
 of the city to defray his traveling expenses. 
 
 Blennerhasset, Harmon, who figures in the history of Louisiana 
 only because of his connection with the Burr conspiracy, was born 
 in Ilampshire, England, of Irish parentage, about 1767. He studied 
 law and upon the death of his father inherited about $100,000. He 
 married Margaret Agnew, daughter of the governor of the Isle of 
 Man, and in 1797 came to America. For a short time he lived in 
 New" Yoi'k, after which he bought an island of 174 acres in the 
 Ohio river near Parkersburg, W. Va., and there built a fine resi- 
 dence. This island had once been the property of George Wash- 
 ington, and it is still known as Blennerhasset 's island. In 1805 the 
 island home was visited by Aaron Burr, who persuaded the owner 
 to join in the scheme for the liberation of Mexico or the establish- 
 ment of an empire in the southwest. (See Burr Conspiracy.) Blen- 
 nerhasset was arrested and tried at Richmond, Va., but was acquit- 
 ted. He then bought a plantation near Port Gibson, Miss., and 
 lived there until 1819. He died at the home of a sister on the Isle 
 of Guernsey in 1831 ; his wife died at New York in 1842 ; their 
 eldest son, Dominie, disappeared from St. Louis after a drunken 
 debauch and was never heard from again; Harmon, the second son, 
 died in extreme poverty in New York in 1854, and the youngest 
 son, Joseph, died in Missouri in 1862 while serving as a soldier in 
 the Confederate army. 
 
 Blewett, a post-hamlet and station in the western part of Beau- 
 regard parish, is on a branch line of the Kansas City Southern R. R., 
 about 12 miles northwest of De Quincy, and 10 miles east of the 
 Sabine river, in tlie lumber district. 
 
 Blind, Institute For. — Like the deaf and dumb institute, this in- 
 stitution is located at Baton Rouge, and was established for the 
 purpose of giving to every blind child in the state an opportunity 
 to secure the benefits of an education. 
 
 The school is required by law to receive "all persons blind or of 
 such defective vision as not to be able to acquire an ediication in 
 the ordinary schools, between the ages of seven and twenty-two 
 and of sound mind." Board, lodging, medical attendance, tuition 
 and books are all entirely free, and to those who are too poor to 
 provide clothing and traveling expenses, the institute will furnish 
 them. The course of stiidy is based upon the same course in use
 
 110 LOUISIANA 
 
 in the public schools of the state, and work doue iu the primary, 
 grammar and high school grades is vei-y nearly the same as that of 
 the ordinary school. The sense of touch is made to serve in place 
 of the sense of sight, and the intellect is reached through the finger 
 tips. By means of a system of raised dots known as "New York 
 Point," the pupils readily aecjuire the ability to read from books 
 printed in these characters, and also a facility in writing the point 
 on a special kind of tablet. When reading and writing have been 
 learned, the pupil's rate of progress in learning depends, as else- 
 where, upon the effort and industry of thff individual. Besides the 
 literary course tlie pupils are taught music on the piano, violin and 
 other instruments, with the purpose of fitting them for the position 
 of miisie teachers. Tlie boys are taught, as trades, piano tuning, 
 broom making, and mattress making. ]Many earn a good living 
 by means of one or the other of these trades. The girls are taught 
 the use of the sewing machine, and instructed in needlework, cro- 
 cheting and knitting. 
 
 Blount Conspiracy. — Prof. F. J. Turner, iu his introduction to 
 documents relating to the Blount Conspiracy, iu the American His- 
 torical Keview for April. 1905, says: "The so-called Blount Con- 
 spiracy must be considered in relation to the designs of France 
 upon Louisiana ; the attitude of the Tory settlers at Natchez and 
 the retention of the Spanish posts upon the iMississippi ; England's 
 war with Spain and Jun* attitude toward the Mississippi valley from 
 1795 to 1798; Pitt's negotiations with ^Miranda, and the latter 's 
 overtures to Adams, Hamilton, etc. ; and the critical relations with 
 France during Adams' administration." After the treaty of 1783, 
 Great Britain had maintained military posts within the limits of 
 the territory assigned to the United States, and insisted upon the 
 right to make treaties with the Indians as independent nations, at 
 liberty to give their allegiance to Em-opean monarchs if they might 
 so elect. France, taking advantage of this situation, sent agents 
 to the frontier to induce the people to make war on the Spanish, in 
 the hope that such a movement would lead to an alliance between 
 France and tlie United States against Spain and England. The 
 project failed, however, and France made an alliance with Spain. 
 
 In Oct., 1796, Gen. Jean Victor CoUot, one of the emissaries of 
 France, arrived at Natchez and aecpiainted Gov. Gayoso with a plot 
 on the part of the British and Americans to dispossess the Span- 
 iards of the territory ea.st of the Jlississippi river. About a month 
 later John D. Chisolm escorted a party of Indian chiefs to Phila- 
 delphia, tlien the capital of the United States, and also carried 
 a petitiou signed by some 25 Britisli sub.iects living among the 
 Indians, asking to lie made naturalized American citizens, etc. 
 Chisolm was an adventurer who had come to America with the 
 British army during the Kevolution. When Florida was ceded to 
 Spain he took refuge among the Indians, subsequently became a 
 trader in the Ilolston district, and was a loyal friend to William 
 Blount while the latter Mas governor of "the territoiy of the United 
 States south of the Oliio." Upon his arrival in Philadeliiliia he was
 
 LOUISIANA 111 
 
 not received with as much respect by the Federal authorities as he 
 felt he was entitled to, and in his pique he sought out Mr. Liston, 
 the Britisli minister, to whom he proposed a plan of attack on the 
 Spanish posts. Liston wrote to London that, according to the 
 information received from Chisolm, "there are settled among these 
 tribes from 1,000 to 1,500 white inhabitants, principally British 
 sub.jects, attached to their country and sovereign, and ready to 
 enter into a plan for the recovery of the Floridas to Great Britain." 
 Chisolm afterward stated that he "communicated the plan to Col. 
 William Blount, who immediately agreed to give all his aid and 
 influence." Blount was at that time a U. S. senator from the State 
 of Tennessee, and it was in this way his name became connected 
 with the conspiracy. Two months later Liston sent Chisolm to 
 London, and on April 21, 1797, Blount wrote a letter from "Col. 
 King's iron works" on the Cumberland river, to James Carey, a 
 friend of Chisolm, in which he said: "I believe, but am not quite 
 sure, that the plan then talked of will be attempted this fall, and, 
 if it is to be attempted, it will be in a much larger way than then 
 talked of; and if the Indians act their part I have no doubt but it 
 will succeed. A man of consequence has gone to England about 
 the business, and if he makes arrangements as he expects, I shall 
 myself have a hand in the business on the part of the British. You 
 are, however, to understand, that it is yet not quite certain that the 
 plan will be attempted, and to do so will require all your manage- 
 ment; I say, will require all your management, because you must 
 take care, in whatever you say to Rogers, or anybody else, not to 
 let the plan be discovered by Hawkins, Dinsmoor, Byers, or any 
 other person in the interest of the United States or Spain." 
 
 In his proclamation of June 14, 1797, Gov. Gayoso intimated the 
 possibility of a conflict with the United States, and about the same 
 time the rumor gained credence in New Orleans that 'an American 
 and British military force might at any time descend the Missis- 
 sippi and attack the Spanish posts. Another rumor said that Chis- 
 olm had enlisted 1,000 Tennesseeans for the same purpose, and 
 that he had "obtained a list of 1,500 Tories or English loyalists of 
 the Natchez, who had agreed to take up arms in favor of the Eng- 
 lish, whenever they appear to attack lower Louisiana and march 
 on Santa Fe. " This report also said that 6 pieces of artillery orig- 
 inally intended for the expedition of Genet were ready on the Ten- 
 nessee river ; that the Americans would rendezvous at Knoxville 
 on July 1 ; that a British force was to come from Canada to aid 
 the movement ; that this expedition would be accompanied by 2,000 
 Indians under the redoubtable Brant; and that several members of 
 the U. S. senate were connected with the conspiracy. Chisolm, 
 who seemed to know more about the affair than any one el^e, sub- 
 sequently told his story of the scheme, which was in substance as 
 follows: The Tennesseeans, Whitley's men from Kentucky, with 
 the Natchez and Choctaw Indians were to attack New Orleans, 
 probably under the command of Blount; Chisolm was to attack 
 Pensacola at th'e same time with the Creeks and Cherokees ; and
 
 112 LOUISIANA 
 
 Craig, Mitchell and Brant with the Canadians, Indians and fron- 
 tiersmen were to attack New Madrid. The letter written by Blount 
 to Carey was intercepted and sent to President Adams, who sub- 
 mitted it to Congress with a special message on July 3. 1797. In 
 his message he asserted that the nation was in a critical condition, 
 that there was a conspiracy to wrest New Orleans and the Floridas 
 from Spain and transfer them to the English crown, and that 
 Senator Blount had been engaged in a coi-respondence that proved 
 him to be implicated in the plot. On the 8th Blount was expelled 
 from the senate by a vote of 25 to 1, Tazewell of Virginia being the 
 only one to cast a negative vote. The charge against him was 
 "high misdemeanor entirely inconsistent with his public trust and 
 duty." 
 
 Yrujo, the Spanish minister at Philadelphia, with whom Bloimt 
 had been all the time a "frequent guest and intimate companion," 
 lost no time in communicating with Timothy Pickering, the Fed- 
 eral secretary of state, demanding the immediate punishment of 
 the senator. Mr. Liston, the British minister, advised that the 
 whole matter would better be kept quiet. He explained the pub- 
 licity that was given to the affair by the fact that President Adams 
 was constantly accused of being in sympathy with the Britisli by 
 the Jefferson party, of which Blount was a member. Bloimt. upon 
 his expulsion from the senate, returned to Tennessee, where he was 
 elected to the legislature and became president of the senate. The 
 sergeant-at-arms of the F. S. senate went to Knoxville to arrest 
 him and take him to Philadelphia for trial and impeachment, but 
 he refused to go and none of the citizens would aid the officer in 
 making the arrest. On Jan. 14, 1799, the court of impeachment 
 decided by a vote of 14 to 11 that as Blount was no longer a mem- 
 ber of the senate it had no jurisdiction. Turner says: "From the 
 point of view of the larger diplomatic problems, the most tangible 
 result of the affair was the retention by Spain of Natchez and the 
 other posts east of the Mississippi, under the sincere apprehension 
 that if they were evacuated, in accordance with the treaty of 1795, 
 a clear road would be opened for the British into Louisiana." 
 
 Bluff Creek, a post-hamlet in the southeastern portion of East 
 Feliciana parish, is situated on a creek of the same name, which 
 flows into the Amite river about a mile southeast of the village. 
 It is 8 miles northeast of Pride, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bluffs, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Bossier parish, is 
 about 4 miles south of Bodcau, the nearest railroad station, and 8 
 miles southeast of Shreveport. 
 
 Board of Liquidation. — (See Finances. State.) 
 
 Boarman, Alexander, lawyer and member of Congress, was born 
 in ^Mississippi in 1830. He received his education at tlie Kentucky 
 military institute at Frankfort, Ky., after which he studied law and 
 began practice at Slireveport. He was elected a representative to 
 the 42nd Congress as a liberal, in place of James McCleary, de- 
 ceased, and served from Dec. 3, 1872, to March 3, 1873. 
 
 Boatner, a post-hamlet and station in the southern part of Jack-
 
 LOUISIANA 113 
 
 son parish, is situated at the junction of the Tremont & Gulf and 
 Wyatt & Donovan R. Rs., and about 12 miles south of Vernon, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 Boatner, Charles J., lawyer and politician, was born at Columbia, 
 Caldwell parish, La., Jan. 23, 1849 ; studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar in Jan., 1870; was elected a member of the state senate 
 in 1876, but resigned in May, 1878 ; was a candidate for Congress 
 in 1884, but was defeated by Gen. J. Floyd King, who was the in- 
 cumbent at the time. He was elected to the 51st, 52nd, and 53d 
 Congresses, and received thfe certificate of election to the 54th, but 
 his seat was declared vacant March 20, 1896. At a special election 
 held June 10, 1896, he was elected to the short term of the 54th 
 Congress as a Democrat. He died March 21, 1903, at New Orleans. 
 
 Bob, a post-hamlet in the southeastern corner of Grant parish, 
 is about two miles west of Little River and 6 miles southeast of 
 Pollock, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bodcau, a village in the southern part of Bossier parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the main line of the Vieksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., 
 about 12 miles east of Shreveport. It has a money order postoffice, 
 an express office, and is a trading center for the neighborhood. 
 
 Boeuf River, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Caldwell 
 parish, is situated on the river of the same name, about 5 miles 
 northeast of Riverton, the nearest railroad station, and 9 miles 
 northeast of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 
 Bogalusa, the newest and one of the important cities in the state 
 is located in the eastern part of Washington parish about a mile 
 west of the Pearl river, on the New Orleans Great Northern R. R., 
 and about 20 miles southeast of Franklinton, the parish seat, in 
 the very heart of the heavily wooded yellow pine belt. It was 
 named from the "Bogue Lusa," a small stream, on both banks of 
 which the town is built, and the name contracted to Bogalusa. 
 About 1904 the Goodyears of Buffalo, and other eastern capitalists, 
 began to acquire immense tracts of timberland in Tangipahoa, 
 "Washington and St. Tammanj' parishes, and up into Pike and 
 Marion counties. Miss. After securing several thousand acres, the 
 Great Southern Lumber company was organized, and cooperated 
 with others, holding control of a few miles of railroad known as 
 the Eastern Louisiana R. R., in operation between the Pearl river 
 and Covington. This led to the organization of the New Orleans 
 Great Northern R. R., and in 1906 the main line was built through 
 Bogalusa from Slidell. The transportation problem having been 
 solved, as well as the water facilities provided by the Pearl river, 
 the mill and town site was selected midway in the company's hold- 
 ings, giving them access on all sides to their timber. At that time 
 the ground upon which Bogalusa stands was unbroken forest, today 
 it is a growing town with over 1,500 inhabitants. Lumbering is the 
 principal industry. The company has built the largest saw-mill 
 under one roof in the world, and the product of the mill is a for- 
 tune in itself. At present Bogalusa is a saw-mill settlement, though 
 far ahead of many old Louisiana towns in population and modern 
 1—8
 
 114 - LOUISIANA 
 
 improvements. Tlie First National bank of Bogalusa lias a paid 
 up capital of $25,000, ami has the honor of being the first national 
 bank instituted in Washington parish. Bogalusa has a newspaper, 
 two hotels — the Workingman's hotel for the employes and a hotel 
 intended for a resort, as Bogalusa is in the famous "Ozone belt," 
 an ice factory, a modern 80-room hospital biiilt at a cost of $35,000, 
 for the uses of the company's employes, as well as the general com- 
 munity, a model schoolhouse, costing $25,000 and employing 5 
 teachers, a colored school, as well as up-to-date water, sewerage 
 and lighting plant systems. One of the most important industries 
 is the pulp and paper mill, which can use the immense quantities of 
 material on every hand. July 4, 1914, it became a city. 
 
 Boisblanc, Pierre Hardy de, a successful planter and influential 
 citizen of Louisiana aliout the close of the French domination, was 
 a member of the superior council that issued the order for the ex- 
 pulsion of Gov. I'lloa from the colony, and was otherwise active in 
 the Kevolution of 1768. For his participation in this event he was 
 arrested by order of Gov. O'Keilly on Aug. 21, 1769; was tried 
 and convicted, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He was 
 taken to Havana and confined in ^lorro Castle, wliere he remained 
 until 1771, when all the prisoners sentenced as conspirators in the 
 revolution were liberated through the intercession of the French 
 government. 
 
 Boisbriant, Sieur de, who administered the affairs of the colony 
 for something less than a .vear, between the departure of Bienville 
 for France in 1725, and the arrival of Gov. Perier in 1726. was one 
 of the prominent men connected with the early .vears of Louisiana. 
 He tirst arrived in the colony on Dec. 7, 1699, witli a commission as 
 major at Fort IMaiu-epas, and was left in command of a small gar- 
 rison at the fort when Bienville removed his headquarters to 
 Mobile in 1702. He was a cousin of Bienville, who employed him 
 in many important and dangerous services, was a brave and valiant 
 oiBcer and served the colony altogether for some 25 years. He was 
 later sent by Bienville to take command in the Illinois district, 
 where he established the strong post on the Mississippi, later known 
 as Fort Chartres. His services were rewarded with the cross of 
 St. Louis, brought him by Director-General Duvergier. July 15, 
 1721, and he also held the oflSce of king's lieutenant and was a 
 member of the superior council of the colony. He came down from 
 the Illinois and served as governor ad interim, M'heu Bienville was 
 recalled to France in 1724, owing to the machinations of his ene- 
 mies in the province. Boisbriant, a little later, suffered the same 
 fate, the chief instrument in his downfall being the commis.sary, 
 De la Chaise, who had been sent to the colony in 1723 by the India 
 company, "to exercise inquisitorial powers over the affairs of Lou- 
 i.siana, and to report on the conduct of the administrators of the 
 colony to the government" (Gayarre). 
 
 Boleyn, a post-hamlet near the western boundary of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is a station on tlie Texas & Pacific R. R., about 20 
 miles west of Natchitoches, the parish seat.
 
 LOUISIANA 115 
 
 Bolinger, a village in the northern portion of Bossier parish, is a 
 station on the main line of the St. Louis Southwestern R. R., about 
 •4 miles south of the Arkansas line. It has a money order postoffice, 
 an express office, and is the trading center for a considerable dis- 
 trict. The population is 300. 
 
 Bolivar, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Tangipahoa parish, 
 is a station on the Kentwood & Eastern R. R., and is about 12 
 miles northeast of Amite, the parish seat. 
 
 Bolton, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Vernon parish, is 
 situated on the Quelqueshoe, about 10 miles south of Jerguson, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bonami, a village in Beauregard parish, is a station on the Kan- 
 sas City Southern R. R., about 5 miles south of De Ridder. It has 
 a money order postoffice, express and telegraph offices, and is a 
 shipping point of some consequence. Population 300. 
 
 Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince de Canino, a brother of Napoleon, was 
 born at Ajaccio. Corsica, in ]\Iarch, 1775. He was educated at the 
 college of Autun and the military school of Brienne ; was elected 
 to the council of 500 in April, 1798 ; and after the return of Napo- 
 leon from Egypt became president of that body. In Dec, 1799, he 
 was appointed minister of the interior, and in Nov., 1800, was sent 
 as ambassador to Spain. At Madrid he negotiated the treaty of 
 March 21, 1801, modifying the treaty of the previous October, 
 which receded the province of Louisiana to Prance and gave the 
 duchy of Tuscany to the Duke of Parma, who was to receive the 
 title of King of Etruria. On Oct. 15, 1802, Charles IV. of Spain 
 signed Bonaparte's treaty on condition that "France must pledge 
 herself not to alienate Louisiana, and to restore it to Spain in case 
 the King of Etruria should lose his power." It was under this 
 arrangement that Spain opposed ,the transfer of Louisiana to the 
 United States a year later. In 1804 Lucien Bonaparte became an 
 exile at Rome, and some years later was ordered to quit the con- 
 tinent of Europe. In 1810 he embarked for the United States, but 
 on the voyage was captured by an English cruiser and held a pris- 
 oner in that country until 1814. After the abdication of his brother 
 he advocated the claims of Napoleon II, after whicli he retired to 
 Italy and there devoted the remainder of his life to literary pur- 
 suits. He died at Rome in 1840. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, one of the greatest generals in history, 
 was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, Aug. 15, 1769. Before he was ten 
 years old he entered the military school at Brienne, France, where 
 he remained for over five years, when he went to Paris, completed 
 his education in the military school of that city, and in Sept., 1785, 
 entered the army as a lieutenant of artillery. Napoleon first came 
 into notice on Oct. 5, 1794, when, at the head of 5,000 troops, he 
 crushed 30,000 of the national guards in an hoiu-'s time. Larned 
 says: "That was the opening hour of his career." He then led an 
 expedition to Egypt, but in Oct., 1799, he returned to Paris, formed 
 an alliance with Sieyes, a veteran revolutionist, and accomplished 
 the overthrow of the -directory. On Nov. 9, 1799, he was chosen
 
 116 LOUISIANA 
 
 first consul under a new constitution, -with power that was almost 
 absolute. The next two years he devoted to the recovery of Italy 
 and the humiliation of Austria, the most noted battle of the cam- 
 paign being that of Jlarengo, which was fought on June 1-1, 1800, 
 and resulted in the complete defeat of the Austrian army. Simul- 
 taneously with the establishment of his power in Europe he under- 
 took the work of regaining some of the French possessions in Amer- 
 ica. He persuaded Charles IV. of Spain that if Louisiana belonged 
 to Prance it would stand as a bulwark between ]\Iexaco and the 
 United States, and would also serve as a protection to Spanish 
 commerce on the Gulf of j\Iexico. The consequence was that the 
 province was receded to France by the treaty of St. Udefonso, 
 which was concluded on Oct. 1, 1800. (See Treaties.) Napoleon's 
 next step was to provide a thorough system of government for the 
 colony. The principal officials under this s.ystem of government, 
 with their salaries, were a captain-general, 70,000 francs; a colonial 
 prefect, 50,000 francs: a grand judge, 36,000 francs; and a sub-pre- 
 fect for Upper Louisiana, 6,075 francs. He also had struck 270 
 silver medals for the chiefs of the Indian tribes at a cost of 8,792 
 francs. His power over Louisiana was of short dxiration. Spain 
 delayed in making the transfer; Napoleon failed to reestablish 
 French authority in the island of St. Domingo : he also became in- 
 A^olved in other colonial troiibles; a war with England Avas im- 
 minent, and he foresaw that in the contest his American colony 
 would probably be wrested from him by Great Britain. At this 
 crisis in his career the United States made overtures for the pur- 
 chase of that part of Louisiana lying east of the Jlississippi river, 
 and the negotiations ended by the transfer of the entire province 
 to the latter country. (See Louisiana Purchase.") lu relinquishing 
 Louisiana to the United States Napoleon dictated the third article 
 of the treaty, which provided for the admission of the inhabitants 
 into the Union "with all the rights, advantages and immunities of 
 citizens of the United States," etc. When the cession was com- 
 pleted he said: "Let Louisianians know that we part from them 
 Avith regret ; that we stipulate in their favor everything that thej" 
 can desire, and let them hereafter, happy in their independence, 
 recollect that they have been Frenchmen, and tliat France, in ced- 
 ing them, has secured for them advantages which they could not 
 have obtained from a European power, however paternal it might 
 have been. Let them retain for us sentiments of affection; and 
 may their common origin, descent, language and customs perpetu- 
 ate the friendship." 
 
 On Aug. 2, 1802, Napoleon was made consul for life by a decree 
 of the senate. On IMay 18, 1804, he assumed the title of emperor, 
 and on Dee. 2, following, he compelled the pope to crown him as 
 Napoleon I, in the ancient cathedral of Notre Dame. On Jlay 26, 
 1805, he was crowned king of Italy in the cathedral of ililan. To 
 follow in detail his movements during the next ten years would 
 require a large volume. The fatal expedition to Russia in 1812 
 marked the beginning of his downfall. In March, 1814, he signed
 
 LOUISIANA 117 
 
 an act of abdication and retired to the island of Elba, of which he 
 was to have the sovereignty, with the title of emperor and an 
 annual allowance of 6,000,000 francs. But he soon grew tired of 
 the life of inaction. On March 1, 1815, he landed in France, near 
 Frejus ; his old troops deserted the Bourbons in a body and flocked 
 to his standard ; in Paris he was again received as emperor of 
 France, and with an army of 125,000 men he marched against the 
 allied armies of England and Prussia. The battle of Waterloo, 
 June 18, 1815, completed his overthrow. Upon his return to Paris 
 the house of representatives demanded his unconditional abdica- 
 tion. On the 22nd he did abdicate in favor of his son. Napoleon II, 
 but the representatives further demanded that he leave France 
 forever, and he began making his preparations to embark for 
 America. On July 7 the allies took possession of Paris, and Napo- 
 leon, finding escape impossible, surrendered to Capt. Maitland of 
 the British vessel Bellerophon. He was sentenced by the English 
 government to confinement for life on the lonely island of St. 
 Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821. 
 
 Bond, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Calcasieu parish, 
 is about 5 miles southeast of Hewitt, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bonded Debt. — (See Finances, State.) 
 
 Bonfouca, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of St. Tam- 
 many parish, is about 4 miles west of Salmens, the nearest railroad 
 station, and al)out the same distance north of Lake Poutchartrain. 
 
 Bonita, a village and station in the northern portion of More- 
 house parish, is a station on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & South- 
 ern K. R., about 6 miles south of the Arkansas state line, and 15 
 miles northeast of Bastrop, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice, 1 free rural mail route, an express office, telephone and 
 telegraph facilities, and a population of 273. 
 
 Bonzano, Maxmilian F., physician, politician and planter, was 
 born in the city of Ehningen, Germany, March 21, 1821. In 1835 
 he came with his father and brother to New Orleans, where he was 
 employed in a printing office until the yellow fever epidemic of 
 1837, wlien tlie father took his two sons to Houston, Tex. Subse- 
 quently they returned to New Orleans and "Max" resumed work 
 in the printing office until he had leai-ned the English language 
 sufficiently well to become a clerk in a drug store, and while em- 
 ployed in this capacity he took up the study of medicine. In 1843 
 he entered the Charity hospital as a student, graduated, and was a 
 visiting physician to that iustitution until 1848, when he was ap- 
 pointed by President Polk to the position of melter and refiner of 
 the mint. Here he remained until the breaking out of the war in 
 1861, when, being opposed to secession, he went north and remained 
 until after the occupation of New Orleans by the Federal forces 
 in the spring of 1862. He tlieu returned to that city and in the fall 
 of 1864 was elected to represent the 1st district in Congress. His 
 seat was contested, and, although a majority of the committee re- 
 ported in his favor, the opposition was strong enough to prevent a 
 vote on the report. On the last day of the session he was voted
 
 118 LOUISIANA 
 
 .$2,000 to cover his expenses of the contest. After the war he held 
 several official positions, but iu 1883 retired to private life and took 
 up his residence on a plantation, which he had purchased in 1878, 
 on the Mississippi river, near Chalmette, the old mansion on the 
 plantation having been Gen. Jackson's headquarters at the time 
 of the battle of New Orleans. 
 
 Bordelonville, a village in the eastern part of Avoyelles parish, 
 is a station on the line of the Louisiana Kaihvay & Navigation com- 
 pany, about 12 miles southeast of IMarksville, the parish seat. It 
 has a money order postofBce and a population of 175. 
 
 Bore, Jean Etienne de, the pioneer sugar manufacturer of Louisi- 
 ana, was born at Kaskaskia. Dee. 27. 1741, a deseendent of an old 
 Norman family, one of his ancestors, Kobert de Bore, having been 
 one of the councilors of Louis XIV. In his bojiiood he was sent 
 to France to be educated, and upon lea^•ing school became one of 
 the king's mouscjuetaires. In 1768 he returned to Louisiana to see 
 about some property there, but went back to France and was com- 
 missioned a captain of cavah-y. In 1771 he married a daughter of 
 Destrehan, who had been at one time treasurer of Louisiana under 
 the French domination, and settled on a plantation iu St. Charles 
 parish, about 6 miles above the city of New Orleans, where he 
 devoted his attention to indigo culture. This business proved to 
 be unremunerative and in 1794 he turned his attention to sugar. 
 Notwithstanding tlie advice of his friends he planted a crop of cane, 
 and while it was growing built a mill for converting the crop into 
 sugar. Others had failed in tliis effort, but in 1795 he succeeded, 
 selling that year $12,000 worth of sugar, an event that revolution- 
 ized the agriculture of the delta. He was subsequently mayor of 
 New Orleans under the Laussat regime ; was a member of the tirst 
 territorial legislature: and was one of those who agreed to be re- 
 sponsible for $10,000 to reimburse Gen. Yillere to that amount 
 for the defense of New Orleans if the legislatiu-e failed to do so. 
 He died iu 1819. 
 
 Borgne, Lake. — (See Lake Borgne.) 
 
 Bosco, a village in the extreme southeastern part of Ouachita 
 parish, is a station on the St. Louis, Iron ^Vlouutaiu & Southern 
 R. R., about 15 miles south of ^lonroe, the parish seat. It has a 
 money order postoffice and a population of about 50. 
 
 Bossier, a village in the western part of the parish of the same 
 name, is a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Naviga- 
 tion company, the St. Louis Southwestern and the Vicksburg, 
 Shreveport & Pacific R. Rs., just across the Red river from Shreve- 
 port. It has a money order postoffice, express offices, some good 
 mercantile establishments, and a population of 775. 
 
 Bossier Parish was established Feb. 24, 1843. It was settled 
 subsequent to 1828 by immigration from the South Atlantic states 
 and ^lississippi. Prior to 1828, when Claiborne parish was created, 
 all this territory belonged to Natchitoches, one of the original 19 
 parishes created by the territorial legislature in 1807. From 1828 
 to 1843 Bossier was a part of Claiborne. The first session of the
 
 LOUISIANA 119 
 
 parish jury was held June 19, 1843. The parish seat was established 
 at. Fredonia the same year, but the name of the town was changed 
 to Society Hill and finally to Bellevue before the end of the year. 
 In Sept., 1888, an election was held to determine the removal of 
 the parish seat to Benton, but it was not removed for some time 
 afterward. Judge William K. Beck opened the first term of the 
 parish court on Sept. 25j 1843, N. C. Copes was temporary clerk, 
 and J. B. Lowry the first sheriff. All the business of the district 
 appears to have been transacted by the parish court, until Nov. 
 16, 1846, when Edward R. Olcott, judge of the 17th district, opened 
 court. Bossier is situated in the northwestern part of the state ; 
 is bounded on the north by tlie State of Arkansas; on the east 
 by Webster and Bienville parishes ; on the south by Red River 
 parish, and on the west by Caddo parish, from which it is separated 
 by the Red river. The parish has an undulating surface of 832 
 square miles, and belongs to the "good upland" parishes. It may 
 be divided into three parts, oak uplands, redlands and bottom lands. 
 The soil is varied but good, a part being of alluvial formation. The 
 uplands between the Red river bottoms and Lake Bistineau are 
 known as "the points." This tract produces in great abundance, 
 while the Red river bottoms are the richest cotton lands in the 
 state. The "post-oak flats," which extend north from "the points" 
 to the Arkansas line, are cultivated and in the southern portion 
 there is a large tract of rolling prairie. The hills are rich, produc- 
 tive and well timliered. The forests are largely oak, pine, cypress, 
 walnut, gum, beech, holly, hickory, sycamore, poplar and cotton- 
 wood. The parish is drained liy Bodcaii lake in the central part, 
 and by the Red river and its many tril>utaries. Bossier is one of 
 the finest cotton divisions of the south and is conspicuously a cotton 
 parish. Besides this great staple it prodvices corn, hay, alfalfa, 
 oats, sugar-cane, both varieties of potatoes and all the fruits and 
 vegetables common to this latitude and region. Prom Rocky point 
 northward there is a heavy deposit of iron ore, considerable ore 
 is also found near Bellevue, near wliich there is a brown coal belt 
 about 30 miles long, and as early as 1861 salt works were in opera- 
 tion at Lake Bistineau. The Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R. 
 traverses the southern part of the parish, running east from Shreve- 
 port ; the St. Louis Southwestern enters the northern boundary near 
 Arkana, and runs south through Benton to Shreveport; the Louisi- 
 ana Railway & Navigation company's line runs southeast from 
 Shreveport along the Red river, and the Minden, East & West 
 R. R. is building a line northeast from' Shreveport. Cheap trans- 
 portation is afi'orded by steaml)oats on tlie Red river. Besides 
 Benton, the parish seat, the most important towns are : Alden 
 Bridge, Allentown, Antrim, Atkins, Vanceville, Bolinger, Haugh- 
 ton, Bellevue, Plain Dealing and Rocky Mount. 
 
 The following statistics concerning farms, manufactures and 
 population are taken from the U. S. census for 1910: Niimber of 
 farms, 3,373 ; acreage; 248,914 ; acres under cultivation, 128,053 ; 
 value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $3,594,846 ;
 
 120 LOUISIANA 
 
 value of farm buildings, $951,751; value of live stock, $912,248; 
 total value of all crops, $1,595,937. The population is 21,738. The 
 recent discovery of oil and natural gas in this section of the state 
 has added to the importance of Bossier parish, and the next census 
 will doubtless show a much larger percentage of increase, both in 
 population and wealth. 
 
 Bossier, Pierre Evariste, member of Congress, wa.s a native of 
 Louisiana, of a Creole family which was among the first to settle 
 in the French colony. He received a classical education and be- 
 came a politician. After serving for 10 years in the state legis- 
 lature, he was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 28th 
 Congress as a Calhoun Democrat by a large majority and served 
 from Dec. 4, 1843, until his death, which occurred at Washington, 
 D. C, April 24, 1844. 
 
 Boudreaux, a post-hamlet in the central part of Terrebonne par- 
 ish, is situated on the western shore of Lake Quitman, about 12 
 miles south of Houma, the parish seat and most convenient railroad 
 station. 
 
 Bougere, a village in the southeastern part of Concordia parish, 
 is on the Mississippi river and a station on the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R. It has a money order postoflSce and is a shipping point of 
 some importance. 
 
 Boughton, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Richland 
 parish, is on Little creek, about 10 miles southwest of Mangham, 
 the uearest railroad station. 
 
 Bouligny, Dominique, United States senator from Louisiana, was 
 born in Louisiana and was the son of Francisco Bouligny, who came 
 to Louisiana with O'Reilly. He was educated in tlie public schools; 
 studied law and practiced in New Orleans ; was elected U. S. sena- 
 tor from Louisiana (in place of Henry Johnson, resigned"). He 
 served from Dec. 21, 1824, to March 3, 1829 ; died at New Orleans, 
 La., :\larch 5, 1833. 
 
 Bouligny, Francisco, soldier, was born at Alicant, Spain, March 
 5, 1735. The family originally came from Milan, where the name 
 was spelled "Bolognini," but one of the ancestors of Francisco 
 was captured by the French, which led to a change in the orthogra- 
 phy. At the age of 18 years, Francisco entered the Spanish service 
 as a cadet, and in 1762 he was ordered with his regiment to Havana. 
 His first appearance in Louisiana was in the summer of 1769, when 
 he came with Gov. O'Reilly. He carried the letter of O'Reilly 
 from the Balize to New Orleans, notifying Aubi'y of the arrival of 
 the Spanish fleet. When O'Reilly left the province Bouligny re- 
 mained at New Orleans at the head of his regiment, having mar- 
 ried earlier in tlie year, 1770, Louise d'Aiiberville, daughter of the 
 marine commissioner of Louisiana. He served witli Galvez in the 
 campaigns against Baton Rouge, IMobile and Pensacola in 1779-81, 
 during the conquest of West Florida, and rose to the rank of briga- 
 dier-general. He was for a short time acting-governor at the death 
 of Gayoso de Lemos in 1799. Prior to that time (in 1776) he wrote 
 a memoir entitled: "Notice of the actual state of the commerce
 
 LOUISIANA 121 
 
 and popiilation of New Orleans and Spanish Louisiana, and the 
 means of advancing that province, which is presented to his Catho- 
 lic Majesty through his Minister of the Indies, the most illustrious 
 Don Josef de Galvez, with the greatest respect, by Don Francisco 
 Bouligny, Captain of the Battalion of Infantry of that province." 
 He died at New Orleans on Nov. 25, 1800, and of all the Spanish 
 officers who were on duty at various times in Louisiana, none left 
 a more honored name than Francisco Bouligny. 
 
 Bouligny, John Edmund, lawyer and memljcr of Congress, was 
 born at New Orleans, Feb. 25, 1824. He was a nephew of Domi- 
 nique Bouligny ; received his education in the public schools ; stud- 
 ied law and began practice in New Orleans ; held several local of- 
 fices before he was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 
 36th Congress as a National American, and was the only represen- 
 tative from the seceding states who did not leave his seat. His 
 death occurred at Washington, D. C, Feb. 20, 1864. 
 
 Boullemet, Virgil, first president of the New Orleans Howard 
 association, was born in that city in 1820, his father being a native 
 of France. Wlien the Howard association was organized in 1837, 
 he was elected president, though only 17 years of age at the time. 
 He was active in the yellow fever epidemics of that and svicceeding 
 years, and in 1853 was made a member of the board of health and 
 chairman of several of its most important committees. Much of 
 the subsequent good accomplished by the Howard association was 
 due to the start given it by its boy president, whose name is still 
 well remembered by the survivors of those early epidemics. 
 
 Boundaxies. — A volume might be written on the changes in the 
 boundaries of the French possessions in America under the name 
 of Louisiana, from the time La Salle laid claim to all the country 
 drained by the Mississippi in 1682 until the final adju.stment in 1819. 
 At the Louisiana Purchase exposition, held at St. Louis in 1904, 
 the U. S. general land office bad on exhibition a series of maps, 
 showing the boundaries at various periods of history. Map No. 1, 
 embracing the territory claimed by La Salle, shows the eastern 
 boundary beginning at the mouth of the river of Palms on the 
 western coast of Florida (near what is now Sarasota bay), and 
 extending northward by an irregular line along the watershed 
 between the streams flowing into the Atlantic and those flowing 
 westward into the Ohio and Mississippi or the Gulf of Mexico ; the 
 northern boundary was also an irregular line, dividing the basin 
 of the great lakes from the Mississippi valley, and extending in a 
 northwesterly direction from a point near the present city of Buf- 
 falo, N. Y., to the 49th parallel of north latitude ; thence along that 
 parallel to the crest of the Rocky mountains ; thence in a south- 
 easterly direction, along the watershed dividing the western trib- 
 utaries of the Mississippi from the waters of the Pacific slope, to 
 the Gulf of Mexico, at about 92° west longitude (somewhere near 
 Vermilion bay) ; and thence along the gulf coast to the place of 
 beginning. The grant to Crozaf in 1712 confirmed these boundar- 
 ies, setting forth that the garrison established in 1699 "has kept
 
 122 LOUISIANA 
 
 and preserved the possession we had taken in the verv year 1683, 
 etc." 
 
 The second map sliows tlie boundaries as adjusted liy the trea- 
 ties of 1762-63. In Nov., 1762, France ceded all her Louisiana pos- 
 sessions to Spain, but a few months later Spain permitted France 
 to cede to Great Britain all that portion of Louisiana lying east of 
 the Mississippi and north of 31° north latitiide, and at the same time 
 Spain ceded to Great Britain all east of the ^Mississippi and south 
 of the 31st parallel. The boundaries of Louisiana then included 
 only that portion of La Salle's claim lying west of the Mississippi, 
 which was actually delivered to Spain in April, 1764. The next map 
 shows the boundaries as they were adjusted by England, Spain and 
 the United States at the close of the Revolutionary war, when the 
 United States received all that portion of the original claim lying 
 east of the Mississippi and north of the 31st parallel, and Great 
 Britain ceded back to Spain that part lying south of that parallel. 
 By the secret treaty of San Ildenfonso, Spain ceded back to France 
 "the colony or province of Louisiana, with the same extent it now 
 has in the hands of Spain, and that it had when France possessed 
 it." As this included the cession of Great Britain of the territory 
 south of tlie 31st parallel, the boundaries, as shown by the land 
 ofifice map after this treaty, extended eastward to the Perdido river, 
 which now forms the western boundary of the state of Florida, 
 and embraced in Louisiana all east of the Mississippi and south of 
 the 31st parallel of north latitude. However, when three years later 
 France ceded to the Ignited States all her claims to Louisiana, using 
 the same language that had been used in tlie treaty of San Ude- 
 fonso, Spain laid claim to the strip south of 31° between the ilissis- 
 sippi and Perdido, but the United States insisted that the disputed 
 territory was included in the cession. Stoddard, who wrote in 1812, 
 says: "If the claims of France are sufficiently supported, Loiiisi- 
 ana bounds thus : South on the Gulf of Mexico ; west, partly on 
 the Rio Bravo, and partly on the Mexican mountains; north and 
 nortliwest, partly on the shining mountains, and partly on Canada; 
 east on the Mississippi from its source to the 31st degree: thence 
 extending east on the line of demarcation to the Rio Perdido: thence 
 down that river to the Gulf of Mexico." 
 
 In tlie meantime Congress had by an act of ]\Iarch 26, 1804, 
 divided the newly acquired territory on the line of the 33rd paral- 
 lel, west of the Mississippi "to the western boundary of said 
 cession," the southern portion to be erected into a territory known as 
 the territory of Orleans, (q. v.) In Oct., 1810, President Madison 
 ordered the governor of Orleans territory to take possession of the 
 region in dispute. Notwithstanding this action on the part of the 
 president. Congress, on Feb. 20. 1811. pas.sed an act enabling the 
 people of Orleans territory to form a constitution, preparatory to 
 admission as a state, the provisions of the act to apply to "the in- 
 habitants in all that part of the territory or country ceded under 
 the name of Louisiana, by the treaty made at Paris on the 30th day 
 of April, 1803, between the United States and France, contained
 
 LOUISIANA 123 
 
 within the following limits, that is to say : Beginning at the mouth 
 of the river Sabine, thenee by a line to be drawn along the middle 
 of the said river, including all islands to the 32nd degree north 
 latitude ; thence due north to the northernmost part of the 33rd 
 degree of north latitude ; thence along the said parallel of latitude 
 to the river Mississippi ; thence down the said river to the river 
 Iberville ; and from thence along the middle of the said river and 
 lakes Jlaurepas and Pontchartrain, to the Gulf of ]\Iexico ; thenee 
 bounded by said gulf to the place of beginning ; including all is- 
 lands within three leagues of the coast." 
 
 This description did not include the territory in question, and 
 some 400 inhabitants of West Florida, under the leadership of 
 George Patterson, petitioned Congress for annexation to Mississippi 
 territory. The petition was referred to a committee, of which 
 George Poiudexter was chairman, and this committee reported in 
 favor of granting the prayer of the petitioners. But Gov. Claiborne, 
 acting under the president's order of Oct., 1810, was in actual pos- 
 session, and was therefore in a position to secure a compromise. 
 Accordingly on April 14, 1812, the president approved an act an- 
 nexing the following territory to the State of Louisiana: "Begin- 
 ning at the junction of the Iberville with the Mississippi ; thenee 
 along the middle of the Iberville, the river Amite, and of the lakes 
 Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the eastern mouth of the Pearl 
 river; thence up the eastern branch of Pearl river to the 31st de- 
 gree of north latitude; thence along the said degree of latitude to the 
 river ^Mississippi ; then down the said river to the place of begin- 
 ning. ' ' This included the western portion of the disputed strip, the 
 act annexing it to Louisiana to become effective as soon as the 
 legislature of that state should give its formal consent. This was 
 done by a resoh;tion adopted on Aug. 4, 1812, and at the same time 
 provision was made for the representation of the new territory in 
 the state legislature. The eastern portion of the strip, extending 
 to the Perdido river, was subsequently divided between the states 
 of Mississippi and Alabama. 
 
 As a matter of fact, at the time of the Louisiana purchase in 1803, 
 none of the boundaries of the new acquisition was definitely deter- 
 mined. Du Pratz, who was in Louisiana from 1718 to 1734, as an 
 officer under the crown, published a map in 1758, showing the 
 French Louisiana as including the whole of what was known as 
 West Florida down the gulf coast westward to the mouth of the 
 Rio Bravo, "laid down by the Spaniards in 25° 53' north latitude, 
 and by the English in 26°8' north latitude." From the mouth of 
 the Rio Bravo the line followed that stream to a bend about 29° 25' 
 north latitude, then diverged to the northwest on the summit of the 
 Mexican mountains, and terminated in the 46th parallel, north lat- 
 itude. It will be noticed that the act of Congress of March 26, 
 1804, above referred to, did not definitely fix the western boundary 
 of the territory of Orleans, merely defining it as "the western boun- 
 dary of said cession." Had the boundary been settled on the line 
 laid down by Du Pratz, Orleans territory would have included
 
 124 LOUISIANA 
 
 practically all that part of the present State of Texas lying south 
 of the 33rd parallel. In 1803 there was a warm dispute at New Or- 
 leans, between the French and Spanish commissioners, relative to 
 the western limits of Louisiana, the former contending for the Kio 
 Bravo and the latter for the Sabine. "While the controversy was in 
 progress the province was ceded to the United States and the dis- 
 cxTssion was brought to a summary end. Although the enabling act 
 of Feb. 20, ISll, names the Sabine as the western boimdary of the 
 State of Louisiana, when admitted, that river was not fully deter- 
 mined as the line between the United States and the Spanish pos- 
 sessions on the west until the treaty of 1819. The northern bound- 
 ary, named in the enabling act as the 33rd parallel of north lati- 
 tude, was not established \intil some years later. On May 19, 1828, 
 Congress passed an act authorizing the president to appoint a sur- 
 vej'or or commissioner, or both, to act in conjunction with the con- 
 stituted authorities of the State of Louisiana, "to cause to be run, 
 and distinctly marked, the line dividing the Territory of Arkansas 
 from the State of Louisiana." By an act of Feb. 18, 1830, the gen- 
 eral assembly of Louisiana authorized the governor to appoint one 
 commissioner and one surveyor, ''agreeably to an act of Congress, 
 approved May 19, 1828." to run and mark the line. Thus the north- 
 ern boundary was established. The present boundaries of Louisi- 
 ana are the same as those defined by the enabling act and the act of 
 April 14, 1812, annexing the district west of the Pearl river and 
 south ef the line of 31° north latitude. A dispute arose between 
 Louisiana and ilississippi abo\it the beginning of the present cen- 
 tury over the maritime boundary. This dispute was settled by a 
 friendly suit in the U. S. supreme court, for a full accout of which 
 see the article on Heard's administration. (See also the articles 
 on Treaties. West Florida, Dunbar's Line and Louisiana Purchase.) 
 
 Bourg, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of the Terrebonne par- 
 ish, situated on Bayou Chene about 10 miles southeast of Houma, 
 the parish seat and nearest railroad station, 
 
 Boutte, a ^-illage in the central part of St. Charles parish, is sit- 
 iiated on tlie Southern Pacific R. R., about 5 miles south of Hahn- 
 ville, the parish seat. It has a money order postofBce, an express 
 office, and a population of 300. 
 
 Bovee, George E., was somewhat prominent in Louisiana political 
 affairs during a portion of the reconstruction period. In 1868 he 
 was elected secretary of state on the ticket with Gov. "Warmoth, 
 and bj' virtue of that office he became a member of what was known 
 as the Lynch returning board. In August, 1871, "Warmoth removed 
 him for alleged malfeasance in office and appointed F. J. Herron in 
 his place. Judge Emerson of the 8th district court holding that 
 Warmoth had the right to remove the secretary and fill the vacancy 
 until the close of the next session of the legislature. In iMarch, 
 1872, Bovee brought suit against Herron for possession of the of- 
 fice. Judge Diblile decided that although Herron 's commission was 
 legal his term had expired and that Bovee was entitled to the of- 
 fice. This decision was affirmed by the supreme court the follow-
 
 LOUISIANA 125 
 
 ing December, and "Warmoth, fearing that Judge Dibble would ex- 
 ecute the writ, removed him and appointed Judge Elmore, who re- 
 fused to do so. With the overthrow of the carpet-bag regime Bovee 
 disappeared from the political arena. 
 
 Bowie, one of the principal towns of Lafourcbe parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 15 miles east of Thibo- 
 daux, the parish seat, and it is the southern terminus of a short 
 line of railroad called the Bowie, Lafourche & Northwestern. It 
 has a money order postoffice, telegraph and express offices, some 
 good retail stores, and a population of 1,000. 
 
 Bowles, William A., adventurer, was born in Maryland in 1761. 
 In 1776 he enlisted in the British army and the following year, 
 w'hile serving as ensign in Jamaica, he was disciplined for insubor- 
 dination. In his anger, he threw off his uniform, returned to Flor- 
 ida and there married the daughter of a Creek chief. In 1781 he 
 led a party of Creeks to the aid of Gen. Campbell at Pensaeola, 
 which place was then being besieged by Gov. Galvez, and for his 
 timely assistance was pardoned by the British authorities. Again 
 he joined the British army, but as he was not amenable to disci- 
 pline he was again dismissed. He then went to New York and tried 
 to become an actor, and about this time he won the friendship of 
 Lord Dunmore, governor of the Bahamas, who appointed him agent 
 of a trading house on the Chattahoochee river. Later he went to 
 England with a delegation of Creeks, Seminoles and Cherokees, to 
 secure the protection of those tribes against the aggressions of the 
 United States. The Spanish government in.strueted the governors 
 of Louisiana and Pensaeola to make efforts to bribe Bowles into an 
 alliance with Spain, or place him under arrest. On March 12, 1792, 
 he was brought a prisoner to Gov. Carondelet, who ordered him to 
 be taken to Madrid. Threats and bribes alike failed to induce him 
 to enter the Spani.sh service, and he was taken to the island of 
 Manila, where for some time he was kept in close confinement. He 
 was then ordered back to Spain, biit on the way managed to effect 
 his escape at Ascension island, and finally reached London. His 
 next appearance on the western hemisphere was as a privateer on 
 the Gulf of Mexico, where he made war on the trade of Panton, 
 Leslie & Co., who had a trading house at Pensaeola and were the 
 agents of Spain in dealing with the Indians. Finally both Spain 
 and the United States secretly offered the Indians a reward for the 
 capture of Bowles. He was soon taken prisoner by the Indians, but 
 managed to effect his escape by gnawing in two the ropes with 
 which he was bound. After an exciting chase he was recaptured 
 and taken to Havana, where he died a prisoner in ]\[orro castle. 
 Perrin du Lac speaks of Bowles as a great man and a patriot, but 
 his greatness lay in doing reprehensible things, and his patriotism 
 was of a questionable nature, to say the least. 
 
 Boyce is an incorporated post town of Rapides parish, is situated 
 on the Red river and the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 15 miles 
 noi'thwest of Alexandria, the parish seat. This town was first 
 known as Cotile Lauding, and the first postoffice was established in
 
 126 LOUISIANA 
 
 the house of F. il. Amsdeu, 4 miles up Cotile liaj'oii, Init in 1883 it 
 was moved to Cotile Landing. When the railroad was built through 
 the town the name was changed to Boyee, and subsequentl.y the 
 postal authorities gave the office the same name, though against the 
 wishes of a majoi'ity of the old residents of the town. The name 
 was .justified by the fact that the pioneer family of that name set- 
 tled near the town, and shipped the products of their plantation 
 from tJie landing. Patrick Boyee was the first merchant of Cotile 
 Landing, and in 1882, Henry Boyee had the town surveyed. It was 
 incorporated in 1887, and the tirst meeting of the council under 
 the charter occurred on I\Iay 7 of that year. The Knights of Pythias 
 organized a lodge in 1890 and the Episcopal church was established 
 in 1883. Boyee is located in the rich Red river valley and is the 
 supply and shipping point for a large area, as over 3,000 bales of 
 cotton are shipped by rail or water each year. It has a bank, money 
 order postoffice, express, telegraph and telephone facilities and a 
 population of 865. The principal industries are cotton gins, cotton 
 presses and an oil mill. 
 
 Boyd, David French, educator, second president of the LoTiisiana 
 State universitv— 1865 to 1880 and again from 188-4 to 1886— was 
 born at Wytheville, Wythe Co., Va., Oct. 5, 1834, a son of Thomas 
 Jef¥erson and ^Minerva Ann (French) Boyd. The first of his ances- 
 tors in America was John Boyd, who emigrated from Ayrshire, 
 Scotland, and settled in Prince George county, JId., in 1833. David 
 Boyd received his education at a classical school in Staunton, Va., 
 and the I^niversity of Virginia, graduating at the university in 
 1856. He taught school for some time in Prince George county be- 
 fore removing to Louisiana, where he was appointed professor of 
 ancient languages in the State Seminary of Learning and Military 
 academy, near Alexandria in 1860. He enlisted as a private in the 
 9th La. infantr.y, at the outbreak of the Civil war; was rapidly ad- 
 vanced to the positions of captain and assistant commissary of sub- 
 sistence of Gen. Richard Taylor's ("Tiger") brigade, and was act- 
 ing division commissary for Gen. Early in Nov., 1862. He acted in 
 the same capacity for Gen. Harry Hays' Louisiana brigade, but re- 
 signed on ilay 11, 1863, to enter the line, going to Louisiana to 
 join the Trans-ilississippi army. He was about to accept the posi- 
 tion of superintendent of the Louisiana Military academy, but as 
 the territor.y had lieen occupied by Federal troops. Gen. Kirby 
 Smith assigned him to duty as captain of engineers on Gen. Richard 
 Taylor's staif, Aug. 6, 1863. He had charge of eon.structing Fort 
 DeRussy, on the Red river, in Dec, 1863; was promoted and be- 
 came major and chief of engineers : was captured Feb. 3, 1864, and 
 confined in the Federal prison at Natchez, Miss., until exchanged 
 in July, 1864, Col. Boyd joined the Confederate army in Dec, 
 1864, and became adjutant general, with the rank of major, in 
 Brent's Louisiana cavalry brigade. In the autumn of 1865 he was 
 again appointed superintendent of the Louisiana Military academy, 
 which had been closed for two years. AVhen the l)uildings were 
 burned in Oct., 1869, he opened the school at Baton Rouge, within
 
 LOUISIANA 127 
 
 two weeks. It was due to Col. Boyd's personal efforts and sacrifices 
 that the academy was kept open during the reconstruction period, 
 and he may be considered the founder of the present Louisiana 
 State university. All state appropriations were withheld from the 
 academy for a number of years by the carpet-bag legislature. At 
 this time he was appointed superintendent of the Royal ililitary 
 college at Cairo, Egypt, but the abduction of the Khedive and Brit- 
 ish control there prevented his accepting the position, and he re- 
 mained at the university. It was due to Col. Boyd's influence that 
 the legislature in 1876, passed an act uniting the state university 
 with the agricultural and mechanical college of New Orleans. He 
 secured the government barracks at Baton Rouge for a home for 
 the university, was president of the Louisiana State seminary and 
 military academy, during 1865-80 and 1884-86, and professor in 
 the college until his death. The Louisiana State university con- 
 ferred the degree of LL.D. upon him in 1890. A $50,000 memorial 
 building has been built at the Louisiana state university dedicated 
 to his memory. He was married on Oct. 5, 1865, to Esther Ger- 
 trude, daughter of Dr. Jesse and Sarah Robert (Grimball) Wright 
 and died at Baton Rouge, La., May 27, 1899. 
 
 Boyd, Thomas Ducket, seventh president of the Louisiana State 
 university, since 1896, was born in Wythe county, Va., Jan. 20, 
 1854, a son of Thomas Jefferson and Minerva Ann (French) Boyd, 
 and brother of David French Boyd. (q. v.) Thomas Boyd went to 
 the Louisiana State university at the age of fourteen and graduated 
 with the degree of A. M. in 1872. Upon his graduation he M-as ap- 
 pointed assistant professor at the university and later became com- 
 mandant of cadets and professor of history and English language 
 and literature. His success as a teacher was so great that he was 
 made acting president of the institution at the first vacancy of the 
 presidency in 1886, and oft'ered the presidency but declined. In 
 1888 Col. Boyd was elected president of the Louisiana State normal 
 school, and placed that struggling institution upon its feet, so that 
 today it is one of the first normal schools of the South. The ability 
 Col. Boyd displayed as organizer and administrator, at the normal 
 school, caused him to be unanimously elected president of the 
 Louisiana State university in 1896. Col. Boyd received the degree 
 of LL.D. from the Tulane University of Louisiana in 1896. 
 
 Boyer, Benjamin, M., a member of the Congressional committee 
 appointed to investigate the New Orleans riots of 1866, was born 
 in Montgomery county, Pa., Jan. 22, 182.3. He was graduated at 
 the University of Pennsylvania in the fourth decade of the 19th 
 century, occupied the office of district attorney of his native county 
 from 1848 to 1850, and was a member of the 39th and 40th Con- 
 gresses. He, with Thomas D. Elliott and Samuel Shellabarger, was 
 made a member of the above mentioned committee to investigate 
 the riots which followed the negro convention in the Louisiana 
 metropolis in 1866, which convention seems to have had for its 
 purpose the placing of the state under negro domination. Jlr. 
 Boyer's two colleagues rendered the majority report, in which the
 
 128 LOUISIANA 
 
 blame was placed upon the shoulders of the city aud state ofiSeials, 
 aud the former rebels. Mr. Beyer made the minoritj- report. 
 Though he, in a large measure, blamed the incendiary speeches, 
 revolutionary acts and threatened violence of the conveutionists, he 
 severely censored those members of Congress who were furthering 
 the reconstr\ietion law as being "indirectly responsible for the 
 bloodj' result,"' but the most rigorous condemnation was directed 
 at Gov. Wells, who he said, "lent to the conspiracy his official sanc- 
 tion and in the day of danger deserted liis post without an effort 
 to preserve the public peace." 
 
 Bra.gg, Brajcton, a general in the Confederate army in the war 
 between the states, was born in Warren county, N. C., March 22, 
 1817, graudated fifth in the class of 1837 at the U. S. military 
 academy and entered tlie army as lieutenant of artillery. He served 
 in the Indian wars in Florida ; was then stationed at Fort Moultrie 
 until the annexation of Texas in 1845, when he joined the army of 
 occupation aud sei'ved with distinguished gallantry in the war with 
 Mexico, being brevetted captain for bravery in the defense of Fort 
 Brown, major for valor at Monterey, and lieutenant-colonel for 
 meritorious semdces at Buena Vista. He then served on garrison 
 duty and on the staff of Gen. Gaines until 1856, when he resigned 
 his commission in the army and became a planter in Lafourche 
 parish. La. In 1859 he was appointed commissioner of public works 
 and served in that capacity until 1861. Immediately after the pas- 
 sage of the sece.s.sion ordinance he was placed in command of the 
 Louisiana state troops with the rank of major-general, and on 
 IMarch 7, 1861, was commissioned brigadier-general in the provi- 
 sional army of the Confederate States and assigned to the command 
 of Pensacola. Here he remained until Jan. 27, 1862, when lie was 
 given command of the department of Alabama and West Florida, 
 having in the meantime been raised to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. In command of the 2nd army corps he participated in the 
 battle of Shiloh, and after the death of Gen. Albert Sidney John- 
 ston, was promoted general and assigned to the command' of the 
 Army of the Mississippi. Subsequently he succeeded Gen. Beaure- 
 gard in command of the department; planned the invasion into 
 Kentucky before the Federals were ready to receive him; captured 
 4.000 Federal troops at Munfordville. but after the battle of Perry- 
 ville fell back to Tennessee, and defeated Gen. Rosecrans in the 
 battle of IMurfreesboro. In June, 1863, he occupied Chattanooga 
 and was in command of the Confederate forces at the battle of 
 Chickamauga. Sept. 19-20, 1863. In Feb., 1864. he was assigned to 
 duty at Richmond under the direction of President Davis, and the 
 following November was placed in command of the army at Wil- 
 mington, and was engaged in the final movements against Gen. 
 Sherman, including the battle of Reutouville. After the war, hav- 
 ing lost all his property, he took up the work of a civil engineer at 
 New Orleans, superintended harbor improvements at Mobile, and 
 died at Galveston, Tex., Sept. 27. 1876. 
 
 Briathwaite, a post-hamlet and station in the northern part of
 
 LOUISIANA 129 
 
 Plaquemines parish, is situated on the I\Iississippi river and the 
 Louisiana Southern R. R., about 10 miles southeast of New Orleans. 
 
 Branch, a post-hamlet in the central part of Acadia parish, is a 
 station on the Opelousas, Gulf & Northeastern R. R., about 7 miles 
 north of Rayne. It is tlie distributing center of a large rice district 
 and has a population of 125. 
 
 Brandon, a post-hamlet and station of "West Feliciana parish, is 
 situated on the Mississippi river and the line of the Louisiana Rail- 
 way & Navigation company, about 12 miles northwest of St. Fran- 
 cisville, the parish seat. 
 
 Braud, Denis, a French printer, obtained through the influence 
 of D'Abbadie in 1764, the exclusive privilege of printing and of 
 selling books in the colony of Louisiana. Gayarre says that this 
 was the last monopoly conceded by the French government before 
 tiie beginning of the Spanish domination. Braud became known as 
 the "King's printer," and in this semi-ofificial capacity he printed 
 the long memorial touching the events of Oct. 29, 1768, when the 
 superior council issued the decree expelling Gov. Ulloa from the 
 province. On Aug. 21, 1769, he was arrested by order of Gov. 
 O'Reilly, for his participation in the revolution of the preceding 
 year, especially the printing of the memorial above mentioned. 
 Brand's defense was that, being the king's printer, he was obliged 
 to print whatever the authorities directed, and on this plea he was 
 discharged from custody. 
 
 Breaux Bridge, one of the chief towns of St. Martin parish, is 
 situated on the Bayoii Teche, at the junction of two branches of the 
 Southern Pacific R. R., about 12 miles north of St. Martinville, the 
 parish seat. It was incorporated in 1850; has a money order post- 
 office, express, telegraph and telephone facilities, cotton gins, and 
 is the distributing point for a very rich farming district. Popula- 
 tion 1,3.39. 
 
 Breaux, Joseph A., jurist, is a native of Louisiana, born in Iber- 
 ville parish, Feb. 18, 1838, a descendant of the French Acadians. 
 In 1853 he entered Georgetown college, Kentucky, but poor health 
 compelled him to return home after two years and he did not grad- 
 uate. After some time he attended Louisiana college for one ses- 
 sion, and when it was incorporated into the University of Louisi- 
 ana, he attended for a second session. He studied law and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar, but had not practiced long before the Civil war 
 broke out, when he, like so many young southerners, enlisted in the 
 Confederate army, where he served under Gen. Kirby Smith, until 
 his surrender. At the close of the war Mr. Breaux again practiced 
 law ; was president of the scliool board of his parish for some time, 
 and instrumental in increasing the efficiency and usefulness of the 
 common schools. In 1888 he was elected superintendent of public 
 instruction of Louisiana, and while in office had a bill introduced 
 into the legislature remodeling the school laws, which was passed 
 by a large majority. He compiled the school laws, and decisions 
 relating to them, which compilation was published in 1889. On 
 April 24, 1890, he was appointed associate justice of the supreme 
 1—9
 
 130 LOUISIANA 
 
 court of Louisiana, and some years later became cliief justice. Judge 
 Breaux has great judicial faculty, and his rulings are noted for 
 justice and eqiiity. 
 
 Breazeale, Phanor, lawyer and member of Congress, was born 
 at Natchitoches, La., Dec. 29, 1858. He was educated by a private 
 tutor and in 1879 began the study of law with Col. "W. H. Jack of 
 Natchitoches. In May, 1881, he graduated in the law department 
 of what is now Tulane university and began the practice in his 
 home city. In 1888 he was elected president of the parish school 
 board, which office he held for three years ; was elected prosecviting 
 attorney for the 11th judicial district in 1892, and was reelected in 
 1896, withoiit opposition ; was a member of the constitutional con- 
 vention of 1898, and the same year was elected on the Democratic 
 ticket to represent the 4th Louisiana district in the 56tli Congress. 
 He was reelected to the 57th and 5Sth Congresses, serving three 
 terms in all, and upon retiring from the ofiSce resumed the prac- 
 tice of law. In 1908 he was appointed by Gov. Sanders as one of 
 the commissioners to revise and codify the criminal laws of the 
 state. Mr. Breazeale is a member of the Louisiana Historical so- 
 ciety and the State Bar association. 
 
 Breland, a post-hamlet in tlie northeastern part of Tangipahoa 
 parish, is about 4 miles northeast of Bolivar, which is the nearest 
 railroad station. It has a population of about 30. 
 
 Brent, William L., lawyer and politician, was born in Charles 
 county, Md. He received a liberal education, studied law and re- 
 moved to Louisiana, where he practiced. He was elected a repre- 
 sentative from Louisiana to the ISth, 19th, and 20th Congresses as 
 a AVliig. After serving in Congress, he practiced law in Washing- 
 ton, D. C, and in Louisiana. He died on July 7, 1848, at St. !Mar- 
 tinsville. La. 
 
 Brimstone, a post-hamlet and station in the southern part of Cal- 
 casieu parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 6 miles west' 
 of Lake Charles, the parish seat. It has an express office, telephone 
 and telegraph facilities, and does some shipping. 
 
 Brockdale, a post-hamlet in the northern part of "Washington 
 parish, near tlie ^Mississippi boundary, is a .station on the Kentwood 
 & Eastei-n R. R., about 10 miles uortliwest of Franklinton, the par- 
 ish seat. It has an express office and telephone and telegraph facil- 
 ities. 
 
 Brodnax, a post-hamlet in the central part of IMorehouse parish, 
 is situated about a mile south of Bartholomew bayou and 2 miles 
 west of Galliou, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Brooke, John R., soldier, was born in Pennsylvania. July 2L 1838. 
 In April, 1861, he entered the army as a captain of the 4th Pa. 
 volunteer infantry, and rose by successive promotions imtil 'Slay 
 12, 1864, when he was made a brigadier-general. He was with Gen. 
 Grant in tlie Wilderness campaign, and after the war was assigned 
 to duty in the Department of the Gulf. He was appointed by Gen. 
 W. H. Emory to take possession of the arms and other .state prop- 
 erty surrendered by Gov. John IMeEnery, on Sept. 17, 1874, and' to
 
 LOUISIANA 131 
 
 take command of the city of New Orleans until the state and city 
 governments conld be reorganized. When the Federal troops were 
 withdrawn from Louisiana, Gen. Brooke was ordered west, Avhere 
 he continued on duty until the breaking out of the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can war. In 1888 he was made a brigadier-general in the regular 
 army and placed in command of the Department of the Platte, with 
 headquarters at Omaha, Neb. In April, 1898, he was sent to com- 
 mand the troops at Chiekamauga Park, Ga., and in July was ordered 
 to Porto Rico. He was at the head of the military commission; gov- 
 ernor-general of Porto Rico, and later governor-general of Cuba. 
 President Grant did not approve Gen. Emory's action in appointing 
 Gen. Brooke to the command of the city of New Orleans, insisting 
 that the Kellogg government should have been recognized under 
 any and all circmnstauces. To the president's criticism Gen. Emory 
 replied that anarchy would have been certain to result had not 
 Brooke been placed in command. (See Kellogg 's Administration 
 and White League.) 
 
 Brooklyn, a postoffice in the eastern part of Jackson parish, is 
 located about 4 miles southeast of Chathamville, which is the most 
 convenient railroad station. 
 
 Brooks (R. R. name Seibert Station), a post-village in the central 
 part of Pointe Coupee parish, is on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 
 4 miles northwest of New Roads, the parish seat. 
 
 Broussard, an incorporated town in the eastern part of Lafayette 
 parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 7 miles southeast of 
 Lafayette, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, an ex- 
 press office, telephone and telegraph facilities, and is a shipping 
 point of some importance. Population 499. 
 
 Broussard, Robert F., member of Congress, was born on the 
 Marie Louise plantation near New Iberia, La., Aug. 17, 1864. He 
 was educated at several public and private schools in Louisiana 
 and entered Georgetown university, Washington, D. C, in 1879. 
 He was a student there until 1882 ; received an appointment as in- 
 spector of customs at New Orleans in 1885 ; was afterward made 
 assistant weigher, and later became export statistician of the port. 
 While in the government service at New Orleans, he studied law at 
 Tulane university, where he graduated in 1889, and soon afterward 
 located at New Iberia, where he began to practice law in partner- 
 ship with Donelson Foster. He took an active part in the political 
 life of the city and parish ; was elected a member of the Democratic 
 parish executive committee ; the Democratic Congressional execu- 
 tive committee of the 3rd district and the Democratic State central 
 executive committee. When the lottery question came up in 1890, 
 he took an active part on the anti-lottery side and canvassed the 
 state in the campaign against it. He became nominee for the office 
 of district attorney of the 19th district of Louisiana, on the anti- 
 lottery ticket and was elected to that position at the state elections 
 of 1892 and 1894. In 1896 he was elected to represent his district 
 in the lower house of Congress, and has been reelected at each sue-
 
 132 LOUISIANA 
 
 ceeding election. Elected U. S. senator in May, liiTi, to succeed 
 John K. Thornton for term beginning ]\Iareli 4, 1915. 
 
 Brown, a post-hamlet in the soiitliern part of Bienville parish, is 
 located aliout 2 miles noi-th of the southern ))Oundary of the parish, 
 and ahout halfway between Ashland and Saline, which are the 
 nearest railroad stations. It has a money order postoffice and is a 
 trading center for the neighborhood. 
 
 Brown, James, U. S. senator from Louisiana, was born near 
 Stannton, Va., Sept. 11, 1866. He was ediicated at William and 
 Mary college, after which he studied law and practiced at Frank- 
 fort, Ky. In 1789 he commanded a company of sharpshooters in an 
 expedition against the Indians; was secretary to Gov. Shelby in 
 1792 : soon after the cession of the Louisiana teri-itory removed to 
 New Orleans; aided Edward Livingston to compile the code of laws; 
 was appointed secretary of the territoi-y and later U. S. district at- 
 torney. In 1813 he was elected U. S. senator from Louisiana to 
 fill the unexpired term of J. N. Destrehan; served from Feb. 5, 
 1813, to :March, 1817 ; was defeated for reflection by W. C. C. Clai- 
 borne, who died before taking his seat ; was again elected U. S. 
 senator, and served from Dec. 6, 1819, until Dec, 1823, when he 
 resigned: was appointed minister to France on Dec. 23, 1823, and 
 served until July 1, 1829. He died at Philadelphia, April 7, 1835. 
 
 Bruce, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Rapides parish, about 
 5 miles west of Forest Hill, the nearest railroad station. It has a 
 population of about 40. 
 
 Brunett, a village in the northeastern part of East Carroll par- 
 ish, is situated on the Mississippi river about 12 miles above Lake 
 Providence, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice and 
 a population of 125. 
 
 Bruns, J. Dickson, M. D., was a native of Soutli Carolina. After 
 graduating witli first honors at the Carolina college at Columbia, 
 he entered the Jefferson medical college at Philadelphia, Pa., where 
 he also distinguished himself. Soon after he established himself in 
 practice at Charleston the Civil war broke out and he enlisted as 
 a private soldier in the Confederate army, but after the fall of Fort 
 Sumter he was appointed surgeon, in which capacity he continued 
 until the close of the war. He then visited Europe, and upon his 
 return to America was called to a professorship in the New Or- 
 leans scliool of medicine. In New Orleans he built up a successful 
 practice, and also took a keen interest in political affairs. In 1874 
 he was one of the organizers of the White League, and he estab- 
 lished the Democrat for the purpose of opposing the reconstruction 
 policy — especially Jvellogg's administration. He died in 1883. 
 
 Brusly is a post-hamlet of West Baton Kouge parish. 
 
 Bryan, a post-handet in the southern part of Bienville parish, is 
 about .') miles west of Crowson, tlie nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bryceland (R. R. name Bryce), a post-handet in tlie northern 
 part of Bienville parish, is on the Louisiana & Northwest R. R., 
 about 12 miles southwest of Arcadia, the parish seat. 
 
 Buchanan, Robert C, soldier, was born in the State of Maryland
 
 LOUISIANA 133 
 
 about 1810; graduated at the U. S. military academy in 1830; served 
 as lieutenant in the Black Hawk and Seminole wars; was then on 
 the Western frontier until 1845, when he joined Gen. Taylor's army 
 of occupation in Texas; was brevetted major in May, 1846, for gal- 
 lantry at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma; was made lieutenant- 
 colonel of J\laryland volunteers in Nov., 1846; and served in Mexico 
 until the close of the war. He was in the defenses of Washington 
 from Nov., 1861, to March, 1862; took part in Gen. McClellan's 
 Peninsular campaign ; became brigadier-general of volunteers in 
 Nov., 1862, and was for a short time a member of the military com- 
 mission near the close of the war. On Jan. 2, 1868, 'he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the District of Louisiana, and on March 
 25 issued his Special Orders No. 63, relative to the election under 
 the reconstruction act of 1867. This was followed by other orders 
 supporting tlie reconstruction policy of Congress. He remained in 
 command of the district under Gens. Sheridan and Rousseau until 
 Jan., 1869, and the following year was retired. He died at Wash- 
 ington, D. C, Nov. 29, 1878. Gen. Neill, who served as 'his adju- 
 tant-general in Louisiana, says: "Buchanan's course was strongly 
 characterized by wisdom, firmness and moderation under the most 
 trying and difficult circumstances in which a department com- 
 mander has ever been placed since tlie war. On the meeting of the 
 legislature, anticipating trouble and bloodshed, by his strong and 
 manly and prompt action I believe he saved the city of New Or- 
 leans from a massacre." Such is the testimony of one who belonged 
 to the same party as Gen. Buchanan. After a lapse of forty years 
 the impartial historian can have no hesitancy in saying that his 
 "wisdom, firmness and moderation" were exerted to sustain an 
 administration tliat was distasteful to a majority of the people of 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Buck, Charles F., member of Congress, was born at Durrheim, 
 Grand Duehy of Baden, Germany, Nov. 5, 1841. His family came 
 to America when he was young and settled in New Orleans. He 
 was educated in the public schools of New Orleans, and at the 
 Loiiisiana State university, and was elected a representative from 
 Louisiana to the 54t'h Congress as a Democrat. 
 
 Buckeye, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Rapides parish, is 
 situated on a braneli of the Little river, about 6 miles northeast of 
 Kees, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Buckhouse, a little post-village in tlie northern part of Bossier 
 parish, is located on a short line of railroad called the Arkansas & 
 Eastern, which connects with the St. Louis Southwestern at Arkana. 
 
 Buckner, a post-village in the southwestern part of Richland 
 parish, is situated on the Boeuf river, about 8 miles west of Maug- 
 ham, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 BuUard, Henry Adams, jurist and educator, was born at Groton, 
 ^lass., Sept. 9. 1781. He was educated at Harvard college, where 
 he graduated in 1807 ; studied law and practiced for some time ; 
 accompanied Gen. Toledo as military secretary on a revohitionary 
 expedition into New Mexico, which was repulsed by Spanish troops
 
 134 LOUISIANA 
 
 at San Antonio ; and after snflferiug many hardships reached Nat- 
 chitoches, where he engaged in the practice of law. In 1822 he was 
 elected district jiidge, representative from Louisiana to the 22nd 
 Congress as a Whig, and reelected to the 23d Congress, serving 
 from Dec. 5, 1831, lantil 1834, when he resigned to become judge of 
 the supreme court of Louisiana. He remained on the supreme bench 
 until 1846, with the exception of a few months in 1839, when he 
 acted as secretary of state. In 1847 he was appointed professor of 
 civil law in the Louisiana law school and delivered two courses of 
 lectm'es; in 1850 he was elected to the lower house of the state leg- 
 islature, and to the 31st Congress as a Whig to fill the vacancy 
 caused by the death of Charles M. Conrad. He served from Dec. 5, 
 1850. until his death April 17, 1851, at New Orleans, La. He was 
 the first president of the Louisiana Historical society. 
 
 Bullitt Bayou, a post-village in the northeastern part of Con- 
 cordia parish, is on the ^lississippi river, about 8 miles northwest 
 of Yidalia. the parish seat, and 5 miles northeast of Sycamore, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Bundick, a post-hamlet in Beauregard parish, is situated on a 
 creek of the same name, about 5 miles north of Kedbuck. the nearest 
 railroad station. 
 
 Bunkerhill, a post-hamlet in the central part of L'nion parish, is 
 on the Arkansas Southeastern R. E., about 8 miles east of Farmer- 
 ville. the parish seat. 
 
 Bunkie, formerly 'known as Irion, is an incorporated banking 
 town in the southwestern part of Avoyelles parish, on the Texas & 
 Pacific K. R., about 12 miles southwest of ]\Iarksville, the parish 
 seat. The first house was built in 1882, when the town was named 
 by Capt. Haas after his little daughter. The first record of the 
 council is dated April 14. 1885. The first postofiice was established 
 in 1883. and since that time the town has grown with great rapidity. 
 It is a large cotton shipping point, and supplies a rich agricultural 
 district. It has an international money order postofiice, an express 
 ofiice as well as telegrapli and telephone facilities, and a popula- 
 tion of 1,765. 
 
 Buras, a village in tlie southern part of Plaquemines parish, is 
 situated on the j\Iississippi river and is- the southern terminus of 
 the New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R. It has a money 
 order postofiice. an express office, and a population of 500. 
 
 Burch, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Washington parish, 
 near the Mississippi border, is about a mile southwest of Brock- 
 dale, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Burgess, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Bossier par- 
 ish, is near the Arkansas line and a short distance from Ansel, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Burissa (R. R. name Houston), a post-hamlet and station in Allen 
 parish, is on the St. Louis, Iron ^It. & Southern R. R., about 30 
 miles northeast of Lake Charles, the parish seat. 
 
 Burke, Edward A., wlu> was prominent in Louisiana politics dur- 
 ing the reconstruction davs, was of Irish extraction, as his name
 
 LOUISIANA 135 
 
 would indicate. His grandfather fled from that island to America 
 to escape punishment for complicity in a rebellion against the Brit- 
 ish government, and became a naturalized American citizen. In 
 1861, at the age of 19 years, Edward enlisted in the army, and at 
 the close of the war located in New Orleans, where he became agent 
 for the Jackson railroad (now the Illinois Central). He was bit- 
 terly opposed to the Kellogg administration and when the White 
 League was formed in 1874 he became an active and influential 
 member of the organization. In the conflict of Sept. 14, 1874, he 
 served on the staff of Adjt.-Gen. Ellis, and received the thanks of 
 Gen. Ogden in his official report. In 1878 he was elected treasurer 
 of state and held the office for 10 years, retiring in April, 1888. 
 Shortly after his election to this office he was one of a company that 
 bought the New Orleans Democrat, of which he became the sole 
 owner the following year. In Dec, 1881, he purchased the New Or- 
 leans Times and consolidated the two papers under the name of 
 the Times-Democrat, which it still bears. He was one of the prime 
 movers in the Cotton Centennial exposition at New Orleans in 
 1884-5 and was director-general of the enterprise. In Sept., 1889, 
 irregularities in the conduct of the treasurer's office during his 
 administration came to light, and in October he was indicted for 
 the illegal use of bonds and for negotiating bonds that ouglit to 
 have been destroyed. At that time he was in London, England, 
 and instead of returning to Louisiana to face the charges, he went 
 to Spanish Honduras. He never returned to New Orleans, nor 
 coukl he be brought back for trial, though in July, 1890, the gov- 
 ernor offered a reward of $10,000 for his apprehension. Through 
 the exercise of the principle of law that the state is not responsible 
 for the unauthorized acts of officials, the loss to Louisiana was 
 comparatively small, as most of the fraudulent bonds were recov- 
 ered. 
 
 Burkplace, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Bienville par- 
 ish, is about 3 miles southwest of Lucky, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Burnside, a village in the southern part of Ascension parish, is 
 on the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R., and about 6 miles north- 
 east of Donaldsonville, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office, an express office, telephone and telegraph facilities. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, lawyer and politician, was born at Newark, N. J., 
 Feb. 6, 1756. His father was a Presbyterian minister and the 
 founder of Princeton college, where Aaron graduated in 1772. He 
 then began the study of law, but when the Revolutionary war be- 
 gan he entered the army, served with Benedict Arnold in the expe- 
 dition to Canada, then became a member of Washington's staff and 
 later served as aide to Gen. Putnam. After the war he settled in 
 New York; was elected to the U. S. senate from that state in 1791; 
 and in 1800 was elected vice-president. Intense rivalry between him 
 and Alexander Hamilton led to a duel on July 11, 1804, in which 
 Hamilton was killed. Burr fled to South Carolina until the excite- 
 ment over the affair cpiieted down, then retiu-ned to Washington, 
 Avhere he formulated the project, the exact nature of which has
 
 136 LOUISIANA 
 
 never been made public. It is on account of this scheme that his 
 career is of interest in connection with Louisiana's history. (See 
 Burr conspiracy.) He was arrested and tried for treason, but was 
 aeqiiitted, after Avhich he went to Europe, where he remained for 
 several years. Under a tictitious name and in disgi;ise he returned 
 to America and resumed the practice of law in New York. He died 
 on Statcn Island, N. Y., Sept. U, 1836. 
 
 Burr Conspiracy. — The precise object of Aaron Bun- and his col- 
 leagues is to a great extent a matter of conjecture. The actors in 
 the drama have all passed away, and the records left by them are 
 both scant and contradictory. The prevailing opinion is that Burr's 
 designs contemplated : 1st the separation of the west from the 
 east along the line of Alleghany mo\mtains, or 2nd, in case he 
 failed to accomplish this, to seize New Orleans and use that city as 
 a base of operations for the conciuest or "liberation" of Spanish 
 America. Burr's term as vice-president of the United States ex- 
 pired on March 4, 1805, and soon afterward he commenced his op- 
 erations. On his way to the southwest he visited Harmon Blenner- 
 hassett, an Englishman living on Blennerhassett island in the Ohio 
 river, near Parkersburg, W. Va., and enlisted his sympathy and co- 
 operation. From Blennerhassett 's he went to Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee, Avhere he was warmly received. He next spent several days 
 at Fort Ma.ssae with Gen. James "Wilkinson. On June 26 he arrived 
 at New Orleans with letters from Wilkinson to several prominent 
 men, among whom were Gov. Claiborne, Gen. John Adair and 
 Daniel Clark. In the letter to Adair, Wilkinson said: "He (Burr) 
 understands your merits and reckons on you. Prepare to visit me 
 and I will tell you all. We must have a peep at the unknown world 
 beyond me." In the letter to Clark, Wilkinson stated that Biirr 
 would "communicate many things not proper to write." and 
 pledges his life tliat confidence in Burr would not be misplaced. 
 Gov. Claiborne, who knew nothing of the scheme, gave a banquet 
 with Biirr as the guest of honor, tlius enabling him to meet with 
 and form the acquaintance of the leading men of the city. PreA'ious 
 to this time there had been rumors of a conspiracy between Wil- 
 kinson and Gov. Miro to found an empire extending from the Alle- 
 ghany mountains to the Pacific ocean, and that tiie former was in 
 the pay of S]>ain to secure the secession of Kentuck}^ and Tennessee 
 from the United States. If this dream constituted any part of Burr's 
 plot, he was careful to keep the fact concealed, discussing it only 
 when forced by circumstance to do so, and then in a vague and 
 incoherent way. The whole French territory of Louisiana had re- 
 cently passed into the hands of the United States, the whole Mis- 
 sissippi valley was full of adventurers, many of whom were dis- 
 satisfied with the change, and it was from this reckless and per- 
 'haps disloyal element that Burr expected to recruit many of his 
 followers. But it was ne/'cssary to have a few men of character and 
 influence to control the destinies of the new republic — hence the 
 letters of Wilkinson to such men as Clark, Adair and others. 
 
 In New Orleans was an organization known as the Mexican
 
 LOUISIANA 137 
 
 Association, the ultimate purpose of wliicli was the liberation of 
 Mexico, ilayor Watkins was one of the leading members, and 
 through his influence Burr soon won the confidence and assistance 
 of the association. Information was rapidly gathered, and after 
 about two weeks Burr left New Orleans with the promise to return 
 in October. After visiting Natchez he went on to Tennessee and 
 Kentucky and in September again called on Wilkinson, who after- 
 ward testified that it was at this time his suspicions were aroused 
 and he advised the president that Burr ought to be watched. Burr 
 then went east, where it is said he devoted himself to the work of 
 persiiading England to tiuauce his scheme of an independent gov- 
 ernment in the Mississippi valley. It is also said that he tried to 
 intimidate the Spanish minister into defraying the expenses of an 
 expedition for the liberation of Mexico and the Floridas. Failing 
 in both these undertakings, he turned to his personal friends, fore- 
 most among whom were his son-in-law, Joseph Alston, of South 
 Carolina, and Blennerhassett. Burr did not return to New Orleans 
 as he had promised, but he sent emissaries there to keep alive the 
 interest in his movement. The most prominent of these were Sam- 
 uel Swartwout, Dr. Erick Bollman and Peter V. Ogden, all of high 
 social standing, who gained ready access to the homes of the men 
 they desired to bring over to Burr's side. 
 
 All through the summer and fall of 1806 rumors flew thick and 
 fast. Northern newspapers intimated that Burr's purpose was to 
 seize the military posts on the ]\rississippi and call a convention of 
 the western states to form an independent government. Another 
 report was that the new government would give away the public 
 lands, instead of selling them, as the United States were then doing. 
 Still another was that Burr's army, aided by the English, M-ould 
 invade Mexico and revel in plunder. Late in September Wilkinson 
 arrived at Natchitoches and assumed command of the troops there. 
 Here on Oct. 8 he received a letter from Burr, brought by Samuel 
 Swartwout, .stating that detachments of the expedition would soon 
 descend the Mississippi, and that Burr would reach Natchez in the 
 early part of December. Swartwout returned to New Orleans on 
 the 16th and about a week later Wilkinson sent a messenger to 
 President Jefferson, advising liim of Burr's intention to send an 
 armed force down the Mississippi. Previous to this time Burr had 
 been twice arrested in Kentucky on the charge of plotting against 
 the Spanish territory, but each time he had been acquitted, the 
 president even allowing the impression to go abroad that Burr was 
 acting under official approval. But in the fall of 1806 information 
 came to tlie president from various sources, among which was Wil- 
 kinson's messenger, and on Nov. 27 he issued a proclamation warn- 
 ing all loyal citizens against taking part in "the criminal enter- 
 prise." 
 
 Soon after Burr's departure from New Orleans in July, 1805, it 
 became known that he had been negotiating with Baron Bastrop 
 for a large concession on the Ouachita river, and the rumor was 
 circulated that Burr's intention was to found his new state in that
 
 138 LOUISIANA 
 
 locality. The IMexicau government, upon hearing this report, sent 
 troops to protect the frontier against an invasion. (See Sabine Ex- 
 pedition.) On Oct. 29, 1806, Wilkinson made arrangements for 
 the -withdrawal of troops on both sides and to allow the govern- 
 ments to settle the disputed cjnestion of boundaries. The people of 
 New Orleans grew alarmed for the safety of the city and asked for 
 protection. xVccordingly, early in December the army arrived from 
 Natchitoches and Wilkinson asked Gov. Claiborne to proclaim mar- 
 tial law. This proposal was courteously but firmly refused by the 
 governor, the business men were called together, and in a short 
 time several thousand dollars were subscribed for the defense of the 
 city. By this time many people had begun to mistrust Wilkinson. 
 Cowles ]Mead, acting governor of Mississippi, wrote to Claiborne : 
 "It is believed here tliat General Wilkinson is the soul of the con- 
 spiracy. * * * If I stop Burr, this may hold the general in his alle- 
 giance to the United States. But if Burr passes this territory with 
 2,000 men, I have no doubt the general will be your worst enemy. 
 Be on your guard against the wily general. He is not much better 
 than Cataline. Consider him a traitor and act as if certain thereof. 
 You may save yourself by it." This letter may have had something 
 to do with the governor's action in placing the militia imder arms, 
 as from this time on until the trouble was over a battalion was kept 
 in readiness for any emergency that might arise. 
 
 On Sunday, Dec. 14, Wilkinson ordered 'the arrest of Dr. Boll- 
 man, Ogden and Swartwout as agents of the "arch conspirator." 
 Bollman was released by a civil court on a writ of habeas corpus, 
 Jiidge Workman holding that, as the prisoner liad not been reg- 
 ularly charged and indicted, his detention was illegal. Ogden was 
 also released, but both men were rearrested and held in spite of 
 the habeas corpus proceedings. The court then issued an attach- 
 ment against Wilkinson and appealed to the governor to use force 
 if necessary to enforce it. This the governor refused to do. Work- 
 man resigned, and Wilkinson was master of the situation. ^Martial 
 law prevailed. Workman, Gen. Adair and others were arrested by 
 Wilkinson's order, and the prisoners were quickly taken beyond 
 the jurisdiction of Louisiana courts. In view of the fact that Adair 
 and Swartwout had both been the recipient of letters from Wilkin- 
 son, introducing Burr, their arrests looked a little like "the irony 
 of fate," and Burr's friends now raised the cries of "Military usur- 
 pation," "Denial of the habeas corpus," etc., which led Jefferson 
 to write to Claiborne: "The Federalists will try to make some- 
 thing of the infringement of liberty by the military arrest and de- 
 portation of citizens," but expressed the hope that the public 
 would in the end approve the action of Wilkinson, if the infringe- 
 ment did not go too far. 
 
 While these events were occurring in New Orleans Blennerhas- 
 sett's island home was raided by the Virginia militia. He escaped 
 but his wife and children, with li young men and boys, were cap- 
 tured. The boys were acquitted, after which they took Mrs. Blen- 
 nerhassett and her children down the river in a small house-boat
 
 LOUISIANA 139 
 
 to Bayou Pierre, where she was joined by her husband about the 
 middle of Jan., 1807. Toward the middle of December Burr visited 
 Gen. Jackson, who agreed to assist the expedition for the libera 
 tion of Mexico, but whose suspicions had been awakened when he 
 learned that Wilkinson was connected with the enterpi-ise. Burr 
 assuerd Jackson, however, that he had no disloyal motives, no 
 hostile designs against the United States. Jackson then provided 
 him with a sum of money and some of the general's friends joined 
 the expedition. At Fort Massac Burr was informed by Command- 
 ant Bissell that Wilkinson had compromised with the Spaniards, 
 whereupon Jackson's friends returned to their homes. McCaleb 
 says: "Burr could now have had no other purpose in view than to 
 begin the settlement of his Washita lands — there was no other al- 
 ternative." By the end of the year 1806, 8 vessels, bearing 50 guns, 
 were anchored in the vicinity of Natchez, while other boats lay 
 further down the I'iver awaiting the "army of invasion." 
 
 At last the mountain labored and the mouse was born. On Jan. 
 12, 1807, Burr reached Bayou Pierre with a few small boats and a 
 mere handful of men. Cable says the news reached New Orleans 
 on Jan. 28, that Burr had been ai-rested at Natchez by the Missis- 
 sippi militia, and that his expedition consisted of 14 boats and 100 
 men. Burr was released under $5,000 bail to await the action of 
 the grand jury. That body failed to bring an indictment, but 
 the bond was not canceled by the court. In company with a man 
 named Ashley he left the territory, and the governor offered a re- 
 ward of $2,000 for his capture. Burr and his companion were ar- 
 rested near Fort Stoddart, Ala., and taken to Washington. With 
 several of his associates he was tried, but all were acquitted, and 
 the famous conspiracy that had kept the nation in a turmoil for 
 more than a twelvemonth was ended. 
 
 Bvirr Ferry, a post-hamlet on the western boundary of Vernon 
 parish, is situated on the Sabine river, about 15 miles west of Pick- 
 ering, the nearest railroad and banking town. It has a money order 
 postoffiee. 
 
 Burrwood, a post-haralet of Plaquemines parish, situated on an 
 island at the entrance to the southwest pass on the Mississippi 
 river. It is the most southerly village in Louisiana. 
 
 Burton, a post-hamlet in the western part of St. James parish, is 
 a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 3 miles west of Con-- 
 vent, the parish seat. 
 
 Burtville, a village and station in the southern part of East Baton 
 Rouge parish, is on the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R., about 10 
 miles southeast of Baton Rouge, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffice and a population of 125. 
 
 Bush, a post-village in the northeastern part of St. Tammany 
 parish, is a station on the New Orleans Great Northern R. R., about 
 27 miles north of Slidell. 
 
 Bush, Louis, a member of the legislature of 1861, was an active 
 advocate of secession and made the motion in the house to sustain 
 and approve the action of Gov. Moore in taking possession of the
 
 140 LOUISIANA 
 
 forts, etc., within tlie limits of tlie state. The motion Avas carried 
 by a vote of 119 to 5. Mr. Bush was also a stanch and consistent 
 opponent to the reconstruction policy of Congress after the war. 
 He was one of the signers of the call of Sept. 13, 1874, for the meet- 
 ing at the Clay statue on Canal street, for tlie purpose of devising 
 ways and means to oust the Kellogg administration, and was a 
 participant iu the stirring scenes of the following day. On Jan. 
 1, 1877, he was elected speaker of the house in the legislature that 
 organized at St. Patrick's hall, which was ultimately recognized 
 by President Hayes as the legal legislature of the state. He founded 
 the "Louis Bush medal for French" at the Univei-sity of Louisi- 
 ana, now Tulane. 
 
 Butler, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of de Soto parish, 
 is about 6 miles east of Pelican, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F., lawyer and soldier, M'as born at Deerfield, 
 X. H., Nov. 5, 1818, the son of Jolua Butler, who served as captain 
 of dragoons ^ath Gen. Jackson at the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 
 8, 1815. Benjamin was graduated at Waterville college (now Col- 
 by university) in 1838, then studied law and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1840. He soon won a reputation as a criminal lawyer and 
 became active in politics as a Democrat. In 1860 he was a delegate 
 to the Democratic national convention at Charleston, but was one 
 of those who withdrew and subsequently nominated Breekenridge 
 and Lane. At the breaking out of the Civil war lie held a commis- 
 sion as brigadier-general in the Massachusetts militia, and was or- 
 dered by the governor of that .state to proceed to Washington with 
 his troops. He was next placed in command at Fortress I\Ionroe, 
 and in Feb., 1862, was assigned to the command of the land forces 
 destined for tlie capture and occupation of New (Orleans. On ]\Iay 
 1, 1862, after the reduction of the New Orleans defenses by Farra- 
 gut's tleet, he landed his army and occupied the city, where he re- 
 mained in command until Dec. 16, 1862. As his troops marched into 
 the city they were hailed with maledictions and shouts of derision. 
 This may have made Butler more severe than he otherwise would 
 have been in the administration of affairs in the vanquished city, 
 but even this is a poor excuse for many of his harsh and imperious 
 acts. Shortly after his arrival he sent a proclamation to the office 
 of the True Delta for publication. The editor refused to print it, 
 whereupon the office was seized by the soldiers and tlie proclama- 
 tion was set up by printers from different regiments in Butler's 
 command. On the 2nd Butler established his headquarters at the 
 St. Charles hotel, and after a conference with tlie mayor and city 
 council it was decided that the civil authorities should continue to 
 exercise their power in everything except military matters. This 
 arrangement did not last long, however, the cause of the charge 
 being tlie famous General Order No. 28, which was issued by Butler 
 on ilay 15. Naturally the women of New Orleans did not look with 
 favor upon the occupation of their city by an enemy, and in some 
 instances were perhaps too free in their manifestations of dislike. 
 To check these alleged insults the order above referred to was is-
 
 LOUISIANA 141 
 
 sued and was as follows: "As the officers and soldiers of the United 
 States have been subject to repeated insults from the women (call- 
 ing themselves ladies) of New Orleans in return for the most 
 scrupulous non-interference and courtesy on our part, it is ordered 
 that hereafter when any female shall by word, gesture, or move- 
 ment insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United 
 States she shall be regarded and held liable to be treated as a 
 woman of the town plying her avocation." This brought a protest 
 from the mayor, who was accordingly removed and Gen. George F. 
 Shepley appointed military commandant with the functions of 
 mayor. Mayor Monroe, his secretary. Judge Kennedy and the 
 chief of police were arrested and taken to Fort Jackson. Pierre 
 Soule was also arrested and imprisoned in Fort "Warren; W. B. 
 Mumford (q. v.) was executed in June; the press was stifled; cit- 
 izens were arrested upon the slightest pretext and sentenced to 
 Ship island where the men were often condemned to hard labor and 
 to wear the ball and chain ; property of Confederate sympathizers 
 was confiscated ; and foreign consi;ls were treated with insolence 
 and in some cases with absokite injustice. In the office of the con- 
 sul of Holland was the sum of .$800,000, which had been deposited 
 there for the payment of bills to Amsterdam bankers. This money 
 was seized by Butler who claimed that it had been intrusted to the 
 consul for the purpose of purchasing supplies and munitions of 
 war, but in August the president ordered the return of the money 
 to the consul. Butler was succeeded by Gen. N. P. Banks on Dee. 
 16, 1862, and on taking leave of the people of New Orleans issued 
 an address in which he said: "I shall speak in no bitterness, be- 
 cause I am not conscious of a single personal animosity. Command- 
 ing the Army of the Gulf, I found you captured, but not surren- 
 dered ; conquered but not orderly ; relieved from yoixr presence of 
 an army, but incapable of taking care of yourselves. So far from 
 it, you had called upon a foreign legion to protect you from your- 
 selves. I restored order, punished crime, opened commerce, brought 
 provisions to your starving people, reformed your currency, and 
 gave you quiet protection, such as you had not enjoyed for many 
 years." The address continued in the same strain and must have 
 appeared as a superb piece of irony to the people who had lived 
 for more than 7 months under his orders in constant fear for life 
 or liberty. James Schouler, in his History of the United States, 
 says of Butler's occupation of New Orleans: "In one way or an- 
 other, Butler laid here the foundation of wealth which subserved 
 his later ambition in politics, and those he attached to himself 
 were chiefly such as sought material success in life or enjoyed pun- 
 ishing the prostrate. * * * m fitted for conqueror, he posed as 
 avenger." After the war Gen. Butler became a Republican, was 
 elected to Congress in 1866, and with the exception of 2 years re- 
 mained in the lower house until 1879. In 1871 he failed to receive 
 the nomination for governor of Massachusetts and became some- 
 what wavering in his party allegiance; was an independent candi- 
 date for governor in 1878 ; the regular Democratic nominee for that
 
 U2 LOUISIANA 
 
 ofiSee iu 1879; was defeated iu both eampaigus; supported Hau- 
 cock for president iu 1880; was again nominated for governor by 
 the Democratic party iu 1882, for want of a better candidate, and 
 tliis time was elected. He died in Washington, D. C, Jan. 11, 1893. 
 Butler, Thomas, member of Congress, was born at Carlisle, Pa. ; 
 he received a good education iu his native state ; removed to Lou- 
 isiana, wliere lie was elected a representative to the 15th Con- 
 gress, defeating Edward Livingston for the position. He was re- 
 elected to the 16th Congress, and served from Fel). 26, 1818, to 
 March .3, 1821. He died at New Orleans, Aug. -i, 1847. 
 
 Cabega de Vaca. — (See Nuilez Alvarez). 
 
 Cabildo. — On Nov. 25, 1769, Gov. O'Reilly issued a proclamation 
 abolishing the superior council, M-hich for more than half a century 
 had been such a potent agency in shaping the destinies of Louisi- 
 ana, and established in its place the cabildo. It was composed of 
 two ordinary alcaldes, the alferez real, the provincial alcalde, the 
 aguazil mayor, the depository-general, the receiver of fines, the 
 attorney-general-syndic, the mayor-domo-de-proprios, and the es- 
 cribano or clerk. By virtue of Ins office the governor was presi- 
 dent of the cabildo, but in his absence one of the ordinary alcaldes 
 miglit preside. The ordinary alcaldes, who occupied the first seats, 
 were judges Avithin the city in civil and criminal cases where the 
 defendant was not entitled to or did not claim the privilege of a 
 military or ecclesiastical judge. In addition to their duties as 
 members of the cabildo they held petty courts iu tlieir residences 
 of evenings, at which they gave Tiiiwritten decisions, but clergy 
 and soldiers were beyond tlieir jurisdiction. In cases where the 
 amount involved did not exceed .$20 no record was kept, and when 
 the amount exceeded 90,000 luaravedis (.1^330.80) the defendant had 
 the right to appeal from the decision of the ordinary alcaldes to 
 the cabildo in general. The alferez real was an honorary office, 
 his duty being to bear the royal standard on public occasions. The 
 principal provincial alcalde had jurisdiction over all ott'euses com- 
 mitted outside the city limits. The alguazil mayor executed in per- 
 son or by deputy all processes of the cabildo and liad charge of the 
 police and prisons. The depositary-general took charge of the pub- 
 lic revenues, kept and dispensed the public stores. The receiver of 
 fines was charged with the collection of fines and penalties imposed 
 by the tribunal. The attorney-general-syndic prosecuted all causes 
 in the name of the crown, and it was also a part of his duty to de- 
 fend the rights of the people and to propose measures for the ad- 
 vancement of their interests. Tlie mayor-domo-de-proprios was 
 simply the town treasurer, and the clerk kept a record of the pro- 
 ceedings. According to Martin, the cabildo sat every Friday, but 
 the governor had power to convene it at any time. Tlie first sitting 
 was on Dec. 1, 1769, with Gov. O'Reilly presiding; ordinary alcaldes,
 
 LOUISIANA 143 
 
 Dons Lnis Antonio Lachaise and Jiian Luis Trndean, who served 
 during the year 1770; Alferez real, Don Francisco Maria Reggio; 
 principal provincial alcalde, Don Pedro Francisco Oliver; alguazil 
 mayor, Don Carlos Juan Bautista Fleuriau ; depositary-general, 
 Don Jose Ducros ; receivers of fines, Dons Dyonisio Brand and An- 
 tonio Bienvenu ; attorney-general-syndic, Don Luis Rauson ; niayor- 
 domo-de-proprios, Don Juan Durel ; clerk, Don Juan Bautista Garie. 
 
 The cabildo was abolished by Laussat in 1803, immediately upon 
 the return of Louisiana to France. The building known as the 
 cabildo (originally called the casa capitular) was erected by Don 
 Andres Almonester in 1794, on the site of the town hall, which had 
 been destroyed by fire, just south of the church and fronting the 
 plaza. For a long time it was believed that it was the gift of Almo- 
 nester to the city, but later it was found out that the sum of $28,- 
 500 had been returned to his widow and daughters. 
 
 At the cabildo took place the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to 
 France on Nov. 30, 1803, and from France to the United States on 
 Dec. 20, 1803. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. — Louisiana has been represented in the cabinets 
 of three presidents, as follows : Edward Livingston was appointed 
 secretary of state by President Andrew Jackson in 1831, succeed- 
 ing Martin Van Bureu ; Charles M. Conrad was appointed secretary 
 of war by President Millard Fillmore in 1850, and served until 
 March 7, 1853, when he was succeeded by Jefferson Davis; Wil- 
 liam H. Hunt entered the cabinet of President James A. Garfield as 
 secretary of the navy on March 5, 1881, and served iintil April 1, 
 1882, when he was succeeded by William E. Chandler, of New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 Cable, George Washington, author, was born in New Orleans, La., 
 Oct. 12, 1844. His father was a native of Virginia and his mother 
 of New England. He was educated in the schools of New Orleans 
 until the death of his father, when, at the age of 14 years, he was 
 obliged to leave school to help support his mother and worked as a 
 clerk until in 1863, when he enlisted in the 4t'h Miss, cavalry (Con- 
 federate) and served until the end of the war, studying in his spare 
 time. After the war he took a place as errand boy in a mercantile 
 house ; later studied civil engineering and practiced this profes- 
 sion for some time, but gave it up because of malaria contracted 
 while surveying the marsh lands along the Atchafalaya river. 
 Turning his attention to writing he contributed work to the New 
 Orleans Picayune and this was so favorably commented on that in 
 1869 he became one of the editors of that paper. He had very strong 
 scrixples against the stage and lost his position on the paper for 
 refusing to edit the theatrical news. He again turned to clerical 
 work and entered the employ of a large cotton firm, with which he 
 remained until 1879, when the success of his "Old Creole Days," 
 which had been published in Scribner's Magazine, induced him to 
 turn to literature as a profession. In 1885 he toured the northern 
 states with Mark Twain, and they gave readings in many of the 
 large cities. Soon after this he settled in New England, making
 
 144 LOUISIANA 
 
 his home, first at Simsbiii-y, Conn., then at Xorthampton, ilass. 
 His first book was followed by "The Grandissimes," "Dr. Sevier," 
 "The Creoles of Louisiana," "The Silent South," and several other 
 novels. 
 
 Caddo Parish. — The history of Caddo dates back to 1542, when 
 De Soto is .supposed to have explored this wilderness, crossing the 
 Red river near Fulton, Ark., and returning to the Mississippi by way 
 of the lakes and bayous. Pere Olnis visited the Indian tribes of the 
 Red River and the Rio Grande in 1544. and between that time and 
 1682, he was followed by many of the zealous fathers. In 1700 the 
 Red river was explored by Bienville and St. Denis, and in 1717 de 
 la Harpe ascended the river with 50 men to take up his grant of land 
 on the upper Red river. He established a post at 33° 55', just across 
 the border, in what is now Arkansas, but many years passed before 
 any permanent settlers came this far into the wilderness. The lands 
 between the Sabine and Red rivei's were claimed by both France and 
 Spain and the first plantations were opened and cultivated under 
 grants from the French or Spanish. After Louisiana became a part 
 of the L'uited States, the Indians ceded all this country to the gov- 
 ernment, and Caddo prairie became the scene of pioneer operations, 
 as it was regarded as the garden spot of the Red river valley. Hun- 
 dreds of acres were under cultivation as early as 1836. all along the 
 banks of the river from Grand Ecore to beyond the Arkansas state 
 line. One of the first settlements was made at Irwin's Bluff, by 
 McXeil and Sprague, who soon sold out to James Irwin, a son-in-law 
 of Henry Clay. Some of the other settlers at this time were Joel 
 Wadsworth, Robert Hamilton, John Herndon, and Dr. J. L. Scott. 
 One of the first settlements in the Shreveport neighboi'hood was the 
 James Cane settlement, and towns named Coats' Blutf and Red Bluff 
 were laid out, but never settled iip as the river changed its course and 
 they were left withoiit any water front. Caddo parish was created 
 in 1838. and its name was suggested to perpetuate the memory of the 
 Red river valley Indians. In 1873 the Democratic convention of Texas 
 proposed annexing Caddo and De Soto parishes to Texas. The resi- 
 dents of the two parishes favored these propositions, but the state of 
 Louisiana would not agree to any such proceedings. Shreveport, the 
 parish seat, was started as a town in 1835, when a large force of raft 
 removers had headquarters there. The first parish court was opened 
 Aug. 6. 1838, by Judge Washington Jenkins, with Samuel C. Wilson 
 as clerk and Samuel B. Hunter as deputy clerk. The oldest record of 
 the police jury that has been preserved, is dated Sept. 4. 1840. Judge 
 Ephraim K. Wilson opened the first court of the 7th judicial district 
 on Sept. 3. 1839. and the U. S. district court was established at Shreve- 
 port in 1881, with Alexander Boarman as district judge. Caddo par- 
 ish lies in the extreme northwestern corner of Louisiana, on the bor- 
 der lines of Texas and Arkansas; it is in-egular in shape, being 
 bounded on the north by Arkansas ; on the east by Bossier parish, the 
 Red river forming the 183 miles of boundary line ; on the south 
 bounded by Red River and De Soto parishes and on the west by the 
 Sabine river, which separates it from Texas. Caddo is good upland
 
 LOUISIANA 145 
 
 with some alluvial formation. The uplands have many bayous and 
 lakes and a soil of excellent quality. In the northern portion there 
 are heavy cypress brakes, and the southwestern portion is the water 
 shed between the Red and Sabine rivers. The Red river bottom is 
 from 2 to 8 miles wide and the soil of this bottom land is black, vei\y 
 deep in many places, and of almost unsurpassed fertility, producing, 
 when above inundation, 2 bales of cotton, and from 80 to 100 bushels 
 of corn to the acre. There are thousands of acres of iiplands, which, 
 when brought under cultivation, will produce immense amounts of 
 cotton, while more alluvial land is being reclaimed every year by tlie 
 extension of the levee system. Red river with its tributary streams 
 drains the eastern portion. Cypress bayou the extreme southern por- 
 tion, while a chain of lakes consisting of Clear, Cross, Feriy, Sodo, 
 Swan and Roberta, extend above Shreveport, and are often called 
 Caddo lake, which drains the central portion, and Black ba>ou, with 
 its confluents, runs through many dense cypress brakes in the north- 
 ern portion. The foi'ests of the parish are still heavy and offer a 
 wealth of commercial timber to the lumberman. The trees are oak, 
 gum, elm, beech, hickory, poplar, sycamore and locust. The recent 
 discoveries of oil and natural gas (q. v.) in this parish have done 
 much to attract the attention of investors, with the result that the 
 industrial development of the parish has made great strides since 
 1905. Crop productions are varied, with cotton far in the lead, and 
 corn second. Live stock thrives on the uplands, and some of the finest 
 grades of cattle, sheep, hogs and horses are raised there, as good pas- 
 ture can be obtained the greater part of the year. Game and fish 
 are plentiful and of excellent i|uality. Caddo has the best transpor- 
 tation facilities. The Kansas City Southern R. R. enters near the 
 center of the northern boundary, runs southeast to Shreveport, and 
 from there directly south to Wallace's lake; the Missouri, Kansas & 
 Texas R. R. runs west from Shreveport; the Texas & Pacific enters 
 the northern boundary, follows the general course of the Red river 
 to Shreveport, and then runs southwest to Hadley; the Houston & 
 Shreveport runs southwest from Shreveport to Logansport in De Soto 
 parish; the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, the Vicksburg. 
 Shreveport & Pacific, and the St. Louis Southwestern railroads all 
 center at Shreveport. The following statistics are taken from the U. 
 S. census for 1910: Number of farms, 4,872; acreage, 331,636; acres 
 improved, 211,002 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of build- 
 ings, $6,516,597 ; value of farm buildings, $1,299,890 ; value of live 
 stock, $1,359,060; total value of products, $2,641,588. The population 
 was 58,200. 
 
 Cades, a village in the extreme southwest corner of St. Martin 
 parish, is about 6 miles southwest of St. Martinville, the parish seat, 
 and has a population of 350. It is at the junction of two divisions 
 of the Southern Pacific R. R. system, which makes it an important 
 shipping point. It has a money order postoffiee, and is the trad- 
 ing center of a rich agricultural district. 
 
 Cadeville, a post-hamlet in the western part of Ouachita parish 
 
 I— 10
 
 146 LOUISIANA 
 
 on a confliient of the Ouachita river, about 6 miles southwest of 
 Fleming, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cadillac, Antoine de la Motte, one of the early French governors 
 of Louisiana, was born in Gaseony, France, about 1660, of noble 
 family. At an early age he entered the French army and rose to 
 the rank of captain. In 1691 he received a grant of land in Amer- 
 ica and from 169-1 to 1699 was commandant at ^lackinaw. Two 
 years later he received a commission from Louis XIV to found a 
 settlement somewhere near the foot of Lake Huron, and on July 
 2-4 of that year, landed on the site of the present city of Detroit, 
 Mich., "with 50 soldiers, 50 colonists, and 2 priests," who had made 
 the voyage igom Quebec in bark canoes in 49 days. His rashness 
 and irritable disposition brought about trouble in the colony and 
 in 1701: he was tried at Quebec for official misconduct, but was ac- 
 quitted and governed at Detroit for several years. He then re- 
 turned to France, where he became associated with Antoine Crozat 
 in mercantile pursuits, and when the latter was granted a monopoly 
 of the Louisiana trade, he appointed Cadillac governor. He ar- 
 rived at ilobile on March 17, 1713, and it was not long until the 
 same traits of character that had involved liim in trouble at Detroit 
 began to manifest themselves in Louisiana. He had been instructed 
 to seek for gold and silver, which were believed to exist in bounti- 
 ful quantities in Louisiana, and wasted much time in a vain search 
 for the precious metals. He refused to listen to or cooperate with 
 Bienville, who had been with the colony from its incipience, and by 
 arbitrary actions alienated the Indian tribes with whom Bienville 
 had established friendly relations. In a short time he began to 
 write complaining letters to his superior in Prance. In one of these 
 he says: "What can I do with a force of fortj' soldiers, out of 
 whom five or six ai-e disabled? A pretty army this, and well cal- 
 culated to make me respected by the inhabitants or by the Indians! 
 As a climax to my vexation, they are badly fed, badly paid, badly 
 clothed and without discipline. As to the officers, they are not 
 much better. Verily, I do not believe that there is in the Avholo 
 universe such another government." This would indicate that 
 Cadillac's notion of government was to have a large and well dis- 
 ciplined army, so he could command by force the "respect of the 
 inhabitants and the Indians." It would doubtless have been better 
 had he tried to win the respect of the people by measures less 
 harsh, and by the adoption of a policy that would have contributed 
 more to their material welfare. In the summer of 1716 Cadillac 
 was recalled to Fi-ance, where he died about 1720. (See Crozat 
 Grant.) 
 
 Caflfery, Donelson, lawyer, soldier and U. S. senator, was born 
 in St. Mary's parish, La., Sept. 10, 1835. He was ediicated at St. 
 Mary's college, of Maryland, after which he studied law and was 
 admitted to the bar. In Jan., 1862, he enlisted as a private in the 
 Ci-escent Rifles, joining his command at Corinth, Miss., but two 
 months later was transferred to the 13th La. infantry, with which 
 he served in the Corinth campaign and the battle of "Shiloh. After
 
 LOUISIANA 147 
 
 that engagement he returned to New Orleans, where he soon after- 
 ward received a eonimission as second lieutenant in the 1st La. 
 regular infantry. This commission was signed by Jefferson Davis, 
 president of the Confederate States. Before reaching his command 
 Lieut. Caffery was detailed as an aide-de-camp on the staff of 
 Gen. John 6. Walker, Avho had been assigned to the command of 
 a division under Gen. Eichard Taylor in Louisiana. He served in 
 this capacity for two years, taking part in the battles of Brashear 
 and Franklin and the principal engagements of the Red River cam- 
 paign in the spi'ing of 1864, after which he was ordered to join his 
 regiment at Mobile. Upon reaching tliat city he found that his 
 command had moved and was again assigned to Gen. Walker's 
 staff, but before he could report for duty the war came to an end. 
 He then resumed his law practice and became extensively inter- 
 ested in sugar planting. Mr. Caft'ery's first active connection with 
 political affairs was in 1879, when he was elected a delegate to the 
 constitutional convention. In 1892 he was elected to the state sen- 
 ate, and the same year was appointed to the U. S. senate to fill 
 the vacancy cavised by the death of Gen. Randall L. Gibson. The 
 legislature of 1894 elected him for the remainder of this unexpired 
 term, and at its close he was elected for a full term of six years. 
 He was succeeded by Murphy J. Poster on Jlareh 4, 1901. Upon 
 retiring from the senate he resumed his law practice until his death 
 in 1906. 
 
 Calcasieu Parish. — The legislative act creating this parish was 
 approved March 24, 1840. It is situated in the southwestern part 
 of the state on the Texas border and is bounded on the north by 
 Beauregard parish ; on the east by Jeft' Davis parish ; on the south 
 by Cameron parish, and the Sabine river forms its entire western 
 boundary, separating it from Texas. Calcasieu has an area of 
 about 936 square miles. 
 
 The early history of the parish dates back to the closing years of the 
 18th century, when the tract between the Rio Hondo and the Sabine 
 river, called for years the "neutral strip," was under Spanish juris- 
 diction. In 1797, a large grant of land was made to Jose M. Mora, in 
 this vicinity, and the country soon filled up with desperadoes from 
 the eastern states until it became a notorious refuge for outlaws. Pili- 
 busterers from Carolina, Georgia and Mississippi filled the Rio Hondo 
 grant, and quite a period elapsed before any permanent settlers ven- 
 tured to take up claims in the district. Some of the first to take up 
 land were Charles Sallier, an Italian, who settled in Calcasieu at the 
 beginning of the 19th century. His name is perpetuated by the city 
 of Lake Charles. The Ryan, Perkins, Le Blue and a number of other 
 English speaking families settled on the Rio Hondo lands, as Calcasieu 
 was then known, between 1811 and 1824. Nearly all of these pioneers 
 remained on the east side of the river, those on the west were Joseph 
 Cornow, Hiram Ours, Dempsey He, Elias Blount, David Choate, Philip 
 Deviers, Joshua Johnson, John Gilchrist, George Ower, Isaac Goster, 
 Joseph Clark, Llitehell Neil and John Henderson. At a later date 
 some Acadians emigrated from the parishes east of Calcasieu, so that
 
 148 LOUISIANA 
 
 today the population is mixed, consisting of Creoles, Acadians. Ameri- 
 cans and Indians, or their half-breed descendants. After the organi- 
 zation of the parish the first courthouse was 6 miles fi"om Lake Charles, 
 at a small place called Marion, but which is now known as Old Town. 
 About 1851-2, the parish seat was removed to Lake Charles, where a 
 courthouse was erected in 1872 and a jail in 1873. The surface of the 
 parish is nearly level and is partly covered with savannas or open 
 plains, which make excellent pastui'e for cattle as they are covered 
 nearly the entire year with luxuriant grasses. Originally about 60 
 per cent, of the pari.sh was covered with long leaf yellow pine, as 
 the northwestern half is pine flats and pine hills. The eastern half 
 is upland and prairie. A little marsh land and cypress swamp exists 
 along the southern boundaiy and the center of the parish, while all 
 the alluvial land lies along the Sabine river and the other water 
 courses. The soil of the uplauds, while not so fertile as that of the 
 eastern parishes, produces all kinds of field crops in paying quantities 
 and the rich alluvial laud will prodiiee as much cotton to the acre 
 as the northern and eastern parishes. The chief industry up to 
 recent years was lumbering, the heavy forests providing an almost 
 inexhaustible supply of yellow pine, and millions have been invested 
 in the lumber interests. As the pine woods were cleared away, cattle 
 raising became an important industry. Better breeds of stock were 
 introduced, as well as improved methods of handling, feeding, etc. 
 Today the crop productions are principally rice and sugar, though 
 cotton, sweet and Irish f)otatoes and some small grains are raised. 
 Until recently fruit culture was not considered profitable except in 
 the northern part of the parish, but both soil and climate are adopted 
 to the growth of fruit trees and horticulture is a growing industry. 
 Fruits and nuts such as oranges, peaches, pears, plums, pecans, guavas, 
 pomegranates, prunes and figs, are profitably ■grown and exported to 
 the northern markets during the winter months. Inexhaustible de- 
 posits of sulphur have been found in the parish, and the sulphur mine 
 at Sulphur City is one of the richest in the world. Large gj-psum 
 beds exist, oil of a high grade has been found, and though none of 
 the wells so far have been gushers, the pumping wells are paying. 
 Gas wells have been struck south of Sulphur, Init so far have not been 
 put to commercial use. The principal streams of the parish are the 
 Sabine, Houston and Calcasieu rivers. Bayou Xez])if|ue. and their 
 many tributaries, which all flow south to the Gulf of ilexico. Trans- 
 portation facilities are excellent. The Southern Pacific R. R. crosses 
 the southern part of the parish from Mermenton on the east to Orange 
 on the Sabine river, and a bi'anch of the same system runs from Lake 
 Charles to Lake Arthur, in the southeastern part of the parish; the 
 St. Loi\is, Watkins and Gulf R. R. ; the Colorado Southern R. R. ; 
 the Kansas City Southern R. R., are other roads. Lake Charles, 
 the parish seat, is the largest and most important town in the par- 
 ish. The following statistics are taken from the U. S. census 
 for 1910: Number of farms 3.199; acreage, 490,594; acres improved, 
 274,260; value of farms and improvements exclusive of buildings, $8,- 
 341,377; value of farm buildings, $1,693,650; value of live stock. $2,-
 
 LOUISIANA 149 
 
 401,476; total value of all crops, $3,668,378. The population is 
 62,767". These figures include the three new parishes of Allen, 
 Beauregard and Jeff Davis, which have been organized since that 
 date. 
 
 Caldwell Parish, situated in the north-central part of the state, 
 is bounded on the north by Ouachita parish ; on the east by Richland 
 and Franklin parishes; on the south by Catahoula parish, and on the 
 west by Winn and Jackson parishes. Caldwell parish was established 
 in 1838, during the administration of Gov. Edward White, and up 
 to that time formed a part of Catahoula, one of the original 19 par- 
 ishes created by the first legislature of Orleans territory in 1807. Upon 
 the organization of the parish, Columbia was selected and has re- 
 mained the parish seat. The first meeting of the es-officio members of 
 the police jury was held at the house of Fleming Noble, March 13, 
 1838. The members of the board were Thomas B. Rutland, James A. 
 Woodbridge, John Gray and Jacob Humble, .justice of the peace, and 
 William B. Snow, parish judge. In April, 1839, Judge Henry Boyce 
 presided over the first district court, which was held in a log building 
 hurriedly erected as a court house, and used for several years until 
 torn down to make room for a more modern structure. At an early date 
 a man by the name of Copeidmgen started, about a mile west of the 
 Ouachita river on a small prairie, a store, which became a trading post 
 and around which quite a. settlement sprang up within a few years. 
 The second settlement was made on Bayou Castor, in the western part 
 of the parish by immigrants of Scotch, English and Irish descent from 
 the older states. Here settled the Strouds, Nortons, Bannisters and 
 other families. In 1827, Daniel Humphreys settled where the city 
 of Columbia now stands, and 3 miles west of Columbia a bear 
 hunter by the name of Riley Baker made a settlement, which bears 
 his name today. A. A. Banks, another early settler, became a 
 wealtliy planter and merchant. A numljer of Frenchmen came 
 into the i^arish and located east of the Ouachita river, where their 
 descendants still own some of the fine plantations. The formation 
 of Caldwell is pine hills, good uplands and alluvial bottom land. Its 
 physical outlines are rugged and broken in the upland i^ortions, 
 but the soil is rich and productive. All the country west of the 
 Ouachita is wooded upland, with many valleys, having a general 
 trend north and south. The hills are covered with fine timber, such 
 as pine, oak, ash, beech, hickory, <.dm, poplar, magnolia, locust, 
 holly, maple, walnut and willow, while the valleys are exceedingly 
 rich, farm lands. It is said that the valley of the Ouachita and its 
 tributary streams has the richest cotton land in the world. The 
 eastern part of the parish is watered by the Ouachita and Boeuf 
 rivers and their branches ; the west and soiithwest part by Bayou 
 Beaucoup and Little river, and other portions of Bayous Castor, 
 Lafourche and ilarengo. The principal products are cotton, corn, 
 and potatoes, while rice, sugar, sorghum, oats and tobacco are all 
 paying crops. On the uplands stock raising is an important in- 
 dustry, cattle, hogs and horses being exported in considerable 
 numbers. All the hardy fruits thrive well in this latitude and prove
 
 150 LOUISIANA 
 
 a source of income to the farmei's. In the marshes are deposits of 
 fire and potter's clay, iron and marl, but thej' have not been 
 worked much as yet and a great opportunity is offered in their 
 development. The principal industries are lumbering, wooden- 
 ware manufacturing and fruit canning. The St. Louis, Iron j\Ioiin- 
 tain & Southern E. K. traverses the center of tlie parish north and 
 south affording transportation by rail, while cheap shipping is fur- 
 nished by water on the Ouachita river. The parish maintains pub- 
 lic schools for both white and black. Columbia, the parish seat, 
 is the most important town. Other towns and villages are Lively, 
 Kelly, Blankston, Kiverton, Grayson and Sinope. The following 
 statistics are from the U. S. census for 1910: Number of farms, 956; 
 acreage, 121,016 ; acres improved, 37,078 ; value of lands and im- 
 provements exclusive of buildings, $853,849 ; value of farm build- 
 ings, $329,880; value of live stock, $320,959; total value of crops, 
 $321,842. The popiUation in 1910 was 8,593. 
 
 Calhoun, a village and station in the extreme western portion of 
 Ouachita pai'ish, on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. E., is 
 about 15 miles west of jMonroe, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffice, 1 free rural delivery route, an express office, tele- 
 phone and telegraph facilities, and a population of 200. 
 
 Calumet, a village in the northern part of St. Mary parish, is a 
 station on the Southern Pacific E. E., about 10 miles southeast of 
 Franklin, the parish seat. It has a moue.y order postofi&ce, an 
 express office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and does consid- 
 erable shipping. 
 
 Calumet. — This word denoted an important ceremonial observ- 
 ance by the Indians of Louisiana, and throughout the United 
 States and Canada generally. It means a pipe, and is derived from 
 the Norman M-ord "chalumeau," which was the name of a rustic 
 pipe or musical instrument iised by the shepherds at their rural 
 feasts and dances. The Norman-French settlers of Canada first 
 applied it to the ceremonial pipe of the Indians, and it grew into 
 general use. The Indians employed it both as a symbol of peace 
 and of war. The head or bowl of this pipe was made of baked clay, 
 or soft red stone, fashioned to look like the head of a bird or animal, 
 and was somewhat larger than the common tobacco pipe. The 
 head was fixed to a hollow reed or cane, about a yard in length, and 
 verj^ much ornamented Avith the feather of the paroquet, wild tur- 
 key, some species of water-fowl, or with that of the eagle or other 
 bird of prey. When the calumet was used to proclaim war it was 
 adorned with the feathers of birds of prey ; as a peace symbol, with 
 the feathers of water-fowl, etc. Among the Indians the dance and 
 song of the calumet of peace was an interesting and very solemn 
 ceremony which often lasted several days, and was only made use 
 of on important occasions, such as to confirm an alliance, make 
 peace with their neighbors, as a token of friendship to strangers 
 who arrived among them, or when one tribe visited another, when 
 it was made the occasion of a grand entertainment with much feast- 
 ing and dancing.
 
 LOUISIANA 151 
 
 "While Iberville was constructing Port Maurepas in 1799, the 
 Paseagoulas, Colapissas, Chickasaws, Pensacolas and Biloxis, headed 
 by their several chiefs, came with great ceremony to the fort, 
 singing and holding out the calumet. Iberville smoked it solemnly 
 in conformity to the Indian custom. The ceremony lasted three 
 days, and the Indians danced and sang thrice daily. Again, after 
 the completion of Port Rosalie among the Natchez in 1716, some 
 600 Natchez warriors, together with about 30 Yasous, danced the 
 calumet before the fort, to signify their joy over the new alliance 
 with the French. 
 
 Calvin, a post-hamlet in the western portion of Winn parish, is 
 a station on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 8 miles north- 
 west of Winufield, the parish seat. 
 
 Cambon, Jules, a Prench legislator and diplomat, was born in the 
 city of Paris, April 5, 1845, was educated in his native city, and 
 in 1866 began the practice of law. He served as a soldier in the 
 Prench army in the Pranco-Prussian war in 1870-71, and in the 
 latter year was appointed a member of the provisional commission 
 that replaced the council of state. In 1874 he was made director- 
 general of civil affairs of Algeria; became secretary-general of the 
 prefecture of police in the department of the Seine in 1879 ; was 
 made governor-general of Algeria in 1891 but after a brief service 
 was sent to "Washington as the Prench ambassador to the United 
 States, which position he held until 1902. On Jan. 26, 1902, he 
 arrived in New Orleans as the guest of the Atheuee Louisianais, 
 which society tendered him a reception, and before which he deliv- 
 ered an address in the Prench language. He also delivered an 
 address before the Prench Circle of the Tulane University of 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Cameron, the seat of justice in tlie parish of the same name, is 
 located on the Calcasieu river, about half way between Calcasieu 
 lake and the Gulf coast. As the entire parish is without a railroad, 
 Cameron has to depend largely on the river for its transportation. 
 It is one of the smallest parish seats in the state, having a population 
 of 200. Its commercial importance is much greater, however, than 
 the census would indicate, as it is the source of supply for a consid- 
 erable district. The town was originally called Leesburg and it is 
 mentioned by that name in the acts of the legislature of 1874, the 
 courthouse having been destroyed by fire on Peb. 26 of that year. 
 The principal point of interest about Cameron is the gulf biologic 
 station, which was established here by act of the legislature. 
 
 Cameron Parish, with an area of 1,445 square miles, was estab- 
 lished in 1870, during the reeonsti-uetion period, while Henry Clay 
 Warmoth was governor. It was created from portions of Calcasieu 
 and Vermilion parishes, and forms the southwest extremity of Lou- 
 isiana. It is bounded on the north by Calcasieu parish; on the east 
 by Vermilion parish ; on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on 
 the west by Texas, from which it is separated by the Sabine river, 
 which widens into Sabine lake before it enters the gulf. Among
 
 152 LOUISIANA 
 
 the early settlers were John 'SI. Smith and George McCall, whose 
 families were for several years, the only ones at Grand Cheuier. 
 George W. Wakefield came from Ohio and located about a mile 
 from Leesbnrg (now Cameron) in 1840. Cameron has not been 
 settled thickly, owing to its vast area of sea mai-sh lands. The set- 
 tlements have been confined to the highlands, above overflow. The 
 principal toMii is Cameron, the parish seat, and the only other set- 
 tlements of consequence are Grand Chenier. Hackberry, Grandlake, 
 Johnson's Bayoii, Berry, Shellbank and Lakeside. Cameron parish 
 has no railways, but transportation and shipping facilities are pro- 
 vided by water on the Calcasieu river, to Lake Charles and over 
 the Gulf and ^Mississippi river to New Orleans. The formation is 
 largely sea marsh, from which Cameron derives the name "sea 
 marsh" parish. Part of the parish is level, open prairie, which 
 makes excellent pastiire for cattle and sheep and live stock is one of 
 the important industries. In the alluvial belt the soil is extremely 
 rich and highly productive. Calcasieu lake divides the parish 
 nearly in equal halves: the principal water courses are the Calca- 
 sieu, ]\Iermentau and Sabine rivers. The Calcasieii flows through 
 Calcasieu lake before it falls into the gulf. The natural water sup- 
 ply is excellent for live stock, but cistern water has to be used for 
 all domestic purposes. Timber, mostly cypress, oak and willow, 
 grows in some quantities along the lakes and rivers. Rice 'and svigar 
 are the principal crop prodiictions, but market gardening is a 
 growing industry. The rich soil of the alluvial bottoms and mild 
 climate combine to make scientiflc horticulture profitable to the 
 small farmer, and the orange industry has increased with remark- 
 able rapidity within the last few years. The other fruits are the 
 lemon, olive, fig, grape, banana, giiava, prune, plum, mandarin and 
 peach. Oil and gas have been discovered in the jiarish, and when 
 developed it is expected they will be a source of wealth. Game, such 
 as wild ducks, wild geese, jack snipe, papabot and rice birds, is 
 abundant along the lakes and salt marshes of the coast. Fish are 
 abundant, the sheepshead, red flsh, pompano, salt water trout. Span- 
 i.sli mackerel, carp, shrimp and crabs all being foiind in large num- 
 bers, and under state protection the oyster and terrapin industry is 
 becoming one of the first in Louisiana. As soon as shipping facili- 
 ties are provided it is expected that canning Avill become important, 
 and shrimp and oysters exported. 
 
 The following statistics are from the IT. S. census for lf)10: 
 Number of farms, 597; acreage in farms, 105,525; acres improved, 
 27,900; value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, 
 $907,469; value of buildings, $199,000; value of live stock, $.35-4,908; 
 value of all crops, $323,117. The population was 4,288. 
 
 Cammack, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Natchitoches par- 
 ish, is about 6 miles east of the city of Natchitoches and 3 miles 
 southAvest op Colora, which is the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cajnp, a post-village in the central portion of Claiborne parish,
 
 LOUISIANA 153 
 
 is a station on the Louisiana & Northwest R. R., about 6 miles 
 northwest of Homer, the parish seat. 
 
 Campbell, John, a British general, was in command of the Eng- 
 lish forces and their Indian allies in Florida during the closing years 
 of the Revolutionary war, where he was opposed by Gov. Galvez 
 of Louisiana. On March 14, 1780, he tried to drive Galvez out of 
 Fort Charlotte, but was defeated and fell back to Pensacola, which 
 place he strongly fortified and occupied for a year. When Galvez 
 appeared before Pensacola in JMarch, 1781, a spirited correspond- 
 ence occurred between him and Gen. Campbell. On the night of 
 March 21, some houses in front of Galvez 's camp were burned, and 
 the next daj' the governor wrote to Campbell accusing him of acting 
 in bad faith, adding: "I shall see Pensacola burn with the same 
 indifference as I would see its cruel incendiaries perish in its ashes." 
 To this Campbell replied: "I shall destroy as much as possible, 
 and in this I shall only be fulfilling my duty towards my king and 
 my country, a motive much more potent for me than the fear of 
 your displeasure." On May 9 following this correspondence Pen- 
 sacola was surrendered to Galvez, Campbell and Gov. Chester sign- 
 ing the articles of capitulation, in which Galvez was generous 
 enough to permit the British to leave the country under the agree- 
 ment that they woiild not again take up arms against the Spanish. 
 Campbell and his English soldiers at Pensacola, as well as those 
 stationed at Baton Rouge and Mobile, were taken to Brooklyn by 
 the Spanish, and there thej^ joined the British forces that were 
 engaged in war with the American colonies. 
 
 Campti, a village in the northern part of Natchitoches parish, is 
 one of the oldest settlements in the Red river valley after Natchi- 
 toches and Alexandria. The region was explored by Bienville, St. 
 Denis and La Harpe during the early years of the colony, and long 
 before the close of the 18th century traders located where Campti 
 now stands to carry on their traffic with the tribes of Indians along 
 the Red and Sabine rivers. In 1805 Hypolite Bordelin bought a 
 tract of land of the Indians .just north of Campti, but the claim was 
 not confirmed by the U. S. commissioners. On April 4, 1864, a 
 .spirited skirmish occurred here, and during the action the town 
 caught fire and was almost entirely destroyed. Campti is a station 
 on the line of the Loiiisiana Railway & Navigation Company, about 
 9 miles north of the City of Natchitoches. It has a money order 
 postoffiee, express and telegraph offices, is quite a trading and ship- 
 ping point, and has a population of 664. 
 
 Caney, a post-hamlet in the westei-n pai"t of Vei'non parish, is 
 about 8 miles west of Leesville, the parish seat and nearest banking 
 town and railroad station. 
 
 Canton, a post-village and station in Allen parish, is on the St. 
 Louis, Iron Slountain & Southern R. R., about 35 miles northeast of 
 Lake Charles. Population, 100. 
 
 Capdevielle, Paiil, soldier, lawyer and ex-mayor of New Orleans,
 
 154 LOUISIANA 
 
 was born in that city in 1S42. At the age of IS years he was grad- 
 uated at the Jesuit college, and in 1S62 entered the Confederate 
 army as a member of Capt. Richard M. Boone's company of artil- 
 lery, with which he sei'ved in the engagement at Plains Store, and 
 after that in the intrenchments at Port Hudson until he was se- 
 verely wounded on June 27, 1863. He was taken prisoner" when 
 Port Hudson capitulated, but was exchanged toward the close of 
 the year and ordered to Mobile, thence to Charleston, S. C, where 
 he was attached to LeGardeur's battery (the Orleans Guard artil- 
 lery), which was assigned to duty on James' and Sullivan's islands. 
 Wlien Charleston was evacuated on Feb. 12, 1S65, the battery was 
 placed in the rear-guard of the retreat and was daily engaged 
 with the advance of Sherman's army. It participated in the 
 battles of Averasboro and Bentonville, and surrendered with Gen. 
 Johnston's army on April 26, 1865. Mr. Capdevielle then returned 
 to New Orleans, where he found emplo^Tnent as a clerk, studying 
 law as opportunity offered, and in 1868 graduated in the law de- 
 partment of the University of Louisiana. From that time until 
 1885 he was engaged in the practice of his profession. Init in the 
 latter year he became president of the Merchants' Insurance Com- 
 pany. In 1900 he was elected mayor to succeed Walter Flower. As 
 the chief municipal executive he welcomed President ilcKinley to 
 New Orleans on the occasion of his visit on IMay 1, 1901; attended 
 the dedication exercises of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at 
 St. Louis on April 30. 1903': and on the same date an addres's in 
 Fi-eneh prepared by Mayor Capdevielle was read in the Cabildo at 
 New Orleans. Mr. Capdevielle has always taken a keen interest in 
 city affairs ; has served on the levee board ; the city park and other 
 improvement associations : as a member of the IMardi Gras carnival 
 associations; and as an officer of the Pickwick and Opera clubs. 
 He is now (1914) serving his third terra as auditor of state. 
 
 Capital. — The State of Louisiana has shifted its seat of govern- 
 ment six different times. When it was admitted into the Union in 
 1812 the capital Avas situated at New Orleans. The fii-st state leg- 
 islatTire passed a joint resolution declaring it expedient that the 
 seat of government be removed "to some more convenient place" 
 and directing that a committee, to consist of two members of the 
 state senate and three representatives, should consider and investi- 
 gate the various sites suggested, receive any donations of property 
 which might be tendered the state, and report to the general as- 
 sembly at the session. A few days later Gov. Claiborne officially 
 approved this resolution, but no further record of it can be found, 
 and New Orleans continued to be the seat of government for nearly 
 20 years thereafter. On Feb. 4, 1825, the general assembly iointly 
 resolved that the state govei*nment be moved to Donaldsonville on 
 or before Jan. 21, 1826, and that the governor attend to the matter 
 of removing the state archives and other belongings to the new 
 capital. On Feb. 19 of the same year the legislature reconsidered
 
 LOUISIANA 155 
 
 its former action by enacting that New Orleans continue to be the 
 seat of government until May 1, 1829, when the capital should be 
 established at Donaldsonville. The general assembly met at the 
 latter place in Jan., 1831, but became dissatisfied with the qiiarters 
 there, and on Jan. 6 adjourned to New Orleans, where the re- 
 mainder of the session was held. The sergeant-at-arms and the 
 door-keepers of both houses, under the surveillance of the secretary 
 of the senate and the chief clerk of the house, attended to the mat- 
 ter of transferring the legislative archives and furniture back to 
 New Orleans, where the governmental headquarters were located 
 until Mar. 9, 1846, when, in compliance with Art. 112 of the constitu- 
 tion of 1845, the general assembly enacted that after Jan. 1, 1849, 
 the tovm of Baton Rouge was to be the capital of Louisiana. This 
 act also directed that the governor appoint a commission to be 
 composed of three members to attend to the matter of selecting a 
 suitable site from among those offered in the above named town. 
 The capital was accordingly established there, and Art. 107 of the 
 constitution of 1852 decreed that "The seat of government shall be 
 and remain at Baton Rouge, and shall not be removed without the 
 consent of three-fourths of both houses of the general assembly." 
 On Mar. 15, the last day of the first session of 1855, it was enacted 
 that on the first day of the general election in the following Novem- 
 ber a poll of the voters should be taken at every election precinct 
 in the state for the purpose of ascertaining as to whether or not the 
 seat of government should be removed from Baton Rouge to New 
 Orleans, and this act further directed that such vote was to be 
 counted by the governor, the secretary of state and the attorney 
 general, who were to assemble in the executive mansion on Dec. 1, 
 1855, for siich purpose. The majority of the state's electors voted 
 adversely to removing the governmental headquarters and the next 
 session of the general assembly convened at Baton Rouge on Jan. 
 23, 1856. The capital remained at that place until after the begin- 
 ning of the Civil war. Wlien the Federal troops took possession of 
 New Orleans in 1862, Gov. IMoore retired to Opelousas, where he 
 maintained his execi^tive oiifice for some time, and in Jan., 1864, 
 Gov. Allen established his seat of government at Shreveport, which 
 city remained the Confederate capital of the state up to the close of 
 the war. Article 130 of the constitution of 1864 declared that "the 
 seat of government shall be and remain at New Orleans, and shall 
 not be removed without the consent of a majority of both houses of 
 the general assembly." Consequently on Oct. 1, 1864, the govern- 
 ment of the state was fully established in the metropolis of Louisi- 
 ana, where it remained for more than seventeen years. A short time 
 prior to the constitutional convention of 1879 the people of Baton 
 Rouge offered to contribute a liberal sum of money to be used in 
 defraying the expense of repairing the old state-house there, in case 
 the convention should decide to re-establish the seat of government 
 at that place. This proposition was looked upon with favor by the
 
 156 LOUISIANA 
 
 couvention aud article 150 of the orgauic law of the state drawu up 
 and adopted by that distinguished body deelarred that "The seat of 
 government shall be and remain at the City of Baton Rouge. The 
 general assembly shall at its first session make the necessary appro- 
 priations for the repair of the state-house and for the transfer of 
 tlie archives of the state to Baton Rouge : and the City of Baton 
 Rouge is hereby authorized to issue certificates of indebtedness in 
 siich manner and form as to cover the subscription of $35,000 ten- 
 dered by the citizens and the city council of said city; provided, 
 that the City of Baton Rouge shall pay into the state treasury the 
 said amount before the contract for repairs at the state-house shall 
 be finally closed." Accordingly the next session of the general as- 
 sembly, the above constitutional provision having been complied 
 with, made the appropriations necessary for the restoration of the 
 capital at Baton Rouge. The last session of tlie legislature ever held 
 in New Orleans convened in the old capital building there on Dec. 
 5, 1881, and adjourned sine die Jan. 4, 1882. On Mar. 1 of that year 
 the administrative branch of the government became fully estab- 
 lished in the renovated capital at Baton Rouge, more than two 
 months in advance of the general assembly, which convened there 
 for the first time on May 8, 1882. The seat of government has been 
 retaini'd there from that time to the present. 
 
 Capitol. — Wlien Louisiana became a state the old territorial gov- 
 ernment house was employed as the state capitol, as it was for 
 many years thereafter. The first legislative appropriation for the 
 erection of a state-house was made on Feb. 19, 1825, when $30,000 
 was placed at the disposal of the five commissioners, authorized by 
 the same enactment, who were to attend to the matter of select- 
 ing a site and "letting the contract" for .such a building at Donald- 
 sonville. But, as recorded in the article on "Capital," the existence 
 of Donaldsonville as the seat of government was short-lived and 
 in the early part of the ,vear 1831 the seat of government was re- 
 turned to New Orleans. That the legislature had entirely given up 
 the idea of again employing the old state-house at Donaldsonville 
 is manifested by the fact that on March 30, 1833, it was enacted that 
 all right, title and interest in the state-house property at the last 
 named place be donated to the parish of Ascension to be employed 
 as a seminary of learning. 
 
 That the capitol at New Orleans was not very commodious is 
 evinced by the legislative act of April 2, 1835, which directed that 
 the governor, state treasurer, secretary of state and the engineer 
 in charge, sho\ild constitute a commission to attend to the matter 
 of altering, repairing and enlarging the building, for which they 
 Avere to have at their disposal $15,120.50, and that they were also 
 to look after the matter of reroofing "the two public offices in gov- 
 ernment square." for which $2,187 was appropriated. On ^March 
 27, 1843, the legislature appropriated $2,000 to render the liuildings 
 on the state-house square more "suitable and convenient for the use 
 of the officers of the state, and to .supply them with the necessary
 
 LOUISIANA 157 
 
 furniture." On Jan. 23, 1847, the legislature of the preeedinu- year 
 having enacted that the seat of government be transferred to Baton 
 Rouge in accordance Avitli article 112 of the constitution of 18-45, 
 an appropriation of $100,000 was made which was to be paid in five 
 installmeuts, viz.: $20,000, Mar., 1847; $20,000, June 1, 1847; 
 $15,000, July 1, 1847 ; $20,000, Oct. 1, 1847 ; and $25,000 on Jan. 1, 
 1848. This act also directed that the commissioners whose appoint- 
 ment had been provided for at the session of 1846 should proceed 
 to select a site for a state-hoiise at Baton Rouge, and that they 
 should also attend to the matter of "letting the contract" for the 
 erection of such structure. On March 16, 1848, the general assem- 
 bly placed $100,000 more at the disposal of the commissioners, one 
 half of which was to be available for the completion of the building, 
 proper and was to be payable as follows: $15,000, Julv 1; $15,000, 
 Sept. 1 ; and $20,000 on Nov. 1, 1848. The other half of this appro- 
 priation was to be employed for the embellishment of the intei'ior 
 of the structure and was to be available in the following manner: 
 $20,000, April 1 ; $15,000, July 1 : and $15,000 on Oct. 1, 1849. Great 
 credit is due the three commissioners — Senator Maunsel White and 
 Representatives Walter Brashear and D. D. Averj^ — for the assid- 
 uous enterprise which they displayed in looking after the details 
 in the erection of this capitol, which was located upon a site con- 
 taining 120,000 square feet of ground, generously contributed to 
 the state by the citizens of Baton Rouge, overlooking the Missis- 
 sippi river, the building being less than 120 yards from this historic 
 waterway. Dee. 1, 1849, was the day set for the dedication of the 
 new structure, and the citizens of Baton Rouge had subscribed 
 several thousands of dollars that the official opening might be at- 
 tended with suitable and imposing ceremonies. But only eight 
 days prior to the day set for this event the city was visited by a 
 most disastrous fire, nearly one-fifth of the municipality being com- 
 pletely devastated. Upon the thoughtful and generous suggestion 
 of Isaac Johnson, then governor of the state, and Gov. -elect Joseph 
 Walker, a large part of the above mentioned subscription was di- 
 verted to a more worthy cause — the aid and relief of the numerous 
 victims of the fire — hence the dedication of the new state-house was 
 not attended with the pompous ceremonies which had been orig- 
 inally planned. In the summer of 1857 the capitol was equipped with 
 a modem gas lighting plant, for the installation of which the legis- 
 lature of that year had appropriated $3,500. 
 
 Soon after the reoccupation of the capitol city by the Federal 
 forces, just a few days previous to Christmas, 1862, Gen. Cuvier 
 Grover indiscreetly quartered some negro troops in the capital, 
 and some of these while in the act of preparing their supper on the 
 evening of Dee. 28, aceidently set fire to the building. The dili- 
 gent co-operative efforts of the municipal firemen and the Federal 
 soldiers arrested the progress of the flames, however, and the build- 
 ing was not greatly damaged. But at about 4 o'clock of the follow- 
 ing morning a fire was discovered in another portion of the build- 
 ing, and as it had then gained considerable volume the heroic ef-
 
 158 LOUISIANA 
 
 forts of soldiers aud civilians were -without avail aud it was com- 
 pletely destroyed. Among other severe losses the fine state library, 
 the value of wliich was estimated at $80,000, was utterlj' annihi- 
 lated. As the state was then too deeply ingrossed in the throes of 
 the great Civil war the eapitol was not immediately i-ebuilt. Later 
 on the government was housed in leased quarters at Opelousas and 
 Shreveport, the state government recognized by the national ad- 
 ministration being established at New Orleans. At a session of 
 the general assembly, held at Shreveport, $3,000 was appropriated 
 on Jime 20, 1863, for the rental of rooms which were occupied as 
 state offices and legislative halls. Although the constitutional con- 
 ventions of 1864 and 1868 specifically designated New Orleans as 
 the capital of the state, the state-house grounds at Baton Rouge 
 were retained in tlie state's possession, aud ou April -i. 1865, a 
 legislative enactment provided that a state gardener, to have gen- 
 eral charge of the premises was to be employed, at a salary of $720 
 per annum. 
 
 That Louisiana, soon after the cessation of hostilities, was sorely 
 in need of more spacious and ample quarters for the housing of her 
 state departments and the sittings of the legislature, is evinced in 
 the fact that in the latter part of the summer of 1865 arrangements 
 were made whereby the historic Mechanics' Institute in New Or- 
 leans was to be leased to the state at the rate of $8,000 per annum. 
 But much reconstruction and repair work was necessary to put the 
 building into the proper condition, and on Dec. 18, 1865, the legis- 
 lature appropriated -$7,050.10 to defray the expenses incurred there- 
 by. However, the authorities wei'e not satisfied with these quar- 
 ters for any length of time, and on Feb. 28, 1867, the legislature 
 concurrently adopted a resolution which set forth that "the IMe- 
 chanics' Institute, in its present condition, does not afl:'ord the 
 necessary accommodations which the legislature and the state 
 offices require; that the mechanics' society be required and em- 
 powered to make the necessary repairs, and to finish all of the 
 rooms throughout the said building, the same to be ready for 
 occupancy on or before the first day of Nov., 1867." The same 
 enactment appropriated $15,000 for the performance of this work. 
 But upon the completion of the task prescribed in the above resolu- 
 tion the quarters were still inadequate, and in the early '70s it 
 became necessary for the state to lease rooms elsewhere for the 
 quartering of various offices. On Feb. 10. 1873, it was legisla- 
 tively resolved that Attorney General A. P. Field be appropriated 
 the sum of $1,200 per annum with which to defrny the expense of 
 leasing oiatside qiiarters for his department. 
 
 In the early part of the year 1875 the state authorities began 
 casting about to find a suitable site upon which to construct a eapi- 
 tol. But becoming aware of the fact that the old St. Louis Hotel 
 eoTild be had at a moderate figure the legislature, in Feb., 1875, 
 authorized the purchase of this hostelry, the sum of $250,000 beins 
 appropriated for that purpose. The governor vetoed the bill, but 
 the general assembly passed it over the veto and it became a law
 
 LOUISIANA 159 
 
 without his signature. This building continued to be the capitol 
 until after the seat of government had been returned to Baton 
 Rouge, when it was sold by order of the legislature of 1882. 
 
 After the last named city had been designated as the capital of 
 the state by authority of article 150 of the constitution of 1879, and 
 after that municipality had paid into the state treasury the $35,000 
 which had been promised in the constitutional convention, the legis- 
 lature on April 6, 1880, appropriated $141,000 for the reconstruc- 
 tion of the old capitol at Baton Rouge, one-half of which sum was 
 to be available during the year 1880 and the other half during the 
 following year. On April 10, 1880, it was enacted that a commis- 
 sion, to be comprised of the governor, who was to act as the ex- 
 officio chairman thereof, the lieutenant-governor, two commission- 
 ers to be elected by the state senate from among its membership, 
 and three representatives selected by the lower house, was to have 
 general supervision and charge of all the details in connection with 
 the renovation of the building. An additional appropriation of 
 $126,302.17 was granted on Dee. 19, 1881, to be at the disposal of 
 the above mentioned commissioners, the same enactment also 
 authorized that $4,000 be available for the purpose of defraying the 
 expense of returning the state's archives to the new capitol, and it 
 provided $1,275 forinsurins the latter. On June 30, 1882, a final 
 appropriation for the completion of the state-house was made in 
 the sum of $36,700, the administrative offices of the state were 
 established there on March 1, 1882, and the general assembly was 
 convened thei-e for the first time on May 8, of the same year. 
 
 Louisiana solons have taken as much pride in maintaining in a 
 modern and "up-to-date" style, the capitol and the grounds there- 
 about, as they have in enacting progressive legislation for the gen- 
 eral welfare of the commonwealth. During the forepart of the 
 year 1894 the state-house was wired and fixtures were installed, 
 that the state departments and legislative halls therein might be il- 
 luminated by electricity, for which the general assembly,, on July 7 
 of that year, appropriated $1,086. In the month of June, 1906, a 
 fire broke out in the senate chamber, and before it could be 
 checked wrought no little damage, leaving the offices immediately 
 underneath exposed to the elements. On June 29 of that year, the 
 legislature concurrently resolved that the governor, within 48 hoiu-s, 
 advertise for bids for the restoration thereof, and that he be 
 authorized to accept or reject any such bid. On the second day of 
 July, 1908, the legislature passed an act to the effect that the 
 horticulturist and director of the state experiment stations be au- 
 thorized to beailtify the state-house grounds, and those about the 
 governor's mansion, and that he have at his disposal the sum of 
 $1,500 per annum, for two years, to defray the expenses. On the 
 same day $2,380.21 was appropriated to pay the state's pro rata of 
 the amount due the Bitulithic company of Nashville, Tenn., for 
 installing the smooth, durable and substantial pavement on those 
 streets surrounding the grounds. 
 
 The present capitol is one story higher than its predecessor, and 
 
 i
 
 160 LOUISIANA 
 
 is a fiue gothic structure, with circular turrets which rise from the 
 ground aud crown the extremities of the building, and smaller tur- 
 rets which top the larger ones. Situated as is this edifice, on tlie 
 wooded highland overlooking the "Father of Waters," it reminds 
 one of the days of chivalry and feudalism, when the ma.iestic and 
 stately turreted castles were Avont to play a leading role in the 
 civil and military affairs of the world. 
 
 Capuchins. — This well known order of the Roman Catholic church 
 is a branch of the order of Franciscan monks, which originated 
 with ]\Iatteo di Basso, an Observantine Franciscan in the convent 
 of ]\rontefalco, Urbino, Italy, in 152.5. They are the third of the 
 chief branches of the Franciscans, and soiight to restore the orig- 
 inal rigor of the institutions of St. Francis, which had been some- 
 what relaxed by Pope Innocent IV, when he granted them the 
 privilege of possessing property. 
 
 They have very strict discipline, are committed to absolute pov- 
 erty aud have rendered great service in the mission field. At first 
 they did not cultivate learning, but have done so since the 17th 
 century. In 1722, the province of Louisiana was divided into three 
 grand ecclesiastic districts. The first extending from the mouth of 
 the ilississippi river to the Illinois river, was entrusted to the Cap- 
 uchins, who were tlms among the first to administer to the spir- 
 itual wants of the people of New Orleans. Churches and chapels 
 were started throughoiit the colony, as the only places of worship 
 up to this time had been sheltered spots in the forests mnrked by 
 rude crosses. In 1724, there arrived from France two Capuchin 
 monks to whom was intrusted the spiritual control of New Or- 
 leans. An arrangement was made with the Jesuits (q. v.) by which 
 the superior of that order was permitted to live in New Orleans, 
 but could not exercise any of the ecclesiastical functions of the 
 chiirch without the permission of the Capuchins. Father Bruno, 
 the superior of the Capuchins, was appointed vicar-general of New 
 Orleans by the bishop of Quebec, in which diocese the province of 
 Louisiana was inchided. He became curate and was assisted by 
 two monks as vicars. A monastery was soon built by the members 
 of the order resident in New Orleans, on the square below the 
 church, now occupied ]\v the presbytery. In 17.5,i a religious war- 
 fare broke out in the colony known as the "War of the Capuchins 
 and Jesuits," and produced great excitement in the city and colony 
 at the time. Gayarre chronicles the events as follows: "In the 
 agreement entered into with the India Company in 1726, the Jesuits 
 had taken care to procure, as an apparently insignificant favor, that 
 their STiperior might reside in New Orleans, on the condition that 
 he should not discharge any ecclesiastical function there, luiless it 
 should be with the consent of the superior of the Capuchins. But 
 when Father Dasobert, the superior of the Capuchins asked the 
 superior of the Jesuits to give his blessing to the chapel for the 
 hospital of the poor of the parish, the latter claimed that this gave 
 him .inrisdiction in the district. In 17fi4 the Capuchins were rid 
 of their adversaries as a result of the order of expidsion against the 
 
 ^
 
 LOUISIANA 161 
 
 Jesuits, issued by the French goverument. Gov. O'Reilly, who took 
 possession of the province in the name of the Iviug of iSpain, issued 
 a proclamation and instituted a number of changes, but none took 
 place in the ecclesiastical government of Louisiana. Father Hilarie 
 de Geneveaux was superior of the French Capuchins at the time the 
 province became a Spanish possession, and when he refused to join 
 the superior council in their revolt against the Spanish govern- 
 ment he was seat out of the country. Father Dagobert became 
 abbot in his place, received Gov. O'Reilly, and blessed the Spanish 
 troops and colors as vicar-general of the colony. The Capuchins 
 were also maintained in the curacies of their parishes. In 1789 
 six Capuchin friars arrived at New Orleans from Spain, among them 
 the celebrated Father Antonio Sedella (q. v.), who became curate 
 of the parish, which he served for nearly fifty years. Trouble arose 
 between the Spanish and French friars, in which the Spanish gov- 
 ernor became involved. The matter was referred to the court at 
 Madrid by both parties, the governor upholding the French Capu- 
 chins and the vicar-general the Spanish brothers, who claimed the 
 French members of the order were not living up to the riiles of the 
 order. The government did not decide upon the question, but ad- 
 vised the bishop and governor to "compromise the disagreement as. 
 would best preserve the harmony between the civil an ecclesiastic 
 authorities in the colony." This advice was taken and the quarrel 
 ended, the Capuchins continuing to administer to the people of 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Cardenas, Louis Peiialver y, 1st Roman Catholic bishop of the 
 Floridas and Louisiana, was born in Havana, Cuba, April 3, 1719. 
 He was the son of Don Diego Peiialver and Maria Louisa de 
 Cardenas, who was of noble descent. When Louis Cardenas was 
 very young he determined to become a priest and entered the Jesuit 
 college of St. Ignatius at Havana. While he was a student there 
 the pragmatic sanction of Charles III suppressed all the colleges 
 of the Jesuit society and expelled the Jesuits from the lands ruled 
 by Spain. Cardenas then went to the university of St. Jerome 
 where he received the degree of Ph. D., in 1771. Two years later 
 the bishop of Santiago de Cuba appointed him vicar-general and 
 while employed in the administration of that office he learned the 
 details and difficulties of the church in the Floridas and Louisiana. 
 This made him well fitted to take charge of the diocese when it 
 was created in 1793. He was consecrated bishop of the diocese of 
 the Floridas and Louisiana in Havana and took up his episcopal 
 residence in New Orleans on July 17, 1795. Bishop Cardenas im- 
 mediately began pi;tting the affairs of the diocese in order, by re- 
 quiring the priests in charge of congregations to report annually as 
 to the temporal and spiritual welfare of their parishes. In New 
 Orleans he was unable to found any great institutions, but was 
 active along: educational lines; he had progressive ideas and was a 
 great benefactor of the poor. Li 1806 he was made archbishop of 
 Guatemala and transferred to Havana, where he died on July 17, 
 1810. 
 
 I— 11
 
 162 LOUISIANA 
 
 Carencro, an iucorporated town in the uortliern part of Lafayette 
 parish, is situated on the Southern Pacific R. R., 6 miles north of 
 Lafayette, the parish seat and nearest banking point. It has a 
 money order postoffice, express ofi&ee, telephone and telegraph 
 facilities, and is the distributing point for a very large district. Its 
 population is 609. 
 
 Caresse, Pierre, Avas one of the leading merchants of New Or- 
 leans at the time the province of Louisiana was ceded to Spain in 
 1763. When Gov. Ulloa issued his order regarding the methods of 
 conducting the commerce of the colony, it was Caresse who drew 
 up the petition to the superior council, asking that body not to 
 enforce the order, and with a body of insurgents guarded the 
 council chamber to prevent the members from leaving it until they 
 had rendered a favorable decision on the petition. In the Revolu- 
 tion of 1768, he furnished food to the Acadians and was otherwise 
 active in compassing the expulsion of Ulloa. In a letter to La- 
 freniere he said: "This day will be the most beautiful in your life; 
 we hope to see re-vive in Louisiana the orator of Rome and 'M. de 
 Meaupou to uphold the rights of the nation." For his activity 
 in the opposition to Spanish authority he was arre.sted by order of 
 Gov. O'Reilly on Aug. 21, 1769, charged with being "one of the 
 chief and principal promoters of the conspiracy," and sentenced to 
 death. In company with five others he was shot by Spanish sol- 
 diers on Oct. 2.5, 1769. Thoiigh he died as a felon, his memory is 
 still cherished in Louisiana as that of a man of humane instincts, 
 courageous in his loyalty to Fi-ance, and faithful to the interests of 
 his countrymen. 
 
 Carmelites, or the order of Our Lad.v of ilount Carmel, is a 
 monastic order of the Roman Catholic church. It was founded on 
 Mount Carmel, in the Holy Land, in 1157, by the Crusader Ber- 
 thold of Calabria, but the Carmelites claim to have been instituted 
 by the Prophet Elijah. They were compelled by the Saracens to 
 wear a striped costume, but later their present brown habit with 
 white cloak and scapular was adopted, and from this they received 
 the name of "White Friars. "At first they were under the rule 
 given them by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem in 1209, and for years 
 they were hermits, but were driven out of the Holy Land in 1238, 
 by the JMohammedans. English Crusaders carried some of these 
 recluses from IMount Carmel to England and formed the first Car- 
 melite monastery in England, at Alnwick. Near the middle of the 
 13th century Louis IX on his return from the Holy Land, took a 
 number to Paris and established them there. After their expul- 
 sion from IMount Carmel they passed to the different countries of 
 Europe and established themselves under the protection of the 
 popes. The first general chapter was held at Aylesford, England, 
 in 1245, and under the new head elected there they were changed 
 to a mendicant order by Pope Innocent IV, in 1247, from which 
 time they shared in the varioiis vicissitudes of the mendicant orders. 
 They had more or less rigid rules: were divided into several 
 branches, one of Miiieh was distinguished by walking barefoot.
 
 LOUISIANA 163 
 
 The order of Carmelite nuns was instituted by the Carmelite 
 Soreth in 1452; it is numerous in Italy and played a conspicuous 
 part in France duriag the reign of Louis XV. The Carmelites came 
 to Louisiana with other Catholic orders, during the early days of 
 the province, and when it was divided into three ecclesiastical dis- 
 tricts in May, 1722, the Carmelites were given charge of that dis- 
 trict which comprehended "all the country east of the Mississippi, 
 from the sea to the Wabash." The superior, who was also grand 
 vicar of the order, usually resided at Mobile. Fortier, in his his- 
 tory of Louisiana, says: "The jurisdiction of the Carmelites was 
 added to that of the Capuchins on Dec. 19, 1722, and the former 
 returned to France." Thus they had actual charge of a part of 
 the province for only about 7 months. A convent of Carmelite 
 nuns was founded at Port Tobacco in 1790, but was subsequently 
 removed to Baltimore, and was the first established in the original 
 territory of the United States. They exist today in many Roman 
 Catholic countries, and wear as a distinctive dress a scapular of 
 gray cloth. The Carmelite nuns established a convent in New 
 Orleans about 1880, but as they are a Cloistered order, their work 
 is carried on entirely inside the walls of the convent. In the same 
 year 176 Carmelites were banished from France. There were 51 
 Carmelite fathers in the United States and Canada in 1901. 
 
 Carondelet, Baron de, 6th Spanish governor of Louisiana, was 
 born in Flanders in 1747. His full name and title was Francisco 
 Luis Hector, liaron de Carondelet, de Noyelles, Seigneur D'Haine 
 St. Pierre. He was a man of ability and rose to the rank of colonel 
 in the royal armies of Spain. On March 13, 1791, he was ap- 
 pointed governor and intendant of the provinces of Lotiisiana and 
 West Florida, being at that time governor of San Salvador, Guate- 
 mala. He did not assume the duties of his new ofSce until Dee. 30, 
 1791, when he succeeded Gov. Miro, who left for Spain the same 
 day. On Jan. 22, 1792, Carondelet issued his Bando de buen 
 Gobierno, dividing the city into four wards, each presided over by 
 an alcalde de barrio, or commissary of police, who Avere directed 
 to get the names of the persons occupying each house in their 
 respective wards, newcomers to report on the day of their arrival 
 or the day following. The alcalde de barrios were also to assume 
 the management of the fire engines in case of conflagrations. His 
 manifesto further provided for the lighting of the city by oil lamps, 
 the expenses of the lamps and oil to be met by a tax of $1.1214 
 on each chimney in the city. He prohibited the importation of 
 slaves from Jamaica and the Fi-eneh island, for fear that they might 
 be imbued with insurrectionary spirit and cause troiible in the 
 province; made treaties with the Indians; recommended leniency 
 toward the debtors of the Natchez district; issued regulations re- 
 garding the treatment of slaves, prescribing the kind and amount 
 of food and clothing they should have, the hours of work and the 
 nature of their piinishment ; placed New Orleans in a comparatively 
 good state of defense : and tried in every possible way to reduce 
 expenses. Altogether he deserves the credit of having been one of
 
 164 LOUISIANA 
 
 the most active and energetic of the ISpaiiish governors. In 1794 he 
 began a canal in the rear of the city, to drain the marshes, and 
 by connecting with the Bayou St. John open a navigable route to 
 the sea. This canal Mas constructed by slave labor, M'hieh was do- 
 nated b}- the planters, and was opened in the fall of 1795. It still 
 bears the name of the "Caroudelet canal." When the news i-eached 
 Louisiana early in 1793 that Spain had declared Avar against France, 
 the French population of New Orleans became filled with hope 
 that the province would again pass into the hands of their "beloved 
 France." They did not break into open revolution as in 1768, but 
 at the theatres the more enthusiastic would demand that the 
 orchestra play the "Marseillaise," while some would even go so far 
 as to sing the songs of the Jacobins. This condition of atfairs led 
 Caroudelet to issue the order prohibiting revolutionary music and 
 martial dances in the theatres. About this time he wrote to his 
 home government: "By extreme vigilance and by spending sleep- 
 less nights, by scaring some and punishing others, by banishing a 
 number, particularly some newcomers who were debauching the 
 people with their republican teaching, by intercepting letters and 
 documents suspected of being incendiary, and by prevaricating with 
 everybody, I have done better than I had expected, as the province 
 is now quite orderly and quiet." Caroudelet renewed the negotia- 
 tions, begrun by his predecessor, for the secession of the west. 
 (See Caroudelet Intrigue.) His administration came to an end 
 in Aug., 1797, when he was appointed president of the royal audi- 
 ence of Quito, and was afterward viceroy of Peru. His death oc- 
 curred in 1807. Gayarre says he was a "short-sized, plump gentle- 
 man, somewhat choleric in his disposition, but not destitute of good 
 nature. He was firm and prudent, with a good deal of activity and 
 capacity for business, and he has left in Louisiana a respected and 
 popular niemorj'." 
 
 Carondelet Intrigue. — In the spring of 1791, after the excitement 
 incident to the artful schemes of Genet had somewhat subsided, 
 Gov. Carondelet began to throw impediments in the way of the 
 western trade, in order to aid the work of the agents he had sent 
 into Kentucky to persuade the people there to withdraw from the 
 United States and form an alliance with Spain, wliereby the Mis- 
 sissippi would be opened to them. Gayarre says: "The times were 
 highly auspicious for the intrigues of Spain. Not only were the 
 inhabitants of Kentucky and Tennessee weary of struggling against 
 such obstacles to their commerce, and irritated against the Federal 
 government that could not remove them, but western Pennsylvania 
 also had been thrown into a ferment by the 'excise on distilled 
 spirits,' giving rise to what is commonly called, in American his- 
 tory, 'the Wliisky Insurrection,' wliich had taken such proportions 
 as to require the presence of an army of 12,000 troojis from the 
 Eastern States to quell it. * * * England in the northwest, and 
 Spain in the south, seemed to be united in pressing with all their 
 weight on both flanks of the West, to break it loose from the Fed- 
 eral government and force it into a permanent separation. Lord
 
 LOUISIANA 165 
 
 Dorchester had sent from Canada, aud Baron de Caroudelet, from 
 Louisiana, numerous emissaries who were emulously at work to 
 heat and exasperate the ditferent parties then existing in Kentucky, 
 and to produce a state of feeling which might be favorable to their 
 views. ' ' 
 
 Carondelet's principal agent was Thomas Power, an Englishman 
 who had become a naturalized subject of Spain, aud who had been 
 selected because he was "intelligent, cautious, aud had a natural 
 disposition to intrigue." He repaired to Kentucky, ostensibly en- 
 gaged in collecting material for a natural history, but really to sow 
 the seeds of sedition and to revive the plot that had been inaugu- 
 rated under Gov. Miro's administration. Power informed Carou- 
 delet that the men who had been in secret correspondence with 
 Miro — Gen. Wilkinson, Innis, Murray, Sebastian, Nicholas, and 
 others — were inclined to resume their friendly relations with Spain, 
 and that some of them would meet, at the mouth of the Ohio river, 
 any Spanish officer the governor might designate. Caroudelet se- 
 lected Gayoso de Lemos, then governor of Natchez, who went up 
 the river to New Madrid, from which point he sent Power to com- 
 plete the arrangements for the interview. While Power was absent 
 on his mission, Gayoso employed the men of his escort in the erec- 
 tion of a small stockade fort opposite the mouth of the Ohio, to 
 create the impression that this had been the object of his expedi- 
 tion up the river. At a place called Red Bauks, Power met Judge 
 Sebastian, who was the only one of the Keutuckians to put in an 
 appearance, though he gave a plausible reason for the failure of 
 the others to keep the appointment. Power was disappointed, but 
 Seliastian explained that Iiis colleagues had deputed him to go 
 down and meet Ga.yoso, and that they would in all probability give 
 their consent to any agreement that might be made. Acordingly 
 Power and Sebastian went down to New Madrid, where Gayoso 
 was waiting for them. It is not probable that Sebastian could have 
 given the Spanish officer much honest encouragement for the sep- 
 aration of Kentucky from the Union, as the decided victory of Gen. 
 WajTie over the Indians the previous year had certainly demon- 
 strated the ability of the United States to hold the territory. How- 
 ever, negotiations were entered into for a comercial treaty, Sebas- 
 tian contending for the admission of western products into New 
 Orleans via the Mississippi, free of duty, while Gayoso, accord- 
 ing to the account afterward given by Judge Innis, held out for a 
 duty of 4 per cent. Upon the suggestion of Gayoso, Sebastian 
 agreed to go to New Orleans and meet Gov. Caroudelet. Power, 
 Sebastian and Gayoso arrived in New Orleans early in Jan., 1796, 
 and the commercial treaty was again considered. Sebastiaia seemed 
 about to gain the main point for which he was contending — the 
 free navigation of the Mississippi — when Caroudelet informed him 
 that a courier had just arrived from Havana with the information 
 that a treaty had been concluded between Spain and the United 
 States, which put an end to their negotiations. (See Treaty of 
 Madrid.) Sebastian insisted that the governor close the deal in
 
 166 LOUISIANA 
 
 hand, in the hope that the treaty between the two nations might 
 not be ratified, but without avail. He then left for Philadelphia, 
 in company with Power, "no doubt on a mission from the Spanish 
 governor. ' ' 
 
 Not long afterAvard Power again appeared in Kentucky and pre- 
 sented to those whom he was trying to induce to espouse the cause 
 of Spain, the following document : 
 
 "His Excellency, the Baron de Carondelet, etc., commander-in- 
 chief and governor of His Catholic Majesty's provinces of West 
 Florida and Louisiana_, having communications of importance em- 
 bracing the interests of said provinces, and at the same time deeply 
 affecting those of Kentucky and of the western country in general, 
 to make to its inhabitants, through the medium of the intiuential 
 characters in this country, and judging it, in the present \mcertain 
 and critical attitude of politics, highly imprudent and dangerous to 
 lay them on paper, has expressly commissioned and authorized ine 
 to submit the following proposals to the consideration of Messrs. 
 Sebastian, Nicholas, Innis and Murray, and also of such other gen- 
 tlemen as may be pointed out by them, and to receive from them 
 their sentiments and determination on the subject. 
 
 "First — The above mentioned gentlemen are to exert all their 
 influence in impressing on the minds of the inhabitants of the 
 western country, a conviction of the necessity of their withdrawing 
 and separating themselves from the Federal Union, and forming 
 an independent government whoU.y unconnected with that of the 
 Atlantic States. To prepare and dispose the people for such an 
 event, it will be necessary that the most popular and eloquent 
 writers in this state shoiild, in well-timed publications, expose, in 
 the most striking point of view, the inconveniences and disadvan- 
 tages that a longer connection with and dependence on the Atlantic 
 States, must inevitably draw upon them, and the great and innu- 
 merable difficulties in which they will probably be entangled, if 
 they do not speedily recede from the Union : the benefits they will 
 certainly reap from a secession ought to be pointed out in the most 
 forcible and powerful manner; and the danger of permitting Fed- 
 eral troops to take possession of the posts on the Mississippi, and 
 thus forming a cordon of fortified places around them, must be 
 particularly expatiated upon. In consideration of gentlemen de- 
 voting their time and talents to this object, his Excellency, the 
 Baron de Carondelet, will appropriate the sum of $100,000 to their 
 \ise, which shall be paid in drafts on the royal treasiiry at New 
 Orleans, or, if more convenient, shall be conveyed at the expense 
 of His Catholic Majesty into this country and held at their disposal. 
 Moreover, should such persons as shall be instrumental in pro- 
 moting the views of His Catholic Majesty hold any public employ- 
 ment, and in consequence of taking an active part in endeavoring 
 to effect a secession shall lose their employment, a compensation, 
 equal at least to the emoluments of their respective offices, shall 
 be made to them by His Catholic Majesty, let their efforts be 
 crowned with success, or terminate in disappointment.
 
 LOUISIANA 167 
 
 "Second — Immediately after the declaration of independence, 
 Fort Massac shall be taken possession of by the troops of the new 
 government, which shall be furnished by His Catholic Majesty, 
 without loss of time, with 20 field pieces, with their carriages and 
 every necessary appendage, including powder, balls, etc., together 
 with a number of small arms and ammunition sufficient to equip the 
 troops that it shall be necessary to raise. The whole to be trans- 
 ported at his expense to the already mentioned Fort jMassac. His 
 Catholic Majesty will further supply the sum of $100,000 for the 
 raising and maintaining of said troops, which sum shall also be 
 conveyed to and delivered at Fort Massac. 
 
 "Third — The northern boundary of His Catholic Majesty's prov- 
 inces of East and West Florida shall be designated by a line com- 
 mencing on the Mississippi, at the mouth of the Yazoo, extending 
 due east of the river Confederation or Tombigbee; provided, how- 
 ever, that all His Catholic Majesty's forts, posts or settlements on 
 the Confederation or Tombigbee, are included on the south of such 
 a line; but should any of his Majesty's forts, posts or settlements 
 fall to the north of said line, then the northern boundary .of his 
 Majesty's provinces of East and "West Florida shall be designated 
 by a line beginning at the same point on the Mississippi, and drawn 
 in such a direction as to meet the river Confederation or Tombigbee, 
 six miles to the north of the most northern Spanish fort, post or 
 settlement, on said river. All the lands to the north of that line 
 shall be considered as constituting a part of the territory of the 
 new government, saving that a small tract of land at the Chickasaw 
 bluffs, on the eastern bank of the Mississippi, ceded to his Majesty 
 by the Chickasaw nation in a formal treaty concluded on the spot 
 in the year 1795, between liis Excellency, Don Manuel Gayoso de 
 Lemos, governor of Natchez, and Augliakabee and some other 
 Chickasaw chiefs; which tract of land his Majesty reserves for 
 himself. The eastern boundary of the Floridas shall be hereafter 
 regulated. 
 
 "Fourth — His Catholic Majesty will, in case the Indian nations 
 south of the Ohio should declare war" or commence hostilities 
 against the new government, not only join and assist it in repelling 
 its enemies, but also, if said government shall at any future period 
 deem it necessary to reduce said Indian nations, extend its domina- 
 tion over them, and compel them to submit themselves to its con- 
 stitution and laws, his Majesty will heartily concur and co-operate 
 with the new government in the most effectual manner in attaining 
 this desirable end. 
 
 "Fifth — His Catholic Majesty will not, either directly or indi- 
 rectly, interfere in the framing of the constitution or laws which 
 the new government shall think fit to adopt, nor will he, at any 
 time, by any means whatever, attempt to lessen the independence 
 of the said government, or endeavor to acquire an undue influence 
 in it, but will, in the manner that shall hereinafter be stipulated 
 by treaty, defend and support it in preserving its independence. 
 
 "Sixth — The preceding proposals are outlines of a provisional
 
 168 LOUISIANA 
 
 treaty which his ExceUeney, the Bai-ou de Carondelet, is desirous 
 of entering into with the inhabitants of the western comitry, the 
 moment they shall be in a situation to treat for themselves. Should 
 they not meet entirely with your approbation, and should you wish 
 to make any alterations in, or additions to them, I shall, on my 
 return, if you think proper to communicate them to me, lay them 
 before his Excellency, who is animated with a sincere and ardent 
 desire to foster this promising and rising- iufant country, and at the 
 same time promote and fortify the interests of his beneficent royal 
 master, in securing, by a generous and disinterested conduct, the 
 gratitude and affections of a jiist, sensible and enlightened people. 
 
 "The important and unexpected events that have taken place in 
 Europe since the ratification of the treaty concluded on the 27th 
 of October, 1795, between His Catholic JIajesty and the United 
 States of America, having convulsed the general system of politics 
 in that quarter of the globe, and, wherever its influence is extended, 
 causing a collision of interests between nations formerly living in 
 the most perfect union and harmony, and directing the political 
 views of some states towards the most remote from their former 
 pursuits, but none being so completely unhinged and disjointed as 
 the cabinet of Spain, it may be confidently asserted, without incur- 
 ring the reproach of presumption, that His Catholic ilajesty will 
 not carry the above mentioned treaty into execution : nevertheless, 
 the thorough knowledge I have of the disposition of the Spanish 
 government justifies me in saying that, so far from its being his 
 Slajesty's wish to exclude the inhabitants of this western country 
 from the free navigation of the Mississippi, or withhold from them 
 any of the benefits stipulated for them in the treaty, it is posi- 
 tively his intention, as soon as they shall put it in his power to 
 treat with them, by declaring themselves independent of the Fed- 
 eral government and establishing one of their own, to grant them 
 privileges far more extensive, eive them a decided preference over 
 the Atlantic States in his commercial connections with them, and 
 place them in a situation infinitely more advantageous, in every 
 point of view, than that in which they would find themselves, were 
 the treaty to be carried into effect." 
 
 Following the submission of this document — a strange medley 
 of threats and cajoleries — Carondelet sent to Power about $10,000, 
 concealed in bags of coffee and barrels of sugar, to be delivered to 
 Gen. Wilkinson, who was then in command of the western army. 
 Wilkinson directed Power to take the money to Louisville and 
 turn it over to Philip Nolan. Power was instructed to make a 
 strong appeal to Wilkinson's ambition, and also "to ascertain the 
 force, discipline, and temper of the army imder his command." 
 But the hour of separation had passed. The firmness of Washing- 
 ton, a train of fortunate events, foremost of which wore the admis- 
 sion of Kentucky in 1702 and the treaty of ]Ma(lrid. liad appeased 
 the western people,' who were now satisfied with their own govern- 
 ment. Power, therefore, returned to New Orleans and made an 
 unfavorable report, after carrying out his instructions as best he
 
 LOUISIANA 169 
 
 could, and again the attempts of Spain to dismember the Union 
 ended in failure. 
 
 Carpet-Baggers. — Immediately after the war a large number of 
 Northern men, many of them ex-Federal soldiers, were attracted 
 to the South by the inordinately high price of cotton and the low 
 price of lands, as advertised in the newspapers. Some, too poor to 
 purchase lands of their own, became renters, and others worked as 
 ordinary laborers. All believed that by the application of the ad- 
 vanced agricultural methods with which they were acquainted they 
 could increase t,he production of cotton, and that they could get 
 along better with the negroes than could their former masters. 
 Garner, in his work on "Reconstruction in Mississippi," says: "It 
 is not too much to say that a majority of the Northern planters 
 were unsuccessful, and with the inauguration of the reconstn;etion 
 policy in 1867, they virtually abandoned the business and became 
 officeholders. It is incorrect, therefore, to call them carpet-baggers. 
 They did not go South to get offices, for there were no offices for 
 them to fill. The causes which led them to settle there were purely 
 economic and not political. The genuine carpet-baggers, who came 
 after the adoption of the reconstruction policy, were comparatively 
 few in number." 
 
 What was true of Mississippi was also true in greater or less 
 degree of all the Southern states. These men, having failed to make 
 money as rapidly as they had anticipated by agricultural pur- 
 suits, found it more remunerative to exploit state and municipal 
 governments for their private gain. They were not Southerners; 
 they had nothing in common with the Southern people. Their sole 
 object was to get rich at the expense of the community, and if the 
 name carpet-bagger is one of reproach to them they liave only 
 themselves and the Congress which upheld them, to blame. In 
 order to intrench themselves more firmly and perpetuate their 
 power they formed political alliances with the ignorant negroes, 
 upon whom their influence was bad and demoralizing, inasmuch 
 as they taught social and political equality and filled the minds of 
 the negroes with hatred for their former masters. Under the ad- 
 ministration of these carpet-bag governments the burden of taxa- 
 tion became onerous and the dispensation a farce. Naturally, such 
 conditions produced frequent riots, in which many lives were lost. 
 The Southern people saw their birthright taken from them by men 
 who cared nothing for the permanent welfare or prosperity of the 
 state, and in their resentment resorted to means which oftentimes 
 their own judgment did not approve. An instance of this kind was 
 seen in the affair at Coushatta. Red River parish, in Aug., 1S74, 
 in which six Republican ofRcials were killed. After the tragedy 
 the white people of the parish issued an address to the public con- 
 taining the following warning to the negroes: "To the colored 
 people we have to say that our action in the present instance must 
 fully convince you of the sincerity of our repeated declarations to 
 you that oiir war was against only such of yon as are .silly and 
 vicious enough to combine with the horde of scalawags and carpet-
 
 170 . LOUISIANA 
 
 bagtrers, "who, like vultures, have been preying upon our people 
 for eight long years." The Committee of 70 passed resolutions de- 
 ploring the conditions, in one of -vvhicli appeared the following: 
 "That in our opinion the immediate restoration of the state gov- 
 ernment to the hands of its legally elected officers, from which it 
 was arrested by Federal power, is the true remedy and would 
 quickly compose all our difficulties and restore peace and good 
 orer." (See also Kellogg 's Administration.) 
 
 Among the members of Congress who were zealous in their sup- 
 port of the reconstruction laws and vindictive in their attitude 
 toward the Southern people, was Senator Oliver P. IMorton, of 
 Indiana. This fact doubtless led Judge W. P. Harris of Missis- 
 sippi to say in a public speech in 1S75: "If any 200 Southern men, 
 backed by a Federal administration, shoi;ld go to Indianapolis, 
 turn out the Indiana people, take possession of all seats of power, 
 honor and profit, denounce the people at large as assassins and bar- 
 barians, introduce corruption in all branches of the piiblie adminis- 
 tration, make government a curse instead of a blessing, league 
 with the most ignorant class of society to make war on the en- 
 lightened, intelligent and virtuous, what kind of social relations 
 would such a state of things beget between I\Ir. Morton and his 
 fellow citizens and the intruders? "When these people first flocked 
 into the state they thought or assumed that they represented the 
 majesty_of an offended nation, and like the order of men to which 
 they belong expected to act the part of public patrons, to be sur- 
 rounded by clients and to pass amongst us amid salaams and 
 genuflections : but they were instantly luideceived. "We have, ever 
 since the war, prayed earnestly that the true representatives of the 
 Northern people might come among \is: their merchants, their far- 
 mers, their professional men, the representatives of their industries. 
 "We got only the chevalier d'industrie, and we know him at sight." 
 Such was the opinion of representative Southern men in all states 
 of the carpet-bagger. It tells the whole story. 
 
 Carroll, a post-hamlet of Bed River parish, sitx;ated on the line 
 of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company, in the western 
 part of the parish, is about a mile east of the Red river and 6 miles 
 north of Coushatta, the parish seat and nearest banking town. 
 
 Carroll Parish, was created by an act of the state legislature in 
 1832, during the administration of Gov. Andre Bienvenu Roman, 
 from parts of Ouachita and Concordia parishes. It was located in 
 the extreme northeast corner of the state on the border of Arkan- 
 sas and I\rississippi: its original boundaries wore as follows: Ar- 
 kansas on tlie north : ^lississippi territory- on the east, from which 
 it was separated by the -Mississippi river: Concordia and Ouachita 
 parishes on the south, and Ouachita parish on the west. Carroll 
 parish was settled almost entirely by English, Scotch and Irish 
 immigrants from the older states, many coming from Virginia, the 
 Carolinas and Oeorgia. some from Tennessee, and a large number 
 from the ad.iaeent territory- of Ifississippi. !Most of the early settle- 
 ments were made along the Mississippi river, near Lake Providence,
 
 LOUISIANA 171 
 
 at the time called Stock Island lake, during the first years of the 
 19th century. On March 16, 1S70, the seat of justice was removed 
 from Floyd to Lake Providence, and by an act of March 27, 1877, 
 Carroll parish was divided into two parishes, to be known as East 
 and West Carroll parishes. May 11, of the same year, fixed Bayou 
 Macon as the boundary between the two parishes. (See East and 
 West Carroll parishes.) 
 
 Carroll, William, soldier and statesman, was born near Pittsburg, 
 Pa., March 3, 1788. He received a limited education and in 1810 
 removed to Nashville, Tenn., where he opened a nail store — the 
 first in the state. He joined the state militia, of which Gen. Andrew 
 Jackson was coumiander-in-chief, and in 1812 was elected captain 
 of the Nashville Volunteers. Jackson soon after appointed him 
 brigadier-inspector and a little later major. When Jackson was 
 appointed major-general in the regular army in 1814, Maj. Carroll 
 was appointed major-general of militia to succeed him. On Dec. 
 19, 1814, he arrived at New Orleans with 2,500 men, and in the 
 battle of Jan. 8, 1815, repelled two attacks, intiicting severe punish- 
 ment upon the British. For his gallantly on this occasion the 
 Louisiana legislature gave him a vote of thanks on Feb. 2. After 
 the war he returned to Nashville and became the owner of the 
 first steamboat registered at that port. This boat he named the 
 Andrew Jackson, in honor of his old friend and commander. In 
 1821 he was elected govenior of Tennessee, was reelected in 1823, 
 and again in 1825. While serving his second term as governor he 
 visited New Orleans (Jan. 22, 1825), and was warmly received by 
 the people of that city, a committee of citizens being chosen to pro- 
 vide for his entertainment. To the expression of thanks of this 
 committee he made a modest but appropriate repl.y. He was again 
 elected governor in 1831 and 1833, but was defeated in 1835. He 
 died on March 22, 1844, and his tombstone bears the following 
 inscription, which is indicative of his character: "As a gentleman 
 he was modest, intelligent, accomplished; as an oiScer he was 
 energetic, gallant, daring; as a statesman he was wise and just." 
 
 Carson, a village in Beauregard parish, is a station on the Kansas 
 City Southern R. R., about 5 miles south of De Ridder. It has an 
 internationar money order postofifiee, an express ofRce, telegi-aph and 
 telephone facilities, and is the eastern terminus of a short line of 
 railroad called the Missouri & Louisiana, which runs west to "Carson 
 Mill." Population, 500. 
 
 Carter, George W., politician, was somewhat active in Louisiana 
 affaii'S during a portion of the reconstruction era. In 1871 he was 
 a member of the legislature, and when Mortimer Carr resigned the 
 speakership of the house, Mr. Carter was elected to the vacancy. 
 Soon after his election to this position he aligned himself with 
 S. B. Packard as a leader of a faction of the Republican party op- 
 posed to the policies of Gov. Warmoth. He was a delegate to the 
 Custom House convention on Aug. 10, 1871, which convention was 
 denounced by Gov. Warmoth as "a company of Federal office- 
 holders." The contest was renewed in the session of the legisla-
 
 172 LOUISIANA 
 
 ture which met ou Jan. 2, 1S72, but he Avas tiually ousted as speaker 
 aud expelled from the legislature. (See Warraoth's Administra- 
 tiou.) 
 
 Carterville, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Bossier 
 parish, is near the Webster parish boundary, and about 8 miles 
 northeast of Redland, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Casa Calvo, Marquis de, 8th Spanish governor of Louisiana, came 
 to the province with Gov. O'Reilly in 1769, being at the time only 
 IS years of age. He was a close friend of O'Reilly, whose son mar- 
 ried a niece of Casa Calvo. His full uame and title was Sebastian 
 de la Puerta y OTarril ^larquis de Casa Calvo. lu 1793 he was in 
 command of Port Dauphin, St. Domingo, when 77 Frenchmen were 
 brutally murdered by negroes, an outrage the marquis permitted 
 without offering any assistance to the unfortunate Pi-euohmen. 
 Shortlj' after the death of Gov. Gayoso, the JIarquis de Someruelos, 
 captain-general of Cuba and Louisiana, appointed Casa Calvo to 
 be governor ad interim, and on Sept. 13, 1799, he took possession of 
 the military government of Louisiana. One of his first acts was to 
 transmit to the captain-general the petition of the planters, asking 
 the removal of the restrictions ou the importation of negroes, so 
 that they might be brought to the colony in unlimited numbei-s, 
 or at least enough of them to supply all the labor necessary for the 
 successful conduct of the plantations. About the middle of June, 
 ISOl, he was succeeded by Gov. Salcedo and immediately sailed for 
 Havana. In the spring of 1803 he turned to New Orleans, having 
 been appointed to act as joint commissioner with Salcedo in turning 
 over the province of Louisiana to France. Laussat, the F^'ench 
 commissioner to receive the colony, says that as soon as he arrived, 
 "he summoned all the militia oflfi<>ers * * * to come to his 
 lodging, aud declare by yea or nay whether they intended to remain 
 in the service of Spain." The transfer of the province was formally 
 made on Nov. 30, 1803, but Casa Calvo remained at New Orleans, 
 where he spent a considerable portion of his time in encouraging 
 the belief that Louisiana was to be receded to Spain. On Oct. 15, 
 180.5, in company with ilorales, the intendant. he left Xew Orleans 
 for the old post of Adaise (or Adayes), near Xatchitoebes, and Gov. 
 Claiborne, fearing it was the intention of the two Spaniards to stir 
 up dissensions among the people in the western part of the terri- 
 tory, sent Capt. Turner along with them to keep an eye on their 
 movements and report. Early in Jan., 1806, the two ♦Spaniards 
 returned to Natchitoches, and on the 25tli Claiborne wrote to 
 ]\Iorales: "I esteem it a duty to remind you that the departure 
 from the territory of yoiirself and the gentleman attached to your 
 department will be expected in the course of the present month." 
 Casa Calvo came back to New Orleans on Fob. 4. and was almost 
 immediately asked to leave the territory by the 15th. On the 12th 
 Claiborne sent him a passport, with "best wishes for the health 
 and happiness of the nobleman whose presence has become so 
 unacceptable." Casa Calvo was highly indignant at this treatment.
 
 LOUISIANA 173 
 
 though there M^as nothing- to do but to accept the passport and 
 leave Louisiana never to return. 
 
 Casa Capitular. — (See Cabildo.) 
 
 Casey, James F., a native of Kentucky, was appointed collector 
 of customs at New Orleans by President Grant during the recon- 
 struction era. In 1872, while Pinehback was acting as governor, 
 Casey sent to Washington a niamber of sensational telegrams, 
 which doubtless had some influence in securing the presidential 
 recognition of the Republican state administration. One of these 
 telegrams sent on Dee. 11, 1872, said: "Parties interested in the 
 success of the Democratic party, particularly the New Orleans 
 Times, are making desperate efforts to array the people against 
 VIS. Old citizens are dragooned into an opposition they do not feel, 
 and pressure is hourly growing. Our members (of the legislature) 
 are poor and our adversaries are rich, and offers are made that are 
 difficult for them to withstand. There is danger that they will 
 break our quorum," etc. The next day he sent another telegram 
 in which he suggested that, "If a decided recognition of Gov. 
 Pinehback and the legal legislature were made, in ray judgment, it 
 would settle the whole matter." (See Returning Boards.) After 
 the restoration of the state government to the people of Louisiana, 
 Casey and others of his class disappeared from the arena of Loui- 
 siana polities. 
 
 Casket Girls. — Among the passengers on board a vessel which 
 arrived at New Orleans early in the year 1728, were a number of 
 young women of good character, each of whom brought with her 
 a chest of clothing, linen, etc., from which they received the name 
 of "filles a la cassette," or "casket girls." They were placed in 
 charge of the Ursuline nuns until such time as they shoiild be taken 
 in marriage by the colonists. Cable, in his "Creoles of Louisiana," 
 says there were three score of them, that their trunks were the gifts 
 of the king, and after regretting that their names have been lost, 
 adds: "But the Creoles have never been careful for the authenti- 
 cation of their traditions, and the only assurance left to us so late 
 as this is, that the good blood of these modest girls of long for- 
 gotten names, and of the brave soldiers to whom they gave their 
 hands, with the king's assent and dower, flows in the veins of the 
 be.st Creole families of the present day." (See also "Women Colo- 
 ni.sts.) 
 
 Caspiana, a post-town in the southern part of Caddo parish, is 
 situated on the west bank of the Red river and the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., about 20 miles southeast of Shreveport. It has a money 
 order postoffiee, an express office, telegraph and telephone facili- 
 ties and a population of 250. 
 
 Castille, a post-hamlet in the extreme eastern part of Acadia 
 parish, is about 4 miles southeast of Branch, the nearest railroad 
 station and 6 miles northeast of Rayne. 
 
 Castor, a village and station in the western part, of Bienville 
 parish, is a station on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R. It has a
 
 174 LOUISIANA 
 
 mouey order postoliice, an express office, telegraph aud telephone 
 facilities, and is a trading center for a considerable district. 
 
 Catahoula Parish -was established in 180S, during the territorial 
 administration of Gov. William C. (J. Claiborne, and received its 
 name in memory of the Catahoula Indians. The parish has an 
 area of 1,399 square miles. It is situated near the center of the 
 state and contained within its original boundaries part of the 
 present parish of Caldwell. As now constituted it is bouuded on 
 the north by Caldwell aud Fi-anklin parishes; on the east by Tensas 
 and Concordia parishes ; the Red and Little rivers form its irregular 
 southern boundary, separating it from Avoyelles parish ; Little river 
 separates it from Grant parish and forms most of the western 
 boundary, which is completed by Winn parish. Settlements were 
 made in Catahoula as early as 1796 and by ISIO farms and planta- 
 tions were opened and under cultivation in nearly every part of 
 the parish. Edward Meeks settled about 1796; David Jones and 
 Richard Earle a year later, and from that time the settlement had a 
 steady growth. The bluff lands of Sicily island were settled up by 
 such families as the Lovelaces, Kirklauds, Holsteins and others. 
 It was here that the powerful tribe of Natchez Indians made their 
 last stand against the French troops and traces of their intrench- 
 ments remained down as late as 1825. The first store iu Catahoula 
 parish was sitiiated at Catahoula prairie and was kept by Oliver J. 
 IMorgan and John Henry. When the parish was organized and laid 
 off it contained a population of about 1,000 souls. Harrisonburg 
 was made the seat of justice and Benjamin Tenille was appointed 
 judge of the court. Dr. David Phelps of Kentucky was the first 
 physician in the settlement. Iu 1819 the first steam boat ascended 
 the Ouachita river, from New Orleans to the post of Ouachita, 
 making the trip in 12 days. During the Civil war the only mili- 
 tary operations in Catahoiila were those around Fort Beauresrard, 
 situated on high ground overlooking Harrisonburg, where Lieiit. 
 Georee W. Logan was in command with a garrison of 400 men. 
 The Federals sent three expeditions ncainst the fort. The first two 
 were artillery fights, but the gunboats did not succeed in passing 
 the fort. The third was a land force which attacked the fort from 
 the rear and Lieutenant Logan evacuated the fort, taking what 
 artillery he could and spiking the remainder. Harrisonlmrg, on the 
 Ouachita river, is the parish seat and most important town. Cata- 
 houla is not thickly populated, and has no larere towns, but several 
 thriviusr villaares. such as Eden. Jena, Jonesville. Lelaud. Manifest, 
 OUa. Sicily Island, Rosefi^ld, Urania and Wild Wood. The parish 
 lies in the "long leaf yellow pine region." The southeastern por- 
 tion is flat, subject to overflow and swampy in places. The north- 
 ern and western piu'tions are broken, with rollincr uplands, broken 
 creek bottoms, pine hills and bluffs, "^^auy different soils are 
 found, which result in a diversity of products. Catahoula and Larto 
 lakes lie within the southern boundaries. There are a number 
 of mineral and sulphur springs in the parish, those most valuable 
 and noted for their medicinal properties are White Sulphur and
 
 LOUISIANA 175 
 
 Castor springs. The principal water courses are the Ouachita, 
 Tensas and Black rivers; Bayous Louis and Saline; Castor and 
 Casion fords, and many small streams, all of which are used in the 
 extensive lumbering industry. The timber resources of the parish 
 are enormous, and up to a decade ago were practically untouched, 
 the principal varieties are "long leaf yellow pine," oak, ash, cypress, 
 gum, hickory, locust, sassafras, maple, sycamore beech, magnolia 
 and persimmon. Over the hill country it is estimated that there 
 is an average of 14,000 feet of good marketable lumber to the acre, 
 and. several extensive cypress swamps afford fine fields for the 
 lumberman. The soil may be divided into three classes, alluvial, 
 sand and clay. The first is best adapted to the growth of cotton, 
 which is the great export crop. Oats, corn, potatoes, tobacco and 
 peas all yield abundantly, while fruit trees of all kinds grow rap- 
 idly. The parish is not well supplied with the railroads necessary 
 for the development of its great resources. A branch of the St. 
 Louis, Iron jMountain & Southern R. R. crosses the northwest coi'- 
 ner; the New Orleans & Northwestern crosses the northeast 
 corner, running through the towns of Greenville, Copeland, Flor- 
 ence, Peck and Lee Bayou ; a branch of the Louisiana & Arkansas 
 runs from Georgetown to Jena, and the Boston & Little River R. R. 
 runs westward from Eden. The following statistics concerning 
 the parish are taken from the U. S. census for 1910: Number of 
 farms, 1,450 ; acreage, 113,16.5 ; acres under cultivation, 48,118 ; 
 value of laud and improvements exclusive of buildings, $1,510,0.54; 
 value of farm buildings, $475,242; value of live stock, $438,374; 
 value of all crops, .$489,065. The population was 10,415. 
 
 Cataro, a post-hamlet in the central part of St. Landry parish, 
 is situated on Bayou Carron, about 6 miles west of Begg, the 
 nearest railroad station and 9 miles northwest of Opelousas, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 Cathedral of St. Louis. — Soon after the founding of New Orleans, 
 Bienville located the site of the church for the new settlement and 
 designated the ground on the left to be used as a presbytery. The 
 first building was of wood and adobe, erected under the auspices 
 of the Fi'ench government and was named in honor of the King of 
 France and the patron saint, St. Louis, about 1720, from which time 
 date the archives of the Catholic church of New Orleans. In Jan., 
 
 1722, Father Charlevoix, a Jesuit missionary, reached New Orleans 
 from Canada and in his letter describing the infant capital of the 
 new province says that, "a shed was used as a chapel." In Sept., 
 
 1723, a tornado devastated the colony and blew dovoi the little 
 parish church, the first place of wm-ship in Louisiana. In 1724 or 
 1725, a much more substantial parish church was built of brick, 
 which served the community for over 60 years. On Good Friday, 
 March 21, 1788, a great fire took place in the city of New Oi-leans, 
 and the second church was destroyed in the ten-ible conflagration. 
 Mass was celebrated in a temporary building for some time, but 
 toward the close of the year 1788, Almonester (q. v.) pffered to the 
 superior council or cabildo, to rebuild the church on a still grander
 
 176 ' LOUISIANA 
 
 aud more massive scale, at his OAvn expense, the governmeut to repay 
 him for his expenditui-e when the edihee was completed. His propo- 
 sition was accepted, the foundations of the building were laid in 
 ilarch, 1789, and within live years, notwithstanding many obstacles 
 that had to be overcome, the building was completed. Hardly had 
 the new church been built, when, on the fete of the Immaculate 
 Conception, Dec. S, 179i, another great conflagration broke out in 
 the city and the newly built cathedral escaped as if by a miracle. 
 The church cost Almonester $50,000. The original' design was the 
 usual heavy Spanish style, but about 1814 the great round towers 
 were added and the belfry in 182i. In Feb. 1850, the principal 
 tower of the cathedral fell, injuring the roof and walls to a great 
 extent. It is the prevalent but erroneous belief that the cathedral 
 was torn down and rebuilt in 1850, but this is a mistake. "When the 
 wardens started to have the building repaired, they concluded to 
 alter and enlarge the building to its present dimensions and ap- 
 pearance. Steeples were raised on the old round towers, the facade 
 was changed and made more imposing by the addition of columns 
 and pilasters. A few years ago the interior was decorated and fres- 
 coed. In the center is a fresco of the Transfiguration and around 
 it the four Evangelists, the Holy Family, and scenes illustrating 
 various passages of the Apocalypse. The high altar is comiiosed 
 of various marbles; the reredos back of the altar, is composed of 
 several columns supporting a cornice, on which are the words, 
 "Eece panis Angel orum" (Behold the bread of the angels) : on 
 the sides of the altar are the stalls of the canons of the cathedral 
 and those of the wardens : to the left is the throne of the archbishop 
 and his attendants; and above the main altar is a fresco by Bum- 
 bracht. representing St. Louis, king of France, presenting the 
 banner of the Cross to the crusaders. The remains of the cele- 
 brated curate Father Antoine (See Sedella, Antonio), and several 
 of his successors in office lie buried under the floor of the vestry 
 in the cathedral, In front of the high altar is the grave of Almon- 
 ester, the founder of the cathedral, marked by a marble slab in 
 the pavement bearing his coat-of-arms together with the record 
 of his life, title and services. The carved letters are still visible, 
 though neai'ly effaced by the ceaseless tread of several generations. 
 The church has a tenure, so to speak, of every Saturday offering 
 masses for the soul of its founder, and every evenintr of that day 
 as the sun sets, the sound of the tolling bell recalls him to the 
 minds of the priests of the church and those of the citizens who 
 remember, if they have ever heard of him. 
 
 Catholic Church. — The first white men to visit the region now 
 inchided within the limits of the State of Louisiana were Catholics. 
 Gayarre, in writing of the expedition of De Soto in the 16th cen- 
 tury, says: "Xot unmindful he, the Christian knight, the hater 
 and conqueror of iloorish infidelity, of the souls of his future vas- 
 sals; for 22 ecclesiastics accompanied him to preach the word of 
 God." And the priests forming part of this expedition celebrated 
 in the wilds of Louisiana forests the holv ceremonv of the mass
 
 LOUISIANA 177 
 
 more than a century and a half before the first permanent settle- 
 ment was made upon her soil. The French explorers, Marquette, 
 Joliet and La Salle, were Catholics, and no sooner had the last 
 named laid claim to the Mississippi valley in the name of Catholic 
 France, than the seminary of Quebec, by consent of Bishop St. 
 Vallier of that diocese, sent at least three missionaries to the 
 natives in the territory thus claimed. Father Francis Joliet de 
 Montigny established his mission among the Tensas Indians, 
 where he baptized 85 children the first year, and when Iberville 
 visited this tribe in March, 1700, he found this worthy priest 
 engaged in erecting a chapel. Rev. Anthony Davion, the second 
 missionary, erected his chapel on a hill near the village of the 
 Tonicas and planted a cross near the foot of a large rock which 
 for years afterward was known as " Davion 's Rock." The third 
 missionary. Rev. John Francis Buisson de St. Cosme, did not estab- 
 lish a mission, but after visiting several localities returned back 
 up the river. 
 
 When Iberville founded the settlement at Biloxi in 1699 Father 
 Bordenave, a Catholic priest, was installed as chaplain of the post. 
 The same year the seminary at Quebec sent Fathei's Bergier, 
 Bouteville and St. Cosme (a brother of the one sent out the pre- 
 ceding year) as missionaries to the lower Mississippi valley, hence 
 the history of the Catholic church in Louisiana is coeval with that 
 of the state itself. Upon his second voyage (in 1700) IberviUe 
 was accompanied by Father Du Ru, a Jesuit missionary, who on 
 Feb. 14, 1700, according to Shea, "erected a cross, offered the holy 
 sacrifice, and blessed a cemetery at Fort Mississipi^i, 17 leagues 
 from the mouth of the great river." This Father Du Ru made 
 several visits to the neighboring Indian tribes, after which he per- 
 formed his clerical duties at Biloxi and later at Mobile. The Jesuit 
 Father Limoges, who was sent from Quebec to found a mission 
 among the Oumas, reached their village, where he planted a cross, 
 and in ]\Tarch, 1700, began the erection of a chapel for the Ouma.s 
 and Bayagoulas. At the same time Father Nicholas Foncault, 
 another Jesuit, was sent to establish a mission among the Arkansas 
 Indians. He was killed by the Coreas and Father St. Cosme by 
 the Chetimachas, the latter tragedy occurring near the site of the 
 present city of Donaldsonville, La. 
 
 As if by mutual consent, the bishop of Quebec exercised ecclesi- 
 astical authority over the province of Louisiana, and though the 
 settlements about the mouth of the Mississippi were far removed 
 from his episcopal residence, he was thoughtful for the spiritual 
 welfare of this distant portion of his diocese. In 170.5 he sent five 
 priests of the foreign missions to Mobile, and on the same vessel 
 came two sisters of the order known as Grey Nuns — the first nuns 
 in Louisiana. In Aug., 1717, the Western Company received its 
 charter from the French government, and clause 53 of this charter 
 was as follows: 
 
 "As in the settlement of the coimtries granted to the said com- 
 pany by these presents, we regai'd especially the glory of God by 
 1—12
 
 178 LOUISIANA 
 
 procuring the salvation of the inhabitants, Indians, savages and 
 negroes, whom we desire to be instructed in the true religion, the 
 said company shall be obliged to build at its expense chiirches at 
 the places where it forms settlements; as also to maintain there 
 the necessary number of approved ecclesiastics; either with the 
 rank of parish priests, or such others as shall be suitable, in order 
 to preach the Holy Gospel there, perform Divine serWce, and ad- 
 minister the sacraments; all under the authority of the Bishop of 
 Quebec, the said colony remaining in his diocese as heretofore; 
 and the parish priests and other ecclesiastics which the company 
 shall maintain there, shall be at his nomination and patronage." 
 
 In March, 1717, some five months before this charter was gi-anted, 
 Father Anthony Margil, who had for some time been working as 
 a missionary among the Indians in Texas, reached the Adayes on 
 the Arroyo Hondo, within the limits of the present State of Loui- 
 siana, where he founded the mission of San 5Iiguel de Linares, 
 which he placed in charge of Father Guzman and a lay brother. 
 Learning that the French at Natchitoches were without a priest. 
 Father Margil made the journey on foot from the Adayes mission 
 - — a distance of 50 miles — to say mass for them. Ten years later 
 Father Maxim in, a Capuchin, was placed in charge of the mission 
 at Natchitoches, where the church has ever since been well repre- 
 sented, the city now being the oiBeial center of a diocese. Wlieu 
 war was declared between France and Spain in 1718, Father Mar- 
 gil's mission at Adayes was broken up by a French force under 
 St. Denis. 
 
 In 1720 Rev. Nicholas Ignatius de Beaubois was selected as 
 superior of the Jesuit missions in Louisiana, with the title of vicar- 
 general. He was born on Oct. 15, 1689, entered the order at the 
 age of 17 years, and prior to his appointment as vicar-general had 
 been working among the Illinois missions. It was through his 
 influence that the Ursulines (q. v.) were brought to Louisiana in 
 1727. The "Western Company, by the ordinance of ^May 16. 1722, 
 divided Louisiana into three ecclesiastical districts. North of the 
 Ohio and corresponding to it on the west side of the ^Mississippi 
 was assigned to the Jesuits and the seminaries of foreign missions 
 of Quebec and Paris; the Discalced Carmelites M-ere given the dis- 
 trict between the Mississippi and the Perdido, extending north- 
 ward to the Ohio; and the rest of the province was placed under 
 the jurisdiction of the Capuchins. The last named order first 
 appeared in Louisiana in 1721, and on June 27, 1725, received from 
 the "Western Company a formal diploma, which was approved by 
 the king on July 15. 
 
 Father Charlevoix arrived at New Orleans in Jan., 1722, and 
 found there "about 100 temporary houses." Up to this time no 
 chapel had been built in the town, religious services being held in 
 one-half of a warehouse. These quarters were soon afterward re- 
 quired for commercial purposes and the services were held in a 
 tent until a rude chapel could be erected. This chapel was demol- 
 ished by the hurricane of Sept. 12, 1723, and the faithful were
 
 LOUISIANA 179 
 
 again Avithout a liouse of worship. About the time that Father 
 Charlevoix came to New Orleans the first school in Louisiana was 
 established by Bienville. It was a school for boys, \vas located 
 next to the church, and was taught by Father Cecile, a Capuchin 
 priest. 
 
 The division of the territory by the ordinance of 1722 entailed 
 considerable hardship on the Jesuits. Their district was far up 
 the river, that including New Orleans was under the dominion of 
 the Capuchins, and as that town was the seaport through which 
 all missionaries from the mother country must enter, the Jesuits 
 asked and obtained permission to have an establishment there. The 
 Western Company agreed to build a residence and chapel for 
 Father Petit, the Jesuit superior, where he might reside perma- 
 nently with one priest to receive the priests of the order as they 
 might arrive. By the convention of 1726 the Jesuits were granted 
 a tract of land fronting 10 arpents on the Mississippi and extending 
 back the usual depth. This grant is now in the business district 
 of New Orleans, beginning near Common street and extending up 
 the river to the vicinity of Delord street. A few years later a con- 
 troversy arose between the Capuchins and Jesuits over the ques- 
 tion of jurisdiction. The trouble began when the bishop of Quebec 
 appointed Father Baudoin, the Jesuit superior, as vicar-general in 
 Louisiana, which aroused the indignation of the Capuchins, who 
 claimed that it was a violation of the provisions of the ordinance 
 of 1722, and the superior council refused to recognize the authority 
 of Father Baudoin or make any record of his appointment. In 
 1761 the Jesuit order was placed under the ban ; on June 9, 1763, 
 the s^iperior council ordered their banishment from the colony; 
 their property was confiscated, and they were summoned to appear 
 before the Duke de Choiseul. (See Jesuits.) The expulsion of 
 the Jesuits ended the dispute, and the bishop appointed Father 
 Dagobert, the Capuchin superior, to the office of vicar-general, 
 which position he held for several years after the establishment of 
 the Spanish authority over the province. 
 
 Not long after the beginning of the Spanish domination Louisi- 
 ana was detached from the diocese of Quebec and made a part 
 of that of Santiago de Cuba imder Bishop Echevarria, who reap- 
 pointed Father Dagobert his vicar-general. In 1772 the bishop 
 sent Father Cirilo, a Spanish Capuchin, to investigate and report 
 upon the state of the church in Louisiana. Father Cirilo made 
 such serious charges against the French Capuchins that again a 
 religious controversy ensued, but fortunately for the welfare of 
 the church it was of short duration, the Spanish government acting 
 as mediator and bringing about a reconciliation without discredit 
 or humiliation to either side. Six more Spanish Capuchins, 
 among whom was Father Antonio de Sedella, arrived in 1789. In 
 1781 Father Cij'ilo, who had been acting as vicar-general, was made 
 auxiliary bishop and directed to exercise his functions in Louisiana. 
 The diocese of Santiago de Cuba was divided in 1790, when the 
 southern part of the island was made an archbishopric and the
 
 180 LOUISIANA 
 
 northern portion was united with the Floridas and Louisiana to 
 form the diocese of Havana. This arrangement lasted until April 
 25, 1793, when Louisiana and the Floridas were organized into a 
 new diocese with Don Luis de Peiialver-y-Cardenas as bishop. He 
 arrived in New Orleans on July 17, 1795, and entered at once upon 
 his episcopal duties. He continued as bishop until July 20, 1801, 
 when he was appointed archbishop of Guatemala, leaving the 
 affairs of his diocese in the hands of his two canons. Very Kev 
 Thomas Hasset and Very Kev. Patrick Walsh. Kt. Eev. Francis 
 Poro was appointed to succeed Bishop Peiialver, but he never 
 came to Louisiana, and the diocese was without a bishop until 
 the papal bull of Sept. 1, 1805, which placed it for the time being 
 under tlie care of Bishop Carroll of Baltimore. Father Hasset 
 died in April, 1801. and Father Walsh in Aug., 1806, and soon after 
 the latter 's death Bishop Carroll appointed a.s vicar Very Rev. 
 Jean Olivier, who remained in charge until in 1813, when Very 
 TJev. Louis W. Dubourg, who had been appointed administrator 
 apostolic the preceding year, arrived in New Orleans. 
 
 The period from 1805 to 1820 was marked by the troubles with 
 Father Sedella. Father Walsh, while acting as vicar-general, 
 claimed that Sedella was in unlawful possession of the cathedral 
 and undertook to remove him. The latter refused to obey the order 
 of the vicar-general, and, instead of appealing to the bishop, adopted 
 a reA'olutionary coiarse, claiming that the cathedral was the property 
 of the Catholic people of New Orleans and appealing directly to 
 them. For this purpose he called a meeting of the parishioners, 
 who elected him parish priest in the face of the vicar-general's 
 dismissal. On ^larch 27, 1805, Father Walsh desisnated the 
 Ursulines' chapel as the parish church, with Father Olivier as 
 priest. Wlien the latter was appointed vicar-general he inherited 
 the troubles and in turn handed them down to his successor. Father 
 Dubourg. The dispute was finally settled in the civil courts, which 
 sustained Father Sedella. Tn 1815 Abbe Duboure went to Rome to 
 explain the rebellioiis conduct of Father Sedella to the pope, who 
 appointed Father Dubourg bishop of the diocese. Father Sedella 
 wa.s still defiant, however, and the new bishop asked the Propa- 
 ganda to permit him to remove his residence to St. Louis, which 
 permission was granted and he took up his residence in that city 
 in Jan., 1818. Late in the year 1820 he visited New Orleans and 
 on Christmas day "celebrated pontifically in the cathedral." 
 
 On Aug. 13, 1822, Pope Pius VTI formed IMississippi and. Ala- 
 bama into a vicariate apostolic and appointed as vicar Rev. Joseph 
 Eosati, a native of Sora, Italy, and a member of the order of 
 Lazarists. On ^Vlarch 25. 1824. Father Rosati was consecrated 
 bishop of Tenagre and made coadjutor to Bishop Dubourg. A few 
 months later Bishop Dubourg resigned, leaving his coad.iutor to 
 administer the affairs of the diocese, which was divided by the 
 pope on July 18, 1827. when the see of New Orleans was estab- 
 lished with Father Rosati as bishop. He declined the honor, how- 
 ever, and on IMarch 20. 1827. was transferred to the new see of
 
 LOUISIANA 181 
 
 St. Louis as bishop, holding at the same time the ])ositiou of 
 administrator apostolic of the newly created diocese of New 
 Orleans. 
 
 When Bishop Eosati declined the see of New Orleans he recom- 
 mended for the place Eev. Leo Raymond Neckere, who was ap- 
 pointed bishop on Aug. 4, 1829, and consecrated on June 24, 1830. 
 He Avas a Lazarist, a native of Belgium, and was only 30 years of 
 age at the time of his consecration. His administration lasted only 
 a little over three years, as he died of yellow fever on Sept. 5, 1S3.3. 
 Over two years elapsed before a successor to Bishop Neckere was 
 appointed. During this time the business of the diocese was 
 cared for by Kev. Anthony Blanc and Father Ladaviere. On Nov. 
 27, 1835, the former was consecrated as the second bishop _of 
 New Orleans, the ceremony being performed in the cathedral of 
 that city. Bishop Blanc was a native of France, and at the time 
 of his consecration was a little over 43 years old. In 1836 he went 
 to Europe and brought back with him eight Jesuits for the purpose 
 of establishing a college at Grand Coteau. 
 
 After the death of Father Sedella in Jan., 1827, the wardens or 
 trustees continued to collect the revenues of the cathedral, and 
 out of the funds thus acquired they paid the ordinary of the diocese 
 such a salary as they pleased. In Jan., 1842, Bishop Blanc de- 
 manded all his episcopal rights as accorded by the laws of the 
 church, but the wardens ignored the demand. The situation was 
 further aggravated when Father Moni, the curate of the cathedral, 
 died and the bishop appointed Abbe Rousillion as his successor. 
 The wardens, claiming the right to select their own pastor, under- 
 took to reject the nomination. Bishop Blanc wrote a pastoral 
 letter, in which he pointed out to the wardens that they were laying 
 themselves liable to censure and even excommunication, but in the 
 interests of peace he withdrew the appointment of Abbe Rousillion 
 and named instead Father Maenhaut, who was accepted by the 
 wardens. In a little while a difference arose between the wardens 
 and Father Maenhaut, and this disagreement increased until the 
 curate abandoned his position and took up his residence with the 
 bishop, who on Nov. 2, 1842, witlidrew all the priests from the 
 cathedral, leaving that church withoiit religious service. Through 
 the influence of some prominent Catholic laymen, a peace was 
 patched up and in Jan., 1843, the bishop appointed Father Bach. 
 Again the trouble broke out, but Fatlier Bach held possession until 
 his death the following September, at a time when the bishop was 
 temporarily absent from the diocese. Upon his return he notified 
 the wardens that he would withhold the name of his appointee for 
 the vacancy until he had assurances that the new pastor would 
 be permitted to discharge his duties without opjiosition. As the 
 wardens would not give the assurances required, the bishop, in a 
 second letter, warned them that if they persisted in their course 
 all connection between them and him must cease. This left the 
 cathedral without a curate, and the wardens resorted to the courts, 
 instituting a suit for damages in the sum of ,$20,000. Their demand
 
 182 LOUISIANA 
 
 was dismissed in the parish court, and au appeal -was immediately 
 taken to the supreme court, which tribunal sustained the opinion 
 of the lower court. Peace was restored. 
 
 On April 21, 1S4-1, the second synod of the diocese was convened. 
 In view of tlie previous troubles with the wardens it was ordei-ed 
 by the s.^Tiod that no church should be erected until a deed was 
 made to the bishop, aud trustees or wardens were prohibited from 
 fixing fees for burial, etc. 
 
 Pope Pius IX, on July 19, 1850, made New Orleans an arch- 
 diocese with Bishop Blanc as the first archbishop, and he was in- 
 vested with the pallium on Feb. 16, 1851. In 1852 the Plenary 
 Council met at Baltimore and recommended the division of the 
 diocese of New Orleans. Pursuant to this recommendation, all that 
 portion of the diocese lying north of the 31st parallel was cut off 
 and erected into the diocese of Natchitoches on July 29, 1853, with 
 Rt. Rev. Augustus M. Martin as bishop. At the time of its estab- 
 lishment the new diocese had a Catholic population of about 25,000, 
 though it had but seven churches and five priests. Under the 
 labors and influence of Bishop IMartin the church experienced a 
 revival of interest, and at the beginning of the Civil war was in an 
 encouraging condition. 
 
 Archbishop Blanc died on June 20, 1S60, and was succeeded by 
 Rt. Eev. John Mary Odin, bishop of Galveston, who continued as 
 archbishop until his death in France on ]\Iay 25, 1870. During his 
 administration the Civil war and the era of reconstruction detracted 
 very much from the interest in church work, but Ai'chbishop Odin 
 labored faithfully for the people under his care, and his death was 
 deeply mourned. Some time before his death he had asked for 
 a coadjutor and Rev. Napoleon Joseph Perche had been appointed 
 and assigned to the see of New Orleans with the right of succes- 
 sion. Accordingly, upon the death of Archbishop Odin he assumed 
 the duties of the high office and was duly consecrated in December 
 following. In 1871 the wardens gave up all control of the cathedral 
 to Archbishop Perche by a lease for ten years, the archbishop to 
 receive all revenues and meet all expenditures. In 1878 tlie arch- 
 bishop demanded possession of all the property belonging to the 
 cathedral, but as some of this property was involved the demand 
 was not at once complied with, though soon afterward the board of 
 wardens went into liquidation, and the entire property was deeded 
 to the archbishop "for the benefit and use of the Catholic 
 population." 
 
 The advanced age of Archbishop Perche, and the fact that the 
 finances of the see had become involved, made necessary the ap- 
 pointment of a coadjutor. On Oct. 23, 1879, Rt. Rev. Francis X. 
 Leray, bishop of Natchitoches, was appointed coadjutor and apos- 
 tolic administrator of temporal affairs, with the right of succession, 
 and when Archbishop Perche died on Dec. 27, 1883, he became 
 archbishop. After his death Very Rev. Gustav A. Rouxel served 
 as temporary administrator until Aug. 7, 1888, when Rt, Rev. 
 Francis Janssens, bishop of Natchez, was made archbishop. He
 
 LOUISIANA 183 
 
 served until his death in 1897, and on Dee. 1 of that year Rt. Rev. 
 Plaeide Lonis Chapelle became his successor. He died in 1905 
 and was succeeded by Most Rev. James Hubert Blenk, the present 
 archbishop, who was invested with the pallium in the cathedral 
 in New Orleans on April 24, 1907. 
 
 According to Wiltzius' Catholic Directory for 1909, the Catholic 
 population of the see of New Orleans was 525,000; the number of 
 secular priests^ 157; priests belonging- to religious orders, 124; 
 churches with resident priests, 130; missions, 85; stations, 35; 
 preparatory seminaries, 1; colleges for boys, 7; number of stu- 
 dents, 1,918; academies for young ladies, 17; students, 3,219; 
 parochial schools, 95; attendance, 14,572; total number of young 
 people under Catholic care, 21,689. 
 
 As above stated, the first bishop of the diocese of Natchitoches 
 was Rt. Rev. Augustus Mary Martin, who was consecrated in the 
 St. Loi^is cathedral at New Orleans by Archbishop Blanc on De" 
 31, 1853. He was a native of Brittany, France, Avhere he was born 
 in 1801 ; oame to America in 1840 at the solicitation of Bishop 
 Hailandiere of Vincennes, Ind. ; visited his native land in 1846, after 
 which he served as priest at various points in Louisiana until his 
 elevation to the see of Natchitoches. His death occurred on Sept. 
 29, 1875. During his 22 years as bishop the number of churches in 
 the diocese increased from 7 to 13 regular parishes and nearly 50 
 chapels and missions; the 5 priests increased to 24, and the one 
 corivent at the time the diocese was created had grown to 10. 
 Bishop ilartin was succeeded by Rt. Rev. Francis Xavier Leray, 
 who was consecrated on April 22, 1877. After his promotion to the 
 high office of archbishop of New Orleans, he was succeeded by 
 Rt. Rev. Anthony Durier, whose consecration took place on March 
 19, 1885. He continued to serve as bishop luitil his death, which 
 occurred on Feb. 28, 1904, and on Nov. 30« of that year the present 
 bishop of the diocese, Rt. Rev. Cornelius Van De Ven, was conse- 
 crated and entered upon his episcopal duties. 
 
 According to the Catholic Directory, the Catholic population 
 of this diocese at the close of the year 1908 was 31,431 ; the niimber 
 of seci;lar priests, 24; priests belonging to religious ordei'S, 8; 
 churches with resident priests, 22 ; missions, 34 ; stations, 16 ; col- 
 leges for boys, 4; attendance at these collegres, 335; academies for 
 young' ladies, 6; parochial schools, 16; sisters ensraged in educa- 
 tional and charitable Avork, 102. The directory does not give the 
 number of students in attendance at the young ladies' academies 
 and boarding schools, nor the number of pupils enrolled in the 
 parochial schools. (See also biographical sketches of the several 
 bishops and archbishops.) 
 
 Catholic Societies. — In connection with the benevolent and chari- 
 table work of the Catholic church, or for purposes of mutual pro- 
 tection, numeroiTS societies have been organized at various periods 
 of church liistory. Among the oldest of these is the Ancient Order 
 of Hibernians, an Irish Catholic societ.y, which some writers claim 
 was organized in 1652. Others sav it orisinated in 1651, when
 
 184 louisl\:n:a 
 
 Cromwell proclaimed nearly all the native population of the Emer- 
 ald Isle outlawed, placed a price on the head of almost every Cath- 
 olic priest in Ireland, and declared the penalty of death on all those 
 who might have the temerity to attend the services of the Catholic 
 church. It is agreed, however, that the founder of the society was 
 Kory Og 0"Moo, and that it was called into existence for the pur- 
 pose of protecting the Irish priests and the Catholic religion. The 
 name first adopted was that of "Defenders," but when the church 
 was emancipated in 1829 the present name was taken and the 
 object of the society stated to be "the advancement of the princi- 
 ples of Irish nationality." Membei-ship is limited to Catholics of 
 Irish extraction. In 1836 the order was introduced into the United 
 States and now numbers in this country about 220,000 members. 
 It has endowed a chapel in the Catholic universitj' of America and 
 disburses about .$1,000,000 annually in benefits. In the city of New 
 Orleans there are five branches of the order, which is also repre- 
 sented in most of the larger cities of the State of Louisiana. 
 
 The Catholic Knights of America, founded in 1877, now has 700 
 subordinate councils and over 20,000 members in the United 
 States. The purposes of this society, as stated by a prominent 
 official, are: "To iinite fraternallj' practical Catholics, male and 
 female, of every honorable occupation, of good moral character 
 and soimd bodily health ; to give moral and material aid to its mem- 
 bere by encouraging one another in busines.s and by assisting one 
 another in obtaining employment : to establish a benefit fund, from 
 which, on e^^dence of the death of a member, shall be paid a sum 
 not exceeding .$2,000 to the beneficiaries of the deceased, if a male, 
 or not exceeding $1,000 if a female : to establish a fund for the 
 relief of sick and distressed members if the branches shall deem it 
 proper to do so: and to establish and maintain a circulating library 
 for the use of the members." The first branch of the order in 
 Louisiana was organized at ^Monroe on Aug. 7, 1881. In June, 
 1909, there were in the state 33 branches with a total membership 
 of 1,243. James L. Higgins, of Algiers, was then state president, 
 and Thomas A. Badeaux, of Thibodaux, state secretary. Since its 
 organization in 1877 the society has disbui-sed in benefits to its 
 members in the United States about $l.'i,000.000. 
 
 The society known as the Knights of Columbus was founded in 
 1882. It now has in the United States over 1,300 subordinate coun- 
 cils, all working under the direction of a national council, and 
 about 170,000 members. The aims of the society are similar to 
 those of the Catholic Knights of America, and since its orioin it 
 has expended about $3,000,000 in carrying out its benevolence. 
 The society is now represented in all parts of the United States, 
 one of the largest councils in the country — Orleans, Xo. 714 — 
 being located in the city of Xew Orleans. Councils are also main- 
 tained in most of the principal cities and towns of the state. 
 
 The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded in Paris. France, 
 where the head office is still located, thoush branchgs have been 
 established in all parts of the civilized world. "Its principal mis-
 
 LOUISIANA 185 
 
 sion is the care of the poor in their homes to the eud that the unity 
 of the family may be preserved, but it conducts many other works 
 of charity, such as free employment bureaus, summer homes, boys' 
 clubs, hospital and prison visitation committees, etc." The local 
 or parish branches are known as "conferences," which are grouped 
 in sections under the jurisdiction of particular and central councils, 
 the latter being under the direction of a Superior Council, which 
 in the United States is located in New York city. The society 
 was introduced in Louisiana at an early date and it is still a potent 
 factor in earing for the worthy poor. The New Orleans Morning 
 Star, a Catholic publication, of April 24, 1907, in reviewing- the 
 Catholic societies of that city, says: "In this parish there is a 
 variety of well-organized and prosperous societies. There are in- 
 surance orders, mutual benevolent organizations, social clubs and 
 purely religious societies. First in the order of charity comes the 
 St. Vincent de Paul conference, whose secret and therefore inof- 
 fensive charitable work effects untold good to the poor and needy 
 of the parish." As early as March 1.5, 1855, the Louisiana legis- 
 lature passed an act incorporating a "Society of the Daughters of 
 Chai-ity of St. Vincent de Paul, in order that Sisters of Charity 
 can more widely diffuse charity to the sick, poor and fatherless 
 of the state." The act further provided that the superior of the 
 mother house of the society, located at Emmitsburg, Md., should 
 be permitted to erect buildings in the state for the care of orphans, 
 destitute females, etc. 
 
 Just a year before the passage of this act, that is on March 15, 
 1854, the "Benevolent Association of Roman Catholic Ladies of 
 Baton Rouge" was incorporated by act of the legislature "for the 
 relief of the poor and indigent of the parish of East Baton Rouge," 
 and at different times in the history of Louisiana other societies 
 have been authorized by legislative enactment, some of which have 
 been granted state aid in furthering their charitable undertakings. 
 A notable instance of this character was under the act of ^larch 12, 
 1836, incorporating the "New Orleans Association for the relief 
 of Male Orphans," and authorizing the state treasurer to pay to 
 the directors the sum of $1,000 as a donation on the part of the 
 state. 
 
 Other Catholic societies of a national character are the Catholic 
 Total Abstinence Union, founded in 1872; the Catholic IMutual 
 Benefit Association, founded in 1876, and the Catholic Benevolent 
 Legion, founded in 1881. All tliese are represented to a greater 
 or less extent in the Catholic centers of Louisiana. In almost 
 every city or large town of the state are maintained one or more 
 societies of a local nature, the principal objects of which are to 
 foster a fraternal spirit among the members, promote charitable 
 undertakings, and work together for the upbuilding of the church. 
 Among the societies of this class in New Orleans may be mentioned 
 the Society of the Holy Name of Jesus, organized in 1906 under 
 the auspices of the Panlist fathers, for the "increase of Holy com- 
 munions among men, greater veneration and respect for the Sacred
 
 1S6 LOUISIANA 
 
 Xaiue, and consequeutly better observance of the second com- 
 mandment;" the Young Ladies Sodality: the Children of ilary, 
 for Catholic girls; the Holy Angels' Sodality, for little girls too 
 young to belong to the Children of Mary; the Ladies' Catholic 
 Benevolent association, and the St. John Berchman's altar boys' 
 society. 
 
 Cat Island. — -This island, irregular in shape, lies off the coast of 
 Mississippi, to which state it now belongs, about 10 miles from 
 the mainland and some 25 miles from the most eastern point of 
 the mainland of Louisiana. It is said to have received its name 
 from the fact that during the short stay of d "Iberville and his men 
 on the island in 1699 they killed several wild cats there. Another 
 version is that when the French first landed upon the island they 
 found there large numbers of a small animal, which looked some- 
 thing like a cat. This led one of the Frenchmen to exclaim: "Why, 
 this must be the kingdom of cats!" whereiipon the name of Cat 
 Island was at once bestowed upon it, a name that it has ever 
 since retained. According to this version, the little animal that 
 occasioned the astonishment was the common raccoon. 
 
 Wlien Kerlerec became governor the English were threatening 
 all the French settlements in America. He therefore established on 
 Cat Island a small garrison consisting of detachments of marines 
 and the Swiss regiment. In 17.57 this garrison was commanded by 
 an officer named Duroux, a man noted for his cruel and tyrannical 
 treatment of his men, compelling them, among other things, to 
 cultivate his private garden, to fell trees and burn charcoal, which 
 he sold for his own benefit. He furnished his soldiers with bread 
 made from flour taken from the wreck of a Spanish ship, wliile he 
 sold the floxir sent by the government and pocketed the proceeds. 
 If any of the men protested or refused to obey his imreasonable 
 orders, they were stripped naked and tied to trees where they were 
 exposed to the mosquitos. The men complained to Gov. Kerlerec, 
 but withoTit avail. Finally forbearance ceased to be a virtue, and 
 one day as Duroux was landing" on his retiirn from a hunting trip 
 to the mainland, he was shot to death and his body thrown into 
 the sea. On the island lived a planter named Beaudreau for Beau- 
 drofi a famous hunter and courier, who had refused to share with 
 Duroux some goods taken from the wreck of the Spanish ship 
 above mentioned, and for his refusal had been placed in irons by 
 the commandant. He was released by the mutineers and com- 
 pelled to show them the route to the Carolinas, hwt not until after 
 they had sacked the stores on Ship Island. A few succeeded in 
 reaching the English settlements, but the ma.iority of them were 
 captured by the Choctow Indians and taken to New Orleans, where 
 they were turned over to Kerlerec. Two of the ringleaders were 
 broken on the wheel, one was nailed in a wooden box and sawed in 
 twain with a wliip-saw by two subaltern officers, and others were 
 punislied in various ways. Notwithstanding Beaudreau bore a 
 written statement that he had been compelled to act as guide to 
 the rebellious soldiers, the governor ordered him to be broken on
 
 LOUISIANA 187 
 
 the wheel and his bodj-, with that of one of the mutineers, thrown 
 into the river as unworthy of Christian burial. 
 
 There is now a postoifice in West Feliciana parish called Cat 
 Island. It is located on the Mississippi river a short distance above 
 the town of Bayou Sara. 
 
 Causey, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Morehouse parish, 
 about 2 miles north of Bartholomew bayou, and 6 miles east of 
 Vaughn, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cavelier, Jean, a brother of La Salle, was one of the latter 's ill- 
 fated party that in 1685 attempted to found a settlement at or near 
 the mouth of the Mississippi river. In Jan., 1687, Jean Cavelier 
 was one of the 16 persons that started overland with La Salle for 
 the Illinois country in the hope of obtaining aid from the post that 
 La Salle had established at Starved Rock in 1682, or of finding the 
 Mississippi river some distance above its mouth. He was present 
 at the time La Salle was shot and killed by Duhaut, and shortly 
 after that sad event, in company with Joutel, Father Douay and 3 
 others, with 6 horses, and 3 Indians for guides, he set out in a 
 northeast direction for the Mississippi. After severe hardships they 
 finally reached the Illinois country, where they met Tonti, and later 
 went on to Canada. 
 
 Cavelier, Robert (See La Salle). 
 
 Cavelier, Zenon, was colonel commanding the 2nd regiment of 
 Louisiana militia at the time of the attempted invasion by the 
 British in the winter of 1814-15. On Jan. 4, 1815, he was sent with 
 his regiment to reinforce Gen. Morgan on the right bank of the 
 Mississippi, and his command formed part of the force that re- 
 treated so ignominiously before a detachment of British soldiery 
 under Col. Thornton on the 8th. A court of inquiry presided over 
 by Gen. William Carroll, held the conduct of Col. Cavelier, with 
 that of Cols. Dejean and Davis, respectively commanding the 1st 
 Louisiana militia and a detachment of Kentucky riflemen, not rep- 
 rehensible, as the responsibility for the defeat fell on Gen. Morgan, 
 who gave the order to retreat. Col. Cavelier 's regiment was com- 
 mended in the resolutions passed by the legislature for its "zeal 
 and courage" in repelling the invaders. 
 
 Cecil, a post-hamlet and station in the northeastern part of 
 Union parish, is on the Farmersville & Southern R. R., about 15 
 miles northeast of Farmersville, the parish seat. 
 
 Cecile, Father, a Capuchin friar, is mentioned in Louisiana his- 
 tory as conducting a school in New Orleans in 1727. Aside from 
 this little can be learned concerning him. His school was probably 
 for boys, and was one of the earliest, if not the first, in the province 
 of Louisiana. 
 
 Celeron, Captain, was a French officer on duty in America in 
 the first half of the 18th century. Dumont says that he reinforced 
 Fort Chartres in 1739 with 30 cadets and a number of Indians from 
 Canada. The cadets were all "of gentle birth and the sons of 
 officers." The following spring Celoron led an expedition against 
 the Chickasaws, with whom he negotiated a treaty of peace that
 
 188 LOUISIANA 
 
 ■\vas ratified by Bieuville iu April. Gayarre says: "'Celoron was 
 the only officer Avho gained any reputation in that expedition." 
 (See also Fort Chartres.) 
 
 Cemeteries, National. — There are four national cemeteries in 
 Louisiana, located at Alexandria, Baton Rouge, Chalmette and 
 Port Hudson. Jurisdiction over these cemeteries was ceded to the 
 United States by the following act of the state legislature, approved 
 Sept. Ifci, IStiS: ""Whereas, the United States of America have pur- 
 chased, or are about to purchase and set apart certain tracts of land 
 in the state of Louisiana, hereinafter described, to be used and 
 maintained at their own expense, in perpetua, as National Ceme- 
 teries for the interment of the remains of United States soldiers, 
 deceased; and whereas, the laws of said United States provide that 
 no public money shall be expended for the purchase of any land 
 within any state of the tjuited States until a cession of the juris- 
 diction by the legislature of the state; and whereas, a formal appli- 
 cation has been tiled by the said United States, through their prop- 
 erly accredited representative, for the aforesaid cession, so far as 
 relates to the lauds hereinafter described; now, therefore (Be it 
 resolved, etc.) That the state of Louisiana relinquish all jurisdic- 
 tion over the hereinafter described lands and premises in said state 
 purchased or to be purchased and set apart for the purposes afore- 
 said, and that such jurisdiction be, and the same is hereby ceded to 
 
 and forever vested in the United States All that certain 
 
 tract, piece or parcel of land, situated, lying, and being in the city 
 of Baton Rouge and designated on a ma]3 of survey of said city 
 made by Henry and Wm. G. "Waller, city surveyors, as squares 
 
 numbers nineteen (19), twenty (20), and twenty-one (21) 
 
 Also all that certain other tract of land, situate, lying and being at 
 Chalmette, in the Parish of St. Bernard, and state of Louisiana, 
 about 4 miles below the city of New Orleans, and on the easterly 
 bank of the Mississippi river, and designated by the letters A. B, C, 
 D, E and F, on a map or plan drawn by Louis H. Pilie, late city 
 
 surveyor, dated Jan. 29, 1867, etc Also, all that certain 
 
 other tract of land situate in the ]iarish of East Baton Rouge, in 
 
 said state of Louisiana aboiit 1 mile below Port Hudson 
 
 ,,.... containing about eight acres , Also, all that cer- 
 tain other tract of land situated at Pineville in said state." Juris- 
 diction over national cemeteries w^as further ceded to the United 
 States by a general act of cession, approved July 6, 1882. which 
 enacted: "That the United States shall have power to purchase 
 or condemn in the manner prescribed by law, upon making just 
 compensation therefor, any land in the state of Louisiana not 
 already in use for public purposes, required for custom-houses, 
 court-houses, arsenals, national cemeteries, or for other purposes 
 of the government of the United Statees. That the United States 
 may enter upon and occupy any land which may have been or may 
 be purchased or condemned, or otherwise acquired, and shall have 
 the right of exclusive legislation, and concurrent jurisdiction, to- 
 gether with the state of Louisiana, over such land and the struc-
 
 LOUISIANA 189 
 
 tures thereou, and shall hold the same exempt from all state, 
 parochial, municipal, or other taxation." 
 
 The Alexandria National cemetery contains an area of 8.24 acres, 
 which, with the roadway belonging tliereto, is situated at Pineville, 
 in the parish of Rapides; the Baton Rouge cenieteiy contains an 
 area of 7.50 acres; the Chalmette cemetery contains an area of 
 13.60 acres, and the Port Hudson cemetery contains 8 acres. 
 
 Centenary College. — The early history of this institution, when 
 it was supported by the state and was known as the College of 
 Louisiana, has been elsewhere given. The name of the college is 
 due to the date of its origin, in 1839, 100 years after the foundation 
 of the first Methodist society by Jolin Wesley. The original idea 
 of the college was that of the Rev. H. ^I. Drake, to whose efforts, 
 supplemented by those of the Rev. John Lane of Vicksburg, Miss., 
 Rev. C. K. Marshal and Elias R Porter of tlie same state, the 
 institution owes its beginning. Clinton, Hinds county, Miss., was 
 the site first chosen by tlie trustees, but the location was soon 
 after changed to Brandon Springs, Miss., where it went into opera- 
 tion in the fall of 1841. The first president was Rev. Thomas C. 
 Thornton. The college had two departments, a collegiate depart- 
 ment, including law and medicine, and a preparatory department. 
 It started its woi-k under prosperous auspices and in 1842 had 175 
 students. Neverthless, after the lapse of a few years, the location 
 was found to be an unfortunate one, and the trustees decided to 
 move to Jackson, La., where the property of the defunct College 
 of Louisiana was purchased in 1845, Judge Edward McGehee, of 
 Wilkinson county, Miss., and Capt. David Tliomas nnd John jMc- 
 KoAven, of East Feliciana, La., giving their bond for the amount 
 of the purchase price, $10,000. The words "of Louisiana" were 
 added to the name, and the trustees adopted the alumni of the 
 College of Louisiana. In 1848 the legislature passed an act reliev- 
 ing the purchasers from the payment of the purchase price, but 
 exacting certain conditions therefor, among which were the right 
 of visitation by a commission from the legislature, the main- 
 tenance of the buildings in good repair liy the trustees, the employ- 
 ment of a regular faculty of arts, numbering not less than 4 pro- 
 fessors besides the president, and the admission of 10 indigent 
 young men, to be designated by the governor, to be kept and edu- 
 cated gratuitously in the instituion ; nor was a chair of theology 
 to be established, or sectarian dogmas taught. The institution now 
 entered on its new career under the patronage of the Mississippi 
 and Louisiana Couferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South, and when it encountered financial difficulties, as it some- 
 times did, private munificenee came to its relief, Judge McGehee 
 being especially liberal in his gifts. The first president of the col- 
 lege after its removal to Jackson was Hon. D. 0. Shattuck, and 
 the successive heads of the institiition, besides performing the 
 duties incident to their office, have filled the chairs of mental and 
 moral science, political economy, and international law. The col- 
 lege was at the height of its prosperity just before the war, when it
 
 190 LOUISIANA 
 
 matriculated 260 studeuts — its maximum number. It suffered 
 severely during the war in common with the other colleges of the 
 South, being alternately used as a hospital by the Confederates, 
 and as temporary barracks by the Federals. And since the war it 
 has iindergone tlie usual struggle to regain its former prosperity 
 and prestige. Up to June, 1886, the graduates of the college num- 
 bered 259, among whom are found many of the foremost citizens 
 of the state, who have taken high rank in the learned professions. By 
 act of the legislature, Feb. 21, 1871, the trustees were relieved from 
 any liabilities to the state by reason of the eouditons embodied in 
 the above act of 1848, and all former laws were repealed. On June 
 29, 1888, an act was passed inhibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors 
 within 5 miles of the college. Since this it has been moved to 
 Shreveport. 
 
 There are offered by the institution two wdl rounded courses of 
 4 years, the classical and scientific, and the college jjossesses a valu- 
 able equipment of needful apparatus, raineralogical and geological 
 cabinets, etc. There is a well selected library of over 3.000 bound 
 volumes, embracing both ancient and modern literature. The 
 buildings embrace a steward's hall, 2 brick dormitories, and a 
 splendid center building, erected at a cost of over $60,000, and con- 
 taining a fine audience hall with a capacity of over 2,000, library 
 rooms, society halls, recitation rooms, etc. 
 
 Centennial Celebration, 1903. — This celebration was held to com- 
 memorate the 100th anniversary of the transfer of the Province 
 of Louisiana from France to the United States on Dec. 20, 1803. 
 The legislature of Louisiana in 1900 passed an act directing the 
 Louisiana State Historical society to prepare a suitable programme 
 to celebrate this historical event. On Dec. 11, Gov. Heard issued 
 a proclamation recommending the citizens of the state to make a 
 proper observance of the centennial event. He invited the citizens 
 of each parish to assemble at their respective court houses on Sat- 
 urday, Dec. 19, 1903, and commemorate the anniversary with appro- 
 priate ceremonies and bj' hoisting the American flag. Orders were 
 issued by the adjutant-general calling out the troops of the 1st 
 military district to take part in the celebration on Dec. 19th, and 
 the mayor of New Orleans, Paul Capdevielle, issued a ]U'oclamation 
 on Dec. 15 in memory of the transfer in 1803, requesting that the 
 public and private schools of the city be closed at 12 o'clock the 18th, 
 and that he citizens of the city show their sympathy with the 
 exercises by displaying the national colors. A three days' pro- 
 gramme was prepared, extending over the 18th, 19th and 20th of 
 December. On the last or centennial day, it was planned to have 
 the ceremonial a repetition of the ceremony of the transfer of 1803. 
 The persons taking part in these ceremonies wove to be represented 
 by the descendants of the men who took part in the transfer 100 
 years before. Invitations were issued by the Historical society and 
 sent to France, Spain and the United States — the three powers 
 represented at the different transfers of the Province of Louisiana 
 — to send representatives to the celebration. M. Jusserand, the
 
 LOUISIANA 191 
 
 American ambassadoi", represented Prance; J. Tuero y O'Donnell, 
 Spanish consul, was specially delegated to represent his govern- 
 ment, and Adm. Wise, of the U. S. navy, was designated by Presi- 
 dent Roosevelt, to represent the United States. On the first day 
 of the celebration, Dec. 18, an international naval review was held. 
 The governor boarded the flagship, the U. S. steamer Stranger, 
 at 1 p. m., accompanied by the foreign representatives and other 
 distinguished guests, and the vessel steamed down the river. As 
 she did so all the vessels in port saluted, and the flags of the United 
 States, Prance and Spain were displayed upon the rigging. After 
 a trip of a mile or so the Stranger turned and passed in review, all 
 the men-of-war, both foreign and United States, that were anchored 
 in mid-stream. The Minneapolis, the flagship of Adm. Wise, was 
 the first passed, the band of the Stranger played the "Star Spangled 
 Banner" and the Minneapolis saluted with 17 guns. Gov. Heard, 
 Ambassador Jusserand and the consul, O'Donnell, together with 
 the captain and commander of the Stranger, stood on the bridge 
 as the vessel passed and saluted. Every man-of-war, from the 
 Minneapolis to the Yankee, was decorated from stem to stern 
 with signal flags and those of the three nations represented. After 
 all the vessels had been passed, the Stranger proceeded up the river 
 and anchored to receive the commanders of the other vessels. 
 M. Lemogne, Adm. Wise of the Minneapolis, Commander Heilner 
 of the Yankee, and Commander Veeder of the Hartford called upon 
 the governor. As Adm. Wise left the Stranger an admiral's salute 
 of 17 guns was fired, and When the Prench ambassador and the 
 Spanish representative left the Stranger fired a salute of 19 guns. 
 The governor, the Prench ambassador, and the Spanish consul 
 then started in a launch to return the call of Adm. Wise, the 
 Prench am'bassador leaving for the Prench ship to receive the 
 governor, amid a salute of tlie guns from the Minneapolis. Visits 
 were made to the French cruiser, the Yankee, the Topeka and to 
 the historic old Hartford ; salutes were fired to each of the depart- 
 ing guests, in accordance with their rank, and as the governor 
 left the Hartford to return to the Stranger, one of the most notable 
 reviews ever seen on the Mississippi river came to a close. In the 
 evening a historical ball was given at the Prench opera house. The 
 ladies wore the costume of 1803. The first number on the pro- 
 gramme was a march, in which the distinguished visitors took part. 
 Gov. Heard, and Ambassador Jusserand, Mayor Capdevielle and 
 Consul O'Donnell led and were followed by other guests. The 
 music during the march was from the old masters. At the close 
 of Ihe promenade the guests Avere received by the ladies of the 
 Historical society, who had the ball in charge. A minuet and 
 gavotte — dances of the last century — were danced by 52 couples, 
 the ladies wearing the costume of a century ago. As an honor to 
 the Spanish representative, a Spanish waltz was played during the 
 evening. 
 
 On the second day a reception was given by the mayor, city 
 council and executive officers of the city of New Orleans to the
 
 192 LOUISIANA 
 
 governor and distinguished guests, in the mayor's pai-lor at the 
 city hall. At the close of the reception the visitors and officials, 
 escorted by the 1st troop of cavalry, visited the archbishop's palace, 
 where the mayor delivered an address of welcome from the porch 
 and introduced Prof. Alcee Fortier, president of the Historical 
 society, who made a speech sketching the memorable events of 
 the last century and related many facts concerning the history of 
 Louisiana and the city of New Orleans. The historical museum, 
 which is located in the palace, was inspected and declared formally 
 open by the governor. The visitors inspected the museum and 
 palace and returned to the cabildo, where addresses were gifen by 
 the French and Spanish representatives, Adm. "Wise, who repre- 
 sented tlie United States; and by ex-Gov. David R. Fi-aneis of 
 Missouri. Luncheon was served and at 3 o'clock the troops were 
 reviewed by the governor, representatives and guests from a plat- 
 form in front of the cabildo. In the evening the opera "Carmen" 
 was given at the French opera house. 
 
 On Sunday, the centennial day, high mass was held at the cathe- 
 dral, M-hich was decorated with the flags of the three dominations, 
 which Louisiana has successivel.v known and recognized — France, 
 Spain and the United States — the latter the highest of all, marking 
 the event roxmd which the day's celebration revolved. Arch- 
 bishop Chapelle officiated. At 12 o'clock the centennial ceremonies 
 began, a signal gun announced the departure from Decatur and St. 
 Peter .streets of Charles F. Claiborne and Theodore S. Wilkinson, 
 whose grandfathers were the American commissioners at the trans- 
 fer of 180.3. They were accompanied by James S. Zacharie, who 
 represented the American secretary, Wadsworth, and were escorted 
 to the cabildo by the Continental Guards, who represented the 
 LT. S. army of that pei-iod. Upon reaching the cabildo they were 
 met at the head of the stairs by the mayor, city council, and Pres. 
 Alcee Fortier, who represented the French commissioner, Laussat, 
 who had no descendants in Louisiana, and were escorted to the 
 siipreme court room. Gov. Heard presided and explained that the 
 ob.iect of the meeting was to be a repetition of the transfer of 180.1. 
 Charles T. Soniat took the part of the Fi-ench secretarv. Daugerot, 
 the French and Spanish representatives, justices of the supreme 
 court in their robes of office, the Ignited States representative, the 
 commanders of the men-of-war and other guests assembled in the 
 court room. In front of the platform were three seats, for the 
 men who took the parts of the commissioners. 
 
 Prof. Fortier, as Laussat, had the middle seat, with the other 
 commissioners on either hand, and the secretaries standing, behind. 
 The governor called the meeting to order and renuested Prof. 
 Fortier to preside. The latter as Laiissat, requested IMr. Zacharie, 
 as Wadsworth. to read the commission of President JeflFerson to 
 the American commissioners: Chai-les Soniat, as Dauserot, then 
 read the power of Laussat to receive Louisiana from Spain : ^Ir. 
 Zacharie read five sections of the treaty of cession, and ^Mr. Soniat 
 read the same in Fi-ench, after which he read the power of Laussat
 
 LOUISIANA 193 
 
 to deliver the province of Louisiana to the United States. Prot 
 Fortier, as Laussat, then delivered possession of Louisiana to the 
 American commissioners. Charles Claiborne then took the chair 
 and delivered the address which his grandfather, Gov. W. C. C. 
 Claiborne, had given when he took possession of the territory 100 
 years before. After the address Prof. Fortier called upon Mr. 
 Zacharie to read the proces verbal of the delivery of Louisiana, and 
 announced that at the original transfer, after the proces verbal was 
 read. Gov. Claiborne and Laussat had gone out on the balcony, ac- 
 companied by Mayor Bore, and addressed the citizens. He there- 
 fore sugested that, in imitation, the governor and mayor address 
 the citizens. Mayor Capdevielle then read the proclamation of 
 Gov. Claiborne, and declared the celebration at an end. At a signal 
 the American flag was raised on the staff in Jackson Square; the 
 artillery gave a salute, and the men-of-war taking it up each fired 
 21 guns. The official I'epresentatives then entered the justices' 
 room to sign the process verbal. 
 
 Centerpoint, a post-hamlet in the extreme northwestern part of 
 Avoyelles parish, is about 5 miles south of Kees, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Centerville, a town in the central part of St. Mary parish, is on 
 the navigable Bayou Teche, 5 miles below Franklin, the parish seat, 
 and about 2 miles northeast of Bayou Sale, the nearest railroad 
 town. It is situated in the center of a rich sugar district, has large 
 sugar industries, a money order postoffice, one bank, several mer- 
 cantile establishments, and a population of 450. 
 
 Central, a village in the northwestern part of St. James parish, 
 is situated on the east .bank of the Mississippi river and the Yazoo 
 & Mississippi Valley R. R., about 7 miles above Convent, the parish 
 seat. It has a money order postoffice, telegraph and telephone 
 facilities, and a population over 150. 
 
 Centennial Exposition. — (See Expositions.) 
 
 Cessions. — (See Treaties, Military Reservations, National Ceme- 
 teries and Transfer of Louisiana.) 
 
 Cevallos, Pedro, a Spanish statesman and politician, was born at 
 Santander, Spain, in 1764. In 1802-03, as minister of foreign affairs 
 under Charles IV, he conducted an interesting diplomatic corres- 
 pondence with Charles Pinckney, the American minister to Spairu 
 relative to the establishment of a resident \J. S. mercantile agent 
 at New Orleans and the cession of the Floridas to the United States. 
 On July 19, 1803, just after France had sold Louisiana to the United 
 States, he wrote a letter to Mr. Pinckney, in which he said: "His 
 Majesty the king having given orders to his ministers near the 
 United States of America to make known the absolute nullity of 
 the proceedings of France in disposing of Louisiana, which he had 
 formally and positively engaged not to sell, I now communicate the 
 same to you, in order that you may submit it to your government, 
 which will thus receive it by distinct channels. At the same time, 
 I must inform you in reply to the assurance given me by you at our 
 last conference that France had also ceded West Florida, that the 
 1—13
 
 194 LOUISIANA 
 
 said province never has at any time or by any title belonErod to the 
 French." The Sjtanish opposition to the transfer was witlulrawn 
 early the following year and on Fell. 10, ISO-l, Cevallos wrote again 
 to yir. Pinckney notifying- him of the fact. Judging: from his cor 
 respondence, there is little room for doubt that the ojiposition of 
 Spain to the cession was instigated, or at least increased by Cevallos. 
 In 1808 he was sent to London on a political mission by the Junta, 
 and while there pul)lished a work which is said to have had a great 
 deal to do in inciting the Spaniards against Bonaparte. Between 
 1814 and 1820 he served as secretary of state and minister to 
 Austria. He died about 1838. 
 
 Chacahoula, a village in the northern jiart of Terrebonne parish, 
 is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R.. about 6 miles southwest 
 of Schriever. It is the supply point for a considerable district, has 
 a money order postoffice, an express office, telegraph and telephone 
 facilities, and a jiopnlation of 124. 
 
 Chaise, De la, who came in Louisiana in 1723, and with Du Saunoy 
 was empowered "to exercise inciuisitorial powers over the affairs of 
 Louisiana, to take information on the conduct of all the officers 
 and administrators of the colony, and to rejiort thereon to the gov- 
 ernment,"' exercised his important fiuictions as kings commissary 
 alone until his death in 1730, as Dn Sauno.v died shortl.v after his 
 arrival. He was a nephew of the Jesnit Father de la Chaise, con- 
 fessor of Loi;is XIV, and was of noble and distinguished ancestry. 
 Gayarre characterizes him as one "not gifted with a superior intel- 
 lect : but he was a solid square block of honest.v, who neither de- 
 viated to the right nor to the left from the path of duty, and who, 
 possessing a considerable share of energy, moved stoutly onward to 
 the accomplishment of his mission, regardless of persons and of con- 
 sequences. * * * Boisbriant, the governor ad interim, Perraidt, Perry, 
 the engineer Paiiger, the attorney-general Fleuriau, all members of 
 the superior eonucil, were censured with severity by the government. 
 Moreover, Acting Gov. Boisbriant, Bienville's cousin, was summoned 
 to France to .justify his acts: Perrault, Fazende and Perry, members 
 of the council, were dismissed from office; Fleuriau, the attorney- 
 general, was invited to throw np his commission, and the office itself 
 was suppressed for the moment." De la Chaise was the direct cause 
 of the downfall and recall of Boisbriant, and bitter enmit.v existed 
 between the two men until the latter was smnraoned to France. On 
 the arrival of Gov. Perier in the fall of 1726, he was informed by 
 the company that he must maintain the most cordial relations and 
 nndei-standing with the connnissary, de la Chaise, in whose zeal and 
 integrity the company reposed the most imjilicit confidence. These 
 two men now exercised the supreme power in the colony, and each 
 was independent of the other within his respective department; 
 Perier was chief executive and commandant-general, while de la 
 Chaise had supervision of its police, connnerce and .indieial admin- 
 istration. As a result of their harmonius relations, a period of tran- 
 quillit,v in the colony ensued nntil the outbreak of the Natchez at 
 the end of 1729, and for the fii'st time there was a complete absence
 
 LOUISIANA - 195 
 
 of the evils produced by the jealousies aud quarrels between the 
 g-overuor and the king's commissaries. When the wretclied sur- 
 vivors of the Natchez massacre arived at New Orleans, de la Chaise 
 made generous use of his extensive authority to satisfy all their 
 wants. His sudden death in 1730 led to rumors that he had been 
 poisoned by those who had cause to fear his impartial investigations. 
 Le Page du Pratz has written in glowing terms of his many virtues, 
 and ended with the statement, "Those orphans and widows who 
 escaped from the Natchez massacre, would be extremely ungrate- 
 ful if they did not, during all theii' life, pray for the soul of that 
 good and charitable man." De la Chaise had succeeded Duvergier 
 as commissary, and was followed in the same office by Salmon. 
 
 Chalmette, a village in the western part of St. Bernard parish, is 
 situated on the east bank of the ^Mississippi river, the Louisiana 
 Southern R. R., and the New Orleans Terminal R. R., about 10 
 miles southeast of New Orleans, in one of the rich agricultural 
 districts that supplies the market of that city with vegetables and 
 fruits. It is a considerable town, having a money order postoffice, 
 express offices, telephone and telegraph facilities, and a population 
 of 110. 
 
 Chalmette Plantation, or Chalmette Plain, is situated in St. Ber- 
 nard parish, a few miles southeast of the city of New Orleans, and 
 is the place where the American forces under Gen. Jackson won 
 the decisive victory over the British army commanded by Gen. 
 Pakenham on Jan. 8, 1815. The first step toward the erection of a 
 monument on this historic plain was in 1840, when Gen. Jackson 
 visited New Orleans and assisted in laying the cornerstone of the 
 equestrian statue erected in his honor in Jackson square. On that 
 occasion some patriotic gentlemen chartered a steamboat to convey 
 a block of granite bearing the inscription "January 8, 1815," to the 
 old battlefield, where it was placed in position as the cornerstone of 
 the future monument. Nothing fui'ther was done until Jan. 11, 
 1851, when a public meeting was held at the St. Louis exchange. 
 Mayor A. D. Grossman presiding, the object of whch was to erect 
 a suitable monTiment to Jackson, whose death had occurred on June 
 8, 1845. At this meeting it was decided to erect two monument.s — 
 one to Gen. Jackson in Jackson square, and the other on the site of 
 his celebrated victory. A commission was appointed consisting of 
 Gov. Joseph Walker, Lieut-Gov. Jean B. Plauche, flavor A. T). 
 Grossman, James H. Caldwell, Joseph Genpis, P. Seuzeneau. with 
 Charles Gayarre as secretary. Th(> commissioners organized as the 
 "Jackson Monument Association," which was incorporated as- a 
 permanent board by the legislature of 1852. The same session ap- 
 propriated $10,000 for the equestrian statue and .'fsS.OOO for the Chal- 
 mette monument. By the act of March 18, 1852, the governor was 
 authorized to purchase from the owners of the land a tract one 
 arpent s(|uare on the line of the intrenchnients occupied by Jackson's 
 men on Jan. 8, 1815, as a site for the monument. Pursuant to this 
 act, on Feb. If), 1855, the State of Louisiana purchased from Pierre 
 Bachelot, for $5,000, " a certain tract of land known as Chalmette
 
 196 LOUISIANA 
 
 Plain iu the pai-ish of St. Bernard and set apart said property for 
 the erection of a mouuiuent, " etc. 
 
 The contract for the erection of the momiment ivas awarded to 
 Newton Richards, wlio pushed forward the work until the shaft 
 reached a height of 56 feet, when the work was suspended for 
 want of funds. Before any further action was taken the great 
 Civil war came on and as a result Chalmette was neglected. At 
 the close of the war the old battlefield was practically a wilderness 
 and the unfinished inonuuient, surrounded by a tangled mass of 
 shrubbery, reminded one more of a ruin than a work commemo- 
 rative of a great historic battle. Some years after the Avar an or- 
 ganization of women known as the "United States Daughters of 
 1776 and 1812" was effected in New Orleans and incorporated 
 imder the laws of the State of Louisiana. On April 17, 1894, the 
 "care and keeping of the monument and grounds at Chalmette," 
 was entrusted to these patriotic women by resolution of tlie general 
 assembly, and through their labors and influence interest in the 
 original inidertaking was revived. The legislature appropriated 
 $2,000 for the erection of a lodge and employment of a caretaker 
 to look after the grounds and protect the monument from acts of 
 vandalism. Owing to the fact that the states resources were limited, 
 the "Daughters" decided to appeal to the national government 
 for the means to complete the monument. Accordingly, on June 
 30, 1898, the general assembly of the state adopted a resolution re- 
 questing Congress to establish and maintain a national park on 
 the scene of the battle of Jan. 8, 1815. Then it was ascertained that 
 it was contrary to the policy of the national government to build 
 or maintain monuments or memorials on state property, and Hon. 
 Eobert F. Broussard, member of Congress from the 3d Louisiana 
 district, suggested that the legislature pass an act ceding the 
 grounds to the United States. The act of cession was passed by 
 the legislature and on June 19, 1902, was approved by Gov. Heard. 
 Briefly described, the tract thus ceded has a frontage of about 92 
 feet on the IMississippi river and runs back a distance of 80 arpents, 
 the end farthest from the river beinc' 4r)3 feet in width. Congress 
 took no action on the matter until March 4, 1907, when the Chal- 
 mette monument bill was passed, and on June 5, 1907, the deed 
 of transfer from the State of Louisiana to the TTnited States was 
 delivered to the secretary of war by W. 0. Hart, having been 
 previously signed by Gov. Newton C. Blanchard and Secretary o*' 
 State John T. IMiehel. 'Mr. Hart suggested that it would add dignity 
 to the transaction to have the deed accepted by the president, which 
 was done, after which the document was returned to St. Bernard 
 parish to be entered upon the records. 
 
 Congress appropriated $25,000 for the completion of the monii- 
 ment, which was begun more than half a century ago. A. F. 
 Theard of New Orleans made plans for the United States Daugh- 
 ters for the Avork, and soon after the deed Avas accepted the plans 
 were approA-ed by the secretary of war, who appointed Capt. J. F. 
 I\IeTndoe of the engineer corps, TT. S. A., to superintend the con-
 
 LOUISIANA 197 
 
 sti-uctiou of the monument and the disbursement of the funds. 
 The secretary of war also sugjiested the aijpomtment of an advis- 
 ory committee on the part of the "Daughters," and Ueu. Adolph 
 Meyer, Uen. Albert Estopinal and W. O. Hart were selected, lu 
 this way the Chalmette i'laiu becomes a national institution. Future 
 generations of Americans may look upon the monument and call 
 to mind how a mere handful of undisciplined but brave and patriotic 
 men, under the leadership of a man who never knew defeat, over- 
 came the dower of the British army and closed the War of 1812. 
 By Act. No. 29, legislative session of 1902, the governor was au- 
 thorized to sell a portion of the original Bachelot tract, which was 
 done for the sum of $3,(Jti5.11, and on July 2, 1908, Gov. Sanders 
 approved an act directing that tlii.s sum be turned over to the 
 United States Daughters to be applied to "the care and keeping of 
 said monument and grounds." 
 
 Chamberlin, a village and station in the northern part of East 
 Baton Rouge parish, is a short distance west of the ]\Iississippi river 
 on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 10 miles northwest of Port 
 xVUen, the parish seat. It has a moi,iey order postoffiee, an express 
 office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and some retail trade. 
 
 Charapigny, Jean de, a French scholar and writer, was a resident 
 of Louisiana at the time Spanish authority was established in the 
 province by O'Reilly. He wrote a "Memoir of Louisiana," cover- 
 ing the principal events from the time of Iberville down to the be- 
 ginning of the Spanish domination. The closing paragraphs of this 
 memoir are as follows: "The world has beheld with surprise the 
 silence of the French ministry as to O'Reilly's conduct, its neglect 
 to exact reparation for his inhumanity, its silence as to the violation 
 of the law of nations in pronouncing sentence on French subjects. 
 Still more is Europe surprised to learn that the remnants of those 
 wretched families, stripped of everything they possess, languish in 
 silence and misery. 
 
 "Is there then no beneficence, no humanity on earth? Assured 
 of the contrary, let us say that till now the truth was unknown, the 
 French ministry was deceived. May the faithful narrative which I 
 now present to faithful souls, excite in them those feelings which 
 honor humanity. 
 
 * * * "0, Heavenly Power! send forth the light of truth into 
 the hearts of those raised up to protect it. Unveil iniquity to their 
 eyes, unmask imposture. Let it tremble on the very steps of the 
 throne, where it seeks to escape thy avenging hand, and let me 
 in transports at the sight of thy justice exclaim: 'There is then 
 on earth an asylum for virtue, a support for that innocence, and no 
 place where iniquity and crime can find a shelter.' " 
 
 M. de Champigny was also the author of a History of England, 
 which was published in 1777, as well as of several other works, and 
 translated Sehlecel's "Historv of the Danish Kings." He died 
 about 1787. 
 
 Chandeleur Islands are a sroup of islands lying in a crescent 
 shape east nf St. Bernard parish, from which they are separated by
 
 198 LOUISIANA 
 
 Chandeleur sound. They were visited by Iberville in 1699 before 
 his rieet came to anchor in the roadstead between Cat and Ship 
 islands. Gayarre says: "This name proceeds from the circum- 
 stance of their having been discovered on the day when the Cath- 
 olic church celebrates the feast of the presentation of Christ in the 
 temple, and of the puiification of the virgin. They are tlat, sandy 
 islands, which look as if they wish to sink back into the sea, from 
 shame of having come into the world prematurely, and before hav- 
 ing been shaped and licked by nature into proper objects of exist- 
 ence." The distance from the most northern to the most southern 
 point of the group is about 40 miles, and from the mainland on the 
 west about 20 miles. On the northernmost point a lighthouse is 
 maintained. 
 
 Chantilly, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Catahoula parish, 
 is situated on a branch of the Black river, about 8 miles north of 
 Athlone, the nearest railroad town, and 6 miles southeast of Har- 
 risonburg, the parish seat. 
 
 Chapeile, Placide Louis, Koman Catholic archbishop of New Or- 
 leans from 1897 to 1905, was born in the diocese of ]\Iende, France, 
 Aug. 28, 18-42. At the age of 17 years he came to the United States 
 and took complete courses in theology and philosophy in St. Clary's 
 college. Fi'O'n 1863 to 1865 he taught in St. Charles college and 
 in the latter year was ordained priest. The next five years were 
 spent in missionary work; became assi.stant pastor of St. John's 
 chiirch, Baltimore, Md., in 1870, and later pastor; was also pastor 
 of St. Joseph's, Baltimore, and in 1882 became pastor of St. ]\[at- 
 thew's, Washington, D. C. About this time he came into promi- 
 nence as a theologian and acted as president of the theological con- 
 ferences nt Baltimore and Washington. In 1891 he was appointed 
 coadjutor bishop to Archbishop Salpointe of Sante Fe, New ]\Iex., 
 with right of succession, and consecrated titular bishop of Arabissus. 
 In Jan., 1894, upon the resignation of Archbishop Salpointe, he be- 
 came archbishop of Saute Fe, where he served with distinction 
 until in Nov., 1897, when he was appointed archbishop of New Or- 
 leans to succeed I\Iost Rev. Francis Janssens, whose death had oc- 
 curred the preceding June. On Sept. 16, 1898, Archbishop Chapeile 
 was appointed by the Pope, apostolic delegate of Cuba and Porto 
 Rico, and about a year later he received a similar appointment 
 to the Philippine islands. Owing to his frequent absences from New 
 Orleans on account of his duties as apostolic delegate. Father 
 Gustav A. Rouxel was appointed aiixiliarv archbishop. On Aug. 9, 
 1905, Archbishop Chapeile died in New Orleans, a victim of the yel- 
 low fever epidemic of that year. Forty of the 63 years of his life 
 had been spent in the service of the blaster, and the fact that he 
 rose from an humble priest to be archbishop of New Orleans is evi- 
 dence that his ecclesiastical duties were always discharged with 
 conscientious devotion to the cause to which he had consecrated his 
 life. 
 
 Charenton, a village in the northeastern part of St. IMary parish, 
 is situated on the Bayou Teche, about 3 miles northeast of Baldwin,
 
 LOUISIANA 199 
 
 the nearest railroad station and 6 miles north of Franlvlin, the parish 
 seat, in a rich sugar district. It has sugar industries, a money order 
 postoffice, and a population of 300. 
 
 Charities and Corrections. — The state board of charities. and cor- 
 rections was created by act of the legislature, approved by Gov. 
 Blanehard on July 5, 1904. (See Blanehard's Administration.) 
 Although invested with no authority beyond ithat of visiting the 
 penal and charitable institutions of the state and making recom- 
 mendations regarding their management, the board has accom- 
 plished a great deal in the way of improving the character and con- 
 trol of these institutions. The last report of the board was to the 
 general assembly of 1908. Concerning the old penitentiary at Baton 
 Rouge, this report says: "The kitchen was in a most disorderly 
 and uncleanly condition. * * * From information gathered else- 
 where, it was also ascertained that the food furnished the men from 
 this kitchen was not satisfactory, consisting in a large ,part of salt 
 meats and very few vegetables, in spite of the fact that on the farm 
 at Angola vegetables are grown in such abundance that in some 
 seasons they are allowed to rot because there is no one to eat them. 
 * * * The hospital at the walls is, by no means all that it should be. 
 The sleeping quarters are clean and the beds well supplied with 
 bed clothing, but the bathing and sanitary arrangements were in a 
 very dilapidated condition at the time of our visit. We have been 
 informed, however, that improvements are now under way in this 
 regard. * * * We most earnestly recommend that, at the earliest pos- 
 sible date, this old building be abandoned entirely and the receiving 
 staton be established at Angola, with at least one member of the 
 board of control resident there." 
 
 The report of the board on the condition of the colored camp at 
 Angola sets forth the fact that it is constructed "entirely of wooden 
 buildings with shingle roofs. The sleeping quarters at this camp, 
 although very well ventilated are, in our opinion, entirely too small 
 for the number of men (juartered there. In a room 30 by 130, 131 
 men sleep every night. The sanitary arrangements are primitive. 
 The dining room at this camp, though large and well ventilated, 
 is extremely crude, and the floor is covered with sawdust, evidently 
 for the jmrpose of avoiding scrubbing. The kitchen, although large 
 and well ventilated, is not as clean and orderly as it should be. The 
 clothing of a great many of the men here was not clean, in spite 
 of the fact that it was Sunday, and our visit was expected. The 
 board most earnestly recommends that, as soon as possible, brick 
 buildings be constructed at this camp, like those at Camp E, occu- 
 pied by white men." 
 
 At the camp for white men at Angola the board found conditions 
 ideal in every way, but its report with regard to the women's camp 
 there, says : "There is nothing at this camp that we can recommend, 
 and we suggest its immediate and entire reconstruction in brick." 
 
 The Orleans parish prison, the Jackson insane asylum, the deaf 
 and dumb institute and the state institute for the blind were found 
 on good condition and well managed, though the board recommended
 
 200 LOUISIANA 
 
 fire escapes on the aimex occupied by ijirls at the blind asylum, aud 
 some of the institutions mentioned were somewhat crowded. The 
 board sugested legislation establishing juvenile courts; that the 
 board of control of the state penitentiary be required to furnish dis- 
 cliarged prisoners with transportation by railroad or steamboat from 
 the place of discharge to the prisoner's home, provided saitl home is 
 within the state; and that the members of the board of charities 
 and corrections be allowed their traveling expenses and a paid secre- 
 tary, not a member of the board, the salary of such secretary not 
 to exceed $1,500 per annum. The report was signed by Michel 
 Heymann, as vice-president ; F. S. Weis, as secretary ; and T. P. 
 Thompson, E. B. Herndon and R. McG. Carruth, as members 
 
 Charity Hospital. — This splendid eleemosynary institution is sit- 
 uated in the city of New Orleans, where it was fir.st established 
 soon after the founding of the city, beintr one of the first free hospi- 
 tals ever established in the United States. Gradually, since that 
 time, through the bounty of the state and with the assistance of im- 
 portant donations from philanthropic citizens, modern new buildings 
 and equipments have been added, until the institution has grown 
 into one of the largest and best hospitals in the country. The 
 hos]iital grounds embrace two squares, with am ambulance hou.se 
 situated in a third square. Its energetic board of administrators 
 and officers, its skilled and experienced surgeons and physicians 
 have, for many years past, mantained its well-established reputa- 
 tion, and no other charitable institution in the state is more affec- 
 tionately regarded by the people as a whole. The great hospital, 
 with its .52 wards, containing 900 beds, is annually occuiiied by 
 from 9,000 to 10,000 patients. "Of the 52 wards there are 2.3 medical, 
 14 surgical, 2 obstetrical, 2 gynecological, 2 for children, 4 for 
 diseases of the nervous system, 2 for venereal diseases, 2 for dis- 
 eases of the eye and ear, and 1 for skin diseases. In addition to the 
 indoor patients, the hospital treats annually some 20.000 outdoor 
 patients. These are provided for in 2 clinical buildings, each of 
 which is subdivided into 8 different services, 7 of which are alike in 
 both buildings, namely: for medical cases: for nervous diseases; 
 for .surgical cases; ^'or venereal and skin diseases; for diseases of 
 the eye, ear, nose .nnd throat ; and for cases of dentistry. Besides 
 these 7 S(>rvices, the men and boys' clinic has a surgical service for 
 boys, and the women and children's clinic has a gynecological 
 service. 
 
 The advantages of the Charity Hospital were further increased 
 in 1899 by the addition of the Richard Jlilliken memorial annex, a 
 model building for the accommodation of 200 sick children. The 
 Pasteur department, which is also free, was added in 1903. The 
 Delgado memorial for surgical eases was oiiened in 1908. It is 
 also a model building. 
 
 The splendid work being done by the lios]iital is elo{iucntly at- 
 tested by the following records. Dni'ing the year 1904, there were 
 8,816 indoor patients treated in the hospital ; 19,302 outdoor patients, 
 to whom 73,071 free consultations were given, and the ambulance
 
 LOUISIANA 201 
 
 service responded to 1,596 calls. Showing the record a little more 
 in detail lor 1905, there were 9.071 cases treated in the wards of 
 the hospital; 19,129 outdoor patients, to whom 68,458 consultations 
 were given; and in addition, there were 5,699 accident cases attended 
 in tlie surgical amphitheatre. Of the outdoor patients, 4,314 were 
 medical cases; 6,172 surgical; 186, nervous; 1,925, venereal and 
 dermatological ; 2,478, diseases of children ; 1,339, gynecological ; 
 2,794, eye, ear, nose and throat; and 321, dentistry. The sum total 
 of all cases treated in 1905 was 34,202. There were 1,191 deaths, 
 269 births, and a daily average of 644 indoor patients. 
 
 The excellent medical department of the Tulane university makes 
 constant and extensive use of the great liospital for prosecuting 
 the study of medicine in all its branches, being located only two 
 squares distant on Canal street. Ever since 1847 the law of Louisi- 
 ana has provided that "the medical department of the university 
 shall at all times have free access to the Charity Hospital of New 
 Orleans, for the purpose of affording their students practical illus- 
 trations of the subjects they teach." The professors and clinical 
 instructors of the depai'tment are attending physicians or surgeons 
 of the hospital and visit their wards daily. They perform surgical 
 operations and deliver lectures in the spacious amphitlu>atre of 
 the hospital, wliich will accommodate an audience of about 400. 
 
 Charles III, king of Spain, second son of Philip V and Elizabeth 
 Farnese, was born in Jan., 1716. In 1731 he took possession of the 
 two duchies of Parma and Placentia, on the extinction of his 
 mother's family, and in 1734 his father ceded to him the crown of 
 the Two Sicilies, of which he was recognized king by the treaty 
 of Vienna, in 1738. He married Maria Amelia, a princess of Saxony, 
 and by the death of his elder brother, Ferdinand VI, in Aug.. 1759, 
 he became king of Spain. In 1762, in accordance witli the family 
 compact previously formed by the branches of the house of Bour- 
 bon, he became the ally of France in the war against England, 
 which resulted in Louisiana being ceded to Spain by the secret 
 treaty of Fontainebleau, Nov. 3, 1762. Portier says: "Had it not 
 been that they were handed over like cattle by one master to an- 
 other, the Louisianians .should have felt relieved to be no longer 
 the si;b,jects of the infamous king who had been the cause of the 
 disasters of his country." As it was. they opposed the cession, and 
 the aiithority of Spain was not established in the colony until an 
 army was sent there to awe the people into submission. Charles 
 restricted the povver of the Inquisition and expelled the Jesuits from 
 Spain and all her colonies in 1767. In May, 1779, he declared war 
 against England, which led to the conquests of Gov. Galvez in West 
 Florida. He died in 1788 after a reign that was beneficial to Spain, 
 and he has been referred to by historians as "a man who possessed 
 a good disposition and sound judgment." 
 
 Charles IV, second son of Charles III and I\Taria Amelia, was 
 born in Naples, Italy, in Nov., 1748, and became king of Spain upon 
 the death of his father in Dec, 1788. Prior to that time he had 
 received the title of Prince of the Astrurias (1759), and in 1765
 
 202 LOUISIANA 
 
 had married his cousin, JIaria Louisa Theresa of Pariiia, wlio luis 
 been described as "woman of very vicious morals." In 1792 she 
 succeeded in bringing' disgrace upon Florida Blanca, the prime 
 minister, and the appointment to his place of her favorite, Godoy. 
 The following year the French republic declared war against Charles 
 for expelling French residents from Spain. After being defeated 
 in a number of battles, Charles was compelled to sue for peace, 
 which Avas concluded in 1795, when the French conquests in Spain 
 wei-e restored and the king: evinced his satisfaction by creating 
 Godoy "i)rince of peace, generalissimo, etc." In 1796, through the 
 instigation of French diplomacy, the court of Spain declared war 
 against England and Charles relinquished the direction of the gov- 
 ernment to Godoy and the ciueen, though he retained the throne 
 until ilareh, 1808, when he abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand. 
 It was during this period that the aggressiveness of Fi'ance, under 
 Napoleon, secured the retrocession of Louisiana to France by the 
 treat}' of St. Ildefonso, Oct. 1, 1800. After Charles resigned the 
 throne to his son, Napoleon procured an interview with them at 
 Bayonne and extorted from both of them an abjuration of the 
 Spanish crown. Charles was granted a liberal pension, took up his 
 residence in Rome, and died there in 1S19. 
 
 Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xaxier de, a Jesuit priest and dis- 
 tinguished traveler and writer, was born at St. Quentin, France, 
 Oct. 24, 1682. lie entered the Jesuit society in 1698, was sent to 
 Quebec in 1705, and later taught both there and in France. In July, 
 1720, he embarked for Canada on a visit to the mission and arrived 
 there in September. After a stay of some time at Sault St. Louis, 
 he ascended the St. Lawrence to the lakes, Avhence he descended 
 by the Illinois to the Mississippi and journeyed down that stream 
 to the mouth, touching at the various French posts and establi.sh- 
 ments on the river, including New Orleans, which had just been se- 
 lected for the capital of the colony. After an absence of two years, 
 he returned to France bj^ way of San Domingo. He is the author 
 of several important historical works. In 1744 appeared his His- 
 toire de la Nouvelle France, which had been withheld for some 20 
 years for political and commercial reasons, and at the same time 
 appeared his Historical Journal, made up of letters addressed to the 
 Duchess of Lesdigiiieres, written during his voyage down the IMis- 
 sissippi. His liistory of Japan was also popular. Father Charlevoix 
 has given in his journal a most accurate and vivid description of 
 French Louisiana, the Mississippi and its tributaries, the topography 
 of the country, the manners and customs of the Indian tribes and 
 their villages, the missionary establishments and colonial posts, and 
 of the people and things as they existed at that time. After a some- 
 what protracted stay at the Natchez in Dec, 1721, he continued his 
 voyage clown the river to New Orleans, and under date of Jan. 10, 
 1722, writes most entertainingly as follows: "I am at length ar- 
 rived in this famo\is city, which they have called la Nouvelle Or- 
 leans. Those who have given it this name, thought that Orleans 
 was of the feminine gender; but what signifies that? Custom has
 
 LOUISIANA 203 
 
 established it, and that is above the rules of grammar. This city is 
 the first, which one of the greatest rivers in the world lias seen raised 
 on its banks. .If the 800 fine houses, and the five parishes, which 
 the newspapers gave it some two years ago, are reduced at present 
 to a hundred barracks, placed in no very great order; to a great 
 storehouse, built of wood ; to two or three houses, which would be 
 no ornament to a village of Prance ; and to the half of a sorry store- 
 house, which they agreed to lend to the lord of the place, and which 
 he had no sooner taken possession of, but they turned him out to 
 dwell under a tent ; what pleasure, on the other hand, to see in- 
 sensibly increasing this future capital of a fine and vast country, 
 and to be able to say, not with a sigh, like the hei-o of Virgil, 
 speaking of his dear native place consumed by the flames, and the 
 fields where the city of Troy had been, but full of a well-grounded 
 hope, this wild and desert place, which the reeds and trees do yet 
 almost wholly cover, will be one day, and perhaps that day is not 
 far off, an opulent city, and the metropolis of a great and rich 
 colony. You will ask me, IMadam, on what I found this hope? T 
 found it on the situation of this city, at 33 leagues from the sea, 
 and on the side of a navigable river, that one may come up to this 
 place in twenty-four houi-s ; on the fruitfulness of the soil ; on the 
 mildness and goodness of its climate, in thirty degrees north lati- 
 tude; on the industry of its inhabitants; on the neighborhood of 
 Mexico, to which we may go in fifteen days by sea ; on that of 
 Havana, which is still nearer; and of the finest islands of America, 
 and of the English colonies. Need there be anything more to render 
 a city flourishing? Ronu^ .and Paris had not such considerable be- 
 ginnings, were not built under such happy auspices, and their 
 founders did not find on the Seine and Tiber the advantages we 
 have found on the Mississippi, in comparison with which these 
 tM^o rivers are but little brooks." 
 
 In the light of later developments the Jesuit father has here 
 displayed a most remarkable y)roplietic gift. On Jan. 22, still in 
 company with the engineer Pauger, with whom he had .ioiirney 
 down the river from Natchez, he left New Orleans and set out for 
 the colonial headquarters at New Biloxi. After a comparativel.v 
 uneventful trip down the river, he arrived on the night of the 24th 
 at the little island of Balise, which he blessed the next day and 
 renamed Toulouse. He was delayed at the mouth by contrary 
 winds for a day, and spent the interval with Pauger and the pilot, 
 Kerlasio, in sounding the passes, of which he gives a most inter- 
 esting description. He Ma-ites that he was detained at Biloxi for 
 a month by a .iaundice. He has little that is complimentary to say 
 of Biloxi, and even, writes in disparaging terms of the splendid 
 harbor Ship I.sland. He says: "All this coast is extremely flat; 
 merchant ships cannot come nearer to it than four leagues, and 
 the smallest brigantine than two: and even these are obliged to go 
 further off when the wind is north or northwest, or else they find 
 themselves on ground. What they call Biloxi is the coast of the 
 main laud, which is to the north of the road. Thev could not have
 
 204 LOUlSIxVNA 
 
 chosen a worse situation for the general quarters of jhe colony, for 
 it can neither receive any succors from the ships, nor give them 
 any, for the reasons I have mentioned. Besides this, the road has 
 two great faults; the anchorage is not good and it is full of worms, 
 Avhich damage all the ships ; the only service it is of use is to shelter 
 the ships from a sudden gust of wind when they come to discover 
 the mouth of the i\Iississippi, which, having only low lands, it would 
 be dangerous to approach in bad weather, without having first 
 discovered it. The Biloxi is not more valuable for its land than 
 for its sea. It is nothing but sand, and there grows little besides 
 pines and cedai-s." Late in llarch Charlevoix returned to New 
 Orleans by way of the inside passage and then took passage for 
 San Domingo. 
 
 Charlieville, a hamlet in the southern part of Richland parish, is 
 about 1) miles southwest of ^langham, the nearest railroad station. 
 It has a money order postoffice and is a trading center for the 
 neighborhood. 
 
 Chase, a post-hamlet and station in the central part of Franklin 
 pari.sh, is on the New Orleans & Northwestern R. R., about -3 miles 
 south of Winusboro, the parish seat. 
 
 Chataignier, a post-village in Evangeline parish, is on the Louisi- 
 ana East & West R. R., about 12 miles west of Opelousas. It has a 
 population of 250. 
 
 Chatham, a little post-village in the northwestern part of Cald- 
 well parish, is about 1.5 miles northwest of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 It is the southern terminus of the ]\Ionroe & Southwestern R. R., 
 and is a trading and shipping point for that section of the parish. 
 
 Chattel Mortgages. — Instruments of this character are unknown 
 to the laws of Louisiana, but all movables, whether corporeal or 
 incorporeal, may be pledged or pa^vned. As against third persons, 
 the pawn or pledge must be an act before a notary, or under private 
 signature. It must mention the amount of debt, the species and 
 nature of the thing pledged, or have a statement annexed thereto 
 of its number, weight and measure. Promissory notes, bills of ex- 
 change, stocks, obligations or claims iipon other persons may be 
 pledged by simple delivery to the creditor, if made in good faith. 
 All pledges of movable property must be accompanied by actual de- 
 livery, either to the pledgees, or some third party agreed upou. De- 
 livery of property in a warehouse shall pass by private assignment 
 of warehouse receipt and be valid without further formalities. 
 Notice to the debtor must be given in the case of pledge of credits 
 not negotiable, and a copy of the act of pledge served on him. Acts 
 of pledge in favor of the banks of this state .shall be considered as 
 forming authentic proof, if passed by the cashiei-s and contain a 
 description of the objects given in pledge. Unless it be specially 
 agreed in the act of pledge as to the mode of disposing of the articles 
 pledged, the creditor must first obtain a judgment against his debtor 
 before he can have them sold. 
 
 Chauvin, a post-hamlet in the central part of Terrebonne parish, 
 is situated at the head of Quitman lake. It is a station of the
 
 'LOUISIANA 205 
 
 Cumberland telephone and telegraph company, and has a popula- 
 tion of 200. 
 
 Chenal, a village in the eastern part of Pointe Coupee parish, 
 about 2 miles southwest of Glynn, the nearest railroad station, and 
 7 miles south of New Roads, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice and a population of 175. 
 
 Cheneyville, a town in the southeastern part of Rapides parish, 
 was founded by the act of March l^l, 1836, which provided that 
 "the town laid off by W. P. Chenej' on the right bank of Bayou 
 Boeuf, be, and the same time is hereby created a body politic, by 
 the name of Cheneyville." It is a station on the Southern Pacific 
 and Texas & Pacific railroads, about 22 miles southeast of Alex- 
 andria, the parish seat, and is one of the oldest towns in the parish. 
 It has a bank, a money order postoffice, express office, telephone 
 and telegraph facilities, and a population of 498. 
 
 Cheniere, a post-village in the iiorthwesteni part of Ouachita 
 parish, is situated on the Vieksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., 
 about 9 miles west of Monroe, the parish seat. It has an express 
 office, some retail trade, and a population of 150. 
 
 Cherry Ridge, a hamlet of Union parish, is situated on the Ar- 
 kansas & Southeastei-n R. R., about 12 miles north of Farmerville, 
 the parish seat. It is the supply point for a rich agricultural dis- 
 trict, and has a money order postoffice. 
 
 Chester, Peter, an Englishman by birth, was appointed governor 
 of West Florida in 1772, being the third English governor of that 
 colony. It is said that Tinder his administration Pensacola made 
 ■ rapid progress, and that "the large military establishment, and the 
 advantages of the port as a headquarters for Indian trade, attracted 
 several enterprising merchants." Chester was still governor when 
 Gov. Galvez of Louisiana appeared before Pensacola with his fleet, 
 in March, 1781, and demanded a surrender. He wrote to Galvez, 
 offering to release the Spanish prisoners at Pensacola if the Span- 
 ish commander wonld promise they should not take up arms until 
 regularly exchanged. The offer was ignored by Galvez, who went 
 ahead with the investment of the place. When Pensacola sur- 
 rendered on May 9, 1781, Chester also surrendered the whole of 
 West Florida, and agreed that all British subjects should leave the 
 colony within eighteen months. (See Spanish Concjuest.) 
 
 Chestnut, a village in the northeastern part of Natchitoches par- 
 ish, is at the junction of the Louisiana & Arkansas and the Louisi- 
 ana & Northwest railroads, about 20 miles north of Natchitoches, 
 the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, a telegraph station, 
 and is the shipping and supply town for a large agTicultural dis- 
 trict, although the population is small. 
 
 Chickasaw Bluffs. — The highlands on the Mississipi river, where 
 the city of Memphis, Tenn., now stands, are of considerable im- 
 portance in the history of Louisiana down to the beginning of the 
 19th century. Very early in the French period a stockade, named 
 Fort Prudhomme, in honor of one of La Salle's companions who 
 was lost there for 9 days, was built at the mouth of Wolf river,
 
 206 LOUISIANA 
 
 and formed one of the chain of posts to protect the French claim to 
 the great Mississippi valley. In Bienville's second campaifrn against 
 the Chickasaws (1739-40), he assembled his army at this point, in 
 Aug., 1738, and to accommodate his men built a spacious fort near 
 the mouth of the Wolf (Spanish Margot) river, a house for Com- 
 mandant Ayme de Noailles, barracks for the soldiers, store-houses 
 and a bakery. He called it Fort Assumption because the French 
 army disembarked on the 15th of August. During their stay here 
 until April, 1740, when a treaty_ of peace was concluded with the 
 Indians, the troops suffered severely from sickness and lack of 
 food. On the retirement of Bienville's army to New Orleans, the 
 fort and other Iniildings were razed. During the later English 
 control of this region, the Chickasaw bluffs obtained an unenviable 
 reputation as a rendezvous for Chickasaws and renegade whites, 
 who preyed upon the commerce of the river. The whole region 
 about tlip blufi's belonged to the Giickasaw nation until western 
 Tennessee was finally ceded b.v them to the United States. Pending 
 the negotiations between Spain and the United States regarding the 
 boundary, after the treaty of 179.5, tliis was one of the posts which 
 Gov. Carondelet was so reluctant to surrender. Gayoso, then gov- 
 ernor of Natchez, concluded a formal treaty at Chickasaw bluffs in 
 1705, with "Augliakabee and some other Chickasaw chiefs," by 
 which the Indians ceded a tract of land for a military post. Gayoso 
 hoisted his king's flag over the new post i\Iay 30, 1795, and named 
 it Fort Ferdinand of the Bluffs, in honor of his prince. When the 
 Spaniards finally saw that they would be compelled to carry out the 
 terms of the treaty of 1795 and evacuate their posts on the eastern 
 bank of the Mississippi, above the 31st parallel, they razed the fort 
 and transported the material and garrison across the Mississippi 
 to their po.st of Esperanza. This was shortly after Ellicott's arrival 
 at Natchez in Feb., 1797, and several months before the arrival 
 of Capt. Guion and the U. S. troops at the Chickasaw bluffs in July. 
 It was Guion 's belief, expressed in a letter to the secretary of war 
 soon after his arrival at the Chickasaw liluffs, tliat the Sitaniards 
 intended to reoceupy the post. The time of his arrival was most 
 opportune, as Guion reported: "Had I halted at New ^Madrid but 
 one day with the troops, and every means but violence was used 
 to effect it, a great point had been gained by our neighbors, whose 
 vessel from Natchez, laden with presents of blankets, shirts, hats, 
 muskets, powder and lead, tomahawks, saddles and bridles, etc., 
 for the Chickasaws, arrived at their garrison of Hopefield opposite 
 to this place about eight hours before our arrival here. Great 
 pains and much industry had been used to detach from the friend- 
 ship of the United States this nation of Indians, and I fear they 
 have been in a degree successful." He further added: "It is cer- 
 tain that the Spaniards intended to reoceupy this post very soon." 
 A faction of the Chickasaws, led by Wolf's Friend, was disposed 
 to object to the occupation of land by the Americans, which had 
 already been ceded to the Spanish, but Chief Piamingo, who ruled 
 the majority, sided with the Americans. Capt Guion exercised his
 
 LOUISIANA 207 
 
 discretion and built a hexagonal stockade, over which he hoisted 
 the Stars and Stripes on Oct 22, 1797, and left a garrison here 
 when he went down the river in November. He named it Fort 
 Adams, but when that name was shortly after applied to the post 
 at Loftus Heights (q. v.), Guion's stockade was rechristened Port 
 Pickering. 
 
 Chickasaws. — (See Indians.) 
 
 Chief Justices. — The following is a list of the .justices who have 
 presided over the supreme court of Louisiana since its organiza- 
 tion, together with the dates when each entered upon and retired 
 from the office : George Mathews, 1813 to 1835 ; Francois Xavier 
 Martin, 1836 to 1846; George Eustis, 1846 to 1853; Thomas Slidell, 
 1853 to 1855; Edwin T. Merrick, 1855 to 1865; William B. Hyman, 
 1865 to 1868 ; John T. Ludeling, 1868 to 1877 ; Thomas C. Manning, 
 1877 to 1880: Edward E. Bermudez, 1881 to 1892; Francis T. 
 Nieholls, 1892 to 1904 ; Joseph A. Breaux, 1904 to 1914 ; Prank A. 
 Monroe, 1914-^. 
 
 China, a small hamlet in Jeff Davis parish, is about 5 miles west 
 of Bayou Nezpique and 4 miles south of Elton, the nearest railroad 
 .station. It has a money order postoffi.ce. 
 
 Chinchuba, a village of St. Tammany parish, is situated in the 
 S'.nithern part, on a branch of the New Orleans Great Northern 
 R. R., about 3 miles north of Mandeville. It has a money order 
 postoffioe, pxjiress office, telegTaph and telephone facilities. 
 
 Chinn, Thomas W., memljer of Congress, was born in Kentucky, 
 of a prominent family; moved to Baton Rouge, La., where he held 
 a number of public offices before he was elected a representative 
 from Louisiana to the 26th Congress as a Whig. President Tay- 
 lor appointed him minister to the Two Sicilies in June, 1849, but 
 he resigned in October of the same year. 
 
 Chipola, a village in the northwestern part of St. Helena parish, 
 is situated near Darlinji's creek about 5 miles north of Darlington, 
 the most convenient railroad station, and 10 miles northwest of 
 Greenslmrg, the parish seat. 
 
 Choctavrs. — (See Indians.) 
 
 Cholera. — The malady known as Asiatic cholera is described by 
 pathologists as "a malignant disease due to a specific poison which, 
 when received into the human body through the air, water, or in 
 some other way, gives rise to tin; most alarming symptoms and 
 very frequently proves fatal to life. An attack of cholera is gener- 
 ally marked by three stages, though these often succeed each other 
 so rapidly as not to be easily defined. There is first a premonitory 
 diarrhoea stage, with occasional vomiting, severe cramps in the 
 abdomen and legs, and great muscular weakness. This condition 
 is succeeded, and often within a remarkably short period, by the 
 second stage, which is one of collapse, and is called the algid or 
 cold stage. This is characterized by intense prostration, great 
 thirst, feebleness of circulation and respiration, with coldness and 
 blueness of the skin, and loss of voice. Should death not take 
 place at this, the most fatal period, the sufl'erer will then pass into
 
 208 LOUISIANA 
 
 the third or reaction sta^e of the disease. This, thouarh very fre- 
 quently marked by a high state of fever, with a tendency to con- 
 gestion of internal organs, as the brain, lungs, kidneys, etc., is a 
 much more hopeful stage than that which has preceded it, and the 
 chances of recovery are very much increased." 
 
 The disease is called the Asiatic cholera from the fact that for 
 centuries it has had its home in the East, particularly in India, 
 though some medical writers assert that under other names it has 
 been epidemic in other portions of the world. Mill, in his history 
 of India, says: "Spasmodic cholera had been known in India frojp 
 the remotest periods, and had at times committed fearful ravages. 
 Its effects, however, were in general restricted to ]iarticnlar sea- 
 sons and localities, and were not so extensively diffused as to attract 
 notice or excite alarm. In the middle of 1817, however, the disease 
 assumed a new form, and became a Avidely spread and fatal epi- 
 demic. It made its first appearance in the eastern districts of 
 Bengal in ]May and June of that year, and after extending itself 
 gradually along the north bank of the Ganges, through Tirhiit to 
 Ghazipur. it crossed the river and passing through Rewa. fell with 
 peculiar virulence upon the center division of the grand army in 
 the first week of November. « * * During the week of its 
 greatest malignity it was ascertained that 764 fighting men and 
 8,000 followers perished." 
 
 This is said to have been the first wide-spread cholera epidemic 
 recorded in history. In 1830 it made its appearance in Europe, 
 where it wrought fearful havoc in a number of cities, and it was 
 not until 1831 that the nature of the disease was recognized. In 
 1832 it crossed the Atlantic to the United States. ^Vfter ravaging 
 the coast cities of the Northern states it extended westward to the 
 Ohio valley and came down the ^Mississippi river until it struck 
 New Orleans, where it assumed the form of a viriilent epidemic. 
 On some days as many as 500 deaths occurred, and the total mimber 
 of deaths in New Orleans and the immediate vicinity was above 
 6,000. The people became panic-stricken and many sought to 
 escape by water, but the scourge pursued them to the steamboats 
 where they were probably in a worse situation than they would 
 have been had they remained on shore. On one boat there were 
 300 deaths; 130 on each of two others, and 120 on another. The 
 prevalence of the disease and the flight of so many citizens left 
 but comparatively few well persons to care for the sick and bury 
 the dead. IMany of the victims were interred where they died, 
 and the bodies of others were cast into the ^lississippi, this course 
 being made necessary throusrh lack of facilities to give them decent 
 burial in the cemeteries. The disease linffered along the river for 
 about two vears. but the mortalitv was slisht when compared with 
 1832. 
 
 In 1848, starting again in Asia, the cholera spread to America, 
 reaching New Orleans late in the year, just after a yellow fever 
 epidemic, and within a few weeks about 4.000 deaths occurred. 
 This time the scourge spread westward and up the ^lississippi
 
 LOUISIANA 209 
 
 river. Hundreds of gold seekers on their way to California were 
 cut off, and about one-third of the 8th U. S. Infantry died, Maj.- 
 Gen. Worth being one of the victims. The disease was especially 
 fatal to the negroes on the plantations along the Mississippi, many 
 planters losing their entire cotton crop because there were none 
 able to take care of it. In Nov., 1849, cholera again appeared as 
 an epidemic in New Orleans, following immediately after the yel- 
 low fevei", as in the preceding year. By the close of 1850 its vic- 
 tims numbered about 1,800, and during the years 1854-55 about 
 1,750 more names were added to the death roll in Louisiana. This 
 was its last appearance as a malignant epidemic, though cholera 
 visited the United States in 1866 and 1873, and on these occasions 
 a few deaths occurred in the lower Mississippi valley. In the fall 
 of 1886 a few cases reached New York harbor, but prompt and 
 effective quarantine measures confined the disease to the vessels 
 where it broke out. 
 
 Since that time the investigations of such eminent physicians as 
 Koch and Emmerich of Germany, and Jenkins of New York, have 
 demonstrated that cholera is due to certain forms of bacilli, that 
 it is not contagious, and that it can be stamped out as an epidemic 
 by proper attention to sanitation and the prompt isolation of cases. 
 This theory was thoroughly tested in 1892, when the vessels Mo- 
 ravia, Xormannia, Rugia and Seandia arrived in New York harbor, 
 each reporting several deaths from "cholerine" during the passage. 
 The vessels were detained at quarantine, and on Sept. 7 President 
 Harrison ordered a large number of tents to Sandy Hook for the 
 aceonunodation of the passengers until the danger was past. For 
 a time the epidemic on the ships and in the isolation camp was 
 quite severe and was a great menace to the country. But the 
 quarantine was so rigidly maintained that only 2 deaths from 
 cholera occurred in the city of New York, thus completely estab- 
 lishing the efficacy of the proposed methods of dealing with the 
 
 Chopart, Sieur, who was in command at Fort Rosalie when the 
 dreadful massacre of the French by the Natchez Indians took 
 place, Nov. 28, 1729, is credited by most writers with being the 
 cause of this disaster, and paid the penalty of his intolerance and 
 cupidity Avith his ovm life. The first French settlers among the 
 Natchez had been careful to buy their lands from the Indians, but 
 in course of time more or less disregard was shown for Indian 
 proprietorship, and Chopart was the worst offender of all. Ac- 
 cording to the account of Dumont, who had been an officer in the 
 fort garrison until shortly before the massacre, Chopart had brought 
 some ne'groes with him from New Orleans and desired to establish 
 a plantation of his own at the Natchez. He wanted to make his 
 fortune in a short time, and as this required good land and plenty, 
 of it, and as the best land was already in the possession of settlers, 
 he resorted to the unjust means of trying to dispossess -the Indians. 
 Not only this, but he also demanded for his use the site of the 
 great village of the Natchez, situated on a beautiful and fertile 
 plain, some 12 miles south of the fort, on St. Catharine's river. 
 1—14
 
 210 LOUISIANA 
 
 His pretest to the Indians was that "the great chief of the French 
 at New Orleans, the Sieiu- Perier, had written to him to order the 
 Natchez to leave their great village, as he needed it for some large 
 buildings." Chopart granted the Natchez two months in which 
 to build another village a league farther away from the river, and 
 even had the audacity to demand from them a large quantity of 
 provisions as a reward for granting the delay. Incensed by this 
 great wrong, and other real or fancied grievances against the 
 French, the gi'eat massacre followed. Chopart himself was killed 
 in his ovm. garden by a club wielded by the Puant chief,, as he 
 was deemed unworth.v of being killed by a brave. (See Natchez 
 Massacre, Natchez Indians, etc.) 
 
 Chopin, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is situated on the Cane river and the Texas & Pacific R. R., 
 about 20 miles southeast of Natchitoches, the parish seat. It has 
 an express office and telephone and telegraph facilities, Chopin is 
 the shipping point for a large area of Cane river cotton lands lying 
 west of the village and is the supply station for this rich agricul- 
 tural coimtry. 
 
 Choppin, Samuel, M. D., an eminent New Orleans physician and 
 surgeon, was a son of Paul Choppin, who was the first captain of 
 the guard at the Louisiana state penitentiary after that institution 
 was located at Baton Rouge. At the beginning of the year 1862, 
 Dr. Choppin was surgeon-general on the staflf of Gen. Beauregard, 
 and visited Louisiana to encourage the work of recruiting troops 
 for the Confederate army. On Feb. 27, 1862, a few days after 
 the fall of Fort Donelson, he delivered the following address to 
 the troops in the Crescent City: 
 
 "Soldiers of New Orleans: You are aware of the disasters which 
 have befallen our armies in the "West. Greater disasters are still 
 staring lis in the face. Gen. Beauregard — the man to whom we 
 must look as the savior of our country — sends me among you to 
 summon you to a great duty and noble deeds — invoking and in- 
 spired by the sacred love of country and of priceless liberty, he 
 has taken the deathless resolution de les venger ou de les suivre. 
 And with the immortal confidence and holy fervor of a soul -willing, 
 if need be, to meet martjTdom, he calls upon you to join him, in 
 order that he may restore to our country what she has lost, and 
 lead yon on to glory and independence. In tones rigid and sullen 
 as the tollings of the funeral knell, but with clarion accents that 
 should send a quiver through every heart, and string the nerves 
 of everj'^ man, he cries out the final refrain of that immortal hymn : 
 'Aux armes citoyens! formez vos battalions. 
 Marchons ! 
 Marchons ! 
 Qu'nn sang impur abreuve nos sillons.' 
 . Creoles of Louisiana, on to the work!" 
 
 After the war Dr. Choppin returned to Louisiana, -where he took 
 an active part during the reconstruction days in restoring the state 
 government to the white people, and on the memorable Sept. 14,
 
 LOUISIANA ' 211 
 
 1874, he was one of the committee sent to demand the resignation 
 of Gov. Kellogg. 
 
 Choudrant, a village in the southeastern part of Lincoln parish, 
 is a station on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., 7 miles 
 east of Ruston, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 express office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and is the trading 
 center for a considerable district. Its population is 250. Ruston is 
 the nearest banking town. 
 
 Choupique, a postoffice in the southwestern part of Calcasieu 
 parish, is located in a rich agricultural region, about 12 miles 
 southwest of Lake Charles, and not far from the bayou of the same 
 name. Sulphur and Viutou, on the Southei'n Pacific R. R., are 
 the nearest railroad stations. 
 
 Chouteau, Auguste, merchant, fur trader and one of the founders 
 of St. Louis, Mo., was bom in New Orleans, Aug. 14, 1750. Early 
 in the year 1764, though less than 14 years of age at the time, he 
 was sent up the Mississippi river from Port Chartres by his step- 
 father, Pierre Laclede Liguest, with 30 men, to select a spot for 
 a trading post and begin the erection of cabins, etc. After the death 
 of Liguest he succeeded to the business they had established; 
 made frequent visits to the Indian villages and to New Orleans; 
 formed a partnership with John Jacob Astor, which developed into 
 the Amei'ican Fur company, and remained one of the "first citizens" 
 of St. Louis until his death. In 1794 he built Fort Carondelet in 
 the Osage country. It is said that "at the beginning, his just 
 and humane spirit concurred with his judgment in a gen- 
 eral policy of treating the Indians. That policy was fairness, 
 friendliness and confidence, and it saved him from attacks, disas- 
 ters and losses and made his trading experiences peaceful and 
 successful." Soon after Louisiana passed into the hands of the 
 United States he was made Revolutionary pension agent and com- 
 missioner to treat with the Indians. In 1808 he was commissioned 
 a colonel of militia, and under the treaty of Ghent (Dec. 14, 1814), 
 he was appointed one of the commissioners on the part of the 
 United States, with full power to conclude a treaty of peace with 
 the Indian tribes that had been hostile during the war of 
 1812. Col. Chouteau was one of the first trustees of the town of 
 St. Louis ; served as justice of the peace and as judge of the court 
 of common pleas, and when the Bank of Missouri was organized 
 in 1817, was made its first president. When Lafayette visited St. 
 Louis in 1825, Col. Chouteau was a member of the committee on 
 arrangements, and was one of the three distinguished citizens who 
 rode in the carriage with the illustrious French soldier and states- 
 man. He died on Feb. 24, 1829, and was buried in the Catholic 
 cementery, his tombstone bearing the simple but expressive epi- 
 taph, "Sa vie a ete un modele de vertus eivilles et Soeiales." 
 
 Chouteau, Jeatn Pierre, a younger brother of Auguste Chouteau, 
 was born at New Orleans, Oct. 10, 1758, and when about six years 
 of age was taken by his mother to St. Louis. As soon as he was 
 old enough he engaged in the fur trade, establishing trading-posts
 
 212 LOUISIANA 
 
 and forts at various points in the Indiana country, one of -which was 
 on the headwaters of the Osage, in what is now southeastern Mis- 
 souri. He was well-known in New Orleans, to which city he made 
 frequent visits in connection with his business. About the time 
 Louisiana was transferred to the United States he gave up the fur 
 trade and settled down as a merchant in St. Loviis. He was made 
 a major in the militia; was elected a member of the town council; 
 and was appointed a sub-agent for negotiating treaties with the 
 several tribes of Indians whose confidence he had won during his 
 fur-trading days. He died at St. Louis, July 10, 1849. 
 
 Christian Church. — (See Protestant Churches.) 
 
 Christie, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Sabine parish, is 
 a station on the Kansas City Southern K. R., about 12 miles south 
 of Many, the parish seat. 
 
 Church Point, an incorporated town in the northeastern part of 
 Acadia parish, is a station on the Opelousas, Gulf & Northeastern 
 R. E., about 15 miles northeast of Crowley, the parish seat. It is 
 situated in the largest rice district of the southwest, has a bank, 
 several rice mills, a money order postoffice, telegraph and tele- 
 phone facilities, an express oiSce, and is a shipping point of con- 
 siderable importance. Population 481. 
 
 Cinclare, a village in the southeastern part of West Baton Rouge 
 parish, is situated on the Mississippi river and the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., about 8 miles southwest of Baton Rouge. It has important 
 sugar industries and is the center of trade for a rich agricultural 
 district. Cinclare has a money order postoffice, express office, tele- 
 graph and telephone facilities, and a population of 400. 
 
 Citizens' League. — From 1S92 to 1896, while John Fitzpatrick 
 was- mayor of New Orleans, the city coinicil was aceiised of cor- 
 ruption in various matters, and several of the members were con- 
 victed of bribery and sentenced to the penitentiary. To correct the 
 evils in the city government the Citizens' League was organized 
 in the winter of 1895-96, with Charles Janvier, president : Pearl 
 "Wight, first vice-president ; Isidore Hemsheim, second vice-presi- 
 dent; Felix Couturie, third vice-president: TValker B. Spencer, 
 secretary: and George W. Tonng, treasurer. The league was com- 
 posed of members of all parties — men who believed in good gov- 
 ernment — a ticket was nominated headed by Walter C. Flower 
 for mayor. Interest in the city election on April 21, 1896, was 
 intense and a large vote was polled. The league ticket was elected 
 by a large majority, which was the signal for a great display of 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 City Price (R. R. name Socola~i. a post -hamlet of Plaquemines 
 parish, is situated on the west bank of the IMississippi river and is 
 a station on the New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R.. 
 about 4 miles south of Pointe a la Hache, the parish seat. 
 
 Civil War.— (See War Between the States.) 
 
 Claiborne Parish was established on ]\rarch 13, 1828, during the 
 administration of Gov. Pierre Derbigny. It was the first sub- 
 division of Natchitoches parish, which had formed a part of the
 
 LOUISIANA 213 
 
 old historic "Natchitoches District," uuder French and Spanish rule 
 of Louisiana. From the original bounds of Claibornej Bossier, 
 Jackson, Bienville, Webster and Lincoln parishes have been carved, 
 wholly or in part. This parish is situated in the northwestern 
 part of the state, on the Arkansas border, and as now constituted, 
 is bounded on the north by Arkansas; on the east by Union and 
 Lincoln parishes ; on the south by Bienville parish and on the west 
 by Webster parish. Claiborne was named in honor of Gov. Will- 
 iam C. C. Claiborne, the first territorial and state governor of 
 Louisiana. In 1811, the first settlement of English-speaking peo- 
 ple was made near the Webster-Claiborne line. Among the 
 pioneers of this section were Charles L. Hay, Thomas Leatherman, 
 and the Crow and Butler families. The first police .jury met and 
 organized at the home of John Murrell in 1828, and meetings were 
 regularly held here for some time, until the offer of Samuel Russell 
 of a site for the pari.sh seat was accepted and the place named 
 Russellville ; in honor of the donor. The first court at the new 
 town was presided over by Judge Overton, and Isaac McMahon was 
 sheriff. After the great raft (q. v.) was removed from the Red 
 river in 1835, navigation was extended to the Minden landing on. 
 Bayou Dorcheat, and with the idea that it would become an im- 
 portant shipping point the parish seat was moved, and the town 
 called Overton in honor of Judge Overton. For 10 years the parish 
 courts were held here, but as a village in the bottoms Avas un- 
 healthy, and as it was not centrally located, the parish seat was 
 changed in 1846, to Athens. Two years later the public buildings 
 and records at Athens were destroyed by fire, and the same year 
 the seat of parochial justice was established on lands near the 
 center of the parish that were granted by Allen Harris and Tilling- 
 hast Vaughn. A very primitive building was erected for a court 
 house and in September Judge Roland Jones opened court, with 
 Allen Harris as .sheriff and W. C. Copes, clerk. During the year 
 1849-50 a good brick building Avas erected for parish purposes, and 
 in the fall of 1850 the same parish officers opened court. This ucav 
 town was named Homer by Frank Vaughn. The oldest record of 
 the police .jury is dated Nov. 12, 1849, as the records of the earlier 
 period were destroyed by the Athens fire. Judge Wilson opened 
 the first district court at Murrell 's house in 1828; the first church 
 in the parish was built in 1830, and the first camp meeting was 
 held in 1832. The first newspaper issued within the present 
 boundaries of the parish, and the second within the old boundaries, 
 was the Claiborne Advocate, the Jlinden Iris being the first. This 
 paper Avas established by D. B. Harrison, Avho came from Ala- 
 bama, and Frank Vaughn Avas the first editor. Claiborne is well 
 watered by Cypress bayoii in the northeastern portion; by Bayou 
 D'Arbonne in the central and southeastern portion, and by Bayou 
 Corny and other small streams along the western and southern 
 boundaries. The parish has an area of 764 square miles. The 
 surface is undulating and broken, even quite hilly in some parts, 
 with an extensive area of level bottom lands. The soil is that
 
 214 LOUISIANA 
 
 common to the long leaf yellow pine region of the state, red 
 sandy clay in the hills, a little more compact in the lower lands, 
 and fertile in the creek and river bottoms. A large part of the 
 unimproved land is covered with a heavy growth of timber, which 
 is a source of pi'esent and future wealth to the parish. When the 
 lands are stripped of their valuable forest growths they will yield 
 a full tide crop the second year. It is estimated that there are 
 1,500,000,000 feet of yellow pine lumber and probabl.y an equal 
 amount of hardwood, iueluding cypress, various kinds of oak, 
 hickory, etc. There are a large number of saw mills in the parish, 
 and planing mills and wood working shops are springing up all 
 over this region. Cotton is the great staple product, but corn, hay, 
 oats, peas, both varieties of potatoes, tobacco, hemp, wheat, buck- 
 wheat, sugar-cane and sorghum all yield good crops. The country 
 is well adapted to dairying and stock raising, as the pasture is ex- 
 cellent and can be obtained nearly the entire year. The fi'uits 
 and nuts are those native to this latitude and region. In recent 
 years it has been discovered that the soil and climate of this parish 
 are especially adapted to peach growing, and as the fniit is excel- 
 lent in flavor and size, it brings the best prices on the market. 
 Large peach orchards are being set out, and horticulture is one of 
 the rapidly growing industries. Transportation and shipping facil- 
 ities are provided by the Louisiana & Northwest R. R., Avhich 
 traverses the western part of the parish, from north to south, pass- 
 ing through Homer. This road has direct connections with the 
 Cotton Belt, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., the Loui- 
 siana Railway & Navigation company and the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., while the Shreveport & Northeastern R. R. runs southwest 
 from Homer to Minden, in Webster parish, connecting with the 
 Louisiana & Ai-kansas R. R. Homer and Athens, the two most 
 important to'wns of the parish, are located on the Louisiana & 
 Northwest R. R. Some of the other towns and villages are : Ari- 
 zonia, Haj-nesville, LLsbon, Summerfield, Dykesville and Gordon. 
 The following statistics, taken from the U. S. census for 1910; 
 Number of farms, 3,943; acreage, 400,715; acres under cultivation, 
 215,579 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, 
 $2,635,544; value of farm buildings, $1,104,545; value of live stock, 
 $999,494; total value of all crops, $1,794,977. The population, 
 25,050. 
 
 Claiborne, William Charles Cole, governor of the Territory of 
 Orleans and first g^overnor of the State of Louisiana, was a native of 
 Sussex county, Va., and a descendant of that William Claiborne 
 who came from England as surveyor of the Yir^inia plantations 
 by appointment of the London Company. He attended the Rich- 
 mond academy and William and Mary college until he was fifteen 
 years of age, when, owing to the reverses that had come to his 
 father through the Revolutionary war, he decided that it was neces- 
 sary for him to support himself. Going to New York, he found a 
 position as enrolling clerk in the office of John Beckley, then clerk 
 of the lower house of Congress. In 1790 he followed Congress to
 
 LOUISIANA 215 
 
 Philadelphia, where he formed the acquaintance of several promi- 
 nent men, among whom were Thomas Jefferson and John Sevier. 
 The latter advised the youth to study law and go to Tennessee. 
 He took the advice, and after reading law for three months at 
 Richmond, Va., located in Sullivan county, Tenn. In the first con- 
 stitutional convention of Tennessee, which met at Knosville in Jan., 
 1796, he was one of the leading members, which drew from Gov. 
 Blount the statement: "He is, taking into consideration his age, 
 the most extraordinary man of my acquaintance." When Tennes- 
 see was admitted into the Union, Claiborne was appointed by Gov. 
 Sevier one of the judges of the court of law and equity, where he 
 served with distinction until Aug., 1797, when he was elected to 
 the lower branch of Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the 
 election of Gen. Andrew Jackson to the U. S. senate. He was 
 re-elected in 1798 to the 6th Congress, and in the Jefferson-Burr 
 contest voted for Jefferson for president. In May, 1801, Jefi'erson 
 appointed him governor of Mississippi territory, and in 180.3, he 
 and Gen. "Wilkinson were appointed commissioners to receive Loui- 
 siana from the French government. When the act creating the 
 Territory of Orleans went into effect on Oct. 1, 1804, Claiborne 
 became governor of the new territory and continued as such until 
 the admission of the State of Louisiana into the Union in 1812. 
 He was then elected governor of the state. On Jan. 13, 1817, 
 shortly after retiring from the governor's ofSce, he was elected to 
 the U. S. senate, but did not live to take his seat in that body, as 
 his death occurred on Nov. 23, 1817. Gov. Claiborne was married 
 three times. About the time he was appointed governor of Missis- 
 sippi territory he married Miss Eliza Lewis of Nashville, Tenn. 
 She and her infant child died on Sept. 26, 1804. After her death 
 he married Miss Clarissa Duralde, a French woman, and after her 
 death a Miss Bosque, of Spanish descent, who survived him. On 
 Nov. 25, 1817, two days after his death, the Louisiana Courier said : 
 "Where is the inhabitant of Louisiana who, on reflecting that it 
 is to Mr. Jefferson he owes the happiness of belonging to the 
 American Union, will not weep over the loss of the man who 
 secured his election to the presidency? The cession of this country 
 opened a new career for Mr. Claiborne; he left the Mississippi 
 territory, of which he was governor, to fill the functions of com- 
 missioner charged to administer Louisiana and entrusted with all 
 the powers which had been enjoyed by the governors and intend- 
 ants under the Spanish government. Soon afterward Louisiana 
 was formed into a territory, and for ten years Mr. Claiborne was 
 its governor. His remarkable honesty, the softness of his manners, 
 and the evenness of his temper, made him universally beloved. 
 He exerted his influence in propagating that inviolable attachment 
 which he bore to repiiblican institutions; and if we now hold a 
 rank among the most patriotic states of the Union, it is, in a great 
 measure, owing to the example and precepts of Mr. Claiborne. 
 The erection of the Territory of Orleans into a state furnished to 
 the Louisianians an opportunity of rewarding his services by raising
 
 216 LOUISIANA 
 
 him to the first magistracy. His admiiiistratiou during: four years 
 secured him new rights to public love and gratitude, and, the con- 
 stitution of the state being opposed to his reelection, the general 
 assembly chose him as one of ovir senators in Congress. He Avas 
 on the eve of rendering to his country services no less essential 
 than those which had hitherto marked his political career, when 
 death deprived America of a most virtuous citizen, his family of a 
 tender father and husband, and his numerous friends of a good 
 and worthy man. Louisiana will long deplore the loss she has 
 sustained, and she will never cease to cherish the remembrance 
 of him who so well deserved her love and confidence." 
 
 (Editor's Note. — Several a\ithorities agree in giving the date of 
 Gov. Claborne's birth as 1775. If this be correct he was but 22 
 5'ears old when he was elected to Congress. Clause 2, Section 2, 
 Article I, of the Federal constitution provides that "No person shall 
 be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty- 
 five years." If Gov. Claiborne was elected a representative at the 
 age of 22 years, he was probably the onh^ man who ever served in 
 the national legislature before reaching the age limit required by 
 the constitution.) 
 
 Claiborne's Administration (Territorial).— On Oct. 2, 1804, the 
 oath of office was administered to Gov. Claiborne by James Pitot, 
 mayor of New Orleans. The legislative council met on Dee. 4, 
 and organized by electing Julien Poydras president. In his message 
 the governor said: "When I revert to the important events that 
 produced our present political connection, I look forward to the 
 pleasing prospects of permanent aggrandizement. * * * The 
 satisfaction with which I contemplate the future destinies of this 
 territory is equaled only by my admiration of the wisdom and virtue 
 Avhich have diffused such political blessings, and promise (under 
 the favor of Heaven) their jierpetuity. « * * Lgt exertions be 
 made to rear up our children in the paths of science and virtue, and 
 to impress upon their tender hearts a love of civil and religious 
 liberty. Every eonsitiitioual encouragement should be given to 
 ministers of the Gospel. Religion exalts a nation, while sin is the 
 reproach of any people. It prepares us for those vicissitudes which 
 so often checker human life. It deprives even misfortune of her 
 victory. It invites harmony and good will in this world, and 
 affords a guarantee for happiness hereafter. Everything dear to a 
 free people may be considered as insecure, unless they are prepared 
 to resist aggression. Let me advise a prudent economy. Extrava- 
 gance in a government leads inevitably to embarrassments. Liber- 
 ality, but not profuseness, economy, but not parsimony, should be 
 your guide." 
 
 At this first session of the council the principal acts passed were 
 as follows: To incorporate a marine insurance company in New 
 Orleans; dividing the territory into tw-elve counties and establish- 
 ing in each a court of inferior jurisdiction ; authorizing the prepara- 
 tion of a civil and criminal code ; providing for the inspection of
 
 LOUISIANA 217 
 
 various food products ; granting a charter to the city of New 
 Orleans; and creating an educational institution, to be known as 
 the University of Orleans. A second session, which met on June 
 20, 1805, passed acts for the improvement of the inland navigation 
 of the territory. 
 
 At the time the Territory of Orleans began its existence as a 
 separate political organization there existed some prejudice against 
 the Americans on the part of those whom Claiborne designated as 
 the "ancient inhabitants." This class of citizens, who had "a great 
 partiality for France as their mother country," and those whose 
 "former habits had attached many of them to the Spanish system 
 of government," began by viewing all the acts of the Americans 
 with jealousy and suspicion, and resented the implied insinuation 
 that they coiild not govei'n themselves. It was these "ancient 
 inhabitants" who sent the petition to Congress mentioned in the 
 article on "Orleans Territoiy. " For the first few months of the 
 administration severe strictures were published on Claiborne's 
 official acts and his public character. On Jan. 19, 1805, he wrote 
 to the president: "My accusers take great care to impress the 
 public with an opinion that my government commenced here under 
 the most favorable auspices — an assertion contradicted by every cir- 
 cumstance of the times. * * * The people were split into parties, 
 divided in their affections, and the sport of foreign and domestic 
 intrigiiers. The functions of government were nearly at a stand, 
 and much was wanting to produce system in, and restore order to, 
 the different departments. Great changes were expected under 
 the new order of things, and more was required, to conciliate and 
 attach the general sentiment to the American government, than my 
 resources permitted, or the energies of any man could accomplish. 
 * * * That I committed errors I readily admit, but I am not 
 sensible of having been betrayed into any material measure that I 
 can reflect on with self-accusation. * * * Xo what lengths the 
 opposition to me may be carried T know not, but I am inclined to 
 think that nothing will be left unsaid which can wound my feelings, 
 and that my public and private character will be cruelly mis- 
 represented." 
 
 As a result of the ill-feeling at the beginning of the administration 
 several duels occurred, in one of which Micajah G. Lewis, the gov- 
 ernor's brother-in-law and private secretary, was killed. Notwith- 
 standing this state of affairs Claiborne kept on with his work, doing 
 the best he could to promote the prosperity and safety of the terri- 
 tory, and to bring peace between the warring factions. In the 
 early part of 1805 there were indications of a rupture between Spain 
 and the United States, and the governor took active steps for the 
 organization of the militia. He commissioned Col. Hopkins _ to 
 organize the militia throughout the territory, and instructed him, 
 in the selection of officers, to make an equal distribution, where the 
 circumstances would permit, among the ancient and modeim Lou- 
 isianians. On ]\fay 4 Claiborne prorogued the legislative council to 
 June 20, and in the interval visited various parts of the territory.
 
 218 LOUISIANA 
 
 making appointments under the new judiciary sj'stem. His activity 
 in this direction, the wisdom shown in making the appointments, 
 and the instructions to Col. Hopkins, brought about some degree of 
 harmony, so that on Nov. 20 he wrote to the secretary of state : "No 
 man entertains a greater regard for the inhabitants of Louisiana 
 than myself, or more appreciates their many private virtues, and 
 I entertain strong hopes that, in a few years, they will become very 
 zealous members of the American republic." 
 
 Other events this year that had a tendency to render the gov- 
 ernor popular were his consent to the leveling of the old fortifica- 
 tions about the city of New Orleans, as they were merely recepta- 
 cles for the accumulation of stagnant water that endangered the 
 health of the people, and his attitude toward the possession of some 
 of the public buildings claimed by the city, but held by Col. Free- 
 man, commander of the U. S. troops. Claiborne sided with the city, 
 but Fi-eeoian refused to obey the governor's orders to vacate the 
 buildings, and the matter was finally settled by the president. 
 
 The year 1806 dawned with brighter prospects. Washington's 
 birthday (Feb. 22) was celebrated with appropriate ceremonies. 
 Both ancient and modern Louisianians "vied with each other in 
 the discharge of their duty on the parade:" the battalion of Orleans, 
 "composed of Americans, and of Creoles of Loiiisiana," was rcr 
 viewed by Gov. "Williams of Mississippi territory : the people, espe- 
 cially the membei-s of the legislature, took advantage of the occa- 
 sion to express their sentiments of patriotism and their allegiance 
 to the United States: and the day closed with a magnificent ball. 
 When the legislature met in March the governor's message was 
 well received by both branches and was appropriately answered by 
 Destrehen, president of the council, and Watkins. speaker of the 
 house. It seemed as though an era of good feeling had come to 
 the territory, but it was not of long duration. On May 2 the gov- 
 ernor vetoed a bill "to establish certain conditions necessary to be 
 a member of either house of the legislature of the Territory of 
 Orleans." on the grounds that any law which "shall impose other 
 qualifications than those pointed o\it in the ordinance cannot be 
 constitutional, unless its operation shall be prospective, and not 
 permitted to affect the sitting members." About a week later he 
 enclosed a copy of the bill and his message vetoing it to the presi- 
 dent, and wrote: "The ancient Louisianians in the legislature are 
 impatient of control, and will illy receive a check from the exepiitive 
 authority, but I miist do my duty, and shall, on every occasion, act 
 the part which my .iulsrment approves. By pursuing this course, 
 I may present my enemies fresh materials to work upon, and render 
 myself unpopular, but my conscience will be tranquil, and I shall 
 sleep the better at nisht." On the 26th Claiborne sent in another 
 veto, expressing his disapproval of a bill entitled "An act declaring 
 the laws which continue to be in force in the Territory of Orleans, 
 and the authors which may be recurred to as a\ithorities within 
 the same." Upon this the council adopted the following resolution : 
 
 "Whereas, The most essential and salutary measures adopted
 
 LOUISIANA 219 
 
 by this legislature have been successively rejected by the governor 
 of the teri'itory; and whereas, this legislature, the members of 
 which had been induced to accept their appointments only by the 
 hope of being useful to their fellow-citizens, must now be con- 
 vinced that they can do nothing but cause them a considerable 
 expense: Resolved, that the general assembly be immediately 
 dissolved." The members of the council also prepared a long ex- 
 planation of their motives, closing with this statement of opinion; 
 "If by means of this veto his will and only his will, is to be our 
 supreme law, let him reign alone and without disguise. The legis- 
 lative council should not consent to serve as a rattle to amuse 
 the people.' 
 
 Destrehen, Sauve and Belleehasse resigned their seats in the 
 council, but the last named was persuaded by Claiborne to with- 
 draw his resignation. The president of the council and the speaker 
 of the house waited on the governor and informed him of their 
 intention to adjourn. Claiborne freely consented to such a proceed- 
 ing, and in his reply to the two officers, said: "It ought not to be 
 a matter of surprise that a difference of opinion should sometimes 
 have arisen among the several branches of the legislature; while 
 men are left free to think and act for themselves, an unison in senti- 
 ments cannot always be expected ; nor ought it to be supposed that 
 in a government like ours, composed of departments, and each inde- 
 pendent of the other, the same political course should meet the 
 sanction of all. If, therefore, on some occasions, the executive 
 did not approve the proceedings of the two houses, all that can 
 with truth be said is, that our object was the same, but we differed 
 as to the means of promoting the general welfare. A territorial 
 governor, if faithful to himself and his country, can alone be influ- 
 enced by the purest motives of honest patriotism, and in exercising 
 the powers -with which he is intrusted his own judgment is his only 
 guide." 
 
 This sincere and courageous reply of the governor somewhat 
 mollified the wrath of the members of the house, who "departed 
 apparently with harmony." The discordant situation between the 
 governor and the legislature did not extend to the people, who cele- 
 brated the Fourth of July, 1806, with patriotic spirit. Salutes were 
 fired from Port Charles at sunrise and noon; the Orleans Ransers 
 gave a banquet at Bayou St. John; the battalion was paraded on 
 the square by Maj. Dubourg; high mass was said and a Te Deum 
 sung at both the convent and the cathedral, although there was 
 a dissension between their respective clergy; and the governor, 
 "always unwilling to give offense to any party, politely held a 
 candle at both ceremonies." In the evening a patriotic play was 
 given at the theatre, and a ball at the city hall. 
 
 The year 1806, in addition to the events above mentioned, was 
 chiefly noted for the expulsion of the Spanish officials, Morales and 
 Casa Calvo, the Sabine Expedition and the Burr Conspiracy. 
 
 The second session of the first legislature began its labors on Jan. 
 12, 1807, with Julien Poydras as president of the council and John
 
 220 LOUISIANA 
 
 "Watkins as speaker of the house. Apprehensive of dangers grow- 
 ing out of the Burr movement, Claiborne sent a message^ to the 
 legislature, recommending for their consideration the advisability 
 of suspending thy privileiie of the writ of habeas corpus. He ex- 
 plained his reasons for this course in a letter to the secretary of 
 state as follows: "If I can acquire possession of Burr, Blenner- 
 hassett or Tyler, I shall take means to convej- them to the city of 
 "Washington, for it is there that these great offenders will probably 
 meet the punishment they deserve. The trial of Burr at Natchez 
 wiU determine in his acquittal, and I shall be disappointed if (as 
 was the ease in Kentucky) the .iury do not eulogize his conduct." 
 The legislature, however, refused to suspend the writ, or to put any 
 restriction upon it, on the ground that it would be infringement 
 of the Federal constitution. The judges concurred in the opinion 
 of the legislatiTre, and Claiborne was particularly desirous about 
 vindicating as a basis for his asking for the suspension of the ^vrit, 
 claiming as a basis for his action that clause of the constitiition 
 which says: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
 be suspended, unless when in eases of rebellion or invasion the 
 public safety may require it." 
 
 On July 1, 1807, Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike, accompanied by Lieut. 
 "Wilkinson, a son of the general, arrived at Natchitoches from his 
 exploring expedition to the west, having gone as far as the Rocky 
 mountains, when his progress had been arrested by the Spaniards. 
 This year witnessed the beginning of the famous Batture case 
 (q. v.). Late in the year rumors of war became ciirrent in New 
 Orleans, and a collision was expected between the L'uited States 
 and England. Claiborne wrote to ^ladison approving the course 
 of the national administration and adding: "I consider the Louisi- 
 anians very generally as being well affected to the government, but, 
 in the event of an English war, they will with enthusiasm rally 
 round our standard." 
 
 Early in 1808 the Federal government, considering the probability 
 of a war with England, consulted Claiborne with regard to the erec- 
 tion of fortifications to protect the entrance of the ^Mississippi. In 
 his replj' he recommended a work of some kind at the English Turn, 
 saying: "The fort at Plaquemine may, with a leading breeze and 
 iinder cover of night, be passed. But, under no circumstances, could 
 a vessel evade a battery at the English Turn." The militia had 
 fallen into a state of indifference, and the prospects of trouble M'ith 
 Great Britain led the governor to address a circular to all the 
 officers in command of regiments ursing them to revive the interest. 
 During the summer, the governor visited the coiinty of Opelousas, 
 and dviring his absence several riots occurred in New Orleans be- 
 tween the American sailors on one side and some French, Spanish 
 and Italian sailors on the other. Claiborne hurried back to the city, 
 and on Aug. 31 he wrote to the secretary of state: ""We have to 
 lament the residence among us, and particularly in this city, of a 
 number of abandoned individuals who render the greatest vigilance 
 on the part of the police essential to the general safety. Among
 
 LOUISIANA 221 
 
 those individuals are many persons who have deserted the service 
 of Spain, or fled from the punishment which awaited their crimes." 
 
 Some trouble resulted in Nov., 1808, in the parish of Pointe 
 Coupee, over the governor's appointment of a Mr. Petrony to the 
 office of sheriff. The appointment was unsatisfactory to the "mod- 
 ern Louisianians, " and the feeling between the American and the 
 Creole inhabitants became so great that the governor wrote a letter 
 to Charles Morgan, one of the leading citizens of the parish, explain- 
 ing his motives for making the appointment, viz.: "I have been 
 desirous to select the most worthy and the most capable, keeping 
 in view the expediency of dividing the offices as near as may be 
 between the ancient and modern Louisianians, as one means of 
 lessening the existing jealousy and distrust between these two 
 descriptions of citizens." 
 
 On Jan. 14, 1809, Claiborne sent his annual message to the legis- 
 lature, which had just convened. In his message he expressed his 
 regret that the act passed at the preceding session, to provide means 
 of establishing public schools in the several parishes, was not likely 
 to be productive of the desired results, Pointe Coupee being the only 
 parish that had made any provision for the support of such schools. 
 He recommended the revision of the criminal jurisprudence and the 
 erection of a penitentiary. Concerning the embargo, which was 
 then in force, he said: "There seems to be no alternative but war, 
 or a continuance of the embargo. * * * The embargo imposes 
 privations, which a magnanimous people will cheerfully bear. It 
 may be the means of avoiding still greater ills. But, however 
 things may eventuate, whether in inevitable war, or honorable 
 peace, the good citizens of this territory will unite liand and heart 
 in the support of the government and in defense of their country." 
 At this session of the general assembly Julien Poydras was elected 
 a delegate to Congress to .succeed Daniel Clark, who had held the 
 office since March 4, 1805. The legislature also adopted a memorial 
 to Congress, asking for admission into the Union, but Claiborne 
 advised the secretary of state by letter that, in his judgment, the 
 time had not yet arrived for such action. 
 
 From the time Louisiana was ceded to the United States the 
 planters in those portions of the territory bordering on the Spanish 
 possessions suffered sevei'e losses on account of their slaves running 
 away, crossing the border, and claiming the protection of the Span- 
 ish flag. In 1809 Claiborne succeeded in obtaining from Gov. 
 Salcedo, of Texas, to which province most of the fugitive slaves 
 had fled, the return of a number of the runaway negroes, assuring 
 the Spanish governor that slaves from Texas who sought a refuge 
 in Louisiana would be likewise returned to their owners. This 
 arrangement gave great satisfaction to the people of the Territory 
 of Orleans and increased the governor's growing popularity. 
 
 The invasion of Spain by France caused an exodus of the people 
 of St. Domingo, who sought an asylum in Louisiana, and in June, 
 1809, many of them arrived at New Orleans, some of whom brought 
 their slaves with them, notwithstanding the law of the United
 
 222 LOUISLINA 
 
 States prohibiting the importation of slaves from foreign countries. 
 This gave rise to a complex situation. On June 19 the collector of 
 the district asked the governor to name some persons to whom the 
 slaves might be delivered in conformity to the provisions of the act 
 prohibiting their importation, and Claiborne directed the mayor 
 of New Orleans to receive them and place them in the hands of 
 their respective owners, who should give bond to produce the slaves 
 on ten days' notice when demanded. By July 18 over 5,000 of the 
 refugees had arrived in New Orleans and Claiborne wrote to the 
 U. S. consul at Havana, advising him that "their number is becom- 
 ing so considerable as to embarrass our own citizens, and I fear 
 they will not be enabled much longer to supply, as fully as they 
 would wish, the wants of these unfortunate strangers. You will, 
 therefore, render a service to such of the Fi'ench as may not have 
 departed from Cuba, by advising them to seek an asylum in some 
 other district of the United States." He also advised him to dis- 
 courage free people of color from coming to the Territory of 
 Orleans, and wrote a similar letter to the U. S. consul at St. Yago 
 de Cuba. But the colored people managed to evade the order 
 and continued to come to New Orleans. 
 
 In his message to the legislature that met in Jan., 1810, Claiborne 
 congratulated them on the new-born interest manifested by the 
 people in the recent elections; reminded them that the embarrass- 
 ments to commerce resulting from the condition of foreign relations 
 had decreased the price of the productions of the territory and 
 increased the price of imported goods, and urged them to encourage 
 domestic manufactures. The principal event of this year was the 
 West Florida revolution, which resulted in the annexation of that 
 part of the present state of LoTiisiana east of the Mississippi to 
 the Territory of Orleans. This was done under a proclamation of 
 the president, which precipitated an animated debate in Congress 
 in the early part of 1811, but the action of Mr. Madison was finally 
 sustained. 
 
 The territorial legislature met early in Jan., 1811, but was pro- 
 rogued to the 4th Monday of the month, on account of the negro 
 insurrection (q v.). This was the last session of the territorial 
 legislature, but before the adjournment information was received 
 that Congress had passed a bill which was approved by the presi- 
 dent on Feb. 20, 1811, authorizing the people to form a constitution 
 and state government, preparatory to admission into the Union. 
 The legislature immediately made provision for the election of 
 delegates to a constitutional convention, after which an adjourn- 
 ment was taken until the latter part of April. Among the acts 
 passed by this last territorial legislature were those chartering the 
 Planters' bank and the Bank of New Orleans, as the charter of the 
 Bank of the United States had expired. Another act granted to 
 Livingston and Fulton the "sole and exclusive right to build, con- 
 struct, make, use, employ and navigate boats, vessels and water- 
 crafts, urged or propelled through water by fire or steam, in all 
 the creeks, rivers, bays and waters whatsoever within the .iurisdic-
 
 LOUISLA.NA 223 
 
 tion of the territory, during eighteen years from the 1st of Jan., 
 1812." 
 
 According to a census taken in 1810, the population of the Terri- 
 tory of Orleans was 76,566, which under the act establishing the 
 .territory entitled it to admission. Under the act of Congress of 
 Feb. 20, 1811, above referred to, delegTates were elected to a consti 
 tutional convention which assembled on Nov. 4, 1811. Julien Poy- 
 dras was elected president and Eligius Fromentin secretary. On 
 Jan. 22, 1812, the constitution was adopted, and on April 8 the 
 president approved an act for the admission of the former territory 
 provision that the act should not take effect until April 30, the ninth 
 anniversary of the treaty cession. On that date Gov. Claiborne's 
 territorial administration came to an end. 
 
 Claiborne's Administration (State). — The first officials of the 
 State of Louisiana were as follows: William C. C. Claiborne, 
 governor; L. B. Macarty, secretary of state; J. Montegut, treasurer; 
 Thomas B. Robertson, representative in Congi-ess; Allan B. Ma- 
 gruder and Jean N. Destrehen, U. S. senators; Dominick A. Hall, 
 George Mathews and Pierre Derbigny, judges of the supreme court ; 
 Julien Poydras, president of the senate; P. B. St. Martin, speaker 
 of the house. Destrehen resigned before taking his seat in the 
 senate and Claiborne appointed Thomas Posey to fill the vacancy. 
 Claiborne was elected governor on June 30, the first session of the 
 first state legislature was convened on July 27, and on the 31st the 
 new governor was inaugurated. Congress had declared war against 
 Great Britain on June 18, and in his inaugural address Claiborne 
 said: "War is not the greatest of evils — base submission to aggres- 
 sion would have been a greater curse. It would have entailed dis- 
 honor, cowardice, vassalage upon our posterity. * * * The 
 wrongs of England have been long and seriously felt ; they are visi- 
 ble in the decline of our sea towns, in the ruin of our commerce, 
 and the languor of agriculture. The recourse to arms may increase 
 the pressure; but let it be recollected, that whatever sacrifice 
 we make, is offered on the altar of our country — a consideration 
 which will reconcile a faithful people to every privation. * * • 
 Let every man put himself in armor. Age itself should be prepared 
 to advance against an invading foe. Our young men should hasten 
 to the tented field, and tendering their services to the government, 
 he in readiness to march at a moment's warning to the point of 
 attack. In such a contest, the issue cannot be doubtful. In such a 
 cause, every American should bare his bosom. Where justice is the 
 standard. Heaven is the warrior's shield." 
 
 One of the first things to engross the attention of the governor 
 after his inauguration, was the condition of affairs in some of the 
 parishes that had been created out of the territory annexed to the 
 state under the act of Congress of April 14, 1812. In a message 
 to the general assembly on Aug. 14 he called attention to the fact 
 that in the parishes of Feliciana, Baton Rouge, St. Helena and St. 
 Tammany "the civil authority has become so much weakened and 
 relaxed, that the laws have lost much of their influence," and recom-
 
 224 LOUISO-NA 
 
 mended legislation to correct the abuses there existing. Another 
 embarrassment resulted from the diifieulty in finding suitable men 
 to accept public office. This was especially true of the judges, for 
 the reason that part of their duty -vvas to collect the taxes of their 
 respective parishes. To remedy this, the governor suggested the 
 division of the state into four or more collection districts, with a tax 
 collector in each, a system that was subsequently adopted. Soon 
 after the legislature adjourned it was called to met in extraor- 
 dinary session on Nov. 23, to provide some method of choosing 
 presidential electors. The electors were chosen by the two branches 
 of the general assembly in joint session on Nov. 30. They were 
 Julien Poydras, Philemon Thomas and Stephen A. Hopkins, who, 
 on the 1st Wednesday in December, east the first electoral vote of 
 the state for James Madison for president and Elbridge Gerry for 
 vice-president. 
 
 Earl}' in the year 1813 the governor undertook the suspression 
 of the smugglers of Barataria (See Smugglers). Aboiit the same 
 time the Choctaw Indians got into the habit of visiting New Or- 
 leans, where they could obtain liquor, and would then commit depre- 
 dations in the parishes east of the IMississippi. ]\Iany of the settlers 
 in that locality became so alarmed that they abandoned tlieir farms 
 and removed to the west side of the river. A great flood this year 
 caused much damage to the plantations along the river, and a num- 
 ber of incendiarj' fires in New Orleans produced considerable 
 alarm in that city. On June 26 the governor offered a reward of 
 $1,000 for information that would lead to the arrest and conviction 
 of the incendiaries, and soon after a negro girl, 13 years of age, was 
 found guilty of arson and sentenced to death. Claiborne granted a 
 reprieve, but as doubts were raised as to whether he had authority 
 for such action, the case was referred to the attorney-general, F. X. 
 IMartin, who replied that lie "could not find anything in the consti- 
 tution or laws of the state which authorized the governor to com- 
 mute the punishment of any person, free or slave, and did not 
 believe that such a power was impliedly vested in the governor by 
 virtue of his office." The opinion further stated that "the governor 
 might reprive any person, bond or free, after conviction, till he 
 should have an opportunty of consialting the senate. The power 
 of reprieving is expressly given by the constitution in eases of 
 high treason. Hence a plausible argument might be drawn that he 
 may in lesser offenses. But the power of pardoning must include 
 that of reprieving: for, during the greatest part of the year, the 
 senate being in session, if the governor cannot reprieve alone, cul- 
 prits must undergo punishment before the senate may be consulted, 
 unless the court will po.stpone the execution of their sentence till 
 the meeting of the senate." This was one of the numerous ques- 
 tions that arose during the early days of statehood on the con- 
 struction of the constitution. 
 
 In September news of the Creek war reached New Orleans. As 
 some signs of hostilitj' were to be seen among the Choctaws, Clai- 
 borne sent a circular to all militia colonels, admonishing them to be
 
 LOUISIANA 225 
 
 ready for any emergency, and then made a tour of the state to make 
 such preparations as he could for defense. From Natchitoches, on 
 Oct. 18, sent a "talk" to the chief of the Caddoes. After com- 
 paring the English with the Osage Indians, with whom the Caddoes 
 were then at war, the Kovernor said: "Brother, the English, un- 
 willing to fight as man to man, have called upon the red people to 
 assist them. With tongues as forked and poisonous as snakes', 
 they have told the Indians many lies, and made fair promises which 
 they will not and cannot fulfill. Thus it is that many of the red men 
 have been prevailed upon to throw away the peace-talks of their 
 father, the president. But the Americans have the power and the 
 will to punish all their enemies. * * * j wanted to send you a 
 token of my friendship. To a chief, a man, and a warrior, nothing 
 could be more acceptable than a sword, but a suitable one could not 
 be obtained at this place. I have, therefor^, directed that a sword 
 be purchased at New Orleans and forwarded to Dr. Sibley, who 
 will soon present it to you in my name. Farewell, brother; I pray 
 the ( ireat Spirit to preserve >ou in health and Imppiness." This 
 "talk" and the present of the sword doubtless had much influence in 
 keeping the Caddoes on friendly terms with the Americans, and the 
 anxiety in Louisiana was relieved by the news of the victories of 
 Gens. Jackson, Floyd and White over the Creeks. 
 
 In his message to the legislature on Jan. H, 1814, the governor 
 discussed at some length the war then going on with Great Britain; 
 referred to "evidences of industry and economy" he noticed on 
 his recent tour through the state ; this disasters resulting from the 
 war, floods and hurricanes, which "depressed commercial enterprise 
 and discouraged agricultural exertion ; ' ' the financial embarrass- 
 ments resulting from these conditions; the difficulty in some of the 
 parishes in meeting the payment of taxes ; and recommended a 
 revision and compilation of the laws. Judge Dominick A. Hall, 
 of the supreme court, had been appointed by the president to the 
 office of district judge of the United States, leaving a vacancy on 
 the supreme bench of the state, and during this session the state 
 senate rejected five successive nominations of the governor. Near 
 the time foi* adjournment the governor submitted to Atty.-Gen. 
 Martin a series of questions relating to the matter of ajipointments, 
 viz. : Whether the governor is not bound by the constitution to 
 exercise his free agency in making nominations, and whether he 
 should not resist all attempts of the senate to influence such nom- 
 inations? Whether, if the senate continued to reject every one pro- 
 posed by the governor, the vacane.y might be filled during the recess 
 of the legislature? If the vacancy could not be so filled, would two 
 judges of the court be considered as competent for the transaction 
 of business? Mr. I\Iartin rendered a rather lengthy opinion, the 
 substance of which was that the governor should exercise his free 
 agency and not yield to the senate ; that, under the circumstances 
 he could not appoint a judge during the recess; and that two judges 
 would be competent for the transaction of bixsiness. This opinion 
 1—1.5
 
 226 LOUISLINA 
 
 failed to bring harmouy, and the legislature adjourned Avithout an 
 appointment having been made. 
 
 Some excitement in military circles occurred in the earlj^ part of 
 the year 1814. Late in the preceding December Gen. Thomas 
 Flournoy, commanding the U. S. forces on the Mississippi, reported 
 to Gov. Claiborne that not more than 700 men could be concen- 
 trated in Louisiana, and made a requisition for 1,000 of the state 
 militia to be employed in the U. S. service for six montlis unless 
 sooner discharged. On Christmas daj^ Claiborne issued orders to 
 carry the requisition into effect. The 2nd division marched to Jlaga- 
 zine barrael^, opposite New Orleans, which place had been desig- 
 nated as the general rendezvous, but the 1st division failed to re- 
 spond. A second order on Feb. 21, 1S14, met with no better result, 
 and on oMarch 3 the governor wrote to Flournoy: "With the ex- 
 ception of three or four companies of the city militia, whose con- 
 duct met my highest approbation, my orders were not only disre- 
 garded, but resolutions of determined disobedience were entered 
 into by the non-commissioned officers and privates of several sepa- 
 rate corps, and transmitted to me." Gayarresays: "The secret of 
 all this opposition was, the invincible repugnance of the Creole and 
 French population to be enlisted in the service of the United States 
 under officers not of their own choosing, and their apprehension 
 of being sent out of the state, for which -alone they were disposed 
 at that time to shed their blood." On the refusal of the militia to 
 enter the service of the United States, the 400 men at ^Magazine 
 barracks were disbanded, and on ilarch 30 Clailiorue i.ssued a cir- 
 cular vindicating the authority' under which he had acted. Later, 
 when Louisiana was actually invaded by the British, the militia 
 of the state rendered a good account of itself. 
 
 On Aug. 29 Col. Nicholls, of the British artillery, issued a proc- 
 lamation calling on the inliabitants of Louisiana to join with the 
 British forces in "liberating from a faithless, imbecile government, 
 your paternal soil." This stirred the people of the state to action, 
 but not in the direction Nicholls had hoped. Early in September 
 the governor addressed a letter to Mr. Girod, the mayor of New 
 Orleans, requesting him to use the greatest vigilance concerning 
 the admission of strangers into the city in order to avoid the 
 entrance of spies. A few days later he issued general orders calcu- 
 lated to arouse the patriotism and zeal of the militia, aiid on the 
 same day wrote to Gov. Shelby of Kentucky, asking him to forward 
 troops for the defense of New Orleans. On the 15th a meeting was 
 held at Tremoulet's coffee house, at which resolutions M-ere passed 
 declaring the attachment of the people of the State of Louisiana to 
 the government of the L^nited States and that "they will repel with 
 indignation every attempt to create disaffection and weaken the 
 force of the country, by exciting dissensions and jealousies at a 
 moment when union is most necessary." On the 21st Gen. Jackson 
 issued two proclamations — one to the white people of Louisiana and 
 the other to the free colored men of the state — calling on them to 
 rally to the defense of the country. From that time on until the
 
 LOUISIANA 227 
 
 actual commencement of hostilities the preparations for war went 
 on with unabated vigor. When Jackson arrived in New Orleans 
 on Dec. 1, his presence inspired both confidence and patriotism, and 
 though there were some differences of opinion, some bickerings and 
 jealousies, the main object was not lost sight of, and the Louisian- 
 ians never wavered until the invaders were driven from their state. 
 (See War of 1812.) 
 
 The legislature met on Nov. 10, but was not able to do much 
 toward the defense of the state. The condition of business at this 
 time is thus told by Latour: "Credit was annihilated; already for 
 several months had the banks suspended the . payment of their 
 notes; to supply the want of specie one and three dollar notes had 
 been issued, and dollars had been cut as a siibstitute for small 
 change. On the banks refusing specie, the moneyed men had drawn 
 in their funds, which they no longer let out without a usurious 
 interest of three or four per cent, a month. Every one was dis- 
 tressed, confidence had ceased, and with it almost every species of 
 business. Our situation seemed desperate." 
 
 On Dee. 14, the governor, in a message to the general assembly, 
 recommended the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus for a 
 limited time, but as on a former occasion, in the territorial days, 
 it met with determined opposition, and a bill to that effect was 
 defeated, though it was supported by both Jackson and Claiborne. 
 On the 16th the governor advised an adjournment of the legislature 
 for two or three weeks, owing to the unsettled condition?, but the 
 assembly declined to adjourn on the grounds that "accidents might 
 happen, and unforeseen cases might occur, when the interference 
 of the legislature might be necessary." Jackson thereupon pro- 
 claimed martial law and issued one of his characteristic proclama- 
 tions to the people. On the 18tli the governor approved an act 
 granting delays in certain civil proceedings, for the protection of 
 those who might be called upon to perform military duty, and on 
 the 23d the British appeared before the city. The assembly then 
 ceased to sit, as its members were engaged in the work of defense 
 in various capacities, though every day at noon a few members of 
 each house would meet at their respective halls and regularly ad- 
 journ for the day. On the 28th the halls of the assembly were 
 closed by military authority. Wlien Mr. Rkipworth, president of 
 the senate, and two or three members. of that body attempted to 
 enter the senate chamber they were warned away by a sentinel on 
 the staircase, who presented his bayonet, and the senators repaired 
 to the city hall, where the adjournment was effected. The order 
 closing the halls was revoked the next day. This incident led to 
 an exhaustive investigation by a joint committee of the two 
 branches of the nssembly, and was the principal reason why the 
 legislature refused to extend a vote of thanks to Gen. Jackson as it 
 did to the other military commanders -^ho took part in the battle 
 of New Orleans. This vote was taken on Feb. 2, 1815, and on the 
 6th the lesrislature adjourned. fSee Louallier, Louis, and Hall, 
 Dominiek A.)
 
 228 LOUISIANA 
 
 Early ou the morning of March 13 a courier arrived with a dis- 
 patch announcing the treaty of peace. The order proehiimiug mar- 
 tial la\r was revoked, and on the lith Jackson began preparations 
 for disbanding the troops. The people returned to their several 
 avocations and Louisiana began an era of prosperity that continued 
 uninterrupted until the beginning of the Civil war in 1861. On 
 Jan. 8, 1816, the first anniversary of the battle of Xew Orleans was 
 celebrated with imposing ceremonies. On ^Mareh 23 Gen. Jackson 
 visited the city, where he remained several days as a guest of honor, 
 and on July 4 a magnificent dinner was given at Jackson Hall, at 
 which the follo^ving toast was received with enthusiasm: "Ma.i.-Gen. 
 Andrew Jackson — In the hour of danger our country was fortunate 
 in finding a second Washington." 
 
 The presidential campaign of 1816 aroused very little interest in 
 the state. Monroe received the electoral vote. The principal con- 
 test was between Gen. Jacques Villere and Joshua Lewis, the candi- 
 dates for governor. The vote as announced by the general assembly, 
 which was convened ou Nov. 18, was: Yillere, 2,314; Lewis, 2,145. 
 On Dec. 17 Gov. Claiborne retired to private life, after having been 
 governor for thirteen years. The strifes and animosities that arose 
 at various times during his administration were forgotten. In con- 
 cluding his farewell address to the legislature he said: "I cannot 
 retire from Jhe station to which the people of the state were pleased 
 to raise me, without tendering to them my sincere acknowledge- 
 ments. Had this station been free from every embarrassment, I 
 might not perhaps have justly estimated their generous patronage, 
 but in moments of my greatest difficulty the proofs of personal 
 confidence, and the ready support afforded me, were such as can 
 never be forgotten — they are deeply engraven on a grateful heart." 
 
 Clarence, a village in the eastern part of Xatchitoehes parish, is 
 on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, about 
 7 miles northeast of Natchitoches, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffiee, an express office, telegraph and teleplione facilities, 
 and is the shipping point for a large agricultural district. Its popu- 
 lation is 122. 
 
 Clark, Daniel, a prominent figure in New Orleans about the be- 
 ginning of the 19th century, was a native of Ireland. His grand- 
 father, whose name was also Daniel, had commanded a Pennsyl- 
 vania regiment in the royal service, was at one time clerk to the 
 council of West Florida, and was one of the first to obtain grants 
 of land in that colony. In 1786 the nephew came to New Orleans 
 upon file invitation of his uncle, whose wealth he inherited. When 
 the Territory of Orleans was organized he was appointed a member 
 of the first legislative council, but declined the seat because he 
 had been active in calling public meetings and memorializing Con- 
 gress not to erect the new territory. He asfain came into prom- 
 inence through his association with Aaron Burr and Gen. James 
 Wilkinson, the latter of whom he accused of being connected with 
 the scheme to secure the secession of the western territory from 
 the United States. In 1S0.5 Clark was elected delegate to Congress
 
 LOUISIANA 229 
 
 and served until 1809, when lie was succeeded by Julien Poydras. 
 He was secretly married in Philadeli)hia in 1803, and to this mar- 
 riage was born a daughter, Myra, who afterward became the wife 
 of Gen. E. P. Gaines. The date of his death is somewhat problem- 
 atical, but his will, dated in 1813, left all his property to his daugh- 
 ter. (See Gaines, Jlyra Clark.) 
 
 Clark, George Rogers, Revolutionary soldier, was born in Albe- 
 marle county, Va., Nov. 19, 1752. He was educated chiefly in a 
 private school kept by a Scotchman, among whose pupils was James 
 Madison, afterward president of the United States. Before Clark 
 attained to his majority he joined a surveying party working on 
 the upper Ohio river, where he became the owner of a farm. He 
 was a volunteer under Gov. Dunmore in the war with the Shawnee 
 Indians, after which he pushed on westward beyond the settle- 
 ments into Kentucky, and by his prowess against the Indians he 
 came in time to be recognized as the protector of all the frontier 
 settlements o? what is now Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. In 1776 he 
 Avas commissioned major in the Virginia militia by Patrick Henry, 
 was promoted Jieutenant-colonel the following year, when he raised 
 about 200 men, and in Feb. 1779, captured the British fort at Vin- 
 cennes. Subsequently the posts at Kaskaskia and Kahokia on the 
 Mississippi river surrendered to him, and when in 1781 he was com- 
 missioned brigadier-general in the Continental army, he began 
 making preparations for carrying out his long cherished project of 
 capturing Detroit, but was unable to raise a sufficient force to make 
 the expedition. His "Conquest of the Northwest" played an impor- 
 tant part in the adjustment of the boundaries of the United States 
 possessions at the close of the Revolution. Pierre Choiiteaii, of 
 St. Louis, Mo., a descendant of one of the founders of that cit.v, 
 says: "While not a part of Louisiana's history, the conquest of 
 the Illinoi.s^ by Col. George Rogers Clark in 1778-9 was the most 
 potent factor in shaping its destinies. By this campaign the Amer- 
 ican commissioners to the Congress of Paris in 1783 were enabled 
 to establish and maintain that a government de facto as well as 
 de jure had been established, thereby defeating the contentions of 
 the foreign governments, and placing the western boundary of our 
 young republic on the Mississippi river. The Creoles of Louisiana 
 have a pardonable pride in the part taken by their ancestors in 
 this campaign ; and that Clark was not unmindful of the services 
 . rendered by the Cr'eoles is evidenced by the bountiful manner in 
 which offices of honor and trust were conferred on them after the 
 acquisition of the territory by the United States." Gen. Clark died 
 near Louisville, Ky., Feb. 18, 1818, and his remains rest in an 
 unknown and unmarked grave. The reward he received was in no 
 wise commensurate to the services he rendered. 
 
 Clarks, a village in the southei'n part of Caldwell parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the St. Louis, Iron IMountain & Southern R. R., about 7 
 miles south of Columbia, the parish seat and nearest banking town. 
 It has a money order postoffice, an express office, and is the trading 
 center of a considerable territory.
 
 230 LOUISIANA 
 
 Clay (R. R. name Elmore), a money order post-hamlet in the 
 northwestern part of Jackson parish, is on the Chicago, Rock Island 
 & Pacific R. R., about 7 miles northwest of Vernon, the parish seat. 
 
 Clays. — The opportunities for the development of the clay prod- 
 ucts industries in the State of Louisiana are manifold, for in various 
 regions, especially in the alluvial and bluff formations, excellent 
 deposits of elaj' are to be found in abundance. The chief clay prod- 
 ucts prodiiced in the state at the present time are common, pressed 
 and vitrified brick and blocks, sewer pipe, drain-tile, and tlue and 
 stove linings. Shreveport is the principal brick and tide producing 
 center of the state, fine deposits of clay being found in its imme- 
 diate vicinity. In fact these deposits are extensive and numerous 
 throughout the northwestern portion of the state between the 
 Sabine and the Red rivers. The total capital invested in the brick 
 and tile industry in the state in 1900, according to the U. S. census 
 report of that year, was $672,138, of which sum $182,255 was in- 
 vested in land, $209,280 in buildings, $112,901 in machinery, tools 
 and implements, and $167,702 was in cash and sundries. The aggre- 
 gate value of the brick and tile produced in the state increased from 
 $282,625 in the year 1890 to $553,465 in 1900, an increase of nearly 
 100 per cent, in ten years. The increase ip the total value of com- 
 mon brick during the same decade was about equal to the above 
 increase in the agregate value of the brick and tile industry, while 
 the number of comon brick produced in 1900 was more than twice 
 that of ten years before. The number of pressed brick on the 
 market in 1900 was approximately three times that produced in 
 1890, indicating that those who are rearing brick structures in the 
 state are becoming reconciled to the fact that these buildings 
 should be ornamental and pleasing to the e.ye, at the same time 
 possessing the qualities of strength and durability. This variety 
 of brick is manufactured extensively along the lines of the New 
 Orleans & Northeastern and the Illinois Central railways, as are 
 also articles of common earthenware, and in the Grand Gulf hills 
 are extensive deposits of white clays which some day will undoubt- 
 edly be utilized for the manufacture of ornamental brick and pot- 
 tery of the finer varieties. 
 
 Clayton, a post-hamlet and station in the northern part of Con- 
 cordia parish, on the New Orleans & Noi'thwestern R. R., about 12 
 miles northwest of Vidalia, the parish seat. It has an express office 
 and telegraph station and a population of 100. 
 
 Clearlake, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is situated on Sabine Lake, about 6 miles east of Ca,spari, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cleora, a hamlet and station in the central part of Morehouse 
 parish, is on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R., about 
 6 miles southea.st of Bastrop, the parish seat, and 4 miles southwest 
 of Mer Rouge. It has a money order postoffiee and some retail 
 stores. 
 
 Cleveland, a post-hamlet in the central part of Jackson parish, is
 
 LOUISIANA 231 
 
 situated on Bayou Beaucoup, about 7 miles west of Avard, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Clifford, a post-hamlet and station in the northwestern part of 
 "Webster parish, is on the Louisiana & Arkansas K.. R., about 3 miles 
 south of the state line. 
 
 Clifton, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Washington 
 parish, is situated near the Bogue Chitto, about 6 miles north of 
 Pranklinton, the parish seat, and 4 miles south of Magee, the near- 
 est railroad station. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Louisiana is semi-tropical. The fall 
 of the year is the most pleasant season in the state, and when the 
 wind is from the north the sky is clear and serene, the air bracing 
 and invigorating. The transformation from winter to summer is 
 by an extremely short spring; the winds are changeable and erratic, 
 blowing within a short time from every point of the compass, but 
 the fall is long and pleasant. In order to give an idea of the climate 
 of Louisiana, it will be necessary to make comparisons with other 
 sections of the country. Considering the heat, the normal mean 
 maximum temperature for the hottest month, July, taken from the 
 data of the U. S. weather bureau reports, covering a period of 15 
 years, it is seen that the section of the country from southern Illi- 
 nois, southeast Missouri, to central Minnesota, has an average 
 highest temperature of 84°, with an average lowest temperature of 
 65°, making the daily range 18°. For Louisiana for the same 
 month, the average highest temperature was 99°, the average lowest 
 temperature 74°, making the daily range 17°. Considering the 
 coldest month, it was found that the upper Mississippi valley Jthe 
 first named section) had an average highest temperature for Janu- 
 ary of -31°, and a lowest of 13°, or a daily range of 18°, Louisiana 
 had for the same month, an average highest temperature of 59°, an 
 average lowest of 44°, or a daily range for the month of 15°. The 
 maximum temperature of the Mississippi valley for the summer, 
 recorded at Des Moines, la., and Cairo, 111., was 103°, the lowest 
 temperature for the same section, in winter, was 43° below zero 
 at La Crosse, Wis., or an absolute range of temperature of 146°. 
 The highest temperature on record for northern Louisiana was 
 107*, recorded at Shreveport, and the highest on record for south- 
 ern Louisiana, was 97°, at New Orleans. The lowest temperature 
 recorded for northern Louisiana was 6°, at Shreveport, and the low- 
 est temperature reported for the southern part of the state was 20°, 
 at New Orleans, making the absolute range for the northern part of 
 the state 101°, and for the southern part, 77°, which is a much 
 smaller range than that of the northern Mississippi valley, Missouri 
 valley or the northwestern section of the country. Comparing the 
 mean relative humidity of different sections: from a record of the 
 U. S. Weather Bureau, covering a period of 15 years, it was found 
 that the mean annual relative humidity of the upper Mississippi 
 valley was computed to be 69 per cent., the mean for the Missouri 
 valley 74 per cent., the mean for Louisiana 71 per cent., being but 
 2 per cent above the former section, and 3 per cent, below the latter.
 
 232 LOUISIANA 
 
 The highest mean monthly for the year in Louisiana, -was 74 per 
 cent., while the hiuliest in the other sections was 91 per cent. The 
 average yearly rainfall in the upper ^lississippi valley is 39 inches, 
 most of which falls during the summer months. The average for 
 Louisiana is (30 inches, 4 to 6 inches of which fall each month of the 
 j'ear. In California west winds prevail, Ijlowing from the ocean; 
 in Louisiana, south winds prevail, blowing from the gulf. Cali- 
 fornia has a greater number of sunshiny days in the summer 
 months, but an almost total lack of rainfall. The rainfall in Louis- 
 iana is general throughout the year, with but few foggy days. The 
 district where rain falls in California in summer is small, confined 
 to the localities which are directly affected by the ocean breezes, 
 and extend but a few miles inland. The valleys back from the 
 cosat become unbearably hot in the summer months; there is but 
 little vegetation and ,water is not easily procured. Louisiana has 
 only one climate, and that a well defined one. It has hot Aveather, 
 but the gulf breeze extends inland, reaching to the northern portion 
 of the state, which has, however, a higher temperature than that 
 recorded in the southern portion during the summer mouths. The 
 rainfall and moisture is almost the same, being but slightly less in 
 the north than the south. The sunnuers are long, but this is neces- 
 sary for the crops, grown in the region. Louisiana is comparatively 
 free from killing frosts, and has a great advantage over northern 
 Florida, which is frequently visited by frosts heavy enough to kill 
 the fiiiit and ofteu the trees. The southern part of the state, from 
 Rapides and Concordia parishes soiith, compares with the southern 
 part of the Florida peninsula. Jlost of the cold waves that sweep 
 south over the country during the winter mouths are deflected from 
 Louisiana, as nearly all the winter storms have an eastern tendency. 
 The storms that arise in northwestern Texas usually pass to the 
 north of Louisiana, and the storms that arise east of the Rocky 
 mountains are generally attracted by the valley of the great lakes 
 and pass down the St. Lawrence. Another cause of this immunity 
 from storms, is the great volume of warm moist air which hangs 
 over the gulf and central part of the state, ami which mingles with 
 the cold air from the north and passes off to the east. Xot that 
 Louisiana is entirely free from cold waves, as the temperature 
 sometimes falls to but 10" or 15°, above zero. Dry winds are un- 
 known in Louisiana, consequently there are no high winds, and the 
 moisture is not absorbed from the earth. The high winds that pre- 
 vail are storm winds, and nearly always cause precipitation — gen- 
 erally a hard rainfall. While Louisiana does not have a windy cli- 
 mate it has a breezy one, the air from the gulf is cool, salty and in- 
 vigorating. There are few states in the Union that possess more 
 genial climate. The only difference in tJie climate of the northern 
 and southern portions of the state, is a slight increase in the range 
 of temperature, an atmosphere less humid and a rainfall averaging 
 4 inches less annually. 
 
 Clinton, the parish seat of East Feliciana jiari.sh, is located near 
 the center of the parish, the site having been determined by a vote
 
 LOUISIANA 233 
 
 of the people when the parish was organized in 1824. The town 
 was laid out in 1830 and two years later the Clinton female acad- 
 emy was founded by the sisters of George Bancroft, the noted his- 
 torian. The Centenary collese was located here in 1839, and the 
 town was incorporated in 1852. Clinton is the eastern terminus 
 of a short branch of the Yazoo & IMississippi Valley R. R., which 
 connects with the main line at Ethel. This branch is a part of th^ 
 old Clinton & Port Hudson R. R., which was completed in 1840, 
 but after that road was absorbed by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley 
 system the portion from Ethel to Port Hudson was abandoned. 
 Clinton is a town of considerable commercial activity. It has a 
 bank, a large brick and tile factory, some minor manufactures, a 
 number of well conducted mercantile establishments, a money 
 order postoffice with niral delivery routes emanating from it, good 
 schools and churches, and the press and professions are well repre- 
 sented. The popidation is 918. 
 
 Clio, a money order post-luunlet, in the southeastern part of Liv- 
 ingston parish, is situated- on the Amite river, about 8 miles south- 
 east of Spriugville, the parish seat, and the same distance southwest 
 of Springfield, the nearest railroad station. It has a population of 
 1.50 and is the sixpply point for a considerable district. 
 
 Cloutierville, a money order post-village in the southeastern part 
 of Natchitoches parish, is located on the Cane river about 20 miles 
 southeast of Natchitoches. It was founded by Alexander Cloutier, 
 and incorporated, with the idea of making it the seat of justice for 
 a new parish which Cloutier petitioned to have established. The 
 prospects of this were so good that a large building was erected 
 for parish purposes and a Catholic church, then the only religion 
 known in this section of Louisiana. The new parish was not cre- 
 ated and the town has remained a village. The population is 2.5C. 
 Derry, on the Texas & Pacific R. R., 3 miles west, is the nearest 
 railroad station. 
 
 Clover, a post-hamlet in the western part of Rapides parish, is 
 situated on Bayou Boeuf, about 15 miles west of Alexandria, the 
 parish seat, and 5 miles southeast of Hoyt, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Clyde (R. R. name Swaty), a post-village in the western part of 
 Sabine parish, is a station on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 
 12 miles northwest of Jlany, the parish seat, and 3 miles north of 
 ZwoUe, the nearest banking town. It is a lumber town. 
 
 Coal. — The mineral coal of Louisiana is of the species known as 
 lignite, also called wood-coal or fossil-wood. Lignite is usually of 
 a brownish color, though it is sometimes pitch black. As the name 
 implies, it retains the form and appearance of wood, bi;t it contains 
 more hydrogen than wood. Strictly speaking, lignite is an unfin- 
 ished product. As the jirocess of decomposition continues lignite 
 throws off carburetted hydrogen, and in time becomes a bituminous 
 coal. The lignite beds of Louisiana are probably offshoots from the 
 larger formations along the eastern foot of the Rocky mountains, 
 which depoisits, according to Hayden, "occupy a position between
 
 234 LOUISIANA 
 
 the Cretaceous and Eocene Tertiary strata, cover an area of about 
 50,000 square miles M-itliin the United States, and extend north into 
 Canada and south into Mexico." 
 
 About the besiniiing of the present century mining: operations 
 Avere commenced in the lignite deposits of the Dolet hills. A 
 bulletin issued by the state commission of the Louisiana Purchase 
 exposition in 1904, says: "Analyses recently made show the fol 
 lowing average composition : Water, 32 per cent. ; volatile matter, 
 34 per cent. ; fixed carbon, 31 per cent. ; ash, 3 per cent. Thermal 
 value with 15.2 per cent, moisture is 9883 B. T. U. The water evap- 
 orates on exposure with but little slacking in the coal. This de- 
 posit, varying in thickness from 6 to 8 feet, covers an area of over 
 40,000 acres, situated between tAvo main lines of railroad running 
 north and south. The coal can be easily mined above the inter- 
 secting branches. * * * Geological investigation.s show that this 
 formation underlies a large part of northwestern Louisiana, with 
 numerous outcrops from the Ouachita to the Sabine. On the latter 
 stream, near Sabine town, is a bed of lignite over 5 feet 
 thick. Other prominent outcrops are near Mansfield, ^lany and 
 Shreveport. " 
 
 Concerning the deposits at ]\Iansfield, "Current Events," a maga- 
 zine published by the Kansas City Southern railway, said in the 
 issue of Jan., 1904: "In the vicinity of Mansfield, La., are some 40 
 square miles of land underlaid with a good quality of tertiary coal, 
 which occurs in three layers, each 7 feet thick and of easy access. 
 A corporation has been recently formed to undertake the mining of 
 this coal, for which there is an excellent market. How it escaped 
 development before this is one of the mysteries, considering the 
 proximity to a dozen large cities within easy reach. The opening 
 of the first mines will probably bring about the development of the 
 whole region before long." 
 
 Coast Line. — The coast line of Louisiana, including the bays and 
 lakes on the coast, such as Breton sound, Chandeleur sound, Atcha- 
 falaya, Barataria, Cote Blanche, Terre Bonne and Vermilion bays. 
 Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain, etc., approximates 2,000 miles. The 
 coast may be divided into two parts; the 1st or eastern division lies 
 between Cat island, near the mouth of the Pearl river, on the east, 
 and Vermilion bay on the southwest. These are the eastern and 
 western limits of the great IMississippi delta. It is supposed that 
 at one time the water of the great river flowed through Bayou 
 Manchac, Lake Maurepas, Lake Pontchartrain and the Rigolets into 
 Mississippi Sound. The outline of this part of the coast is ex- 
 tremely irregular, indented with many bays and cut by lakes and 
 bayous into a labyrinth of peninsulas and islands. The general 
 contour of the coast is like the arc of a circle, convex toward the 
 gulf. The islands along the delta coast all have a tendency to form 
 in groups, convex toward the gulf (see Chandeleur Islands), and 
 the individuals, islands of each group have the same general outline 
 as that of the group itself. The bayous which flow through the 
 delta lands are nearly always shallow near the mouths, which are
 
 LOUISIANA 235 
 
 often obstructed by shallow bays filled with sand bars. The 2nd or 
 western division of the coast, from Vermilion bay to Sabine lake, 
 which forms the southwestern boundary of the state, has a very 
 regular beach on the edge of the marsh; there are no outlying 
 islands and the general structure is entirely different from the 
 eastern section. The marshes which border the coast extend from 
 the water line of the gulf, inland to a depth varying from 5 to 25 
 miles but averages about 12 miles. In all cases it is low, wet and 
 subject to tidal overflow. In most places the marshes are impass- 
 able. They are filled with lakes and intersected by many bayous. 
 The marshes are not uniform in structure, being in some places 
 practically a lake, in others a grassy plain, firm enough for cattle 
 to graze on. In other places the surface is apparently firm, while 
 underneath the crust there is nothing but water and oozy mud. In 
 some places considerable solid islands rise above the marsh and 
 present the unusual spectacle of islands on land. 
 
 Coburn, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Sabine parish, 
 is situated on Middle creek, about 8 miles southeast of Roily, the 
 nearest railroad station, and 12 miles southeast of Many, the parish 
 seat. 
 
 Codes and Statutes. — (See French Domination, Spanish Domina- 
 tion, Black Code, and the several State Constitutions). During the 
 period of the French domination, the laws, ordinances, customs, and 
 usages of the Prevostship and Viscounty of Paris formed the early 
 basis of the laws of the province of Louisiana, and there was early 
 provided an administrative and .judicial body or government council, 
 similar in character to the one provided for San Domingo and 
 Martinique. The edicts or decrees of this council, at whose head 
 stood the governor of the province, together with the royal edicts 
 issued from time to time, provided the chief legislation for the 
 colony. This government council, known throughout the French 
 period as the superior council, underwent numerous changes in its 
 personnel and functions. For instance, as modified by the royal 
 edict, it was to consist in 1719 of the governor, the two "Lieuten- 
 ants de Roi," or lieutenant-governors, the king's attorney-general, 
 and four other persons, together with such directors of the Western 
 Company as might happen to be in the colony as ex-offieio mem- 
 bers. After the surrender of the charter of the India Company, 
 the superior council was again reorganized by letters patent issiied 
 in 1732, when it was made to consist of the governor, king's com- 
 missary, two lieutenant-governors, attorne.v-general, commander of 
 New Orleans, and six others (Gayarre)). In the latter portion of 
 the French period the superior council appears to have consisted 
 of some thirteen members, and it was this famous body which en- 
 tertained the petition for the expulsion from the colony of the 
 Spanish UUoa, and formally enjoined him to quit the colony within 
 three days in Oct., 1768. 
 
 The Spanish Gov. O'Reilly abolished the superior council, and 
 established in its place a city council, or cabildo. The transition 
 from the French to Spanish laws was not difficult, because of their
 
 236 LOUISIANA 
 
 similarity of origin. ""Tlie people of Louisiana, under the Spanish 
 resrime, were governed by the Fuero Viego, Fuero Juzco, Partidas, 
 Recopilaciones, Leyes de las Indias, Aiistos Accordados, and Royal 
 Schedules. To explain these, Spanish commentators Avere sorted 
 to, and to eke out any deficiency the lawyers who came from 
 France or Hispaniola read Pothier, D'Aguesseau, Dnmoulin, etc. 
 El Fuero Juzco was a compilation of the rules and regulations made 
 for Spain by its national councils and Gothic kings as early as 693 
 A. D. It was the first code made by the Spanish nation : it consisted 
 of 12 volumes, and was originally published in Latin. It was trans- 
 lated into Spanish in the 13th eentui-y by order of Ferdinand III. 
 El Fuero Viego was published in the year 992. It is divided into 
 five books, and contains the ancient customs and usages of the 
 Spanish nation. The Partidas is the most perfect system of Span- 
 ish laws, and maj^ be advantageously compared with any code 
 published in the most enlightened ages of the world. It is in imi- 
 tation of the Roman Pandects, and may be considered a digest of 
 
 the laAvs of Spain Much of our present system of practice 
 
 is taken from the Partidas. The Recopilacion of Castile was pub- 
 lished in the year 1567, under the authority and supervision of 
 Philip II. From that time to 1777 many new editions of the work 
 were produced. The Autos Accordados were edicts and orders in 
 Council sanctioned and published by virtue of a royal decree. It 
 consists of but one volume. The scattered laws made for the Span- 
 ish colonies at different periods, were digested by Philip IV, in 
 the same form as the Recopilacion of Castile, and called in 1661 
 the Recopilacion de las Indias." (Louisiana and her Laws, bj- 
 Henry J. Leovy.) Of this great digest of colonial laws, says Bourne 
 in his Spain in America: "Recopilacion de Leyes de los Reinos 
 de las Indias, in spite of shortcomings as to finance and variances 
 with modern ideas, was, in its broad humanity and consideration 
 for the general welfare of the king's American subjects, far superior 
 to anything that has been shown for the English or French 
 colonies." 
 
 When Louisiana became the "Orleans Territory" under the 
 United States, the government permitted the people of the new 
 territory to make what changes they pleased in the existing system 
 of laAvs. The criminal laws of Spain were repealed and new penal 
 statutes adopted, "the definitions and intendments of which were 
 left to the Common law of England." The first territorial legis- 
 lature in 1806 a^ithorized two members of the bar, Jlessrs. Brown 
 and Lislet, to prepare a digest of the laws then in existence in the 
 territory, and each to receive .$800 a year for five years as compensa- 
 tion. Says Leovy: "Instead of complying with their orders and 
 digesting the laws in existence, these gentlemen made a code based 
 principally on the Code Napoleon. This was adopted by the legis- 
 lature, and is now known as the old Civil Code of 1808. This code 
 did not repeal former laws: the old Civil Code only repealed such 
 parts of the Civil law as were contrary or incompatible with it. It 
 did not contain many important provisions of the Spanish law nor
 
 LOUISIANA 237 
 
 any rules of judicial proceedings. It was therefore decided that the 
 Spanish laws 'were to be considered as untouched when the Digest 
 or Civil Code did not reach them. The legislature, therefore, in 
 1819 ordered the publication of such parts of the Partidas as were 
 still in force." 
 
 In the course of a number of years the state outgrew the "Old 
 Code," and the legislature appointed a committee, consisting of 
 Messrs. Livingston, Derbigny, and Moreau Lislet, to amend and 
 revise it. Their work resulted in the so-called "Civil Code of Lou- 
 isiana," which went into operation in 1825. The Code of Practice 
 was enacted April 12, 1824, and was promulgated Sept. 2, 1825. 
 This code repealed all former rules of practice, and such parts of 
 the Civil Code as conflicted with it. The code of criminal law, 
 prepared by Edward Livingston, was completed in 1828, and was 
 a large work of 800 pages. It embraced five divisions — a Code of 
 Crimes and Punishments, a Code of Procedure, a Code of Evidence, 
 a Code of Reform and Prison Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. 
 De Bow calls the work "a great book, but one of little practical 
 utility." On the other hand, Mignet, the French historian, says: 
 "(Livingston) has composed a book that recommends itself to the 
 attention of philosophers as a beautiful system of ideas, and to the 
 use of nations as a vast code of rules." 
 
 The present constitution of the state, hy articles 322, 323 and 
 324, made provision for a Code of Criminal Law, a Code of Criminal 
 Procedure, and a Code of Criminal Correction, to be prepared by a 
 commission of three lawyers, appointed by the governor. 
 
 Coe, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Acadia parish, situated 
 on Bayou Plaquemine, 5 miles northwest of Branch, the nearest 
 railroad town. 
 
 Coffee. John, a soldier of the War of 1812, was born in 1772. He 
 became a Iirother-in-law and partner of Gen. Andrew Jackson, with 
 whom lie was engaged in the Indian wars in Alabama after the 
 massacre of Fort ]\lims, especially distinguishing himself at the 
 battle of Talladega. In tlie War of 1812 he was in command of 
 the army at Pensacola and went to the aid of Jackson at New 
 Orleans. On the morning of Jan. 8, 1815, he was 4 miles above the 
 city and was guided to the battle-field by a planter named De la 
 Ronde, arriving in time to take position on the right of the Amer- 
 ican line, where his command rendered valiant service during the 
 action. Gen. Coffee was complimented by Jackson in his report, 
 and on Feb. 2, 1815, the Louisiana legislature extended him a vote 
 of thanks for his timely arrival and gallantry in repelling the at- 
 tacks of the British. After the war Gen. Coffee settled in Georgia. 
 He was elected to the lower house of Congress in 1832, and re- 
 elected in 1834, but died before the beginning of his second term. 
 Coffee county, Ga., was named in his honor. 
 
 Cofield, a post-village of Ascension parish, is situated on the west 
 bank of the Mississippi river, 2 miles southwest of Burnside, the 
 nearest railroad station, and 4 miles northeast of Donaldsouville,
 
 238 LOUISIANA 
 
 tlie parish seat. It is a sliipping point for a rich agricultural dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Coldwater, a post-hamlet aud station in the extreme western part 
 of Winn parish, is on the Louisiana & .Vrkansas R. K., 2 miles north- 
 east of Saline lake and 15 miles northwest of "Winnfield, the parish 
 seat. It has an express office, telegraph and telephone facilities. 
 
 Coleman, a post-village in the southeastern part of Madison par- 
 ish, is about 3 miles southwest of Mound, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion. Vicksburg, Miss., is the nearest banking town. 
 
 Coleman, Hamilton Dudley, tinancier and member of Congress, 
 Avas born in New Orleans, La., !May 12, 1815. At the outbreak of 
 the Civil war he enlisted as a private in the Washington artillery, 
 which served in the Army of Northern Virginia throiighout the 
 war. After peace was established he began to manufacture and 
 deal in plantation machinery ; was active in the organization of the 
 World's Ind;isti-ial and Cotton Centennial exposition at New Or- 
 leans in 1884-5 ; was one of the organizers of the first electric light- 
 ing company established in New Orleans ; served as vice-president 
 and afterward as president of the company ; was for two terms pres- 
 ident of the 'New Orleans chamber of commerce ; was elected in 
 Nov., 1888, one of the vice-presidents of the National board of 
 trade, and was elected to the 51st Congress as a Republican. 
 
 Colfax, the capital of Grant parish, is located on the right bank 
 of the old stream, Rigolet de Bon Dieu, which, in 1836, robbed the 
 old channel of its waters and became the main channel of the Red 
 river. The town became the seat of justice of the parish when it 
 was organized in 1869 and was incorporated in 1878. The iirst 
 postmaster was S. E. Cuney and the first .store was opened by W. S. 
 Calhoun in 1867. A terrible riot occurred in Colfax in April, 1873, 
 w'hen a band of negroes held the courthouse for several days defy- 
 ing the w'hites. On Easter Sunday, April 13, the whites tired upon 
 the negroes, who had erected defenses at the courthouse. They 
 took refuge in a brick barn, which was fired, and the negroes who 
 were not burned w'ere taken prisoners. A few white men were 
 wounded and 40 negroes taken prisoners. In 1880, Mrs. ^I. A. Lane 
 donated a block of land to the town and parish, the condition be- 
 ing that the seat of justice be continued at Colfax. This donation 
 was accepted in 1881, and on Jan. 4, 1882, the new courthouse was 
 received by the police jury, the parish offices being moved into the 
 new building on Jan. 5. The pioneer journal was the Colfax Chron- 
 icle, issued July 8, 1876, by J. M. Sweeney. It was started as an 
 independent paper, "owing no allegiance to any political party." 
 The second newspaper was established by T. M. Wells, in Aug., 
 1884. In 1883, the Methodist Society donated land for a public 
 school building which was erected the same year. The 3Iasons 
 have a lodge in Colfax, and the following churches are represented : 
 Methodist Episcopal, Baptist and Catholic. The Southwestern 
 Loan & Building association was organized in Oct., 1890. The 
 principal industries of Colfax are sawmills, woodworking factories 
 and cotton seed oil mills. The Louisiana Railway & Navigation
 
 LOUISLVNA 239 
 
 company's line runs through Colfax, and as it is on the Red river, 
 it is the principal shipping point supply depot for a large section 
 of the rich river valley. It has one bank, a money order postoffiee, 
 express, telegraph and telephone facilities and a population of 
 1,049. 
 
 College of the Immaculate Conception. — According to Fay's His- 
 tory of Education in Louisiana, the Society of Jesus has two col- 
 leges in the state, one called St. Charles college, at Grand Coteau, 
 and the other the college of the Immaculate Conception in New 
 Orleans. The former Avas founded in 1837 and still continues its 
 labors; the latter, which is much the larger and more important of 
 the two, was founded in 1847, when the Jesuits reentered Louisiana 
 upon the invitation of Archbishop Blanc. In that year a site was 
 secured at the corner of Common and Baronne streets, in the city 
 of New Orleans, and a brick building 40 by 150 feet, three stories 
 high, was erected. This building, in connection with a frame 
 l^ouse adjoining, constituted the college, which was formall.y opened 
 in the fall of 1849 with 100 stiulents and a staff of ten instructors. 
 The number of students grew steadily until the breaking out of the 
 Civil war, when 260 were enrolled, and since the war the attend- 
 ance has been all that could be desired. In 1856 the college was 
 endowed by the legislature with the full powers and privileges of 
 a university. The plan of stiidies embraces the doctrine and evi- 
 dences of the Roman Catholic religion, logic, metaphysics, rlietoric, 
 composition, elocution, history, geography, mathematics, ethics, 
 a.stronomy, philosophy, penmanship, bookkeeping, the Latin, Greek, 
 English, French, German and Spanish languages, etc. The college 
 ol¥ers a complete classical course, embracing the three general de- 
 partments of philosophy, rhetoric and belles-lettres, a commercial 
 course, a preparatory course, and an advanced postgraduate course, 
 the last named leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The 
 college has a fine library of some 18,000 volumes and its alumni 
 occupy places of honor and responsibility in the political, commer- 
 cial, professional and educational circles of the state and nation. 
 
 College of Louisiana. — This former state institution of learning, 
 now the Centenary college of Louisiana (q. v.), was in many ways 
 the actual successor of the College of Oi-leans, elsewhere described. 
 French influences as opposed to English, had prevailed in the col- 
 lege of Orleans, and the representatives of the country parishes in 
 the legislature, many of whom were of English descent, were jealous 
 of the city influence in the old state fostered school. These were 
 the general causes which brought about the downfall of the College 
 of Orleans, and led to the act, of Feb. 18, 1825, which established 
 the College of Louisiana at the little village of Jackson, East Felici- 
 ana parish, and transferred the annual state appropriation of $5,- 
 000 from the College of Orleans to the new institution. The English 
 influence was to dominate in the College of Loiiisiana, a fact which 
 led to the rival establishment of the College of Jefferson (q. v.), a 
 few years later. The new college was authorized to confer the 
 usual degrees granted by any university, college, or seminary in the
 
 240 LOUISIANA 
 
 United States, aud the eiirrieulum was to embrace courses in Eng- 
 lish, French, Spanish, Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural philoso- 
 pliy. chemistry, natnral history, geography, moral aud political 
 philosophy, ancient and modern history, logic, and rhetoric. The 
 original act of esta])lishment provided for a lioard of trustees for 
 the college, to consist of the following public officers : The gover- 
 nor (Heur.y Johnson), and tlu^ members of the supreme court 
 (George Jlathews, Francois Xavier i\Iartin. and Alexander Foster), 
 together with 28 private citizens. The history of the institution 
 covers a period of IS years, during which it had an annual average 
 attendance of between 80 and 100 students. The institution was 
 organized and began its work in Dec 1826. witli a faculty of 3 
 members, between 30 and 40 preparatory students, and numerous 
 students coming forward to take \\p the work of its academic de- 
 partment. The first president was Mr. Gird, a graduate of AVest 
 Point. As in the case of all early state colleges provision was made 
 for the gratiiitous instruction of such indigent piipils as might care 
 to attend the college. The attendance had grown to between 50 
 and 60 by 1830. and the institution was reported to be in a pro- 
 gressive and flourishing coudition. In 1831 the report shows over 
 80 students and 4 college buildings. That the institution was well 
 provided for at this time is sliown by the fact that its gross income 
 from state aid, sale of books and stationery, tuition fees, aud private 
 donations, was in excess of $15,000. It then had a faculty of 5 mem- 
 bers and a chaplain. The last report for the college in 1844 item- 
 ized its resources as follows : Commodious buildings. $70,000 ; 
 library. 1,600 volumes, $4,000: cabinets aud collections. $1,500; 140 
 acres of land. $2,500: apparatus. $2,010; founder's donations, in 
 money, $20,000. in land and town lots. $10,000. In 1843 the college 
 had only 46 st^idents. aud like the other state colleges. Jefferson 
 and Franklin, was fast going down hill. In 1845 the state decided 
 to cease its support of all three institutions, let rivalries die out, 
 and gain a fresh start. Indeed, the year 1845 marks the end of the 
 so-called beneficiary period in state education, extending from 1803 
 to 1845, and the rise of the public school system proper. The state 
 appropriated to the College of Louisiana an estimated total of $260,- 
 000 during its existence. In 1845 an act was passed to sell the col- 
 lege, and it passed iuto tlie liands of the ^lethodist denomination, 
 to bi' known henceforth as tlie Centenary college of Louisiana. 
 
 College of Orleans, Avhich was the first institution of learning to 
 be organized in the Territory of Orleans, was the outgrowth of an 
 early attempt by the legislative council of the territory to institute 
 a university, which was to be the head of a complete educational sys- 
 tem, inchuling preparatory scliools or academies, public libraries, one 
 in each county of the territory, and all under the supervision and 
 control of a single board of regents. The scheme was in many respects 
 an ideal one. save that the board of regents was given too much of 
 a political complexion, and the funds for the support of the various 
 schools were to be provided from the profits of two lotterj' franchises. 
 The early legislative acts pertaining to the college referred to it as
 
 LOUISIANA 241 
 
 the "university," though the university idea was never realized. The 
 original act was modified from time to time by the legislature, and it 
 was finally wise enough to make a direct appropriation from tlie state 
 treasury for the support of the college in New Orleans. This, to- 
 gether with private aid, and the donation of the needed grounds and 
 buildings by the corporation of New Orleans, gave the institution a 
 promising start. As early as 1806, in his message to the legislature, 
 Gov. Claiborne strongly advocated the modern system of a general 
 tax for the support of the schools of the territory, and the legislature 
 of the next year revoked the lottery appropriation, though resort was 
 again made to lottery appropriations at a later period. Says Pay, 
 in his History of Education in Louisiana, refei-ring to some of the 
 eflfects of Claiborne's recommendation: "Passing over some previous 
 tinkering with the university act, we find in an act of April 9, 1811, 
 some new provisions of importance. The state made an appropriation 
 out of her treasury of $39,000, for a college and schools in the terri- 
 tory — $1.3,000 for the college in New Orleans, and a sum not to exceed 
 $2,000 each for schools in the remaining counties. It was provided 
 that 50 indigent children should be taught gratis in the college, for 
 which an annual sum of $3,000 was set apart, while the county acad- 
 emies were to receive $500 each. These new provisions contain a 
 sounder financial policy than the old haphazard resort to lottery sup- 
 port, and beneficiary education is for the first time formally intro- 
 duced. "We may not conclude, however, that lottery appropriations 
 were abandoned, for by the act of Feb. 13, 1813, the University of 
 New Orleans was again authorized to raise $50,000 by a lottery. But 
 state appropriations to this cause were also continued, and on March 
 6, 1819, the stated appropriation from the treasury was raised to 
 $4,000 annually. In 1821 the annual appropriation was further in- 
 creased to $5,000, and the administrators (the act abolished the regents 
 and appointed a board of 9 administrators in their place) were em- 
 powered to raise a sum of $50,000 which the regents had somehow 
 failed to raise. How, or for what purpose, the act does not specify; 
 it was doubtless the lottery appropriation mentioned above. In 1823 
 a further source of revenue was provided for the College of New Or- 
 leans by the license of six gambling houses at $5,000 each, one-fourth, 
 $7,500, to be the share of the college. This sum was in the following 
 year reduced to $7,000 by a new scale of apportionment of this fund. 
 In 1825 the annual appropriation of $5,000 was withdrawn in favor 
 of the College of Louisiana (q. v.), but $3,000 more was allowed from 
 the gambling license fund." This left the institution with an annual 
 income of $10,000, but showed all too clearly the hostility of the legis- 
 lature, as all specific appropriations from the state treasury were now 
 cut ofif. The end came on March 31, 1826, when the college was for- 
 mally given up, and was replaced by a central and 2 primary schools. 
 Though the college never attained to the university rank, and was, 
 in this respect, a disappointment to its friends, and though there was 
 considerable friction in ad.iusting the curriculum to suit the opposing 
 tastes of the English and French speaking populations, it nevertheless 
 educated many useful citizens, man.v of its graduates becoming promi- 
 1—16
 
 242 LOUISIANA 
 
 neut lawyers, judges, legislators aud business men. Its most distin- 
 guished graduate was Charles Gayarre, the brilliant historian of Louis- 
 iana. In his reminiscences he has written entertainingly of the old 
 school. He tells us that instruction was given in the College of Orleans 
 in Latin. French. Spanish. English, literature and mathematics, and 
 the courses in these branches were efficient; Greek was not taught. 
 Music, dancing and fencing were also taught, but these were extras. 
 The discipline enforced at the college he describes as very severe, and 
 attributes his subsequent ill health to the rigorous life led there. 
 Speaking of the indigent pupils in attendance, he laments the fact 
 that they were under a social disiiualrfication. He says: "There were 
 generally in the College of Orleans only a few day scholars. They 
 were youths who. generally on account of the poverty of their parents, 
 could not afford to be full boarders. Most were admitted on half pay ; 
 others did not pay at all, being sent by the board of regents, every 
 member of which had the privilege to select a poor boy who, on the^ 
 recommendation of his patron and on the assiirance of his family 
 being in destitute circumstances, was entitled to be educated gratis. 
 Those who were thus selected by the regents were designated as 
 'charity students' by those who had been more favored by fortune. 
 This was ungenerous and mean, but, alas, even children are not free 
 from the blemish of up.start insolence.'' ^Mr. Gayarre has also, in 
 his inimitable style, given us portraits of some of the eccentric but 
 polished and learned men among the teachers, such as Jules Dave- 
 zac, a native of St. Domingo, and the first head of the school ; Roche- 
 fort, head of the collegiate department in Gayarre 's day, expounder 
 of the Latin classics and the histories of Kome, Greece and France 
 — a poet, scholar and gentleman, and beloved of all the pupils; 
 Teinturier, the professor of mathematics, who combined his love for 
 mathematics with that of natural history, and displayed his thrift 
 by adding to his comfortable salary as professor of mathematics, 
 the profits derived from his fine garden, and from his alien calling 
 as a tuner of pianos ; and finally Joseph Lakanal, the last president 
 of the college, a fortner priest and professor of belles-lettres before 
 the revolution of 1789 in France, who broke his priestly vows in 
 1791, was one of the regicides of the national convention of 1792, 
 and later took a prominent and active part in the stirring years 
 of the first republic and during the Napoleonic regime. Practi- 
 cally all traces of the old college have now disappeared, and its 
 buildings have been demoli-shed or devoted to other iises. 
 
 CoUinsburg, an old post-hamlet of Bossier parish, is a short dis- 
 tance east of the Red river, about 20 miles north of Shreveport. It 
 is one of the few old towns, not situated on a railroad, that has not 
 become extinct since the war. Antrim is the most convenient rail- 
 road station. 
 
 CoUinston, a village of ]\Iorehouse parish, is situated in the south- 
 ern part of the parish at the .iunction of the New Orleans & North- 
 western and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Soiithern railroads, 
 about 7 miles southeast of Bastrop, the parish seat, and nearest 
 banking town. This town is located in a rich agricultural district
 
 LOUISIANA 243 
 
 and is the supply and shipping point for a large cotton district. It 
 has a money order postoffice, express ofSce, telephone and telegraph 
 facilities, and a population of 333. 
 
 Callot, Jean Victor, a French general and explorer, was born at 
 Chalons-sur-Maruc al)Out 1751. During the Revolutionary war he 
 served on the staff of Marshal Rochambeau, afterward in the 
 French army and as governor of the island of Guadaloupe. In 1796, 
 at the suggestion of M. Adet, the French minister plenipotentiary 
 to the United States, Gen. Collot made an extended trip through 
 the Ohio and Mississippi valleys to procure information for the 
 French government. He arrived at New Orleans in November of 
 that year, and Gov. Carondelet, believing him to be on some pri- 
 vate mission inimical to Spain, had him arrested, sent him to the 
 Balize, where he remained a prisoner for about two months, when 
 he was permitted to embark for Philadelphia. The results of his 
 investigations were published at Paris in 1826 in two large quarto 
 volumes under the title of "Voyage dans le Nord d' Americiue en 
 1796." His observations were chiefly of a military, political and 
 geographical nature, and the work was illustrated with numerous 
 maps, plans, etc. Gen. Collot passed down the Mississippi just be- 
 fore the evacuation of the posts in the Natchez district by the Span- 
 iards, and his comments regarding the people of that section are of 
 interest. He says: "In this population may be distinguished three 
 classes of emigrants; the first is composed of those who first estab- 
 lished themselves when this colony belonged to Great Britain ; the 
 second, of those commonly called Tories or Loyalists, who, at the 
 period of the American revolution, took arms for the king of Eng- 
 land, and who fled hither at the peace of 1783 ; the third class is 
 composed of those who, since the peace, discontented with the Fed- 
 eral government, are come hither to form settlements, having pur- 
 chased lands at a very small price. These three classes are abso- 
 lutely divided in political opinions. The first is purely English; 
 the second is Anglo-American royalist ; the third is republican, but 
 the weakest in number. They are, however, in general, agreed on 
 all questions respecting the Federal government, which they equally 
 detest, and against which their hatred is carried to such a point, 
 that if ever it should be their lot to form part of the United States 
 when the limits are fixed, conformable to the treaty between this 
 government and Spain, they would transport themselves under the 
 dominion of the latter, wliatever repugnance they might feel to 
 live under a government wliich, in their opinion, gives no national 
 character." 
 
 Colomb, a post-hamlet and station in the west-central part of St. 
 James parish, is situated on the east bank of the Mississippi river 
 and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R., about 4 miles north of 
 Convent, the parish seat. 
 
 Colquitt, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Claiborne parish, 
 is situated near Corney bayou, about 10 miles east of Haynesville, 
 the nearest railroad station, and 14 miles northeast of Homer, 
 the parish seat.
 
 244 LOnSL.\NA 
 
 Colsons, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Union parish, 
 on the Ouachita boundary, is situated on Bayou L 'Outre, about 3 
 miles west of Sterlington, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Columbia, the capital of Caldwell parish, is located on the west 
 bank of the Ouachita river near the center of the parish. It is an 
 old settlement and was made the seat of justice when the parish 
 was organized in 1838. The first merchant was a Mr. Stokes, who 
 opened a general store there some years prior to that time. The 
 town was incorporated in 1867. In addition to the transportation 
 facilities afforded by the Ouachita river, Columbia is on the line of 
 the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Soiithern K. R., which makes it a 
 convenient shipping point, and it has a volume of business as large 
 as many towns three or four times its size. It has one bank, several 
 general stores, drug and hardware stores, a newspaper, good schools 
 and churches, and a population of 500. 
 
 Colixmbus, a village in tlie southwestern part of Sabine parish, is 
 near the Sabine river and about 8 miles northwest of Egypt, the 
 nearest railroad station. It has a money order postoffice, and is a 
 trading center for the neighborhood. 
 
 Colyell, a post-hamlet in the central part of Livingston parish, 
 is about 4 miles southwest of Springville, the parish seat. 
 
 Comite, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of East Baton Eouge 
 parish, is situated near Comite creek about 8 miles northeast of 
 Baton Rouge, the parish seat and nearest railroad town. 
 
 Commercial Associations. — Within recent years the business men 
 of almost every town and city in the state have formed themselves 
 into an association having for its aims the advancement of local 
 interests. These associations, which generally have taken the name 
 of "Progressive L'nions," are somewhat broader in their scope than 
 the old boards of trade, chambers of commerce, and the various 
 "exchanges," which reflected their benefits only iipon their own 
 members, whereas the progressive union aims to promote the gen- 
 eral welfare of the community by securing the location of new 
 manufacturing concerns, improving the educational and transpor- 
 tation facilities, etc. Each of these associations or unions has pre- 
 pared and distributed more or less "literature" calling attention to 
 the merits and advantages of the particular town or city in which 
 it is located, and in this way the resources of the state have been 
 widely advertised. 
 
 On IMarch 3, 1908, representatives of the commercial organiza- 
 tions of Alexandria, Athens, Baton Rouge, Crowley, De Quiney, 
 Eunice, Lafayette, Lockport, ^linden, ]\Ionroe, New Iberia, New Or- 
 leans, Ponchateula, Shreveport, Slidell, Thibodaux and "Winnfield 
 met in New Orleans and formed a state association under the name 
 of the "Louisiana Commercial Secretaries' Association," and 
 adopted the motto of "Louisiana for Louisiana." Active member- 
 ship in this association is confined to the secretaries of the various 
 commercial organizations, though the presidents of such organi- 
 zations are admitted as lionorary members. The objects of the as- 
 sociation as set forth in the plan of organization are : 1 — To encour-
 
 LOUISIANA 245 
 
 age the industrial and commercial development of the whole state 
 by cooperation in all matters affecting the interests of the state 
 at large ; 2 — To exploit the advantages of the state ; 3 — To assist 
 each other by intercliange of ideas; by holding a state convention 
 annually; by encouraging the establishment of integral organiza- 
 tions throughout the state and securing their cooperation and mem- 
 bership in the association ; 4— To give advice and information to 
 one another, and to bring the individual secretaries of the com- 
 mercial organizations of the state into closer personal intercourse. 
 After the adoption of this declaration of principles, the following 
 officers were elected : M. B. Trezevant of New Orleans, president ; 
 E. W. Anderson of Monroe, first vice-president ; L. N. Bruegger- 
 hoff of Shreveport, second vice-president ; J. W. Bckert of New 
 Iberia, third vice-president; H. A. Davis of Minden, secretary- 
 treasurer. Since the organization was formed other local pro- 
 gressive leagues or unions have joined the movement, which prom- 
 ises to become a potent factor in tlie development of the resources 
 of Louisiana. 
 
 Committee of Defense. — At the meeting held at Tremoulet's cof- 
 fee house on Sept. 15, 1814, when a British invasion of Louisiana 
 was momentarily expected, a resolution was adopted to appoint a 
 committee of nine persons "to cooperate with the constituted civil 
 and military authorities in suggesting means of defense, and call- 
 ing forth the energies of the country to repel invasion and preserve 
 domestic tranquility." The committee appointed pursuant to this 
 resolution consisted of Edward Livingston, Pierre Foueher, Du 
 Suau de la Croix, Benjamin Morgan, George M. Ogden, Jean N. 
 Destrelian, John Blanque, Dominique Bouligny and Augustus 
 Macarty. Soon after their appointment the members of the com- 
 mittee got together and issued an addtess to the people of the state, 
 the closing portion of which was as follows: "Beloved country- 
 men, listen to the men honored by yovir confidence, and who will 
 endeavor to merit it ; listen to the voice of honor, duty, and of 
 nature ! Unite ! Form Init one body, one soul, and defend to the 
 last extremity your sovereignty, your property — defend your own 
 lives and the dearer existence of your wives and children." 
 
 This address was signed by all the committee except Ogden and 
 Blanque. It is not definitely known why it failed to bear their 
 signatures, but it is a fact worthy of note that, when the enemy 
 actually appeared, every one of the nine did his whole duty in re- 
 pelling the invaders, and several of them received honorable men- 
 tion in the reports of the commanding officer. Gen. Andrew Jack- 
 son. 
 
 Common Schools. — (See School System, Public.) 
 
 Come, a post-village of Franklin parish, is situated in the east- 
 ern part, about 2 miles east of Cordill, the nearest railroad station, 
 and 8 miles soiitheast of Winnsboro, the parish seat. It has a 
 money order postoffice and some retail trade. 
 
 Concession, a post-village in the northern part of Plaquemines 
 parish, is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi river and the
 
 246 LOUISIANA 
 
 New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R.. about 11 miles 
 south of New Orleans. 
 
 Concessions First. — (See Laud Grants.) 
 
 Concord, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Caldwell par- 
 ish, is a station on the Ouachita & Northwestern R. R., about 8 
 miles southeast of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 
 Concordia Parish, one of the oldest in Louisiana, was one of the 
 original 12 counties created by the territorial council Dec. 4, 1804. 
 James Wilkinson was appointed .iudge of Concordia county and 
 held the ofBce from 1806 to 1808; James Houston was made sheriff, 
 and held office for the same time. Vidalia became the seat of jus- 
 tice. In 1807 the legislature abolished the counties created in 1804 
 and erected 19 parishes, Concordia being tlie 13th created. Tensas 
 and a part of Carroll parish were carved from the noi'thern part 
 of the parish as it was originally laid out. Concordia is situated 
 in the eastern part of the state on the ilississippi river, and as now 
 constituted is bounded on the north by Catahoula and Tensas par- 
 ishes; the Mississippi river forms its entire eastern lioundary; on 
 the soutli it is bounded 1iy Pointe Coupee and Avoyelles parishes, 
 and on the west by Catahoula and Avoyelles, from M'hich it is sep- 
 arated by the Black and Red rivers. One of the first magistrates 
 in the territoi-y, of whom any record has been preserved, was Don 
 Joseph Vidal, civil commandant of Concordia, holding under his 
 Catholic jMajesty, the King of Spain. Don Nicholas Vidal and other 
 commandants ruled here from the first occiipancy of the country 
 by Spain until the foi-mal transfer of Louisiana territory to the 
 United States in 1803. At that time Fort Concord (now Vidalia) 
 was the only settlement between Pointe Coupee and the mouth of 
 the Arkansas river, on the west bank of the ^Mississippi. The set- 
 tlement had a steady and rapid growth, as the people were peace- 
 able, honest and industrious. During 1802 and 1803 grants Avere 
 issued within the present bounds of Concordia to some 75 settlers, 
 many of whom became active in the affairs of the territory and 
 state. Tlie census of 1810 shows that Concordia had attained a 
 population of 2,886 over one-half of whom were slaves. The parish 
 is drained by the ^Mississippi river on the east, and by the Black 
 and Red rivers and their tributary streams along its western and 
 southern boundaries. It has an area of 707 square miles, and is 
 one of the righ agricultural districts of the IMississippi delta. The 
 formation is alluvial land and wooded swamps, which are heavily 
 timbered with such varieties as cypress, oak. ash. gum, elm, hack- 
 berry, pecan, sycamore, cottonwood and willow, the most valuable 
 being cypress, oak and pecan. Only a comparatively small part 
 of the timber had been cut up to a few years ago, and lumbering 
 promises to lie a source of great wealth in tlie future. The lands 
 of the parish are well protected from overflow by levees, and the 
 soil is exceedingly fertile, producing cotton, corn, hay, potatoes, 
 sugar-cane, sorghum, tobacco, alfalfa and all kinds of vegetables. 
 Along the Natchez & Western R. R. truck farming has grown into 
 an important industry, while fruits of various kinds, both large
 
 LOUISIANA 247 
 
 and small varieties, flourish in the kindly soil and climate of this 
 favored region, and are exported to the nearby markets. Game 
 of all kinds is plentiful in the forests and fish of several varieties 
 are found in the streams and lakes. Shipping and transportation 
 facilities are excellent. The Natchez & Western R. R. runs west 
 across the parish from Vidalia to Black River; the New Orleans & 
 Northwestern R. R. enters the northern boundary near Clayton and 
 runs southeast to Vidalia: the Texas & Pacific traverses the entire 
 eastern pai't of the parish north and south, and the steamboats on 
 the ^Mississippi river touch at various points along the eastern boun- 
 dary. Vidalia, the parish seat, is a flourishing town, situated on 
 the Mississippi river and all of the railroads that enter the parish. 
 Other important villages and towns are Fairview, Perriday, Ar- 
 raagli, Lamarque, Mabel, Monterey, Frogmore and Wildsville. The 
 principal manufacturing industries of the parish are woodenware, 
 syrup and canning factories and cotton compresses. The follow- 
 ing statistics are taken from the U. S. census for 1910: Number 
 of farms, 1,358; acreage, 165,506; acres under cultivation, 64,436; 
 value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $2,877,- 
 164 : value of farm bviildings, $701,862 ; value of live stock, $597,- 
 442; total value of all crops, $796,573. The population is 14,278. 
 
 Confederate Congress. — On Jan. 19, 1861, a committee of the 
 Mississippi legislature reported resolutions favoring tlie establish- 
 ment of a provisional government for a Southern Confederacy. The 
 other Southern States approved the plan, and on Feb. 4 a Confed- 
 erate Congress met at Montgomery, Ala. This Congress was more 
 in the nature of a convention, in which Louisiana was represented 
 by John Perkins, Jr., Duncan F. Kenner, Charles M. Conrad, Alex- 
 ander de Clouet, Edward Sparrow and Henry Marshall. The 
 session of the Provisional Congress, provided for by the conven- 
 tion, began on Nov. 18, 1861, and continued until Feb. 15, 1862. 
 The senators from Louisiana were Thomas J. Semmes and Edward 
 Sparrow : the representatives, Duncan P. Kenner, Charles Villere, 
 Lucicu J. Dupre, John Perkins, Jr., Charles M. Conrad and Henry 
 Marshall. The Confederate government was established under the 
 "permanent constitution," on Feb. 18, 1862. Semmes and Spar- 
 row continued as members of the senate during the entire exist- 
 ence of the Confederacy, and the representatives in the Congress 
 of 1863 were the same as in provisional Congress above mentioned. 
 In 1864 a vacancy occurred in the seat of Henry Marshall, but 
 Villere, Conrad, Kenner, Dupre and Perkins continued to repre- 
 sent their respective districts until the Confederacy passed into 
 history. 
 
 Confederate Memorial Hall, in New Orleans, was established in 
 the year 1889 for the preservation of relics of the Civil war, par- 
 ticularly those pertaining to the State of Louisiana. Prior to that 
 time a number of small associations in the state were interested in 
 the collection of these relics. These associations were all consoli- 
 dated and Frank T. Howard donated a building, which was com-
 
 248 LOUISLVNA 
 
 pleted in 1891. A small anmial appropriation from the state as- 
 sists in maintaining the institution, but it is mainly supported by 
 vohintary contributions from Confederate veterans and their 
 friends. The eolleetion numbers about 20,000 articles, many of 
 them of valuable historic significance. 
 
 Confederate States. — The Confederate States of America in- 
 cluded tlie states that seceded from the Union in 1860-61. South 
 Carolina was the only state that passed an ordinance of secession 
 in 1860, though five others seceded before President Lincoln was 
 inaugurated. The Confederate government was organized by a 
 convention or congress which met at jMontgomery, Ala., Feb. 4, 
 1861. At that time only seven states had withdrawn from the 
 Union. These states, with the dates on which they passed seces- 
 sion ordinances, were as follows : South Carolina, Dec. 20, 1860 ; 
 Mississippi, Jan. 9, 1861; Florida, Jan. 10; Alabama, Jan. 11; 
 Georgia, Jan. 19 ; Louisiana. Jan. 26 ; and Texas, Feb. 5. Texas 
 was not represented at the opening of the convention, but her del- 
 egates arrived in time to concur in the organization of the pro- 
 visional government, of which Jefferson Davis of ilississippi was 
 elected president, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Adce- 
 president. These officers were inaugurated on ]\Ionday, Feb. 18, 
 and on March 11 the delegates from the seven states unanimously 
 adopted a constitution for the permanent government of the "Con- 
 federate States of America." 
 
 On April 15, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation de- 
 claring that in the seven seceded states "the laws are now opposed 
 and the execution thereof obstructed by combinations too power- 
 ful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceed- 
 ings or by the powers vested in the marshals of law," and calling 
 for 75,000 troops "to suppress said combinations and to cause the 
 laws to be duly executed." Alexander H. Stephens, in his "Con- 
 stitutional View of the War Between the States," says: "The 
 effect of these proclamations of Lincoln was, in less than thirty 
 days, to drive the inner tier of the four border states, so-called, 
 from the old into the new Confederacy." Virginia seceded on 
 April 17, Arkansas on May 6, North Carolina on May 20, and Ten- 
 nessee on June 8, all becoming members of the Confederacy in due 
 form. In addition to these eleven states the Confederate govern- 
 ment recognized Missouri as a member of the Confederac.y, and 
 also extended recognition to the revolutionary government in Ken- 
 tucky, though neither of the two states ever ratified an ordinance 
 of secession. 
 
 Soon after the inauguration of ]Mr. Davis as president of the 
 Confederate States, three commissioners — John Forsyth of Ala- 
 bama, Martin J. Crawford of Georgia, and Andre B. Roman of 
 Louisiana — were sent to Washington, "for the pui'pose of nego- 
 tiating friendly relations between that government (the United 
 States),, and the Confederate States of America, and for the set- 
 tlement of all questions of disagreement between the two govern-
 
 LOUISIANA 249 
 
 ments, upon principles of right, justice, equity and good faith." 
 Another commission, consisting of William L. Yancey of Alabama, 
 A. Dudley Mann of Virginia, and A. P. Rost of Louisiana, was sent 
 to Europe "to present the Confederate cause and position to Eng- 
 land and France, with a view of opening negotiations with those 
 powers." The peace commissioners visited "Washington, according 
 to their instructions, but William H. Seward, secretary of state in 
 Lincoln's cabinet, refused to grant them an interview or to an- 
 swer any communication from them. Tlie European commission 
 also failed to accomplish its purpose and in the fall of 1861 John 
 Slidell (q. v.) of Louisiana and James M. Mason of Virginia were 
 sent as commissioners to Europe, but were arrested and taken 
 from the British mail steamer Trent by a U. S. war vessel. The 
 government of the C'onfederate States of America ceased to exist 
 in the spring of 1865, and after a long, tedious, and in many in- 
 stances unjust, process of "reconstruction," the states Avere read- 
 mitted into the Federal Union. 
 
 Confiscation. — In 1863 the Federal government adopted the pol- 
 icy of confiscating the property of those who had been active in the 
 establishment or support of the Confederacy. Concerning the re- 
 sults of this policy in Louisiana, especially in the city of New Or- 
 leans, a report made in the early part of 1865 says: "The govern- 
 ment has in fact made very little by its confiscations of 1863-64. 
 The defaulting quartermaster here turned over $75 as the total net 
 proceeds of the sales of all the splendid Paris-made furniture, gold 
 and silver plate, and an infinitude of valuable things which Avere 
 taken from the houses of rich absentees and registered enemies of 
 New Orleans; and Judge Durell of the United States district court 
 says that the net proceeds of the confiscation sales of the property 
 adjudged to the United States in his court will not exceed $100,- 
 000. This includes s\ich properties as the 800 valuable city lots of 
 John Slidell, with many a splendid store and family residence upon 
 them. Harpies, who have done nothing bi;t make money out of 
 both parties during the war, profit by confiscation, the govern- 
 ment does not." 
 
 Throughout the state a large number of plantations were held by 
 the Freedmen's bureau as liable to confiscation, biit in the end most 
 of them were returned to their rightful owners. Among these 
 plantations were some of the finest sugar estates in the country, 
 and when their owners recovered possession of them after the war 
 they were found to be in a sorry condition. Levee protection had 
 been neglected, buildings and otlier improvements wantonly de- 
 stroyed, and once fertile fields were overrun with weeds and shrub- 
 bery. Such is the curse of war. 
 
 Congregational Church. — (See Protestant Churches.) 
 
 Congressional Districts. — 1st District, City of New Orleans, 3-4-5- 
 6-7-8-9 and 15th wards, parishes of Plaquemines and St. Bernard; 
 population (1910) 203,120. 2nd District, City of New Orleans, 1-2- 
 10-11-12-13-14-16 and 17th wards, parishes of St. Charles, St. 
 James and St. John; population (1910) 220,557. 3rd District, Par-
 
 250 LOUISIANA 
 
 ishes of Assumption, Iberia, Lafourche, St. ilartin, St. Mary, Terre- 
 bonne and Vermilion; population (1910) 234,382. 4th District, 
 Parishes of Bienville, Bossier, Caddo, Claiborne, DeSoto, Red 
 River and Webster; population 185,041. 5th District, Parishes of 
 Caldwell, Catahoula, Concordia, E. Carroll, Franklin, Jackson, 
 Lincoln, Madison, IMoorehouse, Ouachita, Tensas, Union and W. 
 Carroll; population (1910) 204,036. 6th District, Parishes of As- 
 cension, E. Baton Rouge, E. Feliciana, Iberville, Livingston, Pt. 
 Coupee, St. Helena, St. Tammany, Tangipahoa, Washington, W. 
 Baton Rouge and W. Feliciana; population (1910) 247,612. 7th 
 District, Parishes of Acadia, Allen, Beauregard, Calcasieu, Cam 
 eron, Evangeline, Jetf Davis and St. Landry ; population 165,- 
 563. Stli District, Parishes of Avoyelles, Grant, La Salle, Natchi- 
 toches, Rapides, Sabine, Vernon and Winn; population 196,077. 
 
 Congressional Representation. — The following list contains the 
 names of senators and representatives who have served the 
 state of Louisiana in the Congress of tlie United States. During 
 the Civil war the state was without representation in the 3Sth and 
 39th Congresses, and had only a partial representation in the 37th. 
 (See Confederate Congress.) The figures after each name give 
 the number of the Congress or Congresses of which the senator 
 or representative was a member. 
 
 Senators. — Barrow, Alexander, 27, 28, 29; Benjamin, Judah P., 
 
 33, 34, 35, 36: Blanchard, Ne\vtou C, 53, 54; Bouligny. Dominique, 
 18, 19, 20; Brown, James, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, IS; Caffery, Douelson, 
 52, 53, 54, 55, 56; Claiborne, William Charles Cole, (died before 
 taking his seat), 15; Conrad, Charles M., 27, 31; Destrehau, Jean 
 Noel, (resigned before taking his seat), 12; Downs, Solomon W., 
 30, 31, 32 ; Eustis, James B., 45, 49. 50, 51 ; Foster, Murphy J., 57, 
 58, 59, 60; Fromentin, Eligius, 13, 14, 15; Gayarre, Charles E. A., 
 (resigned before taking his seat), 24; Gibson. Randall Lee, 48, 49, 
 50, 51, 52 ; Harris, John S., 40, 41 ; Johnson, Henrv, 15, 16, 17, 18, 
 28, 29. 30 ; Johnston, Josiah Stoddard, IS, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 ; Jonas, 
 Benjamin F., 46, 47, 48; Kellogg, William Pitt, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 
 47; Livingston, Edward, 21, 22; ]\[cEnerv, Samuel Douglas, 55, 
 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; Magruder, Allan B., 12; Jlouton, Alexander, 24, 
 25, 26, 27; Nicholas. Robert Carter, 24, 25, 26; Porter, Alexander, 
 23, 24, 28 ; Posey, Thomas, 12 ; Ransdell, J. E., 63 ; Slidell, John, 33. 
 
 34, 35, 36; Soule, Pierre, 29, 31, 32, 33; Thornton, J. R., 62, 63: 
 Waggaman. George A., 22, 23; West, J. Rodman, 42, 43, 44; White, 
 Edward Douglas, 52, 53. 
 
 Representatives. — Acklen, Joseph Hayes, 45, 46; Aswell, J. B., 63; 
 Baircl, Samuel T.. 55, 56; Blacklmrn. William Jasper, 40; Blanchard. 
 Newton C, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51. 52, 53 ; Boarman, Aleck, 42 ; Boatner, 
 Charles J., 51, 52, 53. 54; Bouligny, John Edmund, 36; Bossier, 
 Pierre Evariste, 28; Breazeale. Phanor, 56, 57, 58; Brent, William 
 I., 18, 19, 20: Broussard, Robert F., 55, 56. 57. 58. 59, 60, 61, 62, 63; 
 Buck, Charles F., 54; Bullard, Henry Adams. 22. 23, 31; Butler, 
 Tliomas. 15, 16; Chinn. Thomas W., 26; Coleman. Hamilton Dudley, 
 5] ; Darrall. C. B., 41, 42, 43. 44, 45, 47 ; Davey. Robert Charles, 53,
 
 LOUISIANA 251 
 
 55. 57, 58, 59, 60; Davidson, Thomas G., 34, 35, 36; Dawson, John 
 B.,' 27, 28 ; Dunbar, William, 33 ; Dupre, H. G., 62, 63 ; Elam, Joseph 
 B., 45, 46 ; Elder, Walter, 63 ; Ellis, E. John, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 ; Es- 
 topinal, Albert, 60, 61, 62, 63; Eustis, George, Jr., 34, 35; 
 Favrot, G. K., 60; Flanders, Benjamin F., 37; Garland, Rice, 23, 
 24, 25, 26; Gay, Edward J., 49, 50, 51; Gibson, Randall Lee, 44, 
 45, 46, 47; Gilinore, S. C, 61; Gurley, Henry H., 18, 19, 20, 21; 
 Hahn, Michael, 37, 49; Harmanson, John H., 29, 30, 31; Hunt, Car- 
 leton, 48; Hunt, Theodore G., 33; Irion, Alfred Briggs, 49; John- 
 son, Henry, 23, 24, 25 ; Johnston, Josiah Stoddard, 17 ; Jones, Ro- 
 land, 33 ; Kellogg, William Pitt, 48 ; King, J. Floyd, 46, 47, 48, 49 ; 
 Labranehe, Alcee, 28; Lagan, Matthew D., 50, 52; Landry, J. Aris- 
 tide, 32; Landrum, John M., 36; La Sere, Emile, 29, 30, 31; Lazaro, 
 Ladislas, 63; Leonard, John Edwards, 45; Levy, William M., 44; 
 Lewis, Edward Taylor, 48; Livingston, Edward, 18, 19, 20; Me- 
 Clearv, James, 42 ; Mann, James, 40 ; Meyer, Adolph, 52, 53, 54, 
 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; Moore, John, 26, 27, 32; Morey, Frank, 41, 
 42, 43, 44; Morgan, L. I., 62, 63; Morse, Isaac Edward, 28, 29, 
 30, 31 ; Nash, Charles E., 44 ; Newsham, Joseph Parkinson, 
 
 40, 41; Newton, Cherubusco, 50; Ogden, Henry W., 53, 54, 
 55; Overton, Walter H., 21; Penn, Alexander G., 31, 32; Perkins, 
 John, Jr., 33; Price, Andrew, 51, 52, 53, 54; Pujo, Arsene P., 58, 
 59, 60, 61; Ransdell, Joseph Eugene, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62; 
 Ril>ley, Eleaser W., 24, 25 ; Robertson, Edward White, 45, 46, 47, 
 50; Robertson, Samuel Mathews, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 
 59, 60; Robertson, Thomas Boiling, 12, 13, 14, 15; St. Martin, 
 Louis, 32, 49; Sandidge, John M., 34, 35; Sheldon, Lionel A., 41, 
 42, 43; Sheridan, George A., 43; Slidell, John, 28, 29; Smith, 
 George L., 43; Spencer, William B., 44; Sypher, Jav Hale, 40, 
 
 41, 42, 43; Taylor, Miles, 34, 35, 36; Thibodeaux, Bannori G., 29, 30; 
 Thomas, Philemon, 22, 23; Vidal Michael, 40; Wallace, Nathaniel 
 Dick, 49 ; Watkins, John T., 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 ; White, Edward D., 21, 
 22, 23, 26, 27 ; Wickliffe, Robert C, 61 ; Wilkinson, Theodore Stark, 
 50, 51. 
 
 Connelly, a post-village in the northern part of Bienville parish, 
 is a station on the Vieksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., about 3 
 miles east of Gibsland. 
 
 Conrad, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is about 3 miles west of Black lake and 2 miles northeast 
 of Grappes Bluff, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Conrad, Charles M., U. S. senator from Louisiana, was born at 
 "Winchester, Va., about 1804. While still young he moved with his 
 family to Mississippi and later to Louisiana. He studied law; was 
 admitted to the bar; commenced practice in New Orleans; entered 
 politics, and was a member of the state house of representatives 
 for a number of years before he was elected U. S. senator from 
 Louisiana, as a Whig, in place of Alexander Mouton, resigned, 
 serving from April 14, 1842, to March 3, 1843. In 1844 he was sent 
 as a delegate to the state constitutional convention, and elected 
 representative from Louisiana to the 31st Congress, as a Whig,
 
 252 LOUISLINA 
 
 serviug from Dec. 3, 1849, to Aug. 17, 1850, when he resigned. 
 President Fillmore appointed him secretary of war and he acted 
 in this capacity from Aug. 13, 1850, to ]\Iarch 7, 1853. He was a 
 delegate from Louisiana to the ^Montgomery Provisional Confed- 
 erate Congress of 1861, and representative from Louisiana in the 
 1st and 2nd Confederate Congresses, 1862-64. He died at New Or- 
 leans, La., Feh. 12, 1878. 
 
 Consolidated Bonds. — (See Finances, State.) 
 
 Constitutional Commission. — The general assembly of 1892 au- 
 thorized the appointment of a commission to consider measures in- 
 volving amendments to the constitution of the state. The commis- 
 sion was made iip as follows: 2 members of the state senate, to 
 be appointed by the lieutenant-governor; 3 members of the house 
 of representatives, to be appointed by the speaker ; and 2 citizens 
 of the state to be appointed by the governor, in July, 1893, but the 
 organization was not completed until Jan. 3, 1894. When the leg- 
 islature met on ^fay fi of that year the commission made its re- 
 port, recommending the following amendments : 
 
 1. To provide that every voter should be able to read the con- 
 stitution in his mother tongue, or to be possessed of taxable prop- 
 erty to the amount of .^200. and to have paid his poll tax. the edu- 
 cational or property cjualification being alternative. 
 
 2. To provide for an increase in the amount of revenue to be 
 devoted to the public schools ; removal of the restrictions as to the 
 amount to be appropriated for the salaries of state and parish 
 superintendents of schools; to provide for local taxation for school 
 purposes, and for the pa.yment of the interest of the seminary fund 
 out of the general instead of the public school fund. 
 
 3. A revision of the law requiring six courts of appeals with 
 12 judges, so that there should be but two circuits in the state with 
 3 judges in each, the maximum limit of these courts to be $3,000. 
 The judges of the new coiu'ts to be elected by the people in 1900, 
 the 6 judges of the present courts whose terms did not expire until 
 1900 to preside over the new courts until their successors were 
 elected. 
 
 4. To vest in the supreme court jurisdiction over "all cases 
 arising under the constitution, treaties, and laws of the L'nited 
 States, or imder the constitution of the state, or in which the le- 
 gality of costs, fees, charges, or allowances shall be in dispute, 
 whatsoever may be the amount thereof." This amendment also 
 gave the supreme court original jurisdiction in proceedings to dis- 
 bar attorneys for unprofessional conduct, and allowed the legis- 
 lature to lix the qualifications of justices of the peace, whose juris- 
 diction was to be extended to cases involving $200, exclusive of 
 interest. 
 
 5. To make it mandatory on the legislature to provide for the 
 trial of offenses below the grade of felony by a jury of 6 persons, 
 or by the eoiirt at any regular or special term, and to permit the 
 general assembly to provide, by suitable legislation, that a verdict
 
 LOUISIANA 253 
 
 in both civil and criminal cases might be rendered by a majority 
 of the jurors. 
 
 6. To enable the people of any parish or municipality to levy 
 taxes for public improvements whenever a majority of the legal 
 voters of siich parish or municipality declare in favor of such tax- 
 ation. This amendment also authorized the people, under proper 
 protection, to extend aid to siieh enterprises as would promote the 
 general welfare. 
 
 7. Providing 90 working days for the general assembly in 1896, 
 and 60 days at each session thereafter ; also enabling the assembly 
 to enact revisions of the codes or general statutes without having 
 them read in full in each house. 
 
 8. Giving the legislature power to provide by law for pensions 
 to veterans of the Confederate army, and to include such pensions 
 in the objects for which the state might exercise its taxing power. 
 
 Other amendments proposed by the commission provided for the 
 suspension of accused public ofBcials, pending trial; the abolition 
 of the penitentiary lease system ; the simplification of the home- 
 stead and exemption laws; the abrogation of the paragraph of the 
 constitution limiting the expenditures of the bureau of agriculture ; 
 permitting city elections to be held on different days from the 
 state elections; and removing the restriction which confined the 
 contracts for state printing to residents of the state. When the 
 report of the commission was presented to the legislature, a biU 
 was at once introduced providing for a constitutional convention, 
 but it was voted down and the report, after some minor changes, 
 was adopted. The amendments were submitted to the people at 
 the next state election and were all rejected. The defeat of these 
 amendments paved the way for the constitutional convention of 
 1898. 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1811. — The enabling act passed by 
 Congress, Feb. 20, 1811, authorized the inhabitants of Orleans ter- 
 ritory to form a constitution and state government preparatory 
 to admission into the Union; to select such name as they might 
 deem proper ; and to elect delegates, not to exceed 60 in number, 
 on the third ]\Ionday of Sept., 1811, who were to meet in conven 
 tion at New Orleans on the first ilonday in November. The first 
 business of the convention was to determine whether it was expe- 
 dient or not to form a constitution and state government for the 
 people within the said territory. The act further provided that 
 the state should be republican in form and the constitution should 
 not be repugnant to the laws and constitution of the United 
 States. The people were required to disclaim title to the unappro- 
 priated and waste lands within the limits of the proposed state, and 
 the same were to remain entirely under the control of the United 
 States ; lands sold by Congress were to be exempt from taxation 
 for a period of 5 years after sale ; lands belonging to nonresident 
 citizens of the United States were never to be taxed higher than the 
 lands of residents ; no taxes were to be imposed on lands the prop- 
 erty of the United States; "and the river Mississippi and the navi-
 
 254 LOUISLVNA 
 
 gable rivers and waters leading into the same or into the Gulf of 
 Mexico, shall be eoiiuiiou highways and forever free, as well to the 
 inhabitants of the said state as to other citizens of the United 
 States, without any tax, duty, impost or toll therefor, imposed by 
 the said state." Wlu'uever the convention should assent to the 
 requirements of the United States; when a copy of the constitution 
 and the proceedings should be sent to Congress, and when the 
 proceedings of the convention should be approved by the latter 
 body, the state, it was announced, would be duly admitted to the 
 Union. In aid of the state. Congress provided by the same act, that 
 five per cent, of the net proceeds arising from the sales of the lands 
 of the United States, after Jan. 1, 1811, "shall be applied to laying 
 out and constructing such public roads and levees in said state as 
 the legislature thereof may direct." 
 
 Though the region forming the province of West Florida had 
 been taken possession of by the United States and made a part of 
 the Territory of Orleans in 1810, Congress had not seen fit to in- 
 clude that province in the boundaries of the proposed .state. Conse- 
 quently, delegates to the constitutional convention were chosen 
 only from the 12 counties into which the territory was then divided. 
 The following delegates were elected to frame the first constitution 
 of the state : Julien Poydras, president. From the county of Or- 
 leans, J. D. de Goutin, Bellechasse, J. Blanque, F. J. Le Breton, 
 D'Orgenois, ilagloire Guiehard, S. Henderson, Denis de La Ronde, 
 F. Livaudais, Bernard JIarigny, Thomas Urquhart, Jacques Vil- 
 lere, John Watkius, Samuel Winter. From the county of German 
 Coast, James Brown, Jean Noel Destrehan, Alexandre La Branche. 
 From the county of Acadia, IMichel Cantrelle, J. ^I. Reynaud, 6. 
 Roussin. From the county of Iberville, Aman Hebert, William 
 Wikoff, Jr. From the county of Natchitoches, P. Boissier, J. Prud- 
 homme. From the county of Lafourche, William Goforth, B. H\ib- 
 bard, Jr., St. IMartin, H. S. Thibodaux. From the county of Pointe 
 Coupee, S. Hiriart. From the county of Rapides, R. ILall, Thomas 
 F. Oliver, Levi Wells. From the county of Concordia, James Dun- 
 lap. David B. Morgan. From the county of Ouacliita, Henry Bry. 
 From tlie county of Opeloiisas, Allan B. ^Lagruder, D. J. Sutton, 
 Jolui Thompson. From the county of Attakapas, Louis De Blanc, 
 Henry Johnson, W. C. I\Iaquille, Charles Olivier, Alexander Porter. 
 
 This convention assembled in New Orleans Nov. 4, 1811, and 
 after the election of F. J. Le Breton D'Orgenois as temporary 
 chairman, it adjourned to Nov. 18. When it reassembled on that 
 date it effected a permanent organization by the choice of Julien 
 Poydras, the territorial delegate to Congress, as president, and 
 Eligius Fromentin secretary. Mr. Watkins introduced the resolu- 
 tion looking to the formation of a state government, wliich Avas at 
 once emphatically opposed by such able delegates as Destrehan, 
 ]\Iorgan, Porter and Hubbard, but the final vote showed a large 
 majority in its favor, only 7 negative votes being recorded. A 
 committee of 7 — Destrehan, Magruder, Brown, Cantrell, Johnson, 
 Blanque and Bry — was then appointed to prepare a draft of a con-
 
 LOUISIANA 255 
 
 stitution. Six days later the committee submitted its draft, which 
 was long and ably debated. The name of Louisiana was given to 
 the new state, though Jeti'erson and other names were suggested. 
 One of the knotty problems which occupied the time of the conven- 
 tion was whether West Florida should constitute a part of the 
 state. Finally all the conditions exacted by Congress were com- 
 plied with, the constitution was approved and adopted on Jan. 22, 
 1812, and it was voted to send 2 delegates — Fromentin and Ma- 
 gruder — with all the proceedings to lay the same before Congress 
 for ratification. Having completed its work the convention ad- 
 journed without day on .Jan. 28, 1812, after a long drawn out ses- 
 sion of over 2 months. 
 
 The act of Congress, appi-oved April 8, 1812, admitted Louisiana 
 to statehood, but it was not to go into eifeet until April 30, the 9th 
 anniversary of the treaty of cession. Meanwhile, by act of Con- 
 gress, approved April 14, 1812, a formal tender was made to the 
 new state of all that portion of West Florida lying west of the 
 Pearl river. This enlargement of the state was promptly accepted 
 by the first state legislature under the following resolution, adopted 
 Avig. 4, 1812: "Be it therefore resolved, that the senate and house 
 of representatives of the State of Louisiana in general assembly 
 convened, do approve of and consent to the enlargement of the 
 limits of the said state of Louisiana in manner as provided by the 
 above in part recited act of Congress, hereby declaring that the 
 same shall forever be and remain part of the State of Louisiana." 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1845. — Louisiana had outgrown her 
 organic law adopted at the time of her admission to the Union in 
 1812, and the demand of the people for a more democratic instru- 
 ment had grown too insistent to be longer disregarded. The ques- 
 tion of holding a constitutional convention for the revision of the 
 constitution came before the people at the general election of 1842 
 and an overwhelming majority was registered in favor of the prop- 
 osition. In accordance with the will of the people the legislature 
 of 1844 ordered that an election be held in July for the selection 
 of 77 delegates to a state constitutional convention. The delegates 
 chosen met in convention at Jackson, Aug. 5, 1844; on Aug. 24, 
 1844, the convention adjourned to meet in New Orleans on Jan. 
 14, 1845. 
 
 Bernard Marigny served as temporary chairman of the conven- 
 tion, while a permanent organization was effected by the choice of 
 Joseph Walker, of Rapides, as president, and Horatio Davis as 
 secretary. Among the distinguisljed members of the convention 
 were the following : Ex-Gov. A. B. Roman, John R. Grymes, Felix 
 Garcia, Duncan F. Kenner, Joseph Walker, Pierre Soule, Bernard 
 Marigny, George Eustis, Christian Roselius, William C. C. Clai- 
 borne, C. M. Conrad, Judah P. Benjamin, Antoine Boudousquie, 
 Isaac T. Preston, and Thomas H. Lewis. (See Fortier's Louisiana.) 
 
 The constitution as evolved had a number of serious defects, but 
 was on the whole a distinct improvement over the one adopted in 
 1812. Besides creating the office of lieutenant-governor, the con-
 
 256 LOUISL\NA 
 
 vention widened the elective franchise, changed the time of holding 
 elections, requiring elections to be held throughout the state on 
 the same day, changed and greatly simplified the judicial system, 
 provided for free public scliools, a seminary of learning, a state 
 university, and a state superintendent of education, showed its 
 distrust of the legislature in a number of important particulars, 
 particularly in the manner of pledging the faith of the state for 
 the payment of obligations, and in the matters of state indebted- 
 ness, stock subscriptions, divorces, lotteries, etc. An effort was 
 made in the convention to limit the choice of governor to native 
 born Americans, but the attempt was frustrated after a brilliant 
 debate. Says J. D. B. De Bow (Fortier's His. of La., vol. 3, p. 234) : 
 "Great and strenuoiis exertions were made in the convention to 
 apply the native American qualification, and thus exclude from 
 this high office whoever may have had the raisfortime not to have 
 been born among us. This, we think, is carrying proscription en- 
 tirely too far, and we rather agree in the main with those eloquent 
 gentlemen who battled against the attempted innovation, and so 
 triumphantly demonstrated its unjust and injurious tendencies. 
 Amongst these most conspicuously .stood Mr. Soule, the gifted ad- 
 vocate, and ]\Ir. ilarigny. These gentlemen might have been con- 
 sidered the advocates of the French interests of Louisiana, and 
 standing, as it were, intermediate between the order of things 
 which belonged to the State in earlier days, and the new one which 
 has been coming upon her. We can appreciate the delicacy of their 
 position in the Convention during such a discussion as this, and 
 admire the skill, ability, and patriotism with which they conducted 
 
 themselves The native American exclusiveness was thrown 
 
 out of convention, and we consider it dead in Louisiana." 
 
 The convention finally adopted a constitution on May 14, ad- 
 journed without day on the 16th, and the new instrument was duly 
 ratified by the people of the state at the succeeding election. 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1852. — Despite the advance made 
 toward tlie adoption of more democratic institutions by the consti- 
 tution of 1845, a demand speedily arose for a new instrument which 
 would further satisfy tlie radical views of government prevailing 
 among the masses. Joseph M. Walker, inaugurated governor of 
 the state in 1850, had been rash enough to recommend in liis inau- 
 gural message an amendment to the constitution making the ofiSces 
 of all the judges of the state elective, but he was strongly opposed 
 to the calling of a constitutional convention. The advocates of a 
 more radical change in the organic law prevailed, and the consti- 
 tution duly assembled in Baton Kouge on July 5, 1852. Its delib- 
 erations were presided over by Duncan F. Keuner, and the record 
 of its proceedings were kept by Secretary J. B. Walton. The con- 
 vention appears to have performed its work with diligence and dis- 
 patch, as its labors were conchided on July 31. The instrument 
 evolved was a radical one for that day, biit contained many excel- 
 lent provisions, such as the safeguarding of the public school funds, 
 the creation of a Board of Public Works, the limitation of sessions
 
 LOUISIANA 257 
 
 of the legislature to 60 days, and the popular election of the im- 
 poi'tant state officers, the secretary of state and the treasurer. On 
 the other hand, all the judicial offices throughout the state were 
 made elective, the debt limit of the state was increased from $100,- 
 000 to $8,000,000 and the legislature was once more authorized to 
 create banks by special act or under general law. (See Constitu- 
 tion of 1852.) 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1864. — Early in 1863 the important 
 questions of reorganizing the state government, and providing for 
 the recently emancipated negroes began to be agitated. Two fac- 
 tions arose within the state, one advocating the election of new 
 state officers under the old constitution amended to meet the 
 changed conditions, and the other, called the Free State general 
 committee, declaring that the old order of affairs had been wiped 
 out by the secession of the state, that a convention should be sum- 
 moned to frame a new constitution, and that the state government 
 should be wholly reorganized after the adoption of an entirely new 
 constitution. A petition sent to Washington to have the old con- 
 stitution recognized was considered, but President Lincoln avoided 
 making any decision. Gov. Shepley favored the views of the Free 
 State committee, while Gen. Banks practically recognized the old 
 constitutional party by ordering an election of state officers on 
 Feb. 22, 1864. Michael Hahn, the Banks candidate, received a large 
 majority over Benj. F. Flanders, nominated by the Free State 
 party, and J. Q. A. Fellows, who ran on a ticket favoring "the Con- 
 stitution and the Union, with the preservation of the rights of all 
 inviolate." Meanwhile, Gen. H. W. Allen was elected Confederate 
 governor of Louisiana, and was duly inaugurated on Jan. 25, 1864. 
 Thus the state was blessed with 2 governors, a Confederate in the 
 north, and a Federal in the south. 
 
 Immediately succeeding the inauguration of Gov. Hahn on 
 March 4, 1864, Gen. Banks ordered an election for March 28 of 
 delegates to a convention to revise the old constitution ; this order 
 was sanctioned by Gov. Hahn, who had been invested with the 
 powers of the military governor, and who was in need of military 
 assistance. A total of 97 delegates were chosen at the election, of-, 
 whom 2 were rejected by the committee on credentials. The right 
 to vote at this election was thus defined: "Every free white man, 
 twenty-one years of age, who has been a resident of the state 
 twelve months, and six months in the parish in which he offers to 
 vote, who is a citizen of the United States, and who shall have 
 taken the oath prescribed by the president in his proclamation of 
 Dec. 6, 1863, shall have the right to vote in the election of dele- 
 gates." The total vote cast was 6,836 in favor of the convention, 
 and 1,566 against. Under the circumstances only a small constitu- 
 ency was represented in the convention, and the delegates only 
 spoke for a small fraction of the people of Louisiana. Said a com- 
 mittee of Congress at a later date: "Elections were held only in 
 the parishes included within tlie Federal lines, and these lines were 
 the Teche on the one side and the Amite on the other, comprehend- 
 1—17
 
 258 LOUISIANA 
 
 ing the parish or city of New Orleans, and the neighboring parishes 
 on the ilississippi. " Even late in 1864, three-fourths of the state 
 was still in the possession of the Confederate forces. 
 
 The eonveutiou assembled on April 6, and the following day 
 chose E. H. Durell as president. A new constitution was finally 
 adopted on Jiily 23, and, after a session of 78 days, the convention 
 adjonrned Jiily 25. Prior to this the convention had adopted a 
 resolution to the effect "that when this convention adjourns, it 
 shall be at the call of the president, whose diity it shall be to recon- 
 vene the convention for any cause, or, in case the Constitution 
 shoidd not be ratitied, for the purpose of taking such measures as 
 may be necessary for the formation of a civil government in Louisi- 
 ana. He shall also, in that case, call upon the proper officers of the 
 state to cause elections to be held to fill any vacancies that may 
 exist in the convention, in parishes where the same may be prac- 
 ticable." This resolution was largely responsible for the unfor- 
 tunate events leading \\j) to the riot of 1866 in New Orleans (q. v.). 
 
 The constitution adopted July 23 necessarily made many impor- 
 tant changes in the former organic law of 1852. It forever abol- 
 ished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment 
 for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, and 
 the legislature was prohibited from making any law that recog- 
 nized the right of property in man. It was provided that the seat 
 of government shoiild not be changed, but that a session of the 
 legislature should be held at New Orleans on the first ^Monday of 
 October, 1861:: also, that the special election for members of the 
 legislature should be held on the same day as the election for the 
 ratification of the new constitution, and declared that "the term of 
 office of the first general assembly should expire as though its 
 members had been elected on the first Monday of November, 1863." 
 Everj' qualified voter was made eligible to a seat in th*" assembly. 
 It directed the legislature, after making the eniimeration, to appor- 
 tion the representation in the general assembly, which was to con- 
 sist of lis representatives and 31 senators. Whites who had re- 
 sided in the state 1 year, and in the parish 3 months, were given 
 the franchise : and the legislature could extend the right of suffrage 
 to other persons, "citizens of the United States, who by military 
 service by taxation to support the government, or by intellectual 
 fitness, may be deemed entitled thereto." The legislature was pro- 
 hibited from passing any law "exchiding citizens of this state from 
 oflSce for not being conversant with any language except that in 
 which the constitution of the United States is written," and from 
 passing any law "requiring a property qualification for office." 
 
 Still other articles provided that there should be a state auditor 
 of public accounts; that the supreme court should consist of 1 chief 
 justice and -4 associate justices ; that no judgment should be ren- 
 dered by the supreme court witliout the concurrence of a majority 
 of the judges; that "the privilege of free suffrage should be sup- 
 ported by laws regulating elections and prohibiting under adequate 
 penalties, all undue influence thereon from power, bribery, tumult,
 
 LOUISIANA 259 
 
 or other improper practises;" that the right of the people against 
 unreasonable searches and seizures should not be violated ; that the 
 power of the legislature to grant aid to corporations, except to 
 charitable and industrial associations, should be limited; that the 
 legislature should have the power to license the selling of lottery 
 tickets and the keeping of gambling houses; that 9 hours should 
 constitute a day's labor on public works; that there should be 
 appointed a state engineer to superintend all public works; that the 
 legislature might create internal improvement districts, and grant 
 aid to such districts out of the funds arising from the sale of swamp 
 and overflowed lands. The articles bearing on education are inter- 
 esting and important. The salary of the superintendent of educa- 
 tion was fixed at $4,000, and the legislature was authorized, iinder 
 certain circumstances, to abolish the office ; directed the legislature 
 to "provide for the education of all cliildren of the state between 
 the ages of six and eighteen years, by maintenance of free public 
 schools by taxation or otherwise ;" provided that "the general exer- 
 cises in the common schools shall be conducted in the English lan- 
 guage;" that a university be established in New Orleans, to con- 
 sist of four faculties, viz : Law, Medicine, Natural Sciences, and 
 Letters ; that the legislature provide for its organization and main- 
 tenance ; (this was an effort to put new life into the university 
 created by the constitution of 1845) (q. v.) ; that the old fund for 
 the support of the Seminary of Learning should be appropriated 
 to the benefit "of literature and the arts and sciences;" and that 
 "no appropriation should be made by the legislature for the sup- 
 port of any private school or institution of learning, whatever, but 
 the highest encouragement should be granted to public schools 
 throughout the state." 
 
 At the election held Sept. 5, 1864, on the adoption or rejection of 
 the constitution, 4,664 votes were recorded in its favor, and 789 
 against. The legislature chosen at the same time in conformity 
 to the provisions of the constitution, assembled at New Orleans 
 Oct. 3, and its many startling pieces of legislation are a matter of 
 record (See Ilahn's Administration, etc.). 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1867. — This convention was called 
 under the Military Reconstruction Act of Congress, adopted in 
 1S67, and formed an essential step in the Federal program designed 
 to free the Southern states from the military authority exercised 
 under the reconstruction acts, and to restore them to their former 
 political standing in the Union. (See Reconstruction.) The act of 
 Congress provided that the delegates slunild be elected by the male 
 citizens of the state, 21 years old and upwards, "of whatever race, 
 color, or previous condition of servitude," residents of the state for 
 one year and not disfranchised. No person could be elected as a 
 delegate who was excluded from office by the 14th amendment. 
 LTnder a supplemental reconstruction bill passed by Congress, 
 March 2, 1867, the registration of voters was provided for and the 
 conduct of the election of delegates. The military commandant 
 of each district was to order the election of the delegates, and the
 
 260 ~ LOUISL\NA 
 
 conventions were to be held "only when a majority of the inscribed 
 electors voted npon this question, and a majority of those voting 
 voted in the affirmative." 
 
 The several constitutions adopted by the conventions were to 
 be submitted to the registered voters for ratification, and if a fa- 
 vorable majority was secured, copies of the constitutions were to 
 be then submitted to Congress through the president for ratifica- 
 tion and approval. When approved by Congress, that body would 
 then admit the senators and representatives from the "rebel 
 states." 
 
 The convention met at New Orleans on Nov. 23, 1867, and con- 
 tiniied in session until March 9, 1868. On March 7 it finally adopted 
 a constitiition. As was to be expected, considering the character 
 of the electorate, a large majority of the delegates were negroes. 
 The convention chose J. G. Taliaferro to preside over its delibera- 
 tions. One of the provisions of the reconstruction acts was that a 
 tax should be levied to meet the expenses incident to the conven- 
 tion. Accordingly, on Dec. 24, the convention adopted the ordi- 
 nance providing for a tax on property of one mill per cent, for this 
 purpose. In order to carry this plan into effect it was found neces- 
 sary to pass a supplemental ordinance embodying an elaborate 
 scheme of taxation. The sheriffs and collectors in each parish were 
 directed to give notice of the tax to the tax-payers, and a penalty 
 of 25 per cent, additional was imposed in default of payment of the 
 tax within 30 days after such notice. The collectors and sheriffs 
 were further ordered, in case of such default, to seize and sell any 
 movable or immovable property to satisfy the special assessment. 
 A committee was afterward appointed to confer with the military 
 commander of the district. Gen. Hancock, for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining whether he would exercise his authority to assist in the 
 collection of the tax. They were told that the ordinance made 
 sufficient provision for its collection, and, if any of the officers 
 intrusted with the duties pertaining thereto were forcibly resisted, 
 the "major-general commanding will promptly use the military 
 power to maintain the supremacy of the law. To this extent he has 
 authority to act, but it is not his province to interfere in the matter 
 in any other way." When a later application was made to Gen. 
 Hancock through a special committee to know what he would do in 
 case the civil courts should interfere with the collectors in the dis- 
 charge of their duties, he replied that "it would be highly improper 
 for him to anticipate any illegal interference of the courts in the 
 matter. Whenever a case arises for the interposition of the powers 
 vested in the commanding general by the acts of Congress, he will 
 promptly exercise them for the preservation of law and order." 
 The tax proved difficult of collection, and the convention adopted 
 an ordinance early in ^March, 1868, extending the time for exacting 
 the penalty to the 20th of that month and making the following 
 interesting provision: "That the warrants issued by the authority 
 of this convention for the payment of per diem and mileage of 
 delegates and the pay of its officers, except the official printer or
 
 LOUISIANA 261 
 
 printers, shall be receivable in payment of all taxes and licenses 
 due to the State of Louisiana, and, when paid in the Treasury of 
 tile State on account of any State tax or license, the same shall bo 
 placed by the Treasurer of the State to the debit of the convention 
 fund on his books, and shall be paid out of said fund for the benefit 
 of the general fund of the State." 
 
 A variety of propositions were submitted to the convention 
 from time to time, aimed to secure certain social rights to citizens 
 "without regard to race or color," which excited prolonged de- 
 bates, and ultimately resulted in the adoption of the 13th article of 
 the constitution (q. v.). As in the reconstruction convention of 
 most of the states, the topics which excited the most earnest de- 
 bate were those connected with the subjects of voting and holding 
 office. The conservative element in the convention opposed all re- 
 strictions founded on the part which citizens had taken in the late 
 war. The final result of the debates was the adoption of the pro- 
 A'isions embodied in articles 98 and 99, and containing certain of- 
 fensive clauses which operated to effectively disfranchise a large 
 number of the best white citizens of the state. The certificate re- 
 quired of those citizens who had been in sympathy with the South- 
 ern cause stating that they must first "acknowledge the late rebel- 
 lion to have been morally and politically wrong" was especially 
 odious. (See Constitution of 1868.) 
 
 In addition to the constitution itself, the convention passed an 
 ordinance providing for an election to be held April 17 and 18, 
 1868, at which the vote was to be taken on the ratification of the 
 constitution, and officers were to be chosen to administer the govern- 
 ment under the same. It was further provided that all officers chos- 
 en at such election should enter upon the discharge of their duties on 
 the second Monday after the returns of their election were officially 
 promulgated, or as soon thereafter as qualified, but their regular 
 terms of office were to date from the first Monday in November 
 following their election. The same ordinance provided for the first 
 meeting of the general assembly in the city of New Orleans, on the 
 third Monday after the official promulgation of the results of the 
 election, and declared that it shall "proceed, immediately upon its 
 organization, to vote upon the adoption of the 14th amendment to 
 the Constitution of the United States, proposed by Congress, and 
 passed June 1-3, 1866;" and that "said legislature shall not have 
 power to enact any laws relative to the per diem of members, or 
 any other subject, after organization, until said constitutional 
 amendment sliall have been acted upon." 
 
 Gen. Robert C. Buchanan, who had succeeded Gen. Hancock in 
 the command of the Fifth military district, ordered the election 
 provided for by the convention, the specific directions therefor be- 
 ing embodied in Special Orders No. 6.3, dated March 25, 1868. De- 
 spite numerous repoi'ts of impending disturbances, the election 
 passed off without any serious trouble, and resulted in the ratifica- 
 tion of the constitution, by a vote of 51,737 in its favor to 39,076 
 against it, being a majority of 12,661 for ratification, out of a total
 
 262 LOUISIANA 
 
 vote of 80,813. The officers elected iu April were appointed to their 
 respective offices by Gen. Buchanan under instructions from Gen. 
 Grant, and the following November regularly entered upon their 
 terms of office. The legislature elected, after the acceptance of the 
 constiti;tion by Congress, met on June 27, 1868, and on July 9, 
 adopted the 14th amendment to the Federal constitution as one 
 of its earliest acts. Gen. Buchanan thereupon, July 13, 1868, is- 
 sued Special Orders No. 154, which turned the administration of 
 the civil affairs over to the duly constituted authorities. 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1879. — The long years of misrule 
 in Louisiana attendant on the period of reconstruction closed in 
 April, 1877, when the Federal troops were withdrawn and the pub- 
 lie offices of the state were peacefully surrendered to the lawful 
 officials of the people's choice. With the return to normal political 
 conditions within the state, there arose an overwhelming sentiment 
 for a change in the organic law to replace the constitution of 1868, 
 a product of the reconstruction era. Accordingly, the legislature 
 of 1879 passed an act to provide for a constitutional convention to 
 frame a new state constitution. Delegates to this convention Avere 
 duly elected on jMarch 18, 1S79, and the convention met in New 
 Orleans on April 21. It perfected its permanent organization by 
 the election of Louis A. Wiltz as president, and William H. Harris 
 as secretary. The body remained iu session for over 3 months, and 
 on July 23 adopted a constitution. The instrument evolved was a 
 vast improvement over that of 1868, despite certain defects incident 
 to the organization of the judicial department, and the inconsist- 
 ency shown in condemning gambling as a vice in one section, and 
 giving formal recognition to the lottery system in another. Dis- 
 trust of the legislative department of the state is manifest in many 
 parts of the constitution, and numerous limitations on the powers 
 of the general assembly were imposed, wliile. on the other hand, 
 the powers of the state executive are considerably augmented. Im- 
 portant restrictions were placed upon the right of suffrage, and 
 several important sections were devoted to the matter of educa- 
 tion, and to the subjects of taxation and state indebtedness. New 
 departures were the provisions for the maintenance of a state 
 levee system, and the creation of a state bureau of agriculture. An 
 ordinance was adopted by the convention relative to the state debt 
 (See Finances, State). 
 
 The constitution and the ordinance relating to the state debt 
 were submitted to the voters of the state and duly ratified by them 
 on Dee. 8, 1879. (For an abstract of the more important previsions 
 of this constitution, see Constitution of 1879). 
 
 Constitutional Convention of 1898. — (See Constitution of 1898, 
 Foster's Adm.) The question of holding a constitutional convention 
 was decided affirmatively at an election held on Jan. 11. 1898, and at 
 the same time 134 delegates were chosen. The vote for the conven- 
 tion was 36.178, opposed 7.578. The convention met in New Orleans 
 Feb. 8, remained in session for over three months, and adopted the 
 present state constitution on May 12. Practically the entire member-
 
 LOUISIANA 263 
 
 ship of the convention was of one political faith, all being Democrats 
 except 2 — a Populist and an Independent Democrat. A permanent 
 organization was perfected by the election of E. B. Kruttschnitt as 
 president, R. H. Snyder first vice-president, S. MeC. Lawrason second 
 vice-president, and R. S. Landry secretary. By far the most impor- 
 tant work of the convention was the adoption of the momentous arti- 
 cles relating to suffrage and elections. Certain educational or prop- 
 erty qualificatious were required of the voter and all foreigners were 
 required to be naturalized, but the real kernel of the whole matter 
 was embodied in the celebrated "grandfather clause" contained in 
 section 5 of the suffrage article, which reads as follows: "No male 
 person who was on Jan. 1, 1867, or at any date prior thereto, entitled 
 to" vote under the constitution or statutes of any state of the United 
 States, wherein he then resided, and no son or grandson of any such 
 person not less than twenty-one years of age at the date of the adop- 
 tion of this constitution, and no male person of foreign birth who was 
 naturalized prior to the first day of Januai-y, 1898, shall be denied 
 the right to register and vote in this State by reason of his failure 
 to possess the educational or property qualifications prescribed by this 
 constitution ; provided, he shall apply for registration, and shall have 
 registered in accordance with the terms of this article prior to Sept. 1, 
 1898. and no person shall be entitled to register under this section 
 after said date." 
 
 The rights of numerous worthy but illiterate white citizens were 
 thus safeguarded, while the educational and property qualifications 
 effectually removed the menace of the 15th amendment to the Federal 
 constitution by the disfranchisement of the ignorant negro voter. One 
 of the avowed and confessed objects of the convention had been the 
 elimination of the ignorant vote, whether white or black. Every 
 thoughtful man in the convention had experienced and knew the ter- 
 rible results of placing political power in ignorant, incompetent hands. 
 Out of the various propositions submitted to the suffrage committee 
 and debated in the convention, and designed to permanently estab- 
 lish the state government upon the basis of an intelligent electoral 
 body, the sections finally adopted have proved of inestimable worth. 
 White si;premacy is now forever crystallized in the fundamental law, 
 and an impregnable barrier has been erected against any possible re- 
 currence of negro domination. Referring to the provision affecting 
 foreigners. Gov. Foster said in his message of May 23, 1898 : "Under 
 the former constitution, any unnaturalized foreigner, male, and twen- 
 ty-one years of age, after a year's residence in the state, could vote 
 on a mere declaration that he intended to become a citizen of the 
 United States. This gave rise to much discontent, and admitted a 
 large number of foreigners who were not qualified to exercise the right 
 of suffrage, and who in many instances could not speak the English 
 or the French language, and were ignorant of our laws and institu- 
 tions, and hardly ever became naturalized citizens. Under the new 
 constitution, no man of foreign birth is admitted to the suffrage until 
 he has become a naturalized citizen of the United States." 
 
 Like the former constitution the present instrument contains a bill
 
 264 LOUISLVNA 
 
 of rights, and is also characterized by a further limitation on the legis- 
 lative power. Biennial sessions were provided for, and the duration 
 of the sessions was limited to 60 days. The general assembly was 
 prohibited from running the state into debt and limitations were 
 placed on the legislative power to enact laws of a special or local 
 nature. The status of corporations was one of the most important 
 subjects before the convention, and the legislature was given consid- 
 erable freedom of action in regard to changing, revoking or amending 
 franchises, taxation of corporate property, etc., to the end that the 
 creature of the state should be thoroughly regulated by its creator. 
 As in the constitution of 1868. the governor was declared ineligible 
 for a second term immediately following the first, and the same provi- 
 sion was applied to the state treasurer. Lotteries, and the sale of lot- 
 tery tickets was prohibited. The educational article reflected renewed 
 solicitude for the public school system ; it empowered local imits. such 
 as parishes, wards, school districts, etc. , to assess themselves without 
 limit for school purposes; it increased the apportionment of the state 
 tax for 6 mills for public education to a minimum of one and one- 
 quarter mills per annum; a\ithorized police juries to le^^- a tax for 
 school purposes up to the limit of the state tax of 6 mills: directed 
 that the school fund, except that arising from the poll tax. be distrib- 
 iited to the parishes in proportion to the number of school children 
 within their borders; that the poll tax be spent in the parish only 
 where it is levied and collected ; provided for separate schools for 
 white and colored children throughout the state; ordered the legisla- 
 ture to establish a state board and parish boards of public education, 
 and recognized, and provided for the maintenance of the Tulane uni- 
 versity, the Louisiana state nonual school, the Louisiana industrial 
 institute, and the Southern university. Another article adequately 
 regulated and provided for the state levee system. An entirely new 
 section wa.s the one devoted to the care and promotion of good public 
 roads. Provision was made to grant pensions to disabled Confederate 
 soldiers and sailors, and their wadows. Encouragement was given to 
 Jhe agricultural interests of the state, and a 2-ailroad. express, tele- 
 phone, telegraph, steamboat and other watercraft, and sleeping car 
 commission was created : also a state board of charities and con*ec- 
 dons, and boards of health and state medicine. 
 Constitutional Convention 1913. — (See Constitution 1913.) 
 Constitution of 1812. — The first state constitution of Louisiana, 
 adopted at New Orleans. Jan. 22, 1812. provided that the government 
 of the state should be divided into 3 distinct departments; legislative, 
 executive and judicial. It divided the legislative branch into 2 de- 
 partments: senate and house of representatives; the two together con- 
 stitute the general assembly. Representatives were to be chosen every 
 2 years and senators every 4 years. The general assembly was to con- 
 vene on the first Monday in January each year. Only free white 
 males could become members of either branch of the assembly. To be 
 eligible, representatives must be 21 years of age and senators 27. Free 
 white male citizens of the United States, who had attained the age of 
 21 years and had resided in the country for one year, and had paid
 
 LOUISIANA 265 
 
 a poll tax within a period of six months, could vote at the elections 
 for all state officers. The state was divided into 14 senatorial districts. 
 Upon the assembling of the first legislature, the senators were to be 
 divided into 2 classes, the seats of the first class to be vacated in 2 
 years and of the second class at the end of 4 years. In addition to 
 their other qualifications, senators must be possessed of landed prop- 
 erty of the value of at least $1,000. A majority of the members of the 
 general assembly was necessary to do business. Each branch of the 
 legislature was authorized to judge of the qualifications of its mem- 
 bers. Compensation of members was fixed at $4 per day. Members 
 were privileged from arrest while attending the sessions, except in 
 cases of treason, felony, breach of the peace, and "for any speech or 
 debate in either house thej' shall not lie questioned in any other place." 
 During his term of office, each was prohibited from holding any office 
 of emolument created while he was a member of the assembly. Clergy- 
 men, priests and teachers were ineligible while exercising their func- 
 tions as such. Collectors of state taxes were ineligible until they had 
 obtained a quietus for the amount of their collections. It was also 
 provided that no bill should have the force of law until on 3 successive 
 days it had been read in each house and free discussion invited 
 thereon, unless four-fifths of the members should agree to a suspension 
 of the rule in case of emergency. It was required that all revenue 
 bills should originate in the house of representatives, but the senate 
 might propose amendments. 
 
 The governor was made the chief executive officer and was to hold 
 office for a term of 4 years. His election was provided for as follows: 
 The citizens throughout the state should first vote for the various can- 
 didates, after which the returns were to be opened in the presence of 
 both houses of the legislature, the 2 candidates having the highest ' 
 number of votes were to be balloted on, and the one receiving the 
 highest number of votes was to be declared elected governor. He 
 was made ineligible for reelection, must be 35 years of age and the 
 owner of landed property worth at least $5,000. His term of office 
 was to begin on the fourth Monday succeeding his election. No mem- 
 ber of Congress nor minister of a religious society was eligible to the 
 office of governor. He was made commander-in-chief of the army 
 and navy of the state ; was required to report regularly to the assem- 
 bly the condition of the state ; was empowered to summon the assem- 
 bly in extraordinary session; was expected to see that all laws were 
 faithfully executed and was required to visit the several counties of the 
 state at least once in 2 years to inform himself of local conditions. In 
 case of a vacancy in the office of governor, the president of the senate 
 was empowered to exercise the functions of the office. It was provided 
 that every bill passed by both houses should be submitted to the gov- 
 ernor for his approval or rejection; if approved, he must sign it, but 
 if not he must return it with his objections, after which, in order to 
 become a law, it must pass both houses by a two-thirds majority, the 
 vote to be by ayes and nays and be entered on the journals. If any
 
 266 LOUISLiNA 
 
 bill was held by the governor longer than 10 daj's, it became a law 
 without his signature. 
 
 Provision was made for the organization of a state body of militia. 
 The instrument stated: "The free white men of this state shall be 
 armed and disciplined for its defense; but those who belong to relig- 
 ious societies and whose tenets forbid them to carry arms, shall not be 
 compelled to do so, but shall pay an equivalent for personal ser\-ice." 
 
 The judicial power of the state was vested in a supreme court and 
 certain inferior courts. The supreme court was given appellate juris- 
 diction only in civil cases where the amount in controversy was $300 
 or over. The court was to be composed of not less than 3 nor more 
 than 5 members, a majority forming a quorum, and the salaries of the 
 justices were fixed at $5,000. The state was divided into 2 judicial 
 districts — eastern and western — and sessions of the court were to be 
 held in New Orleans and Opelousas. After 5, years the court, if so 
 authorized by the general assembly, might sit elsewhere than Opelou- 
 sas. An attorney -general was provided for, as well as other prosecut- 
 ing attorneys. The judges were to hold office during good behavior. 
 
 Other important provisions of the constitution were as follows: 
 Treason was defined to be le\Ting war against the state or adhering 
 to its enemies and giving them aid and comfort. A person who had 
 given or offered a bribe to secure his election, was disqualified from 
 serving as governor. Money could not be drawn from the state treas- 
 ury except in pursuance of appropriations made by law, "nor shall 
 any appropriation of money for the support of an army be made for 
 a longer period than one year." An account of the receipts and dis- 
 bursements were required to be published annually. The right of 
 every person charged with a crime to be heard in his own defense 
 formed part of the declaration of rights adopted, and it was further 
 declared that the "privilege of the right of habeas corpus shall not 
 be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
 safety maj- require it." Free speech and free press were specified, 
 every citizen ' ' being responsible for the abuse of liberty. ' ' 
 
 The seat of government was fixed at New Orleans, and all laws 
 conti-ary to the constitution were declared null and void. The consti- 
 tution might be amended by first submitting the proposed amendment 
 to the people. The territorial government was merged into the new 
 state government. "All laws now in force in this Territor.y, not incon- 
 sistent with this constitution, shall continue and remain in full, effect 
 until repealed by the legislature." 
 
 Constitution of 1845. — The second state constitution was adopted 
 at New Orleans, ^May 14, 1815, and was ratified by the people the same 
 year. It was enacted in response to a demand for a more democratic 
 instrument, and one which would conform to the new conditions of 
 growth within the state. The years preceding its adoption had wit- 
 nessed an extraordinary development both in wealth and population. 
 The great intlux of immigrants, chiefly English speaking Americans, 
 bringing with them habits and customs more or less at variance with 
 those of the ancient inhabitants of the state, furnished the main in- 
 spiration for a change in the organic law, and which resulted in bring-
 
 LOUISIANA 267 
 
 ing this law into closer approximation to the principles of the Com- 
 mon law. 
 
 The new instrument provided that the constitution and laws of the 
 state should be published in both the French and the English lan- 
 guages, that the duration of offices not fixed by the constitu- 
 tion shoiild not exceed 4 years ; that the members of either 
 house of the general assembly might address such house in 
 either the French or English language ; that emigration from 
 the state should not be prohibited ; that the next assembly, 
 the first elected under this constitution, and which convened at 
 New Orleans Feb. 9, 1846, should designate and fix a new seat of 
 government not less than 60 miles from New Orleans, the sessions to 
 be held in New Orleans until the end of 1848 (Baton Rouge was the 
 choice of the legislature for the new capital of the state) ; that the 
 legislature should not pledge the faith of the state for the payment of 
 any bonds, bills or other contracts or obligations for the benefit or use of 
 any person or persons, corporations or body politic, whatever ; that the 
 amount of state indebtedness should be limited to $100,000, except in 
 ease of war, etc. ; that no lottery should be authorized by the state, and 
 prohibiting the sale of lottery tickets within the state ; that the state 
 should not become a subscriber to the stock of any corporation or joint 
 stock company; that the assembly should never grant any exclusive 
 privilege or monopoly for a longer period than 20 years; that no offi- 
 cer, except justice of the peace, should hold more than one office; 
 that the assembly should provide for the organization of all corpora- 
 tions, except those with banking or discount privileges, the creation of 
 which was prohibited ; that the city of New Orleans might change its 
 form of government; that the courts and not the legislature should 
 grant divorces; that dueling should be punished by deprivation of 
 office and the right of suiJrage. and that ' ' the legislature shall establish 
 free public schools throughout the state, and shall provide means for 
 their support by taxation on pi-operty or otherwise. A university shall 
 be established in the city of New Orleans. It shall be composed of 
 four faculties, to-wit: one of law, one of medicine, one of the natural 
 sciences, and one of letters. ' ' Unfortunately there was no clause bind- 
 ing the legislature to contribute to the establishment and support of 
 the proposed university. The constitution also provided for the office 
 of state superintendent of education, who was to be appointed for a 
 term of two years; a state seminai-y of learning was likewise to be 
 established. Universal suffrage was adopted by a clause which de- 
 clared "every free white male, who has been two years a citizen of 
 the United States, who has attained the age of twenty-one years, and 
 resided in the State two consecutive years next preceding the elec- 
 tion, and the last year thereof in the parish in which he offers to vote, 
 shall have the right of voting. 
 
 Several important changes were made in the three departments of 
 government. Representatives and senators were to be elected on the 
 first Monday of November instead of the first Monday in June, and 
 the legislatvire was to convene biennially on the third Monday in Jan- 
 uary. To be eligible a representative must have been a citizen of the
 
 268 LOUISIANA 
 
 state for 3 years, a senator for 4 years; each parish was to have at 
 least one representative ; no parish was to be created with less territory 
 than 625 square miles; the first eimmeration under the constitution 
 was to be made in 1847, the second in 1855, and thereafter every 10 
 years. The constitution limited the number of representatives to not 
 "less than 70 nor more than 100; and "in all apportionments of the 
 senate the popixlation of the city of New Orleans shall be deducted 
 from the population of the whole state, and the result produced by 
 this division shall be the senatorial ratio entitling a senatorial district 
 to a senator;" senators were to be divided into 2 classes to be elected 
 biennially : sessions of the legislature were limited to 60 days. 
 
 In the executive department the most important change was the cre- 
 ation of the new office of lieutenant-governor, who was to preside over 
 the deliberations of the senate and to succeed to the oflBce of governor 
 if the same became vacant for any cause. The people and not the legis- 
 lature wei-e to choose the governor and lieutenant-governor. No prop- 
 erty qualifications were required of either, but they must be at least 
 35 years of age, citizens of the United States as well as residents of 
 the state for 15 years next preceding their election. The governor 
 was made eligible for one reelection, but at least 4 years must inter- 
 vene before he could be again chosen; his term of office was to com- 
 mence on the foi;rth Monday of January following his election. The 
 governor could be impeached by the legislature, bi;t a member of the 
 supreme coi;rt was to preside over the senate during the trial of the 
 charges preferred by the house of representatives, and judgment of 
 conviction could only extend to removal from office and disqualifica- 
 tion from holding office. 
 
 The constitution modified and greatly simplified the judicial s.vs- 
 tem. It established in place of the numerous former courts 3 grades 
 of courts, each having a well defined jurisdiction — the inferior courts, 
 or jiistiees of the peace, were not to have jurisdiction in civil causes 
 in excess of $100; the district courts, of intermediate jurisdiction, 
 were to be provided for by the next legislature, which was directed to 
 divide the state into judicial districts, the judges from the several 
 districts each to hold office for a term of 6 years; the supreme court 
 was an appellate body consisting of one chief justice and three puisne 
 judges, each to be appointed for a term of 8 years. This court was to 
 sit in New Orleans and siich other places as the justice might deter- 
 mine. 
 
 The first legislature \inder the new constitution assembled at New 
 Orleans on Feb. 9, 1846, and did not finally adjourn until May 4, 
 1847, being charged with the important woi'k of carrying into execu- 
 tion the various clauses of the new constitution, and with the problems 
 arising from the Mexican war. 
 
 Constitution of 1852.— (See Const. Conv. of 1852, Walker's Adm.) 
 This instrument was adopted at Baton Rouge on July 31, 1852, and 
 made numerous important changes in the organic law of 1845. 
 The latter had prohibited the legislature from contracting an in- 
 debtedness in excess of $100,000, had denied it the right to estab- 
 lish corporations with banking and discount privileges, and had
 
 LOUISIANA 269 
 
 forbidden it to pledge the faith of the state for the payment of the 
 contracts or obligations of either persons or corporations, and from 
 subscribing to the stock of any corporation. The constitution of 
 1852 empowered the legislature "to grant aid to companies or as- 
 sociations of individuals formed for the exclusive purpose of mak- 
 ing works of internal improvements, wholly or partly within the 
 state, to the extent only of one-fifth of the capital of such com- 
 panies, by subscription of stock or loan of money or public bonds." 
 The aggregate amount of such liabilities was limited, however, to 
 $8,000,000. Whenever the legislature should contract a debt in 
 excess of $100,000, it was required at the same time to provide 
 means for its liquidation and to meet the interest burden. The in- 
 strument further provided that "corporations with banking or dis- 
 counting privileges may be eitlier created by special acts or formed 
 under general laws ; but the legislature shall in both cases provide 
 for the registry of all bills or notes issued or put in circulation as 
 money, and shall require ample security for the redemption of the 
 same in specie ; the legislature shall have no power to pass any law 
 sanctioning in any manner directly or indirectly the suspension of 
 specie payments by any person, association or corporation issuing 
 bank notes of any description." 
 
 The constitution contained some impoi-tant provisions affecting 
 the educational system of the state. The former constitution had 
 already provided for a superintendent of public education, and the 
 office was now being filled by the scholar and historian Alexander 
 Dimitry. The legislature was now prohibited from abolishing the 
 said office on any pretext. The legislature was required to estab- 
 lish free public schools throughout the state, and to provide means 
 by taxation or otherwise for their proper support. The proceeds of 
 land previously granted to the state for the use of schools and of 
 lands thereafter granted or bequeathed to the state, and the pro- 
 ceeds of the estates of deceased persons to which the state should 
 become entitled by law, were to be held by the state as a per- 
 manent loan for the benefit of the free public schools, the state to 
 pay an annual interest of 6 per cent thereon. In like manner the 
 lands therefore granted for the benefit of a seminary of learning 
 were to be sold, and the proceeds were to be held by the state, the 
 same to yield interest as above. All moneys raised for the support 
 of free public schools were to be distributed to the several parishes 
 in proportion to the number of free white children therein between 
 such ages as the legislature might fix. Furthermore, the interest 
 of the trust funds deposited with Louisiana by the United States 
 under the act of Congress, approved June 23, 1836, and all the 
 rents of unsold lands, were appropriated to the use of the free 
 public schools. 
 
 Still other provisions of the instrument extended the parish of 
 Orleans so as to embrace the whole of the city of New Orleans, 
 and included in the city of Lafayette, formerly in Jefferson parish, 
 in the city limits. The elective franchise was broadened to include 
 free white males over 21 vears who had resided in the state a year
 
 270 LOUISL\NA 
 
 aud iu the parish 6 months. lu addition to the supreme court jus- 
 tices and the other judges of the state, the secretary of state and 
 state treasurer -were required to be elected by the qualified electors 
 of the state. The supreme court was to consist of a chief justice 
 and four associate justices, and the legislature was directed to 
 divide the state into four judicial districts, in each of which one of 
 the supreme court justices was to sit. The qualifications for gov- 
 ernor and lieutenant-governor recited that they were to be at least 
 28 years of age, and must have been citizens of the United States 
 and residents of the state for 4 years next preceding their election; 
 the former age limit was 35 years and the period of citizenship and 
 residence was 15 years. Candidates for office who were con^-icted 
 of bribery to secure their election were disqualified from holding 
 office. Other clauses provided that the seat of government shoidd 
 remain at Baton Kouge, unless a three-fourths majority of the leg- 
 islature should order its removal, and that the legislature should 
 meet annually for a period not to exceed 60 days; that the secre- 
 tary of the senate and the clerk of the house of representatives 
 should be familiar with both the French and English languages, 
 and that members of the legislature might address either house in 
 French or English. Any officer guilty of sending or accepting a 
 challenge to fight a duel was ipso facto deprived of his right to 
 hold office longer. All funds provided by the state for drains and 
 levees were not to be diverted to any other use : a board of public 
 works was created to consist of four commissioners, and the leg- 
 islature was directed to divide the state into foiu- improvement dis- 
 tricts; provision was made for the election and compensation of 
 such commissioners, whose powers and duties were detiiied, and 
 the legislati;re Avas only authorized to abolish the board by a three- 
 fifths vote when in their opinion it was no longer necessary. 
 
 Constitution of 1864 (See Constitutional Convention of 1864). 
 
 Constitution of 1868. — (See Const. Conv. of 1867. Reconstruc- 
 tion, Administrations of Wells, Flanders, Baker. ATarmoth, etc.). 
 The convention which adopted this constitution was authorized 
 by popular vote, and the instrument framed was ratified in the 
 same manner. The bill of rights contains features indicative of 
 the change resiilting from the war and was the first to be enacted 
 in Louisiana. The constitution opens with the announcement that, 
 "All men are created free and eqiial and have certain inalienable 
 rights; among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." 
 It then went on to state that "all persons without regard to race, 
 color or previous condition, residents of the state one year, were 
 citizens of Louisiana, and that they owed allegiance to the United 
 States, and that this allegiance was paramount to that which they 
 owe to the state." It prohibited slavery and involimtary servitude, 
 and declared that no law should be passed fixing the price of man- 
 ual labor. In the effort to secure certain social rights to all citi- 
 zens "without regard to race or color," Article 13 stated, "All 
 persons shall enjoy equal rights and privileges while traveling in 
 this state upon any conveyance of a public character. And all bus-
 
 LOUISIANA 271 
 
 iness places, and those otherwise carried on by charter, or from 
 which a license is required by either state, parish, or municipal 
 authority, shall be deemed places of a public character, and shall 
 be open to the accommodation and patronage of all persons, with- 
 out distinction or discrimination on account of race or color." 
 
 The ordinance of secession was declared to be null and void, and 
 all former constitutions were to be superseded, but all laws in 
 force and contracts subsisting, not inconsistent with the new con- 
 stitution, were pronounced valid, with the exception of certain 
 specified acts of the late legislati;re. Citizens of the United States, 
 who had been residents of the state for 2 years next preceding their 
 election were made eligible to the offices of governor and lieuten- 
 ant-governor. The governor was ineligible for the succeeding 4 
 years after his first term of office, and the salaries of the two officers 
 were fixed at $8,000 and $3,000 per annum, respectively. 
 
 The chief features bearing on the legislative department were that 
 the legislature should meet annually on the first Monday in January. 
 The members of each branch were to be elected for a term of 2 years, 
 and their eligibility was thus defined by article 18: "Every elector, 
 under this constitution, shall be eligible to a seat in the house of repre- 
 sentatives ; and every elector who has reached the age of 25 years, shall 
 be eligible to the senate : Provided, That no person shall be a repre- 
 sentative or senator, unless at the time of his election he be a qualified 
 elector of the representative or senatorial district from which he is 
 elected." The oath required of members before they could enter upon 
 the duties of their offices, also applicable to all other state officers, 
 recited: "I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I accept the 
 civil and political equality of all men, and agree not to attempt to 
 deprive any person or persons, on account of race, color, or previous 
 condition, of any political or civil right, privilege, or immunity en- 
 joyed by any other class of men ; that I will support the constitution 
 and laws of the United States, and the constitution and laws of this 
 state, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform 
 all the duties incumbent on me as according to the best of my ability 
 and understanding; so help me God." 
 
 The legislature was required to enact adequate laws in support of 
 free sufi'rage; it might levy an income tax and might exempt from 
 taxation property actually used for school, church and charitable pur- 
 poses, and was directed to levy a poll tax for school and charitable 
 purposes ; no law requiring a property qualification for office was to 
 be enacted, and due provision by law was to be made for the rights of 
 married women. 
 
 The judicial power of the state was vested in a supreme eoui't, dis- 
 trict courts, parish courts and justices of the peace. The supreme 
 court, except in certain specified cases, was given only an appellate 
 jurisdiction. This tribunal was to consist of a chief justice and four 
 associate justices, appointed by the governor for a term of 8 years. 
 The judges of all the inferior courts were to be elected by the people. 
 
 The articles relating to the right of suffrage and the right to hold 
 office excited long and acrimonious discussion. They were so framed
 
 272 LOUISIANA 
 
 as uot to exclude any person ou account of color, and there were em- 
 bodied in them certain requirements and disqualifications which were 
 very offensive to the majority of the white population, as they oper- 
 ated to disfranchise many of this element. These sections were as 
 follows : 
 
 "Article 98. Every male person, of the age of twenty-one years 
 or upwards, born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to 
 the jurisdiction thereof, and a resident of the state one year next pre- 
 ceding an election, and the last ten days within the parish in which 
 he offers to vote, shall be deemed an elector, except those disfran- 
 chised by this Constitution, and persons under interdiction. 
 
 Article 99. The following persons shall be prohibited from voting 
 and holding any ofSce : All persons who shall have been convicted of 
 treason, perjury, forgery, bribery, or other crime, punishable in the 
 penitentiary, and persons under interdiction. All persons who are 
 estopped from claiming the right of suff'rage by abjuring their alle- 
 giance to the United States Government, or by notoriously levying war 
 against it, or adhering to its enemies, giving them aid and comfort, 
 but who have not expatriated themselves, nor have been convicted of any 
 of the crimes mentioned in the first paragraph of this article, are hereby 
 restored to the said right, except the following : those who held office, 
 civil or military, for one year or more under the organization styled 
 'The Confederate States of America ;' those who registered themselves 
 as enemies of the United States ; those who acted as leaders of guerilla 
 bands during the late rebellion ; those who. in the advocacy of treason, 
 wrote or published newspaper articles or preached sermons during the 
 late rebellion; and those who voted for and signed an ordinance of 
 secession in any state. No person included in these exceptions shall 
 either vote or hold office \intil he shall have relieved himself by volun- 
 tarily writing and signing a certificate setting forth that he acknowl- 
 edges the late rebellion to have been morally and politically wrong, 
 and that he regrets any aid and comfort he may have given it ; and he 
 shall file the certificate in the office of the secretary of state, and it 
 shall be published in the official journal. Provided, that no person 
 who, prior to the first of January. 1868. favored the execution of the 
 laws of the United States popularly known as the Kecoustruetion acts 
 of Congress, and openly and actively assisted the loyal men of their 
 State in their efforts to restore Louisiana to her position in the LTnion. 
 shall be held to be included among those herein excepted. Registrars 
 of voters shall take the oath of any such person as prima facie evidence 
 of the fact that he is entitled to the benefit of this proviso." These 
 are certainly most peculiar provisions to be found in the organic law 
 of a state, and were followed by article 100, which defined the oath to 
 be taken by officers and heretofore quoted. 
 
 Among the provisions affecting the general policy of the state gov- 
 ernment is the following, relating to the contraction of a public debt: 
 
 Article 111. "Whenever the general assembly shall contract a debt 
 exceeding in amount the sum of $100,000. unless in case of war, to 
 repel invasion or suppress insurrection, it shall in the law creating 
 the debt provide adequate ways and me<ins for the payment of the
 
 LOUISIANA 273 
 
 current interest and of the principal when the same shall become due, 
 and the said law shall be irrepealable unless principal and interest 
 be fully paid, or unless the repealing law contains some adequate pro- 
 vision for the payment of the principal and interest of the debt." 
 
 Other features of the constitution required that the public records, 
 laws, judicial and legislative proceedings be promulgated in the Eng- 
 lish language, and that all the public exercises in the public schools 
 of the state be conducted in the same language. The salary of the 
 state superintendent of education was increased to $5,000 per annum. 
 The successful establishment of the proposed university at New Or- 
 leans was made impossible by the offensive requirement that the same 
 be open to both colored and white students. Other sections recited 
 that the military should be subordinate to the civil power; that all 
 agreements the consideration of which was Confederate money, notes 
 or bonds, should be null and void ; that the state should never assume 
 any debt in aid of the rebellion, nor make any appropriation by way 
 of compensation for emancipated slaves. New Orleans was again made 
 the seat of government. 
 
 By the year 1870 the people had ratified four amendments to the 
 above constitution: 1. Repealing the 99th article, which had oper- 
 ated practically to disfranchise a large element among the white pop- 
 ulation; 2. Limiting the state's indebtedness prior to 1890 to $25,- 
 000,000 ; 3. Disqualifying from voting or holding public ofiSce all pub- 
 lie officials until they could furnish receipts in full from the proper 
 authorities for the funds they had held; 4. Removing the disability 
 of the governor to reelection. 
 
 Constitution of 1879. — (See Constitutional Convention of 1879, 
 "Wiltz Adm.). This constitution, enacted in response to a demand 
 for a new organic law to replace the reconstruction constitution of 
 1868, was adopted July 23, 1879, soon after the close of the recon- 
 struction period, and was ratified by the people on Dec. 8, 1879. It 
 departed from all former constitutions by an appeal to the Deity for 
 guidance, and reenacted, with some changes, the bill of I'ights of the 
 former constitution. 
 
 Some of the most important features relating to the legislative de- 
 partment were as follows: The legislature was to meet biennially 
 instead of annually and the membership of the house of representa- 
 tives was reduced from 101 to 99, the senate remaining at the same 
 number, 36; it was further stated that no change in the size of the 
 legislatui-e was to be made prior to 1890; the pay of members was 
 fixed at $4 per diem; the legislature was inhibited from contracting 
 any indebtedness on behalf of the state, "except for the purpose of 
 repelling invasion or for the suppression of insurrection ' ' ; and it was 
 likewise forbidden to pass certain enumerated laws of a local or special 
 nature. Generally speaking, the powers of the legislature were lim- 
 ited in many particulars, and mandatory instructions were laid upon 
 it with reference to the enactment of a great variety of laws. Louisi- 
 ana, like many other states, was showing the growing distrust of the 
 people toward their representatives. The legislature was authorized 
 to regulate the sale of alcoholic liquors, was directed to provide for a 
 1—18
 
 274 LOUISIANA 
 
 state levee system, to create a state bureau of agriculture, to enact 
 laws exempting homesteads from execution process and safeguarding 
 the wages of laborers, and regulating all corporations. 
 
 The constitution considerably increased the powers of the state ex- 
 ecutive. The rules of eligibility for governor and lieutenant-governor 
 were also changed. They must have attained the age of 30 years, have 
 been 10 years citizens of the United States, and residents of the state 
 for a like period next preceding their election. The governor's salary 
 was reduced from $8,000 per annum to $4,000, and the lieutenant- 
 governor's salary was made double that of a member of the legislature, 
 instead of $3,000 per annum. Unlike the former constitution, the 
 governor was permitted to succeed himself in office. 
 
 Many important alterations were made in the judicial system, one 
 of the most noteworthy being the establishment of appellate courts. 
 The state was to be divided into 4 supreme court districts, 5 circuits 
 for the court of appeals, not less than 20 nor more than 30 inferior 
 court districts (the number of such districts to remain at 26 until 
 otherwise provided), the parish of Orleans excepted, and the parish 
 of Orleans and the city of New Orleans were granted certain special 
 courts. The salaries of the supreme court justices were fixed at $5,000 
 per annum, instead of $7,500 for the chief, and $7,000 for each of the 
 four associate justices in the old constitution. 
 
 The seat of government was once more changed to Baton Rouge, 
 and the legislature was ordered to make provision for the repair of 
 the State-house. Permission was also given to the legislature to pub- 
 lish the laws in the French language and to direct the publication of 
 judicial notices in certain designated cities and parishes in the same 
 language. 
 
 Though one article of the legislature strongly condemned gambling 
 as a vice and directed the legislature to suppress the same by adequate 
 laws, another section authorized and perpetuated the iniquitous lot- 
 tery privileges which had so long cursed the state. This latter article 
 recited : ' ' The general assembly shall have authority to grant lottery 
 charters or privileges, provided that each charter or privilege shall 
 pay not less than $40,000 per annum in money into the treasury of the 
 state ; and provided, further, that all charters shall cease and expire 
 on the first of January, 1895. from which time all lotteries are pro- 
 hibited in the state. The $40,000 per annum, now provided by law 
 to be paid by the Louisiana State Lottery company according to the 
 provision of its charter, granted in the year 1868, shall belong to the 
 Charity hospital of New Orleans, and the charter of said company is 
 recognized as a contract binding on the state for the period therein 
 specified, except its monopoly clause, which is hereby abrogated, and 
 all laws contrary to the provisions of this article are hereby declared 
 null and void, provided said company shall file a written renun- 
 ciation of all its monopoly features, in the office of the secretary of 
 state, within sixtj' days after the ratification of this constitution. 
 Of the additional sums raised bj^ licenses on lotteries, the hospital at 
 Shreveport shall receive $10,000 annually, and the remaining sum
 
 LOUISIANA 275 
 
 fihall be divided each year among the several parishes of the state for 
 the benefit of their schools." 
 
 Another provision of the constitution permitted the city of New Or- 
 leans to modify its organic law. The suffrage provisions were modi- 
 fied to read: "Every male citizen of the United States, and every 
 male person of foreign birth who has been naturalized, or who may 
 have legally declared his intention to become a citizen of the United 
 States before he offers to vote, who is twenty-one years old or upward, 
 possessing the following qualifications, shall be an elector and shall 
 be entitled to vote at any election by the people, except as hereinafter 
 provided. 1. He shall be an actual resident of the state at least one 
 year next preceding the election at which he offers to vote. 2. He 
 shall be an actual resident of the parish in which he offers to vote at 
 least six months next preceding the election. 3. He shall be an actual 
 resident of the ward in which he offers to vote at least thirty days pre- 
 ceding the election." 
 
 The educational provisions embodied in the constitution are numer- 
 ous and interesting. The public school system was still further ex- 
 tended throughout the state. Parish superintendents were provided 
 for, and the school fund was ordered distributed "to each parish in 
 proportion to the number of children between the ages of six and 
 eighteen years." All funds derived from the poll-tax were to be 
 devoted to the support of the public schools. "The school fund of 
 this state shall consist of: 1. The proceeds of taxation for school 
 purposes, as provided in this constitiition. 2. The interest on the 
 proceeds of all public lands heretofore granted by the United States 
 for the use and support of the public schools. 3. Of lands and other 
 property which may hereafter be bequeathed, granted, or donated to 
 the state or generally for school purposes. 4. All funds or property 
 other than unimproved lands, bequeathed or granted to the State, 
 not designated for other purposes. 5. The proceeds of vacant estates 
 falling iinder the laws to the State of Louisiana." It was ordered 
 that the general exercises in the schools be conducted in the English 
 language, and that the same language be taught in the elementary 
 branches ; provided, that these elementary branches may also be taught 
 in the French language in those parishes in the state, or localities in 
 said parishes, where the French language predominates, if no addi- 
 tional expense is incurred thereby." It recognized the Louisiana 
 state university and Agricultural and Mechanical college at Baton 
 Rouge, and the University of Louisiana at New Orleans; established 
 in New Orleans the ' ' Southern university, ' ' for persons of color, and 
 declared that the state owed the free school fund $1,130,867.51, the 
 seminary fund $136,000, and the agricultural and mechanical college 
 fund $182,313. 
 
 One of the important revenue features of the constitution was that 
 the state mill tax on property for all purposes whatever was not 
 to exceed six mills on the dollar. This provision was deemed impera- 
 tive after the extravagant expenditures of the reconstruction era.
 
 276 LOUISIANA 
 
 Constitution of 1898. — (See Constitutional Convention of 1898, 
 Foster's Adm., and Constitiitional Commission of 1893.) — We sum- 
 marize its important features as follows : A dependence upon Divine 
 ^idance was acknowledged. Tlie common rights of the people were 
 declared, and the seem-ity of pereon and property through legal 
 action was defined, particularly the rights of those under criminal 
 prosecution. "Writs of habeas corpus were privileged, except during 
 rebellion or invasion. The militia being specifically declared subor- 
 dinate to civil power. 
 
 The organization of the legislature was effected by a requirement 
 that a reapportionment of Representatives be made, following the 
 1900 census ; some slight change being made in the manner of appor- 
 tionment. The state was divided into 30 Senatorial districts with 39 
 Senators, and an apportionment of 104 Representatives. This appor- 
 tionment to cease after 1902. The legislative powers of the General 
 Assembly were defined : no essential change from preceding Constitu- 
 tion being noticeable. The Assembly was, however, denied the right 
 to pass laws affecting the opening or conduct of elections, or to fix 
 or change the place of voting. It was also barred from establishing 
 the price of manual labor. The elegibUitj' and duties of the various 
 state officials were prescribed. The manner of impeachment was 
 recited, and the State Treasurer was declared non-eligible as his own 
 successor. 
 
 With i-eference to the Judiciary department, the state was divided 
 into four supreme court districts ; judgments to be rendered only with 
 the concui'rence of three justices; concurrent and dissenting opinions 
 not to be published. Two changes in the personnel of the Court of 
 Appeals were prescribed, one for July, 1900, and one for July, 1904 ; 
 after latter date the term of court to be "as prescribed by law." 
 
 The essential legality of ordinary contract forms was given empha- 
 sis. The holding of more than one public office of tmist was prohib- 
 ited, except in the case of justice of peace and notary public. The 
 General Assembly was empowered to pass such laws as might be 
 "proper and necessary to decide differences by arbitration." It was 
 also prescribed that the power of courts to punish for contempt be 
 limited, and salaried officials were prohibited from the collection of 
 fees other than those provided for by the Constitution. 
 
 The right of the General Assembly to enact laws regulating the 
 sale of alcoholic and spirituous liquore was declared. A more definite 
 reiteration of the ineligibility to public office of any person convicted 
 of bribery was made. A more stringent law was autiorized protect- 
 ing labor against the failure of contractors and making those for 
 whom the work was done ultimately responsible. 
 
 Gambling was declared a vice, and the Legislature was instructed 
 to pass laws to suppress it. In this category was included the dealing 
 in "futiires on agricultural products or articles of necessity" where 
 delivery was not intended. Conspiring to force prices up or down 
 was also declared a proper subject for legislative action. 
 
 Voting qualifications and restrictions were specified in some de-
 
 LOUISIANA 277 
 
 tail; the grandfather clause being the chief addition. The right of 
 the General Assembly to tax corporations and corporate property was 
 declared. Household goods to the value of $500 were given exemption. 
 Mining operaitions and certain factory products were likewise specifi- 
 cally released from "parochial and municipal taxation for a period 
 of ten years from January 1, 1900." Railroads completed prior to 
 January 1, 1904, were also exempted for a period of ten years from 
 completion, subject to certain conditions and relinquishments. Pro- 
 vision was made that firms doing business within but domiciled out- 
 side the state sihould be taxed unifonnly, but by "a mode different 
 from that provided for home corporations or companies. ' ' 
 
 The method and basis of taxation was outlined, with maximum and 
 minimum limitations on assessed valuation. A special tax on inherit- 
 ances and donations exceeding $10,000 was authorized, with a proviso 
 that the aforesaid tax "shall not be enforced when the property 
 • * * shall have borne its just proportion of taxes prior to time 
 of such donation or inheritance." 
 
 The continued pressure of public demand for something more ade- 
 quate and substantial in the way of levee protection was recognized 
 by a more thorough and comprehensive consideration of the subject. 
 Methods of procedure on a more systematic basis were provided, and 
 authority was given the Federal government — through the Mississis- 
 sippi River Commission — to assume permanent control of the levees 
 of the state. 
 
 Corporate rights were given considerable attention. "We note espe- 
 cially the following provisions: Both domestic and foreign corpora- 
 tions were required to have one or more places of business and an 
 authorized agent upon whom process might be served. All corpora- 
 tions were barred from holding real estate for a longer period than 
 ten years, except that legitimately necessary to their business. Stocks 
 or bonds issued, except for labor done or money or property actually 
 received, were declared void, and the corporation 's charter forfeited. 
 
 All railways mthin the state were declared public highways, and 
 the railroad companies common carriers. It was also affirmed that any 
 railroad organized under the laws of the state that may be consoli- 
 dated or sold to any like company organized in any other state, was 
 still subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of Louisiana. 
 
 As a whole, the Constitution of 1898 may be considered a most able 
 document. 
 
 Constitution of 1913. — It having become apparent that the Con- 
 stitution of 1898 in certain respects inadequately represented the 
 needs of the people, an extra session of the state legislature was 
 convened at Baton Rouge on Sept. 10, 1913, Act. No. 1 of which 
 provided for "the submission to the people of a proposition to hold 
 a convention" for the election of delegates thereto, the framing 
 and putting into effect of a new Constitution, and fixing and defin- 
 ing the powers thereof. The election of delegates — one from each 
 parish and one from each representative district in the parish of 
 Orleans — occurred Oct. 28. These delegates, 80 in number, assem-
 
 278 LOUISIANA 
 
 bled in the capital city on Nov. 10, and enacted a Constitution — 
 formally adopted Nov. 22 — more in accord with the newly de- 
 veloped requirements of the commonwealth. 
 
 The special legislative session had provided the convention with 
 full power to frame and adopt a new Constitution without the ne- 
 cessity of submitting same to the people, but prohibited its enact- 
 ing, ordaining or framing any article or ordinance "(a) inconsist- 
 ent with any existing constitutional provision, pro^-ided that this 
 prohibition shall not apply to any article * * * that may be en- 
 acted in relation to. or on the subject of the state's bonded debt of 
 $11,110,300 — maturing the first day of Jan., 1914, or respecting the 
 powers and duties of the sewerage and water board of the city of 
 New Orleans, (b) On the subject of the state debt other than the 
 bonded debt existing provisions in regard thereto to remain in full 
 force and effect, (c) Changing the provisions of existing laws 
 touching, relating to, or in any manner affecting the following sub- 
 jects: 1. Any public board or commission of the state or of any 
 political subdivision thereof. 2. Any educational or eleemosy- 
 nary institution of the state. 3. The educational system of the 
 state. 4. Parochial or municipal corporations. 5. The term of 
 office, duties or compensation of any existing officer. 6. Registra- 
 tion or elections. 7. The levee system." 
 
 The Constitution of 1898, with its amendments, was declared 
 superseded by the new Constitution, "but the omission from this 
 Constitution of any article of the Constitution of 1898 and the 
 amendments thereto or of any other existing Constitutional pro- 
 vision shall not amovmt to the repeal thereof, unless the same be 
 inconsistent with this Constitution." "Writs, proceedings and pros- 
 ecutions, were, under like condition, made valid. 
 
 The principal that "all government, of right, originates with the 
 people, is founded on their will alone and is instituted solely for 
 the good of the whole," was recited. A defiiiite declaration was 
 made that "no law shall ever be passed to curtail or restrain the 
 liberty of speech or of the press ; any person may speak, write and 
 publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the 
 abuse of that liberty." A reiteration was made of the right of 
 man to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, 
 and that "no law shall be passed respecting an establishment of 
 religion." The right of the people to peaceably assemble and ap- 
 ply to those vested with the powers of government for a redress of 
 grievances, by petition or remonstrance, was again guaranteed. 
 The courts were declared open to all and that "law and justice 
 shall be administered without denial, partiality or unreasonable 
 delay." Specific reference is made to the writ of habeas corpus, 
 that it shall not be suspended, unless, in case of rebellion or inva- 
 sion, public safety may require it. 
 
 The General Assembly was directed to meet at the seat of gov- 
 ernment "on the second Monday in May, 1914, at twelve o'clock 
 noon, and biennially thereafter, and the sessions thereof shall be
 
 LOUISIANA 279 
 
 limited to 60 days. Should a vacancy occur in either House the 
 governor shall order an election to fill such vacancy." Every 
 elector was declared eligible to a seat in the House of Representa- 
 tives, and every elector who has reached the age of 25 years shall 
 be eligible to the Senate; provided, that no person shall be eligible 
 to the General Assembly unless at the time of his election he has 
 been a citizen of the state for 5 years and an actual resident of the 
 district or parish or ward of the city of New Orleans from which 
 he may be elected for 2 years immediately preceding his election. 
 The seat of any member who may change his residence from the 
 district or parish or ward of the city of New Orleans which he rep- 
 resents shall thereby be vacated, any declaration of a retention of 
 domicile to the contrary notwithstanding ; and members of the Gen- 
 eral Assembly shall be elected for a term of 4 years. 
 
 Members of the state Legislature are prohibited, during their 
 term of office and for 1 year thereafter, from holding any civil 
 ofSce of profit within the state created or made more profitable 
 during their terms in the general assembly. All revenue or appro- 
 priation bills must originate in the House of Representatives, but 
 the Senate may propose or concur in amendments. Legislators are 
 allowed $5.00 per day during attendance, and 5 cents per mile to 
 and from the seat of government. 
 
 Profiting by lessons of the past, the present Constitution limits 
 the power of the Legislature to a considerable degree. In articles 
 numbers 45, 46 and 47 we find that "no money shall be drawn from 
 the treasury except in pursuance of specific appropriation made by 
 law; nor shall any appropriation of money be made for a longer 
 term than two years. A regular statement and account of receipts 
 and expenditures of all public moneys shall be published every 
 3 months, in such manner as shall be prescribed by law. 
 
 "The general assembly shall have no power to contract, or to 
 authorize the contracting, of any debt or liability, on behalf of the 
 State ; or to issue bonds or other evidence of indebtedness thereof, 
 except for the purpose of repelling invasion, or for the suppression 
 of insurrection. 
 
 "The general assembly shall have no power to grant or authorize 
 any parish or municipal authority to grant any extra compensa- 
 tion, fee or allowance to a public officer, agent, servant, or con- 
 tractor, nor pay, nor authorize the payment of any claim against 
 the state or any parish or municipality thereof, under any agree- 
 ment or contract made without express authority of law, and all 
 such unauthorized agreements or contracts shall be null and void." 
 
 The Legislature among numerous other restrictions, was denied 
 authority to pass "local or special laws" upon the following sub- 
 jects: Exempting property from taxation; fixing the rate of in- 
 terest ; granting divorces ; regulating the practice or jurisdiction of 
 any court ; authorizing the laying out, opening, closing, altering or 
 maintaining roads, highways, streets or alleys, or relating to fer- 
 ries and bridges, or incorporating bridge or ferry companies, ex-
 
 280 LOUISIANA 
 
 cept for the erection of bridges crossing streams which form botin- 
 daries between this and any other state. 
 
 The governor's term of office is placed at 4 years, with a salary 
 of $5,000 per annum. The lieutenant-governor's services are valued 
 at $1,500 per year; while ex-of6cio president of the Senate, he has 
 no voting privilege, and a member of the Senate, elected by that 
 body, presides as president pro tempore. 
 
 The duties and powers of the governor are recited in some detail. 
 Article 70 states that "the governor shall have power to grant re- 
 prieves for all offenses against the state ; and, except in cases of 
 impeachment, or treason, shall, upon the recommendation in writ- 
 ing of the lieutenant-governor, attoimey-general, and presiding 
 judge of the court before which the conviction was had, or of any 
 two of them, have power in his discretion to grant pardons, com- 
 mute sentences, and remit fines and forfeitures, after conviction. 
 In ease of treason he may grant reprieves until the end of the next 
 session of the general assembly, in which body the power of par- 
 doning is vested." 
 
 While the power of veto is granted, it is carefully restricted 
 and guarded. The chief executive being charged, particularly, with 
 the exact and faithful execution of the laws of the state. The 
 treasurer (not eligible as his own successor), is allowed $4,000 per 
 annum; the auditor, attorney-general and secretary of state are 
 each given $5,000 per annum, and no fees or other compensation 
 are permitted. Appropriations for clerical and other expenses 
 are limited — in the case of the treasurer to $3,600 per year; in 
 the office of auditor to $8,000, and in that of the secretary of state 
 (including the state insurance department) at not exceeding $10,- 
 000. The term of office of the above officials corresponding with 
 that of the governor — 4 years. 
 
 The jurisdiction of the supreme court is carefully defined; its 
 formation, manner of supersedure, the qualifications of its mem- 
 bers, etc., are thoroughly outlined. The generic principle of its 
 control and general supervision over inferior courts, with power to 
 issue writs of certiorari, prohibition, mandam\is, and qiio warranto, 
 is declared. Article 96 states that "except as herein provided, no 
 duties or functions shall ever be attached by law to the supreme 
 court, courts of appeal, or district courts, or to the several justices, 
 or judges thereof, except such as are judicial, and the said justices 
 and judges are prohibited from receiving any fees of office, or other 
 compensation than their salaries, for any official duty performed 
 by them. No judicial powers, except as committing magistrates 
 in criminal cases, shall be conferred on any officer other than those 
 mentioned in tliis title, except such as may be necessary in towns 
 and cities; provided, the General Assembly shall have the power 
 to abolish justice of the peace courts in wards containing cities of 
 more than 5.000 inhabitants, and to create in their stead courts with 
 such civil jurisdiction as is now vested in justices of the peace, 
 and with criminal jurisdiction which shall not extend beyond the
 
 LOUISIANA 281 
 
 trial of offenses not punishable by imprisonment at hard labor 
 under the laws of this state, and of violations of municipal and 
 parochial ordinances, and the holding of preliminary examinations 
 in cases not capital. Provided, the compensation of the judges of 
 such courts shall be paid by the parishes and cities in vyhich they 
 are established, in such proportions as may be provided by law." 
 
 As may be noted, the Constitution of 1913 has definitely under- 
 taken the restriction of certain functionary powers heretofore exer- 
 cised by the higher courts. Some change in the circuit apportion- 
 ment of the court of appeals, and also of the district courts, was 
 made necessary through the institution, recently, of new parishes, 
 and in some degree from the increase of population in certain 
 districts. 
 
 Juvenile courts were established throughout the state, officials 
 designated and their remuneration fixed. Section 3 (Art. 118) 
 states: "The Juvenile Court in the Parish of Orleans, and the 
 district courts outside of said parish, sitting as juvenile courts, 
 shall have jurisdiction, except for capital crimes, of the trial of all 
 children under 17 years of age who may be charged in said courts 
 as neglected or delinquent children, and of all persons charged 
 with contributing to the neglect or delinquency of children under 
 17 years of age, or with a violation of any law now in existence 
 or hereafter enacted for the protection of the physical, moral or 
 mental well-being of children, not punishable by death or hard 
 labor. Said court shall also have jurisdiction of all cases of deser- 
 tion or non-support of children by either parent. The term 'neg- 
 lected' child shall mean any child 17 years of age, and under, not 
 now or hereafter inmates of a state institution, found destitute, 
 or dependent on the public for support, or without proper guard- 
 ianship, or whose home, by reason of the neglect, cruelty, deprav- 
 ity or indigence of its parents, guardians, or other persons, is an 
 luifit place for such child, or having a single surviving parent un- 
 dergoing punishment for crime, or found wandering about the 
 streets at night without being on any lawful business. The term 
 'delinquent' child shall mean any child 17 years of age and under, 
 not now or hereafter inmates of a state institution, found begging 
 or receiving alms, or being in any street, road or public place for 
 the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or peddling any article 
 or singing or playing any musical instrument in any street, road 
 or public place, for alms or accompanying any person so engaged; 
 or found Hving in any house of prostitution or assignation or with 
 any vicious or disreputable person or frequenting the company of 
 reputed criminals or prostitutes, or visiting any saloon or place 
 of entertainment where spirituous liquors or wines or intoxicating 
 or malt liquors are sold, exchanged or given away, or found in any 
 policy shop, pool room, bucket shop, race track or where any gam- 
 bling game or.gambUng device is operated, or found habitually 
 wandering around any railroad tracks or yards or jumping or 
 attempting to jump on any moving train or street car for the pur- 
 pose of stealing a ride, or entering any car or engine without law-
 
 282 LOUISIANA 
 
 ful authority; or foimd to be incorrigible or habitually using vile, 
 obscene or indecent language or guilty of immoral conduct in pub- 
 lic places or around school houses, or growing up in. idleness and 
 crime, or who, without the consent of parents or guardians or cus- 
 todians, absents himself from his home or place of abode, or runs 
 away from any state institution or institutions of charity to which 
 he may be confined, or violates any law of the state or any ordi- 
 nance of any village, town, city, or parish of the state." 
 
 Among the several provisions of the previous constitution again 
 reiterated were: "The subordination of the militia to civil power." 
 The principle of inviolate rights of private property. The lim- 
 itation of the power of courts to punish for contempt. Prohibiting 
 the sale of lottery tickets. Declaring the sale of alcoholic and 
 spirituous liquors a police regulation, subject to the laws of the 
 General Assembly. Penalties for bribery. The protection of la- 
 borers and their wages. The suppression of gambling; defining 
 its legal aspects. Prohibiting and penalizing the issuance or ac- 
 ceptance of "free transportation" by any public official Regu- 
 lating the state examination of banks. As some agitation of the 
 subject has occurred, the following article (No. 196) is quoted ver- 
 batim: "The General Assembly may authorize the employment 
 under state supervision and the proper ofiScers and employes of the 
 state, of convicts on public roads or other public works, or convict 
 farms, or in manufactories owned or controlled by the state, under 
 such provisions and restrictions as may be imposed by law, and 
 shall enact laws necessary to carry these provisions into effect ; and 
 no convict sentenced to the state penitentiary shall ever be leased, 
 or hired to any person, or persons, or corporation, private or pub- 
 lic, or quasi-public, or board, save as herein aiathorized. " 
 
 No notable change in. the electoral privilege was made. The right 
 of franchise was defined at some length, emphasis being given to 
 the necessity of every voter being properly registered. Art. 207 
 declares that, "Parochial elections, except in the city of New Or- 
 leans, shall be held on the same day as the general state election, 
 and not oftener than once in 4 years. 
 
 "In the city of New Orleans parochial and municipal elections 
 shall be held on the Tuesday following the first Monday of No- 
 vember, 1916, and of every fourth year thereafter, but the Gen- 
 eral Assembly may change the date of said election, provided, that 
 the parochial and municipal elections shall be held together, and 
 shall always be on a day separate and apart from the general state 
 election and not oftener than once in 4 years. The municipal and 
 parochial ofiicers in the city of New Orleans shall take their offices 
 on the first Monday in the month of December following their elec- 
 tion, until otherwise provided by law." . 
 
 While the state of Louisiana was one of the first to take action in 
 regard to "pure food," its latest constitution has not overlooked 
 its importance, in connection with a general guarantee against 
 adulteration. Art. 297 states that "the General Assembly shall pro-
 
 LOUISIANA 283 
 
 vide for the interest of state medicine in all its departments; for 
 the protection of the people from unqualified practitioners of med- 
 icine and dentistry; for protecting confidential communications 
 made to medical men by their patients while under professional 
 treatment and for the purpose of such treatment; for protecting 
 the people against the sale of injurious or adulterated drugs, foods 
 and drinks, and against any and all adulterations of the general 
 necessaries if life of whatever kinds and character." 
 
 On the subject of taxation the constitution makes a number of 
 clearly defined declarations: Article No. 225 recites that "Taxa- 
 tion shall be equal and uniform throughout the territorial limits 
 of the authority levying the tax, and all property shall be taxed 
 in proportion to its value, to be ascertained as directed by law; 
 provided, the assessment of all property shall never exceed the 
 actual cash value thereof; and, provided further, that the tax- 
 payers shall have the right of testing the correctness of their assess- 
 ments before the courts of justice. In order to arrive at this equal- 
 ity and iiniformity, the General Assembly shall provide a system 
 of equality and uniformity in assessments based upon the relative 
 value of property in the different portions of the state. The val- 
 uations put upon property for the purposes of state taxation shall 
 be taken as the proper valuation for purposes of local taxation, in 
 every sub-division of the state." 
 
 Again, the purposes of taxation are thus defined: "The taxing 
 power shall be exercised only to carry on and maintain the gov- 
 ernment of the state and the public institutions thereof, to educate 
 the children of the state, to preserve the public health, to pay the 
 principal and interest of the public debt, to suppress insurrection, 
 to repel invasion or defend the state in time of war, to provide 
 pensions for indigent Confederate soldiers and sailors and their 
 widows, to establish markers or monuments upon the battlefields 
 of the coimtry commemorative of the services of Louisiana soldiers 
 on such fields, to maintain a memorial hall in New Orleans for the 
 cellection and preservation of relics and memorials of the late Civil 
 war, and for levee purposes, as hereinafter provided." (Art. 227.) 
 
 The guarantees of free and equal education were substantially 
 reproduced from former constitution; and the debts due various 
 colleges and seminaries were declared. 
 
 Corporate rights were treated at some detail, but no notable 
 changes were made. 
 
 In reference to the city of New Orleans, the General Assembly 
 legalized the great work of its sewerage and water board, and rat- 
 ified and approved the issuance of the "Public Improvement 
 Bonds," authorized in 1906 and 1908. A re-financing of the Public 
 Belt R. R. was authorized, with certain restrictions. A re-funding 
 of the state debt, amounting to .$11,108,300, was authorized, and 
 plans instituted looking to its final payment ; some little space being 
 given to an outline of the method of procedure. The Constitution, 
 as a whole, is the most lengthy one ever given the state.
 
 2S4 LOUISIANA 
 
 Convent, the parish seat of St. James parish, is located in the 
 western part of the parish on the left bank of the Mississippi river 
 and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. The original parish seat 
 was on the west side of the Mississippi, nearly opposite the present 
 courthouse, but in 1869 it was removed to the east bank, near the 
 Convent of the Sacred Heart, from which the town takes its name. 
 The chief objects of historic interest are the convent and Jefferson 
 college, the latter being located near the town. Convent has sev- 
 eral good mercantile establishments, two hotels, a large sugar mill, 
 a money order postoffice, express and telegraph offices, and a pop- 
 ulation of 600. 
 
 Convention of 1861. — (See Secession.) 
 
 Converse, a village situated in the northwestern part of Sabine 
 parish, is a station on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 20 
 miles directly northwest of Many, the parish seat. It is one of the 
 towns that has grown up along the line of the railroad and has 
 lumber industries, a money order postoffice, an express office, tele- 
 phone and telegraph facilities, and a population of 200. 
 
 Conway, a post-hamlet, in the northern part of Union parish, is 
 about 4 miles west of Marion, which is the most convenient railroad 
 station, and 10 miles north of Farmersville, the parish seat. 
 
 Cook, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of DeSoto parish, 
 is situated on a small confluent of the Sabine river, about 7 miles 
 southwest of Mansfield, the parish seat and nearest railroad town. 
 It is a rich lumber district. 
 
 Cooper, a post-village and station in the central part of Vernon 
 parish, is on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 6 miles soutli 
 of Leesville, the parish seat. It has lumber industries, is the ship- 
 ping and supply point for a considerable district, and has a popula- 
 tion of 300. 
 
 Coosa, a post-hamlet in the extreme northeastern part of Con- 
 cordia parish, is situated on Lake St. John, about 3 miles west of 
 the Mississippi river, and 5 miles south of Listonia, the most con- 
 venient railroad station. 
 
 Cora (R. R. name Hueston), a money order post-village in the 
 eastern part of Vernon parish, is situated on Ten Mile creek, about 
 25 miles east of Leesville, the parish seat, and is a station on the 
 Woodworth & Louisiana Central R. R. 
 
 Corleyville, a post-hamlet of Sabine parish, is situated in the 
 southeastern corner of the parish on a branch of Bayou Toro, about 
 5 miles east of Fisher, the nearest railroad station, and 10 miles 
 southeast of Many, the parish seat. 
 
 Com. — In many parts of the country the impression prevails that 
 the soil and climate of Louisiana are adapted onh' to such crops as 
 cotton, sugar-cane, rice and tobacco. This is an erroneous notion. 
 A bulletin of the state board of agriculture and immigration says: 
 "Corn can be grown easily all over the state, and if the same atten- 
 tion and methods of cultivation were given it here as in the corn- 
 growing states of the West, the average yield per acre would be 
 but little under that produced there. But corn is a side issue with
 
 LOUISIANA 285 
 
 the cotton and cane planter, and is cultivated as little as possible." 
 In 1850 the corn crop of Louisiana amounted to over 10,000,000 
 bushels, and ten years later it had increased to nearly 17,000,000. 
 After the Civil war the high prices of cotton diverted attention 
 from corn, and in 1870 the yield was, in round numbers, 7,600,000 
 bushels. Since that time each U. S. census has shown an increase 
 in the production of corn, the crop of 1880 being nearly 10,000,000, 
 that of 1890s over 13,000,000, and in 1900 of the 115,969 farms in 
 the state 101,961 reported corn as one of the crops, the total yield 
 being 22,062,580 bushels. One advantage of growing corn in Lou- 
 isiana is that it can be followed with a crop of cow-peas or other 
 forage after the harvest, as there are several varieties of corn that 
 can be planted as early as February and gathered in May. Cli- 
 matic conditions are favorable, not only for harvesting the grain, 
 but also for saving the stalks and blades for silage. To quote 
 again from the bulletin referred to above: "By proper rotation, 
 fertilization and cultivation, this yield could easily be doubled. 
 Upon the alluvial lands of south Louisiana the sugar experiment 
 station has for several years averaged over 100 bushels per acre 
 upon a field of 8 or 10 acres. Sixty to 90 bushels have been ob- 
 tained at the state experiment station at Baton Rouge upon the 
 bluff lands, and 30 to 60 bushels are the average yields upon the 
 rotation fields of the north Louisiana experiment station, situated 
 at Calhoun, upon the yellow sandy loams of the oak and short-leaf 
 pine hills." (See also Agriculture.) 
 
 Comerview (R. R. name Witten), a post-village in the northern 
 part of Ascension parish, is situated on the line of the Louisiana 
 Railway & Navigation company, about 8 miles east of the Missis- 
 sippi river. 
 
 Corporations.- — Under the general laws of Louisiana, any num- 
 ber of persons, exceeding 6, may form themselves into corporations 
 for literary, scientific, religious, and charitable purposes, for works 
 of public improvement, and generally all works of public utility 
 and advantage; any number of persons not less than 3 may form 
 themselves into a corporation for the purpose of carrying on any 
 mechanical, mining, or manufacturing business, except distilling 
 or manufacturing intoxicating liquors, with a capital of not less 
 than $5,000 nor more than $1,000,000; and any number of persons, 
 not less than 25, may form themselves into a corporation for ath- 
 letics, military, gun practice, or social purposes. The act of in- 
 corporation may be drawn by a notary public residing in this state, 
 or by the incorporators themselves by private act duly acknowl- 
 edged before a commissioner of this state residing in the place 
 where the act is drawn. The act of incorporation must contain the 
 name and title of the corporation; the place of its domicile, which 
 must be in this state, where all the meetings of its ofiicers, di- 
 rectors, and stockholders are required to be held, under pain of 
 nullity ; the duration of its existence ; the purposes and objects for 
 which it is established and the nature of its business ; the names of 
 its oJKcers upon whom legal process may be served; the amount
 
 286 LOUISIANA 
 
 of the capital stock ; the number of shares and the anioimt of each 
 share ; the time when, and the manner in which, payments shall be 
 made on stock; the mode in which the elections of directors or 
 managers shall be conducted ; and the mode of its liquidation. The 
 act of incorporation must be approved by the district attorney at 
 the domicile of the corporation, the whole recorded in the mort- 
 gage office of the same parish with the original subscriptions, and, 
 excepting the names of the subscribers, published in a newspaper 
 at the domicile of the corporation once a week for 30 days. Amend- 
 ments to the act of incorporation may be made with the assent of 
 three-fourths of the stock represented at a general meeting con- 
 vened for that purpose. The amending act must contain the altera- 
 tions, improvements, or amendments desired, and the same formal- 
 ities must be compiled with as pursued in perfecting the original 
 act of incorporation. 
 
 Any railroad, canal, elevator, warehouse, drainage, sewerage, 
 land reclamation, levee, building, electric light and poM^er, or water- 
 works company established under the laws of this state, may bor- 
 row such sums of money as may be required for construction, re- 
 pairs, acquisition of property or franchises, and issue bonds or other 
 obligations secured by mortgage or pledge on its property, income, 
 etc., on such terms as it may direct, with power to dispose of the 
 same. 
 
 Whenever any corporation desires to increase its stock, the di- 
 rectors are required to publish a notice for 30 days that a meeting 
 of the stockholders will be held for that purpose at the office of 
 the corporation, and also deposit a written or printed copy of such 
 notice in the postoffice addressed to each stockholder at his usual 
 place of residence at least 40 days before the date fixed for such 
 meeting. If the majority of the stockholders, or their proxies, at 
 such meeting vote in favor of the proposed increase of the stock, a 
 certificate of the proceedings shall then be made showing a com- 
 pliance with the law, the amount of the original capital stock and 
 the number of the holders, the amount and number of shares whose 
 holders have voted in favor of said change, also against said change, 
 and the whole amount of the debts and liabilities of said corpora- 
 tion, which must be signed and sworn to by the chairman and sec- 
 retary of the meeting and filed in the office of the secretary of state, 
 and when the certificate is so filed the capital stock shaU be in- 
 creased as therein set forth. No stockholder can be held liable or 
 responsible for the contract or fault of corporations so organized 
 in any further sum than the unpaid balance due to the company 
 ♦ on the shares owned by him. 
 
 Any number of persons, not less than 3, may form themselves 
 into a corporation on complying with the general corporation laws, 
 for the purpose of carrying on any lawful business or enterprise not 
 otherwise specially provided for, except stock jobbing. The capi- 
 tal stock must not be less than $5,000, and the word "limited" must 
 be used as the last word of the name of every such corporation. 
 Its name must be affixed in legible letters and in a conspicuous
 
 LOUISIANA 287 
 
 place outside of every place of business of the corporation, and in 
 all notices, publications, and writings used in its business. The 
 omission of the word "limited" in the use of the name renders 
 each participant and those acquiescing therein liable for any dam- 
 age or liability arising therefrom. Stockholders are not respon- 
 sible for the contracts or faults of such corporations beyond the 
 unpaid balance due on their shares except as stated above. 
 
 Foreign corporations doing business in this state, except mer- 
 cantile corporations, must file with the secretary of state a declara- 
 tion of domicile and the name of the resident agent upon whom 
 service of process can be made. In case of failure to comply with 
 this provision suit can be filed against such corporation upon any 
 cause of action in the parish where the cause arises, and service 
 can be made on any person, firm or company acting or transact- 
 ing such business for such corporations, who shall be deemed the 
 agent of such corporations for that purpose. 
 
 Cossinade, a village in the northern pai-t of Vermilion parish, is 
 situated on a branch of the Bayou Queue de Tortue, about 5 miles 
 northwest of Kaplan, the nearest railroad station, and 12 miles 
 northwest of Abbeville, the parish seat. 
 
 Cotton. — The cotton of commerce is the fibrous product of sev- 
 eral varieties of plants of the genus gossypium, which belongs to 
 the natural order malacete. The most important species is the 
 gossypium barbarense, which is the one cultivated in the United 
 States, and of which there are two varieties — the long-staple, or 
 sea-island, and the short-staple, or upland cotton. The former is 
 grown exclusively upon the islands, and in a few places on the 
 mainland, along the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. 
 The latter is grown in every state of the Union south of the 35th 
 parallel of latitude, and a small quantity is raised north of that 
 line. 
 
 The oldest cotton producing country is India, where it has been 
 grown and manufactured for centuries. Herodotus, the early Greek 
 historian, gave it the name of "tree-wool," and described the cloth 
 manufactured from it as being of "better quality and finer fibre 
 than that made from the wool of sheep." Pliny also mentions 
 cotton several times. The manufacture of cotton cloth was intro- 
 duced into Spain by the Mohammedans from Africa in the early 
 part of the 7th century. From there it spread to Italy, and finally 
 to the whole of Europe. Columbus found the cotton-plant grow- 
 ing wild in some of the West India islands and South America. 
 Soon after his discoveries the inhabitants of Mexico were found to 
 be wearing clothing made of cotton. The first effort to raise cot- 
 ton in the United States was made in Virginia in 1721. Its easy 
 growth attracted attention in England and, strange as it may now 
 seem, the attempt was made to extend its culture northward in- 
 stead of southward. The colonies of Maryland, Delaware, New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania all tried the experiment of cotton culture, 
 and as late as 1776 it was grown near Philadelphia in quantities
 
 288 LOUISLINA 
 
 sufficient for home consumption. Cotton was first planted in the 
 Carolinas and Georgia in 1733, and in Louisiana in 1742. 
 
 The U. S. census report for 1900 says: "While Virginia was the 
 original state of cotton production and exportation of the United 
 States, there are only a few countries of the state that will grow 
 cotton profitably. The northern line of economic cotton culture 
 crosses it from east to west just north of the most southern tier of 
 counties. The high altitude of the western counties of this strip 
 is prohibitive, and leaves only a few counties along the south and 
 southeastern border in which the plant can attain an economic 
 growth. The first expansion of cotton production was therefore 
 forced by natural conditions to the south and westward, and by 
 1849 the median point of cotton production was 28 miles southwest 
 of Birmingham, Ala. * * * Since 1889 it has been rapidly 
 attracted toward the Mississippi river by the opening of new lands 
 in the Indian reservations, and by the remarkable increases in the 
 production of the states west of that river, notably Texas. Of the 
 entire crop, 34.05 per cent was grown west of the Mississippi river 
 in 1879 ; 38.44 per cent in 1889 ; and 43.80 per cent in 1899. At 
 this rate of increase the median point of production will, by the 
 next census, have crossed the Mississippi river and be found at 
 some point in northeastern Louisiana." 
 
 Authorities differ as to when the first cotton was exported from 
 the United States. The census report above referred to (Vol. vi., p. 
 405) sajs it was in 1784. when 8 bags, weighing 1.200 pounds, were 
 sent from Virginia. Other authorities place the first exportation as 
 early as 1747, and mention shipments in 1770 from New York, Mary- 
 land, Virginia and North Carolina, aggregating about 10 bales. Nor- 
 man, in his "New Orleans and Environs," tells of the seizure of an 
 American vessel, with 80 bales on board, at Liverpool in 1784, on the 
 ground "that so large an amount of cotton could not have been pro- 
 duced in the United States. ' ' The same author gives the exportations 
 for the next five years as 14, 6, 109, 389 and 842 bales, respectively. 
 
 The great difficulty in the early days of cotton cultiire in the United 
 States was to separate the seed from the fiber. Various expedients 
 were tried, but it was not until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli 
 Whitney in 1793 that the problem was solved. The cotton crop of 
 1790 was 8,889 bales. Ten years later the number of bales was 177,- 
 778, and by 1810 the production had increased to 320,000 bales, much 
 of which was due to Whitney's invention. The average weight of the 
 bale during these years was about 230 pounds. By 1859 the crop 
 amounted to 5,387.552 bales, the average weight of which was 445 
 pounds. Then came the Civil war, which cheeked the cotton-planting 
 industry in the South and introduced its cultivation into the states of 
 Illinois, Indiana, West Virginia, Nevada, Utah and California, these 
 states reporting about 275,000 pounds in 1869. The entire crop of the 
 country for that year was 3,011,996 bales, a decrease in weight of over 
 50 per cent from the crop of 1859. The average price in 1869 was 29 
 cents a pound, the highest in the history of cotton culture in the 
 United States. This was due chiefly to the enormous demand of Eng-
 
 LOUISIANA 289 
 
 land, where a cotton famine had been produced by the blockading of 
 the Southern ports. The inordinately high prices in the years im- 
 mediately following the war offered an inducement to the planters of 
 the South to devote all their attention and energies to cotton raising. 
 Consequently the production of cotton increased at the rate of nearly 
 225,000 bales annually until 1889. Louisiana was no exception to the 
 rule, her crop increasing during the 20 years from 350,832 bales to 
 659,180 bales. But as the quantity of cotton increased the price de- 
 clined in an inverse ratio until in 1889 it was only 11 cents. Soon 
 after that date a movement was started in several of the Southern 
 states to protect the industry against this constant sinking of prices. 
 In March, 1893, a convention of Louisiana cotton planters met at New 
 Orleans upon the call of the commissioner of agriculture, "to take 
 such action as shall seem best, looking to the decrease in acreage de- 
 voted to cotton the present year, and to consider the propriety of 
 sending delegates to a general interstate convention to be held at an 
 early date for a similar purpose. ' ' 
 
 The convention was well attended and the resolutions adopted 
 urged upon the planters of the entire cotton growing section of the 
 country "the folly of pursuing the old methods of planting mostly 
 cotton, to the exclusion of cereal and other crops, and upon such 
 planters as individuals and citizens, to set the personal example of 
 raising first such crops as will give support to home and family, and 
 then to plant sufficient cotton to furnish the luxuries of life." An- 
 other convention of cotton growers, held at Shreveport in Jan., 1895, 
 advocated the same policy, and further adopted a resolution "that it 
 is the sense of this convention that the legislatures of the cotton grow- 
 ing states make appropriations with a view of creating a fund to be 
 paid to the successful inventor of a plantation cottonseed oil mill." 
 On Dec. 14, 1897, a convention of cotton growers assembled at Atlanta, 
 Ga., several states being represented. At this convention the initial 
 steps were taken to organize the Southern Cotton Growers' associa- 
 tion, the principal objects of which were to be the protection and pro- 
 motion of the cotton industry. The delegates present favored a reduc- 
 tion in the acreage to keep up the price of the staple, opposed 
 gambling in futures, and recommended the extension of the organiza- 
 tion to all sections of the cotton belt. 
 
 There is no doubt that the influence of the cotton growers' associa- 
 tion has been to diversify the agriculture of the South, but with the 
 influx of immigration and the opening of new farms the production of 
 cotton has gone steadily foi'ward until the crop of 1899 was larger by 
 2,000,000 bales than that reported by any previous census, Louisiana's 
 share of it being 709,041 bales. Of the 115,969 farms in the state, 
 88,328 produced more or less cotton. The acreage was 1,376,254, the 
 largest in the history of the state up to that time, and the value of the 
 fiber (at the low price of 7 cents a pound) was $23,523,143, in addition 
 to which the sum of $3,481,669 was realized from the sale of the seed. 
 The proximity of New Orleans — probably the greatest cotton port 
 in the world — to the cotton fields of the state has encouraged the 
 1—19
 
 290 LOUISIANA 
 
 growing of this crop, and tlie chances are that in the realm of Lou- 
 isiana agriculture cotton will be king for years to come. 
 
 Cottonplant, a post-hamlet of Caldwell parish, is situated on a 
 branch of Bayou Castor, about 9 miles west of Columbia, the parish 
 seat and nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cottonport, an incorporated town of Avoyelles parish, is sitiiated 
 in the southwestern part, in a rich cotton country, from which it 
 takes its name. It is on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 12 miles 
 south of Marksville, the parish seat, is a prominent shipping point, 
 has a money order postoffice with 2 free rural delivery routes, a bank, 
 express office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and in 1910 had a 
 population of 866. 
 
 Cotton Seed Oil. — According to Darby's Emigrant's Guide, pub- 
 lished in ISIS, the London society for the encouragement of the 
 arts, manufactures and commerce, learning that oil might be ex- 
 pressed from cotton seed, and that after the extraction of the oil 
 the residue ati'orded a good food for cattle, offered in 1783 a gold 
 medal to "the planters in any of the British islands of the West 
 Indies who shall express oil from the seed of cotton, and make from 
 the remaining seed, hard and dry cakes for cattle," Darby does 
 not mention that am' planter ever claimed or received the offered 
 medal. In 1799 William Dunbar, a planter of the Natchez district, 
 made an attempt to manufacture oil from cotton seed, but his ex- 
 periments ended in failure. About the same time a Dr. Hunter 
 of Philadelphia, Pa., took a lot of machinery to New Orleans with 
 a view of establishing an oil mill there, but for some reason he failed 
 to carry out his intention. The first distinctive cotton seed oil mill 
 in the United States was built at Natchez in 1834, but it was not a 
 commercial success. Similar attempts were made at other places 
 in the cotton growing states, and by 1840 several mills had been 
 erected. But the quantity of oil prodiiced was very small and the 
 process of extracting it so expensive that none of these mills proved 
 to be a good investment. In 1847 an effort was made to establish 
 a mill at New Orleans — in fact a mill was erected — but the under- 
 taking was attended by no better results here than it had been else- 
 where. It is related that Frederick Good of that city iised to show 
 his friends an ounce bottle of the crude oil which he said had cost 
 him .$12,000," 
 
 The great ti-ouble with these pioneer mills was the lack of suit- 
 able machinery, especially some kind of a machine for removing the 
 linters. The hullers were so imperfect that but little over half the 
 oil was extracted. In 1855 a man named Knapp invented a ma- 
 chine for separating the hulls from the kernels, and in the same 
 year the manufacture of the oil was established for the first time in 
 this country on a profitable basis, the first really successful mill be- 
 ing erected then by the Union Oil company of Providence, R. I. 
 The company then organized is still in existence as a part of the 
 American Oil company. The father of the industry in the South 
 was a ilr. Aldige of New Orleans, who visited Europe, where oil 
 was manufactured from Egyptian cotton seed, and obtained «iodels
 
 LOUISIANA 291 
 
 for his crushing machinery. In 1860 there were 7 mills in operation 
 in the United States. Then came the Civil war, during which the 
 business was prostrated, but while the Southern ports were in a 
 state of blockade necessity forced the use of oil cake and meal as 
 food for cattle. In this way a new value of the by-products of 
 cotton seed became known, and since the war this knowledge has 
 been made to contribute to the general economy of wealth. The 
 census report for 1900 says: "The result is that from a product 
 that was deemed a nuisance in 1857 there was produced in 1900 a 
 value of .$42,-411,835, and only 53.1 per cent of the available raw 
 material was utilized." 
 
 Edward E. Lemmond, of the De Soto cotton oil company of 
 Mansfield, La., in an article published in the Shreveport Times in 
 1906, in speaking of the mills then in operation, says: "These mills 
 may be divided into two classes — the independent mills and those 
 in combines. The number of independent mills exceed those in 
 trusts, and are principally owned and controlled by individuals 
 forming stock companies. Great many of the independent mills 
 have fertilizer plants in connection with the main factories and use 
 a portion of their cotton seed meal as a nitrog^enous ingredient in 
 preparing a fertilizer for the local trade. Their products are prin- 
 cipally sold through the broker to the fertilizer, manufacturer, re- 
 finer and exporter. The larger cotton seed oil companies are the 
 Southern cotton oil company of New York, controlling more than 
 120 mills; the American cotton oil company of New York, and the 
 Interstate cotton seed crushers' association, having about 500 mem- 
 bers. All of these are engaged in manufacturing everything ob- 
 tainable from cotton seed." 
 
 Briefly described, the pi'ocess of manufacture is as follows: Upon 
 reaching the mill the seed is screened to remove all foreign sub- 
 stances, such as sand, sticks, leaves, pieces of bolls, etc. After be- 
 ing thus cleaned it goes through the delinting machinery, which 
 removes all the short fiber or lint that remains clinging to it after 
 ginning. Fi'om the delinter the seed passes to the grinders, where 
 it is cut into pieces, after which it is run through a revolving 
 screen, so con.strued that the kernels drop through the ime'shes, 
 while the hulls roll out at the end of the screen as "tailings." Sup- 
 plementary shakers make the separation more complete. The clean 
 kernels are then heated and subjected to a heavy hydraulic pressure 
 to extract the oil, which is the most valuable product of the cotton 
 seed. The average yield of oil per ton of seed is about 38 gallons, 
 though actual analyses show that a ton of well matured seed con- 
 tains oVer 50 gallons, and it is pi-obable that through the use of im- 
 proved machinery this amount will ultimately be attained. The 
 first refining process eliminates the water, sediment and alkali, and 
 changes the crude oil into what is known as "summer yellow oil." 
 By chilling this oil until it is partially crystalized, the stearin is 
 separated by presses, and "winter yellow oil" is obtained. The 
 stearin is utilized in making butter and salad oils, etc. Sximmer 
 yellow oil is also mixed with a small quantity of fuller's earth and
 
 292 LOUISIANA 
 
 filtered, the refined product being known to commerce as "summer 
 •white oil," from which is obtained lard compound and cottolene. 
 The residue obtained from the refining processes contains 50 per 
 cent or more of fatty acids, and is known as "soap stock." Mixed 
 with animal fats it makes a fine grade of laundr.y soap, and it is also 
 used in making cylinders for phonographs. By treating the sum- 
 mer yellow oil with sulphuric acid a white oil is obtained which is 
 known as "miners' oil," as its chief use is to mix with petroleum 
 for miners' lamps. 
 
 Cotton seed oil was first exported from the United States in 
 1870, the value of the oil exported that year being a little less than 
 $15,000. At that time the oil was regarded only as an adulterant 
 and was \ised chiefly in Prance, Holland and Italy for that pur- 
 pose. Since then it has rapidly gained ground upon its merits, as 
 may be seen from the fact that in 1901 the exports amounted to 
 49,356,741 gallons, valued at $16,541,321. Alfred A. Winslow, U. S. 
 consul at Valparaiso, Chile, in a report at the beginning of the j'ear 
 1909, says: "The countries supplying the most of the cotton seed 
 oil are Italy and the United States, which have supplied about 75 
 per cent of the table oils for Chile during the years 1905, 1906 and 
 1907, of which from 75 to 80 per cent was cotton seed oil, I am led 
 to believe. Quite a portion of that from the United States was pure 
 cotton seed oil put up in tin cans. A large portion of this is mixed 
 with imported olive oil and sold in these markets as pure olive oil, 
 according to the best information I could get. * * • The open- 
 ing for the sale of more cotton seed oil in Chile seems good. The 
 Chilean people are fond of salad oils, and many of them are satis- 
 fied with the cheaper grades, and are in no way opposed to cotton 
 seed oil under some other name. ' ' / 
 
 Accordins to the same authority the sales of American cotton 
 seed oil in Chile increased from $84,206 in 1905 to $405,226 in 1907. 
 Vice-Consul-General Oscar S. Heizer of Constantinople reports 
 sales of American cotton seed oil in that city amounting to $260.- 
 000 for the year 1908, and adds: "It is thought that, owing to a 
 poor olive crop, these figures will be about doubled during 1909." 
 With these conditions prevailing in foreign countries, the future of 
 American cotton seed oil is assured, and a product which was once 
 regarded as a nuisance will become a source of even greater reve- 
 nue to the Southern states than it is at present. 
 
 Cotton Valley, a village in the northwestern part of Webster 
 parish, is a station on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 16 
 miles northwest of Minden. the parish seat. It is the shipping point 
 and supply town for a rich agricultural district, has a money order 
 postoflice. an expi-ess office, telephone and telegraph facilities, and 
 a population of 400. 
 
 Cottonwood, a post-village in the southwestern part of Vernon 
 parish, is situated about 6 miles west of Neame, the nearest railroad 
 town. 
 
 Couley, a post-village in the western part of Winn parish, is about
 
 LOUISIANA 293 
 
 a mile east of Saline lake, 8 miles south of Coldwater, the nearest 
 railroad station, and 15 miles southwest of Winnfield, the parish seat. 
 
 Council, Superior. — (See Superior Council.) 
 
 Counties. — The first legislative council of the Territory of Or- 
 leans, which convened in New Orleans on Dee. 2, 1804, divided the 
 territory into the twelve following counties: Orleans, comprehend- 
 ing all that portion of the territory situated on both sides of the 
 Mississippi river, from the Balize to the beginning of the parish of 
 St. Charles, including the parishes of St. Bernard and St. Louis; 
 German Coast, including the parishes of St. Charles and St. Joh»a 
 the Baptist, commonly termed the first and second German Coasts; 
 Acadia, composed of St. James and Ascension parishes, ordinarily 
 known as the first and second Acadian coasts; Lafourche, embrac- 
 ing the parishes of Assumption, Iberville, St. Gabriel and as much 
 of St. Bernard as is situated within the Territory of Orleans; Pointe 
 Coupee, made up of the parish of St. Francis; Concordia, including 
 all the territory lying within the following boundaries, to-wit: 
 "Beginning at the mouth of the Red river, then ascending the same 
 to the Black river, then along the Black river to the Tensa river, 
 along the same to the Tensa lake, thence by a right line easterly 
 to the Mississippi river, and thence down the same to the point of 
 beginning;" Ouachita, including the territory known in those days 
 as the Ouachita settlements; Rapides, embracing the settlements 
 of Rapides, Avoyelles, Catahoula, Bayou Boeuf and Bayou Robert; 
 Natchitoches, including the parishes of St. Francis, Opelousas and 
 St. Landry; and the county of Attakapas, including St. Martin 
 commonly known in those days as the parish of Attakapas. On 
 March 16, 1809, the legislative council of Orleans passed an act to 
 the effect "that the line dividing the county and parish of Natchi- 
 toches and the county and parish of Rapides shall intersect the Red 
 river at the confluence of the Rigolet de Bon Dieu, and shall run 
 from thence on the west in a direct line to the nearest corner of the 
 county of Opelousas, and on the east side to the nearest corner of 
 the county of Ouachita, so as to include, in the county and parish 
 of Rapides, all of the settlements below the Rigolet de Bon Dieu 
 on the Red river." Two days later the council passed an enactment 
 "to remove certain doubts as to the northern limits of the county 
 of Concordia," to-wit: "In place of running east from Tensa lake 
 to the Mississippi river, the line shall continue northerly, so as to 
 include the inhabitants lying on and in the vicinity of the west side 
 of the Mississippi, as far north as "Walnut hills, thence down the 
 said river to the place of beginning. ' ' 
 
 An ordinance by the territorial governor, W. C. C. Claiborne, on 
 Dec. 10, 1810, created an additional county, to-wit: "I do hereb3' 
 order and ordain that so much of the territory of Orleans as lies 
 south of Mississippi territory, and eastward of the river Mississippi, 
 and extending to the Perdido shall constitute one county, to be 
 known by the name of Feliciana." 
 
 The legislative council on March 11, 1811, enacted that "the limits 
 of the county of Concordia shall continue from Tensa lake to Bayou
 
 294 LOUISIANA 
 
 Macon, and ascending the said bayou, which shall be the dividing 
 line between the counties of Concordia and Ouachita, to the 33d 
 degree of north latitude, thence east to the ilississippi river, and 
 thence down the same to the place of beginning." 
 
 On Sept. 5, 1812, the legislature, in order that the limits of the 
 county of Natchitoches might be mere definite, enacted that this 
 county be bo\inded "on the north by the 33d degree of north lat- 
 itude, on the south by the county of Kapides, and on the east by 
 the county of Ouachita, and on the west by the Sabine river and a 
 line running north from the 32d degree of north latitude on the 
 said Sabine river to the point where it intersects the northermost 
 part of the 33d degree of latitude. 
 
 A legislative enactment of Feb. 29, 1816, more definitely estab- 
 lished the boundary between Opelousas and Rapides counties by 
 "a line to commence above the mouth of Elm bayou on Bayou 
 Crocodile, so as to include the settlements on each side of the said 
 Elm baj^ou, thence by straight line to the upper end of the ripple 
 on the Bayo\i Boeuf: thence across the same to head of Hutf- 
 power's bayou, so as to include the settlements on each side of the 
 said bayou." 
 
 By the act of Feb. 7, 1817. the boundaries between the counties 
 of Opelousas and Attakapas were defined as follows: "beginning 
 on the right bank of the Chafalaya river at a point where it is inter- 
 sected by the south boundary of township number 7, south of the 
 31st degree of north latitude, the'nee with said towu.ship line due 
 west to the bayou known as the Bayou Portage of Fusilier, then 
 lip the said bayou to the northeast corner of the land conceded to 
 Charles de Villers, the title whereof has been confirmed to him by 
 a certificate of the land commissioners for the western district, 
 marked B. number 173. thence along the upper or northeast 
 boundary of the said tract to the river Teche; thence up the Teche 
 to the junction of Bayou Fusilier; thence up the latter bayou to 
 the Vermillion river: thence along the Bayou Vermillion to the 
 mouth of the Bayou Caranerow; thence up the latter to the north- 
 east corner of the land of Augustine Nizat: thence by a right line 
 to the head of the Bayou Queue de Tortue; thence down the said 
 bayou to the river Mermentou, by its most western branch to the 
 sea; that part of the country to the right of the said line from its 
 departure on the Crafalaya river being hereby deerared to be with- 
 in the eoimty of Opelousas, and that to the left of said line being 
 hereby declared to be \\'ithin the county of Attakapas." 
 
 Courts. — While Louisiana was still a French colony, judicial 
 functions were exercised by the Superior Council, whose jurisdic- 
 tion at least in the later period was chiefly appellate, and by numer- 
 ous inferior courts, possessing both civil and criminal jurisdiction. 
 From the judgment of the inferior tribunals, an appeal lay to the 
 Superior Council at New Orleans. The French administrative and 
 judicial system was superseded in the time of Gov. O'Reilly by the 
 Spanish system, and there was established in the king's royal name
 
 LOUISIANA 295 
 
 a city council, or eabildo (q. v.), for the administration of justice 
 and order. 
 
 After Louisiana was acquired by the United States and became 
 the Orleans Territory, Gov. Claiborne announced at first that he 
 intended to leave the administration of the province as it had existed 
 under the Spanish domination. Portier says, however, that as 
 Laussat had abolished the eabildo and established in its place a 
 municipal body, the officers of the principal, provisional, and or- 
 dinary alcades were wiped out, and there only remained, therefore, 
 in the city of New Orleans the governor and the alcades de barrio 
 with judicial functions. Hence, Claiborne established Dee. 30, 
 180.3, a Court of Pleas, composed of seven justices. "Its civil juris- 
 diction was limited to cases which did not exceed in value $3,000, 
 with an appeal to the governor in cases where it exceeded $500. 
 Its criminal jurisdiction extended to all eases in which the punish- 
 ment did not exceed a fine of $200 and imprisonment during 60 
 days. The justices individually had summary jurisdiction of debts 
 under the sum of $100, but from ill their judgments an appeal lay 
 to the Court of Pleas. 
 
 By act of Congress, March 26, 1804, relating to the Territory of 
 Orleans, "The judicial powers were vested in a superior court and 
 such inferior courts and justices of the peace as the legislature 
 of the territory might establish." The superior court was to con- 
 sist of three justices, one of whom was a quorum. There was like- 
 wise established a district court, to consist of one judge, who was 
 required to hold four sessions annually in New Orleans. The 
 judges of the superior court and the justices of the peace were to 
 serve four years. The legislative council at its first session estab- 
 lished certain courts of inferior jurisdiction, and for each of the 
 12 counties into which the territory was divided, the governor was 
 to appoint a judge, who was to act as justice of the peace, and 
 might also appoint as many other justices of the peace as he saw 
 fit. On June 20, 180.5, the council also established a Court of Pro- 
 bate for the territory. In March, 1805, Congress passed another 
 act further providing for the government of the territory, whereby 
 the judges of the superior court were to be appointed by the presi- 
 dent of the United States, with the advice and consent of the sen- 
 ate, said judges to hold office during good behavior. The courts 
 were furnished with interpreters of the French, Spanish and Eng- 
 lish languages. 
 
 The first constitution of the state vested the judicial power in a 
 supreme court and such inferior courts as the legislature might 
 establish. The supreme court was given appellate jurisdiction 
 only, and in civil cases an appeal lay where the amount in coti- 
 troversy was $300 and upwards. The court was to consist of not 
 less than three nor more than five members, a majority to form a 
 quorum, and the salary of the judges was fixed at $5,000 per annum. 
 The state was divided into an Eastern and a "Western district, and 
 the court was to sit in both New Orleans and Opelousas. After the 
 period of 5 years, the legislature was given the power to designate
 
 296 LOUISIANA 
 
 another seat for the court than Opelousas. The legislature organ- 
 ized a supreme court of 3 members, the first justices being Hall, 
 Matthews and Derbigny. 
 
 The act of Congress admitting Louisiana to statehood also pro- 
 vided for the appointment of a U. S. district judge, who was to 
 hold four sessions of court at New Orleans each year. 
 
 By the constitution of 1845 the judicial power was vested in a 
 supreme court, in district courts and in justices of the peace. The 
 supreme court was made to consist of a claief justice and three asso- 
 ciate justices, appointed by the governor for a term of 8 years; it 
 was to sit at Is^ew Orleans and elsewhere as determined by the 
 justices; the district judges were to hold office for six years. The 
 result was a great simplification of the judiciary system of the state, 
 whereby there was created in place of the former numerous courts 
 three degrees of jurisdiction — the inferior courts, or justices of the 
 peace; the district courts, and the appellate or supreme court. 
 
 The constitution of 1852 made the ofiBces of the judges, including 
 those of the supreme court, elective; the membership of the supreme 
 court was increased to five, and the state was divided into four 
 judicial districts, in each of which one of the justices of the supreme 
 court was required to sit. 
 
 During the military administration of Gen. Shepley, courts of 
 justice were established in New Orleans. Gen. Shepley revived 
 three of the civil district courts, and criminal jurisdiction was 
 vested in a provost court. On Jan. 1, 1863, a provisional court 
 went into operation. "It had been constituted by President Lin- 
 coln, and consisted of a judge appointed by the president, with 
 power to appoint all other officers. The judge was Charles A. 
 Peabody of New York, and he and all the other officers of the court 
 were men fi'om the North. The powers and jurisdiction of the 
 court were luilimited. In April, 1863, the supreme court was reor- 
 ganized with Charles A. Peabody as chief justice, and later a court 
 of criminal jurisdiction, a probate court and recorders' courts were 
 opened. Outside of the city there were parish courts of general 
 jurisdiction. It was fortunate that the number of provost courts 
 in the parishes was at last diminished; they had been but too often 
 incompetent, despotic, and corrupt." (Fortier, His. of La., Vol. 4, 
 p. 38.) 
 
 Under the constitution of 1868 the judicial power was vested in 
 a supreme court, district courts, parish courts and justices of the 
 peace. 
 
 The constitution of 1879 extended the judiciary system of the 
 state by the creation of certain new tribunals known as courts of 
 appeal, and directed the legislature to provide for their organiza- 
 tion. It also defined the nature and duties of certain special courts 
 provided for the parish of Orleans and the city of New Orleans. 
 
 The nature, organization and powers of the present judiciary 
 system of the state, including the special courts provided for the 
 parish of Orleans and the city of New Orleans, is elaborately set 
 forth in the constitution of 1913.
 
 LOUISIANA 297 
 
 Coushatta, the parish seat of Red River parish, is located on the 
 east bank of the Red river in the central part of the parish, and on 
 the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company. This 
 location was formerly known as Coushatta Chute, but the name 
 was changed to Coushatta when it became the seat of parochial 
 government in 1871. The town was incorporated on April 22, 
 1872; is the principal market for one of the richest agricultural 
 districts of the state ; has a number of stores and factories and one 
 bank. The first telegraph line was completed between Minden and 
 Coushatta in 1875, and in July of the same year the line was com- 
 pleted as far as Natchitoches. The first church dates back to 1850, 
 when a Baptist society was organized at Coushatta Chute. Two 
 years later a church was built upon government land, but as the 
 Baptists had no claim to the land a Methodist preacher named Read 
 settled here and used the building as a dwelling, and it was not 
 until 1880 that the church proper was started in Coushatta, and 
 completed in October. In the same year the Coushatta Male and 
 Female seminary was chartered. The Armistead oil mill across 
 the river from the town is one of the leading manufactures of this 
 district. The population is 564. 
 
 Covington, the seat of St. Tammany parish, is beautifully located 
 in the western part of the parish, between the Bogue Falia and the 
 Tehefuncte river just above their junction, and on a dry, sandy soil 
 that is easily drained, which make the site an ideal one for a city. 
 The town was first incorporated under the name of Wharton on 
 March 19, 1813, when it "was dedicated to Thomas Jefferson by 
 his fellow citizen, John "W. Collins." By the act of the legislature, 
 approved March 11, 1816, the name was changed to Covington, 
 and in 1829 it was made the parish seat. Covington is well pro- 
 vided with transportation facilities. A branch of the New Orleans 
 Great Northern R. R. passes through the town and connects with 
 the Queen & Crescent at Slidell, a branch of the Illinois Central 
 system connects Covington with Baton Rouge, the St. Tammany 
 & New Orleans Railroad and Ferry company has an electric line 
 connecting Covington with Mandeville, from which point steamers 
 run to New Orleans across Lake Pontchartrain, and there is a line 
 of steamers running direct from Covington to New Orleans. As 
 Covington is situated in the long leaf pine district, lumbering is the 
 principal business interest, though there are other manufactures, 
 including ice, brick, etc. Being surrounded by open pine woods 
 and well supplied with a fine quality of artesian water, the town is 
 popular as a health resort, and is visited annually by over 100,000 
 visitors. There are two banks, three newspapers, a public library, 
 a good fire department, a beautiful public park, recently opened, 
 • overlooking the Bogue Falia river, a good public school system, 
 several private educational institutions, including Dixon academy 
 and St. Joseph's college, a well conducted electric light plant, and 
 churches of all the leading religious denominations. The city's 
 trade in groceries and grain amount to over $1,200,000 annually, 
 and the business in other mercantile lines is in proportion. Gov-
 
 298 LOUISIANA 
 
 ington is preeminently a city of homes, and the two building and 
 loan associations are both doing a good business in building up the 
 place by increasing the number of home owners. The population 
 is 2,601. 
 
 Coxe, Daniel, was the son of an English physician, and inherited 
 from his father a claim to all the territory lying between the 31st 
 and 36th parallels of north latitude extending from the Atlantic 
 coast westward to the South Sea. (See Explorations, Early.) This 
 claim included all that portion of the present State of Louisiana 
 lying west of the ilississippi river and north of the 31st parallel. 
 There is some evidence that Coxe made two attempts to found set- 
 tlements under the claim, but that evidence is not fully authen- 
 ticated. Winsor says that the English ship met and turned back 
 by Bienville at the place known as the English Turn was one of 
 a fleet sent by Coxe to establish his claim. Coxe was at one time 
 a member of the New Jersey council and was the leader of a polit- 
 ical party to secure the removal of Gov. Hunter of that colony 
 about 1716. His grandson, Tench Coxe, has been called "the father 
 of cotton growing in the I'uited States." 
 
 Craighead, Edwin B., educator, was bom at Ham's Prairie, Mo., 
 IMareh 3, 1861. In 1883 he graduated at Central college, Fayette, 
 Mo., after which he took post graduate studies in Vanderbilt uni- 
 versity of Nashville, Tenn. He then spent two years in Europe, 
 chiefly at Paris and Leipsic, where he finished his studies. On 
 Aug. 6, 1889, he married ]\Iiss Kate Johnson, and from 1890 to 1893 
 was professor of Greek in Woft'ord college, Sj^artanburg, S. C. He 
 was elected president of the South Carolina Agricultural and Me- 
 chanical college at Clemson in 1893 and remained there until 1897, 
 when he went to Central college, Fayette, i\Io., with which institu- 
 tion he was connected until 1904, when he was elected president of 
 the Tulane university of Louisiana, which he held iintil 1913. 
 
 Crane, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Rapides parish, 
 is about 4 miles south of Boyce, the most convenient railroad sta- 
 tion, and about 10 miles west of Alexandria, tlie parish seat. 
 
 Cravens, a village in the southeastern part of Yernon parish, is 
 a station on the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe R. R., about 20 miles 
 southeast of Leesville, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office, an express office, and is the trading center for a considerable 
 district. 
 
 Crawford, a post-hamlet and station in the western part of St. 
 Mary parish, is on a branch of the Southern Pacific R. R., in a rich 
 sugar district, and is a trading and shipping point of some conse- 
 ciuence. 
 
 Creole, a post-village in the southeastei-n part of Cameron par- 
 ish, is about 3 miles from the coast and 12 miles directly east of 
 Cameron, the parish seat. It has some oyster industries and a 
 population of 125. 
 
 Creoles. — Webster defines the word creole as meaning "One 
 born in America or the West Indies of European ancestors." 
 Charles Gayarre, in a lecture on "Creoles of History and Creoles
 
 LOUISIANA 299 
 
 of Romance," at Tiilane university, on April 25, 1885, stated that 
 the word Creole originated from the Spanish word "crioUo," from 
 the verb criar (to create) ; that this word was invented by the 
 Spaniards to distinguish their cliildren, natives of their conquered 
 colonial possessions, from the original inhabitants, and that to be 
 a "criollo" was considered a sort of honor. The transition from 
 the Spanish "criollo" to the French " Creole" was easy, and in 
 time the term was extended to cover animals and plants, hence 
 such expressions as Creole horses, Creole chickens, creole figs, etc. 
 Negroes born in tropical countries are also sometimes called Cre- 
 oles, but, according to the definition above quoted, this is an 
 erroneous use of the term, as the negro's ancestors were not 
 European. 
 
 Among the white people of Louisiana during the French and 
 Spanish dominations this use of the word was never tolerated. 
 The colonial troops were divided into four distinct classes: 1 — reg- 
 ulars, or troops sent from Europe ; 2 — the militia, which was com- 
 posed of European descendants called Creoles; 3 — friendly Indians; 
 4 — negroes, who were called upon to perform military duty in 
 emergencies. The last two classes were separate from and were 
 never considered as forming part of the militia. In 1794 Gov. Vau- 
 dreuil said: "It is to be regretted that there are not more Creoles. 
 They are the best to fight the Indians," etc. Amalgamation or 
 commingling of the races was discouraged ; priests were forbidden 
 to marry blacks and whites, and in 1751 Gov. Vaudreuil issued a 
 decree that "Any Frenchman harboring a black slave for the pur- 
 pose of inducing him or her to lead a scandalous life, shall be 
 whipped by the public executioner and sentenced to the galleys 
 for life." 
 
 In 1767, when the Marchioness of Abrado came from Peru to 
 " marry Gov. Ulloa, to whom she had been previously betrothed, 
 she brought with her a number of Peruvian women who were her 
 personal friends. Owing to the dark complexions of these women, 
 the white women (creoles) of Louisiana took them for mulattoes 
 and for a time refused all social recognition to the marchioness, 
 because of her association with wliat they regarded as members of 
 an inferior race. In view of these historic facts, it is neither proper 
 nor just to apply the term creole to any member of the colored 
 race, and the use of the word in that sense is very properly resented 
 by the French and Spanish descendants of Louisiana. Among the 
 real Creoles were many who achieved prominence in the fields of 
 art, science and literature, or who occupied high positions in the 
 social world. Abbe Viel was a creole. So were Audubon, Aubert 
 Dubayet, Paul Murphy, the great chess player, Gottschalk, the 
 musician, Mrs. Gen. Wilkinson, Mrs. Edward Livingston, two of 
 Gov. Claiborne's wives, and the list of distinguished Creoles might 
 be multiplied indefinitely. 
 
 Crescent, a village in the eastern part of Iberville parish, is a 
 station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 3 miles south of Plaque- 
 mine, the parish seat. It lies in a fine agricultural country, has
 
 300 LOUISL\NA 
 
 lumber industries, a money order postoffiee and a population of 
 200. 
 
 Creston, a village and station in the northern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is on the Louisiana & Northwest R. R., about 15 miles north 
 of Natchitoches, the parish seat. It has a money order postoflBce 
 and is a trading center for the surrounding country. 
 
 Crew Lake, a money order postofiSee in the western part of Rich- 
 land parish, is situated on Bayou Lafourche and the Yicksburg, 
 Shreveport & Pacific R. R., about 8 miles west of Rayville, the 
 parish seat. It has an express office and is a shipping point of 
 some importance. ' 
 
 Crichton, a post-hamlet in the western part of Red River parish, 
 is situated on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany, about 8 miles northwest of Coushatta, the parish seat. 
 
 Crop Pest Commission. — The Louisiana crop pest commission' 
 was called into existence by Act. No. 6, of the special session of 
 the general assembly held in Dec, 1903, which was promptly ap- 
 proved by Gov. Heard, who had siiggested such legislation in his 
 proclamation calling the extraordinary session. Under the pro- 
 visions of the act the commission was made to consist of the gov- 
 ernor, who was to be ex-officio chairman, the commissioner of 
 agriculture, the director of the state experiment station, the station > 
 entomologist, and two experienced cotton planters, residents of the 
 state, to be appointed by the governor for a term of four years. 
 The main reason for the establishment of such a commission was 
 to combat the ravages of the Mexican boll weevil upon the cotton 
 crop of Louisiana, though the commission was given "full and 
 plenary power to deal with all crop and fruit pests and such con- 
 tagious and infectious crop and fruit diseases as, in the opinion 
 of the commission, may be prevented, controlled or eradicated." 
 The commission was also given power to make, publish and en- 
 force rules to prevent the introduction or spread of the Mexican 
 boll weevil, and it was further provided that any firm, corporation 
 or individual, except a duly recognized state or Federal entomolo- 
 gist, having in possession Mexican boll weevil in any form — pupa, 
 larva or egg — might be fined in any sum from $25 to $1,000, to 
 which might be added imprisonment from 10 days to 6 months. 
 Every violation of the commission's rules and regulations was like- 
 wise punishable by a fine of not less than $25 nor more than $1,000, 
 with imprisonment at the discretion of the court from 30 days to 6 
 months, all fines to be placed to the credit of the commission, the 
 funds to be used in the prosecution of its work. An appropriation 
 of $25,000 was made as a beginning and the commission did its 
 first practical work during the crop season of 1904. Since that time 
 a great deal has been accomplished, not only in making warfare on 
 the boll weevil, but also in educating the farmers of the state as 
 to the nature and habits of the varioiis insects that act as crop pests, 
 the value of birds as insect exterminators, etc. In July, 1908, Prof. 
 "Wilmon Newell, state entomologist and secretary of the commis- 
 sion, announced the discovery of a poison more effective than Paris
 
 LOUISIANA 301 
 
 green in the destruction of the weevil and less injiirious to the 
 cotton plants to which it may be applied. The planters of the state 
 have learned many useful lessons from the work of the commission, 
 and the indications are that it will be continued as a permanent 
 institution. 
 
 Crosskeys, a post-hamlet in the extreme southeastern part of 
 Caddo parish, is situated on the Red river, about 2 miles north of 
 Howard, the nearest railroad station, and 25 miles southeast of 
 Shreveport, the parish seat. 
 
 Crowley, the "Rice City of America," and the capital of Acadia 
 parish, has an ideal location, about midway between New Orleans 
 and Houston, with neither of these important centers too far away 
 to interfere with quick shipments necessary with large distributing 
 markets, nor too near to detract from the commercial importance 
 of Crowley. In 1885 the site of this town was a prairie over which 
 cattle and stunted Acadian ponies roamed at will, and as far as the 
 eye could see there stretched the rolling prairie unbroken save 
 here and there by a growth of trees along some bayou or coulee. 
 Near the water courses, the Acadian farmers planted rice on a 
 small scale, but the broad stretches between the streams were given 
 over to grazing, as cattle raising had been the most important in- 
 dustry on these prairies from the earliest settlement of Louisiana. 
 The value of the land was extremely low, as shown by the fact that 
 in 1886, the 174-acre tract upon which the business district of Crow- 
 ley has grown up, was sold for the sum of $80.00, or a little less 
 than 45 cents an acre. The parish of Acadia was created out of the 
 southwestern part of St. Landry parish in 1886 and Crowley was 
 chosen as the parish seat. The town was laid out with broad 
 streets and avenues and has over 20 miles of well graded and cared 
 for public thoroughfares. The avenues all run north and south 
 and the streets east and west. In Jan., 1888, the town was incor- 
 porated, and it enjoys one of the finest climates in the country, as 
 the warm months of the summer are cooled by the gulf breezes, 
 which make it equal to Florida or California as a resort. 
 
 One of the finest courthouses in southwestern Louisiana is located 
 here, built at a cost of $75,000 in 1902. The city owns the electric 
 light and waterworks systems, and has built an excellent drainage 
 and sewerage system. It has a $25,000 city hall and public market, 
 and one of the best equipped fire departments of any city of its 
 size in the country. The financial affairs of Crowley, which amount 
 to millions of dollars annually, are taken care of by the 3 substan- 
 tial banks of the city, the First National, the Bank of Acadia and 
 the Crowley State bank. All of them own their own banking 
 houses, some of the finest business blocks in the city. Employment 
 is given to hundreds of men in the machine shops, 3 iron working 
 shops, and in the branch houses of 3 of the largest harvesting ma- 
 chinery and engine manufacturers, 3 implement, wagon and buggy 
 houses, ice factory, bottling works, 3 lumber yards, brick yards, 
 wood working shops, sash, door and blind factories, and many 
 other institutions.
 
 302 LOUISLVNA 
 
 The offices of the Crowley Oil & Mineral company, the majority 
 pf the stock being held by residents of Crowley, are located in the 
 city. The mercantile houses, which care for the trade of the city 
 and suri-ounding country, are excellent and numerous. Today the 
 city of Crowley can boast of being the greatest rice milling center 
 in America. It has 10 of the largest rice mills in the country, with 
 a combined capacity of over 15,000 barrels of rice a day, and handle 
 each season over half a million bags of this cereal. Crowley is the 
 home of the Rice Association of America, the official organization 
 lof all the rice growers in the country, and the offices of the presi- 
 dent and secretary of the Rice Millers' and Distributors' association 
 of Louisiana and Texas. In addition to this the city is the head- 
 quarters for 2 of the rice milling and irrigating companies, having 
 mills at Crowley and nearby points, whose canal system covers the 
 southwestern part of Louisiana like a net work, and 8 ware houses 
 with selling agencies are located here. A large oil and feed mill is 
 established in the town for the purpose of using the rice by-prod- 
 ucts. Earl.y in its history the city recognized the necessity of good 
 schools, and the first buildings, which were of wood, were replaced 
 in 1902 by siibstantial brick and stone structures. There are 3 
 private institutions, in addition to the public schools of the city, 
 the Acadia college, which has a number of fine buildings, another 
 Protestant institution, and the convent of Perpetual Adoration un- 
 der charge of the Catholic Sisters of i\Iercy. There are 1 Catholic 
 and 7 Protestant chiu-ches located at Crowley. There is a telegraph 
 office, local and long distance telephone stations, express offices, 
 and in 1910 the town had a population or 5,099. Transportation 
 facilities are excellent and Crowley may be regarded as a consid- 
 erable railroad center. It is on the Southern Pacific, the Colorado 
 Southern, New Orleans & Pacific and the Opelousas, Gulf & North- 
 eastern, all of which bring the city in close touch with the great 
 markets of the country and facilitate transportation of the immense 
 rice crops, as Crowley is practically the clearing house for the en- 
 tire product of the parish. 
 
 CrowvUle, a money order postoffice in the northeastern part of 
 Franklin pari.sh, is on the St. Louis, Iron ^Mountain & Southern 
 R. R., aboiit 9 miles northeast of Winnsboro, the parish seat, and 
 has a population of 200. 
 
 Crozat, Antoine (or Anthony), the son of a French peasant, Avas 
 born about 1655. Being the foster brother of the onl.y son of his 
 feudal lord, he received a good rudimentary education and at the 
 age of 15 years was placed in a commercial house as a clerk. He 
 soon developed an aptitude for mercantile affairs and in time came 
 to be one of the richest merchants in France. By loaning money to 
 -the government he won the favor of Louis XIV, was made ilarquis 
 du Chatel, and was further rewarded by being granted the exclusive 
 trade with Louisiana. (See Crozat Grant.) He died in 1738. 
 
 Crozat Grant. — For more than ten years after the first French 
 colony was planted in Louisiana the settlements on the Gulf coast 
 did not prosper as had been anticipated. France was engaged in
 
 LOUISIANA 303 
 
 wars with other European nations and the colony was neglected. 
 In the winter of 1710 provisions were so scarce that the men were 
 given permission to go and live among the neighboring Indian 
 tribes in order to obtain food. Most of the early settlers had come 
 to America imbued with the idea that it was a land of vast wealth, 
 which was easily to be obtained, and they spent their time in vain 
 search for mines or pearl fisheries instead of opening up plantations. 
 At the beginning of the year 1712 there were not more than 400 
 people in the colony, of whom 20 were negroes. Every vessel that 
 went to France carried complaints from the governor, Bienville, 
 that he needed more soldiers, horses to work the few plantations 
 that had been opened, various supplies in the way of utensils, etc. 
 He also urged that those who had prospered should be compelled 
 to remain in the colony instead of returning to France, and asked 
 permission to exchange his Indian slaves for West Indian negroes 
 at the rate of three Indians for two negroes, but to all these and 
 many similar requests the French ministry paid no heed. So far 
 the colony had been a great expense to the crown, and had brought 
 no revenue in return. Therefore, in order to relieve himself of 
 the necessity of giving further support to the settlements in Louisi- 
 ana, the king decided to entrust the management of the colony to 
 private hands. Accordingly, on Sept. 14, 1712, Antoine Crozat was 
 given a monopoly of the Louisiana trade for a period of 15 years 
 from that date. 
 
 By the provisions of the charter Crozat granted the exclusive 
 privilege of trading in the territory between Old and New Mexico 
 on the west and the Carolinas on the east; to all the settlements, 
 roads, ports and rivers therein ; principally the port and road of 
 Dauphine (formerly Massacre) island, the river of St. Louis (here- 
 tofore known as the Mississippi), from the sea to the river Illinois; 
 together with the river St. Philip (previously the iMissouri), and 
 the St. Jerome (heretofore known as the Wabash), together with 
 all lands, lakes, and the rivers flowing directly or indirectly into 
 the St. Louis or the Mississippi. The territory was to remain in- 
 cluded under the style of the government of Louisiana ; to be a de- 
 pendency of and subordinate to New France; the king's territory 
 beyond the Illinois river to be and continue a part of the govern- 
 ment of New France ; and the king reserved the riglit to enlarge 
 the government of Louisiana. Crozat was given the right to ex- 
 port from France to Louisiana all sorts of goods during the life 
 of his charter, and all other persons and corporations were prohib- 
 ited from such exportation, under penalty of having their ships 
 and merchandise confiscated, the king's officers being pledged to 
 assist and protect Crozat in his rights by the seizure of his compet- 
 itors' vessels and wares. 
 
 Permission was given the grantee to open and work mines and 
 ship the ore to France. Of all gold and silver the king was to have 
 one-fourth, one-tenth of all other metals, and one-fifth of all pearls 
 and precious stones, all of which were to be sent to France at Cro- 
 zat 's expense. Mines remaining unworked for three years were
 
 304 LOUISIANA 
 
 to revert to the crown. No one was to trade with the colonists 
 or Indians of Louisiana except upon the written permission of 
 Crozat, whose monopoly was complete, the only restriction being 
 that he was not to trade in beaver skins. All land under cultiva- 
 tion, and all factories or establishments erected for the maniifac- 
 ture of silk, indigo, wool and leather, were to become the absolute 
 property of Crozat in fee simple, the title to continue in him so long 
 as the cultivation or manufacture was maintained, but to become 
 forfeited at the end of three years of idleness. All his goods were 
 to be exempt from duty ; he was to be permitted to draw 100 quin- 
 tals of powder from the royal magazines each year at actual cost ; 
 was given the privilege of using the king's boats to load and unload 
 his ships, provided that the boats were returned in good condition ; 
 and was granted permission to send every year a vessel to Guinea 
 for negroes, whom he might sell in Louisiana "to the exclusion of 
 all others." 
 
 In return for all these rights and privileges Crozat was required 
 to send annually two vessels to Lovusiana, on which he was to 
 carry free 25 tons of provisions and ammunition for the colonists 
 and garrisons, and to send on each ship "ten young men or women 
 at his o^vn selection." After the expiration of nine years he was 
 to pay the salaries of the officers and garrisons in Louisiana, and 
 in ease of vacancies he was to nominate officers to fill the same, 
 commissions to be issued to these officers on approval by the king. 
 The king's expenses for salaries during the first nine years were 
 fixed at $10,000 annually, to be paid to Crozat in France, and the 
 drafts of the commissaire ordonnateur were to be paid in Crozat 's 
 stores, in cash or in goods within an advance of 50 per cent. Sales 
 in all other cases were to be at an advance of 100 per cent. The 
 laws, edicts and ordinances of France and the custom of Paris were 
 extended to Louisiana. 
 
 On March 13, 1713, the frigate Baron de la Fosse arrived at 
 Mobile, ha-\-ing on board Antoine de la Motte Cadillac, whom Crozat 
 had appointed governor-general, M. Duclos, intendant, M. Le Bas, 
 comptroller of the finances, 25 young women from Brittany, and a 
 number of other passengers, among whom were the governor's 
 family. The vessel also brought a bountiful supply of arms, ammu- 
 nition and provisions, all of which were deposited in the public 
 stores for future distribution. The spirits of the old colonists rose. 
 They felt that their season of trials and hardships was at an end, 
 and all went to work with better heart to build up homes in Louisi- 
 ana. But their hopefulness was destined to end in disappointment. 
 Bienville, who had been retained in office as lieutenant-governor, 
 and who was well acquainted with conditions, looked upon Cadillac 
 as a usurper. He felt that the governorship of Louisiana should 
 have been given to him. Consequently friction soon arose and 
 there were two parties struggling for the mastery. It might have 
 been better had Cadillac listened to the suggestions of the vet- 
 eran Bienville and given more attention to agriculture, but un- 
 fortunately, he was not inclined to submit to dictation, either from
 
 LOUISIANA 305 
 
 Bienville or from Crozat himself. Althougli Crozat employed 
 every means at his command to make his patent profitable, he made 
 the same mistakes as others in supposing the great returns could 
 be realized from mines of gold, silver and precious stones, or from 
 the trade in furs. He believed that King Louis had given him a 
 veritable treasure-land, and had accordingly ordered his governor 
 to search for mines of precious metals, and to seek the far oft' and 
 elusive trade of Mexico. Under these orders it was perhaps only 
 natural that Cadillac should assume a dictatorial attitude, and when 
 later he was urged to give encouragement to agriculture he wrote 
 to the ministry: "Give the colonists as much land as they please. 
 Why stint the measure? The lands are so bad that there is no 
 necessity to care for the number of acres. A coi^ious distribution 
 of them would be cheap liberality." 
 
 Agents were sent up the Mississippi with instructions to visit 
 all the Indian tribes and open up the fur trade. Others, among 
 whom were M. Jonquiere, M. Dirigoin and St. Denis, were author- 
 ized to open up the trade with Llexico, and a central depot for this 
 trade was established on Dauphine island. But the project failed 
 because the Spaniards had entered into a commercial treaty with 
 England soon after the peace of Utrecht, and the ports of Mexico 
 were closed to the French. Towards the close of the year 1714 
 some Canadians arrived from the Illinois country with specimens 
 of ore, which iipon analysis proved to be lead with traces of silver. 
 This encouraged Cadillac to lead an expedition to that section, 
 where he found lead and iron ores, but not the silver he had ex- 
 pected. Trading posts had previously been established at the 
 mouth of the Arkansas and near the mouth of the Red river. 
 French traders in passing xip and down the ]\Iississippi were fre- 
 quently robbed and sometimes murdered by the Indians. To pro- 
 tect these traders and stimulate the traffic in furs Fort Rosalie 
 (q. v.) was built at Natchez l)y Bienville. Posts were also estab- 
 lished among the Natchitoches and west of the Sabine river to 
 guard against the Spaniards on the west, and Fort Toulouse on the 
 Coosa river as a protection against the English on the east. In the 
 meantime the friction between Bienville and Cadillac and their 
 adherents had increased to such an extent that the governor could 
 not rely on any expedition he sent out. Those whom he despatched 
 to look for gold and silver went their ways as they pleased and 
 nothing was accomplished. This condition of affairs could not 
 long endiire, and in the summer of 1716 Cadillac was recalled. He 
 was succeeded by L'Epinay, but with no better residts, as it was 
 not long until a quarrel arose between him and Bienville that added 
 to the general demoralization. 
 
 Added to all this, the monopoly granted to Crozat was more in 
 name than in fact. The Canadians from the north invaded his 
 territory at their pleasure, the Spaniards of the southwest did like- 
 wise, and irregular traders were to be found everywhere. The king 
 failed utterly to protect his chartered privileges and when called 
 upon to do so admitted his inability to grant the request. The 
 1—20
 
 306 LOUISIANA 
 
 colonists themselves were opposed to the monopoly and petitioned 
 for free trade -with all nations. When told that they must not 
 trade with Pensaeola they easily fonnd methods to evade the re- 
 striction by becoming smugglers, and many engaged in illicit trade 
 with the Indians. Under such circumstances Crozat grew discour- 
 aged. In less than tive years he had expended about 425,000 li^Tes 
 and had received in return less than 300,000. Seeing no probabil- 
 ities of improvement in the near future, he surrendered his charter 
 in Aug., 1717, and was soon after succeeded by the Western Com- 
 pany, (q. V.) 
 
 Cruzat, Francisco, who was prominent in Louisiana affairs under 
 the Spanish domination, was born in 1739. In May, 1775, he suc- 
 ceeded Don Pedro Piernas as lieutenant-governor of Upper Louisi- 
 ana and held the office until 1778. when he was in turn succeeded 
 by Capt. Fernando de Leyba. The latter died in June. 1780. when 
 Cruzat was reappointed and served until Nov. 27, 1787, at which 
 time Capt. Manuel Perez was appointed by Gov. Miro. Cruzat has 
 been described as "a very estimable man," and it appears that he 
 enjoyed the confidence of his superioi-s as well as those over whom 
 he was appointed lieutenant-governor. He died about 1798. 
 
 Curry, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Winn parish, is situ- 
 ated on Beech creek, about 14 miles east of Winnfield, the parish 
 seat, and 5 miles east of Smith, which is the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Curtis, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Bossier parish, is 
 a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany, about 8 miles southeast of Shreveport. 
 
 Cut Off, a money order postoffiee in the central part of Lafour- 
 che parish, is situated on Bayou Lafourche, about 30 miles south- 
 east of Thibodaux, the parish seat. It has telegraph and telephone 
 facilities and a population of 450. 
 
 Cutter, a post-hamlet of Pointe Coupee parish, is situated in the 
 extreme western part on a branch of the Atchafalaya river, about 
 3 miles northeast of Elba, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Cypress, a village and station in the southeastern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is at the jimction of two branches of the Texas & 
 Pacific R. R.. aboiit 10 miles south of Natchitoches, the parish seat. 
 It is in the rich Red river valley and is the shipping and supply 
 town for this productive agrieultiiral district. It has a money 
 order postoffiee, an express office, telephone and telegraph facilities, 
 and a population of 100. 
 
 D 
 
 D'Abbadie, one of the last officials appointed for Louisiana by 
 the French government prior to the establishment of the Spanish 
 domination, arrived in New Orleans on June 29, 1763, with the title 
 of director and commandant, and Gov. Kerlerec immediately there- 
 after departed for France. In a short time D'Abbadie informed 
 his government that the colony was in a state of complete destitu-
 
 LOUISIANA 307 
 
 tion and was a chaos of iniquities. This was a severe reflection on 
 a government Avhich had ruled the destinies of Louisiana for more 
 than 60 years, during which time it had expended in the interests 
 of tlie colony some 40,000,000 or 50,000,000 livres. "On April 6, 
 1764," says Fortier, in his History of Louisiana, "D'Abbadie an- 
 nounced the arrival in New Orleans of four Acadian families, 20 
 persons." 
 
 About this time the rumor became rife among the colonists that 
 they were soon to pass under the domination of Spain. In Oct., 
 1764, D'Abbadie published a letter, signed by Louis XV and his 
 minister, the Duke de Choiseul, dated April 21, 1764, wherein the 
 director-general was informed of the cession to Spain by the secret 
 treat/ of 1762, and ordering him to deliver to representatives of 
 that country, whenever they should present themselves, "the said 
 country and colony of Louisiana, and dependent posts, together 
 with the island of New Orleans, such as they shall be on the day of 
 said cession." The instructions in the letter further directed him 
 "to withdraw all the ofScers, soldiers and employes at my service 
 who shall be in garrison there, and to send to France, or to my 
 other colonies of America, those who would not wish to remain 
 under the Spanish domination," though this was not to be done 
 until the Spanislr governor and troops had been given full pos- 
 session. 
 
 D'Abbadie did not live to see Louisiana pass into the hands of 
 Spain, as his death occurred at New Orleans on Feb. 4, 1765, greatly 
 beloved and sincerely mourned by every one in the colony, and was 
 succeeded by Charles Aubry, the senior captain of the troops in 
 Louisiana, to whom fell the lot of making the formal transfer of 
 the province to the Spanish officials a few months later. (See Au- 
 bry, and the Revolution of 1768.) 
 
 Dagobert, Father, a Capuchin priest, came to Louisiana as a 
 young man, some years before the beginning of the Spanish domi- 
 nation. He was not learned, but his charity and sympathetic na- 
 ture made him a universal favorite. In 1752 he was engaged in the 
 "war of the Jesuits and Capuchins," as it has been called, and after 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits was appointed vicar-general of Louisi- 
 ana by the bishop of Quebec. In 1768 he was a witness against 
 UUoa in the investigation conducted by Huchet de Kernion and 
 Louis Piot de Launay, yet notwithstanding this fact O'Reilly rec- 
 ommended his stay in the colony. Later, when Father Cirilo de 
 Barcelona arrived to investigate the religious situation in the col- 
 ony, a warfare was begun on Father Dagobert. Gov. Unzaga up- 
 held his course and wrote to Bishop Echevarria at Havana: "He 
 is beloved by the people, and, on the grounds that I have stated, I 
 consider him entitled to the favor of your Grace." Again he was 
 permitted to remain in the colony, where he continued to exercise 
 his religious functions until he died at an advanced age, beloved 
 by all who knew him. Gayarre says: "He was emphatically a 
 man of peace, and if there was anything which Father Dagobert 
 hated in this world, if he could hate at all, it was trouble — trouble
 
 308 LOUISIANA 
 
 of any kind — but particularly of that sort which arises from inter- 
 meddling and contradiction." (See Catholic Church.) 
 
 Dairying. — Butter and cheese were among the early exports from 
 the American colonies along the Atlantic coast, but dairying did 
 not appear as a special branch of agriculture until about the middle 
 of the nineteenth century. Prior to that time New York, Vermont 
 and I\Iassachusetts were the only states that were especially known 
 for their dairy products, but with the growth of cities and the 
 introduction of improved transportation facilities the dairy indus- 
 try came into greater prominence and extended westward, so that 
 today Ohio, Illinois, ^Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa are among the 
 leading states in the production of butter and cheese. The first 
 cheese factory in the United States was established in Oneida 
 county, N. Y., in 1851, and the first creamery in Orange county, 
 N. Y., ten years later. In 1899 the output of the cheese factories of 
 the country was 281,972,324 pounds, and the amoiint reported as 
 having been manufactured by farmers 16,372,330 pounds. The 
 total butter production for the same year was nearly 1,500,000,000 
 pounds, less than one-third of which was turned out by the cream- 
 eries. 
 
 It is only within recent years that any attention has been paid to 
 dairying by the farmers of Louisiana, where sugar and cotton have 
 been the principal agricultural products. A handbook issued by the 
 Louisiana state board of agriculture and immigration a few years 
 ago says: "Dairying, while in its infancy, has many advantages 
 in Louisiana. The natural conditions of climate, cheap feed, and 
 native pastures, pm-e water, and plenty of cool shade, are all pro- 
 vided liberally by nature in Louisiana. The selection of the proper 
 dairy cow, improved dairy machinery and appliances, the necessary 
 knowledge to operate the dairy and to make good butter, become 
 the only considerations. Dairies are now operated in all the cities 
 and towns of the state, while farm dairying is rapidly gaining 
 ground in the rural districts where limited quantities of good b\it- 
 ter are made in the family, and much of it is supplied to the home 
 markets. There is great need for creameries in Louisiana, and the 
 growth of this industry will iiltimatel.y give rise to their introduc- 
 tion. * * * Fqj. fiig entliusiastic, expert dairyman, Louisiana 
 is a most inviting field." 
 
 Daisy, a post-village in the central ]>art of Plaquemines parish, is 
 situated on the east bank of the IMississippi river, just across the 
 river from Homeplace, the nearest railroad station, and about 10 
 miles soiitheast of Pointe a la Hache, the parish seat. Population 
 100. 
 
 Dalcour (R. R. name Stella), a post-village in the northern part 
 of Plaquemines parish, is situated on the east bank of the Missis- 
 sippi river, and is a station on the Louisiana Southern E. R., about 
 14 miles southeast of New Orleans. It is the shipping point for 
 fruit and garden vegetables, has telegraph and telephone facilities. 
 
 Dalley, a post-hamlet in the central part of Jackson parish, is 
 about 4 miles west of Avard, the nearest railroad station, and 9
 
 LOUISIANA 309 
 
 miles soiitheast of Vernon, the parish seat. It has telephone and 
 telegraph facilities. 
 
 Danville, a post-hamlet and station in the southeastern part of 
 Bienville parish, is on a confluent of the Dugdemona river and the 
 North Louisiana & Gulf K. R., about 20 miles south of Arcadia, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 D'Arges Colony. — While Gardoqui was serving as Spanish min- 
 ister to the United States he employed agents to solicit and encour- 
 age emigration from the states to the Spanish possessions of Lou- 
 isiana and Florida. One of his principal agents was Don Pedro 
 "Wouver d'Arges, who visited New Orleans late in the year 1787 to 
 make arrangements for the location of some 1,500 families from 
 Kentucky at some point in the Spanish domain, if the promises of 
 Gardoqui were fulfilled. About that time Gen. Wilkinson began 
 negotiations with the Spanish authorities for the delivery of Ken- 
 tucky to His Catholic Majesty, and on Jan. 8, 1788, Gov. Miro wrote 
 to Valdez, minister and secretary of state for the department of the 
 Indies, as follows: "I have been reflecting many days whether it 
 would be proper to inform d'Arges of the ideas of Wilkinson, and 
 the latter of the errand of the former in order to unite them, that 
 they might work in accord with each other; but I do not dare to 
 adopt the first idea, because dArges may consider that the great 
 projects of Wilkinson might destroy the merits of his own and 
 precipitate (a thing which is possible) the confiding of them to 
 some one capable of having Wilkinson arrested as a criminal, and 
 also because the latter Avould be greatly disgusted that another 
 person should share a confidence on which depend his life and 
 honor, as he himself says in his memoir. For these reasons I am not 
 able to declare the matter to d'Arges, nor could I confide the er- 
 rand of the latter to the former before knowing the intentions of 
 His ^Majesty about Wilkinson. Tlie delivery of Kentucky to His 
 Majesty, the principal object, to which Wilkinson has promised to 
 devote himself entirely, would assiire forever this province as a 
 rampart to New Spain, for which reason I consider the project of 
 d'Arges a misfortune." 
 
 This is the first time that Gen. Wilkinson's name appears in the 
 Spanish documents. Notwithstanding Gov. Miro's dilemma as to 
 what course was best to pursue under the circumstances, in Febru- 
 ary he sent to Spain a copy of his instructions to Col. Grandpre, 
 commandant at Natchez, regarding the proposed Kentucky colony. 
 Each family not owning negroes was to have a concessoin of land, 
 6 arpents fronting on a water-course by 40 in depth ; families with 
 from 2 to 4 negroes, or composed of 4 to 6 adult males — \mmarried 
 sons — 10 arpents in front by 40 deep, and those with more than 20 
 slaves were to receive a concession 20 arpents by 40. The religious 
 opinions of the immigrants were to be respected, though they were 
 not to build churches nor have salaried ministers. Every immigrant 
 was to take an oath, the principal clause of which obligated them 
 to take up arms against "those who may come as enemies from the 
 settlements above." They were to pay no taxes and the royal
 
 310 LOUISIANA 
 
 treasury -was to purchase all the tobacco they might raise. Grand- 
 pre was about this time sxicceeded by Gayoso. and if any of the 
 Kentucky colonists ever came to Louisiana their numbers were so 
 few that no authentic record of them has been preserved. In a des- 
 patch to Valdez, dated Aug. 7, 1788, Miro acknowledges the re- 
 ceipt of orders to pay d'Arges $100 a month, dated from Jan. 1. A 
 few days after this communication was sent, d'Arges asked permis- 
 sion to go to Kentucky, or, if that coiild not be granted, to Martin- 
 ique, where his family was. Permission was given him to go to 
 i\Iartinique, provided he would agree to return to Louisiana by 
 Feb., 1789. He promised to ret\irn in March, but the promise was 
 never kept. He left an iinsavory history, the chief interest in 
 which is that it shows how Miro was trying to protect Spain from 
 the encroachments of the United States. 
 
 Darlington is a village in the northwestern part of St. Helena 
 parish, is situated on Darling's creek, aboiit 10 miles northwest of 
 Greensburg, the parish seat, and is a station on the Kentwood, 
 Greeusburg & Southwestern R. R. It has a money order postoffice. 
 
 Darrall, C. B., planter and member of Congress, was born in 
 Somerset county, Pa., June 24, 1842. He was ediicated in the 
 common schools ; studied medicine and graduated at the Albany 
 medical college. When the war broke out he entered the Union 
 army as assistant surgeon of the 86th N. Y. volimteers; was pro- 
 moted to surgeon, but resigned from the army Avhile in Louisiana 
 to engage in mercantile pursuits and planting. He was a delegate 
 to the Republican national convention at Philadelphia in 1872, and 
 to the Cincinnati convention in 1876; was elected to the state sen- 
 ate of Louisiana in 1868 ; and a representative to the 41st, 42d, 43d, 
 44th, 45th and 47th Congresses as a Republican. After leaving 
 Congress he served as registrar of the U. S. land office at New 
 Orleans, and engaged in planting. 
 
 Darrow, a village in the southern part of Ascension parish, is 
 situated on the east bank of the ^Mississippi river about 3 miles 
 north of Donaldsonville, the parish seat. It is in a rich agricul- 
 tural district, has sugar and rice industries, a money order post- 
 office, and a population of 200. 
 
 D'Artaguette.— Among the conspicuous names identified with 
 the early French period in Louisiana is that of D'Artaguette. The 
 first mention of his name occurs in 1708, when there arrived at 
 Dauphine island on Feb. 10 of that year Diron D'Artaguette, who 
 had come to succeed Nicholas de la Salle in tlie office of inteudant 
 commissary, a post second in importance only to that of governor. 
 The colony at this period was at a very low ebb, consisting of only 
 14 officers, 76 soldiers, 13 sailors, 3 priests. 6 mechanics, 1 Indian 
 interpreter, 24 laborers, 28 women, 25 children and 80 Indian slaves, 
 all the rest having been cut off by sickness. The new commissary 
 was especially charged by the French minister to investigate and 
 report on the past conduct of all the officers of the colony, includ- 
 ing Bienville: to examine the port of Mobile and decide on the 
 propriety of maintaining headquarters there, or of removing them
 
 LOUISIANA 311 
 
 according to new plans prepared by the ministry. D'Artaguettff 
 was a man of high character and later rendered a report to the 
 French minister which entirely exonerated the young governor, 
 though it set forth the deplorable condition of the colony. D 'Arta- 
 guette remained in the colony until Nov., 1711, when he returned 
 to France "carrying with him the regrets of the colony." During 
 his stay the first settlement on the Mobile was flooded by a dis- 
 astrous rise in the river, and D'Artaguette and Bienville, after con- 
 sultation, moved the headquarters nearer the sea, to the present 
 site of Mobile. Diron D'Artaguette subsequently obtained a large 
 concession on the Mississippi at Baton Rouge. His son arrived in 
 Louisiana in 1717 on the same vessel that brought Gov. De I'Epi- 
 nay. In 1719 he was commissioned inspector-general of the troops 
 of the colony. Father Charlevoix, on his journey down the Missis- 
 sippi, spent New Year's day in 1721 at D 'Artaguette 's grant, which 
 he described as very well situated, but not as yet very much im- 
 proved, "and which they call le Baton Rouge (the red stick)." 
 While serving as inspector-general of Louisiana, according to la 
 Harpe, and Penicaut, the younger D'Artaguette was ordered by 
 the council to remove the colony from Dauphine island to Biloxi 
 and the Mississippi, as it was the wish of the king to have the lands 
 on the river cultivated for the support of the colony, the coast lands 
 being regarded as sterile. Diron was later appointed royal lieuten- 
 ant of the province (1732), and Dumont says that he was command- 
 ant at Fort Conde de la Mobile in 1735. He finally died at Cape 
 Frangois, in the island of St. Domingo, where he was filling the po- 
 sition of king's lieutenant. A younger brother of D'Artaguette, 
 Pierre, was also prominent in the early annals of Louisiana. This 
 brother was commissioned captain of a company of troops destined 
 for the Illinois post in 1718, afterward served with distinction in 
 the Natchez wars, and was rewarded by the appointment of com- 
 dandant of the Illinois district with headquarters at Fort Chartres. 
 He was thus serving when ordered by Bienville to lead an auxiliary 
 force to his assistance, during the latter 's disastrous campaign of 
 1736 against the Chiekasaws, and was burned at the stake. Says 
 Fortier: "The unhappy fate of D'Artaguette struck the imagina- 
 tion of the colonists, and his name has been connected with a 
 proverb in Louisiana. In speaking of something very old, one 
 says: 'As old as the time of D 'Artagiiette — vieux comme du temps 
 D'Artaguette.' " 
 
 Davey, Robert C, tlie popular congressman from the second 
 district of Louisiana for several years, was born on Oct. 22, 1853, 
 in New Orleans, where he received his elementary education, and 
 graduated at St. Vincent's college at Cape Girardeau, Mo., in 1871. 
 He was elected to the state senate from New Orleans in 1879, 1884 
 and 1892, and during the senatorial sessions of 1884 and 1886 he 
 acted in the capacity of president protempore of that body. In 
 1880, 1882, 1884 and 1886, he was elected to the judgeship of the 
 first recorder's court in Ncm' Orleans; was defeated for the mayor- 
 alty of his native city in 1888; in 1892 the Democrats of his Con-
 
 312 LOUISLIXA 
 
 gressional district selected him as their candidate for representa- 
 tive, and at the election which followed he was overwhelmingly 
 successful. He acquitted himself with credit as a member of the 
 53d congress, but absolutely refused to become a candidate for 
 reelection in 1894. But two years later he yielded to the demands 
 of his former constituents and became a suceessfiil candidate for a 
 seat in the 55th Congress. He assidiioiisly and zealously continued 
 to represent the people of his state and district to the day of his 
 death, which occurred on Dec. 26, 1908. 
 
 Davezac, Castera, was a Creole of St. Domingo, but at the time 
 of the war of 1812 was a resident of New Oi'leans. He volunteered 
 his services and became an aide-de-camp to Gen. Jackson, who in a 
 letter to the secretary of war dated Dee. 27, ISl-l, says that Davezac 
 "faced danger wherever it was to be met, and carried my orders 
 with the utmost promptitude." In his report of Jan. 21, 1815, 
 Jackson speaks of ^laj. Davezac, who as .judge advocate "has mer- 
 ited the thanks of the general by the calm and deliberate courage 
 he has displayed on every occasion, etc." He also acted as inter- 
 preter for Jackson, and was a witness before the committee to in- 
 vestigate the charge that the legislature was about to turn the 
 country over to the enemj*. 
 
 Davidson, Thomas G., lawyer and member of Congress, was born 
 in Jefferson eoiinty. iliss., Aug. 6, 1805. He received a liberal edu- 
 cation; studied and began the practice of law at Baton Rouge. La.; 
 was a member of the lower house of the state legislature from 1833 
 to 18'46 ; was elected a representative from Louisiana to the Sith 
 Congress as a Democrat, and reelected to the 35th and 36th Con- 
 gresses. He died on his farm in Livingston parish, La., Sept. 11, 
 1883. 
 
 Davis, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Catahoula par- 
 ish, is near the northern boundary on a branch of Little river, about 
 4 miles southeast of Standard, the nearest railroad station, and 23 
 miles uorthwest of Harrisonburg, the parish seat. 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, soldier and president of the Southern Confed- 
 eracy, was born in what is now Todd county, Ivy., June 3, ISOS, the 
 youngest of ten children born to Samuel and Jane (Co'ok) Davis, 
 the former of Welsh and the latter of Scotch-Irish descent. While 
 still in his infancy the familj-- removed to Bayou Teche, La., and 
 thence to Wilkinson county, Miss., where Jefferson received his 
 elementary education. At an early age he entered Transylvania 
 university at Lexington, Ky., but on Sept. 1, 1824, he was appointed 
 a cadet in the U. S. military academy at West Point, where he 
 gradiJated on July 1, 1828, and entered the army as brevet second 
 lieutenant of infantry. After serving at various places on the fron- 
 tier, he was made first lieiitenant of dragoons on ilarch .4, 1833, 
 and ordered to Fort Gibson, I. T. He resigned his commission in 
 the army on June 30, 1835, and returned to Mississippi ; was a presi- 
 dential elector from that state in 1844; elected to Congress in 1845; 
 and in the War with ^lexico was colonel of the 1st Mississippi in- 
 fantry. He participated in the battle of ilonterey, where he was
 
 LOUISIANA 313 
 
 appointed on the commission to arrange the terms of eapitvilation, 
 and was severely wounded at Buena Vista. Prom 1847 to 1851 he 
 was a member of the U. S. senate from Mississippi; was secretary 
 of war from 1853 to 1857 ; and was then again in the senate imtil 
 the breaking out of the Civil war in 1861. On Jan. 21, he with- 
 drew from the senate ; was inavigurated at ^lontgomery, Ala., as 
 the provisional president of the Confederacy on Feb. 18, and four 
 days later as president under the permanent organization. Prom 
 that time until April, 1865, Mr. Davis' career was a part of the 
 history of the Confederacy. During this period he resided at Rich- 
 mond, Va., the Confederate capital, and when the evacuation of 
 that city was seen to be inevitable, he advised his wife to take 
 their children and go to North Carolina, saying: "If I live you can 
 come to me when the struggle is ended, but I do not expect to sur- 
 vive the destrizction of constitutional liberty." After the surrender 
 of Gen. Johnston's army in North Carolina Mr. Davis rejoined his 
 family in Georgia and made an effort to reach the Trans-Missis- 
 sippi country. A reward of $100,000 had been offered for his appre- 
 hension on a charge of complicity in the j)lot to assassinate Presi- 
 dent Lincoln, and early on the morning of May 10, 1865, he was 
 captured near Irwinville, Ga. He was taken to Fortress Monroe, 
 where he was kept in confinement until May 14, 1867, when he 
 was delivered to the civil authorities on a writ of habeas corpus 
 and admitted to bail, the bond being furnished by Horace Greeley, 
 Gerrit Smith and Cornelius Vanderbilt. In the meantime he had 
 been indicted for treason in IMay, 1866, and although he repeatedly 
 asked for a trial his request was not granted. The case was finally 
 dismissed. After his release Mr. Davis spent some time in Canada, 
 and after a trip to Europe located at Memphis, Tenn., where he 
 became president of a life insurance company. This was consoli- 
 dated with another Memphis company in 1874, when he made an- 
 other trip to Europe, and upon his return to this country rented 
 a cottage at Beauvoir, Miss., and began writing "The Rise and 
 Fall of the Confederate Government," which was published in 1881. 
 During the years succeeding liis discharge by the U. S. supreme 
 court he made numerous adtlresses throughout the Southern States, 
 two of these being at New Orleans on the occasions of the dedica- 
 tion of the monuments — to Albert Sidney Johnston and Stonewall 
 Jackson. Mr. Davis died on Dec. 6, 1889, at the residence of Jiidge 
 Charles E. Fenner in New Orleans. His body was taken to the city 
 hall, where it lay in state in the council chamber, many people 
 coming to take a last look at the features of the man who had 
 presided over the Southern Confederacy during its existence. He 
 was finally buried at Richmond, Va. 
 
 Davis, Mary Evelyn ("MoUie Moore"), was born at Talladega, 
 Ala., in 1852. She was the daughter of Dr. John and Marion Lucy 
 (Crutchfield) Moore and was reared and educated on a plantation 
 in Texas. In 1874 she married Maj. Thomas E. Davis, and is known 
 as the author of "Minding the Gap, and Other Poems," "In War
 
 314 LOUISIANA 
 
 Times at La Rose Blanche," "An Elephant's Track," "Under Six 
 Flags," "The Price of Silence," and other novels. 
 
 Dawson, John B., planter and member of Congress, was born at 
 Nashville, Tenn., in 1800. He removed to Louisiana and became 
 a planter; was elected to the lower house of the state legislature, 
 where he served for several years; was judge of the parish court; 
 was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 27th Congress 
 as a Democrat, and reelected to the 28th. He died on June 26, 
 1845, at St. Francisville, La. 
 
 Deaf and Dumb Institute. — The state school for educating and 
 training industrially the deaf youth of Louisiana was established 
 as a part of the free school system in the year 1852, and has been 
 in continuous operation ever since. The school started with an 
 enrollment of only 12 pupils, but there are now, according to the 
 last report of Superintendent S. T. "Walker, 148 pupils attending 
 the school — 87 boys and 61 girls. The total number who have re- 
 ceived instruction since the organization of the school is 608. 
 Practically all of these pupils have now become self-supporting, 
 and many are heads of families. There was held in 1908 at the 
 institute in Baton Rouge a large reunion of the former pupils and 
 their friends, when a permanent organization was effected, and 
 similar reunions will doubtless be held at stated intervals in the 
 years to come. 
 
 The curricvilum of this school embraces common school studies, 
 and the boys in addition are given a very fair working knowledge 
 of the following trades; cabinet-making and carpentry, printing 
 and type-setting, shoe-making, harness making, house painting and 
 decorating. The girls are taught plain and fancy sewing and cook- 
 .ing. The course of stiady requires from 10 to 12 years, as a be- 
 ginner has absolutely no written or spoken laug^iage to start with. 
 Classes therefore are necessarily small. Not more than 10 can be 
 well taught by a single teacher. Superintendent Walker states in 
 his last report that 48 new pupils were enrolled during the past two 
 years, and the corps of teachers was increased from 8 to 12 in 
 number. He says, "to put the school where it should be to do good 
 work, especially in the industrial department, tlie state should 
 appropriate sufficient money to meet the imperative demands. The 
 whole plant, also, for safety and economy and comfort, should 
 have a modern heating and lighting system instead of the danger- 
 ous fireplaces now used. The school has progressed in the last 
 two years, but there is yet much to accomplish to place it on the 
 plane it should occupy, namely, that of the best average schools of 
 its kind in the nation." 
 
 To the honor of the state, the school is entirely free, and there is 
 no reason why every deaf child in the state should not avail him- 
 self of its splendid privileges. 
 
 De Blanc, Alcibiade, jurist and patriot, was a native of Louisiana 
 and a descendant of St. Denis, who figured so prominently in the 
 early history of the colony. He was born in the parish of St. Mar- 
 tin, Sept. 16, 1821, and there grew to manliood. After a liberal
 
 LOUISIANA 315 
 
 education along general lines, lie took up the study of law and rose 
 to eminence in that profession. In 1873 he successfully led the cit- 
 izens of St. Martin parish in opposition to Gov. Kellogg 's tax col- 
 lectors and metropolitan brigade, and the following spring was one 
 of. the leading spirits in the organizations of the White League 
 which temporarily overthrew the carpet-bag government in Sept., 
 1874. Judge De Blanc was not merely an agitator, but possessed 
 many of the attributes of the true hero. He loved justice and fair 
 play, and his actions during the period above mentioned were dic- 
 tated by his sincere desire to improve the conditions of the people 
 of the state. From 1877 to 1880 he was one of the justices of the 
 Louisiana supreme court, having been appointed to that position 
 by Gov. Francis T. Nicholls, and while a member of that tribunal 
 his decisions showed him to be well versed in the law. He died at 
 his home in St. IMartinville on Nov. 8, 1883. 
 
 Debouchel, Victor, historian and legislator, was the author of a 
 work entitled "Histoire de la Louisiane, depuis les premieres decou- 
 vertes jusqu en 1840," which was published in 1841. A review of 
 the history says: "The work is interesting and the style clear and 
 concise. The aim of the author was to write a history for schools, 
 but which might be read with profit, even by men of culture. The 
 dates are very carefully given at the beginning of every paragraph 
 treating of a different subject, and the contents of each chapter are 
 indicated by a well-chosen title." Mr. Debouchel was a member 
 of the Loiiisiana legislature which met on Feb. 9, 1846, — the first 
 under the constitution of 1845 — and was otherwise prominent in 
 the public affairs of the state. 
 
 De Bow, James Dunwoody Brownson, for many years editor of 
 the "Commercial Review" of New Orleans, and a prominent politi- 
 cal economist, was born in Charleston, S. C, July 10, 1820. In his 
 young manhood he was employed for seven years in a commercial 
 house in his native city, and graduated from Charleston college in 
 1843. He was admitted to the bar of his state in 1844, but did not 
 engage in the practice of the legal profession to any great extent. 
 In 1845 he went to New Orleans, and very soon after his arrival 
 there he commenced to make preparations for the issue of the above 
 mentioned periodical. Mr. De Bow was active in other fields than 
 the editorial while a resident of New Orleans. In 1848 he was 
 appointed professor of political economy and commercial statistics 
 at the University of Louisiana. At the same time he was active 
 in assisting in the founding of the Louisiana Historical society — 
 which organization was the genesis of the academy of science of 
 the present day. He left his chair at the university in 1850 to as- 
 sume charge of the census bureau in the state, in which capacity 
 he continued to act for three year.s. He was made superintendent 
 of the census bureau by Pres. Pierce in 1853, and continued in tliis 
 office for about two years, and at the same time actively editing 
 the "Review." He was also very active on the platform, his main 
 addresses being along the lines of political economy, and were in 
 the main delivered before literary, commercial, and agricultural
 
 316 LOUISDVNA 
 
 associations, tlii'ougliout the country. He contribi;ted many arti- 
 cles of interest on American topics to the Encj-clopedia Brittanica. 
 In 1853 he published a two-volume work entitled "Encyclopedia of 
 the Trade and Commerce of the United States." During the same 
 year he edited a three-volume publication entitled "Industrial 
 Resources and Statistics of the Southwest." In the year 1854 he 
 collected and compiled for publication a greater part of the mate- 
 rial of a three-volume edition of the "Statistical Review of the 
 United States." which was a compendium of the seventh U. S. 
 census. So highly did Congress esteem this work that it ordered 
 150,000 copies printed. "The Southern States, their Commerce, 
 Agriculture, etc.," by De Bow, appeared in 1856, as did his treat- 
 ise on "Mortality Statistics." His earthly existence was termi- 
 nated on Feb. 27,'l867, at Elizabeth, N. J. 
 
 De Bow's Review. — For many years prior to the Civil war this 
 publication was one of the leading commercial, industrial and lit- 
 erary magazines in the United States. The initial number made 
 its appearance in Jan., 1846, the title page of Volume 1, Number 
 1, announcing that it was "The Commercial Review of the South 
 and West ; a monthly journal of Trade. Commerce, Commercial 
 Polity, Agriculture, Manufactures, Internal Improvements and 
 General Literature." The main ofiSce of publication was at New 
 Orleans, ^ritli J. D. B. De Bow as the principal editor, though a 
 branch office under the charge of B. F. De Bow was established at 
 Charleston, S. C. The first number contained articles on cotton 
 culture, tariff, education, railroads, a number of historical papers 
 on various topics, etc. Among the contributors Avere Hon. J. R. 
 Poinsett and Col. Gadsden of South Carolina : Judah P. Benjamin, 
 T. H. :McCaleb, E. J. Forestall and Prof. J. L. Riddell of Louisiana, 
 and a number of prominent men of the Northern and Eastern 
 states. 
 
 The magazine quickly won its way to popularity, and was the 
 medium through which the leading spirits in the nation's various 
 industries and professions gave their views to the public. In 1853 
 the scope of the Review was widened and an office was estab- 
 lished in Washington, D. C, in order to be near the sources of 
 official information. The war forced a suspension of the magazine 
 in 1864, but in 1866 it was revived, the main office being at that 
 time changed to Nashville, Tenn., where it was published regularly 
 until sometime in 1870, when its publication was discontinued al- 
 together. There are but very few complete files of De Bow's Re- 
 view in existence, and he who is fortunate enough to gain access to 
 one of these files will find therein a wealth of historical, commer- 
 cial, and political information such as no other magazine in the 
 country ever attempted to collect or piiblish. 
 
 Decatur, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Union parish, 
 4 miles southwest of Hobson's River Junction, the nearest railroad 
 station, and 12 miles southeast of Farmerville, the parish seat. 
 
 Deeds. — Any deed or instrument may be acknowledged before 
 a commissioner of Louisiana, whose certificate under seal will admit
 
 LOUISIANA 317 
 
 it to record. This officer may also certify to the official character 
 and functions of all public officers in the state for which he is ap- 
 pointed. All instruments should be attested by 2 male witnesses 
 beside the Louisiana commissioner or officer taking the acknowl- 
 edgement, who should assign and affix his seal at the same place 
 the witnesses sign. Any acknowledgment made in conformity 
 with the laws of the state where the act is passed is valid here. 
 The official character of the person before whom the acknowledg- 
 ment is made, however, must be properly verified. Every acknowl- 
 edgment or proof of any deed, conveyance, mortgage, sale, trans- 
 fer or assignment, oath, or affirmation, taken or made before a com- 
 missioner, minister, charge d'affaires, consul-general, consul, vice- 
 consul or commercial agent, and every attestation or authentication 
 made by them, when duly certified as above provided, shall have 
 the force and effect of an authentic act executed in this state. 
 When they are not executed or acknowledged before a commis- 
 sioner of Louisiana, they must be authenticated, if public records, 
 in the manner prescribed by U. S. Rev. Stat. sec. 906, otherwise 
 in the manner prescribed for affidavits. Acknowledgment of deeds 
 executed witliin this state, conveying lands situated in or out of 
 the state, may be made before a notary public, or parish recorder, 
 or his deputy, in the presence of 2 witnesses, or it may be drawn 
 up and signed as a private act, and then acknowledged with the 
 above formalities, or the witnesses may go before the recorder 
 and swear that they saw the party sign. If the grantor be unknown 
 the officer taking the acknowledgment should in some way be sat- 
 isfied of his identity. Deeds or other papers by corporations are 
 executed by the proper officer in the same form as individuals. No 
 seal or scroll of private individuals is authorized or reqiiired by 
 the laws of Louisiana. All instruments concerning real estate 
 must be evidenced by writing, and the act should be duly recorded 
 in the parish where the property is situated. If the act be under 
 private signature it cannot affect creditors or bona fide purchasers, 
 unless previous to its being recorded it was acknowledged by the 
 party, or proved by the oath of one of the subscribing witnesses, 
 and the certificate of the notary be signed to such acknowledg- 
 ment and recorded with the instrument. It is not necessary for 
 a married Avoman to join with her husband in any act affecting his 
 real estate, unless she has a mortgage or privilege recorded against 
 it. 
 
 Deerford, a little village in the northern part of East Baton Rouge 
 parish, is a station on the Zachary & Northeastern R. R., about 7 
 miles east of Zachary and 16 miles northeast of Baton Rouge. It 
 has a money order postoffice. 
 
 De La Chaise. — (See Chaise, de la.) 
 
 De Lassus, Carlos Dehault, soldier and lieutenant-governor of 
 Upper Louisiana, was born at Lille, France, in 1764, a descendant 
 of an old family of French nobility. At the age of 18 years he 
 entered the Spanish service as a cadet in the royal regiment of 
 guards, of which the king himself was colonel. Later he was made
 
 318 LOUISIANA 
 
 a captain of grenadiers, and for bravery in the assault on Fort 
 Elmo in 1793 lie was promoted to lieutenant-colonel of his regiment. 
 The next year he was assigned to the command of a battalion of 
 the king's body-guard, but owing to the fact that his father had 
 been driven from France during the Kevolution and had found 
 refuge in Loiiisiana, he asked to be transferred to New Oi'leans. 
 His request was granted, and he was appointed lieutenant-colonel 
 of the Louisiana regiment. In 1796 he was appointed commandant 
 at New Madrid ; was commissioned lieutenant of Upper Louisiana 
 on Aug. 29, 1799, to succeed Zenon Trudeau, and remained in that 
 office until ilarch 9, ISOl when he delivered the province to Maj. 
 Amos Stoddard, a representative of the United States. On that 
 occasion De Lassus issued the following proclamation : 
 
 "Inhabitants of Upper Louisiana: By the King's command, I 
 am about to deliver up this post and its dependencies. The flag 
 under which you have been protected for a period of nearly thirty- 
 six years is about to be withdrawn. From this moment you are 
 released from the oath of fidelity you took to support it. The 
 fidelity and courage with which you have guarded and defended 
 it will never be forgotten ; and in my character of representative 
 I entertain the most sincere wishes for your perfect prosperity." 
 
 In the meantime he had been promoted to the colonelcy of his 
 regiment in 1802, in which year he had some trouble with the 
 Mashcoux Indians, or Tallapoosa Creeks, 5 of whom were arrested 
 and taken to New Madrid, where De Lassus had the leader exe- 
 cuted by order of the governor-general of Louisiana. After turning 
 over the province to Maj. Stoddard, De Lassus remained at St. 
 Louis irntil the autumn of 1804, when he was ordered with his regi- 
 ment to Pensacola, Fla. Subsequently he became governor of West 
 Florida, with headquarters at Baton Rouge, where he was captured 
 by the forces imder Col. Philemon Thomas on Sept. 23, 1810. Shortly 
 after this event he resigned his commission and became a resident 
 of New Orleans. He was one of those who signed the agreement 
 of Sept. 17, 1813, to be responsible in solido with Gen. Villere for 
 the sum of $10,000, which the latter would have to borrow for the 
 defense of New Orleans. In 1816 he returned to St. Louis and 
 lived there for about 10 years, at the end of which time he went 
 back to New Orleans and died there on May 1, 1812. 
 
 Delcambre, a village in the western part of Iberia parish, is a 
 station on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 10 miles southwest of New 
 Iberia, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffiee, telegraph and 
 telephone facilities, and a population of 308. 
 
 Delhi, a banking town situated in the eastern part of Richland 
 parish, is at the junction of the St. Louis. Iron Mountain & Southern 
 and the Yicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific railroads, just west of 
 Bayou Macon, which forms the eastern parish boundary. It is the 
 trading center for a rich agricultural district ; the principal industries 
 are woodenware factories, cottonseed oil mills and brick yards. It has 
 a bank, a money order postoffiee, an express office, telegraph and 
 telephone facilities, and a population of 685.
 
 LOUISIANA 319 
 
 Delta, one of the oldest of the modern towns of Madison parish, 
 was incorporated Dec. 30, 1869. It is situated on the west bank of the 
 Mississippi just across from Vicksburg, Miss., on the Vicksburg, 
 Shreveport & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles east of Tallulah, the parish 
 seat. It is in a rice and truck farming district, which supplies the 
 market of Vicksburg and is a large cotton shipping point. It has a 
 money order postoffice, an express office, telegraph and telephone 
 service, and a population of 250. 
 
 Delta Bridge, a little post-hamlet, in the eastern part of Tensas 
 parish, is about 8 miles west of St. Joseph, the parish seat and most 
 convenient railroad station. 
 
 De Muys, who was appointed governor of the province of Louisi- 
 ana by Crozat in 1712 to succeed Gov. Bienville, died while en route 
 to his destination, and consequently never assumed the duties of his 
 office. 
 
 Denham Springs, a village in the western part of Livingston 
 parish, is a station on the Baton Rouge, Hammond & Eastern R. R., 
 about 14 miles east of Baton Rouge. It has a money order postoffice, 
 an express office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and a popula- 
 tion of 574. 
 
 Dennis Mills, a post-hamlet of St. Helena parish, is situated on 
 a confluent of the Amite river in the southwestern part of the parish, 
 about 5 miles southeast of Pride, the nearest railroad station, and 
 16 miles southwest of Greensburg, the parish seat. Its population 
 is about 50. 
 
 Denson, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Livingston parish, 
 about 3 miles west of Lake Maurepas, and 11 miles southwest of 
 Springville, the parish seat. 
 
 De Quincy, a village in the western part of Calcasieii parish, 
 situated at the junction of the Colorado Southern and the Kansas City 
 Southern railroads, about 20 miles northwest of Lake Charles, the 
 parish seat. It is located in the long leaf pine district, has important 
 lumber industries, a money order postoffice, an express office, tele- 
 graph and telephone facilities, and a population of 715. 
 
 Derbigny, Pierre, fifth governor of the State of Louisiana, was 
 born at Laon, France, in 1767. His full name was Pierre Augusta 
 Charles Bourguignon Derbigny, and his family belonged to the 
 French nobility. About 1792, while the revolution in France was 
 in progress, he sought refuge in St. Domingo, but soon afterward 
 came to the United States. At Pittsburg, Pa., he met and mai-ried 
 the sister of Chevalier de Luzier, the commandant of the post, and 
 then passed some time in Missouri and Florida, after which he set- 
 tled in New Orleans. He was an accomplished linguist and served 
 as secretary to Mayor Bore uatil appointed interpreter for the ter- 
 ritory by Gov. Claiborne. The first Fourth of July oration ever 
 delivered in Louisiana was delivered by Mr. Derbigny in 1804. He 
 was one of the commissioners who took the memorial to Washing- 
 ton in 1805, protesting against the organization of the Territory 
 of Orleans and asking for the admission of Louisiana into the 
 Union. Subsequently he served as clerk of the court of common
 
 320 LOUISLiNA 
 
 pleas; was secretary of legislative council: member of the 1st 
 state legislature; one of the 1st judges of the supreme court of 
 the state in 1813 ; served two terms as secretary of state ; was 
 regent of the New Orleans scliools; assisted Edward Livingston 
 in the revision of the codes ; seciired a license in 1820 to operate 
 the first steam ferry on the ^Mississippi at New Orleans; and in 
 1828 was elected governor. On Oct. 1, 1829, his horses ran away, 
 he was thrown from his carriage and so severely injured that he 
 died five days later, leaving two sons and five daughters. 
 
 Derbigny's Administration. — The iuaiiguration of Gov. Derbigny 
 took place on Dec. 15, 1828. In his address on that occasion he 
 paid a glowing tribute to the government of the United States, 
 though lie regretted that, in spite of all the advantages offered to 
 the people bj' a free government, discord had been rife in the coun- 
 try. "Let us," said he, "lay aside all animosities arising from party 
 feeling, all invidious distinctions of origin and language." He 
 advised economy in the expenditure of the public funds : declared 
 the cjuestion of education to be of vital importance: and announced 
 the completion of the criminal code by Edward Livingston. 
 
 On Jail. 14, 1829, the committee on internal improvements made 
 a report to the legislature on the dangers of inundations from the 
 Mississippi, and recommended an appeal to the general government 
 for aid and the services of experienced engineers in the construc- 
 tion of levees. During the session provisions were made for a 
 levee system tlu'oughout the state; the New Orleans gas light com- 
 pany was incorporated; and an election was ordered on the ques- 
 tion of removing the capital of the state to St. Franeisville. Gov. 
 Derbigny met his death by an accident in Oct., 1829. and Armand 
 Beauvais, president of the senate, became acting-governor, holding 
 the office until Jan. 14, 1830, when Jacques Dupre was elected 
 president of the senate and consequently became acting governor. 
 The legislature of 1830 met at Donaldsonville. Among the acts passed 
 was one ordering an election for governor in Jul.v, and directing that 
 one of the candidates voted for at that time slionld be elected governor 
 by the legislature for a term of four years. The political contest was 
 spirited, four candidates being presented, viz. : Andre B. Roman, 
 W. S. Hamilton, Armand Beauvais and David A. Randall. Roman 
 received 3,638 votes ; Hamilton, 2,701 ; Beauvais, 1,478, and Randall, 
 463. 
 
 The first session of the 10th legislature opened at Donaldsonville 
 on Jan. 3, 1831. Among the members of the house were W. C. C. 
 Claiborne, a son of the first governor of the state ; Trasimond Landry, 
 who afterward became the first lieutenant-governor; Charles Gayarre. 
 the historian ; and Alexandre ]\Iouton, who was subsequently elected 
 governor. In the senate was Charles Derbigny, a son of the late gov- 
 ernor. Isaac A. Smith was chosen president of the senate, and when 
 Mr. Roman was elected governor by the general assembly Alexandre 
 Mouton succeeded to the office of speaker. The members of the leg- 
 islature refused to accept the quartere provided for them by the 
 people of Donaldsonville, and on the 6th adjourned, to meet in New
 
 LOUISIANA 321 
 
 Orleans on the 8th. (See Capital.) Although the term for which Gov. 
 Derbigrny was elected did not expire until Dec, 1830, Aeting-Gov. 
 Dupre did not insist upon holding the office until that time, but 
 with "a rare example of moderation," says Prof. Porbier, relin- 
 quished it to Mr. Roman almost immediately after his election by 
 the general assembly, and the administration of Gov. Derbigny came 
 to an end. 
 
 De Bidder, the parish seat of Beauregard parish, is situated near 
 the northern border, and is one of the most important and prosper- 
 ous lumbering towns in western Louisiana. It is located at the .junc- 
 tion of the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, Kansas City Southern, and 
 the Louisiana & Pacific railroads, in the heart of the western long 
 leaf yellow pine' district ; has a complete system of waterworks, ob- 
 taining the water from artesian wells, an ice plant, electric lights, 
 a fine public school building that cost $10,000, a number of fine 
 churches, a bank, an international money order postoffiee. express 
 offices, telegraph station, telephone facilities, and a number of fine 
 mercantile establishments. The manufacture of lumber is the prin- 
 cipal industry and there are several large saw mills with capacities 
 of 1.50,000 feet per day. The country around De Ridder is rapidly 
 developing into a fine agricultural district as the timber is cleared, 
 and cattle and sheep are exported in large numbers. The town was 
 laid out in 1897 and has had a steady growth, the population being 
 2,100. Its cotton shipments amount to about 2,500 bales, and wool 
 about 150,000 pounds annually. It is the second largest wool market 
 in the state. 
 
 Derouen, a post-hamlet of Iberia parish, is situated on Bayou 
 Petite Anse, and is a station on the Franklin & Abbeville R. R., about 
 4 miles M'est of New Iberia, the parish seat. It has a telegraph station. 
 
 Derry, a village and station in the soutlieastern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is situated on the west bank of the Red river and 
 the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 20 miles south of Natchitoches, the 
 parish seat. It has a money order postoffiee, an express office, tele- 
 graph station and telephone facilities, and is the shipping and 
 supply point for a rich agricultural district. 
 
 Desarc, a post-hamlet and station in the northern part of Red 
 River parish, is situated a mile east of the Red river, on the line 
 of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, and about 15 miles 
 northwest of Coushatta, the parish seat. 
 
 Descent and Distribution of Property. — Legitimate children in- 
 herit from their ascendants without distinction of sex or primo- 
 geniture, though they be from different marriages. They receive 
 equal portions, when in the same degree, and inherit by their own 
 right; they receive by roots when they inherit by representation, 
 which is recognized in the descending and collateral lines. If one 
 leaves no descendants, but a father and mother, brothers and sis- 
 ters, or descendants of these last, the estate is divided in 2 equal 
 portions, one of which goes to the parents, the other to the brothers 
 and sisters of the deceased, or their descendants. If the father or 
 mother of the person who has died without issue has died before 
 1—21
 
 322 LOUISLINA 
 
 him, the portion which would have been inherited by such deceased 
 parent goes to the brothers and sisters of the deceased, or their 
 descendants. If the deceased has left neither desceu.dants. brothers 
 nor sisters, nor descendants from them, nor father nor mother, but 
 only other descendants, these descendants inherit to the exclusion of 
 all "collaterals, as follows : If there are descendants in the paternal and 
 maternal line in the same degree, the estate is divided in 2 equal 
 shares, one of which goes to the ascendants on the paternal, and the 
 other to those on the maternal side, whether the number of ascend- 
 ants on each side be equal or not. In this ease the ascendants in 
 each line inherit by heads. But if there is in the nearest degree 
 but one ascendant in the two lines, such ascendant excludes those 
 of a more remote degree. Ascendants, to the exclusion of all others, 
 inherit the immovables given bj' them to their descendants who die 
 without posterity, but they must take them subject to the incum- 
 brances which the donee has imposed. If a person dies, leaving no 
 descendants, nor father nor mother, his brothers and sisters, or their 
 descendants inherit, to the exclusion of the ascendants and other col- 
 laterals. "When the deceased has died without issue, leaving neither 
 brothers nor sisters, nor descendants from them, nor ascendants, his 
 succession passes to his collateral relalions, and among them the near- 
 est in degree excludes the others. Every marriage superinduces of 
 right partnership or communitj^ of acquets or gains, if there be no 
 stipulation to the contrary. The community consists of the profits of 
 all the effects administered by the husband, the produce of the r(>cip- 
 roeal iudustrv and labor of both husband and wife, property acquirud 
 during marriage by donations made to them jointly or by purchase 
 in the name of either. When either husband or wife dies leaving no 
 ascendants or descendants, and without having disposed by last will 
 of his or her share (one-half) in the community property, such share 
 is held by the survivor in usufruct during his or her natural life, the 
 other half of the communit.y descends to the survivor in his or her 
 own right as owner. "Where the predeceased spouse leaves issue of the 
 marriage, and does not dispose by last will of his or her share in the 
 community, the survivor takes in usufruct the share of the deceased in 
 the community inherited by such issue. This usufruct ceases if the 
 survivor enters into a second marriage. When the deceased has left 
 neither lawful descendants nor lawful ascendants, nor collateral rela- 
 tions, the estate descends to the sui-viving husband or wife, or his or 
 her natural (illegitimate) children, or to the state. A man or woman 
 who contracts a subsequent mai-riage, having children by a former 
 one. can give to his wife or she to her husband, either by donation 
 or by last will in full property, or in usufruct, not exceeding one- 
 third of his or her property, 
 
 Deshotels, a post-hamlet in the central part of St. Landry parish, 
 is about 6 miles northeast of Villeplatte, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 12 miles northwest of Opelousas, the parish seat. Popula- 
 tion 100. 
 
 De Soto, Hernando de (sometimes written Ferdinando), who led 
 the first expedition of white men into what is now called the State
 
 LOUISIANA 323 
 
 of Louisiana, was born at Estremadura, Spain, about 1496. His first 
 visit to America was in 1519, witb Pedrarias Davila, who was after- 
 ward governor of Darien. In 1528 he left the service of Davila 
 and explored the coast of Yucatan and Guatemala, seeking for a 
 passage by water from the Atlantic to the Pacific. He next accom- 
 panied Pizarro on the expedition for the conquest of Peru, after 
 which he returned to his native land with an lionorable record for 
 bravery and enough gold to distinguish him as one of the rich men 
 of Spain. Charles V, at that time king of Spain, borrowed a part of 
 De Soto's fortune and in turn appointed him governor of Cuba and 
 president of Florida. He married the daughter of Davila, his early 
 patron, and in April, 1538, again sailed for the New World. Hearing 
 reports of the fabulous wealth of Florida, he fitted out an expedition 
 for the conquest of that region, and in the latter part of May, 1539, 
 landed at Tampa bay. His ships were sent back to Havana in July, 
 and the following year he began his march westward with a force 
 estimated at 1,000 infantry and 350 horsemen. After wandering for 
 about a year through the territoi-y now comprising the states of 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and Tennessee, and having numerous 
 encounters with the Indians, he discovered the Mississippi river, not 
 far from the moutli of the Arkansas river, in April, 1541. He crossed 
 the great river on rafts and rude barges, contimied on his westward 
 course until he reached the highlands along the White river, where 
 he turned southward, passed the hot springs of Arkansas, and spent 
 the winter on the Ouachita river. In the spring of 1542 he descended 
 the Ouachita and Red rivers to the Mississippi. On this last march 
 De Soto was stricken with fever and died about the middle of May, 
 1542. To keep the Indians from learning of his death a rude coffin 
 was formed of the trunk of an oak tree, in which the body was 
 placed, and on the night of May 21 it was sunk in the middle of the 
 river. It is said that with his last breath he charged his men not to 
 falter in the enterprise which they had imdertaken, but the death of 
 De Soto cast a gloom over the expedition and the remnant of his 
 band — about 300 weary and disheartened men under the leadership 
 of Moscoso — endeavored to make their way back overland to Florida, 
 but were unable to do so on account of the persistent annoyance of 
 the hostile Indian tribes. They therefore returned to the Mississippi, 
 built boats and followed that stream to its mouth. Once again upon 
 the Gulf of Mexico they followed the coast westward to Panuco, 
 whence some of them returned to Spain with tidings of the expedition, 
 — the first information of the country west of the great "Father of 
 Waters." In his effort to make his dream of empire a reality, De 
 Soto gave his life and dissipated his fortune. Dr. Shea says: "He 
 who had hoped to gather the wealth of nations, left as his property 
 5 Indian slaves, 3 horses and a herd of swine." Some claims have 
 been made in favor of other explorers as being the discoverers of 
 the Mississippi river, but it is generally conceded that this honor 
 belongs to De Soto. 
 
 De Soto Parish was established in 1843, and received its name 
 in memory of Hernando de Soto, the Spanish explorer who discovered
 
 824 LOUISIANA 
 
 the Mississippi river in 1541. In 1795 Pedro Dolet of Bayou Pierre 
 made a settlement on Ba.vou Adaj^es or Adaise. The state papei-s give 
 an account of this ceremony, saying that it consisted of pulling grass, 
 making holes in the ground and throwing dnst in the air. Missionar- 
 ies are ever the forerunners of settlement, and this proved true in De 
 Soto. The pioneers usually settled along the water waj's, but as this 
 desirable land was taken np settlement pushed back to the highlands. 
 During the decade following 1840 a number of people come from 
 Geoi'gia, the Carolinas, and Alabama. Logansport, on the Sabine 
 river, was founded as early as 1830. and for years was one of the most 
 celebrated trading posts on the western border, but much of its 
 prosperity waned when new towns were established in Texas and 
 Louisiana, especially when the Red river raft was removed and 
 Shreveport became a center of trade for the north and west. Since 
 the railroad was built, and with the rapid development of the lumber 
 interests in the west, it has again regained some of its old prestige. In 
 1835 a treaty was negotiated with the Caddo Indians by Jehiel 
 Brooks, on the part of the United States, and Tehowahimmo. Toock- 
 roaeh, ^lattan and other Indian chiefs and warriors of the tribe. By 
 this treaty the Caddoes ceded a large tract of land, including that 
 which now constitutes De Soto parish. In 1801 Francois Grappe had 
 been granted four leagues of land, which the treat}- of 1835 approved. 
 Some of these early settlers were the sub.iects of two monarchies, 
 French and Spanish ; citizens of two republics, Texas and the United 
 States, and resided in three pai-ishes, Natchitoches. Caddo and De 
 Soto, without moving from their homes, such has been the change 
 of boundaries and government along the western border. The act to 
 create the parish of De Soto was approved in March, 1843, and the 
 first meeting of the parish officers, commissioned by the governor, was 
 held the following June, at Screamerville. The first record of the 
 police jury is dated June 5. 1843. Judge Welsh opened the parish 
 court the same day, but the district court was not opened until a 
 year later— by Judge Campbell, May 2, 1844. On June 5, 1843, at the 
 first meeting of the police jury, $200.48 Avas paid to Gamble & 
 Edwards for a c|uarter section of land where Mansfield now stands, 
 and the name of Mansfield was then suggested and adopted for the 
 parish seat, thox;gh the town was not incorporated until 1847. The 
 first road in the parish was at this time ordered to be built. De Soto 
 is an iri-egular shaped parish in the northwestern part of the state. It 
 is bounded on the north by Caddo and Bossier parishes; on the east 
 by Red River and Natchitoches parishes; on the south by Sabine 
 parish, and on the west by the Sabine river, which separates it from 
 Texas. It is watered by Cypress bayou along its northern boundary; 
 by Wallace lake and Bayou Pierre on the east, and by the Sabine 
 river and its tributary streams along the western boundary. De Soto 
 is in one of the finest oak upland districts and its formation is chiefly 
 good upland and hills. Running across the parish diagonally, is the 
 divide between the Sabine and Red rivers. Mansfield is located on 
 this divide. The southwestern corner extends into the western long 
 leaf 3-ellow pine district, while there is a little alluvial land along tho
 
 LOUISIANA 325 
 
 Sabiue river and Bayou Pierre. On the Red river side the country is 
 hilly, productive in the valleys between the Dolet hills, and the Grand 
 Cane district is also very productive, yielding 1,400 pounds of eottou 
 to the acre. The parish contains considerable valuable timber, chiefly 
 oak, pine, poplar, maple, hickory, beech, mulberry, a little walnut, 
 and some soft wood varieties. The Dolet hills are cultivated only in 
 small tracts, as they are too broken, but they contain fine native 
 grasses for stock and have a large amount of fine pine timber. The 
 bills contain coal and iron. Cotton is the chief product, though corn, 
 hay, sweet and Irish potatoes, peas, sorghum, and tobacco are also 
 raised. The garden vegetables and fruits native to this latitude and 
 climate all grow in great abundance. The excellent water supply of 
 the parish has led to the development of the live stock industry on a 
 considerable scale, cattle, sheep, and some horses being raised. De- 
 posits of potter's and fire clay, kaolin, iron, marl, and green sand are 
 found and beds of lignite have been discovered. Mansfield, the parish 
 seat, Benson, on the Kansas City Southern R. R., and Logansport, on 
 the Sabine river, are the principal towns of the parish. Other towns 
 and villages of importance are Butler, Frierson, Gloster. Grand Cane, 
 Keatchie, Kingston, Longstreet, Oxford, Pelican and Stonewall. De 
 Soto has excellent transportation and shipping facilities, which will 
 facilitate the development of the parish, and aid in opening up the 
 coal fields. The Kansas City Southern R. R. enters the northeastern 
 boundary at Wallace lake and runs south through Mansfield and 
 Benson ; the Texas Pacific R. R. crosses the northern boundary near 
 Stonewall and runs south to Mansfield Junction, thence southeast ; the 
 Houston & Shreveport R. R. traverses the western part of the parish 
 from Logansport on the Sabine river to the Caddo parish line, a short 
 distance north of Keatchie. The markets of the country are thus 
 brought close to the producers of the parish. The following statis- 
 tics are taken from the U. S. census for 1910 : number of farms, 
 4,495; acreage, 369,649; acres under cultivation, 87.278; value of 
 land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $2,754,378 ; value of 
 farm buildings, $1,016,693 ; value of live stock, $1,083,912 ; value of 
 all crops, $1,789,171. The popuplation of the parish is 27.689. 
 
 Destrehan, Jean Noel, statesman, was born about 1780. He was 
 a native of Louisiana and one of her citizens while still a province 
 of Spain, and while a territory before admission to the Union. He 
 was speaker of the house in the territorial legislature and in 1811 he 
 opposed admitting Louisiana to statehood. Nothwithstanding his 
 vote against this act, he was appointed one of the constitutional com- 
 mittee and was one of the 7 men who drew up the constitution for 
 Louisiana. When the new state was admitted into the Union and 
 organized, he was chosen as one of the first representatives in the 
 U. S. senate, being elected senator Sept. 3, 1812, for the term ending 
 March 3, 1817, but resigned befoi-e Congress opened. He died in 
 1824. 
 
 Diamond, a village of Plaquemines parish, is situated on the 
 west bank of the Mississippi, just across the river from Pointe a la 
 Hache, the parish seat, and is a station on the New Orleans, Fort
 
 326 LOUISIANA 
 
 Jackson & Grand Isle E. E. It has a money order postoffice, an 
 express office, telegraph and telephone facilities, and its population 
 is 100. 
 
 Dibble, Henry C, lawyer, came into prominence during the re- 
 construction regime as judge of the 8th district court of New Orleans, 
 to •which position he was appointed by Gov. "Warmoth when the 
 court was established. For some time Judge Dibble "approved and 
 sanctioned all the acts of the administration." and at the request of 
 the governor he granted an injunction restraining the auditor from 
 paying warrants against appropriations made to defray the expenses 
 of the legislature of 1871. He was also a stanch siipporter of the 
 governor in the factional fight of 1872, but later in the year he ren- 
 dered a decision, in the case of the appointment of F. J. Herron to 
 the office of secretary of state, that was displeasing to Gov. War- 
 moth, who removed him and commissioned Judge Elmore, who had 
 already been elected to the office. Judge Dibble afterward served on 
 the staff of Gov. Kellogg, and it was he who, on Sept. 14, 1874, re- 
 ceived the committee sent by the mass meeting on Canal street to de- 
 mand the "immediate abdication" of Kellogg. A committee of the 
 legislature, appointed at the special session of 1875. reported that 
 Judge Dibble, as acting attorney-general, had ad^-ised the pajTuent 
 of unlawful warrants against the interest fund, and recommended 
 that he be "addressed out of office." After the state government of 
 Louisiana was restored to the people, he, like many others who had 
 been active in upholding the reconstruction policy, retired from pub- 
 lic life. 
 
 Dickard, a post-hamlet of Tensas parish, is situated in the South- 
 western part near the Bayou Macon, about 13 miles west of St. 
 Joseph, the parish seat, and 10 miles northwest of Locust Ridge, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Dime, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Plaquemines 
 parish, is situated on the east bank of the Mississippi river. 2 miles 
 east of Happv Jack, the nearest railroad station. Population in 
 1910, 130. 
 
 Dimitry, Alexander, educator and diplomat, was born in New 
 Orleans, La.. Feb. 7, 1805, the son of Andrea and Celeste (Dragon) 
 Dimitry. His father (the original Greek form of whose name was 
 Demetrios) was a native of the Island of Hydrea. off the southeast 
 coast of Greece. This family was of Macedonian origin, prominent 
 members of it having been among a colony of Macedonians and Al- 
 banians, who left their homes in northern Greece in the 17th century, 
 in order to live among their Greek compatriots of the south. This 
 band colonized the nearly uninhabited island of Hydrea and started 
 a new race, the Hydriotes. Celeste Dragon, Alexander's mother, was 
 a native of New Orleans. Alexander was educated at home, by private 
 tutors, and for several years afterward attended the New Orleans 
 classical academy. He then attended Georgetown university. D. C, 
 where he was graduated, and in 1867 he received the degree of LL. D. 
 After graduation he entered educational work in New Orleans and 
 was appointed professor in Baton Rouge college. In 1834 he left
 
 LOUISIANA 327 
 
 Louisiana to accept an appointment as clerk in the postoffice depart- 
 ment in Washington, but 8 years later he returned to Louisiana and 
 established the St. Charles institute in St. Charles parish, which he 
 conducted until 1847, when Gov. Isaac Johnson appointed him state 
 superintendent of education of Louisiana. He served in this office 
 from 1847 to 1851, the first to hold this position in the state. While in 
 office he organized and put in operation the public school system 
 throughout the state. In 1854 he returned to Washington, having 
 been appointed head translator of foreign diplomatic correspondence 
 in the state department. While still holding this position President 
 Buchanan appointed him in 1859 U. S. minister to the republics of 
 Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the seat of legation being at San Jose 
 de Costa Rica. When the Civil war broke out and Louisiana seceded 
 from the Union, he resigned and returned to the United States. In a 
 short time he was appointed chief of the Confederate bureau of 
 finance of the postoffice department, with rank as assistant post- 
 master-general. When peace was declared he moved to New York and 
 Brooklyn, but in 1867 he returned to New Orleans, where he resided 
 until his death. In 1870 he accepted the appointment of professor in 
 the Christian Brothers college at Pass Christian, Miss. During his 
 life he was distinguished as a scholar, linguist, orator, lecturer, writer 
 and diplomat. In 1830-35 he wrote seven short stories for the Annals 
 of New York and Philadelphia. He contributed to different mag- 
 azines ; was familiar with eleven languages, ancient and modern ; was 
 a prominent Odd Fellow, and one of the founders of the Seven Wise 
 Men, or Heptasophs, in which he held a high position. He was mar- 
 ried in 1835 to Mary Powell, daughter of Robert Powell Mills, U. 
 S. government architect, and died in New Orleans, Jan. 30, 1883, 
 leaving 7 children. 
 
 Dimitry, Charles Patten, author, was born in Washington, D. C. 
 July 31, 1837. the son of Alexander and Mary Powell (Mills) Dimitry. 
 His mother was the daughter of Robert Mills, of Washington, D. C, 
 and a granddaughter on her mother's side of Gen. John Smith, of 
 Hackwood, Frederick county, Va., a colonel of Virginia troops in the 
 Revolutionary war, who later served in the Virginia legislature, was 
 a representative in Congress from the Fredex-ick county district, and 
 also a major-general of the 3rd Virginia state troops in the war of 
 1812. The first American ancestor of Charles Dimitry, on the ma- 
 ternal side, was Col. Miles Cary of Warwick county, Va., who be- 
 longed to the knightly family of Carys of Clovelly and Cockington of 
 Devonshire, England, and who was born at Bristol in 1620. He 
 emigrated to America about the middle of the 17th century and be- 
 came a member of the king's council. Charles Dimitry received his 
 early education at the St. Charles institute, established by his father, 
 but continued his education in different academies and private schools 
 until 1856, when he entered Georgetown university, his father's 
 Alma Mater, where he was graduated in 1867, receiving the degree of 
 M. A. For a few years he was engaged in clerical work in New 
 Orleans, and entered the Confederate army as a private when Louisi- 
 ana seceded from the Union. At the close of hostilities he engaged in
 
 328 LOUISIANA 
 
 editorial work in New York ; did some literary work and wrote several 
 stories; between 1865 and 1874 he was connected at different times 
 with the World. Graphic. News and Star of New York and the Union 
 of Brooklyn. He was on the staff of and contributed to various 
 journals throughout the country, such as the Commercial Advertiser 
 of Alexandria. Va.. the New Orleans Bee. and the Daily Patriot of 
 "Washington. D. C. He invented and patented in the United States 
 and some foreign countries a "pen preserving ink." which did not 
 corrode steel pens. At different times he published several works in 
 book form. His first novel, entitled "Guilty or Not Guilty," was 
 published in 1864 in the Magnolia Weekly of Richmond. Va.. "The 
 House in Balfour Street" was published in 1868, and "Gold Dust 
 and Diamonds" was published in Frank Leslie's illustrated paper. 
 In addition to this he contributed to several other magazines and 
 wrote a series of historical papers on Old Louisiana under the title 
 of "Louisiana Families" for the Times Democrat of New Orleans; 
 "Ijouisiana Story in Little Chapters," for the Picayune of New Or- 
 leans, and "Glimpses of Old Louisiana." for the St. Louis Globe- 
 Democrat. Some of his articles have appeared under the noms de 
 plume of Tobias Guarnerius. Jr., and Braddock Field. He is a mem- 
 ber of the Louisiana society. Sons of the American Revolution, and 
 an ex-member of the Louisiana Historical society. In June, 1871, he 
 married Annie Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Reuben Johnston, 
 a lawyer of Alexandria, Va. She died in 1880, leaving no children. 
 Dimitry, John B. S., educator, journalist and author, was born at 
 Washington. D. C. a son of Alexander and Mary P. (Mills) Dimitry. 
 He was educated at Georgetown college, and from 1859 to 1861 was 
 secretary of legation under his father, who was at that time U. S. 
 minister to Costa Rica and Nicaragua. At the breaking out of the 
 Civil war he returned from Central America and enlisted in the 
 celebrated Crescent regiment, of New Orleans, with which he was en- 
 gaged at Shiloh, where he was severely wounded. As this wound un- 
 fitted him for further active military service, he was appointed chief 
 clerk in the Confederate postoffice department at Richmond, where 
 he served under Postmaster-General Reagan until the close of the 
 war. In April. 1865, he accompanied President Davis and his party 
 as far as Washington, Ga.. and then returned to Louisiana. From 
 1873 to 1876 he was professor of languages and belles-lettres in the 
 Colegio Caldas in South America, and ia 1895 he was appointed to a 
 similar position in Montgomery college, Virginia, where he remained 
 for several years. In the meantime he had been connected editorially 
 with the press of New Orleans, Washington, Philadelphia and New 
 York, and became widely known as a scholarly and forceful writer. 
 While working on the New York Mail and Express his short story, 
 ' ' Le Tombleau Blanc. ' ' won the first prize of $500 offered by Swinton 
 & Barnes, publishers of the Storyteller. Prof. Dimitry was the author 
 of several works, the most noted of which are "A School History and 
 Geography of Louisiana," "Three Good Giants," "Atahualpa's Cur- 
 tain," and the Louisiana volume of a "Confederate Military History," 
 published in 1899. His epitaphs of Henry Watkins Allen, Albert
 
 LOUISIANA 329 
 
 Sidney Johnston, Stonewall Jackson, Edgar Allen Poe, The Con- 
 federate Flag, Jefferson Davis, etc., have been much admired for their 
 beauty of sentiment and purity of diction. Prof. Dimitry died at Nevr 
 Orleans on Sept. 7, 1901. 
 
 Divorce. — Married persons may reciprocally claim a separation 
 from bed and board, and divorce, on account of habitual intemper- 
 ance, excess, cruel treatment or outrages of one of them towards the 
 other, if the said habitual intemperance or ill-treatment is of such a 
 nature as to render their living together insupportable; when the 
 husband or wife may have been condemned to an infamous punish- 
 ment or guilty of adultery; or on account of public defamation, 
 abandonment, attempts against the life of the other; or when the 
 husband or wife has been charged with an infamous offense and shall 
 have tied from justice. No divorce shall be granted unless a judg- 
 ment of separation from bed and board shall have been rendered be- 
 tween the parties, and one year shall have expired from the date of 
 such judgment, during which no reconciliation shall have taken place, 
 except in the cases where the husband or wife may have been sen- 
 tenced to an infamous punishment, or guilty of adultery. A judg- 
 ment of divorce carries with it a dissolution of the community of 
 acquets and gains; each spouse taking back the separate property 
 that he or she brought into the marriage, and one-half of the com- 
 munity after the payment of debts. 
 
 Dixie, a postoffice of Caddo parish, is situated on the Texas & 
 Pacific R. R., in the eastern part of the parish about a mile west of 
 the Red river and some 12 miles north of Shreveport, the parish seat. 
 It has an express office, telegraph station and telephone. 
 
 Dodson, a village in the northern part of Winn parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R., about 10 miles 
 north of Winnfield, the parish seat. It has a bank, a money order 
 postoffice, an express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, 
 and is the shipping point for a large farming and timber district. 
 Population, 845. 
 
 Donaldsonville, the seat of justice of Ascension parish, is located 
 in the southwestern part of the parish on the right bank of the 
 Mississippi river, about 80 miles by water above New Orleans, though 
 the distance on an "air line" is only a little over 50 miles. The As- 
 cension Catholic church was founded here as early as 1772 by Father 
 Angelus a Reuillagodos, a Capuchin friar. The town was founded in 
 1806 by William Donaldson. When the parish of Ascension was or- 
 ganized in 1807. Donaldsonville was made the parish seat, and in 
 1813 the town received its first charter of incorporation. At one time 
 it was inclined to contest honors with New Orleans and Baton Rouge. 
 On Feb. 4, 1825, the legislature passed an act locating the state capital 
 at Donaldsonville (See Capital), and the statehouse then erected re- 
 mained standing until 1848. In 1846 Donaldsonville annexed the 
 town of "Unionville," Avhieh was created by an act of the legisla- 
 ture, approved March 25, 1840, and which provided that "The in- 
 habitants of the town of Donaldsonville, known as fauborgs Les-
 
 330 LOUISIANA 
 
 sard and Conway, are hereby incorporated under the name of 
 Unionville. ' ' 
 
 The Donaldsonville of the present day is an important industrial 
 and commercial center and an active shipping and distributing point, 
 as 15 lines of Mississippi and Red river steamers touch at its landing 
 to receive and discharge freight and passengers. It is also on the 
 Texas & Pacific R. R., and is the northern terminus of a branch of 
 the same system that runs south to Thibodaux. The city has 3 banks, 
 3 newspapers, rice mills, large lumbering interests, machine shops. 
 a canning factory, several extensive brickyards, an ice factorj% etc., 
 Catholic and Protestant churches, a Jewish synagogue, good public 
 schools, several fire companies, and lodges of all the leading fraternal 
 societies. The population is 4,090. 
 
 Donner, a village in the northwestern part of Terrebonne parish, 
 is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 10 miles west of Schriver, 
 and 15 miles northwest of Houma. the parish seat. It has a money or- 
 der postoffice, an express office, telephone and telegraph facilities, 
 important sugar industries, and a population of 125. 
 
 Dorcheat, a money order post-village in the northeastern part of 
 Webster parish, is on a bayou of the same name, about 8 miles east 
 of Cotton Valley, the nearest railroad station, and 15 miles north of 
 Minden, the parish seat. 
 
 Dorcyville, a village in the southeastern part of Iberville parish, 
 is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi river and is a sta- 
 tion on the Texas & Pacific R, R.. about 10 miles southeast of Plaqiie- 
 mine. the parish seat. Its principal industries are lumbering, wooden- 
 ware factories, and rice mills, and it is the shipping and supply center 
 for a considerable district. Its population is 200. 
 
 Doss (R. R. name "Windsor), a post-hamlet in the southwestern 
 part of Morehouse parish, is a station on the St. Louis, Iron Moim- 
 tain & Southern R. R., about 8 miles south of Bastrop, the parish 
 seat. 
 
 Dossman, a post-hamlet in Evangeline parish, is on Bayou Coco- 
 drie. about 4 miles west of Milburn. the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Douay, Anastase, a Recollet friar, was one of La Salle's com- 
 panions, and in connection with Father Zenobe Membre wrote an ac- 
 count of the voyage to the mouth of the IMississippi river in 1682. 
 Two years later he accompanied the expedition to foimd a colony at 
 the mouth of the Mississippi : went with La Salle to Canada in 1685 ; 
 and was present at the latter 's death on March 18, 1687. After many 
 hardships he succeeded in reaching Fort St. Louis on the Illinois, and 
 finally France. In 1699 he came back to Louisiana with Iberville, and 
 was one of the 48 men who accompanied Ibenalle on his expedition up 
 the river. The same year he returned to France and there passed the 
 remainder of his life. 
 
 Downs, Solomon W., U. S. senator from Louisiana, was born in 
 Tennessee in 1801. He received a classical education and graduated 
 at the Transylvania university: studied law; was admitted to the bar; 
 began practice at New Orleans in 1862 ; was for a time JJ. S. district 
 attorney ; was elected U. S. senator from Louisiana as a democrat, and
 
 LOUISIANA 331 
 
 served from Dec. 6, 1847, to March 3, 1853. He died at Orchard 
 Springs, Ky., Aug. 14, 1854. 
 
 Downsville, an old town in the southern part of Union parish, 
 was incorporated in 1860. It is about 10 miles south of Farmerville, 
 the parish seat, and 8 miles north of Tremont, the nearest railroad 
 station. It is situated in a rich agricultural district and supplies a 
 large area. 
 
 Doyline, a money order post-village in the southwestern part of 
 Webster parish, is a station on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific 
 R. R., about 9 miles southwest of Minden, the parish seat. Popula- 
 tion 200. 
 
 Dred Scott Decision. — Probably no case ever decided by the 
 supreme court of the United States created more general comment 
 and excitement than that of Dred Scott, a negro who brought suit in 
 the courts to gain his freedom. The events leading up to the ease were 
 as follows: In 1835 a Dr. Emerson, of Missouri, was appointed sur- 
 geon at Fort Snelling, Minn., and took with him a slave named Dred 
 Scott. Shortly after arriving at Fort Snelling Dr. Emerson bought 
 from Maj. Taliaferro a negro girl named Harriet, who became the 
 wife of Scott, and a child was born to them while at Fort Snelling. 
 In 1838 Dr. Emerson went back to Missouri, taking the two slaves 
 with him, and died there a few years later. In 1848 Scott brought an 
 action in the courts of Missouri to establish his freedom, on the 
 grounds that Minnesota was in that part of the Louisiana purchase 
 in which slavery was expressly prohibited by the Missouri Com- 
 promise of 1820, and that his residence in that territory annulled all 
 his master's rights of ownership to him or the other members of his 
 family. In 1852 the Missouri supreme court decided against him, 
 holding that return to Missouri, without any objection on his part, 
 reestablished his status as a slave. Two years later the case was taken 
 before the U. S. circuit court, which decided that Scott was a citizen 
 of Missouri and could be a party to a suit in the Federal courts, but 
 decided against him, as the state courts had done. Several promi- 
 nent anti-slavery lawyers carried the case to the U. S. siijirerae court 
 without charging Scott any fees for their services, and in March, 
 1857, the famous opinion was handed down by Chief Justice Roger B. 
 Taney, all the justices concurring except Benjamin R. Curtis, a 
 native of Massachusetts, who gave a dissenting opinion. 
 
 In rendering his decision Mr. Taney said: "It is difficult, at this 
 day, to realize the state of public opinion in relation to that unfor- 
 tunate race which prevailed in the civilized and enlightened portions 
 of the world at the time of the Declaration of Independence, and 
 when the constitution was framed and adopted. But the public his- 
 tory of every European nation displays it in a manner too plain to 
 be mistaken. They had for more than a century before been regarded 
 as being of an inferior race, and altogether unfit to associate with the 
 white race, either in social or political relations ; and so far inferior 
 that they had no rights which the wliite man was bound to respect, and 
 that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for 
 his benefit. ' '
 
 332 LOUISIANA 
 
 The abolitionists of the North seized with avidity upon the ex- 
 pression: "The negro has no rights which the white man is bound 
 to respect," and made it their slogan. Many in their ignorance at- 
 tributed the words to the chief justice, when, as a matter of fact, 
 he merely used the expression in the nature of a quotation to show the 
 prevailing opinion of the black race during the century preceding 
 the establishment of the American republic. Others, who understood 
 the sense in which the language had been iised. kept silent upon the 
 subject, and in this way 'Mr. Taney was made the victim of an injus- 
 tice. There is little room for doubt, however, that the use of this 
 "war cry," whether in ignorance or malice, had nnich to do with crys- 
 tallizing the abolition sentiment in the Northern states. On the other 
 hand the slaveholders of the South found reasons for rejoicing in the 
 majority opinion of the court, which held that the Missouri Com- 
 promise was unconstitutional: that the obligation of Congress to. pro- 
 tect private property was paramount to the power to govern the ter- 
 ritories: tliat slaves, being property, were entitled to this protection 
 under the constitution ; and that Congress had no power to enact laws 
 prohibiting the owner of slaves from taking them wherever he pleased. 
 This portion of the opinion was regarded by many attorneys as extra- 
 judicial — a sort of obiter dictum — and witho\it direct bearing on the 
 case, but it gave encouragement to the slaveholders to know that all 
 the justices of the U. S. Supreme court, with one exception, held such 
 ■views. Coming as it did jiist after the iua\iguration of President 
 Buchanan, the anti-slavery element accepted it as a challenge : intense 
 feeling soon manifested itself in both sections, and there is no ques- 
 tion that the decision had its influence in precipitating the Civil 
 war. 
 
 Dreux, Charles D., soldier, was a native of Louisiana, and was 
 one of the first men to volunteer from that state for service in the 
 Confederate army. On April 11. 1861. as captain of the Orleans 
 Cadets, he was ordered with his command to Pensacola, Fla., and soon 
 afterward to Virginia, where he was placed in command of the 
 1st Loiiisiana battalion with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. About 
 midnight. July -4. while the battalion was stationed at Young's Mills, 
 Va., Lieut.-Col. Dreux, with 100 infantry, 15 or 20 cavalry and a 
 howitzer, moved out on the road toward Newport News and took posi- 
 tioin in ambush near a place known as the Curtis farm. His com- 
 mand was scarcely stationed when the videttes came in and reported 
 a body of Federal cavahy approaching. Although Dreux gave orders 
 not to fire, shots were exchanged between the scouts and the Fed- 
 erals, and soon after the firing became general. In the skirmish Dreux 
 was mortally wounded and lived but a few hours. The Confederate 
 Military History says: "Charles D. Dreux. so early killed in the 
 war, was mourned in the city which knew him best as a loss both 
 as a citizen and soldier. In New Orleans and Shreveport, Con- 
 federate crape was first displayed in Louisiana." 
 
 Dreyfus, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Iberville parish, is 
 situated on the east bank of the ilississippi river and on the Yazoo
 
 LOUISIANA 333 
 
 & ]\Iississippi Valley R. R., about 10 miles south of Plaquemine, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 Drycreek, a post-village in Beauregard parish, is situated on a 
 creek of the same name, about 3 miles southwest of Red Buck, the 
 nearest railroad station. 
 
 Dry Prong', a post-village and station in the central part of Grant 
 parish, is on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 12 miles north- 
 east of Colfax, the parish seat, and has a population of 150. 
 
 Dubach, a village in the northern part of Lincoln parish, is situ- 
 ated on Bayou D'Arbonne and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 
 R. R., about 11 miles north of Ruston, the parish seat. It has a 
 money order postoffice, an express office, a telegraph station and 
 telephone facilities, and is the center of trade for a fine agricultural 
 district. Population 714. 
 
 Dubberly, a village in the southeastern part of Webster parish, 
 is on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., 9 miles by rail 
 southeast of Minden, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office, express office and telegraph station, and a population of 200. 
 
 Duboin, a post-hamlet of Iberia parish, is in the central part, 
 about 3 miles southeast of Curtis, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Dubourg, Louis Guillaume Valentine, first Roman Catholic 
 bishop of New Orleans, was born at Cape Francois, San Domingo, 
 Feb. 14, 1766. He was given an excellent education in France, 
 and later, when he decided to enter the priesthood, went to the 
 seminary of St. Sulpiee. where he studied under M. Nagot, who 
 introduced the order of St. Sulpiee into the United States. At the 
 completion of his course in the seminary, he was placed at the 
 head of a new institution of Sulpieians in France, but the revolu- 
 tion caused it to be abandoned, and Dubourg sought refuge with 
 his family in Bordeaux. This hiding place proved to be unsafe, 
 however, and he fled to Spain and later to America. LTpon appli- 
 cation he was ordained a Sulpician priest and in 1796 received an 
 appointment as president of Georgetown university, Washington, 
 D. C. Three years later he went to Havana to establish a college, 
 but was unsuccessful, and returned to the United States, bringing 
 with him the sons of many of the prominent families of Havana 
 who wished to receive a college education. He founded an acad- 
 emy in Baltimore, had St. Mary's school raised to a college in 1804 
 and united to the Sulpician seminary of St. Mary. In 1806 the 
 college was raised to the rank of a university by the state legisla- 
 ture of Maryland, and it became a prominent institution. In 1812 
 Father Dubourg was appointed administrator apostolic of the di- 
 ocese of Louisiana and the two Floridas. When New Orleans was 
 threatened by the British in 1815, he issued a letter directing public 
 services to he held in all the Catholic churches of the city to pray 
 for protection. Gen. Jackson highly commended this action and 
 after the victory requested Father Dubourg to hold a public service 
 of thanks in the cathedral. This was done on Jan. 23, 1815. The 
 Abbe met Gen. Jackson at the door of the Cathedral and delivered 
 a patriotic address, and Jackson in turn thanked the Abbe for the
 
 334 L0UISL4NA 
 
 prayers offered in the cliurches. The same year Dubourg Avent to 
 Europe and was appointed bishop of New Orleans at Rome on 
 Sept. 24, 1815. He secured several Lazarist priests for the mis- 
 sions of Louisiana, and priests of other orders in France. The king 
 of France placed the war ship Caravani at his disposal and in com- 
 pany witli 31 priests he had secured for the church in Louisiana 
 he sailed for the United States. One of the first things Bishop 
 Dubourg did was to establish a seminary in connection with a col- 
 lege at Barrens, Mo., but soon transferred it to the care of the 
 Jesuits. It has since become known as the imiversity of St. Louis. 
 Bishop Dubourg visited "Washington in 1823, secured an appropria- 
 tion from the government for the Indian tribes of his diocese and 
 placed them iu the care of the Jesuits. He induced the Ladies of 
 the Sacred Heart to come from Paris and establish convents in 
 America ; founded a convent at Florien, ]\Io. ; took a deep interest 
 in the Ursuline nuns, who had been established in New Orleans in 
 1727; and was very active in establishing the "Association for 
 Propagation of the Faith." He went to Europe on business in 1826 
 and never retiirned, as he was transferred from the diocese to 
 Montauban, France, and in 1833 was appointed Archbishop of 
 Besancon, France, where he died on Feb. 12, 1833. (See Catholic 
 Church.) 
 
 Dubreuil, Claude Joseph, a rich planter, was a native of Dijon, 
 France, and La Harpe records him as one of a number of French 
 gentlemen who arrived at Dauphine island on j\Iarch 9, 1717, for 
 the purpose of establishing colonies in Louisiana. His grant was 
 located on the ]\Iississippi river, a few miles above the site Bien- 
 ville had chosen for the capital of the province, and here he estab- 
 lished a thriving plantation. Says Father Charlevoix in his journal 
 describing his voyage down the Mississiitpi dui-ing the Aviutcr of 
 1721-2: "On the 5th (Jan., 1722) we stopped to \iine at a place 
 which they call the Chapitoulas, and which is but three leagues 
 distant from New Orleans. The Chapitoulas, and some neighbor- 
 ing habitations, are in a very good condition. The soil is fruitful, 
 and is fallen into the hands of people that are skillful and laborious. 
 They are the Sieur de Breuil and three Canadian brothers, named 
 
 Chau\dn They have lost no time, they have spared no 
 
 pains, and their example is a lesson for those lazy people whose 
 poverty very unjustly disparages a country wliich will render a 
 hundred fold of whatever is sowed in it." Dubreuil appears to 
 have been active in promoting the first establishment of New Or- 
 leans, and Prof. Fortier quotes with approval a letter of Du- 
 breuil's, wi-itteu in 1740, indicating that he was the first man to 
 make levees and drainage canals in Louisiana. The letter men- 
 tions a canal he was then digging near New Orleans at his o-mi ex- 
 pense, and says further: "The establishment of New Orleans in 
 the beginning Mas awful, the river when it was high spreading 
 over the whole ground, and in all the houses there were two feet 
 of water, which caused general and mortal diseases. As I was 
 knoAvn to be enterprising and not capable of refusing a service,
 
 LOUISIANA 335 
 
 the directors begged me to make the levee, and I made two-thirds 
 of it without any compensation, and New Orleans was out of inun- 
 dation and as dry as if it had been built on a high land." Fortier 
 also quotes a document of 1724, which describes Dubreuil as "one 
 of the most laborious and intelligent of all the inhabitants. * * * 
 He understands mechanics, and is of all trades. His lot is the 
 largest, the finest, and the best cleared in the colony. He has been 
 the first to make levees and deep ditches for the drainage of the 
 waters in the swamps, to keep his lands dry. * * * jje has a 
 large house with two wings which serve as a store, which he is 
 completing at present. He has the best lodging in the colony. He 
 has a very fine view." In a list of the first inhabitants of Nelw 
 Orleans to whom lots were assigned for building purposes, as given 
 in French's Historical Collections, Dubreuil appears as the owner 
 of lot No. 2. 
 
 According to Bossu, the French traveler and explorer, who made 
 three extended journeys through the province of Louisiana by 
 order of his government during the administrations of Vaudreuil 
 and Kerlerec, Dubreuil was prominently identified with the begin- 
 ning of the sugar industry in Louisiana. Says Bossu: "Whilst I 
 was in Louisiana (1751), the inhabitants got from St. Domingo 
 plants of sugar-canes, in order to make plantations of them. M. 
 Dubreuil, who commands the militia of citizens, was the first 
 planter that built a sugar-mill at New Orleans." This was in 1758. 
 
 Duck Port, a village of Madison parish, is situated on the west 
 bank of the Mississippi river, about 4 miles northeast of Thomas- 
 town, the nearest railroad station, and 10 miles east of Tallulah, 
 the parish seat. It is a shipping point for a considerable district. 
 
 Dueling. — In the early days, to be an expert swordsman was the 
 ambition of nearly every young Louisianian. Military oificers 
 fenced for pastime by moonlight on the levee ; fencing schools flour- 
 ished, and were well patronized by fashionable young men. Though 
 the mere love of fencing may not have been responsible for the 
 numerous "affaires d'honneur," it certainly did not discourage the 
 practice of dueling, so that during the colonial period, and for many 
 years after tlie admission of Louisiana as a state, the "code." as it 
 was called, was universally recognized in New Orleans. It must 
 not be inferred, however, that the custom was peculiar to that city, 
 as the "code" was observed and dueling practiced in all parts of 
 the country. Duels were fought sometimes more as a test of skill 
 with the sword than to redress a wrong or avenge an insult. 
 Gayarre, in his History of Louisiana, gives an instance of this kind, 
 where six young French noblemen engaged in a duel on what is 
 now one of the principal business streets of New Orleans. As 
 they were walking along together, with no ill-feeling among them, 
 one exclaimed: "0, what a beautiful night! What a splendid level 
 ground for a joust! Suppose we pair off, draw our swords, and 
 make this night memorable by a spontaneous display of bravery 
 and skill." The proposal was favorably received, almost instantly 
 six swords were glittering in the light of the moon, and the en-
 
 336 LOUISIANA 
 
 counter — begun in a spirit of heroic but foolish bravado — ter- 
 minated by two of the participants being left on the field seriously 
 injured. 
 
 The favorite weapon of the Creoles was the rapier, or coliche- 
 marde, \vhich was used almost exclusively prior to the purchase of 
 Louisiana by the United States, the saber and broadsword being 
 rarely brouglit into requisition, though there are sveeral recorded 
 cases of duels on horseback, with broadswords. One of these oc- 
 curred on "Plaine Racquette" in the Faubourg Marigny, between 
 a young creole and a French cavalry ofScer. The former was no 
 match for the Frenchman in physical strength, but by his dexterity 
 in the use of the sword he parried every blow, and finally drove his 
 blade through the body of his antagonist. A slight wound with the 
 rapier was usually sufficient to satisfy sullied honor, and many a 
 duel resulted in nothing more serious than the shedding of a small 
 quantity of blood. But after the cession of the province to the United 
 States, the American introduced firearms upon the field of honor and 
 pistols, rifles, and sometimes shotguns, were used with more deadly 
 effect. 
 
 Political arguments, love affairs, legal contests, scientific discus- 
 sions, etc.. often furnished the excuse for a challenge, which was sel- 
 dom declined. "Everybody fought with everybody," and men kept 
 score of their duels as a society belle keeps tally of her conquests. 
 With the advent of a large number of the soldiers of Napoleon's dis- 
 banded armies there was a renaissance of dueling, and all through 
 the ante-bellum days the man who would not fight was deemed un- 
 worthy of the treatment due a gentleman, socially ostracised, to some 
 extent at least, and open to insult. None was too high nor too low 
 in social or political life to offer or accept a challenge. W. C. C. 
 Claiboi'ne, the first American governor, left the executive mansion 
 in 1807 to meet Daniel Clark, then the territorial delegate in Con- 
 gress at Fort Manchac, and in the duel which ensued Clark was 
 severely wounded. "While "Winfield Scott, then a captain in the army, 
 was stationed at New Orleans, a rumor was started that he had ap- 
 propriated to his own use some of the money sent to him to pay his 
 men. He challenged a Dr. Upshaw of Mississippi, and on Feb. 10, 
 1810, a duel was fought on the Louisiana side of the Mississippi river 
 opposite Natchez, the bluffs on the east side being crowded by spec- 
 tators, among whom were several army officers. Scott received a 
 painful scalp wound, but the fact that he was willing to defend his 
 honor had p tendency to check the rumor so damaging to his char- 
 acter. Marigny de Mandeville fought with his brother-in-law; a 
 father and son both fought duels on the same day : and on one Sun- 
 day in 1839 as many as ten duels were fought in New Orleans or the 
 immediate vicinity. Pierre Soule, while U. S. minister to Spain, 
 fought a duel at JMadrid with Marquis de Turgot, the French am- 
 bassador, over an affair of state, Turgot receiving a wound that was 
 more annoying than dangerous. 
 
 But to describe, ever so briefly, all the duels that have taken place 
 in and about New Orleans would require a volume. The visitor to
 
 LOUISIANA 337 
 
 the old cemeteries may see on many of the old tombs the legend: 
 "Killed on the field of honor." Ponton's fencing rooms, near the 
 Orleans theater, were the scene of numerous duels, though the spot 
 that stood highest in favor with the duelists was "The Oaks," a 
 beautiful grove of live oaks, not far from Metairie cemetery, on the 
 same ridge, and now in what is known as the lower city park. 
 
 Clergymen animadverted upon the evils of dueling, but without 
 avail. Article 130 of the constitution of 1845 was as follows: "Any 
 citizen of this state who shall, after the adoption of this constitution, 
 fight a duel with deadly weapons, or send a challenge to fight a duel, 
 either within the state, or out of it, or who shall act as second, or 
 knowingly aid and assist in any manner those thus offending, shall 
 be deprived of holding any office of trust or profit, and of enjoying 
 the right of suffrage under this constitution." This article was rati- 
 fied by the people, but it soon became unpopular, as many of the 
 leading citizens of the state found themselves disfranchised, and in 
 1849 it was repealed. Louisiana was not the only state that essayed to 
 suppress dueling by law. In some of the states the killing of a man 
 in a duel was defined as murder and made punishable by death ; in 
 others public officials were required to take an oath that they had not 
 been, within a certain period, nor would not be during their term of 
 office, engaged in any duel. 
 
 Those who fought duels were not necessarily bad or bloodthirsty 
 men. They were simply adherents to a custom that demanded they 
 should fight or be branded as a coward. Most of them were law-abid- 
 ing citizens in all matters outside of the "code," and many of the 
 historic duels in the United States were fought by men high in public 
 life. The duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr is 
 familiar to almost every schoolboy ; Button Gwinett, one of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence from Georgia, was killed by Gen. 
 Mcintosh ; Henry Clay and John Randolph, two of the most brilliant 
 men in Congress, fought a duel in 1826; Gen. Andrew Jackson and 
 Col. Thomas H. Benton both fought several duels, each killing his 
 opponent in one instance ; DeWitt Clinton, governor of New York and 
 the Federalist candidate for president in 1812, was a noted duelist, 
 and the list might be extended indefinitely. 
 
 Since the war the "code" has fallen into disuse, and a duel, fought 
 by formal challenge and acceptance, is now of rare occurrence. 
 There are some, however, who still believe in this method of settling 
 differences of opinion, but public opinion keeps them from being too 
 outspoken in its defense. James D. Lynch, of Mississippi, in the his- 
 tory of the bench and bar of that state, published in 1880, says: 
 "While the institution of chivalry, as it existed in the middle ages, 
 has long since been borne down by the heavy tread of a cold asceticism, 
 and our society bears but little analogy to the scenes of Ivanhoe or 
 the days of Richard Coeur de Lion, the duello, in spite of all regrets 
 and denunciations, will continue to give tone to the upper circles of 
 Southern society so long as Southern honor maintains its historic 
 standard. ' ' 
 
 Duke of Orleans. — (See Louis Philippe.) 
 1—22
 
 338 LOnSLlNA 
 
 Dulac, a post-liamlet in the central part of Terrebonne parish, is 
 situated on Bayou Cailloii, just south of Quitman lake and about 
 15 miles south of Houma, the parish seat. 
 
 Dumont, author of The Historical Memoirs of Louisiana cover- 
 ing the period of French domination down to the year 1740, or the 
 close of Gov. Bienville's second campaign against the Chiekasaws, 
 was a resident of the colony for 22 years, and was an eye witness 
 of much that he describes. While many of his statements lack 
 historical accuracy, his work nevertheless ranks with that of La 
 Harpe and Le Page du Pratz, as one of the best sources of early 
 Louisiana history. He has left one of the most interesting accounts 
 of the beginning of New Orleans, and his story of the last Natchez 
 war is as accurate as any. Dumont was stationed for a number of 
 years at Forts Rosalie and St. Claude as lieutenant and engineer. 
 He also accompanied La Harpe in 1721 in the capacity of mathe- 
 matician on his expedition of 250 leagues up the Arkansas river. 
 He was serving as a lieutenant at Fort Rosalie among the Natchez 
 shortly before the massacre of 1729, as he records a serious diffi- 
 culty he had with the arbitrary commander of that year, Chopart. 
 His Llemoirs are included in the French Collections of Louisiana, 
 and frequent references to this valuable work will be found in these 
 pages. Says Mr. French, "It is much to be regretted that M. 
 Dumont, who lived some years after he returned to France, had 
 not brought down liis historv of Louisiana to its abandonment to 
 Spain." 
 
 Dunbar, a post-village in the extreme southeastern corner of 
 St. Tammany parish, is on the west bank of the Pearl river and is 
 a station on the Louisville & Nashville R. R. 
 
 Dunbar, William, member of Congress, was elected a represent- 
 ative from Louisiana, to the 33d Congress. This is the only record 
 of him in the Congressional Directory. 
 
 Dunbar's Line. — This name has sometimes been applied to the 
 parallel of 31° north latitude from the Pearl river to the Missis- 
 sippi, though the greater portion of the line was run by Andrew 
 Ellicott, who was acting on behalf of the L^nited States. William 
 Dunbar, a celebrated mathematician and astronomer, was born in 
 Scotland in 1749 and was ediTcated in Glasgow and London. In 1771 
 he came to America, first establishing a trading post at Pittsburg, 
 Pa., but two years later he descended the Ohio and Mississippi rivers 
 and selected a tract of land near Baton Rouge, where he decided to 
 establish himself as a planter. In 1798 he was appointed by Gov. 
 Galvez to act as astronomer on behalf of Spain in i-unning the line 
 between the Spanish possessions and the United States as fixed b}' 
 the treaties of 1783. Andrew Ellicott represented the United States, 
 and had determined a point on the line about two miles from the 
 Mississippi before he was ,ioiued by Dunbar on May 28, 1798. Dunbar 
 accepted the point established by Ellicott, and in his report to the 
 Spanish authorities says: "The moist and swampy soil in the vicinity 
 of the Mississippi being considered as hazardous to the health of our 
 northern friends, I proposed that the American commissioner should
 
 LOUISIANA 339 
 
 continue his progress eastward, with the white laborers, 50 in num- 
 ber, reserving for myself the task of pushing the line through the low 
 lands to the margin of the Mississippi with the assistance of two sur- 
 veyors, 22 black laborers and a white overseer." 
 
 He extended the line to the river bank, a distance of 2 miles and 
 180' perches (2.111.42 French toises), reaching the river on August 
 17, 1798, and the next day erected a post 10 feet high, surrounded 
 by a mound 8 feet in height, of which he says: "On this point is 
 inscribed on the south side a crown with the letter R underneath; 
 on the north U. S., on the west side fronting the river, Agosto 18th, 
 1798, 31° Lat. N. " Mr. Dunbar remained with the work until the line 
 had been carried to the distance of about 18 miles from the river, 
 "including the whole of the cultivated lands," when he retired in 
 accordance with the terms of the agreement previously made with 
 the Spanish government. His report has been copied from the archives 
 of Spain and published in the Collections of the Mississippi His- 
 torical society (Vol. Ill, p. 185). 
 
 Duncan, Johnson Kelly, soldier, was born in York, Pa., March 
 19, 1827. He was appointed to the U. S. military academ.y, where 
 he was graduated July 1, 1849, as brevet second-lieutenant of the 
 2nd artillery. He served in Florida against the Indians during 1849 
 and 1850, and on garrison duty at Forts Sullivan and Preble, Me. 
 Soon after he was appointed assistant on the Northern Pacific rail- 
 road exploring expedition, serving from 1853 to 1854. He was 
 promoted to 1st lieutenant of the 3d artillery, but resigned Jan. 31, 
 1855, and became superintendent of repairs at the branch mint, at 
 New Orleans until 1860. Prom that time until 1861 he was chief 
 engineer of the board of public works of Louisiana. When the war 
 broke out he offered his services to Jefferson Davis, who appointed 
 him colonel first and on Jan. 7, 1862, promoted him to brigadier- 
 general. He was placed in command of the coast defenses, including 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip. Toward the end of April Parragut 
 bombarded these forts, which were intended to defend the city of 
 New Orleans, and after 6 days passed them. After the Union fleet 
 passed. Gen. Duncan was cut off and surrendered. After his ex- 
 change he acted as aide to Gen. Bragg, but lived only a few months 
 longer. He died at Knoxville, Tenn., Dec. 18, 1862. 
 
 Dunham, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Franklin parish, 
 is near the northern boundary, about 5 miles northwest of Piekrum, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Dunn, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Richland parish, is a 
 station on the main line of the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific 
 R. R., about 4 miles west of Delhi. It has an express office and 
 telegraph station and a population of 100. 
 
 Duplessis, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Ascension par- 
 ish, is about 4 miles north of Witten, which is the most convenient 
 railroad station. 
 
 Dupont, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Pointe Coupee 
 parish, is about 5 miles southeast of St. Clair, the nearest railroad 
 station.
 
 340 LOUISIANA 
 
 Dupre, Henry Garland, of New Orleans, La., was boru in Opelou- 
 sas, St. Landry parish, July 28, 1873. He received his education 
 in the public schools of Opelousas, graduating from Tulane in 
 1892, with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and later the degree of 
 Bachelor of Laws. He began his practice in 1895, serving as As- 
 sistant City Attorney of New Orleans from 1900 to 1910. He was 
 then elected to the House of Representatives of the State of Louisi- 
 ana, parish of Orleans, in 1900, and was reelected in 190-4-1908. 
 He was elected Speaker of the House in session of 1908, serving 
 in regular and extra sessions of 1910. Mr. Dupre was chairman of 
 the Democratic State Convention in 1908 to select delegates to the 
 Denver Convention, and was elected to 61st Congress on November 
 S, 1910, to fill the unexpired term of Hon. Samuel L. Gilmore (de- 
 ceased), at the same time being elected to 62nd Congress, reelected 
 to 63rd without opposition. 
 
 Dupre, Jacques, acting-governor of Louisiana from Jan. 15, 1830, 
 to Jan. 30, 1831, was born in the Opelousas district about 1790. 
 His opportunities to acquire an education were extremely limited, 
 but he was a practical man, and in later life became noted for his 
 good judgment. As a stock raiser he amassed a considerable for- 
 tune. His entry into politics was when he was elected a member 
 of the lower house of the legislature from St. Landry parish, and 
 from 1828 to 1846 he was a member of the state senate. In Jan., 
 1830, he was elected president of the senate and by virtue of that 
 office succeeded Armand Beauvais as acting-governor. On Jan. 
 30, 1831, he resigned in favor of Gov. Roman, who had just been 
 elected by the general assembly. 
 
 Durald, a post-hamlet in Evangeline parish, is about 6 miles north- 
 west of Eunice, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Durell, Edward Henry, jurist and writer, was born at Ports- 
 mouth, N. H., July 14, 1810, a son of Daniel M. and Elizabeth 
 (Wentworth) Durell. His father, who was born in 1769 and died 
 in 1841, was a prominent la^vyer, a member of the 10th Congress, 
 served for several years in the New Hampshire legislature, and 
 from 1830 to 1834 was U. S. district attorney for that state. Edward 
 H. Durell was educated at Phillips Exeter academy and at Har- 
 vard, graduating in 1831. He then studied law and soon after his 
 admission to the bar removed to Mississippi. In 1836 he located in 
 New Orleans, where he wielded a large influence in public affairs. 
 In 1843 he drafted the law changing the law of descent of property 
 in Louisiana, which did much to allay the then prevailing family 
 feuds in the settlements of estates. As a member of the city council 
 he originated several important measures regarding the city's rev- 
 enues. He was opposed to secession and after the passage of the 
 ordinance by the Louisiana convention he left the Democratic party 
 and for a time lived in retirement. When the Federal troops occu- 
 pied New Orleans in the spring of 1862, he drafted, at the reqiiest 
 of the military authorities, the so-called bureau system of municipal 
 government, and was appointed president of the bureau of finance. 
 In 1863 he served for awhile as mayor of New Orleans; was ap-
 
 LOUISIANA 341 
 
 pointed U. S. judge for the eastern district of Louisiana iu 1864, 
 and two years later his jurisdiction Avas extended to the entire 
 state. He "was president of tlie state constitutional convention in 
 1864; declined a place on the U. S. supreme bench in 1865; visited 
 Washington that year and was influential in securing the discon- 
 tinuance of legal procedure under the confiscation policy; was ten- 
 dered and declined the Austrian mission in 1867; was prominently 
 mentioned as a candidate for vice-president on the Republican ticket 
 in 1868, and continued to serve as district judge until 1874, when he 
 resigned. His resignation was no doubt hastened by the notoriety 
 lie attained through his famous "midnight order" on Dec. 5, 1872. 
 (See Returning Boards.) After retiring from the bench Judge 
 Durell removed to Schoharie, N. Y., where he passed the remainder 
 of his life in literary work. His most important work was his 
 translation of P. C. Rout's "Essay on the History of France and the 
 Immediate Causes of the Revolution of 1789," to which he added a 
 volume of original notes. At the time of his death he was at work 
 on a "History of Seventeen Years, from 1860 to the Retiring of the 
 Federal Army from Louisiana and South Carolina," the manuscript 
 of which he left incomplete. He died at Schoharie, March 29, 1887. 
 
 Duson, a post-hamlet and station in the western part of Lafayette 
 parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 11 miles west of 
 Lafayette, the parish seat. It has an express office, telegraph sta- 
 tion, telephone facilities, and a population of 120. 
 
 Dutch Town, a money order post-village in the northern part of 
 Ascension parish, is about 2 miles northeast of Nettie, the nearest 
 railroad station. 
 
 Duty, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Catahoula parish, is 
 situated on the Ouachita river, about 12 miles north of Harrison- 
 burg, the parish seat, and about 6 miles east of Rosefield, the nearest 
 railroad station. 
 
 Dyer, a money order post-village in the southwestern part of 
 Rapides parish, situated on a confluent of the Bayou Cocodrie, about 
 5 miles north of Kelly, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 E 
 
 Eads, James Buchanan, one of the greatest Americal civil 
 engineers, was born on May 23, 1820, at Lawrenceburg, Ind., where 
 he received all his schooling by the time he was 13 years of age. 
 At that time his parents started to remove to St. Louis, but were 
 so unfortunate as to lose all their efi'ects by fire before reaching 
 their destination. This threw the boy on his own resources. He 
 peddled apples, clerked in a store, and at the age of 19 years became 
 a clerk on a steamboat. During all this time he had occupied his 
 spare time in the study of engineering, and soon after taking service 
 on the river he invented a boat to recover the cargoes from sunken 
 steamers. This was followed by a pumping device for relieving 
 sunken vessels of the sand accumulated in them, so that vessel and
 
 342 LOUISIANA 
 
 cargo could be raised. lu this business he acquired wealth aud 
 prominence, and in a few years he was one of the richest and best 
 kno'N^Ti men on the ^Mississippi river. In 1845 he erected a glass 
 works at St. Louis, the first west of the Ohio river. In 1856 he 
 went to "Washington to interest Congress in the removal of snags, 
 wrecks, etc., from the waters of the western rivers. The house 
 passed a bill making appropriations for that purpose, but it failed 
 in the senate. At the beginning of the war President Lincoln sent 
 for Mr. Eads and asked him to undertake the construction of light- 
 draught gunboats for use on the western rivers, and in 100 days he 
 completed 8 vessels, the first ironclads built by the United States. 
 After the war he designed and constructed the great steel bridge 
 over the Mississippi river at St. Louis — one of the greatest tri- 
 umphs of engineering skill. In 1872 Congress appointed a com- 
 mission of 7 prominent engineers to devise some plan of avoiding 
 the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, and in 1878 the commis- 
 sion reported in favor of a canal from near Fort St. Philip to 
 Breton bay. This plan was opposed by Eads, who finally won his 
 case and received the contract of building the jetties (q. v.) to 
 deepen and keep clear the channel at the mouth of the river. This 
 work was completed in 1879, and the same year Mr. Eads was ap- 
 pointed one of a commission to prepare a plan for the improvement 
 of the entire Mississippi with a view to preventing destructive 
 floods. From this time until his death he was engaged in various 
 engineering works, among which were the deepening of the St. 
 John's river, Fla., the Sacramento river, Cal., and the hai'bors of 
 Toronto, Canada, and Vera Cruz, Mexico. In 1872 he was elected 
 a member of the national academy of sciences and the University 
 of Michigan conferred upon him the degree of LL. D. He was 
 the author of numerous pamphlets and monographs on the subject 
 of engineering and delivered addresses on the same topic before 
 various societies. In 1884 the English society for the encourage- 
 ment of arts, manufactures and commerce (organized in 175-4) 
 awarded him the Albert medal, the first American citizen to be so 
 honored. He died at Nassau, Bahama islands, I\Iarch 16, 1887. 
 
 Early River Commerce. — The State of Louisiana embraces many 
 tliousaud miles of navigable waters Avithiu its limits, but for the 
 purposes of this article the chief interest centers in the commerce 
 of the ]\nssissippi river. True, the same type of vessels which plied 
 the turbid waters of the Mississippi also traversed many of the 
 Other rivers and bayous, but the Mississippi always constituted the 
 chief artery of commerce and trade. Its waters give commercial 
 entrance to the very heart of the continent, and. down to the era 
 of railroads, it bore ascending aud descending an ever increasing 
 volume of trade. The bulk of the pioneer population clung to its 
 banks, and French Louisiana planted her capital and chief com- 
 mercial port there, no great distance from its tliree-forked mouth. 
 Thither was transported such foreign commerce as the restrictive 
 trade regulations of France aud Spain permitted, and down the 
 great river to the gates of New Orleans floated tlie commerce from
 
 LOUISIANA 343 
 
 the upper river country. During the French regime when the 
 colony often struggled to maintain its very existence in the face 
 of Indian warfare, frequent famines, and gross mismanagement 
 and neglect on the part of the home government, there could be no 
 extensive commercial development. The population remained few 
 in numbers, were always more or less dependent on the French 
 government for their food and other supplies, and the imports 
 always exceeded the exports. The monopolies of trade and trans- 
 portation held by Crozat and the Mississippi Company never proved 
 profitable, and there was no great improvement when the province 
 again became a crown colony. When the Indian Company surren- 
 dered its charter in 1731, the exports from the Mississippi valley 
 aggregated about .$62,000, composed chiefly of skins shipped from 
 the upper river region. A few food products were shipped down 
 the river for consumption on the Gulf coast, and some of these 
 shipments occasionally found their way to the West Indies. There 
 is a record of one substantial shipment made as early as 1705 from 
 the Central Ohio region, consisting of 10,000 deer and 5,000 bear 
 skins. The 1,400 mile voyage by river and lake to the French set- 
 tlements on Mississippi sound was made in open boats. The cargo 
 ultimately found its way to France, and the venture proved a suc- 
 cessful one to all concerned. When Louisiana was transferred to 
 Spain in 1762, the total export trade of the colony was estimated at 
 $304,000, the chief items of which were indigo, peltries and lumber. 
 During the French and early Spanish period, or prior to the 
 close of the Revolutionary war, the canoe, pirogue and bateau types 
 of river craft reigned supreme on the inland waters. The primitive 
 Indian canoe, a cheap, light and quickly made craft, was promptly- 
 adopted by the early French explorers and traders. It was a frail 
 bark usually constructed from the bark of trees, but it was easily 
 handled, and readily glided iip-stream even when heavily freighted. 
 It was often made long and was then capable of carrying a score 
 of men together with their supplies for an extended voyage. Port- 
 ages were frequently necessary on account of difficulties encoun- 
 tered in the river, such as snags and treacherous currents, or in 
 cutting across a point to escape the circuitous trip around it, and 
 the canoe was therefore admirably adapted to the primitive wants 
 of the pioneer period. As the French settlements in Lower Lou- 
 isiana increased and the demands of trade became greater, the 
 pirogue, a vessel of greater carrying capacity, came into general 
 use. The commercial pirogue of early Louisiana was little more 
 than a log-canoe — a solid log of cypress or live-oak which was cut 
 out in the center, and propelled by paddles, assisted by sails when 
 the wind was favorable. It was often built of 2 to 5 tons burden 
 and was propelled by slaves. It could be freighted with as many 
 as 20 bales of cotton or 30 barrels of molasses, and after being 
 floated down to New Orleans was easily paddled back to the plan- 
 tation. Both the canoe and the pirogue were boats of a primitive 
 and undeveloped period, but the latter survived as an instrument 
 of river commerce for at least a century, and as late as 1830 a con-
 
 344 LOUISL^NA 
 
 siderable • amount of the produce of Louisiana reached market in 
 these log canoes. The bateau, the third type of river craft in use 
 in these early days, was essentially a down-stream craft, and was 
 commonly known on the Mississippi as a barge. It differed, how- 
 ever, from the barge in being wider at the middle and tapering at 
 the end like the modern canal boat. Bateaux were designed for 
 longer voyages than pirogues, were built of rough plank, long in 
 proportion to their breadth, and were much employed in the upper 
 country, but were never very popular on the Lower Mississippi. 
 They therefore died an early death, though even as late as 1825 an 
 occasional bateau reached Xew Orleans from some extreme point 
 in the wild Lidian coimtry west of the ^Mississippi. 
 
 Throughout the period of French rule not only the mouth of the 
 Mississippi, but practically the whole valley was monopolized by 
 France. When, as a result of th^ Seven Tears' war, she lost her 
 possessions in America, and Louisiana was transferred to Spain, 
 the latter coimtry sought to exercise the same control over the 
 great river and its tributaries. Spain, however, in her pretensions, 
 met with serious opposition in her attempt to monopolize the com- 
 merce of the ^Mississippi, first from the British, and later from the 
 L^nited States. By the treaty of 1763 Great Britain was granted 
 equal rights of navigation on the Mississippi, including ingress 
 and egress for her vessels at the mouth ; nor were her ships to be 
 stopped, visited, or subjected to any duty at New Orleans. This 
 privilege she made extensive use of for a number of years, and 
 she was rapidly getting the trade of the colony into her hands ere 
 the Spanish were in a position to put a stop to it. "VTlien O'Reilly 
 arrived at New Orleans in 1769 and firmly established Spanish rule 
 in the colony, he thus reported on the condition of the province: 
 "I found the British in complete possession of the commerce of 
 the colony. They had in the town their merchants and traders 
 "with open stores and shops and I can safely assert that they pock- 
 eted nine-tenths of the money spent here. The commerce of France 
 used to receive the productions of the colony in payment of the 
 articles imported into it from the mother country; but the English, 
 selling their goods much cheaper, had the gathering of all the 
 money. I drove off all the English traders and the other indi^dd- 
 uals of that nation whom I foiind in this town, and I shall admit 
 here none of their vessels." The commercial pri\aleges of the city 
 were, however, gradually extended and the commerce of Louisiana 
 doubled every few years. Gov. Unzaga winked at the many British 
 violations of the law regulating commerce, and Galvez later fos- 
 tered the French trade. Commerce was permitted with Campeachy 
 and the French and Spanish "West Indies, under certain restric- 
 tions. Some time before this, Oliver Pollock, by an act of gen- 
 erosity in bringing a cargo of flour from Baltimore to New Orleans, 
 won permission of free access as long as he lived. The British for 
 a time had perfect freedom of access to the river, which their 
 vessels were constantly plougliing up and down. "Under pretense 
 of going to their possessions of Manchac, Baton Rouge and Natchez,
 
 LOUISIANA 345 
 
 the English contrived to supply clandestinely the inhabitants of 
 New Orleans and the planters above and belovr that town with 
 goods and slaves. They took in exchange whatever their custom- 
 ers had to spare, and extended to them a most liberal credit. Be- 
 sides, they had very large warehouses at Manchac, Baton Rouge 
 and Natchez, and a number of vessels constantly moored a short 
 distance above New Orleans, opposite to the spot now known as 
 the city of Lafayette. To these places the inhabitants of Louisiana 
 used to resort." (Martin and Gayarre.) There were also 2 vessels 
 fitted up as stores, with shelves and counters, which went up and 
 down the river, bringing the conveniences of the city to every 
 planter's door. In this way, the English made the province of 
 Louisiana of little worth to Spain, except as a military frontier. 
 
 Upon the transfer of Unzaga to Caracas, Galvez became pro- 
 visional governor on Feb. 1, 1777, and within a few days two French 
 commissioners arrived, to carry out an agreement of the home gov- 
 ernments that Louisiana should be permitted to trade with the 
 French West Indies. Consequently, under Galvez the English 
 trade supremacy was dethroned and the French became the com- 
 mercial masters. In April, 1777, the commissioners reported that 
 Galvez had seized 11 English vessels, i-ichly laden, which were trad- 
 ing with the planters on the river. To help the situation, the king 
 of Spain offered to buy $800,000 worth of tobacco annually, or 
 more if a larger crop should be raised ; at the same time all restric- 
 tions were removed from the importation of negroes. In July, 1778, 
 the British flag had not been seen on the Mississippi river for three 
 months, except at the masthead of the frigate on guard at Manchac. 
 
 Spain declared war against Great Britain in May, 1779, and after 
 a brilliant campaign most flattering to Spanish arms, Galvez drove 
 the British from Manchac, Baton Rouge and Natchez on the river, 
 and later captured Mobile and Pensacola. The French native 
 troops of Louisiana rendered the greatest service throughout the 
 campaign. Now followed a period of great prosperity to the col- 
 ony, and both commerce and population increased rapidly. Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee began slowly filling up with settlers, and 
 many hundreds of thousands worth of produce came down the 
 river every year from those regions. As a result of the campaign 
 of Galvez, Spain now claimed that having made a conquest of the 
 country east of the Mississippi river she was entitled to hold it as 
 well as the exclusive control of the river. In other words Spain 
 was now in complete possession of the mouth of the Mississippi, 
 and even aimed to dominate the whole upper valley of the river as 
 France had previously done. Herein she clashed with the welfare 
 and future development of the new republic of the United States 
 which had just won its independence from Great Britain. The 
 years which followed the close of the Revolution down to 1795 
 were filled with intrigue and negotiations between the United 
 States and Spain, covering relations with the Indian tribes, the 
 question of boundaries, and the navigation of the Missis.sippi river. 
 The United States was especially concerned in securing greater
 
 346 LOUISIANA 
 
 facilities for its citizens in the Mississippi valley in the shipment of 
 their surplus crops. Nearly one-half the United States was now 
 comprised of the region embraced in the basins of the Ohio and 
 Mississippi, and was dependent on the Mississippi to reach sea- 
 board. The nation's prosperity demanded that the river be neu- 
 tralized, and that its settlers be absolved from any obligation to 
 pay toll to Spain because she happened to own the mouth of the 
 river. "With the great increase of settlement in Kentucky in 1784- 
 86, the shipment of floiir. whiskey and other products to New 
 Orleans from as far up as Pittsburg, on flatboats and barges, began. 
 Indeed, this was the only commercial outlet that promised profit- 
 able returns to the producer, as the cost of transportation by 
 wagons over the mountains east was enormous. The settlers on 
 the upper Tennessee and Cumberland also depended on river com- 
 munication altogether. It will thus be seen that the control of the 
 river early became a vital question of policy to the United States. 
 Unfortunately, the treaties of peace which marked the close of 
 the Revolution had not settled the question of the control of the 
 river. The treaty between the British and Americans in 1782 pro- 
 vided that "the navigation of the Mississippi from its source to the 
 ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great 
 Brit'ain and the citizens of the United States." Hence, if Spain 
 yielded to the wishes of the United States she thereby made a con- 
 cession to England. Spain's greatest commercial rival. 
 
 In the year 1787, despite the many restrictions and annoyances 
 imposed by Spain, large quantities of goods from the American pos- 
 sessions on the upper Mississippi and Ohio came down the river to 
 New Orleans for export, being shipped on flatboats and barges. 
 The total export and import duties at the port of New Orleans 
 reached the sum of $72,000 in this year. In 1788, Col. James "Wil- 
 kinson, who had settled in Kentucky in 1786, received through his 
 agent in New Orleans, via the Mississippi, a cargo of dry goods 
 and other articles for the Kentucky market, whieli is believed to 
 have been the first boatload of manufactured articles that ever 
 went up the river to the Ohio. 
 
 The long negotiation between Spain and the United States was 
 concluded in 1795 when the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real formally 
 declared the ^lississippi from soiirce to mouth free to the people 
 of the United States, and further permitted "the citizens of the 
 United States for the space of three years from this time, to de- 
 posit their merchandise and eft'ects in the port of New Orleans, 
 and to export them from thence without paying any other duty 
 than a fair price for the hire of the stores." As might be expected, 
 this gave an added impetus to the river trade, which now reached 
 a very large figure for those days. The exports from New Orleans 
 were about $1,500,000 in 1795, one-third of which consisted of west- 
 ern produce (flour, tobacco, etc., from Kentucky and Ohio). By 
 1798 the receipts of western produce had reached $975,000, and 
 were increasing at the rate of .$300,000 annually as the new popula- 
 tion poured into the upper Mississippi and Ohio valleys. The sus-
 
 LOUISIANA 347 
 
 pension of the riglit of deposit by Morales in 1799 aroused great 
 indignation throughout the west, to which the government re- 
 sponded. From this time on the purchase of Louisiana was an 
 important subject of discussion in Congress, and American states- 
 men at home and abroad worked and intrigued zealously to prevent 
 the Mississippi from falling into the strong hands of England or 
 France. By the transfer of Louisiana to the American commis- 
 sioners, Claiborne and "Wilkinson, on Dec. 20, 1803, the United 
 States secured the exclusive control of the Mississippi for all time. 
 
 During the last 3 years of European control of the mouth of the 
 Mississippi, the commerce of the Lower Mississippi Valley, em- 
 bracing the shipments down the Mississippi toward New Orleans, 
 reached a total of $3,649,322 for 1801, $4,475,364 for 1802, and 
 $4,720,015 for 1803. There are no records of shipments up the 
 river, but these were small as compared with the down trade, ex- 
 cept for the country immediately above New Orleans. The im- 
 ports at New Orleans about ecjualed the exports from the Span- 
 ish possessions, and embraced such manufactured articles as were 
 not produced in the colony. These were brought from Spain and 
 France and distributed among the towns and plantations by barges, 
 pirogues and plantation boats. Less than 10 per cent found their 
 way above Red river. The chief articles of export from New 
 Orleans Avere cotton, sugar, molasses, rum or tafia, indigo, lumber 
 and boxes, peltries and skins, rice and provisions. Produce came 
 down to New Orleans all the way from Pennsylvania and even 
 from "Western New York. The pioneer of that early era loaded 
 his flatboat with the products of the season, and then made his 
 long way down the Ohio and Mississippi. He must needs travel 
 for nine-tenths of the distance through a wild Indian country, pass 
 the dreaded Ohio Falls during the high water stage, then if he 
 escaped the treacherous currents and snags of the Mississippi and 
 reached his haven, he would sell his cargo for some $2,000 or 
 $3,000 at New Orleans. At first he made the return trip by sea, 
 usually landing at Baltimore or Philadelphia, where he woiild buy 
 calico and other manufactured goods, reaching home after an 
 absence of 6 months in time to make another crop. At a later 
 period, the return trip was made by land from New Orleans, the 
 trader crossing Lake Pontchartrain, and then proceeding north via 
 the famous Natchez trace to Nashville. 
 
 The vessels employed in the river trade changed much during 
 this period of development. Compared with the evolution of meth- 
 ods of travel by land, the evolution of river craft was rapid and 
 spectacular. A half century witnessed little change in wagons 
 and stages, and the "freighter" or "Conestoga" of 1790 differed 
 but little from that of 1840. The same period approximately saw a 
 change in river craft which ran the whole gamut from the primi- 
 tive canoe and pirogue, through the later barge, keel-boat, flatboat 
 and sailing vessel, to the palatial river steamer of the '40 's. Each 
 marked some change in the social order of things, some develop- 
 ment, unnoticed at the time perhaps, in the progress of western
 
 348 LOUISIANA 
 
 civilization. Many types of early river craft were in use at the 
 same time, and no stated periods can be named in which one style 
 of vessel was in exclusive use. The canoe was employed long after 
 it had subserved its original purpose of a cheap, light and easily 
 made craft, especially adapted to the wants of the aborigines, and the 
 early explorers and traders. The crude up-stream crafts of burden, 
 such as keels and barges, had their beginnings as far back as 1742, 
 and overlap the era of steam ; while the lumbering, do^^Tistream flat- 
 boats were in use by the thousands on the Mississippi, long after the 
 steamboats began to ply its muddy waters, and. indeed, are in common 
 use today in modified form. It is nevertheless true that certain types 
 of river craft are especially associated with certain periods. The 
 canoe, pirogue and bateau have already been discussed, as belonging 
 primarily to the French period, or at any rate to the period antedating 
 the close of the American revolution. 
 
 The era from 1780 to 1817 was essentially that of the barge, the 
 keelboat and the flatboat — all crafts of burden. The early Mississippi 
 barge was a square box of any length, width and depth, and rarely 
 ascended the river with a cargo. The barrels of this period were 
 great, pointed, covered hulks carrying 40 or 50 tons of freight (the 
 largest carried 60 to 80), and were manned by almost as many men. 
 The great freight barges of the IMississippi went downstream with the 
 current and ascended by means of oars, poles, sails and cordelles. The 
 important up-river cargoes on the Orleans barges were sugar and 
 molasses — sometimes coffee, dry goods and hardware — and they came 
 do'rni stream laden with the products of the west such as peltries, 
 flour, lead, tobacco, hemp, bacon, pork, beef, apples, whisky, peach 
 brandy, cider, beer, iron, lard, cotton, butter, millstones, etc. Like the 
 keelboats they plied regularly up and down stream but were unable 
 to ascend the smaller rivers or reach portages of the large streams by 
 reason of their draft and size. The regular trip to New Orleans and 
 back to Louisville or Cincinnati required 2 months for the downward 
 and 4 for the upward, or 6 months approximately, and only two trips 
 a year could be made by the same boat. It is probable that the inimber 
 of barges and keels engaged in the commerce on the Mississippi never 
 exceeded 40 in any one year. Between the peace of 1783 and the sur- 
 render of Louisiana in 1S03, the Spanish maintained a regular trade 
 and intercourse between New Orleans and Upper Louisiana. Spanish 
 barges were common on the upper as well as upon the lower Missis- 
 sippi, and extensive commercial houses at St. Lotus, St. Charles, Kas- 
 kaskia and other towns along the river conducted the trade. (Naviga- 
 tion and Commerce. Monette.) 
 
 "When the commerce from the American possessions passed beyond 
 the limits of the United States and entered the Spanish port of New 
 Orleans, it did so by virtue of commercial arrangements between the 
 two nations. Monette writes that the exports from the United States 
 by this route agreeably to the custom-house register at Loftus Heights, 
 from Jan. 1 to June 30. of 1801, were conveyed in 450 flatboats, 26 
 keels, 2 schooners, 1 brig and 7 pirogues. 
 
 The famous keel-boat was of long, slender and elegant form, and
 
 LOUISIANA 349 
 
 was the first up-stream boat of burden to ply the southern and west- 
 ern waters. Its functions were two-fold ; first, the upstream trade, to 
 touch and connect interior settlements and do the carrying trade of 
 the numerous portages. The keel-boat heralded a new era in the 
 internal development of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. "It was a 
 long, narrow craft, averaging 12 to 15 feet by 50, and pointed at 
 both bow and stern. On either side were provided what were known 
 as 'running boards,' extending from end to end. The space between, 
 the body of the boat, was enclosed and roofed over with boards and 
 shingles. A keeliboat would carry from 20 to 40 tons of freight well 
 protected from the weather, and required from 5 to 10 men, in addi- 
 tion to the captain, who was usually the steersman, to propel it up 
 stream. Each man was provided with a pole to which was affixed a 
 heavy socket. The crew, being equally divided on each side of the 
 boat, 'set' their poles at the head of the boat; then bringing the end 
 of the pole to the shoulder, with bodies bent, they walked slowly 
 along the running boards to the stern — returning quickly, at the com- 
 mand of the captain, to the head for a new 'set.' In ascending the 
 greatest effort of the whole crew was required, so that only one man 
 at a time could 'shift' his pole. This ascending of rapids was attended 
 with great danger, especially if the channel was too rocky. The slight- 
 est error in pushing or steering the boat exposed her to be thrown 
 across the current, and to be brought sideways in contact with rocks, 
 which would mean her destruction. Or, if she escaped injury, a crew 
 who had let their boat swing in the rapids would have lost caste. 
 A boatman who could not boast that he had never swung or backed 
 in a chute was regarded with contempt, and never trusted with the 
 head pole, the place of honor among keel-boat men. It required much 
 practice to become a first rate boatman, and none would be taken, even 
 on trial, who did not possess great muscular power." (The American 
 Pioneer, vol. II, p. 271.) 
 
 The flatboat was the important craft of the era of emigration, the 
 friend of the pioneer. Unlike the keel it never earae back, and was 
 solely a downstream craft. Collins, in his History of Kentucky, states 
 that Capt. Jacob Yoder took the first flatboat down the Ohio and 
 Mississippi rivers to New Orleans in 1782. From this time on, at any 
 rate, they were used in increasing numbers. The flatboat of average 
 size was a roofed craft about 40 feet long, 12 feet wide and 8 feet 
 deep. It was square, flat-bottomed, and was managed by 6 oars. Two 
 of these, about 30 feet long, on each side, were known as "sweeps," 
 and were manned by 2 men each ; one 40 or 50 feet long, including its 
 big blade, at the stern, was called the steering oar ; a small oar, known 
 as the "gouger" oar, was located at the prow, and assisted in guiding 
 the boat through swift water. One man only was required at the 
 steering oar and at the gouger. These flatboats were of two types, 
 the "Kentucky" and "New Orleans." The nominal difference be- 
 tween a Kentucky and a New Orleans boat was that the former was 
 only half roofed over, while the latter was stronger and entirely cov- 
 ered with a roof. How to build or buy a flatboat was the first query 
 of the pioneer father when he finally arrived at one of the ports on the
 
 350 LOUISIANA 
 
 upper Ohio. Often several families joined their fortunes and came 
 down the river on one "flat." a motley collection of men, women, 
 children and domestic animals, surrounded by a few crude house- 
 keeping litensils. which had been brought over the mountains or pur- 
 chased at the point of embarkation. Both in early and in more recent 
 times, these flatboats were sold at their destination for hunber. their 
 owners and crews, except for the few who preferred to work their way 
 north from New Orleans on the barges and keels, returning to their 
 homes on foot or on horseback by way of the overland trails to 
 Tennessee and Kentucky. Sometimes the boatman, returning on 
 foot to Nashville, made wagers to beat the post to that point and 
 frequently won. 
 
 The complete history of the flatboat comes down within the present 
 generation. The Kentucky- "broadhorns" or "broadhorn flatboats," 
 as they were also called, belonged to the emigrant period, luit the 
 beginning of the Civil war saw many flatboats still on the Mississippi, 
 where they had then assumed the distinctive role of freighters and 
 bore their cargoes to the southern ports or retailed them along the 
 Mississippi river plantations. After the war, the flatboat men found 
 a sad and impoverished South. The negroes were "free." the over- 
 seers gone, and the coasting trade was ruined. Since then through 
 freights have been found to be the only profitable ones. 
 
 A few words will suffice to explain the other common t>-pes of boats 
 engaged in the early river commerce, s^ich as the "ark." the galley, 
 the brig, and the schooner. Harris has thus described the ark, which 
 was the primitive type of house-boat: "These boats are generally 
 called arks, and are said to have been invented by Mr. Krudger, on 
 the Juanita. about 10 yeai-s ago (1795). They were square, and flat- 
 bottomed : about 40 feet by 15. with sides 6 feet deep ; covered with a 
 roof of thin boards, and accommodated with a fire place. They re- 
 quire but 4 hands to navigate them, carry no sail, and are wafted 
 dovra by the cm-rent." The same authority states that the historical 
 succession of river craft is canoe, pirogue, keel-boat, barge and ark. 
 The galley had a covered deck and was propelled by oarsmen. It was 
 a vessel of this pattern that Gen. George Rogers Clark armed as a gun- 
 boat, with whicli he patrolled the Lower Ohio during the War of the 
 Revolution. This style of boat was again exemplified in the celebrated 
 "Adventure Galley," of the New England pilgrims to ilarietta. It 
 was 45 feet long, 12 feet wide, of 50 tons burden, strongly built with 
 hea^-v- timbers, and covered with a deck roof, ilany of the mail boats 
 on the western rivere in the early days were of the same type. 
 
 While sails were quite commonly used on most of the river craft 
 thus far described, none of them was distinctively a sailing vessel, 
 Indeed, sails, masts and rigging were mere adjuncts, to be resorted to 
 when the winds were favorable. The actual sailing vessels, brigs and 
 schooners, began to come into use at the beginning of the 19th centixry. 
 The pioneer in the construction of this type of river craft was the 
 firm of Taraseon. Berthoud & Co., of Pittsburg, who built the first 
 keel-boats on the Ohio. The vessels were designed to drop down the 
 Ohio and ^Mississippi and then engage in the ocean trade. They were
 
 LOUISIANA 351 
 
 never intended to make the return trip, but were built as the first 
 export carriers, just as the keel-boats were the first important car- 
 riers in the commerce between the states. Tarascou, Berthoud & Co., 
 first built the schooner "Amity," of 120 tons, and the ship "Pitts- 
 burg," of 250 tons, in 1801. The second summer they l)uilt the brig 
 "Nanina," of 200 tons, and the ship "Louisiana," of 350. The brig 
 was sent direct to Marseilles, while the ship was sent out ballasted 
 with "stone coal," which was sold at Philadelphia for 'STYo cents a 
 bushel. The following year the same firm built the ' ' Western Trader, ' ' 
 of 400 tons. In 1803 Thaddeus Harris found several of these ships on 
 the stocks at Pittsburg and three had been launched before April, 
 "from 160 to 275 tons burden." (Harris; Tour, p. 43.) 
 
 When the port of New Orleans passed into American hands in 
 1803, and the river commerce was relieved from all artificial re- 
 straints, hundreds of Kentucky flatboats, loaded with rich cargoes of 
 western produce, began to descend. Monette writes that ' ' the amount 
 of western trade annually increased and soon became almost in- 
 credible for quantity and variety. This surplus product of the west 
 was not only such as supplied the demands of New Orleans and the 
 rich settlements of the lower Mississippi, but it furnished hundreds 
 of sliip-loads to the ports of the West Indies and Europe." This 
 commerce continued to swell in volume until the War of 1812. In 
 1811 some 500 flatboats and 40 keel-boats, all well freighted, descended 
 the Mississippi from the Ohio valley. Thei-e was also considerable 
 downstream trade from the Missouri and the Upper Mississippi, which 
 began as early as the year 1720 and consisted ohiefly of lead, furs and 
 peltries. 
 
 Less than 10 per cent of the river tonnage went up-stream, on 
 account of the many difficulties of river navigation. The cost of 
 transporting cheap, heavy freight was enormous. The first cost at 
 New Orleans of such articles as dry goods, hardware, and queensware, 
 was sometimes doubled before the goods reached their destination in 
 the interior. The rich planters along the lower Mississippi and the 
 prosperous agricultural communities of the Ohio and upper Missis- 
 sippi produced a wealth of surplus products, which they were ready 
 to exchange for the manufaeturei-s of the Atlantic states and of Eu- 
 rope ; but the cost and difficulties involved in supplying the wants of 
 these inland settlers, by reason of the impetuous current of the Mis 
 sissippi, grew more and more unbearable. The times were ripe for 
 another power which would turn the tide of commerce up the river, 
 and for the dawning of that wonderful era of steam navigation 
 brought about by the genius of Fulton. (See Steamboats.) 
 
 East Baton Rouge Parish. — When this parish was settled, or who 
 the first settlers were, is not definitely known. Le Page du Pratz 
 writes about the settlement as far back as 1725, in a letter to his gov- 
 ernment, in which he gives the population as a mere score of inhab- 
 itants, who were nearly all Frenchmen, with a few Canadians, aud 
 some Indian women, wives of the settlers. In 1699, Iberville, on his 
 first exploring expedition up the Mississippi river, wrote: "There 
 are on the bank many cabins covered with palmetto leaves, and a
 
 352 LOUISIANA 
 
 May pole ■without branches, reddened with several heads of fish and 
 beasts attached as a sacrifice." This red pole (baton rouge) is said to 
 have given its name to the present capital of Louisiana. As the Mis- 
 sissippi river was the main highway of the French from Louisiana to 
 the Illinois country and Canada, such settlements as Baton Kouge 
 were important factors in the colony. The usual French policy in a 
 new country was merely to govern the subject race, but in Louisiana 
 a new policy was adopted and the government tried to make perma- 
 nent colonization. In order to encourage emigration of industrious, 
 useful men to this great western empire, who would take up land and 
 establish a permanent agricultural settlement in the fertile valley of 
 the Mississippi, the government of France made large grants to in- 
 fluential Frenchmen of enterprise, who were expected to colonize their 
 concessions with emigrants from France. A grant of this kiad was 
 made to d ' Artaguette, at Baton Rouge. Immigrants from France set- 
 tled at Baton Rouge, and de la Harpe states that "on the 16th of 
 September the ship Profound, * * * with a transcript, arrived 
 at Ship island * * * These ships also brought over supplies for 
 the concession of d 'Artaguette." By the Treaty of Paris (See Treat- 
 ies) of 1763, Great Britain received all the territorj' from St. Augus- 
 tine to Lake Borgne, and the onl.y frontier in the south was along 
 Bayou Manehac. At first the only change the English made was in 
 the matter of trade, as the majority of the inhabitants remained 
 French. In 1765 and 1766 some adventurers came from the Carolinas 
 and settled at Baton Rouge, who took up land and became a part of 
 the permanent English population. The English settlere were not al- 
 lowed to buy land direct from the Indians but settled on the east bank 
 of the Mississippi, from Bayou Manehac as far as the Yazoo river. 
 One of the largest of these grants was one of 10,000 acres, made by 
 the government to George Johnstone at Baton Rouge. 
 
 When Spain declared war against England in 1779, Don Bernardo 
 de Galvez, the Spanish governor, fitted out an expedition and started 
 on a mission of conquest against the English settlements in the south. 
 The fort at Baton Rouge "had high walls, protected by a moat 18 
 feet wide and 9 feet deep, filled with water from the Mississippi." 
 Galvez compelled the British to surrender on Sept. 21, 1779, and 
 ■ promoted Carlos de Grandpre to the governorship of the conquered 
 territory, among which was the district of Baton Rouge. Spanish 
 institutions, habits, and customs were graduall.v introduced into the 
 conquered province, superseding those of the English, and as many 
 of the English fled during the war, large grants of land reverted to 
 the government and were granted anew by the Spanish. Spanish 
 governors ruled the Feliciana district until the West Florida Revolu- 
 tion (q. V.) in 1810, when Gov. Claiborne took possession of it in the 
 name of the United States, pursuant to an order from President 
 Madison. 
 
 An act creating the parish was passed in 1807, but as the territory 
 did not then belong to the United States another act was passed in 
 1811 establishing the parish of East Baton Rouge. It was an area of 
 451 square miles and lies in the fertile Mississippi valley, about 100
 
 LOUISIANA 353 
 
 miles above New Orleans. The parisih is bounded on the north by- 
 East Feliciana parish; on the east by St. Helena and Livingston 
 parishes ; on the south by Ascension parish, and the Mississippi river 
 forms its entire western boundary. Prom 1810 to the War of 1812, 
 the commerce of the parish did not increase in proportion to the 
 population, which was something less than 1,000 in 1810. The Missis- 
 sippi river drains the western portion of the parish, and such streams 
 as the Amite, Manchac, Bayou Fountain, and other minor water 
 courses, afford sufficient drainage to its entire surface. The formation 
 along the Mississippi river is alluvial, subject to inundation by the 
 river, very fertile, with a heavy loamy soil, and about one-third of 
 this is imder cultivation. The remainder of the parish is undulating 
 or rolling and hilly, breaking into highlands and bluffs, with level 
 stretches along the river and creek bottoms. Much of the original 
 forest has been cleared away, but the parish still has a good supply of 
 timber, principally cypress, oak, gum, poplar, magnolia and beech, 
 with a dense undergrowth in many places. On the .uplands tlie soil 
 is as varied as the timber, ranging from a tliiu sandy clay to a rich 
 loam, but when scientifically farmed is capable of yielding profitable 
 crops. Excellent pasturage for stock is to be had throughout the 
 year, and the live stock industry is one of considerable magnitiide. 
 Nearly all the staple crops are cultivated successfully, cotton, sugar- 
 cane, and corn, yielding well on the rich bottom lands. New Orleans 
 is the principal market. The facilities for shipping and transportation 
 are unsurpassed. The Mississippi river affords easy and cheap com- 
 munication with New Orleans; the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. 
 runs direct to Memphis and New Orleans, traversing the parish north 
 and south ; the Texas & Pacific R. R. furnishes an cutlet to the west, 
 and the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company runs 
 directly to Shreveport and New Orleans. In 1810 East and West 
 Baton Rouge were given as Baton Rouge, and the combined popiila- 
 tion was 1,463, which was credited to East Baton Rouge alone. The 
 growth of the parish was rapid, as the population of East Baton 
 Rouge alone had increased to 8,138 by 1840, and since that time 
 there has been a steady increase each decade, until in 1900 it was the 
 6th most populous parish in the state. The city of Baton Rouge 
 is the largest in the parish. Some of the other important towns and 
 villages are Baker, Burtville, Manchac, Port Hudson, Baywood, Stony 
 Point and Zachary. The following statistics are taken from U. S. 
 census for 1910: number of farms, 2,137; acreage, 186,110; acres im- 
 proved, 103,481 ; value of farm land exclusive of buildings, $3,264,- 
 368 ; value of farm buildings, .$1,011,913 ; value of live stock, $824,- 
 67.5 ; crops, $1,104,724. The population was 34,580. 
 
 East Carroll Parish, established by an act of the legislature, 
 March 27, 1877, when Carroll parish was abolished, and from its ter- 
 ritory East and West Carroll parishes were created (See Carroll Par- 
 ish), is located on the Mississippi river in the northeastern part of 
 the state. It is bounded on the north by the State of Arkansas; on 
 the east by Mississippi, from which it is separated by the Mississippi 
 river ; on the south by Madison parish, and on the west by West Car- 
 1—23
 
 354 LOUISIANA 
 
 roll parish, from which it is separated by Bayou llacon. It has an 
 area of 395 square miles, and originally was covered with forests in 
 which the principal trees were cypress, magnolia, cotton-wood, gum, 
 elm, hickory, willow and locust. East Carroll parish is drained by 
 the Mississippi river along the eastern, and by Bayoii Macon along 
 the western lioundary, wliile the Tensas river and its branches drain 
 the central portion. The soil is varied, that nearest the river is of a 
 light, loamy quality, and that farther back from the river of a black 
 clay known as "buckshot" soil, on which rice grows especially well, 
 and a large part of the parish is devoted to its culture. The rich 
 alluvial soil of the river bottoms produces fine cotton, which is the 
 great export crop, and corn is grown to some extent. Horticulture has 
 never been extensively practiced, but the rich soil and climate both 
 tend to produce fruits and nuts of an excellent quality and large 
 quantities. Since the railroad was biiilt through the parish, alfalfa 
 and vegetables have fast encroached upon the staple products, as the 
 markets of north and south have been brought within reach of the 
 farmers. Lumbering is an important indiistry, the large c.'STJress 
 swamps furnishing an excellent supply of that timber. One division 
 of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R. enters the parish 
 at the northern boundary and runs southeast to Lake Providence, 
 thence directly south into Madison parish, furnishing an outlet north 
 and south for the export products, and cheap shipping is provided by 
 water on the Mississippi river, which flows along the entire eastern 
 boundary. Lake Providence is the parish seat. Other towns and vil- 
 lages are Alsatia, Atherton, Brunett, Benham, Henderson, Stamboul 
 and Transylvania. The following statistics are taken from the U. S. 
 census for 1910: number of farms, 1,851; acreage, 138,188; acres 
 improved, 74.961 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of build- 
 ings, .$2,772,361 ; value of farm buildings, $649.885 ; value of live 
 stock, .$535,779; value of all crops, $1,326,152. The population was 
 11.637. 
 
 East Feliciana Parish was established in 1824, and was created 
 out of the eastern part of Feliciana parish (q. v.). It is located in 
 the southeastern part of the state on the Mississippi border, and has 
 an area of 454 square miles. The parish is bounded on the north by 
 Mississippi ; on the east by St. Helena parish ; on the south by East 
 Baton Rouge parish, and on the west by West Feliciana parish. The 
 Amite river, which waters the eastern part of the parish, received 
 its name from the French in commemoration of their kindly treatment 
 by the Indians when they first exploi-ed tliis section of the country. 
 The western portion of the parish is watered by the Comite river and 
 such streams as Pretty, Redwood, Thompson's, Beaver, Sandy, and 
 Black creeks, all of which fuimish a natural water supply for the cen- 
 ti^al and southern sections. The first actual settler in the parish is 
 suppo.sed to have been Leonard Hornsby, who came from South Caro- 
 lina by water in 1803, and after exploring the country settled at the 
 fork of Beaver creek and the Amite river. He brought not only his 
 family but a ])lacksmith, shoemaker, carpenter, wagon maker and 
 wheelwright, which made a considerable settlement. His nearest
 
 LOUISIANA 355 
 
 neig^hbor was a Georgian named Barrow, who had a cabin a mile 
 below the head waters of Ilepsiba creek. Daniel Eads soon followed 
 Barrow and built the first grist mill in that part of the parish. He in 
 turn was followed by Elisha Anders and Maj. Doughty. Beaver creek 
 was settled up by the McAdams, Morgan, Rentz and Gerard fam- 
 ilies. About 1804 and 1805, Lewis Perkins headed a colony among 
 whom were the Winter, McNeely, Dunn and Scott families, James 
 Kent, Jack Booker, and Ezra Courtney, the pioneer preaeher of the 
 parish, who succeeded in having a church built in 1812, ■which was 
 not only the first church in the parish but also one of the first Protes- 
 tant churches in that section of Louisiana. From 1805 to the war of 
 1812, settlers came in great numbers from the older states, and when 
 the parish was created in 1824 it had a popvilation of over 5,000. The 
 governor appointed Thomas Scott the first parish judge and James 
 Scott, Jr., sheriff. In Feb., 1825, the state legislature authorized the 
 parish judge to hold an election on the first Monday in March, and the 
 2 days following, after giving 7 days' notice, "for the purpose of 
 choosing 5 persons as commissioners, whose duty it shall be to estab- 
 lish the site for the permanent seat of justice." The result of the 
 election was a site east of the Comite river at a point near where 
 Clinton now stands. The commissionere being influenced in their 
 choice by the clear, pure spring water found there. East Feliciana par- 
 ish is noted for its many churches. The first church was organized and 
 built at Hepsiba in 1812, the next, of which any record remains, was 
 the Baptist church of Clinton, organized in Jan., 1836. The Meth- 
 odist Episcopal church of Clinton has been in existence for more than 
 65 yeai-s, and the Presbyterians and Catholics both have churches in 
 the parish. Some of tlie most prominent educational institutions of 
 the parish are the Clinton Female academy, the Feliciana Female 
 institute and Silliman Female college. Clinton, the parish seat, and 
 Jackson aie the largest towns in the parish. Other important towns 
 and villages are Ethel, Blairstown, Lindsay, Norwood, Felixville, 
 Slaughter and Wilson. The formation of the parish is chiefly blufl' 
 land and pine hills, with rich creek and river bottoms of alluvial de- 
 posit, but no swamp land of any extent. The soil is that common to 
 most of the upland and western long leaf pine regions, being a light, 
 easily worked sandy soil, with a strong clay subsoil that makes it 
 quite retentive, and when cleared is very fei-tile. Cotton is the staple, 
 though corn, oats, hay, peas, sweet and Irish potatoes, sorg'hiun, sugar- 
 cane, tobacco and many kinds of grasses are raised. Such fruits as 
 apples, pears, peaches, figs, plums, gz-apes. and all the smaller vari- 
 eties are raised in abundance. Originally the parish was covered with 
 a heavy growth of timber, such as pine, white and pink oak, beech, 
 poplar, hickory, walnut, sycamore, etc. Lumbering has been an im- 
 portant industry for years, and nearly all of the original forests have 
 been cut off. Good pasturage for stock can be obtained nearly the 
 entire year, and as the lands have been cleared the live stock in- 
 dustry and dairying has increased. Large numbers of fine blooded 
 cattle and horses are bred, while sheep and hogs thrive remarkably 
 well. The Yazoo & Missi.ssippi Valley R. R. crosses the western part
 
 356 LOUISIANA 
 
 of the parish north and south ; a branch line of this system runs from 
 Ethel to Clinton, a second from Slaughter northwest into West Feli- 
 ciana pai'ish, and the Jackson R. R. runs from Jackson to McManus, 
 where it connects with the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. The 
 markets of New Orleans and Memphis are thus brought within easy 
 reach of the farmers of the parish. The following data are taken 
 from the U. S. census for 1910: number of farms, 2.379; acreage, 
 194.978; acres improved. 120,568; value of land and improvements 
 exclusive of buildings, $2,075.500 ; value of farm buildings. $865.373 ; 
 value of live stock, $732,065; value of all crops, $940,002. The 
 population was 20.055. 
 
 East Pendleton, a post-village in the western part of Sabine 
 parish, is on the Sabine river, about 15 miles southwest of Many, 
 the pai'ish seat. It is a landing on the river and a shipping point 
 for lumber. In 1900 it had a population of 50. 
 
 East Point, a village of Red River parish, is situated on the Red 
 river and the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, 
 about 12 miles northwest of Coushatta, tlie parish seat. It is the 
 shipping point for a large agrieultvu-al district, and has a popula- 
 tion of 175. It has a money order postoffice, express office, and 
 telegraph and telephone facilities. 
 
 Ebenezer, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Acadia par- 
 ish, is about 5 miles southeast of Crowley, the parish seat. 
 
 Echevarria, Don Santiago Jose de, Bishop of Cuba, was the first 
 dignitary of the Catholic church to exercise episcopal authority 
 over Loiii.siana. Soon after the beginning of the Spanish domina- 
 tion the province was attached to his diocese, and in July, 1772, 
 he sent five Spanish Capiichins — Fathers Cirilo de Barcelona, Fran- 
 cisco, Angel, Luis and Aleman — to New Orleans. The first named 
 was charged with the duty of making an investigation into the 
 state of religion and affairs of the church, and report to the bishop. 
 Father Cirilo was not prudent in his course. He became involved 
 in a controversy with Father Dagobert. in whose behalf Gov. Un- 
 zaga wrote a letter to Bishop Echevarria. (See also Catholic 
 Clrarch.^ 
 
 Echo (R. R. name Bijou), a post-village and station in the eastern 
 part of Rapides parish, is on the Louisiana Railway & Navigation 
 company's line, about 18 miles southeast of Alexandria, the parish 
 seat. PopiUation 238. 
 
 Eddy, a money order post-village in the western ]3art of Vernon 
 parish, is situated on Sandy creek, about 2 miles east of the Sabine 
 river, 12 miles southwest of Orangeville, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 15 miles west of Leesville, the parish seat. 
 
 Eden, a money order post-hamlet, is situated on Trout creek, in 
 the western part of Catahoula parish, and about 4 miles southwest 
 of Trout, the nearest railroad station. It has a telegraph station. 
 
 Edgard, the parish seat of St. John the Baptist parish, is located 
 in the western part of the parish on the line of the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., and a sliort distance west of the Mississippi river. Although 
 it reported a population of only 350 in 1910, it is the most im-
 
 LOUISIANA 357 
 
 portant town in the parish. It has two sugar mills, several general 
 stores, a newspaper, a money order postoffice, and being admirably 
 located for shipping purposes it is the trading center for a rich 
 agricultural district. 
 
 Edgerly, a village in the southwestern part of Calcasieu parish, 
 is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 15 miles west of 
 Lake Charles, the parish seat. It is the supply and shipping point 
 for the southwestern part of the parish, has a money order post- 
 ofiBce, express ofSce, telegraph station and telephone facilities. 
 
 Education. — (See School System, State University, State Normal 
 School, Freedmen, Higher Education of, and Colleges.) 
 
 EfSe, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Avoyelles paris'h, 
 is about 4 miles from the western boundary, 8 miles southeast of 
 Kees, the nearest railroad station, and about the same distance 
 northwest of Marksville, the parish seat. 
 
 Egan, a post-village and station in the southwestern part of 
 Acadia parish, is on a branch of the Southern Pacific R. R., 4 miles 
 north of Midland, and about S miles northwest of Crowley, the 
 parish seat. It has an express ofSce, telegraph and telephone facili- 
 ties, and is a shipping point of some consequence. 
 
 Eggbend, a post-hamlet in the western part of Avoyelles parish, 
 is situated on the Red river, about 2 miles northeast of Echo, the 
 nearest railroad station, and 8 miles west of Marksville, the pai'ish 
 seat. 
 
 Elam, Joseph B., lawyer and member of Congress, was born in 
 Hempstead county. Ark., June 12, 1821, and went with his parents 
 to Natchitoches, La., in 1826. Here he studied law, was admitted 
 to the bar in Oct., 1843, and began practice at Alexandria, La. 
 For 2 years he served in the state legislature from Sabine parish; 
 moved to De Soto parish in 1851; was elected a delegate to the 
 state constitutional convention in 1861, and signed the ordinance 
 of secession ; during the Civil war he served two terms in the state 
 legislature, one as speaker; was reelected in 1865, and served until 
 the passage of the reconstruction legislation by Congress. He was 
 elected to the 45th, and reelected to the 46th Congress as a Demo- 
 crat. After leaving Congress he resinned the practice of law until 
 his death on July 4, 1885. 
 
 Elba, a post-village of St. Landry parish, is situated in the north- 
 eastern part near the eastern boundary and on the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., about 3 miles north of Melville. 
 
 Elder, James Walter, of Monroe, La., member of Congress, was 
 born October 5, 1882, at Grand Prairie, Texas. Was educated at 
 Baylor University (Texas) ; married Ida Moffett, of Ruston, La., 
 December 3, 1904 ; was admitted to the bar in 1903, and soon after 
 became a member of the firm of Sholars, Elder & Benoit, of Mon- 
 roe, La. Mr. Elder was at one time a partner of Gov. L. E. Hall. 
 He also served as mayor of Farmerville, La. ; was a member of the 
 Louisiana State Senate, from 25th district, for 1908-12, and was 
 elected to membership in the 63rd Congress (1913-15), by the 5th 
 Louisiana district. Politically he is a Democrat ; an adherent of the
 
 358 LOUISIANA 
 
 Baptist faith, a i\Iason and Knight Templar. Mr. Elder is also a 
 member of the ^lonroe. La.. Country ("'liib. and of the ^\jmy and 
 Navy Club, of "Washington, D. C. 
 
 Election Laws. — (See Constitution of 1898 for provisions regard- 
 ing sut¥rage.'i 
 
 Electoral Commission. — Immediately after the presidential elec- 
 tion of 1876 disputes arose in foiir states over the correctness of 
 the returns. In these disputes 20 electoral votes were involved, 
 to-^vit : 4 from Florida, 8 from Loiiisiana. 1 from Oregon, and 7 
 from South Carolina. At that time the electoral college consisted 
 of 369 votes. 185 of Avhich -were necessary to elect. Samuel J. 
 Tilden. the Democratic candidate for president, had a plurality of 
 250,935 of tlie popular vote over Rutherford B. Hayes, the Repub- 
 lican candidate, and a clear popular ma.iority of 167,037 over all 
 his opponents. Of the undisp\ited electoral votes he had 184, only 
 one more being necessary to seciire his election, while Hayes, in 
 order to be elected, -would have to obtain the entire vote of the 
 four contested states. In Florida, the supreme court, which was 
 Democratic, issued an order that the returning board should de- 
 clare the result as it appeared on the face of the returns, but the 
 board met before the decree of the court could be promiilgated, 
 threw out enough votes to show that the Republican electors had 
 ' a ma.iority, and announced the resiilt. The secretary of state cer- 
 tified the election of the Tilden ticket. A similar state of affairs 
 existed in South Carolina, where two sets of certificates were 
 issued. In Oregon the Republicans carried the state, but one of 
 the electoral candidates was a Federal officeholder and therefore 
 not eligible. The governor of that state certified to the election 
 of 2 Republicans and 1 Democrat. In Louisiana there were two 
 state governments, one headed by William P. Kellogg, governor 
 de facto, and the other by John McEnery, governor de .iure, and 
 each administration claimed the authority to certify to the elec- 
 toral vote. 
 
 On Dec. 6, 1876, the electors holding Kellogg certificates met 
 at the State-house to cast their votes. Two of them. 0. H. Brewster 
 and A. B. Levissee. were Federal officeholders at the time of the 
 election, but they resigned their positions and were chosen by the 
 other electors "to fill vacancies." ]\Ir. Levissee said he had been 
 offered $100,000 to cast his vote for Tilden and Hendricks, biit 
 declined to give the name of the person or persons offering the 
 bribe. The votes were cast for Hayes and "Wheeler. On the same 
 day the electors holding certificates from Gov. IVIcEnery met in 
 the hall of the house of representatives and cast their votes for 
 Tilden and Hendricks. The Republicans — -Tohn Sherman, E. "W. 
 Stoughton. Eugene Hale, James A. Garfield and others — Avho had 
 been sent to New Orleans to witness the proceedings of the return- 
 ing board, submitted a report on Dec. 6 defending the coiirse pur- 
 sued by the retiu-ning officers, and the controversy was carried into 
 Congress. 
 
 The constitution of the United States makes it the dutv of Con-
 
 LOUISIANA 359 
 
 gress to canvass the electoral votes, but as the lower house was 
 Democratic by a large majority and the senate was Republican, 
 no agreement could be reached. It was contended that the house 
 alone had the right to canvass the votes, but in this proposition 
 the senate refused to concur, and on Dec. 7 Mr. McCrary of Iowa 
 offered a resolution providing for tlie appointment of a joint com- 
 mittee of 5 members of tlie house and like number from the senate, 
 "to prepare and report without delay, such a measure, either legis- 
 lative or constitutional, as may in their judgment be best calcu- 
 lated to accomplish the desired end." This resolution was referred 
 to the committee on judiciary, which reported it back on the 14th 
 with a recommendation that the committee be increased to seven 
 members of each house, in which form it was adopted without 
 debate. On the 18th it was adopted by the senate. The house 
 members of the committee were : Payne of Ohio, Hewitt of New 
 York, Springer of Illinois, McCrary of Iowa, Hunton of Virginia, 
 Hoar of Massachusetts, and Willard of Michigan. The senators 
 on the Committee were : Edmunds of Vermont, Frelinghuysen of 
 New Jersey, Conkling of New York, Morton of Indiana, Thurmau 
 of Ohio, Ransom of North Carolina, and Bayard of Delaware. 
 
 On Jan. 13, 1877, the committee, through Mr. Edmvmds, sub- 
 mitted a bill "to provide for and regulate the counting of tlie votes 
 for president and vice-president, and decision of questions arising 
 thereon, for the term commencing March 4, A. D., 1877." The 
 report of the committee was signed by all the members except Mr. 
 Morton, who, in the course of a long speech explaining the reason 
 for his non-concurrence, said: "I regard tliis bill, Mr. President, 
 as a compromise. It will take its place alongside of the com- 
 promise of 1820, and the compromise of 1850. * * * j believe 
 that Rutherford B. Hayes has been elected president of tlie United 
 States ; that 'he has been elected under forms of law and according 
 to law, and that he is elected in the hearts of the people ; and I 
 believe that if he is counted in, as eighteen presidents were .suc- 
 cessively counted in from the beginning of this government, he 
 would be inaugurated, and there would be no violence and no rev- 
 olution. * * * The constitution of the United States confers 
 upon the states the power to appoint electors in such a way as 
 the legislatures of the states may prescribe. This is the absolute 
 right of each state. * * * Sliould Congress assume to deter- 
 mine who have been appointed so far as to go behind the action 
 of the officers of the state appointed by the laws of the state for 
 that purpose. Congress would absorb to itself the entire power, 
 would become a grand returning board, without limit and without 
 restraint. The very moment we undertake to go behind the deter- 
 mination of the officers of the state as to the result of a state elec- 
 tion, and to count and determine the result for ourselves, that 
 moment we establish a revolution which ultimately will be the end 
 'of presidential elections." This was sound doctrine, but Moi-ton 
 was subsequently accused of offering opposition to the bill for 
 the purpose of securing its passage in the house of representatives,
 
 360 LOUISIANA 
 
 the theory being that the Democrats in that body would favor any 
 measure that the senator from Indiana opposed. The bill passed 
 both houses and was approved by the president on Jan. 29. 
 
 The commission created by the bill was composed of 5 senators, 
 5 representatives, and 5 justices of the U. S. supreme court. Sec- 
 tion 2 named the justices from the 1st, 3rd, 8th and 9th circuits, 
 who were to meet "on the Tuesday next preceding the first Thurs- 
 day in February, or as soon thereafter as may be * * * and 
 select in such manner as a majority of them shall deem fit, another 
 of the associate justices of said court, which 5 persons shall be 
 members of said commission ; and the person longest in commission 
 of said 5 jiistiees shall be the president of the commission." The 
 justices from the 1st, 3rd, 8th and 9th circuits were respectively 
 Nathan Clifford, Samuel J. Miller, Stephen J. Field and William 
 Strong. They met at the appointed time and selected Joseph P. 
 Bradley, of the 5th circuit, as the fifth member of the court to 
 serve on the commission. Of these justices 3 were Kepublicans 
 and 2 were Democrats. Clifford was from Maine, Miller from 
 Iowa, Field from California, Strong from Pennsylvania, and Brad- 
 ley from New Jersey. Concerning the appointment of these mem- 
 bers of the judiciary. Senator Morton said in his speech: "The 
 judges are taken, not because they are judges, not because they 
 are members of the supreme court, but because they are men of 
 eminent character who happen to occupy that position. Four of 
 them are chosen by circuits. The senator from Vermont (Ed- 
 munds) hardly did himself justice on Saturday, when he argued 
 that they were chosen by circuits on account of geographical dis- 
 tribution. They were chosen by circuits, as I \mderstand it, not 
 because of geographical distribution, but because of the political 
 antecedents of the men who preside in those circuits. "Wlien the 
 bill, instead of naming the judges, names the circuits, it presents 
 a harmless little sham that deceives nobody." 
 
 The senators appointed to serve on the commission were: George 
 F. Edmunds of Vermont, Oliver P. Morton of Indiana, Frederick 
 T. Frelinghuysen of New Jersey (Republicans), Allen G. Thurman 
 of Ohio, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware (Democrats). Owing 
 to ill health Mr. Thurman declined and Francis Kernan of New 
 York was appointed in his place. The house appointed Henry B, 
 Payne of Ohio, Eppa Hunton of Virginia, Josiah G. Abbott of 
 Massachusetts (Democrats), James A. Garfield of Ohio, and George 
 P. Hoar of Massachusetts (Republicans). Politically the commis- 
 sion as a whole was composed of 8 Republicans and 7 Democrats, 
 and on all questions relating to the count of the disputed votes, 
 the members by a strict party vote — 8 to 7 — decided in favor of 
 the Republican electors, thus giving the presidency to Hayes. Ob- 
 jections were arbitrarily and peremptorily overruled, without re- 
 gard to merit or legal force, the sole object of the majority of the 
 commission being to compass the election of the Republican candi- 
 dates for president and vice-president. A single instance of this 
 character will suffice to show the methods of the commission. A
 
 LOUlSiANA 361 
 
 delegation from Louisiana called attention to Article 117 of the 
 state constitution, which provided that "No person shall hold or 
 exercise at the same time more than one office of trust or profit, 
 except that of justice of the peace or notary public." They offered 
 to prove that "William P. Kellogg was governor de facto of the 
 state at the same time that he signed his own certificate as a 
 presidential elector, and that, in direct contravention of the con- 
 stitutional provision above quoted, he held and exercised at the 
 same time the offices of governor de facto and presidential elector. 
 Notwithstanding Senator Morton's heroic defense of the_ right of 
 the states to control the manner of choosing electors, he obeyed 
 the party lash and voted to count the elector votes of Louisiana 
 as they had been certified by a corrupt returning board, although 
 one of the electors thus certified was clearly ineligible under the 
 state constitution. 
 
 Henry Barrett Chamberlain, a writer in the Chicago Record- 
 Herald, in writing of this historic contest in May, 1908, said: "The 
 Republican returning board of Louisiana, in direct violation of 
 law, refused to place a Democrat on the board. It also refused 
 to canvass the votes in public session. After weeks of revision it 
 certified that its eight electoral votes were for Hayes, though the 
 returns published after the election gave Tilden 18,000 majority. 
 * * * Soon after his inauguration President Hayes withdrew the 
 Federal troops from Louisiana and South Carolina, and recognized 
 the legality of the Democratic state administration, chosen the same 
 day as the presidential electors, though the Democratic governor 
 installed had received fewer votes than the Tilden electors." 
 
 Fortunately, a similar farce in counting the electoral votes can- 
 not occur again, as Congress, in 1887, passed an act providing that 
 each state must settle for itself any dispute which may arise con- 
 cerning its electoral vote, or the vote will not be counted. 
 
 Electoral Vote. — With the exception of the year 1864 — while the 
 war between the states was going on — Louisiana has cast an elec- 
 toral vote at every presidential election since her admission in 
 April, 1812. The vote of 1872 was not counted, however, as Con- 
 gress, after an investigation into the methods of holding the elec- 
 tion and counting the votes, ordered the electors from several 
 Southern states rejected, including the 8 from the State of Louisi- 
 ana. The electoral vote of the state since admission has been 
 as follows : 1812, 3 for Madison and Gerry ; 1816, 3 for Monroe 
 and Tompkins ; 1820, 3 for Monroe and Tompkins ; 1824, for presi- 
 dent, Jackson 3, Adams 2, for vice-president, Calhoun 5 ; 1828, 5 
 for Jackson and Calhoun ; 1832, 5 for Jackson and Van Buren ; 
 1836, 5 for Van Buren and Johnson; 1840, 5 for Harrison and 
 Tyler ; 1844, 5 for Polk and Dallas ; 1848, 5 for Taylor and Fillmore ; 
 1852, 5 for Pierce and King; 1856, 5 for Buchanan and Brecken- 
 
 ridge; 1860, 6 for Breckenridge and Lane; 1864, ; 
 
 1868, 7 for Seymour and Blair; 1872, ; 1876, 8 for 
 
 Hayes and Wheeler ; 1880, 8 for Hancock and English ; 1884, 8 for 
 Cleveland and Hendricks; 1888, 8 for Cleveland and Thurman;
 
 362 LOUISIANA 
 
 1892, 8 for Cleveland and Stevenson; ]896, 4 for Bryan and Sewall, 
 and -4 for Bryan and Watson; 1900. 8 for Bryan and Stevenson; 
 1904, 9 for Pa'rker and Davis; 1908, 9 for Bryan and Kern. 
 
 Elitown, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Washington 
 parish, is about 2 miles south of Dyson, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 8 miles northwest of Frankliuton, tlie parish seat. 
 
 Elizabeth, a post-village and station in Allen parish, is near the 
 northern boundary on the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe R. R. Pop- 
 ulation 100. 
 
 Elks, Benevolent and Protective Order of. — This order had its 
 origin in the city of New York and Charles A. S. Vivian, the son 
 of an Englishman, is credited witli tlie honor of being its founder. 
 Several "good fellows," Vivian among the number, and most of 
 them connected with the theatrical profession, were in the habit 
 of spending much of their leisure time at a public house, where 
 they would "sing songs, swap yarns, and in other ways make the 
 hours pass pleasantly." In 1867 these "Bohemians" organized a 
 club called "The Jolly Corks," and several of the oi'iginal fifteen 
 members are still living. By the following year the membership 
 had increased to large proportions and it was decided to change 
 the name and character of the organization. A committee was ap- 
 pointed to decide on a name, and this committee visited Barnum's 
 museum, where they saw an elk and learned something of its in- 
 stincts and habits worthy of emulation, which led to the adoption 
 of the name. From the origin of the order many people imagine 
 that the Elks are merely a lot of fellows banded together for the 
 purpose of having a good time. But in recent j-ears the convivial 
 feature has been subordinated to "charity, justice, brotherly love 
 and iidelity. " The motto of the order is: "The faults of our 
 brothers we write \ipon the sands ; their virtues upon the tablets 
 of love and memory." 
 
 The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks was introduced in 
 Louisiana on Dec. 7, 1884, when New Orleans Lodge, No. 30, was 
 instituted by the celebrated tragedian, Thomas W. Keeue, assisted 
 by William Henry of New York, E. A. Donaldson of Louisville, 
 Charles Bradshaw and William Hayden of Philadelphia, 26 mem- 
 bers being initiated at tlie first meeting. A. S. Graham was the 
 first exalted ruler of the lodge, and George H. Lord, the first secre- 
 tary. Tlie lodge first met at 193 Gravier street, but in Feb., 1885, 
 removed to No. 4 Carondelet street. After several other removals 
 it finally settled down in its present quarters on Elk Place in Sept., 
 1897. The national grand lodge met in New Orleans in 1898, and 
 since that time the order has experienced a continuous era of 
 prosperity. In May, 1909, there were thirteen lodges in the state, 
 with a total membership of over 4,000, New Orleans lodge alone 
 having about 1,700 members. As an example of the charitable 
 work of the order it is worthy of note that the annual dinner on 
 Thanksgiving day by the members of New Orleans Lodge to the 
 poor of the city "has assumed such a formidable proportion that 
 it has become the wonder and admiration of the citizens."
 
 LOUISIANA 363 
 
 EUendale (R. R. name Central), a village and station in the 
 northern part of Terrebonne parish, is on the branch of the South- 
 ern Pacific R. R. that runs from Shriever to Houma, about half way 
 between those two towns. Population 200. It has a money order 
 postoffice, telegraph and telephone facilities, and is a trading and 
 shipping point for a rich farming district. 
 
 EUicott, Andrew, astronomer and mathematician, was born in 
 Pennsylvania, Jan. 27, 1754, son of a prominent Quaker. His scien- 
 tific attainments caused his employment, at various times, for 
 marking the boundaries of Pennsylvania, New York and Virginia, 
 and in 1789 he was appointed to survey the land between Pennsyl- 
 vania and Lake Erie, making the first accurate measurements of 
 Niagara Falls. In 1790-91 he was employed in marking the boun- 
 daries of the District of Columbia, and in laying out the future na- 
 tional capital at Washington ; in 1792 he was appointed surveyor- 
 general ; in 1795 he superintended the construction of Fort Erie 
 and laid out the town of Erie, Pa. On May 24, 1796, he was ap- 
 pointed commissioner on behalf of the United States for deter- 
 mining the boundary between the United States and the posses- 
 sions of Spain, in accordance with the 3rd article of the Treaty 
 of San Lorenzo el Real, executed Oct. 27, 1795. He left Pittsburg 
 on Sept. 16 and arrived at Natchez after many delays on Feb. 23, 
 1797. Ellicott was kept waiting at Natchez over a year before he 
 could begin the actiial work of running the line. Finally, on April 
 9, 1798, Ellicott with his surveyor, assistants, and woodsmen left 
 Natchez and arrived at Clarksville the following day. (For a full 
 account of the details of the work, the reader is referred to Elli- 
 cott 's Journal, which is also epitomized in American State Papers, 
 Foreign Afi^airs, Vol. II.) The American surveyor originally ap- 
 pointed to assist Ellicott was Thomas Freeman, but he and the 
 astronomer quarreled, and David Gillespie was chief surveyor after 
 the work began, Ellicott "s son and Walker being assistant sur- 
 veyors. Gov. Gayoso was empowered to act as commissioner for 
 Spain, but shortly after the work was begun he appointed Stephen 
 Minor to act in his behalf. The Spanish astronomer selected was 
 William Dunbar, Daniel Burnett, surveyor, and Patrick Taggart, 
 assistant surveyor. On Feb. 23, 1799, at New Orleans, Ellicott 
 and Gayoso signed with great ceremony, in the hall of the gov- 
 ernment house, four reports in Spanish and English, confirming 
 the work done before June 7, 1798, the date when the Spanish 
 interests were entrusted to Dunbar and Minor. Ellicott completed 
 the work of running the line to the Chattahoochee river, 381 miles 
 from the Mississippi in May 1799, and then ran a line from the 
 confluence of the Flint and Chattahoochee to the source of the St. 
 Mary's. At the conclusion of his work he was appointed secre- 
 tary of the Pennsylvania land office. In 1812 he was appointed 
 professor of mathematics at West Point, which he held until his 
 death. In 1817 he was sent to ]\Iontreal, to make astronomical ob- 
 servations bearing on the execution of the treaty of Ghent. He 
 died at West Point, Aug. 29, 1820.
 
 364 LOUISLINA 
 
 Ellis, E. John, soldier and lawyer, was born at Covington, La., 
 Oct. 15, 1841. He was educated at Clinton, La., and Centenary- 
 college, Jackson, La., but withdrew when in the junior class, in 
 1858. He then entered the law department of the University of 
 Louisiana, where he graduated in March, 1861. Five days later 
 he joined the Confederate army and served throughout the war. 
 In 1866 he was admitted to the bar in Louisiana; entered political 
 life and M-as elected to the 44th, 45th, 46th, 47th and 48th Con- 
 gresses as a Democrat. He died in 1889. 
 
 Elmer, a money order post-village in the western part of Kapides 
 parish, is about 3 miles southeast of Nelsonville, the nearest rail- 
 road station. 
 
 Elmgrove, a post-hamlet and station in the southwestern part of 
 Bossier parish, is on the Red river and the line of the Louisiana 
 Railway & Navigation company, about 16 miles by rail southeast 
 of Shreveport. It has an express office, telegraph station, tele- 
 phone facilities, and is a trading center for the neighborhood. 
 
 Elmwood, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Vernon par- 
 ish, is situated on Bayou Castor, about 4 miles west of Pickering, 
 the nearest railroad station, and 9 miles southwest of Leesville, 
 the parish seat. It is in the pine district, has lumber industries. 
 
 Elton, a post-village and station in Jeflf Davis parish, is on the 
 Colorado Southern, New Orleans & Pacific R. R., about 8 miles east 
 of Kinder. Population 600. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation. — Soon after the opening of the sec- 
 ond session of the 37th Congress in Dec, 1861, a number of bills 
 and resolutions were offered touching the emancipation of slaves 
 as a means of bringing the war to a close, but no definite action 
 was taken at that time. On March 6, 1862, President Lincoln sent 
 a message to Congress recommending the adoption of the follow- 
 ing, or some similar, joint resolution: "That the United States, 
 in order to cooperate with any state which may adopt gradual ab- 
 olition of slavery, give to such state pecuniary aid, to be used by 
 such state, in its discretion, to compensate it for the inconvenience, 
 public and private, produced by such change of system." 
 
 In the message submitting this resolution, the president said: 
 "In tlie mere financial or pecuniary view, any member of Congress, 
 with the census or an abstract of the treasury report before him, 
 can readily see for himself how very soon the current expendi- 
 tures of this war would purchase, at a fair valuation, all the slaves 
 in any named state. 
 
 "Such proposition on the part of the general government sets up 
 no claim of right by the Federal authority to interfere with slavery 
 within state limits^referring, as it does, the absolute control of 
 the subject, in each case, to the state and the people immediately 
 interested. It is proposed as a matter of perfectly free choice 
 to them." 
 
 The resolution was introduced in the house on March 10 by Mr. 
 Conkling of New York, and after some debate Avas adopted by a 
 vote of 89 to 31. Ten days later it passed the senate by a vote of
 
 LOUISIANA 365 
 
 32 to 10. At that time it was doubtless the president's intention 
 not to interfere with the institution of slavery by any abrupt or 
 arbitrary method, but to encourage the states to inaugurate a 
 system of gradual emancipation. This belief is strengthened by 
 his action two months later with regard to Gen. Hunter's order 
 in the Department of the South, composed of the states of South 
 Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Gen. David Hunter, commanding 
 the department, declared martial law in these states on April 25, 
 1862, and on May 9 issued a proclamation in which he said : 
 "Slavery and martial law in a free country are altogether incom- 
 patible. The persons in these states * * * heretofore held as 
 slaves, are therefore declared forever free." Ten days later Presi- 
 dent Lincoln issued a proclamation countermanding Hunter's 
 order, using the following language: "Neither Gen. Hunter nor 
 any other commander or person has been authorized by the gov- 
 ernment of the United States to make proclamation declaring the 
 slaves of any state free, and the supposed proclamation now in 
 question, whether genuine or false, is altogether void so far as 
 respects such declaration. I further make known that, whether it 
 be competent for me, as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, 
 to declare the slaves of any state or states free; and whether at 
 any time, or in any case, it shall have become a necessity indis- 
 pensable to the maintenance of the government to examine such 
 supposed power, are questions which, imder my responsibility, I 
 reserve to myself, and which I cannot feel justified in leaving to 
 the decision of the commanders in the field." 
 
 On July 12 the senators and representatives of the border slave- 
 holding states met the president at the executive mansion by special 
 invitation, and in a written address Mr. Lincoln said to them, 
 among other things: "I intend no reproach or complaint when I 
 assure you that, in my opinion, if you had all voted for the reso- 
 lution in the gradual emancipation message of last March the 
 war would now be substantially ended. And the plan therein pro- 
 posed is yet one of the most potent and swift means of ending it. 
 Let the states which are in rebellion see definitely and certainly 
 that in no event will the states you represent ever join their pro 
 posed Confederacy, and they cannot much longer maintain the 
 contest. But yoxa cannot divest them of their hope to ultimately 
 have you with them so long as you show a determination to per- 
 petuate the institution within your own states. * * * You and 
 I know what the lever of their power is. Break that lever before 
 their faces, and they can shake you no more forever. * * * j 
 do not speak of emancipation at once, but of a decision at once to 
 emancipate gradually. Room in South America for colonization can 
 be obtained cheaply, and in abundance, and when numbers shall 
 be large enough to be company and encouragement for one another, 
 the freed people will not be so reluctant to go. * * * j am 
 pressed with a difficulty not yet mentioned — one which threatens 
 division among those who, united, are none too strong. An in- 
 stance of it is known to you. Gen. Hunter is an honest man. He
 
 366 LOUISIANA 
 
 was. aud I hope still is, my friend. I valued him none the less 
 for his agreeing with me in the general wish that all men every- 
 where could be free. He proclaimed men free within certain states, 
 and I repudiated the proclamation. He expected more good and 
 less harm from the measure than I could believe would follow. 
 Yet, in repudiating it, I gave dissatisfaction, if not offense, to many 
 whose support the country cannot afford to lose. And this is not 
 the end of it. The pressure in this direction is still upon me and 
 is increasing. By conceding what I now ask you can relieve me, 
 and, much more, can relieve the country in this important point." 
 
 To this address majority and minority replies were made by the 
 Congressmen from the border states, only seven of them favoring 
 the policy of gradual emancipation. The pressure referred to by 
 the president evidently continued, and by the last of August his 
 dream of gradual emancipation and the colonization of the freed- 
 men in South America was dispelled. On Sept. 22 he issued a 
 proclamation announcing his intention to continue his efforts in 
 the direction of tendering pecuniary aid to the states, that would 
 gradually abolish slavery and in colonizing the freedmen, but 
 whether these efforts were successful or not, the proclamation de- 
 clared : ' ' That on the 1st day of January, in the year of our Lord 
 1863, all persons held as slaves within any state, or designated part 
 of a state, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against 
 the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free ; 
 and the executive government of the United States, including the 
 military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain 
 the freedom of such persons, and will do no acts to repress such 
 persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their 
 actual freedom." 
 
 The proclamation further declared that on the 1st day of January 
 the president would designate the states and parts of states to be 
 included in the application of the proclamation, and called atten- 
 tion to the acts of March 13 and July 17, 1862, prohibiting officers 
 from employing the troops under their command for the purpose 
 of returning fugitive slaves, and granting freedom to every slave 
 escaping from his owner and taking refuge within the Federal 
 lines, or in the free .states or territories. Up to the time this proc- 
 lamation was issued the attitude of the United States government 
 had been that of restricting slavery to the section of the country 
 where it already existed. But by the proclamation it became evi- 
 dent that the Federal arms M'ere to be used not only to limit, but 
 also to abolish slavery. Fears were entertained that when the 
 knowledge of the proclamation reached the negroes there would 
 be an uprising among them, but these fears proved to be un- 
 founded. A Georgia writer saj's: "But the negroes manifested 
 no disposition to distxu"b the peace. History will record to their 
 praise that while actual war was pending on the soil of Georgia 
 they quietly awaited the issue of the fiery struggle between the 
 South and the North. Entire communities of women and children 
 were left in their charge, while able-bodied white men were away
 
 LOUISIANA 367 
 
 on the battle-field ; and the trust was faithfully kept. Instances 
 of criminal acts were so rare that at this period none are recalled, 
 and while this fidelity is proof of the peaceful character of the 
 negro, it is also evidence for their owners that slavery had pro- 
 duced no personal hostilities between the two races in Georgia, and 
 that the treatment of the negro by his owner under the law had 
 been such as to 'maintain between them personal attachment and 
 mutual confidence.' " The same was true of the situation in Lou- 
 isiana. It was not until the negro became the tool of designing 
 politicians that the hatred between him and his former owner man- 
 ifested itself. 
 
 In the North the proclamation of September was received with 
 salutes of 100 guns in some of the cities, notably Pittsburg and 
 Buffalo, and Gov. Andrew of Massachusetts issued a proclamation 
 ordering such a salute, "as an official recognition of its justice and 
 necessity, by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts." But the proc- 
 lamation did not meet with vmiversal approbation. Many North- 
 ern people severely criticized it. Northern newspapers animad- 
 verted upon it as an assumption of power unwarranted by the con- 
 stitution, and even in the Federal army there was great dissatis- 
 faction among the soldiers, many of them declaring that they had 
 taken up arms to save the Union, not to free the slaves. In some 
 instances officers were court-martialed for insubordination, and on 
 Oct. 7 Gen. George B. McClellan, commanding the Army of the 
 Potomac, found it necessary to issue an order in which he said : 
 "Discussions by officers and soldiers concerning public measures 
 determined upon and declared by the government, when carried 
 at all beyond temperate and respectful expressions of opinion, tend 
 greatly to impair and destroy the discipline and efficiency of troops, 
 by substituting the spirit of political faction for that firm, steady 
 and earnest support of the authority of the government which is 
 the highest duty of the American soldier. The remedy for political 
 errors, if any are committed, is to be found only in the action of the 
 people at the polls." As to the effect of the proclamation abroad, 
 the opinion is well summed up in a letter from Earl Russell to 
 Lord Lyons, envoy extraordinary to the United States, the .closing 
 words of whicji are: "There seems to be no declaration of a prin- 
 ciple adverse to slavery in this proclamation. It is a measure of 
 war, and a measure of a very questionable kind. As President Lin- 
 coln has twice appealed to the judgment of mankind in his procla- 
 mation, I venture to say that I do not think it can or ought to 
 satisfy the friends of abolition, who look for total and impartial 
 freedom for the slave, and not for vengeance upon the slaveowner." 
 
 On Jan. 1, 1863, President Lincoln, true to his announcement of 
 Sept. 22, 1862, issued his proclamation of emancipation. In Lou- 
 isiana at that time the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jef- 
 ferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, 
 Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin and Orleans (includ- 
 ing the city of New Orleans) were iinder the control of Federal 
 troops, and slavery was not to be interfered with in that portion
 
 368 LOUISIANA 
 
 of the state. West Virginia was also exempted from the provis- 
 ions of the proclamation, as ■well as the counties of Accomac, 
 Berkeley, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne and 
 Norfolk in Virginia. Slavery in all these excepted parts was "left 
 p recise ly as if this proclamation were not issued." 
 
 The proclamation failed to accomplish the purposes for which it 
 was intended. True, many negroes, upon hearing of it, managed 
 to find their way into the Federal lines, feeling assvired that once 
 there they would be protected, but the bloody fields of Chancellors- 
 ville, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, the Wilderness and Spottsylvania 
 bear witness that it took something more substantial than procla- 
 mations to end the war. 
 
 Emden, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Winn parish, is 
 near the southern boundary and is a station on the line of the 
 Louisiana Railway & Navigation company, 10 miles southwest of 
 Wiunfield, the parish seat. 
 
 Emma, a post-hamlet and station in the northeastern part of Bos- 
 sier parish, on the Red River & Rocky Mount R. R., about 15 miles 
 northeast of Benton, the parish seat. 
 
 Empire, a post-village and station in the southern part of Plaque- 
 mines parish, is on the west bank of the IMississippi river and the 
 New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R., about 12 miles 
 southeast of Pointe a la Hache. the parish seat. It is located in the 
 fruit Itelt, has orange industries, and a population of 200. 
 
 Englewood, a post-village in the central part of Madison parish, 
 is a station on the St. Louis, Iron ^Mountain & Southern R. R., 
 about .3 miles south of Tallulah, the parish seat. 
 
 English Turn. — About 18 miles below the city of New Orleans 
 is a bend in the ^Mississippi river known by this name, which was 
 given to it by the following incident. On Sept. 16, 1699, while 
 Bienville was descending the river on his return from an exploring 
 expedition to the Plaquemine and Chetimachas bayous, he here 
 met an English frigate carrying 12 guns and commanded by a 
 Capt. Bar. The vessel was one of a fleet sent out by an English 
 claimant to a large grant of land in the Carolinas. and Bar frankly 
 admitted that he was looking for a suitable location on the banks 
 of the ]\Iis!5issippi to establish a colony. Bien-\dlle, if not strictly 
 truthful, was equal to the occasion. One version of the story is 
 that he told Bar the river sought was farther to the west. An- 
 other is that he informed the Englishman the French were already 
 in possession of the river ; that colonies had been planted at various 
 places along its coiu-se ; that he was then returning from a visit to 
 those colonies ; and that the whole region was really a dependency 
 of Canada. Whichever version may be the correct one. Bar evi- 
 dently was convinced. He ordered his vessel to be put about, 
 though with rather bad grace, threatening to return some time and 
 vindicate England's right to the river and its valley. The frigate 
 sailed out of the ilississippi, leaving the young French diplomat 
 master of the field, and from that day to the present time the place
 
 LOUISIANA 369 
 
 where this bit of strategy was worked has been known as "The 
 English Turn." 
 
 At that time England was claiming Louisiana as a part of the 
 Carolinas. It is said that on Bar's vessel was a French engineer, 
 who secretly gave to Bienville a petition addressed to the king 
 and giving the assurance that 400 Protestant families would come 
 from the Carolinas and settle in Louisiana if the king would grant 
 them liberty of conscience in the matter of religious worship. The 
 petition was referred to Count Pontehartrain and was refused. 
 
 English Turn, a post-village situated in the northern part of 
 Plaquemines parish, is on the east bank of tlie Mississippi river 
 and a station on the Louisiana Southern R. R., near the place where 
 Bienville turned back the English ship in 1699. 
 
 Ennes, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Beauregard parish, 
 on Barnes creek, about 3 miles north of Longville, the nearest rail- 
 road station. It is located in the western long leaf yellow pine dis- 
 trict and has important lumber industries. 
 
 Enterprise, a post-village of Catahoula parish, situated on the 
 Ouachita river, about 6 miles east of Rosefield, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Eola, a village in the southwestern part of Avoyelles parish, is 
 situated at the jun'ction of the Southern Pacific and the Texas & 
 Pacific railroads, about 4 miles south of Bunkie, in a rich agricul- 
 tural district, for which it is the shipping and supply point. It has 
 a money order postoffice, express office and telegraph station and 
 a population of 300. 
 
 Erath, an incorporated town in the northeastern part of Ver- 
 milion parish, is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 7 
 miles east of Abbeville, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities 
 and is the shipping and supply town for a rich sugar district. Pop- 
 ulation 557. 
 
 Eros, a money order post-village in tlie northeastern part of 
 Jackson parish, is on the Tremont & Gulf R. R., about 8 miles east 
 of Vernon, the parish seat. It has one free rural delivery route and 
 an express office. 
 
 Erwinville, a village of West Baton Rouge parish, is situated in 
 the western part on the Colorado Southern, New Orleans & Pacific 
 R. R., about 15 miles northwest of Baton Rouge. It has a money 
 order postoffice and a population of 100. 
 
 Esperenze, a post-hamlet in the extreme eastern part of Con- 
 cordia parish, is on the Mississippi river, about 5 miles east of 
 Fish Pond, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Espiritu Santo River. — (See Mississippi River.) 
 
 Esther, a money order post-hamlet in the central part of Ver- 
 milion parish, is situated on a confluent of the Vermilion river, 
 about 10 miles south of Abbeville, the parish seat, and 5 miles south 
 of Rosehill, the nearest railroad station. Population 75. 
 
 Estherwood, a village in the southwestern part of Acadia parish, 
 is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 6 miles west of 
 1—24
 
 370 LOUISIANJ^ 
 
 Crowley, the parish seat. It has a bank, a money order postoffice, 
 rice mills, an express oiBce, telegraph station, telephone facilities, 
 and a population of 544. 
 
 Estopinal, a post-village and station in the western part of St. 
 Bernard parish, is on the Louisiana Southern R. R., about 15 miles 
 southeast of New Orleans, and in a large truck farming district 
 that furnishes New Orleans with vegetables and fruit. 
 
 Estopinal, Albert, planter, and for many years prominent in 
 Louisiana political affairs, was born in St. Bernard parish in 1845. 
 He was educated in the parish schools and at New Orleans, and at 
 the age of 17 years enlisted in Co. G, 28th La. infantry, and was 
 made sergeant. He was with his regiment during the siege of 
 Vicksburg, and was several times in charge of the guard to eon- 
 duct Federal prisoners to Richmond. Li the latter part of 1863 
 he M'as made sergeant of Co. G, 22nd La. heavy artillery, with 
 which he conchided his military service, being at Mobile, Ala., 
 during the operation there in the spring of 1865. He was paroled 
 with Gen. Taylor's forces at Meridian, I\Iiss., May 15, 1865, and 
 returned home. For several j^ears he was engaged in the commis- 
 sion business at New Orleans, but most of his life was spent at 
 his home, "Kenilworth Plantation," 20 miles below New Orleans. 
 In 1872 he was elected sheriii of St. Bernard parish ; reelected in 
 1874; was active during the reconstruction days; served as presi- 
 dent of the parish police jury; was elected to the lower house of 
 the state legislature in 1876 and again in 1878; was a delegate to 
 the constitutional convention of 1879; in 1880 was elected to the 
 state senate and served in that body for 20 years ; was a member 
 of the constitutional convention of 1898, and in 1900 was elected 
 lieutenant-governor on tlie Democratic ticket. In 1908 he was 
 elected to Congress from the 1st district to succeed Gen. Adolph 
 Meyer, who had died a few months before. 
 
 Ethel, a village in the southwestern part of East Feliciana par- 
 ish, is situated at the junction of two branches of the Yazoo & 
 Mississippi Valley R. R., about 9 miles southwest of Clinton, the 
 parish seat. It has a money order postofSce, express office and 
 telegraph station, and a population of 300. 
 
 Eular, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Livingston par- 
 ish, is situated on a confluent of the Amite river, about 7 miles 
 northeast of Denham Springs, the nearest railroad and telegraph 
 station. 
 
 Eunice, an incorporated town in the western part of St. Landry 
 parish, is situated at the junction of the Chicago, Rock Island & 
 Pacific, the Colorado So^^thern and the South Pacific railroads, and 
 has a population of 1648. It has a bank, an express office, tele- 
 graph station and telephone facilities, and is the shipping and 
 supply town for the southwestern part of the parish. 
 
 Eustis, George, jurist, a nephew of William Eustis, at one time 
 governor of ilassaehusetts, was born at Boston, Mass., Oct. 20, 
 1796. He was educated at Harvard university, graduating in 1815. 
 After leaving college he was secretary to his uncle, Gov. Eustis,
 
 LOUISIANA 371 
 
 who was tlieu IT. S. minister to Holland. While at The Hague he 
 began to study law ; on his return to Amei'ica he went to Louisiana 
 and settled in New Orleans in 1817 ; was admitted to the bar of 
 Loiiisiana 5 years later; took an active part in local politics; was 
 elected to the state assembly for several terms; became secretary 
 of state, and was appointed one of the commissioners of the board 
 of currency. While holding this position, he was instrumental in 
 having reforms made that gave stability to the state currency. In 
 1845 he was sent as a delegate to the state constitutional conven- 
 tion, and was elected attorney-general of the state. A year later 
 he became a supreme court justice, serving until 1852. A short 
 time before his death Harvard university honored him with the 
 degree of LL. D. He died at New Orleans, La., Dec. 23, 1858. 
 
 Eustis, George, jr., diplomat and lawyer, was born at New Or- 
 leans, La., Sept. 28, 1822. He received a tine education; graduated 
 at the Jefferson college of Louisiana and the Cambridge law school ; 
 was admitted to the bar and began practice in New Orleans ; en- 
 tered political life ; was elected a representative from Louisiana 
 to the 34tli Congress as an American, and reelected to the 35th 
 Congress. During the war he was secretary of the Confederate 
 legation at Paris, where he remained after the close of the war. 
 Elihu B. Washburn, minister at Paris, commissioned him to negotiate 
 a postal treaty with the French government. He died at Cannes, 
 France, March 15. 1872. 
 
 Eustis, James B., U. S. senator from Louisiana, was born in 
 New Orleans, Aug. 27, 1834. He received a classical education; 
 attended the Harvard law school in 1853-54 ; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1856 and practiced law in New Orleans ; at the outbreak of the 
 war he entered the Confederate army as judge-advocate on Gen. 
 Magruder's staff; was transferred to the staff of Gen. Joe Johnston; 
 served in this capacity until the close of the war, when he resumed 
 his law practice at New Orleans. Prior to the reconstruction acts 
 he was elected to the state legislature and was one of the committee 
 sent to Washington to confer with President Johnson on Louisiana 
 affairs. He was a member of the state house of representatives in 
 1872 ; elected a member of the state senate for 4 years in 1874 ; elected 
 U. S. senator in 1877, but his seat was contested by P. B. S. Pinch- 
 back and he was not recognized by the senate until Dec. 10. 1877, 
 and served until March 3, 1879. Mr. Eustis was then made professor 
 of civil law in the University of Louisiana, and was again elected to 
 the U. S. senate as a Democrat to succeed Benjamin F. Jonas for 
 the term of 1885-1891; practiced law at Washington, D. C, in 1891; 
 and was appointed amlsassador to Prance 1893-1897. Upon his return 
 he located at New York City, and died at Newport, R. I., Sept. 9, 
 1899. 
 
 Eva, a post-hamlet in the western part of Concordia parish, is 
 situated on the Black river about 9 miles south of the village of 
 Black River, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Evangeline, a money order post-hamlet in the western part of 
 Acadia parish, situated on Bayou Cannes, about 5 miles north of
 
 372 LOUISIANA 
 
 Mermeuton, the nearest railroad station, and 12 miles northwest of 
 Crowley, the parish seat. Population 300. 
 
 Evangeline Parish. — This parish was authorized by the act of 
 the general assembly, approved by Gov. Sanders on June 22, 1908. 
 Section 1 provides "That a new parish in the State of Louisiana, 
 be and the same is hereby created out of the western portion of the 
 parish of St. Landry to be called and known as the parish of Evan- 
 geline: which said parish of Evangeline shall be composed of all that 
 territory of the parish of St. Landry lying west of a line beginning 
 at a point on the line between the parishes of Acadia and St. Landry 
 on the township line between range two (2) and range three (3), 
 east Louisiana meridian, following said line due north to a point 
 where the same intersects Bayou Grand Louis; thence following said 
 bayou to its junction with Bayou Petite Passe; thence running due 
 north to a point on Bayou Cocodrie; thence following said Bayou 
 Cocodrie to a point on the township line between ranges two (2) and 
 three (3) east; due north on said township line to a point on the line 
 between the parishes of Avoyelles and St. Landry;" 
 
 Section 2 places the new parish in the 7th Congressional district; 
 the 14th senatorial district ; the 16th judicial district ; the 3d supreme 
 court district; and makes it a part of the district under the juris- 
 diction of the 1st circuit court. The section further provides that 
 the parish seat shall be fixed and remain at such place as may be 
 selected by the voters at an election held for that purpose. 
 
 After prescribing the manner of cTganizing the new parish, and 
 providing for the copying and transmission of the recoi'ds relating 
 to that part of the parish of St. Landry cut off to form the parish 
 of Evangeline, section 10 of the act stipulates that immediately after 
 the passage and approval of the act the governor shall direct the board 
 of election supervisors in and for the parish of St. Landr.v to order an 
 election for the second Tuesday in April, 1909, at which the voters 
 of the parish of St. Landry might vote on the f[uestion of dividing 
 the parish for the establishment of the new one authorized by the 
 act. If a majority of the voters expressed themselves in favor of the 
 new parish, then the governor was directed to appoint five commis- 
 sioners to order an election on the second Tuesday in Nov.. 1909. 
 for the purpose of deciding the location of the parish seat, and should 
 issue his proclamation declaring the parish of Evangeline created, 
 the organization thereof to remain in abeyance until a full set of 
 officers shall be chosen at the general election in 1912. If a majority 
 of the voters should express themselves as opposed to the establish- 
 ment of the new parish, then "this act shall be null and of no effect." 
 
 The election to ratif}' or reject the provisions of the act was ac- 
 cordingly held on April 13, 1909, (the second Tuesday) and a large 
 majority declared in favor of the establishment of the new parish. 
 Settled in the older days, many historical and, in a sense, romantic 
 incidents occurred in this region. Several of its war sons have also 
 gained renown. Politically it is rapidly attaining importance. The 
 history of the territoiy comprising Evangeline parish is a part of 
 the history of St. Landry (q. v.). The name was chosen from Long-
 
 LOUISIANA 373 
 
 fellow's poem describing the sufferings of the Aeadians. many of 
 whom settled in Louisiana after their cruel expulsion from their 
 Canadian homes, and whose descendants live in the district included 
 within the boundaries of the new parish. 
 
 Evart, a post-haml^t in southern part of Beauregard parish, is a 
 station on the Colorado Southern, New Orleans & Pacific R. R., 
 about 15 miles northwest of Lake Charles, the parish seat and nearest 
 banking point. It is located in the pine district and has lumlier in- 
 dustries. 
 
 Evelyn, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of De Soto par- 
 ish, is situated on Bayou Pierre, about 5 miles southwest of Armistead, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Evergreen, an incorporated town in the southern part of 
 Avoyelles parish, is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., 12 miles 
 south of Marksville, the parish seat. It has one free rural delivery 
 route, a bank, a money order postoffice, an express office, telegraph 
 and telephone service, and is the trading center for a rich agricul- 
 tural district. Population 299. 
 
 Excelsior, a post-handet in the soutlieastern part of Jard-cson par- 
 ish, is a station on the Tremont & Gulf R. R., about 12 miles south- 
 east of Vernon, the parish seat. 
 
 Executions. — The plaintiff, wishing to execute his judgment, 
 must apply to the clerk of the court rendering it, who will issue a 
 writ of fieri facias to the sheriff or constable, ordering a seizure and 
 sale of sufficient property of the defendant to satisfy the judgment 
 and costs. When seized, the sheriff' or constable must advertise it, if 
 personal property 10, and if real estate 30 days, before selling the 
 same. The property must be valued by two appraisers, one chosen by 
 each party, and being first offered for cash must bring two-thirds of 
 the appraisement, or it cannot then be sold. If no bid is made to 
 that amount, the property is readvertised for 15 days longer, to be 
 sold on a ci-edit of 12 months, for whatever it will bring. At this 
 sale the purchaser is required to give what is called a twelve-months 
 bond, with sufficient security, bearing the same rate of interest as the 
 original debt ; and if real estate is sold, by being properly recorded it 
 operates as a special mortgage and vendor's privilege upon the prop- 
 erty sold. If it is not paid at maturity, the plaintiff may take out 
 execution, without any previous demand, against both the principal 
 and surety, and seize the property of either, and after 10 days' 
 advertisement, if it be personal property, or 30 days, if it be real 
 estate, sell it for cash for whatever it will bring. 
 
 Exemptions. — Under the constitution of 1879 the following prop- 
 erty was made exempt from seizure by execution or any other process : 
 The homestead actually owned by the debtor and occupied by him, 
 consisting of lands, buildings, etc., whether rural or urban, of every 
 head of a family, or person having a mother or father or other person 
 or persons dependent on him or her for support ; also one work-horse, 
 one wagon or cart, one yoke of oxen, two cows and calves, 25 head of 
 hogs or 1,000 pounds of bacon, or its equivalent in pork, whether 
 these exempted objects be attached to a homestead or not, and on a
 
 374 LOUISIANA 
 
 farm the necessary quantity of com and fodder for the current year 
 and the necessary farming implements to the value of $2,000. But the 
 property exempt shall in no case exceed $2,000 in value : provided, 
 however, that no husband shall be entitled to the exemption provided 
 for, whose wife shall own in her own riglit and be in the actual en- 
 joyment of property or means to the amount of $2,000. 
 
 The person or persons claiming the benefit of the homestead and 
 exemptions law must execute a written declaration of homestead. 
 This declaration must contain : 1 — A statement of the facts showing 
 the person claiming the homestead and exemptions is a person of the 
 description to be entitled thereto; 2 — A statement that the person 
 claiming it is residing on the land or lot claimed as homestead and 
 owns it by a bona fide title, setting forth the natiire of the title: 
 3 — A description of the lot or tract of land; 4 — An enumeration of 
 the other exemptions; 5 — An estimate of the cash value of the home- 
 stead and exemptions, and a statement of intention to claim such 
 homestead and exemptions. The declaration must be sworn to and 
 recorded in the book of mortgages for the parish where the homestead 
 claimed is situated. 
 
 Whenever the widow or minor children of a deceased person are 
 left in necessitoiis circumstances, she or they shall be entitled to de- 
 mand and receive from the succession of the deceased husband or 
 father a sum which, added to the amount of property owned by 
 them, or either of them, in their own right, will make up the sum of 
 $1,000. and which said amount shall be paid in preference to all other 
 debts, except those for the vendor's privilege and the expenses in- 
 curred in selling the propert.y. If this claim of the widow or minor 
 children is opposed, it must be proved and necessitous circumstances 
 shown to exist. The sheriff or constable cannot seize the linen and 
 clothes belonging to the debtor or his wife, nor his bed. bedding or 
 bedstead, nor those of his family, nor his arms and military accouter- 
 ments. his tools and instruments, hooks, and sewing-machines neces- 
 sary for the exercise of his or her calling, trade or profession by 
 which he or she makes a living; nor shall he in any case seize the 
 rights of personal servitude, of use and habitation, of usufruct to 
 the estate of a minor child, the income of dotal propert.v. money due 
 for the salary of an officer, laborers wages, the cooking-stove and 
 utensils of said stove, the plates, dishes, knives, forks, and spoons, the 
 dining-table and dining chairs, wash-tubs, smoothing-irons and 
 ironing furnaces, family portraits belonging to the debtor, nor -the 
 musical instruments played on or practiced on by any member of the 
 family. 
 
 Exodus, Negro. — Applet on 's Annual Cyclopedia for 1879 says: 
 "The attention of the country during the past year has been at- 
 tracted to movements among the colored population, chiefly in the 
 states bordering on the Mississippi. There was no appearance of or- 
 ganization or system among these persons. Their irregularity and 
 the absence of preparation seemed to indicate spontaneousness and 
 earnestness. Bands moved from the plantations to the Mississippi 
 river, and thence to St. Louis and other cities, with no defined pur-
 
 LOUISIANA 375 
 
 pose, except to reach some one of the new states west of the Mississippi, 
 where they expected to enjoy a new Canaan. Their movements 
 received the name of the 'Exodus.' " 
 
 As the planters of those states depended principally upon negro 
 labor, the immediate effect of the exodus was to disorganize that labor, 
 and for a time disaster to the growing crops seemed imminent. The 
 excitement spread rapidly among the colored population and con- 
 ventions were called to discuss the situation. On April 17, 1879, a 
 colored convention, composed, according to the call, of "clergymen, 
 teachers and social directors," met in New Orleans, about 200 dele- 
 gates being present, of whom it is said one-third were colored preach- 
 ers. Quite a number were blacks who had been brought to the city 
 from the rural districts of the state as witnesses in political trials. 
 The convention was poorly organized and the proceedings were char- 
 acterized by turbulence, many of the delegates preferring to talk of 
 "political violence and intimidation" to discussing the question of 
 emigration to other states. A few, among whom was P. B. S. Pinch- 
 back, spoke in opposition, but a majority favored the exodus. The 
 name of Frederick Douglass was hissed, and a resolution was adopted 
 "that it is the sense of this convention that the colored people of the 
 South should migrate." The convention finally closed with an appeal 
 for material aid to the "official and moral influence of the president 
 of the United States, the Republican party, and the country at 
 large." H 
 
 The Mississippi Valley labor convention, which met at- Vicksburg, 
 Miss., on May 5, was more pacific in tone. Resolutions were adopted 
 asserting the constitutional right of the colored people to emigrate 
 where they pleased, but at the same time urged them "to proceed in 
 their movements toward emigration as reasonable human beings, 
 pro\'iding in advance by economy the means for transportation and 
 settlement, sustaining their reputation for honesty and fair-dealing 
 by preserving intact until the completion of contracts for labor-leas- 
 ing which have already been made." The resolutions also called on 
 the colored people present "to contradict the false reports circulated 
 among and impressed upon the more ignorant and credulous, and 
 to instruct them that no lands, mules, or money await them in Kansas 
 or elsewhere, without labor or price, and report to the civil author- 
 ities disseminating such reports." 
 
 Probably the most extreme utterances and demands came from the 
 colored convention which assembled at Nashville, Tenn., May 7, with 
 a number of delegates from the Northern states present. It demanded 
 for the colored people social and political equality as a right ; recom- 
 mended the several state legislatures to enact laws for a compulsory 
 system of education; opposed separate schools as injurious to both 
 races, inasmuch as they tended to foster color prejudices; and 
 adopted a resolution "That it is the sense of this conference that the 
 colored people should emigrate to those states and territories where 
 they can enjoy all the rights which are guaranteed by the laws and 
 constitution of the United States, and enforced by the executive de- 
 partments of such states and territories; and we ask- of the United
 
 376 LOUISIAA^A 
 
 States an appropriation of $500,000, to aid in the removal of our 
 people from the South." 
 
 Kansas seemed to be the goal of the emigrants, the first of whom 
 reached that state early in April, and by the end of the year there 
 were added to the population some -iO.OOO negroes, about ten per 
 cent, of whom had come from Louisiana. "Many of these hung 
 about Topeka and other towns, and showed themselves incapable 
 and unwilling to try to provide for themselves." A Freedmen's relief 
 association was organized soon after the arrival of the first immig- 
 rants and within a year it had contributed about $150,000 toward 
 the support of the blacks. Toward the close of 1879 the tide of 
 emigration was turned to Indiana, and Daniel W. Yoorhees. one of 
 the U. S. senators from that state, secured the appointment of a senate 
 committee of investigation, on the ground that the exodus was for 
 the purpose of colonizing Republican voters in the close or doubtful 
 states. 
 
 Various causes have been alleged for this unusual procedure on the 
 part of the negroes. Gov. Stone, of Mississippi, in his message of 
 1880, said: "A partial failure of the cotton crop in portions of the 
 state, and the iinremunerative prices received for it, created a feeling 
 of discontent among plantation laborers, which, together with other 
 extraneous influences, caused some to abandon their crops in the 
 spring to seek homes in the West." Some writers have contended 
 that the exodus was due chiefly to the loss of political power by the 
 negroes at the end of the reconstruction period. While this may have 
 been true to some extent, it is quite as probable that iinscrupulous 
 partisans in some of the Northern states tempted the blacks to emi- 
 grate, in order to secure their support in close elections. It is also 
 equally probable that land speculators in their desire to induce set- 
 tlers to their lauds in the West circulated glowing reports of the 
 possibilities of that region among the blacks in the densely populated 
 districts of the South, and the promise of "Forty acres and a mule" 
 was too much for the negro to withstand. The exodus continued into 
 the early part of 1880 ; the failure of crops in South Carolina in 1881 
 caused a number of blacks to leave that state late in the year; and 
 there was another migration in the fall of 1886. but it was slight when 
 compared with the great hegira of 1879. While the excitement in- 
 cidest to the exodus was at its height the Southern people were divided 
 in their opinions as to the effects of the movement. Plantei-s and 
 other employers of labor looked upon it with feelings akin to conster- 
 nation, while othei-s. among whom was Senator Lamar of Mississippi, 
 hailed it "as the dawn of a new and grand era for the South." The 
 hardships endured by the negroes in Kansas taught a useful lesson to 
 those who remained on Southern plantations, and since then the bet- 
 ter class of colored people have been content to remain there, trusting 
 to their industry to overcome the obstacles that might present them- 
 selves, rather than to attempt to shun such obstacles by emigration. 
 
 Explorations, Early. — When Christopher Columbiis returned to 
 Spaii: from his first voyage to America, he was granted the exclusive 
 privilege of exploring the country he had discovered, but the order
 
 LOUISIANA 377 
 
 was revoked a year or two later and freedom of navigation was given 
 to "all merchant adventurers" who might desire to send expeditions 
 to the New World. Under the liberty thus extended Amerigo Vespucci 
 came with an expedition to the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico 
 about 1497, which was followed by other voyages. Other early dis- 
 coveries and explorations that had more or less bearing upon the 
 territory comprising the present State of Louisiana were the discovery 
 of Florida by Ponce de Leon in 1512 ; the voyage of Francisco 
 Cordova to Mexico in 1517, and that of Juan de Grijalva to the same 
 country the following year; the expedition under Alfonzo Alvarez de 
 Pineda sent out from Jamaica by Francisco de Garay in 1519 ; the ill- 
 starred attempt of Panfilo de Nai-vaez to found a settlement some- 
 where on the Gulf coast in 1527-28, and some others of minor im- 
 portance. In the early years of the sixteenth centui-y the explorei-s 
 who were most active on behalf of Spain were Leon, de Garay, Cordova 
 and Grijalva, and it appears their several fields of discovery and con- 
 quest were defined by the patents or commissions under which they 
 operated. Ponce de Leon was assigned the coast of Florida, extending 
 probably as far west as Apalachicola may. From that point to the 
 vicinity of Pensacola bay was a neutral zone, awaiting some am- 
 bitious explorer. Thence to the west and southwest, past the mouth 
 of the Panuco river, was the sphere of action of de Gara^^ and his 
 representative Pineda, covering the Louisiana coast, the patents of 
 the others embracing the coast of Mexico. Under the names of these 
 explorers will be found a more detailed account of their discoveries. 
 The only expedition of historic importance to the interior was that 
 of De Soto, 1539-42. (The mad seareh for Quivera and the "Seven 
 cities of Libolo" by Coronado and Penalosa can hardly be classed as 
 exploring expeditions.) After nearly a century of fruitless quest for 
 the precious metals, Spain apparently abandoned the field, the only 
 settlement on the Gulf coast being a feeble one at Pensacola. It re- 
 mained for France to explore the mighty Mississippi, claim the 
 country tributary to it, and found the first settlements in its basin. 
 
 The French did not begin their explorations in the Mississippi 
 valley until about the middle of the seventeenth century. One of the 
 earliest Frenchmen to visit Ihe region was Jean Nicollet in 1643, but 
 it was not until the expedition of Joliet and Marquette 30 years later, 
 that the French government began to see the advantages to be ganied 
 by making the valley of the great river a dependency of France. Even 
 then the king was unwilling to incur any expense in exploring the 
 country, but generously permitted some of his more ambitious sub- 
 jects to do so "at their own expense." Most of the earl.v French 
 explorations were confined to the upper portion of the Mississippi, in 
 the present states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois, but in 
 1682 Robert Cavelier de La Salle descended the river to its mouth and 
 claimed all the country drained by it and its branches for the French 
 crown — a claim that was subsequently sustained by the tribunal of 
 nations. (For more complete information on the subject of French 
 Explorations see the articles on Joliet, Marquette, Hennepin, La Salle, 
 Iberville and Bienville.)
 
 378 LOUISIANA 
 
 In 1627 Charles I of England granted to Sir Robert Heath a 
 tract of land embracing the Carolina coast from the 31st to the 36th 
 parallels of latitude and extending westward to the South sea. This 
 grant, which included the northern part of what is now the State of 
 Louisiana, was later acquired by Daniel Coxe. and from him passed 
 to his son. About 1722 the younger Coxe published a journal setting 
 forth the claims that a Col. "Wood had ascended the Mississippi as 
 early as 164S : that he had again visited the river in 1676. when he 
 spent some ten years in exploring it and its branches; and that in 
 1670 a Capt. Bolt had na^dgated the Mississippi in the interests of 
 the English claimants. The journal was supplemented by a map, 
 purporting to show the route followed by Col. Welch, who had been 
 sent out by Daniel Coxe from Carolina to explore the country. This 
 map showed the location of settlements and factories in what are now 
 the states of Alabama and Mississippi. None of these expeditions is 
 well authenticated and all are disregarded by historians, the con- 
 sensus of poinion being that the map and journal were issued by Coxe 
 for the purpose of attracting colonists to his claim, but they were 
 nevertheless brought forward by some parties in support of the 
 English claim to Louisiana as a part of the Carolinas. Their publica- 
 tion was too late, however, to be of any material service in establish- 
 ing that claim. Another English claim was that explorers from Vir- 
 ginia had crossed the Alleghany mountains in 165-1 and again in 1664 
 and penetrated the Mississippi valley by way of the Ohio river, but 
 it is not likely that any of these expeditions ever saw any portion of 
 the territory claimed by the French under the name of Louisiana. 
 
 Expositions, Industrial. — Since the great war between the states, 
 the industries of Louisiana have derived material benefit from the 
 state's exhibits at various industrial expositions, both at home and 
 abroad. The first instance of this kind was in 1867. when the state 
 was represented at Paris, France. On March 28. 1867, the legislature 
 made appropriations amounting to $4,502.10 for packing and for- 
 warding specimens of sugar, salt, tobacco, petroleum, etc., to Paris, 
 and for other pui-poses. The largest item of expense was $1,500 to 
 Edward Gotthiel for services rendered; the next largest was $1,337 
 for plans and the erection of a cottage on the exposition grounds : W. 
 S. Pike, president of the Louisiana board of commissioners, received 
 $750 for his services and expenses, and the remainder was used for 
 printing and advertising. Although this exhibit was not extensive 
 and was made at a time when the state was in the throes of recon- 
 struction, when money was lavishly expended without regard to re- 
 sults, it advertised abroad the capabilities of the state, but, owing to 
 the unsettled conditions of that period, it would be a difficult matter 
 even to estimate the benefits resulting from the display. 
 
 The same is true in a great measure of the Centennial exposition 
 at Philadelphia in 1876. By the act of Congress of June 1, 1872, 
 which authorized the "Central Board of Finance" to secure subscrip- 
 tions to not more than $10,000,000 in stock, that amount was appor- 
 tioned among the states according to population. At that time the 
 population of Louisiana was estimated at 726.916, and the amount of
 
 LOUISIANA 379 
 
 stock apportioned to the state was $188,520. in shares of $10 each, 
 but there is no record as to whether the stock was subscribed by the 
 citizens of the state. John Lynch was appointed commi.ssioner. Thomas 
 C. Anderson, alternate, Mrs. M. C. Ludeling was made the Louisiana 
 member of the women's executive committee, and a board of finance, 
 consisting of five members from the state at large and two from each 
 of the five Congressional districts, was appointed. Some little advertis- 
 ing of the state's resources was done at Philadelphia, but no exhibit 
 of products was made. 
 
 In 1877 the state government was restored to the people of Louisi- 
 ana, and on Jan. 23, 1878, a joint resolution was adopted by both 
 branches of the legislature requesting the governor to appoint two 
 honorary commis.sioners to the Paris exposition of that year, said 
 commissioners to serve without pay and without expense to the state. 
 
 In 1880 came the first suggestion for a general exposition of in- 
 dustries, arts, etc., at some point in the Southern states as a means 
 of calling attention to the resources of that section of the country, en- 
 couraging the development of those resources, and stimulating the 
 trade of the South with other countries. The .sub.ject continued to be 
 discussed by Southern newspapers for .some time, but no definite 
 action was taken until in Oct., 1882, when, at the annvial meeting of 
 the National Cotton Planters' association, attention was directed to 
 the fact that the first shipment of cotton from the United States was 
 made in 1784, when six bags were shipped from Charleston, S. C, 
 and the association adopted a resolution that the proposed exposition 
 shoi^ld be held in New Orleans in 1884 to celebrate the centenary 
 of the event. The subject was brought before Congress at the ensuing 
 session, and on Feb. 10, 1883, President Arthur approved an act 
 incorporating the "World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Ex- 
 position," thus giving the enterprise the encouragement of the govern- 
 ment, and New Orleans was selected as the most suitable place, pro- 
 vided that city would guarantee the necessary financial .support. The 
 citizens of New Orleans, with the cooperation of railroad companies 
 and other large corporate concerns, subscribed for $500,000 of the 
 stock ; the city government contributed $100,000, the state legislature 
 by the act of June 24, 1884, appropriated .$100,000 "to be applied to 
 the erection of buildings to accommodate the Louisiana exhibit and 
 to collect, prepare and display products." The president appointed 
 commissioners for tbe several states, a majority of which made liberal 
 appropriations for an exhibit of their products, resources, etc. E. A. 
 Burke was appointed director-general and chief executive officer ; F. 
 C. Morehead, commissioner-general; G. M. Torgerson, supervising 
 architect; F. N. Ogden, chief superintendent; S. H. Oilman, con.sult- 
 ing engineer; and the following selections were made for chiefs or 
 heads of departments : Parker Earle, horticulture ; George B. Loring, 
 agriculture; B. K. Bruce, colored exhibit; Samuel Mullen, installa- 
 tion; Charles L. Fitch, transportation; B. T. Walshe, information and 
 accommodation ; Thomas Donaldson, ores, mines and forestry exhibit ; 
 John Eaton, education; "W. H. H. Jud.son, printing and publishing; 
 C. W. Dabney, Jr., government and state exhibits; Mrs. Julia Ward
 
 380 LOUISIANA 
 
 Howe, women's work. Commissioners were also appointed l\v the 
 board of manasrers to visit foreigrn countries and different sections of 
 the United States to awaken interest and secure representation at the 
 exposition. 
 
 The site chosen for the exposition was a tract of land (now Aii- 
 dubon park) belonsrinar to the city, aboiit 4 miles above the busi- 
 ness center of the city and extending: from the 'Mississippi river to 
 St. Charles avenue. The main building, devoted to the ^reneral ex- 
 hibits, foreign displays and machinery, was 905 by 1.378 feet, and 
 was the largest structure ever erected for exhibition purposes iip to 
 that time, its area being more than 200.000 square feet greater than 
 the famous crystal palace at the London exposition of 1862. The 
 next largest building was the government building, 565 by 885 feet, 
 devoted to the exhibits of the United States government and of the 
 various states. Other buildings were the horticultural hall, the art 
 building, the factories and mills building, devoted chiefly to displays 
 of cotton, sugar and rice, the building for sawmills and wood-working 
 machinery, live stock stables, restaurants, etc. The Jlexican govern- 
 ment erected two buildings, one in the general style of a "hacienda" 
 192 by 288 feet inclosing an open court 115 by 184 feet, and a 
 smaller building for the display of Mexico's mineral products. The 
 horticultural hall was erected with the $100,000 contributed by the 
 city government, with the understanding that it should become the 
 permanent property of the city. It is still standintr. but the other 
 buildings were removed from the grounds .soon after the close of the 
 exposition. Between the buildings and the river was a garden of 
 semi-tropical plants, including groves of orange, lemon, fig and 
 banana trees, etc. This garden proved to be one of the most interest- 
 ing features of the exposition. 
 
 The original intention was to open the exposition on Dec, 1, 1884, 
 but the time for preparation was so .short that the exhibits were not in 
 place on that date and the opening was postponed until Dec. 16. The 
 ceremonies on that occasion were appropriate and impressive, and 
 Avhen all was ready President Arthur touched an electric button in 
 the "White House at "Washington, thus giving the signal for starting 
 the machinery in the main building. The exposition remained open 
 until Ma.y 31, 1885, and was visited by thousands of people who came 
 from all parts of the world and carried away with them a better 
 knowledge of the resources and capabilities of the Soi;th and partic- 
 ularly of New Orleans, 
 
 On Nov. 10, 1885, the North, Central and South American exposi- 
 tion was opened at the same place in which the Cotton Centennial 
 exposition had been held. It Mas a continuation of the latter and was 
 fairly successful for several months. 
 
 On July 1. 1892, the Louisiana legislature appropriated $18,000 
 for the fiscal year beginning on July 1, 1892, and a like amount for 
 the fiscal year beginning Jul.v 1, 1893, for the purpose of making a 
 display of the state's products at the "World's Columbian exposition 
 at Chicago in 1893, Col, T. J. Woodward and Davidson P.. Penn 
 were appointed U. S. commissioners, and Mrs. Perkins and iliss Kate
 
 LOUISIAiNA . 381 
 
 Minor were tlie lady commissioners. The principal features of the 
 exhibit were the rice a)id sugar displays, showing- the various steps in 
 these industries from seed time to harvest, and specimens of the 
 finished products. John C. Wickliffe was at first in charge of the 
 exhibit, and upon his resignation Gov. Foster appointed T. J. Butler, 
 who remained in charge until the close of the exposition. The Louisi- 
 ana state building at Chicago contained eight large rooms and was 
 visited by a large number of people, who were attracted by the novelty 
 of the exhibits and entertainments there given. In this biulding was 
 an Acadian exhibit from the old French colony in the Bayou Teche 
 country; relics of the French and Spanish days of Louisiana; the 
 richly carved antique furniture of Gov. Galvez, usually kept in the 
 mu.seum at Baton Rouge; an educational exhibit, showing the work 
 of Louisiana schools; a Creole concert company, and a creole kitchen 
 in which meals were served. 
 
 On June 22, 1894, the legislature adopted a re.solution requesting 
 the state's senators and representatives in Congress to vote for the 
 bill providing for a government exhibit at Atlanta in 1805, and 
 another resolution of the same date authorized the Louisiana bureau 
 of agriculture to make an exhibit there in the name of the state, 
 "showing the great and varied resources of the state and its prod- 
 ucts, with full information concerning its institutions and vast capa- 
 bilities." The legislature further requested "all cities, citizens, par- 
 ishes, corporations and commercial organizations of the state to co- 
 operate with the bureau to make the exhibit worthy of this state 
 and its people." Prof. W. C. Stubbs was appointed commissioner on 
 behalf of the state, and the lady commissioners from Louisiana were 
 Mrs. Scott McGee, Mrs. Fred G." Freret and Mrs. William H. Dick.son. 
 The report of the commissioner was never printed, but from un- 
 official sources it is known that the Louisiana exhibit at Atlanta at- 
 tracted much favorable attention and won several awards. No provi- 
 sion for expenses was made by the legislature at the time the resolu- 
 tion authorizing the exhibit was adopted, and on July 6, 1896, an act 
 was passed appropriating $5,700 to reimburse the parties who ad- 
 vanced that amount to the bureau of agriculture. Of this appropria- 
 tion, .$500 went to Miss M. Evans, in payment for 5.000 copies of her 
 magazine, "Men and Matters," distributed by her at the exposition in 
 the interest of Louisiana's industries and institutions. 
 
 No formal exhibit was made by Louisiana at the Tennessee Cen- 
 tennial exposition at Nashville in 1897, nor at the Trans-Mississippi 
 exposition at Omaha in 1898, though on July 8. 1898, the legislature 
 of the state appropriated $1,000 to reimburse Miss Evans, editor and 
 proprietor of "Men and Matters," for her .services in representing 
 the state at Nashville. On July 7, 1806, a re.solution was adopted by 
 the legislature authorizing the state board of agriculture to make an 
 exhibit at Omaha, and a space of 3,000 square feet in the agricultural 
 building was adopted to the state for the display, but for some reason 
 the project was not carried out. 
 
 Through the efforts and influence of Gov. Heard a creditable ex- 
 hibit was made at the Pan-American exposition at Buffalo in 1901.
 
 382 LOUISIANA 
 
 Thi» exhibit M-as collected and arranged by Maj. J. G. Lee, state com- 
 missioner of agriculture and immigration, and Prof. "W. C. Stubbs, 
 director of the state agricultural experiment stations. Aug. 21, 1901, 
 was Louisiana day at the exposition. Gov. Heard and his staff were in 
 attendance and addresses were made by Gov. Heard and by Profs. 
 J. B. Aswell and Alcee Fortier (the latter spoke in French) in the 
 Temple of Music where President McKinley was assassinated two 
 weeks later. At the close of the Pan-American exposition the exhibit 
 was removed to Charleston, where it remained until the close of the 
 exposition there, when the several collections were returned to Louisi- 
 ana. The total cost of the displays at Buffalo and Charleston was 
 about .$10,000. 
 
 The idea of an exposition to celebrate the centenary of the acquisi- 
 tion of Louisiana by the United States was first proposed by the Mis- 
 souri Historical society on Jan. 11, 1898, and after some prelimianry 
 work the governor of Missouri called a convention of delegates from 
 the several states and territories carved oi;t of the Loiiisiana Purchase 
 to meet in St. Louis on Jan. 10, 1899. This convention indorsed the 
 scheme, and on April 24. 1901, the "Louisiana Purchase Exposition 
 Company" was duly incorporated with David R, Francis as presi- 
 dent. On July 5, 1902, the Louisiana legislature passed an act pro- 
 viding "That a board of commissioners to be known as the board of 
 commissioners to the Louisiana Purchase exposition, be and the same 
 is hereby created, consisting of the governor, who shall be ex-ofScio 
 president thereof, and four other members, who shall be appointed 
 by the governor and hold office during his pleasure," and appro- 
 priated $100,000 for the purpose of making an exhibit. Pursuant to 
 the provisions of this act. Gov. Heard appointed as members of the 
 board Col. Charles Sehuler, Judge Emile Rost, Hon. Henry L. Guey- 
 dan and Maj. Jordan G. Lee. Judge Rost subsequently resigned on 
 account of his health and was succeeded by Gen. John B. Levert. The 
 board met early in Jan., 1903, and organized, electing Dr. W. C. 
 Stubbs, state commissioner; Robert Klenk, assistant commissioner; 
 Maj, J. G. Lee, seeretarj'; and Charles K. Fnqua, assistant secretary. 
 
 The commissioners began the work of collection and arrangement 
 with the intention of having the entire state exhibit in one building, 
 but upon learning that this would be contrary to the general plan of 
 the exposition officials the collection was divided into groups accord- 
 ing to the character of each displaJ^ Concerning this arrangement 
 the report of the commission says: "Thousands of visitors, even many 
 of our own citizens, formed inadequate, often erroneous conclusions 
 relative to Louisiana's display, simplj' because they saw only one or 
 two of her exhibits, and these perhaps not representative of her chief 
 resources. * * * "Without a guide, it was almost impossible for 
 even a Louisianian during a visit of ten days to find all the exhibits 
 from this state. It is almost certain that the state would have derived 
 larger benefits in attracting immigration had the policy of the com- 
 mission prevailed." 
 
 In the agricultural building were several wax models of sugar- 
 cane fields, showing cane in all stages of growth; implements used
 
 LOUISIANA 383 
 
 in eane culture; methods of transporting the cane from the field to 
 the sugar house; a complete model of a sugar mill, and numerous 
 samples of the finished product. Rice and cotton culture were simi- 
 larly illustrated, and there was a large and well selected assortment 
 of the various agricultural products of the state. The exhibit in 
 this building was under the control of Robert Glenk, the assistant 
 commissioner. 
 
 Daniel Newsham of New Orleans was in charge of the horticul- 
 tural exhibit, which consisted of pecans, fresh and preserved fruits, 
 etc., and in the conservatory were two carloads of ornamental plants 
 from New Orleans, most of which collection was fui-nished by the 
 florists of that city. 
 
 In the forestry building the exhibit was under the direction of 
 Prof. W. R. Dodson of the state experiment station at Baton Rouge. 
 It consisted of selected specimens of every variety of forest growth, 
 sections of trees, boards, and various articles manufactured from 
 Louisiana timber, with photographs illustrative of logging camps, 
 sawmills, etc. In this building was also the fish and game exhibit, 
 containing many specimens of Louisiana's fish, batrachians, reptiles, 
 game animals and birds, etc. 
 
 In the mines and metallurgy building were shown specimens of 
 brick, sulphur, crude and refined petroleum, iron ores, marble, lig- 
 nite, sandstone, cement, etc., and in the center of the space was a 
 large topographical map of the state, prepared by Dr. G. D. Har- 
 ris, showing the different geological horizons and locations of min- 
 eral deposits. Prof. George Williamson of the state normal school 
 had charge of the exhibit here, as well as that in the anthropology 
 building, where a large collection of Indian relies and articles of 
 manufacture were shown. 
 
 In the transportation building, where J. P. Culotta of Xew Or- 
 leans was in charge of the exhibit, were shown models of various 
 craft, illustrating the development of river transportation, from the 
 Indian canoe and the pirogvie of 1700 to the modern sidewheel 
 steamer or the ocean liner. The exhibit also included the original 
 of the first wagon made in Louisiana, an old cypress affair, 116 years 
 old, made by Don Juan Filhiol and exhibited by one of his descend- 
 ants. 
 
 The educational exhibit occupied space No. 1 in the educational 
 building, and was a fine collection from the public schools in different 
 cities and towns of the state and the higher educational institutions, 
 public and private. This exhibit was under the direction of Dr. Brown 
 Ayres of Tulane University. 
 
 In the liberal arts building Miss Myra Kennedy was in charge of 
 the display, which included a relief map of the state showing the 
 levee system ; relief maps of New Orleans in 1803 and 1903 ; a model 
 of the U. S. dry dock at New Orleans; and various geographical 
 and historical works relating to Louisiana. 
 
 The Louisiana state building was an exact reproduction of the 
 old Spanish Cabildo as it appeared in 1803, with the Place d'Armes 
 (now Jackson Square) in front. The building was furnished with
 
 384 LOUISIANA 
 
 pictures and furniture of the date of the transfer of Louisiana to 
 the United States (1803). In the square in front was a reproduc- 
 tion of the equestrian statue of Gen. Andrew Jackson, and around 
 the statue were planted orange trees, sugar-cane, sweet olives, etc. 
 The historic significance of this building and its antique furnish- 
 ings attracted a large luimber of visitors during the fair. 
 
 Sept. 14, 1904, was Ijouisiana day at the exposition. On that 
 occasion the governor of the state M'ith his staff was present and 
 commemorative exercises were conducted at the Cabildo. Louisiana 
 was awarded 15 grand prizes (the highest award), 55 gold. 76 silver, 
 and 4f) bronze medals. After the exposition the exhibits were taken 
 to New Orleans and installed in the Washington Artillery hall as a 
 permanent museum of the state's resources and products. 
 
 The next great industrial exposition in which Louisiana was repre- 
 sented was the Lewis and Clark centennial exposition at Portland, 
 Ore., in 1905, where an exhibit was made under the solicitation of 
 Maj. J. G. Lee, commissioner of agriculture; Eobert Glenk, curator 
 of the state museum ; and Prof. P. H. Burdette of the state university. 
 As these gentlemen were all in the employ of the state there was no 
 additional expense for salaries, and the total cost of the exhibit was 
 about •'fil.SOO. A carload of products, literature, etc., was taken from 
 the St. Louis collection and forwarded to Portland, the exhibit being 
 in charge of Prof. Burdette. On Louisiana day, Aug. 17, 1905, over 
 1,100 Louisianians registered at the exhibit, which was awarded 23 
 gold medals, 23 silver medals, 6 bronze medals, and 3 diplomas of 
 honorable mention. 
 
 By the act of July 11, 1906, the state formally accepted the invi- 
 tation of the State of Virginia to take part in the Jamestown expo- 
 sition in 1907, and created a commission to consist of five per.sons, 
 of whom three should be the commissioner of agriculture and immi- 
 gration, the director of the state experiment stations and the curator 
 of the state museum, the other two 'to be appointed by the governor. 
 Gov. Blanchard appointed Dr. W. C. Stubbs and Gen. T. W. Castle- 
 man, and the pei-sonnel of the commission was then as follows: Col. 
 Charles Schuler, commissioner of agriculture and immigration; Wil- 
 liam R. Dodson, director of the experiment stations: Robert Glenk, 
 curator of the state museum; Dr. Stubbs and Gen. Castleman. As no 
 money was appropriated, the commission at its first meeting called on 
 the governor for the necessary funds and .i>20,000 was secured from 
 the fiscal banks. The chief item of expense was about $9,500 for the 
 purchase of a lot and the erection of a building. Three cars were re- 
 quired to transport the materials for the exhibit, which occupied 4,840 
 square feet in the states' exhibit building. It embraced displays of 
 sugar, cotton and rice culture, similar to those at St. Louis; an 
 educational exhibit ; specimens of forest products : sulphur, salt and 
 petroleum ; oysters, and an exhibit of grasses and grains by the ex- 
 periment stations. A vast amount of literature exploiting the re- 
 sources of the state was distributed, and the exhibits were awarded 
 51 gold, 37 silver and 34 bronze medals. Of the $20,000 received 
 from the fiscal banks, over $2,400 was returned to the state at the
 
 LOUISIANA 385 
 
 close of the exposition on Nov. 30, 1907. Over 3,500 Louisianians, 
 besides many visitors from other states, were entertained at the 
 Louisiana building during the fair. 
 
 In his retiring message to the legislature in 1908, Gov. Blanehard 
 said : ' ' The president and trustees of the Alaska-Yukon-Pacifie ex- 
 position to be held in the city of Seattle, in the State of Washington, 
 from June 1 to Oct. 15, in the year 1909, have invited the govern- 
 ment and the people of Louisiana to take part in the important event 
 and to be represented by official commissioners, by an adequate dis- 
 play of the arts and sciences, the resources and industries of the state, 
 and b.y a state building. I submit this matter to your consideration. ' ' 
 After carefully weighing the matter, the legislature decided not to 
 make an exhibit, although the benefits resulting from the exhibits in 
 former expositions were of such character that many people of the 
 state favored a display at Seattle. 
 
 In 1910 a movement was launched with the purpose of holding an 
 exposition at New Orleans in 1915 to celebrate the opening of the 
 Panama Canal. A company was formed and regularly chartered 
 under the laws of Louisiana to promote and manage the enterprise. 
 About three million dollars was subscribed to the project, and the 
 regular session of the Legislature of that year provided a constitu- 
 tional amendment levying a State tax designed to produce four 
 million dollars in aid of the exposition, the Parish of Orleans bear- 
 ing a larger proportion of this tax than other parts of the State. 
 A short time after the adjournment of the regular session of the 
 Legislature, a special session was called and convened for the pur- 
 pose of so increasing this tax levy, so far as the Parish of Orleans 
 was concerned, as to produce seven million dollars instead of four 
 laillion. This amendment was favorably voted upon by the people 
 of Louisiana, but was conditioned upon the exposition being actu- 
 ally held. A great deal of advertising was done, and many trips 
 were made by delegations to Washington and elsewhere. The con- 
 test for the location of the exposition was mainly between New 
 Orleans and San Francisco, and after much delay the National Con- 
 gress finally decided the matter in favor of San Francisco. The 
 expense incurred was paid out of subscription funds, and the State 
 tax levy automatically lapsed. In 1913 an echo of this undertak- 
 ing took form in a project for the holding of an annual fair at New 
 Orleans. This appeared to meet popular approval, and the work 
 went forward with some show of success. In 1913 this movement 
 was so revised as to undertake the "Exposition of Big Ideas," to 
 be held in the autumn of 1914, and to remain a permanent exposi- 
 tion thereafter. Organization was perfected and an expert brought 
 to New Orleans to manage the enterprise. Again much advertis- 
 ing was done, and a vigorous subscription campaign conducted, but 
 this failed to produce the funds necessary to carrying forward the 
 exposition, and in the summer of 1914 the undertaking collapsed 
 with no tangible result other than a small fund from voluntary sub- 
 scribers — very largely from people of small means — and some acri- 
 monious discussion among leaders in the undertaking. 
 1—25
 
 386 LOUISIANA 
 
 Extension, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Franklin 
 parish, is about 8 miles west of Elam, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Fairmont (R. R. name Kateland). a village of Grant parish, is 
 a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany .5 miles southeast of Colfax, the parish seat. A postoffiee was 
 first established here in 1879. when the town was one of the impor- 
 tant river shipping points, and sines the advent of the railroad its 
 volume of business has increased. It has a money order postoffiee. is 
 the principal trading center for that section of the parish, and a 
 population of 150. 
 
 Fairs. — One resxilt of the work of the board of Farmers' Institute 
 managers of widespread benefit has been the establishment of parish 
 fair associations. These have been the outgrowth of the Farmers' 
 Institutes, and considerable financial aid has been rendered them by 
 the board of agriculture and immigration through the agency of the 
 institute corps. As far back as 1827 the need for gatherings and ex- 
 hibitions of this nature was realized by promient citizens and planters 
 of the state: in that year the legislature passed an act incorporating 
 the agricultural society of Baton Rouge, the object of which iustitu- 
 tiou was "the improvement of agriculture, the amelioration of the 
 breed of horses, of horned cattle and others, and in short of all the 
 several brandies relating to agriculture in the couutry. " In 18-3.3. the 
 agricultural society of Louisiana was incorporated by the legislature 
 with 13 directors and with authority to raise .$500,000 by subscrip- 
 tion. In this connection it was designed to conduct a model planta- 
 tion, where experiments in agriculture, horse culture, etc.. could be 
 turned to the benefit of the husbandman. This movement was really 
 an anticipation of the more recent agricultural colleges and experi- 
 ment stations, and speaks well for ihe early enterprise and sagacity 
 of the Louisiana legislators ; but it was too earlv for such an enter- 
 prise to succeed. Such movements have their periods of growth, just 
 as agricultural products do. In 1836. the West Feliciana agricultural 
 society was incorporated, and in 1853. the South Western industrial 
 fair association. These societies, with several others which arose at 
 this period, were intermittent in their life and growth. 
 
 Of considerable importance was the ilechanics and Agricultural 
 fair association, incorporated by legislative enactment ]\Iarch 1. 1861, 
 with a capital of .$150,000. The objects of this organization were 
 "to promote improvements in all the various departments of agricul- 
 ture the promotion of the mechanic arts the im- 
 provement of the race of all \iseful and domestic animals, the general 
 advancement of rural economy and household manufactures, and the 
 dissemination of useful knowledge upon these subjects." The follow- 
 ing were named as directors: J. G. Seymour. C. Potthoff. €. H. 
 Slocomb. George W. Race. J. 0. Nixon. Luther Homes. Charles Pride, 
 H. R. Swasey, Lafayette Folger, Thomas N. Blake, G. W. Sizer, L.
 
 LOUISIANA 387 
 
 H. Pilie, D. H. Fowler, John Pemberton, F. W. Tilton, I. N. Marks, 
 T. 0. Moore, E. E. Kittridge, P. A. Root, J. H. Overton and F. 
 Hardesty. During the war, public interest in the fairs flagged or 
 ceased entirely ; but on March 28, 1867, the association was the bene- 
 ficiary of a legislative grant of $50,000 appropriated to enable the 
 association to improve its ground, erect necessary buildings, and make 
 other expenditures incident to its purposes. 
 
 At the close of the dark days of the reconstruction period agi'i- 
 culture revived with the other industries of the state. The State 
 Fair association, incorporated by legislative enactment May 11, 1877, 
 with a capital stock of $100,000, was authorized to lease, purchase 
 and hold land, and enjoy the same rights and privileges as the 
 Mechanics and Agricultural fair association. The objects of the 
 association were to foster and promote improvements in all depart- 
 ments of agi-ieulture, horticulture, mechanic arts and home manu- 
 facturers. The members of the first board of directors were Isaac N. 
 Marks, Albert Baldwin, "William B. Schmidt, Joseph I. Day. Luther 
 Homes, Fred "Wing, J. L. Gubernator, Gus A. Breaux, H. M. Isaac- 
 son, N. E. Bailey, John Geddes, et al. Since 1906, annual state fairs 
 have been successfully held at Shreveport, and have done much to 
 promote the general agricultural interests of the state. 
 
 The Farmers' Institute and parish fair system originated in 1897. 
 In 1898, six agricultural and live stock fairs were held in connec- 
 tion with the institutes, viz., at Arcadia, Homer, Ruston, Calhoun, 
 Farmerville and Minden. These fairs were open to exhibitors from 
 the parishes in which they were held without entrance fee, and there 
 was no admission fee for visitoi's. The exhibits consisted entirely 
 of home grown products, this being a prerequisite to winning a 
 premium. The legislature appropriated $500 for premiums, and 
 this was divided among the different fairs, the board of agriculture 
 usually donating $50 or $75 for each fair. This was generously in- 
 creased by contributions from merchants and citizens at the places 
 where the fairs were held. The character of the fairs and the excel- 
 lence of the exhibits reflected much credit on their promoters, their 
 parishes, and the state at large. The system under which they were 
 held met with general satisfaction. 
 
 The institute corps was also instrumental in organizing perma- 
 nent parish and district agricultural fairs. In 1902 associations or 
 clubs had been organized in the parishes of Lincoln, Jackson, "Winn, 
 Union, Caldwell, Pointe Coupee, Avoyelles, Grant, Sabine, "Vemon, 
 Bienville, Lafayette, East Carroll, East P"'eliciana, Bessier and Clai- 
 borne. Agricultural, parish and district fairs were held during the 
 autumn of 1902 at Farmerville, Ruston, Clinton, Mineral, Calhoun, 
 Homer, Arcadia and Lake Providence. The following were organized 
 to be held in 1903 : Jone.sboro, "Wiimfield, Columbia, Pontchatoula, 
 Greensburg, Pranklintou, St. Martiuville, New Roads, Marksville, 
 Colfax, Many and Leesville. In this bulletin, the commissioner of 
 agriculture makes the following statement: "It was my privilege to 
 pay an official visit to all these fairs except two, and representatives 
 of the department visited these. It was my observation that their
 
 388 LOUISIANA 
 
 scope and usefulness are annually increasing. The result of the 
 stimulus given is apparent in every line of agricultural production; 
 especially is this noticeable in the matter of more and better live stock 
 and a greater diversity of farm products. The ladies, too, have caught 
 the spirit of rivalry and competition and vie with each other in their 
 excellent exhibits of fancy work, butter, preserves, pickels, jellies, 
 etc. The fairs were all well attended, well conducted and productive 
 of social intercoui-se. good feeling and good fellowship, and their 
 .social and educational value was everywhere apparent." 
 
 "Within the past few years other fair associations have been or- 
 ganized and a marked improvement has been sho\^Ti in the number 
 and quality of exhibit and the general interest displayed. The system 
 will be completed by the establishment of central fairs in different sec- 
 tions of the state, and by the award of more liberal premiums. These 
 fairs develop a keener interest in the premiums which are awarded at 
 the state fair, and the latter being held after most of the local faii-s are 
 over, the state exhibition gives an opportunity for bringing together 
 the premium exhibits from ever.y .section of the commonwealth. 
 
 Fairview, a money order pbst-hamlet, in the eastern part of 
 Concordia parish, is on the Mississippi river, about 3 miles south- 
 east of Fish Pond, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Faliah, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Washington 
 parish, is about 9 miles south of Frauklinton. the parish seat, and 
 most convenient railroad station. 
 
 Farmers' Alliance. — The first society or association to bear this 
 name had its origin in New York about 1873. Three years later county 
 alliances were organized in Texas, and in 1880 these were incorpo- 
 rated into a state alliance. In the meantime the New York organiza- 
 tion had spread rapidly westward. It differed from the Texas alliance, 
 in that it was an anti-secret society, the other being a secret and benev- 
 olent organization. In 1887 there were over 100.000 members in 
 Texas, and at the same time Louisiana had a Farmers' Union with 
 about 10.000 members. These two bodies united and secured articles 
 of incorporation in the District of Columbia under the name of the 
 National Farmei-s' Alliance and Cooperative Union. In the meantime 
 a kindred organization, called the Agricultural Wheel, an outgrowth 
 of the old Grange movement, had taken root in several of the South- 
 ern states. On July 28, 1886, delegates from the state wheels of 
 Tennessee. Kentucky and Arkansas met at Litchfield, Ark., and 
 formed the National Agricultural Wheel, which was also a secret 
 society. In Oct., 1889, a consolidation of the national alliance and the 
 national wheel was effected under the name of tjie National Farmers' 
 Alliance and Industrial Union. The purposes of the order, as ex- 
 pressed in its declaration of principles, were : 
 
 "1. To labor for the government in a strictly nonpartisan spirit, 
 and to bring about a more perfect union of all classes. 
 
 "2. To demand equal rights for all, and special privileges for 
 none. 
 
 "3. To approve the motto 'In things essential, unity; and in all 
 things, charity.'
 
 LOUISIAA^A 389 
 
 "4. To develop a better state, mentally, morally, socially and 
 financially. 
 
 "5. To strive constantly to secure harmony, and good-will to all 
 mankind, and brotherly love among ourselves. 
 
 "6. To suppress personal, local, sectional and national prejudices, 
 all unhealthy rivalry, and all selfish ambition. 
 
 "7. To visit the homes where lacerated hearts are bleeding, to 
 assuage the sufferings of a brother or sister, to bury the dead, care 
 for the widows, educate the orphans, exercise charity toward of- 
 fenders, construe words and deeds in their most favoi-able light, 
 grant honesty of purpose and good intentions to others, and pi-otect 
 the principles of the Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union until 
 death." 
 
 One of the first steps of the order was to establish exchanges or 
 purchasing agencies, with a large paid-up capital stock, through 
 which the members of the alliance could purchase implements, ma- 
 chinery and supplies at wholesale prices. As soon as the benefits of 
 this plan became apparent, the membership began to inci-ease, new 
 alliances were formed, and in a shoi't time every state in the Union 
 was well represented in the organization. The plan of the alliance in 
 laboring "for the government in a strictly non-partisan spirit" was 
 to agree upon needed reforms, then try to influence the existing 
 political parties to declare in favor of the reforms and secure the 
 necessary legislation to bring about the desired results. If this plan 
 failed the alliance stood ready to place its own candidates in the field. 
 At the annual convention, held at St. Louis, Mo., in Dec, 1889, the 
 Knights of Labor were taken into confederation, the name of the 
 National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union was adopted, and 
 the convention authorized the establishment of national headquar- 
 ters at Washington, D. C. 
 
 The order now began to have a political significance. In the gen- 
 eral elections of 1890 Alliance tickets were placed in the field in a 
 number of states. In Kansas and Nebraska the Alliance elected a 
 majority of both branches of the legislature, and held the balance of 
 power in the general assemblies of Illinois, Minnesota and South 
 Dakota. Nine members of the lower house of Congress were elected, 
 and Kansas, South Dakota and South Carolina sent Alliance men 
 to the U. S. senate. Encouraged by the results of this campaign, the 
 organization grew more aggressive, and the annual convention which 
 met at Ocala, Fla., in Dec, 1890, adopted a platforrd demanding the 
 abolition of national banks and the substitution of legal-tender treas- 
 ury notes for national bank currency ; that Congress should pass laws 
 pj'ohibiting the dealing in futures of all agricultural and mechanical 
 productions; the free and unlimited coinage of silver; the enactment 
 of laws to prevent the alien ownership of land ; the reclamation of all 
 lands held by railroad companies anrl other corporations not actually 
 used by them, such lands to be held for actual settlers; the issue by 
 Congressional authority of a sufficient amount of fractional paper 
 currency to facilitate exchanges through the mails; for government 
 control of all means of transportation and communication, and if
 
 390 LOUISIANA 
 
 this plan should prove insufficient, then absolute ownership of all 
 railway and telegraph lines, etc. The convention gave approval to 
 the sub-treasury bill then pending in Congress — a bill which pro\ ided 
 that whenever any county could show agricultural products amount- 
 ing in value to $500,000 in any one season, the government should 
 establish a sub-treasur.v, or an agricultural warehouse, within the 
 limits of such county, to enable the farmers to deposit therein their 
 surplus produce and receive therefore notes eqiial to 80 per cent of 
 its value. 
 
 The only general election in Louisiana in 1890 was for members of 
 Congress. For these the Alliance made no nomination, but the or- 
 ganization came into prominence in the campaign for the election of 
 state officers in April, 1891. At the same election the constitutional 
 amendment relative to the Louisiana lottery was to be voted on, and 
 in the fall of 1890 the anti-lottery Democrats and those of that party 
 who belonged to the Alliance reached an agreement by which the3' 
 were to work for the election of anti-lottery delegates to the Demo- 
 cratic state convention, who would also vote for the nomination of a 
 fusion ticket, which was to be headed by Thomas S. Adams, the presi- 
 dent of the Louisiana State Alliance, as the candidate for governor. 
 In opposition to this arrangement a large number of "regular" Demo- 
 crats favored the nomination of ex-Gov. Samuel D. McEnery. The 
 convention was called to meet on Dec. 16. 1890. and in the primaries 
 it developed that there was to be n bitter contest between the two 
 factions. The anti-lottery people, in order to strengthen themselves. 
 persuaded Mr. Adams to permit the nomination of Murphy J. Foster 
 for governor and accept a place on the ticket as the candidate for the 
 office of secretary of state. Some other Alliance men were nominated 
 and the ticket thus chosen was elected in April. This was the only 
 instance in which the Alliance achieved any political distinction in 
 Louisiana. When the People's party ,absorbed the Alliance in 1892 
 most of the Southern raembere opposed such a policy, and from that 
 time the order commenced to lose prestige. On Aug. 2. 1892. the State 
 Union met at Monroe. In this address President Adams recom- 
 mended that no political resolutions be passed, and the convention ac- 
 cepted his suggestion. "To do good work in our ranks." said he, "we 
 must try to capture the next Democratic state convention in that 
 party's ranks." But the capture was never made. 
 
 Farmers' Institutes. — A system of Farmers' Institutes of ines- 
 timable value to the farmers of Louisiana was inaugurated by the 
 state board of agriculture and immigration in 1897. During the 
 summer of that year 20 of these meetings were held, by means of 
 which the farmers came in contact with one another and Avith 
 teachers whose special qualifications and experience enabled them 
 to be of great assistance in the solution of the farmers' problems. 
 At these institutes, which had an estimated attendance of 3,000 
 persons, lectures were delivered, questions asked and answered, 
 and discussions participated in, during the course of which much 
 valuable information was elicited of practical use to the farmer in 
 his everyday work. The gist of these papers and talks was pub-
 
 LOUISIANA 391 
 
 lished in the Farmers' Institute Bulletin, which was freely dis- 
 tributed over the state. This general plan has since been followed 
 with most satisfactory results. The meetings have been continued 
 into the fall and parish fairs and stock shows held in connection 
 with them. Agricultural and truck growing societies have also 
 been organized in a number of parishes. "The Farmers' Institute 
 has been found to be a cheap, practical and available arrangement, 
 at which agricultural knowledge can be presented, explained and 
 discussed. Here each farmer attending has opportunity to state 
 his difficulties, draw upon his brother farmers' experience and 
 reduce to an available form in his own mind for fixture lase the in- 
 formation and expei-ience given." To effect a permanent organiza- 
 tion, the following board of managers was appointed by the bureau : 
 the president of the Louisiana state university and agricultural and 
 mechanical college ; tjie commissioner of agriculture and immigra- 
 tion, and the director of the state experiment stations. The com- 
 missioner of agriculture and immigration was made institute con- 
 ductor. 
 
 The first Louisiana institute conductor, J. G. Lee, opened the 
 several institxites by a clear and forceful statement of the object of 
 the system, a practical school for farmers, the growth of the insti- 
 tute system in other states, and the need of a permanent organiza- 
 tion in Louisiana. His remarks were enthusiastically received and 
 a gratifying result of his labors was the increase in a year of the 
 number of institutes held from 20 to 28 and the increased attend- 
 ance from 3,000 to 17,663. The first towns in which institutes were 
 'held were Hammond, Lake Charles, Crowley, Lafayette, Opelousas, 
 Abbeville, New Iberia, Baton Rouge, Columbia, Mer Rouge, Mon- 
 roe, Vernon, Ruston, Farmerville, Arcadia, Homer, Minden, Wins- 
 boro, Jennings, Mansfield and Grand Cane. In the following year 
 were added the towns of Benton, Jewella, Athens, Pollock, Bas- 
 trop, Calhoun, Coushatta, Many, Greensbiirg, Amite and Leesville. 
 Three sessions were usually held in a day and the meetings con- 
 tinued from 1 to 3 days. The institute corps was composed of pro- 
 fessors from the Louisiana state university, the state normal school, 
 specialists from the state experiment stations, practical, successful 
 farmers and public-spirited gentlemen whose interests in the work 
 prompted them to enlist their valuable services. A special feature 
 of the institutes of 1898 in northern Louisiana was the introduction 
 of hill-side ditching, which has for years been successfully prac- 
 ticed in Georgia. This method was explained and demonstrated 
 by a farmer from Georgia, who had employed it with good results 
 using only homemade instruments. During the first two years 
 further extension was prevented by the rigid quarantine regula- 
 tions necessitated by a threatened epidemic. Nevertheless agricul- 
 tural and stock fairs were held in connection with the institutes at 
 Arcadia, Homer, Ruston, Calhouu, Farmerville and Minden. 
 
 During the next 4 years the number of institutes increased to 45, 
 held in 41 different parishes. The total attendance in 1902 was 
 13,245. The institute had by this time established itself as a per-
 
 392 LOUISIANA 
 
 manent feature of agricultural education and its social opportuni- 
 ties were .also greatly appreciated by the farmers and their wives. 
 A good roads movement had been inaugurated, and institutes held 
 in the parislies where large sugar and cotton plantations were lo- 
 cated, as well as among the tillers of smaller estates. In 1902, in 
 the interests of facility and economy, the work was divided into 
 three districts, each in charge of an institute corps. In the 1st 
 district the institutes were conducted by Prof. W. R. Dodson, assist- 
 ant director of the state experiment station; in the 2nd, by Prof. 
 H. A. Morgan, entomologist of the state iiniversity and agricul- 
 tural and mechanical college ; in the 3d, by Dr. W. H. Dalrymple, 
 veterinarian of these two institutions. Special institutes were 
 conducted by Dr. W. C. Stubbs, director of experiment stations. 
 During the season of 1902, the institute corps had as members, in 
 addition to the Louisiana specialists, George E. Scott, special lec- 
 turer of Ohio institutes. Prof. W. C. Wellborn, special lecturer of 
 Mississippi, and Prof. N. N. Starnes, special lecturer of Georgia. 
 Thirty new permanent farmers' clubs were also organized and 8 
 parish fairs held. 
 
 During the following slimmer and autumn (1903), the same plan 
 of organization was adhered to and the personnel of the institute 
 corps in the 3. districts remained the same. The total attendance 
 in the 3 districts was about the same as the preceding year and 
 the number of institutes held was 50. Valuable papers were read 
 on truck-farming and fertilizers, the former industry receiving a 
 considerable impetus from the organization of new societies for 
 its promotion and development and the erection of canning fac- 
 tories in several districts. Special institutes bearing on these mat- 
 ters were held by request in the parishes of Rapides, Natchitoches, 
 Ascension and Lafourche. 
 
 The year 1904 showed the greatest increase in the niimber of in- 
 stitutes held (75) and the attendance (14,541) up to that time. The 
 value to the farmer of the methods and improvements demon- 
 strated at the inslitiites had been conchisively proved and the 
 meetings became a permanent feature of farm life. Commissioner 
 J. G. Lee of the board of agriculture and immigration says "The 
 attendance has increased over previous years and faith and confi- 
 dence is shown in the good work by constant demands on the de- 
 partment for institutes in other parishes, which, owing to the very 
 limited appropriation made for the purpose of holding Farmers' 
 Institutes, the department has been obliged to defer until more 
 available funds shall enable it to increase the number of institutes. 
 This applies to the encouragement and future development of the 
 fruit and truck growers' associations." Besides the regular insti- 
 tute corps, a special boll weevil and a special rice corps were in the 
 field. A special sugar and stock feeding institute was held at Re- 
 serve and a good roads institute at Shreveport. 
 
 Up to the present time the work has been continued along the 
 broad and comprehensive lines laid out for it by its founders, with 
 a loyal and enthusiastic support from the agricultural communi-
 
 LOUISIANA 393 
 
 ties for whose benefit it was designed. "With the fertile soil and 
 favorable climate of Louisiana and the progressive and enlight- 
 ened cooperation of its farmers, the quality and quantity of its 
 agricultural products should take a foremost place in the world's 
 markets. 
 
 Farmerville, the capital of Union parish, is located in the south 
 central part of the parish and is the terminus of a short line of 
 railroad known as the Farmerville & Southern. It was made the 
 parish seat soon after the parish of Union was organized in 1839, 
 when the site was laid out and public buildings were erected. The 
 first house in the town was built by a man named Britt Hunnicutt. 
 Being located in the timber belt, lumbering is an important indus- 
 try, and Farmerville ships annually large quantities of shingles 
 and other building materials. With a population of only 598 it 
 sustains a bank, several general stores, and some minor business 
 undertakings. It has a money order postofSce, from which rural 
 delivery routes supply the surrounding country, telegraph and 
 express service, supports a good public school system, and for its 
 size is one of the busiest and most enterprising towns in the state. 
 
 Farragut, David Glasgow, naval officer, was born at Kimball 
 Station, near Ivnoxville, Tenn., July 5, 1801. His father was an 
 officer in the U. S. cavalry and an intimate friend of Gen. Andrew 
 Jackson. At the age of nine years David entered the navy on 
 board the Essex under Com. David Porter and was in several naval 
 engagements during the war of 1812. After that war he made a 
 cruise to the Mediterranean on the Independence, and in 1825 was 
 commissioned lieutenant. He continued in the navy, crviising in 
 various waters, received a captain's commission in 1855, and three 
 years later was placed in command of the steam sloop Brooklyn. 
 When the Civil war began Capt. Farragut was 60 years old, 51 of 
 which had been passed in the naval service. At that time he was 
 living at Norfolk, Va., but as soon as he was informed that his state 
 had seceded he started for the North, and reported at Washington 
 for duty. In Nov., 1861, Com. David D. Porter submitted to the 
 president and secretary of the navy a plan for the capture of New 
 Orleans, and upon his recommendation Farragut was given com- 
 mand of the expedition. After a week's bombardment of Forts 
 Jackson and St. Philip, he ran past them on April 24, 1862, and 
 New Orleans capitulated on the 29th. Fortier says: "By his cap- 
 ture of New Orleans Farragut acquired a renown that has placed 
 him on a level with the greatest naval commanders." (See New 
 Orleans.) Farragut then passed on up the Mis.sissippi and gained 
 control of the river between Port Hudson and Vicksburg, opening 
 communication with Grant's army. About the last of May he 
 began the bombardment of Port Hudson, and from that time co- 
 operated with the land forces until the place surrendered on July 
 9. His next achievement was his victory at Mobile for which Con- 
 gress created for him the grade of vice-admiral, and on July 25, 
 1866, he was raised to the rank of admiral. In 1868 he was given 
 command of the European squadron and during the following year
 
 394 LOUISIANA 
 
 visited many of the European ports. This was his last service, as 
 he -was taken ill soon after returning home and died at Portsmouth, 
 N. H., Aug. 14, 1870. 
 
 Pavrot, George Kent, representative of the 6tli Congressional 
 district in the lower liouse of Congress, was born at Baton Kouge, 
 Nov. 26, 1868. He graduated in the academic department of the 
 state university in 1888, and two years later completed the law 
 course of Tulane university at New Orleans. In 1892 he was 
 elected district attorney of the 22nd judicial district of Louisiana, 
 in which capacity he continued to act until the completion of his 
 term of oflSce in 1896. when he was defeated for reelection. There- 
 upon he took up the practice of his profession, and with the excep- 
 tion of representing the state at large in the constitutional conven- 
 tion of 1898, he was not actively engaged in political affairs until 
 reelected district attorney in 1900. So ably did he acquit himself in 
 this ofiSee, and so marked had been his executive ability and judg- 
 ment in numeroiis other capacities, that the people of the district 
 elected him to the office of district judge in 1904. Two years later 
 he was nominated for representative by the Democrats of the 6th 
 Congressional district, and at the general election in the fall of that 
 year he was overwhelmingly successful. 
 
 Federal Courts. — (See Courts.) 
 
 Feitel, a little hamlet in the southern part of St. James parish, is 
 on the west bank of the Mississippi river, 2 miles northeast of De- 
 logney, the nearest railroad station, and 4 miles southeast of Con- 
 vent, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, and is a river 
 shipping point for the southei-n part of the parish. 
 
 Feliciana Parish was established in 1811. late in the territorial 
 era. It was known as one of the "Florida parishes,'' as the terri- 
 tory east of the Mississippi river and south of 31° to the Pearl 
 river was ruled by Spanish governors and claimed by England as 
 a part of West Florida until the Baton Kevolution in 1810, when 
 President Madison issued a proclamation declaring the territory 
 to be a part of Louisiana and Gov. Claiborne took possession of it 
 in the name of the United States. As originally laid out it was 
 bounded on tlie north by the territory of Mississippi ; on the east 
 by the Amite river; on the south by East Baton Rouge and Points 
 Coupee parishes, from which it was separated by the Mississippi 
 river, which formed the entire western boundary. In 1824 the 
 parish was divided by an act of the legislature into the parishes of 
 East and West Feliciana ; the Comite river, running north and 
 south through the parish to be the boundary line between the new 
 parishes. 
 
 Felixville, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of East Felici- 
 ana parisli, is situated on the Amite river about 12 miles northeast 
 of Clinton, the parish seat. 
 
 Fenton, a village in Jeff Davis parish, situated on the St. Louis, 
 Iron ilt. & Southern R. R., about 20 miles by rail northeast of 
 Lake Charles, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 an express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities.
 
 LOUISIANA 395 
 
 Fern, a post-hamlet in the east-central part of St. Landry parish, 
 is about 3 miles south of Goudan, the nearest railroad station and 
 15 miles northeast of Opelousas, the parish seat. 
 
 Ferriday, a village in the northeastern part of Concordia parish, 
 situated about 8 miles west of Vidalia, at the junction of the Nat- 
 chez & Western, the New Orleans & Northwestern, the St. Louis, 
 Iron Mountain & Southern, and the Texas & Pacific railways. It 
 has a money order po.stoffice, an express office, telegraph station 
 and telephone facilities. Population 577. 
 
 Fields (R. R. name Lucas), a post-village in Beauregard parish, 
 is a station of the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 10 miles west 
 of De Quincy in the heart of the lumber district. Lumbering is 
 the principal industry. 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment. — While the 14tli amendment to the Fed- 
 eral constitution secured to the negroes the rights and immunities 
 of citizens it did not specifically confer on the race the right of 
 suffrage. The third session of the 40th Congress met on Dec. 7, 
 1868, and on the very first day resolutions were introduced in both 
 houses looking to an amendment to the constitution that would 
 give the negroes the right to vote. A long and tedious debate 
 followed, in which various amendments and substitutes were of- 
 fered, and on Feb. 27, 1869, the proposed amendment, in the form 
 in which it now appears as Article XV of the national organic law, 
 was submitted to the general assemblies of the states for ratifi.ca- 
 tion or rejection. Gov. Warmoth presented the amendment to the 
 legislature of Louisiana on the very day it was submitted (Feb. 27, 
 1869), and it was immediately ratified by the senate by a vote of 
 18 to 3. On IMareli 5 it was ratified by the house by a vote of 55 
 to 9, while 36 Republican members dodged the question by not 
 voting at all. The secretary of state issued his proclamation on 
 March 30, 1870, declaring the amendment a part of the constitution, 
 as it had been ratified by 29 of the 37 states. Negro suffrage had 
 been forced upon the people of the South by the reconstruction 
 act of 1867, and the 15th amendment was intended to make it 
 obligatory on the rest of the states. That it did not meet with uni- 
 versal approval throughout the North may be seen by the fact that 
 it was first rejected by the State of Ohio in ]869 and was ratified 
 by that state on Jan. 27, 1870 ; New Jersey did not ratify it until 
 Feb. 21, 1871, having previously rejected it ; New York ratified it on 
 April 14, 1869, and the legislature of that state passed a resolution 
 on Jan. 5, 1870, withdrawing its consent to it. The amendment 
 was rejected by the legislature of California, Delaware, Kentucky, 
 Maryland, Oregon and Tennessee. 
 
 Figs. — The fig tree was introduced in Louisiana from Provence 
 in 1728, and though the fruit has been raised in the state ever since 
 that time, it is only within the last quarter of a century that its 
 commercial value has been realized. The fig tree is easily propa- 
 gated from cuttings, is remarkably free from the ravages of insects, 
 and thrives in all portions of the state. In the third year after 
 being transplanted it begins to yield a profitable crop, and a tree
 
 396 LOUISIANA 
 
 ten years old, if it has been properly cared for, will yield 20 bushels 
 of fruit. The common Creole tig has given way to more improved 
 varieties, such as the Brunswick, White Ischio, Mission. Reine 
 Blanche, Lemon and Celeste. The last named, which is the com- 
 mon blue tig, is the most popular, as the tree is hardy and prolific, 
 and the fruit is sweet and palatable. With the introduction of 
 canning factories the number of fig trees is increasing every year, 
 and some liorticulturists class the fig as ''the leading product of 
 the Louisiana orchard." 
 
 Filhiol, Don Juan, the first commandant of Fort Miro, where 
 Monroe now stands, was born in Eymet, in Perigord, France, Sept. 
 21, 1740. When 23 years of age he left France and went to Santo 
 Domingo, but not succeeding there as well as he had anticipated, 
 he went to Philadelphia, intending to join Count D'Estaing when 
 he returned with the French squadron to the mother coimtry. 
 Events happened which prevented his carrying out this original 
 intention and he changed his destination, going to New Orleans, 
 where he arrived in May, 1779. When England declared war 
 against Spain, he enlisted under Gov. Galvez and served with him 
 in the conqiiest of West Florida. As a reward for gallant conduct, 
 the king of Spain appointed him captain in the army and com- 
 mandant of the militia, and he was assigned by the local com- 
 mandant to duty on the Ouachita river. In 1873, he left New 
 Orleans with his new wife and a few attendants and soldiers for the 
 then nearly unbroken ■\\-ilderness at the head waters of the Oua- 
 chita river, the long journey up the Mississippi, Red and Ouachita 
 rivers being made in a keel-boat. Filhiol located his first post at 
 Ecor-a-Fabry near the present city of Camden, Ark., but 2 years 
 later went down the river to the site of Monroe, where he estab- 
 lished a fort, calling it Ouachita Post, and for years this frontier 
 settlement went by that name. Subsequently the name was changed 
 to Fort Miro, in honor of the Spanish governor of Louisiana. A 
 heavy square log palisade was built some distance from the bank of 
 the river as a protection from the Indians and to assert the right 
 of Spain to tliis territory. Trading was carried on at the post and 
 in time a village sprang up around the fort, which was called Fort 
 Miro until the name was changed to Monroe in 1819. Don Juan 
 Filhiol commanded here from the establishment of the post until 
 1803, M-heu the United States purchased the province of Louisiana. 
 He continued to reside in the settlement after it became the terri- 
 tory of the United States, platted the town of Monroe and donated 
 the site of the courthouse to the city in 1811. 
 
 Fillmore, an extinct village in the eastern part of Bossier parish, 
 was located about 18 miles northeast of Shreveport. Before the 
 Civil war it was a thriving business center, but the war changed 
 all this, the school buildings, homes and stores that stand empty 
 and deserted being all that remain to show a community once ex- 
 isted here. 
 
 Finances, State. — From the time Louisiana was admitted into 
 the Union in 1S12 to the passage of the secession ordinance in 1861,
 
 LOUISIANA 397 
 
 the financial history of the state presents no features of an ex- 
 traordinary nature. The financial conditions prevailing in Louisi- 
 ana during this period were not essentially different from those 
 in other states, the current income being generally sufficient to 
 provide for current needs, though at times moderate bond issues 
 were made necessary by unusual expenditures in founding new in- 
 stitutions, or to meet some emergency. Between 1830 and 1850 
 Louisiana, in common with other states, sold bonds in the interest 
 of banks, railroad companies, etc., and the greater portion of her 
 bonded debt at the outbreak of the war was due to this cause. At 
 the beginning of the year 1861 the debt of the state was $10,157,- 
 882, and there was in the treasury a surplus of $193,416. Imme- 
 diately upon the adoption of the secession ordinance the legislature, 
 in special session, appropriated $960,000 for military purposes, and 
 in his message at the opening of the legislative session in Nov., 
 1861, Gov. Moore reported that $768,466 of this amount had been 
 expended. As the appropriations far exceeded the surplus funds 
 in the treasury, the parishes made appropriations and public-spir- 
 ited citizens subscribed to the defense fund, though the conditions 
 necessitated the incurrence of some debt by borrowing from the 
 local banks. The total military expenses of the state during the 
 first year of the war amounted to $1,596,807, which was charged to 
 the general government of the Confederate States, as were the ex- 
 penses incurred on behalf of the Confederacy during the next four 
 years. This portion of the debt was liquidated by the "logic of 
 events. ' ' 
 
 The legislation during the decade of reconstruction — 1866 to 1876 
 — presents examples of financiering without a parallel in history. 
 The general assembly of 1866 began the augmentation of the state 
 debt by aiithorizing the issue of 6 per cent certificates of indebt- 
 edness "to the amount of $1,500,000. The legislature of 1867 author- 
 ized a bond issue of $3,000,000, bearing interest at the rate of 6 
 per cent; legalized New Orleans city notes to the amount of $3,- 
 650,000 (then circulating as money), and permitted a further issue 
 of these notes amounting to $2,500,000. At the close of that year 
 the claims against the state treasury exceeded the receipts for 
 the year by $1,313,000. This condition of affairs led the governor 
 to notify Gen. Hancock, the military commander of the district, 
 that "the state treasurer is totally bankrupt, no adequate means 
 are provided to meet current expenses, and unless some remedy 
 is applied, the machinery of civil government in the state must 
 stop." 
 
 Although, as a rule. Gen. Hancock was not disposed to inter- 
 meddle in civil matters, he deemed it necessary in this case to exer- 
 cise his authority for the relief of the state. Accordingly on Feb. 
 22, 1868, he issued an order providing: 
 
 "1 — That, from and after this day, all the licenses on trades, pro- 
 fessions, and occupations, the revenues, dues and taxes, of the 
 State of Louisiana, shall be payable and collected in L^nited States 
 legal-tender treasury notes. It is made the duty of the state treas-
 
 398 LOUISIANA 
 
 urer, and of all other persons charged with these collections, to 
 exact payments as above. 
 
 "2 — The auditor and treasurer of the state shall be required to 
 keep a special and separate account of all dues, taxes, fimds or 
 other public moneys, which shall be received by them, hereafter, 
 from any and all collectors of taxes, or from other sources : and it 
 shall be their duty to appropriate the same to the payment of the 
 salaries of the judicial, executive and civil oflSeers of the state : and 
 to pay and discharge all the appropriations made in favor of the 
 charitable institutions, the free public schools, for the rent of the 
 Mechanics' Institute, and for the support of the state convicts. 
 * * * Provided, however, that the treasurer of the state shall 
 not pay any other outstanding warrants or other obligations of the 
 state than those that are issued against appropriations for the last 
 quarter of the year 1867, restricting himself, in the payment of 
 these last-mentioned obligations, to those applicable to, and issued 
 in favor of, the officers and institiitions hereinbefore referred to in 
 this order, and for whose special benefit and protection this order 
 provides and for no others." 
 
 A few days later a supplementary order was issued by Gen. Han- 
 cock, limiting the application of the above order to the taxes col- 
 lected for the year 1867 ; directing that all state notes then in the 
 treasury, or that might be afterward received, should be destroyed ; 
 and instructing the treasurer that, "when a sufficient sum shall 
 have been collected to satisfy the purposes expressed in said order, 
 any further receipts into the treasury may be applied to the liqui- 
 dation of other obligations impaired by said order, as if the same 
 had not been issued." The constitutional convention then in ses- 
 sion severely criticised Gen. Hancock's order, but aside from this 
 it seems to have given satisfaction. The financial embarrassments 
 contimied into 1869. At the beginning of that year, according to 
 Gov. Warmoth's statement in his message at the opening of the 
 legislative session of Jan. 4. the floating debt of the state was 
 $1,929,500.62 and the bonded debt was $6,777,300. which he claimed 
 could be at once reduced to .$6,000,000. The previous legislature 
 had failed to provide for the payment of the interest, which caused 
 the bonds to depreciate, and the credit of the state was somewhat 
 further impaired during the year by the feud between the governor 
 and the state auditor. 
 
 On Jan. 3, 1870, the general assembly met in what proved to be 
 the most extravagant session in the history of the state. "Within 
 four days from the time the legislature was organized Gov. "War- 
 moth had vetoed 21 bills appropriating $6,875,000 for various 
 Bchemes, the largest single appropriation being $8,000,000 to the 
 Missouri "Valley levee company. Besides these acts making ap- 
 propriations to corporations and authorizing bond issues to raise 
 the money therefore, the legislatiire was lavish in its expenditures. 
 State funds were voted to aid in building negro churches, and so 
 many clerks, doorkeepers, messengers, etc., were employed that 
 some of the members finally grew ashamed of the situation and
 
 LOUISIANA 399 
 
 asked for an investigation "to see if some could not be dispensed 
 with." The various departments of the state government were 
 likewise prodigal in the administration of their affairs. According 
 to the reports of the state treasurer's office, the receipts for the year 
 ending on Nov. 20, 1870, were $6,537,959, and the total expenditures 
 for the same period were $7,050,636. At the same time the state 
 auditor reported the state debt as follows : Bonds actually issued, 
 $22,560,233.22; obligations of the state to issue bonds (estimated), 
 $15,000,000; outstanding warrants, $1,300,311,81; outstanding cer- 
 tificates of indebtedness, $293,655.62 ; miscellaneous indebtedness, 
 $867,533.96, making a grand total of $40,021,734.61. 
 
 At the election of 1870 the people ratified an amendment to the 
 constitution limiting the total amount of the state debt up to the 
 year 1890 to $25,000,000. This led to a spirited controversy early in 
 1871, when the auditor refused to draw his warrant for a claim of 
 $50,331.46, on the ground that the law authorizing the claim was 
 a violation of the constitution, in that it increased the state debt, 
 which was already in excess of the $25,000,000 limitation. Appli- 
 cation was made to the 8th district court in New Orleans for a writ 
 of mandamus to compel the auditor to issue his warrant, but the 
 writ was refused and the case was taken to the supreme court, 
 which in April sustained the auditor, holding that the debt did 
 exceed the constitutional limit on March 1, 1871. On March 18, 
 pending the decision of the supreme court, the following "Address 
 to the Public" appeared in the New Orleans newspapers: 
 
 "The undersigned, property-owners and taxpayers of the city of 
 New Orleans, satisfied that the state legislature has, at its late ses- 
 sions, excelled its power in the loans, endorsements, and other 
 obligations and grants authorized on the part of the state, the total 
 amount of which is limited, by the recent amendment to the con- 
 stitution, to $25,000,000 (already incurred), as .shown by the an- 
 nexed official statement of the auditor, take this early opportunity 
 of notifying bankers, brokers and dealers in securities, in this coun- 
 try and Europe, that they consider all such loans, endorsements 
 and pledges as null and of no value ; that they will sustain the 
 authorities in resisting their issue, and, if issued, will, by every 
 legal means, endeavor to prevent the payment of any interest or 
 principal, or of any tax levied for that purpose. They only recog- 
 nize the state debt proper, amounting to $25,061,734.40, as shown 
 by the accompanying exhibit of the auditor, and they class the 
 'accruing debt' with the illegal legislation previously referred to." 
 
 This address was signed by nearly 400 of the most substantial 
 business men of New Orleans. The accruing debt mentioned in 
 the address amounted to about $15,000,000, all of which was in- 
 curred through giving state aid to railroad, canal and navigation 
 companies. 
 
 On June 1, 1871, the auditor published a corrected statement, 
 showing the absolute state debt to be $22,295,790.58; the actual 
 contingent debt, $6,653,683.33 ; and the estimated contingent debt 
 that might be incurred by securing first and second mortgages
 
 400 LOUISIANA 
 
 under acts prior to 1871 was $12,245,000, making a grand total of 
 $41,194,473.91, for ■wliicli the state ■was at that time or might be- 
 come liable. These figures were disputed by Gov. Warmoth, who, 
 in his message to the legislature in Jan., 1872, sharply criticized the 
 auditor for publishing such a statement. He admitted its accuracy 
 so far as the absolute debt was concerned, but denied the state's 
 liability in the matter of the contingent debt. On this subject he 
 said: "This is no more a debt, to be emploj'ed as such at the ex- 
 pense of our state credit, than is the endorsement of a promissory 
 note by an individual who is secured for the liability he assumes 
 by a pledge of five-twenty bonds or real estate in the proportion of 
 four dollars to one. In the first place, there is not the slightest 
 probability that any of these roads, except the New Orleans, Mobile 
 & Texas, will be constructed ; and, in the second place, if every one 
 of them should be built, the state would be amply secured from 
 ever having to pay the endorsement, for the reason that the roads 
 chartered, if constructed, would be worth four times the amoimt 
 guaranteed. This unwise course of the auditor has tended to depre- 
 ciate our securities and has given the enemies of reconstruction 
 capital from which to misrepresent our government and to throw 
 discredit upon us abroad." 
 
 It will be remembered that Gov. Warmoth, in his message of 
 1869, stated the bonded debt of the state as being $6,777,300, and 
 the floating debt as $1,929,500, or a total of $8,706,800. In his mes- 
 sage of 1872 he said : "In 1861 oiu- debt was $10,157,882. In 1868 
 when the present administration came into power, it was $14,347,- 
 051, and it is now $23,045,790." These statements do not harmon- 
 ize, and the discrepancy in the utterances of the chief executive 
 only emphasizes the unsettled condition of the state finances at this 
 period. The legislature passed a bill making it "the duty of the 
 treasurer to ascertain and classify the public obligations, and creat- 
 ing a ftmd for the redemption of the floating debt of the state." 
 The old "redemption of the state debt fund," and the "free school 
 fund" were transferred to the new fund, and bonds were author-- 
 ized, for which warrants and certificates of indebtedness could be 
 exchanged. 
 
 "W. P. Kellogg succeeded "Warmoth as governor in 1873, and soon 
 after his induction into office he appointed a board of examiners 
 to investigate and report on the condition of the state's finances. 
 On Dec. 25, 1873, this board reported the debt to be as follows: 
 Bonds and .school fund, $24,419,214.14: miscellaneous debt, $3,283,- 
 050.70: prior limitation contingent liabilities, $13,003,000; post 
 limitation contingent liabilities, $8,087,500; loans to Citizens' bank 
 and the Consolidated association, $4,828,780.83, making a total of 
 $53,621,545.67. Of this amount the board reported $30,646,649, 
 including all the contingent liabilities, the loans to the Citizens 
 bank and Consolidated association and $2,500,000 of bonds sub- 
 scribed to the New Orleans, Mobile & Texas railway, as unconsti- 
 tutional, lapsed, or for other reasons not entitled to payment, leav- 
 ing an interest bearing debt of a little less than $23,000,000. Even
 
 LOUISIAiNA 401 
 
 part of this the board considered as being of "doubtful legality 
 and should be tested in the courts." 
 
 Acting upon this suggestion, Kellogg, in his message to the legis- 
 lature in Jan., 1874, recommended the refunding of the state debt 
 by the issue of a new series of bonds, to be known as consolidated 
 bonds, which were to be made payable in 40 years and were to be 
 offered to creditors at the rate of 60 cents in the consolidated bonds 
 for each dollar of outstanding obligations. Following the gov- 
 ernor's recommendations the general assembly created a "board 
 of liquidation," consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, 
 secretary, auditor and treasurer of state, and the speaker of the 
 house of representatives, to cause to be prepared and to issue "con- 
 solidated bonds of the State of Louisiana," to the amount of $15,- 
 000,000, or so much thereof as might be necessary, in denominationa 
 of $100, $500 and $1,000, payable in 40 years, with interest at 7 per 
 cent per annum, for the redemption of valid outstanding bonds, 
 which were to be canceled and destroyed. The act limited the debt 
 to $15,000,000, levied a tax of 5i/4 mills on the dollar for the pay- 
 ment of the interest, and expressly provided that "no court shall 
 have the power to enjoin payment of the consolidated bonds." By 
 the supplementary act of May 17, 1875, the board was prohibited 
 from issuing bonds in exchange for any outstanding obligations 
 made previous to the creation of the board, "the legality or validity 
 of which may be questioned, and any taxpayer was given power to 
 institute proceedings to test the validity of any bonds or warrants. 
 A list of bonds, aggregating $14,320,000, was submitted with the 
 act and declared to be of doubtful legality. (See Act of May 17, 
 1875.) 
 
 In his last message to the legislature, in Jan., 1877, Kellogg 
 reported the amount of consolidated bonds issued up to that time 
 as being $9,318,342, which would be increased by $2,537,580 when 
 all the old outstanding bonds were refunded, making a total debt 
 of $11,855,922. Thus matters stood when the U. S. troops were 
 withdrawn from the state on April 24, 1877. Gov. Nicholls, with 
 both branches of the legislature, then took possession of the state- 
 house and commenced a work of retrenchment. It was reported in 
 the state senate in 1878 that, by reducing fees and salaries and 
 abolishing a number of nugatory offices a saving of $2,748,252 had 
 been effected in the state, parish and municipal expenses during 
 the first year of Nicholl's administration. The effect was soon 
 noticeable in the financial condition of the state. Warrants which 
 sold for 55 cents on the dollar in March, 1877, were at a discount 
 of less than 1 per cent in December. In Jan., 1878, the state debt 
 in consolidated bonds amounted to $11,724,800; estimated amount 
 to be refunded, $488,100 ; outstanding general fund warrants, $188,- 
 720.92. 
 
 One of the first acts of the constitutional convention of 1879 was 
 
 to appoint a committee of 17 to investigate and report on the status 
 
 of the state debt. To a sub-committee of 4 members was delegated 
 
 the duty of examining all the acts of the legislature with regard to 
 
 1—26
 
 402 LOUISIANA 
 
 bond issues or other pledges of the state's faith to the payment of 
 certain obligations, and whether adequate provisions had been made 
 for the payment of interest and redemption of the bonds at ma- 
 turity. The questions upon -which they were expressly charged to 
 report were: 1 — Was the legislature of 1874 competent to bind 
 the people of a free state? 2 — Do the records in the secretary of 
 state's ofBce present any evidence that the constitutional amend- 
 ments of 1874 were adopted by the people? Three members of the 
 sub-committee reported that the legislature of 1874 had not been 
 chosen by the people, but had been upheld by the military forces of 
 the national government, and that the funding act passed by that 
 assembly was therefore invalid. With regard to the constitutional 
 amendments these three members said: "They were not ratified 
 by the people, the returns having been counted by the reti;rning 
 board in violation of the facts." They recommended the payment 
 of bonds amounting to $3,486,000, which sum was subseciuently in- 
 creased to $4,000,000 by additions for interest, and presented a list 
 of bonds, amounting to $19,69.3.447, issued chiefly in the interests 
 of railroad, levee and navigation companies, which they recom- 
 mended not to he paid. 
 
 Another siib-committee of two members made a similar report 
 on the same questions, and the committee of 17 then reported an 
 ordinance to the convention recommending the payment of claims 
 aggregating $4,082,358, which they considered as valid. The re- 
 port of the committee says: "The theory or principle upon which 
 your committee have prosecuted their inquiry and based their rec- 
 ommendation is, that no invalid or fraudulent debt should be paid 
 by the people of the state, and that the valid and honest debts 
 should be paid. They are unable to concede that the funding of any 
 portion of the debt has given it any greater validity than it origin- 
 ally possessed; and, on the other hand, they do not admit that the 
 absolute repudiation of 40 per cent of debt detracts in the least 
 from the validity of that which was legal and honest." This report 
 was signed by 10 members of the committee, but the other 7 pre- 
 sented a minority report, citing as part of the argument in support 
 of their po.sition a decision of the supreme court, handed down by 
 Chief Justice :\Ianning in Jlay, 1878, to wit : ' 'We regard the faith 
 of the state as irrevocably pledged to the payment of her consoli- 
 dated bonds issued under the authority of that act (1874). and to 
 the payment of such others as may be issued under the sanction of 
 the decree we shall make herein. The contract with the holders of 
 these bonds is (me which, in the language of the constitutional 
 amendment, the state can by no means and in no wise impair." 
 
 After considerable discussion the convention, by a vote of 71 to 
 41, adopted an ordinance to be submitted to the people at the same 
 time as the constitution, but to be voted upon as a separate prop- 
 osition. The provisions of this ordinance were as follows: 
 
 "1. Be it ordained. That the interest to be paid on the consoli- 
 dated bonds by the State of Louisiana be, and is hereby fixed at 
 two per cent for five years from the 1st of Jan., 1880, three per cent
 
 LOUISIANA 403 
 
 for 15 years, and four per cent thereafter ; and there shall be levied 
 an annual tax sufficient for the full payment of said interest, not 
 exceeding three mills, the limit of all state tax being hereby fixed 
 at six mills. Provided the holders of consolidated bonds may, at 
 their option, demand in exchange for the bonds held by them bonds 
 of the denomination of ISO, $100, $500, $1,000 to be issued at the 
 rate of 75 cents on the dollar of bonds held and to be surrendered 
 by such holders, the said new issue to bear interest at the rate of 
 4 per cent per annum, payable semi-annually. 
 
 "2. The holders of the consolidated bonds may at any time pre- 
 sent their bonds to the treasurer of the state, or to an agent to be 
 appointed by the governor — one in the city of New York and the 
 other in the city of London ; and the said treasurer or agent, as the 
 case may be, shall endorse or stamp thereon the words, 'Interest 
 reduced to 2 per cent for five years from Jan. 1, 1880, 3 per cent 
 for 15 years, and 4 per cent thereafter ; ' provided, the holder or 
 holders of such bonds may apply to the treasvirer for an exchange 
 of bonds, as provided in the preceding article. 
 
 "3. Be it further ordained. That the coupons of said consoli- 
 dated bonds falling due the 1st day of Jan., 1880, be and the same 
 are hereby remitted, and any interest tax collected to meet such 
 coupons is hereby transferred to defray the expenses of the state 
 government." 
 
 At the election on Dec. 8 the vote was 59,932 in favor of the 
 ordinance to 49,445 against it, and in this manner the question of 
 the bonded debt was finally settled. In some quarters the cry of 
 "repudiation" was raised, but in view of all the facts there is no 
 question that the people of Louisiana accorded to the holders of 
 her bonds all that was justly their due, if not more. The wind had 
 been sown, and the crop of whirlwind was now ready for the 
 reaper. 
 
 Pursuant to an ordinance of the conventfcn, "for the relief of 
 delinquent taxpayers," the general assembly of 1880 created a 
 funding board, the duties of which were to fund all valid auditor's 
 warrants that came within the provisions of the ordinance, and 
 certain obligations of the public institutions, in bonds of the denom- 
 ination of $5, with interest coupons attached, at the rate of 3 per 
 cent from Jan. 1, 1880, and payable on Jan. 1, 1886, or sooner, at 
 the option of the state. The total amount of bonds issued under 
 this act (called "baby bonds" because of their small denomina- 
 tion) was $1,381,297.52, but tliey were not redeemed in 1886, as 
 provided by law. Gov. McEnery, in his message to the legislature 
 in May of that year, reported the state debt as follows: Pour per 
 oent bonds and certificates, $11,967,752.02 ; coupons 1 to 11 inclusive, 
 $543,784.58; baby bonds and coupons, $1,437,025.39; warrants 1878 
 and previous, fundable, $16,396.65 ; warrants 1878 and previous, 
 neither fundable nor payable, having been issued since adoption of 
 the constitution of 1879, $4,605.72; levee contractor and repair war- 
 rants, 1878 and previous, $10,700; making a total debt of $13,- 
 980,264.36. Perhaps the most important financial legislation since
 
 404 LOUISIANA 
 
 that time was the act of 1804. which authorized the board of liqui- 
 dation "to apply the surplus of the general fund to the purchase or 
 payment of such valid bonds and auditor's warrants of the state 
 as it may seem to the best interests of said state." The board de- 
 cided to purchase state bonds and advertised for proposals. The 
 bonds immediately appreciated in value in the estimation of the 
 holders, and in Nov., 1895, bonds to the amount of $1,122,000 were 
 offered, over one-half at par or above. The board purchased bonds 
 aggregating $200,300 at 99v8 cents, and during the year the levee 
 board redeemed $22,000 of its first issue of bonds at par. This 
 purchase and redemption did much to establish the credit of the 
 state on a firm footing. The policy was continued and Gov. Foster, 
 in his message to the legislature in 1896, said: "Every current ob- 
 ligation of the state has been met and promptly paid in cash when 
 due. There have been paid and canceled: Warrants outstanding 
 for 1885-6, $318,116; interest coupons 1 to 11, $483,183.91; total, 
 $801,299.91, at a total cost to the state of $413,858.97 ; consolidated 
 constitutional bonds, $712,000. at a cost of $690,731.57 ; and baby 
 bonds, $359,510, at a cost of $148,834.84. "Without increasing as- 
 sessments to any appreciable extent, and after providing for all 
 the current expenses and all lawful demands, there have been paid 
 out of the surplus of the treasury $1,872,809.91, at a cost of $1,- 
 253,425.38, and when the taxes for 1895 are collected and every 
 current obligation met, there will be a surplus to the credit of the 
 two funds of about $300,000. The consolidated bonds retired, 
 amounting to $712,000, bore interest at 4 per cent, which will result 
 in an annual saving in interest of $28,480." 
 
 The revenues of the State of Louisiana are derived from an ad 
 valorem tax upon the assessed valuation of the property in the 
 state, and a license tax upon individuals or corporations engaged in 
 certain trades, professions or occupations. In 1880 the assessed 
 value of the property ^vas, in roimd numbers, $177,000,000, and the 
 ad valorem tax was then fixed at 6 mills on the dollar. By 1906 
 the assessment had increased to approximately $397,000,000, and 
 the general assembly of that year reduced the tax to 5 mills. The 
 state assessment for 1907 showed a valuation of $508,079,419. Gov. 
 Blanchard, in his message to the legislature on IMay 12, 1908, ar- 
 gued for a further reduction in the tax rate. "As assessments in- 
 crease," said he, "the rate of taxes, state and local, should be low- 
 ered. All men who give the matter impartial con.sideration agree 
 that it is far better for the honor and reputation of the state to 
 have triie rendition of property for taxes with low rate than pov- 
 erty-stricken tax rolls with high rate." No tax is levied on pub- 
 lic property, places of religious worship or burial, charitable insti- 
 tutions, buildings iised exclusively for educational purposes, nor 
 on household property to the value of $500. Since Jan. 1, 1900, no 
 tax has been levied for parochial or municipal purposes on the cap- 
 ital, machinery or other property employed in certain lines of man- 
 ufacture, provided the factory so exempted employed five or more 
 persons. This exemption is to la.st until Jan. 1. 1910, and railroada
 
 LOUISIANA 405 
 
 completed before Jan. 1, 1908, are to be exempt from taxation 
 for a period of ten years. The public money.s of the state are di- 
 vided into iour funds, viz : The general hind, for defraying the 
 ordinary expenses of the state government ; the public school fund, 
 for the maintenance of the public school system ; the interest tax 
 fund, for the payment of the interest on the bonded debt ; and the 
 general engineer fund, for the purpose of constructing and main- 
 taining a system of levees. 
 
 According to the report of State Treasurer James M. Smith on 
 April 20, 1906, the bonded debt of the state on March 1 of that 
 year was .$11^108,300, divided as follows: Old consolidated bonds 
 of 1874, .$11,500; constitutional bonds of 1880, $101,700; new con- 
 solidated bonds of 1892, $10,995,100. Under the law the old con- 
 solidated bonds must be exchanged for the new issue before they 
 can be paid. At the same time this report was made there were 
 balances in the several funds amounting to $1,235,977.12, showing 
 that the finances of the state are in a reasonably healthy condition. 
 
 Fish. — Most plentiful are the edible creatures of the waters of 
 Louisiana, for both the salt and fresh water varieties abound in 
 manifold numbers. The salt water branch of the pisces family is 
 well represented by the mackerel, pompano and herring, while the 
 fresh water varieties include the red fish, mullet, perch, red snapper, 
 pickerel, black bass and green trout, so that lovers of the piscatorial 
 art have unlimited opportunities to test their skill, and especially 
 do they zealously seek the pompano. Its meat when brought in 
 contact with the human palate produces a gastronomical effect 
 not soon to be forgotten, and the tourist who comes and goes 
 without having partaken of the delicious pompano might be said 
 to have visited the state in vain. The invertebrates of the water 
 kingdom are also numerous, in the form of oysters (q. v.), clams, 
 and shrimp. Indeed it would seem that, if the fishing industry 
 were pursued here with the same vigor that it is on the Atlantic 
 coast, Louisiana would be as famous in this line as are the waters 
 about Cape Cod or the Chesapeake bay. 
 
 The fish canning industry is pursiied to some extent. The U. S. 
 census report for 1900 shows that 616,000 pounds were preserved 
 for the market in this manner, the total value of such output for 
 that year amounting to $91,000, more shrimp being canned than any 
 other species. Very few fish are preserved by the smoking process, 
 nor are they extensively preserved by salting, although in 1900 
 about 95,000 pounds were so prepared, of which mackerel consti- 
 tuted more than one-half. 
 
 On Feb. 16, 1873, the legislature of Louisiana passed a joint reso- 
 lution requesting the .state's representatives in Congress to do all 
 within their power to have the fresh waters of the state stocked 
 with fish by the U. S. fisli commission. The latter body responded 
 on July 29, 1875, by stocking the waters of the state with 60,000 
 young shad ; on May 27, 1878, the commission placed 100,000 shad 
 in the Amite river, and on May 8, 1879, the Tensas, Boeuf and 
 Ouachita rivers, Bayou Macon, Clear Lake and Roundavig creek
 
 406 LOUISIAIs'A 
 
 were stocked witli 200,000 of the above fish. On Jan. 1, 1875, 15,000 
 young California salmon were placed in the Tangipahoa river, and 
 on Dec. 22 of the following year 28,000 of the same variety of fish 
 were about equally distributed between the waters of the Natalbany 
 and the Tangipahoa rivers. In March, 1880, another joint legisla- 
 tive resolution on the same lines was adopted, and during the suc- 
 ceeding decade the U. S. commission placed a large quantity of 
 voung fish in the waters of the state. Among the distributions thus 
 made were about 13.000 carp in the year 1882: 810.000 shad and 
 herring fry at Pass ^lanchac, LaFourche and Vermilion, on June 
 8, 1883 ; and about 800 carp distributed in .the waters of 17 par- 
 ishes in the early part of December of the same year. Since then 
 the Federal commission has made liberal distributions of young 
 fish in the state's waters. 
 
 Louisiana legislators believe in fair play. They believe as firmly 
 in giving the finny trilie a chance to multiply and develop as they 
 do in aft'ording true lovers of the piscatorial art a chance to enjoy 
 their pastime, and as a result they have enacted as progressive a 
 code of restrictive fish laws as are to be found upon the statute 
 books of any state in the Union. (See Game Laws.) 
 
 Fisher, a village in the central part of Sabine parish, is located 
 about 6 miles south of Many, the parish seat, at the junction of the 
 Kansas City Southern and the Victoria, Fisher & 'Western rail- 
 roads, which makes it a good shipping point for that section of the 
 parish. It has a money order postoffice. an express ofiBee, tele- 
 graph and telephone service, and considerable lumbering interests. 
 
 Fish Pond, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Concordia parish, 
 is situated on a small body of water bearing the same name, about 
 3 miles west of the Mississippi river. It is a station on the Texas 
 & Pacific R. R., has a telegraph station and express office, and is the 
 shipping point for a large area in that part of the parish. 
 
 Fisk Library. — (See Libraries.) 
 
 Flag. — Prior to the war between the states Louisiana had no 
 state standard, but on Feb. 11, 1861, the state convention adopted 
 a state flag. It has been described as "consisting of a red ground, 
 upon which appears a single star of pale yellow. The groimd is 
 crossed by bars of l)lue and white, making of the three colors thir- 
 teen stripes." On the occasion of its adoption the chairman of the 
 committee, J. K. Elgee, of Rapides parish, spoke as follows: "We 
 dedicate the thirteen stripes upon our flag to the memory of those 
 whose unconquerable love of freedom has taught us, this day, how 
 peacefully to vindicate our rights and protect our liberties. The 
 committee, too, could not forget that another race. bold, warlike 
 and adventurous, had planted the first colony of white men on the 
 shores of Louisiana : tlie name of our state, that of oiu- city, nay, 
 even the morning roll-call of the convention, as it summoned us to 
 our duties, bade us remember that some tribute was due to the 
 children and descendants of the founders of the colony — the blue, 
 the white, the red, emblems of hope, virtue and valor, to the mem- 
 ory of those who first on this soil laid the foundation of an empire.
 
 LOUISIANA 407 
 
 Still another race and another nation remained, who equally de- 
 manded a recognition in a flag destined to be national. If to France 
 we are indebted for the foundation of the colony, Spain merits an 
 acknowledgment at our hands, for by her was the infant structure 
 built up. Her mild and paternal rule is yet spoken of by the oldest 
 inhabitant, whilst the great body of our law stands this day a 
 monument of her wisdom. To the children of Spain we dedicate 
 the colors of red and yellow, which we have woven into our plan. 
 The star cannot fail to remind you that Louisiana has arisen to 
 take her place in the political firmament. Uniting, then, our three 
 distinct nationalities into one, we present a flag which carries with 
 it a symbol dear to every American, whether it be at the last hour 
 of dissolution, or the dawn of a new birth — it is the badge of 
 Union." 
 
 On the 12th the flag was formally inaugurated with dramatic 
 ceremonies at New Orleans. Two brigades of troops were drawn 
 up in Lafayette square, and at 11 o'clock a. m. they stood at 
 "present arms" while the new ensign was hoisted over the city hall. 
 The bells of the city rang out a joyful peal, the midtitude responded 
 with cheers, and the "Washington Artillery fired a salute of 21 guns. 
 Had the Confederacy been successful in establishing the indepen- 
 dence of the South, this flag would doubtless have remained the 
 state standard, but since the war, by common consent it would 
 seem, the blue flag is usually displayed as the emblem of Louisiana. 
 Both were glorified in song and story during the war. 
 
 Flanders, Benjamin Franklin, military governor of Louisiana 
 for a short time in 1867, was born at Bristol, Grafton county, N. H., 
 Jan. 26, 1816. In 1842 he was graduated at Dartmouth college,, and 
 a year later came to New Orleans to study law in the office of 
 Charles M. Emerson, also a graduate of Dartmouth. For some 
 reason he did not adhere to his original plan, and after teaching 
 school for two years he bought an interest in a new.spaper called 
 "The Tropic." The paper did not live long and Mr. Flanders again 
 sought a livelihood as a teacher, remaining connected with the pub- 
 lic schools until 1852. In the meantime he became interested in 
 political matters; was elected alderman in 1848 and reelected in 
 1852 ; and for the next ten years was president of the Opelousas & 
 Great Western railroad company. Just before the breaking oiit of 
 the Civil war he became so caustic in some of his remarks about the 
 South that he was threatened with violence, which caused him to 
 seek refuge in the North, where he remained until after the occu- 
 pation of New Orleans by the Federal forces. On his return to that 
 city Gen. Butler appointed him city treasurer, which office he held 
 from July 20 to Dec. 10, 1862, when he resigned to enter Congress. 
 He was sworn in as a Congressman on Feb. 20, 1863, his term ex- 
 piring on March 4, following. In 18'64 he was the "Free State" 
 candidate for governor of Louisiana, but was defeated by Michael 
 Hahn. He was then special agent of the U. S. treasury department 
 for Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, by appointment of See. Chase, 
 until 1866, when he was chosen president of the First National
 
 408 LOUISIANA 
 
 bank of New Orleans. When Gen. Slieridau removed Gov. "Wells, 
 in June, 1867, Mr. Flanders was appointed military governor, but 
 resigned at the end of six months. In 1870 Gov. Warmoth ap- 
 pointed him mayor of New Orleans. In November of that year 
 he was elected mayor and lield the oflSce for tM'o years. He was 
 then appointed assistant V. S. treasurer at New Orleans by Presi- 
 dent Grant, and remained in this position until 1885. He died 
 near New Orleans on March 13, 1896. 
 
 Flanders' Administration. — On June 8, 1867, Gen. P. H. Sheri- 
 dan, commanding the oth Military District, wrote to Gen. Grant 
 as follows: "Gen. Flanders assumed the duties of his office this 
 morning. He is a man of integrity and ability, and I now feel as 
 though I was relieved of half my labor. As it has heretofore been, 
 there was no security, and I feel as the people of the whole state 
 feel, that we have got rid of an unprincipled governor (Gov. 
 Wells) and the set of disreputable tricksters he had about him. 
 Nothing will answer here but a bold and strong course, and in 
 taking it I am supported by every class and party." 
 
 The student of history 40 years later will hardly agree with 
 Gen. Sheridan's statements that he was "relieved of half his labor," 
 or tliat his "bold and strong course was supported by every class 
 and party." During the brief period that Mr. Flanders occupied 
 the governor's chair, he was only a nominal executive, the real 
 governor being Gen. Sheridan. In fact the military reconstruction 
 of the state had been commenced under the acts of Congress 
 two months before the removal of Gov. Wells and the appointment 
 of Flanders. On April 10, 1867, Sheridan issued orders giving spe- 
 cific directions for the registration of voters, and a board of regis- 
 ters was appointed for tlie parish of Orleans. On July 31 the 
 registration was stopped by Sheridan's order. The number of 
 voters registered was 127,639, of whom 44,732 were whites and 
 82,907 were negroes. In September an election was held for dele- 
 gates to a constitutional convention and resulted in 75.083 votes 
 being cast in favor of the convention and 4,006 against it, many of 
 the white people refusing to vote. Civil officers were removed by 
 wholesale and without compunction. The president of the United 
 States finally became di.ssatisfied with Sheridan's "bold and strong 
 course," and on Aug. 17, 1867, relieved him of the command of 
 the 5th district and ordered him to Fort Leavenworth, Kan., in 
 spite of the protestations of Gen. Grant that he had "performed 
 his duties faithfully and intelligently, and that his removal would 
 be looked upon as an effort to defeat the laws of Congress." Gen. 
 George H. Thomas was assigned to the 'command of the district, 
 but on account of his health was allowed to remain in the De- 
 partment of the Cumberland, and Gen. Winfield S. Hancock was 
 appointed in his stead. Gen. Hancock did not arrive in New Or- 
 leans until Nov. 28, the temporary command of the district in the 
 meantime devolving upon Gen. Joseph A. ]\Iower, who continued 
 Sheridan's policy and removed a number of civil officers, among 
 them Lieut.-Gov. Voorhies and Sheriff Harry T. Hays of Orleans
 
 LOUISIANA 409 
 
 parish. Gen. Grant at last ordered Iiim to suspend further re- 
 movals until the arrival of Gen. Hancock. If Gov. Flanders had 
 more to do with the affairs of state during this period than merely 
 signing his name now and then to some executive document, it 
 does not appear in the records. The creature of the military- 
 power, he was expected to do its bidding, and he did not disap- 
 point the expectations. Gen. Hancock assumed command of the 
 district on Nov. 29, and soon afterward issued his Specail Order 
 No. 203, in which he said: "The true and proper use of military 
 power, besides defending the national honor against foreign na- 
 tions, is to uphold the laws and civil government, and to secure 
 to every person residing among us the enjoyment of life, liberty 
 and property." He reinstated several of the officers removed by 
 Sheridan and Mower, among them Lieut.-Gov. Voorhies. Shortly 
 after Gen. Hancock took command of the district, Gov. Flanders 
 resigned and in Jan., 1868, Joshua Baker was appointed military 
 governor by Hancock. (See also the articles on Reconstruction 
 and Constitiitional Conventions.) 
 
 Flatcreek, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Winn par- 
 ish, is situated on Beech creek about 7 miles west of Thalia, the 
 nearest railroad town. 
 
 Flatwoods, a post-hamlet in tlie northwestern part of Rapides 
 parish, situated on a branch of Cypress bayou, about 5 miles north 
 of Poe, the nearest railroad town. 
 
 Floods. — (See Levees, Mississippi River and Jetties.) 
 
 Flora (R. R. name Weaver's Mill), a post-village and station 
 in the southeastern part of Natchitoches parish, is on the Texas 
 & Pacific R. R., about 10 miles south of Natchitoches, the parish 
 seat. 
 ■ Florence. — (See Sicily Island.) 
 
 Florien, a village in the southern part of Sabine parish, is a 
 station on the Kansas City Southern R. R. about 10 miles south 
 of Many. It has a money order postoffice, express office and tele- 
 graph station, and a population of 200. 
 
 Floumoy, a village in the southwestern part of Caddo parish, 
 is on the Missouri, Kansas & Texas R. R., about 10 miles south- 
 west of Shreveport. It has a money order postoffice, express of- 
 fice and telegraph station, and is a trading center for the neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 Floyd, the seat of justice of West Carroll parish, is located in the 
 southeastern part of the parish on Bayou Macon, and was selected 
 as the parish seat when old Carroll parish was divided into East 
 and West Carroll in 1877. It was named for James Floyd, who 
 settled on a section of land in the vicinity in 1803. Floyd is one 
 of the smallest parish seats in the state, having a population of 
 only 200. It is also without direct railroad facilities, Floyd Sta- 
 tion on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R. being about 
 3 miles west of the town. Notwithstanding its small population 
 and lack of railroad facilities it is a place of considerable activity, 
 as it has a large cooperage establishment, a sawmill, four general
 
 410 LOUISIAA^A 
 
 stores, a money order postoffice, good schools, churches, a large 
 river trade, etc. 
 
 Fluker, a money order post-village in the northwestern part of 
 Tangijiahoa parish, is situated on the main line of the Illinois Cen- 
 tral R. K., about 7 miles north of Amite, the parish seat, in a large 
 truck farm and berry district. 
 
 Flynn, a post-hamlet in the southern part of St. Landry parish, 
 is al)out 3 miles northwest of Geneva, the nearest railroad station. 
 Population 150. 
 
 Folsom, a post-village in the northwestern part of St. Tammany 
 parish, is located a short distance east of the Tehefuncte river and 
 about 12 miles northwest of Covington, the parish seat. If is the 
 terminus of a l>ranch of the New Orleans Great Northern E. R., 
 that connects with the main line of that .sj'stem at Florenville 
 Junction, has some himber interests, an express office, a good re- 
 tail trade, and a population of 300. 
 
 Fontainebleau, Treaty of. — (See Treaties.) 
 
 Forage Crops. — The fertile soils of Louisiana are splendidly 
 adapted to the growing of forage crops of many varieties. Ac- 
 cording to the LT. S. census report for 1900, nearly 3 per cent of 
 all the land under cultivation in the state for the year 1899, was 
 given over to the raising of forage, the total acreage devoted to 
 all crops amounting to 3,421,751, of which 97,136 acres were given 
 over to forage. 
 
 Among the grasses are the following: A fox-tail grass (Setaria 
 glauca), which grows hixuriantly in the southern and middle sec- 
 tions: the Japan clover (Lespedeza striata) flourishes throughout 
 the northern and middle portions; the so called carpet grasses, 
 known among the Creoles as Gazon, are to he foimd in great abun- 
 dance in the south and central parts of the state : the Bermuda 
 grass grows extensively all through the state; the Crab grass 
 (Pancum sanguinale), also flourishes all over the state; the tall 
 meadow oat grass (^Vi-rhenathirum avenaceum), and the Rescue 
 grass (Bromus Shraderi), are also extensively grown throughout 
 all portions of the state. The following new and imported grasses 
 have also been eidtivated with success: Hairy Oat (Avena Steri- 
 lis), Bromus pinnatus. grown chiefly in the winter: Japanese rye, 
 grown through the fall, winter and spring ; Phalaris coerulescens, 
 a meritorioiis sunuuer grass, and Panciinn palmeri, a summer grass 
 of wonderful growth. 
 
 Red Clover can be successfully grown upon any of the fertile 
 lands of the state, provided the seed be soi\-n in early fall, but 
 the crimson clover is of a more certain growth, and is better 
 adapted to the lighter soils of the state. When sown in the early 
 autumn it almost invariably yields a fine crop of hay during the 
 next spring. 
 
 Alfalfa can be readily grown upon either the alhivial or the best 
 uplands of the state. If it be sown in September or October, at 
 the rate of about 15 lbs. to the acre, upon well drained, deeply 
 ploughed, and thoroughly pulverized soil, and a good stand be ob-
 
 LOUISIANA 411 
 
 tained it should be ready for harvesting early in the following 
 March, to be followed by six or seven cuttings, during the summer 
 and fall. It produces a Iiay rich in albuminoids, which is relished 
 by stock, grows continually during the summer and winter, and is 
 the sole forage crop in the state which will afford a cutting of 
 green matter every day in the year. It is easily cured and always 
 finds a ready market. Several thousand acres have been sown in 
 alfalfa in the last few years in the state, and the acreage is an- 
 nually increasing. 
 
 Cowpeas of both the bunch and running varieties are profusely 
 grown throughout the state. Wlien the berries are desired for 
 feed the former variety is employed, when hay or soil improvement 
 is the desired end in view the latter subserves the purpose. They 
 make a most excellent soil restorative, and any system of crop rota- 
 tion that omits them is a most flagrant error. 
 
 Spanish peanuts are now largely used both as feed for stock and 
 soil improvers. Among the other forages which have been grown 
 with more or less success are : Red top, on damp low soils ; English 
 blue-grass, on rich soil ; Kentucky b'ue-grass, on soils containing an 
 abundance of lime; velvet bean, in all parts of the state; Soja beans 
 do well in the light soils of the eastern and northern portions of the 
 state; Vetches have given only fair results; saccharine sorghiuns, 
 when planted in early spring afford two or even three abundant crops 
 each year; the non-saccharine sorghums, of the yellow and white milo 
 maize and the African millet varieties, also do well throughout the 
 state; the Pearl millet, used largely for soil restoring in the fall and 
 spring; the German and Golden Wonder millet have lieen successfully 
 growni, throughout the South, as have the numerous wild salt and 
 prairie grasses. Corn stalks are extensively used for feed by stock 
 raisers. 
 
 Forbing, a post-village and station in the southeastern part of 
 Caddo parish, is situated on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 
 9 miles south of Shreveport, the parish seat. 
 
 Ford, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Webster parish, is 
 on Bayou Dorcheat, about 5 miles east of Cotton Valley, the nearest 
 railroad station, and 15 miles north of Minden, the parish seat. 
 
 Fordoche, a village in the southwestern part of Pointe Coupee 
 pari.'^h. is situated on the Bayou Fordoche and the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R., about 25 miles northwest of Baton Rouge. It has a money 
 order 7)ostoffiee, express office, telegraph station and telephone facili- 
 ties. Population 200. 
 
 Foreman, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of East Baton 
 Rouge parish, is on a tributary of the Amite river, about 5 miles 
 nortlieast of Kleinpeter, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Forest, a town in the eastern part of AVest Carroll parish, is on 
 the St. Louis, Iron Moimtain & Southern R. R., about 8 miles north of 
 Floyd Station. It has a money order postoffice, express ofiSce, tele- 
 graph and telepjione facilities, and does some shipping. 
 
 Forest Hill, a village in the southwestern part of Rapides parish, 
 is a station on the St. Louis, Watkins & Gulf R. R., about 16 miles
 
 412 LOUISIAIS^A 
 
 southwest of Alexandi-ia, the parish seat. It is sitiiated in the pine 
 belt, has some lumber industries, a mouey order postofiSce, express and 
 telegraph service, and is a trading center for that part of the parish. 
 Population 250. 
 
 Fort Adams. — This military post was erected by Gen. Wilkin- 
 son in 1799. shortly after the evacuation of the Natchez district by the 
 Spanish. The site chosen was at the first highland point on the 
 Mississippi above the Spanish line of demarcation. After Wilkinson's 
 arrival at Natchez in Aug., 1798, he consulted Gov. Sargent about the 
 propriety of remaining at Natchez or descending the river, and was 
 advised "to take post at or near som« heights, elevated 300 feet above 
 the Mississippi commanding the river and called Loftus clilfs. " These 
 heights, known during the French period as Davion's Koek. and called 
 by the English Loftiis heights, were not quite 7 miles above the line. 
 The fort comprised a strong earthwork, magazine and barracks, and 
 was built under the immediate supervision of jMaj. Thomas Freeman, 
 who had been previously emploj'ed in survej'ing the boundary line, 
 under Commissioner Ellieott. It was named in honor of President 
 Adams, and the historic old location is now the seat of the little town 
 of the same name in Wilkinson county. Miss. 
 
 Fort Assumption. — (See Chickasaw Bluffs.) 
 
 Fort Balise. — The original fort of this name was built by the 
 French in 1722. It was named from the French word "balise," 
 meaning beacon, because the French had set up a seamark for 
 guidance of ships seeking the mouth of the river. The southeast 
 pass was the only practicable entrance for vessels drawing 14 
 feet, and to preserve it as well as to improve it, a mole built of 
 piles was thrown up which preserved the channel from the extreme 
 point of mainland to the sea. Here in the above year the French 
 established a water battery, a military post, store houses, a powder 
 magazine and chapel, on the bank formed by these piles. They 
 usually maintained a garrison of 50 men, as well as pilots and a 
 few sailors, at the post. The spot as originally occupied by the 
 French was the little flat island called by them Toulouse, about a 
 half mile in circumference, and their biiildings were erected at 
 the extreme edge of the gulf shore beyond the bar. The magazine, 
 and part of the fortifications, were swept into the river, and in 
 the year 1768 a new Balize was established by Don Ulloa, and 
 chiefly used as a pilot station. It is the site of the present village 
 of Balize, but by reason of the enormous sedimentarj^ deposit from 
 the Mississippi river, Balize is some 3 or 4 miles from the sea shore 
 and the mouths of the river. 
 
 Fort Baton Rouge. — During the control of West Florida by 
 Great Britain this was the most important English post on the 
 Mississippi river. The English had cleared the channel of the 
 Manchac in 1765, and thus enabled a safe and convenient means 
 of reaching the Mississippi from Mobile by the inside passage. 
 Baton Rouge was selected as a highly defensible location, and here 
 they caused some strong works to be constructed. Says Gayarre: 
 "The fort was surrounded by a ditch, 18 feet wide and 9 in depth;
 
 LOUISIANA 413 
 
 it had, besides, very high walls, with a parapet protected by che- 
 veaux de frise, and (in 1779) a garrison of 400 regulars and 100 
 militiamen, and was supplied with thirteen pieces of heavy ar- 
 tillery." On May 8, 1779, during the progress of the American 
 Revolution, Charles III of Spain formally declared war against 
 Great Britain. The conquest of the Floridas was one of the ob- 
 jects held in view, and she clearly perceived the importance of 
 adding them to her possessions before the end of the struggle be- 
 tween the colonies and the mother country, July 8, 1779, Spanish 
 subjects in America were authorized to participate in hostilities. 
 (See Spanish Conquest.) Gov. Galvez raised a force, marched 
 against the English posts, and when he arrived within a mile and 
 a half of Baton Rouge, he halted his army, and proceeded to 
 mount his artillery, preparatory to an assault. The guns were ad- 
 vantageously posted where they were screened from the enemy, 
 and some of his Indians, militia and negroes were disposed in a 
 wooded spot near the fort, with orders to make a feigned attack 
 in order to draw the enemy's fire. On Sept. 21 Galvez opened 
 with his batteries on the fort and an artillery duel ensued which 
 lasted until half past three in the afternoon, when a flag of truce 
 was sent out with an offer to capitulate. Galvez demanded the un- 
 conditional surrender of Baton Rouge and of Fort Panmure at the 
 Natchez, together with the dependent districts, and these terms 
 were finally accepted. Lieut. Dickson and his regulars were al- 
 lowed to march out with the honors of war, delivering up their 
 arms and flags and becoming prisoners of war. The militia and 
 free negroes within the fort were not held, but were sent to their 
 homes under parole. Galvez at once sent a captain and a detach- 
 ment of 80 men to take possession of Fort Panmure, 130 miles dis- 
 tant, and upon his withdrawal to New Orleans with his prisoners, 
 he left his subordinate, Carlos de Grandpre, in command of the 
 conquered region, with headquarters at Baton Rouge. The post 
 at Baton Rouge was destined to remain for 30 years longer under 
 Spanisli dominion and control, and was constantly garrisoned by 
 her troops. True, after the Louisiana cession of 1803, the United 
 States government persistently asserted its claim to all the gulf 
 coast region east of the Mississippi to the Perdido, but for diplo- 
 matic reasons took no active measures to occupy the region of 
 West Florida until the Baton Rouge revolution of 1810 forced 
 President Madison to take decisive measures looking to the asser- 
 tion of United States sovereignty. In 1710 the fort at Baton 
 Rouge was commanded by the young Lieut. Louis de Grandpre, 
 son of the gallant old Creole colonel, and had a garrison of prob- 
 ably less than 50 men. The full details of the capture of the fort 
 may be found under the title West Florida Revolution. Shortly 
 after this, acting under orders from the president, W. C. C. Clai- 
 borne, governor of the Orleans Territory, took possession of the . 
 province of West Florida, including the fort at Baton Rouge. 
 
 Fort Beauregard, an earthwork on a hill overlooking the town 
 of Harrisonlnu'g, in Catahoula parish, was erected by the Confed-
 
 414 LOUISIANA 
 
 erates in the early part of the -war. Early in ^lay, 1863, the Fed- 
 eral gunboats eoiuinaudod by Commodore Woodworth ascended 
 the Ouachita river and at 2 a. m., on the 10th, anchored a short 
 distance from the fort and sent a flag of truce demanding an un- 
 conditional surrender. At that time the fort was garrisoned by 
 about 400 men under Lieut. -Col. George W. Logan, who replied 
 that he would "hold the fort forever." After a steady shelling 
 of the fort until 6 p. m. the gunboats withdrew, having done no 
 injury except slightly damaging the parapet and destroying one 
 house in the town. A second effort of the fleet to pass the fort 
 was attended by no better success, but a land expedition from 
 Natchez, ]\Iiss., under Gen. Crocker, approached the fort on Sept. 
 4, 1863, and Col. Logan, having only 40 eft'eetive men, evacuated 
 the fort, saving all the property he could and destroying the re- 
 mainder. 
 
 Fort Bute was one of the three posts maintained by the British 
 on the lower ^Mississippi (the others being located at Baton Eouge 
 and Natchez) after their acquisition of the region east of the 
 Mississippi, known as West Florida. Early in 1765, Col. Taylor, 
 commanding the British troops in "West Florida, began the work 
 of clearing out the channel of the Iberville river (Bayou Man- 
 ehac), in order to complete the famous inside passage from Mo- 
 bile to the Mississippi, thereby avoiding contact Avith the French 
 at New Orleans, and affording an easy means of communication 
 witli the upper posts on the [Mississippi. To protect the men en- 
 gaged in this Avork, a little stockade, called Fort Bute, Avas built 
 on the ilanchac, and a small garrison was maintained there. When 
 Gov. Galvez started on his career of conquest against the British, 
 in 1779, Fort Bute proved to the initial point of attack. After a 
 fatiguing march of 115 miles from New Orleans, the little army 
 of invasion came in siglit of the flag of Fort Bute on Sept. 6. Lieut. 
 Dickson, commanding the British, had previously withdrawn with 
 most of his force to the more defensible position of Baton Eouge, 
 and only a little garrison of 23 men was left to man the fort. Gal- 
 vez assaulted on the 7th, and the post Avas taken after a nominal 
 resistance. One private was killed, 6 escaped, and the others be- 
 came prisoners of Avar. 
 
 Fort Charlotte, (see Fort Louis de la [Mobile.) 
 
 Fort Chartres, on the east bank of the Mississippi about a mile 
 and a half from the river bank, and 25 miles above the village of 
 the Caskasquias, Avas built by the French under de Boisbriant in 
 1720. It Avas located in the so-called Illinois district, and was 
 deemed one of the strongest French i)osts in North America. Its 
 form Avas .-niadrilateral, Avith four bastions, ])uilt of stone, and well 
 cemented Avith lime. Each side was 340 feet in length, the Avails 
 were three feet thick and 15 feet high. Within the walls Avere 
 spacious stone barracks, a large magazine, Avell, etc. The cornices 
 and casements, port-holes or loops, were of solid blocks of stone. 
 The post Avas for juany years the heaquarters of the commandant 
 of Upper Louisiana, and also served as a base for the numerous
 
 LOUISIANA 415 
 
 trading and exploring expeditions which ascended the Jlissouri, 
 as well as the upper Llississippi and its branches. Its establish- 
 ment was followed by the erection of numerous other trading posts 
 and settlements on the banks of the Mississippi and the ^Missouri. 
 The villages of Prairie du Rocher, St. Philippe and Cahokia were 
 built in the immediate vicinity of the post. The Sulpicians erected 
 a water mill for grinding corn and sawing lumber at Cahokia, and 
 a large warehouse was established at Fort Chartres by the Com- 
 pany of the Indies. The post was ceded to the British by the 
 Treaty of Paris, 1763, but, on account of the hostility of the In- 
 dians, it was not until the fall of 1765 that ilaj. Farmer, in com- 
 mand of the 34th regiment, went up the Mississippi to the Illi- 
 nois country, and, in conjunction with an expedition from Pitts- 
 burg, finally effected the occupation of the famous fort. IMean- 
 while, Nyon de Villiers, commandant at the Illinois, grew tired 
 of waiting for the arrival of the British garrison, and in the sum- 
 mer of 1764 descended the river to New Orleans, accompanied by 
 6 officers, 63 soldiers, and 80 inhabitants, including the women 
 and children. In 1770 the river Ijroke through its banks, and two 
 years later two of the fort's bastions fell into the water. It was 
 then allowed to fall into decay, and is now only known as one of 
 the picturesque ruins on the Jlississippi. 
 
 Fort Conde, (see Fort Louis de la Mobile.) 
 
 Fort De Russy, a Confederate fortification, was located on the 
 right bank of the Red river, aboiit 3 miles northeast of Marks- 
 ville. In April, 1863, the garrison there was commanded by Col. 
 Aristide Gerard of the 13th Louisiana, who was ordered by Gen. 
 Taylor to evacuate the fort and, if possible, save all guns and 
 stores. Col. Gerard was afterward tried by a court-martial for 
 not having "used proper diligence and obedience to said orders, 
 but did destroy a considerable of government property, etc," but 
 was acquitted, released from arrest and returned to duty. Capt. 
 John Kelso was sent with the gunboats Cotton and Grand Duke 
 to remove the property, and on j\Iay 4, 1863, a spirited fight took 
 place near the fort between his vessels and a Federal gunboat. In 
 the action the Cotton was disabled, with a loss of 14 men in killed, 
 wounded and missing, and 7 men were wounded on the Grand 
 Duke. The property was removed, however, and the Federal ad- 
 vance up the river was delayed for 48 hours. 
 
 As an incident of Gen. Bank's Red River campaign the follow- 
 ing year, the fort was attacked on March 14, 1864, by the Federal 
 forces under Gen. A. J. Amith, and after a heroic resistance of two 
 hours the garrison of 350 men surrendered to vastly superior num- 
 bers. 
 
 Fort Dout. — This was one of the far western barrier posts es- 
 tablished by the French, to maintain its territorial claims to the 
 region west of the Sabine, and also to prevent Spanish aggression. 
 It was located near the source of the Sabine, and was maintained 
 until Louisiana changed masters. (Stoddard's Louisiana, p. 31). 
 
 Fort Iberville (known also as Fort Maurepas), an early French
 
 416 LOUISIANA 
 
 post, named in honor of its builder, the founder of Louisiana, was 
 not advantageoiislj' located and 'had only a brief existence. On 
 the occasion of d 'Iberville's second return to Louisiana in 1700, 
 lie was informed by Sauvolle and Bienville that an English armed 
 vessel, under command of Capt. Bar, had sought to ascend the 
 Mississippi river, but had been induced to turn back. This infor- 
 mation greatly alarmed Iberville, and he immediately departed 
 from Biloxi for the Mississippi on another voyage of exploration. 
 On his way up tlie river he selected a site for a fort some 54 miles 
 from tlie mouth aud on his return superintended the completion 
 of the fort, which was located below the "English Tiu-n," (q. v.). 
 His brother Bienville was placed in command with a force of 25 
 men. Iberville caused a cross to be erected before the fort, and 
 at the foot of the cross a leaden plate was buried with the inscrip- 
 tion: "D. 0. M. The French first came here from Canada under 
 M. de la Salle, 1G82. From the same place under M. de Tonti, in 
 1685. From the sea coast under M. d 'Iberville, in 1700, and planted 
 this cross Feb. 14, 1700." The post was abandoned during Bien- 
 ville's administration, in 1705. It was not until 1722, when New 
 Orleans was establislied, that the principal entrance by the south- 
 east pass was protected by Balize Fort (q. v.). 
 
 Fort Jackson. — (See Military Reservations.) 
 
 Fort Jesup, village in the central part of Sabine parish, is about 
 7 miles northeast of i\Iany, the parish seat. It was originally estab- 
 lished as a military post by the U. S. government in 1823. The 
 fort and buildings were erected on the high laud that forms the 
 divide between the Red and Sabine rivers, near the old "Natchi- 
 toches and San Antonio trace," and several officers commanded 
 here who afterwards took prominent parts in the Mexican and 
 Civil wars. Fort Jesup became one of the most important posts 
 on the western frontier, during the third and fourth decades of 
 the 19th century. Jefferson Davis, Phil Sheridan, Col. Many, Capt. 
 Bragg aud other famous men were at the fort, either as command- 
 ants or visitors. 
 
 Shawnee Town aud other trading hamlets sprang up around 
 the military reservation and many dark tragedies occurred here 
 during the opening years of the century, for this Avas practically 
 "No ]\Iau's Land." The country was filled with desperados, and 
 their rendezvous became famous from the Atlautic to the Pacific. 
 When the soldiers cleared the ground for the cantonment, they 
 found an old lime kiln which was used to make lime for all this 
 locality for many years. Fort Jesup was an old settlement years 
 before ]\Iany was dreamed of and the site of the parish seat* still 
 an unbroken wilderness. A Masonic lodge was chartered in 
 March, 1850, and in 1877-78 a large Masonic hall was erected. Gen. 
 Taylor had his headquarters where the college buildings now 
 stand, and the well lie had excavated is the water supply for the 
 college today. Since the military post has been abolished and the 
 railroad built to the west, Fort Jesup has lost its early importance
 
 LOUISIANA 417 
 
 and today is a village of about 100 inhabitants, with nothing re- 
 maining but the deserted cantonment to tell of its early glory. 
 
 Fort Louis de la Mobile, built by Bienville in 1702, was located 
 12 leagues above the present city of Mobile, on the right or west bank 
 of the Mobile river. The headquarters of the infant colony had 
 previously been at Port Maurepas (q. v.) on the Bay of Biloxi, but 
 on the occasion of Iberville's return to the colony late in 1701, Bien- 
 ville was ordered to evacuate Biloxi and remove to the Mobile river. 
 The latter took up his march for the Mobile on Jan. 5, 1702, and on 
 the 16th he commenced to build Fort St. Louis de la Mobile, which 
 continued to be the official center of the colony for the next 9 years. 
 Then, on account of a disastrous rise in the river in the spring of 
 1710, which flooded the fort and all the houses in the vicinity, Bien- 
 ville constructed a new fort on the present site of Mobile. This latter 
 fort was afterward reconstructed with bastions, half-moons, deep 
 ditches, covered way and glacis, with houses for the officers, barracks 
 for the soldiers, and was mounted with 16 cannon. After the year 
 1720 the French called it Fort Conde. Speaking of the transfer of 
 Bienville's old fort to the British after the Treaty of Paris, 1763, the 
 historian Hamilton says: "In October, a detachment of Highland- 
 ers reached Mobile, and the proces verbal of transfer was signed by 
 De Velle and Fezende for France, and Robert Farmar for Great 
 Britain. The lilies were lowered, the red flag ascended to the music 
 of bagpipes, and Bienville's fort was renamed Fort Charlotte for the 
 young Queen of England." The British tlag continued to fly from 
 the old fort until its capture bj^ the Spanish Gen. Galvez, March 14, 
 1780. (See Galvez, Spanish Conquest, etc.). 
 
 Fort Maurepas, the seat of the tirst French colony in Louisiana, 
 was established by Iberville during the month of April, 1699. It 
 was located on the northeast shore of the Bay of Biloxi, about a league 
 east of the present city of Biloxi, and near the present town of Ocean 
 Springs. Iberville had expected to found his colony on the banks 
 of the ilississippi, but found the river in flood when he ascended it 
 in March, 1699, and was unal)le to find a suitable location. He had, 
 however, found a splendid anehoi-age for his ships off Ship island, 
 and after spending a few days in exploring the coast east and west 
 of their anchorage, including the Bay of St. Louis and Paseagoula 
 bay, on Tuesday, April 7th, he and Surgeres observed "an elevated 
 place that appeared very suitable." As their provisions were now 
 falling short, they concluded to commence operations at tliis point, 
 which was 4 leagues northwest of the place where the ships were an- 
 chored, and could be approached at a distance of 2 leagues. They 
 found from 7 to 8 feet of water at the entrance of the bay, and, says 
 Iberville, "we made choice of this place, merely on account of the 
 road, where the small vessels could go and come at all times, and 
 where we could assist, without fear, with a portion of the crew, in 
 building the fort which I ordered to be constructed there, whilst, in 
 the meantime, the place most convenient for the colony can be selected 
 at leisure." His journal continues: "On Wednesday, the 8th, we 
 commenced to cut away the trees preparatory for the construction of 
 1—27
 
 418 LOUISIANA 
 
 the fort. All our men worked vigorously, and at the end of the month 
 it was finished. In the meantime the boats were actively engaged 
 transporting the powder, guns, and ammunition, as well as the live 
 stock, such as bulls, sows, hogs, fowls, turkeys, ete. » * * The 
 fort was made with four ])astions, two of them squared logs, from two 
 to three feet thick, placed one upon the other, with embrasures for 
 port holes, and a ditch all around. The other two bastions were stock- 
 aded with heavy timbers which took 4 men to lift one of them. Twelve 
 guns were mounted." When Iljerville returned to France early in 
 May he left about 100 people at the fort. M. de Sauvolle de la Vil- 
 lantraj^, lieutenant of a company and naval ensign of the frigate Le 
 Marin, was left in command as governor; Bienville, king's lieutenant 
 of the marine guard of the frigate La Badine, was next in command ; 
 Le Vasseur de Roussouelle, a Canadian, was major; de Bordenac, 
 chaplain ; M. Care, surgeon ; there were besides 2 captains, 2 can- 
 noneers, 4 sailors, 18 filibusters, 10 mechanics, 6 masons, 13 Cana- 
 dians and 20 sub-officers and soldiers who composed the garrison. 
 This was the feeble beginning of the first white settlement on the 
 shores of the gulf. On Dee. 18, 1701, a shallop arrived from Pensa- 
 cola with the news that Iberville had again arrived in the New 
 World, and at the same time orders were given P>ienville to evacuate 
 Biloxi, and remove to Mol)ile river (See Port Louis de la Mobile). 
 The exact location of Fort Maurepas at Old Biloxi is now a matter 
 of conjecture, as the buildings were accidentally l)urned in 1719 
 and every trace of them has been obliterated by time. 
 
 Fort Natchitoches. — This important western frontier post of the 
 French was established by Bernard de la Harpe in Jan., 1719, and 
 from that time a small garrison was almost continuously maintained 
 there. La Harpe, a French officer of distinction, had arrived at 
 Mobile in Aug., 1718, to found a colony on the Red river. Accom- 
 panied by some 50 people whom he had brought over to settle on 
 his concession, he arrived in the vicinity of Natchitoches near the 
 close of the same year, built the fort near the present town of the 
 same name, and it constituted his base when, under instructions from 
 Gov. Bienville, he proceeded further west to explore the Texas coun- 
 try and ascertain the intentions of the Spaniards. The fort was the 
 usual square, palisaded affair, and the post thus established was ever 
 after the chief barrier against Spanish aggression from J\Iexico and 
 the west. Prior to this, in 1714, two strong storehouses had lieen con- 
 structed by Juchereau de St. Denis ((). v.) at Natchitoches during his 
 overland journey to establish commercial relations with the Spanish 
 colonies on the west. Friendly relations were also established at this 
 time witih the Natchitoches Indians. When St. Denis proceeded fur- 
 ther west to the Rio Grande and Mexico, he left a part of his force 
 behind to guard the buildings at Natchitoches. He failed to return 
 within a reasonable time, and his men forsook the post and returned 
 to Mobile bay. Gov. Cadillac luiderstood the strategic importance of 
 the place, and shortly after despatched a sergeant and a few soldiers 
 to occupy the buildings and guard French interests iu that ({uar- 
 ter. St. Denis proceeded via Natchitoches during his second expedi-
 
 LOUISIANA 419 
 
 tion to the west in 1715, and he was also in command of this impoi'- 
 tant post in 1731, wheii the final blow was administered to the Natchez 
 Indians, under their famous leader, the Flour Chief. The post retained 
 its military importance well down into the 19th century, as the region 
 east and west of it was disputed territory between the French and 
 Spanish, and later between the United States and Spain. 
 
 Port Necessity, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Frank- 
 lin parish, is about 6 miles west of Gilbert, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 8 miles southwest of Winnsboro, the parish seat. 
 
 Fort Nogales. — By the Spanish-Choctaw treaty of Natchez in 
 1790, the boundaries of the British district of West Florida were re- 
 affirmed on the old lines, and in addition the Choetaws ceded a site 
 for Fort Nogales on the Walnut hills. In May, 1791, two blockhouses 
 and a large barracks were completed, and additional works were in 
 process of construction. David Smith, who was there in that month, 
 reported to Gov. Blount of Tennessee, that the site of the fort was a 
 mile and a half below the mouth of the Yazoo, on a high bluff. Be- 
 sides other laborers, "about 30 United States deserters" were en- 
 gaged in the work. A gallej' and Spanish gunboat were lying in the 
 river close at hand. The best description of the fort is that of Gen. 
 Victor Collot (q. v.), who visited it in 1796 in his capacity of military 
 spy. He wrote: "The post of Nogales, called by way of irony the 
 Gibraltar of Louisiana, is situated on the left of the river, near a 
 deep creek, and on the sunnnit of different eminences connected with 
 each other and running northeast." The main work, on the south 
 side of the creek, called the fort of the great battery, was an inclosure 
 made on the river side by a wall of masonry 12 feet high and 4 feet 
 thick, and on the land side a ditch 4 feet wide and 3 deep, and pali- 
 sades 12 feet high. Twelve cannon were mounted in the river battery, 
 and a blockhouse with four howitzers, placed on an eminence in the 
 rear, was included in the quadrangle, within which were also a pow- 
 der magazine, the commander's liouse and barracks for 200 men. On 
 a hill across the creek was a blockhouse with 4 cannon, called Fort 
 Sugar loaf. About 1,000 yards behind these works, on a chain of 
 small heights, was built Port Mount Vigie, a sfjuare earthwork, with 
 ditch and palisades, blockhouse and 4 cannon, and 400 yards to the 
 right and left two small blockhouses, called Port Gayoso and Port 
 Ignatius. The garrison of 80 men did not STiffice to keep the works 
 from decay. When Andrew Ellicott, commissioner for the United 
 States to determine the boundary between the United States 
 and Spain under the treaty of 1795, reached Fort Nogales with 
 his party in Feb., 1797, his boats were greeted by the Spanish com- 
 mandant, not with a salute, but with a discharge of artillery aimed 
 to bring them to, though they were making for the landing as fast 
 as possible. Ellicott wrote that the "Spaniards have erected some 
 considerable works. The post is a very important one, and capable 
 of being made very strong." The commandant at the post during 
 these last years of Spanish occupancy was Capt. Elias Beauregard, 
 a French Creole. When Capt. Isaac Guion, who had been commis- 
 sioned by Gen. Wilkinson to take possession of the military posts
 
 420 LOUISIANA 
 
 previously held by the Spanish on the Mississippi, ai-rived at the 
 Waln^it hills on Dee. 1, 1797. he was coiirteonsly informed by Beaure- 
 gard that he was not ready to give possession, and Gnion and his 
 men proceeded do^vn to Natchez. Fort Nogales was finally evacuated 
 by Beauregard in March, 1798, upon four days' notice previously 
 given to Capt. Minor, the commander for the Spanish at Natchez, 
 who in turn notified Guion. The latter took no steps to occupy the 
 post, because his ordei-s were that ilaj. Kersey would arrive with 
 reinforcements for that purpose. As a result the fort was not gar- 
 risoned for a time. When Beauregard left. Guion 's courier was 
 there, "besides sixteen or seventeen inhabitants, particularly one Mr. 
 Glass, that for their own interests would not suffer the Indians to 
 make depredations." The Americans changed the name of the fort 
 to Fort MeHenry. in honor of the then secretarj- of war, but only 
 occupied it until the close of the 18th century." 
 
 Fort Orleans. — This early French post was established on the 
 Missouri about 1722 and was garrisoned from New Orleans. The 
 entire garrison was wiped out during an Indian uprising in 1725 and 
 the post destroyed. The location of the fort is somewhat iincertain, 
 but is believed to have been on the Missouri near the old mouth of 
 the Grand river, in Carroll county. In 1745 Gov. Yaudreuil estab- 
 lished some other posts on the Missouri to protect the trade in that 
 region, and to restrain the constant lawlessness of the coureurs des 
 bois. One of these is kiiown to have been located at the Kansa vil- 
 lage, near the present site of Fort Leavenworth. 
 
 Fort Pickering. — (See Chickasaw Bluffs.) 
 
 Fort Prudhomme. — (See Chickasaw Bluffs.) 
 
 Port Rosalie, built where the city of Natchez, ]\riss., now stands, 
 was established as a protection for the French trading post and set- 
 tlement against the Natchez Indians, who had been guilt.y of various 
 acts of aggression against the French and Canadians, Bienville had 
 been superseded as governor by Cadillac under the Crozat regime, 
 and with the title of lieutenant-governor and "Commandant of the 
 Mississippi,'" was ordered to take two companies of infantry, place one 
 at Natchez, the other on the Ouabache, and to remove his headquarters 
 to Natchez. (See French Coll., 1851). According to the statement 
 of La Harpe. "Cadillac would not give him but thirty-five men; al- 
 though he knew that M. de la Loire des Ursins had brought the news 
 that five Frenchmen had been killed by the Natchez, and he had barely 
 escaped by the advice of a chief, who had given him the means to save 
 his life." He accordingly proceeded up the Mississippi with his little 
 force in April, 1716. He halted at the Tonieas post, two leagues above 
 the mouth of the Red river, and awaited the arrival of the pirougues, 
 laden with provisions and utensils in charge of MM. de Paillou and 
 de Richebourg. Approaching Natchez, he learned that the Indians 
 had lately killed 2 Frenchmen and plundered 6 Canadians, and he 
 promptly sent an interpreter to solicit provisions and to bring the 
 calumet of peace. In the negotiations which followed with the Great 
 Sun of the Natchez and his representatives, the Indians surrendered 
 the 6 Canadians, and also brought him the heads of the chiefs respon-
 
 LOUISIANA 421 
 
 sible for the murders. The Natchez also agreed with Bienville to 
 furnish posts and lumber to build a fort. The work on this fort 
 was begun in June, under the direction of M. Paillou, who after- 
 wards became its tirst commandant. The Indians supplied all the 
 timbers, performed most of the labor on the earthworks, and the 
 fort was finally completed by the soldiers of Bienville, who arrived 
 in August. It was named Rosalie in honor of Madame la duchesse 
 de Pontchartrain. The site selected for the fort was on the sum- 
 mit of a hill about 670 yards from the shore of the river, and about 
 180 feet above its surface. (His. Coll. of La., p. 84, part iii.) The 
 historian Claiborne also locates this original fort some 670 yards 
 from the river, while Monette states that it was built at some dis- 
 tance from the bluffs, probably near the eastern limits of the pres- 
 ent city of Natchez. The early chroniclers describe it as an irreg- 
 ular pentagon 25 fathoms long by 15 broad, inclosed by palisades 
 of thick plank, and without bastions. The buildings within the 
 inclosure consisted of a stone house, magazine, houses for the offi- 
 cers and barracks for the soldiers. The ditch surrounding it was 
 partly natural and partly artificial, and in most places 19 feet from 
 the bottom to the top of the rampart. The original fort was de- 
 stroyed by the Natchez at the time of the great massacre of the 
 French in 1729, but a new fort was soon after erected by the Chev- 
 alier de Loubois, whom Perier had sent with a small army to ex- 
 terminate the Natchez. This new fort was built on the brow of the 
 bluft's some distance from the first, and some traces of it still re- 
 main below the Natchez compress, though it was largely effaced 
 by the great landslide. The following is a list of the commandants of 
 Port Rosalie as far as it is possible to ascertain them from the con- 
 temporary records : M. de Paillou ; Sieur de Barnaval, who was in 
 command during the Natchez uprising of 1723; Sieur de Liette; 
 Sieur Broutin ; de Tisenet ; M. de Merveilleiix ; M. de Chopart, who 
 is commonly charged with the responsibility for the massacre of 
 1729 ; and Chevalier Baron de Cresnay, whom Loubois left in com- 
 mand of the new fort, completed in 1730. During the summer of 
 1764, a considerable detachment of British troops was conveyed 
 to Port Rosalie on a frigate, and the old works, which were then 
 little more than ruins, were repaired and fitted up for a garrison. 
 The post was rechristened Port Panmure by the British. In 1769 
 the troops in British West Florida, including those at Port Pan- 
 mure, were withdrawn to St. Augustine, on orders from London. 
 One man, John Bradley by name, received possession of Port Pan- 
 mure, charged with the duty of keeping it in order and defensible. 
 In 1778, shortly after the Willing Expedition, says the historian- 
 gaologist Wailes, "Gov. Chester sent Col. IMagellan to raise four 
 companies of militia, and with orders to fit up Port Panmure. The 
 command of these troops was given to Lyman, Blomart and Mc- 
 intosh, who were soon ordered to Baton Rouge in consequence of 
 the prospect of war with Spain, and a Capt. Poster, with 100 men, 
 was left in command of Natchez." After this, it appears, occurred 
 the conflict between Capt. Michael Jackson, whom the governor
 
 422 LOUISIANA 
 
 at Pensacola seut to take charge, with a company of royalist refu- 
 gees and Col. Anthony Hutchins and Capt. Lyman, during which 
 the possession of the fort was contested with some bloodshed. 
 Fort Panmure and two small posts on the Amite river and Thomp- 
 son's creek were included in the capitulation of Lieut. Dickson to 
 Gen. Galvez, at Baton Rouge, Sept. 22, 1779. The garrison, which 
 then consisted of a company of 80 Waldeckers (Hessians), surren- 
 dered Fort Panmure without resistance, but did not finally leave 
 the post until the succeeding October. During the revolt of 1781, 
 the garrison under the Spanish flag was besieged by the Natchez 
 district people and compelled to surrender, but the fort was soon 
 returned to the control of the Spanish, and so continued until the 
 evacuation of March 80. 1798, whereupon the United States flag, 
 that had flow^l for a year and a month from the camp of Ellicott or 
 Guion hard by, was raised over the ancient works. The several Span- 
 ish commandants at the post and district of Natchez, who exercised 
 both civil and military duties, subject to the governor-general of 
 Louisiana, were as follows: Don Carlos de Grandpre, July 29, 
 1781. to Sept., 1782; Col. Estevan Miro, Sept. to Nov., 1782; Don 
 Pedro Piernas, Nov., 1782 to June, 1783; Capt. Francisco CoUel, 
 June to Aug. 3, 1783 : Lieut. -Col. Phelipe Trevino, Aug. 3, 1783, to 
 1785 ; Don Francisco Bouligny, 1785 to March, 1786 ; Col. Grandpre, 
 1786 to 1792; Lieut. -Col. Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, July, 1792, to 
 July 26, 1797; Capt. Stephen Elinor," July 26. 1797. to the evacua- 
 tion in 1798. 
 
 Fort Saint Claude. — This post Avas designed as a protection to 
 the Yazoo district, one of the nine civil and military districts into 
 which the Province of Louisiana was divided by the French. A 
 detachment of 30 men, under Lieut, de la Boulaye, proceeded to 
 the Yazoo river in 1718, and constructed the fort on an elevated 
 situation about 10 miles from the mouth. The site chosen was on 
 tlie left bank of the river, only a short distance from the village 
 of the Yasous Indians. Writing of this fort in 1721. Father Char- 
 levoix says: "I was obliged to go up it (the Yazoo river) three 
 leagues to get to the fort, which I found all in mourning for the 
 death of M. Bizart, who commanded here. He had chosen a bad 
 situation for his fort, and he was preparing, when he died, to re- 
 move it a league higher in a very fine meadow, where the air is 
 more healthy, and where there is a village of Yasous, mixed with 
 Curoas and Osogoulas (with) at most 200 men fit to bear arms. "We 
 live pretty well with them, liut do not put too much confidence in 
 them, on account of the connections which the Yasous have always 
 had with the English. The fort and the land belong to a society 
 composed of il. le Blanc, secretary of state, M. le Comte de Belle- 
 Isle, ]\I. le Marquis d'Asfeld. and ]\I. le Blond, brigadier engineer. 
 The last is in the colony with the title of director general of the 
 company. I can see no reason why they chose the river of the 
 Yasous for the place of their grant. There was certainly choice 
 of better land and a better situation. It is true that it is of im- 
 portance to secure this river, the source of which is not far from
 
 LOUISIANA 423 
 
 Carolina ; but a fort with a good garrison, to keep under the Yasous, 
 who are allies to the Chicachas, would be sufficient for the purpose. 
 It is not the way to settle a colony on a solid foundation, to be always 
 on their guard against the savages who are neighbors of the English." 
 The fort and settlement at this point were destroyed by the Yasous 
 and Curoas (the Osogoulas were absent on the chase and did not par- 
 ticipate) on Dec. 12, 1729. They were incited thereto by their allies, 
 the Natchez, who had just engaged in the wholesale massacre of the 
 French in the Natchez district. The commander of the post, M. de 
 Codere, happened to be on a visit at Fort Rosalie, and had already 
 met his fate at the hands of the Natchez Indians. The little garrison 
 of 17 men at St. Claude, under the command of the Chevalier des 
 Roches, were surprised and all were murdered. The Yasous had 
 treacherously slain the good Father Souel the day before in the vicin- 
 ity of the post, and they now adopted the resolution, says Father Petit 
 in his Journal, "of putting a finishing stroke to their crime by the 
 destruction of the whole French post. 'Since the Black Chief is 
 dead,' said they, 'it is the same as if all the French were dead — let 
 us not spare any.' " 
 
 Fort Saint Louis de Carlorette, built by Benard de la Harpe in 
 1719 at the village of Natsoos, in N. lat. 33 deg. 55 min., was one 
 of the distant barrier settlements established by the French for the 
 twofold purpose of asserting the territorial claims of France and 
 arresting the progress of the Spaniards. It was located on the right 
 bank of the Red river, in what is now northeastern Texas. Both 
 France and Spain laid claim to the region now called Texas, and 
 Gov. Bienville was especially anxious to conserve the rights of the 
 French in the country of the upper Red river. La Harpe, in ac- 
 cordance with tihe traditional policy of the French, cultivated friendly 
 relations with the Indians of the region, and also sought to open trade 
 relations with the Spanish on the west, but without avail. His rather 
 acrimonious correspondence with the Spanish commandant at the 
 Assinais is recounted in his manuscript journal of the first establish- 
 ment of the French in Louisiana, a translation of which is to be found 
 in Vol. Ill of the Historical Collections of Louisiana (1851). The 
 upshot of the affair was that the Spanish failed to make good their 
 threats to attack the post, and the same was maintained by the French 
 without molestation until Louisiana fell into the hands of Spain. 
 The chief defensive works built by La Harpe consisted of a strong 
 log blockhouse, which served both as a protection against the Indians 
 and the Spanish, and as a store-house for goods and merchandise. A 
 mill was also built, the settlers cultivated wheat, corn and tobacco, 
 and also carried on considerable trade with the Indians up and down 
 the Red river. With the fort as a base, he explored the region to the 
 Arkansas I'iver, and also went up the Red as far as the base of the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 Fort Saint Philip. — (See Military Reservations.) 
 Fort Saint Philip, a money order post-village in the south- 
 eastern part of Plaquemines parish, is situated on the east bank of the 
 Mississippi river, near the foi'tification of the same name and about
 
 424 LOUISIANA 
 
 25 miles below Pointe a la Hache. Buras. 6 miles west, is the nearest 
 railroad station. The population in 1900 was 51. 
 
 Fort Toulouse. — This early French oxitpost was established in 
 the district of Alabama and served primarily as a protection against 
 English encroachments from Carolina and Georgia. It was built by 
 Capt. de la Tour under ordere of Gov. Cadillac, in 1714; was located 
 on the east bank of the Coosa river, 4 miles above its junction with 
 the Tallapoosa : was kept constantly garrisoned by the French during 
 their control of the region, and was occupied by the English aft*r 
 the peace of 1762. Fort Jackson was built on its ruins during the 
 "War of 1812. 
 
 Fortier, Alcee, author and educator, was born in St. James 
 parish. La.. June 5. 1856. and is a descendant of one of the oldest 
 French families in the state. Francois Fortier. his first ancestor in 
 Loiiisiana. came from St. Malo, Brittany, in the eai'ly part of the 18th 
 century, ilichel Fortier, a sou of Francois Fortier, was one of the 
 signers of the petition protesting against the transfer of the province 
 from France to Spain. Col. Michel Fortier, another ancestor, men- 
 tioned elsewhere in this work, was an officer in G«lvez's army in his 
 wars against the British (1770-1781), and a member of the fii"st city 
 council of New Orleans in 1803. Alcee Fortier was a son of Florent 
 and Edwige (Aime) Fortier, the former a sugar planter of St. James 
 pai-ish : the latter a daughter of Valcoi;r Aime and a niece of Gov. 
 A. B. Roman. After comjileting the course in one of the best schools 
 in New Orleans, Alcee Fortier entered the University of Virginia, 
 but was prevented by failing health from gradiiating at that historic 
 institution. He then read law for about two years, when, his father 
 meeting with financial revei-ses, he abandoned his legal stiidies to be- 
 come a clerk in a banking house in New Orleans. He continued his 
 studies at every opportunity and finally gave up banking for educa- 
 tional work by accepting -a position as teacher in the city high school. 
 From the high school he became principal of the preparatory depart- 
 ment of the Univereity of Louisiana : was made professor of French 
 in that institution in 1880; was reelected when it took the name 
 of Tulane University, in which he became the professor of Eomance 
 languages. He studied also at Paris and is well known in university 
 circles in that city. From 1888 to 1896 he was a member of the State 
 Board of Education : has served as \'ice-president of the Ciril Servaee 
 Commission of the city of New Orleans : as vice-president and presi- 
 dent of the Board of Curators of the State Museum ; had been presi- 
 dent of the Louisiana Historical society since 1894. of the Athenee 
 Louisianais .since 1892 ; was president of the Catholic "Winter School 
 of America from 1897 to 1902 : vice-president of the American Dialect 
 Society;. corresponding secretary of New Orleans Academy of 
 Sciences; president of the Modern Langiiage Association of Ahierica, 
 of the American Folk-lore Societv^ of the Federation of the Alliance 
 Franeaise of the T'nited States and Canada, and was president of 
 the Public School Alliance of New Orleans. He was chairman of the 
 history jury at the World 's Fair at St. Louis in 1904 ; a member of 
 the Congress of Arts and Science at that exposition, where he read one
 
 LOUISIANA 425 
 
 of the two principal papers iii the section of Romance literatures; 
 and was a member of the advLsory council of the Warner Library. 
 Prof. Fortier has delivered lectures on French history and literature 
 and on Louisiana history and literature before a number of learned 
 societies and at many American universities. During' the summer 
 sessions he has been a member of the faculty of the universities of 
 Chicago, California, Tennessee, Kansas, Colorado, and Wisconsin, 
 and at Harvard University. He received from the French govern- 
 ment the decoration of "Officer de I'lnstruction Publique" and 
 "Chevalier dd la Legion d'honneur;" from Washington and Lee and 
 Laval Universities the degree of Doctor of Letters. He was a member 
 of the Academy of Macon in France; of the American Antiquarian 
 Society ; the American Historical Association ; the Sons of the Amer- 
 ican Revolution; the Raven Society of the Univei-sity of Virginia; 
 and an honorary member of the Minnesota and Missouri Historical 
 Societies, and of the Geographical Society of Quebec. Prof. Fortisr 
 has written many articles for literary and historical magazines and 
 journals, has edited several French texts for American colleges, and 
 has published the following books: Gabriel d'Ennerieh, a, liistorical 
 novellette (1886) ; Bits of Louisiana Folk-lore (1888) ; Histoire de la 
 Litterature Francjaise (1893) ; Louisiana Studies (1894) ; Louisiana 
 Folk-Tales (1894) ; Voyage en Europe (1895) ; Precis de I'Histoire 
 de France (1899) ; History of Louisiana, four volumes, (1904) ; His- 
 tory of Mexico (1907). In 1881 Prof. Fortier married Miss Marie 
 Lanauze, daughter of a highly esteemed French merchant of New 
 Orleans, and a niece of M. Feraud-Giraud, one of the greatest French 
 jurists in Paris. Mrs. Foriiei' is descended also from one of the oldest 
 families in Louisiana, which was among the earliest settlers of 
 St. Louis in Upper Louisiana — the Sarpy family. Prof. Fortier had 
 four sons and one daughter. His eldest son, Edward Joseph, is fol- 
 lowing the profession of his father, and is a member of the faculty 
 lof Columbia University; the second son, James J. A., is now a 
 prominent young attorney of the New Orleans Bar, and the two 
 other sons, Prank and Gilbert, are students in Tulane University. 
 Prof. Fortier was active as a citizen, as an educator, and as a writer 
 on historical and literary subjects, and was one of the most widely 
 known members of the faculty of the Tulane University of Lou- 
 isiana. His death occurred early in the year 1914 and caused uni- 
 versal grief among all classes of Louisiana citizens. Resolutions 
 were passed by many prominent societies extolling his virtues and 
 lamenting his early death in the midst of great usefulness. 
 
 Fortier, Florent, a member of an old French colonial family of 
 Louisiana, was born in 1811 in St. Charles parish. He was educated 
 at Sorreze college in France, and on his return home was sent by his 
 father to Transylvania university at Lexington, Ky., to study Eng- 
 lish. He married in 1836 ]\Iiss Edwige Aime, the eldest daughter 
 of the wealthy and enterprising sugar planter, Valcour Aime, of 
 St. James parish, and contributed greatly to the success of his father- 
 in-law in the management of the latter 's plantation and refinery. Mr. 
 Fortier was a man of high literary culture and wrote graceful French
 
 426 LOUISIANA 
 
 verse. He died in 1886. leaving one son, Prof. Aleee Fortier, and 
 four daughtei-s — Mrs. Nelvil Le Beuf. Mrs. Edward Roman, Mrs. Al- 
 fred Fortier and Mrs. Edmoud Le Breton. 
 
 Fortier, Col. Michel, merchant, planter and soldier, was born in 
 Louisiana in 1750. his family ha\'ing been among the early French 
 pioneers of the colony. He was a member of the first city council of 
 New Orleans, and when Gov. Galvez called the mass-meeting in the 
 Place d 'Amies in 1779, to decide on the question of making an attack 
 on the British posts, Mr. Fortier enlisted and took part in all the cam- 
 paigns of the young governor. For his bravery in these campaigns 
 he was made a captain of artillery by Charles III. King of Spain, and 
 his commission is still in the possession of his descendants in Louisi- 
 ana. Gov. Claiborne, in a letter to Gen. Jackson, dated Aug. 12, 
 1814, mentioned a battalion of picked men of color commanded by 
 Col. Michel Fortier, "a respectable and rich merchant of New Or- 
 leans." During the war of 1812 he rendered valuable services ^\•ith 
 this battalion, and at the time of the British invasion of Louisiana 
 he performed duty in New Orleans among the veterans who guarded 
 the city. His eldest son. Col. Michel Foi'tier, Jr., was aide-de-camp 
 to Gov. Claiborne and took an active part in the battle of New Or- 
 leans. In a series of resolutions the legislature said of the conduct 
 of Col. Fortier on this occasion: "In town. Col. Fortier, Sen., con- 
 tributed in a great measure to the prompt departure for Chef Men- 
 teur of the free men of color, already embodied, by furnishing 
 them, at his own cost, with such articles as they stood in need of. 
 To him also the country owes the forming and organizing a second 
 corps of free men of color, to whom the brave Savary was appointed 
 a captain. At his call, both captain and soldiers repaired to his 
 house to be enlisted. He personally attended to the arming and 
 equipping of them ; and through his exertions that company, under 
 command of Maj. Dauquin. was enabled to take the field and face the 
 enemy a few hours after its formation. M. Fortier caused also several 
 hiindreds of miiskets imfit for use to be repaired." Col. Fortier 's 
 death occurred in 1819, and he was laid to rest in the old St. Louis 
 cemetery at New Orleans. His grave was decorated in July, 1908. by 
 the "Sons of the Amerieaji Revolution" in Louisiana. 
 
 Foster (R. R. name Bayou Sale), a village in the central part 
 of St. Mary parish, is situated at the junction of two divisions of the 
 Southern Pacific R. R., 4 miles southeast of Franklin, the parish seat. 
 It has a money order postoffice, express office, telegraph station and 
 telephone facilities. 
 
 Foster, Murphy Jaanes, lawyer, governor and U. S. senator, was 
 born at Franklin, St. Maiy's parish. La., Jan. 12, 1849. After the 
 Civil war he attended a preparatory school near Na.shville, Term., 
 for two years, and in 1867 entered Washington and Lee college at 
 Lexington, Va. The following year he left that institution for Cum- 
 berland university, Lebanon, Tenn., where he gi-aduated in 1870. In 
 1871 he graduated at the law school of Tulaue university, and in 1872 
 was elected a member of the John McEnery legislature, but as this 
 government was not recognized, did not take his seat. In 1879 he
 
 LOUISIANA 427 
 
 was elected to the Louisiana state senate under the constitution 
 adopted that year, and continued a member of that body for 12 years, 
 being president pro tem, during his last term. In 1890 he led the anti- 
 lottery fight in the legislature, and this led to his nomination for 
 governor on the anti-lottery ticket in 1892. Four years later he was 
 reelected, and at the close of his second term he was elected to the U. 
 S. senate to succeed Donelson Caffery, his terra beginning on March 
 4, 1901. Before the expiration of his term the legislature of Louisiana 
 passed the primary election law, and Senator Foster requested that 
 the U. S. senatorship be included in the primary. He received 42,990 
 votes in the primary, his opponent, B. F. Jonas, receiving 26,122, 
 which insured his reelection for the term expiring on March 3, 1913. 
 
 Foster's Administration. — Gov. Murphy J. Foster took the oath 
 of office on May 9, 1892, Charles Parlange being at the same time 
 inaugurated lieutenant-governor. The lottery question had been the 
 paramount issue in the campaign, and Francis T. Nicholls, the retir- 
 ling governor, in his concluding message to the legislature, said : 
 "From that contest Louisiana emerges victorious, her virtue vindi- 
 cated, her morality strengthened, her future, I trust, assured. Again 
 she stands among her sister states as fair as any, as pure as any, as 
 proud as any. The shadow has passed away. Once more she is moving 
 to the front, and it will be for you to see that her course be steadfast 
 and true. It will be for you to see that what has been faithfully and 
 gloriously won shall be firmly and successfully maintained." 
 
 Immediately upon the inauguration of Foster and Parlange, the 
 Republicans entered a protest before the general assembly, claiming 
 that Albert H. Leonard and H. D. Coleman had received the highest 
 number of votes for governor and lieutenant-governor respectively, 
 and these defeated candidates demanded an investigation. With the 
 exception of this incident, which in the end amounted to nothing, 
 Gov. Foster began his administration under the most favorable aus- 
 pices. During the legislative session a number of ballots were taken 
 for a U. S. senator to succeed Gen. Randall L. Gibson, whose term 
 would expire on March 4, 1893, but the general assembly finally ad- 
 journed without an election. Gen. Gibson died on Dec. 15, following, 
 and Gov. Foster appointed Donelson Caffery to fill out the unexpired 
 term. The governor approved 110 acts, one of which prohibited the 
 sale of lottery tickets, or the drawing of any lottery or scheme, in the 
 state after Dec. 31, 1893. (See Lotteries.) 
 
 Oct. 21, 1892, the 400th anniversary of the discoveiy of America 
 by Christopher Columbus, was celebrated by appropriate ceremonies 
 in all the schools, in many of the New Orleans churches, and by a great 
 popular meeting, preceded by a grand civil and military parade, in 
 Lafayette square, at which speeches were made in English, French, 
 Spanish, German and Italian. Mayor Fitzpatrick presided at the 
 meeting, and among the other speakers introduced James D. Cole- 
 man, who said the success of the celebration was due chiefly to the 
 patriotic efforts of Archbishop Janssens; that the Catholics had as- 
 sembled on Oct. 12 — the true anniversary of the discover}- — at the 
 call of the Pope to commemorate the anniversary of the event, and that
 
 428 LOUISIANA 
 
 the present meeting had been called by the president of the United 
 States for a similar purpose. 
 
 In the presidential eampaign of 1892 a fusion was effected by the 
 Republicans and Populists, the ticket consisting of 5 Harrison and 3 
 Weaver electors. At the election in November the Cleveland electors 
 received 87.922 votes, and the highest vote received by any elector on 
 the Fusion ticket was 26.563. On that ticket the Weaver electors ran 
 about 1.200 ahead of the Republicans. In Aug. 1893. Judge Charles 
 E. Fenner, of the supreme court, resigned, and Lieut. -Gov. Parlange 
 was appointed to till the vacancy. Early the following year Judge 
 Parlange was appointed to the Federal judgeship for the eastern dis- 
 trict of Louisiana to fill the vacancy causetl by the death of E. C. 
 Billings. 
 
 Developments with regard to the assessment of propert.y for ta^c 
 purposes this year caused a great deal of dissatisfaction in some of 
 the parishes where the people felt that they were paying more than 
 their just proportion of the public expenses. Constitutional amend- 
 ments were recommended by some to correct the glaring inequalities, 
 while others argued that the legislature already had ample power of 
 provide some method of etpializing valuations. Toward the close of 
 the year the assessor of St. Landry parish issued a call for a conven- 
 tion of assessors to meet in New Orleans on Jan. 16, 1894. to consider 
 and if possible devise .some plan by which the desired end might be 
 attained, Imt nothing definite was accomplished along this line until 
 after the adoption of the constitution of 1898. Some' trouble also 
 came up this year, with regard to the use of surplus that had ac- 
 cumulated in the fund set apart for the pa.yment of interest on the 
 state bonds. At a meeting of the state board of liquidation it was 
 decided to apply the surplus to the purchase of state bonds, under the 
 act of 1874, and thereby reduce the bonded debt. The state treasurer 
 was not present at the meeting, and when informed of the action of the 
 board he .set up the claim that the act of 1874 had been annulled bj' 
 the constitution of 1879, and refiLsed to pay out money for the pur- 
 chase of bonds unless ordered to do so by an act of the general as- 
 sembly. The attorney-general held that the law left nothing to tha 
 discretion of the board, and applied to the civil district court of New 
 Orleans for a writ of mandamus to compel the treasurer to obey the 
 order of the board. The district court decided that the board had the 
 authority to order the purchase of the Iwnds. whereupon the treas- 
 urer appealed to the supreme court, which afiSrmed the decision of the 
 lower court. During the next three years bonds to the amount of 
 $206,700 were bought and canceled. These bonds, bearing 4 per cent 
 interest, were purchased for .'{il99.825.73, a saving of uearly $6,000, 
 besides stopping the payment of interest on the bonds thus redeemed. 
 
 In the first half of 1893 Louisiana was scourged by storm and 
 flood, which caused much suffering and greatly injured the growing 
 crops. In March, the parishes of Catahoula and" Concordia were partly 
 overflowed; bad breaks occurred at several places along the Mississippi 
 in Jlay, and the governor, vvith others, made a tour of inspection 
 along the levees, extending their observation into Arkansas. The
 
 LOUISIANA 429 
 
 substance of the governor's report was as follows: "Most of the old 
 levees in Arkansas are in a wretched condition, poorly constructed, 
 'and inadequate to resist any flood of the magnitude of that which now 
 threatens us. The levees in Louisiana I find in fine condition. Im- 
 mense dikes have been built which will resist almost any flood in the 
 river, and at points where any weakness has manifested itself the 
 danger has been promptly met." After this report was made a break 
 occurred in East Carroll parish, and by May 30 it was 3,000 feet 
 wide. Over 5,000 people were driven from their homes and were 
 sheltered in two large camps. In June two breaks occurred on the 
 east bank — one above and the other below tlie city of New Orleans — 
 and late in the month the New River country was flooded by an over- 
 flow from the Rescue crevasses. During the entire summer the gov- 
 ernor and the state officers were at their posts doing what they could 
 to avert disaster, or to i-elieve distress after the disaster came. 
 
 The legislature of 1894 met on May 6 and remained in session until 
 July 12. Some time was spent in the consideration of the report sub- 
 mitted by the constitutional commission appointed at the preceding 
 session. (See Constitutional Commission.) A resolution was adopted 
 declaring it to be the sense of the legislature that U. S. senators should 
 be elected by direct vote of the people, and that Louisiana senators 
 and representatives in Congress should work to that end. In response 
 to a general demand for a radical change in the election laws, an act 
 was passed to regiilate elections, but it was not satisfactory to the peo- 
 ple, who wanted the Australian ballot system, and was generally de- 
 nounced by the new.spapers throughout the state. An appropriation 
 of $1,200 was made for the purpose of locating the positions of the 
 Loiiisiana regiments on the battlefields of Chickamauga and Gettys- 
 burg, and several acts relating to the sale of intoxicating liquors were 
 passed. 
 
 The political campaign of 1894 was more exciting than the usual 
 "off year" contest, owing to the "Wilson tariff bill, one feature of 
 which was the proposal to discontinue the bounty on sugar manu- 
 facture in the United States. In May the sugar planters of Louisiana 
 held a convention, adopted a series of resolutions, setting forth the 
 fact that they regarded the bounty as one of the provisions of eon- 
 tract with the government, to run for 15 yeai*s, on the strength of 
 which they had expended large sums for improving their plants for 
 the production of sugar, and sent a copy of the resolutions to the 
 senators and representatives of the state in Congress, with a memorial, 
 in which they said: "If this governmental policy be now suddenly 
 reversed and the sugar planters of Louisiana be abandoned to hope- 
 less competition with the superior natural advantages of tropical 
 countries and with the government-aided sugar industry of European 
 countries, the sugar industry of Louisiana will be instantly annihi- 
 lated, all these extensive improvements will become mere useless in- 
 cumbrances on the soil and utterly valueless, our plantations will pass 
 under the sheriff's hammer in foreclosure of mortgages which they will 
 not satisfy, half the people of the state will be thro\vn helpless on the 
 world without employment, and Louisiana will present a picture of
 
 430 LOUISIANA 
 
 desolation comparable only to the Palatinate after its devastation 
 by the armies of its invaders." 
 
 Notwithstanding this vigorons protest the bill was passed by Con- 
 gress, the bounty clause of the McKinlcy tarift* bill was repealed, and 
 on Sept. 17 the planters held another convention, in which they came 
 out openly for the Republican party. Candidates were nominated, 
 but at the election in November the Democrats carried the state, 
 electing all six of the Congressmen, though the opposition charged 
 that intimidation, fraud and violence had been used to carry the 1st, 
 2nd and 3d districts. An attempt was made by the Miles planting 
 company to test the bounty question in the courts by an application 
 to the supreme court of the District of Columbia for a mandamus to 
 compel the secretary of the treasury to appoint the necessary in- 
 spectors to determine the amount of sugar produced, etc. In Novem- 
 ber the case came before the court of appeals, and in Jan.. 1895, it 
 was decided adversely to the planters, the court holding that the 
 boiinty was unconstitutional. 
 
 The drought of 1893-94 had produced wide-spread suffering in 
 Nebra.ska. and about the close of 1894 Gov. Foster issued a call to the 
 charitably inclined people of Louisiana to contribute supplies for the 
 relief of the needy of the former state. On Jan. 6 a train of 20 loaded 
 cars was started for Nebraska. Among the supplies were over 500 bar- 
 rels of molasses. 93 barrels of siigar, about 100 barrels and sacks 
 of rice, flour, cornmeal, potatoes, clothing, a carload of dressed lum- 
 ber, and a carload of salt from the Avery island mines, and many 
 other useful products. 
 
 In 1890 the First National bank of Shreveport refused to pay its 
 taxes.claiming that the assessment was illegal and excessive ; that the 
 board of reviewers had assessed the stock of the bank, which was in 
 U. S. bonds, and therefore exempt from taxation ; and that the stock 
 had been assessed at a higher rate than the property of individuals, 
 which was a violation of the Federal constitution. The case was taken 
 to the courts, and in Aug., 1895, it was decided, the court sustaining 
 and making absolute a rule compelling the bank to settle or produce 
 its stock for sale to satisfy the demand for taxes. 
 
 On Dec. 18. 1895, the Democratic .state convention met at Shreve- 
 port, nominated Gov. Foster for reelection, and completed the ticket 
 as follows : for lieutenant-governor. Robert H. Snyder ; secretary of 
 state, John T. Michel ; auditor, "W. W. Heard ; treasurer, A. V. Four- 
 net: attorney-general, Milton J. Cunningham; superintendent of 
 education, Joseph V. Calhoun. A large free-silver convention had 
 been held in New Orleans on June 10. and on July 20 the Ballot Re- 
 form League also held a convention in New Orleans. The latter or- 
 ganization met again at Shreveport the day before the Democratic 
 convention, with the object of influencing that party to declare in 
 favor of the proposed amendment to the state constitution which 
 provided that only those who could read the constitution in the mother 
 tongue or owned property to the amount of .1^200 should be permitted 
 to vote. The league was also interested in securing a resolution com- 
 mitting the Democratic party to the Australian ballot, but the con-
 
 LOUISIANA 431 
 
 vention of the 18th made no declaration on the currency question and 
 merely approved the action of the last legislature on the question of 
 suffrage. The national Republicans, composed of the sugar planters 
 and their associates who went over to the Republican party in 1894, 
 held a sfate convention on Jan. 4, 1896, and nominated a ticket. The 
 Populists met at Alexandria on the 8th and also placed a ticket in 
 the field, but later in the month a fusion was affected with the 
 Republicans. The fu.sion ticket was made up as follows: for gov- 
 ernor, J. N. Pharr ; lieutenant-governor, J. B. Kleinpeter ; secretary 
 of state, J. W. McParland ; auditor, H. P. Kernochan ; treasurer, H. 
 B. Nelson; attorney-general, Lucien- D. Suthon; superintendent of 
 education, G. A. M. Cook. 
 
 The election occurred on April 21, but the result was not settled 
 until the assembling of the legislature on May 14, when the tellers 
 made two reports. The majority report declared the Democratic ticket 
 elected, Poster receiving 116,216 votes, and Pharr, 90,188, the major- 
 ity on the other candidates being about the same. The minority report 
 said : ' ' The undersigned beg leave to report that they have not been 
 able to examine and correct the vote as provided by Article LIX of 
 the constitution, because what purport to be the returns of the elec- 
 tion are mere tabulated statements from the board of supervisors of 
 the several parishes, and no legal returns were presented to yoiir com- 
 mittee. The undersigned beg further to report that they are informed 
 that the legal returns are now in the office of the secretary of state, 
 whose office is in this building, and we therefore pray that the secre- 
 tary of state be ordered to produce instanter and lay before the gen- 
 eral assembly said legal returns, consisting of the original tally sheets, 
 compiled statements of voters and lists of voters, in order that this 
 honorable body may examine and count the vote for governor and 
 lieutenant-governor of this state as provided by Article LIX of the 
 constitution. 
 
 The Republicans claimed the election of the Fusion candidates, 
 basing their claim chiefly on the fact that disturbances had occurred 
 in various parts of the state that resulted in the suppression of the 
 negro vote. This was especially true of St. Landry parish, where it 
 was said that some 200 "white regulators" armed themselves with 
 Winchester rifles and served notice that no negro should I'egister or 
 vote there, at the same time promulgating the following as their 
 platform: "The white men of St. Landry claim that, as the negro is 
 a purchasable political commodity, who will sell out without regard to 
 principle, they are determined that the only way to prevent them- 
 selves from being included in the sale is to take the manly plan and 
 prevent the consuimnation of an infamy that no brave people can 
 stand. They do not believe in ballot-box stuffing, and are therefore 
 compelled to take course to free themselves, and are prepared to take 
 the consequences." The legislature refused to adopt the minority re- 
 port by a vote of 86 to 48, and on May 18 Gov. Foster and Lieut. -Gov. 
 Snyder were inaugurated. 
 
 As the constitutional amendments proposed by the commission had 
 been defeated at the April election. Gov. Foster, on June 24, sent a
 
 432 LOUISIANA 
 
 special message to the general assembly, iirgiug the passage of a reso- 
 lution in favor of calling a constitutional convention. He recom- 
 mended that a special election be called for the purpose of permitting 
 the people to pass on the question of holding a convention, and at 
 the same election choose delegates, who were to serve in case a major- 
 ity of the popular vote favored the proposition. The legislature 
 accordingly passed a resolution providing for a special election on 
 Jan. 11, 1898, the convention to meet on Feb. 8, following. A new 
 election law was passed, by which the Australian ballot was given 
 to New Orleans, and the same system, in a modified form, was made 
 applicable to the remainder of the state. A law providing for a new 
 registration of voters throughout the state was passed, to take effect 
 on Jan. 1, 1897. The bureau of agriculture was authorized to make 
 an exliibit at the Omaha exposition; private exhibits were i-ecom- 
 mended for the Nashville exposition : and Congress was memorialized 
 to grant belligerent rights to the people of Cuba. 
 
 Three electoral tickets were presented to the voters of Louisiana in 
 the presidential campaign of 1896. The Democratic state convention 
 was held on June 15, when delegates to the national convention were 
 selected and instructed to vote as a luiit on all important questions, 
 especially for the free coinage of silver. The Popiilists met at Alexan- 
 dria on Aug. 4 and nominated an electoral ticket, b\it the following 
 month an agreement was reached by which a coalition was formed 
 with the Democrats, the electoral ticket consisting of 4 electore from 
 each party. The regular Republicans and the national or "Lily 
 White" Republicans each nominated an electoral ticket. The latter 
 consisted of the sugar planters who had left the Democratic party 
 two yeai"s before, and gained the name of "Lily Whites" because 
 they would not admit negro delegates to their convention. At the 
 election in November Brvan received 77,175 votes, McKinley, 22,037, 
 and Palmer, 1,834. 
 
 About Nov. 1 a drought set in in the northern part of the stat«. 
 Thirteen parishes, with a population numbering from 75,000 to 100,- 
 000, were affected and many of the people were reducetl to a state 
 of destitution. Gov. Foster recommeded state aid and called for 
 voluntary contributions. By Feb. 1, 1S97. the state had granted 
 $97,000 for the relief of the .sulferers. while the voluntary donations 
 amounted to over $216,000. The waters of the Mississippi began to 
 rise in ilarch. 1897. anil on April 3 the governor i-ssued the following 
 call to the people of the Delta : "The vast flood now coming do^ra the 
 Mississippi has overtopped all the records. The volume of water which 
 has to pass out to the sea through the channel of the main stream and 
 the Atehafalaya is undoubtedly greater than the levees have been 
 heretofore called iipon to witlistand. After years of patient industry, 
 enormous sacrifice, and buwlensome taxaition by the alluvial districts 
 of our commonwealth, aided by the state at large and the national 
 government, protection against overfow, if not bi-ought to a state of 
 perfection, has at least reached a stage justifying the hope of an 
 early coaisummatiou of a levee system secure against any contingency. 
 These bulwarks should be held at all hazards. Their downfall means
 
 LOUISIANA 433 
 
 your impoverishment, and perhaps your ruin. Bear in mind in this 
 contest you have the advantage of fighting as an organized army with 
 able commanders. The engineers of the United States, the whole corps 
 of state engineers, the chiefs of the various districts, with all their 
 staffs and disciplined forces, are now in action along the front." 
 
 This call was not in vain, as the people turned out as one man to 
 defend their plantations against imindation. The first break in the 
 levee occurred in Madison parish on April 16, but it was quickly re- 
 paired, and the levees were patrolled day and night until the danger 
 was past. By May 14 the flood reached its highest stage at New Or- 
 leans — IS inches higher than any previous record — but the State of 
 Louisiana suffered less damage than ever before. 
 
 Two banks failed in New Orleans in 1896, and in May, 1897, the 
 officers were brought to trial for embezzlement. W. P. Nicholls, presi- 
 dent of the Bank of Commerce, was sentenced to 3 years' imprison- 
 ment, but the cashier of the bank was acquitted. In the case of the 
 officers of the American National, Henry Gardes and Walter W. 
 Girault were convicted and Thomas H. Underwood was acquitted. 
 
 On Sept. 6 the first case of yellow fever for 1897 made its ap- 
 pearance in New Orleans, though a fever of a mild type, resembling 
 the yellow fever, had been prevalent for about a month previous to 
 that time. A few days later the Baton Rouge Advocate announced 
 that the conditions were favorable for an epidemic, as the fund for 
 disposing of garbage in New Orlea-ns was tied up by litigation and 
 the city was in an unsanitary state. On Sept. 24 a mob gathered 
 about a school building used as a hospital for the fever patients, and in 
 a short time was beyond the control of the police. While the offi- 
 cers were engaged in holding back the crowd in front of the building, 
 two men passed to the rear, saturated the woodwork with petroleum 
 and applied a match. In a short time the building was in flames. The 
 fire department hurried to the scene, but the hose was no sooner laid 
 than it was cut by the infuriated populace. More police were sum- 
 moned, the mob overpowered, and the main portion of the school- 
 house was saved from destruction. 
 
 Three Italians had been lynched by a mob at Hahnville on Aug. 
 8, 1896. and in May, 1897, "the president of the United States sent 
 a message to Congress recommending the payment of $6,000 to the 
 families of the victims, the approj^riation for the purpose to be made 
 without admitting the liability of the United States. Concerning the 
 incident the New Orleans Picayune said: "Nothing is more common 
 than for Italians here to announce an intention of becoming citizens, 
 although they never consummate citizenship. The mere declaration 
 gives them the rights of citizenship in Louisiana and permits them to 
 hold licenses as masters of vessels navigating American waters, which 
 they could not do otherwise. But, although they may vote and hold 
 offices in Louisiana, they are foreigners still under United States 
 statutes, and are still under the care of their own government. Prob- 
 ably nine-tenths of the Italians who hold political rights in Louisiana, 
 voting and holding office, are not actual citizens, but only prospec- 
 1—28
 
 434 LOUISIANA 
 
 tivelv so." (This conditiou of affairs was remedied by the constitu- 
 tion "of 1898, q. V.) 
 
 At the special election on Jan. 11. 1898, the proposition for a 
 constitutional convention was carried b.y a sweeping majority, re- 
 ceiving 36.178 votes in favor of it, as against 7.578 against it. (See 
 Constitutional Conventions.) The commissioner of agriculture made a 
 report in 1898, showing that since 1896 10.000 immigrants had come 
 to the state, and over 250.000 acres of land had been sold, the state re- 
 ceiving therefor over $1,000,000. The legislature of 1898 met im- 
 mediately after the adjournment of the constitutional convention, and 
 proceeded to enact laws to carry out the provisions of the new organic 
 law. The senate was composed of 28 Democrats, 7 Republicans and 1 
 Populist. In the house were 60 Democrats, 24 Republicans and 14 
 Populists. On May 23 Gov. Foster delivered his message, in which he 
 said: "The white supremacy for which we have so long struggled at 
 the cost of so much precious blood and treasure, is now crj-stallized 
 into the constitution as a fundamental part and parcel of that organic 
 instrument, and that, too, bj' no subterfuge or evasions. With this 
 great principle thus firmly imbedded in the constitution, and hon- 
 estly enforced, there need be no longer any fear as to the honesty and 
 purity of our future elections." 
 
 A board of pension commissioners was appointed by the legisla- 
 ture, and on Nov. 8 the first railroad commissioners in Louisiana 
 were elected by the people. The first board of commissioners was 
 composed of C. L. De Fuentes, R. N. Sims, Jr., and "W. L. Poster. 
 
 In Oct., 1899, the state, through the governor and counsel, filed 
 a petition in the supreme court of the United States, asking an in- 
 junction to restrain the State of Texas from keeping up the quaran- 
 tine against Louisiana for yellow fever. The petition set forth that 
 "The health officer of Texas, who seems to be vested with absolute 
 and dictatorial powers in the matter of declaring and establishing 
 quarantine, has for several successive j'ears entirely cut off and 
 prohibitetl all transportation of the United States mails, of passen- 
 gers, and of merchandise between the two states of Louisiana and 
 Texas." Early in November the quarantine was raised, and as the 
 case had not yet been decided by the court, it was not prosecuted. 
 
 The political campaign for the election of state officers and mem- 
 bers of the legislature began on July 4, 1899, with a meeting and 
 barbecue at Raj^alle. The meeting was held under the auspices of 
 the "Jackson Democratic Association of Louisiana," the object be- 
 ing to bring together the opponents of Gov. Foster's administration. 
 Speeches were made by Senator- Caffery, Congressman Boatuer and 
 others. A few days later the association promulgated a declara- 
 tion of principles denouncing trusts, demanding honestly conducted 
 primaries, fair elections, fair counts, rigid enforcement of the fran- 
 chise clauses of the new constitution, and the election of U. S. senators 
 without the influence of executive patronage. The Democratic state 
 convention met at Baton Rouge on Dee. 19 and nominated William W, 
 Heard for governor; Albert Estopinal for lieutenant-governor; John 
 T. Michel for secretary of state; Will S, Frazee, auditor; Ledoux E.
 
 LOUISIANA 435 
 
 Smith, treasurer; "Walter Guion, attorney-general; and Joseph V. 
 Calhoun, superintendent of education. On Feb. 5, 1900, the regular 
 or "Wimberly" Republicans (so-called from the name of the national 
 committteeman for Louisiana) met at New Orleans and nominated 
 the following ticket: For governor, Eugene S. Reems; lieutenant- 
 governor, F. B. Tarhart ; secretary of state, no nomination ; auditor, 
 James Forsythe; treasurer, Benjamin Bloomfield; attorney-general, 
 Robert P. Hunter; superintendent of education, D. M. Lines. The 
 "Lily Whites" held a convention at Alexandria on Feb. 6, and the 
 Populists met at the same place the following day, each placing a 
 ticket in the field. On the 20th committees of these two organizations, 
 with a few independent Democrats, got together and arranged the 
 following Fusion ticket : For governor, Donelson Caffery, Jr. ; lieuten- 
 ant-governor, D. M. Sholars ; secretary of state, C. Taylor Cade ; au- 
 ditor, O. H. Deshotels ; treasurer, George A. Hassinger ; attorney-gen- 
 eral, W. G. Wyly; superintendent of education, 0. B. Staples. Caf- 
 fery was an independent Democrat, Sholars, Deshotels and Staples 
 were Populists, and the remainder of the ticket was composed of Re- 
 publicans. 
 
 The election was held on April 17, and the entire Democratic 
 ticket was elected. Heard received 60,206 votes ; Caffery, 14,215 ; and 
 Reems, 2.449. The legislature chosen at this election assembled on 
 May 14, Gov. Heard and Lieut. -Gov. Estopinal were inaugurated on 
 the 21st, and the next day ex-Gov. Foster was elected to the U. S. 
 senate. 
 
 Poucault, eommissaire ordonnateur and intendant of Louisiana 
 during the latter days of the first French domination, was appointed 
 to that office in Jan., 1762, to succeed M. de Rochemore. When the 
 news came that the province had been ceded to Spain, Foucault was 
 one of the most active inhabitants of the colony in formulating and 
 sending to France the petition to reconsider the action and allow 
 Louisiana to remain a French colony. By the rules of the superior 
 council the intendant was virtually president, though the governor 
 occupied the seat of honor. When the movement was commenced to 
 force the abdication of Gov. Ulloa, Poucault became one of the leaders 
 of the revolt. Gov. Aubry being powerless to cheek the action of 
 the council with Foucaulr at its head. After the expulsion of Ulloa, 
 he sent to the French government an account of the revolution — "a 
 paper characterized by a shameless double-dealing" — and in all his 
 official correspondence he left a loop-hole that would enable him, in 
 case of necessity, to align himself on either side. In one of his com- 
 munications he set up the claim that when he joined with the council 
 in issuing the order to expel Ulloa he "had been compelled to yield 
 only by force." In March, 1769, he secretly deserted the revolution- 
 ists, with whom he had been in high favor, and even went so far as 
 to write a letter to the French cabinet denouncing them and their 
 methods. About the 1st of Sept., 1769, he was arrested by order of 
 Gov. O'Reilly, but demanded a passage to France as an officer of the 
 crown. As his request could not be consistenly refused, he w^as sent 
 to Paris, where he was confined for a while in the Bastile, but was
 
 436 LOUISIANA 
 
 saibsequently released and appointed to an office in the East Indies. 
 Gayarre says: "It must be admitted that in the drama in which he 
 Avas engaged he acted his part with a consistency of infamy, and a 
 cool systematic regiilarity of treachery, which must obtain for him 
 much credit with congenial minds." 
 
 Fouche, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Ouachita par- 
 ish, is situated on Patrick bayou, about 2 miles south of Swartz, the 
 nearest railroad station, and 8 miles northeast of Monroe, the parish 
 seat. It is situated in a rich farming district. 
 
 Foules (R. E. name Copeland), a village in the northeastern part 
 of Catahoula parish, is on the New Orleans & Northwestern R. R., 
 about 12 miles northeast of Harrisonburg, the parish seat. 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment. — On June 16, 1866, Congress, after a 
 lengthy debate, submitted to the legislature of the several states an 
 amendment to the Federal constitution giving ne-groes the right of 
 citizenship ; prohibiting states from enacting laws abridging the priv- 
 ileges or immunities of citizens : providing for a reduction in the Con- 
 gressional representation of any state denying to any male inhabitant 
 over the age of 21 years the right to vote ; rendering ineligible to the 
 office of congressman or presidential elector persons who shall have 
 been engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the United States; 
 and declaring the war debt of the Confederate States null and void. 
 The admis.sion of the Southern states into the Union was made con- 
 tingent upon the ratification of this amendment. It caused a heated 
 discussion all over the country, and was violently opposed by the 
 Southern people as an encroachment upon their constitutional rights. 
 When the Louisiana legislature met on Dec. 28. 1866, Gov. Wells 
 recommended in his message the ra.tifieation of the amendment, ex- 
 pressing his belief that it was just and proper, and that he considered 
 it "to be within the province and to be the duty of Congress to re- 
 quire of those states as additional guarantees that they shall, by con- 
 stitutional enactments, recognize and establish equal political rights, 
 in the privilege of the ballot, to all men." But the general a.ssembly 
 refused ,to concur in the governor's view, and by a unanimous vote 
 rejected the amendment. 
 
 On March 2. 1867. an act was passed by Congress for the organi- 
 zation of the late Confederate States into five military districts. (See 
 Reconstruction.) Texas and Louisiana constituted the 5th military 
 district, and on the 19th Gen. P. H. Sheridan assumed command. 
 Between that time and July 31 a registration of voters was taken, 
 which embraced 44.732 whites and 88,907 negroes. The electorate as 
 thus composed authorized a constitutional convention, which met on 
 Nov. 23, 1867. Article 98 of the constitution adopted by this conven- 
 tion was as follows: "Every male person, of the age of twenty-one 
 years or upwards, born or naturalized in the United States, and sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction thereof, and a resident of this state one year 
 next preceding an election, and the last ten days within the parish 
 in which he offers to vote, shall be deemed an elector, except those dis- 
 franchised by this constitution, and persons under interdiction." 
 
 This article gave to the negro practically the same riglrts as the
 
 LOUISIANA 437 
 
 proposed amendment to the national constitution, and Article 99 
 covered nearly the same ground with regard to persons who had 
 been engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the United States. 
 But their provisions were deemed inadequate, so far as compliance 
 with the requirements of Congi-ess were concerned, and on July 9, 
 1868, the general assembly — the first elected under the constitution 
 of 1868 — ratified the amendment. On the 21st, Congi-ess adopted and 
 transmitted to the state department a resolution declaring "That said 
 fourteenth article of amendment is hereby declared to be a part of 
 the constitution of the United States, and it shall be duly promul- 
 gated as such by the secretai-y of state." Aocoi-dingly the seeretai-y of 
 state issued a proclamation on the 28th, announcing that the amend- 
 ment had been duly ratified by the legislatures of thirty of the thirty- 
 six states, and that it was thenceforth to be a part of the organic law 
 of the nation. This amendment was never ratified by Kentucky, Dela- 
 ware nor Maryland, and some of the states did not ratify it until in 
 1870. 
 
 Franklin, the parish seat of St. Mary parish, is one of the old 
 towns of southern Louisiana. It was laid out in the year 1800 by 
 Guinea Lewis, a Quaker from Pennsylvania, a great admirer of Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, in whose honor the town was named. When the 
 parish was organized in 1811, Franklin was made the seat of gov- 
 ernment, and it was incorporated by act of the legislature in 1830. 
 The first house there was built by a man named Trobridge before 
 the town was laid out by Lewis. Franklin is situated in the northern 
 part of the parish, on the Bayou Teche, which is navigable for boats 
 of moderate size, in the midst of a rich sugar-producing country, 
 close to large deposits of salt, and near enough to the gulf for the 
 sea breezes to modify the temperature. It is on the main line of the 
 Southern Pacific R. R., 100 miles (by rail) west of New Orleans; is the 
 southern terminus of a short line of railroad called the East & West 
 Franklin that runs north to Irish Bend, and is the eastern terminus 
 of the Franklin & Abbeville R. R. It is also connected by the Frank- 
 lin drainage canal with Cote Blanche bay, an arm of the gulf 10 miles 
 distant, and this canal is navigable for ordinary craft, hence the town 
 is well supplied with channels of transportation in all directions. 
 
 Formerly Franklin was a port of entry for the Teche district and 
 had a large trade with the country to the north until the completion 
 of the railroad diverted a large portion of this traffic to New Orleans 
 and Galveston. The Franklin of the present day is one of the active 
 and prosperous cities of Louisiana. It has extensive lumber and brick 
 industries, an ice plant, wagon and buggy factories, 2 banks, 2 large 
 sugar refineries, 2 newspapers, good hotels, a fine waterworks system, 
 an electric lighting plant — installed in 1900 and owned by the city — 
 well kept streets, a sanitarium and a public market. Educational 
 facilities are afi'orded by a good system of public schools and St. 
 Anthony's school for boys. The population is 3,857. 
 
 Franklin College. — This old state institution of learning was 
 chartered by the legislature March 5, 1831. It was located in St. 
 Landry parish, and the following men were appointed the first board
 
 438 LOUISIANA 
 
 of trustees: The governor (A. B. Roman), the supreme judges 
 (George Mathews. Francois Xavier Martin. Alexander Foster. Jr.), 
 Joshua Baker. Jehu "Wilkinson. Charles Oliver Devezin. Levi Foster, 
 St. Mary parish; Gerard Chretien, Louis Garry. Edward Simon, 
 John Brownson. Cesaire Deblanc, St. Martin parish; Alexander 
 Mouton, Basile Crow, Berauld. Andre Martin, Lafayette parish; 
 Jacques Dupre. Seth Lewis. Louis Louallier, George King, Benoit 
 Vanhille. "William IMoore. Jean Marie de Boillon. Moses Littell. Hen- 
 derson Taylor, St. Landry parish ; Francis A. Bynum. John Harris 
 Johnston. Isaac Thomas, Sosthene Baillio, John Compton. "William 
 Cheney, Rapides parish; "William "\^oorhies. Dominique Coco. Avo- 
 yelles parish ; Placide Bossier. Benjamin Metoyer, John R. Dunn, 
 Charles A. Bullard. Natchitoches parish ; J. M. B. Thompson, Cata- 
 houla parish ; H. P. Morency, Ouachita parish. The trustees were 
 given full power to establish the plan of education, prescribe the 
 discipline, appoint the president of the college, and such other mem- 
 bers of the instriictional force as they deemed necessary, and the in- 
 stitution was granted generous provisions for awarding degrees and 
 diplomas. On March 22, 1831. the legislature appropriated the sum 
 of $5,000 annually to the college. On Jan. 20, 1832. an act prescribed 
 that thereafter any 9 of the trustees would constitute a quorum for 
 any kind of business, and meetings might be called by 3 members of 
 the board. At the same session the legislature accepted a piece of 
 groimd as a site for the college tendered by the widow "Wikoif at 
 Opelousas. On March 31, 183.5. an appropriation of ,$15,000 annually 
 for 2 years was made to the college, the same to be payable as soon 
 as the trustees certified that the work of the college had been com- 
 menced. Meanwhile the affairs of the institution were to be examined 
 each year by a committee of the legislature. In 1842 the sum of $5,000 
 annually for 2 years was granted. The college was very slow in get- 
 ting started and was not ready to receive pupils until April. 1837. A 
 report on the institution for 1836 showed that 5 buildings had been 
 erected at a cost to the state of $35,000. In Dec, 1837. the buildings 
 were nearly completed, and accommodations were provided for a com- 
 petent number of professors and tutors. In 1840. though only 61 
 pupils were in attendance, and the so-called college was still only 
 doing preparatory work, $8,000 was asked for a new building to meet 
 an anticipated increase of attendance. In 1841 65 pupils were in at- 
 tendance, with room for some 10 or 15 more. The revenue of the 
 college for this year was $16,962, of which nearly $10,000 came from 
 the state. In 1845 Franklin college — in common with the College of 
 Jefferson and the College of Louisiana, the other state-supported in- 
 stitutions of learning — was abandoned by the state. Says Fay: "It 
 has sin<!e had a checkered destiny, being at one time converted into a 
 normal school, but has been in the main unoeeiipied and improfitable 
 to the state." In 1890 the buildings were vacant and fast going to 
 ruin, while the 100 acres of college lands were being occupied and 
 tilled by squatters. An act of March 21, 1865. stated: "The Franklin 
 college, at Opeloiisas, La., with all its grounds and appurtenances, is 
 hereby under the control of the state board of education, for the pur-
 
 LOUISIANA 439 
 
 pose of establishing a normal or high school." At the same time a 
 liberal appropriation was made to repair the buildings. By act of 
 July 8, 1902, the lands of the college were given to the board of school 
 directors of St. Landry parish, thus perfecting the intended donation 
 made by the legislature of 1894. 
 
 Franklin Parish was establsihed in 1843 out of parts of Cata- 
 houla, Ouachita and Madison parishes. It has an area of 616 square 
 miles, is located in the northeastern part of the state, and is bounded 
 as follows : On the north by Richland parish ; on the east by Madison 
 and Tensas parishes: the Boeuf river forms the south and part of its 
 western boundary, separating Franklin from Catahoula and Caldwell 
 parishes, and Richland parish completes the western boundarv. One 
 of the pioneers on Burnt Prairie was Neil Buie, who settled there as 
 early as 1816, while Boeuf prairie was settled up by such families as 
 the Lewises, Ballous, Graysons, Bowdens and Criswells. Lake Prairie 
 was settled by a family named Doyle. After the organization of the 
 parish, the first court was held at Boeuf prairie at an old camp. M. 
 S. Osborn was the first parish .iudge ; E. K. Williams, district .judge; 
 S. W. McClure, clerk, and J. W. Willis, sheriff. Winnsboro was made 
 the seat of justice and the first court house was built there in 1847, 
 which was used until a more modern structure was erected in 1855. 
 The lands of Franklin parish are higher than those of the valley on 
 the east ; the formation is alluvial land along the river courses, wooded 
 swamp and rolling prairie on the uplands, breaking into very rough 
 bluff land. The soil is of various kinds ; partly prairie, good for cotton 
 and corn, fertile alluvial loam bottoms, and hill lands where the soil is 
 not so good. Cotton is the chief export crop ; the second crop is sugar- 
 cane. Every farmer who has a patch of cane can make his own syrup. 
 Corn is grown to some extent and the upland country has a soil and 
 climate favorable to the growth of tobacco, some of the finest grades 
 of cigar leaf and smoking tobacco being raised there. In both the 
 valleys and the uplands there are a great number of truck crops which 
 produce heavily in the favorable climate and long growing season. 
 The garden varieties are almost unlimited, as conditions make it 
 possible to grow in the open here the most tender plants. Truck 
 farming has been encouraged within the last few years by the grow- 
 ing demand for the products from Memphis, New Orleans, Little 
 Rock and other nearby cities, while many early vegetables are shipped 
 to Chicago, Denver, St. Louis and Kansas City. The shipments 
 amount to several car loads a day from some of the leading truck 
 districts. There are several canning factories in the smaller towns that 
 take care of the surplus. The rolling prairies and fertile bottoms 
 give excellent pasturage, a long pasture season, an abundant water 
 supply and good markets, which make stock raising and dairying 
 profitable to the farmers of the parish. Since crop rotation has been 
 introduced, hog raising has become a profitable side line to all the 
 producers. The hills of the parish are well timbered by such varieties 
 as oak, beech, pine, gum, elm, holly, hickory, magnolia, Cottonwood, 
 willow, mulberry, maple, ash and walniit. Franklin parish is watered 
 by the Boeuf river and its tributaiiy streams on the west, Bayou
 
 440 LOUISIANA 
 
 Macon on the east, and by Turkey. Big and Deer creeks and Turkey 
 and Saline lakes. Like many of the Louisiana parishes, Franklin is 
 not thickly populated. There are no cities, and "Winnsboro. the par- 
 ish seat, situated on the New Orleans & Northwestern R. R.. is the 
 largest and most important town. Other towns and villages are: 
 Baskinton, Como, Crow\'ille, Fort Necessity, Gilbert. Lamar. Liddie- 
 ville. Hollygrove. Extension and Wisner. Transportation is fui-ni.shed 
 by the St. Louis. Iron Mountain & Southern R. R.. which enters the 
 northern boundary near Bayou Macon and runs almost directly south 
 to Gilbert, where it forms a junction with the New Orleans & North- 
 western, which traverses the western part of the parish. 
 
 The following statistics are taken from the U. S. census for 1910: 
 number of fanns. 1.881; acreage. 124.221; acres improved. .51.558 
 value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $2,024,964; 
 value of farm buildings, $519.952 ; value of live stock, $649,718 ; value 
 of all crops, $610,330. The popiilation is 11,989. 
 
 Franklinton, the seat of justice of Washington parish, is located 
 in the western part of the parish. 10 miles soiith of the Mississippi 
 state line and 8 miles east of the Tchefuncte river, which forms the 
 western boundary. In 1819. the large parish of St. Tammany was 
 divided, the northern part becoming "Washington parish, and in the 
 same ^ear, to facilitate the organization of the new parish, John 
 Biekham gave 30 acres of land where the town of Franklinton now 
 stands for the purpose of establishing a parish seat and court house. 
 Two years later the parish .jury had the gro^ind platted and ordered 
 the sale of all lots and squares except the center square, which was 
 reser^-ed for the courthouse. Coui-t was held in a barn imtil the first 
 courthouse was built, in the exact center of the square, which was 
 reserved in the center of the platted town. The first structiire was of 
 wood, replaced in 1858 by a substantial brick building, which in turn 
 was torn down in 1906 to make place for the fine modern eourtlionso 
 completed in 1907. No finer location for a town could be found than 
 that of Franklinton. which is near the Bogue Chitto river on the 
 gently rolling pine hills, with perfect drainage. For many years the 
 growth of the town was slow, as it was shut in by the great pine 
 forest which stretched in every direction. It was incorporated on 
 March 7. 1861, by a special act of the state legislature, and during 
 the Ci-^nl war developed but little. Prior to 1906 there was no railroad 
 in "Washington parish except the Kentwood & Eastern, a narrow gauge 
 road which crossed the extreme northwest corner of the pai-ish, and 
 all shipments in and out of Franklinton had to be made to this rail- 
 road, 10 miles away. Early in 1906 the New Orleans Great Northern 
 R. R. was built through the eastern part of the parish, with a branch 
 up the Bogue Chitto through Franklinton to Tylertown, Miss., open- 
 ing up the markets of the south to the town. Since then Franklinton 
 has increased rapidly in population and is the shipping point and 
 supply to\^Ti for a large district of pine, farm and daiiy country of 
 which it is the center. It has a bank, a large wholesale and retail 
 mercantile house, a newspaper, with job printing office in connection, 
 the Franklinton central institute, one of the leading educational in-
 
 LOUISIANA 441 
 
 stitutioiis of the parish, a good hotel, several large saw mills, a tele- 
 graph office, local and long distance telephone facilities, an express 
 office and money order postoffice. Franklinton is the home of the 
 Standard Land company, which has done mnch for the development 
 of the town and parish. Population 814. 
 
 Fred, a post-hamlet in the northern part of East Baton Rouge 
 parish, is a station on the Zachary & Northwestern R. R., about 5 
 miles east of Zachary and 15 miles northeast of Baton Rouge. 
 
 Freedmen's Bureau. — This institiition was the outgrowth of the 
 conditions prevailing among the negroes of the South after the 
 emancipation proclamation went into effect. Many of the able-bodied 
 blacks enlisted in the Federal armies, but the women and children, 
 the old and decrepit, were left to subsist as they might. These helpless 
 persons were gathered into camps, where they could be furnished with 
 rations, and appeals were made to the people of the North for dona- 
 tions of clothing, medicines, etc., to supply their needs. In order to 
 furnish employment for such as were able and willing to work, Adjt.- 
 Gen. Thomas of Grant's army in April, 1863, devised a plan, the 
 chief features of which were as follows: Many of the plantations 
 along the Mississippi river had been abandoned by their owners. Com- 
 missioners were appointed to lease these abandoned plantations "to 
 persons of proper character and qualifications," who would enter 
 into bonds to employ until Feb. 1, 1864, such negroes as might be 
 turned over to them by the commissionei-s, and "to feed, clothe and 
 treat humanely all the negroes thus turned over, the clothing to be 
 deducted from their wages, and to be furnished at cost." The wages 
 for able-bodied men and boys over 15 years of age were fixed at $7 
 per month; for able-bodied women over 15 years of age, $5 per 
 month. Children from 12 to 15 were to receive half this amount, and 
 the lessee was to pay to the government of the United States a tax 
 upon all the products raised by such labor. Plantations belonging 
 to persons in sympathy with the Confederacy were confiscated and 
 leased. Gen. Thomas stating as his reason therefor "the occupation of 
 the river border by a friendly population, to assist in preventing the 
 irregular warfare on the river traffic." In a few instances, where 
 the lessees were the right kind of men, the plan worked successfully, 
 but in a large majority of cases it was a failure, the lessees being 
 camp followers and adventurers, whose principal object was to get 
 all they could out of the scheme with the least possible outlay. Cloth- 
 ing was sold to the negroes at exorbitant prices, notwithstanding the 
 provision that it should be furnished at cost; the food supplied was 
 often of inferior quality; in many instances deductions were made 
 from the wages of the freedmen for medical attendance, though no 
 physician ever visited the plantations, and numerous other abuses 
 were practiced. 
 
 In Louisiana the. operation of the emancipation proclamation 
 did not extend to certain parishes, but as a law of Congress pro- 
 hibited the use of the militaiy to return any slave to his master 
 by force, thousands of the blacks sought the camps of the Federal 
 armies, where they became hangers on and a menace to the general
 
 442 LOUISIANA 
 
 health. Many of the planters in this state remained at their homes, 
 and Gen. Banks, commanding the Department of the Gulf, en- 
 deavored to pring about amicable relations between the planters 
 and the negroes, so that the latter would return to work. A sys- 
 tem of wages, tines and punishments was adopted, and at the close 
 of the year the plan was reported to be a "decided success." On 
 Feb. 3, 1864. Gen. Banks promulgated his "General Orders No. 23," 
 setting forth the rules and regulations for the employment of freed- 
 meu for the year. Laborers were divided into four classes, to re- 
 ceive respectively $8, $6, $5 and $3 per month, in addition to 
 "'healthy rations, comfortable clothing, quarters, fuel, medical at- 
 tendance and instruction for children." At least one-half of the 
 wages stipulated should be withheld until the end of the year, and 
 provision was made for the cultivation of land on private account. 
 A board of education was also established by Gen. Banks, the duty 
 of which was to provide one or more common schools in each of 
 the school districts as designated by the parish provost-marshals, 
 who' were authorized to erect school houses, emplo.y teachers, and 
 exercise all the powers of school officers in the Northern states. To 
 provide the necessary funds for this work the board was empow- 
 ered to levy a tax on all property, sufficient in amount to defray the 
 expenses incident to the establishment and maintenance of siach 
 schools. 
 
 The plan of leasing plantations by the government was generally 
 a failure in Louisiana, as elsewhere, owing chiefly to inadequate 
 supervision and the lack of military protection. Early in i\Iay, 
 1864. Gen. Banks was relieved by Gen. Canb.y, who introduced a 
 system of military occupation for the protection of the planters. 
 This was more of a success, as during the year about 50,000 freed- 
 men were employed on some 1,500 plantations under the super- 
 vision of the free labor bureau, M'hieh was the predecessor of the 
 national freedmen's bureau. 
 
 Soon after the capitulation of Vicksburg there were about 50,000 
 negroes in the camps along the IMississippi river. The crowding 
 together in this manner of large numbers of the blacks resulted in 
 a frightful mortality, the deaths during Jul.v and August, 1863, 
 often numbering in some of the camps 50 to 75 daily. Freedmen's 
 aid societies, commissions and associations sprang up all over the 
 North, and during the three j'ears ending on Jan, 1, 1865, these 
 organizations expended for the relief of the negroes nearly $1,000, 
 000. It was through their influence that the bill providing for the 
 establishment of a "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned 
 Lands" was passed by Congress and approved by President Lincoln 
 on March 2, 1865. According to the pro^-isions of the bill, the 
 bureau was to be under the management and control of a commis- 
 sioner, and "an assistant commissioner for each of the states de- 
 clared to be in insurrection, not exceeding ten in number." The 
 bill further provided "That the commissioner, under the direction 
 of the president, shall have authority to set apart for the use of 
 loyal refugees and freedmen such tracts of land within the insur-
 
 LOUISIANA 443 
 
 reetionary states as shall have been abandoned, or to which the 
 United States shall have acquired title by confiscation, or sale, or 
 otherwise. And to every male citizen, whether refugee or freed- 
 man, as aforesaid, there shall be assigned not more than 40 acres 
 of such land, and the person to whom it is so assigned shall be pro- 
 tected in the use of and enjo.ymeut of the land for the term of three 
 years, at an annual rent not exceeding six per cent, upon the value 
 of said land as it was appraised by the state autlwrities in 1860 
 for the purpose of taxation. * * ' * At the end of said term or 
 any time during said term, the occupants of any parcels so assigned 
 may purchase the land and receive such title thereto as the United 
 States can convey iipon paying therefor the value of the land, as 
 ascertained and fixed for the purpose of determining the annual 
 rent as aforesaid." 
 
 No appropriation was made for carrying out the purposes of the 
 act, but this diiSculty was obviated to some extent by the secretary 
 of war, who authorized the assignment of army officers, so far as 
 might be practicable, to the special duties required ; provided quar- 
 ters in buildings already in possession of the government for mili- 
 tary purposes ; and furnished offices by making requisitions upon 
 the quartermaster's department. Early in May, 1865, President 
 Johnson appointed Gen. 0. 0. Howard chief commissioner. The 
 commissioner for Louisiana was Rev. T. W. Conway, who had held 
 a commission as major in the volunteer service and had served as 
 general superintendent of freedmen's affairs in the Department 
 of the Gulf. He was relieved by Gen. Absalom Baird after a short 
 time. Gen. Howard organized the bureau into four departments — 
 lands, records, financial and medical — and issued a number of cir- 
 culars instructing assistant commissioners and others regarding 
 their duties. His Circular No. 15, issued on Sept. 12, 1865, showed 
 62,528 acres of cultivated land in Louisiana to be in the hands of 
 the bureau, and contained the following provision relative to the 
 restoration of these lands by their owners : 
 
 "Abandoned lands held by this bureaia may be restored to owners 
 pardoned by the president, by the assistant commissioners, to 
 whom applications for such restoration should be forwarded, so 
 far as practicable, through the superintendents of the districts in 
 which the lands are situated. Each application must be accom- 
 panied by — 1st, evidence of special pardon by the president, or a 
 copy of the oath of amnesty prescribed in the president's procla- 
 mation of May 29, 1865, when the applicant is not included in any 
 of the classes therein excepted from the benefits of said oath ; 2nd, 
 proof of title. * * * No lands under cultivation by loyal refu- 
 gees or freedmen will be restored under this circular until the crops 
 now growing shall be secured for the benefit of the cultivators, 
 unless full and just compensation be made for their labor and its 
 products and for their expenditures." 
 
 Immediately after the close of the war, and before the freedmen's 
 bureau was fully organized. Gen. Herron, then in command in 
 northern Louisiana, issued orders requiring the freedmen to re-
 
 444 LOUISIANA 
 
 main on the plantations where they Avere then employed until the 
 crops were harvested, otherwise they would be arrested as vagrants. 
 The strict enforcement of this order had a salutary effect, and 
 when Gen. Howard in October and November made a tour of in- 
 spection through the states where the bureau was in operation, he 
 reported "less opposition to it in Louisiana than in most of the 
 South." 
 
 In Feb., 1866, Congress passed an amendatory act, enlarging the 
 powers of the bureau, particularly in the reservation of 3,000,000 
 acres of public land in the South, then unsold, for the purpose of 
 renting it to the freedmen, but it was vetoed by President Johnson 
 and failed to become a law. In July following another amendatory 
 act, much milder in its provisions, was passed over the president's 
 veto. It was intended to perfect the distribution of abandoned 
 and confiscated lands, and regulated the manner of enforcement of 
 the law by military tribunals. During the first year of the bu- 
 reau's existence it was generally accepted by the people of the 
 North as a necessary adjunct of emancipation, but in the summer 
 of 1866 the report became prevalent that the government was main- 
 taining many negroes in idleness at the expense of the public treas- 
 ury and caused widespread opposition to the further continuance 
 of the bureau. This led Gen. Howard to issue on Aug. 17, 1866, 
 his recommendation "that, on and after the first day of September 
 next, the issue of rations be stopped, except to the sick in regularly 
 organized hospitals, and to the orphan asylums for refugees and 
 freedmen already existing, and that the state officials, who may be 
 responsible for the poor, be carefully notified of this order, so that 
 they may assiime the charge of such indigent refugees and freed- 
 men as may not be embraced in the above exceptions." Five daj's 
 later this was approved by the secretary of war, with the exception 
 that it was to take effect on Oct. 1 instead of Sept. 1. The opposi- 
 tion continued, however, and in July, 1868, Congress ordered that 
 the bureau should be withdrawn from the several states, and its 
 operations, with the exception of the educational featiires and 
 county divisions, were discontinued on Jan. 1, 1869. 
 
 While it was in force the bureau agents were the guardians of 
 the freedmen, with power to make their contracts, settle their dis- 
 putes with their employers, and care for them generally. Bureau 
 courts were instituted, ostensibly to protect the colored men from 
 discrimination in consequence of their exclusion as witnesses from 
 the civil courts, and the bureavi employed lawyers to appear in 
 courts for colored litigants. Garner, in his work on reconstruction, 
 says: "The chief objection of the Southern white man to the 
 bureau was that it established a sort of espionage over his con- 
 duct." Edward Mayes, in his Life of Lamar, says : "Its tendency 
 was to create in the minds of the blacks both a .suspicion of the 
 laws of the state and a belief that they were outside of and superior 
 to those laws. Filled, as its offices principally were, with men who 
 ■were adventurers, bargainers, blackmailers, seekers after oflSce, 
 the negroes were banded into clubs and leagues needless for any
 
 LOUISIANA 445 
 
 legitimate purpose, taught to parade the streets in military array 
 with arms and drums, were massed to be voted, and so were taught 
 to regard Southern whites as their political enemies by nature; 
 while, on the other hand, the whites themselves were inspired with 
 disgust for the bureau and contempt for its work, and also with 
 despair of ever reaching the reason of the negroes in political mat- 
 ters by any argument or appeal." 
 
 Freedmen, Higher Education of. — There are four important in- 
 stitutions in the state devoted to the higher education of colored 
 youth of both sexes. All of these are located in the city of New 
 Orleans and were established since the war. In addition to these 
 schools, several praiseworthy efforts to secure an industrial train- 
 ing for the colored people at various points in the country districts 
 are being made. Of the four institutions in New Orleans, the 
 Southern university and A. and M. college, a state institution, has 
 been separately treated, Leland university is a Baptist school. 
 Straight university is a Congregational school. New Orleans uni- 
 versity is a Methodist school, and all four are coeducational. The 
 founder of Leland university was Holbrook Chamberlain, of Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., who purchased 4 squares of ground on St. Charles ave- 
 nue, and secured a charter for the institution, dated March 26, 1870. 
 The school received its name in honor of the wife of the founder. 
 Mr. Chamberlain gave the school some $65,000 during his life, and 
 at his death in 1883 endowed it with about $100,000. Other agencies 
 which materially aided the school in obtaining a start were the 
 U. S. government, acting through the Freedman's bureau, which 
 appropriated $17,500 toward the first building, and the Ameri- 
 can Baptist Home Mission society, which donated $12,500 toward 
 the purchase of the site, and also made generous annual appropria- 
 tions for general purposes during the succeeding years. A large 
 three-story brick building, 100x80 feet, was completed in 1873, and 
 the school began its work. Though provided with a university 
 charter, the deficiencies of the colored population compelled it for 
 a long time to devote its energies to the more elementary forms of 
 instruction — primary grammar, high school and normal. In 1884 
 a large dormitory for girls was completed at a cost of $25,000. The 
 legislature granted the school a new charter in 1891, enlarging its 
 scope, and full normal and college work is now being performed, 
 while the standard has been raised so as to eliminate the lower 
 grades of instruction. A system of affiliated schools, over which 
 the university exercises a very direct control, serve as feeders for 
 the higher institution. The university has a well selected library 
 of over 3,000 volumes. 
 
 Straight university was chartered by the legislature in 1869, with 
 the power to grant degrees, establisli technical departments, etc. 
 It was named in honor of Seymour Straight, then a produce mer- 
 chant of New Orleans, who, with Edward and Charles Heath, was 
 very active in the promotion of the institution. Through the ef- 
 forts of these men, and the generosity of the U. S. government, a 
 building was erected in 1870 on ground belonging to the American
 
 446 LOUISIANA 
 
 Missionary association, at the corner of Esplanade and Burgundy 
 streets, and the school was placed imder the control of this asso- 
 ciation. Its work -was of a very elementary character for several 
 years, but after some time discipline and organization prevailed, 
 the grade was raised, and the scope of the work broadened. The 
 first building was burned in 1877, together with its contents, in- 
 cluding a valuable library donated by n6rthern friends. Only a 
 year later a portion of its present site on Canal and Saulte Touti 
 streets was secured and a university building erected thereon. In 
 1881 Mrs. Valina G. Stone, of Maiden, Mass., donated $25,000 to 
 the school, enabling it to purchase an additional half square of 
 ground on which Stone Hall, a girls' dormitory and teachers' home, 
 were erected. Two years later, Whitin Hall, a boys' dormitory, 
 was built through the generosity of "William C. "Whitin and Mr. 
 Straight. In 1886 the building used as Vermont headquarters at 
 the New Orleans exposition in 1885 was obtained, and it became 
 the headquarters of the library, where are now housed over 3,000 
 bound volumes. At the same time a much needed industrial de- 
 partment was established by aid obtained from the Slater fund. 
 A shop was erected, and various mechanical branches are now in 
 successful operation. The industrial department has since grown 
 to large proportions and is doing a good work. The school also 
 maintains law, theological, classical, and normal departments. 
 
 The New Orleans universit}' was chartered on ]\Iarch 22, 1873, 
 when the scope of the Union normal school, organized and in oper- 
 ation since July 9, 1869, was broadened to form this institution. 
 Its first board of trustees were J. C. Hartzell, I. S. Lea^itt, Cyrus 
 Biissey, Emperor Williams, H. C. Dibble, John Baldwin, George 
 Dardis, "W. j\I. Daily, :\I. C. Cole, James H. Ingraham, C. W. Booth- 
 by, J. M. "V^anee, Pierre Landry, "W. G. Brown, and J. Barth. The 
 first president of the school was Rev. I. S. Leavitt. A. 'SI., and the 
 present incumbent is Rev. H. F. Knight, Ph.D. The school con- 
 tinued to occupy the site of the Union normal school, at the corner 
 of Race and Camp streets, until 1884, when that property was sold 
 and a block was purchased at the corner of St. Charles and Val- 
 mont, where the institution has since been located. A large five- 
 story building was here erected, 156 feet front by 120 feet deep, 
 which contained accommodations for ISO students, as well as class 
 rooms, chapels, offices, dining room, etc. The school maintains 
 besides the usual academic department, a model school, musical, 
 mechanical and sewing departments; the Flint medical college, es- 
 tablished in 1889, was added to the institution, and in 1900 a college 
 of pharmacy was established at 1566 Canal street. 
 
 Freeland, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of "West Feliciana 
 parish, is 2 miles southwest of Jackson, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion. 
 
 Free Masons.— Masonry in Louisiana dates back to Nov. 21, 
 
 1793. when Parfaite Union Lodge at New Orleans was granted a 
 charter by the grand lodge of South Carolina, and on March 30, 
 
 1794, the following officers were installed : Laurent Sigur, "W. M. ;
 
 LOUISIANA 447 
 
 Laurent Cliouriac, S. "W. ; Andres Wackernie, J. W. Before the 
 close of the year 1794 another lodge — Btoile Polaire, or Polar Star 
 Lodge — was organized in New Orleans, and in 1796 it received a 
 provisional charter from the provincial lodge "la Parfaite Sincer- 
 ite" of Marseilles, France, the first ofiScers being Duprelong Pet- 
 avin, W. M. ; Chev. Desilets, S. W. ; P. Marc, J. "W., wlio were in- 
 stalled according to the French Rite. On March 1, 1802, Charite 
 Lodge received a charter from the grand lodge of Pennsylvania 
 and the same authority granted charters to Concorde and Perse 
 verance Lodges on Oct. 27, 1810. These five lodges united in form 
 ing the Louisiana grand lodge, which was organized on June 12 
 1812, and on Aug. 15, 1812, all surrendered their charters and ac 
 cepted a new charter from the grand lodge of Louisiana, Parfaite 
 Union becoming No. 1 under the new arrangement ; Charite, No. 2 
 Concorde, No. 3 ; Perseverance, No. 4, and Etoile Polaire, No. 5 
 Under these respective names and numbers these five lodges are 
 still in existence. The first officers of the grand lodge were : P. P 
 Dubourg, Grand Master; L. C. Moreau Lislet, Deputy Grand Mas 
 ter ; J. Blanque, Grand Senior Warden ; Francis Pernot, Grand Jun 
 ior Warden ; Jean B. Pinta, Grand Treasurer ; J. B. Gregoire Veron 
 Grand Secretary. 
 
 In 1848 a second grand lodge was organized and for two years 
 there were two rival branches of the fraternity in the state. In 
 that year Felix Garcia was master of the old grand lodge and M. 
 R. Dudley of the new. The following year Luc. Hermann was 
 elected master of the old lodge and John Gedge of the new, and 
 the following year the two grand lodges were consolidated under 
 the original charter of 1812. 
 
 For more than a decade after the panic of 1873, the Masonic 
 fraternity all over the country felt the effects of the depression, 
 and Louisiana was no exception to the rule. In 1886 the order 
 numbered but slightly over 4,000, the increase during the year hav- 
 ing been but 59. By 1890 the membership had increased to 4,246, 
 and in September of that year the fraternity received a fresh im- 
 petus through the following preamble and resolution which were 
 reported to the grand lodge by a committee consisting of G. W. 
 Bolton, W. C. Warren, George Soule and John C. Wickliffe : 
 
 "Whereas, the provisions of the resolution of the grand lodge 
 of Feb. 11, 1890, have been carried into effect as regards the sale 
 of the temple property, the preparation of plans and specification 
 and the reception of bids for the demolition of the grand lodge 
 hall at the corner of St. Charles and Perdido streets, and the erec- 
 tion thereon of a Masonic temple ; and whereas the amount speci- 
 fied in said resolution is inadequate for said purposes; therefore, 
 be it 
 
 "Resolved, that the sum of $100,000, or so much thereof as may 
 be necessary, is hereby appropriated for the erection of the said 
 Masonic temple, and that the grand master, by and with the ad- 
 vice of the board of directors of the grand lodge hall, be and is 
 hereby authorized to contract for the erection of the said Masonic
 
 448 LOUISIANA 
 
 templo on the site of the present grand lodge hall, at the corner of 
 St. Charles and Perdido streets, for a sum not exceeding $100,000, 
 and to sign and execute all contracts and other instruments of writ- 
 ing requisite in the premises." 
 
 Work on the new temple was commenced on Oct. 20, 1890, and 
 in Jan., 1892, the building was completed. "With the erection of a 
 new Masonic home the interest in the affairs of the organization 
 increased, both among the members and the uninitiated, and the 
 resiilt was a rapid and substantial growth of the fraternity in the 
 state. The report of the grand secretary' for 1909 shows 202 lodges, 
 ■ivith a membership of 12,414. 
 
 The Louisiana grand chapter. Royal Arch IMasons, was organ- 
 ized in March. 1813, and in May, 1848, was reorganized under the 
 jurisdiction of the national grand chapter. In 1908 there were 27 
 chapters in the state, located in the following towns and cities in 
 numerical order :* two in New Orleans, Farmerville, Shreveport, 
 St. Francisville, Franklin, Bastrop, Monroe, Opelousas, New Iberia, 
 Zachary, Coushatta, Ruston, Evergreen, Amite, Alexandria, Natch- 
 itoches, Arcadia, Lake Charles, Hammond, Donaldsonville, Welsh, 
 Leesville, Rodessa, Crowley, De Ridder and Baton Rouge. The 
 membership in these chapters was about 2,500. At the same time 
 there were nine councils of Royal and Select Masters, located at 
 New Orleans, Monroe, Opelousas, New Iberia, Coushatta, Alex- 
 andria, Natchitoches, Lake Charles and De Ridder. 
 
 The Louisiana grand commandery, Knights Templars, received 
 its charter on Feb. 12, 1864. In 1908 there were 10 commanderies, 
 located as follows : two in New Orleans, Shreveport, Monroe, Alex- 
 andria, Hammond, Welsh, Zachary and Lake Charles, the total 
 membership being in round numbers 700. 
 
 In addition to these regularly organized Masonic bodies of the 
 York Rite there is the Louisiana Consistory of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, with headquarters in New Orleans; Jerusa- 
 lem Temple, Ancient Arabic Order, Nobles of the Mystic Shrine; 
 the Masonic Veterans' Association, and about 40 chapters of the 
 Order of the Eastern Star — the "Ladies' Degree." 
 
 French Domination. — Though the actual period of French rule 
 in Louisiana only extended from 1699 to 1766, when the Spanish 
 Antonio de Ulloa arrived to take possession in the name of Spain, 
 that comparatively brief period of rule has left a profound impress 
 on the manners, institutions and life of the people of the region. 
 This influence, even today, manifests itself in many different ways, 
 and the later Anglo-Saxon infusion has never been powerful enough 
 to displace but only to modify the basic Latin strain. Religious be- 
 lief and observances, social customs and habits, educational and 
 political development, language, names and nomenclature, and the 
 physical characteristics of many of the people, alike attest the in- 
 fluence of the French on the development of Louisiana. 
 
 As the 17th century approached its last quarter the French, long 
 before domiciled in Canada, were becoming more and more the 
 adventuring and exploring race for the great central portion of
 
 LOUISIANA 449 
 
 the American continent. If the Spaniards, through De Soto and 
 other early explorers, had gained some knowledge and title to the 
 Mississippi valley, they had long ago abandoned it. About this 
 period the French in Canada began to hear many stories concern- 
 ing a mighty river which lay to their west. These tales were 
 brought in by Indian, trader and missionary and aroused much in- 
 terest, particularly as it might lead to the discovery of a shorter 
 trade route to the South sea and the orient. Definite information 
 concerning the Mississippi was first acquired in 167.3 through the 
 daring voyage of Marquette and Joliet (q. v.), who descended the 
 river to a point below the 33d degree of latitude, and learned that 
 it emptied into the Gulf of Mexico instead of flowing west. Strange 
 as it now seems, the French government was very dilatory in act- 
 ing on the valuable knowledge thus gained, though it finally reaped 
 the fruits of this earlier voyage through the indomitable courage 
 and perseverance of the brave Robert Cavalier de La Salle, who 
 reached the mouth of the Mississippi on April 9, 1682, and in ac- 
 cordance with the then custom, took possession in the name of 
 France, by right of discovery, of the whole of the vast valley 
 through which the river flowed, and named it in honor of his king, 
 Louisiana. Failing in his subsequent attempt at colonization in 
 1784, and meeting a wretched and undeserved death in a lone Texas 
 wilderness, it was not until 14 years later, in 1698, that Iberville 
 set out from France to make the second attempt at colonizing the 
 country. France then proceeded to play her part in the great game 
 of strategy with Spain and England for the control of the Missis- 
 sippi basin. Forts and settlements on the lower Mississippi and 
 gulf would provide Canada with a double outlet to the sea, and 
 secure to France the free navigation of these waters, while the 
 English colonies on the Atlantic would be hemmed in by the great 
 French possessions of Canada and Louisiana. Spain, after two 
 centuries of opportunity, had failed to seize the control of the 
 lower Mississippi and had fastened her grasp on the islands and 
 mainland farther to the south. Iberville's little squadron with its 
 burden of 200 colonists and a company of marines came to anchor 
 on Tuesday, Feb. 10, 1699, in the harbor north of Ship Island. 
 Iberville was not long in learning from the coast Indians of the 
 near proximity of a large river to the west, called by the natives 
 "Malabouchia," and, as it was his intention to found his settlement 
 on the Mississippi, he and his brother Bienville searched out the 
 mouth and ascended the river a distance of 100 leagues, but failed 
 to find a suitable location on the Mississippi at this time, hence he 
 established the first French colony on the northeast shore of the 
 bay of Biloxi. 
 
 The growth of the colony was very slow, notwithstanding fresh 
 colonists and considerable quantities of supplies were sent over 
 periodically. The establishment of plantations and the pursuit of 
 agriculture were neglected by the settlers, who wasted their efforts 
 in a vain search for precious metals. Most of the young French 
 soldiers and settlers sent over as colonists were ill fitted to cope 
 1—29
 
 450 LOUISIANA 
 
 with the privations and trials incident to tlieir strange environ- 
 ment, and many of them died from exposure. By far the best ele- 
 ment in this early population was the Canadian. In 1702 after 
 England had declared war against France and Spain, the French 
 government ordered the removal of the headquarters of the colony 
 from Biloxi to the Mobile river, where it remained until 1719, when 
 headquarters were again established on the Bay of Biloxi. Priva- 
 tion and sickness, political intrigue and dissension marked the 
 earlier years of the colony. The colonists were repeatedly on the 
 verge of starvation, and were either succored by the neighboring 
 Indians or by the timely arrival of supplies from France. The tire- 
 less Bienville prevailed over his enemies by sheer force of charac- 
 ter, and during the major portion of the period until 1841 ruled the 
 destinies of the colony. Contrary to the expectations of the Cro-\vn, 
 the colony had not proved self-sustaining, but continued year after 
 year to be a heavy charge on the exchequer. This was the chief 
 reason that the rich merchant Crozat, in 1712, was given a practical 
 monopoly over the commerce, navigation and settlement of the 
 whole province of Louisiana for 15 years, the government retaining 
 little more than the prerogative of sovereignty. (See Crozat Grant.) 
 The extraordinarj' powers granted to the Western Company, 
 which succeeded Crozat, were to run for a term of 25 years, and its 
 general plan and organization were not unlike that of the British 
 East Lidia Company. The company owed its inspiration to the 
 celebrated financier John Law, who had established his bank in 
 1716. and now prevailed on the regency of France to adopt his 
 credit plan to free France from her enormoiis burden of debt. The 
 vast potential resources of the Mississippi valley were to be ex- 
 ploited, and were to be an important prop to Law's credit and mon- 
 etary system. Law's system collapsed in 1720, but the j\Iississippi 
 valley had received a tremendous advertisement, and Louisiana had 
 profited greatly in many ways through the activities of the com- 
 pany. Between Oct., 1717, and ilaj', 1721, over 7,000 persons had 
 been sent to the colony in 43 vessels. When the company assumed 
 control of the province in 1717, there were only 700 persons all told 
 in the colony. Large grants of land were made to wealthy men 
 in France, and plantations were opened by them at widely separated 
 points, even as far north as the Arkansas river. As it was obligated 
 to do by its charter, the company had annually sent to the colony 
 from 300 to 500 blacks, who were distributed among the various 
 plantations, and soon formed an important element in the popula- 
 tion. They liad become numerous enough in 1724 to call for special 
 laws, and Gov. Bienville promulgated his famous "Black Code" 
 in that year, which, with few alterations, remained in force for 
 nearly 80 years. The company had wisely reinstated Bienville as 
 governor and commandant in 1717, and his influence was sufficient 
 to bring about the establishment of the capital of the province on 
 the banks of the ^Mississippi at New Orleans in 1722. Bienville 
 ever urged the cultivation of the soil as the only true basis of pros- 
 perity for the colony, and the fertile banks of" the Mississippi had
 
 LOUISIANA 451 
 
 long been favored by him and his adherents as the proper place for 
 the chief establishment. Though Law's failure had checked col- 
 onization and greatly retarded improvements on the concessions, 
 still the company persisted in its plans, and colonists continued to 
 arrive, the bulk of whom settled on the Mississippi after the found- 
 ing of New Orleans. 
 
 The Royal Indian Company, which succeeded to the rights of 
 the "Western Company in Louisiana in 1723, sent over most of these 
 new colonists at its own expense. They were largely drawn from 
 the very poor and even the criminal elements of Paris and other 
 cities of France. Ignorant as most of them were of all that per- 
 tained to farming, nevertheless they were brought to labor on the 
 new concessions. Some succumbed to the climate, some returned 
 to France to spread evil reports of conditions on the Mississippi, 
 but enough remained to bring about a slow growth in population. 
 The company also made several shipments of girls designed as 
 wives for the settlers, and many of these, as the so-called "casket 
 girls," liad been carefully reared and came over in charge of nuns, 
 who gave them proper care until such time as husbands were 
 chosen for them. Indigo and tobacco were important staples of 
 the region, the tobacco monopoly enjoyed by the company being 
 alone sufficient to indemnify it for all its expenses, had it properly 
 attended to its cTiltivation and curtailed its expenditures for sal- 
 aries, troops, fortifications, and fruitless expenditures in search of 
 precious metals. Trade and commerce never attained to large pro- 
 portions under the French, and imports were always largely in 
 excess of exports. The colony never became self-sustaining even, 
 but remained dependent for at least part of its supplies on the 
 mother country and the surplus agricultural products of the upper 
 river country. The fur trade down the Mississippi early attained 
 to considerable proportions, one large shipment being made in 
 1705, when the French voyageurs in the Indian country around the 
 "Wabash collected from the several hunting posts in that region 
 some 10,000 deer and 5,000 bear skins, and sent them down the 
 Ohio and Mississippi, mostly in open boats. "When these early 
 merchants arrived at the mouth of the Bayou Manchac, they pro- 
 ceeded by the inland passage to Biloxi and Mobile. At the latter 
 point, the cargo was transshipped to France, where it arrived in 
 safety and proved to be profitable to all concerned in the venture. 
 The voyageurs who made the 1,400 mile trip by river and lake, 
 never returned home, but settled in Louisiana. A decade or two 
 later, the pioneer settlers of the Illinois country were sending 
 down the river agricultural and other supplies, as well as products 
 of the chase. In 1731, when Louisiana again became a crown col- 
 ony, the total exports of the valley only amounted to .$62,000, of 
 which 65 per cent were skins shipped from the upper river coun- 
 try. There was little improvement under the French crown, as 
 the estimated export trade of the colony in 1763 was as follows: 
 Indigo, .$100,000 ; deer skins, $80,000 ; lumber, $50,000 ; naval stores,
 
 452 LOUISIANA 
 
 turpentine, etc.. $12,000: rice, peas and beans. $4,000: smuggled 
 trade, $54,000 : total. $304,000. 
 
 Wlien, in 1719, in consequence of the war betM'een France and 
 Spain the pro^-ince also became involved in liostilities. Gov. Bien- 
 ville acted with great energy. He twice captured the town of Pen- 
 sacola, and also sent detachments to hold back the Spaniards from 
 upper Louisiana and along the Kio Grande. Despite his great 
 services, Bienville was charged with extravagance, nepotism, self- 
 seeking, etc., and was superseded by Gov. Perier in 1726. Bienville 
 retired to France to meet his detractors, and did not return to 
 Loiiisiana again until 1734. 
 
 "When John Law"s German settlers on the Arkansas found them- 
 selves deserted by their patron, they came down the river to New 
 Orleans, hoping to obtain a passage back to France. The govern- 
 ment was unable to provide this passage and prevailed upon most 
 of them to remain in the colony. They were granted small tracts 
 of land on both sides of the river, about 30 miles above New Or- 
 leans, at what is known as the German coast, where they settled 
 and engaged in agricultural pursuits, and became the market gar- 
 deners for the capital. This was the origin of the German popula- 
 tion of New Orleans. I\Iost of these Germans became thoroughly 
 Gallicized in course of time, and their descendants today speak 
 the French language, while some of their Teutonic names have 
 been translated into French. Prof. Deiler has written very inter- 
 estingly about them. 
 
 The six years of Perier 's administration of the colony were 
 marked by several important happenings. There were a number 
 of improvements wrought in botli the architectural and social fea- 
 tures of New Orleans. The importation of vagabonds and crim- 
 inals to the colony had already ceased, stringent penalties were 
 placed upon all forms of gambling, and steps were taken for the 
 promotion of education and religion. The city of New Orleans 
 presented a most disorderly and squalid appearance in the begin- 
 ning. The engineer de la Tour, who had been commissioned by 
 Gov. Bienville to lay off the town, had performed his work as well 
 as could be expected. Stakes were driven, lines drawn, streets 
 marked off and named, town lots granted, ditched and palisaded, 
 a rude levee thrown up along the river front, and the scattered 
 settlers of the neighborhood gathered into the form of a town. 
 The plan of the capital comprised a parallelogram of 4.000 feet on 
 the river by a depth of 1,800, and was divided into regular squares 
 of 300 feet, front and depth. Most of the houses, however, were 
 merely board cabins of split cypress, thatched with cypress bark, 
 and scattered confusedly over the swampy ground. (See New 
 Orleans.) 
 
 The well known map of New Orleans, made in Perier 's day, shows 
 the town protected by a levee and laid off in rectangular form, 
 having 11 squares front on the river by a depth of 6 squares. 
 
 Near the close of 1729 the French sustained their greatest dis- 
 aster. Their prosperous posts at the Natchez and the Yazoo were
 
 LOUISIANA 453 
 
 completely destroyed and 250 of the French settlers were 
 massacred. As a result, the colonial authorities inaugurated a 
 number of long and expensive campaigns against the hostile Nat- 
 chez, and their allies the Chickasaws. The Natchez tribe was 
 practically exterminated and lost their tribal identity, their sur- 
 vivors taking refuge among the Chickasaws. There is little doubt 
 that the Indians at this time hoped to exterminate the entire French 
 population of Louisiana, but that disaster was averted by the 
 energy with Avhicli Perier acted, and by the failure of the great 
 tribe of Choctaws to take sides against the French. "When Gov. 
 Bienville returned to the colony in 1734, he signalized the closing 
 years of his administration by two futile campaigns against the 
 Chickasaws. (See Indian Wars.) As a further result of the Nat- 
 chez outbreak the city of New Orleans was provided with a num- 
 ber of defensive works, including a ditch around the entire city, 
 and some forts were also erected on the river below Natchez. The 
 French having incurred the lasting enmity of the warlike tribe 
 of the Chickasaws suffered much in their commerce on the Mis- 
 sissippi by reason of the predatory attacks of that tribe. The 
 Indian troubles involved large expenditures for the defense of the 
 colony, and the India Company in 1731 decided to surrender its 
 charter. Its petition to this etfect was granted by the Crovsm, 
 though the charter still had a life of 11 years, and Louisiana once 
 more became a crown colony. The change was marked by some 
 important administrative changes. The superior council was reor- 
 ganized, Louisiana was detached from the jurisdiction of New 
 France, and the Illinois country though settled by Canadians was 
 made a part of Louisiana. Perier remained in the colony as gov- 
 ernor for a year under the new regime, and was then superseded 
 by the veteran Bienville. The latter again came under the censure 
 of his government in 1741, and on May 10, 1743, was succeeded by 
 the Marquis de Vaudreuil as governor. The new governor was a 
 gentleman and courtier and his administration was filled with 
 grandeur and elegance, fashion, ceremony, and the culture and 
 polish of continental etiquette. The 10 years of his rule, however, 
 brought little real advancement to the colony. The population re- 
 mained practically stationary, while the current expenses continued 
 to increase. The budget for Louisiana which amounted to $59,686 
 in 1742, had increased to $172,191 in 1752, the last year of his ad- 
 ministration. Commerce received a considerable stimulus through 
 the exemption from duties on exports and imports between Lou- 
 isiana and the mother country and between the former and the 
 French West Indies. Agriculture, too, was in a more thriving 
 state; the culture of the sugar-cane was introduced by the Jesuits 
 in 1751, and considerable quantities of such staples as tobacco, 
 indigo, rice, cotton, corn and vegetables were produced. Still the 
 colonists in 1746 were forced to appeal to France for relief from 
 threatened starvation. The English had captured some French 
 vessels loaded with provisions, and a hurricane had destroyed the 
 rice crop, on which the colonists were mainly dependent for bread.
 
 454 LOUISIANA 
 
 Relief came only with the arrival of several convoys of provisions 
 from the Illinois country. France continued her vicious policy of 
 forbidding those crops to be raised in the new settlements which 
 were raised at home. The chief settlements were on the river 
 above New Orleans, and after the great massacre the Natchez dis- 
 trict remained almost depopulated, ilany Indian uprisings oc- 
 curred during these years, and Vaiidreuil even had trouble with the 
 Choctaw nation, the traditional friends of the French. The Chick- 
 asaws continued their marauding operations on the Mississippi, and 
 were also known to have stirred up much of the trouble among the 
 friendly Choctaws. Vaudreuil led an expedition against them in 
 1751, but did not succeed in bringing the tribe into subjection. 
 
 Gov. Vaudreuil was transferred to the government of New 
 France and was succeeded as governor of Louisiana by the veteran 
 sea captain, Kerlerec, who arrived at New Orleans on Feb. 3, 1753. 
 The English were now in the Ohio valley, and were claiming and 
 exercising the right to come to the left bank of the Mississippi. 
 Their agents were active in stirring up trouble among the Indians, 
 and he had hardly settled down to his work of administration 
 when active hostilities broke out between the French and English 
 in the Ohio valley and in Canada. His administration covers the 
 whole period of the Seven Years' war, which cost France the whole 
 of her possessions in America. The dissohite and incapable Louis 
 XV neglected the colony most shamefully, and the brave Kerlerec 
 with the feeble resources at his command could do little to stem the 
 tide of disaster. He was unable always to obtain from home even 
 the necessary supplies with which to bribe the Indians to a con- 
 tinued allegiance. Instead of increasing the military establishment 
 in the colony, the troops were actually reduced in niimber, and 
 with such forces as he had he was expected to guard the line of 
 the Mississippi, and to maintain the province in a state of defense. 
 In 1758 when the British captured Fort Duquesne, the French gar- 
 rison came down the river to New Orleans, where the governor pro- 
 vided barracks for them in the lower part of the to\vn. "When 
 Canada finally fell into the hands of the British after the capture 
 of Quebec and ^Montreal, many Canadians drifted down the river 
 to Louisiana rather than continue under the rule of their con- 
 querors. The records of Louisiana show that about the same time 
 small bands of homeless and heart-broken Acadians. ruthlessly 
 expelled from their northern home in 1755, began to arrive. All 
 these destitute settlers were tenderly cared for by their brethren 
 in Louisiana, and the government gave them lands on Avhich they 
 soon founded new and prosperous homes. "While the Seven Years' 
 war was fought witliout the confines of Louisiana and no hostile 
 forces ever invaded her territory, she was nevertheless made to 
 suffer keenly from the effects of the long struggle. The few 
 French soldiers at Kerlerec 's command were pooi-ly fed and clothed, 
 and the means to pay them were almost entirely wanting. 'Many 
 deserted in consequence and the governor placed his main reli-
 
 LOUISIANA 455 
 
 ance on his Swiss mercenaries, who were held to their duty by the 
 sternest of discipline. The circulating medium of the colony was 
 never in a more wretched state, and the latter years of Kerlerec's 
 administration were much disturbed by the old enmity between 
 governor and commissary which had so often before rent the gov- 
 ernment of the colony in twain. In his quarrel the commissary 
 finally prevailed as he had the ear of the court, and Kerlerec, when 
 he finally returned to Paris in 1763, was cast into the Bastile 
 charged with extravagance and usurpation. The period of his 
 administration also witnessed the famous strife between the Jesuits 
 and Capuchins as to jurisdiction. The campaign was sharp and 
 brilliant, being characterized by "acrimonious writings, squibs, 
 pasquinades and satirical songs," which were posted on the corners 
 of the streets, while the songs enlivened the various coffee-houses. 
 Eventually the Capuchins were left masters of the field, the Jesuits 
 being expelled from all French and Spanish possessions, both in 
 Europe and in the New World. Despite the great services of the 
 Jesuit fathers to Louisiana, all their property including their splen- 
 did plantation above New Orleans, then regarded as one of the 
 very best in the province, was seized and sold at auction. The plan- 
 tation brought the sura of $180,000, a very large sum for those 
 days. 
 
 As an offset to England's primacy on the seas, the Due de Choi- 
 seul concluded his famous Facte de Famille in 1761, which fed- 
 erated the various branches of 'the Bourbon family, which led 
 directly to the international war upon the Jesuits and the secret 
 transfer of Louisiana to Spain by the secret treaty of Fontaine- 
 bleau, concluded on Nov. 3, 1762. 
 
 The transaction ceding away from France this magnificent do- 
 main remained a profound secret to the people of Louisiana until 
 Oct., 1764, when M. d'Abbadie received special notice of it, and 
 was instructed to hand the colony over to Spain whenever the 
 proper representative of that nation should arrive. By the open 
 treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, France ceded to Great Britain all 
 her possessions east of the Mississippi, except the town of New 
 Orleans and the island on which it stands. France had now lost 
 the last vestige of her vast domain in America. England proceeded 
 forthwith to erect the province of West Florida out of the eastern 
 part of that domain, and gradually took possession of the various 
 French posts. At New Orleans, and west of the river the French 
 rule continued for some years longer, only awaiting the arrival of 
 the Spanish envoy. The head of the colonial government was no 
 longer styled governor, but had the title of director-general, and 
 King Louis stated that he only intended to maintain a counting- 
 house with a few companies of soldiers as a guard in Louisiana. 
 D'Abbadie governed the province until his death on Feb. 4, 1765, 
 when he was succeeded by Capt. Aubrey, the senior captain of the 
 troops in Louisiana, who continued in command during the short 
 interval which now elapsed before the formal transfer to Spain.
 
 456 LOUISIANA 
 
 Naturally the grief and indignation of the inhabitants of the colony 
 knew no bounds, when they found themselves suddenly transferred 
 to Spanish domination. But the French government remained deaf 
 to all their prayers and entreaties. The grave and haughty UUoa 
 came in March, 1766, but he Avas accompanied by only a feeble 
 military force, so that his position soon became untenable in the 
 face of the hostile popular sentiment. A majority of the superior 
 council acting in their oflBcial capacity ordered him from the col- 
 onj' and he was forced to depart, smarting under the indignity. 
 The rebellious colonists, however, had only a short breathing spell. 
 Spain was at last thoroughly aroused, and in 1769 Alexander 
 O'Reilly, in command of a large Spanish force, arrived and reduced 
 the province to actual subjection. Some dozen or more of the 
 leading French citizens who had taken a leading part in the expul- 
 sion of Ulloa, and whom O'Reilly was pleased to style rebels and 
 conspirators, were imprisoned, tried and convicted. The death 
 penalty was meted out to five of them, while the others were im- 
 prisoned for various terms. The seditious documents of the supe- 
 rior council Avere burned on the Place d'Armes. (See Superior 
 Council.) 
 
 French Governors. — The following is a list of the French gov- 
 ernors of Loviisiana during the French domination, together with 
 the dates of their administrations : De Sauvolle de la Villantray, 
 May, 1699-Aug. 21, 1701 ; Bienville, Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, Aug. 
 21, 1701-March 17, 1713 (during the period of the Crozat regime, 
 and for several months after the formation of the "Western Com- 
 pany Bienville acted either as lieutenant-governor, or as acting 
 governor, and again became governor in l71S) ; De Muys was 
 appointed governor by Crozat to succeed Bienville in 1712, but 
 never reached his destination, dying while en route; Cadillac, An- 
 toine de la Motte, March 17, 1713-March 9, 1717; L'Epinay, March 
 9, 1717-February, 1718; Bienville, March, 1718-172"5; Boisbriant, 
 Sieur de, acting governor, 1725-Oct., 1726; Perier, M. de, Oct., 
 1726-1733; Bienville, 1733-May 10, 1743; Vaudreuil, Marquis de. 
 May 10, 1743-Feb. 9, 1753 ; Kerlerec, Louis Billouart, Feb. 9, 1753- 
 June 29, 1763; D'Abbadie (under the title of director and com- 
 mandant), June 29, 1763-Feb. 4, 1765; Aubry, Feb. 4, 1765, to Aug., 
 1769, acting \inder Ulloa from 1766 to 1768, and until the arrival 
 of O'Reilly in 1769. 
 
 French Settlement, a money order post-village, in the southern 
 part of Livingston parish, is situated on the Amite river, about 10 
 miles northeast of Brittany, the nearest railroad station. It is an 
 old town, liaving been settled during the early part of the 18th 
 century. Today it is a trading center for a large district, and has 
 a population of 200. 
 
 Frenier, a village situated in the eastern part of St. John the 
 Baptist parish, is on the west shore of Lake Pontchartrain and the 
 Illinois Central R. R., about 25 miles northwest of New Orleans.
 
 LOUISIANA 457 
 
 It has a mouey order postoffice, express ofSce, telegraph and tele- 
 phone facilities. 
 
 Pricke, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Washington 
 parish, is about 5 miles southwest of Franklinton, the parish seat 
 and nearest railroad town. 
 
 Friendship, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Bienville 
 parish, is situated on Brush creek about 4 miles west of Danville, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Frierson, a village in the northeastern part of DeSoto parish, 
 is a station on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 4 miles south 
 of Wallace lake and 15 miles north of Mansfield, the parish seat. 
 It has a money order postofSce, express ofBce and telegraph sta- 
 tion, and a population of 200. 
 
 Frogmore, a village in the northern part of Concordia parish, 
 is on Bayou Cocodrie and the Natchez & Western R. R., about 15 
 miles west of VidaUa, the parish seat. 
 
 Fromentin, Eligius, U. S. s^nato^ from Louisiana, was born in 
 France. He received a classical education; studied law; was ad- 
 mitted to the bar and practiced at New Orleans. In 1813 he was 
 elected U. S. senator from Louisiana and served from May 24, 
 1813, to March 3, 1819. He was appointed .iudge of the criminal 
 court of New Orleans in 1821, and U. S. district judge for the 
 district of Florida in Jan., 1822, but soon resigned to resume the 
 practice of law at New Orleans. He and his wife contracted 
 yellow fever, of which both died within 24 hours at New Orleans, 
 Oct. 6, 1822. During his life he published. Observations on a Bill 
 respecting Land Titles in Orleans. 
 
 Frozard, a post-hamlet in the southern part of St. Landry parish, 
 is about 4 miles east of Sunset, the nearest railroad station, and 10 
 miles southeast of Opelousas, the parish seat. 
 
 Pulford, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Jackson parish, 5 
 miles southeast of Nash, the most convenient railroad station, and 
 12 miles southeast of Vernon, the parish seat. 
 
 Fullerton, a town of Vernon parish, is located aboiit 15 miles 
 east of Leesville, the parish seat, in a lumber district, and is the 
 terminus of a short line of railway called the Gulf & Sabine River 
 R. R., which connects with the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe at Ni- 
 tram. Population 1,238. 
 
 Fulton, Robert, civil engineer and inventor, was born at Little 
 Britain, Pa., in 1765. At the age of 17 years he went to Philadel- 
 phia and began his career as a portrait and landscape painter, in 
 which he succeeded well enough to buy a small farm in Washing- 
 ton county, Pa., upon which he settled his mother and then went 
 to England to study painting under Benjamin West. After being 
 in England a short time he gave up art for civil engineering, 
 formed the acquaintance of James Watt, the inventor of the steam 
 engine, and vainly tried to interest certain Englishmen in steam 
 navigation. He then went to Paris, where in 1801 he met Robert 
 R. Livingston, the United States ambassador to France, to whom
 
 458 LOUISIANA 
 
 he explained his plans for the construction of a vessel to be pro- 
 pelled by steam. i\lr. Livingston agreed to furnish the funds, and 
 in 1802 the first experiments were conducted at Plombieres on the 
 Seine. The following year Livingston secured from the New York 
 legislature the exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of that 
 state by steam, and on Aug. 11-12, 1807, the ''Clermont," the first 
 steamboat on the Hudson river, made the passage from New York 
 to Albany in 32 hours. In 1811 Livingston and Fulton obtained 
 from the legislature of Louisiana an exclusive right to operate 
 steamboats on the navigable waters of that state. (See the articles 
 on Livingston. Robert R., and Steamboats.) Mr. Fulton died in 
 New York city on Feb. 24, 1815. 
 
 Funston, a post-village in the western part of DeSoto parish, is 
 a station on the Houston & Shreveport R. R., about 8 miles north- 
 east of Logansport, and 12 miles west of Mansfield, the parish seat. 
 
 Gaars Mills, a post-village and station in the northern part of 
 Winn parish, is on the Tremont & Gulf R. R., 12 miles northeast of 
 Winnfield, the parish seat. It is located in a pine district, has 
 lumber industries and in 1900 had a population of 60. 
 
 Gahagan, a village in the western part of Red River parish, is 
 situated on the Red river and the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 5 
 miles west of Coushatta, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, 
 and is the su-pply and shipping point for a large area of the Red 
 river farming lands. 
 
 Gaines, Myra Clark, who became famous throughout the country 
 b.v her legal contests, was born in New Orleans in 1805, a daughter 
 of Daniel Clark and a young Frenchwoman to whom he was se- 
 cretly married in 1803. the ceremony having been solemnized by a 
 Catholic priest in Philadelphia, Pa. Her father made a will in 
 1813. in which he acknowledged the legitimacy of his daughter 
 and left her all his property. In 1832 Myra was' married to AV. "\V. 
 Whitney of New York, and after his death to Gen. Edmund P. 
 Gaines, the second marriage taking place in 1839. Later she filed 
 a bill in equity to recover certain real estate then in possession of 
 the city of New Orleans, the value of which was estimated at over 
 $30,000,000. A decision was rendered in her favor in 1867 and 
 during the next decade she obtained .$6,000,000 through the courts. 
 Her father's will had disappeared and could not be found, but upon 
 hearsay evidence it was admitted to probate and subsequently 
 Mrs. Gaines obtained several judgments, each of which was ap- 
 pealed to higher courts for adjudication. The will was ultimately 
 sustained by the courts, but the final decision was not rendered 
 until some years after the death of Mrs. Gaines, which occurred in 
 New Orleans on Jan. 9, 1885.
 
 LOUISIANA 459 
 
 Galbraith is a postoffice of Natchitoches parish. 
 
 Gallion is a village in the central part of Morehouse parish, is 
 a station on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R., about 
 6 miles north of Mer Rouge. It has a money order postoffice, ex- 
 press office and telegraph station. 
 
 Galloway is a post-hamlet in the northern part of St. Tammany 
 parish, is about 8 miles northwest of Thomasville, the nearest rail- 
 road station, and 12 miles north of Covington, the parish seat. 
 
 Galvez. — (See Galveztown.) 
 
 Galvez, Bernardo de, fourth Spanish governor of Louisiana, was 
 born at Malaga, Spain, in 1748. His father, Don Mathias de Galvez, 
 was appointed captain-general of Guatamala in 1781 and about two 
 years later became viceroy of Mexico. An uncle, Don Josef de 
 Galvez, was a great favorite of Charles III, who appointed him 
 secretary of state and president of the council of the Indies, a posi- 
 tion which conferred on him a power only a little less than that of 
 the king's. At the age of 16 years, Bernardo was made a cadet in 
 the "Walloon guards, and during the next three years served in 
 Prance as a subaltern in the regiment of Cantabria. In 1775 he 
 was with Gen. O'Reilly in the unsuccessful expedition against 
 Algiers, where he won the rank of brigadier. The following year 
 he came to Louisiana, was made colonel of the regiment of Lou- 
 isiana and appointed second in command of the provincial forces. 
 Through the influence of his uncle, he was appointed provisional 
 governor of Louisiana to succeed Gov. Unzaga, beginning his 
 duties on Feb. 1, 1777, when 29 years of age. On April 17 he issued 
 a proclamation permitting the inhabitants of the colony to trade 
 with the United States, and three days later another proclamation 
 gave the liberty to export their products to any port of France. 
 He reduced the duty about one-half and during his administration 
 the trade of the province, which had been previously controlled by 
 the English, was largely diverted into French and American chan- 
 nels. The greatest achievement of Gov. Galvez was the conquest 
 of West Florida. (See Spanish Conquest.) After the Revolu- 
 tionary war he recommended free trade for Louisiana with all the 
 ports of Europe and America, but the proposition was too liberal 
 for the Spanish ministry to accept. Early in 1785 he was appointed 
 captain-general of Cuba, Louisiana and the Floridas, and iipon the 
 death of his father was made viceroy of Mexico. He died at Tacu- 
 baya on Nov. 30, 1786, aged 38. Gayarre describes Galvez as hav- 
 ing "that nobleness of mien, that gracefulness of manner, that dig- 
 nified and at the same time easy affability for high and low, which, 
 in persons of his rank, never fail to win the heart," and M. de 
 Pontalba wrote: "He was distinguished for the affability of his 
 manners, the sweetness of his temper, the frankness of his char- 
 acter, the kindness of his heart and his love of justice." Gov. 
 Galvez married a Miss Maxent, a native of Louisiana and sister 
 to the wife of Gov. Unzaga, a woman of great beauty, Avhose char- 
 ity and intelligence added to her husband's popularity.
 
 460 LOUISIANA 
 
 Galveztown. — In the year 1778 the king of Spain, at his own 
 expense, sent several families from the Canary islands to Louisiana. 
 Some of them, under the leadership of St. Maxent, located on the 
 high ground near the junction of the Amite and Manchac rivers, 
 about 24 miles from Baton Eouge, where thej' formed a settlement, 
 upon which they conferred the name of Galveztown, in honor of 
 Bernardo de Galvez, at that time governor of Louisiana, as it was 
 under his administration they had found a refuge in the New 
 World. Ten years later, according to De Bow's Review, the town 
 'had a population of 256. The site of the ancient village is now 
 occupied by tlie little hamlet of Galvez, in Ascension parish. 
 
 Game Laws. — The legislature of 1906 passed stringent laws for 
 the protection of fish, deer, fur-bearing animals and birds. By the 
 provisions of these acts fish and deer were declared to be the prop- 
 erty of the state ; no black bass or green trout could be caught be- 
 tween Feb. 1 and May 15 of each year; striped bass or bar fish 
 were to be protected from Dec. 1 to March 1 ; and buffalo fish and 
 catfish (except the spoonbill variety) from jMarch 1 to May 1. 
 No bass were to be taken at any time except with the rod and line, 
 and all fish of this species mider 4 inches in length were to be re- 
 turned to the water. Dynamite and other explosives, drugs and 
 sawdust were strictly prohibited, as well as the method known as 
 "striking" at night, and no seining was to be done except upon 
 written permission of the board of commissioners for the protection 
 of birds, game and fish. Officials were authorized to confiscate any 
 seines, nets, etc., used without such permission. Deer could not 
 be trapped or snared, hunted at night, nor killed on high grounds 
 where they might congregate in time of flood, and does and fawns 
 were not to be killed in any manner at any time. The open or 
 hunting season was fixed at seven months in each year, the parish 
 police juries to fix the closed season, provided that north of the 
 line of 31° no deer were to be killed during the months of May, 
 June, July and August. No one was to be permitted to kill more 
 than 2 deer in any one day, and not more than 6 during any one 
 season. Fur-bearing animals were not to be cai;ght nor killed 
 from March 1 to Nov. 15 each year. All wild birds, other than 
 game birds, were declared to be the property of the state. Game 
 birds were defined as follows: Geese, brant, wild and wood ducks, 
 rails, coots, gallinules, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, quail, curlew, 
 sand-hill cranes, tattlers, plover, wild turkey, imported and grouse 
 pheasants, prairie chickens, doves, and ortolans or cedar birds. 
 All other species of wild, resident and migratory birds were to be 
 considered as non-game birds, entitled to the protection of the 
 state at all times, with the exception of certain varieties of the 
 hawk, the great horned owl, the English sparrow, kingfishers, nest- 
 ing in levees, and birds, such as the crow and blackbird, destructive 
 to crops, but none of these non-game birds thus vanprotected could 
 be offered for sale. The nests and eggs of birds were also to be 
 protected, and islands for breeding purposes were to be posted for
 
 LOUISIANA 461 
 
 protection. It was made unlawful to sell or offer for sale the 
 plumage of protected birds, and common carriers were prohibited 
 from transporting birds or game in violation of the provisions of 
 the act. Agents of such common carriers to be fined $10 to $25 for 
 each deer, and from $1 to $5 for each fish or bird. Birds were not 
 to be trapped at any time under a penalty of from $5 to $10 fine, 
 to which might be added imprisonment from 5 to 10 days. Any 
 one convicted of killing birds or taking eggs for other than scien- 
 tific purposes was subject to a fine of from $50 to $100, or impris- 
 onment from 10 to 30 days. Ornithologists could procure certifi- 
 cates upon payment of a fee of $1 that would entitle them to pursue 
 their investigations. Non-resident hunters were required to pay a 
 license fee of $10 in each parish where they proposed to hunt, and 
 professional hunters — that is those who hunt for profit— were 
 strictlj' forbidden to follow such occupation in Louisiana under a 
 penalty of from $50 to $100 fine for each conviction. 
 
 To encourage in the young people of the state a proper respect 
 for law, and to teach tliem to foster the protection of birds, an act 
 was passed on July 12, 1906, designating May 5, the anniversary 
 of the birth of John J. Audubon, as "Bird Day." The state and 
 parish boards of public education were directed to provide for the 
 celebration of the day in all the public schools of the state by suit- 
 able ceremonies. 
 
 Gansville, a money order post-village in the northern part of 
 Winn parish, is about 2 miles southwest of Wyatt, the nearest rail- 
 road station, and 15 miles north of Winnfield, the parish seat. It 
 has sawmills and other lumber industries. 
 
 Garay, Francisco de, Spanish governor of Jamaica in 1519, was 
 a man of wealtli, ambition, and prestige at the court of Spain. Ac- 
 tuated by the reports of Cordova and Grijalva, who brought back 
 from Mexico on their voyages to that country gold to the amount 
 of .$35,000 or $40,000, he fitted out an expedition in 1519 and sent 
 it under command of Alfonso Alvarez de Pineda to explore the 
 coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Florida westward. In the let- 
 ters patent issued to Garay is the following account of the voyage: 
 "Francisco de Garay appeared and said that with the authoriza- 
 tion of His Majesty, and at his own cost, he sent four ships to dis- 
 cover new countries for the service of the Crown; which were 
 found and discovered by the grace of God our Lord, who showed 
 the way. Nor was a landing effected in any land or part already 
 found or disclosed by any one else at the time. This was from Rio 
 del Espiritu Banto over a great extent of country, further below 
 in the direction of the north (sic) towards the river called San 
 Pedro e San Pablo, where the ships arrived." There is little doubt 
 that the Spaniards constituting Garay 's expedition were the first 
 white men to explore the coast of what is now the State of Louisi- 
 ana, as well as the coast to the southwest nearly to Vera Cruz. 
 Navarette, who published about 1840 a "Collection of the Voj'- 
 ages and Discoveries made by the Spaniards since the close of the 
 Fifteenth Century," says of Piueda's voyage: "They sailed eight
 
 462 LOUISIANA 
 
 or niue mouths * • * and followed the coast towards the west, 
 examiniug carefully the country, harbours, rivers, inhabitants, and 
 all that which deserved to be noted on the said coast, * * * 
 until they met with Hernando Cortez and the Spaniards who were 
 in the same locality * * * They then turned back with the 
 said ships, and entered a river which was found to be very large 
 and deep, at the mouth of which they said they found an extensi'v'e 
 to-\vn, where they remained forty days and careened their vessels. 
 The natives treated our men in a friendly manner, trading with 
 them, and giving what they possessed. The Spaniards ascended a 
 distance of six leagues up the river, and saw on its banks right and 
 left, forty villages." 
 
 From the reports made by Pineda and his associates, Garay pre- 
 pared a map, Avhich was published about 1521, and which shows a 
 fairly accurate outline of the Gulf coast. The only river named 
 -on the map is the Rio del Espiritu Santo — a name afterward given 
 by the Spaniards to the Mississippi — and this fact, coupled with 
 the statement of Navarette that they "entered a river which was 
 found to be very large and deep," has led some writers to advance 
 the theory that Pineda was the discoverer of the Mississippi. The 
 map, however, shows the mouth of the Rio del Espiritu Santo by 
 a slight indentation only, just as the mouths of other rivers are 
 shown, and the statement of Navarette does not positively iden- 
 tify it as the river entered by the expedition. W. B. Scaife, in his 
 "America, its Geographical History," and P. J. Hamilton, in his 
 "Colonial IMobile," appear to have established the fact that the 
 Rio del Espii-itu Santo of Pineda is the Mobile river. 
 
 Garden City, a post-village in the central part of St. Mary parish, 
 is situated on the Bayou Teche and the Soutliern Pacific R. R., 
 about 3 miles southeast of Franklin, the parish seat, in the rich 
 sizgar belt and has sugar industries, an express ofSce and telegraph 
 station. Population 250. 
 
 Gardner, Franklin, soldier, Avas born in 1823. His family moved 
 west when he was quite young, and at the age of 16 years he was 
 appointed to the U. S. military academy from Iowa. After gradu- 
 ating in 1843 he was promoted to brevet second-lieutenant of the 
 7th infantry and served in garrisons at Peusacola harbor and on 
 the frontier, in the military occupation of Texas, and in the war 
 with Mexico. He took part in the defense of Fort Brown, the 
 battle of ]\Ionterey, where lie was promoted to first-lieuteuant for 
 gallantry in action, the siege of Vera Cruz, the battle of Cerro 
 Gordo, where he was l)revetted captain, Contreras, Churul)usco, 
 Molino del Rey and the capture of the city of Mexico. After peace 
 was declared, he served at various frontier posts in the south and 
 west._ At the time of the outbreak of the Civil war he was cap- 
 tain in the 10th infantry, which was stationed in Utah. He had 
 spent a great part of his army life among the Southern people, 
 with whom lie was in sympathy, and with many other army officers 
 he resigned his commission in the U. S. army on March 16, 1861, 
 and entered that of the Confederacy, with the rank of lieutenant-
 
 LOUISIANA i63 
 
 colonel of infantry. His sei'vices during that year were confined to 
 Tennessee and J\Iississippi. He was commissioned brigadier-gen- 
 eral a few days before the battle of Shiloh, where he commanded 
 a brigade of cavalry. A short time after the battle Gen. Beaure- 
 gard expressed his appreciation of Gen. Gardner in the following 
 language: "The general commanding avails himself of this occa- 
 sion to return thanks to Gen. Gardner for his service in the reor- 
 ganization of the cavalry of this army." Gen. Gardner was soon 
 appointed to the command of a brigade in Polk's corps and shared 
 in the battles of the Kenti;cky campaign. On Dec. 13, 1862, he 
 received the commission of major-general in the army of the Con- 
 federate States. Early the following year he was placed in com- 
 mand of Port Hudson and conducted its defense, until its sur- 
 render. He was soon exchanged and assigned to duty in Missis- 
 sippi, and after the close of thfi war lived near Vermilionville, La., 
 on a plantation, where he died on April 29, 1873. 
 
 Garland, a village in the central part of St. Landry parish, is 
 situated on the Southern Pacific R. R. about 12 miles north of Ope- 
 lousas, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffiee, and is a 
 trading and shipping point of some importance. 
 
 Gaxland, Rice, jurist, was a native of Virginia. He received an 
 academic education, studied law and was admitted to the bar. He 
 began practice at Opelousas, La. ; was elected a representative from 
 Louisiana to the 23d Congress as a Whig, in place of Henry A. Bul- 
 lard, resigned; was reelected to the 24th, 25th and 26th Congresses, 
 serving from April 28, 1834, to July 21, 1840, when he resigned to 
 accept the appointment of judge of the supreme court of Louisiana. 
 
 Garnishment. — In cases of attachment, if the creditor knows or 
 suspects that a third person has in his possession property belong- 
 ing to his debtor, or that he is indebted to his debtor, he may make 
 such person a party to the suit, by having him cited to declare on 
 oath what property belonging to the defendant he has in his posses- 
 sion, or in what sum he is indebted to such defendant, even when 
 the term of payment has not yet arrived. Where the plaintiff has 
 already recovered judgment, and applies for a writ of fieri facias 
 against the defendant, if he has reason to believe that a third person 
 has property or effects in his possession, or under his control, belong- 
 ing to the defendant, or is indebted to him. he may cause such third 
 person to be cited to answer, under oath, such interrogatories as may 
 be propounded to him touching the said property and effects or such 
 indebtedness. After proceedings the garnishee may be condemned to 
 deliver up such property as may be found in his hands belonging to 
 the defendant, or to pay such amount as he may be indebted to him, 
 to a sufficient sum to satisfy plaintiff's claims. 
 
 Garyville, a village in the central part of St. John the Baptist 
 parish, is a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Naviga- 
 tion company and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. It has an 
 international money order postoffiee, express office, telegraph station 
 and telephone facilities, and being located in one of the richest par-
 
 464 LOUISIANA 
 
 ishes in the state, is a shipping point for large quantities of vegetables 
 auA fruit to the New Orleans market. Population 850. 
 
 Gassier, a post-village in the northern part of Acadia parish, is 
 situated on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 15 miles northwest of 
 Crowlev, the parish seat. It is in one of the largest rice districts of 
 the state, has a rice mill, express ofiSce, telegraph station and tele- 
 phone facilities. 
 
 Gates, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Livingston par- 
 ish, is situated near Colyell creek, about 12 miles northeast of "Wit- 
 ten, the nearest railroad station, and the same distance southwest of 
 Spring\ille, the parish seat. 
 
 Gay, Edward J., financier and member of Congress. Avas born 
 at Liberty. Bedford county, Ya.. Feb. 3, 1816. His family removed 
 to Illinois in 1820. and 4 years later to St. Louis. !Mo. For several 
 years he studied under a private teacher in Bellville. 111. ; attended 
 Augusta college in Kentueln- in 1833-34: returned to St. Louis, and 
 was engaged in commercial affairs from 1838 to 1860. From St. Louis 
 he removed to Louisiana, where he became interested in manufactur- 
 ing aud planting : was prominently connected with the erection of the 
 merchants' exchange building at St. Louis, and first president of the 
 Louisiana sugar exchange of New Orleans. In 1884 he was elected 
 to the 49th Congress as a Democrat, and re-elected to the 50th and 
 51st Congresses. He died on May 30. 1890. 
 
 Gayarre, Charles Etienne Arthur, lawyer, legislator and historian, 
 was born in New Orleans. Jan. 9. 1805. of distinguished Spanish and 
 French ancestry. Don Estevau Gayarre came to Louisiana with 
 t^lloa in 1766 as royal comptroller and commissary. "When Ulloa was 
 expelled from the colony Don Estevau and his young son. Juan An- 
 tonio, remained, and the latter distinguished himself in the cam- 
 paigns of 1779-80 under Gov. Galvez. after which he was appointed 
 eoutador real at Acapulco. whei*e he died. His widow and her three 
 sons returned to New Orleans, where one son. Carlos, married the 
 youngest daughter of Etienne de Bore (q. v.). and this couple became 
 the parents of the historian. In 1825 Charles Gayarre graduated at the 
 College of Orleans, and though but 20 years of age he opposed so 
 vigorousl.v some of the provisions of the criminal code prepared for 
 the state by Edward Livingston that the code was not adopted. He 
 then went to Philadelphia, Pa., whre he studied law with William 
 Rawle. a celebrated jurist, and in 1828 was admitted to the Pennsyl- 
 vania bar. The following year he was admitted to practice in Louisi- 
 ana and opened an office in New Orleans. In 1830 he was elected to 
 the lower house of the state legislature and was one of the committee 
 appointed by that bod.v to prepare an address to the French people 
 on the revolution of July, 1830. Upon the expiration of his term in 
 the legislature he was appointed attorne.v-geuei-al. and in 1833 was 
 made presiding judge of the city court of New Orleans. On Jan. 12, 
 1835, when only three days beyond the age limit required by the con- 
 stitution, he was elected to the United States senate, but on account 
 of ill health did not take his seat. About this time he went to France 
 for medical treatment and remained in Europe until 1843. In 1844
 
 LOUISIANA 465 
 
 and again in 1846 he was elected to the legislature, and in the latter 
 year was also appointed secretary of state by Gov. Isaac Johnson, 
 holding that ofHce until 1850. "While abroad he had access to archives, 
 public and private, and secured copies of important documents bear- 
 ing on the history of Louisiana. Through the influence of Gov. Mou- 
 ton, supplemented by his own energetic efforts, the legislature appro- 
 priated .$1,000 for the purchase of two large volumes of documents, 
 "now heirlooms of the Louisiana Historical society, which he was 
 instrumental in reviving." It was during his stay in France that he 
 commenced the work of writing his "Histoire de la Louisiane," giv- 
 ing an account of the province under French domination, the first 
 volume of which appeared in 1846 and the second in 1847. It was 
 originally written in French, in order to preserve the exact text of the 
 official documents above mentioned. In 1847 the legislature made 
 an appropriation of .$2,000 for the purchase of Spanish documents, 
 and in 1854 Mr. Gayarre's volume on the Spanish Domination was 
 published. The volume relating to the American Domination was 
 completed during the Civil war, but was not published until 1866. 
 In 1853 his name was considered for the appointment of minister to 
 Spain, but the choice of President Pierce finally fell upon Pierre 
 Soule, though Mr. Gayarre for several years afterward contemplated 
 making a visit to that country in the interest of his historical re- 
 search. The National Cyclopedia of American Biography says: "It 
 was unfortunate for his own interests, and for those of literature, that 
 his plan of going to Spain for some years was frustrated by the out- 
 break of 1861. He might have preserved his handsome fortune, which 
 was lost in the war, and he would have added much to the sum of 
 available human knowledge." After the war Mr. Gayarre published 
 "Doctor Bluff," a comedy; "Philip II. of Spain;" "Fernando de 
 Lemos, or Truth and Fiction;" and its sequel "Aubert Dubayet, or 
 The Two Sister Republics;" besides numerous contributions to re- 
 views, magazines, etc. One of the most noted of these articles was 
 that upon "The Southern Question," which was published in the 
 North American Review in 1877, and about the same time he again 
 took an, active part in the reorganization of the Historical society of 
 which he became the president. 
 
 Mr. Gayarre has been called "The Historian of Louisiana." It 
 was to that work he gave the better part of his life, and his historical 
 works will stand as a more enduring monument than any that could 
 be erected of brick or stone. The greater part of his childhood was 
 passed on the plantation of his grandfather, Etienne de Bore, 6 miles 
 above New Orleans, and his recollections of those pleasant days have 
 been charmingly preserved in his "A Louisiana Plantation under the 
 Old Regime." He died on Feb. 11, 1895, and was buried from the 
 old cathedral in which he had been christened by Father Antonio 
 Sedella 90 years before. 
 
 Gayle, a post-village in the extreme southeastern part of Caddo 
 parish is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 12 miles south- 
 east of Shreveport, the parish seat. It has an express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone facilities and some retail trade. 
 1—30
 
 466 LOUISIANA 
 
 Gayoso de Lemos. Don Manuel (commonly called Gayoso), sev- 
 euth Spanish governor of Lonisiana. was born in Spain about 1752. 
 In July, 1792, being then lieutenant-colonel of the regiment of Louisi- 
 ana, he was appointed governor and commandant of the Natchez dis- 
 trict, which position he held for about five years, during which time he 
 made treaties with several Indian tribes. He was the agent of Gov. 
 Cai'ondelet in the negotiations with Wilkinson, Innis and others, to 
 secure the secession of the western country from the United States, and 
 was one of the commissioners to settle the matter concerning the 
 delivery of the posts in the territory ceded to the United States by the 
 treaty of 1795. On June 14, 1797, he issued a proclamation to the peo- 
 ple of his district, iirging them to quietly and peaceably submit to the 
 authority of His Catholic Majesty until the question of delivery was 
 settled, while at the same time he was delaying the settlement by 
 every possible means and trying to reinforce his garrisons. Soon after 
 this he was forced to make concessions, which were ratified by Caron- 
 delet. whom he succeeded on Aug. 1, as governor-general of Louisiana 
 and West Florida. Immediately upon his being inducted into the 
 ofBee he i.s.sued his Bando debuen Gobierno, though it contained noth- 
 ing worthy of special notice, and soon afterward he sent to the com- 
 mandants of the various posts a long list of instructions concerning 
 land grants. Early in the year 1799 a misunderstanding arose be- 
 tween Gayoso and Morales, the intendent, and on the last day of Janu- 
 ary the latter wrote to his government, complaining of the governor's 
 temper, his mode of thinking, and his extravagance. Again on March 
 31 he wrote, charging Gayoso ^"ith illegally assuming powei-s that 
 rightfully belonged to the intendant. The misunderstanding grew 
 Tintil it was ended by the death of Gayoso on July 18, 1799. Morales 
 reported his death as due to a "malignant fever, of the nature of those 
 which prevail in this country during the summer, and the dangerous 
 character of which was known only a few lioui-s before it tenninated 
 fatally," and added, "The general had no time to lose in fulfilling the 
 last duties of a Christian, and making his testamentarj^ dispositions, 
 and joining with me in a reciprocal pardon for our fallings-out." 
 
 Andrew Ellicott. the American commissioner to receive the surren- 
 der of the posts in the ceded territoiy, says in his journal: "As the 
 governor of an arbitrary monarch, he (Gayoso) was certainly entitled 
 to great merit. It appeared, in an eminent degree, to be his pride to 
 render the situation of those over whom he was appointed to preside 
 as easy and comfortable as possible; and in a particular manner he 
 directed his attention to the improvement of the country by opening 
 roads, which he considered tlie arteries of commerce. He was edu- 
 cated in Great Britain, and retained to a considerable degi'ee, until 
 his death, the manners and customs of that nation, especially in his 
 style of living. In his conversation he was eas}' and affable, and his 
 politeness was of that superior cast which showed it to be the effect 
 of early habit, rather than an accomplishment merely intended to 
 render him agreeable. His pa.ssions were naturally so strong, and his 
 temper so remarkably qnick, that they sometimes hurried him into 
 difficulties from which he was not easily extricated. It was frequently
 
 LOUISIANA 467 
 
 remarked of him that he was neither concerned in traffic, nor in the 
 habit of accepting douceurs, which was too often the case with other 
 -officers of His Catholic Majesty in Louisiana. He was fond of show 
 and parade, in which he indulged to the great injury of his fortune, 
 and not a little to his reputation as a good paymaster." 
 
 Gayoso, following the example of Unzaga, Galvez and Miro, mar- 
 ried a native of Louisiana, a Miss Watts, of New Orleans. While, 
 governor of the Natchez district he founded the town of "Natchez on 
 the hill," the land being purchased and the town laid off under his 
 personal direction. About 2 miles from the fort he built a mansion 
 on his plantation, known as "Concord," much of the material for the 
 house l)eing imported from Spain. This building remained standing 
 until 1900, when it was destroyed by tire. 
 
 Geismar, a village in the western part of Ascension parish, is on 
 the east bank of the Mississippi river, and is a station on the main 
 line of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities. 
 
 Genesee, a post-village in the southern part of Tangipahoa par- 
 ish, is situated at the junction of the Illinois Central and the New 
 ■ Orleans, Natalbany & Natchez railroads, aibout 10 miles south of 
 Amite, the parish seat. Poulation 500. 
 
 Genet, Edmond Charles, a French diplomatist, better known in 
 America as "Citizen" Genet, was born at Versailles about 1765. His 
 real name was Genest, and he was a brother of Madame Campan, 
 teacher of the three daughters of Louis XV. In Dec, 1793, he was 
 appointed envoy to the United States by the revolutionary govern- 
 ment of France and arrived in Philadelphia the following spring. 
 In the treaty of alliance with the king of France in Feb., 1778, the 
 United States had pledged help to him in the defense of his West 
 India possessions. Genet was received with enthusiasm by the people 
 and soon claimed the assistance of the United States under the treaty. 
 But the royal government, with which the treaty had been made, had 
 been overthrown. The French republic was waging a war of aggres- 
 sion rather than one of defense. Under these circumstances Washing- 
 ton and his advisers decided the treaty was not binding, and a procla- 
 mation of neutrality was issued. Larned says: "The friendliness of 
 Jefferson's party to France was so warm that neutrality became hard 
 to preserve. Genet, misled by the enthusiasm of the welcome they 
 gave him, imagined that the American people would overrule their 
 government and allow him to push them into war." About 150 citi- 
 zens of Louisiana had petitioned the French republic to take Louisi- 
 ana imder its protection. This, with the fact that the western people 
 were dissatisfied with the attitude of Spain regarding the naviga- 
 tion of the Mississippi river, led Genet to entertain the old dream of 
 Gov. Miro of separating Kentucky and Tennessee from the rest of the 
 United States, and for that purpose sent agents among the inhabitants 
 of that section to point out the advantages that would accrue to them 
 by helping him to invade Louisiana, overthrow the Spanish authority 
 there, and form an alliance with her under the protectorate of France. 
 Chief among these agents was Auguste La Chaise, a native of Louisi-
 
 468 LOUISIANA 
 
 ana. whose grandfather had come to the colony in 1723 as royal treas- 
 urer. In Greorgia Gen. Elijah Clarke gathered together a considerable 
 force, including a large number of Creek Indians, to aid Genet in 
 his undertaking. But Kentucky- had already been admitted into the 
 Union as a state. Tennessee was looking forward to admission, 
 and Grenefs agents did not meet with the hearty response he had 
 anticipated. Gov. Carondelet was prompt in strengthening his forti- 
 fications and mustering and organizing his forces; the governor of 
 Georgia issued his proclamation against the unlawful enterprise of 
 Clarke; the determined interference of President "Washington pre- 
 vented any demonstration on the part of the Kentuckians and Tennes- 
 seeans; and all these forces working together checked the intrigues 
 of Genet, whose conduct, in violation of the proclamation of neutral- 
 ity, became so intolerable that the government of the United States 
 was forced to demand his recall. 
 
 Geological Survey. — The published reports and observations relat- 
 ing to the geology of Louisiana may be divided into three periods. 1 — 
 From the beginning of the 18th century to the acquisition of the 
 pro\'ince by the United States. 2 — From the time of that acquisition 
 to the year 1892. 3— From 1892 to the present time. As early as 
 1722 Father Charlevoix, in making a map of the mouths of the Mis- 
 sissippi river, noticed that "the quantity- of shoals and little islands 
 that have been seen to form in the various mouths of the river during 
 the past 20 years leave no doubt as to the manner and comparatively 
 recent date of the formation of the lower delta region. ' ' Four years 
 later Coxe mentioned certain "springs, pitts and lakes which afford 
 a most excellent common salt. ' ' Du Pratz knew of ' ' rock deposits out 
 of which cities might be built." In 1773 Bartram started on a jour- 
 ney through the South, and in 1791 published an account of his travels 
 in which he gave some opinions as to the geological formation of vari- 
 ous sections through which he passed. Dunbar, in a report to the presi- 
 dent of the American Philosophical society in 1801. tells of some 
 fossil bones found west of the Mississippi, and in 1803 he sent to the 
 same society a letter from Martin Duralde giving a description of the 
 bones of an " elephant found in the country of the Opelousas. ' ' None 
 of these reports pretended to give any connected or systematic account 
 of the geology of the country, but they serve to show that from the 
 earliest settlement some attention was paid to the subject, particularly 
 to the mineral deposits that might be utilized and to fossil remains. 
 
 Probably the first American to publish any observations on the 
 geology of Louisiana was Amos Stoddard. In his ' ' Sketches of Louisi- 
 ana," published in 1812, he mentions the "five islands," the saline 
 springs near Natchitoches and the lignite beds, and expresses his be- 
 lief that during the 80 years from 1720 to 1800 "the land has advanced 
 15 miles into the sea." Darby, who wrote in 1816. describes the five 
 islands more completely than Stoddard, and also makes some extended 
 observations on other geological features of the state. In 1821 Thomas 
 Nuttall mentioned the existence of "ferruginous conglomerate re- 
 sembling that of New Jersey," and in 1824 Commissioner Graham, 
 in the reports of the general land office, goes into some details regard-
 
 LOUISIANA 469 
 
 ing the geology of the state. In 1832 Richard Harlan read a paper 
 before tlie American Philosophical society on "Notice of Fossil Bones 
 found in the Tertiary formation of the State of Louisiana." In 
 this paper he gave the name of the animal, of which these bones 
 formed part of the skeleton, as the Basilosaurus (lizard like), and 
 mentions Judge Bry's comments on the geology of northern Louisi- 
 ana. The following year Morton took the view of Harlan and Bry 
 that the fossil bones belonged to the Cretaceous era. Creologists and 
 archaeologists all over the country joined in the discussion, which was 
 for a time a live topic. About 1840 Talcott published a treatise on 
 the "Mud Lumps at the Mouth of the Mississippi." On March 8, 
 1841, the legislature passed a resolution appointing as a committee, 
 J. L. Riddell of the New Orleans mint, Prof. Ingalls of Jefferson col- 
 lege, W. M. Carpenter of the Louisiana college, C. J. Porsliey of 
 Vidalia, Josiah Hale of Alexandria, and V. Trastour of New Orleans, 
 "to make researches and inquiries respecting the mineral wealth which 
 the state promises to yield, and the probable expense and proper mode 
 of conducting complete geological, topographical and scientific sur- 
 vey of the state." This .committee was to report to the legislature 
 at the next session, and on March 7, 1842, appropriations were made 
 as follows: To W. M. Carpenter, $600; C. G. Forshey, $1,800; V. 
 Trastour $2,000. These sums were to be paid when the reports were 
 printed and filed in the state library, together with maps, manuscripts 
 and specimens, but the records do not show that the reports were ever 
 printed. De Bow's Review for May, 1850, speaks of a survey by 
 Prof. Forshey, but the manuscript of the report was lost before it 
 reached the printer. 
 
 Between the years 1840 and 1860 Dickison, Brown, Drake, Lydell 
 and Ellett all added to the published account of the formation of the 
 data. In 1860 Raymond Thommassy published his "Geologic Pra- 
 tique de la Louisiane," which was mainly a discussion of the delta 
 region. All these investigations were made by students and scientists 
 in their individual capacity, and were without official support or 
 sanction. In his message to the legislature on Jan. 23, 1860, Gov. T. 
 0. Moore deplored the fact that "not a dollar as yet had been ex- 
 pended for a geological survey." This would indicate that the appro- 
 priations made for the benefit of Cai-penter, Forshey and Trastour in 
 1842 were never claimed by them. On March 28, 1867, the legisla- 
 ture appropriated $1,500 to pay Judge J. B. Robertson for making a 
 geological survey, and in the same year Prof. E. W. Hilgard pub- 
 lished in the American Journal of Science a "Summary of a late 
 Geological Reconnaissance of Louisiana." In this summary he re- 
 views the various terranes of the state, commencing with the young- 
 est or Port Hudson group ; the Grand Gulf and Vicksburg groups ; 
 the salines of north Louisiana, and the artesian wells of Calcasieu par- 
 ish. The reconnaissance was made imder the auspices of the Smith- 
 sonian Institution, and but 30 days were spent in actual field work. 
 In 1869 the New Orleans Academy of Sciences and the state board 
 of immigration projected a second reconnaissance. Funds were 
 raised by subscription and appropriated by the commissioners
 
 470 LOUISIANA 
 
 of immigration, the reconnaissance being made by Prof. E. W. Hil- 
 gard, state geologist of Mississippi, and Dr. J. E. Walker and F. Scott 
 Miller of the academy. The actual time of the reconnaLssauce was 28 
 daj^s. during which time the three gentlemen traveled over 600 miles 
 on horseback. In 1873 Prof. Hilgard published the account of this 
 " Supplementarj- Reconnaissance," which dealt chiefly with the lig- 
 nite beds and their under clays, and in 1881 he published some notes 
 on the "Later Tertiary of the Gulf of Mexico." 
 
 Dr. F. V. Hopkins published in 1869 an accoimt of the three trips 
 into north Louisiana. His second report, in 1870, contained the first 
 colored geological map of the state, and his report for 1871 was de- 
 voted to a general discussion of the newer formations. In 1885 L. 
 C. Johnson was directed to investigate the iron ores of the state, and 
 the results of his investigations were published in 1880. 
 
 The third period of geological research covers the work done under 
 the direction of the agricultural experiment stations. In June, 1892, 
 Dr. "W. C. Stubhs, director of the stations, made a preliminary report 
 on the geological and agricultural survey of the state as instituted 
 by the stations. In this report he says: "Incidentally the geol- 
 ogy of the state is being carefully studies, so as to locate 
 each section of the state in its proper geological horizon. Espe- 
 cial attention is also being paid to the mineral resources of the state, 
 particularly those which may be of agricultural value, such as phos- 
 phates, marls, gj^psum, etc." The first surveys during this period 
 were made by Dr. Otto Lerch, a graduate of Rosloek univereity of 
 Germany, and previou.sly connected with the geological survey of 
 Texas, linder the direction of Dr. Stubbs. In 189-4, W. W. Clendenin 
 continued the work commenced by Dr. Learch, spending six months 
 of each year in the university and the other six months in the field. 
 In 1895 T. "Wayland Yaughan, by permission of the director of the 
 U. S. geological sui-A-ey, published the "Stratigi-aphy of Northwest 
 Louisiana," which dealt chiefly with the beds of the Cretaceous era. 
 Since then the work has been continued under the direction of the 
 experiment stations, and each succeeding report adds some new infor- 
 mation concerning the geological formations of the state. 
 
 Geology. — ^Measured by geological eras Louisiana is of recent 
 foi-mation. The deepest borings have failed to disclose any ex-idences 
 older than the Mesozoic or Reptilian age, hence only three of the 
 principal geologic periods — the Mesozoic, the Cenozoic and the Quar- 
 temar}'- — are represented in the state. A recent writer on the sub- 
 ject says: "Only a few closing chapters of the world's history are 
 here recorded, and these have been written by water, wliich is now, 
 as ever, the great factor in landmaking in this state." 
 
 The coast marshes in the southern part consist of blue claj', of com- 
 paratively recent date, upon which the alluvium brought do-svn by 
 modern floods has been deposited. In this section the fonnative proc- 
 e.ss is still going on, the streams from the interior and the tides from 
 the gulf adding slowly but surely to the deposits, and in many places, 
 especially along the rivers and bayous, the land is already sufficiently 
 elevated to be habitable. Above these marshes are the loams and
 
 LOUISIANA 471 
 
 calcareous silts brought down by streams, many of which no longer 
 exist, during the earlier geologic periods. It is believed that this 
 deposit was formerly in the nature of a sluggish, shallow sea, run- 
 ning well up toward the parallel of 35° north latitude, after which 
 a gradual elevation took place and this sea was transformed into a 
 mighty river, extending from Bayou Macon on the west to Vicksburg 
 on the east, draining all the region from the Rocky to the Appalachian 
 mountains. The loams and silts were now more rapidly deposited and 
 in this way the bluff islands of the state were formed. This bluff for- 
 mation is distinctly noticeable along the western banks of Bayou 
 Macon (the Bayou Macon Hills), and it follows this stream through 
 the parishes of West Carroll, Richland and Franklin, with traces still 
 farther to the southwest. Prom Harrisonburg in Catahoula parish 
 the bluffs may be traced by occasional outcrops through Rapides, 
 Avoyelles, St. Landry, Lafayette and St. Mary parishes. The hills 
 in the vicinity of Grand Coteau, Opelousas, Carencro, and some other 
 places, are the remains of these bluffs, and the "five islands" stand- 
 ing out of the sea marshes ai-e remnants of this formation. The grad- 
 ual disintegration of these hills has formed the prairies about Jeffer- 
 son, Mer Rouge, Holloway and Marksville, and the larger prairies in 
 the southwestern part of the state. 
 
 North of the pine flats are beds of sand and gravel belonging to 
 the stratified drift, which participates in the general southward dip 
 of the formations of the state. This formation is found on the hill- 
 tops of the state, below the blue clay of the Mississippi river, under- 
 lying the bluff strata, and overlying the salt beds of Avery island, 
 which is its most southern exposure. It is more or le.ss ahundant 
 throiighout all the uplands in northern Louisiana. 
 
 Borings through the Quarternary, the most modern of the geologic 
 periods, show the soils of the recent beds of alluvium, the bluff forma- 
 tions of the second bottom, loam, clay and sand of the Port Hudson 
 series, and the sand and gravel (drift) of the Lafayette formation. 
 Contimiing the investigations, the formations of the Tertiary era are 
 found to be well represented in Louisiana, though they are generally 
 concealed by the more recent Quarternary deposits. In the Miocene 
 series are found sand, clay and limestone; in the Oligoeene beds are 
 the Grand Gulf clay and sandstone and the Vicksburg clay and marl ; 
 beneath these beds are found the selenitic and Ugnitic clays and marls 
 of the Jackson stage, which occur at various places in the state ; and 
 the Eocene series, the oldest of the Tertiary era, are met with only 
 in the deep oil wells of southwestern Louisiana, where the drill proves 
 their presence at depths ranging from 1,500 to 2,000 feet. 
 
 In several places rocks of the Cretaceous era — the youngest of the 
 Mesozoic age — crop out from under the overlying Tertiary and Quar- 
 ternary clays and sands. The salt licks of northern Louisiana, the 
 marble deposits near Winfield, Winn parish, and the St. Landry lime- 
 stone belong to the Cretaceous era. Concerning these rocks the bureau 
 of agriculture and immigration in a recent report says: "So far as 
 square miles are concerned, their outcroppings are insignificant, but 
 their good quality of lime-making and building material, as well as
 
 472 LOUISIANA 
 
 their oil and salt-bearing properties in the extreme southern part of 
 the state, renders them of the highest economic value to the state. ' ' 
 
 About the close of the Cretaceous era the geological formations 
 of the lower Mississippi valley were disturbed by movements of con- 
 siderable magnitude. The Cretaceous deposits in Tennessee and 
 Mississippi were lifted above the level, while in eastern Arkansas 
 and farther north they were depressed to some distance below the 
 Eocene tides. The Louisiana geological report for 1902 says: "In 
 Louisiana we have reason to believe that the raising and depres- 
 sion of the Cretaceous beds were of a much more violent nature, 
 that folds and faults were numerous and on a large scale, and that 
 a great irregularity of surface features characterized the newly 
 formed rocks." 
 
 In a commercial sense, the most important mineral or geological 
 deposits in Louisiana are the marble and kainite beds in "Winn par- 
 ish, the lignite veins in the Dolet Hills of De Soto, the kaoln beds 
 of Catahoula, the various deposits of good brick-making clay, the 
 salt mines of Avery island, the sulphur beds of Calcasieu pari.*h, 
 limestone, and the oil found in different parts of the state. Poolo 
 says: "The marble underlies 1,000 acres, and is said by those who 
 claim to know to be the largest marble formation in the woi-ld. All 
 colors are found. The banded, variegated and yellow-lime onyx 
 are very unique. The stone has been assayed both here and at 
 "Washington, D. C. The crystal is very tine, and stone compact. 
 It contains no iron, silica or sulphur. It is absolutely free from 
 all extraneous matter. The kainite beds of "Winn parish are situ- 
 ated 4 miles south of "Winnfield. They are said to contain potash, 
 soda, lime, salt and ahiminum in combination. It is claimed to l)e 
 a good fertilizer when combined with the lime burned from the 
 marble." 
 
 Georgetown, a village in the northeastern part of Grant parish, 
 is situated at the junction of the Louisiana & Arkansas and the St. 
 Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railroads, about 25 miles north- 
 east of Colfax, the parish seat. It has a money order post office, 
 express office, telegraph .station, is located in the lumber region, 
 and is the shipping and supply point for a considerable district. 
 
 German Coast.— (See St. Charles Parish.) 
 
 Gheens, a post-hamlet in the central part of Lafourche parish, is 
 about 5 miles northeast of Lockport, the nearest railroad station. 
 Population 500. 
 
 Ghent, Treaty of.— (See Treaties.) 
 
 Gibsland, an incorporated town and station in the northern part 
 of Bienville parish, at the junction of the Vicksburg, Shreveport & 
 Pacific and the Louisiana & Northwest railroads. It was named in 
 honor of its founder, one of the first residents of the parish. There 
 are several manufacturing concerns, among which is a furniture 
 factory, and its location on 2 lines of railroad makes it the shipping 
 point for a large cotton and timber area. The Methodist church 
 established the Gibsland collegiate institute here in 1888. and the
 
 LOUISIANA 473 
 
 college buildings were opened a year later. The town has a bank, 
 a money order postoiBce, telegraph and express otSce, and a pop- 
 ulation of 1,065. 
 
 Gibson, a village in the northwestern part of Terrebonne parish, 
 is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R. about 12 miles west of 
 Sehriever. It has a money order postoffice, express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone, and a population of 200. 
 
 Gibson, Randall Lee, soldier and U. S. senator, was born at 
 Spring Hill, Ky., Sept. 10, 1832. His ancestors, the Gibsons and 
 McKinleys, came from Scotland early in the 18th century and set- 
 tled in Virginia. His grandfather, Randall Gibson, after whom he 
 was named, was a soldier in the Revolutionary war, and after the 
 independence of the United States was established moved to Mis- 
 sissippi, where he became one of the founders of Jefferson college. 
 Senator Gibson passed his boyhood at Lexington, Ky., and on his 
 father's plantation in the parish of Terrebonne, La. In 1853 he 
 graduated at Yale college as the valedictorian of his class, then 
 read law, and after receiving his diploma from the University of 
 Louisiana traveled for some time in Europe. He then became a 
 planter in Louisiana until the breaking out of the Civil war in 1861, 
 when he was appointed aide-de-camp on the staff of Gov. Moore. 
 In March, 1861, he was made captain of the 1st La. artillery, and 
 on Aug. 13 was commissioned colonel of the 13th La. infantry. 
 Under his instruction the regiment soon became one of the best 
 drilled and disciplined in the Confederate army. After Gen. Adams 
 was wounded at Shiloh, Col. Gibson commanded the Louisiana 
 brigade throughout the remainder of that historic battle. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Perryville, Ky., commanded the 
 brigade at Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and on Jan. 11, 1864, 
 was made brigadier-general. He fought through the Atlanta and 
 Nashville campaigns with Gens. Johnston and Hood, and finished 
 his military career by a gallant defense of Spanish Port. After 
 the war Gen. Gibson practiced law in New Orleans until elected to 
 Congress. He was elected in 1872 to represent the 2nd district in 
 the lower house of Congress, but the seat was successfully con- 
 tested by Lionel A. Sheldon. Two years later he was elected and 
 remained in the national house of representatives until chosen by 
 the Louisiana legislature to succeed William Pitt Kellogg in the 
 U. S. senate, his term beginning on March 4, 1883. At the close of 
 his first term he was reelected, but did not live to complete his 
 second term, his death occurring at Hot Springs, Ark., Dec. 15, 
 1892. Gen. Gibson did much to promote the cause of education in 
 Louisiana. He served as administrator of the Howard memorial 
 library; trustee of the Peabody fund; regent of the Smithsonian 
 institute, and as president of the board of administrators of the 
 Tulane university of Louisiana, an institution which his influence 
 helped to establish. 
 
 Gilbert, a village in the southern part of Franklin parish, is situ- 
 ated at the junction of the New Orleans & Northwestern and the
 
 474 LOUISIANA 
 
 St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railroads, about 7 miles south 
 of Winnsboro, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 express office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, and a 
 population of 300. 
 
 Gilead, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of East Feliciana parish, 
 is near the Amite river and 8 miles southeast of Clinton, the parish 
 seat. 
 
 Gilliam, a post-village in the northern part of Caddo parish, is 
 situated about 5 miles west of the Eed river on the Texas & Pa- 
 cific R. R., and some 20 miles north of Shreveport, the parish seat. 
 Population 150. 
 
 Gillis, a post-village of Calcasieu parish, is a station on the Lake 
 Charles & Northern R. R., about 10 miles north of Lake Charles. 
 
 Girard, a village in the northern part of Richland parish, is a 
 station on the Vieksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R., 3 miles ■west 
 of Rayville, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, ex- 
 press office and telegraph station, and a population of 107. 
 
 Gladden, Adley H., soldier, was born in South Carolina. At the 
 oiitbreak of the ^Mexican war he entered the army, was major of 
 the Palmetto regiment of South Carolina at the battle of Churu- 
 busco, and as a result of his gallant conduct on that day he be- 
 came colonel of the regiment, which he led in many other battles 
 of the war. After the close of the Mexican war he settled in Lou- 
 isiana, and when the state seceded from the Union he joined the 
 militia of his adopted state, going to Pensacola as colonel of the 
 1st La. regiment. On Sept. 30, 1861, he was commissioned brig- 
 adier-general and given command of a brigade, which he com- 
 manded during the bombardment of the Confederate forts at Pen- 
 sacola harbor. Gen. Bragg expressed his thanks to Gen. Gladden 
 for his able support at the time, and later when he expressed a 
 desire to form a brigade that should set the- example for discipline 
 and official excellence, he said: "I should desire Gen. Gladden to 
 command them." In Jan., 1862, Gladden was transferred to Mo- 
 bile and then to Corinth, where he commanded a brigade. At 
 Shiloh he rendered gallant service and Gen. Beauregard describes 
 his death as follows: "We early lost the services of the gallant 
 Gladden, a man of soldierly aptitudes and experiences, who after 
 a marked influence on his quarter of the field fell, mortally 
 wounded." Struck by a cannon ball, he was carried from the field 
 and soon afterward died. 
 
 Glade, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Catahoula par- 
 ish, situated on the west bank of the Black river, about 10 miles 
 south of Jonesville, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Gladis, a money order post-village in the northwest corner of 
 Wasluugton parish, is on the Bogue Chitto, aboiit 3 miles north of 
 Jones, the nearest railroad station. It is located in a truck farm- 
 ing district, which supplies the northern mai-kets with vegetables 
 and berries. Population 500. 
 
 Glencoe, a village in the western part of St. ;Mai-y parish, is a
 
 LOUISIANA 475 
 
 station ou the Southern Pacific R. R., about 10 miles west of Frank- 
 lin, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, some sugar 
 indvistries, and a population of 150. 
 
 Glenella, a post-hamlet in the western part of Caldwell parish, 
 situated ou the Bayou Beaucoup, about 3 miles east of Hinton, the 
 nearest railroad station, and 12 miles southwest of Columbia, the 
 parish seat. 
 
 Glenmora, a village in the southwestern part of Rapides parish, 
 is a station on the St. Louis, Watkins & Gulf R. R., 25 miles south- 
 west of Alexandria, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office and telegraph station and a population of 110. 
 
 Glenwild, is a post-hamlet of St. Mary parish. 
 
 Gloster, a village in the north-central part of DeSoto parish, is 
 a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R. It is located in the western 
 pine district, has important lumber industries and is the shipping 
 and supply point for a large district. It has a money order post- 
 office, one free rural delivery route, an express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone facilities, and a population of 121. 
 
 Glynn, a village in the southeastern part of Pointe Coupee parLsh, 
 is on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 15 miles northwest of Baton 
 Rouge. It has a money order postoffice, express office and tele- 
 graph station, and is a shipping point of some importance. 
 
 Gold Dust, a post-village and station in the southwest corner of 
 Avoyelles parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 6 miles 
 soiithwest of Bunkie, the nearest banking town. It has an express 
 office and telegraph station, and does some shipping. 
 
 Goldman, a post-village and station in the southern part of Ten- 
 sas parish, is situated on the Mississippi river and tlie St. Louis, 
 Iron Mountain & Southern R. R., about 8 miles southwest of St. 
 Joseph, the parish seat. 
 
 Goldonna, a village in the northeastern pai-t of Natchitoches 
 parish, is situated on Saline bayou and the Louisiana & Arkansas 
 R. R., about 20 miles northeast of Natchitoches, the parish seat. 
 It has a money order postoffice, telegraph station and express of- 
 fice, and a population of 225. 
 
 Gonzales, a village in the central part of Ascension parish, is a 
 station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation com- 
 pany, about 12 miles northeast of Donaldsonville, the parish seat. 
 It is located in one of the richest agricultural districts along the 
 Mississippi river, has several mercantile establishments, and is the 
 shipping and supply town for the eastern part of the parish. It 
 has a money order postoffice, and a population of 300. 
 
 Good Pine, a post-village and station in the western part of La- 
 Salle parish, is a station on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 
 3 miles west of Jena. 
 
 Gordon, a post-village in the northern part of Claiborne parish, 
 is near the Arkansas border, 6 miles east of Haynesville, the near- 
 est railroad station, and about 12 miles north of Homer, the parish 
 seat. It is the terminus of the Bernice & Northwestern R. R., and
 
 476 LOUISIANA 
 
 is the shipping and supply town for a large district in that part 
 of the parish. 
 
 Gorum, a post-hamlet in tlie southeastern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is a short distance north of the Red river and some 4 miles 
 southeast of Chopin, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Gottschalk, Louis M., a prominent musician of the ante-bellum 
 days, was born in New Orleans, La., May 8, 1829, of German- 
 Jewish lineage. At the age of 12 years he was sent to Paris, where 
 he received instruction on the piano and in harmony from famous 
 masters. When he had concluded his musical studies in 1845, so 
 nearly perfect was his mastership of his favorite instrument that 
 he was given the opportunity to appear at several concerts in 
 Paris, and later he toured France. Switzerland, Spain and Italy. 
 Upon his return to the French capital he published several compo- 
 sitions, especially adapted to the pianoforte, which were exceed- 
 ingly well received. In 1853 he returned to the United States, 
 gave concerts at Boston, Philadelphia and New York, after which 
 he made extensive tours through his native land and everywhere 
 his renditions of his own compositions were highly praised. At 
 frequent intervals he confined his eiforts to the composition of 
 salon-pieces among which were "Le Bamboula," "La Savane," 
 "La Danse de Ombres" and the "Cradle Song," the last mentioned 
 of which was Tindoubtedly the most notable of the series. Later he 
 made visits to the West Indies, Mexico, Montevideo and Buenos 
 Ayres, and finally settled in Rio Janeiro. While rendering a con- 
 cert in the last named city in 1869, he was suddenly stricken with 
 mortal illness. Most of the master's concerts were recitals of his 
 own compositions, which in point of neatness, expression and 
 originality, possessed a charm exclusively their own. They were 
 largely founded on Louisiana plantation ditties, old Creole songs 
 and South American airs. The interpretation of the old masters 
 received very little of his attention and he abhorred the idea of 
 playing the pieces of living composers. He published several pop- 
 iilar songs and left in an incomplete state several operas and sym- 
 phonies. 
 
 Goudeau, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Avoyelles par- 
 ish, is situated on a confluent of Bayou Rouge, about 5 miles north- 
 east of ]\Iorrow, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Governors. — As Louisiana has been ruled successively by France, 
 Spain and the United States, the names of the governors under 
 the different dominations will be found under the titles of French, 
 Spanish and American governors. 
 
 Grace, a post-hamlet in the western part of Winn parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 10 miles west of 
 Winfield, the parish seat. It has an express office and telegraph 
 station, and is a trading center for the neighborliood. Popula- 
 tion 200. 
 
 Grahamville. — By an act of the legislature, approved March 22, 
 1822, Thomas Graham was authorized to lay off a town, to be called
 
 LOUISIANA 477 
 
 Graliamville, "at the confluence of the two branches of the Red 
 river, called the River Cane and the Rigolet de Bon Dieu." This 
 town, which does not appear on the maps of the present day, was 
 located not far from the present city of Colfax, the seat of justice 
 of Grant parish. History does not record whether the town was 
 ever built, or if built how it disappeared. 
 
 Grambling, a post-village and station, is situated in the southern 
 part of Lincoln parish, about 5 miles west of Ruston, the parish 
 seat, and on the main line of the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pa- 
 cific R. R. 
 
 Gramercy, a village in the southeastern part of St. James parish, 
 is near the southern boundary on the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley 
 R. R., in one of the great sugar districts of the state. It has a 
 money order postoffice, express office, telegraph station and tele- 
 phone facilities, and a population of 175. 
 
 Grand Bayou, a village in the western part of Red River parish, 
 is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 8 miles northwest 
 of Cousliatta, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, ex- 
 press office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, and is the 
 shipping and supply town for a large area of the rich Red river 
 valley. 
 
 Grand Cane, an incorporated town in the central part of De Soto 
 parish, is on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 8 miles northwest of 
 Mansfield, the parish seat. This name was given to an early settle- 
 ment in here many years ago, as the site of the town was a dense 
 canebrake, through which the first explorers had to cut their way. 
 The country around is fertile farming land, though it forms the 
 summit of a plateau, which is the divide between the Red and Sa- 
 bine rivers. "When the railroad was built in 1881, the little settle- 
 ment became a flourishing business center. There are a number 
 of beautiful homes in the town, a high school, Methodist, Presby- 
 terian and Baptist churches. The principal industries are a grist 
 mill, saw mill and cotton-gin and there are several good mercantile 
 establishments. Grand Cane has a bank, a money order postoffice, 
 telegraph and express facilities and a population of 485. 
 
 Grand Chenier, a money order post-village, in the southern part 
 of Cameron parish, on the Mermenton river, about 5 miles from the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and 25 miles east of Cameron, the parish seat. It 
 has extensive oyster industries and a population of 150. 
 
 Grand Coteau, an incorporated town in the southern part of St. 
 Landry parish, is about 10 miles south of Opelousas, the parish 
 seat, and 3 miles northeast of Sunset, the nearest railroad station. 
 It is an old settlement, and was a thriving village before the rail- 
 roads were built. It is the seat of Saint Charles Catholic college and 
 the Sacred Heart academy, has several good mercantile establish- 
 ments and pretty homes, and is one of the largest and most thriving 
 towns in the parish. Population 392. 
 
 Grand Ecore, a village of Natchitoches parish, is located upon 
 the line of the Louisiana & Northwestern R. R., 2 miles south of Hagen 
 and 5 miles north of the city of Natchitoches. It was incorporated
 
 i78 , LOUISIANA 
 
 bj- act of the legislatnvp on March 20, 1839. A postoifiee was formerly- 
 maintained here, but upon the establishment of the rural free delivery 
 system it was discontinued and the inhabitants now receive their mail 
 from Natchitoches. After the battle of Mansfield, April 8, 1864, the 
 Federal army under Gen. Banks fell back to Grand Ecore, and sev- 
 eral slight skirmishes occurred in the vicinity during the remainder 
 of that month and in the early part of May. 
 
 Grand Isle, a money order post-village of Jeft'erson parish, situ- 
 ated on tlie island of the same name on the gulf coast, about 30 miles 
 west of Buras, the nearest railroad station. It is an old town and has 
 a population of 150. The o.vster industry is the most important, 
 though large quantities of terrapin and fish are caught and shipped 
 to New Orleans and northern markets. 
 
 Grand Lake, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Cameron par- 
 ish, is on the east shore of Calcasieu lake, about 16 miles south of 
 Lake Charles. In 1900 it had a population of 51. 
 
 Grange Movement. — (See Farmers' Alliance.) 
 
 Grangeville, a post-village in the southwestern part of St. Helena 
 parish, is situated near the Amite river, about 6 miles northwest of 
 Pinegrove, the nearest raili-oad station. 
 
 Grant, a post-village in Allen parish, is about 4 miles Southeast 
 of Sugartowu. the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Grant Parish, with an area of 700 square miles, was established 
 ilarch 4. 1869, during the reconstruction period, while Henr.y Clay 
 Warmouth was governor, and was named in honor of Ulysses S. Grant, 
 then president of the United States. The southern part of Winn and 
 the northern part of Rapides were taken to form the parish of Grant, 
 which is bounded on the north by Winn parish ; on the east by Little 
 river, which separates it from Catahoula parish ; on the south by 
 Rapides parish, and the Rigolet de Bon Dieu and the Red river form 
 its western boundar.v separating it from Rapides and Natchitoohes 
 parishes. After the organization of the parish Colfax was made the 
 seat of parochial government. During the first half of the 19th ceji- 
 tury great plantations were started in what is now Grant parish. 
 Meredith Calhoiui owned 1,000 slaves and lands with a river front- 
 age of 7 miles. Other planters with large holdings were the Baldwins, 
 opposite Cotile Landing, the Gillards, Layssards and Thomas and 
 Peter Hickman. The war changed all this, leaving no slaves to cul- 
 tivate the land, and for years many hundreds of acres were uncul- 
 tivated. In the past few years, the forests that have grown up 
 since the war, have been cut oflp to make way for the return of the 
 great cotton field. In 1873, during the reconstruction period, bands 
 of predatory negroes rode through the parish, threatening murder 
 and outrage and firing into houses. (See Kellogg 's Administra- 
 tion.) 
 
 Red river and its tributary streams water the entire western part 
 of the parish ; Little river the eastern portion, the Big latt and other 
 .small streams the central and southern portions. The formation of 
 Grant is alluvial Red river bottoms, rolling prairie and long leaf 
 pine hills. Originally all these hills were covered with a heavy growth
 
 LOUISIANA 479 
 
 of pine, oak, gum, cottonwood, willow, elm, etc., and thougrli thousands 
 of feet of lumber have been cut, great areas of pine still remain to 
 yield their wealth to the lumberman. Since 1900 many families from 
 the north and east, and a colony of thrifty Germans and Italians have 
 bought land in the parish and started truck farms, the products of 
 which are shipped to Alexandria. Shreveport, New Orleans and north- 
 ern cities. Cotton still remains the principal crop, though many of the 
 great plantations have been cut up into farms where corn, hay, oats 
 and peas are raised. Fruits adapted to this region do remarkably well, 
 but are not cultivated to any extent as a commercial enterprise. The 
 central prairie and rolling uplands furnish excellent pasturage, and 
 for the pa.st 25 years stock raising has been an important industry. 
 Small deposits of gold and silver have been found in the parish. There 
 are beds of green sand, marl, quarries of marble and limestone, de- 
 posits of kaolin, iron and gypsum, all of which will be a source of 
 wealth when opened. Shipping and transportation facilities are ex- 
 cellent. furni.shed by boats on the Red river, the Louisiana Railway & 
 Navigation company, whose line traverees the western part of the par- 
 ish, the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., which runs north and south 
 through the center of the parish, and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & 
 Southern R. R., in the eastern and northern parts of the parish. A 
 direct outlet is thus furnished for the products of the parish to St. 
 Louis and New Orleans. The following statistics are taken from the 
 U. S. census for 1910 : number of farms, 1,468 ; acreage, 122,662 ; acres 
 improved, 44.271 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of farm 
 buildings, $1,533,961; value of farm buildings, $435,860; value of 
 live stock, $434,818 ; total value of all crops, $641,491. The population 
 was 15,958. 
 
 Grappes Bluff, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Natchi- 
 toches parish, is situated on the Red river and the line of the Lou- 
 isiana Railway & Navigation company, about 12 miles northwest of 
 Natchitoches, the parish seat. It is one of the oldest settlements in 
 the parish, having been settled early in the 18th century, when it 
 was one of the important river towns. Today it has a population of 
 150, an express ofSce, telegraph station and telephone facilities, and 
 is the shipping and supply point for a large section of the river valley. 
 
 Grasses. — (See Forage Crops.) 
 
 Gray, a post-hamlet of Terrebonne parish, is situated near the 
 northern boundary on Bayou du Chien, about 2 miles east of Re- 
 becca, the nearest railroad station, and 8 miles northwest of Houma, 
 the parish seat. Population 150. 
 
 Gray, Henry, soldier entered the service of his state at the out- 
 break of the Civil war. During the first months of his service he had 
 no opportunity of distinction, the sphere of his action being confined 
 to his own state, Louisiana. In May, 1862, he was commissioned 
 colonel of the 28th La. and took an active part in defending the state 
 against the Federal troops in 1863. He took part in the battle at 
 Camp Bisland, and Gen. Richard Taylor, in his report of the battle 
 commented as follows: "Col. Gray and his regiment, officers and 
 men, deserve most favorable mention." In one of tiie numerous bat-
 
 480 - LOUISIANA 
 
 ties ou the Teche, Col. Gray received a bad Tvound but recovered in 
 time to command a brigade during the Bed River campaign, and so gal- 
 lant was his conduct that the commission of brigadier-general was con- 
 ferred on him, dated from the battle of Mansfield, April 8, 1864. 
 After the close of the war he resided in Louisiana until his death, 
 Dec. 13. 1892. 
 
 Grayson, a village and station in the central part of CaldweU 
 parish, is about 4 miles south of Columbia, the parish seat, on the 
 St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station and is the shipping point 
 for a large lumber district. Population 300. 
 
 Green, Thomas, soldier, was born in Amelia coimty, Va., June 
 8, 1814. His father, Nathan Green, was a distinguished jurist in 
 Tennessee and the president of Lebanon law college. When 21 
 years of age Thomas left his home in Tennessee and went west. 
 He joined the revolutionary army in Texas and took part in his 
 first fight at San Jacinto in April, 1836. "When the army was dis- 
 banded a year later, he settled in LaGrange, became a surveyor, 
 and from 1839 to 1840 was in various skirmishes against the In- 
 dians. In 1842 he took part in the invasion of Tilexico. Four 
 years later, when the Mexican war begun, he was in command of 
 a company that assisted in the relief of Gen. Taylor on the Rio 
 Grande, after which he took part in the battle of Monterey and 
 served under Maj. Hays imtil the close of the war. "With the ex- 
 ception of brief intervals he was clerk of the supreme court of 
 Texas from 1841 to 1861. When the Civil war broke oiit he en- 
 tered the service of the Confederacy as colonel of three regiments 
 raised in Arizona and New iMexieo. He won distinction in the 
 battles of "Val "Verde, Glorieta, Los Cruces and the recapture of 
 Galveston in 1863. He was transferred to Louisiana, where he 
 served first as brigadier, but was soon raised to the rank of major- 
 general. He took part in the battles of Bisland. Bayou Bourbeau, 
 Berwick. Bayou Boeuf, Fort Butler, Bayou Lafourche, Fordoche, 
 and other actions along the Teche. He was active in the Red River- 
 campaign and was wounded in the action of Blair's Landing on 
 April 12, 1864, by a discharge of grape shot from a gunboat, and 
 died two days later. 
 
 Greene, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Jackson parish, 
 is near the eastern boimdary about 8 miles southeast of Womack, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Greensburg, the seat of government of St. Helena parish, is lo- 
 cated in the eastern part of the parish on a short line of railroad 
 called the Greensburg & Southwestern, which road connects with 
 the Illinois Central at Kentwood. When the parish of St. Helena 
 was organized in 1813 a committee was appointed bv the police 
 jury to locate the parish seat. The site of Greensburg was selected, 
 and the first public buildings were a frame courthouse and a log 
 jail. A new courthouse was erected in 1855. In 1877 the Nor- 
 villa collegiate institute was opened, and it wielded a good influence 
 toward the establishment of the present public school svstem.
 
 LOUISIANA 481 
 
 Several religious denominations are represented by churches, so 
 that the moral and intellectual tone of Greensburg is maintained 
 on a high plane. Before the advent of the railroad the town had 
 tri-weekly mails from Clinton and daily mails from Tangipahoa. 
 The town now has a money order postofSce, a bank, two large saw 
 mills, a newspaper, several good general stores, etc. Population, 
 268. 
 
 Greenwood, an incorporated town in the southwestern part of 
 Caddo parish, is about 4 miles east of the Texas boundary, at the 
 junction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Texas & Pacific 
 railroads, and 12 miles southwest of Shreveport, the parish seat. 
 It is located in the western timber district, has saw mills, etc., is 
 a good business town, with a money order postoffice, express offices, 
 telegraph station and telephone facilities, and a population of 200. 
 
 Gretna, the parish seat of Jefferson parish, was laid out by the 
 St. Mary Market and Ferry company in 1839, and was made the 
 seat of justice in 1884. It is today practically a suburb of New 
 Orleans, with a population of 3,500. It has important manufac- 
 tures in cotton seed oil, cooperage, brick, moss, lumber, etc., and 
 a number of first-class mercantile establishments. Being located 
 in the extreme northern part of the parish on the Mississippi river, 
 the Southern Pacific, the Texas and Pacific, and the New Orleans, 
 Port Jackson & Grande Isle railroads, it is an important shipping 
 point. The Catholic is the leading church, though several of the 
 Protestant denominations are represented, and the public school 
 system will compare favorably with other towns of its size in the 
 state. 
 
 Griffin, a post-village in the southeastern part of Madison parish, 
 is on the Mississippi river, about 10 miles below the city of Vicks- 
 burg. Miss., and some 15 miles southeast of Tallulah, the parish 
 seat. It is an important trading and shipping point for that section 
 of the parish. South Vicksburg, just across the river, is the near- 
 est railroad station. 
 
 Grigsby, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Bienville parish, is 
 situated on a confluent of the Dugdemona river, about 6 miles west 
 of Ansley, the nearest railroad station, and 12 miles southeast of 
 Arcadia, the parish seat. 
 
 Grijalva, Juan de, explorer and adventurer, was a native of 
 Cuellar, Spain. In 1518 he made a voyage of discovery, landing 
 first at the island of Cozumel (to which he gave the name of Santa 
 Cruz), in the Bay of Yucatan. He then discovered and explored 
 the coast of Mexico, giving to the region the name of New Spain, 
 and carried back with him evidences of the mineral wealth of that 
 country. Although he never touched the coast of the present State 
 of Louisiana, an account of his discoveries reached Jamaica and in- 
 fluenced Gov. de Garay to send out the expedition under Pineda. 
 (See Garay, Francisco de,). 
 
 Grosse Tete, a village in the northeastern part of Iberville parish, 
 is situated on the bayou of the same name and at the junction of the 
 Southern Pacific and the Texas & Pacific railways, about 12 miles 
 1—31
 
 482 LOUISIANA 
 
 northwest of Plaqueniiue, the parish seat. It was first settled in the 
 early 30 's, when the American pioneers began to extend the settle- 
 ments back from the Mississippi river. The first Masonic lodge dn 
 Iberville parish was established here in 1851. It has a money order 
 postoifice, express and telegraph offices, and is connected by telephone 
 with the surrounding towns. Population 300. 
 
 Grove, a post-village in the central part of "Webster parish, is 
 about -1 miles .southeast of Hortman, the nearest railroad station, and 
 10 miles north of ]\Iindeu, the parish seat. 
 
 Gr5Tnes, John Randolph, lawj^er and legislator, was born in 
 Orange county, Va., in 1786. He studied law in his native state, where 
 he was admitted to the bar, and in 1808 removed to the Territory of 
 Orleans. He was appointed district attorney and in that capacity was 
 connected with the famous batture case. Speaks says he established 
 the city's title to the batture, and that when it was divided into lots 
 and sold at auction the money was paid to Grjines. who retained $100,- 
 000 as his fee. This caused some adveree comment upon his character, 
 but not enough to blight his good name as a citizen or injure his stand- 
 ing as a la'wyer. "When the British attempted the capture of New Or- 
 leans in 1814-15, Mr. Grymes acted as aide to Gen. Jackson, writing 
 many of his orders and proclamations, and was sent by Jackson to 
 Gen. Morgan with the order to place men behind the levee. The order 
 was not carried out, and Morgan was forced to abandon his position. 
 He was afterward Jackson's council in the United States bank ease, 
 and was opposed to Daniel "Webster in the case of Myi-a Clark Gaines 
 against the city of New Orleans. On Feb. 3, 1835, Mr. Grymes. then 
 a member of the lower branch of the Louisiana legislature, made an ' 
 attack on Alcee La Branche, the speaker of the house, and diu-ing his 
 term in the legislature he fought two duels, in one of which he was 
 severely wounded. In the campaign of 1840 he M-as one of the leading 
 Democratic stump-speakers in Louisiana, his reputation as an orator 
 extending beyond the limits of the state. In 1845 he was a delegate 
 to the constitutional convention, and afterward attorney-general and 
 U. S. district attorney. He died in New Orleans, Dec. 4, 1854. 
 
 Gueydan, an incorporated town in the northwestern part of 
 Vermilion parish, is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R.. about 
 25 miles west of Abbeville, the parish seat. It is located in the great 
 rice district, has rice mills, a bank, a money order postoffice, express 
 office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, and a population of 
 1081. It is the shipping and supply point for all the western and 
 northwestern part of the parish. 
 
 Guichard, Magloire, a resident of New Orleans and a descendant 
 of an old French family, was prominent in the affaii-s of Louisiana 
 about the time the province was purchased by the United States and 
 for several years following. He was a delegate to the first constitu- 
 tional convention in 1811, and was speaker of the house of represen- 
 tatives in the state legislature in 1814-15 when the doors of the as- 
 sembly halls were closed by order of Gen. Jackson. On that occasion 
 Mr. Guichard met Bernard de Marigny, to whom he said : ' ' "We are 
 accused of treason, for the doors of the legislature are closed by order
 
 LOUISIANA 483 
 
 of Gen. Jackson." Marigny, writing about the event afterward, said: 
 "Qu'il fallait avoir le diable an eoi-ps pour faire de Magloire Guiehard 
 un conspirateur ? " (Those who knew this good and respectable Mag- 
 loire Guiehard, a man already aged, will they not say it was madness 
 to make of him a conspirator?) It was indeed madness, for Mr. 
 Guiehard retained the respect and esteem of his fellow-townsmen as 
 long as he lived. 
 
 Gulf Biologic Station. — The following account of this institution 
 is abridged from the last biennial report of the state superintendent 
 of public education : The Gulf Biologic Station was created by act 
 192 of 1898 of the general assembly of the state of Louisiana. It is 
 designed to provide opportunity for the investigation of the biologic 
 problems of the state, and to offer its facilities to students and teach- 
 ers of the biologic sciences. The director of the station is B. H. Guil- 
 beau, and the laboratory is located at the mouth of Calcasieu pass, 
 near the Gulf of Mexico, Cameron parish. La. The U. S. jetties, which 
 extend into the gulf for more than a mile and a half, the extensive 
 marshes, mud flats, sandy beach, wharfs, the open gulf and the river 
 with its large natural oyster reefs, offer excellent opportunities for the 
 study of life. The station laboratory is large enough to accommodate 
 80 students and investigators working at one time. It is well equipped 
 with tables, dark room, aquaria, water and all needful apparatus. The 
 station owns a large schooner, 2 gasoline launches and a number of 
 row boats, and possesses the necessary seines, trawles, dredges and 
 nets for collecting. Teachers who desire to provide themselves with 
 specimens of marine plants and animals are given every opportunity 
 to do so. The laboratory supplies dissecting materials, glassware, re- 
 agents and laboratory outlines, but students are requested to pro- 
 vide themselves with dissecting instruments and a hand lens, and are 
 required to furnish their own text books, drawing materials, etc. 
 The station owns a number of compound microscopes, and the state 
 university has agreed to furnish as many more as are needed. Here 
 the teacher is afforded the best of opportunities to become familiar at 
 first hand with the plants and animals of the seacoast. Though the 
 courses offered only extend over 4 weeks, a good deal of ground is 
 covered, and students are well grounded in the first principles of the 
 science of biology. The course in nature study enables teachers hav- 
 ing that work in the public schools to become thoroughly acquainted 
 with methods and to acquire new facts. Facilities are offered to those 
 who desire to carry on investigations of a special character at the sta- 
 tion during the summer. Field excursions are made daily, and weekly 
 trips are planned to points of interest in the vicinity of the pass. Cal- 
 casieu lake and the Mermenton river. There is no rail connection with 
 Cameron, where the station is located, but the steamer Rex, which 
 carries the U. S. mail from Lake Charles to Cameron, makes the trip 
 to Cameron every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. 
 
 Gurley, a village in the western part of East Feliciana parish, is 
 on the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R., about 8 miles west of Clinton, 
 the parish seat. It has a money order postofBce, express ofSce, tele- 
 graph station and telephone facilities, and some retail trade.
 
 484 LOUISIANA 
 
 Gurley, Henry H., lawj-er and jurist, was born at Lebanon. Conn., 
 in 1787. He pursued classical studies, attended Williaiustown col- 
 lege, studied law after graduating, was admitted to the bar. and be 
 gan to practice at Baton Rouge. La. He became U. S. district judge 
 for Louisiana and was elected a representative from the state to the 
 18th. 19th, 20th and 21st Congresses. He died at Baton Rouge. La., 
 in 1832. 
 
 Gypsvun. — Technically, gypsum is regarded as a mineral deposit, 
 in some places constituting rock masses. In mineralogy it is classified 
 as a monoelinic mineral, ranging from transparent to opaque, its 
 colors being white, gray, flesh-colored, yellow, blue, and when impure 
 sometimes reddish-brown or even black. When ground it is used un- 
 der the name of land plaster, and calcined it becomes the plaster-of- 
 paris of commerce. The finer kinds, as alabaster, are used for statuary 
 and ornamental purposes. In Louisiana it is found in immense beds 
 below the sulphur deposits, but these beds have never been worked, 
 and in other parts of the state gypsum is associated with limestone. 
 
 H 
 
 Haasville, a village in the southwest corner of Avoyelles parish, 
 is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R.. about 5 miles southwest of 
 Chenej'ville. It has a money order postofiice, express ofiice and tele- 
 graph station. 
 
 Hachard, Madeleine, was a young postulant in the Ursuline con- 
 vent at Rouen, France, when the proposal came in 1726 to send some 
 of the nuns to Louisiana. (See Ursulines.) She obtained the consent 
 of her parents to accompany the mission, and upon arriving at Hen- 
 nebon her novitiate was shortened and she took the veil, signing her- 
 self after that as "Hachard de St. Stanislaus." Marie Tranchepain 
 de St. Augustin, who had been chosen as mother superior of the 
 Louisiana mission, selected the young sister as her secretary and the 
 two remained fast friends until the death of the mother superior in 
 1733. Sister Hachard has been described as a "brilliant, well edu- 
 cated woman, whose letters to her father were wittj% instructive and 
 charming. ' ' She wrote an account of the long and tedious voyage, in- 
 cluding the trip up the river in a pirogue from the Balize to New 
 Orleans in company with Mother Tranchepain and four others. Sis- 
 ter Hachard returned to France in 1762. 
 
 Hackberry, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Cameron 
 parish, is about 2 miles west of Calcasieu lake and 12 miles north of 
 Cameron, the parish seat. Sulphur is the nearest railroad station. 
 Population of 100. 
 
 Hackley, a village in the northern part of Washington parish 
 near the Mississippi boundary, is a station on the Kentwood & Eastern 
 R. R., about 9 miles northeast of Franklinton. the parish seat. It 
 has a money order postofiBce, and is located in the great truck farm 
 and berry district that supplies the northern markets with early vege- 
 tables and small fruits. Population 300.
 
 LOUISIANA 485 
 
 Hadnot, a post-hamlet in tlie southwestern part of Grant parish, 
 is about 3 miles north of Meade, the nearest railroad station, and 10 
 miles southeast of Colfax, the parish seat. 
 
 Hahn, Michael, who was elected governor of Louisiana under the 
 protection of the Federal army in 1864, was born in Bavaria on Nov. 
 24, 1830, but came to America with his parents while still in his 
 infancy. For a time the family lived in New York city, but later 
 removed to New Orleans, where Michael received his education in the 
 public schools. He then took up the study of law, and in 1854 was 
 graduated in the law department of the University of Louisiana. In 
 1856 he supported Stephen A. Douglas for the Democratic nomina- 
 tion for the presidency, and in 1860-61 was a member of the com- 
 mittee that made a canvass of the state against secession. After thij 
 capture of New Orleans in the spring of 1862 he took the oath of 
 allegiance to the United States, and in the fall of that year was elected 
 to Congress from the 2nd district. He took the oath of office as a 
 Congressman on Feb. 17, 1863, but as the term for which he was 
 elected expired on March 4, he served but a few days. He then re- 
 turned to New Orleans, bought the paper known as the "True Delta," 
 in which he advocated the emancipation of slaves and the policies of 
 President Lincoln. On Feb. 22, 1864, he was elected governor. The 
 following winter he was elected to the U. S. senate and resigned the 
 governor's office on March 4, 1865. Shortly after Andrew Johnson 
 succeeded to the presidency, Mr. Hahn resigned his seat in the senate 
 because he was at variance with the president's views on the question 
 of reconstruction. About this time the University of Louisiana hon- 
 ored him with the degree of LL.D. In 1867 he started a paper called 
 "The Republican" in New Orleans, and edited it for about four years, 
 when he retired to his plantation in St. Charles parish, where he 
 founded the village of Hahnville. From 1872 to 1876 he served in the 
 Louisiana legislature; was then register of voters; for a time was 
 superintendent of the U. S. mint ; then judge of the 26th district, and 
 in 1884 was elected to Congress. He died in Washington, D. C, 
 March 15, 1886. 
 
 Hahn's Administration. — Gov. Hahn was inaugurated on March 
 4, 1864, with imposing ceremonies, the object doubtless being to im- 
 press the people with the power of the Federal government, whose 
 armed forces were to support the new administration. Soon after his 
 induction into office, Gov. Hahn received from President Lincoln the 
 following letter : ' ' Until further orders, you are hereby invested with 
 the powers exercised hitherto by the military governor of Louisiana." 
 On the 11th Gen. Banks, with the concurrence of the governor, issued 
 his General Order No. 35, calling an election on the 28th for delegates 
 to a convention to revise the state constitution and setting forth the 
 following qualifications for votei-s: "Every free white man, 21 years 
 of age, who has been a resident of the state 12 months, and 6 months 
 in the parish in which he offers to vote, who is a citizen of the United 
 States, and who stall have taken the oath prescribed by the president 
 in his proclamation of the 8th December, 1863, shall have the right 
 to vote in the election of delegates. ' '
 
 486 LOUISIANA 
 
 The election was largely in the nature of a farce, and no return 
 of the votes was published. A committee of the lower house of Con- 
 gr€;ss afterward reported: "From all that is known of the balloting 
 it appears that the parish of Ascension, within the Federal lines, and 
 neighboring to New Orleans, and which in 1860 had a white popula- 
 tion of 3.940, elected her delegates by 61 votes; that Plaquemines, 
 with a white population in 1860 of 2,529, east 246 ; and in the parish of 
 Madison, Montague was elected by a vote of 28. Elections were held 
 only in the parishes included witliin the Federal lines, and these 
 lines were the Teche on the one side and the Amite on the other, com- 
 prehending the parish or city of Orleans, and the neighboring parishes 
 on the Mississippi. To a question propounded to Gen. Banks as to 
 what portion of the state voted, his reply was : 'All as far up as Pointe 
 Coupee, and there were some men from the Red river who voted at 
 Vidalia.' and in his statement he announces that: 'The city of New 
 Orleans is really the State of Louisiana. ' ' ' 
 
 The constitution was ratified by the people on Sept. 5, by a vote of 
 6,836 to 1,566 (See Constitutions), and at the same time membei's of 
 Congress and the state legislature were elected. This legislature met 
 in New Orleans on Oct. 3, with Lieut. -Gov. Wells presiding over the 
 senate and Simeon Belden as speaker of the house. In his message Gov. 
 Hahn announced the occasion as "deeply heart-cheering," and wel- 
 comed ' ' the representatives of the popular will. ' ' After referring to a 
 condition of "rebellion, bloodshed and anarchj-. where all should have 
 been loyalty, peace and contentment," he declared that "while this 
 state was thus momentarily placed by the bad men who had conspired 
 against the national authority, in armed hostility to the Union, no 
 patriot ever conceded, or could with ti'uth and propriety admit, that 
 its people had ever sanctioned the atrocious doctrine of secession ; and 
 although for a time, under the rebel control, as under Federal military 
 occupation, the inalienable rights of the state were in abe.yance, they 
 were neither lost nor surrendered." The banks of the state were in a 
 condition of hopeless insolvency, and the governor insisted that, as they 
 had arrayed themselves as enemies to the national government, they 
 were entitled to neither sympathy nor protection. He recommended 
 that assistance be given to the families of those who were serving in 
 the Federal army, and that some means be provided for the educa- 
 tion of colored children. Fortier says that Gov. Hahn "lived long 
 enough to respect the former Confederates whom he called 'bad men,' 
 and to win, in his tiu-n, their respect at the end of his career." 
 
 The legislature was as implacable as the governor with regard to the 
 Confederates. On Oct. 12 a resolution was introduced in the state 
 senate instructing the attorney-general and the several district attor- 
 neys to begin criminal proceedings against certain persons for perjury 
 and treason, or either. The persons named in this order were Thomas 
 0. Moore, Henry M. Hyams, T. J. Semmes, E. W. Moise. John Sli- 
 dell, Judah P. Benjamin: all members of the legislature that voted 
 in Dec, 1860, for the act calling the convention to pass the secession 
 ordinance; and all members of the convention "who voted for or 
 signed the said act of secession, by which the state has been pros-
 
 LOUISIANA 487 
 
 trated and ruined ; also all judges of the supreme and inferior coiirts, 
 the public officers of the state, cities, corporations and parishes, who 
 have not now renounced their treasonable acts and returned to their 
 loyalty." All the persons included in this order were barred from 
 receiving any benefit from the general amnesty, and the attorney- 
 general and district attorneys, in ease of failure to institute pro- 
 ceedings as directed, were to forfeit their offices. 
 
 Although the civil government of the state had been reorganized and 
 a new constitution put into effect, military rule still prevailed to a 
 large extent and the powers of the civil authorities were quite lim- 
 ited. The provisional court established by president Lincoln's order of 
 Oct. 20, 1862, and which began operations during Shepley's ad- 
 ministration, was still in existence. The validity of the proceedings of 
 this tribunal was questioned both before and after the state govern- 
 ment was reorganized, but it continued to be the court of last resort. In 
 May. 1864, Gen. S. A. Hurlbut succeeded Gen. Banks in command of 
 the Department of the Gulf, and on Dec. 27. "upon the official report 
 of the attorney-general of the State of Louisiana, that the ordinary 
 courts of justice are insufficient to punish the offenders named by him, 
 and in consideration that the state government and courts of Louisi- 
 ana owe their present existence to military authority," he ordered 
 certain persons to be brought for trial before the military commission 
 then in session in New Orleans. The legislature above referred to 
 was sustained by bayonets, and not having any opposition it pro- 
 ceeded to enact laws that in time of peace would have condemned the 
 members to political oblivion. They repealed all the state laws relat- 
 ing to the manner of choosing presidential electors and by joint ballot 
 of the two houses selected 7 electors to represent the state in the 
 electoral college. Charles Smith and R. King Cutler were elected U. 
 S. senators in the places of Judah P. Benjamin and John Slidell, who 
 had resigned their seats in that body when Louisiana seceded. Smith 
 took the place of Benjamin, whose term expired on March 4, 1865, and 
 the legislature elected Gov. Hahn for the full term to succeed Smith. 
 To accept the seat in the U. S. senate, the governor resigned on March 
 4, 1865, and Lieut.-Gov. J. Madison Wells succeeded to the office. This 
 brought the administration of Gov. Hahn to an end. During the 
 year that he had held the office he had really been governor over a 
 small portion of the .state only. Gov. Allen at Shreveport administer- 
 ing the affairs of the state outside the Federal lines. (See Allen, 
 Henry W.) 
 
 Hahnville, the parish seat of St. Charles parish, was founded in 
 1872 by ex-Gov. Michael Hahn, who laid out the town on his sugar 
 plantation and on Feb. 15, 1873, he issued the first number of the St. 
 Charles Herald, which paper he continued to publish until his death 
 in 1886. The town is located in the northern part of the parish on 
 the line of the Texas & Pacific R. R., and has a population of 300. 
 According to Young's Directory for 1909 Hahnville has 8 general 
 stores, a large sugar mill, and some minor industries. Being located in 
 a rich agi'icultural district it is the principal trading point for a con- 
 siderable population, but as it is only about 25 miles from New Or-
 
 488 LOUISIANA 
 
 leans it is not probable that Hahnville will ever become an important 
 commercial center. 
 
 Halle, a post-village in the eastern part of Union parish, is about 
 4 miles west of the Ouachita river on the Little Book & Monroe R. R., 
 and 15 miles east of Famerville, the parish seat. 
 
 Hall is a post-hamlet of Livingston parish. 
 
 Hall, Dominick Augustine, jurist, was a native of South Caro- 
 lina, where he was born in 1765. He began the practice of law in 
 that state in 1786. but subsequently removed to the Territory of Or- 
 leans, where he followed his profession imtil 1809, when he was ap- 
 pointed territorial district judge. When Louisiana was admitted into 
 the Union in 1812 he was chosen one of the supreme judges of the new 
 state, but soon resigned this office to become U. S. district judge, which 
 position he held until his death. While the city of New Orleans was 
 under martial law in Jan., 1815, he granted a writ of habeas corpus 
 for the release of Louis Louallier, and for this he was arrested by 
 order of Gen. Jackson. After the order proclaiming martial law was 
 revoked Judge Hall fined Jackson $1,000 for contempt of court. (See 
 Jackson. Andrew.) Judge Hall died in New Orleans on Dec. 12, 
 1820. 
 
 Hall, Luther Egbert, who became governor of Louisiana in 1912, is 
 a graduate of the Law School of Tulane University, and had, step by 
 step, attained the goal of his expressed ambition — that of a seat upon 
 the Supreme bench of the State — when he answered the call of the pro- 
 gressive and reform element of the Democratic party in Louisiana, as 
 voiced through the Good Government League of the State, and became 
 a candidate for Gubernatorial honors. He was opposed by John T. 
 Michell and Dr. James B. Aswell, both of whom withdrew from the 
 race after the first primary election, leaving Judge Hall unopposed in 
 the general election of April 16, 1912, at which time he received a 
 much larger vote than did any other candidate for state office. The 
 platform of the Good Government League, upon which Judge Hall 
 was elected Governor, resulted from a popular demand throughout 
 the State for a reversal of the legislative aud administrative policies 
 of the Louisiana government, and was pronouncedly for a "restora- 
 tion of true democracy, government by the people, economy, lower 
 taxation, and equal rights to all," Two specific pledges of this plat- 
 form to which especial importance attached were non-interference 
 with the Legislature, to the end, as the Governor expressed it, "that the 
 General Assembly might return to its original dignity as the law-mak- 
 ing body of the State," and improvement in the fi.scal sj'stem of the 
 State. In his inaugural address at Baton Rouge he recounted the 
 various pledges of the platform upon which he and an unusually large 
 number of new members of the Legislature had been elected, and 
 called for their fulfillment, but assured the members of the General As- 
 sembly that they would be entirely free from any undiie interference 
 with their deliberations on his part. He adhered strictly to this 
 policy, going no further in attempting to influence legislation 
 than to send special messages and make recommendations. The 
 regular session of 1912 approved the income tax amendment to
 
 LOUISIANA 489 
 
 the Federal Constitution, and passed some twenty-odd measures 
 that were good and constructive, tending to check extravagance, 
 to assure honest elections, good government, and greater progress and 
 prosperity to the State. Much time was given to amending and repeal- 
 ing laws passed by previous sessions. An anti-lobby law was enacted, 
 and a measure providing for commission government for New Orleans. 
 A few salary-raising acts were passed, but these were vetoed by 
 the Governor. The compulsory education statute, as applied to New 
 Orleans, was amended and strengthened to satisfy teachers and 
 educational associations. The most important work of the session, 
 however, was provision for a Tax Commission of thirty members, 
 to amplify the work of the Commission appointed by Governor Blaneh- 
 ard six years previously and whose report the Legislature of 1910 
 declined to hear. This new Commission was composed of sixteen 
 members of the House of Representatives, eight members of the 
 Senate, and six citizens appointed by the Governor. It was the 
 intention that Commission should devise a plan by which city, 
 parish, and State taxes could be levied separately, and a system of 
 assessment devised that would do away with the Board of Equalization 
 and the Board of Appraisers, substituting therefor a permanent Tax 
 Commission, made up of one member from each railroad commission 
 district, such commission to have control of all matters relating to 
 assessment and tax gathering. Immediately following the adjourn- 
 ment of the regular session of the Legislature, the Tax Commission 
 met at Baton Rouge and proceeded with its labors. When it had made 
 sufficient progress to warrant such action. Governor Hall called an 
 extra session of the Legislature to convene August 12, 1912. for the 
 purpose of hearing the report of the Tax Commission, formulating an 
 amendment to the Constitution remodeling the system of taxation, to 
 provide for the continuance of the Tax Commission, and to provide for 
 the expense of the session. The Commission had only been in session 
 three weeks, but had completely revised the fiscal system of the State 
 and was ready to make recommendations. The special session of the 
 Legislature convened on the 12th and received the report of the Tax 
 Commission in a special message from the Governor. The House of 
 Representatives passed a Constitutional amendment designed to carry 
 out the recommendations of the Commission by a vote of ninety to 
 fourteen. The same legislation passed the Senate by a vote of thirty- 
 six to three, and the Legislature adjourned August 24. Governor 
 Hall said of the work of the special session : "I regard the tax plan 
 adopted as the greatest progressive step ever taken in Louisiana in 
 this direction, and am confident that it will meet with the favor of 
 the people, and that in time Louisiana will be looked upon as having 
 the best system of taxation and assessment enjoyed by any state in 
 the Union. ' ' Eleven Constitutional amendments had been provided by 
 the regular session, and to these eight were added by the special ses- 
 sion, to be voted upon by the people at the November election. In the 
 election, however, the most important of these amendments, affecting 
 taxation, met with determined opposition at New Orleans, by the 
 forces that had opposed Governor Hall's election, and were defeated.
 
 490 LOUISIANA 
 
 Of the nineteen constitutional amendments voted upon in November, 
 nine were lost as follows : Providing for the segregation of taxes, tax 
 exemption of industrial enterprises, exemption of money on deposit, 
 exemption of homes, tax home-rule for cities. State debt refiinding, 
 allowing women to serve on school and charity- boards, tax exemption 
 of new railroads, and the recall. At the regular session of the Leg- 
 islature in 1914 efforts were made to resubmit the important features 
 of tax reform to a vote of the people, but many changes had taken 
 place among the members and these measures were defeated in the 
 General Assembly, though they were insistently urged by the Gov- 
 ernor. This session also made appropriations so far in excess of an- 
 ticipated revenues that the Governor was obliged to veto parts of the 
 general appropriation biU embodying expenditures amounting to a 
 million and a half dollars, and to thus render an extra session inevat- 
 able. This session passed legislation embodying the following Consti- 
 tutional amendments to be voted upon by the people in November, 
 1914: Relative to foreign banking concerns doing exclusively a busi- 
 ness of lending money or dealing in bills of exchange, exempting from 
 taxation money in hand or on deposit, to exempt the city of Monroe — 
 because it maintains its separate school system — from three mills par- 
 ish school tax. increasing the Governor's salary from $5,000 to $7,500 
 on and after the third Monday in May. 1916 ; exempting from tax for 
 a period of ten years the capital stock and property of irrigation com- 
 panies: permitting women to ser^-e on boards of charity, correction 
 and education ; authorizing the Board of Commissiouei"s of Audubon 
 Park to issue bonds for public improvements: allo^ving widows and 
 veterans who man-ied prior to 1890 to participate in the pension fund ; 
 providing for the appointment of an assistant district attorney in Cal- 
 casieu and Caddo disti-icts; providing for the retirement of levee 
 bonds: authorizing parishes to issue bonds for road improvements; 
 giving the Port Commission authority to dig a canal uniting Lake 
 Pontchartrain and the Mississippi River : to give an additional .iudge 
 to the 13th. 25th. and 28th judicial di.stricts: providing for a license 
 tax on motor vehicles, the proceeds to be used for road improvement ; 
 proA-iding for the control of Lakeshore Park, on Lake Pontchartrain, 
 and authorizing a bond issue: providing for the recall of officials. 
 While the special session of the Legislature of 1912 was in session, 
 Governor Hall was invited to become a member and chairman for 
 Louisiana of the Finance Committee of the Democratic National Com- 
 mittee, and to attend the notification ceremonies incident to the nom- 
 ination of Woodrow "Wilson for President of the United States. The 
 Governor accepted the chairmanship, hut could not participate in the 
 notification ceremonies because, as he said, the legislature was in ses- 
 sion considering the "most important measures that have come be- 
 fore it in a generation. ' ' 
 
 Hamburg, a post and money order hamlet, located near the cen- 
 ter of Avoyelles parish. It is an express and telegraph station on 
 the Texas & Pacific R. R. 
 
 Hamlin, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Sabine parish, is
 
 LOUISIANA 491 
 
 situated near the Bayou St. Michael, 5 miles northeast of Noble, the 
 nearest railroad station, 14 miles northwest of Many, the parish seat. 
 
 Hammond, an incorporated town in the southern part of Tangi- 
 pahoa parish, is situated at the junction of the Illinois Central and 
 the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railroads, about 15 miles south of 
 Amite, the parish seat, in the great long leaf yellow pine district, 
 east of the Mississippi river, a large part of which is still virgin forest. 
 The surrounding country, of which Hammond is the shipping and 
 supply point, is developing into a fine stock and dairy district as the 
 timber is cut. Excellent train service is afforded by the Illinois Cen- 
 tral road and the shipping facilities are equally good to the great 
 markets of the north and to New Orleans. The town is in the famous 
 "Ozone Belt," of the South, and is developing into one of the best 
 known of the southern winter resorts. It has three hotels, fine schools, 
 beautiful churches, electric lights and is installing one of the best 
 waterworks and sewerage systems in the South. There are fine ar- 
 tesian wells that supply the town with pure water, and the mineral 
 water is bottled and exported for medicinal purposes. The principal 
 industries are sawmills, planing mills, brickyards and wood-working 
 factories. It has an international money order postoffice, express of- 
 fices, telegraph and telephone facilities, two banks and numerous 
 mercantile establishments. Its population in 1910 -was 2942. 
 
 Hanna, a post-village in the southwestern part of Red river 
 parish is situated on the Red river, and is a station on the Texas & 
 Pacific R. R., about 5 miles south of Coushatta, the parish seat. 
 Population 100. 
 
 Happy Jack, a post village in the central part of Plaquemines 
 parish, is on the west bank of the Mississippi river, and the New Or- 
 leans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R., about 6 miles below Pointe 
 a la Hache, the parish seat. It is in a district of orange groves and 
 does considerable business. 
 
 Hardie, a post-village in the northern part of Caldwell parish, is 
 about 5 miles northwest of Corey, the nearest railroad station, and 
 12 miles northwest of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 
 Hardshell, a post-village in the northern part of Vernon parish, 
 is about 9 miles northeast of Orangeville, the nearest railroad station, 
 and 10 miles northeast of Leesville, the parish seat. 
 
 Hard Times Landing, a small settlement in the eastern part of 
 Tensas parish, is on the west bank of the Mississippi river, almost 
 opposite and about 6 miles distant from Grand Gulf, Miss., and about 
 15 miles above St. Joseph, the parish seat. In the spring of 1863 this 
 landing came into considerable prominence as being the place where 
 Gen. Grant massed his forces for the beginning of the Vicksburg 
 campaign. 'Population 135. 
 
 Hargis, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Grant parish, 
 is about 3 miles southeast of Verda, the nearest railroad station, and 
 15 miles northwest of Colfax, the parish seat. 
 
 Harmanson, John H., lawyer and planter, was born at Norfolk, 
 Va., in Jan., 1803. After pursuing classical studies he graduated at 
 Jefferson college in Mississippi, studied law and practiced in Louisi-
 
 492 LOUISIANA 
 
 ana. where he became interested in planting. In 1844 he was a state 
 senator, and was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 31st 
 Congress as a Democrat, sersang until his death, which oecurrred at 
 New Orleans on Oct. 25, ISoO. 
 
 Haxpe, Benard De La, a French officer of distinction, arrived in 
 the Bay of Jlobile in Aug.. 1718. to settle a colony on the Red river, 
 bringing with him 60 people for his concession. Though he spent 
 only a few years in the young colony of Louisiana, returning to 
 Prance in 1723. he has contributed largely to the general knowledge 
 of this early period through his manuscript journal of the first estab- 
 lishment of the French in Louisiana, down to 1722. (A translation of 
 this valuable manuscript is found in Vol. III. Historical Collections 
 of Louisiana. 1851). He arrived at Natchitoches before the close of 
 the year 1718. and built a fort there. He also explored at this time 
 large portions of Texas, and extended his discoveries to the Arkansas, 
 where he visited an Indian village "of 3 miles in extent, containing 
 upwards of 4.000 persons." He likewise constructed Fort St. Louis 
 de Carlorette (q. v.) on north latitude 33 deg. 55 min., as a sign of 
 the jurisdiction of France, and concluded various alliances with the 
 Indian tribes. He was later commissioned by the "Western Company, 
 Aug. 10. 1721, to make another attempt to establish a permanent 
 settlement on Bay St. Bernard, and sailed thither with a well equipped 
 expedition, which took formal possession of the region in the name of 
 France. The Indians again proved hostile, however, and La Harpe 
 did not deem it prudent to attempt an establishment. Later in the 
 year Bienville appointed him to the couimand of an expedition to the 
 Arkansas river to tind out whether it was navigable as far as the 
 Indian nations he had discovered in 1719. He set out in December 
 with a detachment of 18 soldiers and provisions for 45 days, and 
 ascended the Arkansas for a distance of 350 miles, but on account of 
 sickness among his men, the hostility of the Indians, and his feeble 
 force, he was \inable to make a settlement. He returned to Biloxi on 
 May 25, 1722. ha^nng narrowly escaped a surprise by a Chickasaw war 
 party. The services of La Harpe established the claim of France to 
 the extensive region drained by the Upper Red river and the Arkansas, 
 and largely tended to balk the Spanish in their efforts to form settle- 
 ments within that country. That his efforts were appreciated by Gov. 
 Bienville is evidenced by a certificate issued by the latter, dated Biloxi, 
 July 1. 1720. and couched in the most complimentary language. 
 
 Harris is a post-hamlet of Natchitoches parish. 
 
 Harris^ John S., U. S. senator from Loiiisiana, was born in Trux- 
 ton, N. Y., Dee. 18, 1825. He received a good education ; moved with 
 family to Milwaukee, Wis., in 1846. and then to Concordia parish, 
 La. In 1863 he became a planter, was elected to the Louisiana con- 
 stitutional convention in 1867, to the state senate in 1868, and to the 
 U. S. senate from Louisiana as a Republican. He served in the U. 
 S. senate from July 17, 1868, to March 3. 1871. 
 
 Harrisonburg:, the parish seat of Catahoula parish, is located in 
 the eastern part of the parish on the right bank of the Ouachita river, 
 which is the only channel of transportation, as the town is without a
 
 LOUISIANA 493 
 
 railroad, Florence, about 10 miles east on the New Orleans & North- 
 western, being the nearest railway station. The first white man to 
 settle on the present site of Harrisonburg was Jacob Simmons. The 
 place was designated as the parish seat when the parish was organized 
 and the firet courthouse was erected in 1808. Three years later the 
 land was acquired by preemption by John Hamberlin, who subse- 
 quently sold it to John Harrison, and in 1818 the latter employed 
 Edward Dorsey to survey and make a plat of the town site, and it was 
 from Mr. Harrison that the town derived its name. Prior to the Civil 
 war Harrisonburg was a busy little town. During hostilities the Con- 
 federates built Fort Beauregard on the hill overlooking the town, and 
 this place was several times attacked by the Federals, with the result 
 that during the bombardments the town was set on fire and a large 
 portion of it destroyed. The Harrisonburg of the present day has 
 recovered some of this old ante-bellum prestige. It has a money order 
 postoffice, several general stores, a newspaper, and is an important 
 shipping point and trading center for a large section of the parish. 
 Population 361. 
 
 Hart, a post-hamlet in the northwestern part of Vernon parish, 
 is about 3 miles south of Orangeville, the nearest railroad station, 
 and 6 miles northwest of Leesville, the parish seat. 
 
 Harvells Mills, a postoffice in the western part of St. Helena 
 parish, is about 6 miles southwest of Greensburg, the parish seat, and 
 most convenient railroad station. 
 
 Harvey, a village in the northern part of Jefferson parish, is on 
 the west bank of the Mississippi river, about 6 miles above New Or- 
 leans, and is a station on the Southern Pacific R. R. It has a money 
 order postoffice, erpress office, telegraph station and telephone facil- 
 ities, several mercantile establishments, and a population of 175. 
 
 Hatcher, a post-hamlet in the northwest corner of Sabine parish, 
 is situated on a branch of Bear creek, about 5 miles southwest of Ben- 
 son, the nearest railroad station. It is located in the western long 
 leaf yellow pine district and has important lumber interests. 
 
 Haughton, an incorporated town of Bossier parish, about 14 miles 
 east of Shreveport, is on the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific R. R. 
 It is the shipping and supply town of the eastern part of the parish, 
 has a money order po.stolfice, telegraph station, express office, tele- 
 phone facilities, several business houses, two saw mills, one of which 
 has a planing mill in connection, a grist mill, cotton-gin, chair fac- 
 toi-y and a hotel. Population 249. 
 
 Hawthorn, a post-village in the central part of Vernon parish, is 
 on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 4 miles northwest of Lees- 
 ville, the parish seat. It has lumber industries and a population of 
 175. 
 
 Hayes, a village in the southeastern part of Calcasieu parish, is 
 on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 20 miles southeast of Lake 
 Charles, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, express 
 office, telegraph station and telephone facilities, and is a trading and 
 shipping point for the neighborhood.
 
 494 LOUISIANA 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 19th president of the United States, 
 •was born at Dehuvare. Ohio. Oct 4. 1822. a son of Rutherford and 
 Sophia (Birchard) Hayes, the former of Scotch and the latter of 
 English ancestry. In 1842 he graduated at Kenyon college. Gambler, 
 Ohio, entered the Harvard law school the following year, and gradu- 
 ated there in 1845. He began practice at Lower Sandiisky, Ohio, but 
 in 1849 removed to Cincinnati. Prior to the formation of the Repub- 
 lican party he was a Whig, but when the new party was organized he 
 became one of its stanchest supporters. In 1858 he was elected city 
 solicitor of Cincinnati, but was defeated for reelection in April. 1861. 
 On May 23, of that year, he accepted a commission as major of the 
 23d Ohio infantry, and by successive promotions attained the rank 
 of brigadier-general. At the election of 1864 he was chosen to rep- 
 resent his district in the lower house of Congress, and in June. 1865, 
 resigned his commission in the army. As a member of the house he 
 voted with his party on all matters touching the reconstruction of the 
 Southern .states: favored negro suffrage, and gave a hearty support to 
 the movement for the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson. 
 In 1867 he was elected governor of Ohio, defeating Allen 6. Thur- 
 man : was reelected in 1869 over George H. Pendleton ; was defeated 
 by "William Allen for Congress in 1872 ; and on the 7th ballot in the 
 Republican national convention of 1876 was nominated for the presi- 
 dency. The resnlt of the election was not decided until Blarch 2, 
 1877, when he was declared to be the successful candidate. (See 
 Electoral Commission.) On Nov. 17. 1876. he wrote a letter to John 
 Sherman, then in New Oi-leans. in which he said: "Tou feel. I am 
 sure, as I do. about this whole business. A fair election would have 
 given us about 40 electoral votes at the South, at least that many. 
 But we are not to allow our friends to defeat one outrage by another. 
 There must be nothing curved on our part. Let Mr. Tilden have the 
 place by violence, intimidation and fraud, rather than undertake to 
 prevent it by means that Avill not bear the severest scrutiny." Not- 
 withstanding this expression of high moral sentiment, Mr. Hayes ac- 
 cepted the presidency at the hands of a commission, which, "by 
 means that will not bear the severest scrutiny" declared he had a 
 majority of one vote in the electoral college, and on March o. the 4th 
 being on Sunday, he was inaugurated. In his inaugural address he 
 announced it as his intention to put forth his "best efforts in behalf 
 of a civil policy which will forever wipe out in any political affairs 
 the color line and the distinction between the North and the South, 
 to the end that we may have not merely a united North or South, 
 but a imited country." One of his first official acts was to withdraw 
 the Federal troops from South Carolina and Louisiana, and to recog- 
 nize the administration elected by the people in those states. Con- 
 cerning this movement he said in his message to Congress on Dec. 
 3. 1877: "The results that have followed are indeed significant and 
 encouraging. All apprehension of danger from remitting those states 
 to local .self-governments is dispelled, and a most sahitary change 
 in the minds of the people has begun and is in progress in every 
 part of that section of the country once the theatre of unhappy civil
 
 LOUISIANA 495 
 
 strife, substituting for suspicion, distrust and aversion, concord, 
 friendship and patriotic attachment to the Union. * * * There 
 has been a general reestablishment of order, and of the orderly ad- 
 ministration of justice. Instances of remaining lawlessness have be- 
 come of rare occurrence ; political turmoil and turbulence have dis- 
 appeai-ed ; useful industries have been resumed ; public credit in the 
 Southern states has been greatly strengthened ; and the encouraging 
 benefits of a revival of commerce between the sections of the country, 
 lately embroiled in civil war, are fully enjoyed." Though there has 
 always been some doubt as to the legality of Mr. Hayes' title to the 
 presidency, his conciliatory policy toward the State of Louisiana has 
 entitled him to the gratitude of her people, and they have not for- 
 gotten that he was the first president after the great Civil war to 
 make an honest and patriotic effort to restore good feeling between 
 the North and the South. Mr. Hayes died on Jan. 17, 1893. 
 
 Haynesville, a town of Claiborne parish, was incorporated on 
 March 18, 1861. It is situated in the northwest corner, about 15 miles 
 from Homer, the parish seat, and is a station on the Louisiana & 
 Northwest R. R. It has a money order postoffice with 2 free rural 
 delivery routes, a bank, express office, telegraph station, telephone 
 facilities, several good mercantile establishments and is a good busi- 
 ness towTi. Population 663. 
 
 Hays, Harry T., soldier, entered the Confederate service as 
 colonel of the 7th Louisiana infantry, one of the finest regiments of 
 the state. He took part in the battle of Manassas ; in the Shenandoah 
 Valley campaign of 1862, and at Port Republic was wounded. This 
 prevented his taking part in the Seven Days' battles. On July 25, 
 1862, while still absent on account of his wound, Col. Hays was com- 
 missioned brigadier-general, taking the brigade formerly commanded 
 by Gen. Richard Taylor. At the battle of Sharpsburg his brigade 
 was in the thickest part of the battle, and at Fredericksburg, Chan- 
 cellorsviUe, Gettysburg and other battles. Gen. Hays exhibited great 
 bravery and valor. Winder tells how his charge won the day at Gettys- 
 burg: "Hays moved his command forward in gallant style with a 
 cheer," and from the first battle in which he took part, down to that 
 terrible sti-uggle in the Wilderness, in the spring of 1864, the name 
 of Gen. Hays is mentioned with flattering frequency in the reports 
 of the various commanders. On May 9, 1864, he was severely wounded 
 at Spottsylvania Court House, but had sufficiently recovered by fall 
 to attend to getting together all the absentees from the commands east 
 of the Mississippi. On May 10, 1865, he was appointed major-general 
 in the ai'my of the Confederate States, but at this time the Confed- 
 eracy had ceased to exist anywhere except in the Trans-Mississippi 
 department, where he then was, but on May 26, 1865, this department 
 also gave up the fight and the war was ended. After the close of the 
 war Gen. Hays lived in New Orleans. In 1867 he was elected sheriff 
 of Orleans parish, but considerable influence was brought to bear and 
 Gen. Mower removed him from office. He died in New Orleans, La., 
 Aug. 21, 1876.
 
 496 LOUISIANA 
 
 Head of Island, a money order post-village in the southwestern 
 part of Livingston parish, is situated on the Amite river, about 12 
 miles east of Gonzales, the nearest railroad station. Population 100. 
 
 Health, State Board of.— The first mention of a board of health, 
 in the acts of the general assembly of the State of Louisiana, was an 
 act approved March 17, 1818, which established a board of health and 
 health officers, "to prevent the introduction of malignant, pestilen- 
 tial and infectious diseases into the city of New Orleans." This act 
 pro^•ided for a consulting physician and quarantine master to quar- 
 antine vessels from foreign ports; also for quarantine of infectious 
 diseases in the city. The state government was authorized to advance 
 a loan of $10,000 to the board of health, to carry out the quarantine 
 regula.tions. All pilots were required to report diseases on ships to 
 the board ; this act was repealed on March 6, 1819. The legislature 
 enacted a second "code of public health" on Feb. 17, 1821, the mayor 
 of New Orleans to be exofficio president of this board ; the city council 
 to choose 5 aldermen, and the governor, with the advice and consent 
 of the senate, was to appoint 7 inhabitants of New Orleans to act 
 with those chosen by the council, on the board. They were to serve 
 without compensation, though the secretary was to receive $800.00 a 
 year for his services. The act gave the board the power to purchase 
 10 acres of land on the Mississippi river near Fort St. Philip for a 
 quarantine station, and licenses were to be issued to dealers to sup- 
 ply the station with the necessary provisions. The officers at the 
 station were the resident physician, health officer and steward. It 
 was the duty of the health officer to board all incoming vessels and 
 compel the sailing masters or captains to declare under, oath all cases 
 of sickness. All vessels that could not show a clean bill of health 
 were to be detained not less than 15 days at the station. Shipmasters 
 violating this law forfeited $500 to the board of health, or were subject 
 to 6 months in jail. The first health officers for the city of New Or- 
 leans were provided for in the same act and consisted of 7 wardens, 
 whose duty it was to inspect houses, yards, boats, etc.. and who might 
 arrest and take to the quarantine ground such persons as the board 
 might direct. All keepers of irms, taverns and boarding houses were 
 required to report, on blanks furnished bj^ the mayor, the names of all 
 guests and boarders. A failure to make this report subjected the 
 keeper to a fine of $100, and a false report subjected him to a fine of 
 $500. If a guest fell sick the ease was to be reported to the board of 
 health within 12 hours. All the physicians of the city were required 
 to report all fever cases between May 1 and Nov. 1, and the sextons of 
 cemeteries were to report all burials. Failure to do this rendered the 
 physician or sexton subject to a fine. In 1877 a new law was passed 
 which provided for a state board of health, to consist of 9 members, 
 4 to be appointed by the governor of the state and 5 elected by the 
 city council of New Orleans. They were given power to make rules for 
 vaccination in New Orleans, and call upon the police to enforce these 
 rules ; to establish quarantine stations upon any of the approaches to 
 New Orleans, and the president of the board was to keep a register 
 of vital statistics. All the power the board had under the existing
 
 LOUISIANA 497 
 
 laws was retained. In 1878 Shreveport and Baton Rouge were made 
 sanitary districts ; the officers in these districts were appointed l)y the 
 governor and the mayors of the respective cities, and had duties very 
 similar 'to those of New Orleans, such as power to condemn unsafe 
 buildings, make quarantine rules, and keep a register of vital statis- 
 tics. In 1882 a supplementary law was passed, giving the board charge 
 of the slaughter houses that supplied the city of New Orleans with 
 food. Incorporated towns were authorized to establish local boards 
 of health, with power to pass ordinances for the repression of in- 
 fectious or contagious diseases and to regulate the water siipply, 
 drainage and ventilation of buildings. No other acts regarding pub- 
 lic health were passed until a new state board of health was created by 
 an act of July, 1898. This board consisted of 7 physicians, appointed 
 by the governor, to hold for seven years, their terms expiring differ- 
 ent years. The board was to have exclusive jurisdiction over maritime 
 quarantine of the state and to prepare sanitary codes and to inspect 
 and carry out the laws in force regarding the adulterations of food. 
 Parish and city boards of health were to be created to act under the 
 direction of the state board of health. This same act provided that 
 the municipal board of New Orleans was to make the sanitary regula- 
 tions for the slaughter houses of St. Bernard parish and the city of 
 New Orleans. An act of 1902 provided that the state board of health 
 should meet every 3 months, the membei-s to reeive $10 a day and 
 traveling expenses of 5 cents a mile. In addition to the exclusive con- 
 trol of maritime quarantine, the board was given supervision of land 
 quarantine. New parish boards of health, to consist of 3 persons 
 selected by the police .iury and 5 appointed by the municipal au- 
 thorities, were created to act in con.iunction with the state board in 
 matters affecting the whole state. 
 
 Heard, William Wright, governor of Louisiana from 1900 to 1904, 
 was born in 1853, and was reared on his father's farm in the northern 
 part of Louisiana. His parents, who came to Louisiana from Georgia, 
 had five sons and two daughters. "When the Civil war broke out in 
 1861, all the Heard boys who were old enough to bear arms entered 
 the Confederate service. As William was not old enough to .join the 
 army, he stayed at home and aided in the support of the family. 
 After the war he attended school at Farmerville, the seat of Union 
 pari.sh, where he received his academic education. In 1876 he was 
 elected clerk of the district court and after the expiration of his term 
 he remained in the office as deputy, being connected with it in various 
 capacities until 1892. In 1884 he was elected to the lower branch 
 of the state legislature, and subsequently to the state senate. He at- 
 tracted considerable attention as a senator by his intelligent and 
 courageous opposition to the Louisiana lottery company when it was 
 seeking a renewal of its charter, and the prominence thus gained led 
 to his being elected auditor of public accounts in 1892. Four years 
 later he was reelected auditor, and in 1900 was nominated by the 
 Democratic party for governor. He w^as elected by a large majority 
 and was inaugurated on May 21. Gov. Heard became a member of the 
 1—32
 
 498 LOUISIANA 
 
 Baptist clnirch in 1870, and was for some years president of the 
 Baptist state convention. 
 
 Heard's Administration. — Gov. Heard was elected on April 12, 
 1900. the legislature was convened in regular session on May 14. and 
 on the 21st he was inaugurated. Lieut. -Gov. Estopinal taking the oath 
 of ofiSee at the .same time. Several important acts were passed during 
 this session of the general assembly. On July 6 the governor approved 
 an act directing the general assembly to assume, on behalf of the state, 
 control of the state penitentiar.y and provide for the employment of 
 the convicts under state supervision, the act to go into effect on March 
 1, 1901, at the expiration of the contractor's lease. This was in ac- 
 cordance with the provisions of the constitution of 1898. (See Peniten- 
 tiary.) An appropriation of $200,000 was made to carry out the pro- 
 visions of the act, and during the first year it was in force the income 
 from the convict farms, etc., was $180,000, while the mortality among 
 the convicts was rediieed nearly 50 per cent, thus showing the wis- 
 dom of such legislation. Another act of the same date pro\'ided that 
 any bank operating under the laws of the state, in declaring divi- 
 dends, must carry over as a surplus at least 10 per cent of the net 
 protits that may have accrued since the last previous dividend, and 
 that this method must be continued until such surplus equals 20 per 
 cent of the capital stock of the bank, which surplus must not be with- 
 drawn or impaired in any wa.v. The effect of this act has been to 
 create confidence in the Louisiana state banks and to place these insti- 
 tutions on a sound fijiancial basis, with a reserve fund large enough 
 to meet any ordinary contingency. 
 
 On July 11, 1900, Gov. Heard approved an act permitting munic- 
 ipal corporations to expropriate gas, electric light and water works 
 plants belonging to private owners. By the provisions of the act, 
 when the municipal authorities cannot reach an agreement with the 
 owner they may apply by petition to the .judge of the district court, 
 who shall order the clerk to notify the o'mier to appoint six com- 
 missioners, property owners and residents of the parish, to examine 
 and determine the value of the property and make a report within 
 15 days. When the report of the commissioners has been filed with 
 the clerk that officer shall then cause the sheriff to notify both parties, 
 directing them to show cause why the commissioners' report should 
 not be approved by the court. Objections on the part of either the 
 owner or the municipalitA- may be heard in court, and either party 
 has the right of an appeal to the supreme court, though such appeal 
 shall not suspend the judgment of the district court, the pajTiient of 
 the amount, or the deposit thereof in the hands of the sheriff, giving 
 the municipal authorities possession of the plant until the appeal 
 may be decided against them. In all such expropriation proceedings 
 the rights of mortgages and other creditore are protected. This act 
 has been criticized as "socialistic," etc., but there is no doubt that it 
 has served to protect some of the smaller cities of the state against 
 poor service and extortionate prices by private concerns. 
 
 The day following the passage and approval of this act the general 
 assembly adopted the magnolia flower as the state flower, certainly
 
 LOUISIANA 499 
 
 a most appropriate selection. Other acts appropriated $25,000 for 
 the establishment of a permanent lepers' home; created a bureau of 
 labor statistics ; enlarged the powers of the railroad commission ; 
 created an oyster commission, and a resolution approved the speech 
 of Hon. Bourke Cochran at Montgomery, Ala., in which he advocated 
 a repeal of the 15th amendment to the Federal constitution. 
 
 On May 2, 1901. President McKinley visited New Orleans and was 
 received by G-ov. Heard in the cabildo. This was the first time a presi- 
 dent in ofiSee ever visited Louisiana. The Lake Borgue canal was 
 opened in 1901. Including Bayou Dupre, the canal is 7 miles in length 
 and gives the city of New Orleans direct water communication with 
 Mississippi sound. On Dec. 11, 1901, the Rice Association of America 
 was organized at Crowley. The objects of the association, as declared 
 at the time it was formed, are "to foster and pi-omote the rice in- 
 dustry; to find and secure markets for the sale of all rice products, 
 to the best advantage of the rice grower and manufacturer; and to 
 encourage the investment of capital in all rice entei-prises. " 
 
 On July 12, 1865, Gen. P. H. Sheridan confiscated at Shreveport 
 old Louisiana state bonds to the amount of $4,476,000, but as the 
 capture was made after the war had closed the U. S. government 
 never laid claim to the bonds. From that time until 1901, as the 
 bonds were properly identified by the state officials, certificates 
 were issued. In 1901 the value of the bonds equaled about $545,- 
 000. Some of these, for which the national treasury held descrip- 
 tive certificates, were missing from the state treasury. This echo 
 of the war caused some annoyance, but the state authorities and 
 the U. S. treasury department finally took steps to adjust the mat- 
 ter to the satisfaction of all concerned. 
 
 In April, 1902, the Louisiana supreme court handed down a de- 
 cision in a peculiar case. The owner of an orange grove in Plaque- 
 mines parish sold the crops for the years 1899 and 1900 in advance 
 for $8,000, one half of which was paid at the time the sale was 
 made and the other half to become due on Dec. 1, 1900. In the 
 contract it was stipulated that "the purchaser assumes all risks." 
 Three months after the transaction was completed a severe frost 
 came and killed the trees, so that the purchaser suffered a total 
 loss of the crops for the two years. He therefore brought suit to 
 recover the $4,000 already paid, and the defendant set up a claim 
 for the additional $4,000. The court decided that the owner could 
 keep the $4,000 that he had received, and released the purchaser 
 from further payment. Some of the justices rendered a dissenting 
 opinion, holding that the "assumption of all risks" covered the 
 loss of the trees, or that it meant only ordinary risks. If the for- 
 mer interpretation was accepted by the court the plaintiff was liable 
 for the full amount of $8,000, but if the clause covered only ordi- 
 nary risks he was entitled to recover the $4,000 paid at the time 
 the contract was concluded. 
 
 Early in April, 1902, Gov. Heard reported to the U. S. secretary 
 of state that the English government had agents in Louisiana en- 
 gaged in purchasing horses for use in the war against the Boers
 
 500 LOUISIANA 
 
 in South Africa ; that a camp had been established near New Or- 
 leans, and protested against what he considered a violation of the 
 neutrality laws. After an investigation of the matter the national 
 government decided that the neutrality laws had not been violated, 
 the only camp being one where horses and mules were received 
 and kept for shipment. However, the course of the governor in 
 entering his protest was subsequently approved by the general as- 
 sembly whicli met in regular session on May 12, 1902. 
 
 During this session a board of education Avas created, to con- 
 sist of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction, the 
 attorney-general, and seven citizens — one from each Congressional 
 district — to l)e appointed by the governor. Parish school boards 
 were also established and authorized to conduct graded and cen- 
 tral high schools when necessary. An appropriation of $100,000 
 was made to cover the cost of the Louisiana exhibit at the Louisi- 
 ana Purchase exposition at St. Louis in 1904; jurisdiction over a 
 portion of Chalmette plain was ceded to the United States ; the 
 governor was authorized to accept from the owners the title to 
 Camp Moore in Tangipahoa parish for a Confederate cemetery, and 
 the sum of $1,000 was appropriated for its care and improvement; 
 June 3 was declared a legal holiday to be known as "Confed- 
 erate day"; Franklin college was donated to the school board of 
 St. Landry parish ; railroad companies were directed to provide 
 separate coaches and waiting rooms for colored people; and the 
 appointment of a commission to determine the location of the 
 Louisiana military organizations at the siege of Vicksburg was 
 authorized. 
 
 During the year 1902 oil was found at Jennings and Welsh in 
 Calcasieu parish and at Breaux Bridge in the parish of St. Martin, 
 not much over 100 miles from New Orleans. The U. S. geological 
 survey reported the gulf coast oil as unsuited for illuminating pur- 
 poses; its value as a gas or an asphalt oil undetermined; its quali- 
 ties as a lubricating oil somewhat doubtful, but tliat it was avail- 
 able and economical as a generator of steam. (See Oil.) 
 
 On Dec. 2, 1908, Gov. Heard issued his proclamation calling the 
 general assembly to meet in extraordinary session on the 10th to 
 consider: 1 — To consider the boll weevil cotton pest; 2 — To re- 
 peal the law requiring a new registration of voters in the country 
 parislies on Dec. 31, 1903, and to provide for a supplementary 
 registration instead; 3— To provide for the erection of dwellings 
 for the officers of the colored insane asylum at Alexandria, an in- 
 stitution authorized by the preceding legislature; 4 — To reimburse 
 the tiscal agents of the state for money advanced by them to pay 
 the interest on the "Hope bonds," funded iiuder a decree of the 
 supreme court, and for the overflow sufferers and repairs on the 
 lepers' home; 5 — To make appropriations for the expenses of the 
 special session, for paving the sidewalks and improving the grounds 
 of the state eapitol; 6 — To enable the senate to act on all interim 
 appointments. The special session lasted 12 days, during which 
 time all the recommendations of the governor were acted upon
 
 LOUISIANA 501 
 
 favorably, with the exception of the one asking for the repeal of the 
 registration law. A crop pest commission was created to combat 
 the ravages of the boll weevil ; an appropriation of $25,000 was 
 made for residence for the officers of the colored insane asylum, 
 and the appropriation bills for the relief of the fiscal agents and 
 improvements were passed and approved. On the question of reg- 
 istration, the secretary of state was directed to furnish blanks for 
 a new registration to begin on Jan. 1, 1904. 
 
 The legislature of 1902 appropriated $2,500 for a centennial cele- 
 bration of the transfer of Louisiana to the United States and re- 
 quested the Louisiana Historical society to prepare a suitable pro- 
 gram, etc. On Dec. 11, 1903, Gov. Heard issued a proclamation 
 recommending the citizens of each parish to assemble at the court- 
 house on Saturday, Dec. 19, to observe the anniversary by appro- 
 priate ceremonies, especially the hoisting of the American flag. 
 The proclamation was generally complied with and the governor's 
 recommendations were carried out in a majority of the parishes. 
 (See Centennial Celebration.) 
 
 Probably the most important event of Gov. Heard's administra- 
 tion was the filing of tlie suit in the U. S. supreme court for the 
 ad.justment of the maritime l)oundary between the states of Lou- 
 isiana and IMississippi. By the act of Congress under which Lou- 
 isiana was admitted in 1812, the boTindary included "all the islands 
 within three leagues (about 10 statute miles) of the shore." Five 
 years later Mississippi was admitted under an enabling act which 
 was construed as extending the east line of the state, "due south 
 to the Gulf of Mexico, thence westerly, including all islands witliin 
 six leagues (about 20 miles) of the shore, to the most easterly 
 junction of the Pearl river with Lake Borgne, thence up said 
 river," etc. Hence, whatever the "shore" of Louisiana might be, 
 the islands within ten land miles of the same had been assigned 
 to her jurisdiction five years before the boundary of Mississippi was 
 defined as including the islands within 20 miles of her shore. 
 
 But little attention was paid by either state to the islands affected 
 by these overlapping boundaries until the development of the oys- 
 ter industry, when tlie disputed territory suddenly came to be 
 worth from two to ten iiiillious of dollars. The legislatures of both 
 states passed laws regulating the oyster fishing, and a clash of 
 authority was inevitable. Early in 1901 a dispute arose between the 
 fishermen and for a time it looked as though there would be a re- 
 sort to arms by the sheritfs of St. Bernard parish. La., and Har- 
 rison county. Miss. In this emergency Gov. Heard called a meeting 
 at New Orleans in Jan., 1901, to consider some plan of settlement. 
 As a result of this meeting Gov. Heard appointed five commission- 
 ers, to confer with a similar number to be appointed by Gov. Lon- 
 gino of IMississippi, and endeavor to adjust the question of boun- 
 dary in a way that would be satisfactory to the fishermen of both 
 states. The commissioners met at New Orleans on Jlarch 26, when 
 the Louisiana members insisted iipon a boundary "following the 
 deep water channel through the sound into the gulf eastward of
 
 502 LOUISIANA 
 
 tin- Chaiideleur islands." To this the Mississippi commissioners 
 replied that they considered as islands considerable territory thai 
 Louisiana claimed to he mainland. The report of the joint com- 
 mission said: "It is apparent that the only hope of settlement is 
 a friendly suit in tlie supreme court of the United States, and Ave 
 respectfully suggest that course." Accordingly, a suit was filed 
 in Oct., 1902, by "The State of Louisiana, one of the United States 
 of America, by William "W. Heard, governor, and upon the informa- 
 tion of "Walter Guion, attorney-general." In the bill of complaint 
 Louisiana claimed as the boundary "the deep water channel off the 
 moiith of the Pearl river, eastward following the deep water chan- 
 nel to the mouth of Half ]\Ioon island, through the Mississippi 
 sound cliannel to Cat Island pass, northeast of Isle au Pitre, into 
 the Gulf of ^Mexico." Louisiana examined about 100 witnesses and 
 introduced nearly that number of maps, charts and diagrams, be- 
 sides numerous documents. Mississippi made a similar effort, and 
 the evidence submitted to the court covered about 12,000 type- 
 written pages. Gov. Heard's term expired before a decision was 
 reached, but the general assembly on June 17, 1904, adopted a 
 resolution approving his course in filing the suit, and a few days 
 later made an appropriation to employ counsel to assist the attor- 
 nej^-general. Argument was heard by the court in Oct., 1905, and 
 on March 5, 1906, the opinion was handed down by Chief Justice 
 Fuller. In the decision it was held that "the peninsula of St. Ber- 
 nard and adjoining i,slands are a part of the territory of Louisiana, 
 imder the act of Congress in 1812 defining the boundary of that 
 state, and that the latter act defining the boundary of jMississippi 
 cannot be taken as intended to controvert the Louisiana act." The 
 chief justice said: "The general laud office of the United States, 
 in all the maps it has caused to be made of Louisiana and Jlis- 
 sissippi. has been consistent in its recognition of the ownership 
 by Louisiana of the dispiited area. * * * The record contains 
 much evidence of the exercise by Louisiana of jurisdiction over the 
 territory in dispute and the general recognition of it by Mississippi 
 as belonging to Louisiana." 
 
 The boundary as fixed by the suit begins at the mouth of the 
 Pearl river; thence eastwardly through Heron bay and the pass 
 between Grand island and the mainland to a point about a mile 
 north of the most northern point of the Isle au Pitre; thence 
 southeast through the pass between Isle au Pitre and Cat island 
 for a distance of some 4 miles ; and thence due east to the deep 
 water channel east of the Chandeleur islands. 
 
 At the election for state officers on April 19, 1904, Newton C. 
 Blanchard. the Democratic candidate for governor, was elected over 
 W. J. Rehan, TJepublioan, by a majority of 42.468. Jared Y. San- 
 ders, Democrat, Avas elected lieutenant-governor by substantially 
 the same vote, and witli the assembling of tlie legislature in reg- 
 ular session on :\lay 9 Gov. Heard ".s administration came to an end. 
 
 Heam, Lafcadio, journalist and author, was born about 1850, on 
 the island of Santa I\Iaura, one of the Ionian group, Greece, his
 
 LOUISIANA 503 
 
 mother being a Greek woman and his father an English army sur- 
 geon, who was stationed in Greece during tlie English protectorate. 
 Lafcadio was educated in England, Ireland and France, and after 
 the death of his father came to the United States. In Cincinnati, 
 Ohio, he learned the printer's trade, at which he worked for some 
 time, then became a reporter, and finally a traveling correspondent 
 for a Cincinnati paper. One of his vacations was spent in the 
 South, and liking the country he became a resident of New Orleans, 
 where he engaged in journalism. In the meantime he devoted con- 
 siderable time to the study of Oriental literature, wliich possessed 
 a strange fascination for him. His first book, "Stray Leaves from 
 Strange Literature," has been described as a prose poem. He wrote 
 also "Chinese Ghosts," which deals with the legendary lore of 
 that country, translated from the French of Theophile Gautier 
 "One of Cleopatra's Nights," and wrote a charming story, "Chita," 
 while residing in New Orleans. 
 
 Herbert, Louis, soldier, was born in Louisiana. He was appointed 
 to the U. S. military academy, where he graduated in 184.5 as brevet 
 second-lieutenant of engineers, and served in the regular army as 
 assistant engineer in the construction of Fort Livingston, Bara- 
 taria Island, La., 1845-46. He then resigned from the army and 
 became a planter in Iberville parish. Later he became an officer in 
 the Louisiana state militia; was a member of the state senate, and 
 was chief engineer of the state from 1855 to 1860. At the opening 
 of the Ci\dl war he entered the service of the Confederate States as 
 solonel of the 3d La. infantry; served in the battles at "Wilson's 
 creek at Pea Ridge, where he was captured. On May 26, 1862 he 
 was commissioned brigadier-general and after being exchanged 
 led the 2nd brigade. Little's division, Price's army, in northern 
 ]\Iississippi. He took a gallant part in the battle of luka and was 
 afterwards for a time in command of Little's division; distinguished 
 himself in the battle of Corinth, and served in the siege of Vicks- 
 burg. After fall of that city. Gen. Hebert was exchanged and sent 
 to North Carolina to take charge of the heavy artillery in the Cape 
 Fear district, and continued to act as chief engineer of the De- 
 partment of North Carolina until the close of the war. After peace 
 was declared he returned to his home in Louisiana and resumed 
 his life as a planter. 
 
 Hebert, Paul Octave, twelfth governor of the State of Louisiana, 
 was a native of the state, iiaving been born in the parish of Iber- 
 ville, Dec. 12, 1818. He was a son of Paul Hebert and a descendant 
 of the Acadians who came to Louisiana about the middle of the 18th 
 century. In 1836 he graduated with honors at Jeflferson college, 
 and soon after entered the U. S. military academy at "West Point, 
 N. Y., where he graduated in 1840, standing first in a class of 42, 
 among whom were William T. Sherman and George H. Thomas. 
 Upon graduating he entered the army as second lieiitenant of en- 
 gineers; served as assistant to the board of engineers until Aug. 30, 
 1841 ; then returned to the academy and was assistant professor of 
 engineering until July 21, 1842, when he was appointed assistant
 
 504 LOUISIANA 
 
 engineer in the construction of the western passes to New Orleans. 
 On IMarch 31, 1845, lie resigned his commission in the anny and 
 was appointed chief engineer of the State of Louisiana and held 
 this position until 1S47. On April 9. 1847. he was appointed lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of the ]4th infantry, with which he served through 
 the Mexican war, taking part in the engagements at Contreras, 
 Churubusco, ]\Iolino del Key and the storming of Chapultepee. For 
 gallant conduct at IMolino del Rey he was brevetted colonel, and 
 at the capture of tlie City of Mexico was in command of his regi- 
 ment. After the war lu^ returned to Louisiana and became a planter 
 in Iberville parish. In 1851 he was appointed commissioner to the 
 World's fair in Paris. The following year he was a delegate to the 
 Louisiana constitutional convention, and the same year was elected 
 governor. On Aug. 11, 1861, he was commissioned brigadier-gen- 
 eral in the provisional army of the Confederate States, having pre- 
 viously lield that rank in the state forces by appointment of Gov. 
 Moore. During tlie tirst year of the war he was in command of the 
 district of Louisiana, particularly the defenses of New Orleans. He 
 then succeeded Gen. Magruder in command of the Trans-^Iissis- 
 sippi department. Gen. Hebert was actively engaged at ililliken's 
 bend, which was his only engagement of consequence during the 
 war. In 1864 he was assigned to the command of the district of 
 Texas and the Territory of Arizona, which he surrendered to Gen. 
 Gordon Granger, who returned Gen. Hebert 's sword. President 
 Jolmson removed Gen. Hebert 's political disabilities in 1865, and 
 Gov. Kellogg appointed him state engineer. Under Grant's admin- 
 istration he was a member of the U. S. board of engineers for the 
 construction of levees on the Jlississippi. For several years he 
 was president of the New Orleans Jockey club. His death occurred 
 in that city on Aug. 29, 1880. 
 
 Hebert's Administration. — The constitution of 1852 provided that 
 tlie sessions of the legislature should be lield annually and limited 
 to 60 days. The tirst general assembly under this constitution met 
 at Baton Rouge on Jan. 17, 1853, and the next day Gov. Hebert 
 was inaugurated. Lieut. -Gov. Farmer was also inducted into of- 
 fice at the same time. In his inaugural address the governor showed 
 an inclination to favor the acquisition of Cuba, in order to prevent 
 the emancipation of slaves on that island. (See Lopez Expedition.) 
 Numerous corporations were chartered during this session; a gen- 
 eral system of free banking was established; and the state was re- 
 divided into Congressional districts. In the summer and autumn 
 of 1853 Louisiana was scourged by the most disastrous epidemic of 
 yellow fever that had ever visited the state up to that time. Its 
 ravages were not confined to New Orleans and the immediate vi- 
 cinity as on former occasions, but spread to almo.st every pai-ish in 
 the state, claiming victims by the thousand. Notwithstanding this 
 frightful visitation, the work of building railroads and other in- 
 ternal imiu-ovements went on, and upon the whole the state was 
 prosperous.
 
 LOUISIANA 505 
 
 The annual session of the legislature of 1854 began on Jan. 16. 
 At that time the belief was prevalent in Louisiana that Spain was 
 taking steps to abolish slavery in Cuba, and in his message Gov. 
 Hebert said: "Will the Federal government, charged with the in- 
 ternational interests of states, anticipate the threatened peril, or 
 patiently and quietly await the occurrence of it? The evil would 
 then be irremediable. Confiding, as we may .justly do, in the firm- 
 ness, patriotism and truly national spirit of the chief magistrate of 
 the Union, the deliberate expression of the sentiments of the people 
 of Louisiana upon this all-important subject would at once sustain 
 the watchfulness of the administration, and strengthen their hands 
 in executing any measure for our protection whicli they might deem 
 necessary to adopt. Gayarre says: "The chief magistrate of the 
 Union was then Franklin Pierce, and the 'measure' which was ex- 
 pected for our protection was the acquisition of Cuba. Owing to 
 the large appropriations for the support of the public schools and 
 to reclaim the swamp lands granted by Congress in 1849, the state 
 debt had been increased to over .i^3,000,000, but the development of 
 resources had kept pace and the people did not suffer under the 
 burden of the greater indebtedness, though 60 tax collectors had 
 defaulted in the amount of nearly $272,000. But little important 
 legislation was enacted during the session. 
 
 Another epidemic of yellow fever oecvirred in 1854, and when the 
 general assembly met at Baton Rouge on Feb. 15, 1855, the gov- 
 ernor said in his message: "The general prevalence of that dis- 
 ease during two successive years, in the most malignant form, seems 
 to authorize tlie conclusion that, supposing it to have been at any 
 time of foreign origin, it has now assumed a fixed habitation within 
 our borders." With regard to the public school system he declared: 
 "Indeed, the system may be considered almost a failure, or rather it 
 is not a system. It is the bewildering confusion of chaos." Not- 
 withstanding this criticism, the" "system" prospered until the 
 schools conducted under it were closed by the war. The swamp land 
 board made a report to this legislature, showing that 650,000 acres 
 of overflowed lands had been reclaimed at a cost of $156,000. Every 
 governor from the time of ClaiI>orne liad complained of the disor- 
 ganized state of the militia, and Gov. Hebert was no exception to 
 the rule. "It is the duty of Louisiana," said he, "a diity which she 
 owes to her own self-preservation and to her si.ster states of the 
 South, to cultivate the martial spirit of her people. Her position 
 exposes 'her to the first assault of the enemy. She should be ready 
 at all times to contribute her full share to the defense. She must 
 be prepared to meet the responsibilities which the spirit of fanat- 
 icism at home may impose upon her, and which an attitude of firm- 
 ness, with all the preparation to maintain it, may alone avert." The 
 legislature to which this message was delivered, like its predeces- 
 sors, chartered a number of corporations; regulated the mode of 
 procedure in criminal prosecutions ; and provided for the sale of 
 1,000,000 acres of the swamp lands granted by Congress. U. S. 
 Senator Pierre Soule had resigned his seat in March, 1853, to be-
 
 506 LOUISIANA 
 
 coine minister to Spain, and John Slidell had been elected to fill 
 out the unexpired term. The legislature of 1855 elected Mr. Sli- 
 dell to succeed himself. 
 
 In the gubernatorial campaign of 1855 the Democrats nominated 
 Robert C. Wickliffe. The Americans or Know Nothings and the 
 "Whigs united in the support of Charles Derbiguy. The election 
 resulted in the choice of Wickliflfe, who received 22,952 votes to 
 19,755 for his opponent. Charles H. ilouton was elected lieuten- 
 ant-governor, and again the Democratic party elected a majority of 
 both houses of the general assembly. Gov. Hebert's administration 
 terminated with the inauguration of his successor in Jan., 1856. 
 
 Hecker is a post-hamlet of Calcasieu parish. Population 200. 
 
 Heflin, a village in the southern part of Webster parish, is a sta- 
 tion on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R,, about 10 miles south of 
 Minden. tlie parish seat. It has a money order postoffice and tele- 
 graph station, and supplies the soiitheastern part of the parish. 
 
 Henderson, a post-hamlet in the extreme southeast corner of East 
 Carroll parish, is situated on the i\lississippi river, about 5 miles 
 southeast of Stamboul, the nearest railroad station. It is a shipping 
 point on the river for a large area. 
 
 Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer, Avas born at Ath, Bel- 
 gium, about 1640. At an earl.y age he entered the order of Recol- 
 lets of St. Francis : spent several years in Italy ; was then employed 
 by the order to solicit alms in various places; was ordered to Can- 
 ada in 1673, and three years later founded a convent at Fort Fronte- 
 nac. In 1678 he joined La Salle's expedition down the Illinois and 
 Mississippi rivers, and in the spring of 1680 explored the Upper Mis- 
 sissii)]vi, discovering and naming the Falls of St. Anthony. He 
 then returned to Quebec and later to France, where his "Descrip- 
 tion de la Louisiane," etc., was piiblished in 1684, and dedicated to 
 Louis XIV. In 1697 a second work, entitled "New Discovery of a 
 Vast Country Situated in America," was published and dedicated 
 to William III. of England. This second work was about the same 
 as the former, with the addition of a description of a voyage down 
 the Mississippi, which has led to the claim that Hennepin discov- 
 ered the mouth of tlie great river before it was discovered bj' La 
 Salle. Sparks, in his "Life of La Salle," declares this portion of 
 Hennepin's writings to be a fabrication, copied from Le Clerq's 
 narrative. Shea, in his "Description of Louisiana," explains the 
 matter by saying that the story of the voyage down the Missis- 
 sippi was interpolated by the Dutch publishers without Hennepin's 
 knowledge. Father Hennepin died in Holland about 1702. 
 
 Henry, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Vermilion par- 
 ish, is about 4 miles southeast of Rosehill, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion, and 8 miles southeast of Abbeville, the parish seat. It is lo- 
 cated in the rice district of southwestern Louisiana and has a pop- 
 ulation of 125. 
 
 Herbert is a post-hamlet of Caldwell parish. 
 
 Hermitage, a money order post-A'illage in the extreme northern 
 part of West Baton Rouge parish, is on the west bank of the Mis-
 
 LOUISIANA 507 
 
 sissippi river about 3 miles northeast of Glynn, the nearest railroad 
 station. It is an old settlement and has a population of 175. 
 
 Hessmer, a post-village and station in the western part of Avoy- 
 elles parish, is on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation 
 company, 4 miles west of Mansura, in a rich agricultural district, 
 and has an express office, telegraph station, telephone facilities, 
 and a good retail trade. Population, 450. 
 
 Hester, a post-village in the central part of St. James parish, is 
 situated on the east bank of the Mississippi river and the Yazoo & 
 Mississippi Valley R. R., about 4 miles east of Convent, the parish 
 seat. It has an express office and telegraph station. 
 
 Hibernians, Ancient Order of. — (See Catholic Societies.) 
 
 Hickory Valley, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Winn 
 parish, is located on Bayou Buckoa, about 4 miles southeast of 
 Sikes, the nearest railroad station, and 15 miles northeast of Winn- 
 field, the parish seat. 
 
 Hicks, a post-village in the northeastern part of Vernon parish, 
 is about 15 miles northeast of Leesville, the parish seat. It is lo- 
 cated in the lumber region, has sawmill interests. 
 
 Hico is a village near the northern boundary of Lincoln parish, 
 5 niiles northwest of Dubach, the nearest railroad station, and 16 
 miles nortliwest of Ruston, the parish seat. It has a money order 
 postoffice, one free rural delivery route and a population of 150. 
 
 Higgins, Edward, soldier, was a lieutenant in the U. S. navy from 
 1836 to 1844. In 1848 he resigned from the service to take com- 
 mand of an ocean steamer, and continued in the merchant marine 
 until it was evident that there would be war between the North 
 and South. In April, 1861, he left the steamship company to enter 
 the service of the Confederate States as captain of the 1st La. ar- 
 tillery, and served as aide-de-camp to Gen. Twiggs during the time 
 that officer was in command at New Orleans. In Feb., 1862, Capt. 
 Higgins received a commission as lieutenant-colonel in the 22nd 
 La. and at the time of the attack upon New Orleans was in com- 
 mand of Forts Jackson and Saint Philip. In Dec, 1862, he had 
 command of the heavy batteries at Snyder's mill, and for his gal- 
 lant conduct during the battle received special commendation from 
 Gen. Pemberton. At the siege of Vicksburg he was in charge of 
 the batteries of heavy artillery on the river front, and strengthened 
 the works all along the river in every possible way. His manage- 
 ment of these works was so satisfactory that his s^iperiors gave 
 special mention of him ''n their reports, after the fall of the city. 
 He was exchanged soon after the capture of Vicksburg, was com- 
 missioned brigadier-general on Oct. 29, 1863, and placed in com- 
 mand of the posts and batteries around Mobile. After the war he 
 settled in Louisiana, where he resided vmtil his death. 
 
 Highland, a post-hamlet in the southwestern part of Tensas par- 
 ish, is about 7 miles west of Goldman, the nearest railroad station, 
 and 15 miles southwest of St. Joseph, the parish seat.
 
 508 LOUISIANA 
 
 Highways. — (See Koads.) 
 
 Hill, a post-hamlet iu the northeastern part of Winn parish, is 
 about 2 miles southwest of Sikes Station, the nearest railroad town, 
 and 12 miles northeast of Winutield, the parish seat. 
 
 Hineston, a village in the western part of Kapides parish, is a 
 station on the WoodM'orth & Louisiana Central K. K., about 25 
 miles soutliwest of Alexandria, the parish seat. It is a trading and 
 sliipping point of some importance, and has a population of 100. 
 
 Historical Society. — The Louisiana Historical society was tirst 
 organized ou Jan. 15, 1836, when Judge Henry A. Bullard was 
 elected president and Louis Janin and a ]Mr. Harrison, secretaries. 
 For want of proper encouragement the society soon fell into decay, 
 but it was reorganized in June, 1846, by John Perkins. J. D. B. 
 DeBow, Edmund Forstall, Charles Gayarre, Gen. Josepli Walker, 
 Alfred Hennen and others. Judge Francois X. ]\Iartin was at that 
 time elected president, but liis death occurred in Dec, 1847, when 
 Judge BuUard was again elected to the office, with John Perkins 
 and J. D. B. DeBow, secretaries. The society was incorporated by 
 act of the legislature, approved Jan. 16, I860, several prominent 
 citizens being named as the incorporators, among whom were J. J. 
 Burke, Charles Gayarre, Henry W. Allen, A. B. Roman, Richard 
 Taylor, J. B. Wilkinson and F. L. Claiborne. The object of the so- 
 ciety was declared to be '"the collecting and preserving of facts, 
 documents, records and memorials relating to the natural, aborigi- 
 nal and civil history of the state," and for the better preservation 
 of the same a room in the state capitol was set apart for the use of 
 the society. In the event of the dissolution of the society for any 
 reason, the books, maps, manuscripts, etc., belonging to it were to 
 be turned over to the state, thus virtually making the society a 
 state institution. Charles Gayarre was elected president and served 
 until 1888, though for some years the organization continued a 
 state of comparative inactivity. On April 30, 1877, the act of Jan. 
 16, 1860, was amended and reenacted, the incorporators at that 
 time being named as Charles Gayarre, F. T. Nicholls, Louis A. Wiltz, 
 Robert I\I. Lusher, E. T. :\Ierrick, W. W. Howe, George AV. Cable, 
 B. J. Sage, H. B. Magruder, William Walker, F. S. Richardson, 
 Joseph A. Quintero, George A. Pike, Alexander Dimitry and J. D. 
 Bruns of New Orleans ; William B. Egan, F. C. Blanchard and F. J. 
 Alcocke of Caddo parish ; D. C. Montan and J. M. Williams of East 
 Baton Rouge parish. The society at that time was removed to New 
 Orleans and quartered in the rooms afterwards occupied by the 
 state library. It now has its domicile in the historic room at 
 the eabildo, where occurred the transfer of Louisiana to the United 
 States in 1803. Among the notable ceremonies conducted under 
 the auspices of the society may be mentioned those on the occasion 
 of President McKiuley's visit to New Orleans in May, 1901, and 
 the celebration of the centennial of the acquisition of Louisiana in 
 Dec., 190.3. Since the year 1900 many important documents relating 
 to the liistory of Louisiana have been copied in France at the ex- 
 pense of the society.
 
 LOUISIANA 509 
 
 The presidents of the society since 1860 have been Charles Gay- 
 arre, William W. Howe and Alcee Portier. The last named was 
 elected in Feb., 1894, and, by repeated reeleetions, held the otSee 
 continuously until liis death. Miss Grace King and Prof. J. R. 
 Ficklen have rendered valuable services as secretaries. Charles 
 T. Soniat, Casper Cusachs, Prof. Arthur T. Prescott, W. O. Hart, 
 Charles G. Gill, Pierce Butler, and others, have been active in pro- 
 moting: the interests of the society. 
 
 Hobart, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Ascension parish 
 about 6 miles uortlieast of Bullion, the nearest railroad station, and 
 some 15 miles north of Donaldsonville, the parish seat. 
 
 Hobson, a post-hamlet in the central part of Union parish, is about 
 8 miles soutlieast of Farmerville, the parish seat and most con- 
 venient railroad station. 
 
 Hodge, a village in the western part of Jackson parish, is at the 
 junction of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Tremont & 
 Gulf, the North Louisiana & Gulf railroads, about 12 miles south- 
 west of Vernon, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 express office and telegraph station, and is the shipping and supply 
 town for that part of the parish. Population 200. 
 
 Hohen Solms, a village in the western part of Ascension parish, 
 is situated on tlie west bank of tlie Mississippi river, aboiit 4 miles 
 north of jMcCall, the nearest railroad station, and 6 miles northwest 
 of Donaldsonville, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 telegraph and teleplione facilities, and a population of 120. 
 
 Holidays. — By the act of the state legislature, approved by the 
 governor on June 3, 1904, the following days were declared to be 
 legal holidays: Sunday of each week; Jan. 1, New Year's day; 
 Jan. 8, the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans ; ]\Iardi Gras 
 day, in the parish of Orleans; Feb. 22, George Washington's birth- 
 day; Good Friday; June 3, the birthday of Jefferson Davis, known 
 as Confederate day ; July 4, the anniversary of American indepen- 
 dence; the first ]\Ionday in September (Labor day), in the parish 
 of Orleans only; Nov. 1, All Saints' day; general election day; 
 Thanksgiving day as fixed by tbe proclamation of the president 
 and governor ; Dec. 25, Christmas day ; and every Saturday after- 
 noon in cities of 15,000 population and over. The act further pro- 
 vided that when Jan. 1 or 8, Feb. 22, June 3, July 4, Nov. 1, or Dec. 
 25 falls on Sunday the next day shall be a legal holiday. 
 
 HoUoway, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Rapides par- 
 ish, is about 15 miles northeast of Alexandria, the parish seat, and 
 6 miles north of Kees, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Holly, a post-village in the central part of De Soto parish, is a 
 station on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 7 miles north of 
 Mansfield, the parish seat. It has an express office and telegraph 
 station, and is the shipping and supply point of a large farming 
 district. Population 200. 
 
 HoUygrove, a post-hamlet of Franklin parish, is situated on a 
 confluent of the Black river about 15 miles south of Winnsboro,
 
 510 LOUISIANA 
 
 the parish seat, and 2 miles west of Peek, the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion. Population 100. 
 
 Holmesville, a post-hamlet in the southern part of Union parish, 
 is ahout (J miles south of Farmerville, tlie parish seat and nearest 
 railroad town. 
 
 Holsey, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Claiborne parish, is 
 about 10 miles northeast of Homer, the parish seat and most con- 
 venient railroad town. 
 
 Holt, a post-hamlet in the western part of Natchitoches parish, 
 is some 7 miles west of Natchitoches, the parish seat and nearest 
 railroad town. 
 
 Helton, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of Tangipahoa parish, 
 is about 10 miles east of Amite, the parish seat and most convenient 
 railroad town. 
 
 Holiun, a post -village of Caldwell parish, is situated in the south- 
 ern part of Black creek, about 5 miles east of Kelly, the nearest 
 railroad station, and 8 miles south of Columbia, the parish seat. 
 
 Holy Cross College. — This institution, located at Dauphine and 
 Keynes streets. New Orleans, was opened in 1879, under the name 
 of "St. Isidore's college," and was chartered by an act of the gen- 
 eral assembly of the state of Louisiana, June 20, 1890. It is con- 
 ducted by the members of the "Congregation of the Holy Cross," 
 a community composed of priests and brothers who devote them- 
 selves to the education of young men and boys, preparing them for 
 the learned professions and for commercial pursuits. New and more 
 commodious buildings for the college were begun in 1895, and on 
 Sept. 8, 1896, the main building of the new college was solemnly 
 blessed bj' the ^lost Rev. Francis Janssens, D.D., archbishop of 
 New Orleans, the name of the institution being at that time changed 
 to "Holy Cross college" as being more in keeping with the oi-iginal 
 charter of the congregation. The buildings are situated on rising 
 ground overlooking the Mississippi, and though centrally located 
 within the city, are retired, and unsurpassed for health. The new 
 main building is a fine structure, complete in all its appointments, 
 while the beautiful and spacious grounds are shaded by fragrant 
 magnolia and other trees, open to the refreshing breezes wafted 
 from the river. The institution aims to give its students both a 
 thorough and a practical education, and its regular courses com- 
 prise classical, literary and commercial studies. The program of 
 studies has been carefully graded, the various departments are in 
 charge of experienced teachers, and great care is exercised at the 
 college to train both the moral and mental faculties of the pupils 
 and to mould their characters, a labor to which the members of the 
 Congregation of the Holy Cross have dedicated their lives. 
 
 Home Institute. — This well known educational institute of New 
 Orleans is an English and.plassical school for young ladies and chil- 
 dren, and lias had a highly prosperous career. Originallv founded 
 as a primary scliool by :Miss Sophie B. Wright, in Jan.. 1882. it 
 met with such generous support as to warrant the establishment 
 of a high grade curriculum, and in 1889 the institute was char-
 
 LOUISIANA 511 
 
 tered under the la«-s of the state, with power to award diplomas 
 and to confer degrees. The school aims not only to educate the 
 brain, but also to mould character, and thus attain the highest 
 possible womanly development. In addition to the regular course, 
 equivalent to the best high school grades, embracing work in Latin, 
 French, German and Spanish, a thorough art course is offered. This 
 course, includes a practical study of free hand drawing, painting 
 and modeling, with lectures on composition and perspective and 
 artistic anatomy. Another important feature of the school is the 
 normal course, where advanced work is offered for those who de- 
 sire to teach. There is also a thorough business coiirse, including 
 bookkeeping, stenography and typewriting. Gymnastic exercises 
 are an important daily requirement for all the students from which 
 only a physician's certificate serves as an excuse. The school draws 
 its pupils from a wide area, including most of the Southern states, 
 Mexico, Central America and Cuba. An important factor in the 
 success of the school is the personal contact, influence and associa- 
 tion maintained between the teaching force and the student body. 
 
 Homeplace, a village of Plaquemines parish, is situated in the 
 central part on the west bank of the Mississippi river, about 10 
 miles below Pointe a la Hache, and is a station on the New Orleans, 
 Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R. It has a money order postoffice 
 and is the shipping and supply town for a fruit area of considerable 
 extent. Population 100. 
 
 Homer, the capital and principal town of Claiborne parish, is 
 located in the central part of the parish on the main line of the 
 Louisiana & Northwest R. R., and it is the eastern terminus of the 
 Shreveport & Northeastern R. R., hence it is provided with ample 
 transportation and shipping facilities. It was made the parish seat 
 in 1849, after the courthouse at Athens was destroyed by fire, and 
 was incorporated in 1850. In 1910 the population was 1,855. Being 
 situated in the center of a cotton growing district, it has a large 
 compress, a cotton seed oil mill, and ships large quantities of cot- 
 ton and oil every year. It also has a bank, two newspapers, large 
 lumbering interests, a number of good mercantile establishments, 
 express and telegraph offices, and a money order postoffice from 
 which several rural routes supply mail to the surrounding country. 
 
 Hoods Mills, a post-hamlet of Jackson parish, is situated in the 
 eastern part about 4 miles northeast of Womack, the nearest rail- 
 road station, and 12 miles southeast of Vernon, the parish seat. 
 
 Hope (R. R. name Fryeburg) a post-hamlet and station in the 
 northwestern part of Bienville parish, is on the Louisiana & Arkan- 
 sas R. R., 12 miles west of Arcadia, the parish seat. Population 
 200. 
 
 Hopedale, a post-hamlet in the central part of St. Bernard parish, 
 is 5 miles soiitheast of Shell Beach, the nearest railroad station, in 
 a rich truck farming district that supplies the adjacent market of 
 New Orleans with vegetables and fruits. 
 
 Hope Villa, a village of Ascension parish, is situated on the 
 Bayou Manchac near the northern boundary of the parish, about
 
 512 LOUISIANA 
 
 6 miles northeast of Kleinpcter, the nearest railroad station. It 
 has a money order postoffice and a population of 200. 
 
 Hornbeck, a town in the northwestern part of Vernon parish, 
 is a station on the Kansas City Southern R. R., 15 miles northwest 
 of Leesville, the parish seat. Originally this town was nothing hnt 
 a sawmill site, hut as the timher was cut, the ad.iaeent country de- 
 veloped into a rich agricultural district and as Hornbeek was the 
 terminus of a division of the railroad, it grew to be a village of some 
 importance. Some 200 or 300 bales of cotton and several hundred 
 car loads of lumber are handled each year. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station, a number of mercantile 
 establishments, and furnishes supplies to the noi'thwestern part of 
 the parish. Population 459. 
 
 Horticulture. — Literally, the word horticulture means the art of 
 cultivating or managing gardens. In its broader sense it includes 
 the cultivation of all sorts of fruits, flowers, vegetables and nursery 
 stock. Horticulture, therefore, embraces as divisions, pomology, 
 or fruit culture ; floriculture, or the raising of flowers and decora- 
 tive plants ; gardening, or the cultivation of vegetables, and nursery 
 culture, or the production of fruit-bearing plants. It is only within 
 comparatively recent yeai-s that scientific attention and concerted 
 action liave been given to hoticulture in Louisiana. On March 
 21, 1874, the Louisiana legislature passed an act incorporating the 
 Fruit Growers' association of the Gulf States, with a capital stock 
 of $10,000 — which might be increased to $20,000 — and the member- 
 ship fee was fixed at $10. By the act of March 12, 1878, the legis- 
 lature appropriated the siim of $500 to the association "to promote 
 the development of the horticultural and pomological resources of 
 Louisiana, and to aid in defraying the expenses of public exhibi- 
 tions of products." Through the labors of this association, and 
 more recently of the Louisiana horticultural society, it has been 
 shown that the soil of the state has a capacity for the production 
 of a large variety of fruits. 
 
 The wild blackberries and dewberries of Louisiana grow as large 
 and have as fine a flavor as the cultivated berries of the North. 
 Strawberries can be raised with profit anywhere in the state, and 
 as berries of all kinds ripen several weeks in advance of those 
 grown in the Northern states they always command a good price 
 in the markets. Instances are reported where the value of the 
 straw])erry crop has reached $175 an acre, and it is a poor crop 
 that does not bring the producer $100 an acre. 
 
 Of tlu^ larger fruits, apples of various kinds grow well, but some 
 of thcTn do not have the flavor of the same varieties produced in 
 higher altitudes. For this reason the production of apples is con- 
 fined to home consumption. Still there are in the state some fruit 
 growers who contend that the fault is not in the soil nor climate, 
 but in the selection of varieties, the methods of planting trees, and 
 the care bestowed mi orchards. They argue that with proper at- 
 tention to these points the apple can be made a commercial suc- 
 cess, and the results attained by some of them seem to justify their
 
 LOUISIANA 513 
 
 coBclusions. A bulletin of the state board of agriculture and immi- 
 gration mentions the Red June, Shannon, Black Twig, Astrachan, 
 Yates and some other varieties as adapted to the soil and climate 
 of Louisiana. 
 
 Peach culture, especially in the northern and northwestern parts 
 the state and east of the Mississippi river, has been demonstrated 
 to be a profitable undertaking. Dr. C. P. Munday of Keithville, a 
 prominent member of the horticultural society, says: "Peaches 
 grow here to unrivaled perfection. "With well selected location, 
 planted to commercial varieties, given attention and not neglect, 
 with transportation facilities arranged for, and lastly care in mar- 
 keting, there is no question as to the success of commercial peach 
 growing in north Louisiana. The case has been proven. For home 
 and local market uses no farmer can 'have excuse for being without 
 a peach orchard — even one good tree will pay." Experiments with 
 the different varieties, early and late, have demonstrated that the 
 fruit growers of Louisiana can market peaches from the middle of 
 May to October. A report from one of the test farms says: "There 
 is a market difference between the varieties of the several races or 
 types of peaches in their ability to withstand frost. Those of the 
 Chinese type, such as the Waddell, Greensboro and others with 
 large petals, are not near so readily destroyed by frost as those of 
 the Crawford type, or those with small flowers. And in general 
 the Chinese type is much better adapted to this section than the 
 Persian, particularly those varieties of the Crawford type, which 
 are straggling, open growers and inclined to be shy bearers." The 
 nectarine (Amygdalus persica), a smooth-skinned variety of the 
 peach, flourishes in several sections of the state and is cultivated 
 for its delicious flavor. 
 
 With regard to pears, a report of the state board of agriculture 
 and immigration says: "The only pears grown with profit are the 
 varieties of the Oriental or sand pears. Of these we have the Le 
 Conte, Garber, Golden Russet, Smith and Kieffer. The prevalence 
 of blight prevents the culture of the European pears, hence little 
 is done with them, but the sand pears offer by far the greatest re- 
 sistance to this troublesome disease, and although often fatal to 
 them, with proper care little damage will result." 
 
 Several varieties of plums do well. Specimens of the Japanese 
 persimmon sent north sold for 75 cents a dozen, and in some in- 
 stances even higher. As this is a large, showy fruit, of excellent 
 flavor, and stands shipping well, more attention is paid to it every 
 year and it promises to become one of the popular horticultural 
 products of the state. In the western part, near the Texas line, 
 particularly in the parishes of Sabine, Vernon and Calcasieu, grapes 
 of good quality are grown, the principal varieties being the Con- 
 cord, Champion, Moore's Early, Niagara and Eaton. Figs thrive 
 well in all parts of the state and seldom fail to yield a full crop. 
 In the southern parishes oranges are the principal fruit. (See Figs 
 and Oranges.) Quinces, pomegranates, melons, chestnuts — in fact 
 1—33
 
 514 LOUISIANA 
 
 all kinds of fruits aud uuts that can be grown anywhere in the 
 same latitude — eau he raised in Louisiana. 
 
 A nurseryman of Keithville says tliat more fruit trees were sold 
 in the state during the month of March, 1908, than in the entire 
 year of 1907, which is evidence that Louisiana will soon be prepared 
 to take a higher place among the fruit growing states of the Union. 
 The state has given encouragement to liorticiilture in various ways, 
 not the least important of which was the appointment of a state 
 entomologist for tlie purpose of stiidying the insects that prey upon 
 the growing crops, trees and vines and recommending methods for 
 their destruction. By the act of July 11, 1894, the introduction into 
 the state of fruit trees, shrubs, slips, cuttings, etc., affected by in- 
 fectious diseases was prohibited. Since the passage of that act all 
 such plants must be examined by the state entomologist at the 
 state agricultural experiment station. The penalty for violation of 
 the law is a fine of from $5 to $100, at the .iudgment of the court, 
 to which may be added imprisonment in jail from one day to three 
 mouths. All money collected from fines under this law goes to the 
 agricultural experiment station. 
 
 A law also provides that all nurserymen in the state shall hold 
 certificates from the state entomologist, showing that the nursery 
 stock they offer for sale is in a healthy condition. Wilmon Newell, 
 the state entomologist, in an address to the annual meeting of the 
 horticultiu-al society in Jan., 1906, said: "During the past year 
 we inspected aud granted certificates to 28 nurseries iu Louisiana, 
 aud the fruit grower who now purchases stock fi-om the Louisiana 
 nurseries holding the certificate of the commission does so with the 
 knowledge that he is getting stock as healthy as stock can be, so 
 far as seriously injurious insects and diseases are concerned. In 
 the course of this inspection work the San Jose scale Avas found 
 in 13 nurseries, or upon the premises, and this has been extermi- 
 nated by the nurserymen, under our direction. The commission, in 
 its first year of nursery inspection, has prevented the dissemination 
 of sufficient San Jose scale to infest thousands of orchard trees, for 
 once the scale gets into an orchard, upon even one or two infested 
 trees from the mu-sery, it spreads rapidly to the balance of the or- 
 chard. ,* * * Right, here we have the explanation of why so 
 many peach orchards have 'failed' in north and west Louisiana. 
 This pest has been introduced with the young nursery stock when 
 the orchard was planted, and the fruit growers, failing to recognize 
 this minute, yet terribly destructive enemy, have seen their orchards 
 die out at the time they should commence producing profitable 
 crops. * * * -Wp j,^.p j^,j longer going to allow this enemy to 
 cripple our fruit industry in Louisiana, and prevent its attaining 
 the commercial importance that it should. The crop pest commis- 
 sion is seeing to it that the fruit growers get none but healthy trees 
 and is ever ready to furnish information to all fruit growers re- 
 garding methods for controlling the pest in orchards." 
 
 A recent writer, in eommentiug on the state's natural advantages 
 for floriculture, says: "Louisiana's climate favors the growth of a
 
 LOUISIANA ^ 515 
 
 great variety of native flowers, as well as the propagation of deli- 
 cate plants of the cultivated type. Roses bloom in the open through- 
 out the winter, and cape jasmines, japonicas, hibiscus and poinset- 
 tias are common to every yard. Tea olives and magnolias perfume 
 the air with their fragraJnce, and chrysanthemums, geraniums and 
 plumbagos give brilliancy to the garden verdure. Palms of end- 
 less variety ornament the private premises and public parks, vying 
 in beauty with the moss-decked live oak shade trees. The attrac- 
 tions of the landscape are further enhanced by a green carpet of 
 the ever-present Bermuda grass, which makes a perfect turf." In 
 the meetings of the horticultural society flowers command a good 
 share of the discussions, some of the papers read before the society 
 bearing such titles as "How to Grow Flowers in North Louisiana," 
 "Roses and Cut Flowers," "Growing Flowers for Profit," and "The 
 Importance of Floriculture Exhibits at Fairs." (See also Agricul- 
 ture.) 
 
 Hortman, a village and station in the central part of Webster 
 parish, is on the Louisiana & j\a-kansas R. R., 10 miles north- 
 west of Minden, the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, 
 press office and telegraph station, and is the supply and shipping 
 point for a large farming district. 
 
 Hosston, a post-village in the northeastern part of Caddo parish, 
 is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 30 miles northwest 
 of Shreveport, the parish seat. It has an express office and tele- 
 graph station. Population 150. 
 
 Houltonville, a post-hamlet of St. Tammany parish, is situated on 
 the Ponchatalawa creek, 5 miles southwest of Covington, the parish 
 seat and nearest railroad station. 
 
 Houma, the seat of justice of Terrebonne parish, is located on 
 Bayou Terrebonne, in the northern part of the parish, and is the 
 terminus of a branch of the Southern Pacific railroad, which con- 
 nects with the main line at Scliriever. The town was made the 
 parish seat in 1834. It is in the center of a large sugar producing 
 district, and large quantities of that commodity are shipped from 
 th3 city every year. Next to sugar the principal articles of export 
 are oysters and canned shrimp. In addition to the sugar and oyster 
 industries, Houma has a bank, an ice factory, a fine public market, 
 two newspapers, several fine mercantile establishments, and large 
 lumber interests. The chief public buildings are the court-house, 
 a high school, the market house and an opera house, the last named 
 having been built by public subscription at a cost of $8,000. Pub- 
 lic and private schools aff'ord excellent educational facilities, and 
 the principal religious denominations are represented by suitable 
 houses of worship. Tlie population in 1910 was 5,024. 
 
 Howard Association. — During the yellow fever epidemic of 1837, 
 this association was organized by a number of young men of New 
 Orleans, the object as stated being "to relieve the sick and desti- 
 tute by some systematic effort." The original association numbered 
 29 active members, and the first officers were as follows : Virgil 
 Boulleraet, president; D. I. Ricardo, secretary; G. Kursheedt, Lreas-
 
 516 LOUISIANA 
 
 urer; G. W. Shaw, H. W. Palfrey and J. 0. Harris, finance commit- 
 tee. All members were to serve without pay and in a short time the 
 association had about 150 names enrolled. Most of these were young 
 men, stiU in their minority, the president being only 17 years of 
 age at the time of liis election. In 18i2 the association was granted 
 a perpetual charter by the legislature of Louisiana. By this char- 
 ter the active membership was limited to 30 persons, but the asso- 
 ciation was given power to add temporary assistants during epi- 
 demics. The organization was made so complete and its arrange- 
 ments so perfect, that within one hour after the annomicement of 
 an epidemic the city could be supplied with temporary hospitals, 
 emergency physicians, nurses, etc. Early in the yellow fever epi- 
 demic of 1S53 the association opened two convalescent hospitals 
 and three orphan asylums. In the latter 241 little ones, left totally 
 destitiite bj' the death of their parents, were cared for until the 
 worst was past, and after the epidemic the Howards fovmd homes 
 for these orphans where possible, by having them adopted by wor- 
 thy families. The others were placed in regular orphan asylums, 
 the association gi\'ing to such institutions the sum of .$100 with 
 each child thus admitted. The association also paid attention to 
 the character of the food supply sent into the city during the epi- 
 demic, the enforcement of sanitary measures, the distribution of 
 disinfectants, etc. It is worthy of note that from 1837 to 1854 not 
 a member of the association died of yellow fever or cholera, though 
 they were everywhere, facing every danger in the discharge of their 
 duties. To them the palace and the hovel were alike. No place 
 was too squalid; none too pestilential for them to enter, bringing 
 relief to those stricken with disease, thus winning the everlasting 
 gratitude of hundreds of sufferers. 
 
 But it was in the great epidemic of 1878 that the Howards dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their prompt and efficient action. At the 
 beginning of the epidemic the membership was increased to 125, 
 and within a week they had over 1,000 destitute cases under their 
 care. All through the lower Mississippi valley the association was 
 the chief channel of aid. On Aug. 16 it issued a call to the people 
 of the country for assistance. The response was immediate and 
 generous from all parts of the nation, the past record of the asso- 
 ciation having inspired confidence in its methods and the trust- 
 worthiness of its members as individuals. One writer of that day 
 referred to the association as "a time-honored body of good Samar- 
 itans." From Aug. 17 to Oct. 26 the Howards eared for over 21,- 
 000 cases in the city of New Orleans and the immediate vicinity. 
 Impartial reports from other toAvns and cities in Louisiana added 
 nearly 12,000 more, and up the IMississippi as far as ^lemphis, Tenn., 
 they willing extended a helping hand wherever it was possible. In 
 addition to the aid given the sick, over 60,000 persons, mostly 
 Avomen and eliildren, were supplied witli the necessaries of life out 
 of the bounty contributed to tlie association. The contributions in 
 money amounted to nearly $400,000, and there were liberal dona- 
 tions of clothing, medicines, provisions, wines, etc., sent to the
 
 LOUISIANA 517 
 
 Howards for distribution. These supplies were transported free 
 by the railroads, steamboats and express companies to all points 
 where the quarantines did not interfere. Of the money received 
 the Howards turned over $20,000 to the Peabody subsistence asso- 
 ciation, which undertook the care of the convalescents. In the dis- 
 pensation of charity the association is wholly unsectarian, relieving 
 all worthy applicants without regard to color, creed or nationality. 
 Of the cases eared for in 1878 aboiit one-fourth were negroes, and 
 among the others were people from almost every nation of Europe, 
 Mexico, Central America, Canada, South America and China. Of 
 all the relief associations of the United States, whether organized 
 for general or specific purposes, none has been more effective in 
 carrying out its designs, nor more deserving of public confidence 
 and esteem than the Howard Association of New Orleans. (See 
 also Yellow Fever.) 
 
 Howard Memorial Library. — (See Libraries.) 
 
 Hudson, a post-village and station in the northern part of Winn 
 parish, is on the Tremont & Gulf R. R., about 9 miles north of Winn- 
 field, the parish seat. 
 
 Hughes Spur, a post-village in the northwestern part of Bossier 
 parish, is on the St. Louis Southwestern R. R., about 6 miles north of 
 Benton. 
 
 Humbert, Gen. Jean Robert Marie, a distinguished soldier, was 
 born at Bouvroy, France, in 1775, and was said to have been one of 
 the handsomest men in France. He joined the army as a volunteer 
 in 1791, served in Vendee, and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. 
 In 1798 he commanded an expedition to Ireland and landed at Kil- 
 lola, where he was overwhelmed and taken prisoner. After his release 
 he took part in the St. Domingo expedition, which also resulted in 
 failure. About this time he lost the favor of Napoleon and came to 
 America. For several years he taught school in New Orleans and 
 when the War of 1812 came on he offered his services in defense of 
 his adopted city and state. When Gen. Morgan was repulsed on the 
 right bank of the Mississippi, Gen. Jackson ordered Humbert to cro.ss 
 the river and recover the lost ground. In giving this order Jackson 
 said: "I expect you, general, to repulse the enemy, cost what it 
 may. ' ' To this Humbert replied : "I will ; you may rely on it. ' ' In 
 the haste of the moment, Humbert neglected to have the order reduced 
 to writing, and when he reached Morgan's lines there was so7ne con- 
 fusion, owing to a disinclination of some of the American officers to 
 serve under a foreigner. Col. Shaumburgh says that Humbert grew 
 "displeased and went off to Gov. Claiborne." In 1816 Gen. Humbert 
 led an army of 1,000 men into Mexico to fight for the independence 
 of that country, but, notwithstanding his bravery and skill as a com- 
 manding officer, the expedition met with defeat, and the following 
 year he returned to New Orleans, where he continued to reside until 
 his death in 1823. 
 
 Humphreys, a village in the northern part of Terrebonne parish, 
 is situated on the Black bayou about 10 miles west of Houma, the pai--
 
 518 LOUISIANA 
 
 ish st'at and most convenient railroad town. It has a money order 
 postoffiee and is a trading center for a large agricultural district. 
 
 Hunt, Carleton, soldier, educator and la'^wer, -was born in New 
 Orleans. La., Jan. 1, 1836. He graduated at Harvard college in 1856 ; 
 received the degree of M. A. from the same institution in 1859, and 
 the honorary degree of LL. B. from the law department of the Uni- 
 versity of Louisiana in 1858. He was admitted to the bar of Louisi- 
 ana the same year; was elected a delegate to the convention of the 
 Constitutional Union party which met at Baton Rouge. La., in 1860. 
 and in April. 1861. he enlisted in the Confederate army as lieutenant 
 in the Louisiana regiment of artillery. At the close of the war he was 
 appointed administrator of the University of Louisiana and a member 
 of the committee to examine applicants for admission to the bar of the 
 state. In 1869 he was appointed profes-sor of admiralty and inter- 
 national law in the University of Louisiana, and was later dean of tlie 
 faculty for 10 years. He became doctor of la^vs in the same university 
 in 1880 : was elected to Congress in 1882 as a Democrat. 
 
 Hunt, Randell, a prominent lawyer of Louisiana in the ante- 
 bellum days, was a native of South Carolina, a son of Thomas and 
 Louisa (Gaillard) Hunt, and a brother of WilUara H. Hunt, who 
 was secretary of the navy in President Garfield's cabinet. One of his 
 maternal uncles, John Gaillard, was for 30 yeai-s a U. S. senator from 
 South Carolina, and another, Theodore Gaillard, was one of the early 
 judges of the U. S. circuit court and later a U. S. district .iudge in 
 Louisiana. He served with distinction in the Louisiana legislature, 
 and was recognized as one of the leaders of the "Whig party until 
 that organization was dissolved, when he became an ardent advocate 
 of State Rights. In 1860-61 he was an enthusiastic supporter of the 
 doctrine of secession. A little volume entitled "Sketches, by a Member 
 of the New Orleans Bar," published by Ferguson & Crosby of New 
 Orleans, in 1847, pays Jlr. Hunt this tribute: "He is apparently 
 some 40 years of age. His countenance is frank and open: without 
 being handsome, it is yet prepossessing. He is an accomplished 
 man of the world, and very much of a gentleman." 
 
 Hunt, Theodore G., lawyer and member of Congress, was native 
 of South Carolina, and a .son of Thomas and Louisa (Gaillard) Hunt. 
 He recived a libei-al education ; studied law, commenced practice in 
 New Orleans, and was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 
 33d Congress as a Whig. 
 
 Hunt, William Henry, secretary of the navy, was born in Charles- 
 ton. S, C., in 1824. He was a son of Thomas and Louisa (Gaillard) 
 Hunt and a grandson of Robert Hunt, who was twice governor of 
 the Bahama islands and a member of the king's council at Nassau, 
 in the island of New Providence, when these colonies were possessions 
 of the British. Thomas Hunt was a planter and well known la\^-J'er of 
 South Carolina, and a member of the state legislature. WillianiHunt 
 received a good preparatory education and entered Yale college in 
 1839, but remained only 2 yeai-s. when his family moved to Louisiana 
 and he went to New Orleans. In 1855 he was admitted to the bar and 
 for 30 yeare practiced his profession in New Orleans. At one time
 
 LOUISIANA 519 
 
 he was professor in the New Orleans law school. During the Civil war 
 he remained a stanch Union man and in 1876 governor Kellogg ap- 
 pointed him attorney-general of Louisiana to till a vacancy. The same 
 year the Republican party nominated him for the office and claimed 
 that he had been elected, but the Democratic state administration 
 was recognized by President Hayes. Mr. Hunt went to Washington 
 in 1877 to present the Republican side of the case to the president, 
 and after returning to New Orleans he continued to practice law 
 Until he was appointed judge of the V. S. court of claims in May, 
 1878. When Justice Strong resigned from the bench of the U. S. 
 supreme court in 1880 a movement was made by the lawyers of Louisi- 
 ana to have the president appoint Mr. Hunt to fill the vacancy. In the 
 last month of his administration (Feb., 1881) President Hayes offered 
 him the judgeship of the U. S. district court for the 5th district, but 
 he declined the office. When president Garfield formed his new cab- 
 inet on March 5, 1881, Mr. Hunt became secretary of the navy. Upon 
 the reorganization of the cabinet by president Arthur in April, 1882, 
 he retired in favor of William E. Chandler, and the .same year Avas 
 appointed minister to Russia. He died in St. Petersburg, Feb. 27, 
 1884. 
 
 Hunter, a post-village in the southwestern part of De Soto parish, 
 is about 3 miles east of Sabine river and 10 miles southwest of Mans- 
 field, the parish seat. Logan.sport is the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Hurricanes. — In the early days of Louisiana hurricanes were 
 more frequent and also more violent along the gulf coast than they 
 have been in more recent years. In the article on Bienville mention is 
 made of a storm that choked up the entrance to Mobile harbor with 
 sand in the summer of 1717 and led to the removal of colonial head- 
 quarters to Biloxi. La Harpe, in his Historical Journal, speaks of a 
 violent hurricane that began on the morning of Sept. 11, 1722, and 
 continued for three days, destroying a number of houses at Fort 
 Louis, Biloxi and New Orleans, several vessels, and doing great dam- 
 age to the crops. At New Orleans the church, the ho.spital and 30 
 houses were demolished. The effect of this storm was to discourage 
 man,y of the colonists and they determined to leave New Orleans, but 
 were finally persuaded by Bienville to remain and aid in rebuilding the 
 town. The dissatisfaction growing out of the conditions which fol- 
 lowed was partially responsible for the conspiracy against Bienville 
 that led to his being compelled to go to France in 1724 to answer 
 ■charges. On Palm Sunday, 1737, New Orleans and vicinity were 
 swept by a terrific hail-storm, the hailstones being of unusual size. 
 In 1745 a tornado pas.sed over the lower part of Louisiana, doing 
 great damage to the crops, especially the rice crop, which was almost 
 completely destroyed. A famine was threatened as a result, but the 
 settlements farther up the river came to the rescue with supplies and 
 actual suffering was averted. Another historic storm occurred in the 
 winter of 1772-3, in which an English schooner was driven bodily 
 over Cat island by the force of the wind and waves. The hurricane of 
 Aug. 18, 1779, destroyed several buildings in New Orleans and on the 
 neighboring plantations, wrecked the fleet of vessels that Gov. Galvez
 
 520 LOUISIANA 
 
 Avas fitting otit for the conquest of West Florida, killed a large num- 
 ber of cattle and a few people, and inflicted serious damage to the 
 growing crops. During the two following years the fleets of Galvez 
 were greatly damaged by storms on the gulf, but which did compara- 
 tively little injury on the land. In the 19th century several violent 
 storms visited Louisiana, the most noted of which was that known as 
 the "Last Island Storm" on Aug. 9, 1856. Last island was a slender 
 crescent of land about 25 miles long and averaging less than a mile in 
 width. It lay to the west of the mouth of the Mississippi and had for 
 years been the summer residence of planters from the Attakapas and 
 Lafourche districts. The storm arose during the night and by day- 
 light every boat on the island had been broken to pieces anvl every 
 building blown down. The rain descended in a deluge, the wind in- 
 creased, and on the afternoon of the 9th the island was literally 
 washed away. Of the 300 or more persons on the island at the time 
 over two-thu'ds of them were never seen again. The remainder saved 
 themselves by cliuging to pieces of wreckage and were washed ashore. 
 On Sept. 7, 1893. the town of Lockport in Lafourche parish was struck 
 by a cyclone, which killed 8 people and injured a number of others. 
 The town was nearly a complete wreck after the storm had passed. 
 On Oct. 1, of the same year, a hun-ieaae was encountered by vessels 
 from 25 to 50 miles out in the gulf, coming from the southwest. It 
 moved so rapidly that in a few hours it struck the city of New Or- 
 leans. From the mouth of the Mississippi westward as far as Bayou 
 Grand Caillou the country M'as devastated. At 7 o'clock in the evening 
 the storm struck the oyster settlements at Bayou Cook and the Che- 
 niere islands. Every house was blown to atoms and about 800 lives 
 were lost. At Grand island was a summer resort directly in the path 
 of the storm, but it escaped with slight injury when compared to 
 other localities, though several houses were blown down and a few 
 lives lost. The total loss of life was estimated at 2,500. Prompt as- 
 sistance was sent to the survivoi-s from New Orleans and other places. 
 A complete record of hiu-ricaues since the first settlement of Louisi- 
 ana would doubtless disclose others of a violent character, but those 
 above mentioned were the ones that wrought the most damage and 
 have been deemed worthy of more than passing notice by historians. 
 
 Husser, a village in the eastern part of Tangipahoa parish, is sit- 
 uated on Chappepeela creek, about 4 miles east of Jessica, the nearest 
 railroad station, and 12 miles southeast of Amite, the parish, seat. It 
 has a money order postofiice and a population of 100. 
 
 Hutchins, Thomas, geographer, was born at Monmouth, N. J., 
 in the year 1730, and at the age of 16 years became an ensign in the 
 British army. In 1763 he was at Fort Pitt, and the following year 
 was assistant engineer in the expedition of Gen. Henry Bouquet in 
 Ohio. He then went to Louisiana, where he remained for some years, 
 and was with the army in "West Florida, receiving a commis.sion as 
 captain. At the beginning of the Revolutionary war he was in London 
 and refused to take up arms against the American colonies. In 1779 
 he was suspected of carrying on a secret correspondence with Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, then in Prance, was arrested and kept in prison for
 
 LOUISIANA 521 
 
 six weeks, at the end of which time he was discharged. He then left 
 England, and after a short stay in France, crossed the Atlantic to 
 Charleston, S. C, where he joined the Continental forces under Gen. 
 Nathaniel Greene, with whom he sei'ved until the clos of the war, re- 
 ceiving the title of "Geographer-General." In 1784 he published his 
 "Historical Narrative and Topogi'aphical Description of Louisiana 
 and West Florida," and held the title of geographer of the United 
 States until his death at Pittsburg, Pa., April 28, 1789. 
 
 Hyams, a post-village and station of Natchitoches parish, is about 
 5 miles northwest of the city of Natchitoches on the Texas & Paeifie 
 R. R. 
 
 Hydropolis, a post-hamlet in the central part of Avoyelles parish, 
 is about 3 miles southwest of Marksville, the parish seat, and 2 miles 
 west of CocoviUe, nearest railroad station. Population 300. 
 
 Hyman, William Bryan, lawyer and .iurist, was born at Williams- 
 ton, Martin county, N. C, April 30, 1814, a son of Samuel and Ann 
 Gray (Bryan) Hyman. He received a classical education at the Col- 
 lege of North Carolina; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
 1839. From North Carolina he moved to Louisiana, settled at Alex- 
 andria in Rapides parish, where he soon acquired an extensive pratiee 
 and became noted throughout the state as a lawyer. Gov. J. Madison 
 Wells appointed him chief justice of the supreme court on April 1, 
 1865, and he held jurisdiction over that part of the state within the 
 Federal lines. Justice Merrick holding under Gov. Allen within the 
 Confederate lines. When the new state constitution was adopted in 
 1868 Judge Hyman left the bench. In 1871 he was appointed judge of 
 Jefferson parish, where he served until April, 1880, when the constitu- 
 tion of 1879 went into effect, abolishing the system of parisli judges. 
 Judge Hyman married Hermenegilda, daughter of Andres Gonzales 
 of Alexandria, La., June 7, 1847. He died at Camp Parapet, Jefferson 
 parish. La., Aug. 9, 1884. 
 
 I 
 
 latt, a post-hamlet in the northern part of Grant parish, is about 
 3 miles southwest of Williana, the nearest railroad station, and 14 
 miles northeast of Colfax, the parish seat. 
 
 Iberia Parish was formed out of the southern part of St. Martin 
 and the northern part of St. Mary parishes; its history is that of 
 the Attakapas district, as its early settlement dates back as far as 
 St. Landry's or St. Martin's. The first settlers in the district were 
 about 500 French sent out by Bouligny in 1778 and were followed 
 by Spaniards, among whom were the Miguez, Dominique and 
 Romero families. Next came the Acadians, descendants of the 
 French, who had long before settled in Acadia, or Nova'Scotia, and 
 exiled by the English had sought refuge in Louisiana. Among these 
 were the Breaux, Broussards, Deeuirs and Moutons, names which 
 became famous in the affairs of the state in later years. Many of 
 the early settlers came direct from France. Among them were such
 
 522 LOUISIANA 
 
 families as the DeBlanes, Gonsoiilins, Oliviers, St. Clairs and 
 Declouets, and descendants of these old families are still to be 
 found in the parish. Their settlement was for years the great at- 
 traction to French emigrants. Diiriug the French regime DeBlane, 
 the ancestor of the American family of that name, was commandant 
 of western Louisiana. As early as 1788 the colony of Iberia num- 
 bered 190 people, the majority of whom were Spanish, but there 
 were the French Acadiaus and many French who came to America 
 under St. Denis and Benard de la Harpe. Few American settlers 
 came until after the battle of New Orleans, as that event opened 
 up this rich district to settlement from other states. One of the 
 first of these was John Weeks, a wealthy gentleman, from Virginia, 
 who brought a number of slaves and became a sugar planter. Other 
 prominent Americans were the Bakers, Smiths and Youngs. A few 
 Irish came about the same time, among them Alexander Porter, 
 who became a prominent figure in the state, serving as justice of 
 the supreme court and U. S. senator from Louisiana. 
 
 Iberia parish is located in the extreme southern part of the state, 
 its southern border being on the gulf coast. It was established by 
 an act of the legislature on Oct. 30, 1868, the original act defining 
 its boundaries as they are today. It is irregular in its geographical 
 outline and is bounded as follows : on the north by the parishes of 
 St. ^Martin and Iberville : on the east by Assumption parish ; on the 
 south by St. Marj-'s parish and the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the west 
 by the parishes of Vermilion and Lafayette. It has an area of 583 
 square miles. After the organization of the i^arish New Iberia 
 was made the parish seat. Tlie first courthouse — a temporary biiild- 
 ing— was burned in 1870, and the present structure was built in 
 1884. The formation of the parish is varied, consisting of coast 
 marsh, alluvial land, wooded swamp, and rolling uplands breaking 
 into blutf land. Much of the eastern part of the parish is cypress 
 swamp. The tillable land lies south and west of the Southern Pa- 
 cific R. R. and the Bayou Teche from the parish line below Jean- 
 erette to New Iberia, this region being called "Prairie au Large." 
 It has an average width of 6 miles, a little wider above between 
 the railroad and Lake Peigneur. All the land is tillable between 
 Lake Peigneur and Lake Tasse. as is the land in the great bend 
 of the Teche, which is as rich as any land in the state. "Prairie 
 au Large" is fine rolling prairie, with natural drainage, and like 
 that south of Lake Peigneur, is fine grazing land. The Teche is lined 
 with plantations nearly the entire distance from its entrance into 
 the parish east of Lake Tasse to tlie line where it leaves the parish 
 below .Teanerette. The banks of the bayou are from 15 to 25 feet 
 high, sloping gently to the water, and before the war large sugar 
 plantations were held here by wealthy planters, who built many 
 beautiful residences along the stream. *The land lying along Grand 
 Lake is almost all cypress swamp, and bordering the swamp is a 
 growth of gum. oak, ash and other timber. Around the great bend 
 of the bayou, called Fausse Pointe. the alluvial land is several miles 
 wide. On the west side of the Teehe there is little timber, when
 
 LOUISIANA 523 
 
 compared to the abundance on the eastern side. Grand Cote island 
 is about 2 miles in diameter, with an area of some 2,000 acres, part 
 of which is in timber, part in pasture, and the remainder under cul- 
 tivation. Avery's, Salt, or Petit Anse island, as it has a variety of 
 names, is 2i/^ miles long by 1 mile wide and is a sort of geological 
 puzzle. It is composed of hills, valleys, woodlands, open fields and 
 pastures, and surroiinded on all sides by sea marsh, which at a dis- 
 tance has the appearance of dry, level prairie. On this island are 
 large deposits of pure rock-salt. (See Salt.) Orange island, which 
 received its name from the orange groves there, is varied in forma- 
 tion, some parts being quite rugged. These islands form the most 
 attractive natural features of the parish. The principal streams are 
 the Bayou Teche, which runs through the center of the parish, 
 Petit Anse bayou and Coulee du Portage. Lake Peigneur, one of 
 the finest sheets of water in the Attakapas country, lies 9 miles 
 west of New Iberia, and Lake Tasse is 2 miles from that town. 
 Fish of various kinds may be caught in these lakes at all seasons 
 of the year. On the east, Lake Fausse Pointe lies almost entirely 
 within the eastern boundaries of the parish. The natural water 
 supply is abundant, the creeks affording ample supply for stock, 
 though cistern water has to be used for domestic purposes. The 
 principal production is sugar, the alhivial soil along the Teche 
 yielding large crops. In recent years rice has been introduced, and 
 its ciilture has proved such a success that it is a rapidly developing 
 industry. Corn, hay, potatoes, peas and garden vegetables are all 
 grown extensively and with good profits. The rich soil and mild 
 climate, for frost is rarely known here, combine to make orange 
 and lemon culture a source of profit. Under state protection the 
 oyster industry has grown rapidly. Both oysters and shrimp are 
 found in large quantities along Vermilion bay, and salt and fresh 
 water crabs are caught in the bayous and streams of this favored 
 region. Iberia has quite extensive manufacturing interests, such 
 as soap and oil factories, sawmills, a sash, door and blind factory, 
 brickyards, ice factories, etc. The Southern Pacific R. R. traverses 
 the northern part of the parish from southeast to northwest, nearly 
 parallel to the Bayou Teche, and a branch road runs from New 
 Iberia to a salt mine in the southern part of the parish, furnishing 
 excellent transportation facilities. New Iberia, the parish seat, in 
 the northern part, and Jeanerette, near the eastern boundary, are 
 the two most important towns. Other towns and villages are Avery 
 Island, Delcambre, Loreauville, Oliver and Patoutville. The par- 
 ish has rural schools for both white and colored children, and the 
 scliools of New ll)eria and Jeanerette are of the best. 
 
 The following statistics are taken from the U. S. census for 
 1910: Number of farms, 1,704; acreage, 171,061; acres improved, 
 121,436 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, 
 $6,445,444; value of farm buildings, $1,250,870; value of live stock, 
 $1,049,747; total value of crops, .$2,266,789. Population, 31,262. 
 
 Iberville, a village in tlie parish of the same name, is in the north- 
 eastern part, aboiit 8 miles east of Plaquemiue, the parish seat. It
 
 524 LOUISIANA 
 
 is a station on the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. K., has a money 
 order posloffice, a telegraph otfiee, and does some shipping. 
 
 Iberville Parish, one of the oldest parishes in the state, received 
 its name in honor of Iberville, the founder of Louisiana. The first 
 settlements were made at an early date by the French and Spanish. 
 The records date back to 1770. but a census which O'Reilly had 
 taken in 1769 shows that Iberville had a population of 376 at that 
 time. The largest colony was known as St. Gabriel, on the east side 
 of the Mississippi river. The old church of St. Gabriel was organized 
 and maintained during the early days of the settlement. Louis 
 Dutise was commandant and judge of the "District of Iberville," 
 in 1770, and documents bearing his signature are preserved in the 
 archives of the parish. In 1781, N. De Verbois succeeded him as 
 commandant and governed for a number of years. During the 
 decade following 1765, the population of the colony was increased 
 by some immigrants from the Canar.v islands and the Acadians 
 (q. v.), who located on the "Iber-iille coast." The trade of the 
 colony was of considerable vahie at this time and attracted English 
 traders, who carried on an illicit trade with the French. By 1788 
 this vicinity had a population of 286 people. Among those who 
 resided in the Iberville district between 1770 and 1785 were the 
 following: Pierre Cassadin, Thomas de Acasta, Pierre Bobin. Fer- 
 main Blanchard, Jacques, Jean and Franyois Landry, Joseph Le 
 Blanc, Pierre Brosscaux, Jean Durand, Fernando Roderigues, Jean 
 Thibodeaux, IManuel Robazo, and the Sehlatres, nearlj^ all of whom 
 have descendants living in the parish today. The parish was first 
 established as "Iberville county" by act of the territorial legisla- 
 ture in 1804, and when the Territory of Orleans was divided into 
 19 parishes, in Jan., 1807, the parish of Iberville was made to in- 
 eliule Iberville county and the settlement of Galveztown. The seat 
 of justice was first located at Point Pleasant, about 8 miles below 
 Plaquemine on the right bank of the Mississippi river, but was 
 changed to Plaquemine in 1842. 
 
 Iberville parish is located in the so\ithern part of the state, is 
 irregular in outline, bounded on the north by the parishes of Pointe 
 Coupee, East and West Baton Rouge; on the east by Ascension par- 
 ish : on the south by the parishes of Assumption and Iberia : and on 
 the west by St. Martin and St. Landry. The Mississippi river flows 
 through the eastern portion, the Atchafalaya river flows through the 
 southwestern portion, and the central part is drained by the Grand 
 river. Bayous Goula, Plaquemine, ]Maringoiiin, Grosse Tete, Man- 
 chac and numerous other small streams. It has an area of 643 
 square miles, all of alluvial formation and wooded swamp. The 
 "coast of Iberville," as the land along the banks of the Mississippi 
 is called, is remarkable for its highly improved condition and the 
 great extent of its plantations. During antebellum days many 
 grand old residences, surrounded by parks of live oak and pecan 
 trees, were built in this section of the state. The swamp lands are 
 nearly all heavily wooded with cypress, oak and other valuable 
 timber, and lumbering is an important industry. It is claimed that
 
 LOUISIANA 525 
 
 more cypress shingles are maBiifactured in and shipped from Iber- 
 ville than any other parish in the state. The principal agricultural 
 product is sugar, but rice, cotton and corn are raised. The mild 
 climate and rich soil are adapted to the growth of fruit trees, sev- 
 eral varieties of which do especially well, and pecans are exported 
 in large quantities. There is practically no government land left 
 in the parish and tillable land is worth from $10.00 to $50.00 an 
 acre. Transportation facilities are good. The Mississippi river 
 offers cheap shipping by water on the east; the Texas & Pacific 
 R. R. passes through the parish on the west bank of the Missis- 
 sippi river ; and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. runs through 
 the northeastern portion, and a branch of the Southern Pacific sys- 
 tem crosses the northern part. Outlets are thus furnished in every 
 direction :^or the products of the parish. From early settlement 
 to the present time the Catholic religion has predominated among 
 the white population though most of the Protestant denominations 
 are represented. The parish has done much for public education. 
 There are rural schools for both white and black, and the high 
 schools of such towns as Plaquemine, Bayou Goula and White 
 Castle provide free higher education. Plaquemine, White Castle 
 and Bayou Goula are the most prominent towns. Others are Cres- 
 cent, Dorcyville, Grosse Tete, Island, Maringouin, Rosedale, St. 
 Gabriel, Seymourville, Sunshine and Indianvillage. 
 
 The following statistics are taken from the U. S. census for 
 1910 : Number of farms, 609 ; acreage, 104,728 ; acres improved, 
 64,422 ; value of land and improvements exclusive of farm build- 
 ings. $4,367,960; value of farm buildings, $1,140,885; value of live 
 stock, $824,040; total value of crops, $1,931,827. Population, 30,- 
 954. 
 
 Iberville, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur de, called by his admirers "The 
 Cid of New France," was born at Villemarie, Montreal, Canada, 
 July 16, 1661, the third of 14 children — 11 sons and 3 daughters — 
 born to Charles and Catherine (Primot) Le Moyne. Nearly all 
 the sons served with distinction at some period or another in the 
 army or navy of France. Pierre (d 'Iberville) played a brilliant 
 part in the war between France and England which was concluded 
 by the treaty of Ryswick on Sept. 20, 1697, and soon afterward he 
 was honored by being made a Knight of St. Louis. The conclusion 
 of the war gave Louis XIV the opportunity to establish a colony at 
 the mouth of the Mississippi — an opportunity that had been neg- 
 lected since the death of La Salle more than ten years before. 
 Accordingly, a fleet of four vessels, under command of Iberville, 
 who bore the title of governor-general, set sail from Brest, Oct. 24, 
 1698. The ships were the Badine and the Marin, each carrying 
 30 guns and 200 men, the former commanded by Iberville in person 
 and the latter by the Chevalier de Surgeres; the Precieux, com- 
 manded by J. F. Vasseur; and the Biscayenne, under command of 
 F. Guyon. On board the two smaller vessels were about 200 col- 
 onists, a company of marines, and a stock of tools, provisions, etc. 
 Among the colonists were a number of women and children, chiefly
 
 526 LOUISIANA 
 
 families of ex-soldiers, who had been given liberal inducements to 
 join the expedition. Lawrence de Graaf. a noted biiecaneer, had 
 been secured by Iberville as pilot. By order of the king, the fleet 
 ■vvas joined at St. Domingo by the man-of-war Frangois, 52 guns, 
 commanded by the JIarquis de Chateaumorant, and several trans- 
 ports with provisions and troops. 
 
 England and Spain were both casting longing eyes upon the 
 broad valley of the Mississippi, and the latter nation had already 
 established a colony at Pensaeola. When Iberville's fleet dropped 
 anchor ofl' Santa Rosa on Jan. 25, 1699, the Spaniards at Pensaeola 
 refused to permit the French to land, and Iberville sailed on west- 
 ward "to Mobile bay. After touching at Massacre and Chande- 
 leur islands, the fleet passed between Cat and Ship Islands and 
 came to anchor about the middle of February in Biloxi bay, on the 
 northeast shore of which Iberville subsequently decided to locate 
 his colony. But that decision was not reached until after an at- 
 tempt had been made to find the ^Mississippi. Learning from the 
 natives of a large river, some distance to the southwest, Iberville 
 determined to visit it, believing it to be the ilississippi. On Feb. 
 27, with 2 rowboats, several bark canoes and 53 men. among whom 
 were Sauvolle and Bienville, he set out for the mouth of the river. 
 In his account of the expedition he says: "We entered this river 
 on the night of the 2nd of ilarch. I found it obstructed by rafts 
 of petrified wood of a siifificient hardness to resist the action of the 
 sea. * * « Oil the 3d, the winds prevented me from making 
 soundings between the rafts and the three outlets, which extend 
 some three leagues before entering the sea." The 3d was Shrove 
 Tuesday, and to a point 12 leagues from the mouth of the river 
 Iberville gave the name of "Mardi Gras. " As he passed xip the 
 river he encamped on the site of New Orleans and on the 14th 
 reached the village of the Bayagoula Indians. At this point in his 
 narrative he says: "Seeing myself so far up the river without 
 positive proof that this was the Mississippi, and that it might be 
 said in F'rauce that I was deceived, not having met with any of 
 those tribes mentioned in the narratives, I concluded that I ought 
 to visit tile Houmas on the east side of the river, among whom I 
 knew I\I. de Tonti had been; and believing, moreover, that in course 
 of at least 30 leagues I must meet with that branch of the river 
 spoken of in the narratives, do^vn which I could send a chaloupe 
 and canoe for the purpose of exploration, and ascertain which of 
 the two rivers would be most suitable for settlements. I was ap- 
 prehensive that the Indians only desired to conceal from me that 
 branch in order to get me to remain upon theirs, as they hoped to 
 reap some advantage thereby. I renewed my journey in company 
 with the chief of the Bayagoulas, who oft'ered to go with me with 
 8 of his men, and arrived at the village of the Houmas, distant 35 
 leagues. ' ' 
 
 The Houma village was about opposite the mouth of the Red 
 river. While there Iberville learned of a letter Tonti had left with 
 the chief of the Quinipissas of .Mongoulaehas, and ordered Sauvolle
 
 LOUISIANA 527 
 
 and Bienville to return and get the letter, which Avas done. It was 
 found to be addressed to La Salle and contained an account of 
 Tonti's voyage down the river to meet that explorer in 1686. On 
 March 23, Iberville turned back down the river, entered Bayou 
 Manchae the next day, passed through and named Lakes Maurepas 
 and Poutehartrain, and reached Ship island ahead of Bienville and 
 Sauvolle. On April 12 he explored and named Bay St. Louis. By 
 May 1 the fort and cabins were completed, the fort was armed 
 with 12 cannon and stocked with ammunition, and three days later 
 Iberville sailed for Prance, leaving Sauvolle in charge of the colony. 
 He retui-ned on Dec. 8, bringing supplies and reinforcements, and 
 learned of the attempt of the English to plant a colony somewhere 
 on the Mississippi. (See English Turn.) To prevent a repetition 
 of the visit, he proceeded at once to the Mississippi and 5-t miles 
 from the mouth built a fort, which some writers have called Fort 
 Maurepas and otliers Fort Iberville. This fort he placed in charge 
 of his brother, Bienville, after which he ascended the river to the 
 village of the Natchez Indians, with whom he concluded a treaty 
 on March 5, 1700. In May of that year he again returned to France 
 and did not come again to Biloxi until Dec. 18, 1701, when he ar- 
 rived with two ships, the Renommee, under his personal command, 
 and the Palmier, commanded by his brother Joseph (Sieur de 
 Serigny). During his absence Sauvolle had died and the colony 
 had become reduced to 150 members, all of whom were in great 
 distress. 
 
 This condition of affairs Avas due in a great measure to the 
 erroneous impressions that prevailed among the Europeans regard- 
 ing America. Rumors of fabulous wealth were current and they 
 were believed by many men noted for their intelligence and sa- 
 gacity, as the following extract from the instructions to Iberville 
 will show: "One of the great objects proposed to the king, when 
 he was urged to discover the mouth of the Micisipi, was to obtain 
 wool from the cattle of that country; and for this i")urpose these 
 animals must be tamed and parked and calves sent to France. Al- 
 though the pearls sent to his Majesty are not fine, either in water 
 or shape, they must nevertheless be carefully nought, as others may 
 be found; and his Majesty desires M. d 'Iberville to bring all he 
 can, ascertain where the fishery is carried on, and see it in opera- 
 tion." The "cattle" referred to were doubtless the wild buffaloes, 
 from the hair of which some of the Indian tribes fashioned rude 
 garments, but after a lapse of 200 years no white man has ever 
 succeeded in using it as a textile fabric. Among the colonists were 
 many who preferred adventure to agriculture, and when the head 
 of the colony was instructed to hunt for pearl fisheries it is little 
 wonder that this class spent the time in seeking for gold, jewels or 
 valuable furs among the natives, rather than to perform the rude 
 labor necessary on the part of him who settles a new country. 
 
 In May, 1702, England declared war against France and Spain, 
 and Louis XIV ordered the headquarters of the governor of Lou- 
 isiana to be removed to Mobile bay. Leaving Bienville to carry out
 
 528 LOUISIANA 
 
 this order, Iberville bade farewell to the colony and sailed for 
 France. It was his intention to return to Louisiana, but he was 
 ordered to duty in the French navy. The colony was neglected for 
 a time, but he tinally managed to send his brother, Chateauguay, 
 ■vvith a ship-load of supplies to its relief. In the spring of 1706 he 
 left France for -Mobile, but died at Havana of yellow fever on the 
 9th of July. 
 
 Ida, a village in the northern part of Caddo parish, is a station 
 on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about a mile south of the Arkansas 
 boiindary. It has a money order postoffice, express office, telegraph 
 station and a good retail trade. Population, 300. 
 
 Immigration, Bureau of. — By the act of March 17, 1866, the legis- 
 lature of Loui.siana extended to the world the first of a series of 
 official invitations to come and share the bountiful blessings which 
 nature has so generously showered upon this portion of the Western 
 Hemisphere. This act provided for a department of government, 
 to be known as the "bureaii of immigration," the chief of which 
 was to be appointed by the governor, and was to receive an annual 
 salary of $3,500. The bureau was authorized to maintain "one or 
 more agents" in foreign countries for the purpose of advertising 
 the many physical merits and resources of the state, and to attend 
 to the matter of transporting, at the very lowest possible rate, all 
 those who might desire to immigrate to Louisiana. Said agent was 
 required to obtain all the information possible concerning those 
 aboiit to sail for the New World, and this information was to be 
 forwarded to the chief of the bureaii at Baton Rouge. Five days ' 
 after the enactment of this act the legislature passed a law looking 
 to the protection of the immigrants. Among other things it pro- 
 vided that all immigrant boarding houses and all transportation 
 agents dealing exclusively with the above class of people should be 
 licensed. It further provided that all government ofifieials, both 
 state and municipal, no matter whether or not they were employes 
 of the immigrant bureau, must refrain from dealing with or solicit- 
 ing immigrants for their own private gain, and the issuance of 
 boarding house licenses to keepers of saloons and cofi^ee houses was 
 forbidden. On liar. 8, 1869, the bureau was reorganized by legis- 
 lative enactment, in that 6 commissioners — each to serve for a term 
 of six years — were to have charge of immigration matters. Among 
 other things it further provided that an employment bureau, for 
 the benefit of immigrants seeking work, should be established at 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Up to the year 1880, immigration and agriciiltural matters of the 
 state had been supervised by two distinct governmental bodies — 
 the "bureau of immigration" and the "bureau of agriculture." 
 On Mar. 23, 1880, these two departments were combined under the 
 title of the "commission of agriculture and immigration," which 
 was to be composed of three members, viz. : the governor, the sec- 
 retary of state, and a commissioner to be appointed by the go%'- 
 ernor by and with the consent of the state senate. Among other 
 things the act provided for a system of land registration, by means
 
 LOUISIANA 529 
 
 of which a general description of all salable lands, whether private 
 or public, were recorded and retained in the principal office of the 
 bureau at New Orleans, where all such registers were subject to 
 free examination by all immigrants. Act No. 54, passed by the 
 legislature of 1884, again placed agricultural and immigration 
 matters under separate departments of government. The "bureau 
 of immigration" was to be composed of a commissioner, to be ap- 
 pointed by the governor by and with the consent of the senate, the 
 governor himself, the presidents of the cotton and sugar exchanges, 
 and the maritime association of New Orleans. The "bureau of ag- 
 riculture" was to be composed of a commissioner, to be appointed 
 by the governor by and with the consent of the senate, the pro- 
 fessor of agricultural chemistry of the state university, and the 
 president of the latter institution. Under these two commissions 
 the governmental affairs of immigration and agriculture were sepa- 
 rately conducted up to the year 1894, when the two departments 
 were again united by legislative enactment, which provided for the 
 establishment of a commission to be composed of a "commissioner 
 of agriculture and immigration," the governor of the state, and the 
 vice-president of the state university. The tirst was to be ap- 
 pointed by the governor, was to receive an annual salary of $2,500, 
 and was to hold office for a term of 4 years. The other two officials 
 were to be ex-officio members of the commission, and the chief bur- 
 den of executive matters was to rest on the shoulders of the com- 
 missioner. The bureau thus remained up to the time of the con- 
 vening of the constitutional convention of 1898, which decided to 
 change the composition of this bureau by providing in Article 307 
 of the constitution that the "State board of agriculture and Immi- 
 gration" should be composed of one member from each congres- 
 sional district of the state, to be appointed by the governor for a 
 term of 6 years (two members to retire every 2 years), tlie regular 
 commissioner of agriculture and immigration provided for by the 
 act of 1894, the governor of the state, the president of the state uni- 
 versity, the director of the state experiment stations, and the vice- 
 president of the board of supervisors of -the state university. The 
 next article of this constitution (308) well expresses the general 
 sentiment of the state at that time in regard to immigration as 
 follows: "The paramount importance of our agricultural interests 
 and the necessity of peopling with a desirable population the vacant 
 unoccupied areas of oiu- fertile lands, require an enlargement of 
 the duties and an expansion of the scope of the work of this board 
 for which the general assembly shall enact such laws as may be 
 necessary to carry out the provisions of this article." In response 
 to this the legislature of 1904 provided that when in the opinion 
 of the state commissioner of agriculture and immigration it shall 
 be expedient to render the police jury of any parish state financial 
 aid for the piirpose of advertising the merits of the climate and 
 natural resources of such parish lie may do so to the extent of .$500 
 per annum. Another act of tiie same legislature made the office of 
 commissioner of agriculture and immigration elective, and he is 
 1—34
 
 530 LOUISIANA 
 
 now chosen by the voters of the state at the regular state election. 
 He still holds for a term of 4 years and receives his annual salary 
 of $2,500, as under the old law. The other members of the State 
 board of Agriculture and Immigration, provided for by the consti- 
 tution, are still chosen by appointment. Charles Schuler was the 
 first citizen of the state to be elected to the commissionership men- 
 tioned above, having been chosen for that office in April, 1906. 
 His administration of the office was a very successful one, as he was 
 admirably equipped for the position. A short time ago he published 
 a comprehensive article on the opportunities awaiting the sturdy 
 working man in this state, from which the following pithy extracts 
 are taken: "There is no section of the United States that is de- 
 veloping more rapidly or presents greater opportunities for invest- 
 ments or more inducements to a sturdy class of farmers than the 
 Southern states, comprised of the Carolinas, Florida, Tennessee, 
 Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. * * » Louisiana 
 is not opposed to the right kind of immigrants so they come with 
 the intention of becoming citizens and settlers. The relation of 
 Louisiana to the question of immigration is different from other 
 states of the Union. There is no congestion in here nor is there 
 likely to be for generations to come, as there are plenty of unde- 
 veloped lands and work for all who decide to cast their lot with 
 us." In issuing the Farmers' Institute Bulletin No. 11 to the pub- 
 lic, Mr. Schuler also submitted a letter to Gov. Blanchard, which 
 contains . the following concerning immigration : ' 'My trip to 
 Europe in the interest of immigration was one of hard, faithful 
 work, from which I, however, derived the satisfaction of estab- 
 lishing important business connections with a number of very reli- 
 able and experienced men, who now represent the state of Louisi- 
 ana in Em-ope, and are engaged in distributing literatm-e trans- 
 lated into foreign languages concerning the resources, opportuni- 
 ties and advantages of coming to a state offering the very best in- 
 ducements." The department of agriculture and immigration is 
 behind a good roads movement now receiving attention all over 
 the state, and as a result Louisiana is rapidly acquiring a system 
 of smooth, substantial and durable highways. 
 
 Independence, a village located in the western part of Tangipa- 
 hoa parish, is on the Illinois Central E. R., 6 miles south of Amite, 
 the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice, express office, tel- 
 egraph station, telephone facilities and a bank. It is in the great 
 garden and fruit raising district that furnishes the northern mar- 
 kets with early vegetables and fruits, and is a considerable busi- 
 ness town. Population, 1,004. 
 
 Indian Bayou, a post-hamlet of Vermilion parish, is situated on 
 the Queue de Tortue, in the northwest corner of the parish. Rayne, 
 on the Southern Pacific, 8 miles north, is the nearest railroad sta- 
 tion. 
 
 Indianmound, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of East 
 Baton Rouge parish, is near the Amite river, about 6 miles south-
 
 LOUISIANA 531 
 
 est of Milltown, the nearest railroad station, and 15 miles north- 
 east of Baton Rouge, the parish seat. 
 
 Indians. — The early annals of Louisiana during the French and 
 Spanish dominations abound in references to various Indian ti'ibes. 
 "Wherever the French penetrated in their work of exploration and 
 colonization these primitive peoples were found in possession of 
 the soil, and it is the purpose of this article to give some account 
 of those tribes and confederacies, whose history is most closely 
 interwoven with that of Louisiana. The domain of French and 
 even Spanish Louisiana embraced the major portion of the great 
 Mississippi valley, and the limits of this article preclude more than 
 a passing reference to the more distant tribes, far removed from the 
 center of French and Spanish influence at New Orleans. The sci- 
 ences of ethnology and archaaology have now pretty well estab- 
 lished the essential ethnic unity of the whole race of Indians of the 
 Western Hemisphere, from Alaska to Patagonia, so that the Indians 
 of Loiiisiana will be found to differ from the others of their race in 
 no fundamental particulars. True, when first encountered by the 
 whites, they were living in varioixs stages of progress, but gener- 
 ally speaking these southern Indians, when the whites first knew 
 them, were still a people of stone culture, like their fellows all over 
 the continent. If there were instances of arrested development, 
 due perhaps to a variety of causes such as wars, disease, climate, 
 etc., the variations were similar to those met with among all races 
 in the progress of their development. Uneven progress marks the 
 onward march of every race and people. As everywhere, the south- 
 em Indians were village dwellers and their main dependence for 
 the means of livelihood was upon some primitive form of agi-icul- 
 ture, hunting and fishing. Numerous tribes east of the Mississippi 
 such as the Natchez, Choctaw and Creek, had long attained to a 
 fixed habitat, and chiefly because of this were further advanced in 
 agriculture than were many of their brethren west of the great 
 river. The religion of the southern Indian was zoothenism, their 
 gods being deified men and animals. The heavenly bodies were 
 also personified as men or animals and were worshiped as such. 
 Each tribe and nation differed in its form and ceremonial of wor- 
 ship, each had its own peculiar superstitions and forms of religious 
 observance, but none of the tribes had advanced to the monothe- 
 istic conception, and the idea of a single "Great Spirit" was con- 
 veyed to them by the European. Many of their religious cere- 
 monials were quite elaborate and occurred at stated times, such as 
 the famous green corn rites of the Natchez, Creek and Choctaw. 
 In the matter of government the confederacy represented their 
 highest development, while most of the tribes had the clanship or- 
 ganization and reckoned their descent in the female line. The 
 southern Indians, in common with others of their race, lacked do- 
 mestic animals, beasts of burden, fire-places or chimneys, inside 
 stairs and wheeled vehicles of any description. Some effort was 
 made by many of the early chroniclers to weave a web of romance 
 and former glory about some of the tribes and attribute to them
 
 r,;i2 LOUISIANA 
 
 a degree of poAver and civilization nn\yarrantcd by the facts. Espe- 
 cially was this tnie of the vauislied nation of the Natchez — a re- 
 markable people in many ways, lint one that eouforraed neverthe- 
 less in all essential particnlars to the foregoing general statements. 
 
 When the French first arrived in Louisiana in 1699, the more im- 
 portant tribal groups or linguistic stocks found within the limits 
 of the present state and in the regions contiguous thereto were the 
 following : Adaizan, in western Louisiana : Attachapan. in south- 
 ern Louisiana ; Caddoan, the southern group thereof dwelling along 
 the lower Ked river and its tributaries in Louisiana, Arkansas and 
 Eastern Texas; ^Muskhogean, embracing tlie Choctaw, Chickasaw, 
 Creek and numerous lesser tribes, dwelling for the most part in 
 eastern Louisiana, JMississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida and 
 Tennessee ; Chitimachan, in .southern Louisiana ; Natchesan, in 
 western Mississippi and northern Louisiana, a small remnant now 
 in Oklahoma; Sioiiau, occupying for the most part the region 
 extending from northern Louisiana to the province of Saskatche- 
 wan, and with numerous scattered tribes in Wisconsin, North and 
 South Carolina, Virginia, and along the Mississippi Sound; Toni- 
 kan, in eastern Louisiana and western JMississippi. The above dis- 
 tribution and classification of these tribal groups on the basis of 
 language has been foimd to be the most scientitie and accurate by 
 modern scholars, having been adopted by such eminent investi- 
 gators as Gallatin, Halbert, Powell, Dellanbaugh and others, and 
 is the arrangement adopted by the U. S. bureau of ethnology, which 
 has succeeded in distinguishing at least 65 of these separate stock 
 languages in North America. The subdivisions of these stocks were 
 not always contiguously distributed, and certain tribes will be found 
 widely separated from tlie main liody of their kindred. For in- 
 stance, within the horizon of the JMuskhogean stock, were found at 
 the coming of the whites, many small tribes speaking languages 
 entirely alien and distinct, such as tlie Chitimachas. Biloxis, Pasca- 
 goulas, Taensas and Natchez. Says Brinton: "AVe may reason- 
 ably suppose them to have been the debris of the ancient popula- 
 tion who held the land before the Muskokis had descended upon it 
 from the north and M-est." 
 
 Such various and different titles were sometimes applied by the 
 early French, Spanish and English writers to the same tribe, it has 
 not always been possible to identify these tribes with any of the 
 list as classified by modern scholarship. As a rule only the' modern 
 spelling has been adopted in the present instance, with an occa- 
 sional reference to some of the earlier designations for the purpose 
 of identification. 
 
 Of the various tribes forming the so-called Muskhogean stock the 
 following is believed to be a nearly complete list : Alibamu, Apa- 
 lachi, Bayagoula, Chatot, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Coosa, Coshatta, 
 Creek, Hitcliitee. Huma. Koasati, JMobile, Muskoki, Tunglas, Sem- 
 inole, Yamacraw and Yamasi. Only a portion of these, by reason 
 of their geographical location, are germane to this article! Speak- 
 ing in general terms of the Muskhogean (also termed the ]\Iasko-
 
 LOUISIANA 533 
 
 kian or Miiskokiau, and the Clioctaw-Muskhogean) linguistic fam- 
 ily of tribes, it may be said to have occupied for many centuries 
 prior to the coming of the white races all that vast area of land 
 extending from the Savannah river and the Atlantic west to the 
 Mississippi river, in a few instances, some of the region beyond 
 that great barrier, and from the Gulf of Mexico north to the Tenn- 
 essee river, with the excej^tion of certain small areas in the pos- 
 session of the Yuchi, Natchez and some small settlements of Shawni, 
 (7th An. Rep., Bureau of Ethnology, p. 94, J. W. Powell). A. S. 
 Gatschet's Creek Migration Legend of 1884 says: "Among the 
 various nationalities of the Gulf territories the Maskoki family of 
 tribes occupied a central and commanding position. Not only the 
 large extent of territory held by them, but also their numbers, their 
 prowess in war, and a certain degree of mental culture and self 
 esteem, made of the Maskoki one of the most important groups 
 in Indian history. Prom their ethnologic condition of later times, 
 we infer that these tribes have extended for many centuries back 
 in time from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and beyond tliat river, 
 and from the Appalachian ridge to the Gulf of Mexico." He de- 
 clares that they caused much trouble to the English and French 
 colonies, and some of the tribes constantly wavered in their alle- 
 giance between the English and French cause. The American gov- 
 ernment, after the end of the Revolutionary war, overcame their 
 opposition easily, when necessary (Seminoles excepted), as the 
 various tribes were never able to unite successfully. The two main 
 branches of the stock, the Creek and Choctaw Indians, were con- 
 stantly at war, the circumstantial proof of whicli is embodied in 
 their folklore. From the main people the Choctaws settled in the 
 middle portions of the present state of Mississippi, and by process 
 of segmentation tlie Chickasaws and several smaller tribes became 
 separated from the parent tribe. The strongest evidence for a com- 
 munity of origin of the Maskoki tribes is furnLshed by the fact that 
 their dialects belong to one linguistic family. The English came to 
 speak of them as Creeks, because tlie early English traders in enter- 
 ing their country from Charleston or Savannah were compelled to 
 cross a large number of creeks and streams. Gatschet also says, "In 
 the southern part of the Choctaw territory several tribes represented 
 to be of Choctaw lineage appear as distinct from the main branch, 
 and are always mentioned separately. The French colonists called 
 them Mobilians, Tohomes, Pascagoulas, Biloxis, Mougoulachas, 
 Bayagoulas, and Iloumas (Oumas). All have disappeared except the 
 Biloxis, of whom scattered remnants live in the forests of Louisiana, 
 south of Red river." (H. S. Halljcrt has located siirvivors of both 
 the Biloxi and Pascagoula tribes.) , 
 
 The Choctaw nation, one of the great branches of the Muskho- 
 gean stock, as before stated, lived farthest west in the central part 
 of the present state of Mississippi. They were the most powerful 
 tribe with whom the French came in contact and early writers state 
 that they could muster 10,000 warriors. The English trader, James 
 Adair, estimated their numbers after the cession of West Florida
 
 534 LOUISIANA 
 
 to the English at less than 4,500 warriors. All writers unite in say- 
 ing that the Choetaws were gathered on their eastern frontier into 
 compact villages for purposes of defense, but lived widely separated 
 within the interior of their country. Adair wrote in 1775: "The 
 Choctaw country lies in about 33 and 34 deg. north latitude. Ac- 
 cording to the course of the Indian path, their western lower towns 
 are situated 200 computed miles to the northward of New Orleans; 
 the upper ones, 150 miles to the southward of the Chickasaw nation, 
 150 miles to the west of the late dangerous French Alabama garri- 
 son in the Muskhogee country (Fort Toulouse), and 150 to the north 
 of Mobile, which is the first settlement and only town, except New 
 Orleans, that the French had in "West Florida. Their country is 
 pretty much in the form of an oblong square. The barrier towns, 
 which are next to the Muskhogee and Chickasaw countries, are com- 
 pactly settled for social defense, according to the general method of 
 other savage nations ; but the rest, both in the center, and toward 
 the Mississippi, are onlj'' scattered plantations, as best suits a sepa- 
 rate easy Avay of living. ' ' 
 
 Koosah (Coosa) was the largest town in the nation, and was dis- 
 tant from Mobile about 180 miles, "at a small distance from the 
 river which glides by that Ioav and unhealthy old capital." (Adair). 
 The same author also speaks of a remote, but considerable town, 
 called "Yowanne," that lay 40 miles below the 7 southernmost 
 towns of the nation, towards Mobile, which was distant 120 miles. 
 "As it is a remote barrier, it is greatly harassed by the Muskhogee, 
 when at war with them." When Adair wrote, tlie town was ruled 
 by the Mingo Humma Echeto, the Great Red Chieftan, and was de- 
 fended by a palisaded fort. The Choctaw were alwaj's somewhat 
 uncertain in their allegiance, but as a rule were friendly to the 
 French and hostile to the English. By reason of their strength they 
 were much courted by the French, Spanish and English governors, 
 Adair, who was doubtless prejudiced against them, has character- 
 ized this people as "of a base, ungrateful and thievish disposition — 
 fickle and treacherous — ready-witted, and endued with a surprising 
 flow of smooth artful language on every sub.iect within the reach 
 of their ideas; in each of these qualities, they far exceed any society 
 
 of people I ever saw Except the intense love they bear to 
 
 their native country, and their xiUev contempt of any kind of danger 
 in defense of it, I know of no other virtue they possess." He fur- 
 ther declares that "having no rivers in their country (though it 
 abounds with springs and creeks), few of them can swim like other 
 Indians, which often proves hurtful to them wlien high freshets 
 come on M-hile they are out at war." They "flatten their foreheads 
 with a bap: of sand, which with great care they keep fastened on 
 the skull of the infant, while it is in its tender and imperfect state. 
 Thus they quite deform the face, and give themselves an appear- ' 
 ance which is disagreeable to any but those of their own likeness." 
 The Choetaws, by reason of the genial nature of the climate where 
 they lived and the fertile plains and gently sloping lulls of their 
 native land, excelled most North American tribes in their devotion
 
 LOUISIANA 535 
 
 to agricultural pursuits. They cultivated extensive fields of maize, 
 beans, squashes and tobacco, and placed but limited dependence on 
 the chase.. Choctaw tradition asserts that after their creation, they 
 subsisted for a long time on the spontaneous productions of the earth 
 until they discovered maize a few miles distant from their saci-ed 
 mound, Nanih Waiya. One version of the corn-finding myth is thus 
 given by Halbert: "A long time ago it thus happened. In the very 
 beginning a crow got a single grain of corn from across the great 
 water (Gulf of Mexico), brought it to this country and gave it to 
 an orphan child, who was playing in the yard. The child named 
 it tauohi (corn). He planted it in the yard. "When the corn was 
 growing up, the child's elders merely had it swept around. But the 
 child, wishing to have his own way, hoed it, hilled it up, and laid it 
 by. When this single grain of corn grew up and matured, it made 
 two ears of corn. And in this way the ancestors of the Choctaws dis- 
 covered corn." Scholars unite in assigning a common origin 
 to the Choctaws and Chickasaws, based on language; tradition, reli- 
 gion and customs. The numerous versions of their famous migration 
 legend all agree in certain general facts, such as the migration of 
 their ancestors from the west and the northwest, the prophet and his 
 saerod pole, and the final settlement at Nanih Waiya, their 
 great sacred mound, in the southern part of Winston coiinty, Miss. 
 Another legend also describes Nanih Waiya, the Bending Mount, as 
 the place where they separated from their Irinsmen, the Chickasaws. 
 
 The botanist, William Bartram, wrote of the Muskhogee (Creek) 
 that "some of their most favorite songs and dances they have from 
 their enemies the Choctaws; for it seems that these people are very 
 eminent for poetry and music ; every town among them strives to 
 excel each other in composing new songs for dances; and by a cus- 
 tom amongst them, they must have at least one new song for exhibi- 
 tion, at every annual busk." (Bartram 's Travels, p. 516, London, 
 1792.) 
 
 Among the Choctaw, as well as the other Muskhogean tribes, and, 
 indeed, among the North American Indians generally, the gentile or 
 clan.ship sj'stem prevailed. These gentes or family groups were based 
 upon 3 principal conceptions, says Morgan, viz: "the bond of kin, 
 a pure lineage through descent in the female line, and non-intermar- 
 riage in the gens." According to G-allatin there were 2 great divisions 
 among the Choctaws, each of which were subdivided into 4 clans; 
 and no man could marry into any of the 4 clans belonging to his divi- 
 sion. In the case of the Cherokee, Creek and Natchez tribes, the re- 
 striction upon marriage did not extend beyond the clan to which the 
 man belonged. "According to ancient custom, if an offense was com- 
 mitted by one against another member of the elan, the compensation 
 to be made on account of the injury was regulated in an amicable 
 way by the other members of his clan. Murder was rarely expiated 
 in any other way than by the death of the murderer ; but the nearest 
 male relative of the deceased was the executioner, acting xmder au- 
 thority of the clan, and there was no further retaliation." Each clan 
 could elect or depose its sachem or chief, could adopt strangers into
 
 536 LOUISIANA 
 
 *he gens, maintained common religious rites and a common burial 
 place, and had its own membei-s of the same gens having the same 
 totem, and his or her name usually indicating this totem (Dellen- 
 baugh). After the Federal government assumed jurisdiction over 
 the various Indian tribes subsequent to the Revolutionary war. the 
 Choetaws were induced to cede gradually all their lands east of the 
 Mississippi to the government by a series of treaties extending down 
 to 1832. and to remove to lands specially appropriated to their use 
 in the Indian Ten-itory. In 1836 their numbers were estimated by 
 the war depai-tment at 18,500. They have prospered in their new 
 home, and like the Cherokee and Chickasaw tribes have become a 
 highly civilized people. 
 
 The Chickasaw nation, one of the important branches of the Musk- 
 hogean family, was doubtless descended from the same primitive 
 stock as the Choctaw nation, but had separated therefrom long be- 
 fore the coming of the whites. Their country ad.ioined that of the 
 Choetaws on the north. Thi"oughout the colonial period they were 
 known as a brave and warlike tribe, possessed of an inveterate hatred 
 for the French, but firm and faithful allies of tjie English. \ Their 
 country reached neaidy to the Ohio on the north, to the Mississippi 
 on the west, and was bounded on the east by a line drawn from the 
 bend in the Cumberland river to the Mu.scle shoals of the Tennessee, 
 extending south into the present state of Mississippi to the land of 
 the Choetaws. This region, as happy as any beneath the sun. was 
 intensely loved by the Chickasaws. and they ever fought to maintain 
 their hold upon it with an intrepidity and daring which gained them 
 a reputation of being the ablest warriors in the south. It was their 
 boast that they never suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the 
 whites. The colony of Louisiana was forced to carry on war against 
 this tribe for several years at the close of Bienville's administration, 
 as the remnant of the hostile Natchez had sought and received an 
 a.sylum among the Chicka.saws. (See Indian Wars.) 
 
 Tribal tradition asserted that they were once a very numerous 
 people, and had 10.000 men fit for war when the^' fii-st came from the 
 west, which was possibly true when they formed one nation with the 
 Choetaws. They were never a numeroiis people within the memory 
 of the whites. Says Adair: "The Chickasaws. in 1720. had four 
 large contiguous settlements, which lay nearl.y in the form of three 
 parts of a square, only that the eastern side was five miles shoi'ter 
 than the western, with the open part toward the Choetaws. One was 
 called Yaneka. about a mile wide, and six miles long, at the distance 
 of twelve miles from their present towns. Another was ten com- 
 puted miles long, at the like distance fi-om their present settlements, 
 and from one to two miles broad. The toTsnis were called Shatara, 
 Chookheerefo, Hykehah. Tufkawawillao and Phalacheho. The other 
 square was single, began three miles from their present place of resi- 
 dence, and ran four miles in length, and from one mile in breadth. 
 This was called Chookka Phahaah, or 'the long house.' It was more 
 populous than their whole nation contains at present. The remains of 
 this once fonnidable people make up the northern angle of that broken
 
 LOUISIANA 537 
 
 square. They now (1775) consist of scarcely 450 warriors, and are 
 settled three miles Avestward from the deep creek, in a clear tract of 
 rich land, about three miles square, running afterward about five 
 miles toward the northwest, where the old fields are usually a mile 
 broad. The superior number of their enemies forced them to take into 
 this narrow circle, for social defense ; and to build their towns on 
 commanding ground, at such convenient distance from one another, 
 as to have their enemies, when attacked, between two fires." The 
 gentile s,ystem with descent in the female line prevailed among the 
 Chickasaws as among the other Muskhogean tribes, and each town 
 was wont to elect its chief for life from a certain gens. The head man 
 of the Chickasaws was called "Mingo," and sometimes king, who 
 ruled with the aid of a council. Every man of due age and authority 
 was admitted to this council, where affairs common to the whole nation 
 were transacted. This council also appointed the "war chief," who 
 obtained and held his post simply on the ground of merit and never 
 on account of birth. In the various treaties made with the tribe by the 
 United States from the treaty of Hopewell in 1786, to that of Pontoe 
 in 1832, the signature of the mingo or king is almost invariably affixed 
 to the formal instrument, as the assent of the head chief appears to 
 have been necessary to bind the nation. During the decade 1830-40 
 the Chickasaws, like the Choctaws, ceded their last remaining lands 
 east of the Mississippi to the United States, and moved to a region set 
 apart for them within the Indian Territory. In 1837 the treaty of 
 Doaksville was concluded between the Chickasaws and Choctaws, 
 wherein the latter, already settled in the west, agreed to allow the 
 Chickasaws the privilege of forming a district within their limits; to 
 have an equal representation in the general council; and to be placed 
 on an equal footing, except as to the right of disposing of the lands 
 occupied by them, or of participating in the Choctaw annuities; the 
 Chickasaws, however, to be allowed to manage their own funds. At 
 this time a census of the war department gave their numbers at 5,500. 
 They have since increased considerably in numbers, and have become 
 quite highly civilized, like the Choctaw, Cherokee and Creek nations. 
 The Creek or Muskhogee nation, (French, Kaouitas), whose geo- 
 graphical position was between the English of Carolina, tlie French 
 of Louisiana, and the Spaniards of Florida, and whose lands bor- 
 dered on those of the Choctaws, Chickasaws and Cherokees, attained 
 a political importance .second to no tribe north of the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico. Says Bancroft: "The ridge that divided the Tombeebee from 
 the Alabama, was the line that separated the Choctas from the 
 groups of tribes which were soon united in the confederacy of the 
 Creeks or Jluskhogees. Their territory, including all Florida, 
 reached, on the north, to the Cherokees; on the northeast and 
 east, to the country on the Savannah and Atlantic. Along the 
 sea, their northern limits seems to have extended almost to Cape 
 Fear; at least the tribes with which the settlers of Charleston first 
 waged war, are enumerated by one writer as branches of the Musk- 
 hogees. Their popxilation, spread over a fourfold wider territory, 
 did not exceed that of the Choctas in number. Their towns were
 
 538 ■ LOUISIANA 
 
 situated on the banks of beautiful creeks, in which their country 
 abounded; the waters of their bold rivers, from the Coosa to the 
 Chattahoochee, descended rapidly, with a clear current, through 
 healthful and fertile regions ; they were careful in their agricul- 
 ture, and, before going to war, assisted their women to plant 
 
 They readily gave shelter to fugitives from other tribes, and their 
 speech became so modified, that, with radical resemblances, it has 
 the widest departure from its kindred dialects." Closely allied 
 with the Creeks in language and customs were the Taraasi tribe 
 dwelling aroiind Port Royal bay, S. C, and the Seminole tribe of 
 Florida, the latter of whom were "wild men" lost from their con- 
 federacy, and who had abandoned agriculture for the chase. Ac- 
 cording to Briuton the Creeks were tall and slender, while the 
 Chiekasaws were short and heaw. They were united into more 
 than 20 gentes, and everywhere descent was in the female line. 
 When first met with by De Soto they were tilling extensive fields, 
 and were living "in permanent towns with well-constructed 
 wooden edifices, many of which were situated on high mounds of 
 artificial construction, and using for weapons and vitensils stone 
 implements of great beauty and workmanship." Brinton has pub- 
 lished tlieir famous national legend, which he obtained from the 
 hierogh-phics painted on a skin by their chief Chekilli in 1731. 
 "The religious rites of the Creeks." says Brinton. "were so elaborate 
 that they attracted early attention, and we have quite full accounts of 
 them. They were connected with the worship of the principle of fertil- 
 ity, the chief celebration, called the busk (puskita, fast), being 
 solemnized when the young corn became edible. In connection with 
 this was the use of the 'black drink.' a decoction of the Iris versicolor, 
 and the maintenance of the perpetual fire. Their chief divinity was 
 referred to as the 'master of breath.' or of life, and there was a devel- 
 oped s^nnbolism of colors, white representing peaceful and pleasant 
 ideas; red. those of war and danger." The Creek nation ranked high 
 in military prowess as well as in political sagacity, a fact which 
 they siiificiently demonstrated in the Creek war of 1813-14, when for 
 nearly 10 months their powerful Confederacy was able to ofi'er a suc- 
 cessful resistance to trained American soldiers, their defeat being 
 finally brought about only by overwhelming mimbers, and their 
 country overrun and devastated from three directions, the force from 
 the north being led by Gen, Jackson in person. The origin of their 
 famous political confederacy is unknown, but it existed in remote 
 tunes before the coming of the white race, and embraced numerous 
 subjugated tribes, as well as fugitive tribes that had applied to the 
 Creek nation for protection. The western members of the confederacy 
 were the Alibamu. who claimed to the banks of the Tombigbee. The 
 coiuiti-y of the Upper Creeks lay along the Coosa and Tallapoosa 
 rivers, and that of the Lower Creeks along the Chattahoochee, At 
 the time of the Creek war of 1813-14 the na^tion appears to have had 
 about 50 towns and some 10,000 members, including the women and 
 children. 
 During the later colonial era, both the Spanish and the Americans
 
 LOUISIANA 539 
 
 iiiade~ strenuous efforts to establish friendly relations with the Creek 
 nation by treaty, and numerous treaties were entered into with them 
 by both governments. In 1805 the United States obtained the cession 
 of a "horse path" through the Creek territory, and when in 1811 
 this horse path developed into the much used "Federal road," cut 
 from a point on the Chattahoochee river to Mims' ferry on the Ala- 
 bama, over which a stream of emigration from the Atlantic seaboard 
 to the western settlements was constantly pouring, the Creek people 
 became much aroused. This constant encroachment of the whites was 
 one of the principal causes of the war. The nation sustained its final 
 great defeat at Horseshoe bend. Tallapoosa river, March 27, 1814, at 
 the hands of Jackson and his Cherokee allies. In August of the same 
 year the defeated nation entered into a treaty of peace with Jackson, 
 whereby they surrendered to the United States all their lands except 
 the part east of the Coosa river and of a line drawn southeasterly 
 from Fort Jackson (the old French Fort Toulouse). The Creeks were 
 forbidden all communication with British or Spanish posts; and the 
 United States were given the right to establish military posts, roads 
 and free navigation of waters within the territory guaranteed the 
 Indians. The formidable power of the Creek confederacy was forever 
 broken by the war, and the nation now constitutes one of the civilized 
 tribes embraced within the recent Indian Territory. 
 
 The foregoing relates to the three main branches of the Musk- 
 hogean stock, the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Creek, and the remainder 
 of this article will be given to a discussion of some of the inferior 
 tribes. The Alibamu (Alabama, Alibamon) Indians, whose language 
 identifies them with the Muskhogean stock, came into close and 
 friendl.v relation with the French during colonial days. Their original 
 habitat appears to have been on the Yazoo, but on the arrival of the 
 French in Louisiana the tribe was living upon the river that bears 
 its name and constituted the nearest portion of the Creek confederacy 
 to the Mobile settlement. In 1702, 1704 and 1708, the French were 
 compelled to send expeditions against them, and in 1714, Fort Tou- 
 louse (q. v.), usually referred to as "Aux Alibamons," was built in 
 their teiTitory. As a result of these energetic measures, the Alibamu 
 became docile allies of the French ever after. A few members of the 
 tribe are still extant in Louisiana, Texas and near a town of their 
 name in Oklahoma. 
 
 The Bayagoulas, an extinct Muskhogean tribe, in 1700 lived with 
 the Mugulashas in a village on the west bank of the Mississippi, about 
 64 miles above the mouth and 30 leagues below the Houraa town. 
 Iberville described their village as consisting of 2 temples and 107 
 cabins. They then numbered from 200 to 250 men, probably includ- 
 ing the Mugulashas. Not long after as the result of a dispute between 
 the chiefs of the 2 tribes, the Bayagoiilas almost extenninated the 
 Mugulashas. but were themselves nearly wiped out by the Tonika tribe 
 in 1706, when they gave that treacherous tribe an asylum in their 
 midst. Smallpox later worked havoc among the remnant of the tribe 
 and none were left in 1721. 
 
 The Chatot (Chahta, Chata), identified by some authorities with the
 
 540 LOUISIANA 
 
 Muskhogeau family, Avere a tribe or baud which the French settled 
 south of Fort St. Louis, Mobile Bay, in 1709. Bienville found it 
 necessary to change the location of the first Mobile settleiiu-nt and 
 "selected a place where the nation of the Chatots were residing, and 
 gave them in exchange for it a piece of territory fronting on Dog 
 river. 2 leagues farther down (Penicaut, 1709, in Frencli Hist. Coll. 
 La. I, 103, 1869). Says Halbert: "The Chatos once lived on the 
 coast, and their ethnic afiinity is unknown. Choctaw tradition asserts 
 that they were absorbed by the Six To^vns Choctaws. Their name 
 survives in a creek near Mobile, which the Choctaws call by their 
 name. ' ' 
 
 Coshatta — A Muskhogeau tribe living near the Alabamii when the 
 French arrived, became much attached to the French, and a large 
 part of them, after the French power gave way in 1763, migi*ated 
 into Loiusiana and settled on the Red river. 
 
 Hitchitee — A subtribe of the Creek nation. 
 
 Chozetta — In Gatschet's opinion the people of this tribe were 
 Choctaws. Ibendlle in 1699 mentions their village on the Pasc^goula 
 river. Halbert also locates them on that river together with the tribe 
 of tlie !Mactoby, and thinks they may liave been absorbed by either 
 the Pascagoula or Biloxi. 
 
 Houma (Ouma) — A Choctaw tribe living during the early French 
 period 7 leagues above Red river on the east bank of the Mississippi. 
 In 1699 their settlement contained 140 cabins and 350 families. A red 
 pole (Fr. Baton Rouge) marked the boundary between them and the 
 Bayagoula on the south. In 1706 the Tonika Indians fled to them 
 from the Chickasaws, but later rose against them and killed more 
 than half their number, after which the rest of the Houmas estab- 
 lished themselves near the site of New Orleans. They afterwards 
 settled along the Bayou Lafourche and near the present town of 
 Houma, which was named for them. At the time of the cession of 
 Louisiana to the United States, they were reduced by sickness and 
 war to less than 100 warriors. The tribe is now extinct. 
 
 Mugulasha — A former tribe related to the Choctaws, lived with 
 the Bayagoulas on the west bank of the Mississippi, 64 miles from 
 the mouth. They spoke the Bayagoula language and have been identi- 
 fied with the Quinipissa of La Salle and Tonti. They M-ere extermi- 
 nated by the Bayagoulas in 1700. 
 
 Mobile — A Muskhogeau tribe whose early home was probably ilau- 
 vila, or Mavila, supposed to have been at or near Choctaw bluff on 
 the Alabama river, where De Soto, in 1540, met with fierce opposition 
 on the part of the natives. Mauvila was then under the control of 
 Tascalusa, probably an Alibamu chief. The Mobilian tribe doubtless 
 took part in the fight, but later moved south, as the French found 
 them on Mobile bay in 1700. They early became attached to the 
 French interests and were allowed, together with the Tahome tribe, 
 to settle for protection in 1708 near Fort St. Louis, ilobile bay. They 
 are lost to history as a tribe since about the middle of the ISth cen- 
 tury. Tiie so-called Mobilian trade language was a corrupted Choctaw 
 jargon used for purposes of intertribal communication among all the
 
 LOUISIANA 541 
 
 tribes from Florida to Louisiana and northwest on the Mississippi 
 river nearly to the Ohio. 
 
 The Biloxi tribe called themselves in their native tongue Taueks 
 haya (first people). They were a small Siouan tribe formerly living 
 in southern Mississippi and are now nearly or quite extinct. They 
 were once supposed to belong to the Musbhogean stock until Gatschet 
 visited the survivors in Louisiana in 1886 and found that many of 
 their words were Siouan in character. Iberville found the Biloxi 
 in 1699 about Biloxi bay on the Gulf coast,, in conjunction with 2 
 other small tribes, the Pascagoula and Mactohy all numbering only 
 aboiit 20 cabins. The Biloxi removed to the coast of Biloxi bay in 
 1702 and appear to have migrated west of the Mississippi into Louisi- 
 ana about the close of the French domination. Writers occasionally 
 speak of meeting with a few families of the tribe during the last cen- 
 tury dAvelling on the Red river and in Avoyelles parish. Gatschet 
 found some of them in the latter region in 1886 and said there were 
 also a few among the Choctaws and Caddoes. In 1892 J. Owen Dorsey 
 foimd about a dozen of the tribe near Lecompte, Rapides parish. La., 
 but none remained at Avoyelles. Their dwellings resembled those of 
 the northern tribes of the Siouan family. 
 
 Maetoby — A tribe now extinct, was found by Iberville in 1699 liv- 
 ing on the Pascagoula river with the Chozetta. It was probably ab- 
 sorbed by the Pascagoula or the Biloxi. 
 
 Chitimacha (Choctaw: Chiti "cooking pot," masha "they possess," 
 i. e., "they have cooking vessels") — A tribe, forming the Chiti- 
 machan linguistic family, whose earliest known home was the shores 
 of Grand lake, formerly Lake of the Shetimasha, and the banks 
 of Grand river. La. Some 16 or 18 of the tribe were still living 
 on Grand river in 1881, but the majority, about 35, lived on the 
 south side of Bayou Teche, near the little village of Charenton, St. 
 Mary parish, about 10 miles from the gulf. The remnant of the tribe 
 still lives in the same district, but the present population is not 
 known. The tribe called itself by a name which signified "men al- 
 together red," and was applied after the advent of the French. It 
 was one of this tribe who murdered the French missionary St. Cosme, 
 near the present city of Donaldsonville early in the 18th century. In 
 the war which ensued Bienville made them sue for peace, which was 
 granted when they brought him the head of the murderer. Even then 
 they were not a numerous people, though Le Page du Pratz says they 
 arrived for the peace ceremony in many pirogues. Two of their for- 
 mer villages were on the site of Donaldsonville and at the mouth of 
 Bayou Lafourche. The little Chetimachan vlillage on the lovely 
 meandering Teche, with its handful of lonely survivors of a people 
 almost forgotten, is sufficiently interesting to attract the occasional 
 visitor. The men have been described as large and well formed, with 
 the usual high cheekbones and keen dark eyes of their race. Contrary 
 to the usual rule, the women are quite handsome and are esteemed 
 the equals of the men, one of their number having recently suc- 
 ceeded to command of the tribe after the death of the chief. They 
 speak the Creole patois in addressing the white stranger, but among
 
 542 LOUISIANA 
 
 themselves thej' still make use of their owti tongue, which is sui 
 generis, and has heen likened, with its frequent labials and sibilants, 
 to the twittering of birds. The women are especially skilled in the 
 making of baskets, in which they display a remarkable ingenuity of 
 design and workmanship and make use of imperishable dyes, weaving 
 the fine reed cane into the most curious and unique patterns, no two 
 alike. 
 
 Attakapa ( Choctaw : hatak ' ' man, ' ' apa " eats, " hence ' ' cannibal. ' ' ) 
 — A name applied by the Choctaws and their congeners to diffei-ent 
 tribes inhabiting southwestern Louisiana and soiithern and southeast- 
 ern Texas. A tribe forming the Attakapan linguistic family, a rem- 
 nant of which early in the 19th century occupied as its chief habitat 
 the Middle or Prien lake in Calcasieu parish. La. The Attakapa 
 country formerly extended to the coast in southwestern Louisiana and 
 the primitive domain of this people was outlined in the popular name 
 of the old Attakapa or Tuckapa country, still in use, which com- 
 prised St. Landry, St. Mary, Iberia, St. Martin, Fayette, Vermilion, 
 and later Calcasieu and Vernon parishes — in fact all the coiuitry 
 between Red, Sabine and Vermilion rivers and the gulf. Accord- 
 ing to Charlevoix in 1731 some of this tribe assisted St. Denis 
 against the Natchez. Penicaut charges them with an act of can- 
 nibalism in 1703, but later visitors among them found them friendly 
 enough. There is evidence that the tribe numbered more than 
 360 persons in 1784. The men were skillful hunters of the buf- 
 falo, and the women alone were charged with the labors of the 
 household and field. In 1885 Gatschet visited their old habitat, 
 but was only able to discover 1 man and 2 women at Lake 
 Charles, and another woman 10 miles to the south. These with 5 
 others scattered in western Texas are believed to be the only survivors 
 at the present time. , 
 
 Adai (Adaize or Atai) — A small tribe forming the Adaizan lin- 
 guistic family and belonging to the Caddo confederacy, called Atayos 
 by Cabega de Vaea in 1529, and Natao by Iberville in 1699. La 
 Harpe spoke of them in 1719 as a very useful tribe to the French 
 tradei-s and explorers, particxilarly when making portages. Their 
 villages were then from the Red to and beyond the Sabine river, 
 and the trail connecting them became the noted "contraband trail" 
 over which traders and travelers journeyed between the French and 
 Spanish provinces, while one village was a station on the road between 
 the French fort at Natchitoches and the Spanish post at San Antonio. 
 They early succumbed to the white influence and were nearly extinct 
 ia 1798. The Spanish military post of Presidio de los Adayes was 
 established among them about 1740, and they were afterwards in- 
 corporated in the Nacogdoches Indian district. In 1805 Sibley re- 
 ported a small settlement of these Indians on Lake Macdon, near an 
 affluent of the Red river. This renmant had never left their ancient 
 home. The tribe "spoke a vocalic language, differing from any other, 
 though including a number of Caddo words, which was owing to their 
 having been a member of the Caddo confederacy." (Briiiton. The
 
 LOUISIANA . 543 
 
 American Race, p. 91). Tlie tribe was eventually merged in that of 
 the Caddo. 
 
 Caddo — The name of a leading tribe of the Caddo confederacy, 
 and applied by early writers to include the confederacy. This con- 
 federacy belonged to the southern group of the Caddoan or Pani lin- 
 guistic family. Their own name is Hasinai, "our own folk." Ac- 
 cording to tribal traditions the lower Red river was the early home of 
 the Caddo, from which they spread to the northwest. Several lakes 
 and streams connected with the Red river, as well as Caddo parish 
 and some of the towns occupying ancient village sites, bear Caddo 
 names. Cabega de Vaca in 1535-36, and De Soto in 1540^41 met with 
 some of the Caddo confederacy, but they were not known until met 
 by La Salle and his followers in 1687. At that time the Caddo vil- 
 lages were scattered along the Red river and its tributaries in what 
 is now Louisiana, Arkansas, and eastern Texas. Only a small rem- 
 nant of the Caddo tribe surA'ives, and miich of their confederate or- 
 ganization is lost to memory. Gatsehet in 1882 procured from a Caddo 
 Indian the names of 12 divisions; Iberville obtained from a Tansa 
 Indian guide a list of 8 divisions; and Linares in 1716 gave the names 
 of 11. Each division of the confederacy was subdivided, and each 
 subtribe had its totem, village, hereditary chieftan, priests and cere- 
 monies, and its part in ceremonies common to the confederacy. From 
 the earliest records and from traditions the Caddoan tribes seem to 
 have been cultivators of the soil as well as hunters, and practiced the 
 arts of pottery making, weaving, skin-dressing, etc. The southern 
 tribes tatooed their faces, and this group of tribes also erected the 
 conical straw house. The Caddoan tribes appear to have moved east- 
 ward from the southwest and their advance guard was probably the 
 Caddo proper, who, when first met by the whites, had so long dwelt in 
 the region of the Red river. With the acquisition of Louisiana by the 
 United States immigration rapidly increased, and the Caddoes were 
 pushed from their old haunts. Under their first treaty in 1835 they 
 ceded all theiir land and agreed to move at their own expense beyond 
 the boundaries of the United States never to return as a tribe. The 
 Louisiana tribes thus forced to leave their old homes moved southwest 
 among their kindred in Te.xas. The remnant of the tribe in 1902, each 
 man, woman, and child, received an allotment of land under the sev- 
 eralty act of 1887, by which they became citizens of the United States 
 and subject to the laws of Oklahoma. In 1904 they numbered 535 souls. 
 The following is a list of the tribes formerly constituting the Caddoan 
 or Pani stock: Aliche, Anadakka, Arikaree (Arikara), Assinai 
 (Cenis), Caddo, Hneeos, Innies, Kichai, Natchitoches, Nataco, Paw- 
 nee (Pani), Riccaree, Skidi, Tappas, Tawakonie, Texas (?), Towaka- 
 rehu, Washita, Wichita and Yatasses. But little is known of some of 
 these tribes as they were small and unimportant. The Arikara appear 
 to have sepai-ated from their brethem at a comparatively recent date 
 and moved north to a habitat on the middle Missouri ; the Anadakka 
 (Nataco) dwelt on the left bank of the Sabine river; the Assinai 
 (Cenis) in Central Texas; the Innies (Texas) on the upper Sabine 
 and branches; the Natchitoches dwelt on upper Red river and early
 
 544 LOUISIANA 
 
 became firm allies of the French. The strong frontier post Fort Nat- 
 chitoches (q. V.) -was established near them, and their name is per- 
 petuated in the pi-esent town. The Hueeos dwelt on the iipper Brazos 
 river; the Pawnee (Pani) -was once a large and important tribe 
 located chiefly west of the Slissouri, in the present state of Nebraska, 
 and was divided into 4 sub-tribes or bands; Grand Pawnee (French, 
 Pawnee Noii-s). PawTiee Loup (Panimaha, Skidi), Tapage and Re- 
 publican. The Pa^vnees -wei-e bitter enemies of the Siouan tribes and 
 the Illinois, but maintained friendly relations Avith both the French 
 and the Spanish. A highly profitable fur trade was can*ied on from 
 the St. Louis post with the Pawnees, who were great hunters of the 
 beaver, buffalo and otter. The Wichita tribe (also occasionally desig- 
 nated as Pawnee Picts or White Pawnee) dwelt on the north bank of 
 the Red river at a considerable distance southwest of the Grand Paw- 
 nee, or Pawnee proper. The Yatasses had their habitat on Stony 
 creek, an affluent of Red river. 
 
 Speaking of the Siouan or Dagotan linguistic stock. Brintou says: 
 "The western water-.shed of the Mississippi river was largely in the 
 possession of the Dakota or Sioux stock. Its various tribes extended 
 in an unbroken line from the Arkansas river on the south to the 
 Saskatchewan on the north, populating the whole of the Missouri val- 
 ley as far up as the Yellowstone. Their principal tribes in the south 
 were the Quapaws. Kansas and Osages; in the central region the 
 Poncas. Omahas and Mandans; to the north were the Sioux. Assini- 
 boins and Crows: while about Green Bay on Lake ilichigau lived the 
 Winuebagos. ... In the extreme south, almost on the gulf coast 
 of Louisiana, lived some small bands of Dakotas. known as Biloxis, 
 OpeloiLsas. Pascagoulas, etc. They were long supposed to speak an 
 independent tongue, and only of late years has their proper position 
 been defined." (The American Race. pp. 98-99). During the colonial 
 period the Louisiana colony maintained friendly trade relations with 
 a number of important Siouan tribes, particularly the Osage. Mis- 
 souri. Kansas. Omaha, and Oto. 
 
 The Tonika (Tunica) tribe of Indians, when the French first ar- 
 rived in Louisiana, had some of their settlements on the Yazoo river. 
 Another village was located on the Mississippi a few miles below the 
 mouth of Red river, and one was in Tunica county. Miss., which takes 
 its name from the tribe. Early French annals make frequent men- 
 tion of this tribe. They were at enmity with the Chickasaws and in 
 1706 were forced to seek an asyhun farther south a.mong the Baya- 
 goulas and Ilouinas. They poorly repaid this hospitality soon after 
 by rising against their protectore and nearly exterminating them. 
 The tribe was always much attached to the French, and it was a de- 
 tachment of these Indians which ambushed Maj. Loftus at Davion's 
 blutf on the Mississippi in 1764, when that ofScer with some 400 troops 
 sought to ascend the Mi.ssissippi to take possession of the Illinois post. 
 Says Halbert: "In 1817. the entire Tunica tribe emigrated to Louisi- 
 ana, one section now living near Marksville, and another near Lake 
 Charles City. Their language has no affinitv vrith anv other Indian
 
 LOUISIANA ■ 545 
 
 tongue. Their tribal name, Tunica, signifies in their language 'the 
 people.' " 
 
 The French also frequently refer to a number of small tribes living 
 on the Yazoo i-iver in colonial times. Nothing is known concerning 
 the language of these tribes, except that it was quite distinct from the 
 Cihoetaw. Of these tribes the Yazoos (Yasous) lived nearest the 
 mouth. Halbert inclines to the belief that the word Yazoo signifies 
 "leaf," and that it is a Uchee word, as Yazoo has no significance in 
 the Choctaw tongue and there is evidence that the Uchee lived in Mis- 
 sissippi in prehistoric times. The Yazoos followed the example of the 
 Natchez and murdered the French in their midst early in 1730. In the 
 latter part of the 18th century the tribe was living in about 100 cabins. 
 At this time other small tribes on the Yazoo were as follows: The 
 Of ogoulas, or ' ' dog people, ' ' living in some 60 cabins ; the Coroas, 
 living in 40 cabins; and the Tapouehas, living in 20. The Ibetoupas 
 were also neighbors of the Tapouohas, but nothing is kno\Mi of 
 their number. These tribes were incorporated with the Chickasaw 
 nation in 1836, as was the once important tribe of the Chakchuma, 
 which spoke the Choctaw language, and in their later days lived on 
 the Yazoo, between the Chickasaws and Choctaws. It is recorded that 
 the Ibetoupa, Chakchuma and Tapoucha tribes were united in one 
 village on the upper Yazoo by 1798. 
 
 Natchez — This famous tribe of Indians is now practically extinct, 
 but is historically important, not so much on accoiint of its numbers 
 or of any peculiarity attaching to its manners and customs, but be- 
 cause of the dangerous uprising of the tribe against the French in 
 1729, which placed the whole colony in jeopard}^ and gave rise to a 
 long series of expensive campaigns against this tribe and their allies, 
 the Chickasaws. (See Indian Wars and Natchez Massacre.) Natchez 
 tradition asserts that they were once a very numerous people number- 
 ing many thousands of warriors, but history discloses them as a com- 
 paratively small tribe occupying a region of moderate extent on the 
 Mississippi in the near vdeinity of the present city of Natchez. Their 
 4 or 5 villages lay along St. Catharine's creek, a short distance back 
 from the river. Father Charlevoix visited the tribe in 1721 and states 
 that they did not differ from the other Indians of Louisiana or 
 Canada in external appearance. He estimated the mnnber of their 
 ■warriors at 2,000, but probably five or six 'hundred would be nearer 
 the mark, judging from the details of their wars with the French a 
 few years later. The tribe spoke a language which had no etymological 
 affinity with any other. Gayarre has given the world an excellent ac- 
 count of the tribe in his History of Louisiana to which the reader is 
 referred. Says Gallatin : "It is among the Natchez alone that we find, 
 connected together, a highly privileged class, a despotic government, 
 and something like a regular form of religious worship. They were 
 divided into four classes or elans, on the same principle and under 
 the same regulations as those of the other southern tribes. They 
 worshipped the sun, from whom the sovereign and the privileged 
 classes pretended to be descended, and they preserved a perpetual 
 sacred fire rn an edifice devoted to that purpose. The hereditary dig- 
 1—35
 
 546 LOUISIANA 
 
 iiity of chief, or Great Suu, descended as usual by the female line, and 
 he as well as all the other membei-s of his elan, whether male or female, 
 could marry only persons of an inferior clan. Hence the barbarous 
 custom of sacrificing at their funerals the consorts of the Great Sun 
 and of his mother. Her influence was powerful, and his authority ap- 
 parently despotic, though checked by her and by some select coun- 
 sellors of his own clan." The plebeian or common people among the 
 Natchez were called "Stinkards" (raiche-(iuipy), and were in a high 
 degree submissive to the suns, nobles and men of rank, constituting the 
 membership of the higher clans. This element also spoke a common 
 or vulgar dialect of their own, which had no affinity with that spoken 
 by the nobles and by the women. The dwelling or hut of the Great 
 Suu stood near the center of the main village on an artificial mound or 
 platform. This practice of erecting their dwellings on artificially 
 elevated sites was (|uite common among the Mississippi valley Indians, 
 and throughout the south generally. Their temples were like"\vise so 
 disposed. Says the early chronicler Le Page du Pi-atz, who lived for 
 8 years near the Natchez: "As I was an intimate friend of the sov- 
 ereign of the Natchez he showed me their temple, which is about 30 
 feet square, and stands on an artificial mound about 8 feet high, by 
 the side of a small river." Gayarre in his account of the Natchez 
 speaks in high terms of their extensive knowledge of the healing art, 
 and says : "It certainly speaks much in favor of their powei's of obser- 
 vation, of investigation, and of discrimination, that the.y should have 
 arrived at discovering more than three hundred medical plants, of 
 which the king's commissary, De la Chaise, sent a collection to France 
 with a memoir i;\Titten on the subject by Le Page du Pratz, " 
 
 The Taensa tribe of Indians was a branch of the Natchez, but had 
 their habitat on the west side of the ]\Iississippi. 
 
 Indian Treaties. — Throughout the colonial period of Louisiana 
 the French. Spanish and English found it both neces.sary and wise 
 to enter into more or less formal agreements with the sevei'al Indian 
 tribes and nations that surrounded them. In the very infancy of the 
 colony. Bienville made a point of entering into treaty relations with 
 the tribes he visited, and with the various deputations of chiefs and 
 warrioi-s who came to visit the settlements at Mobile and Biloxi. His 
 policy was followed by all his successors in office, and peace and the 
 lasting friendship of many of the tribes were thus secured. The 
 Fi-ench were i)articularly successful in gaining and holding the good 
 will of the Indians of French Louisiana, except in the ease of the 
 Natchez. Chickasaws, and a few of the minor tribes. Indeed, so at- 
 tached to the French were many of these lesser tribes that, when they 
 witnessed the withdrawal of the French flag at the beginning of the 
 Spanish domination, they abandoned their ancient homes and lands 
 and came to New Orleans, They were commended for their fidelity 
 and were permitted to settle on new lands west of the ]\Iississippi. 
 Even a niunber of the great Choctaw nation adopted this course, being 
 unwilling to transfer their allegiance to the English government at 
 Pensaeola. While France, Spain and England were contending 
 for the mastery of tlie Mississippi valley in the last half of the 18th
 
 LOUISIANA 547 
 
 century, the good will of the Indians was sought by all those nations, 
 and the various tribes became ianportant pawns in the great game of 
 war and strategy, one tribe being played off against another. The chief 
 objects of most of the early treaties were the establishment of tribal 
 boundaries, the promotion of trade relations, furnishing of supplies, 
 to fix terms of peace, questions of allegiance, etc., with an occasional 
 cession of land. 
 
 During the period of the French and Spanish dominations in 
 Louisiana, when the white settlements were few in numlier and widely 
 scattered, the pressure of the white population upon the domain of 
 the natives was little felt, and the question of land acquisition was 
 one of slight importance. As a rule, both the French and Spanish 
 were content to leave the Indians where they found them, the treaties 
 with the various tribes having in view the establishment of favorable 
 trade relations and the formation of offensive or defensive alliances, 
 rather than the acquisition of any considerable tracts of Indian lands. 
 Indeed, many of the early treaties formally guaranteed to the Indians 
 the peaceful en.ioyment and occupancy of their hunting grounds. It 
 was the established policy of the British government, after the peace 
 of 1763, to prohibit the whites from settling on Indian lands. After 
 the Revolution, the same course was pursued by the United States 
 for several years, during which it was the uniform polic.v of the 
 Federal government to treat the tribes as qnasi-nationalities, devoid 
 of sovereignty but having an absolute right to the soil and its usu- 
 fruct, with power to cede this right, to make peace and to regulate the 
 boundaTies of the districts ceded and the hunting-gi'ounds retained. 
 Under this policy numerous Indian treaties were concluded, the ma.jor- 
 ity of which, in conformity with the paternal attitude assumed by the 
 government toward the tribes, provided for a s.ystem of annuities 
 whereby the Indians were given the means of subsistence in return for 
 the relinquishments of thei'r lands, and they were encouraged to adopt 
 civilized modes of life. 
 
 The LTnited States had scarcely acquired the province of Louisi- 
 ana when steps were taken looking to a removal of some of the tribes 
 east of the Mississippi to lands west of the river. The act of 1804, which 
 divided the province into two territories, also provided for the removal 
 of such Indians as could be induced to make the change. The plan 
 was to give, acre for acre, lands beyond the Mississippi in exchange 
 for their old domain on the east side. The policy met with stubborn 
 resistance from most of the tribes, but the government gradually 
 effected its purpose, and this period witnessed the conclusion of most 
 of the important treaties of cession and removal. As the Indians 
 ceded their lands east of the river fo'r purposes of settlement and 
 their hunting grounds there became more restricted in area, they 
 were forced to accept the terms offered by the government and remove 
 to other lands provided for them in the "West. Some of the smaller 
 tribes earl.y complied with the government's request and were guided 
 to their homes in their new domain. 
 
 Unfortunately, the law of 1804 contained no provision for the ex- 
 penses incident to carrying out the treaties and effecting the removal
 
 548 LOUISIANA 
 
 of those tribes which ceded their lands east of the Jlississippi. After 
 1816 this defect was remedied by a law which authorized the presi- 
 dent of the United States "to negotiate treaties with the Indian 
 tribes, which treaties shall have for their object an exchange of ter- 
 ritory owned by any tribe residing east of the Mississippi for other 
 lands west of that river," and made an appropriation to carry out 
 the provisions of the act. Nmuerous treaties immediately followed. 
 Before this, however, President Jetfereou, in an open letter of Jan. 
 9, 1809, granted to such of the Cherokees as might desire to do so, per- 
 mission to remove to the Arkansas river, in what is now the State of 
 Oklahoma. Several small bands of the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chick- 
 asaws, and other tribes accepted the offer. In 1816 the western boun- 
 dary of the territories of ilissouri and Ai-kansas were established, 
 beyond which the soil was reserved for the use of the Indians, and the 
 following year a large body of Cherokees foiTnallj' made the exchange, 
 receiving a large tract of land between the White and Arkansas rivers. 
 
 The plan of concentrating the Indian tribes west of the Mississippi, 
 on lands especially appropriated to their use, was strongly urged by 
 President Monroe in his message of Jan. 25, 1825, but it remained 
 for President Jackson to put the plan in practical operation. Jack- 
 son, in Ids message of 1829, emphasized the importance of the move- 
 ment, and in his message of Dec. 4, 1830, said: "Two important 
 tribes, the Chickasaws and Choctaws, have accepted the provision 
 made for their removal at the last session of Congress, and it is be- 
 lieved that their example will induce the remaining tribes also to seek 
 the same advantages." In his message of 1831 he stated: "At the 
 last session of Congress I had the happiness to announce that the 
 Chickasaws and Choctaws had accepted the generous offer of the gov- 
 ernment and agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi river, by which 
 the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama wiU. 
 be fi'eed from Indian occupancy and opened to a civilized population. 
 The treaties with these tribes are in coui*se of execution, and their re- 
 moval, it is hoped, wiU be completed in the course of 1832. ' ' 
 
 The vast western territory, designed for the exclusive occupancy 
 of the Indians, was defined by the Congressional act of May 20, 183-4, 
 and was estimated to contain over 132,000,000 acres, including the 
 region bounded on the east by the Arkansas and Missouri rivers, on 
 the north by the Platte, and on the west and south by the Mexican 
 possessions, except that district in Mis-souri later known as the "Platte 
 Purchase." The report of the house committee in May, 1834, says: 
 "This teiTitory is to be dedicated to the use of the Indian tribes for- 
 ever by a guaranty, the most sacred known among civilized communi- 
 ties — the faith of the nation." The committee admitted that the guar- 
 anties of tlie past had not always been faithfully observed, but ex- 
 cused the action of the govei-nment in not redeeming them on the 
 grounds that they should not have been given, and concluded the re- 
 port by saying: "Our inability to perform our treaty guaranties 
 arose from the conflicts between the riglits of the states and the 
 United States. Nor is it surprising that iiuestions arising out of such
 
 LOUISIANA 549 
 
 a conflict, which have bewildered wiser heads, should not be readily 
 comprehended or appreciated by the unlettered Indians." 
 
 According' to government reports the following Indians had been 
 removed to the West by the close of the year 1837 : Chickasaws, 549 
 Chippewas, Ottawas and Pottawatomies, 2,244; Choctaws, 15,000 
 Creeks, 20,437; Quapaws, 476; Seminoles, 407; Apalachicolas, 265 
 Cherokees, 7,911 ; Kickapoos, 588; Delaware, 826; Shawnese, 1,272 
 Ottawas, 374; Weas, 222; Piankesliaws, 162; Peorias and Kaskaskias, 
 132 ; Senecas and Shawanese, 462 ; a total of 51,327. The policy of re- 
 moval was firmly adhered to by the government, and the migration of 
 the Indians continued until the white man was left in iindisputed 
 possession of all the country east of the Mississippi. 
 
 In 1871 a radical change took place in the attitude of the govern- 
 ment toward its Indian wards. On March 3 of that year Congress 
 declared "that hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory 
 of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an in- 
 dependent nation, tribe or power, with wliom the United States may 
 contract by treaty." This marked the end of the treaty system and 
 the policy adhered to for almost a century was overthrown. The new 
 order of affairs involved the solution of many new and difScult prob- 
 lems. In theory there had been over 65 semi-independent nations 
 within the borders of the United States, but now all was changed. The 
 Indian commissioners declared that "the bounty of the government 
 has pauperized them (the Indians), and in some cases has tended to 
 brutalize more than to civilize." Cash annuities were said to be 
 wrong in principle, as the money went in advance to greedy white 
 sharpers. The law of 1871 and the subsequent acts calling for a com- 
 plete survey of all the Indian reservations and the creation of various 
 commissions, foreshadowed the Indian Crimes act of 1885 and the gen- 
 eral allotment act of Feb., 1887. The latter was one of the most im- 
 portant steps ever taken in Indian legislation, and will eventually 
 lead to the allotment in severalty of all Indian lands. Following is 
 an epitome of Indian treaties that have directly or indirectly affected 
 Louisiana: 
 
 Indian Treaty of Mobile, 1765. — This treaty was concluded by the 
 British government of the province of West Florida, with a great 
 council of the Choctaws, March 26, 1765, and resulted in the cession 
 by that nation of a region on the Mobile river and its tributaries and 
 the gulf coast south of about the Line of 31° north latitude, between 
 Mobile bay and the most western point to which the Choctaws had con- 
 trol, practically to the Mississippi river. The treaty provided: "The 
 boundary to be settled by a line extended from Grosse point, in the 
 island of Mount Louis, by the course of the western coast of Mobile 
 bay, to the mouth of the eastern branch of the Tombecbee river, and 
 north by the course of said river to the confluence of Alibamout and 
 Tombecbee rivers to the mouth of Chiekianoce river, and from the 
 confluence of Chiekianoce and Alibamont rivers a straight line to the 
 confluence of Bance and Tombecbee rivers ; thence by a line along the 
 western bank of Bance river till its confluence with the Tallatukpe 
 river; from thence by a straight line to the Tombecbee river opposite
 
 550 LOUISIANA 
 
 to Atehalikpe. (Hatchatigbee bluff) ; a»icl from Atchalikpe by a 
 sti-aight line to the most northerly part of Buckatanne river, and 
 down the course of Buckatanne river to its confluence with the river 
 Pascagoula. and do^ii by the course of the river Pascagoula, within 
 twelve leagues of the sea coast : and thence, by a due west line, as 
 far as the Choctaw nation have a right to grant. * * • And none 
 of his majesty's white subjects shall be permitted to settle on the Tom- 
 beehee river to the northward of the rivulet called Centebonck (Sen- 
 tabogue or Snake creek)." 
 
 Indian Treaty of Mobile, 1784.— On June 22, 1784. a great body 
 of Iiulians — Choctaws. Chiekasaws, Alibamons and smaller tribes — as- 
 sembled at ilobile in response to the Spanish invitation, and the 
 treaties there concluded amounted to taking under Spanish protection 
 and guarantee the territorial claims of the Indian nations. These 
 treaties were made at the suggestion of Alexander McGillivray. chief 
 of the Tallapoosas. and that of the British trading house of Panton, 
 Leslie & Co. McGillivray gave as a reason for suggesting the treaty 
 the probability of the formation of a new and independent American 
 government by the frontier settlers of the Mississippi valley, who 
 would invade the Spanish domain at the earliest opportunity. He 
 represented to Gov. Miro that there was danger of an Indian alliance 
 with that movement, and he proposed to throw the Indian strength to 
 Spain in return for commercial advantages and privileges for Ms 
 people. In tenns this treaty was identical with the treaty made about 
 the same time with the Tallapoosas (Creeks) and Cherokees, through 
 McGillivray, at Pensacola, by Gov. O'Neill. 
 
 The Indians promised to "maintain an inviolable peace and fidel- 
 ity" with Spain and among themselves. ""We undertake to expose for 
 the royal service of his Catholic majesty our lives and fortimes; and 
 we promise to obey the sovereign ordere which, in a ease of necessity, 
 shall be communicated to us by the captain-general of the provinces 
 of Louisiana and Florida, and in his name by the respective governor 
 or particular commander of said provinces." They further agreed 
 to turn over to the Spanish authorities any enemies that might enter 
 their nation, and to admit among themselves no white person with- 
 out a Spanish passport. They renounced "forever the practice of 
 taking scalps or making slaves of the whites," and promised humane 
 treatment of white prisoners, with the right of exchange. All white 
 prisoners, subjects of the United States, were to be delivered to the 
 governor-general. Other provisions were made to prevent the com- 
 mon crimes of the frontier. 
 
 The Spanish were represented by Don Estevan Miro. governor of 
 Louisiana, and Don Martin Navarro, intendant-general of the pro- 
 vinces of Ix)uisiana and West Florida. The Spanish officers promised 
 to establish a permanent commerce at the most ei|uitable prices, the 
 tariffs and regulations to be then and there fixed. They asked the 
 Indians for no lands and promised security and guaranty for the 
 lands they actually held, "according to the right of property with 
 which they possess them, on condition that they are compreliended 
 within the lines and limits of his Catholic majesty." If enemies of
 
 LOUISIANA 551 
 
 Spain should dispossess the Indians, Spain would provide them with 
 new homes in any vacant land available. 
 
 As a result of these negotiations, the trading houses of William 
 Panton at Pensacola, and James Mather at Mobile, were intrusted by 
 the Spanish with the commercial eare of the Indians, and Spain ac- 
 quired the right, as she claimed, to defend the Indian title to all the 
 country from the Oconee river in Georgia to the Mississippi and 
 north to the Ohio. On the basis of these treaties the Spanish gov- 
 ernment explicitly denied the claim of the United States to sov- 
 ereignty over the Indian nations, or the exclusive right to acquire 
 lands from them. Spain novi' maintained the right, in apparent vio- 
 lation of the peace treaties which ended the War of the Revolution, 
 to maintain military posts from jMemphis down, within the agreed 
 limits of the United States, and to assert control over the Indians of 
 the Southwest, as did Great Britain in the Northwest. 
 
 Indian Treaties of Hopewell and Seneca. — There was no provision 
 made for the Indian nations who had been allies of the king when 
 Great Britain and the United States made peace in 1783. At first 
 some of the states attempted to make binding treaties with the In- 
 dians on their frontiers, but they proved abortive. In 1785 Benjamin 
 Hawkins, Andrew Pickens, Joseph Martin and Lachlin Mcintosh were 
 appointed commissioners plenipotentiary of the United States, to make 
 peace with all the Indians of the South, to settle the status of the red 
 men and to arrange satisfactory limits. When, after much delay, the 
 commissioners invited the Creeks, through McGillivray, to enter into 
 a treaty, they were told that the Creeks had already made a treaty 
 with Spain and the United States was too late. (See Treaty of 
 Mobile, 1784.) As only two towns of the Creeks were represented at 
 Galphinton, where they were invited, the American commissioners 
 refused to do business with so few, and proceeded to the Kiowee river 
 to treat with other nations, who had been summoned for that purpose. 
 Here, on Nov. 28, 1785, at Seneca, a treaty was made with about 1,000 
 Cherokees, defining limits and recognizing the supremacy of the 
 United Staters. Agents of Ijoth Georgia and North Carolina, were 
 present at this treaty, and pi'otested against the treaty as being in 
 derogation of the rights of the states. 
 
 Late in December of the same year the U. S. commissioners met at 
 Hopewell, "a seat of Gen. Pickens," a large delegation of Choctaw 
 chiefs, who had made a long and difficult journey of 77 days in order 
 to treat. The.y appeared determined to seek an alliance with the 
 United States, and expressed a deep aversion to the Spanish and 
 Creeks. The Choctaws brought with them their British medals and 
 commissions to exchange for American, of which, unfortunately, there 
 were none, and also, asked for 3 stands of colors. A conference ex- 
 tending over several days was held, in which John Pitehlyn served 
 as interpreter for the board, and finally, on Jan. 3. 1786, a treat.y of 
 alliance and friendship was made, which also confirmed the bounds 
 of the Choctaw nation as it had existed in 1782. 
 
 The Chickasaws arrived at Hopewell a little later and a treaty was 
 concluded 'with them on Jan. 10, 1786. The chiefs Piomingo and Min-
 
 552 LOUISIANA 
 
 gotusha were both present, the former announcing that he was the 
 head warrior of the nation. The Chickasaws promised to cede laud for 
 a trading post on the Tennessee river, and agreed to a frontier line 
 for settlements. The commssioners reported "that if the ad.ioining 
 states were disposed to carry the treaties into eifeet, the Indians 
 would be happy in the new change of sovereignty and in constant 
 amity with lis." Georgia and North Carolina repudiated the treaties 
 as invasions of the sovereignty of the states, and the Spanish, through 
 Gov. Miro. declared the treaties were chimeras. They were however 
 confirmed as part of the supreme law of the land by the treaty of 
 Coleraine (1796). and submitted to all parties coneeraed. after a 
 struggle that occupied the entire administi-ation of President Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Indian Treaty of Natchez.— This treaty was made on May 14, 
 1790. at the "parochial church called the Savior of the World, of the 
 said fort of the Natchez," between Don Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, 
 colonel of the royal armies, governor of the fort and district of Nat- 
 chez, and Ta.scaduca. king of the Chickasaw nation. Pranchimastabia, 
 principal chief of the Choctaw nation, accompanied by the chiefs 
 Yteleghaua. Stouahiama. Tapenahuma, and Neesahumaacho. and in 
 presence of many captains and warriors of both nations. The treaty 
 was witnessed by Don Joseph Yidal, secretary, Carlos de Grandpre, 
 Blasdu Bouchet, Estevan Minor, Turner Brashears. Ryan (Bryan) 
 Bmin. Gregorio White. Ygnacio Lopez, Augustin ^Macarty. Jorge 
 Cochran, Francisco Candel. Luis Faure. Juan Girault. Carlos Todd, 
 Ebenezer Fulson. Antonio Soler. Jorge Tompson, Guillermo Wush- 
 toff. Jaime McFarland. Elias Smith and Kiiineth Thompson. 
 
 The extracts of this treaty as below quoted are from the translation 
 appearing in American State Papers (X. 228). After providing that 
 "all the individuals of the Spanish. Chickasaw and Choctaw nations 
 shall love one another reciprocally," and give each other prompt in- 
 formation, the treaty .states: 
 
 Art. 2. "That to remove every nuotive of discord, which in future 
 times might occur about limits, the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations 
 acknowledge that the limits of the dominion of his majesty in the 
 neighborhood of their territory on the western side, begin on the Mis^ 
 sissippi river at the moiith of the river Zasu, and ascending the said 
 river along the middle of its waters till it comes near the place called 
 Juego do la Pelota (ball ground), where the English nation, by 
 agreement with the Choctaw nation, marked a dividing line which con- 
 tinued until it entered West Florida, and following the said line 
 from the said Juego do la Pelota. till it meets those which separates 
 the rest of the dominions of his Catholic majesty from the Alibamones 
 and Talipuche nations. 
 
 Art. 3. "The said Chickasaw and Choctaw nations declare, that all 
 the lands which are to the south and to the west of the said line belong 
 indisputably to his Catholic majesty, great king of the Spains and 
 Indies, without that they for themselves or their descendants have 
 any right to them, nor at any time may reclaim them imder any pre- 
 text or motive it may be, and moreover they promise to support the
 
 LOUISIANA 553 
 
 Spanish nation in possession of the said lands, in which are speci- 
 fically comprehended the government and territory of the Natchez, 
 as far as the waters of the Zasu. 
 
 Art. 4. "The Spanish nation declares and acknowledges that aU 
 the lands to the east of the said dividing line of the 2nd article be- 
 long lawfully and indispiitably to the Chickasaw and Choctaw na- 
 tions, promising to support them therein with all their power." 
 
 The remaining 9 articles pledged harmony between the two na- 
 tions and Spain ; promised an ample conveyance of presents and goods 
 to the Indians in return for the cession of all rights to the territory 
 of the Nogales, adjoining the Yazoo ; mutually confirmed the treaty 
 of Mobile and all subsequent promises, etc. This treaty, with the 
 treaty of Pensacola, was communicated to Mr. Jefferson, secretary of 
 state, by Jaudenes and Viar. Spanish commissioners, in 1793, as a 
 justification of Spanish interference in Indian affairs. 
 
 Indian Treaty of 1793. — According to Gayarre, Gov. Carondelet 
 had the satisfaction on Oct. 28, 1793. through his agent and represen- 
 tative. Col. Gayoso, governor of Natchez, to make a reciprocally de- 
 fensive and offensive treaty, between Spain on the one side and the 
 Chickasaws, Creeks, Cherokees, and Alibamons on the other. The 
 treaty of 1784 was ratified, and the Indian nations agreed in return 
 for the protection of Spain to contribute to maintain his Catholic 
 majesty in possession of the provinces of Louisiana and the two 
 Ploridas. 
 
 Indian Treaty of Chickasaw Blufifs. — This treaty was negotiated 
 on Oct. 24, 1801, by Gen. James Wilkinison, Benjamin Hawkins and 
 Andrew Pickens, with the mingo and 16 of the head men of the 
 Chickasaw nation. Presents of .$700 in value were made to the In- 
 dia.ns, who in turn granted permission to build a wagon road on the 
 Natchez trace, northward to the mouth of Bear creek on the Tennessee 
 river and on to Miro district, or Nashville. The grant of 5 miles square 
 at the mouth of Bear creek for the purposes of trading post, obtained 
 by the United States in 1786 under the treaty of Hopewell, had never 
 been occupied, as the Spanish party among the Chickasaws had re- 
 monstrated. After this convention. Col. Butler and 8 companies of the 
 2nd infantry were ordered up the Tennessee, the route being changed 
 to east of Bear creek, and Samuel Mitchell, Chickasaw agent, and 2 
 Indians were deputed to mark the line. 
 
 Indian Treaty of Fort Adams. — This convention was concluded 
 at Loftus heights (Fort Adams), Dec. 12, 1801, between Gen. Wilkin- 
 son, Benjamin Hawkins and Andrew Pickens, with the Choctaw na- 
 tion, which was represented mainly by '.' Tuskonahopia, of the Lower 
 towns, Mingo Poos Coos, of the Choctaw Half town, Oakehuma, 
 Puckshumubbee and Elatalahoomuh, of the LTpper towns. Buckshu- 
 mabbee, factor of a Mobile merchant, and Mingo Homassatubbe. " 
 .The Indians received gifts valued at. .$2,000. The treaty provided 
 that a road should be opened on the Natchez trace through the Choc- 
 taw country, as had been recently granted by the Chickasaw nation, 
 and that the old British line of Natchez district should be resurveyed 
 and marked as a boundary line of the lands opened to settlement. The
 
 554 LOUISIANA 
 
 commissioners also proposed a road to the settlements on the Tom- 
 bigbee and Mobile, but did not press it, as it would run through the 
 lands of the Six towns, a people friendly to Spain, whose head men 
 were then in conference with the Spanish governor at New Orleans. 
 
 Indian Treaty of Fort Confederation, — This treaty was concluded 
 at Fort Confederation, formerly the French Fort Tombecbe, on the 
 Tombigbee river, Oct. 17, 1802, by Gen. Wilkinson, with 1,800 repre- 
 sentatives of the Choctaw nation. It was a provisional convention for 
 a resurvey of the north line of the old British district of Mobile, or 
 Charlotte county, so far as it lay above the Ellieott line, between the 
 Chickasawhay and Tombigbee rivers. The rectification of the Natchez 
 district frontier was also discussed. The line was duly surveyed by 
 Wilkinson, Mingo Poos Coos and Alatala Hooma, and ratified by 
 them as commissioners plenipotentiary, at Hoc-Buckintoo-pa, Aug. 31, 
 1803. The boundary was defined as beginning on the Spanish line, 
 in the Hatehee Comeesa or Wax river, up said river to the confluence 
 of the Chickasawhay and Buekataunee; up the latter to Bogue Hoo- 
 ma or Red creek ; up the latter to a pine tree near the trading path 
 from Mobile to the Hewhannee towns, thence in various coui*ses to 
 Sentabogue or Snake creek, and down the same and the Tombigbee 
 and Jlobile to the Spanish line. 
 
 Indian Treaty of Fort Clark.— In Nov.. 1808, ^Meriwether Lewis, 
 governor and superintendent of Indian atfairs for Louisiana Terri- 
 tory, and Pierre Chouteau, agent for the Osage Indians, met at Fort 
 Clark, above the mouth of the Osage river, and negotiated a treaty 
 with the Osages. by which that tribe ceded to the United States all 
 their territory lying between the Arkansas and Missouri rivere east 
 of line running due south from Fort Clark to the Arkansas river. 
 This was the first large cession of lands west of the Mississippi made 
 by any Indian tribe to the United States. 
 
 Indian Quapaw Treaty. — By the treaty with the Quapaws, made 
 in 1818. the United States acquired about 2,500,000 acres of land in 
 the northern part of Louisiana. The cession was bounded as follows: 
 "Beginning at the mouth of the Arkansas river; thence up that 
 stream to the Canadian : thence up the Canadian to its source ; thence 
 south to the big Red river; down the middle of that stream to the 
 big raft ; thence in a direct line so as to strike the Mississippi river 
 30 leagues in a straight line below the mouth of the Arkansas." The 
 following reservation was made from the cession: "Beg;inning at a 
 point on the Arkansas river opposite the present Post of Arkansas 
 and running in a due southwest course to the Washita river: thence 
 up that stream to the Saline fork: thence up the Saline fork to a 
 point from which a due north coui-se will strike the Arkansas river at 
 Little Rock ; thence down the right bank of the Arkansas to the place 
 of beginning." 
 
 Indian Treaty of Harrington's Landing.— By this treaty, made 
 on Nov. 15, 1824, the Quapaw reservation mentioned above was ceded 
 to the United States, in consideration of payment of $500 to each of 
 the four princdpal chiefs and an annuity of $4,000 in goods and mer- 
 chandise and $1,000 in specie to the tribe for 11 years, in addition to
 
 LOUISIANA 555 
 
 all previous annuities. At the same time the government took steps 
 to amalgamate the Quapaws with the Caddo nation, the former agree- 
 ing to remove to the Caddo reserve on the Red river and to become 
 a part of that tribe. The removal was made in March, 1826, but on 
 May 13, 1833, the Quapaws were granted a reservation of 150 sec- 
 tions west of the Missouri, and they severed their connection with the 
 Caddoes. 
 
 Indian Treaty of the Caddo Agency. — On July 1, 1835, Jehiel 
 Brooks, acting as commis.sioner for the United States, negotiated a 
 treaty with the Caddo Indians at their agency in Louisiana, by which 
 that tribe ceded to the United States a tract of land ' ' bounded on the 
 west by the north and south line which separates the United States 
 from Mexico ; * * * on the north and east by the Red river from 
 the point where the said United States boundary line intereects the 
 said Red river, whether it be in the Territory of Arkansas or the State 
 of Louisiana ; following the meanders of said river down to its junc- 
 tion with the Pascagoula bayou ; on the south by the said Pascagoula 
 bayou; by said bayou to its junction with bayou Wallace; by said 
 bayou and Lake Wallace to the mouth of the Cypress bayou ; thenee 
 up said bayou to the point of intersection with the first mentioned 
 north and south line, following the meanders of said water-courses; 
 but if the said Cypress bayou be not clearly definable so far, then 
 from a point which shall be defina;ble by a line due west till it intersects 
 the said first mentioned north and south line, be the contents of land 
 within said boundary more or less." By this treaty a considerable 
 portion of the northwestern part of the State of Louisiana was relin- 
 quished by the Indians and opened to settlement. 
 
 Indian Village, a post-hamlet in the western part of Ouachita 
 parish, is 4 miles southwest of Calhoun, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Indian Wars. — For more than a quarter of a century after the 
 first settlement was established at Biloxi by the French, the relations 
 between the white colonists and the natives M'ere in the main peaceful, 
 and were undisturbed by armed conflicts. The first serious trouble 
 occurred in the fall of 1729, with the Natchez tribe, but as this dis- 
 turbance was more in the nature of a massacre than a war, a full ac- 
 count of the event will be found under the head of "Natchez Massa- 
 cre." The Chickasaw nation was charged by the French with being 
 the chief instigator of the massacre. This aggressive and warlike tribe 
 occupied an extensive region north of the Choctaws. Their villages 
 once extended from the Cumberland to the Tennessee, thence to the 
 . Mississippi and the headwaters of the Yazoo and Tombigbee. Their 
 record is unique in the fact that they were never conquered by the 
 whites, the Creeks, Cherokees, Sha)\vnees nor Choctaws, with whom 
 they were often at war. During the early French period, they pro- 
 fessed friendship for the French, and often sent deputations to the 
 posts at Biloxi and Mobile. However, they soon came under British 
 influence, and were thenceforth guilty of luimerous acts of aggression 
 against the French. When they finally accorded an asylum to the 
 Natchez refugees, after the final dispersal of that tribe in 1732, Bien- 
 ville, who had returned to the colony as governor, sent an agent to
 
 556 LOUISIANA 
 
 the Chickasa-ws demanding the delivery of the Natchez in their midst. 
 The answer of the Chickasaws was "that they and the Natchez now 
 formed one nation, and that they consequently could not give them 
 up." Bienville then determined to invade the Chickasaw country and 
 made arrangements with the younger D'Arta^ette, commandant of 
 the Illinois post, to come down the river and effect a .iunetiou with 
 him in the Chickasaw coiintry early in the spring of 1736. D"Arta- 
 guette was ordered to bring with him all the Illinois Indians. French 
 troops and settlers he could muster. Bienville planned to lead an ex- 
 pedition from New Orleans in person, and to penetrate the Chickasaw 
 country by way of the Mobile and Tombigbee rivers. The place of 
 rendez^•ous was "Tombecbe" (Jones's bluff, on the Little Tombigbee), 
 where a company of soldiers had been sent 9 months before to build 
 a fort and cabins, as a resting place for the army. Bienville left New 
 Orleans. JIarch 23, embarking his little army of 600 Frenchmen and 
 negroes (45 of the latter under the command of Capt. Simon, a free 
 mulatto) in boats and pirogues and proceeded first to Fort Mobile. 
 On April 20 he reached Jones' bluff, where he was joined by his 
 Choctaw allies under their head chief to the number of over 500. 
 After a series of exasperating delays and difficulties the army finally 
 resumed its march, proceeding up the Tombigbee both by land and 
 water. On May 22 it reached a point on the Tombigbee (Cotton Gin) 
 a little less than 30 miles from the Chickasaw villages. Before leav- 
 ing the river Bienville fii-st caused to be erected some palisaded forti- 
 fications and a shed for the protection of his boats and .supplies. He 
 left here his sick men and a garrison of 20 men. and set out on the 
 24th through the woods and canebrakes for the Indian villages, 
 marching in Indian file with his Choctaw allies on his flanks. Two 
 days later the army arrived at the edge of a fine open prairie whereon 
 could be descried the various fortified villages of the enemy, over one 
 of which floated the English colore and several Englishmen could be 
 seen among the Indians. After a coiincil of war an attack was or- 
 dered on the nearest of the fortified \'illages. knowTi as Ackia and 
 subseqiiently called Chickasaw Old Fields, distant some 3 miles from 
 the present town of Tupelo. ]\Iiss.. and only a few miles from the 
 great council house of the tribe. In a fierce assault led by Bienville's 
 nephew. Noyan, which lasted from 1:30 to 5 o'clock p. m.. the French 
 were repulsed ^vith severe loss. As Bienville found his Indian allies 
 unreliable both during and after the battle, had no cannon with which 
 to reduce the Indian forts, having left his heavy pieces behind on 
 the Tombigbee, was short of provisions and encumbered now with 
 many wounded, and having heard nothing from D 'Artaguette. he 
 determined on an immediate retreat. In retiring from the field of 
 baittle the French were even unable to bring off all their dead, and the 
 following morning had the chagrin of seeing the naked corpses im- 
 paled on tlie palisades of the fort. The French officers appear to have 
 fought -(rith the utmost bravery, but the same can not be said of many 
 of their men. among whom were many raw and ill-disciplined recruits. 
 Among the gallant French officers who met their death in this bloody 
 Indian fight were the Chevalier de Contre Cceur, De Lusser, captain
 
 LOUISIANA 557 
 
 of grenadiers and De Jiizan, Noyan's aide-de-camp. Among the 
 wounded were Noyan ; D'Hauterive, captain of grenadiers; Grondel, 
 lieutenant of the Swiss ; De Velles and Montbrun. The brave Grondel, 
 who later received the cross of St. Louis and had a distinguished 
 career, narrowly escaped being scalped. As he lay bleeding and des- 
 perately wounded near the walls of the fort, he was rescued from the 
 Indian tomahawk by the reckless daring of a grenadier named Reg- 
 nisse, who ran to his relief amid the stoi-m of bullets and bore him 
 away to safety on his shoulders. Transporting his wounded on lit- 
 ters, Bienville slowly retreated with all his forces to the Tombigbee, 
 which he reached on the 29th and found it so reduced in volume that 
 he cast his cannon in the river and hastened down to Fort Tombig- 
 bee. Reaching here on June 2, he immediately sent forward the 
 wounded and sick with all his surgeons, and departed himself the 
 following day. Before leaving the Tombigbee settlement, Bienville 
 drew up a plan of the fortifications he wished to have erected, and 
 left here Capt. De Berthel in command of a garrison of 50 men to build 
 the new works. 
 
 The most unfortunate part of this dismal campaign remains to 
 be told. Upon his arrival in New Orleans Bienville learned why 
 D 'Artagiiette had not effected a junction with him as ordered. In 
 obedience to his instructions D'Artaguette had assembled a consider- 
 able force from the upper coiin'fcry, and as early a,s March 4, 1736, was 
 at the Ecores a Prudhomme (third Chickasaw bhiff) on the Missis- 
 sippi, "with 30 soldiers. 100 volunteers, and almost all the Indians of 
 the Kaskaskia village. There he was .ioined by De Vincennes with 40 
 Iroquois, and all the Indians of the Wabash tribe. De Mon,tcheTval, 
 with the Cahokias and the Mitchigamies, was daily expected. De 
 Grandpre, who commanded at the Arkansas, had dispatched 28 war- 
 riors of that tribe to ascertain whether D'Artaguette was at the 
 Ecores a Prudhomme. and to come back to him with that informa- 
 tion." (Gayarre). When these messengers an-ived, D'Artaguette had 
 already set forth, and instead of returning and reporting, they fol- 
 lowed his route. It appears that as a resiilt of this disobedience of 
 orders, Grandpre and his Arkansans never participated in the expedi- 
 tion at all. while Montcherval and his force of 14 Frenchmen and 160 
 Indians only arrived on the the scene of action in time to assist the 
 shattered remnant of D 'Artaguette 's forces in their retreat. When 
 D'Artaguette and his little ai-my of 130 Frenchmen and 366 Indians 
 arrived in the vicinity of the Chickasaw villages, their scouts could 
 discover no signs of Bienville and his forces. Shortly after they 
 learned from a courier that Bienville was unavoidably delayed and 
 would not arrive until the end of April at the earliest. D'Artaguette 
 thereupon held a council of war, and it was decided that as they were 
 short of provisions and the Indian allies talked of deserting, an im- 
 mediate attack should be made on one of the more exposed of the 
 Chickasaw villages. Having affected the capture of this village and 
 the provisions therein, they could intrench themselves and await the 
 arrival of Bienville. L^nfortunately their pre.sence was known to the 
 enemy, and hardly had they commenced their attack on the fortified
 
 558 LOUISIANA 
 
 village -when they were suddeuly assailed by a superior force of the 
 enemy, among whom were a considerable nnmlier of Englishmen. 
 Surprised by this impetuous counter-attack, the Miamis and Illinois 
 allies took flight, but the French and the remaining Indians maintained 
 an obstinate defense until most of the French officers had been shot 
 do\vn, when a retreat was ordered. Tliey were so iiercely pureued by 
 the enemy that the retreat soon became a rout. Over 50 of the 
 French were killed and many othei-s wounded, while 19 were cap- 
 tured, among whom were D'Artaguette, who had fallen desperately 
 wounded; the Jesuit Father Senae; Dii Tisne, an officer of regidars; 
 and Lalande, a militia captain. The French officers St. Ange. De 
 Coulauges, De la Gravieere, De Courtiguy, Des Essarts, Langlois, and 
 Levieux fell early in the fight. Those who managed to escape were 
 pursued by the relentless Chickasaws for more than 100 miles, the 
 pursuit ending only when a violent storm intervened. Says Gayarre : 
 ' ' The Chickasaws took possession of all tlie provisions and baggage of 
 the French, with 450 pounds of powder, 12.000 bullets and 11 horses. 
 Their victory was as complete as possible, and the ammunition which 
 fell into their hands was of great use to them, in helping them to 
 resist the subsequent attack of Bienville."' Fifteen of those captured, 
 including D"Artaguette and Father Senac. were afterwards tortured 
 and burned at the stake: two of the French officers were eventually 
 exchanged, and from these the full details of the final tragedy were 
 learned. 
 
 In reporting the miserable failure of his campaign, Bienville 
 maintained that he made the best use possible of the means at his 
 command, but was unable to anticipate the many delays in his 
 preparations, or the wretched cowardice of his soldiers. But grant- 
 ing all this, there was a manifest faihire to properly weigh all the 
 difficulties of the campaign, and a lack of generalship displayed in 
 permitting the undisciplined foe to meet and defeat his two armies 
 in detail. Says French, in Historical Collections of Louisiana, vol. 
 5, p. 112: "It is not easy to jiistify Bienville's conduct in this 
 expedition. The war was rashly brought and rashly conducted. 
 He entered the enemy's country without any means of siege, made 
 one attack on a fort, and then, without attempting by scouts to 
 open communication with D'Artaguette, whom he had ordered to 
 meet him in the Chickasaw country on the 10th of ]\ray, or making 
 any attempt to give him proper orders, without even taking one 
 Chickasaw prisoner to get any information of D'Artaguette 's pro- 
 ceedings, he retreated, and ended the campaign disastrously." 
 
 Bienville suffered severely in his military prestige as a result of 
 his unsxiccessful campaign of 1736 against the Chickasaws. Deter- 
 mined, if possible, to rehabilitate bis reputation with the French 
 government ajid to avenge his previous defeat, be devoted much of 
 the years 1737-38 to the preparations for a second campaign against 
 the Chickasaws. He continually incited the Choctaw nation to 
 make war against the Chickasaws, and in this way managed to 
 inflict considerable losses on the tribe. He also repeatedly urged 
 on the home government the necessity of more troops and sought
 
 LOUISIANA 559 
 
 permission to enter npon a second campaign, alleging that the 
 Chickasaws must be humiliated at all hazards. Consent to prose- 
 cute a second campaign was finally accorded him, and he was also 
 furnished with reinforcements to the number of 700 men, embrac- 
 ing a strong body of marines, commanded by the Chevalier de 
 Noailles d'Ayme, a number of recruits, as well as some "bom- 
 bardiers, cannoniers and miners." lie was also given a siipply of 
 arms, ammunition, provisions and merchandise. Instructions, how- 
 ever, were given to Bienville that M. de Noailles was to command 
 not only the marine troops, but also the colonial troops and militia 
 heretofore under the orders of Bienville, who was ordered to act 
 in concert with the new commander in the direction and employ- 
 ment of his troops, as "M. de Noailles," Avrote the minister of 
 marine, "has the necessary talents and experience to command." 
 A large part of the year 1739 was devoted to the work of prepara- 
 tion and the expedition was planned on a most formidable scale. 
 Bienville had determined this time to penetrate the Cliickasaw 
 country by way of the Mississippi, instead of the IMobile and Tom- 
 bigbee. He was moved to this course by the desire to escape the 
 previous danger of a low stage of water, and also by the greater 
 facility thus afforded in obtaining provisions and in transporting 
 his artillery. As a preliminary, the support of the great Choctaw 
 nation was secured. Already a competent engineer, acting iinder 
 Bienville's instructions, had examined the countr.y between the 
 Mississippi and the Chickasaw villages and had reported that a 
 good road was possible for the whole 120 miles intervening. Beau- 
 harnias, governor of Quebec and Canada, was ordered to coiiperate 
 with him, and, indeed, every settlement in the province was called 
 upon for assistance. Bienville first built a temporary fort and a 
 number of cabins at the mouth of the St. Francis, to serve as an 
 intermediate station for his troops and supplies, pending the com- 
 pletion of his preparations. By the end of June he had assembled 
 here an army composed of marines, troops from the capital, militia 
 and negroes, together with some of the neighboring Indians. In 
 August the vanguard of the army was moved up the river to the 
 moutli of the river Margot (Wolf), which was the general rendez- 
 vous. Here the army was reinforced until it aggregated about 1,200 
 Frenchmen, double that number of Indian allies, and a few negroes. 
 Capt. Alphonse de la Buissoniere, who had succeeded the brave 
 D'Artaguette at the Illinois, came down with 200 Frenchmen and 
 300 Indians. Soon after Celoron and St. Laurent, two Canadian 
 officers, arrived with a company of Quebec and Montreal cadets 
 and a body of Indians from that distant region. Bienville and the 
 troops under his command, strange to relate, did not reach the 
 general rendezvous until Nov. 12. Meanwhile, the army on the 
 Margot busied itself with the construction of a spacious fort, called 
 Fort Assumption, because it was completed on the day of the feast 
 of the Assumption, and also erected a house for the commandant, 
 Noailles, barracks for the soldiers, storehouses, ammunition houses 
 and a bakery.
 
 560 LOUISIANA 
 
 The troops remained here for 6 months, or from August, 1739, 
 to March, 1740, without making any aggressive movement. Pro- 
 visions were at first abimdant, but at last became so scarce the 
 men Avere forced to eat their horses, many of the supplies expected 
 having been lost en roiite from the St. Francis and from Natchi- 
 toches. ^Moreover, the ravages of disease carried off so many of 
 the men that there were scarcely 300 white men left tit for active 
 duty. Before this time Bienville appears to have superseded 
 NoaiUes in the chief command. A council of war was held, and 
 Bienville asserted they were reduced to the necessity of making 
 war Avith only the auxiliary troops, as his own were sick, or else 
 offering terms of peace to the enemy. Jn other words the piuiitive 
 expedition must be renoimced, Fort Assumption evacuated, and the 
 whole enterprise abandoned. About the middle of March, Bienville 
 sent Capt. Celoron and his company of cadets, with about 100 other 
 white troops, all that could be spared at this junction, and some 
 400 or 500 Indians, towards the Chickasaw villages, ostensibly in 
 search of the enemy, but with orders, in case the Chickasaws came 
 to ask for peace, to grant it in his name. When Celoron and his 
 men came in sight of the villages, the Chickasaws apparently be- 
 lieved tliem to be only the advance guard of the whole army and 
 at once made overtures of peace. It is also likely that they were 
 influenced to this course by the extent of the preparations made by 
 the French to crush them. Be this as it may, the Chickasaws were 
 extremely humble in their protestations of friendship for the 
 French, stating they had two English slaves among them but no 
 French. Celeron agreed to peace, and sent to BieuA-ille a delega- 
 tion of their principal chiefs and warriors, with whom a formal 
 treaty of peace was concluded in the month of April, 1740. The 
 Chickasaws delivered to Celoron a few of the Natchez refugees, 
 and the prisoners were later placed in the hands of the French of 
 Louisiana. The auxiliary troops were then dismissed with thanks 
 and presents; Forts Assumption and St. Francis were razed, as they 
 were now useless, and the regular army returned to New Orleans, 
 after an absence of more than ten months. According to the offi- 
 cial statements of Bienville and Commissary Salmon, the war had 
 proved a most expensive one, the sum of 1,088,383 livres having 
 been spent from Jan., 1737, to May 31, 1740, in its prosecution. 
 
 Compared with the elaborate efforts put fortli by the French 
 during this campaign and the enormoiis sacrifices in life and treas- 
 ure, the net results attained were reaUy quite insignificant. True, 
 a temporary peace was patched up with the wily foe, but even 
 this proved to be only a short-lived affair, and the following year 
 marauding bands of Chickasaws were again harassing the French. 
 The Pointe Coupee settlement was attacked by one of these hostile 
 bands, and a party of French traders and trappers on the Wabash, 
 consisting of 24 men and 2 women, was almost exterminated by 
 the same band. Indeed, as a result of the persistent hostility of the 
 Chickasaws, incited thereto no doubt by the English, the trade 
 between New Orleans and the country on the upper Mississippi
 
 LOUISIANA 561 
 
 was very hazardous, and was subject to frequent delays and inter- 
 ruptions. In order to withstand the attacks of the alert and savage 
 Chickasaws, the boats were compelled to come down the river in 
 convoys, making the descent annually in December, and returning 
 in February. In the effort to prevent these constant outrages, and 
 to bring the treacherous tribe into final subjection. Gov. Vaudreuil 
 was even compelled to inaugurate another expedition against them, 
 which proved as unsuccessful as the preceding campaigns, and only 
 resulted in a temporary truce. 
 
 The period of Vaudreuil's administration was tilled with the stir- 
 ring events leading up to the final clash of arms between the Eng- 
 lish and French in America. Among these happenings was a long 
 series of Indian outrages growing out of the contest for the control 
 of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, in which the venal Indian 
 nations played no small part, being subjected first to one influence 
 and then to the other. Even the traditional friendship of the great 
 Choctaw nation for the French was seriously threatened, and that 
 tribe was rent in twain by a bloody civil war, one element, com- 
 manded by the redoubtable chiefs Red Shoe and his brother, being 
 known as the English party, while the larger element in the tribe 
 remained fairly steadfast in their allegiance and was known as the 
 French party. Never had the colony been more continually ha- 
 rassed by hostile excursions of the various Indian tribes. As late 
 as 1749 Vaudreuil speaks of the frequent attacks of the Indians 
 throughout the colony, which kept even the lower settlements be- 
 tween Natchez and New Orleans in constant terror. He writes : 
 "To destroy entirely the Indians, there could be nothing so effective 
 as a force composed of the Creoles of the country. They alone are 
 able to scour the woods, and to make war after the fashion of these 
 barbarians. But unfortunately there is not a sufficient number of 
 them." 
 
 Finally, in 1750, some measure of tranquility was restored to 
 the colony by the crushing defeat of the hostile English party, 
 known as rebels, by Grandpre, who was in command of a large 
 party of Choctaws friendly to the French. Henceforth the Choc- 
 taws became more firmly attached to the French than ever, and 
 in the treaty made with the nation at this time it was stipulated 
 that the whole Choctaw nation should continue to make war upon 
 that "perfidious race," as the Chickasaws were styled, until they 
 were exterminated. Despite the success of the French in dealing 
 with the Choctaw nation, however, the years 1747-1752 brought 
 little relief from the marauding Chickasaws, who remained under 
 English influence and were unsubdued. Attacks on the French 
 settlements and on the fleets of pirogues plying the Mississippi 
 often occurred. It is possible that Vaudreuil might have ai-ranged 
 a peace with the Chickasaw nation had he so desired, but the 
 French were still smarting from the humiliation of the previous 
 unsuccessful campaigns, and Vaudreuil hoped to inaugurate an- 
 other campaign that would finally crush their power. The con- 
 stant Indian hostilities, combined with the fear of English aggres- 
 1—36
 
 562 LOUISIANA 
 
 sioD, had furnished Vaudreiiil with sufficient excuse to ui'ge time 
 and gain an increase in the militarj' forces of the colon}^ He finally 
 gained his point in 1750, when the French monarch decreed that 
 the colony should henceforth be provided with not less than 37 
 companies of 50 men each, exclusive of olScers. As a result the 
 province was in an excellent state of defense in 1751, when there 
 were 2,000 regulars under Vaudreuil's orders, distributed as fol- 
 lows: 975 at New Orleans (75 Swiss\ 475 at Mobile (75 Swiss), 
 300 at the Illinois, and 50 each at the Arkansas, Natchez, Natchi- 
 toches, Pointe Coupee and the German Coast. 
 
 Therefore, being well supplied with troops in 1752, and the 
 Chickasaws having renewed their depredations, Vaudreuil was in a 
 position to carry into execution his predetermined purpose of pro- 
 ceeding against the hostile tribe. He took the route followed by 
 Bienville in his campaign of 1736, and with a force of 700 French- 
 men and a large number of Choctaw and other Indians, advanced 
 up the ilobile and Tombigbee rivers. Ouce more, however, the 
 foe managed to evade the French, and retired into some strongly 
 fortified positions, where Vaudreuil did not deem it wise to assail 
 them, but contented himself with burning some of their deserted 
 villages and destroying their crops and cattle. Then, leaving a 
 strong reinforcement to the garrison at Fort Tombigbee and 
 strengthening the works, he returned to New Orleans, where he 
 disbanded his army. The only result of this campaign against the 
 Chickasaws was to quiet tliem for a few years, as their permanent 
 allegiance and good will were never obtained. 
 
 Indigo. — The use of indigo as a dyestufi: is believed to have orig- 
 inated in India, from Which country it passed to Eiu'ope at a very 
 early date, but it was lost to that country during the greater part 
 of the middle ages until reintroduced by the Dutch about the mid- 
 dle of the sixteenth century. No successful substitute for indigo 
 has ever been found, the blue color imparted by it being both beau- 
 tiful and durable, and it forms the basis of the black dye used on 
 woolen fabrics of fine quality. It is the product of several A-arieties 
 of plants of the genus indigofera, natural order leguminosa, sub- 
 order papilionace», and is now cultivated in most of the tropical 
 and subtropical countries of the world. A species of the indigo 
 plant (amorpha casrulea) was introduced in- Louisiana in 1728, and 
 indigo soon became one of the staple products of the colony. When 
 Louisiana was transferred to Spain 40 years later, the ciilture of 
 indigo received a backset through the .fact that the French ports 
 were closed to the Louisiana trade, and in the Spanish markets 
 the American indigo commanded a very low price when compared 
 with the finer product from the Spanish colonies farther south. 
 After a time more liberal commercial regulations were adopted 
 and the cultivation of indigo was revived. In 1793 _a little worm 
 made its appearance and for several seasons in suecessfon it wrought 
 such havoc upon the growing plants that the planters abandoned 
 indigo for crops that were immune from the ravages of the insect. 
 Industrial Institutes. — The first Louisiana institution to bear this
 
 LOUISIANA 563 
 
 name was created by the legislatiu-e of 1894, with the object of 
 providing an institution for the industrial education of both sexes. 
 The constitution of 1898 recognized it as a part of the educational 
 system of the state. It is located at Rustou, Lincoln parish, first 
 opened its doors in Sept., 1895, with a faculty of 5 members, and 
 had during its first session an attendance of 202 students. Since 
 that date the number of its instructors has more than trebled, 
 while the attendance of the institute during the session of 1907-8 
 amounted to 617, representing some 47 different parishes of the 
 state. The original act placed the institute under the control of 
 the governor of the state, 2 trustees appointed from the state at 
 large, and 1 from each Congressional district, but subsequently 
 the state superintendent of public education was made an es-officio 
 member of the board of trustees. All white children of the state 
 are eligible to admission to the institution under the following 
 simple requirements : All boys miist be 16 years of age, girls 15, 
 and be prepared to begin the work of oae of the terms. The growth 
 of the school in efficiency and usefulness has been steady and 
 rapid, and it stands as an excellent exponent of the modern idea in 
 education — the harmonious training of the head, heart and hand. 
 It offers the usual academic courses in language, literature, his- 
 tory, science and mathematics, aud at the same time provides a 
 practical training in draAving, the use and application of tools, the 
 domestic and fine arts, and in the business affairs of life. The full 
 course of study is 5 years, and is made up of 2 general depart- 
 ments, the academic and the industrial, closely interrelated. The 
 academic department embraces courses in English and literature, 
 mathematics, history, social sciences, natural sciences and draw- 
 ing. The industi'ial department embraces a business course, me- 
 chanical course, domestic science course, an industrial art course 
 and a music course. The school awards a certificate of proficiency 
 on the completion of the required work in an industrial subject, 
 provided the student is also proficient in the accompanying aca- 
 demic subjects. Upon the completion of any full course it awards 
 its students the degree of bachelor of industry (B. I.). The grounds 
 of the institute include about 80 acres, and are situated about half 
 a mile from the depot at Ruston. It is now well provided with 
 quarters for the prosecution of its academic and industrial work, 
 and is well equipped with laboratories and apparatus for the pros- 
 ecution of its practical and scientific work ; the library has over 
 4,000 volumes on its shelves. A list of the buildings include the 
 institute hall, mechanics' hall, girls' dormitory, boys' hall, laundry, 
 president's cottage and foundry. 
 
 The Southwestern Industrial Institute was created by Act 162 
 of the general assembly of Louisiana, approved July 14, 1898, for 
 the education of the white children of the state in the arts and 
 sciences. It was called "industrial" in order to emphasize the im- 
 portance of education as a factor in the industrial development of 
 a state or country, and in further recognition of the new idea in 
 education which takes account of the whole boy and the whole
 
 564 LOUISIANA 
 
 girl, making the trained hand the -willing servant of the trained 
 brain. In a -word, the purpose of the state ^vas to establish a school 
 Avhieh -would offer to tlie youth of the eommomvealth broad and 
 varied courses of instruction, both in academic studies and in prac- 
 tical and useful arts. The school thus provides fully for regular 
 academic training in the essentials of an English education, as -well 
 as for shopwork in -wood and iron for boys, sewing and cooking 
 for girls, and stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, telegraphy 
 and other useful studies and exercises for both. The original act 
 provided that the institution should be located in that part of the 
 13th senatorial district which should offer the best inducements 
 therefor to the board of trustees. The best offer submitted in the 
 active competition which ensued was made by the people of the 
 parish of Lafayette, who voted a two-mill tax for 7 years for the 
 support of the institution, supplemented by liberal appropriations 
 from the city and parish of Lafayette, by cash subscriptions from 
 private citizens, and by the private gift of a valuable site of 25 
 acres. The offer was formally accepted by the board of trustees 
 at a meeting held in New Iberia on Jan. 5, 1900. In order to pro- 
 -vide funds for the erection of the original buildings and the other 
 immediate needs of the schools, negotiable bonds were issued upon 
 the seven-year tax voted by the people. The sale of these bonds, 
 supplemented by some liberal state appropriations, enabled the 
 board to erect and equip a complete group of buildings, adequate 
 to the needs of a thoro\ighly organized secondary institution of 
 learning, providing for both academic instruction and manual 
 training. In June. 1901, the main building, completed and equipped, 
 was formally opened with appropriate exercises, and the first ses- 
 sion of the institute was held from Sept. 18, 1901, to May 26, 1902. 
 The school has had a highly prosperous career from the start, 
 there being some 250 students in attendance during its last session. 
 In addition to the many practical advantages offered by the insti- 
 tute, the Federal government maintains on the grounds a U. S. 
 demonstration farm directed by the bureau of plant industry. The 
 buildings of the institute consist of the main building, a handsome 
 two-story brick structure of generous proportions, the dormitory 
 for girls, which is also a two-story brick structure of large size, 
 the workshop with a boiler room, pump room and fuel room ad- 
 jacent, and a neat and substantial two-story frame residence for 
 the president of the institute. Six regular courses of study are 
 provided, one academic and five industrial, as follows: The aca- 
 demic course, the manual training course, the course in domestic 
 science, the course in stenography and typevrriting. the commercial 
 course and the course in telegraphy. Only the academic course 
 extends through 4 years, the others ranging from 3 to 1 year in 
 duration. The entrance requirements are purposely made quite 
 simple in order to provide opportunities for the greatest possible 
 number of students. Candidates for admission must have attained 
 the age of 14 years and have satisfactorily completed the equiva- 
 lent of sixth grade work. No fees are charged for graduation,
 
 LOUISIANA 565 
 
 diplomas or certificates, and tuition is entirely free. Prof. E. L. 
 Stephens has been the president of the institute from the begin- 
 ning. 
 
 Innis, a village in the northern part of Pointe Coupee parish, is 
 situated on the west bank of False river, 3 miles east of Bienvenue, 
 the nearest railroad station, and 20 miles northwest of New Roads, 
 the parish seat. It has a money order postoffice. 
 
 Insane Asylums. — People of Louisiana so unfortunate as to be 
 afflicted with mental disease are now cared for in two large and 
 complete hospitals — one located at Jackson and the other at Pine- 
 ville. The insane are apportioned between the two institutions ac- 
 cording to residence. Patients are received at the Insane Asy- 
 lum of Louisiana at Jackson, who come from the first district, which 
 comprises the parishes of Ascension, Assumption, Concordia, East 
 Baton Rouge, East Carroll, East Feliciana, Iberville, Jefferson, La- 
 fourche, Livingston, Madison, Orleans, Plaquemines, Pointe Cou- 
 pee, St. Bernard, St. Charles, St. Helena, St. James, St. John, St. 
 Tammany, Tangipahoa, Tensas, Terrebonne, Washington, West 
 Baton Rouge, and West Feliciana ; and at the Hospital for the In- 
 sane at Pineville from the second district, comprising the parishes 
 of Avoyelles, Bienville, Bossier, Caddo, Calcasieu, Caldwell, Cam- 
 eron, Catahoula, Claiborne, De Soto, Franklin, Grant, Iberia, Jack- 
 son, Lafayette, Lincoln, Morehouse, Natchitoches, Ouachita, Rap- 
 ides, Red River, Richland, Sabine, Union, Vernon, Webster, Winn, 
 Acadia, St. Landry, St. Martin, St. Mary, Vermilion, West Carroll, 
 Allen, Beauregard, Jeff Davis and Evangeline. 
 
 The Insane Asylum of Louisiana at Jackson was founded in 1847 
 by legislative enactment, and received as its first inmates 80 pa- 
 tients transferred from the Charity hospital in New Orleans. It 
 'has now reached the proportions of a thriving village, where com- 
 munity life prevails, and all the inhabitants are supplied with food 
 from one mammoth kitchen and dine in one great hall. Some 1,300 
 patients are now accommodated and nearly 200 employes are ne- 
 cessitated by the many requirements of the institution. Both cur- 
 able and incurable patients are received, likewise both paying and 
 free patients. Many industries are established upon the grounds, 
 and where their condition permits patients are encouraged or 
 obliged to busy themselves in occupations which contribute to 
 their own support. A large garden, cultivated by the inmates, 
 furnishes supplies for the hospital table ; clothing is made for the 
 patients in the sewing room and tailoring department ; there is a 
 workshop for shoemaking, a carpenter shop, steam laundry, etc. 
 Two buildings are devoted entirely to industrial pursuits. In con- 
 nection with the institution 21/2 miles distant from the main hos- 
 pital buildings, a farm colony is maintained. Several houses con- 
 structed of reinforced concrete are to furnish accommodations for 
 men patients occupied in farm duties. The farm consists of 400 
 acres and is expected to furnish the dairy supplies for the asylum. 
 Its buildings are A^ery complete and well equipped, the most recent
 
 566 LOUISIANA 
 
 beins' the cow bam, 65x156 feet in dimensious. with 100 stalls, 
 built of reinforced concrete chiefly by the patients. 
 
 The comfort and health of the inmates are maintained by means 
 of well kept, well ventilated rooms and wards, an abundance of 
 appetizing and nourishing food, and the presence of modern sani- 
 tary conveniences, sewage disposal system, water works, artesian 
 Avater, steam heat, electric lighting sj^stem, ice plant, and cold stor- 
 age plant. Opportiuiities for amusement and pleasure are carefully 
 arranged; a band of 12 pieces plays in the dining hall during the 
 dinner hour and upon the lawn in fine weather ; covered walks 
 afford several miles of promenade in wet weather ; three weekly 
 dances are given in the large hall; church services are held on 
 Sundays })y pastors of different denominations, and the beautiful 
 lawns sloping to the bay entice even the most disconsolate to rest 
 in the cool shade of the live-oaks. 
 
 The asylum is supported by the bounty of the state and has re- 
 ceived an appropriation of !f;140,000 annually for a number of 
 years. This sum, however, is now far from sufifieient, and it is confi- 
 dently expected that the legislature will considerably enlarge it in 
 the near future. Applications are now received for many more pa- 
 tients than can be accommodated. A doctor of high standing in 
 liis profession is medical superintendent of the hospital, and able 
 assistants are provided. The superintendent is appointed for an 
 indefinite term by the board of administrators, which consists of 8 
 members, 2 appointed each year by the governor for a term of 2 
 years. The governor is ex-ofiicio president of the board. 
 
 The Louisiana Hospital for the Insane at Pineville is of more re- 
 cent origin, having been established in conformance to the legis- 
 lative enactment of 1902. The theory and general plan of its or- 
 ganization are similar to those of the hospital at Jackson, and the 
 institutions may relieve each other when either one is overcrowded. 
 The buildings at Pineville are in every respect modern and well 
 equipped and a competent medical corps is in attendance at the 
 asylum. Particular efforts are made in the case of each patient 
 to determine the line of treatment best adapted to his require- 
 ments, and most likely to restore him to health. The spacious 
 grounds, delightfully and healthfully situated, are cared for by 
 the patients, and out of door occuiiations urged upon them in the 
 hope these unfortunates may derive benefit from the well known 
 restorative qualities of the balmy life-giving air. The mild climate 
 of Louisiana renders particularly appropriate agricultural imder- 
 takings for the benefit of those mentally diseased inhabitants 
 Avhnm the state has taken under its paternal care. 
 
 Insurrection of 1768.— (See Revolution of 1768.) 
 
 Interest. — The legal rate of interest in Louisiana is 5 per cent, 
 and all debts bear this rate from maturity without any stipulation. 
 Eight per cent, may be stipulated, and a higher rate may be col- 
 lected, if embodied in the face of- the obligation, or by way of dis- 
 count, but no higher rate than 8 per cent, after maturity of the 
 obligation is lawful, and any stipulation of this character forfeits
 
 LOUISIANA 567 
 
 the eutii-e interest. In the absence of any stipulation with regard 
 to interest, all debts bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent, from 
 their maturity. Judgments bear the same rate of interest as the 
 debts on which they are founded. 
 
 Internal Improvements. — In the early part of the 19th century 
 a wave of sentiment in favor of internal improvements swept over 
 the Mississippi valley. The country was rapidly filling with set- 
 tlers ; public highways and bridges were needed ; rivers were to be 
 cleared of driftwood, sand-bars and other impediments to naviga- 
 tion, levees in many places were to be constructed, and many other 
 things must be done to give the people the conveniences of a fully 
 civilized community. State legislatures passed acts authorizing 
 the expenditure of money, and memorialized Congress for assist- 
 ance in the way of further appropriations to accomplish these ends. 
 
 On March 20, 1826, Gov. Henry Johnson approved an act of the 
 Louisiana general assembly creating a board of five commissioners, 
 to be appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of 
 the state senate, to be known as the "board of internal improve- 
 ments," of which the governor should be ex-officio president. The 
 act made it the duty of the board tO clear rivers and bayous of ob- 
 structions, construct canals, open roads, etc. The commissioners 
 were required to visit the several localities where improvements 
 were asked for and decide as to which should be undertaken first. 
 Thej' were to serve without remuneration, except traveling ex- 
 penses, but they were authorized to employ the surveyor-general 
 of the state, and two other engineers if they deemed it necessary, 
 paying them reasonable compensation, to visit the site of any pro- 
 posed improvement, make the necessary estimates, etc., and report 
 the same to the board, which was to make a full and complete re- 
 port of all the jjroceedings to the next session of the legislature. 
 Three of the commissioners, with the governor, were to constitute 
 a quorum for the transaction of business, and the sum of $9,000 was 
 appropriated to employ engineers. This act seems to have been of 
 a tentative nature, and but little real improvement was accom- 
 plished under its operations. In his message to the general assem- 
 bly in Jan., 1827, Gov. Johnson dwelt at length on the subject of 
 internal improvements, especially the advantages to be derived 
 from tlie opening of a canal from the Mississippi to the giilf by way 
 of the lakes, but he did not live to see the realization of liis dream, 
 as the Lake Borgne canal was not opened until 1901, three-quar- 
 ters of a century after such a project had been advocated by Gov. 
 Johnson. 
 
 On Jan. 14, 1829, the board of internal improvements made a re- 
 port to the legislature regarding the damages wrought along the 
 Mississippi river by floods, and urged the general assembly to in- 
 voke the assistance of the general government in the construction 
 of levees. Accordingly, on Feb. 5, the legislature adopted a reso- 
 lution requesting the Louisiana senators and representatives in 
 Congress to lay the matter before the U. S. corps of engineers, 
 requesting that corps to make a survey of the places along the
 
 568 LOUISIANA 
 
 river that -were liable to damage by overflow and suggest some 
 plan for deepening the channel. Another resolution of the same 
 date instructed the board of public improvements to take steps for 
 the erection of levees and the cutting of canals or sluices connect- 
 ing the lakes and the gulf, to draw off the overflow waters from 
 the Mississippi. It is easier, however, to adopt resolutions and to 
 formulate great undertakings than to find the means of putting 
 them into execution, and for lack of sufficient funds the elaborate 
 levee and canal system contemplated by the legislature was not 
 carried out. To remedy this condition of affairs, the general as- 
 sembly passed an act, approved by Gov. Roman on March 4, 1833, 
 creating a fund for internal improvements, "to be applied exclu- 
 sively to the purposes of rendering navigable, and uniting by ca- 
 nals, the principal water coiirses, and of more intimately connect- 
 ing by public liighways the dilTerent parts of the state." 
 
 The fund tluis provided for was to consist of .$20,000 annually, 
 to be raised from duties collected on auction sales ; arrearages on 
 the same at that time of one year's standing; all sums of money 
 received under the act of Congress of Feb. 16, 1811 ; and all ap- 
 propriations of the legislature of Louisiana, or other states, or of 
 the U. S. Congress. The fund was vested in a corporate body 
 styled "The President and Directors of the Board of Public 
 Works." to he composed of 9 citizens — 3 from each Congressional 
 district — the governor to be president ex-officio of the board. The 
 act further provided that the governor, treasurer of state and at- 
 torney-general should constitute a special or subordinate board, to 
 exercise control over the management and expenditure of the fund 
 during recess. The board was authoi-ized to s\ibscribe in behalf of 
 the state to such public works as the general assembly might di- 
 rect, and it was required to keep a record of its proceedings and 
 report annually to the legislature. 
 
 Tender the operations of this law some progress was made, but 
 in 1847 Gov. Isaac Johnson called attention in his message to the 
 fact "that liberal appropriations have been made annually for sev- 
 eral years for the improvement of interior navigation, but the re- 
 sults are neither encouraging nor commensurate with the expendi- 
 ture." Two years later, in Jan., 1849, he reiterated his former 
 statements and urged some reform in the sy.stem, but the legisla- 
 ture seemed to be satisfied with conditions as they existed and for 
 some time the work went along in much the same manner. 
 
 In the meantime a number of companies had been incorporated 
 witli power to construct canals, etc. One of the earliest of these 
 corporations was the Barataria & Lafourche canal company, which 
 was chartered by the act of Feb. 6, 1829, with a capital "stock of 
 $150,000, the governor to appoint 5 commissioners to receive sub- 
 scriptions until the full amount of stock was taken. The company 
 was autliorized to construct a canal from the Mississippi river at 
 Dugue's plantation in Jefferson parish to connect with Lake Per- 
 rier, Salvador, Ouache or Barataria, with locks at the Mississippi, 
 and was given power to levy toll upon all vessels passing throug'h
 
 LOUISIANA 569 
 
 the canal. Subscriptions to the stock came in slowly, and the 
 legislature, by the act of March 25, 1835, directed the state treas- 
 urer to subscribe for 500 shares in the name of the state. By the 
 same act the board of internal improvements was instructed and 
 authorized to employ on the canal one-third of the slaves belong- 
 ing to the state, which was to receive $150 per annum for each 
 slave so employed, and this arrangement was to continue until the 
 canal was completed, or until the entire amount of the state's sub- 
 scription should be paid. As frequently happened, the work dragged 
 along, and as late as 1853 the legislature authorized the governor 
 to appoint commissioners to modify the contract with the com- 
 pany, no money to be paid unless an agreement was reached. 
 
 Following the incorporation of this company was that of the 
 Lafourche & Terrebonne navigation company, with which the state 
 had a similar experience. This company was granted a charter to 
 improve the bayous Terrebonne, Black, Carpe and De Large, and 
 to open one or more canals from Bayou Lafourche to Terrebonne, 
 thence to the bayous Black, Carpe, Caillou and De Large, and 
 through Bayou Black to Berwick bay. The capital stock was fixed 
 at $100,000, and the company was granted the same rights and 
 privileges as the Barataria & Lafourche canal company. These 
 two companies present examples of how internal improvements 
 were made by private corporations, aided by the state. In a few 
 instances the work was prosecixted to a successful termination, but 
 in a -majority of cases the charter and credit of the state were ob- 
 tained as a basis for speculation. The policy was continued, how- 
 ever, until late in the 50 's, one of the last of such corporations hav- 
 ing been the Abita improvement company, which was incorporated 
 for 25 years by the act of March 12, 1855, with a capital stock of 
 $50,000 and power to build factories, plank-roads, railroads, etc. 
 
 Louisiana was not alone in her efforts to secure internal improve- 
 ments by making liberal appropriations of the public revenues and 
 granting generous charters to corporations, as nearly every west- 
 ern and southern state passed thi'ough a similar experience. The 
 Confederate war put an end to most of the internal improvement 
 companies, and since that time internal improvements have been 
 made along more rational lines. Levees have been constructed 
 under the supervision and with the aid of the general govern- 
 ment ; railroads have been built by private capital ; highways and 
 other local improvements have been made by the parishes levying 
 a special tax or by issuing bonds for such specific purposes, and 
 for every dollar expended the state has received a fair equivalent. 
 (See also Levees, Eailroads, Roads, etc.) 
 
 Invisible Empire. — (See Ku Klux Klan.) 
 
 Ion, a post-hamlet in the northeastern part of Tensas parish, is 
 situated on the Mississippi river, about 4 miles east of Quimby, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Iota, a village of Acadia parish, is situated in the western part 
 on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 10 miles northwest of Crow-
 
 570 LOUISIANA 
 
 ley. the parish seat. It has a money order postoffiee. express of- 
 fice and telegraph station, and a population of 769. 
 
 Iowa, a village in Jet? Davis parish, is a station on the Southern 
 Paeitie R. E., about 13 miles east of Lake Charles, the parish seat. 
 It has a money order ]iostoffiee, express office, telegraph station 
 and telephone facilities, and is a shipping point of some conse- 
 qiienee. Population 100. 
 
 Irene, a post-village in the northwestern part of East Baton 
 Kouge parish, is a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & 
 Navigation company, 12 miles northwest of Baton Rouge, the par- 
 ish seat. 
 
 Irion, Alfred Brings, lawyer and jurist, was born in Avoyelles 
 parish. La.. Feb. 18. 1833. He received his education at the Uni- 
 versity of North Carolina, where he graduated in 1855 : studied 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in 1857. He became .iudge of the 
 circuit court of appeals in 1880, which office he held for 4 years; 
 was elected to the 49th Congress as a Democrat, and after leav- 
 ing Congress resumed the practice of law. 
 
 Irish Bend, one of the principal ^-illages of St. Mary parish, is 
 located on the Bayou Teche, about 5 miles northeast of Franklin, 
 the parish seat, with which it is connected by a short line of rail- 
 road called the East & "West R. R. Further transportation facili- 
 ties are afforded by the Southern Pacitic steamers on the bayou. 
 The village has a money order postoffiee and telephone connec- 
 tions with the surrounding towns. A battle was fought here on 
 April 14, 1863, in which the Federals were at first defeated, but 
 received reinforcements and rallied, when the Confederates were 
 in turn forced back and the gunboat Diana was blown up and 
 burned. Population 100. 
 
 Irma, a post-village in the easteim pai"t of Natchitoches parish, 
 is a station on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation 
 company, 5 miles northeast of Natchitoches, the parish seat. 
 
 Iron. — Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia for 1885, p. 549, says: 
 "Iron has recently been discovered in northwestern Louisiana. The 
 iron countiw is an extensive district running in a northeasterly 
 and soiithwesterly direction from Arkansas into Texas. At the 
 upper and lower ends of the district the iron is being worked prof- 
 itably," The iipper end of the district referred to being in Arkan- 
 sas, and the lower end in Texas, the above statement does not give 
 much authentic information regarding the deposits of iron ore in 
 Louisiana. A handbook published by the commissioner of agri- 
 culture and immigration in 1904 says: "Iron ores occur in form 
 of nodular secretions, or thin plates, in nearly all of the old ter- 
 tiary beds, and occasionally in the Lafayette sands. They are badly 
 scattered, and as yet have had no economic value, though selected 
 specimens give good results upon analysis, a few showing over 50 
 per cent, of metallic iron." 
 
 Isabel, a post-hamlet and station of Washington parish, is on the 
 New Orleans, Great Northern R. R., about 15 miles southeast of 
 Franklinton, the parish seat.
 
 LOUISIANA 571 
 
 Island, a village in the sontlieastern part of Pointe Coupee par- 
 ish, is a station on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 4 miles south- 
 east of New Roads, the parish seat. It has a money order post- 
 office and telegraph station. 
 
 Ivan, a post-village in the northeastern part of Bossier parish, 
 is a station on the Bodcau Valley R. R., about 12 miles northeast 
 of Benton, the parish seat. 
 
 J 
 
 Jack, a post-hamlet in the central part of St. Helena parish, is 
 situated on a confluent of the Tickfaw river, about 5 miles south 
 of Greensburg, the parish seat, and 3 miles northwest of Mayer, 
 the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Jackson, a town in tlie western part of East Feliciana parish, is 
 situated on Thompson's creek at the junction of the Jackson and 
 the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railroads, and about 12 miles west 
 of Clinton, the parish seat. It is one of the old towns of Louisiana, 
 incorporated by an act of the legislature April 2, 1832, and re- 
 ceived its name in honor of Gen. Andrew Jackson. When the par- 
 ish of Feliciana was created in 1811, this town became the parish 
 seat and remained so until the old parish was divided in 1824 to 
 form the parishes of East and West Feliciana. It is one of the 
 largest towns in this portion of the state, and is the seat of Cen- 
 tenary college (Methodist Episcopal), which was organized in 
 1825, the Williams Female institute, the Louisiana Female Colle- 
 giate institute and the state asylum for the insane. It has a num- 
 ber of beautiful clun-ches, homes and mercantile establishments, 
 a money order postoffice, a bank, telegraph and telephone facilities, 
 and a population of 2,146. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, soldier and statesman, was boi-n in what was 
 kno\^^l as the "Waxhaw Settlement," on the border between North 
 and Soixth Carolina, March 15, 1767. About 2 years before his 
 birth his parents, Andrew and Elizabeth (Hutchinson) Jackson, 
 came to America from the noi'th coast of Ireland, and soon after 
 settling in the Waxhaw district the father died, leaving to his 
 widow a half-cleared farm, with no one to assist in its cultivation 
 but her children. She was soon to be deprived of this help, for 
 during the Revolutionary war Andrew and his two brothers took 
 up arms in defense of their country. The elder brother was killed 
 at the battle of Stono Ferry, and Andrew, though but 13 years old, 
 served with his remaining ])rother under Gen. Sumter until the 
 close of the war. His mother died while nursing American soldiers 
 in prison at Charleston, S. C, and soon afterward his brother 
 Robert died of small-pox. Under these circumstances Andrew's 
 opportunities to acquire an education were extremely limited. In 
 1784 he began the study of law with Spruce McKay at Salisbury, 
 N. C, and about 3 years later, when only 20 years of age, he was 
 appointed solicitor for the western district of South Carolina (now
 
 OIZ 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 Tennessee). At that time he stood "six feet and an inch in his 
 stockings, verj^ slender, but not awkward, with a face long, thin 
 and blonde ; high narrow forehead, a mass of sandy hair, and deep 
 blue eyes, which then and ever afterward could blaze into the 
 fiercest expression when lie was aroused." In 1788 Jackson 
 reached Nashville and within the next 3 years had built up a suc- 
 cessful law practice. In 1791 he married Rachel Robards, the di- 
 vorced wife of Lewis Kobards and a daughter of John Douelson, 
 one of the pioneers of Tennessee. After the marriage it was discov- 
 ered that the decree of divorce was not yet effective and a second cere- 
 mony was performed 2 years later. This romance caused several mis- 
 undersftandings in after years, one of which resulted in a duel between 
 Jackson and Charles Dickinson, in which Jackson had a rib broken 
 and Dickinson was killed. In 1796 Jackson was a delegate to the 
 Tennessee constitutional convention and the same year was elected to 
 Congress. The following year he was elected to the U. S. senate, 
 but resigned in 1798 to become one of the supreme judges of Ten- 
 nessee. Not^vithstanding these civic honors, he was more of a warrior 
 than a stateman, and on several occasions had abandoned his profes- 
 sional duties to make war on the Indians. "When the War of 1812 
 began he was living on his farm near Nashville, though he held the 
 rank of ma,ior-general in the Tennessee militia. He soon gathered 
 together over 2,000 of his men and offered his services and theirs to 
 the government, but the offer was not accepted. In the winter of 
 1812-13 he received orders to reinforce Gen. Wilkinson at New Or- 
 leans, and on Jan. 7, 1813, left Nashville for that purpose. On Feb. 
 15 he arrived with his command at Natchez, where he received orders 
 from the war department to disband his men and turn over all pub- 
 lie stores and property in his possession to Wilkinson. ' ' This amoimted 
 practically to an order to disband 500 miles from home, without pay, 
 means of transport or commissariat or hospital stores; but Jackson 
 determined to permit no such outrage as this, and, though in dis- 
 obedience of orders, marched his troops back in a body to their ovm 
 state, reaching Nashville May 22, 1813." Later in that year and in 
 1814 he was active in overcoming the hostile tribes of Indians in Ala- 
 bama, Florida and Georgia, and on May 31, 1814, was made a major- 
 general in the U. S. army. After driving the British from Peusaeola 
 he was appointed to the command of the army at New Orleans and 
 arrived in that city on Dec. 2, 1814. One of his first acts was to ask 
 the legislature to suspend the wi-it of habeas coi-pus. in order that 
 Commodore Patterson might impress seamen, but the legislature re- 
 fused to comply, and also refused to adjourn at the request of the 
 governor. JIartin says that Jackson then "issued a general order, 
 putting the city of New Orleans and its environs under strict martial 
 law, and directed that every individual entering the city should report 
 himself to the adjutant-general's office, and on failure be arrested 
 and held for examination. None should be permitted to leave the 
 city or Bayou St. John, without a passport from the general or some 
 of his staff". No vessel, boat or craft, should leave the city or Bayou 
 St. John, without such a passport, or that of the commodore. The
 
 LOUISIANA 573 
 
 lamps of the city to be extinguished at nine o'clock, after which every 
 person found in the streets or out of his usual place of residence, with- 
 out a pass or the countersign, to be apprehended as a spy and held 
 for examination." This order caused some dissatisfaction among the 
 people, but as the British were approaching the city they submitted 
 and joined in the measures for the common defense. Other incidents 
 occurred while Jackson was in command at New Orleans by which his 
 impetiious nature brought him into conflict with the civil authorities. 
 On Dec. 28, 1814, while the American and British forces were en- 
 gaged, he received a rumor that the legislature was "about to give 
 up the country to the enemy" and sent word to Oov. Claiborne "to 
 make strict inquiry into the subject, and if true, to blow them up." 
 An investigation exonerated the legislature, which then extended a 
 vote of thanks "to all those who had in the slightest degree contrib- 
 uted to the defense of the .state, except Gen. Jackson." A number 
 of French subjects in New Orleans were encouraged by the French 
 consul to enlist under Jackson's standard. After the British were 
 driven from the state, these men wanted to return to their families 
 and obtained from the consxil certificates as to their nationality, thus 
 securing their discharge from the army. So many of these certificates 
 appeared that Jackson suspected them of being improperly issued by 
 the consul. On Feb. 28, 1815, he issued an order for all French sub- 
 jects to leave the city within three days and retire into the interior. 
 When the consul, on the recommendation of Gov. Claiborne, was pre- 
 paring to invoke the aid of the courts on behalf of his countrymen, 'he 
 was ordered out of the city, "which order was instantly obeyed." 
 Three days later there appeared in the Courier de la Loui.siane a com- 
 munication signed by Louis Louallier, a native of France and the 
 member of the legislature from the county of Opelousas, making severe 
 strictures on Jackson for issuing sTich an order. Martial law still pre- 
 vailed, and on Sunday, March 5, Loiiallier was arrested by Jackson's 
 order. The prisoner applied to Judge Hall of the U. S. district court 
 for a writ of habeas, which was granted, but Jackson refused to recog- 
 nize the writ, and ordered the arrest of the judge for "aiding, abet- 
 ting and exciting mutiny in my camp." (See Hall, Dominiek A., 
 and Louallier, Louis.) Mr. Dick, the U. S. district attorney, came 
 to the assistance of the judge and applied to Judge Lewis, one of the 
 district judges of the state, for a writ of habeas corpus, whereupon 
 Jackson had Dick arrested and confined in the barracks along \*ith 
 Hall and Louallier. Soon after this martial law was revoked, and on 
 the 21st. Dick brought proceedings against Jackson by moving for a 
 rule to show cause why a process of attachment should not issue 
 against the general for contempt of court. He was sentenced to pay 
 a fine of $1,000 and costs and immediately signed a check for the 
 amount. When the general left the court room his eairriage was 
 drawn by his friends and admirers to the Exchange coffee house, 
 where he made a speech admonishing them to "remember the example 
 he had given them of respectful submission to the administration of 
 justice." His friends insisted on refunding to him the amount of the 
 fine and costs, but he refused to accept it. In 1843 the legislature of
 
 574 LOUISIANA 
 
 Lonisiaua asked Congress to refund the fine with interest, and prom- 
 ised, that in ease Congress failed to do so, the state would reimburse 
 him On the recommendation of President Tyler, Congress made an 
 appropriation of a sum sufficient to refund the original amount of the 
 fine, ^^■ith interest for 30 years. After the excitement due to martial 
 law and Jackson's sensational arrest had died away the people took 
 a more friendly view of Jackson and a higher appreciation of his serv- 
 ices. On several occasions he was an honored guest of New Orleans 
 or the State of Louisiana. He received 3 of the 5 electoral votes of 
 the state when he ran for president in 1824 ; all 5 of the votes in 1828 
 and again in 1832; the name of the Place d'Armes was changed to 
 Jackson Square in his honor, and in that square stands one of the fin- 
 est equestrian statues in the world, erected by a grateful people to 
 the memory of the '"Hero of New Orleans." Gen. Jackson died at 
 his home, "The Hermitage," near Nashville, June 8, 184.5, and was 
 buried in a corner of his garden by the side of his wife's remains, 
 their resting place being marked by a massive monument of Tenn- 
 essee limestone. 
 
 Jackson Parish, established in 1845, dnring the administration of 
 Gov. Alexander Mouton, was created from a part of Claiborne par- 
 ish. All this country was known as the "Natchitoches District" 
 when held by France and Spain, and the early history of Jackson 
 is that of Natchitoches and Claiborne parishes. It has an \indu- 
 lating surface of 574 square miles; is situated in the north-central 
 part of the state ; is bounded on the north by Lincoln parish : on 
 the east by Ouachita and Caldwell parishes ; on the south by Winn 
 parish, and on the west by Bienville and Claiborne parishes. The 
 parish seat was Vernon, a little north of the center of the parish. A 
 small log building was used for the first court house, but it was re- 
 placed by a two-story frame building and later a siibstantial build- 
 ing was erected which still stands. Jackson parish belongs to what 
 are known as the "hill parishes." The general surface of the coim- 
 try is rolling and rises in many places to considerable pine hills, 
 while scattered throughout the parish are broad creek bottoms, and 
 many springs are found in various localities. Water is abundant 
 and good for both stock and domestic purposes. The largest and 
 most important streams are the Dugdemona river and the Bayous 
 Castor and Beaucoup. The soil is of several varieties, principally 
 sandy loam, fertile in the bottom lauds, which are of alhndal 
 formation, moderately rich in the uplands, and yield abundantly. 
 Cotton is the principal crop, though corn, oats, hay, sorghum, 
 sweet and Irish potatoes, peas, sugar-cane, wheat, rye and barley 
 are all grown with profit, as are all kinds of fruit and nuts common 
 to this part of the state. The live stock industry, which until 
 lately was neglected, is growing rapidly owing to the shipping facil- 
 ities now afforded, and the excellent grass lands of the parish, where 
 stock can graze almost the entire year. Dairying has increased 
 and is a very profitable industry as carried on by the small farmer. 
 Like several of the other northern parishes Jackson is not thickly 
 settled, as railroads are recent. There are no cities, but a number
 
 LOUISIANA 575 
 
 of live and flourishing towns and villages, the most important of 
 which are Vernon, Jonesboro, Chathamville, Hoods Mills, Rochester, 
 Spencer, Quitman, Nash and Womack. Schools are maintained 
 for both black and white. When the parish was organized it con- 
 tained a population of 5,566, which has gradually increased. The 
 following statistics are taken from the U. S. census for 1910 : number 
 of farms, 1,685; acreage, 189,627; acres under cultivation, 64,733; 
 value of land and improvements exclusive of buildings, $1,031,953; 
 value of farm buildings, $396,678 ; value of live stock, $377,965 ; value 
 of all crops, $574,108. Population 13,818. 
 
 In 1908 a bill was introduced in the Louisiana legislature to au- 
 thorize a vote to be taken in the parish on the question of moving 
 the seat of justice from Vernon to some other point. A two-thirds 
 majority was required to change the site and under this Jonesboro 
 was selected. 
 
 Jackson Square, a piiblic park in New Orleans, was first known 
 as the "Place d'Armes," and was set aside as a parade ground when 
 Bienville had the location of the new capital laid out in 1718. It 
 served, as in European cities, as a parade ground for the troops of the 
 garrison. From the beginning the Place d'Armes was the same rec- 
 tangular shape it is today, larger only by the width of the present 
 sidewalks around it, an open plat of coarse, native grass, crossed by 
 two diagonal paths, occupying the exact middle of the town front. 
 Behind it a like amount of gi'ound was reserved for ecclesiastic uses, 
 on the front half of which was built the St. Louis cathedral (q. v.). 
 This is one of the most noted spots in Louisiana. Here the French 
 troops were reviewed, and all the most important public meetings of 
 the colony took place in the square. In the center was planted a flag 
 staff, from which at different epochs in the history of the province 
 floated the royal banners of France, Spain, and the United States. 
 This quaint old square has witnessed many an important event in the 
 history of Louisiana, for on this spot the different transfers of the 
 province have taken place. (See Transfer of Louisiana.) The square 
 was originally bounded on the upper and lower sides by a row of old 
 Spanish buildings, which belonged to the Baroness de Pontalba, 
 who had these buildings torn down and erected dwellings with stores 
 beneath. At the same time she improve! the square, had it laid out 
 in the French style and planted with flowers and shriibs. "When the 
 monument of Gen. Jackson was erected in the square, the name was 
 changed to Jackson Square in his honor. 
 
 Jacksonville (R. R. name Toomey), a village and station in the 
 southwestern part of Calcasieu parish, is on the Southern Pacific R. 
 R., about 25 miles west of Lake Charles, the parish seat. It has a 
 money order postoffice, telegraph station and express ofiSce, and is the 
 principal trading and shipping towai of the southwestern part of the 
 parish. 
 
 Jacobins. — When the states-general was convened at Versailles, 
 France, in 1789, a number of the members organized themselves into 
 a political society, known at first as the "Club Breton." Upon the 
 removal of the court and the national assembly to Paris, the
 
 576 LOUISIANA 
 
 club took the name of the "Society of Friends of the Constitution." 
 The name of Jacobins was given to its membei-s from the fact that 
 their meetings in Paris were held in the hall of the old Jacobin con- 
 vent. Branch clubs were formed throughout Prance and when the 
 national assembly was dissolved in Sept., 1791, the election of the 
 legislative assembly was mainly due to the influence of the Jacobin 
 club. The following year the Jacobins reached the zenith of their 
 power. The agitation that resulted in the destruction of the Giron- 
 dists and the death of Louis XVI. culminating in the i-evohition in 
 France, was the work of the Jacobins. In 1793 a Jacobin club was 
 formed in Philadelphia. Pa., and early in 179-1 this club caused to be 
 circulated in Louisiana the following address: 
 
 "LIBERTY, EQUALITY 
 
 ' ' The Freemen of France to their brothers in Louisiana : 
 2nd year of the French Republic. 
 
 "The moment has arrived when despotism must disappear from 
 the earth. France, having obtained her freedom, and constituted her- 
 self into a republic, after having made known to mankind their rights, 
 after having achieved the most glorious victories over her enemies, is 
 ]iot satisfied with successes by which she alone woTild profit, but de- 
 clares to all nations that she is ready to give her powerful assistance 
 to those that m.ay be disposed to follow her example. 
 
 "Frenchmen of Louisiana, you still love your mother country; 
 such a feeling is innate in your hearts. The French nation, knowing 
 your sentiments, and indignant at seeing you the victims of the t}'- 
 i"ants by whom you have been so long oppressed, can and will avenge 
 yovu" wrongs. A perjured king, prevaricating ministers, vile and in- 
 solent courtiers, who fattened on the labors of the people whose blood 
 they sucked, have suft'ered the punishment due to their crimes. The 
 French nation, irritated by the outrages and injustices of which it 
 had been the object, rose against those oppressors, and they disap- 
 peared before its wrath, as rapidl.v as dust obeys the breath of an im- 
 petuous wind. 
 
 "The hour has struck. Frenchmen of Louisiana; hasten to profit 
 by the great lesson which you have received. Now is the time to cease 
 being slaves of a government to which you were shamefully sold ; and 
 no longer to be led on like a herd of cattle, by men who with one word 
 can strip yoii of what you hold most dear — liberty and property. 
 
 "The Spanish despotism has surpassed in atrocity and stupidity 
 all the other despotisms that have ever been known. Has not bar- 
 barism always been the companion of that government, which has 
 rendered the Spanish name execrable and horrible in the whole conti- 
 nent of America ? Is it not that nation who, under the hypocritical 
 mask of religion, ordered or permitted the sacrifice of more than 
 twenty millions of men? Is it not the same race that depopulated, 
 impoverished and degi-aded whole countries, for the gratification of 
 an insatiable avarice? Is it not the nation that has oppressed and 
 still oppresses you under a heaw voke ?
 
 LOUISIANA 577 
 
 "What have been the fruits of so many crimes? The annihilation, 
 the disgrace, the impoverishment, and the besotting of the Spanish 
 nation in Europe, and a fatal lethargy, servitude, or death for an 
 infinite number of the inhabitants of America. The Indians cut down 
 the tree whose fruits they wish to reach and gather. A fit illustra- 
 tion of despotism ! The fate of nations is of no importance in the 
 eye of tyranny. Everything is to be sacrificed to satisfy capricious 
 tastes and transient wants, and all those it rules over must groan 
 under the chains of slavery. 
 
 "Frenchmen of Louisiana, the unjust treatment you have under- 
 gone must have sufficiently convinced you of these sad truths, and 
 your misfortunes must undoubtedly have deeply impressed your souls 
 with the desire of seizing an honorable opportunity of avenging your 
 wrongs. Compare with your situation that of your friends — the free 
 Americans. Look at the province of Kentucky, deprived of its out- 
 lets for its products, and yet, notwithstanding these obstacles, and 
 merely through the genial influence of a free government, rapidly in- 
 creasing its population and wealth, and already presaging a pros-, 
 perity which causes the Spanish government to tremble. 
 
 "Treasure up in your minds the following observations: they di- 
 vulge the secret siprings of all despotic governments, because they tear 
 off the veil which covers their abominable designs. Men are created 
 and born to love one another, to be united and happy, and they would 
 be so effectually, if those who call themselves the images of G-od on 
 earth — if kings — had not found out the means of sowing discord 
 among them and destroying their felicity. 
 
 "The peopling of Kentucky has been the work of a few years; 
 your colony, although better situated, is daily losing its population, 
 because it lacks liberty. The Americans, who are free, after con- 
 secrating all their time to cultivating their lands and to expanding 
 their industry, are sure to enjoy quietly the fruits of their labors, 
 but, ■nath regard to yourselves, all that you possess depends on the 
 caprice of a viceroy, who is always unjust, avaricious and vindictive. 
 These are evils which a firm determination, once taken, can shake off. 
 Only have resolution and energy, and one instant will suffice to 
 change your unhappy condition. "Wretched indeed would you be- 
 come if you failed in the undertaking! Because the very name of 
 Frenchmen being hateful to all kings and their accomplices, they 
 would, in return for your attachment to lis, render your chains 
 more insupportable, and Avould persecute you with unheard of vex- 
 ations. 
 
 "You quiver, no doubt, with indignation; you feel in your hearts 
 the desire of deserving the honorable appellation of freemen, but 
 the fear of not being assisted and of failing in your attempt deadens 
 your zeal. Dismiss such apprehensions: know ye, that your 
 brethren, the French, who have attacked with success the Spanish 
 government in Europe, will in a short time present themselves on 
 your coasts ■n^th naval forces ; that the republicans of the western por- 
 tion of the United States are ready to come down the Ohio and Missis- 
 sippi in company with a considerable number of French republicans, 
 1—37
 
 578 LOUISLVNA 
 
 and rush to your assistance under the bannei-s of Fi-aiice and libertj' ; 
 and that you have every assurance of success. Therefore, inhabitants 
 of Louisiana, show who j-ou are ; prove that you have not been stupe- 
 fied by despotism, and that you have retained in your breasts French 
 valor and intrepidity ; demonstrate that you are worthy of being free 
 and independent, because we do not solicit you to unite yourselves 
 with us. but to seek your own freedom. "When you shall have the sole 
 control of your actions, you will be able to adopt a republican consti- 
 tution, and being assisted by France so long as your weakness will 
 not permit you to protect or defend youi-selves. it will be in your 
 power to luiite voluntarily -n-ith her and your neighbors— the United 
 States — forming with these two republics an alliance which will be the 
 liberal basis on which, henceforth, shall stand our mutual i;>olitical 
 and commercial interests. Your country will derive the greatest ad- 
 vantages from so auspicious a revolution ; and the glory with which you 
 vrill cover yourselves will equal the prosperity which you will secure 
 for yourselves and descendants. Screw up your eoiirage. Frenchmen 
 of Louisiana. Away with pusillanimity — ea ira — ca ira — audaces 
 fortiuia juvat." 
 
 This address, coming just at the time Genet was striving to in- 
 terest the citizens of the United States in a war against Spain, found 
 an echo in the hearts of many of the Frenchmen of Louisiana and 
 caused some anxiety on the pai't of Gov. Carondelet. He knew that 
 many of the French inhabitants of the province had never become 
 fully reconciled to the idea of Spanish domination and feared an out- 
 break. He industriously put his fortifications in as good a state of 
 defense as possible, organized his forces, and even went so far as to 
 issue an order forbidding theatre orchesti-as to play the "ilarseil- 
 laise. " Before the revolutionary spirit gained much headway the Fed- 
 eral government demanded Genet's recall. This put a damper on the 
 spirit of the Jacobins in America, and when on July 28, 1794, Ro- 
 bespierre was put to death in Paris the organization there received 
 its death blow. Tlie days of Jacobinism on both continents were 
 over. 
 
 Jacoby, a money order post-village of Pointe Coupee parish, is 
 situated in the northwestern part. 5 miles west of Bienvenue. the near- 
 est railroad station, and about 20 miles northwest of New Koads. the 
 parish seat. Population 100. 
 
 Jamestown, a village of Bienville pai-ish, is situated on the 
 Louisiana & Arkansas R. R. in the western part of the parish. It has 
 a money order postofiSce. telegraph station and express office, and is 
 the center of trade for a considerable district. 
 
 Jamestown Exposition. — (See Expositions.) 
 
 Janssens, Francis, Roman Catholic archbishop, was born at Til- 
 bourg, Holland, Oct. 17, 1843. At the age of 13 yeai-s he entered the 
 Bois le Due seminary, where he remained for 10 years. In 1866 he 
 became a student in the American college at Louvain. Belgium, and 
 on Dec. 21, 1867, he was ordained. The following autumn he went to 
 Richmond, Va.. where he remained until in May. 1881. serving as ad- 
 ministrator of the diocese in the years 1877-78." On April 7, 18S1. he
 
 LOUISIANA 579 
 
 was appointed bishop of Natchez to succeed Bishop Elder, left Rich- 
 mond early in Maj', and arrived at Natchez on the 7th of that month. 
 After the death of Archbishop Leray, Bishop Janssens was made arch- 
 bishop of New Orleans to siicceed him, and was invested with the pal- 
 lium by Cardinal Gibbons in the St. Louis cathedral at New Orleans 
 on May 8, 1889. This was the first time in the history of the diocese, 
 and perhaps of any diocese in the United States, that the pallium was 
 conferred by a cardinal. The French sermon on that occasion was 
 delivered by Bishop Durier, of the see of Natchitoches, and the Eng- 
 lish sermon by Bishop Kain, of the see of Wheeling, W. Va. At the 
 close of the ceremonies the new archbishop addressed the people, en- 
 treating them to work diligently and in harmony for the advance- 
 ment of the see of New Orleans. His wishes in this respect were evi- 
 dently realized, for during his administration there was practically 
 no discord, and the church, with all her charities and educational in- 
 stitutions, made steady progress. In the spring of 1897 Archbishop 
 Janssens left New Orleans to visit his home in Holland. He embarked 
 on the steamer Creole for New York, and died on that vessel on June 
 19, 1897. His remains were brought to New Orleans and interred with 
 imposing ceremonies. His death was univereally regretted, as he was 
 a man loved by all, Catholics and non-Catholics alike, for his many 
 sterling qualities. 
 
 Jay-Grenville Treaty. — (See Treaties.) 
 
 Jeanerette, a town of Iberia parish, was incorporated March 15, 
 1878. It is situated in the southeastern part of the parish on the 
 Bayou Teehe and the Southern Pacific R. R., about 12 miles southeast 
 of New Iberia, the parish seat, in the great sugar district. Its prin- 
 cipal industries are sugar and rice mills and lumbering. Excellent 
 shipping and tranportation facilities are afforded by the raih-oad and 
 the bayou, which is navigable most of the year. It has an inter- 
 national money order postoffice, 3 banks, a telegraph station, express 
 office, several fine mercantile establishments, and in 1910 a population 
 of 2,206. 
 
 Jeflferson, a post-village in a parish of the same name, is a station 
 on the Southern Pacific R. R., about 8 miles west of Gretna, the par- 
 ish seat. It is one of the oldest of the modern towns of the state, 
 having been incorporated March 9, 1850. Its proximity to New Or- 
 leans has prevented its becoming the important shipping point that 
 its location on the river warrants. 
 
 Jefferson College, the oldest institution in the State of Louisi-ana 
 for the higher education of young men, was incorporated Feb. 28, 
 1831, by certain public-spirited gentlemen, among whom were A. B. 
 Roman, Valcour Aime, Etienne Mazureau, D. F. Burthe and J. H. 
 Shepherd. Its charter gave it the power to gi'ant "such literary 
 honors and degrees as are usually granted by any institution of learn- 
 ing in the United States." It was named in honor of Thomas Jeffer- 
 son and Avas designed to be altogether free from religious bias, no 
 religious tenets being required of either teacher or student. Saj's Fay, 
 in his History of Education in Louisiana: "This institution owes its 
 origin without doubt to the divided sentiments of the French and Eng-
 
 580 LOUISIANA 
 
 lish populations of the state. The College of Orleans had been under 
 the former influence, but the English College of Louisiana had sup- 
 planted it. Now the College of Jefferson was set up in opposition to 
 the latter, and the efforts of both were doubtless paralyzed by thedr 
 rivalry. Such a multiplication of colleges had, however, been recom- 
 mended by one of the couunittees on education." During the early 
 yeai-s of its existence the college was subjected to many and trying 
 vicissitudes. Its valuable eqiiipment of buildings was entirely de- 
 stroyed by fire, it was twice abandoned altogether, and even lost for 
 a time its old populaa- name. Finally, it succumbed to financial em- 
 barrassments and was bought in at sheriff's sale by Valcour Aime, a 
 distinguislied and prosperous planter of St. James parish. This was at 
 the begmning of the Civil war, the fortune of which again caused it 
 to close its doors. For a period during the great struggle, when the 
 river parishes were overrun by Federal troops, the college buildings 
 were used as a barracks for soldiers and as a military post. Today, 
 as one of the institutions of learning maintained by the Marist order, 
 and known as St. Mary's Jeffei-son college, it maintains a prosperous 
 existence. 
 
 The fu-st 10 years after its incorporation in 1831, the college had a 
 highl.v flourishing career, and stood in substantiall.y the same financial 
 relation to the state as that enjo.yed by the College of Louisiana. Prior 
 to 1835 considerable sums were appropriated annually by the state for 
 its maintenance, and in the latter year the sum of $15,000 annually 
 for 10 years was voted, but this grant was revoked after the expira- 
 tion of 8 .years. From 1842 the college received a grant of $10,000 per 
 annum imtil Dec. 31, 1845, when the state finally disposed of all its 
 interest in the institution and withdrew its support. In the year 1842 
 Jeffei-son- college was at the acme of its existence in ante-bellum days. 
 In a report to the legislature of that year it was able to state the fol- 
 lowing facts: There was a main building 44 by 300 feet; 5 two-story 
 houses of brick construction ^^-ith shingled roofs for the use of pro- 
 fessors: and two porters' lodges. The oiitlav for buildings had been 
 $124,586; for land, $10,000. The founders "had contributed $50,822 
 and a cabinet valued at $3,150. The outlay on the library had been 
 $8,710: for phj^sical apparatus, $600; and the same for the labora- 
 tory. The library liad 7,000 volumes, and the apparatus consisted of 
 Pixi's large cabinet de physique and a complete physical library. 
 The state liad contributed for land, buildings, library and equipment 
 the sum of $62,591, and in addition nearly .$30,000 for salaries and 
 the board of gratuitous pupils. The institution was at tliis time ca- 
 pable of accommodating 300 pupils, and was educating gratis 12 
 boarding pupils on an average. The college indebtedness was $61,- 
 849. Such was the condition of the college in 1842 when it was over- 
 t.aken by its gi-eatest calamity. On March 6. 1842, a disastrous fire 
 broke out, which reduced its splendid buildings to ruins, and de- 
 stroyed its fine library and scientific equipment. Now ensued years of 
 struggle and successive ill fortune. As stated, the state ceased its 
 appropriations in 1845, and in 1855 the college was forced to close its 
 doors for a time, though it shortly after resumed operations through
 
 LOUISIANA 581 
 
 the generous efforts of Valcour Aime, aided by Gov. A. B. Roman. It 
 was again forced to close its doors in 1859 on account of its burden 
 of debt. Forced into liquidation, bankruptcy proved its real salva- 
 tion as Mr. Aime purchased the college buildings and grounds at the 
 sale for the sum of $20,000, and embelished the rejuvenated institu- 
 tion with the beautiful Gothic chapel now used by students and 
 faculty. A new corporation was formed and chartered by the leg- 
 islature in 1861, and the college once more resumed its work under 
 the old name of Jefferson college. It has already been stated how 
 the college fafed during the Civil war. When the war was over the 
 stockholders were unable to reorganize the institution, and to save it 
 from being used for the education of freedmen, its directors deter- 
 mined to place it imder the charge of the archbishop of New Orleans. 
 At the suggestion of the latter, negotiations were undertaken with the 
 Marist fathers to purchase the grounds and buildings and continue 
 the work of the college. These were successfully concluded in May, 
 1864, when all the assets of the college passed into the hands of the 
 Marist order. Mr. Aime generously donated his shares, amounting to 
 the par value of $20,000, to the society, in grateful remembrance of 
 which the Marists have remembered him daily in the masses said in the 
 chapel he built, and in addition have educated gratuitously a large 
 niunber of his descendants. The college was reopened under its new 
 auspices on July 12, 1864, and has since continued'to grow in size and 
 influence. Large niuuljers of the eminent sons of Louisiana have re- 
 ceived their training within its classic walls. A list of the presidents 
 under the Marist administration includes the names of Revs. S. Chau- 
 rain, J. J. Gi'imes, George Rapier, Thomas Henry, the present 
 archbishop, J. H. Blenk, M. Thouvenin, and the Very Rev. 
 R. H. Smith. Among the presidents of the college before the 
 war was Charles Oscar Dugue, one of the best French poets of 
 Louisiana. 
 
 The old college ranks high among the eduational institutions of 
 the state and nation, and bids fair to have a long and honorable future. 
 It is beautifully located at Convent, La., the county seat of St. James 
 parish, on one of the great bends of the Mississippi, about half way 
 between New Orleans and Baton Rouge. It has over 200 acres of 
 choice grounds, part of which is under cultivation, and the rest is 
 beautifully embelished by the art of the landscape gardener, its two 
 magnificent avenues of large oak trees and fine front lawn being 
 particularly pleasing to the eye. The college buildings are in the 
 classic style of architecture, "the noble proportions and their dazzling 
 whiteness standing out in bold relief against the majestic oaks and 
 picturesque shrubbery which surrounds them." These buildings in- 
 clude a main building, an alumni hall, new hall, chapel for the ex- 
 clusive use of faculty and students, and recently enlarged and re- 
 paired, a gymnasium, 2 music halls, college hotel, infii-mary, etc. Jef- 
 ferson college represents the highest type of Christian manhood and 
 citizenship in its cm'riculum and training, and enjoys under the law 
 the right to grant ' ' such literary honors, degrees and diplomas as are 
 usually granted by colleges and universities in the United States."
 
 582 LOUISIANA 
 
 Its graduates are qualified to recedve a first-grade certificate to teach 
 in the public schools of the state, without passing the usual examina- 
 tions, and it is the only Catholic institution in the state that enjoys 
 this pri-i-ilege. The college confere the degrees of B. S., A. B. and 
 ]\I. A., and also confers a commercial diploma on those who have com- 
 pleted the three yeaj-s' commercial coui-se. 
 
 Jeff Davis Parish is in the southwestei-u part of Louisiana and 
 was formed from Calcasieu. It is bounded on the north by Allen, 
 on the east by Acadia, on the south by Cameron and Calcasieu, and 
 on the west by Calcasieu parishes. Its area is about 600 square 
 miles and the surface is generally level. In the northern portion 
 some himbering is carried on while the southern portion is largely 
 devoted to the culture of rice, which latter product is of excellent 
 quality and commands good prices. This is one of the best portions 
 of the Louisiana rice fields, in which the development has been 
 marked and important in the last two decades. In mineral resources 
 the parish is one of the foremost in the state, the celebrated Jen- 
 nings oil and gas field having been developed here. Sulphur is 
 also here in large quantities, and has been mined. The Southern 
 Pacific traverses the parish in its southern part, and along it sev- 
 eral to\vns of importance have grown up. On the formation of the 
 parish Jennings became the capital. The path of greatest progress 
 in the state seems to lie across this parish and no doubt when the 
 next census figures shall be published Jeff Davis will show well to 
 the front. Statistics have hitherto been given with its mother par- 
 ish — Calcasieu. 
 
 Jefferson Parish, one of the gulf parishes, was created early in 
 the history of the state, out of parts of Orleans and Plaquemines 
 parishes. 2 of the original 19 pari.shes into which Orleans territory was 
 divided by the territorial legislature in 1807. It Avas organized on 
 Feb. 11. 1825. during the administration of Gov. Henry Johnson, and 
 was named in honor of Thomas Jefferson, the 3d president of the 
 United States. The pai-ish has an area of 413 sq\iai-e miles, is situated 
 in the southeastern part of the state, and is di\-ided by the Mississippi 
 river, which runs through its northern portion. Lake Pontchartrain 
 forms its northern boimdary; on the east it is bounded by Orleans 
 and Plaquemines paa-ishes ; on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 on the west by Lafourche and St. Charles parishes. The seat of gov- 
 ernment was established at Lafayette, but in 1852 it was removed to 
 Carrollton, where a courthouse was built. In 1874 Carrollton was in- 
 corporated as the 7th district of New Orleans, and the seat of grovern- 
 ment was again changed to Harvey's Canal, but in May, 1884, was 
 located at Gretna. The early settlements of the parish were made by 
 the French and Spanish. Many settlers came directly from France, 
 and after 1765 the population was increased by Acadian refugees. 
 Among the earliest resident families were those of 'William ISIinor, 
 Duncan Kenner, the Fortiers. Pierre Sauve, Beauseguer Boisblanc, 
 the Soniats. the Labarres. Frangois Dor\-ille. Joseph Velon and others. 
 i\Iany of the representative families of the parish are proud to trace 
 their ancestry back to the nobility of France. Jefferson parish lies
 
 LOUISIANA 583 
 
 so close to New Orleans that when the Confederate government called 
 for volunteei's during the Civil war, many men joined New Orleans 
 companies, and the war record of the parish does not do her jxistice, 
 but one company, the Jeffereon Mounted Guards, was furnished by 
 this parish. The company was organized on March 13, 1862, with Guy 
 Dreux, brother of Col. Charles Dreux, the first Confederate officer 
 killed in Virginia, as captain, and was composed of 60 and 90 day 
 volunteers. They were detailed as headquarters escort in the Army of 
 the Tennessee and served in that capacity until May, 1865. Gretna, 
 Kemier, McDonoghville, Harvey and Westwego are the most im- 
 portant to^Tns. Other to\\^ls and villages are Amesville, Barataria, 
 Waggamaji and Grand Isle. The parish maintains schools for both 
 white and black. The principal streams are the Mississippi river, and 
 Bayous Barataria, Rigolet, Des Families. St. Denis, Dupont and 
 Grand. Its formation is la.i'gely coast marsh, but there is a large area 
 of alhivial land and wooded swamp. The rich soil found along the 
 Mississippi river and the different bayous is verj'' productive. Sugar 
 is the staple crop, but rice, jute, coiii, Irish potatoes, onions and 
 garden vegetables of all kinds are extensively grown and shipped to 
 northern markets. Horticulture is a profitable industry ; oranges 
 lemons, mandarins, figs, pomegranates, plums, prunes, pecans, guavas, 
 olives, bananas and grapes being grown in abundance. The timber 
 in the parish is chiefly oak and willow, though large cypress swamps 
 'are found in different portions along the streams. Fish are plentiful, 
 and the oyster industry of the parish is of considerable importance, 
 especially along the coast, where a number of canneries have been 
 established. Terrapin, crabs and many varieties of salt water fish are 
 taken in large numbers in the inlets, bayous and lakes. Transporta- 
 tion facilities in the central and southern portions of tlie parish are 
 poor, biit the northern part is a network of raib-oads, as it is crossed 
 by the Illinois Central. Texas Pacific, Southern Pacific, Yazoo & Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, and the New Orleans, Fort Jackson & Grand Isle 
 roads, all riuindng into New Orleans. The following statistics are 
 from the U. S. census for 1910 : number of farms, 364 ; acreage in 
 farms, 30,702 ; acres improved, 14,196 ; value of land and improve- 
 ments exclusive of farm buildings, $1,844,285 ; value of farm build- 
 ings, $419,830; value of live stock, $257,959; total value of crops, 
 $556,119. The population was 18,247. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, third jiresident of the United States, was 
 born at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Va., April 2, 1743. An account 
 of bis life and public services is of interest to the student of Louisi- 
 ana history, as it was dm-ing his administration that the province was 
 purchased from France by the United States. (See Louisiana Pur- 
 chase). Mr. Jefferson was educated in private schools and at "WilUam 
 and Mary College, and in 1767 began the practice of law. Two years 
 later he was elected to represent his county in the Virginia house of 
 burgesses, where he remained until the beginning of the Revolution. 
 In 1775 he was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress ; was 
 one of the committee of five to prepare the Declaration of Indepen- 
 deniee, and at the request of the other members of the committee he
 
 584 LOUISIANA 
 
 drafted the Declaration, which was adopted almost exactly as he had 
 written it. In Oct.. 1776. he resigned his seat in Congress to enter the 
 Virginia legislature, and on June 1, 1779, was elected governor of 
 Virginia to succeed Patrick Henry. In 1782 he was appointed by 
 Congress minister plenipotentiary to act with others in the negotia- 
 tion of a treaty of peace with Great Britain. The following year he 
 was again elected a delegate to Congress, and it M-as during this term 
 that he secured the adoption of the dollar as the monetary imit and 
 the decimal system of coinage. In May, 1784, he was appointed minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary to Europe to aid John Adams and Benjamin 
 Franklin in the negotiation of commercial treaties, and the following 
 March was appointed minister at the French court to succeed Dr. 
 Franklin. He remained in France until the fall of 1789. when he 
 was appointed secretary of state by Washington, being the first man 
 to hold that important position under the Federal constitution. On 
 Dec. 31. 1793, he resigned his place in the cabinet and retired to 
 private life, but in 1796 was elected vice-president. In 1800 he was 
 elected to the presidency by the house of representatives on the 36th 
 ballot, he and Aaron Burr having received an equal number of elec- 
 toral votes, and ilr. Burr became vice-president. 
 
 On Nov. 25. 1802, W. C. C. Claiborne, at that time governor of 
 Mississippi territory, wrote to the secretary of state enclosing a com- 
 munication from Manuel de Salcedo, the Spanish governor of Louisi- 
 ana, relative to the right of deposit at New Orleans. In this commu- 
 nication, dated at New Orleans, Nov. 15. 1802. Salcedo said: "I can 
 now assure yoiir excellency that His Catholic ilajesty has not hitherto 
 issued any order for suspending the deposit, and consequently has 
 not designated any other position on the banks of the Mississippi for 
 that purpose. But I must inform j'ou, in answer to your inquiry, that 
 the intendant of these provinces (who in the affairs of his own de- 
 partment is independent of the general government), at the same time 
 that, in conformity with the roj^al commands (the peace in Europe 
 ha\'ing been published since the 4th of May last), he suspended the 
 commerce of neutrals, also thoiight proper to suspend the tacit pro- 
 longation which continued, and to put a stop to the infinite abuses 
 which resulted from the deposit, contrary to the interest of the State 
 and of the commerce of these colonies, etc. ' ' 
 
 Claiborne's letter and its enclosure were sent to the house of repre- 
 sentatives by Mr. Jefferson on Dec. 30, 1802. and created considerable 
 excitement in that body. On Jan. 11, 1803, the president sent to the 
 senate a message nominating Robert R. Livingston "to be minister 
 plenipotentiary and James Monroe to be minister extraordinarj- and 
 plenipotentiary, vriXh full powers to both jointly, or to either on the 
 death of the other, to enter into a treatj- or convention with the First 
 Consul of France for the purpose of enlarging and more eft'ectiially 
 securing our rights and interests in the river IMississippi and in the 
 teiTitories eastward thereof." In the same message he named Charles 
 Pinckney to be minister plenipotentiary, James Monroe to be minister 
 extraordinaiy and plenipotentiarj' to enter into a treaty or convention 
 with the king of Spain for the same purpose. The nominations were
 
 LOUISIANA 585 
 
 coniii-med by the senate, and thus the machinery was set in motion 
 that resulted in the acquisition of Louisiana. Mr. Jefferson had some 
 doubts about the constitutionality of the cession, as well as some mis- 
 givings as to whether his action in the purchase of the province would 
 be approved by Congress and the people of the United States. But both 
 doubts and misgivings were without foundation. Congress promptly 
 approved the treaty and in 1804 Mr. Jefferson was reelected by the 
 people. He finally retired from public life at the close of his second 
 term on March 4, 1809, and died on July 4, 1826. 
 
 In 1772 Mr. Jefferson married Mrs. Martha Skelton, the widow of 
 Barthurst Skelton and daughter of John Wayles, an eminent lawyer 
 of Virginia. She died on Sept. 2, 1782, leaving a daughter, Martha, 
 who afterward became the wife of Gov. Randolph of Virginia. She 
 was the head of her father's household after the death of her mother, 
 and was mistress of the White House during his incumbency as presi- 
 dent. Mr. Jefferson's devotion to the interests of his country was of 
 such a character that he died comparatively poor. On March 16, 1827, 
 the Louisiana legislature, upon the recommendation of Gov. Henry 
 Johnson, passed a resolution donating $10,000 to liis heirs. (For the 
 full text of this resolution see Heniy Johnson's administration.) 
 
 Jena, one of the principal villages of Lasalle parish, is a station 
 on the Louisiana & Arkansas R. R., about 20 miles southwest of Har- 
 risonbui'g. It has a money order postoffice, express and telegraph offi- 
 ces, and is a trading center for a large agricultural district. Popula- 
 tion 689. 
 
 Jennings, the capital of Jeff Davis parish, is located on the South- 
 em Pacific R. R., about halfway between the cities of Lake Charles 
 and Lafayette. It is in the great rice district of southwestern Louisi- 
 ana, and in 1907 the Jennings Canal company was chartered, with a 
 capital stock of $100,000, for the purpose of building a system of 
 irrigating canals for rice culture. It also has important lumber in- 
 dustries, wood-working factories, and a factory for manufacturing 
 oil well machinery and supplies. An immense bed of sulphur has 
 been found at Jennings, and the development of its oil and gas 
 field has been notable. The town is incorporated, has good schools 
 and churches, sevei'al fine mercantile establisiiments, and is one of the 
 leading commercial centers of southwestern Louisiana. Some idea of 
 the rapid growth of the town may be gained from the following in- 
 cident. In 1910 the population was 3,925. Previously the leg- 
 islature authorized the people of Jennings to vote on the question of 
 issuing bonds for the construction of waterworks, sewers and pubJic 
 buildings, and to levy a tax for a sinking fund for the redemption of 
 the bonds. At that time the taxable property was valued at about 
 $660,000. The bonds were issued and the sinking fund tax was levied 
 on this basis, but in 1906 the value of the taxable property had in- 
 creased to nearly $1,000,000 and there was a large sui-plus in the sink- 
 ing fund, which the town could not use, as it had been collected for a 
 specific purpose. On July 4, 1906. the legislature passed an act author- 
 izing the municipal authorities to use the surplus in the purchase of 
 good negotiable bonds. It is not often that a town grows so fast that
 
 586 LOUISIANA 
 
 special legislation is necessary to enable it to spend its public revenues, 
 but such was the case with Jennings. 
 
 Jesseca, a little post-village in the central part of Tangipahoa 
 parish, is aliout 8 miles southeast of Amite, the parish seat, and is the 
 terminus of a short line of railroad operated by the Genesee Lumber 
 company, which connects with the Illinois Central at Natalbany. 
 
 Jesuit Bend, a village in the northwestern part of Plaquemine.? 
 parish, on the west bank of the Mississippi river, is a station on the 
 New Orleans. Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. E. It has a money order 
 postoffice and telegi-aph station, is located in a rich orange and truck 
 farming district. Population 150. 
 
 Jesuits. — This celebrated order of the Roman Catholic church 
 was founded by Ignatius of Loyola and five others in 1534. The 
 primitive object of the society ■(Nas limited to a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land and a mission for the conversion of iinbelievers, but a war 
 with the Turks prevented the pilgrimage and the members of the soci- 
 ety turned their attention to missionary work, binding themselves un- 
 reservedly to go as missionaries to any country which the pope might 
 indicate to them. In the early part of the 17th century Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries came to America to undertake the work of civilizing the 
 natives and of teaching them to become loyal and peaceable subjects 
 of the king of France. Although the early Jesuit father in America 
 may have been somewhat of a fanatic in promulgating his religious 
 opinions, he was, as a rule, a man of unswerving loyalty to his king, 
 \mdauuted coui-age and of sincere devotion to his cause. Xo wilderness 
 was too forbidding for him to enter, no obstacle too great to deter him 
 from undertaking what he conceived to be his duty, and the develop- 
 ment of Canada as a French province was due in a great measure to 
 the laboi-s and influence of the Jesuits, who established missions as far 
 west as Michilimackinac. The religious instriictoi-s of the fii-st Catholic 
 settlers in Maryland were Jesuit priests who came from Europe with 
 Lord Baltimore, and almost every Indian tribe in the northern Mis- 
 sissippi vallej' felt their influence at some period of the early history 
 of that region. 
 
 In 1722 Louisiana was divided into three grand ecclesiastical dis- 
 tricts, that of the Wabash and Illinois country being assigned to the 
 Josixits. In 1726 they obtained ])ermis.sion to come to New Orleans, 
 though that part of the province was then under the jurisdiction of 
 the Capuchins, and the following year some of them came in con- 
 formity with a contract with the Company of the Indies, wliich de- 
 frayed the cost of their transportation. According to Gayarre "The 
 superior of the company of Louisiana Jesuits was to reside in New Or- 
 leans, but could not exercise therein any ecclesiastical functions with- 
 out the permission of tlie superior of the Capuchins, under whose spir- 
 itual jurisdiction New Orlcajis happened to be placed. * * * A 
 concession of 8 acres of land, fronting on the river, with the usual 
 depth, was made to them in the neighborhood of New Orleans, and 
 they long dwelt on a plantation a little above Canal street. * * * 
 A house and chapel were built for them, and they soon became as
 
 LOUISIANA , 587 
 
 powerful ill Louisiiana as they are destined to be wherever they may 
 have a footing." 
 
 Ahout 1742 they were invited to nndertake the establishment of a 
 college, but deoliued because they had not suitable quarters nor the 
 material to support such an institution. In 1751 a vessel brdnging 
 soldiers to Louisiana stopped at the island of Hispaniola, and the 
 Jesuits there begged permission to send a quantity of cane to their 
 brethren in that colony. Permission was granted, and, although the 
 Louisiana Jesuits were not very successful in the production and 
 manufacture of sugar and molasses, this was the introduction of what 
 is now the leading industry of the state. About this time the Jesuits 
 ■at New Orleans obtained for their superior a commission of grand 
 vicar from the Bislhop of Quebec, in whose diocese Louisiana was lo- 
 cated, the commission to be carried into effect within the limits of the 
 Capuchin district. On March 9, 1752, Father Dagobert, the superior 
 of the Capuchins, invited Father Baudoin, the superior of the Jesuits, 
 to give this benediction to the ohapel of the hospital for the parish 
 poor. The Jesuit superior was quick to accept, and soon afterward 
 he set up the claim that, by the publication of his letters patent as 
 grand vioar and the giving of his benediction upon the request of the 
 Capuchin superior, he had been recognized as the vicair-general of 
 lower Louisiana. This brought on what has become known in history 
 as ' ' The war of the Jesuits and Capucliins, ' ' which lasted for several 
 yeare. In 1763 the French government directed the suppression of 
 the order in all French territory. The Jesuits in Louisiana were ac- 
 cordingly expelled from the colony and their property, amounting to 
 about $180,000, was confiscated. On July 21, 1773, Pope Clement 
 XIV issued a bull suppressing the order in all the states of Christen- 
 dom, liut ill 1801 it was partially restored by Pope Pius VII, and was 
 completely rehabilitated. The Jesuits returned to Louisiana in 1855 
 and established colleges at Grand Coteau and in New Orleans, which 
 have been ver.v successful. 
 
 Jetties, Mississippi. — It is a familiar fact that the erosive power 
 of large and swift rivers causes them to transport vast quantities of 
 sediment, which are deposited at the mouths, forming deltas. The 
 suspended matter carried by streams depends upon the rapidity of 
 the current, modified by the depth, the ii-elation between the amount 
 of sediment transported and the velocity being very sensitive, any 
 decrease in velocity resulting in a deposition of suspended matter. 
 Therefore, other things being equal, the velocity increases as the area 
 of the river-section diminishes, and the problem presented is to con- 
 struct barriei-s which shall decrease the area. It is said "to be a law of 
 nature that if a stream of running water is confined to certain limits 
 or the channel be contracted, the velocity of the current increases and, 
 with the increased velocity, a scour takes place which in ordinai-y 
 eases deepens the ohannel. " Now a jetty is an embankment or pier 
 extending into the sea, and built of earth, stone, fascines, timber, or 
 other suitable material, either singly or combined. Applj'ing the above 
 principles, the hydraulic engineer makes use of jetties at the mouths 
 of rivers and in tidal harbors to increase the depth over bars by nar-
 
 588 LOUISIANA 
 
 rowing the channel, thus concentrating the current. A careful survey 
 is made of the delta to ascertain the amount of water discharged by 
 the river in a given unit of time, the variations of the water-line at 
 different seasons, the areas of sections, the locations of bars, the direc- 
 tion of prevailing winds, the effect of storms, etc. The bars existing 
 at the mouth of the ]\Iississippi river were long a serious impediment to 
 commerce and various plans were evolved for the maintenance of a 
 deep channel. Dredging alone proved ineffectual. Capt. James B. Eads 
 first proposed the application of jetties to the ilississippi river, pre- 
 sented his plan to Congi-ess, and on March 4. 1875, was authorized to 
 undertake the work at the risk of himself and associates. In the face of 
 much opposition he brought the energy- of the river to bear upon the 
 great bar of sand and silt separating South pass from the deep water 
 of the Gulf of Mexico, increasing the depth from 7% to about 30 feet 
 and achieving succes.s. Capt. Eads was awarded for the expense of 
 this work, $-t.250.000 — ^payable in installments as different depths and 
 widths of channel should be obtained; -$1,000,000 for his services, to 
 be paid when it was kno\vn that the jetties duly maintained the chan- 
 nel; and .$100,000 annually for 20 years, to repair the woi-ks cind 
 preser%'e the depth. The depth between jetties required by contract 
 was 30 feet and the width of channel, 350 feet. 
 
 Before entering the gulf the Mississippi river di-\ades into prin- 
 cipal mouths or passes. Capt. Eads constructed his jetties at the en- 
 trance of the middle or South pass. The east jetty extends from East- 
 side Landsend, at or near East point signal, along the edge of the old 
 bar and into the gulf, a distance of 11,800 feet. Its course is a broken, 
 curved line, deflecting at the gulf end 1,700 or 1,800 feet to the right 
 of the first alignment on the shore end prolonged. The west jetty is 
 1,000 feet west of and parallel to the east jetty, starting opposite a 
 point 4.000 feet from the head of the east jettj' and extending 7,800 
 feet. The Kipp dam, 600 feet long and perpendicular to the west jetty 
 at its head, joins it with the west shore, its construction being similar 
 to that of the jetties. The jettj- lines were established by driving piles ; 
 permanent cross sections were made 500 feet apart by locating sight- 
 ing points on and behind each jetty in the sections and in diagonal 
 sections; and periodical soundings were made which fiu-nished data 
 for the construction of profiles showing changes in the channel. The 
 chief constructive materials used in the jetties are willow mattresses, 
 stone, palmetto cribs, and blocks of concrete. The mattresses are con- 
 structed upon inclined planes, having a rise of 1 in 10, the lower end 
 resting in the water, while the upper is 6 feet above. They vary in 
 widtJi from 20 to 40 feet or over, but are generally 100 by 440 feet. 
 Longitudinal strips 21/2 by 6 inches are first laid on the ways, 41/0 feet 
 apart; across these a 6-ineh layer of willow boughs is placed, the 
 switch ends extending 2 or 3 feet beyond the outside strips; a second 
 layer at right angles to the first, is placed next above ; and so on until 
 the required thickness, generally 2 feet, is obtained. Finally, trans- 
 verse strips are fastened to the bottom strips with hickory pins. The 
 mattress is then launched and towed to its destination, wheire it is 
 tied to the piles, loaded with stones, and sunk to its position on the
 
 LOUISIANA 589 
 
 river bed or iipon other mattresses. The bottom row of mattresses was 
 sunk throughout the entire length of the jetties before beginning the 
 second layer. The placing of a single mattress was always accom- 
 panied by a deepening of the channel somewhere, and, what was still 
 more remarkable, a deposit of sand abutting against the mattress 
 began at once on the sea side. In this manner the .jetties have been 
 greatly strengthened, while west of the west jetty hard fine sand has 
 been deposited, extending from the jetty to outlying reefs and .shoals, 
 and reducing the depth at high water from 9 feet to a few inches. 
 "With this experience before them, Capt. Eads and his assistants modi- 
 fied their original plans. A section of the finished jetty, as originally 
 built, discloses a pile at one side ; a number of mattresses, separated 
 by layers of stone, and diminishing in width from the bottom to tide 
 level, abut against the pile, and upon the river side the steps formed 
 by the mattresses aa-e covered with stone forming a slope. After the 
 action of the water had produced a slope in the river-bed conforming 
 to the new cross-section, another mattress was sunk on the slope ad- 
 joining the foundation-mattress and also covered with stone. The 
 surface of the jetty above sea-level was covered with stone, and 
 crowned with dimension-stone laid dry. 
 
 The flow of water between the jetties has been increased by tem- 
 porary constructions, such as sheet piling and wooden aprons ; a dam 
 tm-ns the water from Grand bayou into the pass; and dikes at the 
 head of the pass still further increase the flow. Said one of the en- 
 gineers engaged in the work of construction: "There were three de- 
 structive elements to be overcome by these works: 1 — The abrading 
 power of the river current; 2 — The momentum and impact of the 
 waves ; 3 — The undermining power of the waves. With a full appre- 
 ciation of the magnitude of these forccss, no design was made, nor was 
 any detail allowed to be put into the works, which did not strictly 
 adhere to the following practical laws : 1 — That a broad and elastic 
 foundation will prevent undermining; 2 — That proper slopes will re- 
 sist impact of the waves; 3 — That tight work will stop leakage; and 
 4 — That work maintained at a uniform height will obstruct the escape 
 of water by overflow." Noting in their order how far these laws have 
 been fulfilled, it has been ascertained : 1 — That the 2 rows of mattres- 
 ses, which have sunk into the bottom till a firmer stratiun was reached, 
 afford a firm foundation ; 2 — "Where the jetties pierce the bar, deposits 
 on the sea side give ample protection, while on the river side wing- 
 dams projecting perpendicularly 150 feet from the jetties stop the cur- 
 rent and cause sediments to be deposited, producing a gentler and 
 more (resisting slope, with a simultaneous deepening of the channel. At 
 the gulf ends of the jetties and extending some distance towards shore, 
 the slopes have been improved by sinking cribs of palmetto wood at 
 both sides of the mattresses, and then building up the desired slope 
 with stones. 3 — The compression of the mattresses by the weight of 
 stone and the infiltration of sand has done much to diminsh the leak- 
 age, and with the lapse of time the interstices should be completely 
 filled, aided by the use of gi-avel and broken stone near the jetty top. 
 The shore jetty sections are maintained above high water mark with-
 
 590 LOUISIANA 
 
 out difficulty. Upon the sumniit of the ^ilf sections a continuous em- 
 bankment of concrete, vaa-ying in dimensions, hut \isually 12 feet wide 
 and 31/2 feet thick, has been constiiicted for a distance of 3,800 feet 
 upon the east jetty and 2,800 feet upon the west jetty. The concrete 
 was molded in blocks weighing from 25 to 72 tons, which were ce- 
 mented together afterward, forming one solid stone of great resist- 
 ing power on each jetty and aiding in the diminution of leakage by 
 compressing the mattresses. It was expected that the weight would 
 cause the elastic limit of the willows to be reached, thus increasing 
 their impermeability. 
 
 On July 10, 1879. Capt. Eads, having successfully surmounted in- 
 numerable engineering difficulties and embassassments of the most 
 formidable character and achieved a great triumph in his splendid 
 undertaking, was able to report the practical completion of the jet- 
 ties. At the head of the passes a navigable cJiannel 26 feet deep and 
 165 feet wide was obtained and certified to and he also certified to a 
 minimum depth throiigh the jetties of over 30 feet. The bar at the 
 head of South pass, which lay like a formidable dam in the entrance of 
 the channel, with only 14 feet of water over it, was completely re- 
 moved, and the depth of water in the pass was made greater by 2 feet 
 than that in the 2 larger passes on either side. At the mouth of South 
 pass, the current, which in 1875 struggled feebly against the frictional 
 resistance of the bar that obstructed it, became, by the constniction of 
 the jetties, a stixnig and living force, which, attacking the obstacle in 
 its way, swept it far out into the great depths of the gulf, and carved 
 out for itself a deep and wide channel more than equal to the wants 
 of commerce. The efficacy of the scouring process wrought by the jet- 
 ties is indicated by the following data, of minimum depths through 
 the jetties for the years immediately succeeding the inception of the 
 work: In Jirne, 1875, the water was 10.2 feet; in 1876 its greatest 
 depth was 23.5 feet in August, its least depth being 21 in May: in 
 1877 it reached 24.2 feet from October to Dec. 14, its least depth be- 
 ing 22 in March ; in 1878 it was 27.1 feet in December and 25.4 in 
 March; in 1879 it was 31.7 feet in December and 27 in March : in 1880 
 the depths were, June 31.4; July. 30.8; August, 32; September, 30.6; 
 October, 30.3: November, 30.8; December, 30.8; in 1881 the greatest 
 depth was 33.8 feet in Janiiary, and its least 30.4 feet in November ; 
 in 1882 it was deepest in September, or 31.9 feet, and least in Feb- 
 ruary, or 30.5 ; in 1883 the greatest depth was 33.4 in June, the least, 
 30.2 in Januaiy. 
 
 Since those years the jetties have been put to many severe tests, 
 but have been found to serve admirably all ordinary demands of com- 
 merce. Tlip government has recently undertaken the task of further 
 deepening the channel of South pass, and vessels drawing 35 feet of 
 water may, if needs be, now enter the river and ascend to the port of 
 NcAV Orleans. The engineering work of the government has also been 
 extended to the Southwest pass, where through a system of deep sea 
 dredging and other important iindertakings the channel has been 
 greatly deepened. It has thus put the finishing touches to Eads' great 
 work at the mouth of the river and provided the means of approach
 
 LOUISIANA 591 
 
 for vessels of any possible draft. This recent work of the govern- 
 ment at the mouth has entailed the expenditure of several millions of 
 doUars, and has vastly increased the importance of Louisiana's great 
 port of New Orleans. The saving to the people of New Orleans and 
 the Mississippi Valley by reason of the establishment of the Eads jet- 
 ties, was succinctly shown by Hon. Joseph H. Burroughs, of Mis- 
 souri, in a speech on the improvement of the Mississippi river, in 
 which he stated that the transportation rates on a bushel of wheat 
 shipped from the center of the valley, at St. Louis by river to the 
 seaboard at New Orleans during the 3 years 1877, 1878 and 1879, 
 ranged all the way from 10 to 15 cents less than by rail to the sea- 
 board at New York. That, owing to the jetties, half the total grain 
 produced in the 14 Valley states could be shipped from St. Louis to 
 New Orleans, instead of by rail to New York, with an annual sav- 
 ing to the seaboard of 10 cents per bushel, which would be $90,- 
 381,552, and at 15 cents per bushel, $135,572,328. 
 
 Johnson, a post-village in the northeastern corner of Livingston 
 parish, is a station on the New Orleans, Natalbany & Natchez R. R., 
 about 12 miles northwest of Hammond, and about 15 miles northeast 
 of Springville, the parish seat. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, 17th president of xhe United States, was born 
 at Raleigh, N. C, Dec. 29, 1808. At ten years of age he was ap- 
 prenticed to a tailor and acquired his elementary education while 
 learning his trade, though he never went to school a day in his 
 life. After completing Ms apprenticeship he woi'ked as a journey- 
 man tailor for about two years and in May, 1826, he located at 
 Greeneville, Tenn., where he married Eliza McCardle, an educated 
 Avoman, under whose instruction he completed his education. As 
 a Democrat of the Jackson school he soon became a factor in local 
 politics, especially among the workingmen, who elected him alder- 
 man in 1828 and mayor of Greeneville in 1830. In 1831 he was 
 active in securing a new constitution for the state; in 1835 and 
 again in 1839 he was elected to the lower house of the legislature; 
 was a presidential elector on the Van Buren ticket in 1840; was 
 elected state senator in 1841 ; two years later was elected to Con- 
 gress, where he remained for ten yeai's; was elected governor of 
 Tennessee in 1853, reelected in 1855, and at the close of his second 
 term was chosen IJ. S. senator. He was a bitter opponent of seces- 
 sion and his course in Congress aroused such indignation among 
 the secessionists of Memphis that he was there burned in efSgy 
 and threatened with personal violence if he remained in the state. 
 However, he was appointed military governor early in 1862 and 
 remained in that office until he was nominated for vice-president 
 on the Republican ticket in 1864. Upon the death of President 
 Lincoln, Mr. Johnson took the oath of office as president on April 
 15, 1865. On April 29, 1865, he issued a proclamation removing 
 trade restrictions in most of the seceded states, and on Jlay 9 
 issued an executive order restoring Virginia to the Union. Then 
 came a difference of opinion between Mr. Johnson and Congress 
 with regard to the policy to be pursued regarding the Southern
 
 592 LOUISIANA 
 
 states. The president took the position that the secession ordi- 
 nances passed by the several states were null and void from the 
 beginning and that the states had never been out of the Union. 
 Congress agreed that the ordinances were unconstitutional, but 
 maintained that the states had been out of the Union and that 
 they could not be restored to it without some kind of legislation. 
 In this crisis the president issued his proclamation of May 29, 1865, 
 granting amnesty to aU ex-Confederates, except certain classes, 
 and established provisional governments in the seceded states. 
 (No provisional governor was appointed for Louisiana, the presi- 
 dent recognizing the civil government that had been established 
 under the constitution of 1864.) In May. 1866, Mr. Johnson tele- 
 graphed to Lieut.-Gov. Voorhies of Louisiana that "all orders and 
 proceedings for the collection of taxes for the purposes of educa- 
 tion have been suspended." On July 28 he sent another telegram 
 to the lieutenant-governor to the effect that the militai-y would be 
 expected to sustain and not obstruct or interfere Avith the courts. 
 (See Riot of 1866.) In Aug., 1866, accompanied by some of his 
 cabinet and ofiScers of the army and navy, Mr. Johnson visited a 
 number of the Northern states, speaking in the principal cities in 
 defense of his course and denouncing Congress. This tour was 
 referred to by the Northern newspapers as "Swinging around 
 the circle." In his message of Dec. 3, 1866, the president said: 
 "Throughout the recent legislation of Congress the undeniable 
 fact makes itself apparent that these ten political communities are 
 nothing less than states of this Union. At the very commencement 
 of the rebellion each house declared. Avith a unanimity as remark- 
 able as it was significant, that the war was not 'waged upon our 
 part in any spirit of oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest 
 or subjugation, nor purpose of overthrowing or interfering with 
 the rights or established institutions of those states, but to defend 
 and maintain the supremacy of the constitution and all laws made 
 in pursuance thereof, and to preserve the Union, with all the dig- 
 nity, equality, and rights of the states unimpaired, and that as soon 
 as these objects are accomplished the war ought to cease.' " Dur- 
 ing this session he vetoed acts giving negroes the right of suffrage 
 in the District of Columbia ; the bill admitting Nebraska into the 
 Union, because it contained a provision that no law should ever 
 be passed in that state denying the right of suffrage to any person 
 because of his color or race; and the act of March 2, 1867, pro- 
 viding for "the more eiificient government of the rebel states." 
 All these, as well as several others, were passed over the presi- 
 dent 's veto and the work of reconstruction went on according to 
 the Congressional policy. An effort was made to impeach the 
 president, but it failed. On Aug. 5, 1867, IMr. Jolinson requested 
 Edwin M. Stanton to resign his position as secretary of war. Mr. 
 Stanton refused and was suspended. Gen. Grant being appointed 
 secretary ad interim. "When Congress met, the senate refused to 
 confirm the pi-esident's action, Grant resigned, and Stanton resumed 
 the duties of the office. Mr. Johnson then removed him and ap-
 
 LOUISIANA 593 
 
 pointed Adjt.-Geu. Lorenzo Tliomas. The senate declared this 
 act illegal and impeachment proceedings were instituted. The trial 
 began on ilarcli 30, 1868, the senate sitting as a court of impeach- 
 ment, and tlie test vote was taken on May 16, when 35 senators 
 voted for conviction and 19 for acquittal. A change of one vote 
 from Hie negative to tlie affirmative would have made the neces- 
 sary two-thirds for conviction. At the expiration of his term as 
 president Mr. Johnson returned to Tennessee ; was a candidate 
 for Congressman at large in 1872, but was defeated; was elected 
 U. S. senator in Jan., 1875, and took his seat at the beginning of 
 the extra session of that year. On July 30, 1875, he was stricken 
 with paralysis and died the following day. Perhaps no man in 
 American public life encounteretl more obstacles nor passed through 
 more tribulations than Andrew Johnson. Throughout his career 
 he .stood firm for his convictions and the unbiased student of his- 
 tory can hardly fail to reach the conclusion that in many instances 
 where he was overruled by Congress he was in the right. 
 
 Johnson, Henry, fourth governor of Loui.siana after its admission 
 into the Union as a state, was born in Virginia, Sept. 14, 1783. 
 After his admission to the bar in his native state he removed to 
 Louisiana and in 1809 was appointed clerk of the 2nd superior 
 court of the Territory of Orleans. When the parish of St. Mary 
 was established in 1811 he was appointed judge of the new ])arish. 
 He was a member O'f the constitutional convention of 1812, and 
 the same year was a candidate for Congress on the Whig ticket, 
 but was defeated. In 1818 he was elected to the U. S. senate on 
 'the deiath of W. C. C. Claiborne and sei'ved until 1824, when he 
 was elected governor of the state. In 1829 he was defeated in 
 his race for IT. S. Senator, but in 1834 was eleated a representative 
 in the 24th Congress and at 1lie close of his term was reelected. 
 When Alexander Porter died in 1844 Mr. Johnson was elected to 
 the U. S. senate to fill the vacancy and served in that body until 
 1849. In the meantime he was a candidate for governor in 1842, 
 but was defeated by Alexander Mouton. While a member of the 
 senate he presented to Congress the resolutions of the Louisiana 
 legislature favoriag the annexation of Texas, and the memorial of 
 the sugar planters of St. Mary's parish praying for the repeal of 
 the tariff of 1846. In 1850, Avheu Charles ]\1. Conrad was appointed 
 secretary of war and i-esigued his seat in the national house of 
 representatives, Mr. Johnson contested the seat with Judge Henry 
 A. Bullard, who was seated. Gov. Johnson tlien retired from pub- 
 lic life and died at Pointe Coupee on Sept. 4, 1864. His wife was 
 a Miss Key, of Maryland. 
 
 Johnson's Administration. — Gov. Henry Johnson was inaugu- 
 rated on Dec. 13, 1824, and found the finances of the state in a 
 wholesome condition. When Gov. Villere retired from the office 
 Louisiana was entirely free from debt, but circumstances had com- 
 pelled Gov. Robertson to turn over to !iis successor a debt of some 
 $40,000 for the payment of which ample provision had been made. 
 In his inaugural address Gov. Johnson recommended to the people 
 1—38
 
 594 LOUISIANA 
 
 the cultivation of "a spirit of concord and reciprocal good-mU, " 
 though he expressed some doubts as to the maintenance of such 
 a feeling, considering the discordant elements which composed the 
 heterogeneous population. "All invidious attempts," said he, "to 
 foment discord, by exciting jealousies and party spirit, with refer- 
 ence to the accidental circumstances of language or birth-place, 
 will be strongly reprobated by every man who loves his country 
 and respects himself. We are all united by one common bond. 
 We neither have, nor can have, any separate or distinct interests; 
 we are all protected by the same laws, and no measure of policy 
 can be adopted injurious to one portion of the community, without 
 affecting every other in the same ratio. 
 
 These remarks were doubtless prompted by the acrimonious dis- 
 cussions during the campaign which resulted in his election, and 
 were indicative of the course he intended to pursue. During the 
 ses.sion of the legislature which witnessed the inauguration of Gov. 
 Johnson, the Louisiana state bank was established; the capital of 
 the state was ordered to be removed to Donaldsonville in 1829 and 
 an appropriation of $30,000 was made for the purpose of buying 
 ground there and erecting a capitol building; the city court of 
 New Orleans was created; and the state was divided into five dis- 
 tricts for presidential electors. 
 
 The year 1825 is memorable in the history of Louisiana for the 
 visit of two notable men — Gen. William Carroll on Jan. 22, and 
 the Marquis de Lafayette on April 10. Between the sessions of 
 the general assembly the governor traveled over the state on a 
 tour of inspection, and when the legislature met on Jan. 2, 1826, 
 he said in his message: "I have been highly gratified in witness- 
 ing in every parish the utmost harmony and good-will. Those 
 symptoms of discord which, to the mortification of every friend to 
 his country, manifest themselves on some occasions in this our 
 favored city of New Orleans, are nowhere perceptible in the cir- 
 cumjacent country; and even in the city they are circumscribed 
 and confined chiefly to the columns of gazettes, and perhaps to a 
 few persons of intemperate feelings, or whose views do not extend 
 beyond the mere surface of things. * * * Let us unite in pur- 
 suing a course, and in setting an example, that may tend to unite 
 the hearts of all our fellow-citizens." 
 
 On the qtiestion of land claims and the public domain he said : 
 "The large claims, embracing several millions of acres, to which 
 the attention of the legislature has been called on several occa- 
 sions, still remain unadjusted. Upward of twenty years have 
 elapsed since we became a part of the American Confederacy and 
 looked to the Congress of the IMted States for the redress of our 
 grievances in this respect. Nothing effectual, however, has been 
 done. All attempts which have been made in Congress to refer 
 our claims to the United States district court, subject to an appeal 
 to the supreme court of the United States, and which was perhaps 
 the most expedient method of settlement that could be devised, 
 have entirely failed of success. If these claims are good, they
 
 LOUISIANA 595 
 
 should be confirmed; if invalid, they should be expressly rejected. 
 It is not only the parties interested who suffer by keeping them 
 in suspense ; the great and increasing injury inflicted on the state 
 calls loudly for redress." To remedy this situation he recom- 
 mended a memorial to Congress "couched in strong but respectful 
 terms." Such a memorial was forwarded to Congress, but it proved 
 ineffective. The legislature at this session aiithorized the gov- 
 ernor to borrow $30,000 for the purpose of building the capitol at 
 Donaldsonville ; refused to concur in the Ohio resolutions of 1824, 
 proposing a plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves; requested 
 Congress to have the boundary between Louisiana and Arkansas 
 established ; and created a board of internal improvement, to con- 
 sist of five commissioners to be appointed by the governor annu- 
 ally. In the elections of 1826, Brent, Gurley and Livingston were 
 again chosen to ''epresent the state in the lower house of Congress. 
 
 The first session of the 8tli legislature commenced in New Or- 
 leans on Jan. 1, 1827, with Armand Beauvais as president of the 
 senate and Octave La Branche as speaker of the house. The 
 greater part of the governor's message was devoted to the subject 
 of internal improvements, such as the proposed canals from the 
 Mississippi to Lake Pontchartraiu, the Attakapas and Barataria 
 bay. He feelingly referred to the death of ex-Presidents Adams 
 and Jefferson, both of whom died on July 4, 1826, and suggested 
 relief for the family of Jefferson, closing this part of his message 
 with the words: "Next to Virginia, his native land, no state in 
 the Union owes such a debt of gratitude to the departed sage as 
 Louisiana." Accordingly, on March 16, the following preamble 
 and act was approved by the governor: 
 
 "Whereas, after a life devoted to the services of his country and 
 that of the whole human race, Thomas Jefferson died, leaving to his 
 children no inheritance save tlie example of his virtues and the 
 gratitude of the people whose independence he had proclaimed 
 to the world in language worthy of a great nation; and, whereas, 
 the legislature of Louisiana, acquired to the Union by his wisdom 
 and foresight, in grateful remembrance of the illustrious citizen, 
 to whom they are indebted for the blessings of political and civil 
 liberty, wish to perpetuate to the latest posterity the memory of 
 their deep sense of the unrivalled talents and virtues of their bene- 
 factor; Therefore, be it enacted, that the sum of $10,000 in stock 
 shall be forwarded by the governor to Thomas Jefferson Randolph 
 in trust for his mother, Martha Randolph, and her heirs; and be 
 it further enacted, that for the payment of said stock the governor 
 shall execute in the name of the state one or more bonds transfer- 
 able by delivery, bearing an interest not exceeding six per cent 
 per annum, payable yearly and redeemable in ten years, or sooner 
 if so determined by the legislature." A subsequent act defined the 
 stock. 
 
 At this session the punishment of white persons by the pillory 
 was abolished, and the "Consolidated Association of the planters 
 of Louisiana" was incorporated with a capital of $2,000,000, which
 
 596 LOUISIANA 
 
 was subsequently increased to $2,500,000, secured by mortgages 
 on real estate and slaves. Through this medium the planters ob- 
 tained money easily, and those with extravagant notions spent it 
 as easily. While some protitcd by the association, it proved the 
 ruin of many. 
 
 The legislature extended an invitation to Gen. Andrew Jackson 
 to visit New Orleans on Jan. 8. 1828, the 13th anniversary of the 
 battle of New Orleans. He accepted the invitation, and was wel- 
 comed by Gov. Johnson as the "Guest of Louisiana."' 
 
 The principal candidates for governor in 1828 were Pierre Der- 
 bigny and Thomas Butler. The first session of the 9th legislature 
 opened on Nov. 17. 1828. and when the votes were canvassed the 
 next day it was found that Derbigny was elected by a substantial 
 majority. A. B. Roman was elected speaker of the house to suc- 
 ceed Octave La Branche. In his message Gov. Johnson reported 
 that of the 25.000,000 acres of vacant lands at the time of the ces- 
 sion to the United States in 1803, only 182.000 acres had been sold 
 up to that time. For representatives in Congress Walter H. Over- 
 ton, Henry H. Gurley and Edward D. AVhite were elected in 1828, 
 and Edward Livingston was elected U. S. senator at this session 
 of the general assembly to succeed Dominique Bouligny, who had 
 been elected to fill the vacancy caused by the election of Gov. 
 Johnson in 1821:. 
 
 Johnson. Isaac, tenth governor of the State of Louisiana, was a 
 native of the parish of West Feliciana and the son of an English 
 officer who settled in Louisiana while it was a Spanish province. 
 He studied law and became a successful attorney. His political 
 career began as a member of the lower house of the state legisla- 
 ture, after which he was elected judge of the 3d district. In 1845 
 he Avas nominated by the Democratic party for governor and was 
 elected over William De Buys, the Whig candidate, by a majority 
 of 1,279. He was inaugurated just at the beginning of the War 
 with ]\Iexico, and during that contest ably upheld the cause of 
 the United States. During his administration (q. v.) several impor- 
 tant impi-ovements were made. Gov. Johnson died in New Orleans 
 on March 15. 1853. 
 
 Johnson's Administration. — Isaac Johnson was inaugurated gov- 
 ernor on Feb. 12. 1846. In his address on that occasion he took a 
 decideil stand in favor of state rights, congratulated the people 
 on the annexation of Texas, and urged the extension of the free 
 school .system to all parts of the state. The new constitution, 
 which was adopted in 1845, made a vast amoimt of work for the 
 general assembly in shaping legislation to carry into effect its 
 various provisions. ^luch of this work was assigned to commit- 
 tees, and on June 1. 1846, the legislature adjourned to meet again 
 on Jan. 11, 1847. When it convened at that time Gov. Johnson 
 submitted a message dealing at length with the Mexican war and 
 the part Louisiana had taken in the conflict. (See War with Mex- 
 ico.) He announced the death of T'. S. Senator Alexander Bar- 
 row, and Pierre Soule Avas elected to complete the term. At this
 
 LOUISIANA 597 
 
 session, pursuaut to the stipulations of the constitution, steps were 
 taken to provide a fund for the maintenance of free public schools ; 
 the University of Louisiana was established at New Orleans; and 
 an appropriation of $10,000 was made for the establishment of an 
 insane asylum at Jackson. The penitentiai-y was leased out for 
 five years, and a complete census of the state was authorized. 
 
 Under the constitution the sessions of tlie legislature were to 
 be held biennially and were limited to 60 days. In his message of 
 Jan. 17, 1848, Ctov. Johnson expressed 'himself in favor of annual 
 limited sessions, but if the sessions were to be held biennially they 
 should be unlimited as to the time. He announced that the Uni- 
 versity of Louisiana had commenced operations. "If the univer- 
 sity is sustained," said he, "then and perhaps not till then, the 
 common-school system will have become deeply and firmly fixed 
 in the 'habits and atfections of the people, who with fair opportu- 
 nity will fully comprehend the trutli that even the learning of one 
 man makes a thousand learned." At this time it was clearly seen 
 that the war with Mexico would result in the acquisition of terri- 
 tory by the United States, and David Wilmot, a member of Con- 
 gress from Pennsylvania had introduced in that body a measure 
 calculated to prevent the extension of slavery into the territory 
 so acquired. This was known as the "Wilmot Proviso," and in 
 his message the governor decried it as an attack upon the institu- 
 tion of slavery — a quesion over which Congress was not invested 
 with the least authority whatever. "Tlie issue lias been forced," 
 said he, "and it should be met respectfully and temperately; but 
 at the same time with a firm and uncompromising resistance. Let 
 us, at least, take care that they who have sowed the speck of storm 
 shall not force us to reap the whirlwind." 
 
 After enacting a number of important laAvs, among which was 
 one redistrieting the state for members of the general assembly, 
 the legislature adjourned on ]\Iarch 16, to meet in Baton Rotige 
 in 1850, but as it had not complied with the requirements of tlie 
 constitution in the matter of making adequate provisions for the 
 organization and support of the public schools, an extraordinary 
 session was convened on Dec. 4, 1848, to correct the failure, which 
 was done by the appropriation of $550,000 for the use of the 
 schools. 
 
 In Jan., 1848, the leaders of the Whig party called a mass-meeting 
 at New Orleans to endorse Gen. Zaehary Taylor for the presidency. 
 In the campaign which followed, the Taylor and Fillmoi-e ticket 
 carried the state, receiving 18,117 votes, to 15,370 for Cass and 
 Butler. A spirited contest occurred in the gubernatorial campaign 
 of 1849. The Democrats nominated Gen. Joseph Walker for gov- 
 ernor and Gen. Jean B. Plauche for lieutenant-governor. The 
 Whig candidates were Col. Alexander Deelouet and D. F. Kenner. 
 The election resulted in a Democratic victory. Walker and Plauche 
 being elected by a majority of over 1,000 votes. The members of 
 the legislature chosen at this election assembled at Baton Rouge 
 on Jan. 21, 1850, — the first time in the histoi-y of the state that a
 
 598 LOUISL\NA 
 
 legislative session was held in that city. Preston TV. Farrar, who 
 had served as speaker in the preceding legislatiire. Avas again 
 elected to that office. In his message Gov. Johnson said that there 
 were 22,000 children in attendance in the public schools and recom- 
 mended increased appropriations for educational purposes. On the 
 subject of slavery he observed very emphatically: "It is with 
 feelings of lively "satisfaction I see the South poising herself in a 
 lofty and patriotic attitude ia defense of her rights. The repeated, 
 galling and unprovoked aggressions of the anti-slavery element 
 leave no room to anticipate a cessation of hostilities, and the South, 
 I think, has been sufficiently warned that if it is wise to hope for 
 the best it is equally prudent to prepare for the worst." The 
 "Wilmot Proviso was again denounced in unmeasured terms, and 
 the governor recommended sending delegates to the Southern 
 Rights convention to be held at Na.sliville. Tenn., in June. Gov. 
 Johnson retired from the office on Jan. 28, 1850. 
 
 Johnsons Bayou, a post-hamlet of Cameron parish, is situated 
 on the gulf coast, in the southwestern part of the parish, about 
 10 miles east of Sabine. Tex., the nearest railroad station, and 25 
 miles west of Cameron, the parish seat. 
 
 Johnston, Josiah Stoddard, U. S. senator from Louisiana, was 
 born at Salisbury. Conn., Nov. 24, 1784. He graduated at the 
 Transylvania university in 1805 : studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar ; began practice at Alexandria, La. ; was a member of 
 the state house of representatives: served as district judge; and 
 was elected a representative from Louisiana to the 17th Congress 
 as a Clay Democrat. He was appointed U. S. senator from Louis- 
 iana in place of James Brown, resigned ; was twice reelected, serv- 
 ing from March 12, 1824, to May 19, 1833, when he died at Red 
 River. La. 
 
 Johnston, William Preston, educator, president of Tulane Uni- 
 versity of Louisiana, was born at Louis\'ille, Ky., Jan. 5, 1831. His 
 father was Albert Sidney Johnston, the Confederate general, and 
 his mother was a daughter of ilaj. "William Preston. His mother 
 died when he was four years old. and as his father was going to 
 serve in Texas, he was sent to live with relatives in Louis^^lle. 
 He received his ediication in the public schools of that city; Wo- 
 mack's academy, Shelbyville, Ky. ; Centre college, Danville, Ky. ; 
 the "Western military institute, Georgetown, Ky., and at Tale col- 
 lege. At Tale he excelled in literature, winning a Townsend prize 
 for English composition, and the Clark pi-ize for his graduation 
 essay. After graduating at Tale he studied law at the L^niversity 
 of Louisville and was admitted to the bar in 1853. He sympathized 
 with the South and took part in most of the stirring political ac- 
 tions of the time. "When war broke out he spent the summer of 
 1861 recruiting and equipping several companies for the Confed- 
 erate army, and was commissioned major of the 2nd Ky. regiment, 
 but was soon transferred to the 1st regiment, ^vith which he served 
 in northern Virginia. "When the regiment was disbanded, he was 
 appointed aide-de-camp to President Davis, and held this position
 
 LOUISIANA 599 
 
 throughout the war. He took part in the battles of Seven Pines, 
 Cold Harbor, Sheridan's raid, Petersburg and other engagements, 
 and served as inspector-general and confidential staff officer to 
 carry despatches between Davis and his generals. Near the end 
 of the war he was captured with President Davis in Georgia, and 
 kept in solitary confinement for three months at Fort Delaware. 
 When released he went to Canada and lived as an exile for a year. 
 On his return to Louisville he practiced law until 1867, when he 
 was appointed professor of History and English literature at "Wash- 
 ington college, by Gen Lee, and from that time devoted himself 
 to education and literature. In 1877 he became famous as the 
 author of the "Life of Albert Sidney Johnston, Embracing his 
 services in the Armies of the United States." Col. Johnston left 
 Lexington in 1880 to become president of the Louisiana state uni- 
 versity at Baton Rouge, which he reorganized. In 1833 was au- 
 thorized by the administrators of the Tulane educational fund to 
 take eliarge of it, and the following year the University of Louisi- 
 ana was merged into Tulane university, with Col. Johnston as pres- 
 ident. He published a number of books, wrote for a number of 
 periodicals, and many of his addresses have been printed. Wash- 
 ington and Lee university conferred the degree of LL. D. upon 
 him in 1877. He was one of the regents of the Smithsonian In- 
 stitution. He died oh July 16, 1899, at Lexington, Va. 
 
 Joliet, Louis, French explorer, was born in Quebec, Canada, in 
 1645. He was educated for the priesthood at the Jesuits' college, 
 but went west and engaged in the fur trade. In Nov., 1672, Fron- 
 tenac, then governor of Canada, wrote: "The Chevalier de Grand 
 Fontaine had deemed it expedient for the service to send the Sieur 
 Joliet to discover the south sea by the Maskoutens country and the 
 great river Mississippi, which is believed to empty into the Cal- 
 ifornia sea. He is a man of experience in this kind of discovery and 
 has already been near the great river, of which he promises to see 
 the mouth." Acting under this authority from Frontenac, Joliet, 
 in company with Father Marquette, left Michilimackinac in May, 
 1673, ascended the Fox river from Green bay, secured Indian 
 guides to the Wisconsin river, and descended that stream to the 
 Mississippi, which they reached on the 17th of June. In frail 
 canoes they voyaged down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Ark- 
 ansas, where they heard rumors that the couiitry farther to the 
 south was infested by hostile Indian tribes at war with each other, 
 and returned to Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois river. From 
 that point Joliet proceeded alone to Quebec. Unfortunately his 
 journal and maps were lost by the upsetting of his canoe in the 
 La Chine rapids, but from memory he prepared a map and report 
 of the expedition. This map and report were sent to France by 
 Frontenac, with the following communication, under date of Nov. 
 14, 1674. 
 
 "The Sieur Joliet, whom M. Talon advised me when I arrived 
 from France to send to discover the South Sea, returned here three 
 months ago, and has discovered some admirable countries, and a
 
 600 LOUISIANA 
 
 navigation so easy by fine rivers, that he found that from Lake 
 Ontario and Fort Frontenac they could go in bi.rques to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, having only to unload once, whei-e Lake Erie falls into 
 Lake Ontario. These are some of the enterprises they could work 
 upon when peace is established, and it shall please the king to push 
 these discoveries. He has been witliin ten days of the Gulf of 
 Mexico and believes that (through) the rivers which empty into 
 the great river from the west * • * they will tind some com- 
 munication by these waters which will lead to the Vermillion sea 
 and that of California. I send you by secretary the map which 
 he has made and the remarks which he is able to remember, having 
 lost all his memoirs and journals in the shipwreck which he suf- 
 fered in sight of ^Montreal, where, after a voyage of 1,200 leagues, 
 he came near being drowned and lost all his papers and a little 
 Indian that he was bringing back with him. He had left at Lake 
 Superior, with the Fathers at Sault Ste. Marie, copies of his jour- 
 nals, which we cannot obtain until next year; through these you 
 will learn more of the particulars of that discovery in which he 
 acquitted himself very creditably." 
 
 History does not record the recovery of the copies of the journals 
 left at Sault Ste. JLirie, and but little is known of Joliet's subse- 
 quent career, further than that he held the seigneuries of Anacosti 
 island and Joliet, the latter of which still belongs to his family, 
 lie died about" 1730. Although he failed to reach the mouth of 
 the Mississippi, and was never in what is now the State of Louis- 
 iana, his expedition developed the fact that the great river emptied 
 into the Gulf of ilexico instead of the Pacifie ocean, and opened 
 the eyes of the French government to the future possibilities of 
 the Mississippi as an artery of commerce. (See also Marquette, 
 Jacques.) 
 
 Jonas, Benjaanin Franklin, lawyer and statesman, was born at 
 Williamstown, Grant Co., Ky., July 19, 1834. While he was still 
 young his family removed to Illinois, where he was educated. In 
 1853 he went to New Orleans and studied law at the University 
 of Louisiana, where he graduated in 1855. When the Civil war 
 broke out he enlisted in the Confederate ai-my as a private of artil- 
 lery in Hood's corps. Army of tlie Tennessee, and served until 
 hostilities ceased. He was elected a member of the Louisiana 
 state legislature in 1865, where he served until reconstruction in 
 1868, and was that year chairman of the Louisiana delegation in 
 the Democratic national convention. He was elected to the state 
 senate, but refused to take his seat in the Kellogg legislature and 
 adhered to the ^IcEnery government. Tn 1874 he was elected at- 
 torney of tlu' city of New Orleans and reelected 2 years later. 
 From 1876 to 1877 he was a member of the Loiiisiana legislature, 
 acting as chairman of tlu' judiciary committee of the house. He 
 was elected U. S. senator as a Democrat, to succeed James B. Eus- 
 tis, and took his seat on jMareh 18, 1879. 
 
 Jones, a village and station in the northeastern part of ^lore- 
 hou.se parish, on the St. Louis, Iron ^Fountain & Soiithern R. R.,
 
 LOUISIANA 601 
 
 about 20 miles nortlieast of Bastrop, the parish seat. It is located 
 in one of the richest agricultural regions of the state and is a ship- 
 ping and supply town of considerable importance. It has a money 
 order postoffiee and a population of 125. 
 
 Jones, Roland, member of Congress, was a native of South Caro- 
 lina. He removed to Louisiana and located at Shreveport, where 
 he was elected a representative to the 33d Congress as a Democrat. 
 
 Jones, Thomas Ap Catesby, naval officer, was born in Virginia in 
 1789, a son of Maj. Catesby and Lettice Carbin (Turberville) 
 Jones. His brother, Roger Jones, was adjutant-general of the U. 
 S. army. Thomas entered the navy in 1805, became a lieutenant 
 7 years later, was promoted to commander in 1820, and to, captain 
 in 1829. During these years of service he was engaged in sup- 
 pressing piracy, smuggling, and the prohibited slave trade in the 
 Gulf of Mexico and the Carribbean sea. He was in command of 
 the American fleet that tried to intercept the British squadron in 
 Dec., 1814, on Lake Borgne (q.v.), where he was wounded and 
 forced to surrender, but was commended for brave conduct. While 
 commanding a squadron on the Pacific ocean, 'he took temporary 
 possession of IMonterey, having been misinformed that the United 
 States and Mexico were at war. He was married July 1, 1823, to 
 Mary W. Carter, and died at Georgetown, D. C, May 30, 1858. 
 
 Jonesboro, the capital town of Jackson parish, is located in the 
 southwestern part, at the junction of the Chicago, Rock Island & 
 Pacific, and the Tremont & Gulf railroads, in one of the great 
 pine forests of western Louisiana, and has important lumber in- 
 dustries. As the timber has been cut the surrounding country has 
 rapidly developed into a fine agricultural district, of which Jones- 
 boro is the center of trade. It has a bank, a money order post- 
 office, express office, telegraph station, a large retail trade, and 
 population of 1,134. As a result of an election held for the pur- 
 pose of changing the parish site Jonesboro was chosen. A fine 
 new county courthouse has been erected and the town is growing 
 rapidly. 
 
 Jonesville, a village in the southeastern part of Catahoula parish, 
 is on the Black river, just opposite the town of Black River, which is 
 the terminus of the Natchez & Western R. R. Jonesville is one of the 
 largest and most important villages in the parish. It was laid out in 
 1871 by a Mrs. Jones, and named in her honor. Richard Yancy biiilt 
 tihe first store. Before the railroad was built it did not grow very 
 rapidly, but it now lias a bank, several stores, 2 hotels, good schools, 
 a saw and shingle mill, a moncv order postoffiee, and a population 
 of 287. 
 
 Joutel, Henri M., who ranks with Henri de Tonti as one of the 
 most intimate and faithful friends of the great La Salle, was selected 
 by the latter to accompany him in 1684 on his last and fatal voyage to 
 rediscover the Mississippi and colonize Louisiana. During those try- 
 ing years, 1784-87, Joutel repeatedly proved himself as devoted a 
 friend to La Salle as ever a man had, and ultimately became the 
 historian of the unfortunate expedition in which the great explorer
 
 602 LOUISIANA 
 
 met his sad and imtimelj' fate. Joutel's extremely rare and interesting 
 work, entitled "Historical Journal of Monsieur de La Salle's Last 
 Voyage to Discover the River Mississippi," has been characterized by 
 the historian B. F. French as "one of the most aiithentic works on 
 Louisiana." His "description of the country of Texas, although writ- 
 ten one hiindred and fifty yeairs ago, is still among the best we have. ' ' 
 After tlie expedition had landed in 1684 at what is now the Bay of 
 St. Bernard or Matagorda. La Salle twice left Joutel in responsible 
 command of the temporary fort near tie coast, while he himself, ac- 
 companied by a small force, conducted long journeys of exploration 
 north and east, in search of the elusive ^lississippi. Returning from 
 the second of these fruitless expeditions in Aug., 1686, during which 
 he had lost throiigh death or desertion 12 of the 20 men who had set 
 forth with him, he nevertheless remained cheerful in the midst, of all 
 the calamities which had overtaken him. Says Joutel: "The even 
 temper of our chief made all men easj', and he found by his great 
 vivacity of spirit expedients which revived the lowest ebb of hope." 
 "When La Salle finall.v set out from the coast Jan. 12. 1687, with the 
 view of finding the "fatal ]Mississippi." as Joutel calls it. and with 
 the further object of journeying to the Illinois country, and thence 
 to Canada, to seeui-e needed succor for his colony. Joutel formed one 
 of the 17 men who accompanied him. and he was not far away, though 
 not actually present, when his chief was treacherously murdered in 
 Marcli by some of his disaffected companions. Not long after this 
 event, the party divided, and Joutel, together with Father Anasta- 
 sius, ilM. Cavelier, the bi'other and nephew of La Salle, Sieur de 
 Marie, one Teissier, a young Parisian named Bartholomew, and 3 
 Indian.^, for guides, set out alone in a northeast direction for the Mis- 
 sissippi. Passing through present Louisiana they finally reached, aft^r 
 great hardships and dangere. the Arkansas villages on the Mississippi, 
 where they discovered Tonti's post and 3 of the men he had left there. 
 Joutel later ascended to the Illinois post, where he foirad Tonti, and 
 then proceeded to Montreal and Quebec, where he sailed for France. 
 Judgments. — Every parish in Louisiana has an officer known as 
 parish recorder, in whose office all mortgages, deeds and privileges 
 must be recorded before they can have any effect against third parties. 
 Judgments recorded in this office operate as mortgages upon all real 
 estate of the debtor from the date of record. Foreign judgments may 
 be sued on and judgments recovered on them here. They are proved 
 by a duly certified transcript of the record. Non-resident creditors 
 are not affected by the state insolvent laws when their claims exceed 
 $2,000, unless they participate in the insolvent proceedings. They 
 can obtain judgment on their claims in the Federal courts. Judgment 
 may be rendered for reasonable attorney "s fees, when the contract stip- 
 ulates they are to be paid by the defendant. They are not taxed as 
 costs except in a few special cases. Justices of the peace and city 
 courts have jurisdiction where the amount involved does not exceed 
 $100. Judgments may be obtained in the city courts of New Orleans, 
 when no defense is interposed, in about 8 days; in justices' courts, in
 
 LOUISIANA 603 
 
 about 15 days ; in district court in New Orleans, in about 15 days, 
 when court is in session. (See Actions.) 
 
 Juanita, a village and station of Beauregard parish, is located 
 on the Kansas City Southern R. K., about 30 miles northwest of Lake 
 Charles. It is in the western long leaf yellow pine district, has lum- 
 ber industries, a money order postofSce, express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone facilities, and is an important shipping point. 
 Population 300. 
 
 Junior, a post-hamlet in the central part of Plaquemines parish, 
 is on the west bank of the Mississippi river and the New Orleans, 
 Fort Jackson & Grand Isle R. R., about 5 miles northwest of Pointe 
 a la Hache, in one of the finest orange districts of the state. 
 
 Jute. — The jute of commerce is the fiber of two plants of the 
 order Tilliaca; (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius) and comes 
 chiefly from India and China, the so-called Mexican jute being the 
 fiber of an allied family. To obtain the fiber the plants are cut as soon 
 as the bloom makes its appearance and macerated in water, after 
 which the bark or fiber is separated from the stalks. The fiber, which 
 resembles hemp, except that it is softer, is used in the manufacture of 
 gunny bags, coarse coffee sacks, burlaps, cheap carpets, etc. Some of 
 the finer varieties have been substituted for silk and wool in the manu- 
 facture of curtains, tapestries and upholstery. The plants require a 
 rich alluvial soil, a warm, moist atmosphere, and an abundant rain- 
 fall. These conditions make India the greatest jute producing country 
 in the world, though the plants have long been successfully cultivated 
 in China, the Philippine islands, and elsewhere in the Eastern Hemis- 
 phere. In 1880 there were four establishments in the United States 
 engaged in the manufacture of jute goods, their combined capital 
 being $415,000. About that time efforts were made to introduce jute 
 culture into this country. Appleton's Ajinual C.vclopedia for 1881 
 says : "Experiments in the cultivation of jute on the reclaimed marsh 
 lands of Louisiana have been attended with encouraging results. The 
 returns from the efforts made show, according to statements that have 
 been published in New Orleans, that land just (reclaimed from the 
 marsh, and still matted with roots, can be at once seeded with jute; 
 and that the plaoit will then make so vigorous a growth as to sup- 
 plant all other vegetation. Mr. John Sloane, of the Dolphin Mills, 
 who is engaged in the manufacture of jute, has represented, after his 
 observations of experiments in growing the plant in the Southern 
 states, that as good a product can be raised there as in India, but that 
 difficulties arise in securing a proper treatment of the plant after it 
 is cut ; so that it is hardly practicable, under the American system of 
 labor and wages, to obtain a good fiber for an economical price. And 
 in view of the difference between the rates of wages in the United 
 States and in India, no hopeful prospect exists that American jute will 
 be able to compete with the Indian product, until machinery has been 
 devised and applied to take the place of manual labor. ' ' 
 
 The same authority for 1882 announced that a decorticating ma- 
 chine had been invented by a St. Louis man, but upon actual test it 
 failed to do the work satisfactorily. In 1892 the U. S. department of
 
 604 LOUISIANA 
 
 agricultuir, autlioi-ized the trial of decorticating machines at the 
 Louisiana experiment stations. Three machines were entered for a ten- 
 hour test, but none of them was able to run more than a short time 
 before they became clogged with the fiber, and the same conditions 
 practically prevail to date. What has been said regarding the decorti- 
 cation of jute is also true of ramie (Boehmeria nivea). tlie fiber of 
 which is almost as valuable as silk. A hand book issued liy the Louisi- 
 ana state board of agriculture and immigration several years after the 
 tests above mentioned, says with reference to ramie: "The recent 
 trials of machines for decorticating this plant, at the sugar experiment 
 station. Audubon Park, New Orkans, gave promise of an early solu- 
 tion of this vexatious problem. "When the farmer can obtain a machine 
 to work up the product of his soil, he will not be slow in cultivating 
 this plant, since the demand for this fiber is practically xinlimited. So, 
 too, with .I'utes. » » * These plants can be grown to great per- 
 fection, and will be largely cultivated when the fiber can be success- 
 fully detached by machinery.'' 
 
 Notlnvithstanding the difficulties attending the separation of the 
 fiber from the stalk, some jute is raised in Loiiisiana. the parishes of 
 Jeffei'son, Orleans. St. Bernard. St. John the Baptist, and others of 
 the coast niareh region producing considerable quantities of it. In 
 1900 the number of concerns manufacturing jute goods had increased 
 to 18, with a combined capital of over $7,000,000. The imports of jute 
 for the first nine months of 1908 amounted to 81.778 tons, an increase 
 of 4.773 tons over the coiTe.sponding period in 1907, and 8.217 tons 
 over the same months in 1906. This constant increase in the quantity 
 imported, and the fact that the prices of jute goods do not decline to 
 any extent, demonstrate that there is a good profit to be derived from 
 its culture whenever the obstacles attending its decortication are re- 
 moved. 
 
 K 
 
 Kaplan, a village of Vermilion parish, is a station on the South- 
 ern Pacific R. R.. 9 miles west of Abbeville, the parish seat. It is 
 located in the southwestern rice district of Louisiana, has rice mills, 
 sugar indu.stries, a money order postoffiee, and is the trading center 
 for a rich farming district. Population 315. 
 
 Keatchie, sometimes Mritten Keatchi, is an old college town sit- 
 uated in the northwestern part of De Soto parish, on the Houston & 
 Shreveport R. R.. about 15 miles northwest of Many, the parish seat. 
 It was named after some Indian more tiian 50 years ago. In 1865 a 
 store wa.s established at Keatchie. a number of houses were built after 
 the war, and in 1866 the postoffiee was restored. The Keatchie church 
 was organized in 1852 and Avas instrumental in establishing the Bap- 
 tist college of Keatchie in 1857. This town has a money order post- 
 office, telegraph and express offices, and is the supply center for a 
 large agricultural and lumber district. Population 500.
 
 LOUISIANA 605 
 
 Kedron, a post-hamlet of St. Helena parish, is situated near the 
 eastern boundary, 4 miles west of Areola, tlie nearest railroad station, 
 and 6 miles southeast of Greenshurg', the parish seat. 
 
 Keithville, a village of Caddo parish, is situated in tlie southern 
 part at the junction of the Houston & Slureveport and the Texas & 
 Pacific railroads, and about 12 miles southwest of Shreveport, the 
 ;^arish seat. It has a money order postoffice, express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone facilities, and is the trading center for a large 
 district. Population 100. 
 
 Kellogg, William Pitt, lawyer and 19th governor of the State of 
 Louisiana, was born at Orwell, Vt., Dec. 8, 1831, the .son of Sherman 
 Kellogg, a Congregational minister. He was educated in a military 
 academy at Norwich, Vt., and at the age of 16 years went to Peoria, 
 111., where he engaged in teaching school for aljout two yeare, studying 
 law in the meantime. In 1860 he was a delegate to the Rcfpublican 
 state convention in Illinois, and the same year was a presidential 
 elector from that state. President Lincoln appointed him chief jus- 
 tice of Nebraska in 1861, but when the Civil war broke out he re- 
 turned to Illinois, where he assisted in raising a Tegiment of cavaliy, 
 which he commanded at Cape Girardeau, ]\Io., and afterward in Gen. 
 Pope's Mi.s.souri campaigns. lie was in command of a cavalry brigade 
 at Grand Junction, Corinth and Parmington, Miss., but was com- 
 pelled to leave the army on account of his health. Prom that time 
 until 1863 he served as chief justice of Nebraska, and then accom- 
 panied Gov. Yates, of Illinois, on a visit to the soldiers of that state in 
 the field. While at Vickslmrg Gen. Grant commissioned him to carry 
 important despatches to Washington. Prom 1865 to 1868 he was 
 collector of the port of New Orleans, resigning his position to enter 
 the U. S. senate from Louisiana. While in the senate he was chair- 
 man of the committee on I\lississii)pi river levees, and also served on 
 other important committees. In 1872 he was nominated by the Repub- 
 lican party for governor of the state, and by means of an injunction 
 gtt'anted by the IT. S. district court, restraining the returning board 
 from announcing the result of the election, M'as declared elected. The 
 election of John McEnery (q. v.) was claimed by the opposition, and 
 for a time the state had two administrations. On Sept. 14, 1874, the 
 people of New Orleans overthrew Kellogg, but the Federal govern- 
 ment recognized his administration, and with the aid of troops he 
 was retained in the office until Jan., 1877, the end of the term for 
 which he was elected. Upon retiring firom the governor's office he was 
 elected illegally U. S. senator, and in 1882 was elected Congressman 
 from the 3d district. At the close of his term he retired from political 
 life. Mr. Kellogg was a delegate to every Republican national conven- 
 tion from 1868 to 1892, and served as chairman in five of them. 
 
 Kellogg's Administration. — Two bodies, each claiming to be the 
 legal legislature of Louisiana, assembled on Jan. 7, 1873, — the one 
 supporting Gov. Kellogg at the Mechanics' Institute, and the other 
 supporting Gov. McEneiy, at Odd Fellows hall. On the 14th the 
 former inaugui-ated Kellogg and the latter McEnery. One of the first 
 acts of the Kellogg legislature was to pass a bill providing for the im-
 
 606 \ LOUISIANA 
 
 mediate collection of taxes uudei- severe penalties for those who re- 
 fused to pay. This led to the organization of the "People's League" 
 for the pui-pose of resisting the collection. A proclamation by Kel- 
 logg stated the amount of unpaid teixes to be over $2,300,000, and he 
 ■urged the citizens to make prompt payment, in order to avoid ex- 
 treme measures. An act was passed organizing the metropolitan po- 
 lice into the metropolitan brigade and placing it at the absolute dis- 
 posal of the governor, to be used in any part of the state to enforce 
 his orders. In the parish of St. [Martin the people resisted the collec- 
 tion of taxes and the metropolitan brigade was sent to the assistance 
 of the collectors, t'nder the leadership of Col. Aleibiade DeBlanc, 
 the citizens defeated the police, and Federal troops were sent to the 
 scene. De Blanc siirrendered to the soldiers, but the incident de- 
 veloped the fact that only Federal power could xiphoid the Kellogg 
 administration. 
 
 Another act of the general assembly was one "to protect the civil 
 rights of citizens." It required all transportation companies, keepers 
 of hotels and places of public amusement, etc., to give equal and im- 
 partial accommodation to citizens without regard to race or color, and 
 provided severe fines, forfeitures and imprisonment for those found 
 guilty of misdemeanor in making s\ieh distinctions. 
 
 No retiirns of pai-ish oiBeers had been made in Grant parish by 
 the returning board, and Kellogg attempted to make appointments 
 there. Trouble resiilted and U. S. troops were ordered to Colfax to 
 quell the disturbance. Steamboat o'miers refused to carry them be- 
 cause it would injure their ti-ade and the soldiers did not reach Col- 
 fax imtil April 23, order having been restored before their arrival. 
 
 The legislature which assembled on Jan. 5, 1874. authorized the 
 issue of "the consolidated bonds of the State of Louisiana" to the 
 amount of $15,000,000. or so much thereof as -might be neeessaiy, for 
 the purpose of reducing and consolidating the bonded and floating 
 debt of the state, and created a sinking fund for the pa\Tuent of the 
 bonds, which were to nin 40 years at 7 per cent. At this session was 
 passed a general law for the registration of voters, under the opera- 
 tions of which the elections of 1874 were conducted. A Republican 
 convention on Aug. 5 nominated Antoine Dubuclet for the office of 
 state treasurer — the only state office to be filled that year — and 
 adopted resolutions indorsing the "liberal, enlightened and just pol- 
 icy of President Grant" and the state administration. The Demo- 
 cratic state convention met at Baton Rouge on Aug. 24. John C. Mon- 
 cure was nominated for state trea.surer. and candidates for Congress 
 were nominated in each of the six Congressional districts. 
 
 Late in August, six Republican officials were shot at Coushatta in 
 Red River parish. Reports of the occurrence were conflicting, one 
 side claiming that the tragedy was due to a merciless war waged by 
 the white people against the negroes, and the other insisting that it 
 was due to an uprising of the blacks. On Sept. 3 Kellogg offered a 
 reward of $5,000 for the capture of each one implicated, but it does 
 not appear that the reward was ever claimed by any one. On the day 
 that this reward was offered, U. S. Atty.-Gen. George H. Williams
 
 LOUISIANA 607 
 
 sent word that troops would be stationed at various places iu the 
 state to aid Kellogg in the discharge of his ofScial duties. This brought 
 a reply from the committee of 70, on the 8th, to the effect that the 
 Federal government misunderstood the situation iu Louisiana; that 
 the trouble lay in the fact the people had no confidence in the present 
 usurping government; that it failed to command their respect and 
 obedience because it was not founded on "the consent of the gov- 
 erned ; ' ' and that the true remedy would be the restoration of the state 
 government to the legally elected officers. The committee further 
 declared that the blood of every man killed in consequence of politi- 
 cal strife in the last two years lay at the door of William P. Kellogg. 
 No attention was paid by the president to the address of the commit- 
 tee, and Kellogg, knowing that he had the support of the Federal 
 government, grew more despotic. His metropolitan brigade, acting 
 under orders, seized guns and ammunition belonging to private citi- 
 zens, under pretense that they were to be used in making war upon 
 the negroes. Dealers in arms were arrested on fictitious or trumped- 
 up charges and their stock confiscated. Arms were sent to the 
 negroes in the country parishes, and for a time the state was threat- 
 ened with civil war. 
 
 The White League, which was organized in the spring and sum- 
 mer of 1874, had, in September, a consignment of aiius ou the steam- 
 ship Mississippi, and to prevent the police from seizing them a conflict 
 was precipitated. On the 13th there appeared in the New Orleans 
 papers an appeal to the citizens of that city. It was written by Dr. 
 J. Dickson Bruns, and was as follows: "For neai-ly two years you 
 have been silent but indignant sufferers of outrage after outi-age 
 heaped upon you by an usurping government. One by one your dear- 
 est rights have been trampled upon, until, at last, in the supreme 
 height of its insolence, this mockery of a republican government has 
 dared even to deny you that right so solemnly guaranteed by the 
 very constitution of the United States, which, in article two of the 
 amendments, declares that 'the right of the people to keep and bear 
 arms shall not be infringed.' In that same saci-ed instrument, to 
 whose inviolate perpetuity our fathers pledged 'their lives, their for- 
 tunes, and their sacred honor, ' it was also declared that Congress shall 
 make no law abridging 'the right of the people peaceably to assemble 
 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.' It now 
 remains for us to ascertain whether this right any longer remains to 
 us. We therefore call upon you on Monday morning, the 14th day 
 of September, 1874, to close your places of business, without a single 
 exception, and at 11 o'clock a. m. to assemble at the Clay statue, on 
 Canal street, and in tones loud enough to be heard throughout the 
 length and breadth of the land, Declare That You Are Of Right, 
 Ought to Be, And Mean To Be Free." 
 
 This call was signed by a number of well known citizens, and in 
 response to it about 5,000 men assembled at the appointed place the 
 following day. Robert H. Marr, who had presided at the Demo- 
 cratic convention at Baton Rouge the previous month, called the meet- 
 ing to order, and after the election of Michael Musson as president
 
 608 LOUISIANA 
 
 offered a series of resolutions, declaring that John McEnery had been 
 elected governor by nearly 10,000 majority: that Kellogg was a 
 nsnnier and denounced him as such ; that his government was arbi- 
 trary, unjust and oppressive, and could only maintain itself through 
 Federal interference ; that the election laws under which the election 
 of 1874 was to be conducted were intended to perpetuate the usurpa- 
 tion ; and demanding the immediate abdication of William Pitt Kel- 
 
 Robert H. Marr. Jules Tuyes. J. M. Sexias. John ]>. Woods and 
 Dr. Samuel C'ho]ipin wci-e ai>pointed to wait on Kellogg, present him 
 with a copy of the resolutions, demand of him an immediate answer, 
 ■and report the i-esult to the meeting. The committee returned about 
 1 p. m. and reported that they called at Kellogg 's offices, but he was 
 absent. H. C. Dibble, a member of Kellogg 's staff, received the com- 
 mittee, and a little later reported that he had communicated with the 
 governor, who declined to receive any communication, and that he 
 regarded the Canal street meeting as a menace. When this report 
 Avas made Jlarr asked the jieople what they should do. and the reply 
 came as from one man. "We'll tight!"" ilari- then told them to go 
 home and get their arms and to report at Canal street again at 2:30, 
 when they find men to lead thean. In the absence of Gk)v. McEnery, 
 Lieut. -Gov. D. B. Penn i.ssued a proclamation, calling upon the militia 
 of the state, embi-acing all persons between the ages of 18 and 45, Avith- 
 out regard to color or previous condition, to arm and assemble under 
 their respective officers, for the purpose of driving the usurpers frooii 
 power. In the tight that ensued, the people won a victory (See 
 White League), but it was of comparatively short duration, for on 
 the lath, President Grant issued a proclamation, stating that it had 
 been "satisfactorily represer.ted to me that turbulent and disorderly 
 persons have combined together, with force and arms, to overthrow 
 the .state government of Louisiana, and to resist the laws and consti- 
 tuted authority of the state,"' and commanded ".said turbulent and 
 di.sorderly persons to disperse and retire peaceably to the homes, etc." 
 More troops were orderetl to Louisiana and Gen. W. II. Emory was 
 instructed not to recognize the McEnery government under any cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 On Sept. 30 Kellogg issued an address to the people of the United 
 States, in which he claimed a reduction of the state debt under his 
 administration: statetl that he had offered to arbitrate the situation 
 with Mr. McEnery; upheld the election law, and promi.sed a fair 
 election. (As to the nuunier in which this promise was kept, see 
 the article on Ketiu-ning Boards.) As the revolution had failed to es- 
 tabli.sh the administration of Gov. McEnery. a conference of promi- 
 nent leaders of the two political parties were held with a view to the 
 establislunent of sonie kind of an arrangement that would secure a 
 fair election. In this conference the Republicans were represented 
 by Kellogg. S. B. Packard, A. A. Atocha. B. P. Plianders. James 
 Lewis. B. V. lilandin. W. G. Brown and B. F. Joubert. The Demo- 
 cratic or Conservative conferees were John McEnerv. D. B. Penn, 
 B. F. Jonas. Dr. Samuel Chappin, Albert Voorhies, D, F. Kenner. C.
 
 LOUISIANA 609 
 
 Beard, G. "W. Mott and Duncan S. Cage. The result of the confer- 
 ence was an agreement to establish an advisoiy committee to partici- 
 parte dn the work of registering the voters, etc. The Conservatives 
 selected as their members of the advisory committee, Albert Voorhies 
 and E. A. Burke, and the Republicans selected S. B. Packard and B. 
 F. Joubert. These four men agreed on Dr. M. F. Bonzano for an 
 umpire, and hopes for a fair registration and election were entertained 
 by the people. But the movement was not a success. On Oct. 15, 
 Dr. Bonzana resigned and the other members of the committee met 
 to select his successor. No agreement could be reached and the ad- 
 visory committee came to an end. 
 
 In a special message to the U. S. senate on Jan. 13, 1875. President 
 Grant gave a review of the troubles in Louisiana since the election of 
 1872, smd said : "It has been bitterly and persistently alleged that 
 Kellogg was not elected. "Whether he was or not, it is not altogether 
 certain, nor is it any more that his competitor, McEnery, wias 
 chosen. The election was a gigantic fraud, and there are no reliable 
 returns of the result. Kellogg obtained possession of the ofSce, and, 
 in my opinion, he has more right to it than his competitor." The 
 president, however, neglected to state that his opinion was based 
 entirely upon information he received from the Kellogg side, as he 
 refused to hear any argument from a committee sent by the Conser- 
 vatives to Washington on purpose to enlighten him. He also neglected 
 to state how Kellogg obtained possession of the office — by the aid of 
 Federal troops, of which the president himself was the commander- 
 in-chief. 
 
 After the election of 1876 it seemed for a time as though the old 
 warfare was to be resumed. The Republicans claimed the election of 
 S. B. Packard as governor and C. C. Antoine as lieutenant-governor, 
 and the Democrats just as firmly maintained the election of Francis 
 T. Nicholls and Louis A. Wiltz. " On Jan. 1, 1877, Kellogg barricaded 
 the state house and admitted as membei-s of the legislature only those 
 who held certificates from the returning board. The Democratic legis- 
 lature was organized at St. Patrick's hall. Antoine and Wiltz were 
 the presiding officers of the respective senates, Michael Hahn was 
 elected speaker of the Republican house of representatives, and Louis 
 Bush of the Democratic house. On the 8th, Packard and Antoine 
 were inaugurated at the state house, and Nicholls and Wiltz at St. 
 Patrick's hall. KeUogg retired from the office and President Grant 
 directed Gen. Augur to maintain the status quo between the two gov- 
 ernments. The story of the final settlement of the dispute between 
 Nicholls and Packard is told in Nicholls' Administration. 
 
 The constant political turmoil during Kellogg 's administration had 
 a deleterious effect upon the industries and the commercial 
 and financial condition of the staite. A good cotton crop was 
 raised iu 1873, but as a rule aginculture was allowed to lan- 
 guish because of the unstable state of government affairs. On Feb. 
 26, 1876, an exhibition of the products of the state was opened at New 
 Orleans under the auspices of the Louisiana mechanics and agricul- 
 tural fair association. The opening address was made by Hon. 
 1—39
 
 610 LOUISL\NA 
 
 Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, and the fair proved to be a success, 
 attracting considerable attention to the resources and capabilities of 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Kellogg 's Landing, a post-hamlet of Madison parish, is situated 
 on the Mississippi river in the southeastern part of the parish, about 
 20 miles below Vicksburg, Miss. It is the shipping point for the 
 southeastern part of the parish and is a trading center for a consider- 
 able district. Population 350. 
 
 Kelly, a village in the southwestern part of Caldwell parish, is 
 situated on Black creek and the St. Louis, Iron Moimtain & Southern 
 E. R., 9 miles southwest of Columbia, the parish seat. It has a money 
 order postoffice and a population of 150. 
 
 Kemper Insurrection. — Although the United States acquired the 
 title to the French possessions in America known as Louisiana, the 
 Spanish set up the claim to West Florida, and continued to exercise 
 dominion over it. In the district between the Perdido river and Baton 
 Rouge there were a large number of inhabitants who were American 
 by birth and in sentiment. Many of this class had joined Gen. Galvez 
 in the movement to overthrow the British authority, and they now 
 chafed at the thought of being compelled to live under the .jurisdiction 
 of the Spanish monarchy when they felt that they owed their alle- 
 giance to the republic of the United States. In Aug., 1804. the Mar- 
 quis de Casa Calvo, who had been one of the commissionei*s to transfer 
 the province to Fi-ance, and who still remained in New Orleans under 
 pretense of looking after Spanish interests, complained to Gov. Clai- 
 borne that he had just been informed that Reu^ben Kemper, of New 
 Orleans, had been writing threatening letters to the officials in the 
 Baton Rouge district, and that his brothere, Samuel and Nathan Kem- 
 per, who lived near Fort Adams, were engaged in fomenting an in- 
 surrection among the people of the Baton Rouge and Tunica districts. 
 He asked Gov. Claiborne to prevent the rebellious subjects from find- 
 ing a refuge in Mississippi territory, where they would be beyond 
 the jurisdiction of the Spanish authorities. To this Claiborne replied 
 that ' ' the insurgents in West Florida have received no encouragement 
 from the United States or its ofiBcers. ' ' 
 
 Casa Calvo 's information was in the main correct. About 100 of 
 Kemper's followere had made an attempt to surprise the fort at 
 Baton Rouge and capture the governor. Col. de Grandpre, but failing 
 in that had captured the captain of militia, Don Vincent Pintard. the 
 magistrate, John O'Connor, and a planter named Terry. The affair 
 apparently quieted do\\ai. but the movements of the Kempei"s were 
 watched, and on the night of Sept. 3. 1805, while Reuben was visiting 
 his brothers in Mississippi territory, the homes of Nathan and Samuel 
 were surrounded by al)out 20 armed men, some negroes and some white 
 men in disguise, the three brothei-s taken from their beds and after 
 being beaten with clubs they were spirited across the line and turned 
 over to a detachment of the Spanish militia under the command of 
 Capt. Solomon Alston, who took his prisoners to Tunica landing, where 
 they were placed in a boat and under a guard of 6 men started for 
 Baton Rouge. As they were passing Pointe Coupee, the Kempei-s
 
 LOUISIANA 611 
 
 found an opportunity to communicate their situation to Dr. Powles, 
 who immediate^ set about securing their release. Lieut. Wilson, 
 commanding the U. S. garrison at Pointe Coupee, manned a boat, over- 
 hauled and boarded the Spanish pirogue, and took the whole party 
 into custody. A few days dater the Kempere were taken to Fort 
 Adams, where they were turned over to Capt. Sparks, who soon after 
 delivered them to the civil authorities. Through the influence of 
 Gov. Claiborne the prisoners were liberated, but on recognizance to 
 keep the peace, especially toward the subjects of the king of Spain. 
 To prevent further disturbance, the two companies of the Jliasissippi 
 militia were ordered to Pinckneyville by Gov. Williams. Gov. Grand- 
 pre wrote to Gov. Williams that he was about to take measures to 
 put a stop to the trouble "which has risen to its full height on the 
 territory of this government, — disorder, confusion, ^aolations, out- 
 rages, plunder, insult to the magistrate, dragging him by a rope about 
 his neck, attempts on the flag of the king, my master, and now the 
 violations committed with the Kempers, authors of all the above, on 
 the government of your excellepcy. ' ' 
 
 The affair came into national prominence when John Randolph, 
 of Virginia, reported a bill in Congress for the raising of an army 
 to punish Spanish aggressions and expel them from the territory, 
 but the measure was opposed b.v President Jefferson. The Kemper 
 brothers, however, needed no suppoi-t from Congress nor the national 
 administration. They were able to make war for themselves. Not- 
 withstanding they were under bonds to keep the peace, they furtively 
 lent their aid to keep alive the opposition to Spanish rule, and a few 
 years later took an active part in the West Florida Revolution, (q. 
 V.) Of their part in this uprising the historian Pickett says: "The 
 Kempers, apart from mercenary motives for engaging in this rebellion, 
 desired to gratify a feeling of revenge. Reuben and Samuel captured 
 Kneeland, one of the kidnappers, and inflicted upon his bare back one 
 hundred lashes, then one hundred more for their brother Nathan, 
 who was absent, cut off his ears with a dull knife, and permitted him 
 to retire. These trophies of resentment were long preserved in spirits 
 of wine, and hung up in one of the Kempers' parlor. Reuben caught 
 another of these wretches named Horton, and chastised him as long 
 as the latter could receive it and live. Barker, seized b.y the Kem- 
 pers at the courthouse at Fort Adams, under the nose of the judge, 
 was dragged forth and flayed until they were content. Capt. Alston, 
 who received the Kempers at the line, with a Spanish guard, died of 
 dropsy, contracted in lying in an open boat, at anchor, eveiy night, 
 Jo avoid the attacks of the injured brothers." 
 
 Kemper, Reuben, was a native of Fauquier county, Va., who 
 settled in Louisiana about the time the province was ceded to the 
 United States. Two of his brothers, Nathan and Samuel, located near 
 Pinckneyville, Mass., and all three were interested in the movement to 
 annex West Florida to the United States. Reuben was also connected 
 with the Texas Revolution. He died while at Natchez on business, 
 Jan. 28, 1826. Col. Gilbert C. Russell, of the 3d U. S. infantry, said 
 of him : ' ' He was an extraordinary man, possessing a vigorous mind,
 
 612 LOUISIANA 
 
 ■with a large stock of information, and an irresistible resolution and 
 fii-mness of purpose, which carried him straight ahead to his object, 
 in the attainment of which he always believed himself right. He was 
 as sincere in his attachments as he was implacable in his resentments, 
 when he felt that he had been injured or betrayed. In everything he 
 did. he always exercised the utmost candor; was warmly attached to 
 our government and country and in every sense a true patriot." 
 
 Kenner, a town of Jeiferson parish, was incorporated March 27, 
 1867, and is one of the modern towns of Louisiana. It is located on 
 the Illinois Central, the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation 
 company and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railroads, about 10 miles 
 west of New Orleans, in the sugar and rice district and has sugar in- 
 dustries and rice mills as well as other manufactories. It has a money 
 order postoffice. express offices, telegi-aph and telephone facilities, and 
 a population of 1,235. 
 
 Keno, a post-hamlet in the western part of Morehouse parish, is 
 about 3 miles east of Ouachita, the nearest railroad station, and 8 
 miles southwest of Bastrop, the parish seat. 
 
 Kents Store, a post-hamlet in the eastern part of East Feliciana 
 parish, is situated on a confluent of the Amite river, about 5 miles 
 northeast of Clinton, the parish seat. 
 
 Kentwood, an incorporated town of Tangipahoa parish, is located 
 aboiit 5 miles south of the state line, at the junction of the Illinois 
 Central, the Kentwood & Eastern, and the Kentwood, C4reensburg 
 & Southeastern railroads, and is one of the busiest Louisiana towns 
 east of the Mississippi river. Being in the heart of the long leaf 
 pine district, it has extensive lumbering interests, some of the 
 largest siiwmills in this section of the state being located in the 
 immediate vicinity. The town also has a cotton seed oil mill, some 
 wood-working establishments, a bank, large brickyards, an inter- 
 national money order postoffice, express and telegraph offices, a 
 large retail trade, and is connected by telephone with the sur- 
 rounding coimtry. Population in 1910 was 3,609. 
 
 Kerlerec, Louis Billouaxt, Chevalier de, governor of Louisiana 
 from 1753 to 1762, was born in France in 1704. Upon arriving at 
 man's estate he entered the French navy, and in 20 years of service 
 rose to the rank of captain and distinguished himself by his brav- 
 ery on numerous occasions. He was appointed governor to succeed 
 the Marquis de Vaudreuil ; arrived in New Orleans on Feb. 3, 1753, 
 and six days later was inducted into office. Bossu, the French 
 traveler and explorer, who was in Louisiana at the time, says of 
 Kerlerec: "He has qualities of heart very different from those of 
 his predecessor ; bxit this new governor may give as an excuse that 
 he did not come so far only for a change of air." His qualities of 
 sound judgment were displayed at the outset in his treatment of 
 the Indians, to whom he was especially kind, particularly to the 
 Alibamons and the powerful Choctaw nation. English traders con- 
 tinued to go among the Choctaws in large numbers, claiming and 
 exercising the right to come to the left bank of the IMississippi, as 
 well as to both banks of the Wabash and Ohio. They closely
 
 LOUISIANA 613 
 
 studied the wants of the Indians, and were able to furnish them 
 with merchandise at a smaller price than the French traders. Ker- 
 lerec met this state of affairs by calling upon his government for 
 larger shipments of goods wherewith to satisfy the demands of 
 the Indians, and succeeded in gaining the good will of the Choc- 
 taws to such an extent that he was known among them as the 
 "Father of the Choctaws. " The commissary La Rouvilliere hav- 
 ing died, d'Auberville was appointed as his successor in 1754, and 
 in marked contrast to the usual state of affairs, there was har- 
 monious agreement between him and the governor. 
 
 Strict economy had been enjoined upon Kerlerec by his govern- 
 ment, and he early took steps to reduce the number of the military 
 establishment to about 1,300 ofScers and men; even thus, the 
 colonial budget for the year 1754 amoimted to nearly 1,000,000 
 livres. The province was never more neglected by the home gov- 
 ernment than at this time. In 1754 Kerlerec wrote: "The English 
 are moving everywhere about us, and threaten to interrupt our 
 commimications. " He added to the garrison of Ship island, and 
 repaired and strengthened the French posts on the Mississippi. 
 Though the Seven Years' "War did not begin in Europe until 1756, 
 hostilities between France and England began two years earlier 
 in the New World. Active hostilities broke out in Canada and the 
 upper Ohio valley before any formal declaration of war, and Ker- 
 lerec fully expected to be attacked himself. His appeal to France 
 for 500 additional troops was disregarded by the dissolute and in- 
 different Louis XV, who was chiefly responsible for the calamitous 
 results of the long Seven Years' "War. By the year 1757 the Brit- 
 ish fleets were sweeping the seas, and practically all communica- 
 tion between France and Louisiana was severed. Kerlerec wrote 
 in 1757 that he had not heard from France in two years, and he was 
 even forced to send to Vera Cruz for a supply of ammunition and 
 stores. He keenly felt the neglect of the mother country and the 
 insecurity of his own position. Unable to obtain even tlie neces- 
 sary supplies with which to satisfy the demands of the Indians, the 
 latter began to grow restless and once more threatened trouble. In 
 1758 he reported concerning the Choctaws and Alibamons that they 
 were able to muster between them 7,000 warriors, that the two na- 
 tions were the bulwarks of the colony, and that they must be con- 
 ciliated at any cost. A shipload of supplies arrived in 1758 just 
 in time to buy their continued allegiance. 
 
 Up in Canada the brave Montcalm accomplished wonders with 
 the slender resources at his command, but his brilliant victories at 
 Forts Oswego and William Henry were soon followed by a chain 
 of disaster to the French arms. The British captured the islands of 
 Cape Breton and St. John, razed Fort Frontenac, and in the fall of 
 !1758 captured Fort Duquesne. The garrison of the latter fort came 
 down the Ohio and Mississippi to New Orleans, where Gov. Ker- 
 lerec erected barracks for them in the lower part of the city. It 
 was at this period of the war that Kerlerec formulated a plan to 
 unite all the tribes of the Mississippi valley, attack the English on
 
 614 LOUISIANA 
 
 the Atlantic coast from the rear, and thereby effect a diversion in 
 favor of Canada. The plan was really an able one, and properly 
 supported might have saved France at least a portion of her Amer- 
 ican domain. But Louis XV was iitterly incapable of directing any 
 energetic measures at this time for the preservation of his Ameri- 
 can colonies, and the end of French dominion in America was rap- 
 idly approaching. Canada fell into the hands of the enemy, many 
 Canadians, imwilling to live under English rule, came down to 
 Louisiana, where they either joined the Acadians on the Missis- 
 sippi or crossed the river and began the settlements of Attakapas, 
 Opelousas and Avoyelles. Another result of the war was the ces- 
 sion of Louisiana to Spain by the secret treaty of Nov. 3, 1762. 
 (See Treaties.) 
 
 Though the pro^dnce of Louisiana lay well without the actual 
 theatre of war and was never invaded by hostile armies, Kerlerec 
 was compelled with the feeble forces at his command to guard the 
 whole line of the Mississippi, and to maintain the colony in the 
 best possible condition to resist an attack which might occur at 
 any time. In addition to the grossest kind of neglect by the mother 
 country during the war, Louisiana was also torn with internal dis- 
 sensions. The commissary d'Auber^Tlle died in 1757 and was suc- 
 ceeded the following year by Eochemore, between whom and the 
 governor serious misunderstandings arose almost from the start. 
 Says Judge Martin: "It was the practice of the government to 
 send large quantities of goods for the Indian trade ; they were in- 
 trusted to the officers sent in command to distant posts, to whom 
 they furnished the means of considerably increasing their fortunes. 
 The ordonnateur, who had the disposal of these, foimd it an oppor- 
 tunity of attaching those officers to his party, which, the governor 
 complained, he did not neglect." Thus the old quarrels between 
 governor and commissary were again renewed to the serious detri- 
 ment of the province, the air was filled with tales of peculation, 
 Kerlerec continually lost ground at court as evil reports of his ad- 
 ministration reached the ears of the king, and the financial condi- 
 tion of the province only added fuel to the flame. In 1761 Roche- 
 more returned to France and was succeeded by Foucault, who ap- 
 pears to have been guiltj- of grave duplicity, and while apparently 
 keeping on friendly terms with Kerlerec. maligned him severely in 
 his reports to his home government. On his return to France, 
 Boehemore made a good case at court, and his charges against Ker- 
 lerec were in the main sustained. The following report was ren- 
 dered after an investigation into the facts: "It follows from the 
 papers submitted to our inspection, 1st — that Rochemore has kept 
 himself within the limits of his office, while Kerlerec has always 
 abused his powers: 2nd — that Kerlerec has not only violated the 
 ordinances by receiving interloping vessels, without being com- 
 pelled by necessity, since at that time the colony was not in want, 
 but that he has committed a great imprudence, knowing that these 
 interlopers were spies; that, besides, it is probable that interest has 
 guided him in these circumstances, his secretarv and himself hav-
 
 LOUISIANA 615 
 
 ing relations with Jamaica, whence come most of the interlopers. 
 Another fact is, that the interlopers, according to a law established 
 by M. de Kerlerec, were to land at New Orleans, and nowhere else 
 in the colony; otherwise they were not admitted, whatever were 
 the needs of the colony; that, besides, Kerlerec, according to the 
 allegation of Roehemore, has received 10,000 livres from an inter- 
 loper to assure himself that he would return to bring what he (Ker- 
 lerec) needed; b^it that, on his return, the said interloper has not 
 been able, by order of Kerlerec, to go up the river to New Orleans, 
 or get back his money." (See Portier, History of Louisiana, Vol. 
 1, p. 145.) In this report a grave injustice was done to Kerlerec, 
 as he is credited with honesty, whatever other faults of adminis- 
 tration he was guilty of. In March, 1763, the king of France an- 
 nounced that he had determined to disband his troops in Louisiana 
 and maintain only a factory (trading establishment), with a guard 
 of four companies of infantry. On June 29, 1763, D'Abbadie ar- 
 rived at New Orleans in the capacity of director of the factory and 
 commandant of the troops, and Kerlerec thereupon returned to 
 Paris, where he was thrown into the Bastile upon charges of usur- 
 pation and extravagance. He .subsequently regained his liberty 
 and died in the year 1770. 
 
 Kilbourne, a village and station of "West Carroll parish, is sitii- 
 ated on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern R. R., about 2 
 miles south of the state line and 2 miles north of Floyd, the parish 
 seat. It has a money order postoffice, is the trading center of a 
 large tract of country, and has a population of 175. 
 
 Killian, a post-hamlet in the southeastern part of Livingston 
 parish, is situated on the Tickfaw river, about 4 miles southwest of 
 Springfield, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Killona, a village of St. Charles parish, is in the northwestern 
 part on the Texas & Pacific R. R., about 5 miles west of Hahnville, 
 the parish seat. It is located in a rich truck farming district, has 
 sugar industries, a money order postoffice, express office, telegraph 
 station and telephone facilities, and a population of 150. 
 
 Kinder, a village in the southern part of Allen parish, is situated 
 at the junction of the New Orleans, Texas & Mexico and the St. 
 Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railroads, about 30 miles by rail 
 northeast of Lake Charles. It is the center of trade for a large 
 area and in 1910 had a population of 635. It has a money order 
 postoffice, express office, telegraph station and some wood-working 
 factories. 
 
 King, a post-village in the southeastern part of Madison parish, 
 is located on Boixndaway bayou, about 10 miles southeast of Tul- 
 lulah, the parish seat, and iu 1910 reported a population of 30. 
 Quimby and Alligator bayou, on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & 
 Southern R. R., are the nearest railroad stations. 
 
 King, Grace Elizabeth, authoress, was born in New Orleans, La., 
 Nov. 29, 1859, the daughter of William "Woodsen and Sarah Ann 
 (Miller) King. Her father was one of the noted jurists of New 
 Orleans and prominent in the social and political life of that city
 
 616 LOUISIANA 
 
 before the Civil war. She was born and reared in a semi-French 
 population, as part of her life was spent on her father's plantation 
 in St. ]\Iartin parish. She was educated in the public schools of 
 her native city, and by tutors. At an early age she began to de- 
 scribe New Orleans in stories and historical sketches. Her literary 
 work first received attention in the New Princeton Review, and be- 
 came the basis for the novel. Monsieur Motte (1888). She has a 
 remarkable sympathy and understanding of the French culture of 
 New Orleans which she has portrayed in her books. Her aim has 
 been to show the different phases of woman's character developed 
 in Louisiana by the intermixture of races, slavery and the sudden 
 plunge of the "aristocratic famiUes into poverty by the Civil war. 
 Some of her more recent works include "Tales of Time and Place," 
 "Earthlings," "New Orleans, the Place and the People," "Jean 
 Baptiste Lemoyne, Founder of New Orleans." "Balcony Stories," 
 "DeSoto and His Men in the Land of Florida." She has pursued 
 original research and collaborated in a school history of Louisiana. 
 
 King, J. Floyd, soldier, lawyer and planter, was born in Monti- 
 cello, near the town of St. Mary's, Ga., April 20, 1842. He attended 
 the Rizssell school. New Haven, Conn.; Bartlett's College Hill 
 school, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and the military institute of Georgia; 
 prepared for "West Point, but was sent to the University of Vir- 
 ginia ; enlisted in the Confederate army ; served in the Army of Vir- 
 ginia ; was promoted by various grades to the rank of colonel of 
 artillery. At the close of the war, his property having been confis- 
 cated, he located in Louisiana, where he became interested in plant- 
 ing. After settling in Louisiana he studied law; was appointed 
 brigadier-general of the state troops ; was elected inspector of lev- 
 ees and president of the board of school directors of his district, 
 and also a trustee of the University of the South. In 1878 he was 
 elected to the 46th Congress as a Democrat, and was reelected to 
 the 47th, 48th and 49th Congresses. 
 
 Kingston, a money order post-village in the northern part of 
 DeSoto parish, is on the Kansas City Southern R. R., about 11 
 miles north of Mansfield, the parish seat. It is an old settlement, 
 as a postofiBce was established here as early as 1854. Since the 
 railroad was built it has become the supply point for a considerable 
 farming and lumber district. Population 200. 
 
 Kipling, a post-hamlet in Beauregard parish, is situated on Bun- 
 dick creek, about 5 miles northeast of Lilly, the nearest railroad 
 station. 
 
 Kirks Ferry, a post-hamlet of Catahoula parish, is situated on 
 the Tensas river in the extreme northeastern part of the parish, 
 about 3 miles north of Wells Lake, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Kisatchie, a post -hamlet in the southwestern part of Natchitoches 
 parish, is situated on Devil creek, about 6 miles northwest of Jergu- 
 son, the nearest railroad station. 
 
 Kleinwood, a post-hamlet and station in the eastern part of 
 Avoyelles parish, is on the line of the Louisiana Railway & Navi-
 
 LOUISIANA 617 
 
 gation company, about 20 miles southeast of Marksville, the parish 
 seat. Population 100. 
 
 Klotzville, a post-village of Assumption parish, is located on the 
 Bayou Lafourche, 2 miles east of Star, the nearest railroad station, 
 and 6 miles north of. Napoleonville, the parish seat. It is located in 
 the sugar region and has a population of 300. 
 
 Knights of Columbus. — (See Catholic Societies.) 
 
 Knights of Honor. — The fraternal organization known by this 
 name was introduced into Louisiana on July 8, 1881, when Alpha 
 Lodge, No. 2501, was instituted at Shreveport. On the 25th of the 
 same month Pelican Lodge, No. 2511, was organized at New Or- 
 leans. By Sept. 15, 1881, there were 24 lodges in the state, and on 
 that date representatives of these lodges, assisted by a delegation 
 from Galveston, Tex., assembled in the city of New Orleans for 
 the purpose of organizing a grand lodge for the state. Otis Harris 
 was elected past grand dictator; George Soule, grand dictator; P. 
 "W. Sherwood, grand recorder ; and E. "W. Thomas, grand treasurer. 
 During the next ten years the order had a steady growth, but in 
 more recent years the membership has fallen off somewhat, though 
 the society is in a healthy condition, membership being about 
 2,335. Some lodges give relief in the way of sick benefits, but all 
 death benefits are paid by the supreme lodge at St. Louis, Mo. 
 During yellow fever epidemics, etc., the order has dispensed large 
 sums of money in giving relief, not only to its own members and 
 their families, but also to sufferers outside of the organization, the 
 society proceeding on the principle that charity should not be con- 
 fined to any society or creed. 
 
 Knights of Pythias. — The order of the Knights of Pythias was 
 founded at Washington, D. C, on Feb. 19, 1864, by Justus II. Rath- 
 bone. It had its conception in the exemplification of the test of 
 genuine friendship as portrayed in the lives of Damon and Pythias, 
 and its motto is "Friendship, Charity and Benevolence." The 
 history of the order in Louisiana really dates from April 10, 1876, 
 when a charter was granted to Orleans Lodge, No. 1. Some pre- 
 vious attempts had been made to introduce Pythianism into the 
 state during the days of reconstruction, but they were not success- 
 ful. Four days after the institution of Orleans Lodge, Damon 
 Lodge, No. 2, was instituted at Shreveport. For a time the growth 
 of the order was comparatively slow, but by the spring of 1880 
 there were 16 lodges in the state, to wit: Orleans, No. 1, at New 
 Orleans ; Damon, No. 2, at Shreveport ; Algiers, No. 3, at Algiers ; 
 "Webster, No. 4, at Minden ; Bossier, No. 5, at Redland (subsequent- 
 ly removed to Plain Dealing) ; Royal Arch, No. 6, at New Orleans ; 
 Delta, No. 7, at Delta ; Stonewall, No. 8, at Monroe ; Samaritan, No. 
 9, at New Orleans ; Calanthe, No. 10, at Shreveport ; Ezilda. No. 11, 
 at Milliken's Bend; C. R. Balfour, No. 12, at Rayville; Friendship, 
 No. 13, at Bellevue ; Eureka, No. 14, at Delhi ; Bayou Sara, No. 15, 
 at St. Francisville ; Germania (now Paragon), No. 16, at New Or- 
 leans. All these lodges except Delta and Friendship are stiU in 
 existence. On May 6, 1880, delegates from these 16 lodges met in
 
 618 LOUISIANA 
 
 the eastle hall of Stonewall Lodge at Monroe, at which time and 
 place Supreme Chancellor D. B. "Woodruff instituted the Grand 
 Lodge of the State of Louisiana. Since the organization of the 
 grand lodge the growth of the order has been more rapid, the mem- 
 bership being above 7,200. 
 
 In addition to the regular lodge work of the order, there are uni- 
 form and endowment ranks. The former is what its name implies, 
 the members being uniformed and well drilled in Pythian tactics 
 adding much to the impressiveness of the ceremonies of the order, 
 especially on public occasions. The endowment rank offers mem- 
 bers of the order an opportunity to carry fraternal insurance in 
 amounts ranging from $500 to $3,000. There is also an auxiliary 
 society or degree known as the "Rathbone Sisters," to which the 
 wives" sisters and daughters of Knights are eligible. 
 
 Knights of the White Camelia.— (See Ku Klux Klan.) 
 
 Knowles, a money order postoffice in the northwestern part of 
 Lincohi parish, is a* station on the D'Arbonne Valley R. R., about 
 10 miles northwest of Ruston, the parish seat. It is in the heart 
 of a lumber district, and is a shipping point of some consequence. 
 
 Know Nothings. — This was a secret political organization, the 
 fundamental principle of which was opposition to the admission of 
 foreigners to full citizenship until after a residence of 21 years in 
 the United States. As early as 1835 an effort was made in New 
 York to crystallize the sentiment opposed to the naturalization of 
 foreigners upon a short residence in this country, but nothing came 
 of it. In 1843 the field of activity was transferred to New Jersey 
 and Pennsylvania, where the cause gained sufficient headway by 
 1852 to justify the establishment of a national organization. The 
 order received" its name from the fact that when any one of its mem- 
 bers was asked to explain the purposes the universal answer was 
 "I don't know." In a short time the order gained prominence all 
 over the country, especially in the Southern states, and it then as 
 rapidly declined. At a convention of the order, held at New York 
 in 1855, the following declaration of principles was enunciated: 
 "The American shall rule America; the union of these states; no 
 north, no south, no east, no west; the United States of America, 
 as they are, one and inseparable; no sectarian interferences in our 
 legislation, or in the administration of American law ; hostility to 
 the assumption of the pope, through the bishops, etc., in a republic 
 sanctified by Protestant blood ; thorough reform in the naturaliza- 
 tion laws (requiring 21 years' residence of all foreigners previous 
 to voting) : free and liberal educational institutions for all sorts 
 and classes, with the Bible as a universal text-book." 
 
 Another convention of the order was held in Philadelphia the 
 same year. Gayarre says that Loiiisiana sent 6 delegates to this 
 convention, 5 of whom were Protestants and 1 was a Catholic. The 
 former were readily granted admission, but the latter was rejected 
 unless he would agree to make certain concessions that no self-re- 
 specting man could make, whereupon the 5 Protestant delegates 
 refused to enter the convention without their Catholic colleague. 
 The whole delegation then returned to New Orleans, where an im-
 
 LOUISIANA 619 
 
 mense mass meeting was held, and the Louisiana Know Nothings 
 refused further affiliation with the party of that name in other 
 states. In 1856 the larger part of the Kjiow Nothing order united 
 with the Republican party in the nomination of John C. Fremont 
 for the presidency. The minority, under the name of the "Ameri- 
 can party," nominated Millard Fillmore. Most of the Louisiana 
 historians agree that this date marks the decline of the Know Noth- 
 ing party in the state, but Thompson, in his Story of Louisiana 
 (p. 255) says: "The excitement, for several years systematically 
 worked up at each election in Louisiana against foreigners, culmi- 
 nated finally in 1858 and for a few days a battle was every moment 
 expected at New Orleans. Five hundred men armed to the teeth 
 and acting under direction of a vigilance committee seized the 
 courthouse in the city and also took possession of the state arsenal 
 at Jackson Square. This was on the 4th of June, three days before 
 the time set for the city election. On the following day reinforce- 
 ments amounting to 1,000 armed men joined them. They fortified 
 their positions and erected strong barricades across the streets. On 
 the other hand the Know Nothings occupied Lafayette Square with 
 a strong force and a battery of cannon. Actual collision was 
 avoided, however, and by dint of much parleying peace was re- 
 stored in time to insure a quiet election, the Know Nothings elect- 
 ing the mayor." 
 
 Koran, a village of Bossier parish, is situated in the southeastern 
 part on Clarks bayou, 6 miles south of Allentown, the nearest rail- 
 road station. It has a money order postoffice and is a trading cen- 
 ter for the neighborhood. 
 
 Kraemer, a post-village in the northern part of Lafourche parish, 
 is a station on the Bowie, Lafourche & Northwestern R. R., which 
 connects with the Southern Pacific at Bowie. It is in the "sugar 
 belt," is surrounded by fine plantations, and is a shipping point of 
 considerable importance. Population 100. 
 
 Ku Klux Klan. — For some years after the final surrender of the 
 Confederate armies in 1865, the government of the Southern states 
 was entrusted to men appointed by the national administration and 
 backed up Tjy the military power. Unfortunately the men thus 
 appointed were too often actuated by motives of self-aggrandize- 
 ment and sought to perpetuate their power by enlisting the unqual- 
 ified support of the recently emancipated negroes. To this end a 
 society of negroes and others was formed under the name of the 
 Union League (q. v.), and, as frequently happens in such eases, some 
 of the more enthiisiastie members of this organization soon began 
 to boast of their power, and assuming that "Liberty meant license" 
 commenced to commit petty depredations which portended serious 
 disorders. This condition of affairs so far threatened the peace and 
 good order of the South that the better class of white citizens 
 formed local associations, each independent of the other, but all 
 having the same object in view. Some of these local societies were 
 the "Knights of the White Camelia," the "White Brotherhood, 
 the "Pale Faces," the "Invisible Circle," the "Constitutional 
 Union Guards," the "Invisible Empire," and in Alabama there
 
 620 LOUISIANA 
 
 -was a secret organization known as the "Black Cavalry." In Lou- 
 isiana the Knights of the Wliite Camelia were known also as the 
 Caucasion Club, which asserted the superiority of the white race 
 over the negro. In 1874 the club threw off the cloak of secrecy and 
 openly organized as the "White League." (q. v.) 
 
 The Ku Klux proper had its origin in the efforts of some young 
 men at Pulaski, Tenn., in May, 1866, to form a secret society. 
 Among the names suggested was Kuklux. from the Greek word 
 kuklos (circle), and the word klan was added to carry out the al- 
 literation. The whole idea was based on the mysteries of college 
 fraternities. By-laws and a ritual were adopted; the officers were 
 the grand cyclops, the grand magi, the grand Tm-k. etc. ; and the 
 lodge or meeting place was called the den. Absolute secrecy was 
 the corner-stone, and to increase the mystery the solicitation of 
 members was prohibited. Each member was required to provide 
 himself with a fantastic robe and a white mask, underneath which 
 was a cardboard extension tp increase the apparent height of the 
 wearer. The newspapers gave the klan considerable attention, with 
 the result that applications soon came flowing in for the organiza- 
 tion of other dens, and the klan spread rapidly over the South. 
 The Pulaski den met in a partly ruined hoi^se on the outskirts of 
 the town, and when some chance passerby happened to meet one 
 of the disguised sentinels and asked who he was, the reply would 
 come in sepulclu-al tones: "A spirit from the other world. I was 
 killed at Chickamauga." These challenges and replies, the un- 
 canny noises emanating from the meetings, the air of mystery sur- 
 rounding the organization, struck terror to the hearts of the igno- 
 rant, superstitious negroes, and "even the most highly cultured 
 were not able wholly to resist the Meird and peculiar feeling which 
 pervaded every commimity where the Ku Klux appeared." 
 
 In May, 1867, about two months after the passage of the recon- 
 struction act, the grand cyclops of the Pulaski den called a conven- 
 tion of the klan at Nashville, and a general reorganization was ef- 
 fected. The region covered by the klan was designated the Invis- 
 ible Empire ; the states were realms, the Congressional districts were 
 dominions, and the comities were provinces. Officers were pro- 
 vided for each as follows : For the empire, the grand wizard with 
 his staff of 10 genii, with autocratic power; for the realm, the 
 grand dragon and his 8 hydras ; for the dominion, the grand Titan 
 and his 6 furies; for the pro-\ance, the grand giant and his 4 gob- 
 lins, and for his den the grand cyclops and his 2 night-hawks. "The 
 body politic shall be known and designated as ghouls." The grand 
 councils of Yahoos and Centaurs were the tribunals. Candidates 
 for membership were to be asked if they belonged to the Repub- 
 lican party, the Loyal League, the Grand Army of the Republic or 
 the Federal army ; if they were opposed to negro equality, both 
 social and political: if they were in favor of a white man's govern- 
 ment, constitutional liberty and a government of equitable laws, 
 instead of a government of violence and oppression: if they were 
 in^ favor of maintaining the constitutional rights of the South, the
 
 LOUISIANA 621 
 
 restitution of the white men of the South to all theu- rights, and 
 the inalienable right of self-preservation of the people against the 
 exercise of arbitrary and unlicensed power. 
 
 The organization soon absorbed most of the different local so- 
 cieties. There is no doubt that the intentions of the members of 
 the original klan were conservative of the public good. It was or- 
 ganized as a measure of defense. Avery, in his History of Georgia, 
 says it was "the perilous effect of which the Loyal League was the 
 unhealthy cause." Its weapon was mystery. Knowing the igno- 
 rance and superstition of the negroes, the klan sought to awe them 
 into good behavior by appealing to their dread of the supernatural 
 and without resort to physical violence. Glad in white, to repre- 
 sent the ghosts of the Gonfederate dead, the Ku Klux rode silently 
 througli the villages and the country at night, usually one behind 
 the other some yards apart, often traversing in a single night a 
 large section inhabited by the negro population. This simple pro- 
 cedure produced a most wholesome effect and averted very serious 
 domesiic trouble. But in the course of time there were reckless 
 parties, frequently acting independent of the klan, who committed 
 outrages in its name. Fleming, in his History of Keconstruction 
 in Alabama, says: "The Ku Klux movement was an understand- 
 ing among Southern whites, brought about by the chaotic condition 
 of social and political institutions between 1865 and 1876. It re- 
 sulted in a partial destruction of reconstruction and a return, as 
 
 near as might be, to ante-bellum conditions. This imder standing 
 or state of mind took many forms and was called by many names. 
 The purpose was everywhere and always the same: to recover for 
 the white race control of society, and destroy the baneful influence 
 of the alien among the blacks." 
 
 When the order was reorganized in Maj^, 1867, Gen. Nathan B. 
 Forrest became grand ^vizard. The klan was formally disbanded 
 by his order in the spring of 1869, though some of the dens con- 
 tinued in existence independently until about 1876. In March, 1871, 
 President Grant called the attention of Congress to the outrages 
 said to have been committed by the klan, and in April the enforce- 
 ment act was passed, which extended the jurisdiction of the Fed- 
 eral com'ts to cases of this character. The habeas corpus was sus- 
 pended in parts of South Carolina and Arkansas, and a committee 
 was appointed by Congress to investigate the outrages and the 
 scope of the klan. The testimony before this committee showed 
 that the organization extended from Virginia to Mississippi. It 
 seldom extended into the black belt, where the Knights of the 
 White Camelia held sway. The reports of the Congressional inves- 
 tigation fill twelve large volumes, and if the klan began to wane in 
 power from that time it was not so much due to the investigation 
 as to the order of Gen. Forrest the year before, and because the 
 right of self-government was restored to the people of the Southern 
 states, which gave them the power to cheek the lawlessness of the 
 times Avithout having to resort to the medium of secret societies. _
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 \
 
 i 
 
 I
 
 9' 4:-^®^^^®i 
 
 ^A#
 
 
 ^®^ 
 
 -^^A^s^ 
 
 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORM A L; ^°^ ^51388 
 
 m'