UC-NRLF $B 3Qk, i'ia K JE Z- r^ English Grammar O.P. aUACKENBOS LL.D. K ^Y^ N m rBRARY I pnTTr*rrinM*T ,/?^C^^^5^;^^*-^ ^^A^y N,v«MTY, , EDUCATIONAL WORKS CAUFO«NlA nmikmr^w, *«». ENGLISH Ilectual Philosophy. Appletons' Readers : First Reader. Second Reader. Third Reader. Fourth Reader. Fifth Reader. Int't Fourth Reader. Appletons' Chart Primer. Elementary Reading Charts. Patent Blap and Chart Supporter. New Elementary Geog^raphy. Higher Geography. Physical Geography. Appletons' Standard Arithmetics : I. Numbers Illustrated, II. Numbers Applikd. Appletons' Penmanship : Lead Pencil Course. Short Course. Tracing Courss. Grammar Course. Appletons' liVriting Charts. With Supporter. Arnott's Physics. Atkinson's Ganot's Natural Pliilosophy. Ayres's Orthoepist (School Edition). Bain's Composition and Rhetoric. (Old Edition.) Part I. (New Edition.) Mental Science. Moral Science. l4>gic. Education as a Science. On Teaching English. Baldwin's Art of School Management. Elementary Psychology and Education. Ballard's Words, and how to put them together. Word W^riter. Pieces to Speak. Bentley's Physiological Botany. Bowen's Astronomy by Observation. Brewster's First Book of Chemistry. Bright's Graded Instruction in English. Bryant licaflets. Clark's L. L. L., or Fifty I.aw Lessons. Clark's Elements of Chemistry. Chichester's Original-Drawing Book. Choate's Elements of English Speech. Coe's Drawing Cards. Cornell's Primary Geography. Intermediate Geography. Physical Geography. First Steps in Geography. - Map-Drawing Cards. j^r^ ED U CA TIOXA L WORKS. CuriifirK St'rieH of Outline Maps. DeCiraflT'H KxcroiHv Hook. DennlM'H Study of L<*a«-eH. Deschauel's Natural PhiloMophy. By J. D. Everbtt. Four Parts. Kverett's OutUueti uf Natural rhlloKophy. Froebel's Kducation of Man. Edited by W. N. Hailxann. Glll(.*Mpi«'H Treatise on Surveying. By Profeeaor Cadt Stalkt. GUinore'M KngliMh I.4ingruas:e and Literature. LorIc. Green'H Slate Drawing Cards. 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Johonnot's Geographical Reader. Sentence and Word Book. Principles and Practice of Teaching. Johonnot and Routon's Klenientary Phyhiology. Kiehle's New Practical Arithmetic. Krilsl's System of Drawing. Ka««y Lessons. Three Parts. Synthetic .Series. Four Books and Manual. ' Analytic Series. Four Books and Manual. Perspective .Series. Four Books and Manual. Supplementary Series. Six Books. Drawing Tablets. Textile Designs. By Charles Eastnbh. Six BooBS. Outline and Relief Designs. By E. C. Clbavbs. Six Books. Mechanical Drawing. By F. B. Morsb. Six Books. Architectural Drawing. By Charles Babcock. Nine Books. lAarle's Rise of Universities. I^anghlln's Klements of Political Kconomy. Study of Political Kconomy. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/englishgrammarOOquacrich '■ "Nv AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, BY G. P. QUACKENBOS, LL. D., rBWcrPAt or "Tn« collfoiatb bchool," k. t. ; authob of "ftrbt LnsoKS in OOMPOSmON," " ADVANCED CO0B8B OF COMPOSITION AND RIIETOEIC," **A IfATCRAL PHIL080PHT," "ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTOKT OF TUE UNITED STATES," " PRIMARY UtSTOBT OF TUS UNITED STATES," EIO. ^ JOHN S. Pi^ELL NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 8, AKD 6 BOND STREET. 1888. By the same Author : FIRBT LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : In which the Principles of the Art are developed in connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo., pp. 182. ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC : A Series of Practical Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities of the English Language, Punctuation, Taste, Figures, Style and its Essential Properties, Criticism, and the various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition. 12mo., pp. 461. I^LLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: Embracing a full Account of the Aborigines, Biographical Notices of Distinguished Men, nu- merous Maps, Plans of Battle-fields, and Pictorial Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 473 PEIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES : Made easy and interesting for Beginners. Child's Quarto, splendidly illustrated, pp. 192. A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY: Embracing the most recent Discoveries in Physics. Adapted to use with or without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practiodi £Kercises and 335 Illustrations. 12mo., pp. 450. £^ctuLeW)oi^ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S62, by G. P. QUACKENBOS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Add to Lib. GIFT CONTENTS I. I. IL III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XI.X. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII, XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XMI. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVIL Word* Lettora, Syllablofl, Worda, Sentences . Cla«8iflcation of Letters Accent.— Primitive, Derivative, and Compound Formation of Derivatives.— Iiuteparable Root« Preflxea ..... Suffixes ...... Annlysia of Words .... Rules of Spelling .... Syllabication .... Forms of the Letters .... The Parts of Speech Nouns and their Cla«se« Subdivisions of Common Nouns The Person of Nouns .... The Number of Noun3 Irrcgrular Plurals .... Plural of Compound and Complex Nouns Plural of Foreign Nouns Nouns not used in both Numbers The Gender of Nouns .... Masculine and Feminine Correlatives The Case of Nouns, .... The Declension of Nouns The Pronoun.— Personal Pronouns . Rules for Nouns and Pronouns . Parsing Forms for Nouns and Pronouns . Simple Relative Pronouns Compound Relative Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns Adjective Pronouns .... The Article ..... Adjectives and their Classes . Comparison of Adjectives Irregular Comparlhon .... A Written Exercise Verbs and their Classes Voice Proport»e« of Verbs. —Mood.— Tense T' • • ' vo Mood and Its Tenses 'I Mood and its Tenses . 'I "ivc and Imperative Mood . Ttie Iittiiiitive Mood.— Person and Number of Participles Construction of Participle* . Auxiliaries.- B«, Aar« Tlio Auxiliaries at teaches as how to put wordrt to- gether, to ozprcM thoaghti correctly I How mr.y thouKhta be made known f What, ihtn, ioet Grammar teach un ? What dues EtJtrlish Qrammir leach ua f What ia a Wurdt Qlvs aa example. Uuw are worda eombiuedr Oive an 8 LETTEES. — SYLLABLES. Thus, the word rose is a sign that stands for the queen of flowers. The word village is a sign that stands for a small collection of houses. To express thoughts, words, which are the signs of distinct ideas, are combined in Sentences. When I saj, " The rose is sweet," I express one thought, with four words combined in one sentence. 3. Letters. — When spoken, a word is a sound or combination of sounds. When written, a word is a character or combination of characters, standing for its sound or sounds. The word 7'ose^ when written, con- sists of four characters, rose^ which stand for the sound heard when the word is uttered. These characters are called Letters. A Letter is a character that stands for a sound of the human voice used in speaking ; as, a, z. The letters of a language constitute its Alphabet. The English alphabet contains twentj-six letters ; «, 5, ^> <^j ^j /> 91 \ h h h h ^) ^j 0, p, 2', r, 5, t, u, V, w, X, The art of combining letters correctly, to form words, is called Spelling. 4. Syllables. — Some words are uttered with but one impulse of the voice; as, go, light. Others require several impulses ; as, go-ing, en-light-en. This gives rise to a division of words into Syllables. A Syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered with one impulse of the voice ; as, a, an, ant, an-ti- dote, 6. Syllabic Division of Words. — According to the example. 8. What is a word, -when spoken? What, -when written? Give an example. What is a Letter ? What is meant by the Alphabet of a language ? How manj' letters does the English alphabet contain ? Repeat them. What is Spelling? 4. Show the difference of words, as regards their utterance. What is a Syllable ? 5. How are words divided, as regards their number of syllables f What SYLLABIC DIVISION OF WORDS. 9 number of their syllables, words are divided into four classes ; Monosyllables, Dissyllables, Trisyllables, and Polysyllables. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; a Trisyllable, of three ; a Polysyllable, of more than three, lie is a monosyllable ; hc-ro^ a dissyllable; he-ro-ic^ a trisyllable; he-ro-i-caly he-ro-i-cal-ly^ are polysyllables. 6. SuM^iiNo UP. — The elements of lanf^iiage are Let- ters, which stand for simple sounds of the human voice used in speaking. Letters are combined in Syllables, which represent sounds uttered by one impulse of the voice. Syllables are combined in Words, which are the signs of ideas. Words are combined in Sentences, which express thoughts. EXERCISE. Pronounce each of the following tcordSy and tell whether it is a monosyllable^ dissyllable^ trisyllable^ or polysyllable: — Length; courageous ; wintry ; irresistible ; coined ; uncoined ; beautiful ; mechanism ; unmerciful ; asthma ; every ; trout ; meteorology ; flower ; chivalry ; wicked ; walked ; stereoscope. Mention four dissyllables; four polysyllables; four monosyl- lables ; four trisyllables. LESSON II. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 7. Powers of the Letters. — ^Tlie Power of a letter ^8 its sound in a given word. The potoer of a letter must be disticgtiished from its name. In the i« • MononylUblet A DiMylUblet A Triayllablet A Polyayllablet 0. Bam up the mntUr of thU Lmmni. 7. What U the Power i>t a letter t From what miut the power of a letter ba 10 VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. word Twe, the power of « is the same as its name ; in met^ the power of g is different from its name. Give the name and the power of each letter in the word/ar/?i6-. Some letters stand for more than one sound ; as, a in a/e, awl^ are^ am. Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them. Thus, in her^ sir^ fur^ the same sound is represented by e, ^, and u. Our twenty-six letters represent in all about forty distinct sounds. 8. YowELS AND Consonants. — Of tlie twentj-six let- ters, some are uttered freely, without interruption to the breath ; as, a, e. In uttering others, the breath is more or less interrupted by the tongue or lips ; as, d,f. Hence the letters are divided into two classes, Yowels and Consonants. A Vowel is a letter that can be uttered freely, with- out interruption from the tongue or lips. A Consonant is a letter that cannot be uttered freely, but is more or less interrupted by the tongue or lips. 9. There are five vowels ; a, e, i, o, u. There are nineteen consonants ; 5, c, d,fj g^ h^j^ Ic, I, m, 71, ^, ^, r^ s, t, V, Xy 2. Two of the letters, w and y, are consonants in some cases, and in others vowels. When they precede a vowel sounded in the same syllable, they are conso- nants ; as in wet, whet, swing, re-ward, yet, un-yield-ing. In all other positions, they are vowels ; as in view, awe, ly, eye, raw-ly. U and i are classed among the vowels. But observe that m is a con- sonant when it has the sound of w in wet ; as in q^dt^ dissuade [pronounced ^wi<, dis-swade]. /, also, is a consonant, when it has the soimd of y in yet ; as in billion^ brilliant [pronounced bil-yun^ bril-jant\ i distinguiehed ? Give examples. For what do eome letters stand? Wliat do some Bounds have to represent them? Give examples. How many sounds are repre- Bentcd by our twenty-six letters ? 8. What difference is found in the utterance of the different letters ? Accordingly, how are letters divided? WTiat is a Vowel? What is a Consonant? 9. How many vowels are there? Name them. How many consonants ? Name them. What are w and y 1 When are tr and y conso- nants, and when vowels ? When is i« a consonant ? Give examples. When is » a DIPimiONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS. 11 10. Combinations of Vowels. — A Diphthong is a combination of two vowels in one syllable ; as, ai in vain, ow in cow, ea in heat, A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded ; as, oy in hoy, ou in pound. An Improper Diphthong is one in which but one vowel is sounded ; as, ie in inicn [sounded like e in me], au m fraud [sounded like a in all], A Triphthong is a combination of three vowels in one syllable ; as, lew in view, eau in heau. When u has the sound of to in toet^ and i that of y in yet^ they are con- Bonants, and do not therefore, when followed by a vowel, unite with it to form a diphthong. There is no diphthong in the words (/uack, sanguine., persuade, brilliant, kc. So, there is no triphthong in queen ; « is a conso- nant in that word, and ee a diphthong. 11. A Final Letter is one that ends a word. T is final In rat. 12. A Silent Letter is one not sounded. JE^ is silent in ice, k in knave, I in talk, w in wrong, EXEIJCISE. In the follmcing tpords, point out the rowels., consonants, final letters, silent letters, proper and improper diphthongs, and triph- thongs : — Gnaw ; wheat ; huraorously ; quadrillion ; liquor ; yeast ; beauties; sword; burlesque; two; squaw; eye-brow; hymn; coast-wise; yiciously; walking- beam ; psalm. LESSON III. ACCENT.— PRIMITIVE, DERIVATIVE, AND COMPOUND WORDa 13. Accent. — ^When a word of two or more syllables oonMMiftntV Give example*. 10. What Is r Diphfhonjcf What Is n Proper DIph- thn--> ^v» t \tt tax Improper DIplithonRf What In a Triphthong! When m a nanU, what follows? U. What Is a Final Lett«r T 12. What is a U. Why is one syllable of a word heard more dlstlocUy than the reat f WlMt 12 ACCENT. is pronounced, one syllable is generally heard more dis- tinctly than the rest ; as, ter in terrible^ sleep in asleep. This is because it receives more force, or stress, of voice. Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable when a word is uttered. 14. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the Acute Accent ('), placed above it to the right; as, lem'on, engrave'. The first syllable is accented in orange^ Canada^ amiable ; the second, in create, inviting, America; the third, in magazine, Alabama, h'resist- ible; the fourth, in overfatigue, Adrianople, incomprehensible; the fifth, in indivisibility ; the sixth, in incomp'ehensibility. 15. A difference of accent sometimes serves to distinguish words spelled alike but differing in meaning. Thus Au'gust is the eighth month ; august' is grave, majestic. A gallant is a brave man ; a gallant' is a gay, fashionable one. A concert is a musical entertainment ; to concert' plans is to contrive them. Observe a similar difference between a perfume and to perfume'; an ob'ject and to object'; an overflow and to overflow', &c. 16. Words classified according to their Forma- tion.— -As regards their formation, words are distin- guished as Primitive, Derivative, and Compound. A Primitive is a word not formed from any other in the language ; as, ice, house, arm, light. A Derivative is a word formed from a single simpler word, by the addition of a letter or letters to modify its meaning ; as, icedi, houses, dii^arm, enlighten. A Compound Word is one formed of two or morb words, whether primitives or derivatives ; as, ice-house, light-armed, hackwoodsman. f— Ib Accent ? 14. What is an accented syllable ? How may it be denoted ? Give an example of words accented on the first syllable ; on the second ; on the third ; on the fourth ; on the fifth ; on the sixth. 15. What does a difference of accent scmo- times serve to do? Give examples. 16. As regards their formation, how ere words divided f What is a Primitive < Wljat is a Derivative ? What is a Com- found Word ? How may a derivative be formed ? How may a compound be ACCENT OP COMPOUND W0ED8. 13 A derivative may be formed from a compound ; as, good-natured from good-nature. A compound may bo formed of two derivatives ; as, rosy-cheeked {rosy^ from roM ; checked, from cheek). 17. Accent of Compound Words. — In some com- pounds, there is but one accent ; as, gen'tleman, praise' worthy. In others, each of the words com- pounded retains its accent ; as, writ'ing-mas'ter^ man y-coV ored. When there are more accents than one, the parts of the compound are generally connected with a short horizontal line (-), called the Hyphen. When there is but one accent in the compound, the hyphen is commonly omitted. See the examples in the last paragraph. EXERCISE. Pronounce as accented : — Inqui'ry ; muse'um ; camel'opard ; hegi'ra; sono'rous; complaisance'; corapla'cence ; lyce'ura; chi- val'ric ; chiv'alrous ; adver'tisement ; mis'chievous ; chas'tisement ; exoter'ic ; Ori'on ; Aristi'des ; Iphigeni'a ; Ma'homet ; Moham'med ; Sardanapa'lus. Classify as Primitive, Derivative^ or Compound^ and state which syllable is accented : — Hand ; handy ; unhandy ; hand-writing ; Mississippi; achievement; imperishable; unlooked-for; butter- milk; broken-hearted; narrow-mindedness; irritability; arith' metic i a rosewood chess-board, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. LESSON IV. FORMATION OP DERIVATIVES.-INSEPARABLE ROOTa 18. Formation of DERrvATiVES. — The primitive words of our language are few, compared with the formed I 17. What dlffcronce la found In the acccntaation of compound words t Give examplrs. What is the Hyphen t When is the hyphen frenerally used be- tween tlie parts of a compound t When ts It commonly omitted ? 18. How do primltlTe words compare In number with derivatives f Why la this I What derivatives are fbrmed fh>m the primitiye part 1 How are these d» 14: FORMATION OF DERIVATIVES. derivatives. Tliis is because many derivatives somo- times come from a single primitive. Tlius from the primitive ijart are formed countermart, partj^ unvaried, diQpart^ ^a7'i!isan, coj!>«rtoer, impart, jpariicle, imjoarfing, &c., &c. It will be seen that these derivatives are formed by placing certain let* ters before or after the primitive, or both. The letters thus placed are called Prefixes and SuflSxes. 19. Prefixes and Suffixes. — A Prefix is a letter or letters placed before a primitive or compound, to modify its meaning ; as, de in depart, un in ungentlemanly. A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive or compound, to modify its meaning; as, i^an in part- isan, ly in ungentlemanly. Prefixes and suffixes modify the meaning of the word to which they are joined. Thus, the prefix un means not ; the suffix ncss means the quality of being. Then unkind means not kind; kindness is the quality of being kind; unkindness is the quality of being not kind. So with unsoundy soundness y unsoundiuss, &c., &c. 20. Inseparable Roots. — Some derivatives come from roots not separately used as words. Thus, avert, reverted, cmivertihle, and many other derivatives, come from the root vert, meaning to turn. These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them enter into a great number of derivatives. The most important ones are given belo*« with their meanings, and should be committed to memory. INSEPARABLE ROOTS. CEDE, CEED, CESS, tO gO. j CUR, CUES, tO mil. CEiYE, CEPT, to take. DicT, to say, to speak. CLUDE, CLU8, to shut. I DucE, DUCT, to lead. rivatlves formed ? 19. What is a Prefix ? What is a Suffix ? What is the force of prefixes and suffixes? Illustrate this with the prefix un and the suffix ntss. 20. From what Bort of roots do some derivatives come ? Give examples. Prom vhat language are theBC inseparable roots mostly derived f INSEPARABLE ROOTS. 15 FBOT, Fici, to do, make. PEK, to bear, to carry. FUSE, to pour. JECT, to cast LATE, to bear, to carry. LECT, to choose, to gather. LUDE, us, to play. MIT, MISS, to send. PEL, PUL8, to drive. PEXD, PENS, to hang. PONE, POSE, to place. poKT, to carry. 8CHIBE, 8CRII»T, tO Write. BIST, to stand. TAIN, TENT, tO hold. TEND, TENS, to stretch. TRACT, to draw. VENE, VENT, to oome. EXERCISE. spell and analyze the follotcing derivatives: — [Thus : — Heceite is a derivative from the inseparable root ceive, to take ; re is a pre- fix. — Mission is a derivative from the inseparable root miss, to send; ion is a suffix. — Copartner is a derivative from the primi- tive PART ; CO is a prefix, ner a snffix.] Tension ; contradict ; in- vented ; susceptible ; translate ; tractable ; confuse ; prevent ; suf- ficient ; ductile ; conference ; scrijiture ; postpone ; subject ; inducement; repel; averting; suppose; illusive. LESSON V PREFlXEa [For young elasseSy divide the foXUming List and Exercise into three lessons^ giving one third o/each at a time.] 21. A list of the most common prefixes follows; learn their meanings. It will be seen that some of them have different forms. In most cases, this is because tlie final letter is changed, to correspond with the first let- ter of the primitive or root. Thus we have ac-climate, at-tend, in stead of ad-climate^ ad-tend. L, 1. in, on. 2. [or an], destitute of, want of. 8. [or AB, ABs], from, away. AD [AO, AF, AO, AL, ax, AP, Alt, AS, at], to. ANTE, before. ANTi [antJ, opposed, opposite to. 16 LIST OF THE MOST COMMON PREFIXES. BE, by, to make. Bi, two. oiEcuM, around. CON [go, col, com, ooe], together, a joint. contra [oonteo, counter], against. DB, from, down, to make, to de- prive of. DI8 [diJ, apart, to remove, not. EN [em], in, to make, to make or put in. EX [e, EC, ef], out, from, beyond. IN [iG, iL, iM, ie], to make, to put in, not. INTER, between. ins, wrong, ill. oB [oc, OF, op], before, against, OUT, beyond, better. PER, through, thoroughly. PRE, before. PRO, forth, forward, for. RE, back, again. SE, from, apart, out. 8EMI, half. SUB [sue, SUF, BUG, SUP, SUE, bus], under, after. SUPER [supra, sur], ovct, above, beyond. TRANS [tran, tra], over, across. ULTRA, beyond. UN, to remove, not. EXERCISE. . Spell and define tTie following derivatives. They a/re arranged uitJi their prefixes in the same order as those in the List. When a prefix has several meanings^ one derivative is given to illustrate each. [Thus : — J.blaze — spell — in a blaze, ^fire — spell — on fire. -Aceph- alous — spell — destitute of a head. -4warchy, want of govern- ment, &c.] -4blaze; afire; acephalous; anarchy; avert; aJ^tract; ap- pend; assist; anteroom \ a?iif- American ; antarctic; inside; le- numb; hiiovva. (having two forms); circwmvent; c\yto brighteatfyed. The fourth mode I Analyre mi^/i/brtn. The fifth model Analyxe gnfrap/iy. 25. What are the moist important roots that enter into com- pound wordal Mfntion M)mo other inseparable roots, with which they are oom- pounded, and their mcanlngii. 26. What change Is nuule in forming compounds I In forming derlTatlres with 20 EXILES OF SPELLING. When the suffix ness is added to the primitive neaty no change is made ; the derivative is neat-ness. When it is added to happy^ the final y is changed to i ; the derivative is happi-ness. 27. Rules of Spelling. — ^The following rules cover most cases in which a change is made in the primitive on the addition of a suffix : — Etjle I. — Reject the final 6 of a primitive, when a suffix is added commencing with a vowel ; as, lie, li-ar. But retain final e, when preceded by e or o, if the suffix added is able or ing : as, agree, agreeable ; shoe, shoeing. Eetain final e, when preceded by c or g, if the suffix added is able or r, when the suffix ance, ess, ix, or ous is added : as, enter, entr-ance / testator, testatr-ix. But in many cases e or o is retained : as, cancer, cancerous ; author, authoress. Rule III. — Reject the final le of a primitive, if pre- ceded by a consonant, when the suffix ly is added ; as, feeble, feeb-ly. Rule IY. — Double the final consonant of a mono- syllable, if preceded by but one vowel, when a suffix is added commencing with a vowel: as, stir, stirring; quit, quitting. But final X is never doubled ; as, ox, oxen. Rule Y. — Double the final consonant of any word accented on the last syllable, if preceded by but one a prefix? In forming derivatives with a suffix? Give examples. 27. Recite Rule I., for the rejection of final e. [Examples are always to be given with Rules and Exceptions.] In what two cases is final « retained ? Recite Rule II., for the rejection of c or o. Is e or o always rejected ? Recite Rule III., for the rejection of final le. Recite Rule IV., for doubling the final consonant of a monosyllable. What consonant is never doubled? Recite Rule V., for doubling the final conso- nant of a word accented on the last syllable. In what case is the final consonant not doubled ? Recite Rule VI., relating to the final y of a primitive. When must no change be made ? What Ib the first exception relating to final y 7 What id the aecond exception t RULES OF SPEIXma. 21 vowel, when a suffix is added commencing with a vowel ; as, bestir, bestirring. But in tliifl case and the last there is no doubling, if the final consonant is preceded by another consonant or by two vowels: as, damp^ damper; roomy roomy ; uncurl^ uneurUd; defraud, defrauded. Rule YI. — Change the final y of a primitive to i, when it is preceded by a consonant and a suffix is added not commencing with i; as, try, tried. But make no change when a vowel precedes y; as, toy, toy-ed: or before a sufiSz commencing with i ; as, try, try-ing. Final y is sometimes changed to e before the snflBx ou9 ; as, plenty, plenteoiu. Final y is sometimes rejected before a suffix commencing with » or o ; as, sympathy, sympatk-ize ; felicity, felicit-ous. EXEBCISB. Spell and define the following derivatives. State what change i» made informing each, and give the rule. [Thus: — Citia — spell — is a derivative, meaning more than one city. The final y of the primitive city is changed to i before the suffix es, according to Rule VI., " Change the final y of a primitive," &c.] Driver (drive-er) ; agitation ; Roman ; hindrance (hinder-ance) ; wondrous ; idly (idle-ly) ; horribly ; funny (fun-y) ; spotted ; quizzing ; impellest (impel-est) ; remittal ; jollity (jolly-ty) ; heaviness ; fanciful ; bounteous (bounty-ous) ; piteous; eulogize (eulogy-ize) ; waitress ; loathing ; dimmer ; arrival ; demurred ; spinner ; empress ; beaa- teoufl; ugliest; visibly; administratrix. LESSON IX. SYLLABICATION. 28. In spelling, divide a word into its syllables, and spell and pronounce each syllable separately. 29. In writing, sometimes from want of room part v. In ipelUiif , what must b« done t 29. In writing, what Manetimea bappena t 22 RULES OF SYLLABICATION. of a word has to be carried to the next line. In this case, divide the word after a complete syllable, and place a hyphen at the end of the line to connect the separated parts ; as, " De- lays are dangerous." 30. Hence we mnst know how to divide words into syllables. This process is called Syllabication. 31. EuLES OF Syllabication. — In syllabication, the ear is our chief guide. In some words, the syllables are so marked that they are easily distinguished, as in un- cer-tain-ty. In others, however, the proper division is not so clear, and then the following rules will prove of service : — KuLE I. — Join consonants to the vowels whose sound they modify; as, mel-on^ — not me-lon^ because the I modifies the sound of the e. So, rem-e-dy^ reg-u-lar-i-ty. Rule II. — Make prefixes distinct syllables when it can be done without violating Rule I. ; as, de-fine^ re- call. When a vowel sound in the prefix is modified by a consonant in the primitive, this consonant is joined to the prefix, according to Rule I. Thus we divide def-i-ni-tion, not de-Ji-ni-iion ; rec-om-mend, not re-com-mend. Rule ITT. — Make suffixes distinct syllables unless they coalesce in sound with what precedes : as, tend-ed, not ten-ded ; in-vest-ing, not in-ves-ting ; di-vid-ed, not dirvi-ded. But ab-horred, walked; here the sufiSx ed coalesces with what precedes, and therefore does not form a distinct syllable. How must the word be divided in this case ? 30. What is Syllabication ? 31. In dividing words into syllables, by what are we chiefly guided ? In what cages will rules be found necessary ? Recite Rule I., relating to consonants. Recite Rule II., relating to prefixes. What is done when a vowel sound in the prefix is modified by a consonant in the primitive? Recite Rule III., relating to suffixes. Give ex- amples in which ed does not form a distinct syllable. Recite Rule IV., relating to compound words. Recite Rule V., relating to certain terminations, and give BULBS OF 6TLLABICATI0N. 23 Rule TV. — Make syllabic divisions between the sim- ple words that unite to form a compound ; as, where-aa. Rule V. — Never divide the following terminations, and others that form one syllable : — 8I0N, pronounced »/mn, as in ex-ten-*ion. or zhun^ " vision, TioN, " Dhun " mo-tion, oiAL, " »hal^ " special. TiAL, " shaly " pres-i-den-tid, CEOU8, " 8hu8y " her-ha-eeoug. OEOUS, " ju8y " cou-ra-geous. cious, " «//««, " ti-ciou8. Tious, " «Am«, " cansci-en-tiotis. Rule YI. — When two consonants come together and it can be done without violating Rule III., or when a consonant is doubled before a vowel, divide between the two consonants; as, Uir-han^for-hid-dmg. 82. DiiERESis. — Two o'« generally unite to form a diphthong, as in »oVliat la t}ie plural of oprjr 7 Aquarium? DtOMt Cherubl \t Madame J Mr.l liadiusJ Focus J CriUriml 42 PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. Sinpdar. Plural. Singular. Plural. Erratum, errata. Nucleus, nuclei, R. Pocus, foci. Oasis, oases. Formula, formulae, R. Parenthesis, parentheses. Fulcrum, fulcra, R. Parhelion, parhelia. Fungus, fungi, R. Perihelion, perihelia. Ge'nus, gen'era. Phasis, phases. Gymnasium, gymnasia, R. Phenomenon, phenomena. He'lix, hel'ices. Radius, radii, R. Herbarium, herbaria, R. Rostrum, rostra. Hypothesis, hypotheses. Sarcophagus, sarcophagi, R. Ignis fatuus. ignes fatui. Scholium, scholia, R. Lamina, laminae. Seraph, seraphim, R. Larva, larvae. Spectrum, spectra. Madame, mesdames. Speculum, specula. Magus, magi. Stamen, stamina, R. Medium, media, R. Stimulus, stimuli. Memorandum, memoranda, R. Stratum, strata, R. Menstruum, menstrua. Synopsis, synopses. Metamor'phosis ?, metamor'phosea Terminus, termini. Miasma, miasmata. Thesis, theses. Momentum, momenta, R. Vertebra, vertebrae. Monsieur, messieurs. Vertex, vertices, R. Mr., messrs. Virtuoso, virtuosi, R. Nebula, nebiilae. Vortex, vortices, R. EXEK CISE. Change the following incorrect plurals to the proper form :^^ Vallies; bambooes; embargos; buffalos; grottoes; soloes; ener- gys ; soliloquys ; sea-calfs ; loafs ; flag-staves ; the Scipio's ; the Brutus's; the Alleghanys; talismen ; Musselmen ; dollars are Btamped with heavy dice ; the ancients believed in good and bad geniuses ; ten pennies a yard ; two good 'pence ; we must buy new «a^7 for the vessel ; son-in-laws; men-slayer; going-forths ; spoons- ful; knight-templars; cannons; bellowses; specieses; a large haul of shads and herrings ; five weak fishes ; a bagful of water- fowls ; twelve pairs of gloves ; eight scores ; the General Knox and Gates ; the Miss Maria and Susan Whites ; the three Masters Higginses; Messrs. Aliens ; stimuluses; erratums; geni; phenom- enas ; crisises ; ellipsides ; myrmida ipns) ; octaga. NOCN8 NOT USED IN BOTH NUMBERS. 43 LESSON XIX. NOUNS NOT USED IN BOTU NUMBEEB. 90. Some nouns are found in but one number. 91. SiNGULAB Nouns. — ^The following nouns have no phiral : — 1. Many abstract nouns, the names of virtues, vicesj and properties ; as, courage^ idleness^ cohesion, roundr iiess. 2. The names of many arts, sciences, and diseases ; as, architecture, rhetoric, hronchiiis. 3. The names of many articles sold by weight or measure ; as, flax, lard, lead, cider, milk, pitch, rye. Some of these, however, take a regular plural when different kinds are spoken of; as, the teas of China, the silks of India. 92. The word news is singular. Apocri/pha^ hysterics^ measlen, and the names of sciences ending in ic9 (as, mechanics^ hydraulics, politics^ Ac), having a plural form, are by some used as plural ; others, with better reason, make them singular, as they convey singular idcaa 93. Plural Nouns. — ^The following nouns have no singular now in good use : — Aborigines Calends Greens Minutiae Suds Annals Cattle Grounds (dregs) Morals Teens Antipodes Clothes Hatches Nones Thanks Archives Dregs Headquarters Nuptials Tidings Ashes Eaves Ides Paraphernali a Trowsers Assets Eml)er8 Lees Ravellings Vespers Belles-lettres Entrails Literati Regalia Victuals Billiards Filings Mammalia Riches Vitals Bitters Fireworka Manners Shambles Wages BreecbM Goods Matins Spectacles Withers W. What i« Hd«r. In what caae alooe la tr .' What ig aaid of the oth«r compound r(>latirc>ffV 161. What dlrertlonit are ^vcn for pamlnff who, which, thaty aiid fieth the gold ? " It is no longer used in this sense. 169. The interrogatives are declined like the corre- sponding relatives, § 154. 170. The interrogatives and relatives must not be confounded. Observe, 1. That the introduction of an antecedent converts an interrogative into a relative. 2. That what is not an interrogative, but a relative, when equiv- lalent to that which. Thus : — I Interrogatives. — Who said so? Do you know who said so? I can not remember who said so. I know what [not equivalent to that which'] it is. 166. What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? Give exampleB. 167. Name the in- terrogatives, and tell to what each is applied. 168. What other word was formerly nsed as an interrogative pronoun ? 169. Decline the interrogatives. 170. From what miut the Interrogatives be distingaished ? What effect has the introduction PARSING OF l.SiLiCKuuAii\i.>. 09 Relatives. — The person trhoaaid 80 ia here. Do you know the man ttho said 80? I can not respect those tc/io said so. I said what [that which] you told me. 171. Parsing. — ^Tlie interrogative pronouns are al- ways in the third person. In parsing, mention their person, number, case, and the rule that applies. What is that f — Whose hooks are those f Yours f What is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular num- ber, noaiiuative case after the verb m : — Rule^ A verb that has no object takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer to the same person or thing. Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular num- ber, possessive case, and modifies the noun hooks : — Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying pos- session, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case. Toars is a personal pronoun, in the second person, singular number, common gender, possessive case, and modifies books understood {yours being here equivalent to are thet/ your books ?) : — Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, &c 172. To parse this bst word, we have to supply what is understood. So, when a question is answered with a single word. ** Whom did Madison succeed ? Jefferson." That is, he succeeded Jefferson ; Jefferson is in the objective case, the object of the verb ffi/ccw-cferf understood. — "Who suc- ceeded Jefferson? Madison." That is, Madison succeeded him; Madison is in the nominative case, the subject of the verb succeeded understood. — In such constructions, when you are in doubt as to the case, supply ths words understood. EXERCISE. Parse the nanns^ and the personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns: — Whom did Napoleon marry? Josephine and Maria Lonisa. — Which is the house ? I forget which it is. — What is a noun? A word used as a name. — Who were tlie inventors ot printing? Gutenberg, Schoeflfer, and Faust. — To whom did Colum- bus first apply for aid ? To the Spanish ? No ; the Genoese.— I of an snteoedentt When to wkta not an interrogative f Give example*. 171. In what person are the Interrogative prorounfl t In paraln^ them, what must ho men- tioned f Learn the paraioff forms. 172. What must be done in parsing, when a question to asked or aoawared with a single word t Give examples. 70 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. know what you saw. — Whose clothes are these? James's and mine. Make two sentences with simple personal pronouns for subjects; two with intei^ogatives for subjects; two containing simple rela- tives in the possessive case ; two containing compound relatives in the objective; two containing compound personals in the objective. LESSON XXX. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 173. Adjective Pronouns. — All pronouns not in- cluded in the classes already named are called Adjective Pronouns. They are divided into the following classes : — 1. Demonstratives, which point out with precision the objects to which they refer : — T/iis, that, former, latter, hoth, same. 2. Distributives, which represent objects as taken separately : — Each, every, either, neither. 3. Indefinites, which refer to objects generally, with- out specifying any in particular: — One, none, other, another, some, all, any, such. 174. Caution. — It is only when used in stead of nouns or equivalent expressions that these words are adjective pronouns. When used with nouns, they are adjectives. " David and Jonathan loved each other." Each and other are here used in stead of nouns, and are adjective pronouns. — '' Each day brings other duties." -E'ac/t and other are here used with nouns, and are therefore adjectives. 175. Declension. — This, that, one, and other, are thus declined : — 173. What class of pronouns remains to be treated ? How are adjective pro- nouns subdividod? Define Demonstratives ; Distributives; Indefinites, 174. When are these words adjective pronouns ? When used with nouns, what part of speech are they ! Illustrate this. 175. Decline this; that ; one; other; another. What ia ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 71 8. P. S. P. S. P. 8. P. N. Thia, theae, That, those, One, ones. Other, others, P. one's, ones'. other's, others', 0. thia; these. that ; those. one ; ones. other; others. Another is declined in the singular like other ^ but has no plural. The TCist of the adjective pronouns are indeclinable (that is, do not change), and are never used in the possessive. 176. Number. — Each^ every, either, and neither, are always singular. Both is always plural. Former, latter, same, none, some, all, any, and such, are used in both numbers without change of form. Their number is determined by that of the word for which they stand. 177. Remarkn. — Tftat and thi»y former and latter, are frequently used to distinguish two objects mentioned immediately before. Thus used, that and former refer to the more remote, or the first-mentioned ; thx» and Icdter, to the nearer, or last-mentioned. Thus : — " Mercantile and profes- sional life both have their advantages : this [or the latter, that is, profes- tionallife] opens the way to fame; tfiai [or the former, that is, mercantile life^ leads to an honorable competence." 178. Some assign a possessive case to former and latter; "The former's victory counterbalanced the latter*8 defeat." These possessivca are not authorized. Correct thus: — " The victory of the former counter- balanced the defeat of the latter.'^ 179. Paesino. — They killed one another. — Parsi- mony and prodigality should both he avoided. One is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, nomi- native case, in apposition with they: — Rule, One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. Another is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, objective case, the object of the verb killed: — Rule, The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. Both is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, plural number, nominative case, in apposition with parsimony and prodigality : — Rute, wild of the rest of the a-ljectlve pronouna t 176. WhJch of the »djectlv© pronouns •re »lwmy« tlitgulnr ? Which Is always plural t W^hlch arc u«ed in both iiumber* without change of form! How is their number determined ? 177. For what ant thai and lhi», former and tatter^ often used t When so used, to what do that and former xviar f To what do thia and lalter refer I 178. What case ot former and latter L THKIE CLASSES. ii) LESSON XXXII. ADJECTIVES AND THKIII CLASSES. 191. TuE Adjective. — ^Tlie fourth pai*t of speech is the Adjective. " Those four noisy English boys are here.'* The words those, four, noisy, and English, are here all joined to the noun boys. Those and English tell which boys are meant ; four tells how many boys ; noisy tells what kind of boys. Words like these, joined to a noun or pronoun, to qualify or limit its meaning, are called Adjectires. 195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy thou. 196. The substantive to which an adjective relates, b often understood; •s when we speak of the good, the living, meaning good men, living per- sons. So, " There are worse things than [for a wan] to be poor.^^ 197. A word generally used as a noun becomes an adjective when it is joined to a substantive to qualify or limit its meaning ; as, an iron mask, a rose color, a night attack, London porter. 198. Classes. — Adjectives may be divided into four classes ; Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, and Common. 199. A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper noun, or identical with a proper noun in form ; as, a Roman nose, Ciceronian eloquence, Byron collars, a Philadelphia lawyer. 200. Caution. — Proper Adjectives must be distinguished from proper nouns having the same form. Observe the difference in tlie following ex- amples : — Proper Adjectives. — Irish melodies; Welsh flannel; Rttssian isinglaaa. I • 1M. What Is tho fonrth part of tpeeoh I In the sentence Tlioae /our noity Englith boyn are here, what words are joinod to the noun hoya 7 What do they re- sp<>ctiv«'ly tell ? What are words like these, joined to a noun or pronoun, called f 195. ^Mlat is nn Ailjcctivet 100. Give examples to show that on adjective may ntato to a Rutxitiintlve understood. 197. When does a word generally omkI m a noon become an adjective f 188. Into how many classes may adjeetive* be divided* Name them. 100. What i* a Proper Adjective t 20O. From what nast proper 76 NUMEfiALS. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. Proper Nouns. — Can you speak Iruh? The WeUh are a thrifty people. A Russian; the Russians; a Russian''s revenge. — A plural or possessive form, as in the last two examples, indicates a noun. 201. A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a defi- nite number ; as, three, third, three-fold. 202. The Numeral Adjectives are distinguished aa Cardinals, Ordinals, and Multiplicatives. The Cardinals answer the question how many ; as, one, two, three, four, thirteen, twenty-one, two hundred. The Ordinals answer tlie question which in order ; 2^^, first, second, third, fourth, thirteenth, twentyfirst, two-hundredth. The Multiplicatives answer the question how many fold ; as, single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold, quadruple or four-fold, twentyfold, hundredfold. 203. Caution. — The numerals must be distinguished from nouns having the same form, as used in the following sentences : — " Here is a ten{vcxeQjx- \ng 2i ten-dollar hiliy^ "They came hj fifties Siud hu7idreds.^^ "Divide fifty-three by one/owr/A." " It produced a hundred-fold.^ 204. The Pronominal Adjectives are words identical in form with certain pronouns, but used with nouns and not -m stead of them. The pronominal adjectives are which, what, which- ever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, each, every, either, neither, one, none, other, another, some, all, any, such. The adjective pronouns all become pronominal adjectives, when used with their nouns. Thus: — Tliis man, that field, loth eyes, the same party, other countries, such persons. Silver and gold have I none. Which thing ifl an allegory. What thoughts are these ? adjectives be distinguished ? Give examples showing the difference. What does • plural or possessive form indicate? 20L What is a Numeral Adjective? 202. What three classes are embraced under Numerals ? WTiat question do the Cardinals answer? The Ordinals? The Multiplicatives? 203. From what must the numerals be distinguished ? 204. What are the Pronominal Adjectives ? Name i»ie pronominals. Under what circumstances do all the adjective pronouns become «. t ».\1-Ml I.N AlMHJ 7T 205. Tlie Common Adjectives are all those not em- braced in the above classes. A common adjective may express, 1. Qu;ility; as, tricked, /laiulfome, iJle^ red-hot, evcr-to-be-remembered. 2. Quantity ; a», mtick labor, money enough, a vhole month. 8. Material ; as, a gold crown, a golden crown, voooden buckets. 4. Time; aa, daily, vxeklii, annual, subsequent, everlasting. 6. Situation ; as, the tibove rule, the of horse, the under side. 6. Direction ; as, a west wind, the hotneward ionmey. 1. An indefinite number ; as, several, sundry, few, many^ numerous. 8. Negation; as, '^ There is no music in his soul." EXEBCISE. Supply adjectives of the classes indicated: — Alexander tbe Great was a (common) general ; he invaded (common) lands, subdued (eommon) nations, took (common) cities, was successful in (pro- nominal) battle, and added mucli to (proper) glory. — (Pronominal) boys are so (common) that tliey can not tell how much (cardinal) times eleven is. — The United States has had two (common) and (common) wars with the (proper) nation ; during the (ordinal)^ Madison was president. — Darkness and tempest make a (multipli- cative) mght— (Proper) politeness is famous the world over. LESSON XXXIII. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. ** The country is pleasant in spring, pleasanter in summer, but pleasantesi in autumn." 206. Here we are told that the quality of pleasantness belongs to the country in diflerent dcgrcoa at different times. These different decrees are implied in the words pleasant, pleasanler, pleasantesi. By varjring the form of an adjective, therefore, we may make it express in different degrees the quality which it denotes. pronominal adjectival 206. What are tho <' '"'»■• \<1je«tlvc«t State what a ooaimon adjective may expn>M, and rIvc ex i !i caa<'. 206. lU'poat the aentenee given at tho «■ tit of thia Icaaon. What ■re we here told f In what worda are tbeae dilfvraui dctf roea impUod f By varylnf 78 COMPAfilSON. 207. Comparison. — Adjectives are not declined. But some, principally the common adjectives, are com- pared^ — that is, varied in form, to express difterent degrees of the quality they denote : as, few^ fewe7\ feioest y witty ^ wittier^ wittiest. 208. Degrees of Comparison. — Tliere are three de- grees expressed by different forms of the adjective. Tliey are called Degrees of Comparison, and are dis- tinguished as the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. Tlie Positive is the degree expressed by an adjective in its primitive form ; as, " He is wise and happy. '''^ The Comparative is a higher degree than some other or others with which it is compared ; as, " He is wiser and happier than I or thou." " He is wiser and hap- pier than he was." " He is wiser than he is happy." The Superlative is the highest degree of all that are compared ; as, " He is the wisest and happiest of us all." 209. Formation of the Degrees. — The Comparative Degree is formed by annexing er, and the Superlative by annexing est, to the Positive ; as, Pos. Pleasant, Rude, Holy, Wet, Comp. pleasanter, rud-er, hoh'er, wetter, Sup. pleasantest. rud-est. holiest. wettest In annexing er and esty omit final c, change final y to «', or double the final consonant, if it is required by the rules of spelling. See the last three examples. 210. Many adjectives of one syllable are compared, the form of an adjective, then, -what may we make it express ? 207. What do wo mean when we say that adjectives are compared 1 208. How many degrees are expressed by different forms of the adjective ? WTiat are they called ? How arc they distinguished ? What is the Positive ? WTiat is the Comparative ? What is the Superlative? 209. How are the comparative and the superlative degree formed? Give examples. In some cases, what changes have to be made? 210. What adjectives are compared? What adjectives are not compared? 0OMPASI8ON. 79 and some of two syllables ; but none of more than two. We use quicker^ quickest ; prettier, prettiest : but not pecLcefaler, peacefulest / gloriouser, gloriousest. 211. Some adjectives have a meaning that does not admit of different degrees ; hence they can not be con> pared. This is the case with proi)er and numeral adjec- tives, with most of the pronominals, and with such common adjectives as chief countless, infinite, golden, enovAjh, daily, no, &c. 212. In stead of annexing ir and eat to the primitive form of the adjec- tive^ we may express the same ideas by prefixing to it the adverbs more and mo^; as, quick, more quick, most quick. These forms are more common than tliose in er and est, when the adjective consists of two syl- lables, and are altogether used when it has more than two. In the case of monosyllables, however, the forms in er and est are preferred. Thus, more pleasant, most pleasant, are more frequently used than pleasanter, pleasantest ; but shorter, shortest, are preferred to more short, most short. 213. Other adverbs besides more and most may be joined to adjectives, to express different degrees; such as, less and least, very, exceedingly, surpassingly, &c. An adjective, however, does not become comparative or superlative by having any of these adverbs joined to it, but only when er or est is added, or its form is otherwise altered. 214. Rule X. — An adjective relates to the substan- tive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. To find this substantive, a question may be asked with who or what. Thus: — "The elephant is the largest of beasts." Question. The largest what of beasts? Atuvoer. The largest beast of beasts. Largest relates to beast understood. 215. Parsing. — ^To parse an adjective, state its class ; if it can be compared, compare it and mention its de- gree ; tell what it relates to, and repeat Rule X. 211. What prevent« some adjective* from being compared f 212. Beaidea annexing er and e«/, what other mode is there of cxpretiKinK the nroe Ideas f In what ad- jectives is the use of more and mott more froquent ? In what adjective* are er and est preferred t 213. Mention Bs written some noble verses." 4. After when^ till, before, after, &c., it is used in the sense of the second future. It then denotes the time of a future action or state which will be completed at or before some other future time mentioned ; as, " I will remain till I have seen my father." 252. Siox. — Have. — I have asked. I have been asking. I have been a-'^kfd. hM It in the simple form ? What, in the negative, emphatic, and Interrogative form I What, in the pnigreMive form » Whnt, in the pamive voice I 249. What doe« the imperfeot Indloatlvo denote t 250. What sign baa It In the simple formt What, In the negative, empltatic, aud interrogative form t What, in the progr e — Ito form and the paaalve voice t 251. IIow many varieties of time doe* the per> feet indicative denote f What is the llrst of theee f What is the second f What U the thirdf What is the fourth f 852. What ia the sign of the perfaet indiott 92 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 253. Indicative Plupeefect. — This tense denotes tlie time of a past action or state completed at or before some other past time mentioned ; as, " Yii-gil had sta/rted before the emperor arrived." 254. Sign. — Had. — ^I had asked. I had hem asking. I had beet asked. 255. Indicative First Future. — This tense denotes, 1. Future time simply; as, " We shall all die.''^ 2. Determination with respect to a future action or state ; as, " You shall not go.^^ 256. Signs. — Shall, mil. — I shall ask, I toiU ask. — I shall be asking^ I toill be asking. I shall be asked, I iPill be asked. > 257. Indicative Second Future. — ^This tense denotes the time of a future action or state which wilL be com- pleted at or before some other future time mentioned ; as, " I shall have dined by the time jou arrive." 258. Signs. — Shall have, will have. — I shall have asked^ I will have asked. I shall have been asking, I will have been asking. I shall have been asked, I will have been asked. 259. Interrogative Forms. — All the tenses of the indicative mood may be used interrogatively, — that is, to ask a question. In the interrogative forms of the tenses, the position of the subject is changed. Thus : — Pres. — Do you ask ? Imperf. — Did you ask ? Perf. — Have you asked? Plu. — Had you asked ? 1st Fu. — Will you ask? 2nd Fu. — ^Will you have asked? EXERCISE. Select the 'oerbs ; tell whether they are transitive or intransitive ; ^tate their voice (if they are transitive), their mood, and tense : — Cuvier tliinks it probable that whales sometimes live a thousand tive? 253. What does the pluperfect indicative denote? 254 What is the sign of this tense? 256. What does the first future indicative denote? 266. Mention its signs ? 267. What does the second future indicative denote ? 268. Mention its signs. 259. How may all the tenses of the indicative mood he used? Give tht With what do the person and nambor of verba oorreapoodl Ml Wbcik la • verb aaid to be In the flrat person t When, In the second f When, Id 100 PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. in the Second Person, when it affirms of an object or objects spoken to ; in the Third Person, when it affirms of an object or objects spoken of. Numher,' — A verb is said to be in the Singular Num- ber, when it affirms of one person or thing; in the Phiral, when it affirms of more than one. The person and number of a verb, therefore, depend on the person and number of its subject. Hence 291. KcLE XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. I pray; — ^the verb joray is 1st, sing., because its subject /is 1st, sing. Thou prayest ; — prayest is 2d, sing., because its subject thou is 2d, si. He prays ; — prays is 3rd, sing., because its subject he is 3rd, sing. We pray ; — pray is 1st, plural, because its subject we is 1st, plural. You pray ; — pray is 2nd, plural, because its subject you is 2nd, plural. Tliey pray ; — pray is 3rd, plural, because its subject they is 3rd, plural In the second and third person singular, given above, the verb shows its person and number by its form, — prayest^ prays. In the other four parts the form is the same, and the person and number of the verb can be told only by finding those of its subject. 292. Rule XI. does not apply to verbs in the infinitive mood, for they have no subject. 293. Usages of the Infinitive. — A verb in the infini- tive may be used as the subject of a finite verb ; as, " To die for one's country is glorious." The infinitive to die is the subject of the finite verb is. 294. A verb in the infinitive may also be used to limit the meaning of some other word. 1. Of a noun ; as, " It is my duty to go^ 2. Of a pronoun ; as, "For me to go would be wrong." the third? When is a verb said to be in the singularnumber? When, in the plural ? On what do the person and number of a verb depend ? 291. Recite Rule XI. Give examples of the rule. In which of these examples does the verb show its person and number by its form ? How are its person and number to be told in the other parts ? 292. To what verbs does Rule XI. not apply? 293. What is th© first usage of the infinitive mood ? 294. For what else may a verb in the infinitive b« used ? Name the parts of speech that the infinitive may limit, and give an UBAOES OF TUE INFINinVE. 101 8. Of an adjective ; aa, " It is hard to go."* 4. Of a verf) ; aa, ** I wish to go." 6. Of an adverb ; as, " I have walked enough to tire tne out** 6. Of a preposition ; as, ** I am about to go.^ 7. Of a conjunction; as, " Are you so foolish ab to go?'" 205. Finally, a verb in the infinitive may be used independently, — that is, without limiting or relating to any other word ; as, " To speak plainly, I think you are dishonest." 296. Rule XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands independently in the sentence. 297. Paksino. — To parse a verb, state its class, voice (if transitive), mood, and tense ; if finite, its person and number, what it agrees with, and Rule XL ; if in the infinitive, what verb it is the subject of, or what it limits, and Rule XII. Thus : — Tlioufjh labor may he Jiard, to do nothing is still harder. Kay be is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, present tense, third person, sinj^ular number, and agrees with its subject labor : — Bule^ A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. To do is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood, present tense, the subject of the verb w : — RuU^ A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands independ- ently in the sentence. Is is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with the infinitive to do for its sub> ject : — Rule, A verb agrees, kc The Hebrews are thought to have invented letters. Are thonght is a transitive vert), in the pasrive voice, indicative mood, pn^ont tense, tliird person, plural number, and agrees with its subject I/e- brnct : — JiuU^ A verb agrees, &c. To haye inrented is a tranative verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood. rxnmple of enrh. SM. Finally, bow may a v«rb in tbe inflnitivc be naedt Recite Rule ZIL S87. How U • verb to be parMdt Lemn the paniof 102 PAIiTICIPLES. perfect tense, and limits the meaning of the verb are thought : — Rule, A verb in the infinitive, &e. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verds : — Ed- ucation makes the man. — Cato used to say, " The Eomans rule the world, but women rule the Eomans." — Those who win, may laugh. — The property of a state should educate its children. — See that thou be not wise in thy own conceit. — Gunpowder may have been known to the Chinese centuries ago. — A trombone was dis- covered in Herculaneum, where it had lain nearly two thousand years under the ashes. — Men need not perish. LESSON XLIII. PARTICIPLES. 298. To verbs belong participles. I finished my meal and left the table. Having finished my meal, I left the table. Observe the two sentences just given. They convey the same idea, but in different forms. The one directly affirms that I finished my meal, the other assumes or implies it. In the one, the action is expressed by the \evh finished ; in the other, by having finisJied, which we call a Participle. 299. A Participle is a form of the verb that generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, bj as- suming some action or state in connection with it. 300. Tliere are three participles ; the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 301. The Present Participle assumes an action or state as going on at the time of some other action or state, past, present, or future. 298. "What words are embraced among verbs ? Give the two sentences pre- fsented at the commencement of the lesson. Point out the difference between them. 299. Denne a Participle. 300. How many participles are there? Givo their names. 301. How doee the present participle assume an action or state? In each case, respected implies an action completed at the time of his death. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 103 PaMt,^TaJnng leave of jou, I departener- ally end! For what alone is it use<1 in the active voice! How is it used in tho pawive! 305. How doeii the compound perfect participle assume an action or •tate! 3001. Howl* It formed in the active voice! How, in the piiaaire! 807. Sum np what hae diatinKUithed from a participial noun of the imrae form t Illuotrate thia. 810. Wlien ar« participle* mid to l)C UM>d Itidcpeiidently f Of what is a participle M> UBod ofV«'n ll.e object f Give exoroplea. 811. Recite Rule XIII. 812. In what •aae la a aabatantlve that ia the object of a participle f Aoconling to what rule t 106 PAKSESfG OF PARTICIPLES. according to Rule FV., A substantive that is the object of a verb or prep- osition is in the objective case. — "Leading his soldiers over the Alps, Hannibal entered Italy." "Leading soldiers over the Alps is no easy matter." In each of these sentences, soldiers is in the objective case, the object of the participle leading. 313. KuLE XIY. — A substantive which, in stead of being modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. *' I saw John writing." Here John is the object seen. Hence the noun John is in the objective case. The participle writing quaUfies its meaning, and therefore relates to it. "I was surprised at John's writing so well." Here the writing so well is the thing at which I was surprised. The noun is no longer modified by the participle writing, but itself modifies the lat- ter by telling whose writing is meant. It is therefore, according to Rule XTV., put in the possessive case — Johii's. 314. Paksing. — The participle, its modifying sub- stantive, and its object, are parsed as follows : — Every thing depends on the pupiVs studying dili- gently. Pupil's is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, com- mon gender, possessive case, and modifies the participle studying : — Rule, A substantive which, in stead of being modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. Studjring is the present participle active of the intransitive verb study, used independently as the object of the preposition on : — Rule, Participles are used independently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they quaUfy or limit. Having made a code of laws for his countrymen^ Lycurgus left Sparta. Having made is the compound perfect participle active of the trana- tive verb make, and relates to the noun Lycurgus : — Rule, Participles are used independently, &c. Code is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, objective case, the object of the participle having made : — Rule, A substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. 813. Recite Rule XIV. Show its application in an example. 814. Learn the parsing forms. C50MPOUND TENSES. — AUXILIARIES. 107 EXERCISE. Parte the noune, pronouns^ adjectives^ and partieiples : — We can iearn much by simply observing and remembering what we see. — Filled with remorse on account of having betrayed his Lord, Judas killed himself. — Having been thrown into the sea, Jonah was swallowed by a great tish. — Bayonets are so called from having been invented at Bayonne, in France. — Arnold, having matured his plans, met Andre near the river, and after arranging matters with him returned to the fort. — Disappointed at not having obtained an interview with the qaeen, Columbus was about leaving Spain. LESSON XLV. AUXILIARIES. -i3£:, HAVE. 315. Auxiliaries. — Some tenses of the verb consist of two or more words ; as, have askedy shall have asked. These are called Compound Tenses. Tliey are formed by joining words known as Auxil- iaries to some part of the principal verb. Auxiliary signifies aiding ^ and these words are so called because they aid in forming the compound tenses. 316. Tlie auxiliaries are he in all its tenses, have in certain tenses, do^ did^ will,, shall^ may, can, must, need, might, could, would, and shoidd. 817. Parning. — In parsing, auxiliaries must be taken with their prin- cipal verb, even though other words come between. " Sarah would not have thus deceived me." Parse the words vpotild have deceived tt^ether, as a traniiitivc verb, in the active voice, potential mood, pluperfect tenae, third person, singular numl^er, &c. 818. When several verbs are used in the same construction, the aux- iiarj is generally expressed with the first and understood with the rest ; as,' 816. What l« TTieunt hy Componnd Tphbos t How lire the eompoand trnaea fo-TTH'-n Whnt does auxiViary tnran t Why ure the nuxiliariea «> called f 818. M ' on the MUxnUHM. 317. In parsini;, howmuat thu auxiliarie« bo takvn ? 8181 \s i.< (I oererml \-«rb« are uaed in the tame construction, what la aaid of the aaxll- taryt On the other band, what la aometlmM andemtood t In this oate, bow mnat 108 THE AUXILIARY BE. "I am surprised, grieved, and shocked at your proposal." To repeat the auxiliary [am grieved, and am shocked] would be inelegant. But grieved and shocked are to be parsed as if am preceded each, — that is, as iu the passive voice, indicative mood, present tense, && On the other hand, the principal verb is sometimes understood, and the auxiliary alone expressed ; as, " May I go ? You may." Here parse may as an auxiliary used for m.ay go, an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, present tense, &c. 319. Conjugation. — Bj the Conjugation of a verb is meant the process of carrying it through its several moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. To distinguish the persons in conjugating, we prefix the pronouns /, thou, he, in the singular ; we, you, they, in the plural. In the subjunctive mood, we prefix the conjunction if. These words must be parsed separately from the verb. 320. We shall now consider the auxiliaries in turn. 321. Be, in its various parts, is the common verb with which we affirm existence ; as, " Be happy." " I am happy." Besides appearing as a principal verb, he is used in all its parts as an auxiliary. Combined with the present participle active, it makes the progressive form of the various tenses of the active voice ; as, I ain nding, I was ruling. Combined with the perfect participle passive, it forms the passive tenses ; as, I am ruled, I toas ruled. The verb be is conjugated in Lesson XLYIII. 322. Have is used both as a principal verb and as an auxiliary. As a principal verb, it is transitive, and may be carried through all the moods and tenses of both voices. As an auxiliary, it is used in the compound perfect participle, and in six tenses, as follows : — we parse the auxiliarj' ? 319. What is meant by conjugating a verb? How do we distinguish the persons in conjugating ? In the subiunctive mood, what do we prefix ? 321. What do we affirm with the verb be ? Besides appearing as a prin- cipal verb, how is be usedV What does it form, when combined with the present participle active ? What, when combined with the perfect participle passive ? 322. Howie have used? In what parts is it used as an auxiliary ? Of what tense is THE AUXIUARY HAVK 109 Ihdio. Perf. — Havt. Indic. Plu, — Had. Indic. Sec. Fu. — Shall Aaw. PoTEN. Perf. — May have. PoTEN. Plu. — Might have. Infin. Perf. — To have. 823. The lirst two of these are conjugated thus: — Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. g- fl. Ihave, We have, 1. I had, We had, 2. Thou hadst, You had, 8. He had ; They had. 824. In solemn style, have makes hath in the third singular ; as, " He hath offended God." I I 2. Thou hast. You have, ft, [3. He has ; They have. EXEBCISE. iM&rt verba in compound tenses^ and stats the mood and tense of each: — The Spanish Moors to liave invented steel needles. The first settlers of America Behring's Strait. Brick-making is said one of the earliest arts. The Chinese ac- quainted with the mariner's compass before it io Europe. You that I was nido, but I assure you no offence was in- tended. Ilad he not known how to swim, he . In some countries, forgers for life. The boiler exploded, and many passengers . LESSON XL VI. THE AUXILIARIES DO, DID, WILL, SHALL. 325. Do and did are used both as principal verbs and as auxiliaries. Do appears as an auxiliary in the pres- ent tense of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative ; did in the imperfect, indicative and subjunctive. 326. In the subjunctive mood, these auxiliaries re- nain unchanged. In the indicative, they are conj ugated thus :^— havt! th« Auxtlikiyt Had? 828^ Carry Aor** through itn pcrsotjR and ?ium?>on». Do the nine with had. 831 In w>lemn style, what dove have make in the tldrd ■Ingtilart S3S. How mn do and did neadf In what part* of the verb doea do appear «■ an auzlllaryt In what, didf SM. Conjugate do and did lu the aatitJunotiT* mood. 110 WILL AND SHALL. Singular. Plural Singular. Plural. Vi ri. I do, We do, 1. I did, We did, 2. Thou dost, You do, 2. Thou didst, You did. &, 3. He does; They do. 3. He did ; They did. 327. As a principal verb, do makes do'est or dost [pronounced dust] in the second singular, and doeth or doth [dutli] in the solemn form of the third singular. As an auxiliary, it makes dost alone in the second singular, and doth in the solemn form of the third. " Thou do'est^ dost, wonders ; he doeth, doth miracles : " but " Thou dost not speak ; doth he not hear? " 328. Will is used as a principal verb, and also as an auxiliary in tlie future tenses. It is differently con- jugated, according to its use. Tlius : — Principal Verb. Auxiliary. 1 n. I will, We will, 1. I will, We will, 1 ■< 2. Thou wiliest. You will, 2. Thou wilt. You will, f^ (3. He wills; They will. 3. He wiU ; They wiU. 329. Shall, like will, appears as an auxiliary in the future tenses. It is thus conjugated : — Singular. — I shall, thou shalt, he shall ; Plural. — We shall, you shall, they shall. 330. FoKCE OF WILL AND SHALL. — We saw in § 255 that the first future implies, 1. Future time simply. 2. Determination. When future time simply is implied, shall is used as the auxiliary in the first person, and will in the second and third. I shall, thou wilt, he will/ We shall, you will, they will. When determination is implied, will is used in the first person, shall in the second and third. / will, thou shalt, he shall • We will, you shall, they shall. In the indicative. 327. What differences are there in the conjugation of do as a prncipal verb and as an auxiliary? S28. How is tcill used? Conjugate will as a principal verb. Conjugate it as an auxiliary. 329. In what tenses does shall ap- pear as an auxiliary ? Conjugate shall. 330. "What does the first future tense im- ^ly? Go through the first future tense, vrhen future time simply is implied. Go Ihrough \he first future, when determination is implied. When determination ia WILL AND SnALL. Ill In this Iatt< I i<>i m, ilie speaker declares his determination, in the first person altout himself; in the second, al>out the person 8pokcn to; in the third, alK)ut the person or thing spoken of. A promise or threat may therefore l>e conveyed. Thus: — " I will go, if I perissli in the attempt [it is my determination]." *' You ihall have what you want [it is my deter- mination — promise]." " He thall suffer for tliis insult [it is my deter- mination — threat]." 331. Will emphasized in the second and the third person implies deter- mination in the person spoken to or of, respecting his own acts ; as, " He will go [he is determined to do so]." *' They will not repent [they are determined not to do so]." 332. In questions, shall and will have a different force. Shall, in the first person, a.sk8 for advice; "Shall I go?" In the second person, it denotes futurity simply; "Shall you go?" In the third person, it asks for the determination of the person addressed respecting some person or thing spoken of. " Shall this man rule over us [is it your determination]?" On the other hand, vMl in all three persons implies simple futurity ; "Will I, you, he, be in time?" In the second and the third person, it also sometimes asks for the doterminutiou of the person spoken to or of; ag, " Will you accept my invitation ? " 833. WUl sometimes expresses merely what is habitual ; aa, " He vnH Bit and read for hours [he is in the habit of doing so]." EXERCISE. Correct the auxiliaries: — Do^st thou not see thy danger? — He doi'th not walk safely, that walks in the paths of sin. — Thou Bhalst not steal. — To whom will we flee for aid? — I will drown 1 Shall nobody save me? — Shall he not have departed? — Wilst thou not stay ? — No matter who is present, I sliall state my views. Supply the proper auxiliary : — I expect that I [trill or shall?] see my father.— I have resolved that I [will or shall?] rise early. —[Will or a?tallf] it be right to let this go on ?— We [will or ihall f] next proceed to treat of Optics. — He [will or shall f] suc- fanplied, req;>Mtin« wh»t !• H exerolMd In tbe dlflfcrent perM>n« t What, therefore, may he conveyed t Give example*. 381. What doe« tciU rmphaslu'd In the Moood and the third peraon Imply t 832. In queationa, what ia the furoo of skatl in thm MTwml pMaonaf Ot wUtl 133. What doea «o»U aomeUmM ezprMst 112 AUXILIARIES OF THE POTENTIAL. ceed, if industry is worth any thing. — We [will or shall ?] have left before you arrive. — By the time winter sets in, they [will or shall f] have taken their departure. LESSON XLYII. THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, MUST, NEED, MIGHT, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD. 334. May, can, must, and need, are auxiliaries of the present potential. Tliej are thus conjugated : — Singular. Plural. I may, thou mayst (mayest), he may ; We may, you may, they may. I can, thou canst, he can ; We can, you can, they can. I must, thou must, he must ; We must, you must, they must. I need, thou needst (est), he need ; We need, you need, they need. 335. These auxiliaries followed by have {may have, &c.) indicate the perfect potential. 336. J^eed is also used as a principal verb ; as, " We all need pardon." 837. As an auxiliary, need remains unchanged in the third, singular. As a principal verb, it becomes needs, or in solemn style needeth ; and another verb limiting its meaning is put in the infinitive. Dr. Johnson says, " He that can swim, need not despair." Here need is an auxiliary, and need despair is in the present potential. Shakspeare says, " I need not to advise you further." Here need is a principal verb in the present indicative, mod- ified by the infinitive to advise. Both constructions are authorized, but the former is the more common. 338. Might, could, would, and should, are auxiliaries of the imperfect potential. Thej are conjugated thus : — Singular. Plural. I might, thou mightst (est), he might ; We might, you might, they might. I could, thou couldst (est), he could ; We could, you could, they could. I would, thou wouldst (est), he would ; We would, you would, they would. I should, thou shouldst (est), he should ; We should, you should, they should. 334. Of what tense are may, can, must, and need the auxiliaries ? Conjugate may ; can ; must ; need. 335. What tense is indicated by these auxiliaries fol- lowed by Aafc ? 336. Howls need also used? 337. What difference is there in the conjugation of need as a principal verb and as an auxiliary ? Give an example of two equivalent conetructions with need, 338. Of what tense are might, coulU, WOULD AiJD SHOULD. 113 889. These auxiliaries followed by have {might have^ Ac.) indicate the pluperfect potential. 340. In subjoined clauses, after a verb in the imper- fect tense, would and should are used with the same difference of meaning for the different persons as wiU and «Aa/^ (§ 330). Thus:— Futurity. — I said I should go. I told you it vs)uld not rain, Determintition. — I said I teoiUd go. I told you she sliould not go. 341. Would is sometimes used to denote what was habitual ; as, ^^He would sit and read for hours.** 342. Would is sometimes, but very rarely, used as a principal verb. Thus, in the Psalms, " Israel vooxUd none of me." 343. Observe that when he^ have^ do^ will, need, and would, are combined with a participle or any other part of a principal verb, they are auxiliaries. AVhen not so combined, they are principal verbs. Auxiliaries. — He is amusing the children. CsesartMM loved. I do not want to be robbed. They haiv pitied us. Do look. Save her, do. Doe* He not help those whom He vill save. Nothing need be said. Who icould be a slanderer? Principal Verbs. — That story m amusing. Caesar teas ambitious. Have pity on us. They crossed the river, as they intended by the>« auxiliaries folloMred by hare 7 84a How are would mod should u«od in •n» V = ' > ■• .,f 341. "Wliat is trouid sonicUmos uaed to denotot 842. IIow Is irrneed ruled, have ruled, 2. Thou mayst, &c., have ruled, 2. You may, &c., have ruled, 3. He may, &c., have ruled ; 3. They may, &c., have ruled. Pluperfect Tense. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should have ruled, should have ruled, 2. Thou mightst, &c., have ruled, 2. You might, &c., have ruled, 3. He might, &c., have ruled ; 3. They might, &c., have ruled. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. If I rule or do rule, 1. If we rule or do rule, 2. If thou rule or do rule, 2. If you rule or do rule, 8. If he rule or do rule ; 3. If they rule or do rule^ RKMARKfl ON TUB VEBB. 110 Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I ruled or did rule, 1. If we ruled or did rule, 2. If thou ruled or did rule, 2. If you ruled or did rule, 8. If he ruled or did rule ; 8. If thej ruled or did rule. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. Rule I, 1. Rule we, 2. Rule thou or do thou rule, 2. Rule you or do you rule, 8. Rule he ; 8. Rule they. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To rule. Perfect Tense. To have ruled. PARTICIPLES. Present. Ruling. Perfect. Ruled. Comp. Perfect. Having ruled. 849. Remarks. — Except in solemn and poetical style, the second per- son plural of the verb is used in addressing a single person, in stead of the second singular. In conversation we say you rule^ not thou rulest, though but one person is referred to ; but in prayer or poetry we say thou rulest. 350. In the third person singular of the present indicative, there is a solemn form ending in th ; as, he ruleth. 851. The compound forms of the present and imperfect indicative, containing do and did, are properly used when a negation is expressed or emphasis is required ; as, " ' You do not love me.' ' I do love you.' " " He Bays I did not go, but I did go.'''' — When there is no emphasis or negation, the simple form is to be preferred as stronger. " We beseech thee," not " we (A) beseech thee.'* 862. To avoid a disagreeable combination of consonants, the tcrmina tion st is sometimes omitted by good writers in the second person singular of the imperfect indicative. Thus Pollok says, thou conquered, thou came, thou noticed, thou lifted. So Pope: — thou who touched; thy tpord ufho knew no wish. The regular form, however, is more used, and therefore to be preferred- 849. In what number do wo conamonly nue the vorb when wo addroM a atnglo perennt 860. Olvo the ■olcmn form of llie present Indicative In the thir! pervon. tSL When it it proper to use the compound forms of the proeent and Imperfeel Indicative t S&2. In what part is •( omittc'd by some writers t Why! Whioh 120 PASSIVE VOICE. 353. In the imperative mood, most grammars give only the second per- son. But all three persons are found in standard writers, and may be used when occasion requires. First person. " Cursed he I that did bo." — Shakspeare. " Proceed we therefore." — Pope. Third person. " Thy will be doneJ'^ — Bible, " Be it knoum.^^ EXERCISE. Supply verbs^ and parse the nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the sentences thus completed : — Strike while the iron — hot. "Whatso- ever thy hand findeth to do, — it with thy might. The bittern — in desolate places. The day may — when justice will triumph. Having thus deceived the enemy, Washington — to Princeton. If the climate of Africa — not so fatal, more travellers — there. In stead of oppressing his subjects, Nero might greatly have benefited them, if he — to — so. A French ofiicer, on visiting the mother of Washington, — : " liTo wonder America has — such a leader, since be — such a mother I " LESSON L. CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VEEB IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. 354. The various parts of the passive voice are formed by combining the perfect participle with the correspond- ing parts of the auxiliary he. All transitive verbs are conjugated in the passive voice according to the follow- ing model : — INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I am ruled, 1. We are ruled, 2. Thou art ruled, 2. You are ruled, 3. He is ruled ; 3. They are ruled. form is to be preferred ? 353. Give some exampleB ehowing that all three peraonB euro fouud in the imperative mood. PASSIVE VOICE OF iiih \ j.i:l{ iiULE. 121 Imperfect Tense. Singular. Phiral. 1. I was ruled, 1. We were ruled, 2. Thou wast or wert ruled, 2. You were ruled, 8. He was ruled ; 8. They were ruled. Perfect Tense, 1. I have been ruled, 1. We have been ruled, 2. Thou hast been ruled, 2. You have been ruled, 8. lie has been ruled ; 8. They have been ruled. Pluperfect Tense. 1. I had been ruled, 1. We had been ruled, 2. Thou hadst been ruled, 2. You had been ruled, 8. lie had been ruled ; 8. They had been ruled. Pirst Future Tense. 1 I shall or will be ruled, 1. We shall or will be ruled, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 2. You shall or will be ruled, 8. lie shall or will be ruled ; 8. They shall or will be ruled. Second Future Tense, 1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been ruled, ruled, 2. Thou shalt ar wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been ruled, ruled, 8. He shall or will have been 8. They shall or will have been ruled ; ruled. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense, 1. I majt can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need be be ruled, ruled, 2. Thou raayst, &o., be ruled, 2. You may, &c., be ruled, 8. He may, &c., be ruled ; 8. They may, &c., be ruled. Imperfect Tense, 1. I might, conld, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should be ruled, should be ruled, 2. Thou mightst, Ac, be ruled, 2. You might, &c., be ruled, 8. He might, ^., be ruled ; 8. They might, &c., be ruled. 6 122 PASSIVE VOICE OF THE VERB RULE, Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must or need have been ruled, have been ruled, 2, Thou mayst, canst, must, or 2. You may, can, must, or need needst have been ruled, have been ruled, S. He may, can, must, or 3. They may, can, must, or need need have been ruled ; have been ruled. Pluperfect Tense. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should have been ruled, should have been ruled, 2. Thou mightst, &c., have 2. You might, &c., have been been ruled, ruled, 8. He might, &c., have been 3. They might, &c., have been ruled ; ruled. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. If I be ruled, 1. If we be ruled, 2. If thou be ruled, 2. If you be ruled, 3. If he be ruled ; 3. If they be ruled. Imperfect Tense, 1. If I were ruled, 1. If we were ruled, 2. If thou were ruled, 2. If you were ruled, 3. If he were ruled ; 3. K they were ruled. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. Be I ruled, 1. Be we ruled, 2. Be thou or do thou bo ruled, 2. Be you or do you be ruled, e. Be he ruled ; 3. Be they ruled. IXFINITIYE MOOD. Present Tense. To be ruled. Perfect Tense. To have been ruledc PAETICIPLES. Present. Being ruled. Perfect. Euled. Comp, Perfect. Having been ruled. BEMABK8 ON TUE VERB. 123 866. Some verbs, bemdes the regular present participle passive given above, have tlieir participle in ing used with a passive meaning ; as, the houses now erectinff^ a book now publishing in numbers. Parse a participle in ing thus used as the present participle passive. 856. Cautions. — In old writers we sometimes find the perfect of cer- tain intransitive verbs formed with am in stead of have, and the pluperfect with iroj in stead of had. Thus : — Winter t« [has] come ; they are [liave] arrived ; when thej tcere [had] gone ; happiness teas [had] flown. These forms are now rarely used, and should be avoided. Do not take them for passive tenses, which they resemble, but parse thus : /« coim is an in- transitive verb, used for has come; in the indicative mood, perfect tense, &c. 357. We have seen (§ 808) that there are some adjectives identical in fonn with pai-ticiples. Do not, therefore, confound the verb be followed by such an adjective, with a passive compound tense. Observe the differ- ence in the following examples : — Verb BB and adjective. — I am obliged to you. You are mistaken. She M accomplished. He is resolved to go. I am inclined to remain. TVanHiive verb in tht passive voice. — I am obliged to return. Some- times hypocrites are mistaken for pious men. The deed is accomplished. Water m resolved into its elements. My body is inclined by years. 358. Changs of Construction. — A sentence containing a verb in the active voice may often be converted into an equivalent one containing a verb in the passive. Thus : — *' Caesar invaded Britain." Make three changes. 1. Change the active verb invaded to the same part of the pas- sire voice, wu invaded. 2. Take the object Britain for the subject of the passive verb, Britain vxu invaded. 8. Introduce the preposition bt/ after the passive verb with the former subject Ccesar for its object, Britain tea* invaded by Ccesar. EXERCISE. Correct the following senteixces (see § 856), and mention the mood and tenee of each terb : — What is become of your father ?— Samuel is grown out of my recollection. — The Jews were Bition ? Give an example of the mode of parsing them. 368. When is a verb said to be used interrogatively ? When it is thus used, where does its subject stand ? 369. What moods alone are used interrogatively ? Conjugate the active voice of the verb rule interrogatively. The passive voice. The progressive form. 370. How Is the interrogative conjugation made negative f 371. Give the active voice of the NEOATIVE-INTEBROGATIVE CONJTGA'nON. 129 INDICATIVE. — Present Role I not or do I not role? Imperfect. Kuled I not or did I not rule? Perfect, llave I not ruled ? &c. So in the passive voice : — Am I not ruled ? Was I not ruled? Have I not been ruled ? Uad I not been ruled ? &c. So in the progressive form: — Am I not ruling? "Was I not ruling? Have I not been ruling? Uad I not been ruling? &c. 872. The adverb no< is sometimes placed before the subject ; as, "Dave not I entreated thee?" " Did not they insult me?" 873. The interrogative form of the verb is used, when we ask simply for information and are in doubt whether the answer will be yen or no. The negative-interrogative form is used when we expect the answer yea. If I am uncertain whether you are going to a certain place, I ask, " Are you going?" If I think you intend to go or ought to do so, I ask, "Are you not going?" 874. In the present and imperfect indicative of the above conjugations, there are two forms. Of these, the compound forms containing do and did are the ones commonly used ; the simple forms appear only in solemn style or poetry. Common Form. — Do you not know? Did you hear those loud con- tending notes ? Did I not speak to you ? So/emn and Poetical Porm. — Know ye not? Heard ye those loud contending notes ? Spake I not unto thee ? EXERCISE. Change the verbs suecessitely to the corresponding tense of the progressive, negative, interrogative, and negative-interrogative form. Thus : — Progressive. — Ho is smiling. Negative. — Ue does not smile. Interrogative. — Does he smile? Negative-interrogative. — Does he not smDet She langhed. Tou have called him. Jane looks well. Lawyers make money. Thou hast written. You deceive yourself. verb rttie, acoordlng to the nefratire-interrogative conjugation. The pafslve voieeL The progreMive form. 872. Where is the adverb nor nometirnes placed t 373. When Is the interrogative form of the verb UK>d, and when the negative-Interrogative t 874. In th«M> eonjugationn, which la the common form of the present and Imperfecl lodieative f Where alone do the ilmple forme appear t Give eramplea. 6* He smiles. 130 THE BOOT OF THE VERB. OsBsar overran Gaul. He will suffer torture. Some birds sing. You had walked rapidly. They may wait. He might have watched. Thou must go. They would make trouble. LESSON LIII. VERBS DISTINGUISHED AS REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 375. Boot of ths Yerl. — ^Tlie present infinitive active without its sign to^ is the Koot of the verb. The first person singular of the present indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, has the same form as the root ; as, to rule, I rule, if I rule, rule I. The verb he is the only exception to this rule. It makes I am, not 7 be^ in the present indicative, though it forms its present subjunctive and im- perative regularly, if I be, be I. 376. The present active participle is formed by add- ing ing to the root, making such changes in the latter as may be required by the rules of spelling : as, land, landing ; he, being ; rule, ruling ; pin, ^mNing ; permit, permitting. 377. Formation of the Compound Tenses. — The root of the verb is combined with auxiliaries in the following compound tenses of the active voice : — Indicative and Subjunctive Present. — I do rule. Indicative and Subjunctive Imperfect. — I did rule. Indicative Future. — I shall or will rule, be. Potential Present. — I may, can, must, or need rule, be. Potential Imperfect. — I might, could, would, or should rule, be. Imperative Present. — ^Do thou rule. The other compound tenses of the active voice are 375. What is the Root of the verb ? What parte of the verb have the same form as the root ? What exception is there to this rule ? 376. How is the present active participle formed ? 377. Which of the compound tenses are formed by combining the root of the verb with auxiliaries ? How are the other compound CHIEF PABT8 OF THE VERB. 131 formed by combining the perfect or present participle witli auxiliaries ; as, I have ruled, I have been ruling. 378. Chief Parts of the Verl.—^\\\\\ the root and tlie perfect participle of a verb, then, we can form all its compound tenses. If, together with these, we know the imperfect indicative (with wliich, except in the verb he,^ the simple form of the imperfect subjunctive corre- sponds) we can conjugate the verb throughout. The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect participle, are therefore called the Chief Parts of the verb. 379. Yerhs distinguished as Regular and In^egular. — ^The imperfect indicative and the perfect particii)le of most verbs are formed by adding ed to the root. Thus : — Warm, warm^'C?, warmt'<^/ laud, laiid^^/, IdMded. 880. When ed is added, changes may be required in the root by the rules of spelling (page 20). Thus : — Final e of the root is rejected ; as, rule, rul-ed, rul-ed. When the root is a monosyllable or is accented on the la.«»t syllable, its final conisonant, if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled: as, stir, stirRcd, etiraed ; bestir', bestiraed, bestiraed. Final y of the root, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to » ; as, ply, plied, phed. 381. Verbs that have but one fonn for the imperfect indicative and perfect participle, made by adding ed to the root, are called Regular. Wann, wanned^ warmed^ is a regular verb. Verbs that have more than one form for the imper- fect indicative or perfect participle, or that do not add ed to the root to form these parts, are called Irregular. tcii«e« of the active velce formed! 378. With what three parts grlven can we ponjutratea verb thmaghoatt What are these three parts called t 879. How are the Imperfect indicative and the perfect participle of most verbs formed! 88a When ed la added, what changes may be required in the root t 381. What wrbe are eaDed Reirulart What verbs are Irregalar t Give ezamplee of both. 881 Leam the pantag form. 132 EREEGULAE VEEBS. Awake^ awoke or awaked^ awoke or awaked, — he, was, heen, — are irregular verbs. 382. Parsing. — In parsing a verb, state wlietber it is regular or irregular, and, if it is irregular, mention its three chief parts, in the following order : — " Warm your hands." "Warm is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative mood, &c. " He has been imprudent." Has been is an irregular intransitive verb ; from 6e, was, been ; in the indicative mood, perfect tense, &c. EXERCISE. Write out or spell the tTiree cliuf parts of the following regular verhs^ making, when necessary, the changes in the root mentioned in § 380 : — Grant ; heat ; tattoo ; fan ; fawn ; smile ; root ; rot ; hop ; hope ; hoop ; row ; ply ; play ; extol ; profit ; harass ; hal- loo ; benefit ; compromit ; hamper ; deter ; occur ; destroy ; separate ; bury ; file ; fill ; justify ; dismay ; tremble ; complain ; saunter ; journey ; command ; woo ; transfer • hurrah. TABLE OF PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 383. The chief parts of the primitive irregular verbs are presented below. Derivative and compound verbs follow their primitives, and therefore they are not given separately in the Table. Thus overtake and undertake form their chief parts like their primitive take : overtake, overtook, over- taken; undertake, undertook, undertaken. Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a regular one in ed. This is denoted in the Table by the letter R. Recite both forms in the order given in the table •.—Build, built or builded, built or builded. A form in italics, or a regular form represented by an italic R, is not now in good use, though once authorized. When there are two forms, the preferable one is placed first. No mistakes in grammar are more frequent than those connected with the parts of irregular verbs. This Table should therefore receive careful attention. Each page of verbs with the Exercise at the bottom may con- stitute a lesson. After the errors in the Exercise are corrected, the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs may be parsed. PRIMmVE lEBEOULAE VEEB8. 133 Root, Abide, Arise, Awake, Be, Bear (carry), Bear Imperf. abode, arose, ariaen. awoke, R., awoke, was, j bore, ( bore, (bring ft>rthX( bare. Ptrf. Part. abode. been. borne. :;i born. Beat, Begin, Behold, Belay, Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Be^ Betide, Bid, Bind, Bite, Bleed, Blend, beat, (began, \ bepin, beheld. beaten, beat begun. beheld. R., belaid, R., belaid, bent, R., bent, R. bereft, R., bereft, R. besought,/?, besought, R. bet, R., bet, R. R., betidy R., betid. bade, bid, bidden, bid. bound, bound, bit, bitten, bit bled, bled. R., blent, R., blent. Root. Blow, Break, Breed, Bring, Build, Bum, Burst, Buy, Cast, Catch, Chide, Choose, Cleave (adhere). Cleave (split), Cling, aothe,* Come, Cost, Creep, Crow, Imperf. blew, broke, ) brake^ S bred, brought, built, i?., R., burnt, burst, bought, cast, caught, R chid, chode, chose, R., clove, clave, cleft, dove, clung, R., clad, came, cost, crept, crew, R., Per/. Part. blown. broken. bred, brought built, R. R., burnt burst bought cast. ., caught, R. chidden, chid, chosen. I cleaved. cleft, cloven, R. clung. R., clad, come, cost, crept crowed. * Unclothe is regular. EXERCISE. Correct the errors in the t>w6«.'— Monroe was born to the grave on the very day that I was borne. — The games have began. — You must do what he has bade you do. — The wind blowed hard. — You might have chose something better. — My friends have cloven to me. — She was greatly frightened, and her tongue cleft to the roof of her mouth. — He dumb to the top of the mountain. — John oome to the city yesterday. — She has came on business. — He has overcame every difficulty. Conjugate re-awako ; upbear ; bare (regular) ; underbid ; re- build ; underbuy; overcast; miscboose; overcome. 134 PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. Perf. Part. forgotten, ! forgot, forgiven, forsaken, frozen, got, gotten. R., gilt, girt, R. given, gone, gi-aven, R. ground, grown, hung, R.f had. heard. R., hoven, hewn, R. hidden, hid. hit. held, kolden.X hurt. * Engrave is regular. t Hung is the preferable form, except when suspension by the neck for the purpose of killing is meant, in which case hanged is generally used. The meat was hung up ; the murderer was hanged. Overhang tabes the irregular forma only. t Holden is still used in law language ; as, " The court was holdeny Boot Imperf. Per/. Part. Poot. Pnperf. Cut, cut. cut. Dare VUK, !■ durst, R. Forget, forgot, (venture) dared. Forgive, forgave. Deal, dealt, E. dealt, P. Forsake, forsook. Dig, dug, P., dug, P. Freeze, froze. Dive, R., dove, dived. Get, got, gat. Do, did. done. Gild, R., gilt. Draw, drew. drawn. Gird, girt, R., Dream, R., di-eamt, R., dreamt. Give, gave. Drink, drank. ( dnink, drank. Go, went. Grave,* graved. Drive, drove. driven. Grind, ground, Dwell, dwelt, R. , dwelt, R. Grow, grew. Eat, ate, eat. eaten, ^. Hang, hung, R.,t Fall, feU, fallen. Have, had. Feed, fed. fed. Hear, heard. Feel, felt. felt. Heave, R., hove. Fight, fought, fought. Hew, hewed. Find, found, found. Hide, hid, Flee, fled, fled. Hit, hit, Fling, Fly, flung, flew. flung. flown. Hold, held, \ Forbear, forbore. forborne. Hurt, hurt. EXERCISE. Correct the errors in tTie teris : — The king dared not sign the warrant. — Brown durst Jones to wrestle with him. — Have you ever dove in a deep river? — "Wlio done it ? — "We done our best. — He overdrawed his account. — Some drunk too much. — You have overdrove this horse ; you driv him too fast. — They fell five trees yesterday. — Some evil has befell. — The battle lasted till evening; the enemy fit bravely. — The Nile had overflown its banks. — I had forebore pressing my claim.— He may have went to Texas.— It was engraven on my heart. — We heared you laugh. — Have you hurted yourself? PREJimVE lEREGULAR VERBS. 135 RooL Imperf. Per/. Fori. Boot. Imperf. Per/. Pari, Keep, kept. kept Rap rapt, rapped, rapt, 72. Kneel, knelt, R., knelt, R. (seize), Knit, knit, R., knit, R. Read, r<^ad, rSad. Know, knew. known. Beave^ r^A reft. Lade(load),laded, laden, R. Rend, rent, rent. Lay, laid. laid. Rid, rid, rid. Lead, led, led. Ride, rode, ridden,ro/«/, R.,/rf«i. Shape, shaped. R., shapen. Prove,t proved. R., pt-ovcn. Shave, shaved. R., shaven. Put, put, put. Shear, sheared. shorn, R. Quit, quit, R., M an elegant fl quit, R. Shed, shed. shed. • ObMlete )rm. t Imp< lead ta ngnlar. X I>ieprove is regular. EXERCISE. Correct the errors in the verbs : — I knowcd you would lay down tills afternoon. — Wliere have you lain my purse ? — My father laid down and took a nap. — She may have laid down. — Hereupon he pent some verses, for which he was well rep.iyed. — The evidence in the case of Robert White, impled with Godfrey and others, has been disproven. — The audience were wrapt with admiration. — He rid very fast, and arrived before the bell had rang. — Martha has outran all the rest. — I seen him. — I see him do it yesterday. Conjugate inlay ; underlet ; overlie ; loose (regular) ; remake ; demean (regular) ; overpay ; acquit (regular) ; uprise ; foresee. 136 PEIMITIYE IREEGULAR VERBS. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Shew {sho\ shewed. Shine, shone, R shewn, R. , shone, R. Speak, spoke, spake* spoken. Shoe, shod. shod. Speed, sped, R., sped, R. Shoot, shot. shot. Spend, spent. spent. Show, showed, shown, R. Spill, R., spilt, R., spilt Shred, shred. shred. Spin, spun, span, spun. Shrink, i shrunk, \ shrank, shrunk, shrunken. Spit, spit, 'spat. spit, spitten. Shut, shut. shut. Split, split, R., split, R. Sing, sung, sang, sung. Spread, spread, spread. Sink, Sit, sunk, sank, sunk, sat, sat, sitten. Spring, I sprung, 1 i sprang, f sprung. Slay, slew. slain. Stand, stood. stood. Sleep, slept. slept. Stave, stove, R., stove, R. Slide, slid. j slidden, \ slid. Stay, Steal, R., staid, stole. R., staid, stolen. slung, slang. Stick, stuck. stuck. Sling, slung. Sting, stung. stung. Slink, slunk, ■> slank, ) slunk. Stink, f stunk,) 1 stank,; stunk. Slit, slit, R., slit, R. Stride, strode, strid, stridden, smitten, smit.f strid. Smite, smote, Strike, struck, { struck, ] stricken. Sow, sowed, * Spake is stil R., sown. used in solemn ai id poetical style. hEare. EXEF -CISE. Correct the errors in the verhs: — Some horses are shoed every month. — Have you not often shrank from your duty ? — If she had sang louder and spoke more distinctly, she would have been beared better. — After the vessel had sank, we set still on the shore.— The duke set his horse admirably. — David might have smote Saul as he laid asleep. — From morning till night they spinned. — The boat was stoven. — King Philip had stole away. — Nobody has ever strewn roses in my path. — He must have slinged it into the river. Conjugate gainsay; forego; overhear; undersell; missend; overshoot ; resow ; understand ; strew (regular) ; misgive. PlUMirrVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 137. Root. Imptrf. Per/. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. String, strung, strung. Throw, threw, thrown. Strive, strove. striven, R. Thrust, thrust, thrust Strow, Swear, strowed, (swore,) strown, R. sworn. Tread, Wake, trod, R., woke, I trodden, ( trod. R., woke. Sweat, Sweep, sweat, R, swept, sweat, R, swept. Wax (grow), V waxed, R., vcaxen. SweU, swelled. R., swollen. Wear, wore. worn. Swim, ( swum, ( swam, swum. Weave, Wed, wove, A, R., w«d, woven, R. R., wed. Swing, swung, 1 stcanff, ) swung. Weep, Wet, wept, wet, R., wept wet, R. Take, took. taken. Win, won. won. Teach, Tear, taught, tore, taught, torn. Wind (twine), V wound. wound. Tell, told, told. Work, R., wrought, R., wrought Think, thought. thought Wriug, wrung, wrung. Thrive, throve, R. thriven, R. Write, wrote. written. 884. The following verbs, whose imperfect indicative and perfect par- Uciple are by some made to end m t (as, ipelt^ paxt^ mixt), are properly regular: — Smell Bless Distress Snap Pass Mix Spell Dress Oppress Wrap Toss Curse Ed^ after /, />, and », is generally sounded like t, and thus the irregular forms in question have arisen. They are condemned by the best authorities. Primitive verbs not found in the above Table are regular. EXERCISE. Correct the error* in the verbs : — Several valuable horses were hamstringed. — You have forswore yourself. — I have learnt to swim, but have never swam more than a few strokes. — You may have took pains, but this does not look like it. — She says she has tore her dress. — He writ a poem, and after it was wrote throwed it into the fire. — lie who was curst of men seemed to be blest of Heaven. — lie tost his head, and wrapt his cloak more closely about him. — I am opprest with grief and distrest beyond measure. Conjugate unstring; mistake; unteach; bethink; overthrow; unweave; outwork; rewrite; outstrip; misspell; undress. 138 THE DEFECTIVES OUGHT, BEWABE, WOULD. LESSON LIV. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 385. A verb is said to be Defective when some of its parts are wanting. Tlie defective verbs are ought^ he- ware^ would^ quoth or quod^ wit^ wis, wot, methinks, and meseems. 386. Ought appears only in the present and imperfect of the indicative and tlie subjunctive mood. It is con- jugated thus : — Pres. and Imperf. Ind. Pres. and Imperf. Subj. 1. I ought, We ought, 2. Thou oughtest, You ought, 8. He ought ; They ought. 1. If I ought, If we ought, 2. If thou ought, If you ought, 3. If he ought ; If they ought. The two tenses, in each mood, have the same form ; to tell which is used in a given sentence, look at the other words, and see whether present or past time is meant. " I ougJit [present] to write." "I ought [imper- fect] to have written yesterday." 387. Ought has no participle. Hence the expression hadn't ought is wrong ; correct it to ought not. 388. Beware, as if compounded of he and ware (for wary), is used only in those tenses which in the verb he retain he. Thus : — IxD. First Fu. — I shall or will 6eware ; thou shalt or wilt ftcware, Ac. Potential Pres. — I may, can, must, or need 6eware. Potential Imperf. — I might, could, would, or should ftgware Subjunctive Pres. — If I ieware ; if thou ieware, &c. Imperative Pres., 2nd person. — ^^eware thou ; ieware you. Infinitive Pres.— To 6eware. 389. Would, as a principal verb, is found only in the present and imperfect indicative and subjunctive. It 385. When is a verb said to be Defective? Mention the defective verba 886. In what tenses does ought appear ? Go through these tenses. How are they to be distinguished in a given sentence ? 387. What expression is condemned, and whj-f 388. In what tenses only is betcare used? Mention these parts. 389. In what parts is the principal verb would found ? Mention the expressions in which QUOTH, WIT, METDINKS, MESEEMS. 139 is rarely used except in the expressions would God^ would lltaven^ would to God^ would to Heaven^ I would that, would that. Woitid OoJ, would Heaven (as in the sentence, "Would God I had died for thee, Absalom ! "), mean Oh that it voere God's will ! Oh that Heaven willed I Here the verb toould is in the subjunctive, imperfect, third, singular, and agrees respectively with God and Heaven. — Woidd to God and would to Heaven arc corrupt forms for would God and toould Heaven, and should be treated as such in parsing. In the expressions / would that and tcould t/utt, woidd is equivalent to ifwA, and is found in the indicative, present, first, singular, agreeing with /. 390. Quoth and quod, meaning said, are now obsolete except in humorous stylo. They are used only in the imperfect tense, first and third singular, and always stand before their subject : " quoth I," " quod he." 391. Wit, meaning kfioio, is used only in the present infinitive, in the common expression to wit, which is equivalent to namely. The kindred forms, wis (imper- fect, wiM) and wot (formerly used as both a present and an imperfect), are now obsolete. 392. Methinks and meseems, meaning it seems to 7ne, are in the indicative, present, third, singular. Tliey are used only in this part and the third singular of the imperfect tense, — Tnethouglit, nieseemed. Tliese verbs never admit of a subject ; and, from their being used in but one person, they are called Unipersonal Verbs. " He stood, mcthought, beside my bed." " Meseems I see my murdered brother." In solemn style methinks becomes methinketh ; and meseems, meseemeth. it (c^nerally appenrs. Explnin and pame the expreMions would God, woidd Heaven, What la laid of the expreMlon« wouid to God, trotdd to Heaven J Parse irould In the exprcMiona / would that, wotUd that. 390. What do qrwth An^ horse so lively. — "We drove off. — To- morrow may never come. — Since then he has had money enough, — She conducted affairs skilfully enough. — Do the wicked ever think of a hereafter f — Hereafter we will live apart. Correct, and give the reasons : — Never answer surlily (§ 398). — We should try to live godlily. — I like to see persons move about livelily. — The seldom rainbow (§ 403) paints the sky. — The once king became a beggar. — My heretofore life has been full of errors. — The moon looks very brightly. — Your flute sounds sweetly. — They rise successive. — Do not think too high of yourself. — How foolish William behaved ! — He spoke briefer than I supposed he would. — Wellington was seldom or ever defeated in battle. purpose is it eometiraes used ? 409, For what words are where, here., and there UBed In familiar style? 410. What is said of the use of from hefore tcAence, hene« thence, &o. ? 411. What should we say in stead of fteldom or ever 7 BEOULAB AND ISREOULAB COMPARISON. 147 LESSON LYII. COMPARISON AND CONSTRUCTION OP ADVERBS. 412. Comparison of Advekbs. — Adverbs are inde- clinable ; but a few, of one or fwo syllables, are com- pared, like adjectives. 413. Tlie comparative degree is regularly formed by adding er to the positive ; and the superlative, by adding est. Thus : — Pot, Comp, Sup. Pot. Comp. Sup. Late, later, latest I Early, earlier, earliest Fast, faster, fastest | Often, oftener, ofleneet 414. Old writers compare some of the adverbs ending in /y. Milton nses the words plainlier, rightlier^ firmlier ; and in Shakspeare we even find easiliest. Such forms are now out of use ; we say more plainly^ more rightly y more firmly ^ most easily. 415. The following adverbs are irregular in their comparison : — Pos. Comp. Sup, P09. Comp. Sup, Badly, Ul, worse. worst Much, more. most Well, better. best Far, fiarther. farthest LitUe, less. least Forth, further. furthest 416. More is the adverb used to give the force of the comparative degree, and most to give the force of the superlative, to adjectives that can not be compared. These words may be used with the same force before many adverbs, particularly those of manner; as, more gracefully, ntost gracefully ; more frequently^ moti frequently. An adverb, however, is not •aid to be compared, unless it takes «r and est, or changes its form as in the above list of irregulars. 412. IIow are aomp adverb* varied f 413. Bow are the comparative and the •aperlmtive decree regularly fortncd t Compare some example*. 414. W^hat ad- « that are Irrega- larin thilr comparison. 416, For what are more and mott u»edf To what be- •ddea a4}eeUvM may they be Joined t When only la an adverb aald to ba coifr 148 CONSTKUCTION OF ADVERBS. 417. CoNSTKTJcnoN OF Adverbs. — An adverb will generally be found to modify tbe meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 418. The word modified by an adverb may be found by asking a ques- tion with what. Thus: — "Is that sum hard? Yes; very." Question. Very what ? Answer. Very hkrd. The adverb very relates to the adjec- tive hard understood. As we have just seen, the word that an adverb modifies may be under- stood. Other examples follow: — " Up and on them, my gallant boys [that is, get up and fall on them] ! " "Away to the ship, my men [that is, go away] ! " Sometimes in lively style an adverb is joined to an auxiliary expressed, while the root of the verb is imderstood; as, "I'll thence to Florence [that is, I'll go thence]." 419. Sometimes an adverb modifies an idea conveyed by the whole or part of a sentence. In that case, as it bears no grammatical relation to any particular word, we say that it is used independently. The adverbs oftenest used independently are as follows : — 1. Yes and no, used in answering questions; and amen, at the end of prayers. 2. Forth, in the common expression and so forth. Here the adverb so modifies the adverb /o?*^A, but forth is used independently. 3. Consequently, therefore, and then, implying inference. " Lignum vitae, therefore, will sink in water." 4. First, secondly, thirdly, &c., introducing successive particulars. 5. Why and well, used simply to introduce a sentence. " Why, I for- got." " Well, he is happy at last." 420. Rule XY. — An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independ- ently in the sentence. 421. Parsing. — ^To parse an adverb, compare it and pared ? 417. What will an adverb generally be found to modify ? 418. How may the word modified by an adverb be found ? Illustrate tbig. Give other examples showing that the modified word may be understood. 419. When is an adverb said to be used independently ? Mention the adverbs oftenest used independently, and the circumstances under which they are so used. 420. Recite Rule XV 421. How is an adverb parsed ? Learn the forms. PAB8INO OF ADVEBDS. 141) state its degree, if it can be compared ; tell what it re- lates to or state tliat it is used independently ; if a con- junctive adverb, tell what it connects and what it relates to ; finally, give Rule XV. By and hy we sludl travel still more rapidly. By and by is a complex adverb, and relates to the verb shall travel ;— Rule^ An adverb relates to the woixl or worda whose meaning it modifiea, or stands independently in the sentence. Still is an adverb, and relates to the adverb more : — /?«/e, An adverb, &c More is an adverb; much, more, most; in the comparative degree, and relates to the adverb rapidly : — Jiule, An adverb, &c. Bapidly is an adverb, and relates to the verb shall travel : — Rule, An Rdverb, &c. Well, ril off to Paris, after you leave. Well is an adverb, used independently i'—Iiule, an adverb, &c Off is an adverb, and relates to the verb trill go (the root go being understood) : — Rule, An adverb, &c. After is a conjunctive adverb ; it connects Pll off to Paris and you leave, and relates to the verb leave : — Rule, An adverb, &c. EXERCISE. Pnrne the nonns, pronouns, adjectives, verhs, and adverbs: — In 1545,* an Indian, climbing an exceedingly steep mountain in Bo- livia, to support himself the better, took hold of a bush that happened to be growing just abovet where he stood. The bush immediately came up in his hand ; and its root, strangely enough, was covered with a glittering dust This turned out to bo silver ore, and thus were accidentidly discovered the celebrated silver mines of Potosi, which rank among tlie most valuable miuenil deposits hitherto known. — Tunis now stands not far from where ancient Carthage formerly stood. — Just now there are no wars or rumors of wars anywhere. — Seldom, if ever, has a hyena been Umied. — On, Stanley, on. • A noun, being the name of « yo«r. t A prepoeitlon, not an adverb, iu obJ«et plaet being ondentood \—ju»t abo9$ tthm plaoel wkert he etood. 150 PKEPOSITION AND ADJUBTCT. LESSON LYIII. THE PREPOSITION 422. The Preposition. — Tlie seventh part of speech is the Preposition. "Washington marched to Princeton." The relation between Washington's marching and Princeton is here expressed by to; not from Princeton, nor rowid Princeton, nor past Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in italics express each a different relation, and are called Prepositions. 423. That term of the relation which naturally follows the preposition, is called its Object ; and, if it is a noun, it is in the objective case, accord- ing to Rule IV. In the above example, Princeton is the object of the preposition to, and is in the objective case. A preposition may also have for its object a pronoun in the objective, a verb in the infinitive, or a participle ; as, " There is an air of mystery about himy " The concert was about to commence.'^ " The concert was about commencing.'''* 424. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or participle bears to some other term in the sentence. 425. An Adjimct is an expression consisting of a preposition, its object, and the words that modify the lat- ter. " Wellington was about commencing imjportant and extensive operations ; " the words in italics constitute an adjunct. 426. List of Pkeposiitons. — Tlie following list em- braces all the prepositions in common use : — 422. What is the seventh part of speech ? In the sentence Washington marched to Princeton, what does the word to express? What other words might be used, to indicate different relations ? What are these words called ? 423. What Is the Object of a preposition ? What may a preposition have for its object ? 424. Define a Preposition. 425. Define an Adjunct. 426. Give as many prepo- U8T OF PBEP08ITION8. 151 •» at, concerning, off, to, abaft. athwart, despite, on, touching, aboard, bating, down, over. toward. about, before, during, overthwart, towards, above, behind, ere, pairt, under, across, below, except. pending, underneath, after, beneath, excepting. regarding. until, against, beside, for. respecting. unto, along. besides, from, round, up. amid, between, in. save, upon. amidst, betwixt. into. since, versus, among, bevond. minus. through. with, amongst. but, notwithstanding, throughout, within. around, by. of. tui. without. 427. Caution. — ^Tlie words in the above list are not prepositions in every sentence, but only when they ex- press some relation and have an object. Thus : — " A polite man would not have burst out a laughing." The first a has no object, but limits the meaning of the noun man ; it is therefore an article. The second a has the participle laughing for its object, and is a preposition. 428. Many of the words in the above list of preposi- tions, particularly those that denote place or direction, are also used as adverbs. If I say, *^ Look above this earth," above has the noun earth for its object, and is a preposition. But if I say, " Look above," a6ot'« has no object ; it modifies the verb look, and is therefore au adverb. 429. Some of the words in the list of prepositions are also used as conjunctions, — tliat is, to connect words or sentences. If I say, " All but me remained," but is uaed with the force of except, has wi* for its object, and is a preposition. If I say, " But Brutus is an honor- able man," biU is used without an object, as a connective, and it is there. •ItioiM of th© lUt M you c»n remember. 427. When only are the word« prwented In the list prepocitiona f Give tax example of the uae of a aa different pnrta of apeech. 428. Aa whai part of apecoh do many of ttio worda In the \[»t of prrpo- aiUooa appear t IUu*trat« thla. 429. Aa what other part of apeeob do they alao 152 COMPLEX PEEPOSmONS. fore a conjunction. On the other hand, hut^ when equivalent to only^ is an adverb ; as, " By,i [only] seven metals were known to the ancients," Observe the diflference in the following examples : — Prepositions. — Charlemagne flourished about the year 800. — Mercury freezes at 39 degrees below zero. — Throw it over the fence. — Notwithstand- ing his merits, Schuyler was superseded. — Since the invention of printing, books have multipUed. — Go to your home, and lay your throbbing head on your pillow. Adverbs. — Horsemen were seen riding about. — Man wants but little here below. — Throw it over. — Printing was invented, and books have mul- tiplied ever since. — There was now no home for Roger Williams to go to^ no pillow for him to lay his head on. Conjunctions. — Oil is lighter than water, for it floats on water. — Not- trithstanding he was superseded, Schuyler did all he could for his country. — Since you suspect me, I have nothing to say. 430. Complex Prepositions. — ^Two prepositions are sometimes used to express a compound relation. In that case, take them together in parsing, and call them a Complex Preposition. " The Germans came ^rom heyond the Phine ; " from heyond is a complex prepo- sition, showing the relation between came and Rhine. From unites with various other prepositions, to form a complex prepo- sition; SLSyfrom aboard^ from above^from loit/iin, &c. Besides these, we have according tOy contrary tOy as to, as for, because of instead of off of 9ut of over against^ &c. EXEECISE. Supply prepositions^ and tell the object of each ; parse the ad- verbs: Elizabeth, daughter — Henry YIII., was born — Green- wich Palace, not far — London ; she succeeded — the throne -^ the year 1558. — her faults as a woman, but one opinion is en- tertained — her as a queen; few British sovereigns — or — her time have displayed greater ability. The Danube flows — Austria and Turkey, and empties — the Black Sea ; it has several large cities — its banks. Do your duty — fear. As we sailed — the appear ? Give an example. Give an example of the use of the same word in dif- ferent sentences as preposition and adverb ; as preposition and conjunction. 430. What is a Complex Preposition f WTiat preposition enters into a number of complex prepositions ? Give some examples into which/rom does not enter. PLACE OF TUB PREPOSITION. 153 Wand — sunset, I saw a coral reef extending •— the east, just — the surfaoo of the sea. Wearily we plodded — sharp rocka and — pathless solitudes. LESSON LIX. PREPOSITIONS (CONTINUED). 431. Position. — A preposition generally stands be- fore its object. Tlie word itself, pre-position, means a placing hefore. •432. The relatives (hat and a«, however, always precede the preposi- tion tliat governs them ; as, " These doctrines were held by those that I have spoken of [or, such a« I have spoken o/"]." In familiar style, the other relatives also, as well as the interrogatives, precede the governing preposition ; as, " Mr. Hall, xchofin I called on about your business, will attend to it to-day." *' What do you allude to f \Vhom do you speak ofi " 438. In some current phrases and in poetry, we occasionally find a noun preceding the preposition that governs it ; as, all the world over ; my tfforti to the contrary notwitlutanding ; the churchyard's quiet »od» beneath. 434. Terms of the Relation. — When the terms of the relation stand immediately before and after the preposition, tl»ey are seen at once : when not, to find the former term, ask a question with what before the preposition; to find the latter term, ask a question with what after it. The answers to these questions will be the terms of the relation. Find the terms between which for shows the relation, in the following sentence : " For these purse-proud upstarts, Virtue herself, unless adonied with diamonds, would possess no charms." Qufstion. What for tliese 431. How doM a prppa«ition generally ntand f What is the meaning of th« word prepoaition J 432. What exception is there to the rule Just laid down t In fkmUlar style, what words may precede the governing preiwsilion t 438. What other exception is noted t 434. Wlien arc the terms between which a pr\>positioa flbowa the r«iaiion seen m odco I When this is not the o«m, how majr the term* 154 TEBMS OF THE EELATION. purse-proud upstarts? Atmcer. Would possess; this is the former term of the relation. — Would possess for what ? Answer. For (these) upstarts ; upstarts is the latter term of the relation. 435. The former term of the relation is sometimes understood ; as, " [Lookingi on the whole, I prefer spring." 436. The latter tei-m of the relation is sometimes understood; as, *' Samson is the strongest man \that~^ we read of in history." 437. The preposition itself is sometimes imderstood; as, "Throw \t6\ the dog a bone." "He was like [ound adjectives; as, uncared-for^ unsought-for, unheard-of un- thought-of. Connect the parts of such compounds with the hyphen, and parse as common adjectives. 442. To in the infinitive mood is not a preposition, but part of the verb. In parsing, it must be taken with the rest of the verb, as shown in § 297. 443. Rule XVI. — A preposition shows the relation tliat a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other word or words in the sentence. 444. Parsing. — To parse a preposition, mention the terms between which it shows the relation, and give RuleXVI. Thus:— Out of regard for a friend I had been so much at- tached tOy I overlooked his reflections on my veracity and honor. Out of is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between the noun rrgard, which is its object, and the verb overlooked: — Rule, A prepo- sition shows the rohtion that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other wora or words in the sentence. For is a prcpos'ion, and shows the relation between the noun^^nrf, which is its object, ai»d the noun regard: — Rule, A preposition, &c. To is a preposition, and shows the relation between the relative pro- noun that understood, which is its object, and the adjective attached: — Rule, A preposition, Ac. On is a preposition, and shows the relation between the nouns vetacity and honor, which are iU objects, and the noun rejections : — Rul4^ A prep- OBition, iic. EXERCISE. Pane the adjectites^ verbs^ adterhs^ and prfpositi&ns : — Tlie times are sadlj out of joint.—" Early to bed and early to rise," tmnwitfre. With what kind of a verb is » preposition •ometlme* thn« combined f 441. How are aomp compound adjectives formed? How should they bo wrttenl 443. How ia fo in tho tnflnltivc mood to bo loolced upon and parsed t 443. Recito Role XVI. 444. IIow ia a prcpoaition parted t Learn the fbrm. 156 CONJUNCTIONS. is a maxim which it would be well for all persons without excep- tion to act upon. — Stephen fell off the bridge into the river, but succeeded in getting out safe, minus his hat. — Before the time of Gutenberg, books were written in stead of being printed. — The long wished-for day at length arrived, and was hailed on all sides with acclamations. — According to Cicero, there was a time when men wandered everywhere through the fields after the manner of beasts. — Notwithstanding your vaunted strength, to go a fish- ing and a hunting on the same day would be too much for you. LESSON LX. THE CONJUNCTION 445. The Conjunction. — ^The eiglith part of speecli is the Conjunction. " Yet, if I mistake not, Virgil and Horace were Romans." In this sentence, and is used to connect the words Virgil and Horace. If is used to connect the parts of the sentence, / mistake not and Virgil and Horace were Romans. Yet is used to connect the whole sentence with something going before. And, if yet, and other words used as con' nectives, are called Conjxmctions. The word conjunction means a joining together. 446. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. 447. List of Conjunctions. — ^The following list em- braces all the conjunctions in common use : — although, either, neither, save. then. and, even. nevertheless, seeing. though, as. except. nor, since. unless. because. for, notwithstanding, so. yet, both, if, or. than. whereas. but, lest, provided. that. whether. 445. What ie the eighth part of speech ? Repeat the sentence presented at the commencement of the lesson. In this sentence, what is and used for? 1/7 Yell What are such words called ? What does the word conjunction mean ? 446. De- fine a Conjunction. 447. Mention as many of the coryuuctions in the list as yo« REMARKS ON OON J UNCTIONS. 157 Many of the words in the above list are also used as other parts of ■peech. They are conjunctions only when they connect words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. 448. Bothy either^ neither^ and that^ standing for nouns, are adjective pronouns. Used with nouns, to limit their meaning, they are prouom- iiial g(\jectives. That is a relative pronoun, when equivalent to who or which. 449. Evtt^ then^ and note, are generally adverbs. But even is a con- junction, when it introduces a repeated word ; as, " I, even I." Tlien is u conjunction, when it is used as the correlative of if. Now is a con- junction, when it has no reference to time; as, ^^ Now Barabbas was a robber." 460. Except and without are conjunctions only when used (though not elegantly) for unless. BtU^for^ and since^ as we have seen in § 429, are sometimes adverbs and prepositions. Provided and seeing are fre- quently participles. So is a conjunction, only when equivalent to pro- vided; **So you leave me enough, you may take what you choose." Or in the expression or ever, meaning be/ore, is an adverb ; " or ever the silver cord be loosed." 451. As, representing a noun, after such, same, as many, so many, €U much, and so much, has been already mentioned (§ 152) as a relative pro- noun. Whpn as denotes degree and modiQes an adjective or adverb {as graceful, as gracefully), it is an adverb. When as denotes manner and at the same time connects, it is a conjunctive adverb. When it connects simply, it is a conjunction. 452. Observe the following examples: — Both {conj.) Alexander and Csesar were great conquerors, and both {adj. pro.) met with an untimely end. — I will not go without ( prep.) you. — I will not go without {conj.) you go. — I would advise you not to become either {conj.) a painter or a sculp- tor, seeing {conj.) there is but {adv.) little encouragement for {prep.) art in Uiis country. — They say that {conj.) that {pro, adj.) house that {rel. pro.) we JHst passed, is haunted. — Help such as {rel. pro.) need help. — Good hu- mor spreads happiness around, just as {conj. adv.) the sun sheds its light on all. — Some regard Milton as {conj.) the greatest of epic poets. can. When aIoD« ar« the words in the list ooi^Janctions t 448. As what other parts of speech do both, either, neither, and thai appear, and under what ciroum- •(ances I 449. What are even, then, and note, for the most part t "WTien is even a ooiiJanctloD t 7%enJ Now 7 460. When alone are escept and without conjuno- Cloos t As what, beeldes conjanctions, do b%a, for, and since appear t What do w« frequently flnd prwtded and teeing J When is so a conjunction t What Is or Id tb« ezprwaioo or tttr 7 461. When is a« a relative f When, an adverb t When, a eoi\)uoetlve adverb I When, a ronjunction t 452. Give exainplea showing these 158 PARSING OF CONJUNCTIONS. 453. Two conjunctions, connecting different things, may stand together; as, " But, if it rains, I will remain." Here hut connects the whole sen- tence with something going before ; if connects two parts of the sentence, it rains and / vjill remain. 454. Complex Conjunctions. — Sentences and parts of sentences are sometimes connected bj two or three words, which must be taken together in parsing and called a Complex Conjunction. The complex conjunctions in most common use are inasmuch as ^forasmuch as, as well, a^ well as, notwith- standing that, except that, as if, as though (often inele- gantly used for as if), and for all (when equivalent to although). 455. Remember that words must not be taken together and parsed as a complex adverb, preposition, or conjunction, if they retain their individ- ual force and can be parsed separately. 456. KuLE XYII. — ^A conjunction connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. 457. Parsing. — To parse a conjunction, mention what it connects, and give Rule XYII. Thus : — J^or all our country is so young, it has fostered edu- cation and produced hoth authors and artists of distin- guished merit. For all is a complex conjunction, and connects the two parts of the sentence, our country is so young and it has fostered education and pro- duced both authors and artists of distinguished merit : — JRule, A conjunc- tion connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. And is a conjunction, and connects two parts of the sentence, it has fostered education and produced both authors and artists of distinguished merit : — Rule^ A conjunction, &c. Both and and are conjunctions, and jointly connect the words authors and artists: — Bute, A conjunction, &c. words aB different parts of speech. 463. Give an example of two conjanctions standing together. 454. What is a Complex Conjunction? Mention the most common complex conjunctions. 455. When alone may words be parsed together as a complex adverb, &c. ? 456. Recite Rule XVII. 457. Learn the parsiBg forms. INTEEJECnONS. 159 SZBBCISE. Pane each xeord: — Except the Lord build the house, they labor In vain that build it. — Cromwell was either a very devout and coii- Bcientious man or a great hypocrite. — If an erring man repents, treat him the some as ever. — Such achievements as make a man immortal are seldom performed, nor do opportunities for perform- ing them frequently occur. — Charles I. lost his life, as well as his crown, by his own infatuation, as it were. — As for Mohammed, we are at a loss to decide whether he was an ini])ostor or a fanatic, or a little of both. — It is said that no other plant produces so much DQtriment in a given space of ground as the banana. LESSON LXI. THE INTERJECTION. 458. The Interjection. — The ninth and last part of speech is the Interjection. "AH aim at happiness; but alas! few hit the mark.'* Here the exclamation ala^y expressing sorrow, is thrown into the sen- tence without any grammatical relation to the other words. Ala» and similar words used independently to denote some strong or sudden emotion of the mind, are called Interjections. — Interjections, as their name denotes, may be thrown in bfttceen connected parts of discourse, but aie generally found at the commencement of a sentence, and sometimes even stand alone. 459. An Interjection is a word used independently of grammatical relations, to express some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 460. List of Interjections. — The ]>rincipal interjec- tions are given below, arranged according to the emo- tion they express. 1. Exultation. Ah ! aha ! hey ! hejday ! hurrah ! huzza ! 2. Sorrow. Ah ! oh ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay ! 468. WbAt t« the ninth p«rt of ipeeeh f In the Mnt^nee Alt aim at happiw* -, kut alat .' /fit hit the mark, what doe* ala* rxpresit, and how la it as«ctlona generally »taodf 4Mi DeAo* aa IaUrl«otioii. 40a Mention th« dlS'creut emutlooa ezpreMed bj lOr 160 INTEBJECnONS. 8. Wotider. Ha! hah! indeed! strange ! what ! hoity-toity! zounds! 4. Approval. Bravo! well-done! 6. Contempt^ aversion. Faugh! fie! foh! fudge! pugh! pshaw! tutl 6. Weariness. Heigh-ho ! *I. MerHment. Ha, ha, ha ! (an imitation of the sound of laughter). 8. Desire to drive aioay. Aroynt! avaunt! begone! ofif! shoo! 9. Desire to address or salute. O, hail ! all-hail ! welcome ! 10. Desire for one's welfare on taking leave. Adieu! farewell! good-by! 11. Desire for attention. Ho ! soho ! what ho ! hallo ! ahoy ! lo ! hark! 1 2. Desire for silence. Hist ! whist ! hush ! mum ! 13. Desire to stop or interrupt another. Avast ! hold ! soft ! 14. De.sire for information. Eh ? hey ? 461. Interjections are generally followed, as in the above list, by the exclamation-point (]). J^h and hei/, implying a question, are followed by the interrogation- point (?). " You meant to deceive me, hey [that is, did you]V' 462. and oh are different words. O, always a capital, is used in addressing or invoking, and is not usually followed by the exclamation- point. OA, which commences with a small letter except at the beginning of a sentence, expresses sorrow, wonder, or some other strong emotion, and is generally followed by the exclamation-point. 463. Words that commonly appear as nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, are sometimes used independently as exclamations, under the influence of emotion ; as, heavens ! monstroics ! see ! so ! They thus be- come interjections. Or, we may regard them as bearing grammatical relations to other words understood, and, supplying what is necessary, still treat them as nouns, adjectives, &c. Thus, we may parse monstroiik as an adjective relating to it understood [it is monstrous .'] ; and so as an adverb relating to can be imderstood [can it be so !]. 464r. Construction. — As interjections have no gram- matical relations, no rule is needed in parsing them. They neither govern nor are governed, neither agree with other words nor relate to them. terjections, and give examples of each class. 461. WTiat stop generally followfl Interjections f By what are eh and hey followed ? 462. Point out the difference between O and oh. 463. What words are sometimes used independently as excla. toations ? What two modes of parslnaf words thus used are suggested f 464. Why PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS. 161 466. An interjection has nothing to do with the case of a substantive following it, even though such substantive has no grammatical connection with any other word expressed. If the nominative follows, it is the nomina- tive indci>cndent If the possessive or objective follows, it is governed by some word understood, and not by the interjection. Thus : — " Oh unhappy we ! " «ee is in the nominative independent. *' Oh my ! " my limits the meaning of the noun lot understood [oh my hai-d lot !], and is therefore in tlje possessive case. " Ah me ! " me is governed in the objective case by the Tcrb pUy understood [Ah ! pity me !J — So, Oh dear me I Oh dear > ttuX ia, oA / pity dear me I 466. An interjection is never limited by an infinitive, or used as one of the terms between which a preposition shows the relation. Here again words are understood. ** Oh ! to be a king ! " that is. Oh ! / teould like to be a king ! — *'■ Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! " that is, Oh ! / lotiff for a lodge. 467. Parsing. — To parse an interjection, simply stato what emotion it implies. Hurrah for the hoys of '76. Hnrrah is an interjection, implying exultation. For is a preposition, and shows the relation between the noun hoy*^ which is its object, and the verb »ay understood [Hurrah ! tay I for the boys of '70J : — Ride^ A preposition, &c. BXERCISE. Pant each v>ord: — Hallo there 1 come along, each of yoa! — Alas 1 there is nothing more sad than to bid adieu to Hope. — Wel- come, thou bright-eyed Spring 1 all-hail! — Ohl the pain, the bliss of dying! — Woe is me! Alack! I am undone!— Ship ahoy! — Quick! up with it, when I give the word. — Zounds! what a two- aud-sixpenny coat for a well-to-do gentleman ! "Lol the poor Indian, whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds, and hears Him in the wind." " Would I had seen my dearest foe in Heaven, Or ever I had seen that day." te no rule needed in p*r«ing Interjeetioniif 466. With what hae an Interjection nothing to do? Explain a nominative, poeeeMive, or objective ease, following an InterJeetioD. 4M. In what relation* lean interjection never uaed t 407. How y an lat«4«oUon parted f Learn the paraing form. 162 A PRACTICAL REVIEW. LESSON LXII. A PRACTICAL REVIEW. Correct the errors^ and tell what part of speech each word is:—- Beware lest thou gettest in difficulty. — If Mohammed were an impostor, he acted his part well. — If I was a king, I would try to rule wisely. — There is no danger of the world (see Utile XIV., p. 106) being overflown by a second deluge. — I heard nothing of our friends being attackt. — The allies were astonisht at Napoleon ar- riving so soon. — If thou beest a mortal, speak. — I {icill or shall?) enter college next year, if nothing prevents. — Try me once more, and I {will or shall?) do better. — Will I help you to some meat? — Thou need not to fear. — She needs not have revealed my intention. We be going to London. — After we are ascended, we will obtain a fine view. — The fire of revolution is being kindled through- out Europe. — A society is now being formed. — Having not read your book, I can not express an opinion on its merits. — You won't reach there in time and hadn't ought to think of starting. — It is time to sit about works of charity. — After a hen has lain a dozen eggs, she will set on them if she is permitted. — Very few per- sons like to set for a portrait. — Stocks have raised since yesterday, — A ledge of rock underlays the town. — Palmerston confest he waa wrong. Time seems to fly rapider now than it did formerly, — Few sing prettier than my cousin. — Your often letters are my only solace. — These paintings are arranged quite tasteful and look very prettily. — Just having arrived, he feels strangely. — Seldom or ever has a more learned work appeared. — Good Latin scholars learn Italian easilier than others. — O ! I shudder at the remembrance. — Oh Virtue, how amiable thou art! — We were attackted by pirates, and came near being drownded. Write out the three chief parts of the following terhs : — Hoe; mutiny; array; horrify; huzza; loathe; avow; blunder; aver; sway; swop; swoop; sweep; cool; stun; stain; stone; unclothe; engrave ; uphold ; disprove; fix; misunderstand; rise; raise; sit; set,- flow; fly; flee; lie (to utter falsehood) ; lie (to recline); lay; overlay ; overlie ; outbid ; recast ; dare (to challenge) ; withdraw ; overfeed; found; ungird; rap (to tap); overrun; wax (to put wax on) ; weed ; whet ; heat. DKCLAUAllVh, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 163 LESSON LXIII. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING. 468. A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense. " A rolling stone gathers no moss." This is a sentence, because it is an assemblage of words making complete sense. Stone is the grammatical siibjoct (see § 100). A roilint/ stone is tlie logical subject. Gathers no moss is the predicate. 469. AVe learned in § 227, that in affirming we may either declare, ask, command, or exclaim. Hence, as regards their meaning, sentences are divided into four classes ; Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 470. A Declarative Sentence is one that declares something; as, "The wind blows." Declarative sentences are followed by the period (.). All language, whether written or spoken, is made up, for the moet part, of declarative sentences. 471. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a question ; as, *^ Does the wind blow ? " Interrogative sentences are followed by the interrogation-point (?). 472. An interrogative sentence generally commences either with an interrogative pronoun {teho^ lohieh, what) or with an auxiliary ; as, " Who goes there? " " \V7iich road shall I take ? " " Shall vice triumph ?" 473. A sentence which asserts that a question is asked, is declarative, not interrogative ; as, " They asked me what I said." 474. An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission, 408. Doflne a 8cnteno«. Give an example. 440. In affirmtne, whnt may we dol How, therefore, are tentencee Ane an InterroKativo Sentence. By what are interrofcmtlT* aentAneea followed I 472. With what do they generally commence t 478. What kind of a •entanoe la one whioh aaaerta that a qooatioD la aakod f 474. Define an ImperatlT* 164: IMPERATIVE, EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. and contains a verb in the imperative mood ; as, " Let the wind blow." "Turn from your wicked ways." " Thy kingdom come." " Go in safety." Imperative sentences are followed by the period. ' 475. Imperative sentences often commence with the verb let. Their subject is generally understood. " Let [thoic] the wind blow." " Turn [you] from your wicked ways." 476. A sentence expressing a command, &c., not conveyed by a verb in the imperative mood, is declarative ; as, " Thou shalt not kill." " You must depart." 4YY. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that exclaims something ; as, " How the wind blows ! " Exclamatory sentences are followed by the exclamation-point (!). They often commence with the pronominal adjective what or the adverb how ; as, " What a fearful spectacle ! " " How bright the stars are to-night ! " EXERCISE. Supply appropriate subjects^ so as to form declarative sentences: — 1. — is made into butter and cheese. 2. — are raised in New York. 3. — are sold by the bushel. 4. In building ships, — are used. 5. There are many — in every large city. 6. — was the wisest of men. 7. There was a — in the street. Compose imperative sentences^ containing the following expres- sions in turn ; point out the grammatical subject, the logical sub- ject, and the predicate of each : — 1. Obedience to parents. 2. All your actions. 3. Wicked men. 4. Niagara Falls. 5. The road to ruin. 6. Be careful. 7. Horseback riding. 8. To resist temp- tation. Change first to interrogative, and then to exclamatory sentences, without altering the ten^e of the 'verb. [Thus : — " Time is precious." Interrogative. Is time precious? Exclamatory. How precious time is I] 1. Almonds are produced abundantly in Spain and JItaly. 2. Death will soon come to all. 3. Many important dis- coveries have been made by Americans. 4. On a hot day, a Sentence. By what are imperative sentences followed ? 475. With what do they often commence ? 476. What kind of a sentence is one that expresses a command but does not contain a verb in the imperative ? 477. Define an £xclaraatory Senteuce. By what are exclamatory sentence* followed? How do they often commence ? CX)MPOUin) AND SmrLE SENTENCES. 165 sliowcr is refrcsliing to the whole vegetable creation. 6. The ycw-treo has a md look. 6. It is singular that Africa has pro- duced so few great men. 7. Fine velvet is made in Italy. 8. Peter tlie Great did much to elevate and civilize the Russians. 9. America would sufter greatly, if her system of free education were abolished. 10. Spain has declined much in power and imi>ortance since the discovery of America. Compose Hte interrogative sentencea containing interrogative pronoun*. LESSON LXIY. BENTBNCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR FORM. 478. Members. — Some sentences can be divided into two or more parts of equal rank, entirely independent of each other in construction and sense. Such parts are called Members. Every member of a sentence has its own subject and predicate. 479. Compound and Simple Sentences. — Sentences that can be divided into two or more members, are called Compound Sentences. Tliose that can not be so divided, are called Simple Sentences. " A man*s pride shall bring him low.'' This sentence expresses but one thought, and can not be divided into two or more members ; it is therefore timple. If we join to it another member, with or without a con- junction, we express two complete thoughts and make the sentence cotn- pound. Thus : — *' A man's pride shall bring him low ; but honor shall uphold the humble in spirit." It will be seen that each of these two members has a subject and predicate of its own. 480. Adjuncts and Clauses. — Members are of equal rank ; but sentences, whether simple or compound, may 478. How ean aome MOtonoM be divided t What are inch parti of leDtenoea ealledt What doM every member havet 479. What are Compound Sentenoeet What are Simple flentmeeef Illuetrate theae deflniUona. 48a What bealdee 1G6 CLAUSES. contain subordinate divisions. TTiese are distinguished as Adjuncts and Clauses. An Adjunct has ah-eadj been defined as consisting of a preposition, its object, and the words that modify the latter. A Clause is a subordinate division of a sentence, con- taining a verb but not expressing a complete thought, and generally used to modify some leading word with which it is connected in construction. 481. Kinds of Clauses. — Various kinds of clauses occur in sentences. The most common are distin- guished as Substantive, Relative, Participial, Adverb- ial, Causal, Comparative, and Hypothetical. 482. A Substantive Clause is one that performs the part of a noun ; as, " To rule one's anger is well ; to prevent it is better." " The proposal that we should cross in hoats was at once rejected." 483. A Relative Clause is one that contains a relative pronoun expressed or understood ; as, " There are few of whom it can he said, ' These are truly happy- " " Moses is the meekest man \tha(\ we read of in Scrip- tureP 484. A Participial Clause is one that contains a par- ticiple ; as, " Figures, when well chosen, embellish dis- course." 485. An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the part of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or manner ; as, " Figures, when they are well chosen, em- bellish discourse." " To he sure, he has written some good poetry." members may sentencee contain ? Define an Adjunct. Define a Clause. 481. Enu- merate the kinds of clauses that most frequently occur. 482. Define a Substantive Clause. 483. Define a Relative Clause. 484. Define a Participial Clause. 485. De- tine an Adverbial Clause. In what respect does an adjunct resemble an adverbial CLAUSES. 167 An adjunct, alao, frequently expresses time, place, or manner, bat doea not, like an adverbial clause, contain a verb. " In the world (adjunct) w6 have tribulation." '* While tee are in the world (adverbial clause), we have tribulation." 48C. A Causal Clause is one that expresses the pur- pose or end for which anything is or is done ; as, " Boys go to school, to study and iinprove tJmr mijids,''^ ** Boys go to school, iri order that they may^'^ &c. 487. A Comparative Clause is one that contains as or than followed by the latter of two terms compared ; as, " Virtue is as rare as it is admiralleP " Nothing more impairs authority than a too frequent use of it.^^ The verb of a comparative clause is often understood, as in the last example : — '* Nothing more impaii-s authority than a too frequent use of it [impairs it].** 488. A Hypothetical Clause is one that expresses a supposition or something conceived as possible ; as, ^^ If elephants were much larger, they could not support their own weight." Though, Ust, and that, followed by the subjunctive mood, and if with any mood, introduce hypothetical clauses. " Tfwugh the wicked man heap up silver as dust, he shall not enjoy it." *• Do not carry too much sail, U$t you sink your vessel."" *' Take care that you do not fall into bad coni' pany:* 489. The Base. — Tlie Base of a sentence is the part that expresses the leading idea. Like a single word, it may be modified by an adjunct or clause. *• Do not carry too much sail, lest you sink your vessel." The base of thi« sentence is the part that expresses the leading idea, do not carry too much sail. It is modified by the hypothetical clause lest you sink your vessel. claoM, and In what doM it differ t rtui>trat« this. 486. Define a Caaanl CIaqm. 487. Define a Comparative ClaoM. WTiat it often anderalood in a comparativo claoM t 488. Define a Ilypothetleal Claa«e. How are hTpothetical olaoMe Intro* ducMlt 48a What la tU Baa* of a Moteiice f How may the baae be modified I 168 VOCATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 490. YocATivE Expressions. — ^Tlie base of a sentence may also be modified by a Yocative Expression, tLrown in like an interjection, without modifying any particu- lar word. 491. Among vocative Expressions are embraced, 1. The name of an object addressed, with its modi- fiers ; as, " Gentlemen of the jury ^ I will detain you no longer." 2. A substantive used independently as an exclama- tion, with its modifiers ; as, " My native city, oh woe unutterable ! is in ruins." EXERCISE. Tell what hind of a sentence each is, — whether simple or com- pound, whether declarative, &c. If compound, specify the members. Point out the vocative expressions, the adjuncts, and clauses; and tell what Mud of a clause each is : — How soon Love goes out at the gate, when Suspicion enters ! — He who receives a good turn should never forget it ; he who does one should never remember it. — Will not a true friend, like a mirror, discover to you your own defects ? — My son, carry not a sword in your tongue, to injure another's reputation. — If we did but know it, to be angry is to revenge the fault of others upon ourselves. — It is a good thing, my melancholy friend, to laugh now and then ; and, if a straw can tickle a man, it is an instrument of happiness. — Conquering wherever he went, Alexander at last believed himself invincible. JLESSON LXY. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 492. Compound Subjects and Predicates. — A sim- ple sentence may have a compound subject, — that is, (live an example. 490. By what else may the baee be modified ? 491. What are embraced among voeative expreesions ? 492. What is meant by a simple sentence's having a oomponnd Bubject ? What OOMPOCND SENTENCES. 169 two or more grammatical subjects connected by a con- junction or not ; as, " Riches, worlds, would not induce me to be a king." " Alexander and Ccesar were great conquerors." A simple sentence may have a compound predicate, — that is, one that consists of two parts of equal rank ; as, '^ Alexander wan a great cofujueror, yet mtt with an unthaely e7\dP A simple sentence may have a compound subject and a compound predicate ; as, " Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors, yet met with an untimely end." The example just given is not a compound sentence. But we can easily make it so, by inserting a subject for the last part of the predicate, which then becomes an independent member. "Alexander and Ca?sar were great conquerors, yet 6o//t met with an untimely end." Observe that no sentence is compound unless it can be divided into two parts of equal rank, each expressing a complete thought and having iLs own subject and predicate. 493. A verb is sometimes understood in the predicate of one or more of the members of a compound sentence; as, " A clear conscience is the beat law, honesty [m] the best jwlicy, and temperance [i«] the best physic." 494. Compound Sentences. — Tlie members of a com- pound sentence may all be of the same class, as in the last example. Tliese members are all declarative, and tlie sentence is therefore called a Compound Declara- tive Sentence. But the members of a compound sentence sometimes belong to different classes ; as, " Old age has deformi- ties enough of its own ; do not add to them the de- formity of vice." Here the first member is declarative ; the second, imperative. it me*nt by iU hftTlng ft compound predicate t May it have both f Give an exam- ple. Convert the example Just given into a compound aentence. When only is a •entence compound f 4W. What !■ somoUmea underatood In the predicate f 4M. What dlflteeooe eubsiau In compound aeutencea, aa regard* the elaaa of tbvir member* f What do we eaU a Motenoe wboae memben belong to different 8 170 PRINCIPAL PAKT8 OF A SENTENCE. Such a sentence we call a Compound Sentence with Dissimilar Members. 495. Peincipal Parts. — Every simple sentence and every member of a compound sentence has at least two principal parts, — the grammatical subject and the lead- ing verb. " The cold winds blow." The grammatical subject winds and the leading verb hloio are the two principal parts. Most sentences and members have a third principal part, besides the two just mentioned. 496. If the leading verb has an object, this object constitutes the thu-d principal part. " Cold winds blow up storms." Here are three principal parts, — the gram- matical subject winds^ the leading verb Uow^ and the object storms. 497. If the leading verb has no object, it is sometimes followed by a substantive referring to the same person or thing as the grammatical subject, and called the Predicate Nominative. Or, it may be followed by an adjective belonging to the grammatical subject, and called the Predicate Adjective. The predicate nominative and the predicate adjective constitute a third principal part in sentences containing them. •'Washington was unanimously elected commander-in-chief." Here are three principal parts, — the grammatical subject Washington^ the lead- ing verb was elected^ and the predicate nominative commander-in-chief. " Washington was at all times incorruptible." Here again are three principal parts, — the grammatical subject Wazldngton^ the leading verb «wi«, and the predicate adjective incorruptible. claBBesI 495. How many principal parta mu8t every eimple sentence and every member of a compound sentence have? What are these two principal parts? How many priucipal parts do nioi*t sentences and members have? 496. In some sentences, what constitutes the third principal part? 497. What, in other eoa- tences ? Oive examplee. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 171 EXERCISE. Clamify the tentencet; mention their principal parts. Select the eomjiound subjects and predicates: — Galileo and Milton both ended their days in total blindness.— Inexhaustible are the beauties of nature ; what can e(|ual them in variety ? — Miss Caroline Uer- schel, sister of the great astronomer, aided her brother in his labors, and herself discovered no less than five comets. — Love your enemies; can anything be more godlike? — Men and women too often play their part in life as if there were no hereafter. — ^Pekin and Jeddo are the lai^gest cities in Asia. LESSON LXVI. ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 498. By the Analysis of a sentence is meant the pro- cess of resolving it into its simple parts. 499. In analyzing a sentence, state its class ; select its principal parts; tell by what words, adjuncts, or clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers arc themselves modified, resolving adjuncts into the words that compose them, and clauses into their prin- cipal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is compound, treat each member in turn as just described. FoBjra Of AKALTSm. JTo one knew how to use gold more effectually than Philip, king of Macedon. A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject e8t Remcml>er [//iow] thy Creator. [Whether /] Sink or swim, [whether /] survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. Do not buy more coal than [ir/m/] is needed. In future ages, men may need all the land [that] there is. Will you go or stay? [/will] Stay. Our young friend is more extravagant than [it] is good for him [to be]. 608. What to meant by an EllipiMst Wliat is said of the word* omitted t Wbai meet be done in pareingf 60i. Give examples of the eillpeis of the sttl^)eok 8* 178 EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS. 2. Ellipsis of the noun to whicli an adjective relates. The honorable [body] the Legislature. Charles the Simple [kin^]. The virtuous [perso7is'\ are happy. The professedly virtuous [persons] are not always really so. Even the strongest [perso7is'\ will sometimes faint by the way. [ Virtuous being modified in the second sentence by the adverb professedly^ and strongest being in the superlative degree, they are evidently adjectives relating to a noun understood, and not themselves nouns.] To be [a] virtuous [person] is to be [a] happy [])erson]. 3. Ellipsis of the noun modified by a substantive in the possessive case. It is thine [thy business] to command. — There shall nothing die of all that is the children's [property] of Israel. — I shall stop at Thomson's [shop], to get some paper. 4. Ellipsis of the relative. Moses is the meekest man [that] we read of in the Bible. — It is infinite wisdom [that] orders all things here below. 5. Ellipsis of the antecedent of a relative. [Those] Who utter slanders do false witness bear. — [Him] Whom he loveth, he chasteneth. 6. Ellipsis of a verb. [Get] Up and [go] away. — [It is] No matter what I do, I can not please you. — ^Washington loved very few as well as [he loved] La Fayette. — ^The enemy [being] at the gates, there was no time for delay 7. Ellipsis of a preposition. The army were ready to offer [to] Washington a crown. — Few can paint like [to] Titian. — Cut [for] me some bread. — She sits [on] a horse well. — A great many [of] rogues. [In this expression, many is a noun.] 8. Ellipsis of a conjunction. To the intent [that] ye may believe. — ^Were I [if I were] there, I should make the attempt. of a verb. Give examples of the ellipsis of a noun to which an adjective relatea Give examples of the ellipsis of a noun mod iied by a substantive in the possessive case. Give examples of the ellipsiM of the relative. Of the antecedent of a rela- EXERCISE IN KLLIPTICAL PARSING. 179 505. In a fragmentary style, ellipses, even of several words, are frequent. Tliis will be seen in the following extract from one of Douglas Jerrold's " Caudle Curtain Lectures," which will serve as an exercise in elliptical parsing. Each sentence may be analyzed as well as parsed. MBS. CAUDLE DWELLS ON CAUDLE's " CRUEL NEOLEOT " OF DEB ON BOABD TEI^ BED BOVEB. "Caudle, have you looked under the bed? What for f Bless the man! Why, for thieves, to be sure. Do you suppose Td sleep in a strange bed without ? Don't tell me it's nonsense ! I shouldn't sleep a wink all night. Not that you'd care for that ; not that you'd — hush ! I'm sure I hear somebody. No, it's not a bit like a mouse. Yes ; that's like you ; laugh 1 It would be no laughing matter, if — I'm sure there is somebody. *' — Yes, Mr. Caudle ; now I am satisfied. Any other man would have got up and looked himself; especially after my suffer- ings on board that nasty ship. But catch you stirring ! Oh, no ! You'd let me lie here and be robbed and killed, for what you'd care. "VVhy, you're not going to sleep I "What do you say ? IVs Vu strange air — and yau^re always sleepy in a strange air f That shows the feelings you have after what I've gone through. And yawning, too, in that brutal manner I " No, I couldn't leave my temper at home. I dare say I Because for once in your life you've brought me out — yes, I say once, or two or three times, it isn't more; because, as I say, you once bring me out, I'm to be a slave and say nothing. Pleasure, in- deed 1 A great deal of pleasure I'm to have, if I'm to hold my tongue I " Dear me ! if the bed doesn't spin round and dance about ! I've got all that filthy ship in my head 1 No, 1 shan't be well In the morning. You needn't groan in that way, Mr. Caudle, disturbing the people, perhaps, in the next room. It's a mercy I'm alive, I'm sure. If once I wouldn't have given all the world for anybody to have thrown me overboard! What are you tv«. or a T«rb. Of a prepoaltiun. Of a ooojanotloo. 606. In what kind of tXjW %m vIlipMM frvqaent t 180 EXERCISE IN ELLIPTICAL PARSING. smacking your lips at, Mr. Caudle ? But I know what you mean — of course, you'd never have stirred to stop 'em ; not you. And then you might have known that the wind would have blown to-day ; hut that's why you came. " What do you say? A good deal my own fault? J tooJc too much dinner 1 Well, you are a man ! If I took more than the breast and the leg of that young goose — a thing, I may say, just out of the shell — with the slightest bit of stuffing, I'm a wicked woman. What do you say? Lohster salad f La! how can you speak of it ? A month-old baby would have eaten more. What ? Gooseberry pief Well, if you'll name that, you'll name any- thing. Ate too much indeed I Do you think I was going to pay for a dinner, and eat nothing ? No, Mr. Caudle ; it's a good thing for you that I know a little more of the value of money than that. " It's a mercy that some of the dear children were not drowned ; not that their father would have cared. Peter was as near through one of the holes as — IVs no such thing f It's very well for you to say so, but you know what an inquisitive boy he is, and how he likes to wander among steam-engines. No, I won't let you sleep. What a man you are! Go to sleep, indeed ! as if one could never have a little rational conversation. "A miserable creature they must have thought me in the ladies' cabin, with nobody coming down to see how I was. You came a dozen times f No, Caudle, that won't do. I know better^ And when I was so ill that I didn't know a single thing that was going on about me, and you never came. Every other woman's husband was there — ha ! twenty times. And what must have been my feelings to hear 'em tapping at the door, and making all sorts of kind inquiries — something like husbands 1 — and I was left to be ill alone I Yes, and you want to get me into an argument. You want to know if I was so ill that I knew nothing, how could I know that you didn't come to the cabin door. That's just like your aggravating way. But I'm not to be caught in that manner, Caudle. No." " It is very possible," writes Caudle, " that she talked two hours more : but, happily, the wind got suddenly up — the waves bellowed — and, soothed by the sweet lullaby, I somehow fell DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 181 LESSON LXIX. EXPLANATION OF DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS. 50G. Some of the most common expressions involve difficulties in parsing. Many of these have already been explained ; some more are presented below, with suggestions to aid the pupil. Let portions of conve- nient length be assigned as lessons, and each sentence be analyzed and parsed. How much [rt/* understood] may be killed, yet no- body is to blame. — A few railroads .will soon open up the country. — A great many houses are to let in Twenty-eighth Street. — Have you a high -pressure steamboat to sell ? — They are so much alike you can not tell which is which [inter, pro.]. — Every thing depends on [prep., having for its object the substantive clause that follows] who your friends are. — At the time that I was there, not a ship was in port.— A reward shall be given to whoever [§ 163] shall arrest the criminal. Science' [Rule HI.] self could wish no more devoted follower. — The keeper of the forest's daughter has arrived. [More ele- gantly, the daughter of the Tceeper of the forest. As first expressed, Iceeper of the forests must be looked upon as a complex noun in the possessive case.]— Those lips of Washington's [§130] are now silent forever. — That portrait of my father's needs varnishing. — He has bought more books than [what] are needed.—! shall lay in only as many books as [rel. pro.] are needed. DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED. 183 They could do nothing except pray [infinitive, limiting the meaning of the prep, excfpf], — If I were you, I would do nothing but wait in patience. — It is likely to injure ratlier than benefit [infin., liraitiug the nieaning of the conj. than) us. — Polycarp died rather than give up his faith. — lie could not do otherwise than say what he did.— The hamster rat, rather than yield, will allow itself to be beaten to pieces. "Wo can but rejoice. — We can not but rejoice. [The latter sen- tence expresses the same idea as the former, but more strongly. Two negatives usually nullify each other and make the sentence atfirmative, but here they strengthen the negation. But is an ad- verb.] — Cyrus did his utmost to please his friends. I had as lief cross the ocean as not. [Had ctosh is evidently a corruption ; for the auxiliary hcul should be combined with the participle erosted^ and not the root of the verb cross. The mean- ing, as well as the correct form of this expression, is /would a$ lief cross the ocean as not. Parse, therefore, as follows : had cross is a corruption for would cross, potential mood, imperfect tense, &c. I had may have come thus to be confounded with / would, in consequence of the frequent abbreviation of both expres- sions into /v.] — You had best not disturb her. — A good man hr.d rather conceal another's faults than make them known.— You had better fii-st see whether you are invulnerable yourself. Every one tried to make much [noun] of La Fayette. — Never make light [noun] of serious things. — Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother. — The whole community set store by an honest man. — He is so awkward that people are apt to make fun of him. — Before going, make [intrans.] sure [adj., relating to you understood, the subject of make] of the means of returning. — The village boys make quite free with our orchard. — The Hindoo women make away with their children, by throwing tliem into the Ganges. — I will make bold to tell you that you fall far short of my expectations. — Have you taken possession of your house ? [To male much qf and several of the similar expressions just presented are sometimes thrown into the passive form, by taking the object of the preposition for a subject and incorporating prep- osition and noun with the verb. Thus : La Fayette was made much of by turyhody. Here wa$ made much of conveys a single 184: DIFFICULT CONSTRTJCTIONS EXPLAINED. idea — was caressed — and must be parsed as a transitive verb in tlie passive voice. Taken separately, the words can not be satisfac- torily parsed. Anomalous as this idiom is, it is used by good writers.]— Serious things should not be made light of. — Nobody likes to be made fun of. — Many children are made away with every year by the Hindoo women. — Salamanca was next taken possession of by the British. We took it for [a] granted [thing] that you had started. — Have they given up the child for [a] lost [child] ? — I can not help think- ing that you are a little premature. — We have a pleasant world to live in [adv.\ — You have as fine a house as anybody need want to live in \_prep.^ having the relative as for its object]. — It is a matter that you will gain nothing by alluding to. Maugre {l^rep.'] all you can say, I am resolved not to go. — In- side the building, despite our efforts, all was confusion. — I took the cars for Buffalo, via [prep.] Dunkirk, but on arriving there found myself minus my purse. — A fire came out from before the Lord. — Six times three is eighteen. [That is, Three taken six times is eighteen. Three, the subject, is a noun in the nomina- tive ; times is in the objective, according to Bule V.] LESSON LXX. SUBJECT.— NOMINATIVE INDEPEXDENT.-FALSE SYNTAX. 507. Syntax. — The following principles apply to words combined in sentences : — 1. One word may agree with another, as verb with subject. 2. One word may relate to another, as adjective to substantive. 3. A word may be put in a certain case on account of its relation to some other, as the object of a verb in the objective. 601. State the principles that apply to words combined in sentenoea. SYNTAX. 185 4. Usage often requires the words to be arranged in a certain way. 608. The word syntax means a putting together. That part of grammar which treats of the relations and ar- rangement of words put together is called Syntax. The rules that bear on these relations are called the Rules of Syntax. Violations of these rules are called False Syntax. 509. In the preceding lessons have been presented, as they were needed in parsing, seventeen rules of syn- tax. These will now be reconsidered in detail. Tlieir application in different cases will be explained, and additional principles relating to the construction and arrangement of sentences will be laid down. The various errors into which there is a liability to fall in speaking or writing, w^ill be presented for correction under the several rules, as False Syntax. The reasons for making the corrections should in all cases be given, accoixling to the models. After the sentences are corrected, they may bo analyzed and parsed, in whole or in part, at the pleasure of the teacher. RULE I.— Subject. 510. A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 511. Arkanoement. — Tlie subject generally precedes its verb. 512. Exceptions. — Tn the following cases, the subject comes after the verb; if the tense is compound, after the first auxiliary: — 1. When the verb is in the imperative mood, first or second person ; as, " Pause ie« now." *' Repent ye.'" fiOR Wliat doe« the wonl tyntax monn t lo (rrammar, -what is meant by Syntax f Wliat i« meant by the Rule* of Syntax ! Wl>at in FalBo Syntax f 609. Why are the rule* of ayntax now rupealod t 610. Recite Rule I., relating to the aubject. Ml. How doe* the subject frenemlly stand, aa regards tt« verb t 612. Wliat four •SMpUoM an noted t What la sometlniM the aflbot of plaoing the subject after 186 NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT. 2. When the verb is used mterrogatively ; as, " Are you safe ? *' " Will Howard ever be forgotten ? " 3. When if or though^ denoting a supposition, is suppressed ; as, " Had the British been wise, they would have listened to the colonists [for, IfOie British had been wise, &c.]." 4. When a wish is expressed with the potential ; as, " May justice triumph ! " The subject may, in other cases, particularly in poetry, follow its verb, — and often with fine effect ; as, " How beautiful is nature " " Let there be light, said God, and there was light." RULE n. — Nominative Independent. 613. A substantive used independently is in the nominative case. Examples. — Be being away, the work suffers. — Conscript fathers, with you it rests to punish guilt. — Oh, wretched day ! — My country — ^where is she now? — His last words were, "My wife! my child!" — James I. would not allow his subjects to approach him, — a course that always gives dissat- isfaction. — The reputation of being a wit is not worth much. — I had no suspicion of its being you. 614. Caution. — Every substantive that appears to be used independ- ently is not really so used. The case may depend on a word understood. " Farewell ! a pleasant voyage ! " Here voyage is not in the nominative independent, but in the objective, the object of the verb wish understood — / wish you a pleasant voyage. So, at the close of a letter, "Your obedient servant, Henry Jones." Servant is not nominative independent, but nominative after the verb am understood — / am your obedient servant. FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 510. They said they could run faster than me. [ Corrected. — They said they could run faster than /. Me must be changed to /, the nominative case, because it is the subject of tlie verb could run understood.] Her and me are going to the fair.— The Bermudas' were dis- covered by Juan Berraudez. — Them that help themselves deserve help. — Few are so industrious as her. — Who interrupted me just now ? Me. — Whom do you suppose arrived last night ? — Where the verb I 513. Recite Rule II., relating to the nomlr.ative independent. Give ex- ampltw. 514. What caution is given 1 lUuBtrato this. FALSE SYNTAX. 187 are him and you staying? — Edible birds'-nests' are in groat favor with the Chinese. — Which of you tore that curtain? Not me, but him. — You certainly can not think that you are happier than us.— Kangaroo's are found only in Australia. — Thee needst not have rebuked me so severely. — Ilim who honestly earns Ins bread by the sweat of his brow, all men respect ; but him who is too proud to work is esteemed by none. Under § 513. Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed us that see it! [CorreeUd. — Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed we that see it ! Ui must be changed to tcd t la what nambcr is • pronoun that stands for a noun preceded by mant/ a1 668. In what number la a pronoun put, that refers to a collective noun t 668. What oolle«'tive nouns always take a pronoun in the plural t 660. In what number is a IvoDoun that stands for two or moro singular substAntives couiected by and f 202 SYNTAX OF PE0N0UN8. must be in the plural ; as, " Martha and Mary were weeping for their brother Lazarus." "Faith, hope, charity, had left theiT mark on his character." 661. But the pronoun must be put in the singular, 1. When the substantives for which it stands are but different names' for the same person or thing ; as, " This great physician and surgeon could heal others; himself he could not heal." 2. When the substantives are limited hjeach, every, or no; as, "Everji waving tree and every rippling brook has its lessons for the thoughtful mind." 562. Singular substantives connected by and also, and too, and not, but, if not, or as well as, are taken separately, and have a pronoun in the eingular; as, "Brazil, and India also, is noted for i^s valuable diamonds." *' Not only Wellington, but Nelson, greatly distinguished himself in this war." " The lord, as well as the beggar, has his troubles." 663. A plural pronoun referring to substantives of different persons is put in the first person in preference to the second, and the second in preference to the third ; as, " You and he and I will prepare our lessons, if no- body else does." " You and he will not disobey your mother." FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 555. There is such a noise that one can not collect their thoughts. [Corrected. — There is such a noise that one can not collect his thoughts. Their must be changed to his, the singular number, because one, the substantive to which it refers, is singular.] Every-body ought to have regard to the dictates of their own conscience. — No one can tell what trials may await them to-mor- row. — ^A cow gives every token of distress when its calf is taken from it. — Any one can secure the reputation of being a good critic, if they will find fault with every thing and every-body. — Let d 661, In what two cases must the pronoun be put in the singular ? 662. "What con- nectives show that singular substantives are taken separately? In what number must a pronoun be, that refers to singular substantives so connected f 563. What is the rule for the person of a plural pronoun referring to substantives of diflTerent persons 1 FALSE SYNTAX. Tonngman be temperate, indastrioas, andnpright, and people will be sure to respect aud trust them. — When the buffalo is wounded, they turn furiously on their pursuer, and sometimes trample him to death. — They carved cherubim out of Parian marble, and placed it over the shrine. I have lost the scissors. Have you seen it ? — That duck has lamed his right foot. — Every animal, however small, has some weapon with which they can defend themselves. — The tongs should always be kept in its place. — She saves her wood-ashes, and sells it to a soap-maker. — Thrifty men, when they have received their wages, do not spend it for liquor. — We sent for the regalia, but the manufacturer said that he had not finished it. — As I was looking at the heifer, he suddenly started off and ran down the lane. — Each horseman put their lance in rest. Under § 557, 558. Many a flower is bom to blush unseen, and waste their sweetness on the desert air.— Many a book is published, that is positively injurious ; if it were committed to the flames, it would be a blessing to the community. — No wonder that many a poet has sung the name of Washington and inmiortalized it in their noblest strains. — The jury separated, to get its dinner. — The court has rendered their decision. — The crew were next called on deck, to receive its orders. Under § 500. Hard and soft soap differ from each other in the materials that enter into its composition. — Shem, Ham, and Japhet, went into the ark with his father Noah. — My son, my daughter, do not distress yourself. — Adversity, affliction, tempta- tion, ought we not to be ready for it all ? — I have tried blue and red ink, but it does not write so well as black. Under § 661. Tlie druggist and apothecary on the corner will hereafter close their store on Sunday. — My friend and benefactor, do not withdraw yourselves from my embrace. — Your son and heir would do well to alter their ways. — No lord, no king, can ei\joy themselves more than I. — Each of the Scipios aud each of the Catos had their admirers. Under § 502. Roger Williams, and Oalvert also, showed the liberality of their views by allowing freedom of conscience in relig- ious matters. — It was Cleopatra, and not Semiramis, that killed themselves by the bite of an asp. — Powhatan, as well as Pocahon- tas, now did all in their power to conciliate the coloniste. 204 SYNTAX OF PK0N0UN8. Undke § 563. I told both her and you to see the superintendent and satisfy themselves. — May sister Fanny and I go to her aunt's this afternoon ? — I must have met James and you, but I did not recognize either of them. LESSON LXXYI. PRONOUNS (CONTINUED). — FALSE SYNTAX. 664:. A pronoun standing for two or more singular substantives connected by or or nor, must be in the singular ; as, " !N'either Venice nor Genoa retains the proud position it once held." 665. But if one of the substantives is plural, it is placed last, and the pronoun is made plural ; as, "Neither Venice nor the States of the Church retain the proud position they once held." 666. If the substantives are of different persons, the pronoun must be used in the proper person with each ; or the sentence must be so altered that the pronoun may be omitted. " Neither James nor I will allow our children to grow up in ignorance " Wrong, because cnir is plural. As there is no pronoun applicable to both James (which is third person) and / (which is first\ use a separate pronoun for each : *' James will not allow his children to grow up in ignorance, nor will I mine.^ — " Either my wife or I will come for our children on Tuesday." The meaning here prevents us from correcting as in the last case (" Either my wife will come for her children, or I for mine "), as the children belong to us jointly. We must therefore get rid of the pronoun altogether: " Either my wife or I will come for the children on Tuesday." 567. When the substantives are of the third person singular, but of dif- ferent genders, as the personal pronoun is the same in the plural for both genders, but not in the singular, there is a tendency to use the plui-al ; as, ** Neither Alfred nor Ellen were perfect in their lessons." " An author or 564. In what number is a pronoun that etande for two or more singular sub- •tantives connected by or or nor 7 565. If one of the substantives is plural, what Is the rule ? 666. If the substantives are of different persons, what is said of the pronoun ? Give examples of the two modes of correction euggeeted. 567. When the substantives are of the third person singular, but of different genders, what tendency is there I What is the rule for the proDoon in this case ! What substi^ SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. should not think that the public are bound to receive lAxm with fcTor." Theae sentences are wrong. Substantives connected by or op nor are taken separately and require a singular pronoun. Correct by using the pronoun in the proper gender with each ; as, " Neither was Alfred perfect in hi$ lessons, nor Ellen in /ters.^ Or, when it can be done, use a term of common gender that will embrace both the substantives, and let the pro- noun agree with it in the masculine in preference ; as, " A vriter should not think that the public are bound to receive him with favor." 668. A noun denoting an inanimate object personified (§ 98) has gen- der, and a pronoun standing for such a noun must agree with it in gender ; as, " Famine, with Am wan cheeks, gloats over Am victims." " Plenty tripe along, scattering Aer fruits as the goes." 669. In a given sentence, pronouns referring to the same substantive must be of the same number and the same form. ** T7tou hast always repaid me with ingratitude, and do you now ask a greater favor than ever ? " Wrong, because in the second member the pronoun is changed to the plural. Correct thus : " and dost thou now ask," &c " You have put your hands to the plough, and will ye now draw back ? " Wrong, because in the second member the form of the pronoun is changed. Correct thus : " and will you now draw back ? " FALSE SYNTAX. TJifDER § 664. If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as they grew ill years, what knowledge they must finally have attained 1 [Corrected. — If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as he grew in years, what knowledge hs must finally have attained I T^hey must be changed to A«, because it stands for the singular substan' tives Seth and Methusaleh^ connected by or. J Walter Jones or his brother William just passed with their face tied up, as if they had met with an accident. — If you want a good house or farm, I can tell you where to find them. — Neither talent nor wealth should be laid away in a napkin, by those who are fortunate enough to possess them. — Wo have no evidence in their public acts, that either Charles I. or Charles II. deemed it worth their while to consult the happiness of their subjects. — Neither tutton I* taggMted for the labstAntiTM 1 608. What is said of a pronoun standing (br the nam* of ait tnanimate object peraonlfled t 6S9. What rule la laid down for pronoana referring to the aamo •ub«tantive In a given aentenoe I How U thia ml* VtolatcU ill the firat example I Uow, la the aeoood f 206 FALSE SYNTAX. Plato nor Aristotle thought it proper to make known to the world at large those more important doctrines which they freely taught their followers. — Peace can not be restored till either Austria or Hungary shall surrender their claims. — We should not envy our neighbor health, wealth, or any other blessing, but, on the con- trary, should feel glad that he possesses them, even though they be denied to us. TJndee § 565. If you want a good house or desirable lots, I can tell you where to find it. — Neither talent nor riches should be laid away in a napkin, by those who are fortunate enough to possess it. — Neither Plato nor the other ancient philosophers thought it proper to make known to the world at large those more important doctrines which he freely taught his followers. — Peace can not be restored till either the Hungarians or Austria shall surrender its claims. Under § 566. Neither you nor any honorable man ought to be ashamed to ask the forgiveness of your friend, when you have wronged him. — Thou or I must abandon his claims. — Neither he nor you promised your wives to return before to-morrow. — Here is an opportunity for you or me to distinguish ourselves [to gain distinction]. — Neither he nor you should promise yourselves suc- cess in such a cause. Under § 567. A true-hearted man or woman will never insult their inferiors. — Neither the king nor the queen seems to concern themselves much about the welfare of their subjects. — No boy or girl should disobey their parents. — ^Every gentleman and lady should remember that they are responsible for the example they set to the world. — If you see my brother or sister, tell them I will not be home to-night. Under § 568. Spring trips along, scattering its blossoms as it goes. — The Earth is ever a bounteous mother to its children. — Time mows down rich and poor alike with its relentless scythe. — Hope breathes many a delightful promise into the ears of its votaries. — How many are wooed to destruction by Pleasure with its syren songs! — There is no orator so persuasive as Fashion; it has but to open its lips, and nobody thinks of gainsaying its words. Under § 569. Fame you know to be a dream ; wilt thou then barter thy soul for it? — Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a Stranger to thy heart. — ^Listen ye men of Rome, you who proudly SYNTAX OF BELATIYE PRONOUNS. 207 call Romulus your father. — ^Fools may your scorn, but not thy envy rftise. LESSON LXXVII. BBLATIVE PU0N0UN8. -FALSE SYNTAX. RULE Vm.— Relativks. 670. A relative agrees with its antecedent in person and number. A relative does not agree with its antecedent in ease. This depends on its relation to some word or words in its own clause. Several of tlie re- marks in the last two lessons apply to relatives, as will be seen in the following Examples orRrLE VIII — I vho [1st, singular, agreeing with /] speak. — Thou who [2nd. sing.] speakest. — He irAo [8rd, sing.] speaks. — We who [Ist, plural] speak. — You who [2nd, plu.] speak. — They who [3rd, plu.] speak.^^Many a man that [3rd, eing.] passes for a hero is really a coward. — Beaumont and Fletcher, who [plural, agreeing with two singular antece- dents connected by and] arc always named together, wrote some fine lyrics. — This great physician and surgeon, who [sing., as but one person is de- noted by phyncian and itnrgeon] could heal others, could not heal himself. — Every tree and plant that [sing., agreeing with antecedents preceded by evfry] blossoms, testifies to the goodness of our Creator. — You and he and I, who [Ist person preferred] know our lessons, will not be kept in. 671. When there are two or more sulwtantives, either of which, as far •s the sense is concerned, may be the antecedent, the relative agrees with the nearest ; as, " I am tho party that [3rd, sing., agreeing with party, not /] is to blame." " Ii is I that [1st, sing., agreeing with /, not it] am to bhune.** 672. If the antecedent is a clause, the relative is in the third person, <«Dgular ; if two or more clauses, in the third, plural. ** He is witty, which *7a B«cite Rule VIII., referring to relatives. On what doee the caee of a rvlaUve depend! Give examples of the rule, and name the antecedent In each eaee. 671. When there are two or more auhetantivee, either of which, as faraa the aenae la coneemed, may be the anteeedent, with which doe* the relatWe agreal Vti, In whai ptnoo and nombtr U tb« rriatlve, if the anteoadeut ia a clause t If 208 SYNTAX OF EELATIVES. [3rd, sing.] I regard as no great advantage." " Whether the classics dis- cipline the mind, and whether an acquaintance with them is of any practical benefit in life, which [3rd, plural] are both important questions, every scholar must decide for himself." 573. The relative connects its clause with the leading part of the sen- tence. A conjunction, therefore, should not be used before a relative, unless there are two or more relative clauses to be connected. "Dr. iJohnson, the author of the Dictionary, who [not and who] wrote the •* Lives of the Poets,' flourished in the reign of George II. and George III." But, if there are two relative clauses, and maybe used; as, " Dr. Johnson, who wrote the Dictionary and whose ' Lives of the Poets ' has been much admired, ranks high as a critic." 574. A sentence must not commence with a relative referring to an antecedent in a previous sentence. Use this or these instead. " This [not which] having been done, we again set sail." 575. Who, which, that. — Who, as already stated, relates to persons, or animals and things personified ; which, to animals and things only. 576. That is equally applicable to persons, animals, and things. It must be used in stead of who or which, 1. "When both persons and things are referred to ; as, " Look at the artists and master-pieces that ancient Greece produced." Here neither who nor which would be applicable to both the antecedents. 2. "When who is the antecedent, to prevent repe- tition ; as, " Who that hateth his brother can love God?" 3. After a superlative ; as, " Hannibal was the dead- liest enemy that Rome ever had." 677. JTiat is also generally preferred to who or which j 1. After same^ all, and the adjectives very and no ; as, " Washington was the very man the antecedent consists of two or more clauses f 573. When only may a conjunc- tion be used before a relative ? Why is this ? 574. With what must a sentence not commence ? 575. To what does who relate I Which 7 Thai f 576. What an- tecedents require the use of (hat in stead of trAo or which? After what deprpe must that be used f 577. In what three oases is that generally preferred to wJio or SYNTAX OF RELATIVES. 209 tkat the colonies needed.*^ 2. When the antecedent follows it m, it tmu, kc; aa, " /< tDho [not that, because additive] possessed great eloquence, could lead the Athenians at his will.** 679. When the relative refers to the antecedent simply as a name or character, which must be used, not who or that ; as, " Such were the trials of Job, which has come to be regarded as another name for patience." •' Solomon appears to the greatest advantage as a judge, which he was even to the meanest of his subjects." 580. Position. — ^The relative, with its clause, should stand immediately after its antecedent ; as, " Those who break the law deserve punishment," not " Those deserve punishment who break the law." FALSE syntax. Undkb § 673, 574. The elephant, the largest of quadrupeds, and which sometimes attiiins the height of fifteen feet, can easily draw a load that six horses can not move. — The whig candidate for the presidency was Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista, and who was elected by a small minority. Who dying before his term of office expired, Fillmore became president. — In February, 1848, a mechanic, digging a mill-race for Captiin Sutter, a Swiss, and who had settled in the valley of the Sacramento, discovered among the sand some particles of gold. Which news having spread, thou- sands at once flocked to California from the Atlantic states. Undkb § 576. There were not cars enough to transport the passengers and baggage which had arrived at this point. — The tekich? 67S. Which rrUtive iinplio* the dcxwct connection with the »nteccdont I When, thervfore, !■ that ircnermlly u»od I When roust It not be usedt 679. "WTien miMt tehicA be a««d, and not uho or that 7 UO. What U th» proper poattion for Iho nUUve and ita olaoae t 210 FALSE SYNTAX. most valuable article whicli is produced by insects, is silk.— Who, I ask, who looks upon the heavens studded with stars, can doubt that there is a God ? — Boas are the largest serpents which are known. — I could not help admiring the good-natured country- people and the baskets of splendid fruit, with which the market was filled. Under § 577. I am the same man which I was ; it is you who have altered. — There is no man who sinneth not. — He who does all which he can, should be commended, though it be but little. — JSTations which do not foster education can not hope to prosper. — Birds which live on animal food are called carnivorous. — Birds of paradise, that are much prized for their beautiful plumage, are found chiefly in New Guinea. — The family whom I visited, can not be the same which you refer to. Undeb § 580. He is a common-place man, that has no friends and no enemies. — A man should first count the cost, who is about to build a house. — Alfred freed England from the Danes, who showed as much courage in war as wisdom in peace. — Even those philosophers fell far short of modern enlightenment, who ad- vanced furthest in the search for wisdom in ancient times. — Those evil-disposed persons should be driven from society, who take pleasure in slandering their neighbors. — On this voyage, the cap- tain treated the sailors very harshly, who had never been known to do so before. LESSON LXXYIII. PRONOUNS (CONTINUED). -FALSE SYNTAX. 581. When two or more relative clauses referring to the same antecedent are connected by a conjunction, the same relative must be used ; as, " No man that loves his family, or that [not who] regards his own happiness, will give way to intemperance." But, when one of the clauses is restrictive and the other not, that is 581, What rule i« laid down reBpectlncr two or more relative clanses referring to the same antesedeut? When one of the clausea is restrictive and the other SYNTAX OF PKONOUNS. 211 used in the restrictlre clause, which ia placed first, and who or which witliout a conjunction in the other; as, ''The part that was Icll, which was more valuable in appearance than in reality, was given to Adlier* bal." 5S2. Do not use the adverb where for in which^ or tphence for from which, unless place is referred to lit- erally. We say, " Travellers are in doubt as to the spot where Palmyra once stooil." " The harbor whence we sailed was {^ay with flags." But, " They presented a document t« which [not wherc'\ their grievances were set forth." "The premises /ro7n which [not whence^ they drew these conclu- sions, were false." 583. Do not omit a preposition and relative, con- necting parts of a sentence ; as, " The winter the Pil- grims landed, was remarkable for its severity." Sup- ply in which after winter, 584. Do not make a pronoun stand for an adjective or a finite verb. This rule is violated in the following sentences : — " Never be ungrate- ful, for this is one of tlie most heartless of sins." " He declared that he would not retreat, which would be equivalent to giving up the cause as lost," Correct thus : — " Never be ungrateful, for ingratit^uie is one of the moBt heartless of sins." " He declared that he would not retreat, for that to do so would be equivalent to giving up the cause as lost." 585. Do not use the pronoim them for the adjective those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction that. " I will never believe but what [thaf] you might have saved them [those'] trees." 586. Pronouns must be so used that there may bo no doubt for what they stand. Do not, therefore, make BOi, what ia the mle f 682. When only mny where be nsed for in whieh, and itkmt t fotfntm which J 683. ^Vhst must not be omitted ? 684. For what mast u proooon not bo made to stand f Olve examplen of the violation of this rule, and the modes of eorreetion. 686. For what mast them and what not be naedt 688. What Is eeeenttal in the uee of pronouns f What rule is laid down reepeot- Ing peraooal pronoona t Give example* of the vtolation of this ml*, and show how 212 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. the same personal pronoun represent different persons or things in the same sentence. Errors of this kind are frequent, and may be corrected in different ways. "The farmer told the lawyer that ^2S ox had gored his horse." Say * Tour ox has gored my horse,'' or ' Mi/ ox has gored your horse,^ aa the case may be. " Pope wrote to Addison that he was aware of his secret efforts to injure his reputation," Say of the secret efforts of the latter, -iolated ; which always has a bad effect on the commu- nity. — We love to see a man modest, which is generally a sign of merit. — After an illness of a few days, Washington died ; which was the cause of great sorrow to the country at large. — Utmuibal wintered at Capua, which proved tlie ruin of his army. Under § 686. Jackson had no fears but what he would pre- vent the further advance of the British. — We have bought some of them French roses. — Do you like them ftichsias as well as ours? — I have no apprehensions but w^bat he will be in time. Under § 586. Helen sent Mary a pot of jelly, which she said she had made for her husband. — No man should allow another to commit a crime, if he can prevent him. — Why did not the friends of Hamilton and Burr do their best to prevent the duel between them? — The simplicity of the style maintained throughout this book, has always led me to admire it. Under § 687. Williimi and Mary, they have no love for study. — It is singular the labor tliat men will undergo to avoid labor. — 214 THE AETICLE. Kossuth having taken refuge in Turkey, he was now for a time safe. — It is not always right, what a man thinks to be right. — There is no politician, whom, however high he may stand in the eyes of the world, we shall not find him selfish and unscrupulous. LESSON LXXIX. ARTICLES, -FALSE SYNTAX. RULE YIII.— Articles. 588. An article relates to tlie word whose meaning it limits. Examples. — A tie the holiest that can bind men together. — The lexs we talk, the less trouble we are likely to fall into. — The prodigal [persons] often come to want. — Charles th£ Bald [king]. — If all the planets are in- habited, what a countless throng of living beings must pass before the Creator's eye ! 589. The articles must not be interchanged. " He does not look like the man of talent." Change the to a, because no particular man of talent is referred to. 590. An or a must not be used with a plural noun. " He borrowed a tongs from a hut a long ways off." Correct thus : — " He borrowed a pair of tongs from a hut a great distance off." 591. No article must be joined to nouns used in their widest sense, or to the names of qualities, passions, states of being, &c., taken generally, and not as belong- ing to a particular object. We say, " Lead us not into temptation [not the temptation'] ; deliver ti3 from evil [not the evi7]." But we speak of " the temptations of the 588. Recite Rule VIII., relating to articlea. Give examples, and In each tell to what the article relates. 589. In the sentence He does not look like the man of talent, what change should be made, and why ? 590. With what must an or a not be used? 591. To what nouns must an article not be joined? When must the article be prefixed to the names of qualities, passions, states of feeling, &c.f THE ARTICLE. 215 ux)rld»'' " the evil of sin." So; " Patience is a virtue ; *' but *' the patience of Job.** When we limit the meaning of the noun m a particular object with the preposition o/*, we must introduce the article. 692. No article must be joined to the names of the arts and sciences, or words used merely as titles ; as, '^ Columbus was well versed in geog- riphy and mathematics [not the geography and the mathematics].'''' " The •upreme executive officer in Russia is called Czar [not a Czar].'''' 593. When two or more nouns come together in the same construction, the article need not be repeated unless they are contrasted ; as, " The energy and ambition of Napoleon were equalled only by his selhshness.** But, " We admire the energy, but not the ambition, of Napoleon.** The article is here repeated, because the nouns are contrasted. 594. If one of the nouns does not admit an article before it, place it first; as, '* Mathematics and the classics should both be studied as a men* tal discipline,** — not the claxmies and mathematics^ for then the article would appear to limit the meaning of matfiematics also. 595. In making a comparison, if we refer to one per- son or thing viewed in different characters or capacities, we must use the article but once ; if we refer to two persons or things, we use it twice. " Shakspcare was a greater poet than actor.** Here we refer to but one person, and say that he was greater as a poet than as an actor. If we re- peat the article — "Shakspeare was a greater poet than an actor" — we mean than an actor teas, and refer to two different parties. 696. So, when a noun is preceded by two or more adjectives connected by a conjunction, if but one person or thing is referred to, place the article before the first adjective only ; but, if more than one, use the article with each adjective. If we mean one spot, partly black and partly blue, we say *' a black and blue spot ** ; but, if we refer to two spots, one all black and the other all blue, we say *'a black and a blue spot **. 597. Few means no< many; little meAns not much. By putting the article a before them, we make their meaning positive ; a /etr, a little^ mean $o>Me. It is better to have a few virtues than few virtues, and a little BBS, To what else most nn article not he Joined t 608. When two or more nonnii oome tofether to the Mme conBtruetion, when may we uae the article l>ut once, •nd when roost we repeat Itt 6M. What mast be done, if one of the nouna does oot sdmit an artlele before it t 606. In maklngr a oompartaon, when most we ate the article bat ooee, and when mast we repeat it f 600. When a noon is prectsled by two or more adjeetlvea connected by a conjunction, wbco must the article he used before the flrit a4)«otiTe only, and whan before eaeb f 601. What doee/ew 216 THE ARTICLE. money than little money. A person may be commended for having few vices, but not for having a few. 598. Arrangement. — The article generally precedes its noun, but sometimes follows it ; as, the fom-tli chap- ter, cJiafpter the foui-tli. 599. "When both an article and an adjective are joined to a noun, the usual order is article^ adjective, noun ; rarely, as in the last example, noun, article, adjective. 600. The adjective stands before the article and noun, when the expres- sions all the, both the, many a, such a, what a, are used ; as, both the hemispheres. 601. When the adjective is modified by as, hoiv, so, or too, the article stands immediately before the noun, and the adjective with its modifier either precedes both or follows both ; as, too temble a doom, or a doom too terrible. When the adjective is modified by any other adverb, the order is either article, adjective, noun, or better article, noun, adjective. We say a dazzlingly bright eye, or better an eye dazzlingly bright. 602. When the adjective is modified by several words, the article pre- cedes the noun, and the adjective with its modifying words follows it ; as, a character lovely in every point of view. FALSE syntax. Under § 589. A diphthong is the combination of two vowels in one syllable. [Corrected. — A diphthong is a combination of two vowels in one syllable. 7%e must be changed to a, because a diphthong, one of the kind but no particular one, is defined.] By the variation of the compass is meant a deviation in the direction of the needle from due north. — ^Few flowers are so beau- tiful as a dahlia. — An eagle is the emblem of America. — A whale is the largest of fish. — Critics are not agreed as to what animal Job means, when he speaks of a leviathan. — She is entitled to the third of her husband's property. mean ? Wliat does little mean ? What is the effect of putting a before few and little 7 Illustrate this. 598. What ie the usual position of the article ? 599. When both an article and an adjective are joined to a noun, what is the usual order ? 600. In what expressions does the adjective precede the article and noun ? 601. What is the order, when the adjective is modified by as, hou>, so, or too ? What is the order when the adjective is modified by any other adverb t 602. Wben the adjective i« modified by several words, what is the order I FALSE BYNTAX. 217 Under § 590. I have just ordered a splendid regalia. — About this time, people were alarmed by a singular j)henomena in the rity. — The crime was committed in a thick woods. — I can not cut with such a dull scissors. — When you go to market, buy mo a hea and chickens. Under § 591, 592. The apteryx is a curious kind of a bird with- out the wings. — Which must not be used when a reference is made to persona. — The law is just, but it operates hard in the particular cases. — Neither the famine nor the pestilence destroys as mauy as the sword. — Cresar was now again saluted as the dictator. Under § 593, 594. Europeans can stand the heat, but not ma- laria, of Africa. — It is the justice, as much as wisdom, of a magis- trate, that we admire. — The law and politics engaged his attention by turns. — The dahlia, as well as fuchsia, is a native of America. Under § 595. A mastitf makes a better watch-dog than spaniel. — Many a boy that is sent to college would make a better black- smith than a scliolar. — A German acquires the English language more easily than Italian. — Michael Angelo was as great a painter as a sculptor. Under § 596. Farmer Ball has a black and white cow, and lets them both run on the road. — A black and a white cow was run over by the locomotive last Tuesday. — The past and present con- dition of Greece present quite a contrast. — The upper and lower cities have a very ditterent appearance. — There is a black and a blue spot where I struck my arm. Under § 597. I am happy to say that he has little sense of shame left. — We can point with honest pride to few American sculptors. — • They have run through their property, and now have a little lefU LESSON LXXX. ADJECTIVES. -PALBE BYNTAX RULE X.— AojEcnvKs. 603. An adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. 008. RMite Rule X., relating to •dJeoUves. Olve examples, end in eaeh tgll 10 218 CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. Ettamples. — Truth is eternal. — We are all mortal. — To retreat is int- possible. — TTiat the best printing-presses are made in the United States is certain. — The -ungrateful [persons'] are inexcusable. — To be [a] virtuous [man] is to be [a] happy [man]. 604. Use this and that with singular nouns only, these and those only with plurals. Say this sort of men^ not these sort, because sort is singu- lar; these tidings, not this tidings, because tidings is plural. 605. This here and these ^ere, that there and those ^ere, are gross errors. Correct by omitting the adverbs — this boy, not this here boy. 606. Few me2in& not many ; little vc^eans not much. Few, fewer, fe-ioest^ are therefore used with reference to things numbered ; Utile, less, leasts with reference to quantities. " There can not be feioer than a hundred persons present." " It can not weigh less than a hundred pounds." 607. Wliole implies entireness of parts. To imply entireness of num- ber, we must use all. We say the whole population, but aJl the inhabi' tants. Whole villages may be destroyed in a country, yet some may es- cape ; if all the villages are destroyed, none escape. 608. Adjectives, though they have the form of participles or are de. rived from them, can not govern the objective case. If an objective fol- lows them, it depends on a preposition, and this preposition should gen- erally be expressed. Say conduct unbecoming to a gentleman, not unbe- coming a gentleman. 609. Arrangement. — When several adjectives are joined to a noun, if all refer to it alike, they are gener- ally arranged according to their length, the shortest first, and connected by a conjunction ; as, " a graceful, beautiful, and intelligent girl ". But sometimes an adjective forms with a noun one complex idea that can be modified by another adjec- tive, and this again by another. In such cases, the adjectives are not connected by a conjunction, and to what the adjective relates. 604 With what muBt this and that be used f With what, these and those 1 605. What expressions are pronounced gross errors ? How are they to be corrected! 606. To what we fett, fewer, fewest applied, and to what little, less, least? 607. WTiat is the difference of meaning between whole and a/17 lUnetrate this. 608. Is an adjective capable of governing » What should be expressed after an adjective, to govern the objective case ! 609. When several ad- jectives refer alike to a noun, in what order are they generally arranged ? In what case must the adjectives not be connected by a conjunction f How must they then be arranged ? In what order do they generally stand, aa regards their meanlDgl FALSE SYNTAX. 2VJ must be so arranged that each may properly modify the complex idea conveyed by the adjectives and noun which follow. Adjectives denoting material generally stand nearest the noun, tlien thoee denoting color, then age, then ordinary qualities : a.^, ^' a hand:jome, new, white wooden cottage ; " *' a well-formed, spirited, young iron-grej bonw ; " " a gloomy, dilapidated old building ". FALSE SYNTAX. UxDER § 604. Napoleon was rapid m his movements, and by these means surprised his enemies. [Corrected. — Napoleon was rapid in his movements, and bj this means surprised his enemies. These must be changed to ihisj because, but one means being spoken of, means is singular.] Put that ashes in the barrel. — I can not help thinking of those bad news you brought. — ^After you have bought a gallon of those good molasses, take this spectacles to the silver-smith's, to get them mended. — For this last ten days, she has suffered from neuralgia. — Old houses are infested with rats and mice, and this vermin sometimes do great damage to the walls. — None of those kind of persons will be admitted. Under § 605. I do not like these 'ere coarse-pointed pens. — Set out those 'ere onions in this here bed. — What has become of tJiat there friend of yours? Undeb § 60G, 607. I have little fears on that subject.— She dislikes visitors; the less she has, the better it suits her. — In this retired spot, you have the least possible interruptions. — No less than forty-seven scholars were engaged on our standard translation of the Bible. — If less than twenty members are pres- ent, no business can be done. — The whole waters around New- foundland teem with fish. — All the families in New York were attacked by the cholera; very few escaped altogether. — The whole details are harrowing in the extreme. Under § 608. Be sparing flattery, when you are in the com- pany of sensible people. — Some persons are so vile as to bf» utterly undeserving notice. — We expect from you such deportment as is becoming your position in life. — Parties most deserving the aid i)f tlio charitable are frequently overlooked. 220 CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. Under § 609. An industrious, obliging, faithful, and smart servant, is a rarity. — I found her an iutelligent and young lady. — The company have just erected a brick fine four-story building. — Here is a white fragrant rose. — We saw a number of rusty singu- lar copper old coins. — They have presented their minister a new black handsome cloth coat. LESSON LXXXI. ADJECTIVES (CONTINUED), — FALSE SYNTAX. 610. Adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea of comparison must not be compared. Kor must they be used with Tnore^ inost^ less, least, so, or any other adverb implying difference of degrees in the quality denoted. An adjective already in the comparative or superlative degree must not be made the basis of a new comparison. Do not say, the chiefest beauty, a truer statement, so faultless a char- acter, the fartherest house, a more nearer view, the lea^t wisest course. Correct by omitting the termination or adverb that implies comparison ; or by substituting an adjective that may properly be compared. Thus : the chief beauty, a more correct statement, a character so nearly faultless^ the farthest house, a nearer view, the least wise course. 611. In comparing two objects, use the comparative degree ; in comparing more than two at once, the superlative : as, " the elder of the two brothers," " the eldest of the family ". " Asia is larger than Eu- rope." " Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of the earth." The comparative degree is used when an object is compared with any 610. What adjectives mast not be compared ? With what words, also, mnst euch adjectives not be used ? What rule is laid down with respect to adjectives already in the comparative or superlative f According to these rules, what are we forbidden to say ? How must we correct such expressions ? 611. In comparing objects, when must the comparative degree be used, and when the superlative i CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 221 numbor of others, provided they arc taken separately ; as, " Asia is largef than Europe, Africa, or North America." " Asia is larger than any other grand division." 612. After the comparative degree, use other with the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the former, and only tfien. " The Amazon is longer than any river.'* The Amazon being a river, the Litter of the terms compared, rivtr^ includes the former, Amazon i and we assert that the Amazon is longer than itself. Correct by intro- ducing the word other^ to exclude the former term : " The Amazon is longer than any oiher river." " The Amazon is longer than any other river of Europe." Here the Amazon is not compared with rivers in general, but with the rivers of Europe. As it is not itself a river of Europe, the latter term compared does not include the former, and other must be omitted. 613. After the Buperlative degree, neither other nor any must be used with the latter of the terras com- pared ; this latter term must include the former. "The Amazon is the longest of all other rivers." "The Amazon is the longest of any river in the world." Both these sentences are wrong, because the latter term compared does not include the former. Say, " The Amazon is the longest of rivers ; " or, of all rivers. " Augustus was the greatest of all his successors." Wrong, because Augustus was not one of his own successors ; the latter term does not in- clude the former. Correct by substituting a term that does include the former : " Augustus was the greatest of all the Roman emperors^ Or else substitute the comparative degree: "Augustus was grcaUr than any of bis successors." 614. An adjective in the comparative or superlative must precede an adjective modified by more or rrwst^ relating to the same noun ; as, " a larger and more in- teresting volume ". Jn what dms ro»y the comparatlvo dojrrt«o he unod, own when an object is oom- pnivd with any number of other* I 612. How and when rount othrr be used after the comparative degree t Show by eXHrnples when other must be used, and when not ©13. After th« •ui>erktivo decree, what word* mu«t not be uwd with th« Utter term I Why not I l!lu«trate thia principle. 614. What ia the proper order, vbaa a oomparatiTs or luperlatlve and an a^ieeiive mudilled by man or 222 FALSE SYNTAX. We do not say " a more interesting and larger volume," 1. Because it would sound ill. 2. Because it might appear that more belonged to the second adjective larger^ as well as to interesting. 615. Adjectives must not be used for adverbs, nor adverbs for adjectives. See § 403, 404. FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 610. Nothing' is more preferable than a good char- acter. [Corrected. — !N"otliing is preferable to a good character. More must be omitted, because the meaning of preferable precludes the idea of comparison. Than must be changed to to^ because 'prefer- able is followed by to.'\ The people were clamorous for a freer constitution. — Few in- stitutions give so complete a course and so perfect an education as the German Universities. — Turkey is as dead as any country can well be. — The raisins of Malaga are more superior than those of Smyrna. — The English regarded Wellington with the most entire confidence. — Mohammedan pilgrims look upon Mecca as the most holiest spot on earth. — Did you not promise to take her for better or worser ? — The Pacific is the least roughest of all the oceans. — How much more are we better off than ever before I Under § 611. Which of those twins is the largest ? — The elder of your three brothers is the smaller. — Is the present or the past condition of France the best? — Which is the most northerly, iN'ew York or San Francisco ? — Which is the more northerly, New York, Philadelphia, or San Francisco ? The former, I think. — At Pana- ma, the year is divided into a wet and a dry season ; the last is the shortest. — We have a department for boys and one for girls ; the former are the smartest in arithmetic, but the latter are the best in composition. Under § 612. The plague was more fatal than any disease then known. — Mary is shorter than any other of her sisters. — Jeremiah is more pathetic than any of the prophets. — Day and most relate to the same noun ? Why should we not pay a more interesting and 'firger volume 1 615. What is the Ituit rule reiatiug to adjectives? FALSE SYNTAX. 223 night are longer in the polar regions than in other lower latitudes. — Iridium and platinum are heavier than any of the metals. Under § 613. Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the world. — Washington was the last of his soldiers to leave the field. — Mount Mitchell is the loftiest of any other elevation of land cast of the Rocky Mountains. — Adam is supposed to have heea the most noble looking of his descendants. — The moon is the nearest to ns of all the stars. Undsr § 614. There are few more fertile or fairer lands than Italy. — Domitian was one of the most tyrannical, most depraved, and weakest, of the Roman emperors. — The reign of (ieorge III. was at the same time the most eventful and longest recorded in English history. Under § 615. Opportunities of gaining distinction do not now occur 80 frequent as they did in old times. — The sun looks less brightly than usual to-day. — There are few that live as holy as they ought. — His finger pains him very bad. — It makes one feel strangely to be alone in a foreign land. — Water is frozen easier than alcohol. — James reads more distinct than any of my scholars. LESSON LXXXII. FINITE YSBBS. — FALSE SYNTAX. RULE XI. — Agreement of the Verb. 616. A verb agrees witli its subject in person and nnmber. Examples. — / dare [Ist, sing., agreeing with /] not go. — Ife dare$ not go. — If thou hadat obeyed orders, all would have been well. — TJiou i» [3d, sing., agreeing with thou taken merely as a word] in the singular number. — Each of them is to be examinated. — There needs great labor to produce a good crop. — There lacked but one [artide'] of the whole num- ber.—/* ii thou ?— Who art thou f-^Oo \thau\ meet [thou] thy brother. — To die it [Sd^ sing., agreeing with the infinitive to die] gain.— From what 616. B«dt« Bole XI., r«btinfr to tbo «frr«emcnt of tho Tcrb. In e«ch of tbo tzamplee, gire the penoo uxd oumb«r of the verb, and tell with wh*t It igreM. 224 - AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. country the nectarine was introduced, is [3rd, sing., agreeing with the substantive clause that precedes] uncertain. 617. Cautions. — Be sure that the verb agrees with the right word. When it is separated from its subject bj an intervening substantive, there is a tendency to make it agree with the latter. " A succession of excitements are sure to distract the mind from study." Wrong, because Siiccession is the subject, and not excitements, which is the object of the preposition of. The verb are must be made singular, — is. So, *' Your vessel, together with twelve others, has [not fiave] ar- rived." " This confusion of ideas in educated minds is [not are] to be deplored." 618. Be sure that the verb is in the right person and number, when its subject is a relative pronoun; re- membering that a relative takes the person and num- ber of its antecedent. " A belief in astrology was one of the most wide-spread delusions that has ever led men astray." The subject that agrees with its antecedent deltisions in the third person, plural ; the verb should therefore be plural, — have led. " I am the person that is [not am] responsible for the state- ment." Here person is the antecedent, not /; and the relative is in the third, singular. 619. The title of a book, being looked upon as one thing, takes a verb in the singular, even though its leading substantive is plural ; as, " Hewitt's ' Homes of the Poets ' is [not are] a delightful volume." 620. A verb between two nominatives agrees with the one that is the leading subject of discourse. This, except in questions asked with an in- terrogative pronoun, is almost always the one that precedes it ; as, " God- liiiess is great riches." If the nominatives are equally prominent as subjects of discourse, the verb may agree with the one that follows it, particularly if it is nearer than the other; as, "The wages of sin is death." Are, agreeing with wac/eSy would be equally good. ericnced the delight *' The crowd teas composed of men of every clatw." IJere the crowd a^ one whole, is evidently meant, and the verb must be in the singular. 622. A collective noun preceded by /Ai», that^ every^ eacfk, or no, gen- erally implies one whole, and takes a verb in the singular ; as, " Every mob has its leader." 623. Few, many, hundred, thousand, kc, almost always take a plural verb ; as, " A few have escaped altogether ; a great many of the survivors are seriously injured.'^ " A hundred [of] swords usere drami." 624. A collective noun in the plural takes a plural verb ; as, " Large crowds were harangued every day." FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 616. "If that is the only diflaculty," eays I to myself, " we shall soon succeed." [Corrected. — " If that is the only diflBculty," »ay I to myself, *■*• we shall soon succeed." Says must be changed to «ay, to agree with its subject /, in the first, singular.] Fifty head of cattle was sold yesterday. — The duke may talk as he choose, but he dare not refuse my petition. — Was you at the concert last evening? — If he have brought any news, he will soon let us know. — Each of the states are well represented. — He need to be reminded of his promise. — What means these loud com- plaints ? Was you not warned ? — By the term fossils is meant the petrified remains of animals and plants. — To comply with the rules promptly and cheerfully are required of all. Next, tliiuks I, he will insult the prince himself. — Suspend ezi. Olre the mle for a verb agrMing wiUi • ooll«ctive noan. Give examples 022. What worda befopD aoollcctivo noun ifcnerally dhow that it requirfit a vprh Id tbpftn(n>stantives connected by and denote the same individual, the verb agrees with them in the singular; as, ^*The draper and tailor on the comer i* about to remove." 826. Whnt In the rtilp relating: to two or more Blnsrtilar unhjectii or subntantive eIaa«o«t In tho itentence Jamea and John are A^rc, name the «in(ru)ar suhjectA. How ar« they taken t Parse art. In the sentenoe Jamea or John is here, name the ■inirular aubjectc How are they taken t Parse m. 0S6. When are subjects said to he taken tovfetherf What is said of one of the subjocta thus taken together! 827. What exception is mentioned, relating to the title of a book t 828. In what «h«r easo dots a rerb agree In the liogujar with two singular substantives ooo' 228 SUBJECTS TAKEN SEPARATELY. 629. Subjects are said to be taken separately, 1. When tbej are connected by or^ nor^ and also^ and too^ and not^ hut, if not, as well as, " Benton, and General Jackson also, was [sing.] a native of North Carolina." *' Wellington, but not Nelson, was born [sing.] in Ireland." — In these examples, the verb agrees with the former substantive and is un- deretood with the other. 2. "When they are severally preceded by each, every ^ no, or not. " Every tempest and every dew-drop lias [sing,] its mission to perform." 3. When the first is separated from the rest by the verb, which in that case agrees with the first and is understood with the rest. " His ^i'xi'pleases [sing.] me, his frankness, and hie- courtesy." 4. When the subject is repeated with and only or equivalent words, or a stronger term is substituted for the one first used. " Religion, and religion only, is [sing.] an anchor that we can trust." " Dislike, nay hatred, was written [sing.] on his countenance." 630. When subjects taken together are of different persons, the plural verb is to be parsed as in the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third. Observe, also, that modesty requires a speaker or writer to mention himself last. "She, thou, and I [that is, toe] are [first person] well." *' She and thou [that is, you] are [second person] well." 631. When subjects taken separately are of different persons, the verb should be repeated with each, if a different form is required. " Either you are in the wrong, or I aw." " She is very tired, and so am I." 632. When subjects connected by or or nor are in different numbers, the verb should be put in the plural, and the plural subject or subjects should stand nearest to it ; as, " Neither rank nor riches inake me think highly of a man." nected by and? 629. In ■what four cases are subjects said to be taken sepamtely f When the connection is made with and also, dec., with which substantive does the verb agree? 630. When subjects taken together are of different persona, how is the verb to be parsed ? How should / be placed ? 631. When should the verb be repeated with subjects taken separately ? 632. What rule is laid down reBpcctlng BUbjectB connected by or or nor, when they are in different numbers I AOBEEMENT OF THE VERB. 229 FXL6E SYNTAX. Undkb § 625. Neither olive oil nor alcohol are bo heavy as distilled water, bat milk and sea water is heavier. [Corrected.— 'S cither oWve oil nor alcohol is so heavy as dis- tilled water, bat milk and sea water are heavier. Are must be changed to i«, to agree in the singular with oil and alcohol taken separately. Is must be changed to are^ to agree in the plural with milk and xoater taken together.] What signifies rank and wealth, if we have not the health to enjoy them ? — Neither honor, justice, nor truth, permit you now to draw back. — Your friendly warning and my stern rebuke [was or weref] alike unlieeded. — To sympathize with the sorrowing and relieve the distressed [is or are f] required of every Chris- tian. — "Wonderfully [has or ?iavef] art and science progressed during the present century. — Lithography, or the art of obtain- ing impressions from stone, [is or aref\ a modern invention. — That ho would betray his trust or try to deceive [is or are ?] not probable. UxDER § 626. Serf artisan, noble, prince, was among Peter the Hermit's auditors. — What care we for the indiflferenoe, the in- gratitude, the scorn of the world, which has been the reward of the good in every age ? — The torrid and the frigid zone represents the extremes of heat and cold. — Reaumur's and Fahrenheit's scale is quite different. Under § 627, 628. " Paul and Virginia " are a delightful story. — Simms has just completed ''The Sword and the Distaff", which, I am told, are among the best of his productions. — Your friend and cousin, as yon always call him, have returned. — Our minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary, with all his suite, are at the National Hotel. Under § 629. Not only Albany, but New York also, were founded by the Dutch. — Peru, and not Mexico, were conquered by Pizarro. — Cuba, as well as Haiti, were discovered by Colum- bus. — Each village and each hamlet have their petty chief. — Not friendship, not success, not wealth, make a man truly happy. — In Mexico the cactus bloom in great profusion, the magnolia, and tlie oleander. — Energy, and nothing but energy, are capable of mcceeding in a new country. — Folly, even crime, too often meet with no rebake in fashionable society. 230 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. Under § 631, 632. l^^either my grandfather nor myself are able to put up with this any longer. — Either thou or thy brother hath informed me wrong. — Not only I, but thou also, art to blame. — Neither the tongs nor the poker was in its place. — Either Victoria and her cabinet or Louis Napoleon has made a great mistake. LESSON LXXXI. FINITE VERBS (CONTINUED). — FALSE SYNTAX. 633. Errors of various kinds, besides those already noticed, are common in the use of verbs. They consist chiefly in the substitution of one mood or tense for an- other, the use of corrupt forms, and a want of consist- ency when two or more verbs stand in the same con- struction. 634. Do not use the indicative for the subjunctive mood. 635. Use the present subjunctive, not indicative, in a command, pro- hibition, or warning, after a conjunction following an imperative or such phrases as it is necessary. " Have a care lest thou fall [not fallest].'" 636. Use the imperfect subjunctive, not indicative, to express a wish or supposition, when the opposite of what is wished or supposed is really the case ; as, *' Would Heaven he were [not teas'] here ! " 637. Use the present indicative to express what is always true, even though the leading verb is past ; as, " Many of the ancients believed that the soul is [not was] immortal." 638. Tlie perfect indicative must be used when past^ 633 In what do the remaining errors in tho use of verbs chiefl}' consist I 834, What caution is given relating to the subjunctive mood ! 636. In what must the present subjunctive, and not the present indicative, be used ? 636. What must be expressed with the Imperfect subjunctive, and not the imperfect Indicative? 637. What must the present Indicative be used to express ? 638. When must the perfect indicative be used? With what muBt it not be used? Illustrate theee CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS 231 time connected with the present is denoted, but must not stand with words denoting past time simply. '* They arc travelling for the last three months." Here past time ter- minating at the present is denoted, and the present tense must therefore be changed to the perfect: "They have been travelling for the last three Taoutlis." *'A great storm has set in yesterday," Uere past time not -^nnected with the present is denoted, and the perfect tense must be changed to the imperfect : " A great storm set in yesterday." 639. The imperfect potential is often used in wrong coimections. " Remember that you might fail in your attempt [say may fail\'^ ''I will not speak of it, even if I shoMld be asked [say if I am asked, or be asked]." " I would not speak of it, even if I sheUl be asked [say if /should be asked or were asked]." In like manner we say, " I icill go, if I can ; " but, " I icould go, if I eould." *' I may go, if you vill remain ; " but, " I might go, if you would remain." " I am making, have made, or will make, my arrangements to remain, that you may go." *' I made or had made my arrangements to remain, that you might go." C40. Be careful not to nse the imperfect indicative of an irregular verb for the perfect participle, or the perfect participle for the imperfect indicative. Do not say has went for has gone, having wrote for har-ing ipritien, 1 geen for I saw, &c. Numerous errors of this kind were presented for cor- rection under the in egular verbs. C41. Avoid corrupt forms. Among the most common of these are had have, for had, in the plu- perfect ; hadnU ought, for ought not ; had as lief, had rather, Ac, for would as lief, itonld rather, &e. ; Fm a mind, for / have a mind; am% for are not ; moughtiCt, for might not, &.C. 642. In combining two or more auxiliaries with a point*. 639. What ten«c 1« often ti«cd in wrong connoctlorB ? Give oiamriw of thU error. l» ran or could used tn a dependent clause, with tr<7/7 WithirLE8. 237 LESSON LXXXYI. PARTICIPLES. -FALSE SYNTAX RULE Xin.— Participles. 651. Participles are used independently, or relate to the substantives whoso meaning they qualify or limit. Examples. Used independently. — There \a no way of becoming a thor- ough scholar without patient study. — Judging from appearances, the west will soon be settled. — It is dangerous standing so near the edge of the precipice. — What is worth doiyig at all is worth doing well. Relating to substantives. — TJiey continued praying. — / intend starting immediately. — Cease [yott\ tormenting me. — Rewarded with the lucrative office of master of the mint, Newton enjoyed an honorable and well-de- served competence. 652. A participle often stands independently in a substantive clause used as the subject or object of a verb ; as, " His being here is no secret" 653. PosmoN. — ^A participle generally follows its substantive. But, if the substantive is the subject of a verb, it is sometimes better to place it after the par- ticipial clause. See the last example in § 651. It always sounds ill to introduce a participial clause between a pronoun and the verb that agrees with it ; as, "I, worn out with fatigue, seized a few moments for repose." Correct by placing the participial clause before the subetantive : " Worn out with fatigue, I seized a few moments for repose." 654. Wlien a participle is not used independently, see that it is joined to the word to which it really relates. " By neglecting to punish the vicious, vice is encouraged." Wrong, •61. Recite Rule XIII., relaflnjr to participlea. Give examplea of participles uaed Independently. Qlve examples of participles relating to substantives. 663. Where does a participle often stand Independently t 653. Dow does a partici- ple stand, as regards lu substaotlvat Where does It sound 111 to introdaee a par- ticipial olanae f How is such an arrangement to be corrMted t AM. >Vben a par^ 238 CONSTEUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. because neglecting is here joined to vice^ as if vice neglected to punish the vicious. Correct by introducing the substantive to which neglecting really relates : " By neglecting to punish the vicious, we encourage vice." 655. The participle of a transitive verb governs the objective. The preposition of, therefore, should not be introduced between such a participle and its object ; as, " bj erecting of statues," " for controlling of elec- tions ". Correct by omitting of 656. "When the, an or «, this, or that, is introduced before a participle, the latter becomes a noun and loses its participial construction. In such cases, the construction of a noun is assumed throughout. An adjective, but not an adverb, may be used as a modifier ; and of must be introduced if an object follows : as, " by this erecting of statues," " for the more effectual [not effectually'] controlling of elections ". — Observe, however, that the common kindred noun, when there is one, is often to be preferred ; as, " by this erection of statues," " for the more effectual control of elections ". FALSE SYNTAX. TJndeb § 653. He, feeling his deficiencies, returned to school. [Corrected. — Feeling his deficiencies, he returned to school. The participial clause must not separate the pronoun lie from the verb returned, which agrees with it.] On receipt of this news, he, thinking that he now had an op- portunity of advancing his fortunes, sailed for Europe. — You, after making all these sacrifices, will find that you have gained nothing. — Why should I attempt to comfort her? for she, fearing the worst, has closed her ears to all words of comfort. Under § 654. Resting on the brow of the hill, the spires of the far-distant city met our view. — Accompanied as they are with such incessant toil, who would care for the honors of office ? — Groaning and reeling under its load, we saw the stage-coach ticiplo is not used independently, to what must we see that U is joined ? 655. What case does the participle of a transitive verb govern? What follows with respect to the preposition ofl 666. When does a participle become a noun t In such cases, what construction is assumed ? What is meant by its assuming the conBtructioo of a noun I What is often to be preferred to thia participial noun f FALSE SYNTAX. 239 slowly ascending the hill. — While pondering which coarse 1 should pursue, my horse pricked up his ears and set out briskly on the right-hand road, dripping with sweat and covered with mud. Undkb § 655. There is no charity in giving of money to the iateniperate. — By helping of others, we often help ourselves. — A public library was founded for promoting of the general intelli- gence. — True happiness generally results from doing of one's duty. Under § 656. There is no charity in the giving money to the in- temperate. — True liappiness generally results from the doing one's duty.— This mere reading books can not educate a man truly. — The following an upright course is a requirement of policy as well as duty. — That neglecting the divine law which so often proved fatal to the ancient Israelites, will be found quite as fatal in our own case. LESSON LXXXYIL PABTIOIPLES (CONTINUED). -FALSE SYNTAX. RULE XrV. — Possessive before a Participle. 657. A substantive which, in stead of being modi- fied by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. Examples. — Who first conceived the idea of the mooti's being in- habited ? — I have no objection to hit becoming a merchant. — Did you hear of My teaching school at Huntsville ? — ^They were surprised at her reading so well. r>58. A participle thus modified by a substantive m the possessive case \A used independently. 669. A participle modified by a substantive in the possessive does not become a noun. This is shown by its sometimes taking an object and being modified by an adverb, — like the participle taking in this sen- tence. 667. B«eiU Bal« XIV., relatioff to a rabttantlre modlOin? a participle. Give •xanples, and in aneh tell what the poweaslve modifle*. 658. How in a pnrtlcipic modllUd bj a pOMMstva UMd f 6Ml Prov* that a parUolple modified by a aab- 240 POSSESSIVE BEFOEE A PAETICIPLE. 660. When a participle relates to a substantive, the substantive is the leading word. When a participle is modified by a possessive, the participle is the leading word. Use, therefore, the former of these constructions, if the substantive denotes the leading subject of dis- course ; the latter, if the participle denotes it. " Cicero, fearing an outbreak, bade Catiline leave the city." It was Cicero that bade Catiline leave ; hence we make the noun Cicero the sub- ject, and join the participle to it as a modifier. " Cicero, allowing Cati- line to leave the city, may appear strange to some." Wrong, because it is not Cicero that may appear strange, but his allowing Catiline to leave the city. We therefore change Cicero to the possessive, that it may mod- ify the participle, and make the whole participial clause the subject of the verb may appear : " Cicero's allowing Catiline to leave the city may ap- pear strange to some." 661. If the use of the participle is attended with awkwardness or obscurity, substitute for it a noun, an infinitive, a finite verb with that, or some other equiva- lent construction. " A man's utterly neglecting the laws of health must sooner or later bring on disease." Correct thus : " An utter neglect of the laws of health must sooner or later bring on disease." *' They refuse accepting the offered mercy." Say, '* They refuse to accept," or simply " They refuse the of- fered mercy." " I remember its being considered quite a voyage to ascend the Hudson to Albany." Improve thus : "I remember that it was consid- ered," &c. " The English language's containing so many synonymes is explained by our having drawn our words from so many different sources." Very awkward, and inadmissible; say, "The fact that the English lan- guage contains so many synonymes is explained by our having drawn our words from so many different sources." Btantlve in the possesBive does not become a noun. 660. When a participle relates to a subetantive, which is the leading word ? When a participle is modified by a Bubstantive, which is the leading word ? How are we to choose between these constructions? Illustrate this. 661. What must be done, if the use of the par- ticiple is attended with awkwardness or obscurity ? Give an example in which a noun should be substituted for the participle. Give one in which an infinitivo should be Bubstituted. Give one in which a finite verb with that should b© Bubsti- tuted. 0ON6TKUCT10N OF PABTICIl'LES. 241 FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 657. There is no hope of such a man keeping pace with the spirit of tlie age. ( Corrected. — There is no hope of such a man's keeping pace with the spirit of tlie age. Man must be changed to the posses- sive man's^ to modify the participle keying.] A sense of self-respect prevents us indulging in recrimination. — Have you ever heard of a pear being grafted on a mountain-ash ? — There is no probability of Stephen arriving to-day. — What do you think of him visiting Germany ? — Even the tops of mountains fur- nish us with evidence of the world haviug been overflowed by a deluge. Under § 660. Somd people think there is no advantage in children studying Greek. — Plutarch, commencing the study of Latin when nearly eighty years old, appears almost incredible. — I can not understand them refusing to receive you. — I place no con- fidence in a man's boasting of what he can do. Under § 661. We shall hereafter forbear endeavormg to con- ciliate them. — A nation's extending its territory too widely has sometimes proved fatal to its existence. — The having committed yourself to an error is no excuse for continuing in that error. — Arnold's betraying of the trust reposed in him was unpardonable. — This accidental discovering of gold in Australia led to the emigra- tion of thousands thither. Miscellaneous. — Active measures were taken for the more •peedily restoring of order. — It is not by the adding to what we have, but by the cutting off artificial wants, tliat we become truly rich. — Now is the time for retrenching of unnecessary expenses and diligently employing of every moment. — Such an emptying purses was perhaps never seen before. — I can not approve of any one's persisting in such deceit. — Among the most important du- ties of the Christian is setting of a good example to his fellow men. The doing justice to so complicated a case will require the con- sulting many authorities. — By teaching of others we learn many things ourselves. — Is there any prospect of a telegraph cable being laid across the Atlantic ? — There is some doubt of the Cru- sades having benefited Europe. — Who ever heard of a hyena being tamed? 11 242 THE ADVEEB. LESSON LXXXYIII. ADVERBS. -FALSE SYNTAX. RULE XY.— The Advefs. 662. An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the sentence. Examples. — ^Try hard. — Far out at sea, we saw a very singular sight — Are you quite in the dark ? Yes. — We shall certainly leave befwe he ar- rives. — By and by there was a great noise. — You may go further and fare worse ; consequently ^ you might as well remain. 663. Do not use how^ as how^ or how ihat^ for the conjunction that *j or how^ for lest or that not. " She said as hoio she would come." " Have a care how you listen to the tempter." Correct thus : " She said that she would come." " Have a care that you do not listen to the tempter." QQ4z. Do not use the adverb no for not No is used independently in answering questions ; or it may modify an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree. But it must not be joined to an adjective in the positive degree, or to a verb, expressed or understood. We say no wiser, no sooner ; but, " Handsome or not [that is, not handsome\ I admire her." " Will you promise or not [that is, not jyromise'l ? " In the last two examples, no would be wrong. 665. In expressing a negation, do not use two nega- tives in the same clause or member ; as, " I did not do nothing.''^ " It makes no difference to you nor me." Correct by omitting or changing one of the negatives : ^* I did not do anything^'' or " I did nothing." " It makes no difference to you or me." 662. Recite Rule XV., relating to adverbs. Give examples, and in each men- tion to what the adverb relatea. 663. What must not be used for the conjunction that ? 664. What must not be used for not 7 How may no be used ? What may it modify ? To what must It not be joined t Illustrate this. 666. In expressinfi OOKSTEUCnON AKD POSITION OF ADVEEBS. 243 666. Exctptiotu. — 1. A negatiTe may be repeated in the same cUuue or mcmlxjr ; as, *' Aot rank, not wealth, constitutea true liappineas." 2. Two correlative negatives maybe used; aa, ^'Jicil/ier rank nor wealth constitutes true happiness." 8. A negative, and a derivative formed with a negative prefix, may be nsed together, to express an affirmation ; as, *' .A or is it ituprojjer" — that is, it ia proper. 667. Two n^atives formerly strengthened the negation, and were used for tliis purpose by old writers. Thus in Beaumont and Fletcher we read, " By no means be not seen," While we have discarded such constructions generally, we still retain another negative with but in tlie common form of expression can not biU. " 1 can not but rejoice." 6(58. Tlie rules laid down for the comparative and tlie superlative degree in § 612, 613, under adjectives, apply also to adverbs. The former of the terms compared must be excluded from the latter when the comparative is used, but included when we use the sui>erlative. " The elephant is said to live longer tlian any other animal." *' The ele- phant is said to liv« the longest of all animals [not of any anitnal].** 669. Position. — Adverbs should stand near the words to which they relate. They generally precede adjectives, stand after the first auxiliary in compound tenses, and in other tenses follow the verb. Observe the position of the adverbs in the following ex- amples : — Examples. — Qttite pretty ; very pretty; «o pretty ; pretty enough. — ^He was easily saved. — He was saved easily enough. — He might easily have lx>cn saved. — He ought to be aerioudy reprimanded. — Always dare to act right. — Never betray a tnist. — Having never betrayed a tru.st, I can look my neighbors proudly in the face. — Doum came tlie rain. — The rain came dovn. When there is a choice of positions, select the one that best suita the ear. a nefcation, what xna»t not be used t 666. In what two caaM may two aegatlves be a«cd f With what kind of a derivative may a negative be aaod t 667. What was formprly the effect of two negativrat What oonstniction with adonble negative have we retained I 668. What prineiplM apply to the comparative and the super- lative degree of adverbe t 660. Qive the role for the poaitioo of adverbe, and IV I 244 POSITION OF ADVERBS. 670. Care must be taken to place only and not only next to the word or words they are intended to mod- ify. Otherwise they give a wrong impression of the meaning. If I say, " He only hires the store,*" only modifies hireft^ and the im* pression conveyed ia that another verb will follow : He only hire* the store, he does not own it If I say, " He hires only the store,** only modi- fies store^ and the meaning is, He hires the store, but nothing else — ^not the rest of the house. " He not only reads Latin but Greek." Wrong, because not only is 80 placed as to modify read»^ as if some other verb were to follow : He not only reads Latin, but also writes it But not only is intended to modi- fy Latin^ and must thei-efore be placed next to it: "He reads not only Latin but Greek." 671. So, the adverbs chief y, mostly, &c, must stand immediately be- fore or after an adjunct that they are intended to modify ; as, " The pro- ductions consist mostly [not mostly consist] of com and cotton." "It was by hunting and fishing chiefly that tlie Indians subsisted," — not, " It was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted." FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 668, 664. We thus see how afflictions are often sent for our good. — ^Do you think as how it will rain to-day ? — Kossuth heard how that the army had surrendered. — Take care how you associate with the wicked. — It is uncertain whether the planets are inhabited or no. — Ready or no, you must start at once. — ^All men grow old, whether they will or no. Undeb § 666. Don't you care for nobody ?— Nothing was never gained by dishonesty. — No other king of Israel was so wise nor powerful as Solomon. — Let no one at no time speak irrever- ently in your presence unrebuked. — In this connection no prin- ciples can be laid down, nor no rules given, that will cover every l)oint. — We can not in no way ascertain the exact size of the fixed stars. lastrate It with examples. When there Is a choice of ixwitions, by what must ww be guided ? 670. What oantion is ^iven in the case of only and not only 7 Prove by an example that a change In the position of only alters the meaning. Show how i%ot only may be plaoed Incorrectly. 67L How must the adverbs chiefly, moaily^ tec, stand f FALBE SYNTAX. 245 Uhdcr I 668. Railroadfl open up a country the most rapidly of any internal improvements. — Chess fascinates its votaries more, perhaps, than any game.--Of all other bubbles, the Mississippi Bcheiuo terminated the most disastrously. — Linnajus was the most enthusiastic and industrious of other naturalists. Under § 669. lie must have certainly been detained. — The) twice pi\ e, that quickly give. — Trust the wicked not. — Uaviup ncit studied Italian, you can not so well eiijoy the beauties of Petrarch as otherwise you might do. — Think of Balboa now, as the broad Pacific burst on his enraptured eyes gloriously. — If we ever so little transgress the laws of nature, ultimately we rue it. Under § 670, 671. We not only obtained LoId heart, trusting to Uim, who is ever a sure help in time of ncotl. 678. After certain verbs, 6v is used before a word donotinj? an agent or living ot^ect, with before a word denoting an instrument or inanimate 673. R««it« Role X VI., rplatinf to prepoaltlona. Glm emnple*, and point oat te Meh ihe ttrma of th» rvlaUoo denoted by tiM prBpoattloo. 011 How ar» bf 246 CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. object. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with illnstra* tions; attended 63/ a servant, attended it't^A evil consequences; illustrated by an artist, with engravings ; killed by an assassin, with a dagger. Folr iowed takes by only. 674. Between and betwixt must be used of two objects only ; among and atnongst^ of three or more ; as, " Between you and me, I will divide this farm among my three sons.** 675. Certain prepositions must follow certain wordsc Even tlie same word sometimes takes different prepo- sitions, according to the sense in which it is used. The pupil will find below a list of words with the proper preposition annexed, covering those cases in which there is the greatest tendency to error. Abhorrent to. Accommodate (adapt) one thing to another ; (supply) a person with. Accuse of^ not with. Acquaint with. Acquit of. Adapted to. Adequate to. Adhere, adherence, to. Angry vdth a person, at a thing. Antipathy t be tued after a negative denying equality at d» fTvi: 1 11* 250 FALSE SYNTAX. clauses as correlatives: as, though^ yet; hothy and; either y or / whether ^ or. There is no liability to error in the use of these correlatives, except in two cases. 1. Be careful to use nw, not w, as the correlative of neither. " Neither youth nor [not or] innocence availed as a protection." 2. Be careful to use «o, as — ^not as, as — after a negative denying equality of degree. " Few ancient cities were so [not as] magnificent as Babylon." FALSE SYNTAX. Under § 677. I doubt if the world ever saw such a fleet before. [Corrected. — I doubt whether the world ever saw such a fleet before. If must not be used for whether.] It is uncertain if a swan lives longer than a raven. — Can you tell me if the Danube is the longest river in Europe ? — I am fear- ful lest the storm may overtake them. — There is no doubt but that Germany has produced many great men. — You certainly can not doubt but he will keep his promise. Under § 678. Washington had nothing else at heart but his country's good. — Never act otherwise but honorably. — What other motive but the purest patriotism could have stimulated him to such sacrifices? — She would not have done it for any one else but him. Under § 679. There are many noble women, but none nobler than her. — Even Blair, than whom few rhetoricians stand higher, frequently makes grammatical mistakes. — I look on none with more contempt than they. Under § 680. Quicksilver is not so useful, but more valuable, than iron. — The moon is nearer, though not so bright, as the sun. — This honor should be conferred and confined to the best stu- dent. — The road is longer and inferior to what we supposed it would be. — Sin is generally accompanied and followed by re- proaches of conscience. Under § 681. Such idlers should neither be pitied or assisted. — Neither the wastes of Sahara or the parched plains of central Australia seem to have been designed for the habitation of man or beast. — Neither Europe or Africa is as large as Asia. — ^Nothing FAL8B SYNTAX 251 else pleasM a weak mind £8 much as flattcrjr.— Few lived as plaiuly as Mohammed. LESSON XCI. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN FALSE SYNTAX. ' 682. Further exercises in false syntax, promiscuously arranged, are now presented for correction. They may be divided into lessons of convenient length. You and me — the Almighty hath created both. — I wish I was herl Yes, but to bo her is impossible. — No one could have acted more gallantly than bim who bore the standard of the legion. — This ring is almost as dear to me as her who gave it. — And theo too, brave son of Abas — 1 saw thee fall. — The principal is not only due, but also five years interest. The first of April is called All fools Day. — Beds are stuffed with cat-tails', but not with cats' tails. — For common decency sake, be silent. — John Ray, his book. — Demosthenes orations are more nervous than iEschines. — I have read Cowper and Pope's Translation of Ilomer ; the one is in rhyme, the other in blank verse. — Here is the three judges' of the supremo court opinion. — The historian Josephus works are written in Greek. Victoria's and Albert's eldest daughter has married the prince of Prussia. — Bancroft's, the historian's, reputation is deservedly great. — The governor's of Texas life has been an eventful one. — These volumes are Mr. Day's clerk's wife's brother's. — Rumors of the death of the captain of the Star of the West, of Liverpool, were current in Wall Street. — He who is wise in his own conceit I never could tolerate. — Two court-martials were held. Send up fifty pound of butter, some pickled sheeps' tongues, and ten heads of fat cattle. — Let all good men rejoice at this, even he who has never rejoiced before. — I do not wish for any coffee this morning. — Distribute a few pence among those two poor dwarves. — Beware evil practices. — Montezuma was denied even this slight favor. — David and Jonathan loved one another. La Fayette was voted a township of land and two hundred thousand dollars by Congress. — Those men, who thought them* 252 MISCELLAlfEOUS EXERCISE selves more wiser than others, have fallen a victim to their owti passions. — "Were you paid the money ?— Oxford University is of eight centuries old. — Each pupil is expected to govern themselves. — The mob, having next broken into some jewellers stores, begui. to fill its pockets with precious stones. Whom do you suppose it was ? — Who do you suppose it to be? ^Where have you bought them pencils ? At Mr. Tilden's, the bookseller's. — Those who consider themselves a good critic are not so considered always by others. — I will lend you my tweezers, if you would be sure to return it. — The people of Finland is called Finns'. — Be sure not to tell nobody whom you are. He was able to have supported himself and family, and cer- tainly ought to. — Nothing hurts my feelings more nor as much as a friend's betraying of the trust I have reposed on him. — Every soldier exerted themselves to the utmost, as if on them alone de- pended the issue of the battle. — Full many a good man is over- looked in this world ; but in the world to come his good deeds will be remembered. — He said as how he would come. Saturn is surrounded with three bright rings, the inner one of which is nineteen thousand miles from the surface of the planet. — The jury could not agree, and so the judge allowed it to separate. — The board of directors looked gravely; in fact a frown begun to settle on its face. — Can nothing be done to induce this fop and coxcomb to abandon their folly ? — These here mos- quitoes are very troublesome. — It was this same Cortez who con- quered Mexico. Saint and sinner will rise together at the last day, to hear his doom pronounced. — The most beautiful people which are known are the Circassians. — It seems as if one or the other must lose their life in the conflict.— Otis, as well as Hancock, raised their voices against this new aggression. — Some German critics main- tain (which I can not believe) that no such man as Homer never lived.— Neither John or his wife seem to care much for the ex- ample they set their children. Elizabeth, and her father Henry also, had their favorites. — Not only Charlemagne, but Haroun al Raschid also, rose superior to the princes of their time. — Every man has certain rights from which they can not be deprived. — Francis did not remain long in IN FALSE SYNTAX. 253 the school his f:ither placed him. — No substance which yet has been discovered is as heavy as iridium. There are two species of butfalo : one inhabiting the northern parts of Europe, and which has become very scarce ; the other, a native of America, and which is more properly called the bison. — God watches over us as a father, who lie is even to the most unworthy of Ilis creatures. — Tlie conversation turned on the generals and battles who had decided the fate of em- pires. Hand me that tongs. — lie lets houses and collects rents, and by this means manages to live. — The very events which we most deplore sometimes turn out most fortunately. — One or the other of us are greatly mistaken in their opinion. — Both parties can not be right ; you or we must be mistaken in your views. — If either the king or queen knew the condition of their subjects, they would do their utmost to relieve them. A snake was never seen there, that I know of [as far as I know], — Who can be expected to remember the names of all the authors and books which the present century has produced? — They say, which I do not believe, that some people die of a broken heart. — The rattle-snake, one of the most poisonous of reptiles, and who grows from four to six feet in length, is only found in America, Every one should try to distinguish themselves in their pro- fession. — Measure out five bushel of this oats. — The old and new house were both burnt. — Holland, a country that has been rescued from the sea, and which possesses very little natural advantages, has been converted into one vast garden by the industry of its inhabitants. — We have some beautiful variegated pansies; here is a yellow and a blue one. I admit it is dry, the study of grammar. — ^Robert promises his father that he would take his advice and try hard to pay his debts. — Send home a couple of gallon of those same molasses we have been using. — Pope at one time studied painting, but Nature had made him a greater poet than an artist. An ant is a model of provident industry ; a grasshopper is a r.\n- of thoughtless indolence. — The self-devotion, no less than . of La Fayette, commands our admiration. — It is plain i. .iii liie movements of that poor child that it is grieving for his 254 MISCELLAJSEOUS EXERCISE brother.— Old stout gentlemen are generally good-humored. — When Talent and Industry contend for the prize, the ktter is the oftenest winner. The price of cotton is fallen. — She moves very graceful. — The whole family have lovelily carried out the principles of their re- ligion. — The room was not sufficiently het. — They had sawed the wood before I seen what they was doing. — Name each king of England in succession. [As succession implies more than one, it should be Name the Icings, &c.] Who can contemplate without a shudder the hereafter life of the wicked ? — ^It is thou that has ruined me. — The " Pleasures of Hope " were written by Campbell. — The moon was by this time risen. — A humble mind is ever ready for to acknowledge its faults. —Every person has their friends and enemies; the former he should seek to conciliate, the latter to confirm in their attachment. ■■ — Croesus had much possessions. He is entirely undeserving commendation. — Texas or Florida, if not both, were admitted into the Union in 1845. — The people is united in its determination to have the most universal freedom of suffrage. — You should have made them have shook those car- pets before this. — The indifference, nay the neglect, of the world, too often blight the aspirations of genius. — I wish that I was in Europe. The news of the Constellation's being wrecked and the greater part of her crew's being lost, were received this morning. — I have heard how that the human body contains about thirty pounds of blood. — " Crime and Mystery" have just been published. — Neither arguments or force was able to make any impression. — Do not desert your father or mother in their old age. The mind whence such sentiments could come, must be de- praved hopelessly. — Napoleon found Moscow in flames, which was totally unexpected. — Was you able to buy me a brass com- passes ? — Them shoes are not too large ; I have no fears but what they will answer. — In the torrid zone, a wet and dry season take the place of winter and summer. — Prudence and courage are both essential to the good general ; this in the councD, that on the field. Neither the horse or the mule have as great powers of en- durance as the camel. — The phenomena observed last evening IN FALSE SYNTAX. 255 was well worth seeing. — The youngest of my two brother-in-laws is ^he shrewdest. — He, tired of life, declared that nothing but trials and disappointments are met with in the world. — In aban- doning of the throne, Charles V. hoped to have regained the peace of mind which ho hud long been deprived of.— Have you waken your friend ? A rose by any other name would smell as sweetly. — California is now producing more gold than any country in the world. — London is further north than any other city in America.— If Xerxes had have succeeded in conquering Greece, what incalculable changes would have been made in the world's history ! — I have and •ver shall uisist on the necessity of strict economy on the part of government. — The rain disappointed us in our excursion; we could not go. Your garden looks much better since you wed it. — To what conclusion do you arrive? — Making the experiment, air was found to be impenetrable. — Where has the snuffers gone? — It must have been hard to have endured such sufferings. — He does not mean to deliberately affront us. — Why have you not kept the promise you have made when I was at your house ? A honorable man looks down upon the deceitful with su- premest contempt. — La Fayette is the best character of any in French history. — He is one of those unfortunates that is always discontented with his lot. — Has that suds been thrown out? — We have now a more promising, wider, and pleasanter field for opera- tions. — A few hours delay is not of much consequence. The crew is loud in its complaints. — The mule, if it is less handsome than the horse, is certainly the most enduring. — Which is the brightest of those two stars ? — The ladies of old times seem to implicitly have believed that they would preserve their beauty by washing in dew. — I, reflecting on the mutability of human things, came to the conclusion that all was vanity and vexation of spirit. lie has waxen all the threads. — Cairo is the largest of any city in Africa. — Anger is a scorpion that stings itself; take care that thou dost not find it so. — The earliest experiments with tlie air- pump showed that air was essential to life and combustion. — Of what nse are fierceness of geatare or loudness of tone to the orator f — Have a care how yon give way to the first advances of 256 FALSE SYNTAX. sin. — TK-d way how they give their china ware such a lively color- ing is a secret. The question is whether the people should elect judges or no.— The heathens are perished out of the land. — I told him that if he went to-morrow I shall go with him. — Dwarf pear-trees are some- times loaded down by fruit. — Where is Robert, Jane, and Frank? I have some cherries to divide between them. A machine has been invented for the more easily and econom- ically elevating of grain to such heights as may be required. — ■ Just think of me entering into one of the fashionable saloons of Saratoga in such a garb. — No Roman emperor was so cruel nor tyrannical as Nero. — The Swiss have defended their liberties the most resolutely of any other nation. The manufactures of Belgium chiefly consist of laces, silks, and carpets. — Can I not prevail over you to return with me ? — Your hat is altogether prettier and preferable to mine. — I have no other friend but thou. — Ben Jonson says that the poet Spenser died by want. — There were some disagreeable persons along, and so we was disappointed of our excursion. The weary sailors heard with delight the woods and groves to reecho the notes of countless songsters, and saw with rapture the trees to bend under a load of fruit. — You must have felt the needle have passed into the flesh. — ^A diphthong consists of two vowels' forming one sound. — It is singular how an uneducated tinker could have produced such a great work. Willing or no, we must all die.— An eclipse of the moon is caused by the earth getting between it and the sun. — No disease was more loathsome nor more dreaded by the people than lep- rosy. — Cotton, as a crop, is more valuable, but not so certain, as corn. — She will not sing for anybody else but he. — She had rather stay, if you will promise to stay with her. — They dared not to start. He no sooner entered into the house but he came rushing out again with these bad news. — Whom, when they had scourged him, they let him go. — Thou shouldst treasure up these counsels deep in your heart. — When money is to be made, be it never so little, every man strives their best to be first on the ground.«^Thej compose the easiest, that have learned to compose. RULES FOB THE USE OF CAPITALfl. 257 LESSON XCII. RULES FOR CAPITALS 683. Most words commence with small letters. Capitals must be used when recjiiired by the following rules, ajid only then ; — StTLIS rOR THX U8K OV CAPITAL LRTKR8. 684. Begin with a capital, I. Every sentence and every line of poetry. Examples.— Forget others* faults.— How bright the day I— What ia fame ? — Custom forms us alL *' Time is the warp of life ; oh ! teU The young, the fair, to weave it well." n. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor, and respect. ExAVPLES. — Ilcnry the Fowler, emperor of the Germans ; Robert Roc, Esquire; Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the Red River; the Strait of Gib- raltar; High Bridge; Union Square; the Superior Ck>urt of the City of New York ; July ; Monday. m. All adjectives formed from proper nouns. Examples. — African, Italian, "Welsh, Ciceronian; also adjectives de- noting a sect or religion — Methodist, Puritan, Catholic, Protestant IV. Common nouns, when personified in a direct and lively manner ; not when sex merely is attributed to an inanimate object. Examples. — Then War waves his ensanguined sword, and fair Peaa flees sighing to ew>me happier land. — But, The sun pursues his fiery course: the moon sheds her silvery beams. Y. All appellations of the Deity, and the pcrsc^iia pronouns T/icni and lie standing for Ilis name. 888. How do mrmt word* commence t 984. Recite Rule I. for the OM of capi- tals. In mioh example, tell which word begina with « capital aocordioK to the rule. Recite Rule II. What adjcettvca moat be«cln with capiulal When muat •omaion nouna begin with capitalat Recite Rule V. When must a quoted 258 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. Examples. — The Almighty ; the King of kings ; the Eternal Essence ; Jehovah ; the Supreme Being ; our Father. yi. The first word of a complete quoted sentence^ not introduced bj that^ if^ or any other conjunction. Examples. — Thomson says, "Success makes villains honest." But^ Thomson says that " success makes villains honest." YII. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the titles of books and headings of chapters. Examples. — Butler's "Treatise on the History of Ancient Philoso- phy"; Cousin's " Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good ". YIII. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, articles, or paragrajjhs. A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital. — Do not introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in doubt, use a small letter. IX. The pronoun Zand the interjection O. X. Words denoting great events, eras of history, noted written instruments, extraordinary physical phe- nomena, and the like. Examples. — The Creation ; the Confusion of Languages ; the Restora- tion; the Dark Ages; the Declaration of Independence; the Aurora Borealis. XI. Letters standing for words are generally written as capitals. Examples. — a. d., for anno Domini^ in the year of our Lord ; LL.D,» for legum doctor^ doctor of laws. EXERCISE. Correct the small letters and capitals improperly used. Under Rule I. — order is heaven's first Law. — All Truth ia sentence commence with a capital, and when not? Recite Rule VII., relating to the titles of books. Recite Rule VIII. What may commence with a capital under this rule? WTiat caution is given? Recite Rule IX. Recite Rule X., re- lating to words denoting great events, &c. Recite Rule XI., relating to lettei-s. What does a. d. stand for? What does LL.D. stand for? How are these abbre- viations written? KZERCISB ON CAPITALS. 259 Precious.— how Fortune plies her Sports I— is not hope a llatterer ? — gratitude is the heart's Memory. — pay as you go. be thou the first true merit to befriend ; his praise is Lost who stays till All commend. Unde3 Rule II. — The sarmatians inhabited what is now known as poland. — mayor grey and the Common council received gov- ernor haw kins and general smith at the city hall, and escorted them up Clinton avenue to The park. — The apennines run through Italy.— oecil, lord burleigh, was queen elizabeth's Premier for forty Years. Under Rule III., IV. — How often we hear of welsh flannel, Irish whiskey, scotch Ale, london porter, Swedish iron, dutch cheese, russian isinglass, and french Lace I — The Spanish minister and tlie representative of the ottoman porte have just visited the british frigate. — Here are Byron Collars for sale.— May health paint thy cheeks with her brightest colors 1 There pleasure decks her guilty Bowers, And dark oppression builds her Towers. Under Rule V., VL — Lift up your hearts to the supreme ruler of the Universe. — the jews are still looking for their messiah, their promised saviour. — Truly has the Poet said, " the hand of god has written legibly." — Attila called himself "The Scourge of god ". — 'Tissaid that " conscience is man's most faithful friend." — How much truth there is in this old proverb : " all is not Gold that glitters." Under Rule VIL, IX. — ^for the Student i think there are few Books more valuable than hallam's " introduction to the litera- ture of europe in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth cen- turies." — There is much Wit in a Volume that i have lately read, entitled "What i saw in California; or, a three months' tour among the placers." Shall i reason further with you, o ungrate- ful men ? Under Rule X., XI. — A truthful history of the days of chivalry, the crusades, and the feudal system, will find Readers enough. — Put your letter in the p. o. before two o'clock p. m., and you will receive an answer by 8 a. m. to-morrow. — S. Jones, m.d. Miscellanbocs. — the moors, having conquered northern africa, crossed the straits of gades, now gibraltar, into spain, in 710.— 2G0 EXEECISE ON CAPITALS. Bt. paul preached at philippi in Thrace, a. d. 51, the first christian Sermon delivered in europe. maker, preserver, my redeemer, god ! whom have i in the heavens but thee alone ? death's but a path that must be trod, if man would ever pass to god. Next with a Shudder i beheld consumption's sunken Cheek and wasted Form. — o pitiless Destroyer, spare thy Victim! — i have read in spenser that "love is a celestial Harmony of likely hearts." — fervently must we all exclaim : "may the Horrors of the french revolution never be repeated I '* LESSON XCIII. PUNCTUATION. 685. Punctnation is the art of dividing written lan- guage by points, in order tliat the meaning may be readily understood. 686. The Punctuation-points are as follows : — Period, . Semicolon, ; Interrogation-point, ? Comma, , EXCLAMATION-POINT, ! DaSH, Colon, : Parentheses, ( ) Brackets, [ ] 687. The Period. — A period must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence, and every abbreviated word ; as, " Yirtue is the only nobility." " Obey your parents." " We write Jas. for James^ ^. Y. for ISfew York, no. for number^ George /. for George FirstP 688. When we have two distinct but kindred propositions, if they are 685. Define Punctuation. 686. Mention the punctuation-pointfl. 687. Givn the rule for the use of the period. 688. When we have two distinct but kindred lyopoBitionB, what two modes of punctuating have wef When must we use the THE PERIOD. 261 short, we maj either 8e|Mrate them with the colon or semicolon, and thua form one compound sentence ; or we may use the period, and thus make two sentences. Alwajs follow the former course, if the propositions arc connected by the conjunction and^foty or hovoever ; for it is not elegant to commence a sentence with these conjunctions. " Adversity is llie touch-stone of principle. Without it, a man hardly knows whether he is honest or not.'* Here a semicolon may be substi* tuted for the period after principle. If the propositions are connected by the conjunction /or, a semicolon must be used : "Adversity is the touch- stone of principle ; for without it," &c. 689. A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of other points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbreviated. But, at the end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation, only one period must be used. Thus : "Go to the P. 0., I tell you, and ask for a letter for H. Rob, jr., M. D." 690. Some common abbreviations, with the meaning of which every one should be familiar, are now pre- sented. COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. Id., idem^ the same. I. e., id City that is. I. H. S., Jems hominum salvator^ Jesus Saviour of men. before A. B., Bachelor of Arts. A. C, ante Chrittum^ Christ. A.M., Master of Arts. A. M., ante meridiem^ morning B. C, before Christ. Co., County, Company. Cor. Sec, Corresponding Secre- tary. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. Do., ditto, the same. D. v., deo volente, God willing. E. E., errors excepted. £.sq.. Esquire, F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal Soci- ety. Hon., Honorable. Inst., instant, of this month. LL. D., Legum Doctor y Doctor of Laws. M. C, Member of Congreaa M. D., Doctor of Medicine. Mem., memorandum. Messrs., nuMieurSy gentlemen. M. P., Member of PoUce. Mr., Mister. Mrs., Mistress. MS., manuscript. N. B., nota bene^ mark welL P. M., Postmaster. Mtnieolonf Whyf Oiv« an azamplai 688. What direettona art ^fifwk uatlng, wben a period !■ UMd aAer an abbreviation t Wbat i« said of a ' mtheUatl WhyUth«r»iiop«rfodbetw««athetwor«inXX.i>.l 262 COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. P. M., post meridiem, evening. P. 0., Post Office. Pro tern., pro tempore, for the time. Prox., proximo, of next month. P. S., Postscript. Qy., Query. Rec. Sec, Recording Secretary. Rev., Reverend. R. R., Railroad. Sec, Secretary. St., Saint, street. Ult., ultimo, of last month. U. S. A., United States of Amerie^ U. S. A., United States Army. U. S. N., United States Navy. Viz., videlicet, namely. 691. The Intekrogation-point. — An interrogation- point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member, and clause ; also, after the interjections eh and hey, implying a question. " Has air weight ? " " Air has weight ; do you not believe it ? " " You thought it would rain, hey ? " 692. The Exclamation-point. — An exclamation-point must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, mem- ber, clause, and expression ; as, " How disgusting is vice ! " " Life is short ; how careful we should be to use it aright ! " " For shame ! " An exclamation-point must also be placed after every interjection except O, eh, and hey, unless very closely connected with other words ; as, " Ah ! who could have foreseen it ? " " Pshaw ! you are trifling." EXERCISE. Introduce the period, interrogation-point, exclamation-point, and capitals, where they are needed : — The good are better made by ill — We have received good, and shall we not receive evil — His last words (ah how well I remember them) were, "My son, beware of the first advances of sin " — What singular traditions the Laplanders have — They asked Galileo whether he would re^ nounce his doctrines (§ 473) — They asked Galileo, " will you re- Bounce your doctrines " — Aim at perfection afl9iction is a school 691. Where must an interrogation-point be placed ? 692. Where must an exclama- tion-point be placed 1 After what part of speech moBt aa ezclamation-poiut nli«o be used t ooLOK. 263 of virtue how silly are many of the forma of etiquette where was Homer bom many a man addresses another as mr or esq, according as he dresses ill or well — Wm A Stevens A M Prea^ The wind is N E LESSON XCIV. PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED) 693. The Colon. — Tlie colon indicates the next greatest degree of separation to that denoted by the period. 694. A colon must be placed between the great di- visions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by semicolons ; as, " Man has effected wonders ; he is every day advancing in knowledge and power : yet, surpassed by nature even in her humblest efforts, he can not so much as make a blade of grass." A colon must also be placed before a formal enu- meration of particulars, or a direct quotation, referred to by the words th\is^ following^ as follows^ this, these^ &c. "Tliere is much justice in this warning of Lava- ter : * Beware of him who hates the laugh of a child.' " A formal enumeration is one in which the words ^r«<, neeondly^ &c, or similar tenns, are introduced. These words are set off with the comma, the particulars are separated by the semicolon, and before the whole enu' mcraiion a colon must be placed. Thus : " There were four great empires in ancient times: first, the Assyrian; second, the Persian; third, Um Macedonian ; and fourth, the Roman." 695. The Semicolon. — ^The semicolon indicates the next greatest degree of separation to that denoted by the colon. aOQ. Wb»t degree of »pAratlon doe* the colon Indicate t 004. Give the rale relating to the nae of the eoloo between the great diviaiona of aeotenoee. Give the role relating to a formal enmneraUon of partiealara. What la meant bj % formal eoumeraUon t Md. What degree of M^paratioo doe* the eemUiokm iadieatea 264 THE SEMICOLON. 696. Mule I, — A semicolon must be placed between the members of compound sentences, unless the connec- tion is exceedingly close ; as " The wheel of fortune is ever turning ; who can say, * I shall be uppermost to- morrow ' ? " If the members are very short, and the connection is close, the comma may be used in stead of the semicolon ; as, " Man proposes, but God dis- 697. Hule II. — A semicolon must be placed be- tween the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by commas ; as, " Plato called beauty a privilege of nature ; Theocritus, a delightful prejudice." 698. Rule III. — A semicolon must be placed before an enumeration of particulars, w4ien the names of the objects merely are given, without any formal introduc- tory words ; as, " There are three cases ; the nomina- tive, the possessive, and the objective." 699. Rule IV. — A semicolon must be placed before as, when it introduces an example ; as at the close of the last paragraph. EXERCISE. Insert all the points thus far treated, where they are required : — Five great enemies to our peace are constantly harassing us avarice, ambition, envy, anger, and pride — Books are our best fiiends they are ever ready with cheerful words yet how many there are that never have recourse to their friendly sympathy — Seneca sums up the matter thus " I would rather never receive a kindness than never bestow one " — Labor not to be rich cease from thine own wisdom — A good book, in the language of the 696. Recite Rule I. for the use of the Bemicolon, relating to compound sentences. When may the comma be used in stead of the semicolon ? 697. Recite Rule II., relating to the great divisions of sentences. 698. Recite Rule III., relating to ao enxmieration of particulars. 699. Recite Rule IV., relating to examples. V THE OOUMA. 265 booksollers, is a salable one in that of the curiouR, a scarce one in that of men of sense, a useful one — There are tiiree sufe guides lo eternity first a sound head secondly an honest heart thirdly an humble spirit — The spirit of a niun will sustain his infirmity but a wounded spirit who can bear LESSON XCV. PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED). 700. The Comma. — ^The comma indicates the least degree of separation denoted by any point. 701. Bule I. — Adjuncts and clauses, not essential to the meaning of a sentence, or modifying the whole proposition, are set off with a comma on each side, when introduced between a subject and its verb, or other parts that are closely connected. At the commencement or end of a sentence, such adjuncts and clauses are set off with a comma after or before them, as the case may be. Examples. — The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with lightness, in a remarkable degree. — Blankets, which derived their name from Thomas Blanquet, were introduced into England in 1S40. — By the way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese. — No one can be an atheist, If he will only examine hia own structure. 702. Subjects introduced by as toell as, and not, Ac, fall under this rule ; as, *' Toledo, as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword-blades.'* 708. Single wordii relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative ex- pressions, are also set off with the comma. " Galileo, accordingly, was Imprisoned.** " Smile, Fortune, smile on our attempt** 704. No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or clausra and that which they restrict ; as, " All must pay the debt of nature.** ■* All that glittern^ is not gold." too. What dogroe of •eparatlon doe« the oomma Indlcat* I 701. R«oit4» RoIm I. fbr the OM of the oomma, relatint? to adjaneta and cIhomm. At the oommcnee. mcnt or end of a Motenoe, how are such adjaneta and cIausm punctaated t Give example*. 702. What anbJecU fall ander thia rule t 703. What alngle word* are "Uao Mt off with the oomma f 701 What ia the principle relatinR to reatriottre 19 266 RULES FOB THE U6E 705. I^ule II. — A noun in apposition, modified by an adjunct or adjective, is generally, with its modifiers, set off by the comma ; as, " Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, was defeated by Octavius." 706. Rule III, — A comma must be placed after the logical subject (§ 108) of a sentence, when it ends with a verb, or consists of several parts which are them- selves separated by the comma ; as, " All that glitters, is not gold." " Envy, anger, and pride, are our worst enemies." 707. Bule IVo — A comma must be placed between short members of compound sentences, connected by and^ hut, or, nor, for, because, whereas, and other conjunctions ; as, " Beauty dazzles, but amiability charms." A comma must also be placed before a conjunction connecting the parts of a compound predicate, unless they are very short and so closely con- nected that no point is admissible ; as, " The sun shines on all, even the wicked and ungratefuL" 708. Rule V. — A comma must be placed before or introducing an equivalent, or a clause defining the writer's meaning ; as, " Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany." 709. Rule VI. — A comma must be placed before and, or, and nor, preceding the last of a series of clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and in the same constniction ; as, " Sunshine, cloud, and storm, all are sent for some wise purpose." 710. Bule VII. — When, to avoid repetition, and. adiuncts and clauses? 705. Recite Rule II., relating to nouns in apposition. 70C. Recite Rule III., relating to the logical subject of a sentence. 707. Recite Rule IV., relating to short members of compound sentences. What is the rule -elating to a compound predicate ? 708. Recite Rule V,, relating to or. 709. Re- Oite Rule VI., relating to and, or, and nar. 710. Recite Rule VII., relating to tho OP THE COMMA. 267 OT^ nor, or a verb previously used, is omitted, a comma takes its place. ** Tin is found In England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca, and Banca." In stead of saying England and Bohemia and S&xony and Malacca, to avoid n>petition we omit and^ and a comma takes its place. " Mcthusaleh was the oldest man ; Samson, the stroi^est.'' Was is omitted after Samson^ %ud a comma takes its place. Til. liule VIII, — Words used in pairs take a com- ma alYer each pair. " Joy and sorrow, cloud and sun- fihiiie, are alike sent for our benefit." 712. Rule IX. — Words repeated for the sake of em- phasis must be set off with their adjuncts, if they have any, by the comma. " Truth, truth, and nothing but truth, will satisfy the candid inquirer." EXERCISE. Inurt the paints thus far treated: — Be temperate temperate I say that you may avoid disease — Fashion for the most part is nothing but the ostentation of riches — Where if I may ask are the modesty and self-restraint the industry and honesty of our ancestors — Born four years after the crucifixion of Christ Jose- j)hus lived to witness the destruction of Jerusalem — By the Per- sian the Turk and the Arab carpets are ranked among the necessaries of life They form with his cushions and divan all hia furniture his seat his bed his table He must have his prayer- ciirpot spread out on which to kneel at the appointed hour he must have his smoking-carpet on which to recline and dream away his time there must be a carpet for tent and harem bazaar and mosque As darkness begins bats issue from the fissures of walls and other hiding-places where they have sought shelter during the diy and by their active flight capture such insects as are then on the wing gnats musqnitoes moths beetles &c The service which they thus render is very considerable particularly in tropical regions where tliey swarm by myriads omiMioo of a oonjnnetion or verb. TIL R«c4e Rule VITI.,r6latlnf to word« iia*d U) pnlra. 71S. R«ciU Role IX., rcUting to word* repeated. 268 THE DASH. — PARENTHESES. LESSON XCVI. PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED). Y13. The Dash. — The dasli is used to denote, I. A break in the construction. " Glory — what is it?" II. A transition in the sentiment from grave to humorous. " London is noted for its magnificent buildings, its extensive shipping, and — its dexterous pickpockets." III. A sudden interruption. " You know mj feel- ings ; you know — " " Hold ! " interrupted my friend. lY. Hesitation. " Such a man is a — a — I know not what to call him." Y. An abrupt or exclamatory repetition. " Such was the testimony of Solomon — Solomon, who had all the pleasures of the world at his command." 714. A dash is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters, figures, or words ; as, "In the year 18 — , I stopped over night at the village of G— ." 715. A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater degree of separation than they generally denote. Y16. Parentheses. — Marks of parenthesis are used to enclose words which explain, modify, or add to the main proposition, when so introduced as to break the connection between dependent parts and interfere with the harmonious flow. "Tlie Saxons (for they de- scended from the ancient Sacse) retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors." TIT. Bkackets. — Brackets are used principally in 713. For what five purposes is the dash used ? 714. What else is the dash used to denote? 715. What is the efiect of the dash after other points? 716. For what are marks of parenthesis used ? 717. Where and for what are brackets prinoipallj Dsed? EXEBCI8E IN PUNCTUATION. IK/.) qnoted passages, to enclose words improperly omitted, or added by way of correction, observation, oi explana- tion. " She is weary with [of] life." EXERCISE. Punctuate the folloiting ientencee : — He who plays the tymn in his own family is a a a what term can I find strong enough t«. express my contempt — Archimedes the great Sicilian philosopher and what ancient philosopher ranks higher was ignorant of some things that are now known to every intelligent school-hoy — Phonography and under this head we includo every method of writing by signs that represent the sounds of language is a great imi)rovement on stenography — What are they all worth the triumphs and honors of the world — This was the state of tilings in Rome Rome the queen-city of the world — " They rise successive should the author not have said weeesnvely and succes- sive fall " The Romans were at war with the Persians and their supply of silk from this source being cut off they sought unsuccessfully to obtain it through other channels About this time two monks who had penetrated to China returned to Constantinople bring- ing with them the news that this wonderful aerievm for such was the Latin name of silk was the produce of a little worm which changed into a moth they had observed many of the processes by which it was prepared for use Tlie Roman emperor offered them greai: rewards to return and procure some of the eggs of this wonderful worm which they did at the hazard of their lives 652 A D and the few eggs which they brought concealed in a hol- low stick were the stock from which all the silk-worms since reared in Eorope have descended LESSON XCVII. APOBTROPnE.-HYrnEN.-QUOTATIOK. POINTS. 718. Besides the piinctiiation-points, the following marks are used in written and printed matter: the TU. Whal marks beddcs the panotuation-poiiiU are naed In writtea and 270 APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. QU0TATI0N-P0INT8- Apostrophe ( ' ), the Hyphen { - ), and Quotation-pointa (" ")• 719. The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. Examples. — ^7ls for it is ; e'en for even ; don't for do not ; tho' for though ; o'clock for on [the] clock. So, in the possessive : herd's^ Charles's^ men's, children's, heroes'. But remember that the personal pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case : ours, yours, hers, theirs. 720. The Hyphen. — ^The hyphen is used to connect the elements of a compound word, when each retains its own accent ; as, castle-builder, father-in-law, red- hot, law-abiding, inside-out. The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word. Tlie hyphen may also be used in stead of the diseresis, to denote that the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primi- tive ; as, pre-engagement, re-establish, 721. Quotation-points. — Quotation-points are used to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as employed in dialogue ; as, "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." T22. When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quotation-points are unnecessary. 723. Matter within quotation-points is to be punctuated just as if it Btood in any other position. 724. When quotation-points are needed at the end of a sentence, they come after whatever other point is required there, if this point applies to printed matter? 719. What does the apoatrophe denote? Give examples 720. For what is the hyphen nsed ? For what is it used at the end of a line ? For what purpose ia it used In stead of the diseresiB? 721. What are quotation-points used to enclose ? 722. When are quotation-points unnecessary ? 723. How is matter Within quotation-i)ointB to be punctuated t 724. How are quotation- points to tttaiid, EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION. 271 die quotation alone, but before this point, if it applies to the whole sen- tence and not exclusively to tlie quotation ; as, Pilate usked, ^* What is truth * " Where now is the " man of destiny " ♦ 725. A quotation within a passage that is itself quoted, is enclosed be- tween Single Quotation-points (* ') ; as, " I would remind you that Youna calls man an * insect infinite '." EXERCISE. PunetuaUj and insert the apostrophe^ the hyphen, and quota- tion-pointSj where they are required : — The following ever to be remembered couplet is from Popes Moral Essays Tis education forms the common mind Just as tlie twig is bent tiie trees inclined Now continued the cavalier lets seek this fair groves friendly shelter and mid its cool retreats enjoy that friendship which ac- cording to the poet is a heavn in epitome — Now there 11 be no delay een tho they meet a stitif souwester — Temptations says Feno- lon are files that rub off much of our self confidence — Very forcibly says the poet Uow poor how rich how abject how august How complicate how wonderful is man At twenty three he was a hare brained youth who d brook no counsel — I d rather wait than go thro such a rain — The aveng- ing power belongs to one alone LESSON XCYIII. FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 726. Observe the following sentence : — " ' Neath a tyrant's yoke the people languish.'^ This sentence in plain language and according to the ordinary mode jf expression would read thus : " The people languish beneath a tyrant's aower." Three things are to be noticed : 1. In the original sentence, tho relatively to other point* at the end of a aentenoe t 725. Wlien are tingle quota* tlonpuint* to b« lued t TM. Repeat the MnteooapreMiited at tbdeofminenoement of the leMon. What thr«t> thing! are to b« noticed in oonneotioa with it t What are such ohai^(oa 272 FIGURES. word ^neath is used for the ordinary form beneath. 2. The natural order of the words is changed. 3. The word yoke is used, not in its ordinary signification, a wooden fi-ame by which two oxen are connected for draw- ing, but in the sense of power tyrannically exerted. We see then tliat changes may be made in the form, construction, and application of worda. Such changes are called Figures. 727. A Figure is a mode of expression in wliich the ordinary form, construction, or application of words is changed. 728. Figures may be divided into three classes : — 1. Those in which the ordinary form of words is changed, called Figures of Etymology. 2. Those in which the ordinary construction of words is changed, called Figures of Syntax. 3. Those in which the ordinary application of words is changed, called Figures of Khetoric. 729. Figures of Etymology. — Tlie most important figures of etymology are as follows : A-phser'-e-sis, Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, and Tme'-sis. Aphseresis is the elision of a letter or letters from the beginning of a word ; as, ^twixt for hetwixt. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters to a word ; as, hedaub for dauh^ yhent for hent. Syncope is the elision of a letter or letters from the middle of a word ; as, giv^n for given. Apocope is the elision of a letter or letters at the end of a word ; as, ^' W midst, for in the midst. Paragoge is the annexing of a letter or letters to a ;«^ord ; as, steejpy for steejp. Tmesis is the separation of the elements of a com called? 727. What is a Figure ? 728. How may figures be divided? Define and name these three clasfies. 729. Mention the most important figures of etymology. Define AphaBresis. Define Prosihesis. Define Syncope. Define Apocope. D©* FIQURES. 273 pound by some intervening word or words ; as, whose sins soever for whoscaoever sins^ the live dmj long for the livelotig day, 730. Figures of Si-ntax. — Tlie most important figures of syntax are as follows : — El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o nasni, Syl-lep'-sis, and Ily-per'-ba-ton. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words, neces- sary to the complete construction of a sentence, but not essential to its meaning. Kumerous examples of this figure were presented in Lesson LXVUI. Pleonasm is the use of words not necessary to the con- struction ; as, " lie that cometh, let him come quickly," — for " Let him that cometh, come quickly."^Super- fluous words generally weaken the style. Pleonasm should be sparingly used, and only when it is naturally introduced under the influence of strong emotion. Syllepsis is the construing of words according to the meaning they convey, and not by the strict require- ments of grammatical rules. ** Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them^ In this example, city is in the third, singular ; and, according to § 665, thein should be it. By the city^ however, is meant the people in the city, and the pronoun referring to it may therefore, by syllepsis, be put in the plural. We have numerous examples of syllepsis in masculine and feminine pronouns used with reference to inanimate objects personified ; as, "Night spread her mantle o'er the earth." Ilyperbaton is a deviation from the natural ar- rangement of words ; as, Thee I revisit for / revisit ihee. fln« Purngoge. Define Tmesis. 73a Mention the moat important fl|rare« of syn* tax. Define Ellipsis. Define Plcontuim. What is generally the efltet of super- flnous wordst What In said ret>pecting the useof plm ' T* *'■ '^vliopsls. Give an example of this figure. In what have we nun -\ Hep- slat Define Ilyperbaton. Of what is hyperbaton a , lealurol What is lU eflbet, when Jadloioosly tued t To what is it liable to ImuI i 12* 274 FIGUKES. Thia figure is one of the distinguishing features of poetry. Judicionsly used, it imparts variety aud strength to composition ; but care must be taken that it does not lead to obscurity. EXERCISE. Point out tJie figures of etymology and the figures of syntax^ that occur in the following sentences : — Israel pitched their tents in the desert. — Redemption ! 'twas the favor of the skies. — Each in other's countenance read his own dismay — Far adown the vasty gulf plunged the archangel. — Such is their love to us ward. — 'Gainst him discharge thy shafts entipped with flame. — Sweet Evening — ^how she fans our cheek with her cool breath ! — Oft with th' enchantress of his soul he talks. " Fashion, leader of a chatt'ring train, Whom man for his own hurt permits to reign, Who shifts and changes all things but his shape, And would degrade her vot'ry to an ape, The fruitful parent of abuse and wrong, Holds a usurp'd dominion o'er his tongue ; There sits aud prompts him with his own disgrace, Prescribes the theme, the tone, and the grimace. And, when accomplished in her wayward school, Calls gentleman whom she has made a fooL" LESSON XCIX. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 731. The most important figures of rhetoric are as follows: — Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Ar-le-go-ry, Me-ton'- y-my, Sy-nec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Yi'-sion, Per-son-i- fi-ca'-tion, An-tith'-e-sis,- Cli'-max, I'-ro-ny, and A-poph'- a-sis. 732. Simile is the direct comparison of one object to another, and is generally denoted by liJce, as, or so, 73L Mention the most important fignree of rhetoric. 732. Define Simile. How la the compariBon Bometimea made ? For what purposea are aimileB usedJ FIGURES. 275 "Laws aro like cobwebs, which catch Biniill flic!*, but let wasps and hornets through." Sometimes the comparison is made without any formal term to denote it Thua : " Adversity brings to ligiit the merit in a man ; a gem is lus- treless till it is rubbed and polished." Here we have a good simile, though neither /lAe, aj«, nor »o appears. — Similes are used either to explain the meaning or embellish the style. 733. Metaphor is the implying of a resemblance be- tween two objects, not by any term denoting similitude, but by assigning to one the name, attribute, or action of the other ; as, " Flattery is a sort of bad money, to which our vanity gives currency." Metaphor is the commonest of all figures. It appears in various forms, eometimcs in a single word. We use metaphorical language, when we speak of a hard heart, a cold reception, bright hopes, fancies gambol- ling unbridled through the bi-ain, pleasures streuxd over the high wag of life, &c. 734. Allegory is a combination of kindred meta- phors, forming a kind of story, whereby it is sought to teach some important truth. Moet of the parables of Scripture are forms of this figure. Sometimes an allegory is so extended as to fill a volume ; as in the case of Bunyan's *' Pilgrim's Progress ". 735. Metonymy is calling one object by the name of another that sustains some relation to it. The prin- cipal relations on which this figure is founded, are as follows : — 1. Cause and effect; as, "Extravagance is the ruin of many,"— that is, the cause of ruin. 2. Ancestor and descendants ; as, " Then shall Judah triumph,** — that !a, the de$eendant9 of Judah. 8. Attribute and that to which it belongs; as, " Pride shall be brought low,** — that is, the proud. 73S. Drflne Metiiphor. A* regmrda frequency of u«e, how >lea f 762. In wordit of more than one ayllable, what eonatitutea lenirtht State the prtncipiea that apply to the quantity of monoayllablat. 758. What ia a Foot t 754. Mention the moat important feet that 280 PKOSODY. 755. Of these, the Iambus, the Trochee, the Ana- pest, and the Dactyl, are the principal. A line may be wholly composed of any of these four feet, and it is then called Pure. The four remaining feet never form whole lines by themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other feet. A line into which different feet enter is called Mixed. Observe the following examples : — 1. Pure Iambic. — ^'Tis ed- | uca- | tion forms | the com- | mon mind. 2. Pure Trochaic. — Oh ! the | pain, the | bliss of | dying ! 3. Pure Anapestic. — Sh6 will say | 'twas a bar- | barous deed. 4. Pure Dactylic. — Handle her j tenderly. 1. Mixed Iambic. — No ref- \ lige save | the wil- [ derness \ remains. 2. Mixed Trochaic. — Softly | sweet in j Lydian \ measures. 3. Mixed Anapestic. — Soft scenes \ of content- \ ment and ease. 4. Mixed Dactylic. — EvSr move \ cheerily. EXERCISE. Give the quantity of each syllable in the following lines ; in such lines as are divided^ name each foot : — ''Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, "With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun, "When first on this delightful land he spreads His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, Glistering with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on Of grateful evening mild." *' I have passed | o'er the hills | of the storm- J y North, And the larch | has hung | all his tas- | sels forth ; The fish- I er is out j on the sun- | ny sea, And the rein- | deer bounds | through the past- | ure jfree, And the pine | has a fringe | of soft- ] er green, And the moss | looks hright | where my step | has heen." occur in English verse, and the Bjilables of which each coneistB, 765. Of which of these feet may lines be wholly composed ! What are such lines called ? What ase is made of the other feet ? What is meant by a Mixed Line ? Give examples of pure and mixed lines. PB060DT. 281 LESSON CI. PROSODY (CONTINUED). 756. By Metres are meant the different Bystcms according to which verses, or lines, are formed. The^ are nained from the feet employed, and their number. 757. Metres in which the iambus prevails, are called Iambic ; those in which the trochee prevails. Trochaic ; the anapest, Anapestic ; tlie dactyl, Dactylic. 758. Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, the varieties of metre are as follows : Monom'eter, which consists of one foot ; Dim'eter, of two feet ; Trim'eter, of tliree; Tetram'eter, of four; Pentam'eter, of five; Ilexam'eter, of six ; Heptam'eter, of seven ; Octom'eter, of eight. 759. Some metres, besides a certain number of com- plete feet, contain a syllable over at the end of the line. Such metres are called Hy-per-cat-a-lec'-tic. 760. Scanning is the process of dividing a line into the feet of which it is composed. 761. Examples of the different metres follow. Some of the lines are pure, and some are mixed. The figures 1, 2, 3, &c., respectively denote monometer, dimeter, trimeter, &c. Vertical lines mark divisions into feet. To scan, pronounce the syllables that constitute the successive feet, after each foot mentioning its name. The fifth iambic line m the Exercise below would be scanned thus : IMtafs fame^ spondee ; a fan-^ iambus ; cied lifty iambus; in oth-, iambus; er^s breath, iambus. The metre w mixfd iambic pentameter. The third of the hypcrcatalectic lines would \w ■canned thus: Athene, trochee; hoicU my, trochee; heart and, trochee; 9oui, srllable over. The metre is pure trochaic trimeter hypercataleclic. 766. What are> nipant hy Metr»y their number of feet, and tell of what each condsta. 769. What la meaut h^ ilypt-rcaU- Urct^Molrcat 7«a What iaSoannUigt I 282 PROSODY. EXEKCISE. Scan the following lines^ and name the metre of each: — IAMBIC METRES. 1. Despair 1 2. Th6 wave | resounds. 3. The pant- | ing herds | repose. 4. The proud | are taught | to taste | of pain. 6. What's fame? | A fan- | cied life | in oth- | er's breath. 6. With still unwearied wing, and eye that never sleeps. 7. Thy bounteous hand with worldly bliss has made my cup run o'er. S. Wisdom, in sable garb arrayed, immersed in rapturous thought profoimdL TROCHAIC METRES. 1. Pillow. 2. Charms trans- | porting. 3. Other | arms may | press theS. 4. War, he \ sung, is | toil and | trouble. .5. Oh 1 the I strife of | this di- | vided 1 being. 6. Only thou art holy ; there is none beside thee. 7. Read you not the wrong you're doing, in my cheek's pale color? 8. If the world be worth thy winning, think, oh 1 think it worth enjoying ANAPESTIC METRES. 1, It is gone 1 2. Let the loud | trumpet sound. 3. My grottoes are shaded with trees. 4. Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvart DACTYLIC METRES. 1. Slenderly. 2. Fashioned so | slenderly. 3. Fierce as the breath of the hurricane. 4. Happy the home of the thrifty and temperate 1 5. Far o'er the burning sands, far over desert lands, wearily. e. Far o'er the burning sands, far over desert lands, plodding on wearily. EXAMPLES OP HYPERCATALECTIC METRES. 1. Dac. Mon. Hyp—BvCtr be 1 firm. 2. Ana. Dim. IIijp.— For thg tern- | pSst Is rag- | Ing. 3. Tro. Trim, //t/p.— Athens | holds my | hgart and | soul. 4. lam. Tetr. Hyp.—l ki fiw | the thing | that's most | uncom- | mon. 5. lam. Pent, //yp.— Where reek- 1 ing Lon- | don's smOk- 1 y cal- 1 drSn f^m- 1 mfira. INDEX [tm viqvub ketbb to rAon, hot to 8xono«a.l A, when to bo osod aa the indefinite ar- ticle, 74. Abbrevuitiotut, list of, 261. Accent, defined, 12. The acot«, 13. Dlf- fcreuce ot, servos to distingnish words, 12. or compound words, 18. Affjeciice Pronoun^ 70. Declension ot 71. Number of, 71. Parsing ot, 71. Ailjectiaet, defined, 75. Classes of; 75. Proper, defined, 75. Numeral, defined, 76; classes of^ 76. Pronominal, 76. Common, 77. Comparison of, 78. Rule for, 79 ; remarks under. 21S, 220. Pars- ing of, 79. Arranjtcmcnt oi^ 218. ArljuncU, defined, 150. Aclr«rb«, defined, 14L Classes oi; 141. Of manner, 141. How to bo distin- guished from adjectives, 143. To bo distinguished in u.se fh)m adjectives, 144. Conjunctive, 144. Complex, 145. Comparison ot 147. Constnictlon of, US. Used independently, 148. Rule for, 149; remarks under, 242. Parsing ot 143. Position ot 24a Allegory, 2T5. Alph'ibet, of a language, what it la, & The English, & Amphibrach^ the, 27». Amphimact, the, 279. A!f, when to be used as the Indefinite article, 78. AnapeM, the, 2T9. AnUctdent, th^ what it U, 91 PodUoB ot 64. BometioM* uadentood, 94. AntitheftU, 276. Aphixrtsia, 272. Apocope, 272. Apophaftie, 277. Apostrophe, the, 270. ApposUiotu, what is meant by it, 6ft Rule for subsUntives in, 195; remarks under, 195. ArticleA, defined, 72. Classification ot 78. The definite article, what it de- notes, 7a The indefinite article, what it denotes, 7a Rule for, 74; remartu under, 214 Parsing ot 74. Position ot 216. As (relative), to what applied, 6a AuriliitrieJt, what they are, 107. Enu- merated, 107. How te distinguished from principal verbs, 1 13. Saae of a itentenee. defined, 167. Bk, a principal verb and an anxiltary, loa Conjugated, 114 Old form ot >n the present indicative, 116k Bkwakb, tenses ot 18a BracJUU^ whAt oaed for, 968L Cait, oonjngated, 112. OapUaU, rules for, WL 284: INDEX. Cardinals, 76. Case, of nouns, 50. Defined, 51, Nomi- natiye, what it denotes, 51. Posses- Bive, what it denotes, 52. Objective, what it denotes, 52. Cases, how form- ed, 53. Clauses, defined, 166. Kinds of, 166. Substantive, defined, 166. Kelative, defined, 166. Participial, defined, 166. Adverbial, defined, 166. Causal, de- ' fined, 16T. Comparative, defined, 167. Hypothetical, defined, 167. Climax, 276. Collective Nmms, defined, 30. Gender of, 46. Colon, the, rules for, 263. Comma, the, rules for, 265. Comparative Degree, the, defined, 78. Adjectives wanting in, 81. Adjectives found only in, 82. Construction ot, 220. Comparison, 78. Degrees of, 78; for- mation of the, 78. Irregular, 80. Of compound adjectives, 82. Of adverbs, 147. Compomid Words, defined, 12. Accent of, 13. Formation o^ 18. Elements of, 88. Conjugation, what it is, 108. Of he, 114 Of a transitive verb, in the active voice, 117; in the passive voice, 120. Negative, 127. Interrogative, 128; when used, 129. Negative-interroga- tive, 128 ; when used, 129. Conjunctions, defined, 156. List of, 156. To be distinguished from other parts of speech, 157. Complex, 158. Kule for, 158; remarks under, 248. Parsing of, 158. Correlative, 250. Consonants, defined, 10. CoTTLD, conjugated, 112. Dactyl, the, 279. Dash, the, what it denotes, 268. Declension, of nouns, 53. Of simple per- sonal pronouns, 55. Of simple relatives, 63. Of compound relatives, 65. Of adjective pronouns, 7L Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns, 70. Derivative Words, defined, 12. Forma- tion of, 13, 18. Diaeresis, what it is, 28. Diphthongs, ^q^uqH,!!. Proper, It. Im^ proper, 11. Dissyllables, defined, 9. Distributive Adjective Pronouns, 70. Do, a principal verb and an auxiliary, lOfll Conjugated as an auxiliary, 109. Each Other, construction of, explained, 196. Elements, of compound words, 38. Ellipsis, what it is, 177. Examples ■■ .f, 177. Parsing exercise illustrative of, 179. Exclamation-point, the, rule for, 262. False Syntax, connected with the sub- ject and nominative independent, 186. Substantives modifying nouns, 189. The object, 193. Objective without a prep- osition, 194 Nouns in apposition, 197. Substantives after verbs, 200. Pronouns, 202, 205, 212. Eelatives, 209. Articles, 216. Adjectives, 219, 222. Agreement of verbs, 225, 229. Moods and tenses of verbs, 232. The infinitive, 285. Par- ticiples, 238, 241. Adverbs, 244. Prep- ositions, 247. Conjunctions, 250. Mis- cellaneous, 251. Feminine, formation of nouns in the, 47. Figures, plural of, how formed, 37. Figures, defined, 272. Of etymology, 272. Of syntax, 273. Of rhetoric, 274 Foot, a, what it is, 279. Future, of time, 110. Of determination, 110. O. Gender, of nouns, 44. Defined, 44. Mas- culine, defined, 45. Feminine, defined, 45. Nouns destitute of, 45. Common, 45. Of coUecUve nouns, 46. Distin- iin>Ex. 285 (nil!>ti«»aton,VIS^ Byp«rboUy 27& ByptreaiaUctic, metrM, 281. Hyphen^ the, for what useil, 270. When iiaeU between the parts of a compound word, 18. When it nuy b« used for the di»f«8i^28. /. when a consonant, lOi Jambu*, the, 279. 17, sotnetimes omitt«d before certain tenflea,llC. Imperattv Mood, what it ezpresiee, 98. Ind^fMtt Aditetk>« Pronouns^ TO. rndtoait90 Mood, tor what lued, 90. Present tease of the, what it denotes, Oa Imperibet, 91. Perfect, 91. Plu- perfect, 92. Fir mation-point, 100. Constmction o^ 160. Parsing oi; 161. hn U rrog aU on p oint, the, mle for, 209. lntsrroffaH94 Pronowu, defined, 68. Bow declined, 66. Parsing oi; 6a Irony, 277. Hrrtgular Vtrht, what they are, 181. Table nf the chief parU of th^ IBSl It. Indefinite ose of, 57. OaUct, for Vbat Med, 91 I.. LetUrt, defined, & Powers of the, tl ClaaslHcatlon of, 10. Fiual, defined, 11 Silent, defined, 11. Roman, 24. luUc, 84. Forms of the, 84 Plural ot, bow formed, 87. Mat, oonjogated, 112. Metaphor, 275. Metonymy, 276. Mminrxs, meskxxs, 180. ir« tential, for what used, 98. Subjunctive, for what used, 96. Imperative, what it expresses, 98. Infinitive, what it ex- MumplicaUve», 7& Must, conjugated, 118. KvKD, a principal verb and an aaxlliary, 118. Conjugated as an auxiliary, 112. News, singular, 4& NomifuMtt Oaf, what it denotes, 51. Bule for the, 68. Independent, 58, 186. NowM, defined, 2& Classification of, 2a Common, defined, 99; when they be- come proper, 89; Ibbdi visions of; 8Qi Proper, defined, 80; when called complex, 81 ; plural of, 86 ; how made feminine, 4a Collective, defined, 80i Participial, defined, 80. Diminutive, defined, 80. Abstract, defined, 80. Per- son oi; 81. Number of, 8a IrreguUr in the plural, 86. Alilce In both num- bers, 86. Compound, plural of, 88; gender of, 40. Complex proper, plural oi; 80. Foreign, plural oi; 40i Siagu' 286 INDEX. lar, 43. Plural, 48, Gender o^ 44. Correlative, 47. Case o^ 50. Declen- sion of, 53. Parsing o^ 60. Number, of nouns, 33. Defined, 83. Sin- gular, defined, 34. Plural, defined, 34; rules for forming the, 34. Of verbs, 100. O. O, diflference between it and o\ 160. Object, what it is, 52. Rule for the, 191 ; remarks under, 192. Position of the, 192. Objective Case, what it denotes. 52. Eule for the, 53. Without a preposition, 59, 193 : remarks on the, 193. One another, construction of explained, 196. Ordinals, 76. Ought, conjugated, ISi Paragoge, 272. Parentheses, what used for, 263. Parsing, of nouns and personal pronouns, 60. Of relati ves, 65. Of i n terrogati ves, 69. Of adjective pronouns, 71. Of ar- ticles, 74. Of adjectives, 79. Of verbs, 101. Of participles, 106. Of adverbs, 14S. Of prepositions, 155. Of conjunc- tions, 153. Of interjections, 161. Exer- cise in elliptical, 179. Of difficult con- structions, 181. Participles, defined, 102. The Present Participle, 102. The Perfect, 103. The Compound Perfect, 103. How to be distinguished from adjectives, 105; from participial nouns, 105. Used in- dependently, 105. Eule for, 105; re- marks under, 2-37? Substantives modi- fying, 106. Parsing of; 106. In ing, used with a passive meaning, 123. Po- sition of, 237. Remarks on the con- struction of, 240. Parts of Speech, what they are, 25. Enu- merated, 27. Period, the, rule for, 260. Person, of nouns, 31. Defined, 82. First, defined, 32. Second, defined, 82. Third, defined, 82. Use of the third for the first, 82 ; for the second, 88. Of verba, 99. Personal Pronouns, simple, 55; declen- sion o^ 55. Compound, 55. Personification, what it is, 29, 276. Makes common nouns proper, 29. En- dows the names of inanimate object* with gender, 45. Pleonasm, 273. Plural, of nouns, rules for forming the, 34 Of proper nouns, 35. Nouns irreg- ular in the, 36. Nouns that have two forms in the, 36. Of figures, &c., 87. Of compound nouns, 38. Of complex proper nouns, 89. Of foreign nouns, 40; rules for the, 41. Nouns that have no, 43. Nouns used only in the, 43. Of pronouns, used for singular, 56. Polysyllables, defined, 9. Positive Degree, defined, 78. Adjectives wanting in the, 81. Possessive Case, what it denotes, 52. How formed, 53. Of the simpls per- sonal pronouns, 56, Used after the preposition of, 56. Rule for the, 58. Eule for the, before a participle, 239; remarks under, 240. Potential Mood, for what used, 98. Pres- ent tense of the, what it denotes, 93. Imperfect, 94; wrong use of the, 231. Perfect, 94, Pluperfect, 95. Interroga- tive form of the, 95. Predicate, defined, 50. A compound, 169. Nominative, 170. Adjective, 170. Prefixes, defined, 14. List of, 15. Prepositions, defined, 150. List of, 151. To be distinguished from adverbs and conjunctions, 151. Complex, 152. Po- sition of, 15-3. Terms of the relation indicated by, 153. Eule for, 155; re- marks under, 245. Parsing of^ 15i\ List of, that follow certain words, 246. Primitive Words, defined, 12. Progressive Form, of the verb, 125. Used passively, 125. Parsing of verbs in the, 126. Pronouns, defined, 54 Classes of, 54 Gender of, 55. Personal, 55; parsing of, 60. Relative, 62. Interrogative, 6S. Adjective, 70. Principles relating to the person, number, and gender o^ 80ft INDEX. 287 Bofcrrlntc to eoUeetlT* Doana, SOI. Suituliiig for two or more BlngnUr sab- AUuuv«ft, 201, 904. Referring to anb- sunUves of different persons, 202. Be- oiArkB on the oonstnxcUon of, 211. Promtdy^ deflned, 27& ProcMMte. S7S. JPunaliuation^ defined, 260. Polnta used in,S60. Pur« FeriM, wh*t they arc, 28a ryrrMe, the, JTO. Quantity, of a Billable, 279. Quotation, a, dcflned, 178. How treated in analyzing, 174. Quotation-point*, for what used, 270. Single, 271. QcoTU, qcoD, 189. BeJative Pronouns, simple, 62; declen- sion of, 68 ; Componnd, 64 ; equivalent to antecedent and simple relative, 65 1 declension of, 65. Parsing of, 65. Rule for, 1G4,207; remarks under, 207, aia Position oC 209. Rhtjme, defined, 278. Root4, inseparable, 14 Entering Into compound words, 19. Boot of the verb, 180. Rult4, of spelling, 20. Of syllabicat'on, 22. For the formation of the ca8c^ 53. For eases of nouns aiki pronouns, 63. For eapitala, 267. 8. Scanning, what it is, 281. ' -', the, rules for, 261 defined, 16S. Classifled accord- .'Ir meaning, 16S. Declarativct dftlned, 16& Interrogative, defined, 108. Imperative, defined, 1C& Exclam- atorj, dcflneil, 168. Claasifled accord- ing to their form, 166. Members of; 166. Bimple and compound sentences, defined, 16& Compound, with dissimi- lar members, 170. Principal parts oi; 17a Analysis ei; m ; forms o^ m. SoALL, conjugated, 110. Force of; 110; in questions. 111. 8novu>, conjugated, 118. ^m^274. SpMch, the parts at, 9& Si>€lUng, what it Is, a Bules of, 20. Spondee, the, 279. Subject, grammatical, defined, 60. Logi- cal, defined, 80. Of a verb, 51. A com- pound, 168. Position of the, 1S6. 8ub- JactA, taken together, 227 ; taken sep- %anitely, 228. Subjunctive Mood, for what used, 9nJuno* tion that, 6a When to bo used in stead ottoho or leAtVA, 20a TYme, grand divisions of, S9. TttU, alone to be pluralized la oompiax proper nouns, 40. 7>ii«e<«, 272. THpAthongt, definw!, U. 288 INDEX. Trisyllables, defined, 9. Trochee, the, 279. U. U, when a consonant, 10. F- V Hook. V. Seven American Clasplra. VI. S« ven British C la.-^k>. Stlckney'8 Child's Book of Language. Teacher's Fdltlon of the same. Letters and Lessons In Language. ■ Letters and Lessons in Grammar. Studies In Language. Solly's Hand-Book of Psychology. Outlines of Psychology. Tappan's Klementary Geometry. Taylor's (Bayard) History of Germany. Tracy's Physiology. Trowbridge's New Physics. Thornton's Modem Stenographer. Walker's Health Lesaons. Warelet (The). Webster's Elementary Hpelllng-Book. Willunl's Synopsis of General History. Williamson's Integral and Differential Calculus Williams's Applied Geology. Wilson's Logic. Wood's Companion First Reader. Toumans's New Chemistry. Toumans's (KUsa A.) First Book of Botany. (New Edition.) - Desorlptlre Botany. D. AprLBTON A Co., Nbw Vokr. will send a DosciiptiTe CitAlogiie of Bnfrtish. Latin, Orc«k, French. German, Spanish. Italian, Hebrtw, tad Syriar Text-Books, to those applyint; for it. '!^