P K 121 S7 1920 MAIN B M 023 TE5 RIENTAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE REPORT on the erminology and Classifications of GRAMMAR X/f2 OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS HUIMPHREY MILFORD Oriental advisory committee REPORT on the Terminology and Classifications of GRAMMAR ! 'V ' '• %u,\V *.:r^^*iv:' OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1 920 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY HUMPHREY MILFORD PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY 1^1 A ^' INTRODUCTION Encouraged by the success of the movement in favour of uniformity of grammatical terminology as applied to English, Latin, Greek, French, and German, and the recent endorsement of the principle by the Government Committee on Modern Languages,^ the Standing Committee on Grammatical Keform ■ decided last year to extend the field of its operations and to invite the co- operation of Orientalists in the work of applying the scheme to Sanskrit and the Modern Indian vernaculars of Sanskritic origin. The present Advisory Committee came into being in November, 1918, and it has held fifteen meetings since that date. At the first meeting Emeritus-Professor Sonnenschein was elected Chairman. The problem of bringing the non-European members of the great Indo-European family of speech into touch with the languages of Europe, so far as the naming and classification of their grammatical phenomena is concerned, is one which involves considerable difficulties. But the Committee has been from the first convinced both of the desirability of the proposed reform and of its practicability. It is now nearly sixty years since the late Professor Max Miiller wrote : ' It is curious to observe the striking coincidences between the grammatical terminology of the Greeks and the Hindus, which would seem to prove that there must be some true and natural foundation for the much abused grammatical ^ § 201 (p. 55) of the Keport of this Committee, published by H. M. Stationery Office in 1918 (Cd. 9036), is printed at the end of our Report. ^ The Standing Committee on Grammatical Reform was constituted in 1911, to promote the principle enunciated in the Eeport of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology (published by Mr. John Murray in 1911, price Qd.). Like the original Committee, the Standing Committee is representative of the following eight Associations :— The Classical Association, The Modern Language Association, The English Association, The Incorporated Association of Headmasters, The Association of Headmistresses, The Incoiporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools, The Incorporated Association of Assistant Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools, and The Association of Preparatory Schools. . ^v ^ ... a2 ^0«iv>v> 4 TERMTNOT.OGY S: gMBSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR J system of the schools. The Hindus are the only nation that cultivated the science of grammar without having received any impulse, directly or indirectly, from the Greeks. Yet we find in Sanskrit too the same system of cases called vibhaMi or inflexions, the active, passive, and middle voices, the tenses, moods, and persons, divided not exactly, but very nearly in the same manner as in Greek '. ^ The facts here referred to are the basis on which the Committee has worked. In drawing up its report the Committee has confined itself to giving a list of recommended terms with illustrative examples in Sanskrit and four of the chief Indo-Aryan vernaculars— Hindo- stanT, Gujarat!, Marathl, and Bengali. The principles here adopted will, it is believed, lend themselves readily to application on similar lines to other Indo-Aryan languages. It is no doubt desirable that the English terms recommended in this report should be translated into the several vernaculars ; but we have thought it best to leave this work to native grammarians, who will be better able than we are to select translations which express the exact shade of meaning required. Readers who desire further explanations of the recommended terms are referred to the Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology.^ The terminology herein proposed is based not upon the termin- ology of any one language of the Indo-Euroi^ean family, ancient or modern, but upon Indo-European syntax as a whole. In dealing with the languages of India, Sanskrit provides a natural and historical link between the modern languages of Sanskritic origin. But the terminology of Sanskrit grammar, as formulated by Indian and European philologists, itself requires modification at some points in order to bring it into complete touch with general Indo-European syntax, as will be indicated below. For it was not framed with the same object as the present Committee was formed to promote. The essential thing for our purpose was to provide a common point of view from which all the languages of the family, European as well as Indian, might be regarded as * Lectures on the Science of Language, ch. iv. In a note the author refers to his History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 158. ' See note 2, p. 3. The application of this scheme of terminology to three European languages is shown in the New English Grammar, the Nexo Latin Grammar, and the Neiv French Grammar, published by the Oxford University Press (1912-16). INTRODUCTION 5 a linguistic unit, and justice be done both to the similarities and to the diversities of their several idioms : diversities as well as similarities ; for a common system of grammatical nomenclature has the supreme merit of bringing out the differences as well as the similarities of languages. It, and it alone, provides a point of reference, without which things can be neither identified nor contrasted with one another. It is not too much to say that in the present terminological chaos Europeans and Indians, speaking languages which belong to the same linguistic family, can only with difficulty recognize either the common features of these languages or the features which differentiate them. Some kind of unification of grammatical systems is imperatively necessary if this chaos is to be reduced to a cosmos. The terms of Analysis (§§ I-XII of our Report) presented little difficulty. Nor did the Parts of Speech (§§ XIII-XXIII). It was the Forms and their Chief Meanings (§§ XXIV-XXVI) that called for our special and prolonged attention. In regard to Cases, indeed, the ground was prepared for us in the system which is current both in India and among European writers on Indian grammar ; our labours were here concerned only with improve- ments of detail. The problem to be faced was solved by the recognition that the terms denoting the several Cases are terms of syntax, not of morphology ; that is to say, they classify and name forms according to their meanings or functions in the structure of the sentence. The same form may have more than one function, and therefore more than one name ; for example, the Hindostanl form ghord ' horse ' may be either the subject or the object of the sentence, and is therefore to be called Nominative or Accusative according to its function. And conversely diverse forms may be identical in meaning ; for example, the MarathI mala ' garlands ' is morphologically entirely different from hhimtl ' walls ', but they are both i^lurals. The same principle holds good in regard to the forms of the verb, finite and non-finite. In laying the chief stress upon the meanings and functions of forms we must not, however, be under- stood to be opposed to the study of morphology or the derivations of forms. This study is often very helpful in enabling students to understand how it is that a given form has come to have a certain meaning, and is therefore an important instrument of teaching. But in naming forms we have been guided by their 6 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR actual use in literature and every day speech rather than by their historical antecedents. In dealing with the verb we have introduced several innovations. In Vedic and Sanskrit we have substituted for the term ' Imperfect tense ' the term * Past tense ', which corresponds more accurately to the meaning of the form in literature. Be it observed that the term ' Past ' does not exclude the idea of continuity or habit in past time ; thus the English ' Past tense ' (e. g. ' wrote ', ' loved ') is frequently used as a Past Imperfect. But the current term ' Imperfect ', besides being defective, does exclude other past meanings, and is therefore unsuitable for a tense which, like the Greek Aorist Indicative, is commonly used as a tense of narration in past time.^ Instead of the term ' Aorist ', as applied by European grammarians of Hindostani, Bengali, and other modern Indian vernaculars to the forms which are derived from the old Present Indicative of Sanskrit, w^e have adopted the term ' Present ', which is often used in grammars written by Indian scholars, adding thereto the adjective ' old ', in order to distinguish it from Presents of modern formation. The Old Present survives in all the modern Indo- Aryan languages. But in most of them it has suffered changes of meaning, whereby the original meaning of the tense has in some vernaculars been thrown completely into the shade. Thus it has come about that the form is in its modern usage ' indefinite ', but indefinite in respect of mood as well as of tense. This wide and varying range of usage of the ' Old Present ' is briefly indicated in our note on the meanings of this tense in § XXV of our report ; but the full statement of its usage in the several vernaculars is left to be dealt with by writers of particular grammars. An outline of the classification of Conditional Sentences, which is applicable to all the languages of our family, is given in § XII (6) below. In other points of our scheme we have been glad to find our- selves in touch with modern Indian grammarians ; for example, in refusing the title of Verb to Participles, Infinitives, and other non-finite formations from the verbal stem. And we hope that ^ When so used the * Past Indicative ', as we call it, is equivalent to the Aorist Indicative of Classical Sanskrit, which is used only as a narrative tense. [In Vedic the Aorist Indicative corresponds to the English Present Perfect.] INTKODUCTION 7 the whole spirit of our Eeport will be found to be in agreement with the general view of Indian scholars that the grammatical features of a modern Aryan language, spite of differences due to the lapse of time and to the intermixture of non-Aryan forms and constructions, may be adequately described by the same termin- ology as is applied to those of ancient members of the same family. In conclusion we venture to express the hope that the gram- matical erdente herein proposed, whereby the syntactical relations between the Sanskritic languages of India and European languages are clearly outlined may (if adopted as a basis by writers of grammars, as we desire) facilitate the acquisition of Indian languages by European students and of European languages, especially English, by Indian students ; and that it may thus contribute towards bringing the 250,000,000 of people who speak Indo-Aryan languages into closer touch with the other peoples of the British Commonwealth and prove a humble means of strengthening those spiritual bonds on which the unity of the Commonwealth ultimately depends. TEEMS EECOMMENDEDJ A. TERMS OF ANALYSIS. I. Subject and Predicate. In the following examples the Predicate, which includes all that is said of the person or thing denoted by the Subject, is distinguished by heavy type. When the Subject consists of more than one word, the Noun or Noun- equivalent around which the other words are grouped may be called the ' Subject- Word \ V. — Agnir jusata no girah. May Agni accept our songs. S. — Raja sviyam nagaram jagama. The king went to his own city. H. — Zindagi dushwar nazar ati hai. Living appears diflB.cult. G. —Be hajar gamomathi pac^e pacha avya. From 2,000 villages 500 returned. M. — Sevati Bad^aha tethun nighun gela. In the end the emperor went thence. 7>. — Sese raja se-khane gelen. Finally the king went there. Note. — In some instances the Subject or the Predicate is not fully expressed, but only implied, either wholly or in part, as shown by square brackets. V. — Apa tamah papmanam hate. [She] drives away darkness and sin. S. — Bruyat. [One] should say. Alam vistarena. [We have] enough of disquisition. H. — Idhar a,o Come [you] hither. G. — Jetla muni tetla mat [che]. Quot liomines tot sententiae [sunt]. * In the examples the following abbreviations are used : V. denotes Vedic the Vedic examples being also distinguished from the Sanskrit l)y having accents marked . ) Hindostani. G. 55 Gujaratl. M. Jj Marathl. B. 3J Bengali. 10 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR M. — Ka^ala, evadhi tasdl [gheta] ? Why [do yon take] so much trouble ? B. — Dhanyavad [ditechi] ! [I give] thanks ! Namaskar ! Salutation ! Keman sundar jyotsna iTitri ! What a lovel}" moonlight night [it is] ! II. Predicative Adjective, Predicative Noun, Predicative Pronoun, denoting — («) what the person or thing denoted by the Subject is declared to be, become, be named, or seem ; (b) what the person or thing denoted by the Object (see IV) is declared to be made, named, or thought. [a) V. — Tvam asi (ucyase) pita. Thou art (art called) a father. S. — Kukkuro vyaghrah krtah. The dog was made a tiger. IT. — Wuh razi hai. He is contented {or He agrees, or He is in good health). Gari khari ki ga,i. The carriage was made stationary. G. — Te khusal thayo. He became happy. 31. — To khus ahe. He is happy. B. — Tahake santusta kara gela. He was made happy. [h] V. — Agnim manye pitaram. I deem Agni a father. S. — Janami tvam prakrtipurusam. I know thee (to be) the minister. H. — GarT khari karo (colloquial). Stop the carriage (lit. make carriage stationary). 6^.— Hu Gopalne karkun theravu chu. I appoint Gopal clerk. M. — Tyani kutryas apla raja kele. Thej^ made the dog their king. B. — Tahara kukkur-ke tahader raja karila. They made the dog their king. Taha-ke bhala manus baliya jani. I regard him as a gentleman. Note. — The term 'predicative' applies also to Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns similarl}^ used in connexion with other verbs than those mentioned above : e.g. He looJced happy : (M) To khus disla, [G] Te khusal janayo. He does not looJc well : (B) Se bhala dekhay na. He lived happy ever afterwards : {M) To pudhe nehami khUs rahila. (G) Te tyai^pachi sarva kal khusal rahyo. TERMS RECOMMENDED 11 Epithet r Adjectives Epithet Nouns III. (a) Epithet Adjectives, Epithet Nouns. V. — Hiranyayo rathah. A golden car. S. — Sitala ratrih. A cold night. H. — Garm duclh. Hot milk. G. — Sundar aurat. A beautiful woman. 31. — Srimamt savkar. A wealthy merchant. B. — Vamla jati. (The) Bengali people. Sit-pradhan des. A cold country. >S.--Raja-rsi. King-prophet. Svarga-lokah. The\ heaven world. H. — Bail-gari. Bullock-cart. G. — Ksatri-bacho. Warrior-lad. M. — Vajra-lep. Diamond-cement. Pan kobada. ( Water-fowl. B. — Hat-khola. Market-place. Dak-ghar. Post- office. Pan-bari. Betel-orchard. (b) Nouns in apposition. S. — Somo raja. Soma the king. M. — To akasmat gagana-pamthe Narada-muni patla tethe. When suddenly Narada the saint arrived there by the heavenly path. IV. Object. F. — Ahan vrtram. He slew Vrtra. S. — Raj yam jigaya. He won the kingdom. Suvarnam mam ayacata. He begged of me gold (two objects). H. — Sher gosht khata hai. The tiger eats flesh. Sher-ne gosht-ko khaya. The tiger ate the meat. G. — Hu Java magu chCi. I desire to go (Infinitive object). Tene mane maryo. He l^eat me (Dative object). Hu vaghthi daru chii. I am afraid of tigers (Ablative object). 31. — Ml kam karito. I do work (Accusative object). Tyane mala phasvile. He deceived me (Dative object). B, — Ami sikhite cai. I want to learn (Infinitive object). Amay mariben na. Do not beat me (Locative object). Amader mariben na. Do not beat us (Genitive object). Se amake marila. He beat me (Accusative object). Note 1. — Indirect Object. V. — Dadati ratnam vidhat^. He gives the worshipper treasure. a4 12 TERMINOLOGY S'. — Janas tv alaksayan yat sa pitham avatarat. The people observed that he alighted on the throne. H. — TajwTz ki wuh bar taraf kiya ja,e pasand na a,i. The proposal that he should be dismissed was not approved. G. — Tene kahyii ke saher bali gayti. He said that the city had been burnt. M. — Tyane khabar rinili ki raja maran pavla. He brought word that the king had expired. B. — Tomar bari kothay, ekevare baliya phela. Speak out and say at once where your home is. [Noun-Clauses are classified in § XI.] (b) Adjective-Clauses : V. — Yat Sim agas cakrma tat sii mrlatu. Let him fully forgive whatever sin we have committed. *S'. — Sa bharya ya pativrata. A wife is she who is devoted to her husband. H. — Mihnat jo mai-ne ki thi ap us-ko samajh-sakte hai? Can you realize the trouble which I took ? 6r. — Je kam me karyu te tamane pasand che ke? Are you pleased with the work which I have done ? M. — Ml jhade lavli hot! ti aj sukun geli. The trees which I had planted have now died. £. — Ye lok-ti amar katha sunibe na, tahake ami manya baliya kena grahan kariba ? Why shall I accept him as venerable who will not hear my words ? (c) Adverb-Clauses : — V. — Yajama devan yadi sakndvama. Let us worship the gods, if we shall be able. S. — Aham tatha karisye yatha sa vadham karisyati. I shall so contrive that he will slay him. H. — Subh bote bote wuh bilak bilak-kar mar-ga,e. By the time it was dawn, they had gasped out their last breath. 16 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR M. — Anayase gati cuke adhogati dharita samgati sajjanacL We can easily avert the descent to Hell if we consort with holy men. G. — Rat thata pahell, te gher gayo. He went home before night fell. B. — Ratri hawar age, ami ban phiriya gelam. I went home before it was night. [Adverb-Clauses are classified in § XII. | 2. Main Clause, Main Predicate, Main Verb. The term ' Main ' denotes non-subordinate. F. — A t6 yanti ye aparisu pasyan. Those are coming who m future days will see her. S. — Srnu yena na drsyante mahlksitah. Hear why the kings do not appear. H. — Jab ap yad kare, mai a,uga. When (If) you call me to mind, I will come. Zahir hai ki wuh ghar par nahi hai. It is clear that he is not at home. Ap ka kahna ki wuh nahi awega ghalat ma'liim hota hai. Your assertion that he will not come seems wrong. G. — Pahele dahade parono, blje dahade pal, trije dahade rahe, ten! akkal gai. The first day a guest, the second day a ' pie ' : Who stays a third day his wits must be awry. 31. — Sukh nahi kada sasvatavacuni janati sudnyanT das mhane. Ramdas says that the wise know that there is no happiness apart from the Eternal One. B, — Yadi tumi }'ao, ami-o yaiba. If you go, I too will go. Se }^e giyache, taha niscay. That he has gone, that [isj certain. IX. Noun-Phrase, Adjective-Phrase, Adverb-Phrase. The term ' phrase ' denotes a group of words equivalent to a single part of speech and not having a Subject and a Predicate of its own. (Contrast the term ^ clause ', § VIII.) V. — Asya sumatdu syama. May we be in his good graces. I Adverb S. — Sraddham trir abdasya nirvapet. He should j Phrases offer the funeral sacrifice three times a year. ) Noun Phrase Adjective Phrase TERMS RECOMMENDED ' 17 H. — Do pahar-ke waqt wuh chala gaya. He went) Adverb away at noon. J Phrase Mere khatt ka jawab nahi mila. I have had] Adjective no answer to my letter. J Phrase Mere ghar mS ne kaha. My wife (lit. ' in my house ') said. G. — Aj kalna dahada ghana nathara, che. The present [lit. ' of to-day, to-morrow 'J times are very bad. M. — Mt kam rojcya roj karto. I work daily [lit.| Adverb 'of day, day']. [ Phrase To motha khede gavca disto. He appears to] be very boorish [lit. ' of hamlet, village 'J. \ pV^ , Here the Adjective Phrase is predicative. i B. — Amar Kalikata yawa halla na. My going to] Noun Calcutta did not happen. | Phrase Kapar bunibar kal. Cloth-weaving machine. I pj^^ ^^® Ami samasta rat gharer madhye chilam. I] Two Adverb was all night in the house. j Phrases X. Classification of Sentences. 1. Statements. F. — Martya ha va agre deva asuh. The gods in the beginning were mortals. S, — Tarn drstavan asmi. I have seen him. H. — Wuh sac bolta hai. He is speaking the truth. G. — Anhilpurno pharto gherav bar kosno hato. Anhilpur City was twelve miles in circumference. M. — Murkha to sainsari majhe majhe karl, mrtyu barobarl himdatase. The fool in this life utters ' mine, mine ', while death is stalking alongside. B. — Se satya katha bale. He is speaking the truth. 2. Questions. V. — Kva tani nau sakhya babhuvuh ? Where has that friendship of ours gone ? fi'.— Kim karomi ? What shall I do ? ^.— Kya hu.a ? What is the matter ? Sac ? Truly ? a5 18 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR (i. — Su hu tane marta jou ? What, shall I see you die ? M. — Kavan te Bramha, kaisya nav karma, athva adhyatma kai mhanije ? Who is that Bramha, what is that name 'karma', what shall be described as the primordial soul? i?. — Ki haila ? What has happened ? Bate ? Is that so ? Apanar mat ei ? Do you think so ? 3. Desires. V. — Pari no heti rudrasya vrjyah. May the dart of Rudra pass us by. S.— Sivas te panthanah santu. May your paths be auspicious. H. — Aisa hi ho. Let it be so. G. — Taru rajya avo. Thy Kingdom come. M. — Kahi maya citti yeu dyavl. Let some affection enter your soul. B, — Eman-i haiik. Be it so. Tomar mukhe phul candan paruk. In thy mouth may flowers and sandal-wood fall. 4. Exclamations. S. — Citrani badhiro nama vyakaranam adhyesyati. Strange if a deaf man shall study grammar ! Aho gltasya madhuryam ! Ah, the sweetness of the song ! H. — Kya khub. How nice ! G. — Kevi sundar aurat ! What a lovely woman ! 31. — Ji RsT. Hail ! saint. B.—Bes ! Excellent ! Uttam ! Splendid ! E ki katha ! What a thing to say ! XI. Classification of Noun-Clauses (cf. § X). 1. Dependent Statements. S. — Janise tvam yatha raja samyagvrttali sada tvayi. You know that the king always dealt rightly with you. H. — Sac hai ki wuh awega. It is true that he will come. G. — Te avase evi man khatari che. I am sure she will come. M. — Asec ahe ase mala vatate. I think it is so. B. — Tumi ye amake apaman kariyacha, taha ekhan praka^ haiyache. It is now evident that you have insulted me» TERMS RECOMMENDED 19 2. Dependent Questions. S. — Niscayam nadhigacchami katham mucyeya. I cannot make out how I can be freed. H. — Mujhe kiiab ma^um hai ki us sanduq-me kya kya cize hai. I know quite well what is (lit. what things are) in that box. Cr. — Teone puchyii ke e su che. They asked what it was. M. — Te kay ahe mala saga. Tell me what it is. B. — Se ye ki haila jijnasa karila. He asked what had hap- pened. Bari yaibar path kothay khujiya dekha. Inquire which is the way to go home. 3. Dependent Desires. S. — Icchami bhuiijita bhavan. I desire [that] your worship take (or shall take) food. Asamse adhiyiya. I hope I may learn. II. — MaT-ne dar-khwasfc kl thi ki bha,i-ko riza mile. I sent an application that my brother might be given furlough. G. — Khabardar ke paghadi nahi kapso. Take care you do not cut the turban. 31. — Tu he karaves asec majhe magne ahe. I demand that you should do this. B. — Savadhan ye ihate kona truti na hay. Take care that there be no failing in this matter. 4. Dependent Exclamations. H. — Dekho wuh kaise tez daurte hai. See how fast they run. G. — Juo kevi sundar aurat che. Behold what a beautiful woman she is. M. — Paha ha kasa palun jato. See how he is running away. B. — Se keman boka dekha. See what a fool he is. Se beta ki kariyache dekha. See what the fellow has done. XII. Classification of Adverb-Clauses. In the following list only one example is given under each heading, except in no. 6 below. 1. Clauses of Time. H. — Jab kabhi fursat milti hai wuh mujh-se milta hai. He comes to see me whenever he has the opportunity. 20 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR 2. Clauses of Place. B. — Ye-khane Ram, se-khane Ayodhya. Where [is] Ram, there [is] Ayodhya. 3. Clauses of Cause. S. — Yad diisayanti mam, bhasmlbhuta bhavisyanti. Because they ill-treat me, they shall be turned to ashes. 4. Clauses of Purpose. V. — Havis krnusva subhago yatha asasi. Prepare the oblation that thou mayst be successful. S. — Kim sakyam kartuni yan na krudhyate nrpah. What can be done in order that the king be not angry ? 5. Clauses of Result. B. — Se eman klanta ye calite pare na. He is so tired that he cannot walk. 6. Clauses of Condition.^ (a) Open, i. e. without any implication as to fact or the fulfilment of the condition : — V. — Yajama devan, yadi saknavama. Let us worship the gods, if we shall be able. S. — Yadi jivati, bhadrani pasyati. If he lives, he will behold prosperity. H. — Agar wuh cor hai (or ho), to us-ko saza di-ja,egi. If he is (or be) the thief, then he will be punished. G. — Te jo cor che, to tenc saja malse. If he is the thief, then he will be punished, il/. — Ting pani nahi anile, tar to tici bhamdi phodi. If she did not bring water, he used to break her vessels. B. — Yadi amara pratijna kari, amara ai pratijha rakhi. If we make a promise, we keep it. Note. — The Main Clause (§ VIII, h) corresponding to an Open Clause of Condition is free, i. e. may speak of what is, was, or will be, or of what is desired, in the circumstances indicated. 1 A Complex Sentence (§ VI, 6) consisting of a Clause of Condition and a Main Clause (§ VIII, &) is called a Conditional Sentence. The two chief types of Conditional Sentences (found in all Indo-European languages) are shown above. TERMS RECOMMENDED 21 (6) With an implication that the condition is contrary to fact, or that the speaker does not vouch for its fulfilment : — S. — Suvrstis ced abhavisyad, durbhiksam nabhavisyat. If there had been abundant rain, there would have been no famine. H. — Agar wuh cor hota, to aisa na kahta. If he had been the thief, he would not have spoken thus. G. — Jo tene coksai kari hot, to avo vakhat avataj nahi. Had he made careful inquiry, such a time would never have come. M. — Apan sarvac paksi asto, tar apan pahije tethe jato. Were we all birds, we should go wherever we pleased. B, — Yadi amara pratijna karitam, amara ai pratijna rakhitam. If we were to make (or should make or made) a promise, we should keep it. Note. — The Main Clause corresponding to such a Clause of Condition speaks of what ivould he or tvould have been in other circumstances. 7. Clauses of Concession. S. — Yady api dhaniko bhaved ajno 'vamanyate. Even though he be rich, an ignorant man is despised. 8. Clauses of Comparison, (a) denoting Manner. H. — Jaisa karoge, waisa pa,oge. As you act, so will you experience. {b) denoting Degree. 6r. — Ane jem ame amara rnione maph karie chie tern tu amara rno amane maph kar. And forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. Note. — The term Absolute may be applied to the constructions called Nominative Absolute, Accusative Absolute, Dative Absolute, Ablative Absolute, Genitive Absolute, and Locative Absolute ; which constructions are equivalent to Adverb-Clauses : e.g. (Loca- tive Absolute) — F. — Ta vam adya huvema, uchantyam usasi. We would invoke you two to-day, dawn shining forth (= when dawn shines forth). ^S^. — Karnamdadatimayi bhasamane. 22 TERMINOLOGY Sz CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR She gives eur, I speaking ( = when I speak). G. — Thate prabhate uthjo. Dawn coming on, rise (= Rise when dawn comes on). B. PARTS OF SPEECH. XIII. There are eight parts of speech, as in European languages- Noun. Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Pre- and Post- position, Conjunction, Interjection. Note. — The terms ' Article ' and ' Numeral ' denote not separate parts of speech but subdivisions of Adjectives or Pronouns. XIV. Kinds of Noun. The terms ^ collective ', ' abstract ', * proper ' and ^ common ', ' animate ' and ' inanimate ', ' rational ' and • irrational ' are useful for the practical purpose of framing certain rules of grammar in the languages of India ; but the Committee deprecates the practice of classifying all Nouns under the heads ' abstract ', ' concrete ' ; ' proper ', ' common ', etc. XV. Classification of Pronouns. 1. Personal Pronouns. e. g. Engl. I ; V. mid S. aham ; H. mai ; G.hii; M.mi; B. ami. Honorific forms of the 2nd and the 3rd person. e. g. S. bhavan, Your Honour or His Honour (always used with the 3rd person of the verb) ; //. ap (always used with the 3rd person plural of the verb) ; G. ap (2nd person) ; M. apan (1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons) ; B. apani. Inclusive and exclusive forms of the 1st person plural. The personal pronouns denoting ' we ' in Gujarat! and Marathi, and in some of the languages of N.W. India which have come into contact with non-Aryan languages, but not in standard Hindo- stani or in Bengali, differ in form according as the person or persons associated with the speaker include or exclude the person or persons addressed by the speaker : — Inclusive forms (denoting ' I and you ' or ' we and you ') : G. apane ; M. apan. Exclusive forms (denoting ' I and he or she or they ' or * we and he or she or they ') : G. ame ; M. amhi. 2. Reflexive Pronouns, used obliquely with reference to the Subject of the sentence (as in the English ' He killed himself). TERMS RECOMMENDED 23 e. g. Fjugl. myself ; an oblique case of the following words is used : V. and S. atrnfi ; H. ^p ; G. pote ; M. apan, svatah ; B. apani, nij. 3. Emphasizing Pronouns. These have generally the same forms as the Reflexive Pronouns, but they differ from them in use (as in the English ' Be yourself % ' He said it himself '). S. — Manuh svayam abravit. Manu himself said. H. — MaT ap [or khwud) gay a. I myself went. G. — Hii pote gayo. I myself went. M. — Ml svatah te kele. I myself did it. B. — Ami nije (or svayam) iha karilam. I myself did this. 4. Demonstrative Pronouns. e. g. Engl, this ; F. and S. ayam, iyam, idam ; H. yih ; G. H, e ; M. ha, hi, he ; B. e, ei. 5. Interrogative Pronouns. e. g. Engl, who ; V. and S. kah, ka, kad (F.), and kim ; H. kaun ; G. kon ; M. kon ; B. ke. 6. Exclamatory Pronouns. e. g. Engl, what ! ; H. kya ! ; G. su ; M. kay ! ; B.k\\ 7. Relative Pronouns. e. g. Engl, who ; Y. and S. yah, ya, yad ; //. jo ; G. je ; M. jo, jl, je ; B. ye, yini. Note. — The Demonstrative Pronouns which correspond to Relative Pronouns may be called Correlatives. XVI. Transitive, Intransitive, and Impersonal Uses of Verbs. In view of the twofold use of many verbs the terms Transitive and Intransitive should be applied to uses rather than to classifi- cation, i. e. it is better to speak of a verb used transitivelf/ or intransitively than to speak of a transitive or an intransitive verb. And similarly it is better to speak of a verb used impersonally than to speak of an impersonal verb. Examples : Used transitively Used intransitively He moved the rock. The earth moves. Birds build nests. Birds build in spring. 24 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR S. — Annam atti. He eats food. G. — Hu dumgar cadhyo. I climbed the hill. BI. — Tj^ane ghar modale. He broke down the house. B. — Ami umar ban dekhai. Let me show you my house. Sva dantair atti. The dog eats with his teeth. Hu cadhyo. I climbed. Ghar modale. The house broke down. Se bhala dekhay na. He does not look well. Used impersonally/ : S. — Deva, sruyatam. Sire, listen (lit. let it be heard). G. — Aje thare che. It is freezing to-day. M. — Majhya potat kalmalate. I feel ill (lit. It heaves) in the stomach. B. — Dekha } atik. Let it be seen, i. e. let us see. XVIL The term ' active ' is not to be used in the sense of * transitive ', and the term ' neuter ' is to be given up altogether in connexion with Verbs. XVIII. The term Auxiliary Verb is to be retained in its ordinary sense, and Verbs that are not auxiliary are to be described as Verbs with full meaning. XIX. Classification of Adverbs derived from pronominal stems. [In the following scheme only Vedic and Sanskrit ex- amples are given ; but the scheme applies to the corresponding words in the modern vernaculars.] Interrogative kada, when kva, ki'itra, where, whither kutah, whence ^ katham, katha (F.), how karhi, in what cir cumstances Indefinite kadacid, at some (any) time kvacid, kutracid, some (any) where, some (any) whither kuta^cid, from some (any) where ^ kathamcid, some (any) how karhicid, in some (any) circum- stances Relative* yada, when yatra, where, whither yatah, whence ^ yatha, as, that, so that yadi, if ^ D emonstrative often correlative) tada(nlm\ then ida(nim), now tiitra, amutra, there, thither titra, here, hither ttitah, ami'itah, thence ^ atah, hence ^ tcltlia, ittha (F.), ittham, iti, evam, so, thus tarhi, then etarhi, in these circumstances * The Adverbs in this column are derived from the Relative Pronoun. 2 This series may also express cause, like kasmdd, etc., p. 25. ' 'If is also expressed by words from other stems, e.g. ced, atha (= or if). TERMS RECOMMENDED 25 ^ , „ . Demonstrative Interrogative Indefinite Relative ^of^en correlative) kim, in regard to yad, whereas, that tad, thereupon, what, why thus etad, in regard to this kasinfid, from kasmaccid, from yasmad, where- tasmad, therefore, what cause some (any) fore, since. etasmad, be- cause because cause of this kena, in regard to kenacid, in some yena, so that, in tena, etena, what l^any) regard order that accordingly XX. Co-ordinating Conjunctions. Engl, — and, nor, or, but, for (in modern English). V. S)' S. — ca. and ; va, or ; na va, nor ; tii, but ; hi, for. //. — aur, and ; na, nor ; ya, or ; lekin, but. G. — ane, ne, and ; ke, athva, or ; pan, paramtu, but. M. — ani, va, and ; athva, kimva, or ; paramtu, pan, but. B. — o, ar, evaiii, and ; ki, athava, or ; kintu, but. XXI. — Words corresponding to the English ^ both ' (followed by ' and '), * neither ' (followed by ' nor '), ' either ' (followed by ' or ') may also be called Co-ordinatiny Conjunctions : 1 . 4* S. — ca . . . . ca, both .... and ; va . . . . va, either .... or. H. — bhi .... aur bhi, both .... and ; na . . . . na, neither .... nor ; ya . . . . ya, either .... or. G. — kato .... kato, either . ... or ; kato nahi .... kato nahi, neither .... nor. [In M. and generally in G. a periphrasis conveying the meaning ' (n)either .... (n)or * is used, and similarly for ' both .... and ' in both languages.] B. — va . . . . va, either .... or ; na .... na, neither .... nor. XXII. No words which can reasonably be treated as Adverbs should be included among Co-ordinating Conjunctions ; it bein;; recognized that some Adverbs qualify the sentence as a whole and not any single word in it. in which case they may be called Sentence Adverbs. Such words as the following may be so used : V. tf" S. — tena, accordingly, therefore ; tatha, thus; api,even, also. II. — is-liye. therefore ; lihaza, consequently. G. — mate, waste, therefore ; tathapi. to, topan, nevertheless ; wall, biju, moreover. M. — mhanun, yastav, therefore ; tathapi, tarl, nevertheless ; anakhl, moreover. B. — ataev, therefore ; tave, in that case ; tathapi, tathaca, never- theless ; o. aro, also. 26 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR XXIII. Groups of words like the English 'because of, 'owing to', 'as to', 'out of are to be called Compound Pre- or Post-positions ; e.g. //. par-se, ' from on ', me-ka, ' of in ' = belong- ing to the interior of; G. mathl (ma + thl), 'from in '=out of; M. varun [var + un], *from on'=off; B. kach theke, 'from near ' = oif . C. FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS. XXIV. Cases. (1) The traditional names (Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive, and Locative) are to be maintained for the Sanskrit cases and for their representatives in the modern vernaculars. Note. — These names indicate only imperfectly the function of the several cases in the structure of the sentence. In particular the terms Ablative and Instrumental must be understood as covering in some of the languages more than their literal significa- tion implies. The Ablative denotes in some languages not only separation and comparison but also conjunction, cause, and other ideas. The Instrumental denotes not only the instrument but in some languages the agent ; and it has also the meaning of accompaniment. (2) In addition to the above eight cases there is to be recognized in certain languages an Agentive case ; which Agentive case is in certain languages (e. g. in Marathi and Gujarat!) identical with the Instrumental. (3) In the modern vernaculars two kinds of case-formation are to be recognized : (a) Inflected forms derived from Sanskrit or developed from other sources in modern times. These may be called ' Cases '. (&) Phrases formed with certain postpositions and equivalent in meaning ih Sanskrit cases. These may be called ' Case- TERMS RECOMMENDED 27 phrases ' in a limited sense of that term. Such a combination of a postposition with the case of a noun or pronoun, if it is equivalent to a Dative, may be called a ' Dative-phrase ' ; if to a Genitive, a ' Genitive-phrase ', and so forth. Note. — Besides these Case-phrases there are many phrases formed with post^Dositions which enter into the sentence with an adverbial or adjectival function, but have no relation to the case- system ; just as in English and other European languages, ancient and modern, there are many phrases formed with prepositions which are not equivalent to any of the recognized cases. (4) The form which in some of the languages a noun may take in the oblique cases before certain suffixes or postpositions, or which may be used without any postposition to indicate certain syntactical relations, and which is sometimes called the samanya rupa (lit. ' general form '), is to be called the ' General Oblique Case ' or, shortly, the ' Oblique Case '. XXV. Tenses and Moods. Vedic has seven tenses and four moods (not counting the Injunctive). Classical Sanskrit has the same tenses and moods as Vedic, except that (1) the Past Perfect tense has fallen into disuse, (2) the Subjunctive mood has disappeared from view, owing to the fact that the 2nd and 3rd i3ersons of that mood (singular, dual, and plural) have been lost, and the 1st persons of all three numbers have been incorporated by grammarians in the Imperative mood. In the modern Indo-Aryan languages no mood is recognized except the Imperative. In naming the tenses of these languages we therefore avoid all mention of mood, except when dealing with the Imperative.^ A characteristic feature of the tense-system of these modern languages is that few of the original Sanskrit tenses have survived ^ Marathi and Gujarat! form a special Conditional Past tense by slightly changing the terminations of the Indefinite Imperfect, and some languages of the north-west, such as Lahnda and Kashmiri, also form a similar tense by adding a defining syllable, to the Old Present. The term 'conditional' is here used in a wide sense, to cover the use of this tense in both the clauses of conditional sentences with an implication of unreality or reserve, and also its use in unrealized wishes and in expressions of what was to be done or should have been done. If it is desired, in these circumstances, to call this Conditional Past a Past Conditional, thereby acknowledging the existence of a Conditional Mood in these four languages, the Committee does not oppose the suggestion. 28 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR and that instead of them Participles, with or without pronomi- nal suffixes or terminations, are used either alone or with an auxiliary verb as finite tenses. It is therefore of prime importance to select suitable names for these Participles, as a foundation to work upon ; and it is fortunate that an ideal nomenclature, ah'eady partly adopted l^y some of the most eminent writers on Indian languages, presents itself. These Participles mark not the time of an action, but its stage or aspect as incomplete, completed, or in prospect. They may therefore be distinguished as (i) imperfect,^ (ii) perfect, (iii) prospective. These terms are clearer than the terms ' i^resent ', ^ past ', and * future ', which have to be understood as denoting relative time, i.e. present, past, and future relatively to the time of speaking or to the time spoken of. Of these participles, the imperfect and the perfect are far the most important. Sanskrit has a prospective participle (active and passive), and also three gerund adjectives, each of which is a kind of passive prospective participle (with a sense of obligation) ; but in the modern Indo-Aryan languages, as in English, it may be said that they have no prospective participle active ; for the forms some- times used in this sense are proj^erly nouns of agency, such as the Hindostani calnewala. MarathT cCilndr. ' a goer '. On the other hand, most of them have Gerund Adjectives, directly derived from one or other of the Sanskrit forms, which are freely used as Prospective Participles, Passive or Active.' These participles are not necessarily adjectival. Indian gram- marians class them under the apj)ro2:)riate name of noun, in- eluding under that term both nouns substantive and nouns adjective. As nouns substantive, they are capable of being declined, so that we frequently meet them in oblique cases, corresponding to such forms as the English ' on going ', ' a-going '. In their capacity as adjectives these participles may also be ^ The term 'imperfect' i.s here used in its proper sense, to denote in- completeness of action. Similarly, the finite tenses called ' iniperfect ' below (II. B. a) simply mark the action as not completed, i, e. either as going oyi (con- tinuously) or as habitual, and may be indefinite as to time, or may be Present, Past, or Future, according to the time that they denote — finite tenses mark- ing both the stage of the action and its time. See pp. 33, 34. - Even in languages which have abandoned the use of these Gerund Adjectives as such (e.g. Bengali) we find them used as the bases of finite Lenses. TERMS RECOMMENDED 29 distinguished according to their use as (i) Predicative and (ii) Epithetic. English examples of the predicative usage are ' he is fjoing \ ' he is gone % and of the epithetic usage ' a going concern ' and the slang ' a gone coon '. Some of the modern Indo- Aryan languages differ from the languages of Euroj^e in having distinct forms of the Perfect Participle for these two usages. A great number of tenses can be formed by the use of auxiliaries with these participles. Such auxiliary verbs are verbs meaning ' be ' ; the root /to-, when it means ' become ' ; the root jd-, ' go ' ; and the roots rah- (or rah-) and thcik-, both meaning ' remain '. With these and others, the tense-list might be indefinitely extended, and could never be looked upon as definitely complete. After consideration, we have decided to limit our list of participial tenses to those formed either by the jjarticiples standing alone (with or without personal suffixes or terminations), or by the participles united to the present, past, and future tenses of the verbs meaning *be'. In this we follow the general Indian custom. The exact force of many of the so-called tenses formed with other auxiliaries is still a matter of discussion, the decision of which lies outside the province of our investigations. In addition to the three above-mentioned participles there is a fourth, commonly called the Conjunctive Participle, as, for example, the Hindostani cal{-ke), Gujarat! cdU{-ne), Marathi cdlim, all generally translatable by ' having gone ', although that is not necessarily the sense in which they are used by an Indian. Indian grammarians do not look upon this as a participle, but consider it to be a finite form indicating a time previous to that of the main verb of the sentence. By its origin, which is very ancient, it is a gerund, but this fact has been lost sight of for centuries. Strictly speaking, from any point of view, it is not a participle at all, though capable of being translated by an English participle ; but, as the name ' Conjunctive Participle ' is sanctioned by general use, and has for many years been established in India, we have thought it best to retain the familiar api^ellation, in spite of its acknowledged incorrectness. A fifth participle with somewhat similar force has, in some languages, been formed in modern times by putting the perfect participle into some oblique case. Its use is not unlike that of the ablative absolute in Latin ; but in India it is recognized as a distinct non-finite form, and, following the analogy of the related 30 TERMINOLOGY Sc CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR ' Conjunctive Participle ', we have given it the name Absolute Participle. The following tables exhibit the terms recommended for the chief forms, non-finite and finite, of the verbal root cal- or cdl- denoting ' go ', * move ', in (I) Vedic and Sanskrit, (II) HindostanT, GujaratT, Marathl, and Bengali. In the finite tenses the 3rd person singular is quoted, except in the Imperative mood, where the 2nd person is substituted, as the most important form; but this method of quoting is not to be understood as implying that the Imperative tenses have no other persons. I. VEDIC AND SANSKRIT. «MS" The forms with an asterisk are found only in Vedic. Italics denote forms supplied from roots other than cal-. Non-finite Forms. Infinitive : ' to go ' ; calitum, calitave*, calitavai*, caladhyai*. Imperfect Participle : ' going ' ; calant ; Middle, calamana. Perfect Participle: {A) Declinable (i) celivams, ^ having gone ' ; Middle, celana. (ii) calita, ' gone ' ; Jirta, ' done ' (Passive, from root Jcr-). (B) Indeclinable calitva, calitvaya*, calitvl*, -calya, ' having gone '. These forms correspond in usage to the forms called ' Conjunctive ' in the modern languages. Aorist Participles (rare, Vedic only) : (i) 5- aorist : calsant*, 'going'', originally 'having just gone', (ii) a- aorist (second aor.): from root kic- ; siicant^ (Act.), sucamana/^ (Middle), ' shining '. (iii) root-aorist : from root kr- ; Jcrant"^ (Act.), krdna* (Middle) ' doing '. Prospective Participle : ' about to go ' ; calisyant ; Middle and Passive, calisyamana. Gerund Adjective (Passive) : Mrya * due to be done ' ; also used impersonally, like the Latin eundum ; calya, calayya*, calenya*, calitva*, calitavya, calamya. Finite Forms. 1. Present Indicative : ' he goes ', ' he is going ' ; calati. ,, Subjunctive: 'he go', 'he is to go'; calati*, calat*. ,, Optative: 'may he go', 'he would go'; calet. ,, Imperative: 'gothou'(2ndpers. sing.); cala, calatat. TERMS RECOMMENDED 31 2. Future Indicative : ' he will go ' ; calisyati. Periphrastic form (1st pers. sing.) : calitasrai, lit. ' I am a goer (about to go) '. 3. Past Indicative : ' he went ' ; acalat. 4. Perfect Indicative : ' he has (is) gone ', ' he went ' ; cacfila. „ Subjunctive: 'he have (be) gone': cacalati*, cacalat*. ,, Optative : ' may he go ' ; cacalyat". ,, Imperative: 'begone'; cacaldhi*. 5. Aorist Indicative : ' he has (is) gone ' in Vedic, ' he went ' in Sanskrit ; (i) s- aorist ; acalslt, acallt. (ii) reduplicated aorist : aclcalat. ,, Subjunctive: (i) 5- aorist: calsati*, calisat*. (ii) red. aor. : clcalati*. ,, Optative: (i) s- aor. calslta * (Middle only). (ii) red. aor. : cTcalet*. „ Imperative : (i) s- aor. : calsa ', caliddhi*. (ii) red. aor. : cicalatat*. 6. Future in the past : ' he would go ' : acalisyat. 7. Past Perfect Indicative : * he went ' ; acacalat*. Notes on Vedic and Sanskrit Terms. (a) The Subjunctive mood has disappeared from Classical Sanskrit. For the 2nd and 3rd persons (singular, dual, and plural) have been lost, and the 1st persons have been incorporated in the Imperative Mood. (&) The third tense of the Indicative is commonly called ' Imperfect ", but this name does not describe its function. It is a tense of past time, and the name ' Past ' covers all its uses ; for * Past ' is not exclusive of ' Imperfect ', though it includes more than imperfect meanings. The form acalat thus receives the same name as the English form ' went ', to which it corresponds in range of meaning. See Introduction, p. 6. (c) The fourth tense of the Indicative is called ' Perfect ' (not * Present Perfect '), because, like the Latin and the French and the German Perfect, it may be used as a Past Historic in narration {cacdla= ' he went '). (d) The term ' Future in the past ' (the sixth tense) describes accurately the formation of a-calisya-t (an augmented future with secondary personal inflexion). In the Brahmana period this tense is used not only in its original sense of futurity from a past point 82 TERMINOLOGY S: CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR of view (denoting what tvas about to happen), but also as corre- sponding in past time to the Present Optative in present time: when so used, it denotes (i) conditioned futurity, i. e. what would be or tvould have been, in the main clause of a certain type of conditional sentence — here like the ' Future in the past ' of French ; (ii) supposition with an implication of unreality or reserve in the if-clause of this type of conditional sentence. See above § XII. 6. (e) The term ' Past Perfect ' (the seventh tense) describes only the form a-cacala-t. In meaning this Vedic tense is equivalent to the Past in some instances and to the Aorist in others. II. THE FOUR MODERN LANGUAGES. Non-Finite Forms. Meaning in English Hindostam GujaratI Marathi Bengali Gerund (de- * [a or the] calna calvii calnS calan, noting ' the going' caliba- ^ act of — ') Infinitive ' to go ' calne ^ calva2 calu, cala(va)yas ' calite * Imperfect ' going ' calta calto calat, calta calite 2 Participle Perfect Participle Predica- cala calyo calala cala, caliva* tive ' gone ' [oalil 7] Epithetic cala hua calelo * calalela cala Gerund ' Adjective Prospective ' due to • go' • calna - calvano ^ cala(va)yaca* calava -[caliba- '0] Participle J Conjunctive ' having cal(-ke, cali(ne) calun caliya Participle gone' -kar- ke) Absolute * having .. . calalyas *^ calile" Participle gone ' Noun of ' a goer ' calnewala, calnar(o) calnar(a) • >• Agency '' calnehara ^ Used only in the oblique cases, e.g. calibdr, * of going'. 2 Oblique of the Gerund. ' Dative of the Prospective Participle. * Locative of the Imperfect Participle used as a noun. 5 Always used in this locative form, like the English * a-going'. ^ Indeclinable. ' Used only as the base of the Indefinite Perfect and, in the Locative, to form the Absolute Participle. * Also used predicatively. ^ Genitive of the Prospective Participle. 1° Used only as the base of the Future tense. 11 Dative of the Perfect Participle. 1" Locative of the Perfect Participle calil ; see note 7. 1° Often used with the force of a Prospective Participle Active, * about to go' . TERMS RECOMMENDED 33 Finite Forms. (A). Radical Tenses. ' Radical Tenses * are tenses directly descended from tenses of the ancient Indian languages represented in literature by Sanskrit. Meaning in English Hindostanl Gujarat! MarathI Benga Old Present * cale cale cale cale Habitual Past ' he used to ... ... cale' ... Compound go ' he goes ', cale hai cale che ... form of the 'he is go- Old Present ing' Future ' he will go ' eale-ga calse calel s IMPERATIVE Present ' go thou ' cal cal cal cal Polite Present ' please go ' caliye calje ... calun * Polite Future 'you will please go ' caliye-ga ... ... calio (B). Participial Tenses, {a) Tenses formed from Imperfect Participles. Meaning in English Hindostanl Gujarat! Marathi Bengal Indefinite Imperfect ' he goes ', \ ' he used to calto ^ calto * Conditional Paste §0 ' had he gone ', he would have -calta calat, calte calta 'calita Present Imperfect gone ' 'he is going', * he goes ' calta hai (calto nath!)' calat ahe caliteche 1 The customary employment of this tense varies from language to language. Its equivalent in English is alternatively * he goes ', * he go ', ' ho will go '. In some languages (e.g. Kashmiri "i the Old Present is the only means of expressing futurity. ^ A bye-form of the Old Present, but conjugated differently. ' In Bengali the Future is formed from the Prospective Participle ; see below (c). * Third person, used politely for the second. ' In some languages this is a Future, * he will go '. " When used as a Conditional Past in the two clauses of a conditional sentence, this tense indicates the non-occurrence of the condition in past time, as in the English • if ho had gone, he would have gone to London '. Compare note 1, p. 27, on the term ' conditional '. ' Used as an Habitual Past Imperfect ; cf. note 1, p. 28. ^ Used as a Present Imperfect. ^ 'He does not go'. For the corresponding affirmative sentences, the Compound form of the Old Present (Head A) is used. 34 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR Hindostani Meaning in English Past * he was go- calta tha Imperfect ing ' Future ' he will be calta hoga Imperfect ^ going ' GujaratI Marathi Bengali calto hato calat hota calitechila calto ha^e calat asel ...' (b) Tenses formed from Perfect Participles. Hindostani cala Meaning in English Indefinite ' he went ' Perfects Present ' he has (is) cala hai Perfect gone ' Past 'he had (was) cala tha Perfect gone ' * Future ' he will cala hoga Perfect^ have (be) gone' GujaratI calyo calyo (or calelo) che calyo (or calelo) hato calyo (or calelo) ha^e Marathi Bengali calala calila calala ahe caliyache oalala hota caliyachila calala asel ...^ (c) Tenses formed from Prospective Participles. GujaratI Marathi calave "^ Meaning in English Hindo- stani Bengali ® A O a ^ "a cn cS ei a> r^ s 103 a eS o calvano ^ cala(va)yaca ^ calibe ^^ Indefinite (i) With the Prospective sense of ob- ligation or necessity, 'he (is or waa) to go' (ii) With the sense of pure futurity, ' he (is or was) about to go ' ^ Often used as a Present of Probability, ' he may be going ', ' he probably is going '. 2 Bengali uses caliyd thdkibe with this force. ^ Generally used as a Past, or Past Historic, but sometimes in other past senses. ■* Or, ' he went at some distant past time '. ^ Often used as a Past of Probability, ' he may have gone ', * he probably has gone '. ^ Bengali uses caliyd thdkibe with this force. "^ A secondary meaning of cdJdv^ is ' he used to go ' ; another meaning, with a change of construction, is * he might go '. ^ The Noun of Agency cdlndr{o) may be substituted for cdlvdno throughout this column, i.e. with the meaning of pure futurity (ii). ^ The Noun of Agency cdlndr may be substituted for cdld(va)ydcd throughout this column, i.e. with the meaning of pure futurity (ii). ^° This tense, denoting ' he will go ', is to be called Future in Bengali : of. note 3, p. 33. For * he is to go ' Bengali substitutes calite hay, and so in the other tenses of this group . TEEMS RECOMMENDED 35 Gujarat! Marathi Bengali Present Prospective [calna hai]i Past Prospective calvanu che calvano che calvanu hatu calvano hato calvanu ha^e cala(va)yace ahe cala(va)yaca ahe calave-hote or cala(va)yace hote cala(va)yaca hota cala(va)yace asel Meaning Hindo- in English stani (i) With the sense of obli- gation or ne- cessity, ' he istogo' ( = he has to go) (ii) With the sense of pure futurity, 'he is about to go' (i) With the sense of obli- gation or ne- cessity, ' he was to go ' ( = he had to go) (ii) With the [calna sense of pure tha] futurity, *he was about to go' Future (i) With the Prospective sense of pro- bable obliga- tion or ne- cessity, ' he may have to go' (ii) With the sense of pure future pro- bability, 'he maybe about to go ' or * he may be go- ing ' XXVI. The Prayogas.— Intimately connected with the con- jugation of the verb in the modern Indo- Aryan languages is the question of what are called Prayogas by Indian grammarians. We consider that the best English equivalent of this term is Con- structions. There are four in number, viz.— (1) The Kartari Prayoga— the Active Construction— as in H. aurat gai, G. stri ga% M. strl gelt, B. strl gela, ' the woman went '. (2) The Karmani Prayoga— the Passive Construction— as in H. us-ne Utah parM, G. tene Mtab vaci, M. tyam pothi vaciU, 1 The forms given in square brackets in this column are not shown in grammars of Hindostani, being there treated as phrases under the head ot syntax. [calna hoga] calvano ha^e cala(va)yaca asel 36 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR ^ by him a book was read ', equivalent in meaning to ' he read a book '. (3) The Bhcwe Prayoga — the Impersonal Construction — as in H. Rdm-tte Bdvan-Jco mdra, M. Bdmdne Rdvands mdrile, 'by Rama killing was done to Ravana', equivalent in meaning to 'Rama killed Ravana'. [Not used in Gujaratl.] (4) A fourth construction, which Indian grammarians look upon as a variety of the Karmani Prayoga, is found in Gujaratl and Rajasthani, and is sometimes used in Marathi ; e.g. G. tene rdnlne mdrl, ' by him to the queen she was killed ' equivalent in meaning to ' he killed the queen '. We call this the Mixed Construction. Bengali has four vdcyas or locutions which more or less resemble the prayogas of the other languages. These are (1) Jcartr-vdcya, (2) karmma-vdcyaj (3) bhdva-vdcya, (4) Tiartr-harmma-vdcya. SIGNATURES. !E. a. Sonnenschein (Chairman), J. D. Anderson. L. D. Barnett. W. DODERET. George A. Grierson. A. A. Macdonell. J. W. Neill. D. C. Phillott. E. Denison Ross. R. C. Temple. F. W. Thomas. Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe. Note. — Dr. Thomas signs 'with reservations as to (1) details and omissions, (2) XXV, pp. 28 and 30 (the Sanskrit Perfect Participle as 'perfect')? (3) some points in the Introduction '. TERMS RECOMMENDED 87 APPENDIX. EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE ON MODERN LANGUAGES Uniform Grammatical Terminology. § 201 (p. 55). It is greatly to be wished that the grammatical nomenclature used for all languages should be so far as possible identical. It is specially important that it should be so within schools where more than one language is taught. A uniform terminology brings into relief the principles of structure common to all allied languages ; needless variation of terms conceals the substantial unity. We are convinced, for instance, that the widely different systems commonly used for Latin and French must lead to error and confusion of thought. Already good work has been done in this direction, but it has not yet received adequate recognition or support. In 1909 eight important Associations representative of those interested in teaching English and foreign languages as well as of every section of those responsible for such instruction in Secondary Schools combined to set up a Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology. That Committee produced a Report which we have had before us in a revised form which was agreed upon in 1911. Since then a Standing Committee appointed by the same bodies has watched and promoted the movement for reform. The Report provides uniform grammatical terminology for English, French, German, Latin, and Greek ; it is claimed that the same terminology is also applicable to other languages of the Indo-European family such as Russian, Spanish, and Italian. The terminology recommended has been adopted in several grammars of English, French, and Latin, and also as the basis of teaching in many Secondary Schools, though in only a small fraction of the whole number. While not committing ourselves to all the details of this scheme, we attach the highest importance to uniform nomenclature for grammar, and are of opinion that it is more necessary that the terminology should be uniform than that it should be free from all defects. The scheme of the Committee is consistent and well thought out ; we recommend it for careful consideration as it stands ; but it would 38 TERMINOLOGY & CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR ])e possible for individual schools, while adopting the main outlines of the Report, to make modifications in detail. In any event, we trust that uniformity in the use of grammatical terms, at least within each several school, will become at no distant date the rule and not the exception. We would go further and say that, in view of the frequent passage of pupils from one school to another by the migration of their parents, it is desirable that the greatest possible measure of general unanimity should be secured. In view of the present and prospective increase in the number of languages studied in schools, reform is urgently needed ; and, as a simple measure to further it, we recommend that in the tests for Certifi- cates for teachers in modern languages suggested by us in paragraphs 187 and 188 uniform grammatical nomenclature should be required. But it also seems to us that the eight great Associations which combined to set up the Joint Committee could do much to forward a general consensus. The Board of Education for England and Wales in their Memorandum on the Teaching of Modern Languages (circular 797) do not mention the subject. Printed in England at the Oxford University Press. A NEW GRAMMAR SERIES BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY By E. a. Sonnenschein A NEW ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Exercises by Edith Archibald. 1916. Part I. Parts of Speech and Outlines of Analysis. Pp. 88. is. 3d. net. Part II. (a) Kinds of Pronouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs ; (b) Forms and their chief meanings. Pp. 148. is. gd. net. Part III. (a) Structure of Sentences and Clauses; (6) Uses of Forms. Pp. 190. 2s. net. The three parts complete in one volume. Pp. 420. 4s. 6d. net. ' A book of national importance. . . . Part I seems about as near perfection as any Grammar we are likely to get can be. It is quite short, and gives just the minimum which every child must learn. . . . Miss Archibald's exercises are excellent throughout. She shows remarkable inventiveness and versatility, backed by very good judgement; and manages to make her questions more uniformly interesting than one would have thought possible.' — Oxford Magazine. ' These books may be recommended as models of arrangement and for clearness of type.' — Schoolmistress. A NEW FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1912. Pp.212. 3s.net. Accidence, with some preliminary syntax, pp. 95 ; Syntax, pp. 106. Af)- pendix (translation of French grammatical terms), Index. ' Une merveille de clarte et de forte erudition. , . . On trouve dans ce volume une veritable mine de locutions fran9aises idiom.atiques donnees en exemples, grammaticaux avec la traduction anglaise en regard, et ceci peut etre fort utile pour ceux qui s'exercent au theme en vue d'un examen.' — Les Lattgues modernes (Ch. Veillet-Lavallee, Tresorier de TAssociation des Professeurs de langues vivantes de I'enseignement public). ' The arrangement of the Accidence is simple and good. . . . The book will no doubt be largely used by those who aim at keeping up to date in their methods of instruction.' Secondary Educaii'on, Second edition revised. A NEW LATIN GRAMMAR. 1914. Pp. 266. 3s. net. Also in two parts : — A First Latin Grammar for Schools. 19 15. Pp. 126. 2s. net. A Latin Syntax for Schools. 1915. Pp. 168. 2s. net. 'The accidence is ... as brief as is compatible with an adequate treatment of regular forms, all ii regularities being reserved, so far as possible, for an appendix. An admirable, and in many of its details an original treatment of the principal parts of verbs has been adopted. . . . An immense gain in simplicity and clearness is due to Professor Sonnen- schein's method of treating the subjunctive. . . . Professor Sonnenschein is to be con- gratulated heartily upon a book which marks so distinct an advance in the teaching of Latin grammar.'— R. M. Henry, Professor of Latin in the Queen's University, Belfast. U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES dIVJiGo UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY