P K 
 
 121 
 
 S7 
 
 1920 
 
 MAIN 
 
 B M 023 TE5 
 
RIENTAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 on the 
 
 erminology and Classifications 
 
 of 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 X/f2 
 
 OXFORD 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK 
 
 TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 HUIMPHREY MILFORD 
 
Oriental advisory committee 
 
 REPORT 
 
 on the 
 
 Terminology and Classifications 
 
 of 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 ! 'V ' '• 
 
 %u,\V *.:r^^*iv:' 
 
 OXFORD 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 1 920 
 
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK 
 
 TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY 
 
 HUMPHREY MILFORD 
 
 PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY 
 
1^1 A ^' 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Encouraged by the success of the movement in favour of 
 uniformity of grammatical terminology as applied to English, 
 Latin, Greek, French, and German, and the recent endorsement of 
 the principle by the Government Committee on Modern Languages,^ 
 the Standing Committee on Grammatical Keform ■ decided last 
 year to extend the field of its operations and to invite the co- 
 operation of Orientalists in the work of applying the scheme to 
 Sanskrit and the Modern Indian vernaculars of Sanskritic origin. 
 The present Advisory Committee came into being in November, 
 1918, and it has held fifteen meetings since that date. At 
 the first meeting Emeritus-Professor Sonnenschein was elected 
 Chairman. 
 
 The problem of bringing the non-European members of the 
 great Indo-European family of speech into touch with the languages 
 of Europe, so far as the naming and classification of their 
 grammatical phenomena is concerned, is one which involves 
 considerable difficulties. But the Committee has been from the 
 first convinced both of the desirability of the proposed reform and 
 of its practicability. It is now nearly sixty years since the late 
 Professor Max Miiller wrote : ' It is curious to observe the striking 
 coincidences between the grammatical terminology of the Greeks 
 and the Hindus, which would seem to prove that there must be 
 some true and natural foundation for the much abused grammatical 
 
 ^ § 201 (p. 55) of the Keport of this Committee, published by H. M. 
 Stationery Office in 1918 (Cd. 9036), is printed at the end of our Report. 
 
 ^ The Standing Committee on Grammatical Reform was constituted in 
 1911, to promote the principle enunciated in the Eeport of the Joint Committee 
 on Grammatical Terminology (published by Mr. John Murray in 1911, price Qd.). 
 Like the original Committee, the Standing Committee is representative of 
 the following eight Associations :— The Classical Association, The Modern 
 Language Association, The English Association, The Incorporated Association 
 of Headmasters, The Association of Headmistresses, The Incoiporated 
 Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools, The Incorporated 
 Association of Assistant Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools, and The 
 Association of Preparatory Schools. . ^v ^ ... <rv<> 
 
 a2 ^0«iv>v> 
 
4 TERMTNOT.OGY S: gMBSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 J system of the schools. The Hindus are the only nation that 
 cultivated the science of grammar without having received any 
 impulse, directly or indirectly, from the Greeks. Yet we find in 
 Sanskrit too the same system of cases called vibhaMi or inflexions, 
 the active, passive, and middle voices, the tenses, moods, and 
 persons, divided not exactly, but very nearly in the same manner 
 as in Greek '. ^ The facts here referred to are the basis on which 
 the Committee has worked. 
 
 In drawing up its report the Committee has confined itself 
 to giving a list of recommended terms with illustrative examples 
 in Sanskrit and four of the chief Indo-Aryan vernaculars— Hindo- 
 stanT, Gujarat!, Marathl, and Bengali. The principles here 
 adopted will, it is believed, lend themselves readily to application 
 on similar lines to other Indo-Aryan languages. It is no doubt 
 desirable that the English terms recommended in this report 
 should be translated into the several vernaculars ; but we have 
 thought it best to leave this work to native grammarians, who 
 will be better able than we are to select translations which 
 express the exact shade of meaning required. Readers who desire 
 further explanations of the recommended terms are referred to 
 the Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology.^ 
 The terminology herein proposed is based not upon the termin- 
 ology of any one language of the Indo-Euroi^ean family, ancient or 
 modern, but upon Indo-European syntax as a whole. In dealing 
 with the languages of India, Sanskrit provides a natural and 
 historical link between the modern languages of Sanskritic origin. 
 But the terminology of Sanskrit grammar, as formulated by 
 Indian and European philologists, itself requires modification 
 at some points in order to bring it into complete touch with 
 general Indo-European syntax, as will be indicated below. For it 
 was not framed with the same object as the present Committee 
 was formed to promote. The essential thing for our purpose was 
 to provide a common point of view from which all the languages 
 of the family, European as well as Indian, might be regarded as 
 
 * Lectures on the Science of Language, ch. iv. In a note the author refers to 
 his History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 158. 
 
 ' See note 2, p. 3. The application of this scheme of terminology to three 
 European languages is shown in the New English Grammar, the Nexo Latin 
 Grammar, and the Neiv French Grammar, published by the Oxford University 
 Press (1912-16). 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 a linguistic unit, and justice be done both to the similarities and to 
 the diversities of their several idioms : diversities as well as 
 similarities ; for a common system of grammatical nomenclature 
 has the supreme merit of bringing out the differences as well as 
 the similarities of languages. It, and it alone, provides a point of 
 reference, without which things can be neither identified nor 
 contrasted with one another. It is not too much to say that in the 
 present terminological chaos Europeans and Indians, speaking 
 languages which belong to the same linguistic family, can only 
 with difficulty recognize either the common features of these 
 languages or the features which differentiate them. Some kind of 
 unification of grammatical systems is imperatively necessary if 
 this chaos is to be reduced to a cosmos. 
 
 The terms of Analysis (§§ I-XII of our Report) presented little 
 difficulty. Nor did the Parts of Speech (§§ XIII-XXIII). It was 
 the Forms and their Chief Meanings (§§ XXIV-XXVI) that called 
 for our special and prolonged attention. In regard to Cases, 
 indeed, the ground was prepared for us in the system which is 
 current both in India and among European writers on Indian 
 grammar ; our labours were here concerned only with improve- 
 ments of detail. The problem to be faced was solved by the 
 recognition that the terms denoting the several Cases are terms of 
 syntax, not of morphology ; that is to say, they classify and 
 name forms according to their meanings or functions in the 
 structure of the sentence. The same form may have more than 
 one function, and therefore more than one name ; for example, the 
 Hindostanl form ghord ' horse ' may be either the subject or the 
 object of the sentence, and is therefore to be called Nominative or 
 Accusative according to its function. And conversely diverse 
 forms may be identical in meaning ; for example, the MarathI 
 mala ' garlands ' is morphologically entirely different from hhimtl 
 ' walls ', but they are both i^lurals. 
 
 The same principle holds good in regard to the forms of the 
 verb, finite and non-finite. In laying the chief stress upon the 
 meanings and functions of forms we must not, however, be under- 
 stood to be opposed to the study of morphology or the derivations 
 of forms. This study is often very helpful in enabling students 
 to understand how it is that a given form has come to have 
 a certain meaning, and is therefore an important instrument 
 of teaching. But in naming forms we have been guided by their 
 
6 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 actual use in literature and every day speech rather than by their 
 historical antecedents. 
 
 In dealing with the verb we have introduced several innovations. 
 In Vedic and Sanskrit we have substituted for the term ' Imperfect 
 tense ' the term * Past tense ', which corresponds more accurately 
 to the meaning of the form in literature. Be it observed that the 
 term ' Past ' does not exclude the idea of continuity or habit in 
 past time ; thus the English ' Past tense ' (e. g. ' wrote ', ' loved ') 
 is frequently used as a Past Imperfect. But the current term 
 ' Imperfect ', besides being defective, does exclude other past 
 meanings, and is therefore unsuitable for a tense which, like the 
 Greek Aorist Indicative, is commonly used as a tense of narration 
 in past time.^ Instead of the term ' Aorist ', as applied by 
 European grammarians of Hindostani, Bengali, and other modern 
 Indian vernaculars to the forms which are derived from the old 
 Present Indicative of Sanskrit, w^e have adopted the term ' Present ', 
 which is often used in grammars written by Indian scholars, 
 adding thereto the adjective ' old ', in order to distinguish it from 
 Presents of modern formation. The Old Present survives in all 
 the modern Indo- Aryan languages. But in most of them it has 
 suffered changes of meaning, whereby the original meaning of the 
 tense has in some vernaculars been thrown completely into the 
 shade. Thus it has come about that the form is in its modern 
 usage ' indefinite ', but indefinite in respect of mood as well as of 
 tense. This wide and varying range of usage of the ' Old Present ' 
 is briefly indicated in our note on the meanings of this tense in 
 § XXV of our report ; but the full statement of its usage in the 
 several vernaculars is left to be dealt with by writers of particular 
 grammars. 
 
 An outline of the classification of Conditional Sentences, which 
 is applicable to all the languages of our family, is given in § XII (6) 
 below. 
 
 In other points of our scheme we have been glad to find our- 
 selves in touch with modern Indian grammarians ; for example, 
 in refusing the title of Verb to Participles, Infinitives, and other 
 non-finite formations from the verbal stem. And we hope that 
 
 ^ When so used the * Past Indicative ', as we call it, is equivalent to the 
 Aorist Indicative of Classical Sanskrit, which is used only as a narrative 
 tense. [In Vedic the Aorist Indicative corresponds to the English Present 
 Perfect.] 
 
INTKODUCTION 7 
 
 the whole spirit of our Eeport will be found to be in agreement 
 with the general view of Indian scholars that the grammatical 
 features of a modern Aryan language, spite of differences due to 
 the lapse of time and to the intermixture of non-Aryan forms and 
 constructions, may be adequately described by the same termin- 
 ology as is applied to those of ancient members of the same family. 
 In conclusion we venture to express the hope that the gram- 
 matical erdente herein proposed, whereby the syntactical relations 
 between the Sanskritic languages of India and European languages 
 are clearly outlined may (if adopted as a basis by writers of 
 grammars, as we desire) facilitate the acquisition of Indian 
 languages by European students and of European languages, 
 especially English, by Indian students ; and that it may thus 
 contribute towards bringing the 250,000,000 of people who speak 
 Indo-Aryan languages into closer touch with the other peoples of 
 the British Commonwealth and prove a humble means of 
 strengthening those spiritual bonds on which the unity of the 
 Commonwealth ultimately depends. 
 
TEEMS EECOMMENDEDJ 
 A. TERMS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 I. Subject and Predicate. In the following examples the 
 Predicate, which includes all that is said of the person or thing 
 denoted by the Subject, is distinguished by heavy type. When 
 the Subject consists of more than one word, the Noun or Noun- 
 equivalent around which the other words are grouped may be 
 called the ' Subject- Word \ 
 
 V. — Agnir jusata no girah. May Agni accept our songs. 
 S. — Raja sviyam nagaram jagama. The king went to his 
 
 own city. 
 H. — Zindagi dushwar nazar ati hai. Living appears diflB.cult. 
 G. —Be hajar gamomathi pac^e pacha avya. From 2,000 
 
 villages 500 returned. 
 M. — Sevati Bad^aha tethun nighun gela. In the end the 
 
 emperor went thence. 
 7>. — Sese raja se-khane gelen. Finally the king went there. 
 Note. — In some instances the Subject or the Predicate is not 
 fully expressed, but only implied, either wholly or in part, as 
 shown by square brackets. 
 
 V. — Apa tamah papmanam hate. [She] drives away darkness 
 
 and sin. 
 S. — Bruyat. [One] should say. 
 
 Alam vistarena. [We have] enough of disquisition. 
 H. — Idhar a,o Come [you] hither. 
 
 G. — Jetla muni tetla mat [che]. Quot liomines tot sententiae 
 [sunt]. 
 
 * In the examples the following abbreviations are used : 
 
 V. denotes Vedic the Vedic examples being also distinguished from 
 
 the Sanskrit l)y having accents marked . 
 <S. denotes Sanskrit. 
 
 A3 
 
 H. 
 
 >) 
 
 Hindostani. 
 
 G. 
 
 55 
 
 Gujaratl. 
 
 M. 
 
 Jj 
 
 Marathl. 
 
 B. 
 
 3J 
 
 Bengali. 
 
10 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 M. — Ka^ala, evadhi tasdl [gheta] ? Why [do yon take] so much 
 
 trouble ? 
 B. — Dhanyavad [ditechi] ! [I give] thanks ! 
 Namaskar ! Salutation ! 
 
 Keman sundar jyotsna iTitri ! What a lovel}" moonlight 
 night [it is] ! 
 
 II. Predicative Adjective, Predicative Noun, Predicative 
 Pronoun, denoting — 
 
 («) what the person or thing denoted by the Subject is declared 
 
 to be, become, be named, or seem ; 
 (b) what the person or thing denoted by the Object (see IV) is 
 declared to be made, named, or thought. 
 [a) V. — Tvam asi (ucyase) pita. Thou art (art called) a father. 
 S. — Kukkuro vyaghrah krtah. The dog was made a tiger. 
 IT. — Wuh razi hai. He is contented {or He agrees, or He is 
 in good health). 
 Gari khari ki ga,i. The carriage was made stationary. 
 G. — Te khusal thayo. He became happy. 
 31. — To khus ahe. He is happy. 
 
 B. — Tahake santusta kara gela. He was made happy. 
 [h] V. — Agnim manye pitaram. I deem Agni a father. 
 
 S. — Janami tvam prakrtipurusam. I know thee (to be) the 
 
 minister. 
 H. — GarT khari karo (colloquial). Stop the carriage (lit. make 
 
 carriage stationary). 
 6^.— Hu Gopalne karkun theravu chu. I appoint Gopal clerk. 
 M. — Tyani kutryas apla raja kele. Thej^ made the dog their 
 
 king. 
 B. — Tahara kukkur-ke tahader raja karila. They made the 
 dog their king. 
 Taha-ke bhala manus baliya jani. I regard him as 
 a gentleman. 
 
 Note. — The term 'predicative' applies also to Adjectives, 
 Nouns, and Pronouns similarl}^ used in connexion with other 
 verbs than those mentioned above : 
 
 e.g. He looJced happy : (M) To khus disla, [G] Te khusal janayo. 
 He does not looJc well : (B) Se bhala dekhay na. 
 He lived happy ever afterwards : {M) To pudhe nehami khUs 
 rahila. (G) Te tyai^pachi sarva kal khusal rahyo. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 
 
 11 
 
 Epithet 
 r Adjectives 
 
 Epithet 
 Nouns 
 
 III. (a) Epithet Adjectives, Epithet Nouns. 
 V. — Hiranyayo rathah. A golden car. 
 S. — Sitala ratrih. A cold night. 
 H. — Garm duclh. Hot milk. 
 G. — Sundar aurat. A beautiful woman. 
 31. — Srimamt savkar. A wealthy merchant. 
 B. — Vamla jati. (The) Bengali people. 
 
 Sit-pradhan des. A cold country. 
 >S.--Raja-rsi. King-prophet. Svarga-lokah. The\ 
 
 heaven world. 
 H. — Bail-gari. Bullock-cart. 
 G. — Ksatri-bacho. Warrior-lad. 
 M. — Vajra-lep. Diamond-cement. Pan kobada. ( 
 
 Water-fowl. 
 B. — Hat-khola. Market-place. Dak-ghar. Post- 
 office. Pan-bari. Betel-orchard. 
 (b) Nouns in apposition. 
 
 S. — Somo raja. Soma the king. 
 
 M. — To akasmat gagana-pamthe Narada-muni patla tethe. 
 When suddenly Narada the saint arrived there by the 
 heavenly path. 
 
 IV. Object. 
 
 F. — Ahan vrtram. He slew Vrtra. 
 
 S. — Raj yam jigaya. He won the kingdom. 
 
 Suvarnam mam ayacata. He begged of me gold (two 
 objects). 
 H. — Sher gosht khata hai. The tiger eats flesh. 
 
 Sher-ne gosht-ko khaya. The tiger ate the meat. 
 G. — Hu Java magu chCi. I desire to go (Infinitive object). 
 
 Tene mane maryo. He l^eat me (Dative object). 
 
 Hu vaghthi daru chii. I am afraid of tigers (Ablative 
 object). 
 31. — Ml kam karito. I do work (Accusative object). 
 
 Tyane mala phasvile. He deceived me (Dative object). 
 B, — Ami sikhite cai. I want to learn (Infinitive object). 
 
 Amay mariben na. Do not beat me (Locative object). 
 
 Amader mariben na. Do not beat us (Genitive object). 
 
 Se amake marila. He beat me (Accusative object). 
 
 Note 1. — Indirect Object. 
 
 V. — Dadati ratnam vidhat^. He gives the worshipper treasure. 
 
 a4 
 
12 TERMINOLOGY <S: CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 S. — Kathayami te bhiitart^iam. I tell you the truth. 
 
 H. — Us-ne mujh-ko ek kitab de-dl. He gave me a book. 
 
 G. — Tene mane thapat marl. He struck me a blow. 
 
 Jf. — Tyaiie mala pustak dile. He gave me a book. 
 
 B. — Tini amake ek-khani pustak dilen. He gave me a book. 
 
 Note 2. — The Retained Accusative (in passive inversions of 
 sentences which contain two objects and an active verb) is found 
 only in Sanskrit : 
 
 ^9. — Balir yacyate vasudham. Bali is asked (for) the earth. 
 
 V. — Adjective-Equivalents (words used adjectivally), Adverb- 
 Equivalents (words used adverbially). 
 [a] Adjective-Equivalents : 
 
 T^. — Krsnanam vrihinam cariim ^rapayati. He cooks a mess 
 
 of black rice. 
 S. — Ramasya putrah. Rama's son. 
 H. — Ek bari qimat-ki aguthi. A ring of great value. 
 G. — Gammana loko. Village-people. 
 
 M. — Kanaka- patri Buddha jale raye carana praksalile. In 
 a gold-platter with pure water the king washed his 
 feet. 
 B. — Anek miilyer gahana. A jewel of great price. 
 Maharani Bhiktoriya. Queen Victoria. 
 [h] Adverb-Equivalents : 
 
 V, — Ahar-ahar yati. He goes every day. 
 
 S. — Grosu dugdhasu sa gatah. The cows having been milked, 
 
 he went. 
 H. — Is bahar-ke bagh me dar a,iye. Come in into this 
 
 delightful garden (park). 
 G. — Te Landanma rahe che. He lives in London. 
 M. — Kahi mulge talyacya palikade gele. Some boys went 
 
 beyond the tank. 
 B. — Se Kalikatay vas kare. He dwells in Calcutta. 
 Tini barite achen. He is at home. 
 
 VI. Simple Sentences (containing only one predication), Com- 
 plex Sentences (containing one main predication and one or more 
 subordinate predications), 
 (a) Simple Sentences : 
 
 V, — Amuya ^ayanam ati yanti apah. Over (him) lying thus the 
 waters flow. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 13 
 
 H. — Mera mansuba tliik baitha. My contrivance succeeded. 
 G. — Rajanu avii bhasan tene sabhalyu. He listened to such 
 
 speech of the king. 
 M. — Tyacyavar samkat ale alie. A calamity has befallen him. 
 B. — Anek diner par \ uddha-til ses haiya pariyache. After a long 
 
 time the war is at last finished. 
 (6) Complex Sentences : 
 
 ^^ Subordinate predications are distinguished by heavy type. 
 V, — Grhan gacha grhapatni yatha asah. Go to the house that 
 
 thou mayst be mistress of the house. 
 S. — Yada sa devo jagarti, tadedam cestate jagat. When that 
 
 god awakes, then this universe moves. 
 H, — Auro-par hai wuh zulm jo mujh-par na hu,a tha. Others 
 
 are suffering the tyranny that did not fall on me. 
 G. — Bahu var rakhe to das ke bar varse paranave che. If 
 
 they keep them a long time, then at ten or twelve 
 
 years of age they give them in marriage. 
 M. — Yajsatht kela hota attahas sevatica dis goda vhava. For 
 
 this I made exceeding great effort that my latter days 
 
 might pass in happiness. 
 B. — Ye-khane Bam, se-khaiie Ayodhya. Where Rama [is], 
 
 there [isj Ayodhya. 
 
 VII. Double Sentences (consisting of two co-ordinate parts], 
 Multiple Sentences (consisting of three or more co-ordinate parts). 
 The terms Double and Multiple are to be applied to any member 
 of a sentence, if that member consists of two or more co-ordinate 
 parts. 
 
 F. — Uvasa usa uchac ca nu. Dawn has Hushed. 
 
 (before) and she shall flush now. f 
 
 //. — Ahmad aya hai aur Mahmud bin aya hai. j 
 
 Ahmad has come and Mahmud has come too. I 
 
 G» — Manas dhare ne khuda utare. Man proposes 
 
 and God disposes. n 1 1 
 
 M. — Muktaphal har kharasi ghatla, kasturl sukarala *" gontpncea 
 cojavilr. They placed a pearl necklace on 
 a donkey's neck and anointed a hog with 
 musk. 
 B» — Tumi-o asiyacho, ami-o asiyachi. You have 
 come and I have come too. 
 
U TERMINOLOGY c<c CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 v.- 
 
 S.- 
 
 11.- 
 G.- 
 
 M.- 
 
 V.- 
 B.- 
 
 31. 
 
 G.- 
 
 M. 
 
 G.- 
 M. 
 B.- 
 
 M. 
 B.- 
 
 G.- 
 
 B.— 
 
 -fndras ea Rusamas ca am^am prasyetrim.\ 
 
 Indra and Rusama proposed a wager. 
 -Mrgayaksas tatha panam garliitani mahlbhu- 
 
 jam. Hunting, dice, and drink are repre- 
 hended in kings. 
 — Lene-wala aur dene-wala dono razi hai. The I 
 
 buyer and the seller are both satisfied. / 
 -Magan tatha Rami vagh ne vaghan banya. 
 
 Magan and Rami dressed up as a tiger and 
 
 tigress. 
 — Govimd ani Savitri hi navra bayako ahet. 
 
 Govind and Savitri are husband and wife.y 
 -Taranir jayati, ks6ti, piisyati. The energetic \ 
 
 man conquers, rules, and thrives. 
 -Tar dada Juliyas Sljarer matan ' asiyache, 
 
 dekhila o jay karila'. His brother, like 
 
 Julius Caesar, came, saw, and conquered. 
 — HanitI jhoditi mariti nistur Yamace kimkara 
 
 bahusal. The countless minions of merciless 
 
 Death beat, scourge, and slay. 
 - Tenu nak valelu tatha lambu hatu. His nose 
 
 was aquiline and long. 
 —Bag motha va sundar disto. The garden 
 
 appears to be large and charming. 
 -Pell chokri dudh tatha chas piye che. That 
 
 girl drinks milk and curds. 
 —Mi Marathi, Gujarati tatha Angreji sikto 
 
 I learn Marathi, Gujarati, and English. 
 -Begun, mula, anaras, tulasi e sakal-ke udbhid 
 
 bale. Eggplant, radish, pineapple, basil, 
 
 these all [they] call vegetables. j 
 
 —To spast ritin§ pan krodhanS bolu lagla. He 
 
 commenced to speak clearly but angrily. 
 
 Double 
 Subjects 
 
 Multiple 
 Predicates 
 
 Double 
 
 Predicative 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 Double 
 
 or 
 Multiple 
 Objects 
 
 Double 
 Adverbial 
 
 Tini spaste kintu kaste halite lagilen. He j" ^^?' ^ ^^' 
 
 began to speak clearly but with difficulty.; 
 
 -Tene ek ati nanu pan ati tiksan khadga^ 
 
 hathma lldhu. He grasped a very small 
 
 ^ '^ *■ 1 Double 
 
 but very sharp dagger. ^ ^ Epithet 
 
 Amar hate ek-ta chota sakta jinis chila. In . 
 my hand was a small hard thing. / 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 15 
 
 VIII. 
 
 1. Subordinate Clause (Noun-Clause, Adjective-Clause, 
 Adverb-Clause). The term 'clause' may be defined as 
 a group of words forming part of a sentence and having 
 a Subject and a Predicate of its own. 
 
 {a) Noun-Clauses : 
 
 >S'. — Janas tv alaksayan yat sa pitham avatarat. The people 
 
 observed that he alighted on the throne. 
 H. — TajwTz ki wuh bar taraf kiya ja,e pasand na a,i. The 
 proposal that he should be dismissed was not approved. 
 G. — Tene kahyii ke saher bali gayti. He said that the city 
 
 had been burnt. 
 M. — Tyane khabar rinili ki raja maran pavla. He brought 
 
 word that the king had expired. 
 B. — Tomar bari kothay, ekevare baliya phela. Speak out and 
 say at once where your home is. 
 [Noun-Clauses are classified in § XI.] 
 
 (b) Adjective-Clauses : 
 
 V. — Yat Sim agas cakrma tat sii mrlatu. Let him fully forgive 
 
 whatever sin we have committed. 
 *S'. — Sa bharya ya pativrata. A wife is she who is devoted 
 
 to her husband. 
 H. — Mihnat jo mai-ne ki thi ap us-ko samajh-sakte hai? Can 
 
 you realize the trouble which I took ? 
 6r. — Je kam me karyu te tamane pasand che ke? Are you 
 
 pleased with the work which I have done ? 
 M. — Ml jhade lavli hot! ti aj sukun geli. The trees which I 
 
 had planted have now died. 
 £. — Ye lok-ti amar katha sunibe na, tahake ami manya baliya 
 
 kena grahan kariba ? 
 Why shall I accept him as venerable who will not hear 
 
 my words ? 
 
 (c) Adverb-Clauses : — 
 
 V. — Yajama devan yadi sakndvama. Let us worship the gods, 
 
 if we shall be able. 
 S. — Aham tatha karisye yatha sa vadham karisyati. I shall 
 
 so contrive that he will slay him. 
 H. — Subh bote bote wuh bilak bilak-kar mar-ga,e. By the 
 
 time it was dawn, they had gasped out their last breath. 
 
16 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 M. — Anayase gati cuke adhogati dharita samgati sajjanacL 
 
 We can easily avert the descent to Hell if we consort 
 
 with holy men. 
 G. — Rat thata pahell, te gher gayo. He went home before 
 
 night fell. 
 B. — Ratri hawar age, ami ban phiriya gelam. I went home 
 
 before it was night. 
 [Adverb-Clauses are classified in § XII. | 
 
 2. Main Clause, Main Predicate, Main Verb. The term ' Main ' 
 denotes non-subordinate. 
 
 F. — A t6 yanti ye aparisu pasyan. Those are coming who m 
 
 future days will see her. 
 S. — Srnu yena na drsyante mahlksitah. Hear why the kings 
 
 do not appear. 
 H. — Jab ap yad kare, mai a,uga. When (If) you call me to 
 mind, I will come. 
 Zahir hai ki wuh ghar par nahi hai. It is clear that he is 
 
 not at home. 
 Ap ka kahna ki wuh nahi awega ghalat ma'liim hota hai. 
 Your assertion that he will not come seems wrong. 
 G. — Pahele dahade parono, blje dahade pal, trije dahade rahe, 
 ten! akkal gai. 
 
 The first day a guest, the second day a ' pie ' : 
 Who stays a third day his wits must be awry. 
 31. — Sukh nahi kada sasvatavacuni janati sudnyanT das mhane. 
 Ramdas says that the wise know that there is no happiness 
 apart from the Eternal One. 
 B, — Yadi tumi }'ao, ami-o yaiba. If you go, I too will go. 
 Se }^e giyache, taha niscay. That he has gone, that [isj 
 certain. 
 
 IX. Noun-Phrase, Adjective-Phrase, Adverb-Phrase. 
 The term ' phrase ' denotes a group of words equivalent to 
 a single part of speech and not having a Subject and a Predicate 
 of its own. (Contrast the term ^ clause ', § VIII.) 
 V. — Asya sumatdu syama. May we be in his good 
 
 graces. I Adverb 
 
 S. — Sraddham trir abdasya nirvapet. He should j Phrases 
 offer the funeral sacrifice three times a year. ) 
 
Noun 
 Phrase 
 
 Adjective 
 Phrase 
 
 TERMS RECOMMENDED ' 17 
 
 H. — Do pahar-ke waqt wuh chala gaya. He went) Adverb 
 away at noon. J Phrase 
 
 Mere khatt ka jawab nahi mila. I have had] Adjective 
 
 no answer to my letter. J Phrase 
 
 Mere ghar mS ne kaha. My wife (lit. ' in my 
 house ') said. 
 G. — Aj kalna dahada ghana nathara, che. The 
 present [lit. ' of to-day, to-morrow 'J times 
 are very bad. 
 
 M. — Mt kam rojcya roj karto. I work daily [lit.| Adverb 
 'of day, day']. [ Phrase 
 
 To motha khede gavca disto. He appears to] 
 
 be very boorish [lit. ' of hamlet, village 'J. \ pV^ , 
 Here the Adjective Phrase is predicative. i 
 
 B. — Amar Kalikata yawa halla na. My going to] Noun 
 Calcutta did not happen. | Phrase 
 
 Kapar bunibar kal. Cloth-weaving machine. I pj^^ ^^® 
 
 Ami samasta rat gharer madhye chilam. I] Two Adverb 
 was all night in the house. j Phrases 
 
 X. Classification of Sentences. 
 
 1. Statements. 
 
 F. — Martya ha va agre deva asuh. The gods in the beginning 
 
 were mortals. 
 S, — Tarn drstavan asmi. I have seen him. 
 H. — Wuh sac bolta hai. He is speaking the truth. 
 G. — Anhilpurno pharto gherav bar kosno hato. Anhilpur City 
 
 was twelve miles in circumference. 
 M. — Murkha to sainsari majhe majhe karl, mrtyu barobarl 
 
 himdatase. The fool in this life utters ' mine, mine ', 
 
 while death is stalking alongside. 
 B. — Se satya katha bale. He is speaking the truth. 
 
 2. Questions. 
 
 V. — Kva tani nau sakhya babhuvuh ? Where has that friendship 
 
 of ours gone ? 
 fi'.— Kim karomi ? What shall I do ? 
 ^.— Kya hu.a ? What is the matter ? 
 Sac ? Truly ? 
 
 a5 
 
18 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 (i. — Su hu tane marta jou ? What, shall I see you die ? 
 M. — Kavan te Bramha, kaisya nav karma, athva adhyatma kai 
 mhanije ? Who is that Bramha, what is that name 
 'karma', what shall be described as the primordial soul? 
 i?. — Ki haila ? What has happened ? 
 Bate ? Is that so ? 
 Apanar mat ei ? Do you think so ? 
 
 3. Desires. 
 
 V. — Pari no heti rudrasya vrjyah. May the dart of Rudra pass 
 
 us by. 
 S.— Sivas te panthanah santu. May your paths be auspicious. 
 H. — Aisa hi ho. Let it be so. 
 G. — Taru rajya avo. Thy Kingdom come. 
 M. — Kahi maya citti yeu dyavl. Let some affection enter your 
 
 soul. 
 B, — Eman-i haiik. Be it so. 
 
 Tomar mukhe phul candan paruk. In thy mouth may 
 
 flowers and sandal-wood fall. 
 
 4. Exclamations. 
 
 S. — Citrani badhiro nama vyakaranam adhyesyati. Strange if 
 a deaf man shall study grammar ! 
 
 Aho gltasya madhuryam ! Ah, the sweetness of the song ! 
 H. — Kya khub. How nice ! 
 
 G. — Kevi sundar aurat ! What a lovely woman ! 
 31. — Ji RsT. Hail ! saint. 
 B.—Bes ! Excellent ! 
 
 Uttam ! Splendid ! 
 
 E ki katha ! What a thing to say ! 
 
 XI. Classification of Noun-Clauses (cf. § X). 
 
 1. Dependent Statements. 
 
 S. — Janise tvam yatha raja samyagvrttali sada tvayi. You 
 
 know that the king always dealt rightly with you. 
 H. — Sac hai ki wuh awega. It is true that he will come. 
 G. — Te avase evi man khatari che. I am sure she will come. 
 M. — Asec ahe ase mala vatate. I think it is so. 
 B. — Tumi ye amake apaman kariyacha, taha ekhan praka^ 
 
 haiyache. It is now evident that you have insulted 
 
 me» 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 19 
 
 2. Dependent Questions. 
 
 S. — Niscayam nadhigacchami katham mucyeya. I cannot 
 make out how I can be freed. 
 
 H. — Mujhe kiiab ma^um hai ki us sanduq-me kya kya cize 
 hai. I know quite well what is (lit. what things are) in 
 that box. 
 
 Cr. — Teone puchyii ke e su che. They asked what it was. 
 
 M. — Te kay ahe mala saga. Tell me what it is. 
 
 B. — Se ye ki haila jijnasa karila. He asked what had hap- 
 pened. 
 Bari yaibar path kothay khujiya dekha. Inquire which 
 is the way to go home. 
 
 3. Dependent Desires. 
 
 S. — Icchami bhuiijita bhavan. I desire [that] your worship 
 
 take (or shall take) food. 
 Asamse adhiyiya. I hope I may learn. 
 II. — MaT-ne dar-khwasfc kl thi ki bha,i-ko riza mile. I sent an 
 
 application that my brother might be given furlough. 
 G. — Khabardar ke paghadi nahi kapso. Take care you do 
 
 not cut the turban. 
 31. — Tu he karaves asec majhe magne ahe. I demand that 
 
 you should do this. 
 B. — Savadhan ye ihate kona truti na hay. Take care that 
 
 there be no failing in this matter. 
 
 4. Dependent Exclamations. 
 
 H. — Dekho wuh kaise tez daurte hai. See how fast they 
 
 run. 
 G. — Juo kevi sundar aurat che. Behold what a beautiful 
 
 woman she is. 
 M. — Paha ha kasa palun jato. See how he is running away. 
 B. — Se keman boka dekha. See what a fool he is. 
 
 Se beta ki kariyache dekha. See what the fellow has 
 
 done. 
 
 XII. Classification of Adverb-Clauses. 
 
 In the following list only one example is given under each 
 heading, except in no. 6 below. 
 1. Clauses of Time. 
 
 H. — Jab kabhi fursat milti hai wuh mujh-se milta hai. He 
 comes to see me whenever he has the opportunity. 
 
20 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 2. Clauses of Place. 
 
 B. — Ye-khane Ram, se-khane Ayodhya. Where [is] Ram, 
 there [is] Ayodhya. 
 
 3. Clauses of Cause. 
 
 S. — Yad diisayanti mam, bhasmlbhuta bhavisyanti. Because 
 they ill-treat me, they shall be turned to ashes. 
 
 4. Clauses of Purpose. 
 
 V. — Havis krnusva subhago yatha asasi. Prepare the oblation 
 
 that thou mayst be successful. 
 S. — Kim sakyam kartuni yan na krudhyate nrpah. What can 
 
 be done in order that the king be not angry ? 
 
 5. Clauses of Result. 
 
 B. — Se eman klanta ye calite pare na. He is so tired that he 
 cannot walk. 
 
 6. Clauses of Condition.^ 
 
 (a) Open, i. e. without any implication as to fact or the fulfilment 
 of the condition : — 
 V. — Yajama devan, yadi saknavama. Let us worship the 
 
 gods, if we shall be able. 
 S. — Yadi jivati, bhadrani pasyati. If he lives, he will behold 
 
 prosperity. 
 H. — Agar wuh cor hai (or ho), to us-ko saza di-ja,egi. If he 
 
 is (or be) the thief, then he will be punished. 
 G. — Te jo cor che, to tenc saja malse. If he is the thief, then 
 
 he will be punished, 
 il/. — Ting pani nahi anile, tar to tici bhamdi phodi. If she 
 
 did not bring water, he used to break her vessels. 
 B. — Yadi amara pratijna kari, amara ai pratijha rakhi. If we 
 
 make a promise, we keep it. 
 
 Note. — The Main Clause (§ VIII, h) corresponding to an Open 
 Clause of Condition is free, i. e. may speak of what is, was, or will 
 be, or of what is desired, in the circumstances indicated. 
 
 1 A Complex Sentence (§ VI, 6) consisting of a Clause of Condition and 
 a Main Clause (§ VIII, &) is called a Conditional Sentence. The two chief 
 types of Conditional Sentences (found in all Indo-European languages) 
 are shown above. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 21 
 
 (6) With an implication that the condition is contrary to fact, or 
 
 that the speaker does not vouch for its fulfilment : — 
 S. — Suvrstis ced abhavisyad, durbhiksam nabhavisyat. If 
 
 there had been abundant rain, there would have been 
 
 no famine. 
 H. — Agar wuh cor hota, to aisa na kahta. If he had been 
 
 the thief, he would not have spoken thus. 
 G. — Jo tene coksai kari hot, to avo vakhat avataj nahi. Had 
 
 he made careful inquiry, such a time would never have 
 
 come. 
 M. — Apan sarvac paksi asto, tar apan pahije tethe jato. Were 
 
 we all birds, we should go wherever we pleased. 
 B, — Yadi amara pratijna karitam, amara ai pratijna rakhitam. 
 
 If we were to make (or should make or made) 
 
 a promise, we should keep it. 
 
 Note. — The Main Clause corresponding to such a Clause of 
 Condition speaks of what ivould he or tvould have been in other 
 circumstances. 
 
 7. Clauses of Concession. 
 
 S. — Yady api dhaniko bhaved ajno 'vamanyate. Even though 
 he be rich, an ignorant man is despised. 
 
 8. Clauses of Comparison, 
 (a) denoting Manner. 
 
 H. — Jaisa karoge, waisa pa,oge. As you act, so will you 
 experience. 
 
 {b) denoting Degree. 
 
 6r. — Ane jem ame amara rnione maph karie chie tern tu 
 amara rno amane maph kar. And forgive us our 
 debts as we forgive our debtors. 
 
 Note. — The term Absolute may be applied to the constructions 
 called Nominative Absolute, Accusative Absolute, Dative Absolute, 
 Ablative Absolute, Genitive Absolute, and Locative Absolute ; 
 which constructions are equivalent to Adverb-Clauses : e.g. (Loca- 
 tive Absolute) — 
 
 F. — Ta vam adya huvema, uchantyam usasi. We would 
 invoke you two to-day, dawn shining forth (= when 
 dawn shines forth). ^S^. — Karnamdadatimayi bhasamane. 
 
22 TERMINOLOGY Sz CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 She gives eur, I speaking ( = when I speak). G. — Thate 
 prabhate uthjo. Dawn coming on, rise (= Rise when 
 dawn comes on). 
 
 B. PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 XIII. There are eight parts of speech, as in European languages- 
 Noun. Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Pre- and Post- 
 position, Conjunction, Interjection. 
 
 Note. — The terms ' Article ' and ' Numeral ' denote not separate 
 parts of speech but subdivisions of Adjectives or Pronouns. 
 
 XIV. Kinds of Noun. The terms ^ collective ', ' abstract ', 
 * proper ' and ^ common ', ' animate ' and ' inanimate ', ' rational ' 
 and • irrational ' are useful for the practical purpose of framing 
 certain rules of grammar in the languages of India ; but the 
 Committee deprecates the practice of classifying all Nouns under 
 the heads ' abstract ', ' concrete ' ; ' proper ', ' common ', etc. 
 
 XV. Classification of Pronouns. 
 
 1. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 e. g. Engl. I ; V. mid S. aham ; H. mai ; G.hii; M.mi; B. ami. 
 Honorific forms of the 2nd and the 3rd person. 
 
 e. g. S. bhavan, Your Honour or His Honour (always used 
 with the 3rd person of the verb) ; //. ap (always used 
 with the 3rd person plural of the verb) ; G. ap (2nd 
 person) ; M. apan (1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons) ; 
 B. apani. 
 Inclusive and exclusive forms of the 1st person plural. 
 
 The personal pronouns denoting ' we ' in Gujarat! and Marathi, 
 and in some of the languages of N.W. India which have come into 
 contact with non-Aryan languages, but not in standard Hindo- 
 stani or in Bengali, differ in form according as the person or persons 
 associated with the speaker include or exclude the person or persons 
 addressed by the speaker : — 
 
 Inclusive forms (denoting ' I and you ' or ' we and you ') : 
 
 G. apane ; M. apan. 
 Exclusive forms (denoting ' I and he or she or they ' or * we 
 
 and he or she or they ') : G. ame ; M. amhi. 
 
 2. Reflexive Pronouns, used obliquely with reference to the 
 Subject of the sentence (as in the English ' He killed himself). 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 23 
 
 e. g. Fjugl. myself ; an oblique case of the following words 
 is used : V. and S. atrnfi ; H. ^p ; G. pote ; M. apan, 
 svatah ; B. apani, nij. 
 
 3. Emphasizing Pronouns. These have generally the same 
 forms as the Reflexive Pronouns, but they differ from them in use 
 (as in the English ' Be yourself % ' He said it himself '). 
 
 S. — Manuh svayam abravit. Manu himself said. 
 
 H. — MaT ap [or khwud) gay a. I myself went. 
 
 G. — Hii pote gayo. I myself went. 
 
 M. — Ml svatah te kele. I myself did it. 
 
 B. — Ami nije (or svayam) iha karilam. I myself did this. 
 
 4. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 e. g. Engl, this ; F. and S. ayam, iyam, idam ; H. yih ; G. H, e ; 
 M. ha, hi, he ; B. e, ei. 
 
 5. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 e. g. Engl, who ; V. and S. kah, ka, kad (F.), and kim ; H. kaun ; 
 G. kon ; M. kon ; B. ke. 
 
 6. Exclamatory Pronouns. 
 
 e. g. Engl, what ! ; H. kya ! ; G. su ; M. kay ! ; B.k\\ 
 
 7. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 e. g. Engl, who ; Y. and S. yah, ya, yad ; //. jo ; G. je ; M. jo, 
 jl, je ; B. ye, yini. 
 
 Note. — The Demonstrative Pronouns which correspond to 
 Relative Pronouns may be called Correlatives. 
 
 XVI. Transitive, Intransitive, and Impersonal Uses of 
 Verbs. 
 
 In view of the twofold use of many verbs the terms Transitive 
 and Intransitive should be applied to uses rather than to classifi- 
 cation, i. e. it is better to speak of a verb used transitivelf/ or 
 intransitively than to speak of a transitive or an intransitive verb. 
 And similarly it is better to speak of a verb used impersonally than 
 to speak of an impersonal verb. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Used transitively Used intransitively 
 
 He moved the rock. The earth moves. 
 
 Birds build nests. Birds build in spring. 
 
24 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 S. — Annam atti. 
 
 He eats food. 
 G. — Hu dumgar cadhyo. 
 
 I climbed the hill. 
 BI. — Tj^ane ghar modale. 
 
 He broke down the house. 
 B. — Ami umar ban dekhai. 
 Let me show you my house. 
 
 Sva dantair atti. 
 
 The dog eats with his teeth. 
 
 Hu cadhyo. 
 
 I climbed. 
 
 Ghar modale. 
 
 The house broke down. 
 
 Se bhala dekhay na. 
 
 He does not look well. 
 
 Used impersonally/ : 
 S. — Deva, sruyatam. Sire, listen (lit. let it be heard). 
 G. — Aje thare che. It is freezing to-day. 
 M. — Majhya potat kalmalate. I feel ill (lit. It heaves) in the 
 
 stomach. 
 B. — Dekha } atik. Let it be seen, i. e. let us see. 
 
 XVIL The term ' active ' is not to be used in the sense of 
 * transitive ', and the term ' neuter ' is to be given up altogether in 
 connexion with Verbs. 
 
 XVIII. The term Auxiliary Verb is to be retained in its 
 ordinary sense, and Verbs that are not auxiliary are to be described 
 as Verbs with full meaning. 
 
 XIX. Classification of Adverbs derived from pronominal 
 stems. [In the following scheme only Vedic and Sanskrit ex- 
 amples are given ; but the scheme applies to the corresponding 
 words in the modern vernaculars.] 
 
 Interrogative 
 kada, when 
 
 kva, ki'itra, where, 
 whither 
 
 kutah, whence ^ 
 
 katham, katha 
 
 (F.), how 
 
 karhi, in what cir 
 cumstances 
 
 Indefinite 
 
 kadacid, at some 
 
 (any) time 
 kvacid, kutracid, 
 
 some (any) 
 
 where, some 
 
 (any) whither 
 kuta^cid, from 
 
 some (any) 
 
 where ^ 
 kathamcid, some 
 
 (any) how 
 
 karhicid, in some 
 (any) circum- 
 stances 
 
 Relative* 
 yada, when 
 
 yatra, where, 
 whither 
 
 yatah, whence ^ 
 
 yatha, as, that, so 
 that 
 
 yadi, if ^ 
 
 D emonstrative 
 often correlative) 
 
 tada(nlm\ then 
 ida(nim), now 
 tiitra, amutra, 
 
 there, thither 
 titra, here, hither 
 
 ttitah, ami'itah, 
 
 thence ^ 
 atah, hence ^ 
 tcltlia, ittha (F.), 
 
 ittham, iti, 
 
 evam, so, thus 
 tarhi, then 
 etarhi, in these 
 
 circumstances 
 
 * The Adverbs in this column are derived from the Relative Pronoun. 
 
 2 This series may also express cause, like kasmdd, etc., p. 25. 
 
 ' 'If is also expressed by words from other stems, e.g. ced, atha (= or if). 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 25 
 
 ^ , „ . Demonstrative 
 
 Interrogative Indefinite Relative ^of^en correlative) 
 
 kim, in regard to yad, whereas, that tad, thereupon, 
 
 what, why thus 
 
 etad, in regard to 
 this 
 kasinfid, from kasmaccid, from yasmad, where- tasmad, therefore, 
 
 what cause some (any) fore, since. etasmad, be- 
 
 cause because cause of this 
 
 kena, in regard to kenacid, in some yena, so that, in tena, etena, 
 what l^any) regard order that accordingly 
 
 XX. Co-ordinating Conjunctions. 
 
 Engl, — and, nor, or, but, for (in modern English). 
 
 V. S)' S. — ca. and ; va, or ; na va, nor ; tii, but ; hi, for. 
 
 //. — aur, and ; na, nor ; ya, or ; lekin, but. 
 
 G. — ane, ne, and ; ke, athva, or ; pan, paramtu, but. 
 
 M. — ani, va, and ; athva, kimva, or ; paramtu, pan, but. 
 
 B. — o, ar, evaiii, and ; ki, athava, or ; kintu, but. 
 
 XXI. — Words corresponding to the English ^ both ' (followed 
 by ' and '), * neither ' (followed by ' nor '), ' either ' (followed by 
 ' or ') may also be called Co-ordinatiny Conjunctions : 
 
 1 . 4* S. — ca . . . . ca, both .... and ; va . . . . va, either .... or. 
 
 H. — bhi .... aur bhi, both .... and ; na . . . . na, neither .... 
 nor ; ya . . . . ya, either .... or. 
 
 G. — kato .... kato, either . ... or ; kato nahi .... kato nahi, 
 neither .... nor. [In M. and generally in G. a periphrasis 
 conveying the meaning ' (n)either .... (n)or * is used, and 
 similarly for ' both .... and ' in both languages.] 
 
 B. — va . . . . va, either .... or ; na .... na, neither .... nor. 
 
 XXII. No words which can reasonably be treated as Adverbs 
 should be included among Co-ordinating Conjunctions ; it bein;; 
 recognized that some Adverbs qualify the sentence as a whole 
 and not any single word in it. in which case they may be called 
 Sentence Adverbs. Such words as the following may be so used : 
 
 V. tf" S. — tena, accordingly, therefore ; tatha, thus; api,even, also. 
 
 II. — is-liye. therefore ; lihaza, consequently. 
 
 G. — mate, waste, therefore ; tathapi. to, topan, nevertheless ; 
 wall, biju, moreover. 
 
 M. — mhanun, yastav, therefore ; tathapi, tarl, nevertheless ; 
 anakhl, moreover. 
 
 B. — ataev, therefore ; tave, in that case ; tathapi, tathaca, never- 
 theless ; o. aro, also. 
 
26 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 XXIII. Groups of words like the English 'because of, 
 'owing to', 'as to', 'out of are to be called Compound Pre- or 
 Post-positions ; e.g. //. par-se, ' from on ', me-ka, ' of in ' = belong- 
 ing to the interior of; G. mathl (ma + thl), 'from in '=out of; 
 M. varun [var + un], *from on'=off; B. kach theke, 'from 
 near ' = oif . 
 
 C. FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS. 
 
 XXIV. Cases. 
 
 (1) The traditional names (Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, 
 Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive, and Locative) are to be 
 maintained for the Sanskrit cases and for their representatives in 
 the modern vernaculars. 
 
 Note. — These names indicate only imperfectly the function of 
 the several cases in the structure of the sentence. In particular 
 the terms Ablative and Instrumental must be understood as 
 covering in some of the languages more than their literal significa- 
 tion implies. The Ablative denotes in some languages not 
 only separation and comparison but also conjunction, cause, and 
 other ideas. The Instrumental denotes not only the instrument 
 but in some languages the agent ; and it has also the meaning of 
 accompaniment. 
 
 (2) In addition to the above eight cases there is to be recognized 
 in certain languages an Agentive case ; which Agentive case is in 
 certain languages (e. g. in Marathi and Gujarat!) identical with the 
 Instrumental. 
 
 (3) In the modern vernaculars two kinds of case-formation are 
 to be recognized : 
 
 (a) Inflected forms derived from Sanskrit or developed from 
 other sources in modern times. These may be called ' Cases '. 
 
 (&) Phrases formed with certain postpositions and equivalent 
 in meaning ih Sanskrit cases. These may be called ' Case- 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 27 
 
 phrases ' in a limited sense of that term. Such a combination 
 of a postposition with the case of a noun or pronoun, if it is 
 equivalent to a Dative, may be called a ' Dative-phrase ' ; if to 
 a Genitive, a ' Genitive-phrase ', and so forth. 
 
 Note. — Besides these Case-phrases there are many phrases 
 formed with post^Dositions which enter into the sentence with an 
 adverbial or adjectival function, but have no relation to the case- 
 system ; just as in English and other European languages, ancient 
 and modern, there are many phrases formed with prepositions 
 which are not equivalent to any of the recognized cases. 
 
 (4) The form which in some of the languages a noun may take 
 in the oblique cases before certain suffixes or postpositions, or 
 which may be used without any postposition to indicate certain 
 syntactical relations, and which is sometimes called the samanya 
 rupa (lit. ' general form '), is to be called the ' General Oblique 
 Case ' or, shortly, the ' Oblique Case '. 
 
 XXV. Tenses and Moods. 
 
 Vedic has seven tenses and four moods (not counting the 
 Injunctive). Classical Sanskrit has the same tenses and moods as 
 Vedic, except that (1) the Past Perfect tense has fallen into disuse, 
 (2) the Subjunctive mood has disappeared from view, owing to the 
 fact that the 2nd and 3rd i3ersons of that mood (singular, dual, and 
 plural) have been lost, and the 1st persons of all three numbers 
 have been incorporated by grammarians in the Imperative mood. 
 
 In the modern Indo-Aryan languages no mood is recognized 
 except the Imperative. In naming the tenses of these languages 
 we therefore avoid all mention of mood, except when dealing with 
 the Imperative.^ 
 
 A characteristic feature of the tense-system of these modern 
 languages is that few of the original Sanskrit tenses have survived 
 
 ^ Marathi and Gujarat! form a special Conditional Past tense by slightly 
 changing the terminations of the Indefinite Imperfect, and some languages 
 of the north-west, such as Lahnda and Kashmiri, also form a similar tense 
 by adding a defining syllable, to the Old Present. The term 'conditional' 
 is here used in a wide sense, to cover the use of this tense in both the clauses 
 of conditional sentences with an implication of unreality or reserve, and also 
 its use in unrealized wishes and in expressions of what was to be done or 
 should have been done. If it is desired, in these circumstances, to call this 
 Conditional Past a Past Conditional, thereby acknowledging the existence of 
 a Conditional Mood in these four languages, the Committee does not oppose 
 the suggestion. 
 
28 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 and that instead of them Participles, with or without pronomi- 
 nal suffixes or terminations, are used either alone or with an 
 auxiliary verb as finite tenses. It is therefore of prime importance 
 to select suitable names for these Participles, as a foundation to 
 work upon ; and it is fortunate that an ideal nomenclature, ah'eady 
 partly adopted l^y some of the most eminent writers on Indian 
 languages, presents itself. 
 
 These Participles mark not the time of an action, but its stage 
 or aspect as incomplete, completed, or in prospect. They may 
 therefore be distinguished as (i) imperfect,^ (ii) perfect, (iii) 
 prospective. These terms are clearer than the terms ' i^resent ', 
 ^ past ', and * future ', which have to be understood as denoting 
 relative time, i.e. present, past, and future relatively to the time of 
 speaking or to the time spoken of. 
 
 Of these participles, the imperfect and the perfect are far the most 
 important. Sanskrit has a prospective participle (active and 
 passive), and also three gerund adjectives, each of which is a kind 
 of passive prospective participle (with a sense of obligation) ; but in 
 the modern Indo-Aryan languages, as in English, it may be said 
 that they have no prospective participle active ; for the forms some- 
 times used in this sense are proj^erly nouns of agency, such as the 
 Hindostani calnewala. MarathT cCilndr. ' a goer '. On the other hand, 
 most of them have Gerund Adjectives, directly derived from 
 one or other of the Sanskrit forms, which are freely used as 
 Prospective Participles, Passive or Active.' 
 
 These participles are not necessarily adjectival. Indian gram- 
 marians class them under the apj)ro2:)riate name of noun, in- 
 eluding under that term both nouns substantive and nouns 
 adjective. As nouns substantive, they are capable of being 
 declined, so that we frequently meet them in oblique cases, 
 corresponding to such forms as the English ' on going ', ' a-going '. 
 
 In their capacity as adjectives these participles may also be 
 
 ^ The term 'imperfect' i.s here used in its proper sense, to denote in- 
 completeness of action. Similarly, the finite tenses called ' iniperfect ' below 
 (II. B. a) simply mark the action as not completed, i, e. either as going oyi (con- 
 tinuously) or as habitual, and may be indefinite as to time, or may be Present, 
 Past, or Future, according to the time that they denote — finite tenses mark- 
 ing both the stage of the action and its time. See pp. 33, 34. 
 
 - Even in languages which have abandoned the use of these Gerund 
 Adjectives as such (e.g. Bengali) we find them used as the bases of finite 
 Lenses. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 29 
 
 distinguished according to their use as (i) Predicative and 
 (ii) Epithetic. English examples of the predicative usage are 
 ' he is fjoing \ ' he is gone % and of the epithetic usage ' a going 
 concern ' and the slang ' a gone coon '. Some of the modern Indo- 
 Aryan languages differ from the languages of Euroj^e in having 
 distinct forms of the Perfect Participle for these two usages. 
 
 A great number of tenses can be formed by the use of auxiliaries 
 with these participles. Such auxiliary verbs are verbs meaning 
 ' be ' ; the root /to-, when it means ' become ' ; the root jd-, ' go ' ; 
 and the roots rah- (or rah-) and thcik-, both meaning ' remain '. 
 With these and others, the tense-list might be indefinitely extended, 
 and could never be looked upon as definitely complete. After 
 consideration, we have decided to limit our list of participial tenses 
 to those formed either by the jjarticiples standing alone (with or 
 without personal suffixes or terminations), or by the participles 
 united to the present, past, and future tenses of the verbs meaning 
 *be'. In this we follow the general Indian custom. The exact 
 force of many of the so-called tenses formed with other auxiliaries 
 is still a matter of discussion, the decision of which lies outside 
 the province of our investigations. 
 
 In addition to the three above-mentioned participles there 
 is a fourth, commonly called the Conjunctive Participle, as, for 
 example, the Hindostani cal{-ke), Gujarat! cdU{-ne), Marathi cdlim, 
 all generally translatable by ' having gone ', although that is not 
 necessarily the sense in which they are used by an Indian. Indian 
 grammarians do not look upon this as a participle, but consider it 
 to be a finite form indicating a time previous to that of the 
 main verb of the sentence. By its origin, which is very ancient, 
 it is a gerund, but this fact has been lost sight of for centuries. 
 Strictly speaking, from any point of view, it is not a participle at 
 all, though capable of being translated by an English participle ; 
 but, as the name ' Conjunctive Participle ' is sanctioned by general 
 use, and has for many years been established in India, we have 
 thought it best to retain the familiar api^ellation, in spite of its 
 acknowledged incorrectness. 
 
 A fifth participle with somewhat similar force has, in some 
 languages, been formed in modern times by putting the perfect 
 participle into some oblique case. Its use is not unlike that of the 
 ablative absolute in Latin ; but in India it is recognized as a distinct 
 non-finite form, and, following the analogy of the related 
 
30 TERMINOLOGY Sc CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 ' Conjunctive Participle ', we have given it the name Absolute 
 Participle. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the terms recommended for the 
 chief forms, non-finite and finite, of the verbal root cal- or cdl- 
 denoting ' go ', * move ', in (I) Vedic and Sanskrit, (II) HindostanT, 
 GujaratT, Marathl, and Bengali. In the finite tenses the 3rd 
 person singular is quoted, except in the Imperative mood, where 
 the 2nd person is substituted, as the most important form; but 
 this method of quoting is not to be understood as implying that 
 the Imperative tenses have no other persons. 
 
 I. VEDIC AND SANSKRIT. 
 «MS" The forms with an asterisk are found only in Vedic. 
 Italics denote forms supplied from roots other than cal-. 
 Non-finite Forms. 
 
 Infinitive : ' to go ' ; calitum, calitave*, calitavai*, caladhyai*. 
 Imperfect Participle : ' going ' ; calant ; Middle, calamana. 
 Perfect Participle: {A) Declinable 
 
 (i) celivams, ^ having gone ' ; Middle, celana. 
 (ii) calita, ' gone ' ; Jirta, ' done ' (Passive, from root Jcr-). 
 (B) Indeclinable 
 
 calitva, calitvaya*, calitvl*, -calya, ' having gone '. 
 
 These forms correspond in usage to the forms called 
 ' Conjunctive ' in the modern languages. 
 Aorist Participles (rare, Vedic only) : 
 
 (i) 5- aorist : calsant*, 'going'', originally 'having just gone', 
 (ii) a- aorist (second aor.): from root kic- ; siicant^ (Act.), 
 
 sucamana/^ (Middle), ' shining '. 
 (iii) root-aorist : from root kr- ; Jcrant"^ (Act.), krdna* (Middle) 
 ' doing '. 
 Prospective Participle : ' about to go ' ; calisyant ; Middle and 
 
 Passive, calisyamana. 
 Gerund Adjective (Passive) : Mrya * due to be done ' ; also used 
 impersonally, like the Latin eundum ; calya, calayya*, 
 calenya*, calitva*, calitavya, calamya. 
 Finite Forms. 
 
 1. Present Indicative : ' he goes ', ' he is going ' ; calati. 
 
 ,, Subjunctive: 'he go', 'he is to go'; calati*, calat*. 
 
 ,, Optative: 'may he go', 'he would go'; calet. 
 
 ,, Imperative: 'gothou'(2ndpers. sing.); cala, calatat. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 31 
 
 2. Future Indicative : ' he will go ' ; calisyati. Periphrastic form 
 (1st pers. sing.) : calitasrai, lit. ' I am a goer (about to go) '. 
 
 3. Past Indicative : ' he went ' ; acalat. 
 
 4. Perfect Indicative : ' he has (is) gone ', ' he went ' ; cacfila. 
 
 „ Subjunctive: 'he have (be) gone': cacalati*, cacalat*. 
 ,, Optative : ' may he go ' ; cacalyat". 
 ,, Imperative: 'begone'; cacaldhi*. 
 
 5. Aorist Indicative : ' he has (is) gone ' in Vedic, ' he went ' in 
 
 Sanskrit ; 
 (i) s- aorist ; acalslt, acallt. 
 (ii) reduplicated aorist : aclcalat. 
 ,, Subjunctive: (i) 5- aorist: calsati*, calisat*. 
 
 (ii) red. aor. : clcalati*. 
 ,, Optative: (i) s- aor. calslta * (Middle only). 
 
 (ii) red. aor. : cTcalet*. 
 „ Imperative : (i) s- aor. : calsa ', caliddhi*. 
 (ii) red. aor. : cicalatat*. 
 
 6. Future in the past : ' he would go ' : acalisyat. 
 
 7. Past Perfect Indicative : * he went ' ; acacalat*. 
 
 Notes on Vedic and Sanskrit Terms. 
 
 (a) The Subjunctive mood has disappeared from Classical 
 Sanskrit. For the 2nd and 3rd persons (singular, dual, and 
 plural) have been lost, and the 1st persons have been incorporated 
 in the Imperative Mood. 
 
 (&) The third tense of the Indicative is commonly called 
 ' Imperfect ", but this name does not describe its function. It 
 is a tense of past time, and the name ' Past ' covers all its uses ; 
 for * Past ' is not exclusive of ' Imperfect ', though it includes 
 more than imperfect meanings. The form acalat thus receives the 
 same name as the English form ' went ', to which it corresponds in 
 range of meaning. See Introduction, p. 6. 
 
 (c) The fourth tense of the Indicative is called ' Perfect ' 
 (not * Present Perfect '), because, like the Latin and the French and 
 the German Perfect, it may be used as a Past Historic in narration 
 {cacdla= ' he went '). 
 
 (d) The term ' Future in the past ' (the sixth tense) describes 
 accurately the formation of a-calisya-t (an augmented future with 
 secondary personal inflexion). In the Brahmana period this tense 
 is used not only in its original sense of futurity from a past point 
 
82 TERMINOLOGY S: CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 of view (denoting what tvas about to happen), but also as corre- 
 sponding in past time to the Present Optative in present time: 
 when so used, it denotes (i) conditioned futurity, i. e. what would be 
 or tvould have been, in the main clause of a certain type of 
 conditional sentence — here like the ' Future in the past ' of French ; 
 (ii) supposition with an implication of unreality or reserve in the 
 if-clause of this type of conditional sentence. See above § XII. 6. 
 (e) The term ' Past Perfect ' (the seventh tense) describes only 
 the form a-cacala-t. In meaning this Vedic tense is equivalent to 
 the Past in some instances and to the Aorist in others. 
 
 II. THE FOUR MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 
 
 Non-Finite 
 
 Forms. 
 
 
 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Hindostam 
 
 GujaratI 
 
 Marathi 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Gerund (de- 
 
 * [a or the] 
 
 calna 
 
 calvii 
 
 calnS 
 
 calan, 
 
 noting ' the 
 
 going' 
 
 
 
 
 caliba- ^ 
 
 act of — ') 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 ' to go ' 
 
 calne ^ 
 
 calva2 
 
 calu, 
 cala(va)yas ' 
 
 calite * 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 ' going ' 
 
 calta 
 
 calto 
 
 calat, calta 
 
 calite 2 
 
 Participle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Participle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Predica- 
 
 
 cala 
 
 calyo 
 
 calala 
 
 cala, caliva* 
 
 tive 
 
 ' gone ' 
 
 
 
 
 [oalil 7] 
 
 Epithetic 
 
 
 cala hua 
 
 calelo * 
 
 calalela 
 
 cala 
 
 Gerund 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 Adjective 
 Prospective 
 
 ' due to 
 
 • go' 
 
 • calna 
 
 - calvano ^ 
 
 cala(va)yaca* 
 calava 
 
 -[caliba- '0] 
 
 Participle 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 Conjunctive 
 
 ' having 
 
 cal(-ke, 
 
 cali(ne) 
 
 calun 
 
 caliya 
 
 Participle 
 
 gone' 
 
 -kar- ke) 
 
 
 
 
 Absolute 
 
 * having 
 
 
 .. . 
 
 calalyas *^ 
 
 calile" 
 
 Participle 
 
 gone ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Noun of 
 
 ' a goer ' 
 
 calnewala, 
 
 calnar(o) 
 
 calnar(a) 
 
 • >• 
 
 Agency '' 
 
 
 calnehara 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Used only in the oblique cases, e.g. calibdr, * of going'. 
 
 2 Oblique of the Gerund. ' Dative of the Prospective Participle. 
 
 * Locative of the Imperfect Participle used as a noun. 
 
 5 Always used in this locative form, like the English * a-going'. 
 ^ Indeclinable. 
 
 ' Used only as the base of the Indefinite Perfect and, in the Locative, to 
 form the Absolute Participle. 
 
 * Also used predicatively. ^ Genitive of the Prospective Participle. 
 1° Used only as the base of the Future tense. 
 
 11 Dative of the Perfect Participle. 
 
 1" Locative of the Perfect Participle calil ; see note 7. 
 
 1° Often used with the force of a Prospective Participle Active, * about to go' . 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 
 
 33 
 
 Finite Forms. 
 
 (A). Radical Tenses. 
 
 ' Radical Tenses * are tenses directly descended from tenses of 
 the ancient Indian languages represented in literature by Sanskrit. 
 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Hindostanl 
 
 Gujarat! 
 
 MarathI 
 
 Benga 
 
 Old Present * 
 
 
 cale 
 
 cale 
 
 cale 
 
 cale 
 
 Habitual Past 
 
 ' he used to 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 cale' 
 
 ... 
 
 Compound 
 
 go 
 ' he goes ', 
 
 cale hai 
 
 cale che 
 
 
 ... 
 
 form of the 
 
 'he is go- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old Present 
 
 ing' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Future 
 
 ' he will go ' 
 
 eale-ga 
 
 calse 
 
 calel 
 
 s 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present 
 
 ' go thou ' 
 
 cal 
 
 cal 
 
 cal 
 
 cal 
 
 Polite Present 
 
 ' please go ' 
 
 caliye 
 
 calje 
 
 ... 
 
 calun * 
 
 Polite Future 
 
 'you will 
 please go ' 
 
 caliye-ga 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 calio 
 
 (B). Participial Tenses, 
 {a) Tenses formed from Imperfect Participles. 
 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Hindostanl 
 
 Gujarat! 
 
 Marathi 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Indefinite 
 Imperfect 
 
 ' he goes ', \ 
 ' he used to 
 
 
 calto ^ 
 
 calto * 
 
 
 Conditional 
 Paste 
 
 §0 
 
 ' had he 
 gone ', he 
 would have 
 
 -calta 
 
 calat, 
 calte 
 
 calta 
 
 'calita 
 
 Present 
 Imperfect 
 
 gone ' 
 'he is going', 
 * he goes ' 
 
 calta hai 
 
 (calto 
 nath!)' 
 
 calat ahe 
 
 caliteche 
 
 1 The customary employment of this tense varies from language to 
 language. Its equivalent in English is alternatively * he goes ', * he go ', ' ho 
 will go '. In some languages (e.g. Kashmiri "i the Old Present is the only 
 means of expressing futurity. 
 
 ^ A bye-form of the Old Present, but conjugated differently. 
 
 ' In Bengali the Future is formed from the Prospective Participle ; see 
 below (c). 
 
 * Third person, used politely for the second. 
 
 ' In some languages this is a Future, * he will go '. 
 
 " When used as a Conditional Past in the two clauses of a conditional 
 sentence, this tense indicates the non-occurrence of the condition in past 
 time, as in the English • if ho had gone, he would have gone to London '. 
 Compare note 1, p. 27, on the term ' conditional '. 
 
 ' Used as an Habitual Past Imperfect ; cf. note 1, p. 28. 
 
 ^ Used as a Present Imperfect. 
 
 ^ 'He does not go'. For the corresponding affirmative sentences, the 
 Compound form of the Old Present (Head A) is used. 
 
34 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 Hindostani 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Past * he was go- calta tha 
 
 Imperfect ing ' 
 
 Future ' he will be calta hoga 
 
 Imperfect ^ going ' 
 
 GujaratI Marathi Bengali 
 calto hato calat hota calitechila 
 calto ha^e calat asel ...' 
 
 (b) Tenses formed from Perfect Participles. 
 
 Hindostani 
 cala 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Indefinite ' he went ' 
 
 Perfects 
 
 Present ' he has (is) cala hai 
 
 Perfect gone ' 
 
 Past 'he had (was) cala tha 
 
 Perfect gone ' * 
 
 Future ' he will cala hoga 
 
 Perfect^ have (be) 
 gone' 
 
 GujaratI 
 calyo 
 
 calyo (or 
 
 calelo) che 
 calyo (or 
 
 calelo) 
 
 hato 
 calyo (or 
 
 calelo) 
 
 ha^e 
 
 Marathi Bengali 
 
 calala calila 
 
 calala ahe caliyache 
 
 oalala hota caliyachila 
 
 calala asel ...^ 
 
 (c) Tenses formed from Prospective Participles. 
 
 GujaratI Marathi 
 
 calave "^ 
 
 Meaning 
 in English 
 
 Hindo- 
 stani 
 
 Bengali 
 
 ® 
 A 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 "a 
 
 cn 
 
 cS 
 
 ei 
 
 a> 
 
 r^ 
 
 s 
 
 103 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 eS 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 calvano ^ cala(va)yaca ^ calibe ^^ 
 
 Indefinite (i) With the 
 
 Prospective sense of ob- 
 ligation or 
 necessity, 'he 
 (is or waa) to 
 
 go' 
 (ii) With the 
 sense of pure 
 futurity, ' he 
 
 (is or was) 
 about to go ' 
 
 ^ Often used as a Present of Probability, ' he may be going ', ' he probably 
 is going '. 
 
 2 Bengali uses caliyd thdkibe with this force. 
 
 ^ Generally used as a Past, or Past Historic, but sometimes in other past 
 senses. 
 
 ■* Or, ' he went at some distant past time '. 
 
 ^ Often used as a Past of Probability, ' he may have gone ', * he probably 
 has gone '. 
 
 ^ Bengali uses caliyd thdkibe with this force. 
 
 "^ A secondary meaning of cdJdv^ is ' he used to go ' ; another meaning, with 
 a change of construction, is * he might go '. 
 
 ^ The Noun of Agency cdlndr{o) may be substituted for cdlvdno throughout 
 this column, i.e. with the meaning of pure futurity (ii). 
 
 ^ The Noun of Agency cdlndr may be substituted for cdld(va)ydcd throughout 
 this column, i.e. with the meaning of pure futurity (ii). 
 
 ^° This tense, denoting ' he will go ', is to be called Future in Bengali : of. 
 note 3, p. 33. For * he is to go ' Bengali substitutes calite hay, and so in the 
 other tenses of this group . 
 
TEEMS RECOMMENDED 
 
 35 
 
 Gujarat! Marathi Bengali 
 
 Present 
 Prospective 
 
 [calna 
 hai]i 
 
 Past 
 Prospective 
 
 calvanu 
 che 
 
 calvano 
 che 
 
 calvanu 
 hatu 
 
 calvano 
 hato 
 
 calvanu 
 ha^e 
 
 cala(va)yace 
 ahe 
 
 cala(va)yaca 
 ahe 
 
 calave-hote or 
 cala(va)yace 
 hote 
 
 cala(va)yaca 
 hota 
 
 cala(va)yace 
 asel 
 
 Meaning Hindo- 
 
 in English stani 
 
 (i) With the 
 sense of obli- 
 gation or ne- 
 cessity, ' he 
 istogo' ( = he 
 has to go) 
 
 (ii) With the 
 sense of pure 
 futurity, 'he 
 is about to 
 go' 
 
 (i) With the 
 sense of obli- 
 gation or ne- 
 cessity, ' he 
 was to go ' 
 ( = he had to 
 
 go) 
 (ii) With the [calna 
 sense of pure tha] 
 futurity, *he 
 was about to 
 go' 
 Future (i) With the 
 
 Prospective sense of pro- 
 bable obliga- 
 tion or ne- 
 cessity, ' he 
 may have to 
 go' 
 (ii) With the 
 sense of pure 
 future pro- 
 bability, 'he 
 maybe about 
 to go ' or * he 
 may be go- 
 ing ' 
 
 XXVI. The Prayogas.— Intimately connected with the con- 
 jugation of the verb in the modern Indo- Aryan languages is the 
 question of what are called Prayogas by Indian grammarians. We 
 consider that the best English equivalent of this term is Con- 
 structions. There are four in number, viz.— 
 
 (1) The Kartari Prayoga— the Active Construction— as in H. 
 aurat gai, G. stri ga% M. strl gelt, B. strl gela, ' the woman went '. 
 
 (2) The Karmani Prayoga— the Passive Construction— as in 
 H. us-ne Utah parM, G. tene Mtab vaci, M. tyam pothi vaciU, 
 
 1 The forms given in square brackets in this column are not shown in 
 grammars of Hindostani, being there treated as phrases under the head ot 
 syntax. 
 
 [calna 
 
 hoga] 
 
 calvano 
 ha^e 
 
 cala(va)yaca 
 asel 
 
36 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 ^ by him a book was read ', equivalent in meaning to ' he read 
 a book '. 
 
 (3) The Bhcwe Prayoga — the Impersonal Construction — as in 
 H. Rdm-tte Bdvan-Jco mdra, M. Bdmdne Rdvands mdrile, 'by 
 Rama killing was done to Ravana', equivalent in meaning to 
 'Rama killed Ravana'. [Not used in Gujaratl.] 
 
 (4) A fourth construction, which Indian grammarians look 
 upon as a variety of the Karmani Prayoga, is found in Gujaratl 
 and Rajasthani, and is sometimes used in Marathi ; e.g. G. tene 
 rdnlne mdrl, ' by him to the queen she was killed ' equivalent in 
 meaning to ' he killed the queen '. We call this the Mixed 
 Construction. 
 
 Bengali has four vdcyas or locutions which more or less resemble 
 the prayogas of the other languages. These are (1) Jcartr-vdcya, 
 (2) karmma-vdcyaj (3) bhdva-vdcya, (4) Tiartr-harmma-vdcya. 
 
 SIGNATURES. 
 
 !E. a. Sonnenschein (Chairman), 
 J. D. Anderson. 
 L. D. Barnett. 
 
 W. DODERET. 
 
 George A. Grierson. 
 A. A. Macdonell. 
 J. W. Neill. 
 
 D. C. Phillott. 
 
 E. Denison Ross. 
 R. C. Temple. 
 
 F. W. Thomas. 
 
 Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe. 
 
 Note. — Dr. Thomas signs 'with reservations as to (1) details and omissions, 
 
 (2) XXV, pp. 28 and 30 (the Sanskrit Perfect Participle as 'perfect')? 
 
 (3) some points in the Introduction '. 
 
TERMS RECOMMENDED 87 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT 
 COMMITTEE ON MODERN LANGUAGES 
 
 Uniform Grammatical Terminology. 
 
 § 201 (p. 55). It is greatly to be wished that the grammatical 
 nomenclature used for all languages should be so far as possible 
 identical. It is specially important that it should be so within 
 schools where more than one language is taught. A uniform 
 terminology brings into relief the principles of structure common 
 to all allied languages ; needless variation of terms conceals the 
 substantial unity. We are convinced, for instance, that the widely 
 different systems commonly used for Latin and French must lead 
 to error and confusion of thought. Already good work has been 
 done in this direction, but it has not yet received adequate 
 recognition or support. In 1909 eight important Associations 
 representative of those interested in teaching English and foreign 
 languages as well as of every section of those responsible for such 
 instruction in Secondary Schools combined to set up a Joint 
 Committee on Grammatical Terminology. That Committee 
 produced a Report which we have had before us in a revised form 
 which was agreed upon in 1911. Since then a Standing Committee 
 appointed by the same bodies has watched and promoted the 
 movement for reform. The Report provides uniform grammatical 
 terminology for English, French, German, Latin, and Greek ; it is 
 claimed that the same terminology is also applicable to other 
 languages of the Indo-European family such as Russian, Spanish, 
 and Italian. The terminology recommended has been adopted in 
 several grammars of English, French, and Latin, and also as the 
 basis of teaching in many Secondary Schools, though in only 
 a small fraction of the whole number. While not committing 
 ourselves to all the details of this scheme, we attach the highest 
 importance to uniform nomenclature for grammar, and are of 
 opinion that it is more necessary that the terminology should 
 be uniform than that it should be free from all defects. The scheme 
 of the Committee is consistent and well thought out ; we 
 recommend it for careful consideration as it stands ; but it would 
 
38 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 ])e possible for individual schools, while adopting the main outlines 
 of the Report, to make modifications in detail. In any event, we 
 trust that uniformity in the use of grammatical terms, at least 
 within each several school, will become at no distant date the rule 
 and not the exception. We would go further and say that, in 
 view of the frequent passage of pupils from one school to another 
 by the migration of their parents, it is desirable that the greatest 
 possible measure of general unanimity should be secured. In view 
 of the present and prospective increase in the number of languages 
 studied in schools, reform is urgently needed ; and, as a simple 
 measure to further it, we recommend that in the tests for Certifi- 
 cates for teachers in modern languages suggested by us in paragraphs 
 187 and 188 uniform grammatical nomenclature should be required. 
 But it also seems to us that the eight great Associations which 
 combined to set up the Joint Committee could do much to forward 
 a general consensus. The Board of Education for England and 
 Wales in their Memorandum on the Teaching of Modern Languages 
 (circular 797) do not mention the subject. 
 
 Printed in England at the Oxford University Press. 
 
A NEW GRAMMAR SERIES 
 
 BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE JOINT 
 
 COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY 
 
 By E. a. Sonnenschein 
 
 A NEW ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Exercises by 
 
 Edith Archibald. 1916. 
 
 Part I. Parts of Speech and Outlines of Analysis. Pp. 88. is. 3d. net. 
 
 Part II. (a) Kinds of Pronouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs ; (b) Forms and 
 their chief meanings. Pp. 148. is. gd. net. 
 
 Part III. (a) Structure of Sentences and Clauses; (6) Uses of Forms. 
 Pp. 190. 2s. net. 
 
 The three parts complete in one volume. Pp. 420. 4s. 6d. net. 
 
 ' A book of national importance. . . . Part I seems about as near perfection as any 
 Grammar we are likely to get can be. It is quite short, and gives just the minimum 
 which every child must learn. . . . Miss Archibald's exercises are excellent throughout. 
 She shows remarkable inventiveness and versatility, backed by very good judgement; 
 and manages to make her questions more uniformly interesting than one would have 
 thought possible.' — Oxford Magazine. 
 
 ' These books may be recommended as models of arrangement and for clearness of 
 type.' — Schoolmistress. 
 
 A NEW FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1912. Pp.212. 3s.net. 
 
 Accidence, with some preliminary syntax, pp. 95 ; Syntax, pp. 106. Af)- 
 pendix (translation of French grammatical terms), Index. 
 
 ' Une merveille de clarte et de forte erudition. , . . On trouve dans ce volume une 
 veritable mine de locutions fran9aises idiom.atiques donnees en exemples, grammaticaux 
 avec la traduction anglaise en regard, et ceci peut etre fort utile pour ceux qui s'exercent 
 au theme en vue d'un examen.' — Les Lattgues modernes (Ch. Veillet-Lavallee, Tresorier 
 de TAssociation des Professeurs de langues vivantes de I'enseignement public). 
 
 ' The arrangement of the Accidence is simple and good. . . . The book will no doubt 
 be largely used by those who aim at keeping up to date in their methods of instruction.' 
 
 Secondary Educaii'on, 
 
 Second edition revised. 
 
 A NEW LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 1914. Pp. 266. 3s. net. 
 
 Also in two parts : — 
 
 A First Latin Grammar for Schools. 19 15. Pp. 126. 2s. net. 
 
 A Latin Syntax for Schools. 1915. Pp. 168. 2s. net. 
 
 'The accidence is ... as brief as is compatible with an adequate treatment of regular 
 forms, all ii regularities being reserved, so far as possible, for an appendix. An admirable, 
 and in many of its details an original treatment of the principal parts of verbs has been 
 adopted. . . . An immense gain in simplicity and clearness is due to Professor Sonnen- 
 schein's method of treating the subjunctive. . . . Professor Sonnenschein is to be con- 
 gratulated heartily upon a book which marks so distinct an advance in the teaching 
 of Latin grammar.'— R. M. Henry, Professor of Latin in the Queen's University, 
 Belfast. 
 
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