REVISED [ ATTM O T> T \ f T?"D JUAI UN i RIMcK UCSB LIBRARY 74. THE REVISED LATIN PRIMER BT BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D. FORMERLY FKLLOW OS ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK A.ND CANON Or ELY TWELFTH IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GKEEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTEK ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1906 All rights reserved By the same Author. THE SHORTER LATIN PRIMER. Fcp. 8vo. price ONE SHILLING. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Tnis little boofc is published in compliance with a wish expressed to me by a large number of Masters, including many teachers in Preparatory Schools, and in the lower forms of Public Schools. It is intended to be a simple manual for beginners in Latin, preparatory to the use of the Revised Latin Primer. In order to facilitate the passage of the learner from one book to the other, and also to make it possible for them to be used side by side if necessary, this Shorter Primer has been made, as far as it goes, in the main identical with the Revised Primer, and arranged on the same plan. It contains the memorial portion of the Accidence, with a few of the most important notes and explanations, and the more elementary parts of the Syntax of the Simple Sentence. A short outline of the Compound Sentence, which did not form part of my original plan, has been added in accordance with the desire of several experienced teachers, In this part it has been necessary, for the sake of brevity, to make the arrangement and wording somewhat different from that of the Revised Primer, In this book, as in the Revised Primer, I have endeavoured to simplify the marking of quantity by placing the mark of quantity, as a rule, only on the long vowels. It must therefore be noted that vowels not marked are generally to be taken as short, short quantity being only marked wnere it has seemed necessary to guard against mistake. EXERCISES ON THE SHORTER LATIN PRIMER. By M. G. and J. E. KENNEDY, and H. WILKINSON, M.A. Crown 8vo. 1*. 6d. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, and Bombay. PEEFACE THIS BOOK is a complete revision of the Public School Latin Primer. The report of the Public School Commission of 1862 having recommended the use of a common Latin Grammar in Public Schools, the Head Masters of the Schools included in that Commission resolved to adopt my Elementary Latin Grammar, which had for some years been widely used, as the basis of such a common Grammar, and the Public School Latin Primer, prepared in accordance with that resolution, was published with their sanction in the year 1866. During the period which has since elapsed, various improvements have from time to time occurred to me or been suggested by others. But, looking at the joint authority under which the Primer was issued, I did not feel myself free to introduce into it the alterations which under other circumstances I should have made. When,, however, I found that a revision of the Primer was generally desired, and when, after communication with the Conference of Head Masters, I found myself in a position to act in the matter of revision upon my own responsibility, I gladly entered upon the work of which the present Ee vised Primer is the result. My first step was to collect as widely as fv PREFACE possible from Masters of Public and Private Schools opinions with regard to the objections to the Primer as it stood, and the nature and extent of the changes which teachers of experience deemed to be desirable. With the kind and generous aid of my old pupils and friends Mr. Hallam, of Harrow, and Mr. Page, of Charterhouse, and by the courtesy of many teachers who have communicated with me either directly or through them, I have been enabled to obtain a number of valuable suggestions on these points. The aim which I have kept steadily in view in this revision of the Primer has been that the book should be suitable both for beginners and for all boys up to fhe Fifth Form in Public Schools. The greatest care has been taken to make the arrange- ment in respect of form as clear and plain as possible. For this purpose I have (1) brought into the text under the appropriate headings the matter which in the original Primer is contained in Appendix I. ; (2) omitted such tech- nical terms as seemed to be reasonably open to objection. The Declension of Substantives and Adjectives has been arranged upon the ' Stem ' principle, and the words are classed as far as possible in accordance with the latest results of the comparative study of Latin and the related languages, especially the ancient Italian dialects. The old order of the Declensions has, after careful consideration, been retained. In a text-book of this kind there is an obvious advantage in keeping, wherever it is possible, a popular and well-understood system, and I believe that the old order of Declension is, from a purely philological point of view, wholly unobjectionable. With regard to Verbs, I PREFACE v have adhered in the Paradigms to the arrangement of the four Conjugations, as I am satisfied that an alteration would involve such inconvenience to teacher and learner as would far outweigh any possible gain in scientific accuracy. To meet a general wish, I have prefixed to the Accidence a chapter on Letters and Laws of Sound. I desire it to be understood that this chapter is placed at the beginning of the book because that seemed to me to be the most natural and, for purposes of reference, the most convenient position for it and not from any intention that it should necessarily be learnt as a whole at the outset. I have purposely refrained from any attempt to give fixed rules for the pronunciation of Latin, because in tha present stage of the investigation of that subject, such rules could be only of a provisional kind. For the results which have so far been reached I would refer to the small pam- phlet lately issued by the Cambridge Philological Society. In order to simplify as far as possible the marking of quantity, I have marked the quantity as a rule only on the long vowels. In this book vowels which have no mark of quantity are generally to be taken as short, and the short quantity is marked only where it seems especially necessary to guard against mistake. The memorial lines on Gender are placed in an appendix instead of being, as in the original Primer, included in the text. Throughout the book except in a few cases in the chap- ter on Letters and Laws of Sound, where Word-formation, not Grammar or meaning, is being dealt with Latin words are immediately followed by their translation in English. vi PREFACE Some of these improvements of course involve additional printed matter, but the addition is rather in the apparent size of the book than in the actual matter to be learnt. In conclusion I offer my cordial thanks to many teachers,. Head Masters and Assistant Masters in Public Schools, and also Masters of Private Schools (among whom I must mention especially the Eev. E. D. Stone and Mr. C. S. Jerrarn) for the assistance which they have directly and indirectly rendered to me by communication and correspondence. Of the special co-operation which has been given through- out by Mr. Page and Mr. Hallam I have already spoken. For many reasons their constant help has been to me invaluable. During the progress of the work I have received criticisms on many points of philology and grammar from my friends Dr. Peile, Master of Christ's College, and Professor J. E. B. Mayor, which, last, but not least, I desire gratefully to acknowledge. B. IL KENNEDY. THE ELMS, CAMBRIDGE : May 1888. PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. IN bringing out the present edition the Editors have taken the opportunity to make some improvements in points of detail which have been suggested to them by various Teachers. They desire in particular to thank Mr. Frank Kitchie for several criticisms and suggestions. CONTENTS 1ECTIOS PAQ3 1. THE LATIN LANGUAGE . . . . . . . . .1 2. LETTERS AND LAWS OF SOUND . . . ... . . . 2 24. FLEXION 11 25. PABTS OF SPEECH 12 26. DECLENSION AND GENDER 13 32. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES . 16 67. DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS 34 70. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES ........ 37 76. COMPARISON ... ... ... 41 88. NUMERALS . . 45 91. PRONOUNS 48 102. TABLE OF CORRELATIVES . . 54 103. VERBS 56 115. VERB PARADIGMS 62 134. IRREGULAR VERBS .... ^ .... 85 142. DEFECTIVE VERBS 90 143. IMPERSONAL VERBS 92 147. FORMATION OF VERB STEMS 93 152. TABLE OF VERB PERFECTS AND SUPINES 98 163. ADVERBS 107 171. PREPOSITIONS 109 176. CONJUNCTIONS 110 180. INTERJECTIONS Ill . SYNTAX. 181. INTRODUCTION TO THE SIMPLE SENTENCE . . . . . 113 192. AGREEMENT 116 200. CASES 201. THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES . . . . . 119 203. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 119 214. THE DATIVE CASE 123 228. THE ABLATIVE CASE 127 247- THE GENITIVE CASE .133 viii CONTENTS SECTION PAGB 268. PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE 140 284. PREPOSITIONS 143 288. IMPERSONAL VERBS (CASE CONSTRUCTION) 146 296. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION 147 304. ADJECTIVES 149 315. PRONOUNS 151 336. TENSES 157 344. MOODS 159 364. THE VERB INFINITE 365. THE INFINITIVE 162 374. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 164 385. SUPINES 166 389. PARTICIPLES . 167 395. ADVERBS 168 399. CONJUNCTIONS 170 404. INTERJECTIONS 171 405. QUESTION AND ANSWEB 172 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 410. INTRODUCTION > 174 411. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 175 413. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES 176 421. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 180 450. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES 192 458. OBATIO OBLIQUA 194 470. NARRATIVE IN ORATIO OBLIQUA ...... 198 471. PROSODY 201 APPENDIX I. DERIVED AND COMPOUNDED WORDS . . . . 209 APPENDIX II. ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TIME . 214 APPENDIX III. FIGURES OF SPEECH 218 APPENDIX IV. -MEMORIAL LINES ON GENDER . . . .221 INDEX I. : SUBJECTS 227 INDEX II. : LATIN WORDS ...... . 233 LATIN PEIMEE. THE LATIN LANGUAGE. LATIN was the dialect of the Latini, or people of Latium in Italy. It was spoken by the ancient Eomans, and, as their poets and prose-writers all used this dialect, the language was called Latin, not Koman. Latin belongs to the family of languages known as Indo- European, or Aryan ; the other languages of this family are, in Asia, the Indian, which includes Sanskrit, and the Iranian ; in Europe, the Keltic, the Teutonic, the Greek, the Slavonic, and the Lettic. The imperial power of Kome made Latin the general speech of Western Europe, and from it are derived the modern Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Wallachian, hence called Komance languages. Note. In England, after its conquest by the Angles and Saxons, a branch of the Teutonic language, called Anglo-Saxon, or old English, was spoken. From about the tenth century, and especially after the Norman Conquest (1066 A.D.), this became mixed with Norman French, a Bomance dialect, an offshoot of Latin. Aiter the revival of learning in the sixteenth century, a large number of words were brought into English direct from Latin, and more have been added since, so that to understand the English language thoroughly it is necessary to have a knowledge of Latin. The influence of Greek civilisation on Latin was very great ; it was chiefly exerted at two distinct eras. The first of these began about 550 B.C., through the commerce of the Romans with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy. The second may be THE LATIN LANGUAGE dated from the third century B.C., when literary activity began at Rome. This influence was further developed through the con- quest of Greece by Eome, whicfi was completed 146 B.C. All Latin literature, except the satiric writings of Horace, Persius, and Juvenal, is formed on Greek models. The earliest specimens of Latin we possess are inscriptions, laws, annals, and fragments of songs. The credit of authorship is first ascribed to Livius Andro- nicus, who is said to have exhibited plays at Rome 240 B.C. The works of the poets who followed soon after this date have mostly perished, except the comedies of Plautus and Terence, about 200 to 140 B.C., and a prose fragment of the elder Cato. The ages regarded as classical may be said to begin about 80 B.C., lasting about 200 years. The so-called Golden Age ended with the death of Augustus, A.D. 14, when the Silver Age began, ending about 120 A.D. The authors most studied are in prose, Cicero, Caesar, Livy, Tacitus ; in poetry, Lucretius, Vergil, Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal. LETTERS AND LAWS OF SOUND. 2 The Latin Alphabet. The Latin Alphabet contains twenty- three letters, with the following signs : ABCDEFGHI(J)KLMNOPQRSTU(V)XYZ abode fghi(j)klmnopqr stu(v)xyz Note. In early times C was written to represent the sounds of both C and G, which were probably not clearly distinguished in speaking. Afterwards G was made out of C, and K becoming superfluous went out of use. Y and Z were added in Cicero's time, being borrowed direct from the Greek alphabet, but they are only found in words taken from the Greek. The letters are divided into : 1. Vowels or Sonants (sounding by themselves) ; 2. Consonants (sounding with a vowel). LAWS OF SOUND VOWELS. 3 The pure vowels are a, e, o ; i and u are classed as vowels and also as semi-consonants, because they have both vowel and consonant sound. The most open sound is a ; the closest sharp sound is i ; and the closest flat sound is u ; e is intermediate between a and i, and o is intermediate between a and u. a e o i u y is always a vowel, as in lyra, and was sounded as French ?A 4 Quantity of Vowels. Each of the five vowels can be either short or long : short when pronounced quickly, like English a in man', long when the voice dwells on the sound, as in far. A short vowel is distinguished by the sign ~, a long one by the sign - : amo. Thus the five vowels stand for ten different sounds : a, a, e, e, I, i, o, o, u, u. There were no doubt many finer shades of sound for each vowel, which cannot be exactly ascertained, but the following five words may give an approximate idea of their pronunciation. quinine, demesne, papa, prSpose, Zulu. Note. A. vowel before two consonants is said to be long ' by position.' A vowel before another vowel, or before h followed by a vowel, is nearly always short. 5 Diphthongs. A Diphthong (double sound) is formed by two vowels meeting in one syllable. The diphthongs commonly found in Latin are ae, oe, au ; more rarely eu : Caesar, moenia, laus, heu. In the oldest Latin there were six diphthongs : ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou. Of these, ai passes in classical Latin into ae, v 2 LAWS OF SOUND mensae for mensai ; au remains unchanged ; ei is found in old inscriptions, but in the literary language its place is taken by e or by I, as in dico, except in the exclamation ei ; eu is found in ceu, heu, neu, seu, and in many words of Greek origin ; oi passes into oe, and sometimes into later u : poena, punio; ou becomes u, as in duco. The diphthongs are always long. CONSONANTS. 6 I. MUTES (closed sounds), formed by complete closure of the mouth passage ; the sound being the explosion heard when the stoppage is removed. They are : (i.) Gutturals (throat sounds) (ii.) Dentals (teeth sounds) (iii.) Labials (lip sounds) II. SPIRANTS (open sounds), formed by the friction of the breath in the mouth passage when partially closed : (i.) The Palatal Spirant, j (sounded as y). (ii.) The Dental Spirant or Sibilant, s. (iii.) The Labio-Dental Spirant, f. (iv.) The Labial Spirant, v (sounded as w" (v.) The Spirant, h. IH. SEMI-CONSONANTS : (i.) Consonant i (written j), consonant u (written v). (ii.) Nasals, n, m. (iii.) Liquids, 1, r. z is really a double letter, standing for cs, gs. y, z and the three Greek aspirates, ch, ph, th, are only found in Greek words, as zona, chlamys, phalanx, theatrum. Note. The spirants j and v, though distinct in the parent language, cannot be separated in Latin from consonant i and u. LAWS OF SOUND 5 7 Pronunciation of Consonants. The guttural mutes, c, g, are sounded before all vowels, as in English, can, go ; never as in cease, gem ; k is only found in a few words, and is sounded as in English : kalendae. The dental mutes, t, d, are sounded nearly as in English, but t must never be pronounced as sh ; natio is not like English nation (nashun). The labial mutes, p, b, as in English. s always hard, as in English sing, but in the oldest Latin, s between two vowels was soft as in rise. This soft s or z after- wards became r, as in arbores for arboses. Consonant i and u have the sound of y, w, in ye, we. h is a strong breathing at the beginning of a word, but between two vowels very faintly sounded. 1 as in English ; r more strongly trilled than English r. n and m as in English ; the guttural nasal ng, though written n, was sounded like ng in sing or w in sink : inquam was sounded ing-quam. Table of Consonants. ' Mutes. Spirants. Semi-Consonants. Hard (tenues). Soft (mediae). Hard (tenues). Soft (mediae). Nasal. Liquid. Guttural c, (k), qu g h ng Palatal j(y) Lingual r,l Dental t d S n Labio- dental f Labial P b v (w) | m LAWS OF SOUND 8 Syllables. A syllable consists of one or more letters which can be sounded with a single accent or tone of the voice : !-lex. When a consonant comes between two vowels, it belongs to the same syllable as the vowel which follows it : pa-ter. When two or more consonants come between two vowels, they belong to the vowel which follows them if they are letters which can come together at the beginning of a word : pa-tres, a-stra. In an-nus one n belongs to each syllable, because double n cannot begin a word. So men-sa, vic-trix. A syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable. A syllable ending in a consonant is a closed syllable. A syllable is long or short according as its vowel is long or short, either by nature or position. Note. The last syllable of a word is called ultimate ; the last but one penultimate ; the last but two ante -penultimate. 9 Accent. The accent or tone falls on some one syllable in every word. The accented syllable was pronounced with greater force and also in a higher key than the other syllables. In Latin the rule is to throw the accent back ; therefore in words of two or more syllables, the last syllable is never accented. In words of more than two syllables the accent always falls on the last but one (penultimate), if it is long. If the penultimate is short, the accent falls on the last but two (ante-penultimate). The accents are not usually printed in Latin. 10 VOWEL CHANGE. I. Change in Accented Syllables. 1 . Original e may become i: simul (cf . semel) , venia (cf . vindex) . 2. e becomes before 1 : soluo (se-luo) ; or in connexion with u : nouos (for neuos), douco (later duco). 8. i becomes e before r : sero (for siso). 4. o sometimes becomes n : hue (for ho-ce). LA WS OF SOUND 11 II. Change in Unaccented Syllables. (A) In final syllables : 1. o becomes u: corpus (stem corpos-). 2. i becomes e : mare (stem mari-), or is lost altogether : animal (for animale, stem animali-). (B) In medial syllables the vowel is commonly affected by the next consonant : 1. e appears before r : cineres (cinis), caperis (capio). 2. u appears before 1 or a labial : as in cultus (colo). epistula (earlier epistola). But when i or e precedes, the vowel remains o : as filiolus, alveolus. 3. i appears before any other single consonant : as in meritus, monitus (moneo). (For exception see 13.) 12 (C) In Compounds : Here the principle is the same, and generally the rules are the same as in (B), but the examples are much more numerous. a to e in closed syllables and before r : consecro from sacer ; descendo from scando ; tradere from dare, a to i in most open syllables and before ng : difficilis from facilis ; attingo from tango, a to u or i before labials : occupo and accipio from capio ; and before 1 : insulto, insilio, from salto, salio. e to i often in open syllables, but never before r : diligo from lego ; but fero, aufero. ae to I : collide from laedo. an to u or 6 : include from claudo ; explodo from plaudo. o and u are generally unchanged in compounds. Note. There is a vowel variation often seen in Latin flexion which is not due to change in the Latin language itself, but came down to it from the Indo-European language. Thus the same noun can have two or more Stems, as homo ; older stem homon-, later weak stem, homtn- ; agmen-, agmin- ; pater, patr- ; genus- (orig. genos), gener-. In these words the vowel of the strong stem is preserved in the Nom. Sing., while the weak stem appears in the other cases. 8 LAWS OF SOUND "13 Vowel Assimilation and Dissimilation. The vowels of two following syllables tend to become alike in sound : vegeo, vegetus (vigeo), pupugi (for pepugi), nihil (for ne-hil), mihi, tibi. On the other hand, two vowels coming together are sometimes dissimilated : ii becomes ie in pietas, societas, abietis. 14 Vowel Contraction. When two similar vowels are separated by consonant i or u, or byh, they commonly throw out the letter between them, and unite in a long vowel : res is contracted from re-i-es, nemo from ne-h-emo, nil from ni-h-il, audisse from au- divisse. Two dissimilar vowels sometimes unite in the same manner : amare from ama-i-ere ; amo from ama-i-o ; amasti from ama-v-isti. Two vowels placed next each other often contract : dego from de-ago ; nullus from ne-ullus ; promo from pro-emo. 15 Syncope. Dropping of an unaccented vowel between two consonants : dextra for dextera ; valde for valide. It often takes place in compounds : calfacio for calefacio. The vowel of the reduplicating syllable sometimes drops ; reppuli for repepuli. Note. Sometimes when any one of the letters 1, r, m, or n follows a consonant, a vowel not found in the stem springs up before it be- cause of the semi-vocalic character of the sound ; ager, stem agro- ; populus, original stem poplo- ; asinus (asno-) ; voJumus (contrast vul-tis). 16 Apocope. Dropping of a final vowel : e is dropped in hie for hi-ce ; quin for qui-ne ; die for dice ; i falls off in ut for uti, quot, tot (totidem). 17 Changes of Quantity. A vowel generally shortens before another vowel : thus rei became r8i. A long vowel often becomes short through effect of the accent on the preceding or following syllable : juro becomes perjuro, afterwards weakening to pejgro ; lucerna from luceo. In flexional endings, a vowel originally final is sometimes shortened. But when a final consonant is lost (as final d in the ablative), the length of the vowel seems to be preserved : Gnaeo (earlier Gnaivod). Vowel lengthening is often due to Compensation. When two consonants follow an accented vowel the first of the two is often dropped, and the vowel lengthened, so that the syllable keeps its length : hoc for hod-ce ; nidus for nisdus (English nest}. LAWS OF SOUND CONSONANT CHANGE. 18 Consonants at the beginning of a word. Two mute consonants at the beginning of a word were avoided. Thus we find locus for original stlocus, tilia for ptilia. Sometimes a spirant preceding a mute is dropped : caveo for scaveo, but generally it is retained : scando, sterno, spero. A mute followed by a liquid is generally unchanged : as cresco, tres, plaudo ; but g before n is lost in notus for gnotus (cf. ignotus), and in nodus, knot. Two spirants remain : flos, frons ; but sn> becomes m, as in minis, memor ; sn becomes n in nix (snow), r drus (Old English snoru), daughter-in-law ; sv sometimes remains : suadeo ; sometimes v is lost : salum (swell), sibi (cf. su-us). 19 Consonants in the middle of a word. In the middle of a word if two consonants come next each other which cannot be easily sounded together, either one drops out, qualus for quas-lus, basket, or one is assimilated to the other, as in sella for sedla, a seat. A mute often drops out before a nasal or liquid, with lengthening of the preceding vowel, as in examen for exagmen. Other cases in which a letter is dropped are quintus for older quinctus ; ascribe for ad-scribo ; asporto for abs-porto; bimestris from stem bi-menstri- ; judex from jus-die-. 20 Consonant Assimilation is ot two kinds : (a) Complete Assimilation, when the first letter becomes the same as the following one : Assimilation of mute to semi-vowel : alloquor for ad-loquor ; arrogo for ad-rogo; summus for supmus (supremus). Mute to spirant : assentio for ad-sentio, offero for ob-fero. Mute to mute : suggero for sub-gero ; accido for ad-cado ; succumbo for sub-cumbo. Spirant to spirant : differo for dis-feio. (b) Partial assimilation, when the first letter changes to one which combines more easily with the following one. A soft mute becomes hard before another hard sound : rexi (rec-si), rectum from rego ; scripsi, scriptum, from scribo. m becomes n (ng) before a guttural and n before a dental ; LAWS OF SOUND congruo (sounded cong-gruo), conduce, consto. n becomes m before a labial : impotens, imbibo. A bard mute becomes soft between vowels or between a vowel and a semi- vowel : triginta for tricenta ; publicus, stem poplico-. Note, tt and dt change to ss : hence the supines in -sum and past participles in -sus are formed : defend-to- becomes defensso-, defensum ; claudto-, clausso-, clausum, pat-to- becomes passo-, passus. Occasionally a following consonant is assimilated to the pre- ceding one : collum for colsum ; ferre for ferse. DissL nilation is seen in caeruleus from caelum, meridies for medidies ; and in Adjectives in -aris and -alis, familiaris, naturalis. s (when soft) between two vowels always changes to r : flores, honores, from flos, honos ; quaeso becomes quaero. 21 Metathesis. Interchange of position between a vowel and semi-vowel in the same syllable. This is chiefly seen in the case of r : ter, tres ; sperno, sprevi ; tero, trivi. Note. When the vowel becomes the last letter of the stem by this change of position, it is always lengthened. 22 Consonants at the end of a word. A Latin word never ends in a double consonant : mell-, farr-, become mel, far. A dental drops off after a guttural : lac, from stem lact-. The only exceptions are a labial mute or nasal followed by s : urbs, stirps, dens, hiems (usually written hiemps). c or g followed by s becomes x : dux, rex. d falls off hi cor, stem cord-, and in the ablative singular extra(d), intra(d). n regularly falls off in the nominative of the n-stems : leo. Note. Both m and n were very lightly sounded at the end of a word, and a syllable ending in m is sometimes elided before a vowel : ' animum advertere.' This elision takes place regularly in poetry. Final d and t were also lightly sounded and are sometimes interchanged : haud, haut. 23 Dropping of Syllables. When two syllables beginning with the same letter come together in the middle of a word, the first one is sometimes dropped. Thus veneni-ficium becomes veneficium, consuetitudo consuetudo. FLEXION FLEXION. 24 FLEXION is a change made in the form of a word to show differences of meaning and use. The Stem is the simplest form of a word in any language before it undergoes changes of Flexion. The Character is the final letter of the Stem. The Root is the primitive element which the word has in common with kindred words in the same or in other languages. Every word has a Stem and a Boot. They may be the same, but more often the Stem is formed from the Eoot. Thus in agitare, agita- is the Stem and a the Stem- Character, but ag- is the Root, as shown by other words, agere, agmen, agilis. Note 1. A language which expresses changes of meaning chiefly by Flexion, and makes little use of help-words, is called synthetic. Latin is a synthetic language. A language which has little Flexion and uses many help-words is called analytic. English as now spoken is an analytic language. In analytic languages the place of the flexional endings is often supplied by prepositions used with nouns : Caesaris, of Caesar ; by auxiliaries used with verbs : agitur, it is being done. Analytic languages also use the article : rex, a king, or the king ; and they use pronouns with verbs : ago, I do. Note 2. Flexion sometimes takes place by letter-change in the Boot-syllable, ag-i-mus, egi-mus, or by an addition before it, which is called a Prefix, as ce-cm-i from cano. Most frequently, however, it consists in an addition made after the Stem, which is called a Suffix. In agitare, -re is a Suffix, and is also the ending ; in agitaremus, a second Suffix, -mus, is added and becomes the ending. 12 PARTS OF SPEECH PAKTS OP SPEECH. 25 Words are divided into : I. NOUNS : which are of three kinds : Substantivesfnam.es of persons, places, or things: Caesar, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; sol, sun ; virtus, virtue. Adjectives, which express the qualities of Substantives : Roma antiqua, ancient Rome ; sol Claras, the bright sun. Pronouns, which stand for a Substantive or Adjective : ego, J; ille, that, lie; meus, my, mine. II. VEKBS : which express an action or state : Sol dat lucem, the sun gives light ; Eoma manet, Rome remains. III. PAKTICLES : which are of four kinds : Adverbs, which qualify and limit Verbs, Adjectives, and sometimes other Adverbs : Eoma diu floruit ; nunc minus potens est. Rome flourished long ; now it is less powerful. Prepositions, which denote the relation of a Noun to other words in the sentence : Per Eomam erro, I wander through Rome. Conjunctions, which connect words, phrases, and sentences : Caelum suspicio ut lunam et sidera videam. J look up to tlie sky that I may see tlie moon and stars. Interjections : words of exclamation : hen, eneu, alas t In this book the word Noun is often used for Noun Substantive. DECLENSION 13 The Parts of Speech are therefore eight : (1) Substantives (5) Adverbs (2) Adjectives (6) Prepositions (3) Pronouns (7) Conjunctions (4) Verbs (8) Interjections Which have Flexion. Which are without Flexion except the comparison of Adverbs. 26 The flexion of Nouns is called Declension ; that of Verbs, Conjugation. There is no Article in Latin. Lux may stand for a light, the light, or simply light. 27 Substantives are (a) Concrete : vir, man ; mensa, table, (b) Abstract : virtus, virtue. Proper names are names of per- sons or places : Caesar, Eoma. A Collective Substantive includes many persons or things of the same kind : turba, crowd. Numerals are words which express Number. They are Adjectives, as unus, one ; duo, two ; or Adverbs, as semel, once ; bis, twice. DECLENSION. 28 Declension is the change of form which Nouns undergo to show changes of Number and Case. 29 The NUMBERS are two : Singular for one person or thing : mensa, a table ; gens, a nation. Plural for more than one : mensae, tables ; gentes, nations. 30 Case is the form which a Noun takes to show its relation to other words in the sentence. The CASES are six : Nominative, the Subject Case, answering the question Who ? or What ? Vocative, the Case of one addressed. Accusative, the Object Case, answering the question Whom? or What ? Genitive, answering the question Of whom ? or Of what ? Dative, answering the question To whom? or To what? Ablative, answering the question From whom? or From what ? 14 DECLENSION Examples of the cases : Nominative. Sol lucet, the sun shines. Vocative. Sol or o sol, o sun. Accusative. Solem lucere video, I see the sun shine. Genitive. Solis lux, the sun's light, or tlie light of the sun. Dative. Soli lux additur, light is added to the sun. Ablative. Sole lux editur, light issues from the sun. Note 1. The dative is also rendered for in English : Senatus urbi consulit, the Senate consults for the city. Note 2. The ablative is rendered by many English prepositions besides from: in, by, with. To express the person by whom an action is done, the ablative is used with the preposition a, ab : Bemus a Bomulo interfectus est, Remus was slain by Romulus. To express the instrument with which an action is done, the ablative is used alone : Eemus gladid interfectus est, Remus was slain with (or by) a sword. Note 3. In ancient Latin there were two more cases, the Instrumental answering the question With what ? and the Locative answering the question Where? The use of the Instrumental passed entirely to the ablative. But the Locative is often found in classical literature : huml, on the ground ; Bomae, at Rome ; Athenls, at Athens. EULES OF GENDEB. 31 The Genders are three : 1, Masculine; 2, Feminine; 8, Neuter (neutrum, neither of the two). Gender is shown by the form of a word and by its meaning. (A) Form : (a) Masculine are most Substantives in -us of tho Second and Fourth Declensions, and those in -er of the Second Declension. (b) Feminine are nearly all Substantives in -a of the First Declension and in -es of the Fifth Declension. DECLENSION 15 (c) Neuter are Substantives in -urn of the Second Declension, in -u of the Fourth Declension, and indeclinable nouns, including the infinitive verb-noun. For the third declension no general rule can be given. (B) Meaning : (a) Masculine are all names of men, gods, months, and winds ; also of most rivers and mountains : Romulus, Mars, October, Boreas, north wind, Tiberis, Olympus. Exceptions : Some mountains and a few rivers ending in -a or -e are feminine : Allia, Lethe, Aetna, Bhodope, Alpes (plur.) ; neuter, Pelion, Soracte. (6) Feminine are all names of women, goddesses, islands ; and of most countries, cities, and trees : Cornelia, Juno, Lesbos, Asia, Eoma, pmus, pine. Exceptions : Countries ending in -um, neuter ; Latium ; Pontus, masculine. Cities with plur. form in -i are masc. : Corioli, Delphi ; those in -um, -on, -a (plur.) are neuter : Tarentum, Ilion, Arbela. Note 1. In the early ages people imagined natural objects as living beings, and made them masculine or feminine, according to their notions of their qualities : ventus, wind, fluvius, river, mons, mountain, masculine ; regio, country, urbs, city, arbor, tree, feminine ; and words belonging to these classes took the same genders. Note 2. Many o- Stems masc. (called Mobilia) have a corre- sponding form in -a feminine : f Ilius, son. deus, god. arbiter i . fllia, daughter. dea, goddess. arbitra I " Other corresponding forms are used : rex, king, reglna, queen ; victor, victrix, conqueror; nepos, grandson, neptis, granddaughter ; socer, socrus, father-, mother-in-law. Note 3. Nouns which include both masculine and feminine are said to be of common gender : sacerdos, priest or priestess, vates, seer, parens, parent, dux, leader, comes, companion, civis, citizen, custos, guardian, jiidex, judge, heres, heir, ales, bird, canis, dog, serpens, serpent, tlgris, tiger. Many names of animals, though used of both sexes, have (in grammar) only one gender ; they are called Epicene : aquila, eagle, fern.; lepus, Tiare.masc.; passer, sparrow, masc. (For Memorial Lines on Gender, see Appendix IV.) 16 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. Substantives are grouped in Declensions according to the Character or final letter of the Stem as follows : (1) FIEST DECLENSION : A- Stems. (2) SECOND DECLENSION : 0- Stems. (8) THIED DECLENSION : Consonant Stems and I- Stems. (4) FOURTH DECLENSION : U- Stems. (5) FIFTH DECLENSION : E- Stems. TABLE OP CASE-ENDINGS. Decl. Stemi Char. 1 I. a- n. 6- II " consonant I. IV. U- V. e- 1- SINGULAR / ( m -) m.(f.)n. m. f. n. /. m. n. w. (/.) n. / Nom. a iis um various I s 1 iis u es r Voc. i im Ace. am um em HI um em em Gen. ae I is Is us ex Dat. ae 6 i i iii(u) el Abl. a 1 lorS u 6 PLUBAL Nom. ae i a es a es la us ua es Voc. Ace. as OS es 18 us - es es Gen. arum orum um ium uum eruxn Dat. is is ft>iis Ibiis Ibus ebiis Abl. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 17 33 The Character of the Stem is most clearly seen before the ending -um or -rum of the Genitive Plural. The Nominative, masculine and feminine, takes s, except in a- Stems, some Stems in ro- of the Second Declension, and Stems in s, 1, r, n, of the Third. The Vocative (which is not a true case) is like the Nominative, except in the singular of Nouns in -us of the Second Declension. Neuters have the Accusative like the Nominative in both singular and plural ; the plural always ends in a. 34 FIRST DECLENSION. A- Steins. The Nominative Singular is the same as the Stem. Stem mensa- table, f. SINO. PLTJR. Nom. mensa, a table. mensae, tables. Voc. mensa, o table. mensae, o tables. Ace. mensam, a table. mensas, tables. Gen. mensae, of a table. mensarum, of tables. Dat. mensae, to a table. mensis, to tables. Abl. mensa, from a table. mensis, from tables. Decline like mensa : aquila, eagle ; lima, moon ; reglna, queen ; stella, star. Stems in a are mostly feminine. A few are masculine, as scrlba, a notary ; Hadria, the Adriatic sea. Note 1. An old form of the gen. sing, -al for -ae is sometimes used by poets, as aulai. Also an old genitive of familia remains in compounds : pater- (mater-) familias, father (mother) of a family. Note 2. The locative sing, ends in -ae ; the plur. in -Is ; Romae, at Rome; mllitiae, at the war; Athems, at Athens. Note 3 The gen. plur. is sometimes formed in -um instead of -arum, by compounds with -cola, -gena : agricola, a farmer ; and in some words borrowed from Greek : amphora, drachma. Note 4. Dea and rilia have dat. and abl. plural -abus, in order to distinguish them from the dat. and abl. plural of deus and filius. C Ib DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 35 SECOND DECLENSION. 0- Stems. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s ; in neuter nouns, m ; the Character 6 being weakened to u. In the greater number of nouns whose Stem ends in ero, or in 10 preceded by a mute, the o is dropped, and the Nom. ends in -er. Stem anno- pue"rS- magistro- bello- year , m. boy, m. master, m. war, n. SING. Nom. annus, a year puer magister bellum Foe. anne, o year puer magister bellum Ace. annum, a year puermn magistrum bellum Gen. anni, of a year puerl magistri belli Dat. anno, to a year puerd magistro bello Abl. anno, from a year puero magistro bello PLUR. Nom. anni, years pueri magistri bella Voc. anni, o years pueri magistri belli Ace. annos, years pueros magistr5s bella Gen. annorum, of years puerorum magistrorum bellorum Dat. annis, to years pueris magistrls bellis Abl. annis, from years pueris magistris bellis Decline like annus : amicus, friend ; dominus, lord ; servus, slave. Decline like puer: gener, son-in-law; socer, fatJier-in-law; liberi (plur.), children ; lucifer, light-bringer ; armiger, armour-bearer. Decline like magister : ager, field ; cancer, crab ; liber, book. Decline like bellum : regnum, "kingdom ; verbum, word. Nouns in us, er, are masculine ; in um neuter. The following in us are feminine besides words feminine by meaning: &lv\is, paunch ; colus, distaff : humus, ground ; vannus, winnowing-fan also several from the Greek : arctus, the bear constellation ; carbasus, linen ; plur. carbasa, n., sails. Neuter in us (and used in the sing, only) are pelagus, sea ; virus, venom. Note. Vulgus, crowd, is generally neuter, rarely masculine DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 19 The following have some exceptional forms : Stem Mi6- vlro- de6- son, m. man, m. god, m. SING. Nom. films vir deus Voc. fill vir dfius Ace. filium virum deum Gen. filii or fill virl del D. Abl. filio viro deo PLUB. N.V. filii virl di (dei) Ace. filios viros deos Gen. filiorum virorum or virum deorum or deum D. Abl. filiis viris dis (deis) Note 1. Like films are declined genius, guardian spirit, and many proper names in -lus : Claudius, Vergilius ; like vir, its compounds, decemvir, triumvir, &c. The contracted gen. sing, in -i, as fill, ingenl, is used by writers of the best age, especially poets. Note 2. The locative singular ends in I ; the plural in Is : humi, on tlie ground ; belli, at tlie war ; Mileti, at Miletus ; Philippis, at Philippi. Note 3. The genitive plural in -urn is often found ; especially in words denoting coins, sums, weights, and measures : nummus, coin; talentum, talent. Some nouns have genitive plural in -um or -orum : socius, ally ; faber, smith ; llberi, children. Also superi, tfie gods, from adj. superus (304). THIRD DECLENSION. Consonant and I- Stems. The Third Declension contains A. Consonant Stems. MUTES (1) Gutturals, c, g. (2) Dentals, t, d. (3) Labials, p, b. SPIKANT, s. NASALS, n, m. LIQUIDS, l, r. B. I- Stems. 20 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES- Syllabus of Consonant Substantives, shcnving Stem-ending with Nominative and Genitive Singular. Stem-ending Nominative Sing. Genitive Sing. English Stems in Gutturals with x in Norn, for cs or gs. ac- fax, f. facis torch ac- pax, f. pacis peace ec- nex, f. necis death ec- ic- apex, m. apicis peak ec- vervex, m. vervecis wether Ic- fornix, m. formcis arch Ic- judex, c. judicis judge le- radix, f. radicis root Se* vox, f. vocis voice uc- dux, c. ducis leader uc- lux, f. lucis light eg- grex, m; gregis flock eg- rex, m. regis king eg- ig- remex, m. remigis rower ig- strix, f. strigis screech-owl ug- conjunx, c. conjugia ivife or husband fig- wanting frugis, f. fruit IV- nix, f. nivis snow Stems in Dentals drop t, d, before s in the Norn. at- anas, f. anatis duck at- aetas, f. aetatis age gt- seges, f. segetis corn-crop gt- paries, m. parietis room-wall et- quies, f. quietis rest 6t- It- milgs, c. militis soldier Ik caput, n. capitis head ot- nfipos, m. nepotis grandson ut- virtus, f. virtutis virtue ct- lac, n. lactis milk ad- vas, m. vadis surety ed- pes, m. pedis foot ed- merces, f. mercedis hire aed- praes, m. praedis bondsman 6d- id- obse's, c. obsldis hostage id- lapis, m- lapldis stone 6d- custos, c. custodis guardian ud- pecus, f. pecudis beast ud- incus, f. incudis anvil aud- la us, f. laudis praise rd- c6r, n. cordis heart DECLENSIOA 7 OF SUBSTANTIVES 21 Stems in Labials form Nom. regularly with s. ap- wanting dapis, f. banquet ep- ip- princeps, c. priiicipis chief ip- wanting stipis, f. dole (a small coin) op- wanting opis, f. help ep- up- auceps, m. aucupis fowler Stems in the Spirant s, which, except in vas, becomes r. as- vas, n. vasis vessel aes- aer- aes, n. aeris copper, bronze es- er- Ceres, f. Cfireris Ceres is- er- cinis, m. cineris cinder 6s- or- honos, m. honoris honour 6s- 6r- tempus, n. temporis time us- er- opus, n. operis loork us- ur- crus, n. cruris leg Stems in Liquids. al- sal, in. sails salt ell- mel, n. mellis honey n- mugil, m. mugilis mullet 51- sol, m. solis sun iil- consul, m. consulis consul ar- jubar, n. jubaris sunbeam arr- far, n. farris flour er- anser. m. anseris goose er- ver, n. veris spring ter- tr- mater, f. matris motlier 6r- aequdr, n. aequdris sea 6r- 6bur, n. eboris ivory 6r- soror, f. sororis sister iir- vultur, m. vultiuis vulture ur- fur, m. furis thief Stems in Nasals. en-in- nomen, n. nommis name 6n- in- homo, m. hominis man 6n- leo, m. leonis lion ion- ratio, f. rationis reason rn- caro, f. carnis flesh an- cams, c. canis dog en- juvenls, c. juvenis young person em- hiemps, f. hie mis winter 22 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 38 A. Consonant Stems. (1) Stems in Gutturals : c, g. Stem judic- radio- reg- judge, root, f. king, m. SING. N. F. judex, a judge radix rex Ace. judicem, a judge radlcem regem Gen. judicis, of a judge radicis regis Dat. judici, to a judge radici regi Abl. judice, from a judge radice rege PLUB. N. F. judices, judges radices reges Ace. judices, judges radices reges Gen. judicum, of judges radicum regum Dat. judicibus, to judges radicibiis regibus Abl. judicibus, from judges radicibus regibus Decline also : f . vox, voc-, voice ; c. dux, diic-, leader ; m. grex, grgg--, flock. 39 (2) Stems in Dentals : t, d. ped- capit- foot, m. head, n. pes caput pedem caput pedis capitis pedi capiti pede capite pedes capita pedes capita pedum capitum pedibus capitibus pedibus capitibus Decline also : f. virtus, virtut-, virtue ; c. seges, seget-, corn ; m. lapis, lapid-, stone. Stem milit- soldier, c. SING. N. V. miles Ace. militem Gen. militis Dat. militi Abl. milite PLUB. N. V. milites Ace. milites Gen. militum Dat. militibus Abl. militibus DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 23 40 (8) Stems in Labials : p, b. Stem princgp- princip- chief, c. SING. PLUS. N. F. princeps principes Ace. principem principes Gen. principis principum Dat. principi principibus Abl. principe principibus Decline also : c. forceps, forcip- , tongs ; m. auceps, aucup-, fowler. 41 Stems in the Spirant s. Stems in s do not add s in the Nominative Singular, and generally they change s into r in the other cases. Stem flos- 6pus- crus- flor- 6per- crur- flower, m. worJc, n. Ug, n. SING. N. V. fids opus cms Ace. florem opus crus Gen. floris opens cruris Dat. flori open" cmri Abl. flore opere cmre PLUB. N. V. flores opera crura Ace. flores opera crura Gen. florum operum cmrum Dat. floribus operibus cruribus Abl. flcribus operibus cruribus Decline also: m. honos, honor-, lumour; n. tempus, tempdr-, time ; corpus, corp5r-, body ; genus, gengr-, race ; jus, jur-, law. Note 1. Vas, vas-, a vessel, keeps s in all the cases, and has plural vasa, vasorum, vasls. Os, oss-, n., bone, as, ass-, m., a coin, keep s in all the cases, and have gen. plur. ossium, assium. Note 2. Honos, colos, colour, and other words changed in later Latin to honor, color, &c., in the nom. sing., with gen. -oris. Arbos, f., changed to arbur, arboris, tree. 24 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 42 Stems in Liquids : 1, r. Stems in 1, r, do not take s in the Nominative Singular. Stem consiil- amor- pater- aequ6r- patr- consul, m. love, m. father. sea, n. SING. N. V. consul amor pater aequor Ace. consulem amorem patrem aequor Gen. consults amoris patris aequoris Dat, consul! amori patrl aequori Abl. consule amore patre aequore PLUB. N. V. consules amores patres aequora Ace, consules amores patres aequora Gen* consulum amorum patrum aequorum Dat. consulibus amoribus patribus aequoribus AbL consulibus amoribus patribus aequoribus Decline also: m. sol, sol-, sun; orator, orator-, speaker; career, career-^ prison; f rater, fratr-, brother; n. ebur, ebdr-, ivory. Stems in Nasals : n, m. Stems ending in n do not take s in the Nominative Singular. Stems in on, on, drop the n. Stem leon- lion, m. SING. N. V. leo Ace. leonem Gen. leonis Dat. leoni Abl. leone PLUB. N. V. leones Ace. leones Gen. leonum Dat. leonibuo Abl. leonlbus virgSn- nomen- virgin- nomin- virgin, f. name, n. virgo nomen virginem nomen virginis nominis virgini nomini virgine nomine virgines noinina virgines nomina virginum nominum virginibus nominibus virginibus ' nominibus Decline also : m. latro, latron-, robber ; f. ratio, ration-, reason ; m. ordo, ordin-, order ; homo, boxnln-, man ; n. carmen, carmln-, song. There is only one Stem in m : hiemps, winter ; Gen. higmis.f. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 25 B. I-Stems. 44 (1) Stems with Norn. Sing, in -is, and in -er from stem ri- : Stem clvi- imbri- citizen, c. shower, m. SING. N. V. civis imber Ace. civem imbrem Gen. civis imbris Dat. civl imbri Abl. cive, -I imbre, -I PLUK. N. V. cives imbres Ace. cives imbres Gen. civium imbrium Dat. civibiis imbribus Abl. civibus imbribiis Decline like civis : m. amnis, river ; ignis, fire; f. avis, bird. Decline like imber : f. linter, boat; m. uter, leatliern bottle. Note 1. Some words have ace. -im, abl. I : f. tussis, cough; sitis, thirst ; most rivers and towns, m. Tiberis, Tiber ; f. Neapolis, Naples. Sometimes f . febris, fever ; puppis, stern ; turris, tower ; clavis, key ; navis, ship ; restis, rope ; securis, axe ; sementis, sowing. Ignis has usually abl. ignl. The ace. plur. is sometimes written -is, which is the older form. Note 2. Tls, force, is the only long I-stem. It has ace. sing. vim, abl. sing, vl, plur. vires, vlrium, vlribus. 45 (2) Stems with Nom. Sing, in -es : Stem nubl- cloud, f. SING. PLUK. N. V. nubes nubes Ace. nubem nubes Gen. nubis nubium Dat. nubi nubibiis Abl. nube nubibus Decline also : cautes, rock ; moles, pile ; rupes, crag. Note. Some have ncm. sing, -es or -is : valles or vallis, valley ; vulpes or vulpis, fox. Trabs, beam, plebs, tJie common people, are often found for trabes, plebes. Fames, hunger, has abl. sing. fame. 26 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES [Q (3) Stems which have two consonants (a liquid or nasal and a mute) before i, and drop i before the s in the Nom. Sing. : Stem monti- urbi- mountain, m. city, f. SING. N. V. mons urbs Ace. montem urbem Gen. mentis urbis Dot. monti nrbl Abl. monte urbe PLUK. N. V. montes urbes Ace. montes urbes Gen. montium urbium Dat. montibus urbibiis Abl. montibiis urbibiis Decline also : f. arx, arcl-, citadel ; ars, art!-, art ; stirps, stirpl-, stem ; frons, front!-, forehead ; frons, frondl-, leaf; m. dens, dentl-, tooth. :7 (4) Neuter Stems with Nom. Sing, in -e, -al, -ar : These either change i into e in the Nom. Sing, or drop the vowel and shorten the final syllable. Stem cubili- animali- calcari- couch anvmal spur SING. N. 7. Ace. cublle animal calcar Gen. cubilis animalis calcarls Dat. Abl. cubili animall calcari PLUB. N. V. Ace. cubilia animal ia calcaria Gen. cubilium animalinm calcarium Dat. Abl. cubilibus animalibus calcarlbus Decline also : conclave, room ; sedlle, scat; rete, net (abl. sing, e) ; tribunal, tribunal ; exemplar, pattern. Note. Mare, sea, has abl. sing, marl, or more rarely mare ; the gen. plur. is only found once : marum. Baccar, an aromatic root, far, flour, jubar, a sunbeam, nectar, nectar, have abl. sing. -e. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 27 Consonant stems and I- stems are placed in one declension because of the difficulty of distinguishing their forms. I-stems are very rare in early Latin ; they were being developed in the Classical period, and their forms are liable to uncertainty. The Gen. Plur. (by which in other declensions the stem is determined) often varies in the third declension between -um and -ium. In classing words as Consonant or I-stems, the Gen. Plur. must be considered, together with the Ace. Sing, -em or -im, Abl. Sing, -e or -i ; Ace. Plur. -es or -is, and in neuters the Nom. Plur. -ia ; but often the classification remains doubtful, and rests chiefly on analogy with other Latin words, or on comparison with cognate words in other languages. The following rule with regard to the form of the Gen. Plur. may be given for practical convenience : Nouns with a syllable more in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. Sing. (Imparisyllabic Nouns) have Gen. Plur. in -um. Nouns with the same number of syllables in the Nom. Sing, and Gen. Sing. (Parisyllabic Nouns) have Gen. Plur. in -ium. The chief exceptions to this rule are the following : (a) Imparisyllabic Nouns which have Gen. Plur. in -ium are : glis, lis, mas, mus, nox, and Nouns of one syllable of which the Nom. Sing, ends in -ns, -rs, -ps, -bs, -rx, -lx.* Often also, ren, lar, dos, Nouns of two syllables with Nom. Sing, ending in -ns, -rs, and most Nouns in -as (gen. -atis). These last and Nouns in -ns are especially vari- able. Horace writes both parentuin and parentium, but the latter is rare. Livy writes always civitatium ; Cicero chiefly civitatum. (&) Parisyllabic Nouns which have Gen. Plur. in -um are : canis, juvenis, senex, sedes, pater, mater, frater, accipiter.t Sometimes also, apis, mensis, vates, volucris. * Nouns of one syllable, of which the Stem lias two Consonants before i-, are only apparently Imparisyllabic because the Xom. Siug. originally ended in -is (47), and of some both forms are found ; e.g. orbs and orbis. t Pater, mater, frater, accipiter, are only apparently Parisyllabic because the e of the Nom. Sing, has fallen out in the other oases. 28 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 50 The following have exceptional forms : (1) Jnppiter (for Dieus-piter) and bos (for bous), ox. SING. PLUB. N. V. Juppiter bos boves Ace. Jovem bovem boves Gen. Jovis bovis bourn Dat. Jovi bovl bobus or bubus Abl. Jove bove bobus or bubus (2) Two stems in -u, declined like consonant nouns : grus, crane, sus, pig. These are the only uncontracted u- nouns. SING. PLUE. SING. PLDR. N. V. grus grues sus sues Ace. gruem grues suem sues Gen. gruls gruum suis suum Dat. grui gruibus sul suibus (subus) Abl. grue gruibus sue suibus (subus) Iter, journey, has gen. sing, itineris (and rarely iteris). Jecur, liver, jecoris, and jecinoris. Senex, old man, has Sing. Ace. senem, Gen. senis, Dat. seni, Abl. sene ; Plur. N.. Ace. senes, Gen. senum, Dat. Abl. senibus. Supellex, furniture, forms the other cases from stem supellectili-. Jusjurandum, oath, is declined in both parts : N. V. Ace. jusjurandum ; Gen. jurisjurandi ; Dat. jurijurando ; Abl. jure jurando. No plural. Paterfamilias, materfamilias, father, mother of a family, have pater, mater fully declined in the sing, cases, but familias remains unaltered. The plur. patresfamiliarum is sometimes found. Note. The locative sing, of the third declension ends in -I or -e ; the plural in -Ibus : run, rure, in tJie country ; vesperl, vespere, in the evening ; Carthagini, Carthagine, at Carthage ; Gadibus, at Gades (Cadiz). GEKDEE IN THIRD DECLENSION. 51 Consonant Stems. Masculine are nouns which end in-os, -o (except -do, -go, -io), -or, -er, and Imparisyllabic nouns in -is or -es. Exceptions : cos, whetstone, dos, dowry, f. ; os, ossis, bone, os, oris, mouth, n. echo, ec}io, caro, flesh, f. arbor, tree, f. ; aequor, sea, marmor, marble, cor, lieart, n. ver, spring, cadaver, corpse, iter, journey, tuber, hump, uber, udder, verber, lash, n. ; also some names of plants, as papa ver, poppy. compes, fetter, merces, hire, merges, sheaf, quies, rest, requies, rest, seges, corn, teges, mat, f. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 29 52 Feminine are nouns which end in -x, -as, -ps, -do, -go, -io, and nouns in -us of more than one syllable. Exceptions : Nouns in -ex are masculine or common, but lex, law, nex, death, forfex, sltcars, supellex, furniture, ilex, oak, f. calix, cup, fornix, arch, m. ; dux, leader, c. as, coin, vas, surety, m. ; fas, right, nefas, wrong, vas, vessel, n. manceps, buyer, m. ; municeps, burgess, c. ; princeps, chief, c. cardo, hinge ; ordo, order, m. ligo, lioe, m. ; margo, brink, c. Concrete nouns in -lo are masculine : piigio, dagger ; papilio, butterfly. Abstract nouns in -to are feminine : ratio, reason ; regio, region. 53 Neuter are nouns in -us, -us (in words of one syllable), -en, -1, -ar, -ur. Exceptions : lepus, hare, m. ; pecus, pecudis, single head of cattle, f. mils, mouse, m. ; grus, crane, sus, pig, c. pecten, comb, ren, kidney, splen, spleen, tlblcen, flute-player, m. mugil, mullet, sal, salt, sol, sun, m. lar, god of the hearth, m. furfur, bran, lemur, goblin, turtur, turtle dove, vultur, vulture, m. Praes, bondsman, is masc. ; laus, praise, fraus, deceit, are fem. ; lac, milk, caput, head, aes, copper, are neuter. 54 I- Stems. Most Parisyllabic nouns in -is and -es are feminine. Exceptions : the following nouns in -is are masculine : amnis, river crlnis, hair mensis, month unguis, nail axis, axle ensis, siuord orbis, circle vectis, lever canalis, canal fascis, bundle panis, bread vermis, worm caulis, cabbage follis, bag piscis, fish casses. nets > , clunis, haunch fustis, cudgel postis, post manes, shades i ^ r ' collis, hill ignis, fire torris, firebrand Generally masculine are callis, path ; finis, end ; f unis, rope ; sentis, tJiorn ; torquis, necklace. Aclnaces, scimitar, and verres, boar, are masculine. Nouns in -al, -ar, and -e are neuter. Nouns in -x, -bs, -Is, -ns, -rs are feminine ; but fons, fountain, mons, mountain, dens, tooth, bidens, fork, rudens, rope, torrens, torrent, oriens, east, occidens, west, masculine ; infans, infant, parens, parent, c. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 55 FOURTH DECLENSION. TJ- Stems (contracted). The Nominative of masculine and feminine nouns is formed by adding & ; neuters have the plain stem with u (long). Stem gradu- genu step, m. "knee, n. SINGULAR. Nom. gradus a step genii Voc. gradus o step genu Ace. gradum a step genu Gen. gradus of a step genus Dat. gradui to a step genu Abl. gradu from a step genu PLURAL. Nom. gradus steps genua Voc. gradus o steps genua Acc. gradus steps genua Gen. graduum of steps genuum Dat. gradibus to steps genibiis Abl. gradibus from steps genibus 56 Decline like gradus : m. fructus, fruit ; senatus, senate ; f. manus, liand. Decline like genu: cornu, horn; veru, spit (dat. abl. plur., -ibus or -ubus). Feminine nouns of this declension, besides manus, are : acus, needle ; portions, porch ; tribus, tribe ; Idiis, Ides, and words feminine by meaning. Neuters are : genu, cornu, veru. Note 1. The dat. sing, -ul is sometimes contracted into -u. The dat. and abl. plur. -ubus is generally changed into -ibus ; but acus, tribus, arcus, bmv, lacus, lake, partus, birth, and artus (plur.), limbs, have always -ubus ; portus, harbour, has -ibus or -ubus. Note 2. Some nouns have forms of both u- and o- Stems, especially names of trees : laurus, bay ; myrtus, myrtle. Colus, dis- taff, has Gen. -i and us, Abl. -6 and -u, Acc. pi. -6s and us. Domus, f., is thus declined : SINGULAR. domus domum domus domui or domo domo N. V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. PLURAL. domus domus or domos domorum or domuum domibus domibus The locative domi. at home, is often used. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 31 57 FIFTH DECLENSION. E- Stems. The Nom. Sing, is formed by adding s to the Stem. Stem re-, thing. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Norn. res . a thing res things Foe. res o thing res o things Ace. rem a thing res things Gen. rel of a thing rerum of things Dat. rel to a thing rebus to things Abl. re from a thing rebus from things Decline like res : dies, day (gen. dat., diel) ; acies, line of battle ; facies, face ; series, series ; species, form ; spes, /tope ; fides, faith ; glacies, ice ; meridies, noon. Ees and dies are the only nouns -which occur in the Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plural. Fides, meridies, are Singular only. All nouns of this declension are feminine except dies and meridies. Dies also is feminine when it means ' an appointed day' or ' a period of time.' Note 1. The greater number of nouns of this declension were originally ia- Stems, and have forms both of e- and a- Stems. They are declined like materies, matter, singular only. Stem, materia-, and materie-. N. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. materia materiam materiae materia materies materiem (materiel) materie Note 2. The contracted gen. and dat. sing, in -e, as fide for fidei, is found in Virgil and Horace. An old gen. in -I occurs in tribunus plebi, tribune of the people. The locative ends in -e. gg Note 3. Bespublica, the public interest, tJie republic, the State, is declined in both its parts : Sing. Ace. rempublicam, Gen. reipublicae, Dat. reipublicae, Abl. republica. Plur. Nom. respublicae, Ace. respublicas, Gen. rerumpublicarum, D. Abl. rebuspublicis. 32 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 59 DEFECTIVE AND VARIABLE SUBSTANTIVES. Many nouns are found only in the Singular ; these are chiefly proper names and words of general meaning : as humus, ground. aevum, an age. justitia, justice. aurum, gold. laetitia, . joy. argentum, silver. ver, spring. caelum, heaven. vesper, evening. letum, death. Note. In poetry some words take plural form with singular mean- ing : mella, Jwney, nives, snow, silentia, silence, rura, country. 3O Many nouns are used only in the Plural : arma, arms. insidiae, ambush. artus, limbs. llberi, children. cunae, cradle. manes, departed spirits. divitiae, riches. moenia, town walls. fasti, annals. nugae, trifles. feriae, holidays. penates, houseJwld gods. indutiae, truce. tenebrae, darkness. And names of towns, days, festivals : Athenae, Delphi, Kalendae, Calends ; Bacchanalia, festival of Bacchus. 81 Some words have a different meaning in Singular and Plural : SlNGULAB. PLURAL. aedes, temple. aedes, Jiouse. auxilium, help. auxilia, alliedforces. castrum, fort. castra, camp. cera, wax. cerae, waxen tablet. copia, plenty. copiae, forces. finis, end. fines, boundaries. gratia, favour. gratiae, thanks. impedlmentum, hindrance. impedimenta, baggage. littera, letter of the litterae, epistle, liter- alphabet. ature. ludus, play. ludi, public games opem (ace.), help. opes, wealth. opera, labour. operae, work-people. sal, salt. sales, wit. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 33 62 Some nouns have two or more' forms of Declension : NOM. GEN. NOM. GEN. tergum, -i, _ n. \ , , pecus, -oris, n. ) j^ LCltCUill, -1, 11. 7 7 l-rtiUUB, -UllS, II. I 7 1 7 taj -Sns,,,} 6 & -aaiilj^*- eventum, -i, n. 1 . plebs, -is, f. 1 i/te common eventus, -us, m. ) plebes, -ei, f. j people. NOM. GEN. ABL. jugerum, -i, n. ) ves P era ' ^ e ' a ' f ' ) Hufferl -is n \ acre ' vesper, -i -o, m. [ evening. vesper, -e, m.) Quies, f., rest, -etis, is a t- Stem only ; but its compound requies takes also the e- forms : requiem, requie. 63 Some o- Stems vary between masc. and neut. in Sing, or Plur. : baculus, m., baculum, n., a stick ; plleus, m., pileum, n., a hat. locus, m., place, pi. i C1 ' frenum, n., bit, pi. |/ em> lOCcl, ri*m-Q jocus, m.., jest, pi. -p rastrum, n., harrow, pi. 64 In many nouns some of the cases are wanting ; thus : feast, f., fruit, f., help, f., prayer, f., change, f. N. V. Ace. dapem frugem opem prgcem vicem Gen. dapls frugis opis vicis Dat. dapl frugl prec! Abl. dapg fruge ope prec6 vice These have full plural -es, -um, -ibus, except Gen. vicium. 65 Many are used in the Abl. Sing. only. coactu, by force. natu, by birth. concessu, by permission. noctu, by night. (diu) interdiu, by day. rogatu, by request. jussu, by command. sponte, by choice. injussu, without command. 66 Some have only Nom. Ace. S. : fas, right, nefas, wrong, instar, likeness, size, opus, need, nihil, nothing. 34 DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS DECLENSION OF GEEEK NOUNS. FIRST DECLENSION, a- STEMS. At an early time many Greek nouns were used in Latin, in an almost or entirely Latin form. Masc. nouns ending in -as, -es, and fern, nouns in -a, -e, all alike took the ending -a in the nom., and were declined throughout like mensa. Such words are nauta, sailor, poeta, poet. Afterwards the Greek forms, especially of proper names, were brought in by the poets, and thus in many instances both Greek and Latin forms of the same words are found, while of some words, used chiefly in poetry, the Greek forms alone occur. Patronymics (race-names) are usually in the Greek form, as Atrldes (son of Atreus), Pelldes (son of Pelezcs) ; and though they sometimes have -a for es in the nom. they always retain the Greek ace. in -en. Names of people ending in -ates, -Ites, or -otes, as Eleates (inhabitant of Elea), generally have -em or -am in ace., being nearer to Latin words. All these usually follow the Latin declension in the plural, even when they have the Greek form in the singular. MASCULINE NOUNS IN -as, -es, AND FEMININE NOUNS IN -e. SINGULAR. N. Aeneas Atrldes, -a Cybele, a V. Aenea Atride, -a, -a C^bele, -a A. Aenean Atriden Cybelen G. Aeneae Atridae Cybeles, -ae D. Aeneae Atridae Cybelae Abl. Aenea Atride, -a Cybele, -a Plural in all cases like that of mensa. Decline also : Boreas, the north wind, Persa (-es), a Persian, Epirctes (-ota), native of Epirus, Helene. f. DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS 35 68 SECOND DECLENSION, o- STEMS. Greek nouns of the Second Declension, especially names of persons and places, often keep their Greek forms in the nom. and ace., but the other cases generally take the Latin forms. SINGULAR. Nom. Del6s, f. Athos, m. Peli6n, n. Foe. (Dele) (Athos) (PeliOn) Ace. Delon, -um Athon Peli6n Gen. Dell Atho Pelil D.,Abl. Delo Atho Pelio The fern, words of this Declension are chiefly names of towns, islands, plants, and precious stones. Nouns ending in -ros sometimes take the Latin ending -er in the nom., as Evander (-dros). Decline also : scorpios, m., scorpion ; lotos, f., lotus ; Same's, Ilion. The Greek plural forms are rare, but plural nom. in -oe, as Canephoroe, and plur. gen. in -on, as Bucolicon, are sometimes found. 69 THIKD DECLENSION. Consonant Stems and Stems in e, i, o, eu, y. These nouns are very numerous, having many different endings in the Nom. Sing. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.,V. heros, m., hero heroSs lynx, c., lynx lynces Ace. hero-a, -em heroas lync-em, -a lync-as, -es Gen. herois heroum lyncis lyncum Dat. heroi heroibus lynci lyncibus Abl. heroe herolbus lynce lyncibus Decline also: f. lampas, gen. lampadis, torch; m. gigas, gigantis, giant \ aer, aeris, air; aether, aetheris, the upper air. Names of this class are found in different forms, from the tendency to latinise Greek words. Thus Perseus is called Perseus by Livy, but by Cicero latinised to Perses in the nom., with the other cases like Greek names of the First Declension, as Atrides. 2 DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS Greek nouns in -on often drop the n in the nom., as Plato, Platonis ; but sometimes it is kept, as in Cimon. Some nouns have a second form, as elephas, elephant, which is usually declined like gigas, but sometimes latinised to elephantus, elephanti. Dido also has two forms of declension, (1) as an -on stem, gen. Didonis, (2) as a u- Stem, gen. Didus. Poema, poematis, n., poem, is regularly declined, but Cicero has dat. and abl. plur. poematis. Poesis, f., poetry, is an I- noun, ace. poes-in or poes-im, abl. poesi. The accusative singular endings in -em and in -a are both frequent. Gen. sing, usually in -is, but the Greek ending -os is often found in poetry. The abl. sing, is always in -6, and dat. sing, in -i, but the latter is often short (i) as in Greek. The nom. plur. is always in -es, often short. In ace. plur. the Greek -as is usual. The Greek ending of the abl. plur. in -si (-sin) is occasionally used by the poets. Many names in -es, -eus, and in -Is have cases from two forms. I- forms and Consonant forms appear in NOM. V. Ace. GEN. DAT. ABL. Thal-es -es -em, en, eta -is, -etis -I, eti -e, ete m. -e Par-is Iris -I / -idem, Ida \. -in, -im -idis, -Idos -Idi -ide f.m. Forms of both the Second and Third Declension appear in NOM. V. Ace. GEN. DAT. ABL. Orpheus Achilleus -eu -eu -eum, -ea -ea -el, -eos el, -eos -el -I -eo, -co m. Achilles -e -em, -en -is, -I -I -e ; m. Ifote. Tigris, tiger, is declined throughout as an I- noun, like civis ; but also as a Consonant Stem in d, like Paris ; forming plur. tigrides, tigridum, tigridas, without dat. and abl. Decline Ulixeus (Ulixes) like Achilleus (Achilles). DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 33 70 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are declined by Gender, Number and Case. 71 A. Adjectives of three endings in -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -urn are declined like Substantives of the Second and First Declen- sion, 0- and A- Stems. Stem SING. Nom. Foe. Ace. Gen. Dat. All. bQno- bonus bone bonum boni bond bond b6na good. F. bona bona bonam bonae bonae bona bSno- bonum bonum bonum boni boiif bone PLUKAL. Nom. boni Voc. boni Acc. bonds Gen. bondrum Dat. bonis Abl. bonis bonae bonae bonas bonarum bonis bonis bona bona bona bondrum bonis boms Decline also : cams, dear ; durus, hard ; malus, bad ; magnus, great ; parvus, small ; dubius, doubtful. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES Stem ten6r5- tenera- tender. SING. M. F. Nom. tener tenera Foe. tener tenera Ace. tenerum teneram Gen. tenerl tenerae Dat. tenerd tenerae Abl. tenerd tenera PLUBAL. N. F. teneri tenerae Ace. teneros teneras Gen. tenerorum tenerarum D.,Abl. teneris teneris tenero- tenerum tenerum tenerum tenerl tenero tenero tenera tenera tenerorum teneris Decline also : asper, rough ; lacer, torn ; liber, free ; miser, wretclied , prosper, prosperous ; frugifer, fruit-bearing, plumiger, feathered, and other compounds of fero and gero ; also satur, full, satura, saturum. Stem nigro- nigra- nTgrd- black. SING. M. F. N. Nom. niger nigra nigrum Foe, niger nigra nigrum .4cc. nigrum nigram nigrum Gen. nigri nigrae nigri Dat. nigro nigrae nigro Abl. nigro nigra nigro PLUEAL. N. F. nigri nigrae nigra Ace. nigros nigras nigra Gen. nigrorum nigrarum nigrorum D.,Abl. nigris nigris nigris Decline also: aeger, sick; ater, jet-black ; pulcher, beautiful', ruber, red; sacer, sacred. Note. Dexter, on the right hand, may be declined like tener or like niger. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 39 72 B. Adjectives of two endings and of one ending in the Nominative Singular are declined like Substantives of the Third Declension. 73 (1) Adjectives with Nominative Singular in -is, Masc. and Fern. ; in -e Neuter : I- Stems. Stem tristi-, sad. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. N. V. tristis triste tristes tristia Ace. tristem triste tristes, -Is tristia Gen. tristis tristis tristium tristium D .Abl. tristi tristi tristibus tristibiis Decline also: brevis, short; omnis, all ; aequalis, equal; hostllis, hostile; facilis, easy ; illustris, illustrious ; lugubris, mournful. Some stems in ri- form the Masc. Nom. Sing, in -er : Stem acri-, keen. SING. M. F. N. N. V. acer acris acre Ace. acrem acrem acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Abl. acri acri acri PLUR. N. V. acres acres acria Ace. acres, -Is acres, -is acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium D., Abl. acribiis acribiis acribiis Decline like acer the following : celeber, famous ; saluber, healthy ; alacer, brisk ; volficer, winged ; campester, level; equester, equestrian ; pedes- ter, pedestrian ; paluster, marshy ; puter, crumbling ; with September, October, November, December, masculine only. Note. In celer, celeris, celere, swift, the Stem ends in -Sri- and the e is kept throughout. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES (2) Adjectives with Norn. Sing, the same for all genders : (a) I- Stems. Stem Stem N. F. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. fellci-, happy. M. T. SING. N. N. V. felix felix Acu. fellcem felix Gen. felicis felicis Dat. felicl felicl Abl. felicl felicl M. F. PLUB. N. felices felicia felices, -Is felicia felicium felicium felicibus feliclbus felicibus felicibus ingenti-, huge. M. F. SING. N. ingens ingens ingentem ingens ingentis ingenti ingenti M. F. PLUB. N. ingentes ingentia ingentes, -Is ingentia ingentium ingentibus ingentibus Decline also: audax, audaci-, bold; simplex, simplici-, simple; duplex, duplici-, double ; velox, veloci-, swift ; amans, amanti-, loving ; sapiens, sapienti-, wise ; concors, concordi-, agreeing ; par, pari-, like. Note 1. Some adjectives with stems in tl have genitive plural in -um as well as -inm : recens, recentum or recentium, consors, con- Bortum or consortium. In Participles, however, the gen. plur. is almost always in -ium.* Note 2. The abl. sing, generally ends in 1 when an adjective is used with a substantive : a milite vigili, by a icatchful soldier ; and in e when an adjective stands for a substantive : a vigile, by a watchman, but a few have abl. sing, always in -i. The same rule applies to present participles ; but in the ablative absolute construction the ablative always ends in e : viridanti quercu cinctus, wreathed icitli green oak ; viridante quercu, ivlien tJie oak is green. * It is to be remarked that when either in a Substantive or an Adjective a long syllable comes before the Stem Character, the genitive plural generally ends in -Ium ; when a short vowel comes before the Stem Character, it ends in -um ; but this cannot be laid down as an invariable rule. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 41 /7 \ 75 (b) Consonant Stems. Stem divet-, divit-, rich. SING. N. V. dives PLUR. divites Ace. divitem divites Gen. divitis divitum Dat. diviti divitibus Abl. divite divitibus Decline like dives: pauper, pauper-, poor; degener, degener-, degenerate; sospes, sospit-, safe ; superstes, superstit-, surviving ; deses, desid-, slothful ; compos, compot-, possessing ; caelebs, caelib-, unmarried ; vetus, veter-, old. Note. Dives has a contracted form dls, ace. ditem, &c. ; with abl. sing, diti and neut. plur. dltia ; gen. plur. ditium. Dives and vetus are used as neut. ace. sing. Vetus has neut. plur. vetera. The rest have no neuter forms. COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 76 Adjectives are compared in three degrees. (1) Positive : durus, hard. tristis, sad. (2) Comparative : durior, harder. tristior, sadder. (3) Superlative : durissimus, hardest, tristissimus, saddest. The Positive is the adjective itself expressing the quality ; the Comparative expresses a greater degree ; the Superlative expresses a very great, or the greatest, degree of the quality. The Comparative is formed from the Positive by adding the suffix -ior to the last consonant of the Stem ; the Superlative generally by adding -issimus to the last consonant of the Stem. Stem Positive Comparative Superlative dur-o- durus dur-ior dur-issimus trist-i- tristis trist-ior trist-issimus audac-i- audax, bold audac-ior audac-issimus 77 The Comparative is declined as follows : M. F. SING. N. M. F. PLUR. N. N. V. tristior tristius tristiores tristiora Ace. tristidrem tristius tristior-es tristiora Gen. tristioris tristiorum Dat. tristiori tristioribus Abl. tristior-e, -I* tristioribus The Ablative in -i of the Comparative i? rare, and only used by late writers. 42 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 78 The Superlative is declined from o- and a- Stems, like bonus. Adjectives with Stems in ro-, ri-, form the Superlative by doubling the last consonant of the Stem and adding -imus. Words like niger insert e before r in the Superlative. Stem Positive Comparative Superlative tenero- tener tenerior tenerrimus nigro- niger nigrior nigerrimus celeri- celer celerior celerrimus Six adjectives with Stems in fli- also form the Superlative by doubling the last consonant of the Stem and adding -imus : facilis, easy. similis, like. gracilis, slender. difficilis, difficult. dissimilis, unlike. humilis, lowly. facili- facilis facilior facillimus 79 Many Participles are compared like adjectives : amans, loving amantior amantissimus paratus, ready paratior paratissimus IEKEGULAB COMPARISON. 80 (1) Some Comparatives and Superlatives are formed from Stems distinct from that of the Positive : Positive Comparative Superlative bonus, good. melior, better. optimus, best. malus, bad. pejor, worse. pessimus, worst. parvus, small. minor, less. minimus, least. multus, much. plus, more. plurimus, most. magnus, great. major maximus nequam (indecl.), wicked, nequior nequissimus frugi (indecl.), honest. frugalior frugalissimus senex, old. senior 1 natu major natu m a* juvenis, younq. f junior \natu minor natu minimus Note 1. Senior, junior are not used as true comparatives of senex, juvenis, but with the meaning old rather than young, and young rather than old. Note 2. Dives has both uncontracted and contracted forms : dives ) , f divitior divitissimus (dis) f ' Tl \ ditior dltissimus vetus 1 7J i, j vetustior veterrimus (veter)l' W ' has \ (veterior) COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 43 Plus in the Sing, is neuter only : SING. M. F. PLUR. N. N. V. Ace. plus plures plura Gen. pluris plurium Dat. Abl. plurl pluribus 81 (2) Adjectives compounded with -dicus, -ficus, -volus (from dico, facio, volo), form the Comparative and Superlative as if from participles in -ens. Positive Comparative Superlative maledicus, evil-speaking, maledlcentior maledlcentissimus beneficus, beneficent. beneficentior beneficentissimus benevolus, well-wishing. benevolentior benevolentissimus Also: egrnus, needy. egentior egentissimus providus, provident. providentior providentissimus 82 (3) Adjectives in -ens, -ius, -mis are generally compared with the adverbs magis, maxime ; as dubius, doubtful, magis dubius, more doubtful, maxime dubius, most doubtfiiL Xotc. Adjectives in -quus are compared regularly, the first u being consonantal : aequus, level, aequicr, aequissimus ; so, antiquus, ancient. Egregius, excellent, has comparative egregior; strenuus, vigorous, sometimes has strenuior. go (4) Some adjectives have no Comparative forms ; some no Superlative ; of some the Comparative and Superlative are found without the Positive : ocior, swifter, ocissimus, swiftest. 84 Some Comparatives denoting relations of place have no Positive, but correspond to Adverbs from the same Stem. Adverb. Comparative Adj. Superlative Adj. 'extra, outside. exterior extremus, extimus intra, within. interior intimus 'supra, above. superior supremus. summus 'infra, below. inferior iuiTmus, imus citra, on this side. citerior citimus ultra, beyond. ulterior ultimus prae, before. prior primus, first. 'post, after. posterior postremus, last. prope, near. propior proximus *Note. The adjectives exterus, superus, inferus, posterus, are, however, sometimes found. Also : dexter (adj.), on the right, dexterior dexterrimus, dextimus sinister (adU, on the left. sinisterior [deter-] deterior, wars". deterrimus, worst. 44 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS COMPABISON OF ADVEEBS. 85 Adverbs derived from adjectives and ending in -e, -6, -ter, and rarely -e, form Comparative in -ius, Superlative in -issime. Note. These forms are the neut. ace. sing, of the Comp. adjective and an old neut. abl. sing, of the Superl. adjective. Adjective Adverb Comparative Superlative dignus, worthy. tutus, safe. fortis, brave. constans, firm. audax, bold. facilis, easy. digne, worthily. tuto, safely. fortiter, bravely. constanter, firmly. audacter, boldly. facile, easily. dignius tutius fortius eonstantius audacius facilius dignissime tutissime fortissime constantissime audacissime facillime 86 Irregular comparison has corresponding forms in Adverbs. Adverb bene, well. male, ill. paullum, little. multum, much. magnSpere, greatly. Comparative Superlative melius optime pejus pessime minus minime plus plurimum magis maxime ocius, more quickly, ocissime Magis, more (in degree) ; plus, more (in quantity). 87 In like manner are compared difl, long. intus, within. (prae, before). post, after. prope, near. saepe, often. nuper, lately. diutius interius prius posterius propius saepius diutissime intime primo postremo proximo saepissime nuperrime NUMERALS 45 88 NUMERALS. Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds : 1. Cardinals ; answering the question, How many ? 2. Ordinals ; answering the question, Which in order of number ? 3. Distributives ; answering the question, How many each ? Numeral Adverbs answer the question, How many times ? 89 Unus, from o- and a- Stems, is declined as follows : SING. Norn, iinus una unum uni Ace. unum imam unum unos Gen. unius unius unius unorum Dat. uni uni uni unis Abl. uno una und unis PLCR. unae una unas una unarum unorum unis unis unis unis Du6 is an o- Stem, and tres an i- Stem. M. F. N. M. and F. N. Nom. duo duae duo tres tria Ace. duos, duo duas duo tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum trium trium D.,Abl. duobus duabus duobus tiibus tribus Decline like duo : ambo, both. Note. Duum is sometimes used for duorum. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable. Hundreds from tioo to nine hundred are o- and a- Stems, ducentl, ducentae, ducenta. Mille (a thousand] is an indeclin- able adjective ; but mllia (thousands] is a neuter substantive declined like animalia. Mille passus, a mile. In Compound Numbers above twenty, the order is the same as in English. Either the smaller number with et conies first, or the larger without et : septem et trlginta, seven and thirty ; or trlginta septem, thirty-seven. Unus usually stands first : unus et vlgintl, twenty-one. In numbers above a hundred the larger comes first, with or without et. Thousands are expressed by putting (1) the numeral adverbs bis, ter, &c., before mille : bis mille ; or (2) cardinal numbers before milia : duo milia. Milia is followed by a genitive : duo milia hominum, two thousand men. NUMERALS c J 9 s B ^1 * S^CJ-S O A ^ ST3 * C* C- S a >^^rD H ^ 5 1 s ,^ s; 5 i . ^ c r. r- i J e j& ^; j; < V 55 -C -| tJ rS g w3 1 2 _c i "5 $ O s c^. v: fe s -J-. ^ ~~^ti - 01 05 03 \ F^ m S 3 03 gj 3 *> -U jj S 5 j z s I o i-; fl 5 S'S 8 5 R 03 CT 1 W DO S 3 2 3 3 00 S EJ X, MiH j I 00 "H C? O _i 80 "^ ^ Ill^ll I rf a O a a S.J 5 ,2 03 a > S .2 " t? "o. 1 . H- > ' 05 u, % S a, . S|S -j; .7 S - * c 'i! r; .s o S > ' ? ,!> 4J O* O* 00 00 *C ** ^_ " i. ,2 = - a > = S 'S 3 S fl ! 1 T3Si35 X SQ O NUMERALS 47 m C 03 . a) CO CO S CO .2 3 co -is oo - J CO CO G co CO C co 11 .2 Dl CO C m 1 CP CO CB 0> S * '-3 1 1 C .- C jr! cp QJ *^^ CO CO A OJ c* '"^ QJ C3 CO CO rz3 II 'tb OT . t3 3 CO r^j 3 'S i CO 3 m 3 S 3 'co P c C ^3 r i CO . 00 _s g'l S "^ ^ ^ CO 3 g 3 CO c g "g * 9 CO 3 2 3 . S ~ *^ 773 tn 3 3 2^3 cr. .5 S cp C3 3 g CP "* * o c c r c* w oS <3 o 2 M .2 ft ~ B .rH bo g c a .s^ C *J ct a 0$ 03 .-. bO-u _ e"-tf g g? siifi > >S 2 -3 a ^, be C be'" 1 ' c 3 CtJ l-l S o s'a IB 3 o '3 ninquagi jntum mi uingenta jcienscer 1 || P^e CO i^j c a a s _ CM (-^ ^ u o o -B *3 cr 1 o< u> o a i - o-O 0* CfT3 d ^S c " O ri S O O Q Q p u S k-H o o O rt o o S 'c H 2 U ?* O O O 4^ J^ o o j2 HH 1 1 d o ri o p. ? ^ 'TS X t^ o Q H-4 O O *"* f*4 rt o fH ^W O o5 >/. t^ M fi O ._ O g 11 *o j g o o H-( 1-1 >5 ri ^ cS _ 48 PRONOUNS PRONOUNS. 91 Pronouns either stand in the place of Substantives, or stand in the place of Adjectives, to define or point out Substantives. There are three Persons : First : The person speaking : I or we. Second : The person spoken to : thou or ye (you). Third : The person or thing spoken of : he, she, it, they. Personal Pronouns stand only in place of Substantives. Possessive Pronouns, as meus, my, stand only for Adjectives. Most of the others can stand for Substantives or Adjectives. 92 PEBSONAL AND REFLEXIVE. SINGULAR. 1st Person. 2nd Person. Nom. ego, I. tu, thou (so also Voc.) Ace. me, me. te, thee. Gen. mei^ of me. tui, of thee. Dat. mihi, to me. tibi, to thee. Abl. me, from me. te, from thee. PLURAL. 1st Person. 2nd Person. Nom. nos, we. vos, ye (so also Voc.) Ace. nos, us. vos, you. Dat. nobis, to us. vobis, to you. Abl. nobis, from us. vobis, from you. Beflexive Pronoun. Nom. Acc. se or sese, himself, herself, itself, or themselves. Gen. sul, of himself, <&c. Dat. sibi, to himself, dc. Abl. se or sese, from himself, &c. For the Personal Pronoun of the 3rd Person, he, she, it. the Demonstrative is, ea, id, is used. Note. Nostri, vestri, are called Objective Genitives : memor nostri, mindful of us (264). Nostrum, vestrum, are called Partitive Genitives, because they are used after words which express a part : unus nostrum, one of us (259). 93 PRONOUNS 1st Person : NG ' 2nd Person : POSSESSIVE. meus, mea, tuus, tua, meum, tuum, my. thy. 49 PLUR. 1st Person : noster, nostra, nostrum, our. 2nd Person : vester, vestra, vestrum, your. Suus, sua, suum, his, her, its, their, is the Possessive Pronoun of the Eeflexive. Note. Meus, tuus, suus are declined like bonus : noster, vester, like niger. Meus has voc. sing. masc. mi. The other possessives, except noster, have no vocative. 94 DEMONSTKATIVE. Is, that, or lie, she, it. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. IS ea id ii or el eae ea Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Gen. ejus ejus ejus eorum earum edrum Dat. All. el eb el ea el eo iis (els) iis (els) iis (els) iis (els) iis (eis) iis (els) Hie, this (near me), or he, she, it. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. M. hie hunc hujus huic hoc F. haec hanc hujus huic hac N. hoc hoc hujus huic hoc M. hi hos horum his his F. hae has harum his his N. haec haec horum his his Ille, that (yonder), or Jie, she, it. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. Nom. ille F. ilia illud Ace. ilium illam illud Gen. illius illius illius illi illi Dat. illi Abl illd ilia illo M. F. illi illae illos illas illorum illarum illis illls illis illis Iste, that (near you], is declined like ille. ilia ilia illorum Ulls illis PKONOUNS 95 DEFINITIVE. Idem, same. SINGULAR. M. F. N. Nom. Idem eadem idem Ace. eundem eandem idem Gen. ejusdem Dat. eidem ejusdem eidem ejusdem eidem Abl. eodem eadem eodem PLURAL. Nom. eidem or idem eaedem eadem .4c. eosdem easdem eadem Gen. eorundem earundem eorundem Dat. eisdem or isdem Abl. eisdem or Isdem SINGULAR. Ipse, self. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius Dat. ipsl ipsi ipsi Abl. ipso ipsa ipso PLURAL. F. ipsi ipsae ipsa ipsos ipsas ipsa ipsorum ipsarum ipsonun ipsis ipsis ipsis ipsis ipsis ipsis Note. The suffixes -met, -te, -pte or -pse, -ce are added to some cases of pronouns for emphasis : (a) met may be joined (1) to ego and its cases, except gen. plur. : egomet, I myself ; (2) to the cases of tu, except nom. sing. : vosmet, ye yourselves ; (3) to se and its cases, except sui : sibimet ; (4) to the cases of suus : suamet f acta. (6) te is joined to tu : tute ; also tutemet, tliou thyself. (c) pte is joined especially to the abl. sing, of the possessive pronouns : meopte consillo, by my advice. (d) ce is joined to the demonstrative : hunce, hujusce. For istece, illece, are written istic, illic : SING. Nom. M. istio F. istaec N. istuc Ace. istunc istanc istuc Gen. istiusce istiusce istiusce Abl. istoc istac istoc Idem (for is-dem), and ipse (for is-pse), are emphatic forms of is. PRONOUNS 51 97 SINGULAR. 98 RELATIVE. (Jui, ivlw, M. F. K. Nom. qui quae quod Ace. quern quam quod Gen. cujus cujus cujus Dat. cui cui cui Abl. quo qua quo PLURAL. M. F. N. qui quae quae quos quas quae quorum quarum quorum quibus or quis quibus or quis INTERROGATIVE. Quis, who ? what ? Nom " Ace ' v (quis ' i qui \qui quae quod ' [ quern quam quod In all other Cases singular and plural qui Interrogative is like the Relative. INDEFINITE. Quis, anyone or anything. II. F. N. M, /. K. qua quid f quern quam quid quae quod " {quern quam quod In the other Cases singular and plural the Indefinite is like the Relative, except that qua or quae may be used in neut. nom. and ace. plural. Quis, both Interrogative and Indefinite, and its compounds, are used chiefly as Substantives ; qui and its compounds chiefly as Adjectives. Quid and its compounds are used only as Substantives ; quod and its compounds only as Adjectives. EXAMPLES : Homo qui venit, Quis venit ? TJie man wlw comes, (qui, relative.; Who comes ? (luig, interrogative.) Qui homo venit ? WJiat man comes ? Aliquid amari, Some bitterness, Aliquod verbum, Some word, (qui, interrogative.) K 2 PRONOUNS 100 COMPOUND PRONOUNS. MASC. quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, \whosoever, 01 quisquis, quisquis, quidqnld or quicquld, J whatsoever. quiddam (quoddam), \ a Certain per- ( son or ikmg. aliquid, | someone or aliquod, ' something, quippiam (quodpiam), someone. quidvis (quodvis), \anyone you quidlibet (quodlibet), J like. quldam, aliquis, aliqui, quispiam, quivis, quilibet, nuiennam quaedam, a'liqua, aliqua, quaepiam, quaevis, quaelibet, quidquam or quicqnam, quidque (quodque), utrumque, quisque, quaeque, uterque, utraqug, fumsqiiisque, unaquaeque, unuinquiqug (unumquodque), ecquis, ecqua, ecquid (ecquod), quisnam, quaenam, quidnam (quodnam) Note 1. Quisquis is found only in nom. ace. and abl. [ anyone [ at all. j each one \ severally, each of two. \ each single one. J Is there any 1 who ? Who, pray ? Note 2. Quisquam is used as a substantive, sing, only, chiefly in negative sentences and the adjective which corresponds to it ia ullus : haud quisquam, not anyone. Note 3. In the Compound Pronouns qui, quis, and uter follow their own declension in the oblique cases ; the prefix or suffix is unaltered : alicujus, cujusque, cuivis, utroque, quamlihet* In unus- quisque both unus and quisque are declined. PKO NOUNS 53 101 The following Pronominal Adjectives form the Gen. Sing, in -ius and the Dat. Sing, in -I like ille : alius, other, another ; ullus, any ; nullus, none ; solus, sole ; totus, whole ; iiter, which of two ; alter, one of two, the other ; neuter, neither. SINGULAR. PLUKAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. alius alia aliud alii aliae alia Ace. alium aliam aliiid alios alias alia Gen. alms aliiis aliiis alidrum aliarum alicrum Dat. alii alii alii aliis aliis aliis Abl. alio alia alid aliis aliis aliis Note. In alius the i of the Gen. Sing, is always long. In the Gen. of words declined like it the quantity of the i is doubtful ; also in the Gen. of uter, neuter. Like alius, but with Neuter Singular in -um, are declined ullus, nullus, solus, totus. SINGULAR. M. F. S. Nom. alter alter a alterum Ace. alterum alteram alterum Gen. alterius alterius alterius Dat. alter! alter! alter! Abl. altero alters altero PLURAL. M. F. N. Nom. alter! alterae altera Ace. alteros alteras altera Gen. alterdrum alterarum alterorum Dat. alterls alterls alterls Abl. alterls alterls alterls Like alter, but casting out e before r in all cases except the Nom. Sing. Masculine, are declined, uter, utra, utrum, which (of two) ; neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither. These are seldom used in the plural. Note 1. Uter forms compounds by taking nearly all the same suffixes as quis and qui : utercumque, whichever of two ; utervis, uterlibet. Alteruter, one or the other, is usually declined only as uter, but sometimes both parts are declined. Note 2. The genitive and ablative singular of nullus are used for the genitive and ablative of the substantive nemo, nobody, which are very rarely found. 54 PRONOUNS 102 Interrogative. Demonstrative. TABLE OP CORRELATIVE Relative. Indefinite (1). quis, qui, who ? which? is, that. qui, who, which. (si) quis, if any one. utcr, which of two? alter, one of two, other of two. qualig, of what kind? talis, of such kind. qualis, as. quantus, how great 1 } tantus, so great. quantus, as (great). quot, how many ? tot, so many. quot, as (many). ubi, where? ibi, there. ubi, where. si(cubi), if any- where. unde, whence ? inde, thence. unde, whence. si(cunde), if front any quarter. quo, whither ? eo, thither. quo, whither. (si) quo, if any- whither. qua, by what way? ea, by that way. qua, 6j/ what way. (si) qua, if by any way. quam. how ? tarn, so. quam, as. quando, when ? turn, then. /' quando, when. ubi, when. (si) quando, if ever. cum, when. quotiens, how often? totiens, so often. quotiens, as (of- ten). PRONOUNS 55 PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. Indefinite (2). aliquis, some one. alteruter, one or other of two. aliquantus, some (in quantity). aliquot, some (in num- ber). alicubi, somewhere. alicunde, from some quarter. aliquo, somewhither. aliqua, by some way. aliquando, at some time. aliquotiens, at some (va- rious) times. Distributive. quisque, each. uterque, each of two. ubique, everywliere. undique, from every side. Universal Relative. quicumque, wlwever, whatever. utercumque, whichever of two. qualiscumque, of what kind soever. quantuscumque, however great. quotcumque, Iwwever many. ubicumque, whereso- ever. undecumque, wliencesO' ever. quocumque, whitJierso- ever. quacumque, by whatso- ever way. quandocumque, wlienso- ever. quotienscumqaejiowever often. VERBS VERBS. The Verb has : The Three Persons First, Second, Third. ' The Two Numbers Singular and Plural. Six Tenses : (1) Present, (2) Future Simple, (3) Past Imperfect, (4) Perfect or Aorist, ^ (5) Future Perfect, (6) Pluperfect. Three Moods : (1) Indicative, (2) Imperative, ^8) Con- junctive. The Verb The Infinitive (Verbal Substantive). > Three Participles (Verbal Adjectives). The Gerund and Gerundive (Verbal Substantive The Verb and Adjective). Infinite. Two Supines (Verbal Substantives). Two Voices : (1) Active, (2) Passive. The Verb Finite is so called because it is limited by Mood and Persons ; while the Verb Infinite is not so limited. 104 PERSON AND NUMBER. In English, Pronouns are used with Verbs to express the three Persons Singular and Plural : I am, We are. But in Latin the Pronouns are expressed by the personal suffixes. su-m, J am, am-o, I love. su-mus, we are. e-s, thou art (you are}. es-tis, ye are. es-t, Tie (sJie, it) is. su-nt, they are. VERBS 57 TABLE OF PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE INDICATIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE MOODS. Singular 1 2 3 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. -m or -6 -s -t -r -rls or -re -tur Plural 1 2 3 -mus -tis -nt -nmr -mini -ntiir The Imperative Mood has only the Second and Third Person Singular and Plural, not the First. 105 TENSES. Tenses express the time of the action or state denoted by the Verb, as being : (1) Present, Past, or Future ; (2) Complete or Incomplete ; (3) Momentary or Continuous. In English, by means of auxiliary Verbs, differences of time can be more accurately expressed than in Latin ; so that one tense in Latin may correspond to two tenses in English, of which one is momentary, the other continuous. Thus, rogo, I ask, has the following tenses : Present Perfect incomplete complete rogo rogavi ^ Fut. Simple incomplete -*5 I Fut. Perf. complete spJSJ ^> 0-1 (Pluperf. complete rogavero ( rogavi ( rogabam {I ask I / am asking I have asked I have been asking I shall ask I shall be asking I shall have asked I shall have been asking I asked I was asking { I had asked \Ihad been asking Note. Latin has no separate tenses corresponding to the Greek Aorist and Perfect ; therefore the Perfect has to fill the place of two Tenses : the Aorist, I loved, and the Perfect, I liave loved. 5 VERBS The Present, the Future Simple, and the Future Perfect are called Primary Tenses. The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are called Historic Tenses. The Perfect in the sense of I have loved is Primary ; in the sense of I loved it is Historic. 106 MOOD. Moods are the forms in which the idea contained in the Verb is presented. The Indicative is the mood which states a fact : amo, I love. The Imperative is the mood of command : ama, love thou. Note. The forms of the Imperative in -to, -tote, are emphatic, and were used anciently in laws. The Conjunctive is the mood which represents something as thought of or as dependent : ut amem, that I may love ; si ama- rein, if I were to love. Note. In the Paradigms the tenses of the Conjunctive are given without any English translation, because their meaning varies so much according to the context that it is impossible to convey it by any one rendering. VERBS 59 107 THE VERB INFINITE. The Infinitive is a Verb Noun expressing action or state in general, without limit of person or number : amare, to love. The Gerund is a Verbal Substantive declined like neuters of the Second Declension It supplies Cases to the Infinitive : as amandi, of loving. The Gerundive is a Participle, or Verbal Adjective: amandus, a, urn, meet to be loved. The Supines are Cases of a Verbal Substantive : amatum, in order to love ; amatu, for or in loving. The Participles are so called because they have partly the properties of Verbs and partly those of Adjectives ; there are three besides the Gerundive : (a) Act. Pres. amans, loving (declined like ingens). (b) Act. Fut. amaturus, about to love] (declined like (c) Pass. Perf. amatus, loved ) bonus). Note. The three Participles wanting are : (a) Active Perfect, (b) Passive Present, (c) Passive Future. 108 VOICE. The Active Voice expresses what the Subject of a Verb is or does : sum, I am ; valeo, I am well ; amo, I love ; rego, I rule. The Passive Voice expresses what is done to the Subject of the Verb : amor, I am loved ; regor, I am ruled. 109 Deponent Verbs are Verbs which have chiefly the forms of the Passive Voice with the meaning of the Active Voice. 110 Verbs in the Active Voice and Deponent Verbs are, (a) Transitive (transire, pass over], acting on an object: amo eum, I love him ; hortor vos, I exhort you. (b) Intransitive, not acting on an object : sto, I stand ; loquor, I speak. Only Transitive Verbs have the full Passive Voice. 60 VERBS 111 THE CONJUGATIONS. Verbs are generally arranged according to the Character of the Present Stem in four Conjugations. The Character is most clearly seen before the suffix -re (or -ere) of the Infinitive Present Active. It is either one of the vowels a, e, i, u, or a Consonant. First Conjugation, A- Stems. Second Conjugation, E- Stems. Third Conjugation, Consonant and IT- Stems. Fourth Conjugation, I- Stems. Deponent Verbs are also divided into four Conjugations with the same Stem endings. 112 The following forms must be known in order to give the full Conjugation. A- Stems. E- Stems. ^^terns. L Stem8 ' Active Voice. 1 Pers. Pres. Indie, amo m6neo rego audio Infin. Pres. amarS monere' regere" audlre Perfect. amavi monul rexl audlv! Supine in -um. amatum monitum rectum auditum Passive Voice. 1 Pers. Pres. Indie, amor moneor regor audior Infin. Pres. amari moneri regi audlrl Partic. Perf. amatus monitus rectus audltus Gerundive amandus monendus regendus audiendua VERBS 6r 113 In the Perfects -avi, -evi, -ovi, v sometimes drops out before -is or -er, and contraction follows : amavisti becomes amasti, amaverunt amarunt, amavissem amassem. In I- Stems there is no contraction : audlvi becomes audii, audiverunt audierunt. (See 14.) For -erunt (3rd pers. pi. Perf. Act.), -ere is often written . amavere, implevere, audlvere ; but these forms are not con- tracted. The 2nd pers. sing, in the Passive ends in -ris or -re : amabaris, amabare ; but in Pres. Indie, the ending in -re is rare. Note. An old form in -ier of the Pres. Infin. Passive is some- times found in poetry : amarier for amari. Poets sometimes use old forms in the Future of I- Stems ; as audlbo, audlbor, for audiam, audiar. The Gerundive sometimes ends in -undus in Consonant and I- Stems. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. The Active Future Participle and the Gerundive may be used with all the Tenses of the Verb sum : amaturus, -a sum, I am about to love. amaturus, -a es, thou art about to love. amaturus, -a est, Tie (she) is about to love, amaturi, -ae sumus, we are about to love. etc. amandus, -a sum, I am meet to be loved. etc. In the same way the Participle futurus may be used with the tenses of sum : futurus sum, I am about to be. The Active Future Participle with fuisse forms an Imperfect Future Infinitive, which is only used conditionally : amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love. 62 VERBS 115 *The Verb Sum, I am This verb is formed from two roots, 6s, to be, and f&, to be or the Perfect and Participial Stems from the root ftt. In the tense forms TENSE. INDICATIVE. sum, I am. es, thou art. Present. est, Tie is. Burnus, we are. estis, ye are. sunt, they are. ero, I shall be. eris, thou wilt be. Future Simple. erit, erimus, he will be. we shall be. eritis, ye will be. erunt, they will be. eram, I was. eras, thou wast. Imperfect. erat, eramus, lie was. we were. eratis, ye were. erant, they were. fui, I have been or I was. fuisti, thou hast been or thou wast. Perfect. fuit, fuimus, he has been or he was. we have been or we were. fuistis, ye have been or ye were. fuerunt, they have been or they were. fuero, I shall have been. fuens, thou wilt have been. Future Perfect. fuerit, fuerimus, he will have been, we shall have been. fueritis, ye will have been. fuerint, they will have been. fueram, I had been. fueras, thou hadst been. Pluperfect. fuerat, fueramus, he had been, ive had been. fueratis, ye had been. fuerant, they had been. * Before the regular Verbs it is necessary to conjugate the as an auxiliary in the conjugation of other Verbs. VERBS (sum, fui, esse, futurus). become. The Present Stein is formed from the root s-. es- sometimes drops e : sum, sumus ; sometimes s changes to r : erani. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. sim sis Bit slums SltlS sint es, esto, be thou. esto, let him be. este, estate, be ye. sunto, let them be. THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives. e p S erf>-.' fe - Perfect ) ,. - , 7 PI erf | misse, to have been. Future jgf " us es8 *}to be about to be. Participles. Present (none). Future futurus, about to be. Gerunds and Supines. (None.) essem or forem esses or fores esset or foret essemus essetis essent or forent fuerim raeris fuerjt fuerimus fueritis fuerint ciple of sum. It is only seen in the compounds, ab-sens, prae-sens. Like Sum are conjugated its com- pounds: absum, am absent; adsum, am present ; dcsum, am wanting ; insum, am in or among ; intersum, am among ; obsum, hinder; praesum, am set over; prOsum, am of use ; subsum, am under ; supersum, survive. In prosum the final d of the old preposition is kept before e : prodes. fuissem fuisses fuisset fuissemus fuissetis fuissent irregular Verb of Being, sum, lam, esse, to be, because it is used 6 4 VERBS FIEST CONJUGATION ACTIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. Present amo, amas, amat, amamiis, amatis, amant, I love or am loving, thou lovest or art loving, he loves or is loving, we love or are loving, ye love or are loving, they love or are loving. Future Simple. amabo, amabis, amabit, amabimus, amabitis, amabunt, I shall love, thou loilt love, he will love, we shall love, ye will love, they will love. Imperfect. amabam, amabas, amabat, amabamus, amabatis, amabant, I was loving or I loved, thou ivast loving or thou lovedst. he was loving or he loved, we were loving or we loved, ye were loving or ye loved, they were loving or they loved. Perfect. amavi, amavisti, amavit, amavimus, amavistis, amaverunt, I have loved or I loved, thou hast loved or thou lovedst. he has loved or he loved, we have loved or we loved, ye have loved or ye loved, they have loved or they loved. Future Perfect. amaverp, amaveris, amaverit, amaverimiis, amaveritis, amaverint, I shall have loved, thou wilt have loved, he will have loved, we shall have loved, ye will have loved, they will have loved. Pluperfect. amaveram, amaveras, amaverat, amaveramiis, amaveratis, amaverant. I had loved, thou hadst loved, he had loved, we had loved, ye had loved, they had loved. A- STEMS. VOICE. VERBS CONJUNCTIVE. amem ames amet amemus ametis ament amarem amares amaret amaremus amaretis amarent amaverim amaveris amaverit amaverimus amaveritis amaverint amavissem amavisses amavisset amavissemus amavissetis amavissent IMPERATIVE. ama, amato, love thou. amato, let him love. amate, amatote, love ye. amanto, let them love. THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives. Present . - , 7 Imperf. I amare ' to love ' Perfect \ . , -, , PI erf | amavisse, to have loved. Future amaturus esse, to be about to love. Gerunds. Nom. Ace. amandum, the loving. Gen. amandl, of loving. Dat. Abl. amando, for or by loving. Supines. amatum, in order to love. amatu, in or for loving. Participles. Pres. amans, loving. Fut. amaturus, about to love. 66 VERBS 117 SECOND CONJUGATION ACTIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. moneo, I advise or am advising. mones, thou advisest or art advising. monet, he advises or is advising. Present. monemus, we advise or are advising. monetis, ye advise or are advising. monent, they advise or are advising. monebo, I sliall advise. monebis, thou wilt advise. Future Simple. rnonebit, monebimus, he will advise, we shall advise. monebitis, ye will advise. monebunt, they tvill advise. monebam, I was advising or I advised. monebas, thou wast advising or thou advisedst. Imperfect. monebat, monebamus, he was advising or he advised, we were advising or we advised. monebatis, ye were advising or ye advised. monebant, they were advising or they advised. monui, I have advised or I advised. monuisti, thou hast advised or thou advisedst. monuit, he has advised or he advised. Perfect, monuimus, we have advised or we advised. monuistis, ye have advised or ye advised. monuerunt, they have advised or they advised. monuero, I shall have advised. monueris, thou wilt have advised. Future Perfect. monuerit, monuerimiis, he will have advised. we shall have advised. monueritis, ye will have advised. monuerint, they will have advised. monueram, I had advised. monueras, thou hadst advised. monuerat, he had advised. Pluperfect. monueramus, we had advised. monueriltis, ye had advised. moniierant, they had advised. VERBS 67 E- STEMS. VOICE. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. monearn moneas moneat moneain us moneatls moneant mone, 'moneto, advise thou. moneto, let him advise. monete, monetote, advise ye. monento, let them advise. THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives. sen ,. j- monere, to advise. pf r e f 1 nionuisse, to have advised. Future monituriis esse, to be about to advise. Gerunds. Nona. Ace. monendum, the advising. Gen. monendi, of advising. Dat. Abl. monendo, for or by advising. Supines. momtum, in order to advise. momtu, in or for advising. Participles. Pres. monens, advising. Fut. momturus, about to advis. monerem moneres monerct moneremus monerctis monerent monuerim raonuerls monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint monuissein monuissos monuisset monuissemiis monuissetis monuissent T 2 68 VERBS 118 THIRD CONJUGATION ACTIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. rego I rule or am ruling. regis, thou rulest or art ruling. Present. regit, regimus, he rules or is ruling, we rule or are ruling. regitis, ye rule or are ruling. regunt, they rule or are ruling. regam, I shall rule. reges, thou wilt rule. Future Simple. reget, regemus, he will rule, we shall rule. regetis, ye will rule. regent, they will rule. regebam, I was ruling or I ruled. regebas, thou wast ruling or thou ruledst. Imperfect. regebat, regebamus, he was ruling or he ruled, we were ruling or we ruled. regebatis, ye were ruling or ye ruled. regebant, they were ruling or they ruled. rexi, I have ruled or / ruled. rexisti, thou hast ruled or thou ruledst. Pprfp *o hear. pi I audivisse, to have Jieard. Future auditiirus ease, to be about to hear. Gerunds. Nom. Ace. audiendum, the hearing. Gen. audiendl, of hearing. Dat. Abl. audiendo, for or by hearing. Supines. audltum, in order to hear. auditu, in or for hearing. Participles. Present cudiens, hearing. Future audituriis, about to hear. VERBS 120 FIRST CONJUGATION PASSIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. Present. amor, amaris, amatur, aniamur, amamini, amantiir, I am or I am being loved, thou art or thou art being loved, he is or he is being loved, we are or we are being loved, ye are or ye are being loved, they are or they are being loved. Future Simple. amabor, amaberis, amabitur, amabimur, ainabimini, amabuntur, I shall be loved, thou wilt be loved, he ivill be loved, we shall be loved, ye will be loved, they will be loved. Imperfect. amabar, amabaris, amabatur, amabamur, amabamini, amabantur, I was being or I was loved, thou wast being or thou wast loved, he was being or he was loved, we were being or ive were loved, ye were being or ye were loved, they were being or they were loved. Perfect. amatus sum, arnatus es, amatus est, amati suimis, amatl estis, amati sunt, I have been or I was loved, thou hast been or thou wast loved, he has been or he was loved, we have been or we were loved, ye have been or ye were loved, they have been or they were loved. Future Perfect. amatus ero, amatus eris, amatiis erit, amatl erimus, amatl eritis, amatl erunt, I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he will have been loved, we shall have been loved, ye will have been loved, they will have been loved. Pluperfect. amatus eram, amatus eras, amatus erat, amati eramiis, amati eratis, amatl erant, I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been loved, we had been loved, ye had been loved, they had been loved. VERBS 73 A- STEMS. VOICE. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. amer ameris ametur amemur amemml amentiir amarer arnareris amaretur amaremiir amareminl amarentur amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit amati simus amati sltis amati sint amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset amati essemiis amati essetis amati essent amare, amator, be thou loved. amator, let him be loved. amaminl, be ye loved. amantor, let them be loved. Present Imperf. , Perfect THE VEBB INFINITE. Infinitives, amari, to be loved. amatus esse, to have been loved. Pluperf. i Future amatum iri. (See 387). Participle. Perfect amatus, loved, or having been loved, Gerundive, amandus, meet to be loved. 74 VERBS 121 SECOND CONJUGATION PASSIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. Present. moneor, moneris, monetiir, monemur, monemini monentur, I am or I am being advised, thou art or thou art being advised, he is or he is being advised, we are or we are being advised, ye are or ye are being advised, they are or they are being advised. Future Simple. monebor, moneberis, monebitur, monebimiir, monebimini, monebuntur, I shall be advised, thou wilt be advised, he will be advised, we shall be advised, ye will be advised, they will be advised. Imperf. monebar, monebaris, monebatur, naonebamur, monebamini, monebantur, I was being or I was advised, thou wast being or thou wast advised, he was being or he was advised, we were being or we were advised, ye were being or ye were advised, they were being or they were advised. Perfect. monitiis sum monltus es, monitiis est, moniti sumiis, moniti estis, monitl sunt, I have been or I was advised, thou hast been or thou wast advised, he has been or he was advised, we have been or we were advised, ye have been or ye were advised, they have been or they were advised. Future Perfect. monitus ero, monitiis eris, monitiis erit, moniti erimiis, moniti eritis, moniti erunt. I shall have been advised, thou wilt have been advised, he will have been advised, we shall have been advised, ye will have been advised, they will have been advised. Pluperf. raonitus eram, monitus eras, monitiis erat, moniti eramus, moniti eratis, moniti erant, I had been advised, thou hadst been advised, he had been advised, we had been advised, ye had been advised, they had been advised. VERBS 75 E- STEMS. VOICE. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. monear monearis moneatur moneamur moneaniim moneantiir monerer monereris moneretiir moneremiir moneremini monerentiir monitiis sim monitiis sis monitiis sit moniti simus moniti sitis moniti sint monitiis essem monitiis esses monitus esset moniti essemiis moniti essetis moniti essent monere, monetor, "be thou advised. monetor, let him be advised. monemini, be ye advised. monentor, let them be advised. THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives. Present > - - , , , . , Ii erf I moneri, to be advised. pi r I monitus esse, to have been advised. Future monitum iri. (See 387.) Participle. Perfect monitiis, advised, or having been advised. Gerundive, monendiis, meet to be advised. VERBS 122 THIRD CONJUGATION PASSIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. Present. regor, regeris, regitiir, regimur, regimini, reguntur, I am or I am being ruled, thou art or thou art being ruled, he is or he is being ruled, we are or we are being ruled, ye are or ye are being ruled, they are or they are being ruled. Future Simple. regar, regeris, regetur, regemiir, regemini, regentur, I shall be ruled, thou wilt be ruled, he will be ruled, we shall be ruled, ye will be ruled, they will be ruled. Imperfect. regebar, regebaris, regebatur, regebamur, regebamini, regebantui, I was being or I was ruled, thou wast being or thou ivast ruled, he was being or he was ruled, we were being or we were ruled, ye were being or ye were ruled, they were being or they were ruled. Perfect. rectiis sum, recttis es, rectiis est, recti sumus, recti estis, recti sunt, I have been or I was ruled, thou hast been or thou wast ruled, he has been or he was ruled, we have been or we were ruled, ye have been or ye were ruled, they have been or they were ruled. Future Perfect. rectiis ero, rectiis eris, rectiis erit, recti erimiis, recti eritis, recti erunt, I shall have been ruled, thou wilt have been ruled, he will have been ruled, we shall have been ruled, ye will have been ruled, they will have been ruled. Pluperfect. rectiis eram, rectiis eras, rectiis erat, recti eramiis, recti eratis, recti erant, I had been ruled, thou hadst been ruled, he had been ruled, we had been ruled, ye had been ruled, they had been ruled. VERBS 77 CONSONANT STEMS VOICE. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. regar regaris regatur regamur regamini regantur regere, regitor, be thou ruled. regitor, let him be ruled. regimini, be ye ruled. reguntor, let them be ruled. regerer regereris regeretiir regeremur regeremini regerentur THE VERB INFINITE/ Infinitives. rectus sim rectus sis rectus sit Present t rectl simus Imperf. > r ^&' * be ru ^ e ^" recti sitis recti sint Perfect ) .< - . i_ * Pluoerf > rec * us esse > *" ' iave been ruled. Future rectum iri. (See 387.) Participle. Perfect rectus, ruled, or hewing been ruled. Gerundive, regendiis, meet to be ruled. rectus essem rectus esses rectus esset recti essemus recti essetis rectl essent VERBS 123 FOURTH CONJUGATION PASSIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. Present. audior, audiris, auditor, audimiir, audimini, audiuntiir, I am or I am b eing heard, thou art or thou art being Jieard. he is or lie is being heard, we are or we are being heard, ye are or ye are being heard, they are or they are being heard. Future Simple. audiar, audieris, audietur, audiemiir, audiemml, audientiir, I shall be heard, thou wilt be heard, he will be heard, we shall be heard, ye will be heard, they will be heard. Imperf. audiebar, audiebaris, audiebatiir, audiebamur, audiebamini, audiebantur, I was being or I was heard, thou ivast being or thou ivast heard, he was being or he was heard, we were being or we were heard, ye were being or ye were heard, they were being or they were heard. Perfect. auditus sum, auditiis es, auditus est, audit! sumus, audit! estis, audit! sunt, I have been or I was heard, thou hast been or thou wast heard, he has been or he was heard, we have been or we were heard, ye have been or ye were heard, they have been or tJiey were Jieard. Future Perfect auditus ero, auditus eris, auditus erit, auditl erirnus, auditl eritis, auditl erunt, I shall have been heard, thou wilt have been heard, he will have been heard, we sJiall have been heard, ye will have been Jieard. they will have been Jieard. Pluperf. auditus eram, auditus eras, auditus erat, audit! eramiis, audit! eratis, auditl erant, I had been Jieard. thou hadst been heard, he had been heard, we had been heard, ye had been heard, they had been heard. VERBS 79 I-STEHS. VOICE. CONJUNCTIVE. audiar audiarls audiatiir audiarnur audiammi audiantiir audirer audirerls audiretur audiremiir audireminl audirentur auditus sim auditiis sis audltiis sit audit! sirnus auditl sitis audrti sint auditiis essem auditus esses auditiis esset audit! essemus audit! essetis audit! essent IMPERATIVE. audire, auditor, be thou heard. auditor, let him be heard. audimini, be ye heard. audiuntor, let them be heard. Present Imperf. ] THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives, audiri, to be heard. 30 c \ auditus esse, to have been heard. irlupert. ' Future auditum iri. (See 387). Participle. Perfect auditus, heard, or having been heard. Gerundive, audiendiis, meet to be heard. 8o VERBS 124 UTOR, UTI, usus, use DEPONENT VERB, HAVING THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE TENSE. INDICATIVE. utor, I use. uteris, thou usest. Present. utitur, he uses. utimiir, we use. utimini, ye use. utuntur, they use. utar, I shall use. uteris, thou wilt use. Future Simple. utetiir, utemur, he will use. we shall use. utemini, ye will use. utentiir, they will use. utebar, 1 was using or I used. utebaris, thou wast using or thou didst use. Imperfect. utebatur, utebamur, he was using or he used, we were using or we used. utebamini, ye were using or ye used. utebantiir, they were using or they used. usus sum, I have used or I used. usus es, thou hast used or thou didst use. Perfect. usus est, us! sumus, he has used or he used, we have used or we used. usl estis, ye have used or ye used. usi sunt, they have used or they used. usus ero, I shall have used. usus eris, thou wilt have used. Future Perfect usus erit, usl erimiis, he will have used, we shall have used. usi eritis, ye will have used. usl erunt, they will have used. usiis eram, I had used. usiis eras, thou hadst used. Pluperfect. usus erat, usi eramiis, he had used, we had used. usi eratis, ye had used. usl erant, they had used. Deponent Verbs have Gerunds, Supines. Present and Future Participles VERBS 8l (THIRD CONJUGATION). VOICE, WITH THE MEANING OF THE ACTIVE. CONJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. iitar utaris utatiir utamur utammi utantur uterer utereris uteretur uteremiir uteremini uterentiir usiis aim usiis sis usiis sit usi simiis usi sitis usi sint UBUS essem usiis esses usiis esset usi essemus usi essetis usi essent utere, utitor, use thou. utitor, let him use. utimini, use ye. utuntor, let them use. THE VERB INFINITE. Infinitives. T iCDC T[ uti, to use. Imperf. > Perfect ) usiis esse, to have used. Pluperf. ) Future usurus esse, to be about to use. Gerunds. Nom. Ace. utendum, using. Gen. utendi, of using. Dat. Abl. utendo, for or by using. Supines, usum, to use. usu, in or for using. Participles. Present utens, using. Future usurus, about to use. Perfect usiis, having used Gerundive, utendiis, meet to be usel* Active ; their Perfect Participles have the meaning of the Active Voice. G VERBS 125 DEPONENT VERBS of the four Conjugations. Venor venatus arum veaari, hunt. Vereor *eritus sum vereri fear. TTtor usus sum uti, use. Partior partitus sum partiri, divide INDICATIVE. TENSE 1st CONJ. 2nd CONJ. 3rd CONJ. 4th CONJ. Pres. Fut. S. Imperf. Perf. Fut. Perf. Pluperf. venor venaris (re^ venabor venabar venatus sum venatus ero venatus eram vereor utor vereris (re) uteris (re) verebor utar verebar utebar veritus sum usus sum veritus ero usus ero veritus eram usus eram partior partiris (ire) partiar partiebar partitus sum partitus ero partitus eram CONJUNCTIVE. Pres. Imperf. Perf. Pluperf. vener venarer venatus sim venatus essem verear utar vererer uterer veritus sim usus sim veritus essem usus essem partiar partlrer partitus sim partitus essem IMPERATIVE. venare venator verere utere veretor utltor partire partltor THE VERB INFINITE. Pres. & I Imp.' Pert. &\ PI up. f Put. venari venatus esse venaturus esse Infinitives. vereri uti veritus esse usus esse veriturus esse usurus esse partiri partitus esse partlturus esse Participles. Pres. Fut. Perf. venans venaturus venatus verens utens veriturus usurus veritus usus partiens partlturus partitus Gerundive. venandus verendus utendus partiendus Gerunds. venandum, -i, -o verendum, -i, -o utenduin, -i, -o partiendum, -i, -o Supines. in -urn in -u venatum venatu veritum usum verltu usu partltnm partltu Note. Some Deponents have an Active form also : punior and piinio, punish. VERBS 83 126 Many Perf. Participles of Deponent Verbs are used passively as well as actively : as confessus from confiteor, confess ; imitatus from imitor, imitate ; meritus from me'reor, deserve ; pollicitus from polliceor, promise. 127 Some Verbs have a Perfect of Passive form with a Present of Active form ; they are called Semi-deponents : audeo, dare ausus sum, I have dared or J dared. gaudeo, rejoice gavlsus sum, J have rejoiced or J rejoiced. soleo, am wont solltus sum, J liave been wont or I was wont. fldo, trust fisus sum, I have trusted or I trusted. 128 Some Verbs have an Active form with Passive meaning ; they are called Quasi-Passive : exulo, am banished. liceo, am put up for sale. vapulo, am beaten. veneo, am on sale. fio, am made. 129 Some Verbs have Perfect Participles with Active meaning, like the Deponent Verbs : juro, swear, juravi, I swore. juratus, having sworn. ceno, sup. cenavi, I supped. cenatus, having supped. prandeo, dine. prandi, I dined. pransus, having dined. 130 Inceptive Verbs, with Present Stem in -sco (Third Conjuga- tion), express beginning of action, and are derived from Verb- Stems or from Nouns : pallesco, turn pale, from palleo. nigresco, turn blade, from niger. 131 Frequentative Verbs (First Conj .) express repeated or intenser action, and are formed from Supine Stems : r6gito, ask repeatedly (rogo) ; canto, sing with energy (cano). 132 Desiderative Verbs (Fourth Conj.) express desire of action, and are formed from the Supine Stem : esurio, am hungry (e"do, esurus). o2 84 VERBS VERBS IN -io (THIKD CONJUGATION). Forms from Present Stem, cap-i-, take. ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE INDIC. CONJUNC. INDIC. CONJUNC. Present capio capis capit capimus capitis capiunt capiam capias capiat capiamus capiatis capiant Present capior caperis capitur capimur capimini capiuntur capiar capiaris capiatur capiamur capiamini capiantur i 1 DQ -t5 p capiam capies capiet capiemua capietis capient 2. cape, capito. 3. capito. 2. capere, capitor. 3. capitor. fj 2. capite, capitote. p 3. capiunto. 2. capimini. y. capiuntor. Infin. Pres. capere, Gerund. capiendum. Pres. Partic. capiens. Infin. Pres. capi. Gerundive capiendus. Capio has Perfect cepi ; Supine captum. The Verbs in -io are : and their capio, cupio and facio, fodio, f ugio and jacio, r d pano, rapio, sapio, quatio, J Compounds of specio and lacio | Deponent : gradior, patior, morior, And in some tenses, potior, orior, take, desire, make, dig, fly, throw, bring forth, seize, know, sliake. look at, entice. step, suffer, die. get possession of, arise. IRREGULAR VERBS IRREGULAR VERBS. Verbs are called irregular : (1) Because they are formed from more than one root, as sum. (2) Because their tense-forms differ from those of regular verbs. Possum, I can, potui, posse. The Pres. Indie, possum is compounded of sum, I am, and adjective potis or poti, able. INDIC. CONJUNC. INDIC. CONJUNC. Present possum potes potest possiimus potestis possunt possim possis possit posslinus possitis possint Perfect potui potuisti potuit potuimus potuistis potuerunt potuerim potueris potuerit potuerimus potueritis potuerint (, in -*3 s potero poteris poterit poterimus poteritis poterunt <<-< B I potuero potueria potuerit potuerimus potueritis potuerint t! I poteram S possem poteras posses poterat posset poteramus possemus poteratis possetis poterant i possent <-H t* 9 & J3 S potueram potueras potuerat potueramus potueratis potuerant potuissem potuisses potuisset potuissemus potuissetis potuissent Infinitive Pres. and Imperf. posse (pot-esse), Perf. and Pluperf. potuisse. Potens is used as an Adjective, powerful, able, never as a Par- ticiple. 86 VERBS Fero, bear, ferre, tuli, latum. ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE INDIC. CONJUNC. INDIC. CONJUNC. -ta PI Future iturus esse. Geninds. Nom. Ace. eundum. Gen. eundi. Dat. Abl. eundo. Supines, itum. itu. Participles. Pres. lens (Ace. euntem). Future iturus. CM c a 1 ibam ibas ibat ibamus ibatis ibant irem ires iret iremus iretis irent 1 PH ii or Ivi lerim ieris ierit ierimus ieritis ierint iisti, ivisti iit, ivit iimus, ivimus iistis, ivistis ierunt, iverunt In the Perfect Tense of eo the forms ii, iisti &c. are more usual than Ivi &c.; also in the compounds redii, rediisti, redisti. The Impersonal Passive, itur, itum est, is often used. 138 Queo, can, neqneo, cannot, are conjugated like eo in the forms which are found, but many are wanting ; they have no Imperative and no Gerunds. Ambio, go round, canvass, is conjugated like audio. VERBS Volo, am willing, wish. Nolo, am unwilling, do not wish. Malo, prefer, wish rather. Nolo is compounded of ne and volo. Malo of magis and volo. INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present volo vis vult volumus vultis volant nolo nonvis nonvult nolumus nonvultis nolunt malo mavis mavult malumus ma vultis malunt noli, nollto noli to nollte nolitote, nolunto Volo and malo have no Imperative. ental sounds are dropped, plausi, flexi ; with lengthening of short vowels as in mlsi. The labial p remains unchanged, as in sculpsi, ) becomes p, scripsi, nupsi. After m, p is inserted, in sumpsi Jmpsi ; s remains, as in gessi, ussi, where in the Present it changes to scomes single after a long vowel or diphthong, as haesi, hausi. II. The weak Perfect forms in -vi and -ui are peculiar to the Latin language They were probably formed by analogy from the V- and U- Stems like favi, acui, and extended to a very large number of Verbs. All the A- and I- Stems which keep their character vowel throughout the tenses as amavi, audivi, form their Perfect tense in -vi as well as many Consonant-Stems. The Perfect in -ui is joined to the Clipt btems, as mon-ui, also to a few Clipt Stems in A- and E- and o a large number of Consonant Verbs. This form had a tendency to spread in later Latin, and many Verbs formed new Perfects in -ui after the classical period. ^ J THE SUPINE STEM. The Supine or Participial Stem ends in -to. This suffix is joined to the Stem or to the dipt Stem, either immediately or by the vowel i is joined immediately to the Vowel-Stem, as in most of the A- I- Stems, the character vowel is lengthened. When it is joined to a isonant-Stem, the laws of consonant change again come into force ; g t becomes c ; the guttural is dropped after 1 or r, fultum, tortum i inserted between m and t, emptum. In a few Verbs the Stem-vowel changed, as in lavo, which has besides lavatum a contracted Supine form lautum. afterwards becoming lotum : in satum (from sero), cultum (from The Supine in -sum was formed in Dental Stems by a regular change 01 dial -dt-, -tt- to ss ; thus ced-to-, mit-to-, would become cesso-, misso-, and double s would become single after a long vowel or diphthong (20) t?rom the Dental Stems the Supine in -sum spread to many other Verbs by nalogy. It combines with Consonant-Stems according to the same laws of etter change as the Perfect in -si. VERBS 152 TABLE OF VERB PERFECTS AND SUPINES.* I. A- Stems. Present Infin. Perfect Supine Usual Form. o(-a-io) -are -avi -a-tcm amo amarS amavi amatum Exceptions. -ui -itum crepo cubo -are -are crepui cubui crepitum cubitum creak lie doum domo -are domui domitum tame plico Bono -are -are -plicavi i -plicui J sonui -plicatum > -plicitum ) sonitum fold sound tono -are tonui tonitum thunder veto -are vetui > vetavi I vetitum forbid -Ui -atnm mice -are micui ) micavi I -micatum glitter -ui -turn eneco -are enecui enectum Mil frlco -are fricui frictum < fricatum j rub seco -are secui sectum cut -1 -turn (a) Reduplicated turn do Bid -are -are dedi steti datum statum give stand (b) Lengthened Stem -turn JUTO -are juv -i jutum lavatum | iielp lavo -are lav -i lautum > wash lotum j Note.Juvo, lavo have Fut. Part, juvaturus, lavaturus. * For very many Supines no authority exists ; but the form is inferred from the Perfect Participle Passive, or from the Fu- ture Participle, or the Verbal Substantive. Forms printed with a hyphen, as -pli- cavi, -plicatum, are only used in com- pounds. TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES 99 3 11. E- Stems. Present Infin. Perfect Supine Usual Form. -eo (-e-io) -ere -ui -Itum m6neo monere monul monltum Exceptions. -ui -turn arceo dGceo -ere -ere arcui docui doctum ward off teach ferveo -ere ferbui i fervi i behot misceo -ere miscoi mistum . sorbeo teneo torreo -ere -ere -ere mixtum i sorbui tenui tentum torrui tostum mix swallow hold scorch -ui -sum censeo -ere censui censum deem, vote -vi -turn aboleo cieo deleo fleo neo -ere * -ere -ere -ere -ere abolevi abolitum cm citum delevi deletum flevi fletum nevi destroy stir up blot out V- If -pleo -ere -plevi -pletum spin fitt si -turn augeo conlveo . frlgeo lugeo -ere -ere -ere -ere auxi auctum conixi frixi luxi increa&s (tr.) wink freeze polluceo fulgeo indulgeo mulgeo torqueo -ere -ere -ere -ere -ere polluctum fulsi indulsi mulsi torsi tortum mourn makeafsast shine indulge milk twist -si -sum algeo ardeo haereo jubeo luceo -ere -ere -ere -ere alsi arsi haesi jussi jussum luxi be cold burn (intr.) stick command shi fie maneo mulceo rideo -ere -ere -ere mansi mansum mulsi mulsum risi risum remain soothe suadeo tergeo -ere -ere suasi suasum tersi advise turgeo -ere tursi wipe swell urgeo -ere ursi press Note. Ardeo, haereo have Put. Part, arsurus, haesurus. H2 100 VERBS Present Jnfin. Perfect Supine -i -turn or -sum (a) Lengthened Stem -turn caveo -ere cav-i cautum beware faveo -ere fav-i fautum favour foveo -ere fov-i fotum cherish mSveo -ere mov-i motum move (tr.) paveo -ere pav-i quake voveo -ere vov-i votuin vow (1 >; Reduplicated -sum pendeo mordeo -ere -ere pependi pensum momordi rnorsum Jiang (intr.) bite spondeo tondeo -ere -ere spopondi sponsum totondi tonsum pledge shear (c) Lengthened Stem -sum sedeo -ere sedi sessum sit video -ere vidi vlsum see prandeo strideo -ere -ere prandi pransum stridi lunch, dine creak 154 III. Consonant and TJ- Stems. Consonant Stems. Present Infin. Perfect Supine rego regere rexi rectum -si -turn c5quo dlco -ere -ere coxi coctum dixi dictum cook say dillgo diico -ere -ere dilexi dilectum duxi ductum love lead affligo frlgo intellego neglego pergo sugo -ere -6re -ere -ere -ere -ere -flixi -flictum frixi frictum intellexi intellectum neglexi neglectum perrexi perrectum suxi suctum smite down roast understand neglect proceed suck surgo -ere surrexi surrectum arise tpco -ere texi tectum cover uv ^o traho -ere traxi tractum draw veho -ere vexi vectum carry vivo -ere vixi victum live fluo -ere fluxi fluctum flow Btruo -era struxi structum build TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES 101 Present Infin. Perfect Supine carpo -ere carpsi carptum pluck nubo -ere nupsi nuptum marry repo -ere repsi reptum creep scalpo -ere scalpsi scalptum scratch sculpo -ere sculpsi sculptum carve scrlbo -ere scrips! scriptum write gero -ere gessi gestum carry on uro -ere ussi ustum burn (tr.) como -ere compsi comptum adorn demo -ere dempsi demptum take away promo -ere prompsi promptum bring out sumo -ere sumpsi sumptum take temno -ere -tempsi -temptum despise ango -ere pain clango -ere clash cingo -ere cinxi cinctum surround exstinguo -ere exstinxi exstinctum quench fingo -ere finxi fictum feign jungo -ere junxi junctum join pango -ere panxi > pegi J pactum fasten pingo -ere pinxi pictum paint stringo -ere strinxi strictum bind tingo -ere tinxi tinctum dye unguo (ungo) -ere unxi unctum anoint ninguit (ningit) -ere ninxit it snows -81 -sum figo -ere fixi fixum fix mergo -ere mersi mersum drown spargo -ere sparsi sparsum sprinkle cedo -ere cessi cessum yield claudo -ere clausi clausum shut divide -ere divlsi divlsum divide laedo -ere laesi laesum hurt ludo -ere lusi lusum play mitto -ere misi missum send plaudo -ere plausi plausum applaud rado -ere rasi rasum scrape rodo -ere rosi rosum gnaw trudo -ere trusi trusum thrust vado -ere (in)vasi (in)vasum go (attack) prerno -ere pressi pressum press flecto -ere flexi flexum bend necto -ere nexi ) nexuii" nexum bind pec to -ere pexi pexum comb quatio -ere quassi quassum shake (tr.) oonciitio -ere concussi concussum shake together Note. Nexui, the more usual Perf. of necto, Js from an obsolete verb, nexo. 102 VERBS Present Infin. Perfect Supine -VI -turn sero -ere sevi satum sow cerno -ere crevi cretum sift, discern sperno -ere sprevi spretum despise sterno -ere stravi stratum strew lino -ere levi ) Hvi 1 litum smear sino -ere slvi situm allow cognosce -ere cognovi cognltum know cresco -ere crevi cretum grow nosco -ere novi notum know pasco -ere pavi pastum feed (tr.) abolesco -ere abolevi decay adolesco -ere adolevi grow up obsolesco -ere obsolevi grow out of use quiesco -ere quievi quietum rest BUCSCO -ere suevi suetum grow accustomed Note. Adolesco has adjective adultus. -ivi -itnm arcesso -ere arcessivi arcessitum send for incesso -ere incessivi attack lacesso -ere lacesslvi lacessitum provoke capesso -ere capessivi capessitum take in hand cupio -ere cuplvi cupitum desire sapio -ere sapivi be wise quaero -ere quaeslvi quaesitum seek tero -ere tiivi tritum rub -ui turn alo -ere alui altum nourish colo -ere colui cultum till, worship consulo -ere consului consultum consult occulo -ere occului occultum hide pinso -ere pinsui } pinsi J pistum beat, pound aero -ere serni sertum join texo -ere texui textum weave rapio -ere rapui raptum seize -Ul -itum fremo -ere fremui fremitum bellow gemo -ere gemui gemitum groan molo -ere molui molitum grind strepo -re strepui strepitum roar tremo -ere tremui tremble vomo -ere vomui vomitum vomit gigno -ere genui genitum produce pono -ere posui positum place compesco -ere compescui restrain -m -sum meto -ere naessui messum reap excello -ere excellui excel TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES 103 Present Infin. Perfect Supine -I -turn (a) Reduplicated -turn cano -ere cecmi cantum sing pungo -ere pupugi punctum prick tango -ere tetlgi tactum touch tendo -ere tetendi tentum (tensum) stretch disco -ere didlci learn posco -ere poposci demand pario -ere peperi partum bring forth -sum cado -ere cecidi casurn fall caedo -ere cecidi caesum beat, kill curro -ere cucurri cursum run fallo -ere fefelli falsum deceive parco -ere peperci parsum spare pello -ere pepuli pulsum drive pendo -ere pependi pensum hang tundo .^.^,. tusum ) -ere tutudi bruise tun sum i Compounds of do abdo -ere abdidi abditum hide addo -ere addidi additum add condo -ere condidi conditum found, hide credo -ere credidi creditum believe dedo -ere dedidi deditum give up edo -ere edidi editum give forth perdo -ere perdidi perditum lose prodo -ere prodidi proditum betray reddo -ere reddidi redditum restore subdo -ere subdidi subditum substitute trado -ere tradidi traditum deliver vendo -ere vendidi venditum sell Note. Pereo, perish, veneo, go for sale, are used as Passives of perdo and vendo. Reduplicated from sto sisto -ere -stiti -statum make to stand (b) Lengthened Stem, -turn emo ere emi emptum buy lego -ere legi lectum choose, read rumpo -ere rupi ruptum break vinco -ere vici victurn conquer linquo -ere llqui -lictum leave capio -era cepi captum take fugio -ere fugi fugitum fly ago -ere egi actum do frango -ere fregi fractum break (tr.) facio -ere feci factum make jack) -ere jeci jacturu throw 104 VERBS Present Infin. Perfect Supine Lengthened Stem -I -sum fundo -ere fudi fusum pour retundo -ere rettudi retusum beat back fOdio -ere fodi fossum dig 6do -ere edi esum eat -i -turn, -sum blbo -ere blbi bibitum drink Ico -ere ici ictum strike cudo -ere cudi cusum stamp sido -ere sidi settle viso -ere visi visum visit psallo -ere psalli play on strings verro -ere verri versum sweep verto -ere verti versum turn (tr.) -cendo -ere -cendi -censum kindle -fando -ere -fendi -fensum strike findo -ere fidi fissum cleave mando -ere mandi mansum chew pando -ere pandi pansum passum I open, spread prehendo -ere prehendi prehensum grasp scando -ere scandi scansum climb seindo -ere scidi scissum tear percello -ere perciili perculsum thrill vello -ere velli (vulsi) vulsum rend TJ- Stems. -I -turn aeuo -ere acui acutum sharpen arguo -ere argui argutum prove congruo -ere congrui come together exuo -gre exui exutum put off ; nduo -ere indui indutum put on imbuo -ere imbui imbutum tinge luo -ere lui -lutum wash, atone metuo -ere metui fear minuo -ere minui minutum lessen adnuo -ere adnui . nod pluo -ere plui > pluvi ) rain ruo -ere rui rutum i ruitum ) rush, fall spuo -ere spui sputum spit statuo -ere statui statutum set up sternuo -ere sternui sneeze EUO -ere sui sutum sew tribuo -ere tribui tributum assign, render solvo -ere solvi solutum loosen, pay vclvo - differently. proinde, Y ita, ) similiter, I in tlie same sic, [ so. itldem, manner. tarn, ) quam, how ? adeo, so far. ut, as, how. 165 Adverbs of Degree: multum, much. paullum, little. quantum, how much. tantum, so much. satis, enough. ruagia, more. nimis, ) , , potius, rather. nimium, I potissimtun. by preference. valde, very. parum, too little. ferine, i , , magnopere, greatly. 166 Adverbs of Cause: kleo, idcirco, propterea, on that account. io8 ADVERBS 167 Adverbs of Place : there. Where : ubi, where ? ibi, illic, usquam, anywhere. Whither : quo, whither ? Whence: unde, whence ? inde, ) ,, mine, M ;iewce - qua, by what way ? nic, here. ibidem, in the same place. alibi, elsewJiere. nusquam, nowhere. hue, hither. eodem, to tJie same place. usque, so far. tone, hence. indidem,/rora the sameplace. hac, by this way. ea, iliac, by that way. 168 When Adverbs of Time: quando, ubi, when'} turn, tune, then. nunc, modo, now. simul, at the same time. umquam, ever. semper, always. olim, ) quondam, ante, before. demum, at length. How long: quam diu, how long? diu, long. jamdiu, long since. quotiens, how often ? semel, once. jam, now. already. alias, at another time. numquam, never. interdum, now and then. mox, by and bye. nuper, lately. post, after. nondum, not yet. tamdiu, so long. usque, continuously. How often saepe, often. crebro, frequently totiens, so often. iterum, a second time. raro, seldom. identidem, repeatedly. Adverbs of Order: primum, first. primo, in tiw beginning. denique, i faa postremo, f tos " y< 169 deinde, in the next place. deinceps, afterwards. tertio, thirdly. 17O Sometimes an Adverb qualifies a sentence or phrase, rather than any particular word. Adverbs of Affirmation : etiam, also; quidem, equidem, indeed; vero, but; pla*% quite ; sane, certainly ; profecto, omnino, certe, surely, by all means. Limitation: pariter, alike; simul, together; plerumque, usually; solum, tantum, modo, only ; partim, partly. Negation: non, baud, not ; handquaquam. neutiquam, by no means. Doubt: fortasse, forsan, forsitan, perhaps ; forte, by chance. Question: cur, quare, quamobrem? why? quomodo, quemadmodum, quam, ut? how? PREPOSITIONS. 109 171 PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions are placed before Nouns to show their relation to other words in the sentence. They are also compounded with Verbs to modify their meaning. 172 The following Prepositions are used with the Accusative -. id to, at juxta next to, beside advents i j towards, against 6b over against, on account of adversum > i opposite to penes in the power of ante before per through apud at, near, among pone behind circum around post after, behind circa, circiter about praeter beside, past els, citrS, on this side of prope near contra against propter near, on account of erga towards secundum next, along, according to extra outside of, without supra above infra below trans across inter between, amidst ultra beyond intra within versus, versum towards 173 The following are used with the Ablative : a, ab, abs by, from ex, e out of, from absque witJiout palam in sight of clam unknown to prae before, in front of coram in the presence of pro before, for cum with sine without de from, concerning tenus as far as, reaching to Note. Clam is also used with the accusative, but more rarely ; tenus is placed after the Noun ; it is sometimes used with the Genitive. 174 The following take the Accusative when they denote motion towards, and the Ablative when they denote rest : in into, against, in, on super over, upon sub up to, under subter under 175 Prepositions used only in Verb compounds are : ambi, amb-, am-, an- around ambio, go around dis- apart dissolve, separate ; dirigo, direct rtd., rf- back, again red-eo, go back ; refero, bring back sM-! sS- apart secedo, step apart no CONJUNCTIONS L76 CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions are : I. Co-ordinative (400) ; II. Subordinative (421-429). 177 I. Co-ordinative Conjunctions are : Connective : et, \ ' que ' (and atque (adque), M ac, j Separative : aut, \ vel, lor, either. -ve,j Adversative: sed, i , . atqui, but yet. at enim, but it will be said. neque, nor. nevertheless. Causal: nam, namque, enim, etenim , . , , ]J or ' Conclusive: ergo, ) itaque, [therefore. igitur, J Comparative: nt, uti, ) velut, veluti, [_ sicut, sicuti, I ' ceu, utpote, as being. Interrogative: num, -ne, nonne, 178 II. Subordinative Conjunctions are Consecutive: nt, so that. ut non, so that not. Final : ut, in order that. neve, nevL> ^nd that not. ' I and lest, (whereby. * ' 1 in order that. nee, etiam, | quoque, [also. item, j !ll e> r wither, or. St Uj > autem, but, now, however. ceterum, ) verum, [ but, moreover. vero, j attamen, \ but never- verumtamen, I theless. enimvero, for indeed. quare, ] quamobrem, I ^ . quapropter, qaocirca, ' quomodo, i , quemadmodum, I as> tww ' quam, than, as. quasi, ! as it were. tamquam, utrum an 1 whetJier or. ne:ne, or not ? ( that not. but that. ne, lest. ut ne, that not, lest. (whereby not. quominus, -j in order that [ not. CONJUNCTIONS Causal: quod, because. quia, cum ' sl '^- Juan^uidemj^ 4 - siquidem, inasmuch as. Temporal : cum (quum), when. quando, wlien. ut, when. ubi, when. } while. * um ' 1 ... _ donee. * until, s i so loiio as* * quoad, j quoad, ) quatenus, how long. ' - before that. postquam, after that. pr i uSQ uiini, ' simul ac, as soon as. quotiens, as often ao. Conditional : si, if. sia (si ne), but if. sive, i whether. nisi, ni, unless. seu, S or if. si non, if not. si modo, if only. only. modo, dummodo, provided that. Concessive : etsi, , ,, .,,,_, tametgi( alth(mgll quamquam, i hoircvcr, auamvis utut, i although. ' / however much, cum, wliereas, although. ut, licet, granting that, although. Comparative: quasi (quam si), \ velutsi, J a ^ 7 - tamquam,}-^ '^79 The following pairs are often used as Correlatives : et . . . . et ] give siv que . . . que - both . . . and ^ e I whether ... or lut"'aut sic.V.'ut, so... as either ... or ut . . . ita, as ... so SirSsl-J.^ -- -*" neve . . . neve j 180 INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used either to draw attention or to express feeling. The most usual are : O, O ! oh! pro or proh, forbid it .' A er ah, alas ! vae, woe ! eheu, heu, ei, alas 1 en, ecce, lo ! behold t SYNTAX. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE Introductory Outline. 181 SYNTAX teaches how Sentences are made. Sentences are Simple or Compound. 182 A Simple Sentence has two parts : 1. The Subject : the person or thing spoken about ; 2. The Predicate : that which is said about the Subject. 183 1. The Subject must be a Substantive, or some word or words taking the place of a Substantive : A Substantive : lex, the law ; A Substantive Pronoun : ego, I ; An Adjective, Participle, or Adjectival Pronoun : Komanus, a Roman ; iratus, an angry man ; ille, that (man) ; A Verb Noun Infinitive : navigare, to sail, or sailing ; A Phrase : satis ternporis, enough time. 184 2. The Predicate must either be a Verb or contain a Verb, because it makes a statement or assertion about the Subject ; and it is usually a Verb Finite, which alone has the power of making direct statements. 114 SYNTAX 185 EXAMPLES OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Subject. Lex Law Predicate, jubet. commands. Subject. Navigare Sailing Predicate, delectat. delights. Nos We paremus. obey. Satis temporis Enough time datur. is given. Note. A. single Verb may be a sentence. Veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered, comprises three sentences. 186 Some Verbs cannot by themselves form complete Pre- dicates. The Verb sum is a complete Predicate only when it implies mere existence : est ubi Troja fuit. Ov. Corn is where Troy was. It more often links the Subject with the Complement, which completes what is said about it. 187 Verbs which link a Subject and Complement are called Copulative Verbs. Others besides sum are : appareo, appear ; audio, am called ; maneo, remain ; evado, existo, turn out ; videor, seem. The Passives of Verbs of making, saying, thinking (Factitive Verbs*) are also used as Copulative Verbs (206) : fio (facio), become or am made ; feror, am reported', appellor, am called ; legor, am chosen ; creor, am created ; putor, am thought ; declarer, am declared ; vocor, am called. 188 Copulative Verbs have the same Case after them as before them. These Verbs are called Factitive from facere, to make, because they contain the idea of making. INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE Copulative Verb Complement. est validus. is strong. appellantur are called philosophi. philosopliers. 189 The Complement may be 1. An Adjective or Adjectival Word. 2. A Substantive. Subject. Predicate. 1. Leo The lion 2. Illi They 190 Many Verbs usually require another Verb in the Infinitive to carry on their construction ; such are : soleo, am wont ; possum, am able ; queo, can ; debeo, ought ; volo, wish ; conor' endeavour. Solet legere. Possum ire. He is wont to read. I am able to go. These Verbs are called Indeterminate, and the Infinitive following them is called Prolative, because it carries on (profert) their construction 191 A Simple Sentence may be enlarged in many ways. The Subject may be qualified by Adjectives or Pronouns in Agreement, or may have words in Apposition added to it. The Verb may be qualified by Adverbs or Adverbial phrases ; it may have a Preposition with a Case, or some part of the Verb Infinite depending on it ; if Transitive, it has a Nearer Object and may have also a Eemoter Object ; if Intransitive, it may have a Eemoter Object in the Dative. The Complement may again be qualified by an Adjective or an Adverb, or by a Case of a Noun, or a Preposition with a Case. 116 SYNTAX AGKEEMENT. KULES OF THE FOUR CoNCOBDS. 192 I. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Parson : Tempus fugit. Libri leguntur. Time flies. Books are read. 193 II- An Adjective or Participle agrees in Gender, Number, and Case with the Substantive it qualifies : Vir bonus bonam uxorem habet. The good man has a good wife. Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt. Cic. True friendships are everlasting. 194 III. When a Substantive or Pronoun is followed by another Substantive, so that the second explains or de- scribes the first, and has the same relation to the rest of the sentence, the second Noun agrees in Case with the first, and is said to be in Apposition : Nos liberi pattern Lollium imitabimur. We children will imitate our fatlier Lollius. Procas, rex Albanorum, duos filios, Numitorem et Amulium, habuit. LIT. Procas, king of the Albans, had two sons, Numitor and Amulius. 195 IV. The Relative qui, quae, quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number and Person; in Case it takes its construction from its own clause (330) : Amo te, mater, quae me amas. I love you, mother, who love me. Quis hie est homo quern ante aedes video ? PLAUT. Who is this man whom I see before the house ? Ar bores multas serit agricola, quarum fructus non adspiciet. Cic. The farmer plants many trees, of which he will not see the fruit. AGREEMENT 117 196 Notes on the Concords. 1. 1. The Verb est, sunt, is often understood, not expressed : Nihil bonum nisi quod honestum. Cic. Nothing is good except wliat is virtuous. 2. A Copulative Verb occasionally agrees with the Complement rather than with the Subject : Amantium irae amoris integratio est. TEB. The qiiarrels of lovers are the renewal of love. 197 DL 1. A Substantive often agrees in Number and Gender with tha Noun to which it is in apposition : Stilus, optimus et praestantissimus dicendi magister. Cic. The pen, best and chief teacher of oratory. Philosophia, vitae magistra. Cic. Philosophy, the mistress of life. 2. A Noun may be in apposition to a Personal Pronoun understood : Hannibal peto pacem. Lrv. I Hannibal sue for peace. COMPOSITE SUBJECT. 198 1. When two or more Nouns are united as the Subject, the Verb and Adjectives are usually in the Plural : Veneno absumpti sunt Hannibal et Philopoemen. Lty. Hannibal and Philopoemen were cut off by poison. Aetas, metus, magister eum cohibebant. TEB. Age, fear, and a tutor were restraining him. 2. If the Persons of a Composite Subject are different, the Verb agrees with the first person rather than the second ; with the second rather than the third : Si tu et Tullia valetic, ego et Cicero valemus. Cic. If you and Tullia are well, I and Cicero are well. Ii8 SYNTAX 3. When the Genders are different, Adjectives agree with the Masculine rather than with the Feminine : Eex regiaque classis una profecti. Lrv. TJie king and the royal fleet set out together. 4. If the things expressed are without life, the Adjectives are generally Neuter : Begna, honores, divitiae, caduca et incerta sunt. Cic. Kingdoms, honours, riches, are frail and fickle things. 199 Notes on the Composite Subject. 1. When several Subjects of the third person are united, the Verb is sometimes found in the Singular, agreeing with one only : Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest. Cic. Now neither do books avail me, nor letters, nor does learning. 2. If the union of two Subjects forms a single notion, the Verb may be Singular : Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit. Cic. TJie Roman senate and people understand. 3. But sometimes when a Collective Noun is the Subject, although it 19 Singular in form, the Verb and Adjectives are Plural : Pars militum capti, pars occisi sunt. Lrv. Part of the soldiers were taken captive, part were slain. Observe that the Adjectives agree in Gender with the individuals of which the Collective "Noun is made up. THE CASES 119 THE CASES. THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES. 200 The Subject of a Finite Verb is in the Nominative Case : Anni fugiunt. Labitur aetas. Ov. Years flee. Time glides away. Note. When an Infinitive, called Historic, is used for the Imperfect of a Finite Verb, the Nominative remains as the Subject (372) : Turn pius Aeneas umeris abscindere vestem. VERG. Then tlie pious Aeneas began to tear his vest from his stioulders. 201 A Substantive joined to the Subject by a Copulative Verb is in the Nominative Case : Cicero declaratus est consul. Cic. Cicero was declared consul. 202 The Vocative stands apart from the construction of the sentence, with or without an Interjection (404) : s o 1 pulcher, o laudande ! HOB. O beauteous sun, worthy of praise ! Pompei, meorum prime sodalium 1 HOB. O Pompeius, earliest of my comrades ! Note. The Nominative sometimes takes the place of the Vocative : Audi, tu, populus Albanus. Liv. Hear, thou people of Alba. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 203 The Accusative Case is used to express : A. The Nearer Object of the Verb. B. Place to which there is motion. C. The idea contained in the Verb (Cognate Accusative), D. Adverbial Relations. SYNTAX A. Accusative of Hearer Object. 204 The nearer Object of a Transitive Verb is in the Accusative Case : Agricola colit agros; uxor domum tuetur. The farmer tills the fields ; his wife takes care of tlie house. Haec studia adulescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant. Tliese studies nurture youth, and delight old age. [Cic. 205 Note 1. Intransitive Verbs when compounded with Prepositions are often transitive : Antonius oppugnat Brutum, Mutinam circamsedet. Cic Antonius is making war on Brutus, and besieging Mutina. Note 2. Some Compounds take two Accusatives : Caesar equites flumen transjecit. CAES. Caesar threw his cavalry across the river. 206 Factitive Verbs (verbs of making, saying, thinking) have a second Accusative in agreement with the Object : Ciceronem consulem populus declaravit. SALL. Tlie people declared Cicero consul. Socrates totius se mundi civem arbitrabatur. Cic. Socrates considered himself a citizen of the whole world. 207 Note. The Accusative is used as the Subject of the Infinitive to form a Clause which may be the Object of Verbs of saying, thinking, and per- ceiving, or the Subject of Impersonal Verbs (414). Solem fulgere videmus. We see Uiat the sun shines. 208 Some Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing (doceo, teach, flagito, demand, rogo, ask, oro, pray, celo, conceal) , take two Accusatives, one of the Person, the other of the Thing : Eacilius primum me sententiam rogavit. Cic. Racilius asked me first my opinion. ACCUSATIVE CASE Quidnunc te litteras doceam ? Cic. Why should I now teach you letters ? Antigonus iter omnes celat. NEP. Antigonus conceals from all his line of march. fn the Passive they keep the Accusative of the Thing : Primus a Eacilio sententiam rogatus sum. I was asked my opinion first by Eacilius. Note. Quaero, peto, take Ablative of the Person with a or ab : hoc a te peto, this I ask of you. 209 Note. Intransitive Verbs which express feeling sometimes take an Accu- sative of the Object which excites the feeling : Non omnia quae dolemus queri possumus. Cic. We cannot complain of all things which we grieve for. Virgas ac secures dictatoris horrent et tremunt. Liv. They shudder and tremble at the rods and axes of the dictator. Note. An Accusative is used in exclamations, with or without an Interjection: Me miser urn, O wretched me ! fragilem fortunam I O fickle fortune I 210 Note. Some Passive Verbs in poetry take an Accusative, when used reflexively. Such verbs are induor, dress oneself, exuor, undress oneself, cingor, gird oneself: Inutile ferrum cingitur. VERO. Exuitur cornua. Ov. He girds on the useless steel. She puts off her horns. A similar construction is frequently used with Passive Participles : Virgines longam indutae vestem canentes ibant. Lrv. Virgins marched singing, arrayed in long robes. Nascuntur flores inscripti nomina regum. VERG. Flowers spring up inscribed with names of kings. This construction is analogous to that of the Greek Middle Voice. 211 B. Place to which Motion is directed is in the Accusative : eoEomam, I go to Rome (269, 273). Note. Similar are the phrases : pessum ire, to go to tlie bad ; infitias ire, to deny ; suppetias ire, to march in aid ; venum ire, to be sold 122 SYNTAX C. Cognate Accusative. 212 Many Intransitive Verbs take an Accusative contain^ ing the same idea as the Verb, and often from the same stem: Fortuna ludum insolentem ludit. HOB. Fortune, plays an insolent game* Modice et modeste melius est vitam vivere. PLAUT. It is best to live one's life temperately and modestly. Itque reditque viam totiens. VERG. He goes and returns the same way as often. Note. The Cognate Accusative must have some more limited meaning than that which is contained in the Verb, either expressed by an Adjective or implied in the Noun itself : ludum insolentem ludere, to play an inso- lent game ; dicta dicere, to say witty sayings. D. Adverbial Accusative. 213 The Accusative of Eespect is joined to Verbs and Adjectives, especially in poetry : Tremit art us. VERO. Niidae lacertos. TAC. He trembles in his limbs. Bare as to tlie arms. Omnia Mercuric similis vocemque color emque. VERO. In all points like Mercury, both in voice and complexion. Note 1. Adverbial Accusatives with Verbs and Nouns are very nume- rous : multum, much ; aliquid, in some degree ; cetera, in other respects ; id genus, of tliat kind ; id temporis, at that time : multum amare, to love much ; quid refert ? what does it matter ? Note 2. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns are used in the Accusative by poets like Adverbs : Dulce ridere. Lucidum fulgere. HOB. To smile sweetly. To shine brightly. Dulce ridentem Lalagen amabo, dulce loquentem. HOB. I will love the sweetly smiling, sweetly speaking Lalage. (For the Accusative of Extent see Time, 278, and Space, 281-3.) DATIVE CASE THE DATIVE CASE. 214 The Dative is the Case of the Person or Thing for whose inter- est anything exists or is done. It expresses : A. The person or thing to whom or which something is done : Dative of the Remoter Object. B. The person or thing/or whom or which something is done: Dative of Advantage. Special uses are : (a) Dative of Agent, (6) Ethic Dative, (c) Dative of Possessor, (d) Dative of Eesult, (e) Dative of Purpose. A. Dative of the Eemoter Object. The Dative of the Remoter Object is used : 215 ! With Transitive Verbs of giving, telling, showing, pro- mising, which take also an Accusative of the Nearer Object : Tibi librum sollicito damus aut fesso. Hon. We give you a book wlien you are anxious or weary. Saepe tibi meum somniura narravi. Cic. / have often told you my dream. Nobis spondet fortnna salutem. VERG. Fortune guarantees safety to us. 216 2. With Intransitive Verbs of phasing, helping, sparing, pardoning, appearing, speaking, believing, obeying, and their opposites. These Verbs have the Dative as their only Object : Victrix causa deis placuit sed victa Catoni. LUCAX. The conquering cause pleased the. gods, but tlie conquered pleased Cato. Imperio parent. CAES. Farce pio generi. VERG. Th?y obey the command. Spare a pious race. I m per at aut servit collecta pecunia cuique. HOR. Money amassed rules or serves every man. Non possum dolori tanto resistere. Cic. I cannot withstand so great a sorrow. Note.- These Verbs contain the ideas of being pleasing to, helpful to, obedient to, itc. I2 4 SYNTAX 217 Note. Delecto, juvo, delight, laedo, hurt, guberno, govern, rego, rule, jubeo, command, take an Accusative : Multos castra juvant. HOE. Animum rege. Hou. The camp delights many. Rule tlie temper. Tempero, moderor, govern, restrain, take sometimes the Accusative, sometimes the Dative : Hie moderatur equos qui non moderabitur irae. Hon. This man controls horses ivho will not restrain his anger. 218 3. With Adjectives implying nearness, fitness, likeness, help, kindness, trust, obedience, or any opposite idea : Hortus ubi et tecto vicinus jugis aquae fons. HOR. Where is a garden, and near to the house a fount of flowing water. Quis amicior quam frater fratri? SALL. Who [is] more friendly than a brother to a brotJier ? Homini fidelissimi sunt equus et canis. PLIN. The horse and the dog are most faithful to man. Turba gravis paci, placidaeque inimica quieti. LUCAN. The crowd hostile to peace, unfriendly to tranquil rest. Note. The following take Genitive or Dative : communis, common, proprius, proper. Affinis, akin, alienus, foreign, par, equal, sacer, sacred, superstes, surviving, take usually Dative, sometimes Genitive. Similis, like, takes usually Genitive, sometimes Dative. Adjectives of fitness as aptus, sometimes take Accusative with ad. 219 4. More rarely with Substantives or Adverbs : Nulla fides regni sociis. LUCAN. No reliance is to be placed on partners in government. Justitia est obtemperatio legibus. Cic. Justice is obedience to laws. Congruenter naturae vivendum est. Crc. We must live agreeably to nature. Note I. Some Verbs, as credo, believe, entrust, fido, trust, suadeo, per- suade, minor, threaten, gratulor, congratulate, are used both transitively and intransitively : Perfidis se credidit hostibus. HOB. He trusted himself to treacherous enemies. Non est, crede mihi, sapientis dicere : Vivam. MART. It is not, believe me, the part of a wise man to say, ' J will live.' Note 2. Nubo, marry (lit. take the veil for), and vaco, have leisure for, take the Dative : DATIVE CASE 125 His duobus fratribus duae Tulliae nupserant. Liv. The two Tullias had married tJiese two brothers. Philosophiae semper vaco. Cic. I have always leisure for philosophy. Note 3. The Verbs irascor, feel angry, pugno, fight, certo, strive, some- tives take a Dative : sibi irascitur, he is angry with himself. 220 Many Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive, are used with a Dative of the Eemoter Object when compounded with the following Prepositions : ad, ante, ab, sub, super, ob, in, inter, de, con, post, and prae. Also Verbs compounded with bene, male, satis. (a) Transitive : Gigantes bellum dis intulerunt. Cic. The giants waged war against tlie gods. Praesentia confer praeteritis. LUCB. Compare present things with past. (ty Intransitive : His negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit. Cic. He not only took part in these affairs, but directed them. Nullus in orbe sinus Baiis praelucet amoenis. HOR. No bay in the world outshines the pleasant Baiae. Ceteris satisfacio semper, mihi numquam. Cic. I always satisfy others, myself never. B. Dative of Advantage. 221 The person or thing for whose advantage or disad- vantage something is done is in the Dative Case : Tibi aras, tibi seris, tibi eidem metis. PLAXTT. For yourself you plough, for yourself you sow, for the same self you reap. Non solum nobis divites essevolumus. Cio. We do not wish to be rich for ourselves alone. Sic vos non vobis mellificatis, apes 1 VEBQ. Thus ye make honey not for yourselves, O bees I 126 SYNTAX Special Uses of the Dative. 222 () A Dative, commonly called the Dative of the Agent, is often used with the Gerundive, and occasionally with Passive Participles and with Adjectives in -bilis (381) : Ut tibi ambulandum, sic mihi dormiendum eat. Cic. As you have to walk, I have to sleep. Magnus civis obit et formidatus Othoni. Juv. A great citizen and one dreaded by Otlio has died. Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit. HOB. He died a cause of weeping to many good men. .Note. Rarely, in poetry, a Personal Passive takes a Dative : Non intellegor ulli. Ov. I am intelligible to none. 223 (b) A Dative, called the Ethic Dative, is used, in familiar talk or writing, to express interest or call special attention : Quid mihi Celsusagit? HOR. Tell me wluit is Celsus about ? Haec vobis per biduum eorum militia fuit. Liv. This, mind you, was their style of fighting for two days. 224 (c) The Dative of the Possessor, with esse, is used when emphasis is laid on the thing possessed, not on the possessor: Est mihi plenus Albani cadus. HOB. I have a cask full of Alban wine. Tons cui nomen Arethusa fuit. Cic. A fountain of which the name was Arethusa. Note. With such phrases as ' cui nomen est ' a second Dative is some- times joined by attraction : Volitans cui nomen asilo Bomanum est (VERO.), an insect of which the Roman name is ' asilus. A like attraction occurs with other factitive and copulative verbs : Huic ego diei nomen Trinummo faciam (PLAUT.), I will give to this day the name Trinummus. Analogous to these are the attractions : Hoc mihi volenti est, non invito, this is with my good will, not against it. Mihi non licet esse neglegenti (Cic.), I must not be negligent. ABLATIVE CASE 127 225 (d) ^ ne Dative is used in connection with the Dative of the Person interested, to describe what some thing (or person) is or causes : Exitio est avidum mare nautis. HOR. The greedy sea is a destruction to sailors. L. Cassius quaerere solebat, 'cuibonofuisset.' Cic. Lucius Cassius used to ask wlw had been tlic gainer (lit. ' to whom had it been for a good '). Note. The Dative of the Person interested is often not expressed. Nimia fiducia calamitati solet esse. NEP. Too great confidence is wont to be a calamity (to men). Exemplo est magni formica laboris. HOR. The ant is an example of great industry. 226 (e) The Dative may express the Purpose of action : Equitatum auxilio Caesari miserunt. CAES. They sent the cavalry as a help to Caesar. Note. Observe the phrases, receptui canere, to give t)w signal for retreat ; alimento serere, to sow for food ; laudi vertere alicui, to turn to tlie praise of someone ; vitio vertere alicui, to impute as a fault to someone. 227 Sometimes the Dative is used in poetry for the place towards which there is motion : It clamor caelo, VEKG., a shout ascends towards heaven. THE ABLATIVE CASE. 228 The Ablative is the Case which defines circumstances; it is rendered by many Prepositions, from, with, by, in. Its uses may be divided into : A. Ablative of Separation (from, of). B. Ablative of Association (with). C. Instrumental Ablative (by, with). D. Ablative of ' Place where ' (Locative, in, at). 128 SYNTAX A. Pure Ablative. 229 1. The Ablative of Separation is used with Verbs meaning to remove, release, deprive; with Adjectives such as liber, free, solutus, released, and also the Adverb procul, far from : Cedes coemptis saltibus et domo. HOE. You will depart from purchased glades and house. Populus Atheniensis Phocionem p atria pepulit. NEP. The AtJienian people drove Phocion from his country. Vacare culpa maximum est solacium. Cic. To be free from blame is a very great comfort. Procul negotiis, solutus omni fenore. HOB. Far from business, freed from all usury. 230 2. The Ablative of Origin is used with Verbs, chiefly Participles, implying descent or origin : Atreus, Tantalo prognatus, Pelope natus. Cic. Atreus, descended from Tantalus, and son of Pelops. 231 3. The Ablative of Comparison (expressing Difference) is used with Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs : Nihil est amabilius virtute. Cic. Nothing is more amiable than virtue. Neminem Lycurgo utiliorem Sparta genuit. VAL. MAX. Sparta produced no man more serviceable tJian Lycurgus. Note. This construction is equivalent to quam, than, with the Nomina- tive or Accusative. ' Virtute ' equals ' quam virtus ; ' ' Lycurgo,' ' quam Lycurgum.' With other cases than Nom. or Accus. quam must be used for comparison : Nihilo amicior est Phaedriae quam Antiplioni. TER. He is in no degree more friendly to Phaedria than to Antipho. (For Place whence ' see 270, 274.) ABLATIVE CASE 129 B. Ablative of Association. 232 Note. This includes the uses of an old case called the Sociative Case, expressing the circumstances associated with the Subject or the action of the Sentence. 233 1. The Ablative of Association is used with Verbs and Adjectives denoting plenty, fulness, possession : abundo, abound, dono, present, praeditus, endowed with (253) : Villa abundat gallina, lacte, caseo, melle. Cic. Tlie farm abounds in poultry, milk, cheese, lioney. Juvenem praestanti munere donat. VEBG. He presents tlie youth with a noble gift. Legiones pulchris armis praeditae. PLAOT. Legions furnished with splendid armour. Note. Dono also takes the Accusative of the thing with Dative of the Person : Caesar praedam militibus donat, Caesar gives the booty to tlie soldiers. 234 2. The Ablative of Quality is used with an Adjective in agreement (255) : Senex promissa barba, horrenti capillo. PiuN. Mrs. An old man with long beard and rough hair. Habuit fratrem Dumnorigem summa audacia. CAES. He Jiad a brotlier Dumnorix of supreme audacity. 235 3. Ablative of Respect : Pauci numero. Natione Medug. Few in number. By birth a Hede. Et corde et genibus tremit. HOB. It trembles both in heart and knees. Ennius, ingenio maximus, arte rudis. Ov. Ennius, mighty in genius, in art (is) rude. Note. In the phrases natu major, older, natu minor, younger, natu is an Ablative of Respect. 236 4. The Ablative of the Manner in which something happens or is done has an Adjective in agreement with it ; or it follows the Preposition cum, with : Jam veniet tacito curva senecta pede. Ov. Presently bent old age will come with silent foot. Athenienses summa vi proelium commiserunt. NEP. The Athenians began the battle with the greatest vigour. K 130 SYNTAX Magna cum eura atque diligentia scripsit. Cic. He wrote with great care and attention. Note. More majorum, in the fashion of our ancestors, pace tua, with your leave, jure, by right, injuria, wrongfully, ratione, on principle, are Ablatives of Manner. 237 5. The Ablative Absolute is a phrase, consisting of a Noun in the Ablative Case and a Participle, or another Noun, in agreement with it : Eegibus exactis consules creati sunt. Lrv. Kings having been abolished, consuls were elected. Pereunte obsequio imperium intercidit. TAG. Obedience failing, government falls to pieces. Caesare venture, Phosphore, redde diem. MART. Caesar being on his way, star of morn, restore the day. Nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro. HOB. There must be no despair, Teucer being leader and Teucer omen- giver. Natus est Augustus consulibus Cicerone et Antonio. SUETON. Augustus was born when Cicero and Antonius were consuls. Quid dicam hac juventute ? Cic. What can I say when our young men are of this stamp ? Nott. The Ablative Absolute is equivalent to a shortened Adverbial Clause within the Sentence, serving to explain some circumstance which indirectly affects the action of the Sentence. It is called Absolute because it is independent in construction of the rest of the Sentence. A dependent clause joined to the Sentence by a Conjunction may be used instead of the Ablative Absolute. In the above example Kegibus exactis ' could be replaced by ' Cum reges exacti essent,' when kings had been driven out. C. Instrumental Ablative. 238 Note. This Ablative includes the uses of the old Instrumental Case. 239 The Agent by whom something is done is in the Ablative Case, with the Preposition a, ab, after a Passive or Quasi' passive Verb (296, 300, 303). ABLATIVE CASE 131 240 1. The Instrument by means of which something is done is in the Ablative Case without a Preposition : Hi jaculis, illi certant defendere aaxis. VEEG. These strive to defend with javelins, those with stones. Dente lupus, cornu taurus petit. HOB. The wolf attacks with his teeth, the butt with his horns. Opportuna loca armatis hominibus obsidet. SALL. He occupies convenient posts with armed men. 241 2. The Ablative of the Cause is used with Adjectives, Passive Participles, and Verbs : Coeptis immanibus effera Dido. VERG. Dido driven wild by her Iwrrible designs. Oderunt peccare mali formidine poenae. HOB. The bad liate to sin through fear of punishment. 242 3. The Deponent Verbs fungor, perform, fruor, enjoy, vescor, feed on, utor, use, potior, possess oneself of (253), take an Ablative : Hannibal cum victoria posset uti frui maluit. Liv. Hannibal, when he could use his victory, preferred to enjoy it. Numidae ferina carne vescebantur. SALT/. The Numidians used to feed on the flesh of wild animals. 243 4. The Adjectives dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy, and the Transitive Verb dignor, deem worthy, also con- tentus, contented, and fretus, relying on, take an Ablative : Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori. HOB. A man worthy of praise the Muse forbids to die. Haud equidem tali me dignor honor e. VERG. I do not indeed deem myself worthy of such lionour. Note. Opus est, usus est, tJiere is need of, take the Ablative. Ubi res adsunt, quid opus est verbis? SALL. When things are present, wliat is the need of words ? 244 5. An Ablative of the Measure of difference is joined as an Adverb with Comparatives and Superlatives and, rarely, with Verbs : Sol multis partibus major est quam luna. Cio. The sun is many degrees larger than the moon. K2 132 SYNTAX Especially the Ablatives : altero, hoc, eo, quo, dimidio, duplo, quanto, tanto, nihilo and nimio, paullo, multo, aliquanto. Quo plus habent, eo plus cupiunt. The more tliey liave, tfie more tliey desire. Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia. CAES. Ireland is smaller by half than Britain. 245 6. The Ablative of Price is used with Verbs and Adjec- tives of buying and selling : Vendidit hie auro patriam. VEBQ. This man sold his country for gold. Multorum sanguine victoria stetit. Liv. The victory cost (literally stood at) tlie blood of many. Note. Ablatives of price are magno, at a high price; parvo, minim*, vili, at a low price (257) : Parvo fames constat, magno fastidium. SEN. Hunger costs little, daintiness much. D. The Locative Ablative. 246 The Locative is the Case of the Place at which some- thing is or happens. Its distinct forms remain in the Singular in names of towns and small islands : Eomae, at Rome ; Corcyrae, at Corcyra ; and in a few other words, as domi, at home. For the most part its uses have passed to the Ablative, and it is often difficult to distinguish between the two Cases, especially in the Plural, where their forms are identical. The Locative is some- times used for a point of time : die septimi, on the seventh day, Kalendis, on the Kalends', Idibus, on the Ides, Note. The word animi in such phrases as anxius animi, anxious; pendere animi, to n-aver in mind, is probably Locative. (For Place where,' see 268, 372[aJ.) GENITIVE CASE 133 THE GENITIVE CASE. 247 The Genitive is used to define or complete the meaning of another Noun on which it depends. It also follows certain Verbs. The uses of the Genitive may be divided into : A. Genitive of Definition. D. Partitive Genitive. B. Possessive Genitive. E. Objective Genitive. Co Genitive of Quality. A. Genitive of Definition. 248 1. The Genitive of Definition follows the Noun on which it depends : Vox voluptatis. Nomen regis. The word pleasure. The name of king. Note. But the name of a city is always placed in Apposition: urbs Roma, tlie city of Rome. 249 2. The Attributive Genitive defines the Ncun on which it depends like an Adjective : Lux soli s. Anni labor. The light of the sun. A wear's toil. 250 3. The Genitive of the Author : Ea statua dicebatur esse Myronis. Crc. That statue was said to be Myro's. Legendi sunt vobis Platonis libri. Cic. You slvmld read the works of Plato. 251 4. The Genitive is often used in Impersonal construc- tion with a Copulative Verb, followed by an Infinitive, where hi English a word such as nature, part, characteris- tic, or mark, must be supplied to complete the meaning : Cujusvis hominis est errare. Cic. It is (the nature) of any man to err. 134 SYNTAX Est adulescentis majores natu vereri. Cic. It is a young man's (part) to reverence his elders. Tempori cedere habetur sapientis. Cic. To yield to occasion is held (tlie mark) of a wise man. Note. The word proprium is often used : Sapientis est proprium nihil quod paenitere possit f acere. Cic. It is the characteristic of a wise man to do nothing which he may repent of. 252 5. Verbs and Adjectives of accusing, condemning, con victing, or acquitting take a Genitive of the fault or crime : Alter latrocinii re us, alter caedis convict us est. Cic. The one was accused of robbery, tJie otJier was convicted of murder. Miltiades capitis absolutus pecunia multatus est. NEP. Miltiades, acquitted of capital crime, was fined. Note. Sometimes the Ablatives nomine, on the ground of, crimins, on the charge of, are used : Themistocles crimine proditionis absens damnatus est. NEP. TJiemistocles was convicted while absent on the charge of treason. 253 6. Verbs and Adjectives implying want said, fulness, es- pecially 3geo, indigeo, want, impleo, fill, potior, get possession o/(242), p\euu8,full, often take a Genitive (233) : Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget. Cic. Virtue needs very much practice. Hanc juventutem spei animorumque implevere. Lrv. They filled these youths with hope and spirit. Eomani signorum et armorum potiti sunt. SALL. The Romans got possession of standards and arms. Acerra turis plena. HOB. A pan full of incense. GENITIVE CASE 135 254 B. Possessive Genitive. Eegis copiae. Cic. Contempsi Catilinae gladios. Cic. The king's forces. I have braved the swords of Catiline. Singulorum opes divitiae sunt civitatis. Cic. The means of individuals are the state's riches. Sometimes the Genitive depends on a Noun understood : Hectoris Andromache. VERG. Hector's (wife) Andromache. Ventum erat ad Vestae. HOB. We }iad come to Vesta's (temple). C. Genitive of Quality. 255 1. The Genitive of duality has an Adjective in agreement : Ingenui vultus puer ingenuique pudoris. Juv. A boy of noble countenance and noble modesty. Memoriae felicioris est nomen Appii. Liv, The name of Appius is of happier memory. 256 2. Number and age are expressed by the Genitive : Classis septuaginta navium. Puer annorum novem. A fleet of seventy ships. A boy of nine years. 257 3. Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, plurimi, minimi, nihili, are used with Verbs of valuing ; the Genitives tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, are also used with Verbs of buying and selling, but not to express definite price. Voluptatem virtus minimi facit. Virtue accounts pleasure of very little value. Emit hortos tanti, quanti Pythius voluit. Cic. He bought the gardens for as much as Pythius wished, Quanti id emit? Vili. PLATJT. For how much did he buy it ? For a low price. Note. The Genitives flocci, nauci were used in the popular speech to express worthlessness, answering to the English expressions, not worth a straw, a nut, &c. Judices rempublicam flocci non faciunt. Cic. The judges make the republic of no account. 136 SYNTAX D. Partitive Genitive. 258 The Genitive of a Noun which is distributed into parts is called a Partitive Genitive. 259 1. Any word denoting a definite part, whether Sub- stantive, Adjective or Pronoun, is used with the Genitive of the whole of which it denotes a part. (a) Substantives : Sic p a r t e m maj orem copiarum Antonius amisit. Cio. Thus Antony lost tlie greater part of his forces. Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit. PLIN. No one of mortals is wise at all times. (&) Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives: Incertum est quam longa nostrumcuj usque vita f utura sit. It is uncertain how long the life of each one of us will be. Elephanto beluarumnullaest prudentior. Cic. Of animals none is more sagacious than the elepJiant. (c) Numerals and Adjectives of number : Sulla centum viginti suorum amisit. EUTB. Sulla lost a hundred and twenty of his men. Multae harum arbor um mea manu sunt satae. Cic. Many of tliese trees were planted by my hand. (d) Comparatives and Superlatives : Major Neronum. HOK. TJie elder of the Neros. Hoc ad te minirne omnium pertinet. Cic. This belongs to you least of all men. Totius Graeciae Plato doctissimus erat. Cic. Plato was the most learned man of all Greece. GENITIVE CASE 137 Note 1. The Genitives gentium, of nations, terrarum, of countries, depend on Adverbs of Place : ubi, where, eo, thitlier, quo, whither, longe, far: Ubinam gentium sumus ? Cic. Where in the world are we ? Migrandum aliquo terrarum arbitror. Cic. I think we must migrate to some part of the world. Note 2. A Partitive Genitive is found in poetry with Verb* : Scribe tui gregis hunc. HOB. Enlist this man in your train. Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium. HOB. TJwu too shalt become one of famous fountains. 260 2. Any word denoting quantity may be used with the Genitive of the whole in which such quantity is contained. Aliquid pristini roboris conserva*. Cic. He keeps somewhat of his old strength. Dimidium facti qui coepit habet. HOB. He has Jialf done the work who lias begun it. Catilinae erat satis eloquentiae, sapientiae pa rum. SALL. Catiline had plenty of eloquence, of wisdom too little. E. The Objective Genitive. 261 Note. The terms Subjective and Objective Genitive are used to express different relations of the Genitive to the Noun on which it depends. Thus amor patris, the love of a father, may mean either ' the love felt by a father ' (where patris is a Subjective Genitive), or ' the love felt for a father' (where patris is an Objective Genitive). 262 An Objective Genitive is used with Verbal Substantives and Adjectives, especially Adjectives in -ax, and Participles which have the meaning of love, desire, hope, fear, care, knowledge, ignorance, skill, poicer. (a) "With Substantives : Erat insitus menti cognitionis amor. Cic. Love of knowledge liad been implanted in the mind 13* SYNTAX Difficilis est cura rerum alienarum. Cic. The care of other people's affairs is difficult. (I) With Adjectives : Avida est periculi virtus. SEN. Valour is greedy of danger. Conscia mens recti f amae mendacia risit. Ov. The mind conscious of right smiled at the lies of rumour. Homo multarum rerum peritus. Cic. A man skilled in many things. Vir propositi tenax. HOB. A man holding to his purpose. (c) With Participles : Quis famulus am ant i or domini quamcanis? COL. What servant is fonder of his master than the dog is ? 263 Note. The Genitive of the Gerund is an Objective Genitive : ars scribendi, the art of writing. An Objective Genitive also follows the Ablatives causa, gratia, by reason of, by favour of, for the sake of; honoris causa, on tlie ground of honour ; exempli gratia, for an example. 264 Mei, of me, tui, of thee, sui, of him, her, them, nostri, of us, vestri, of you, are Objective Genitives : Niciastua sui memoria delectatur. Crc. Nicias is delighted by your recollection of him* Si tibi cura mei, sit tibi cura tui. Ov. If you care for me, take care of yourself. The Possessive Pronouns, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, are used as Adjectives : meus liber, my book. Note. A Genitive understood in a Possessive Pronoun often has a Genitive agreeing with it : Bespublica me a unius opera salva erat. Cic. The state was saved by my own unaided effort. GENITIVE CASE 139 265 Most Verbs of remembering, forgetting, reminding, me- mini, reminiscor, obliviscor, usually take the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative. Recorder almost always takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive. Animus meminit praeteritorum. Cic. The mind remembers past things. Ees adversae admonent religionum. Cic. Adversity reminds of religious duties. Nam modo vos animo dulces reminiscor, amici. Ov. For now I remember you, O friends, dear to my soul. The Adjectives corresponding to these Verbs, rnemor, immemor, always take a Genitive. Omnes immemorem beneficii oderunt. Cic. All hate one who is forgetful of a kindness. 266 Verbs of pitying, misereor, miseresco, take a Genitive : Nil nostri miserere. VERQ. Youpity me not at all. Arcadii, quaeso, miserescite regis. VERO. Take pity, I entreat, on tJie Arcadian king. Note 1. Miseror, commiseror take an Accusative. 267 Note 2 - Verbs of refraining and ceasing and some Adjectives are used by poets with a Genitive in imitation of the Greek use ; especially by Horace : Abstineto irarum. HOR. Fessi rerum.VERG- Refrain from angry words. Weary of toil. Integer vitae, scelerisque purus. HOB. Virtuous in life and pure from wrong. 140 SYNTAX PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE. Place. 268 Place where anything is or happens is generally in the Ablative case with a Preposition; sometimes without a Preposition (especially in poetry), an Adjective of place being attached to the Substantive : Castra sunt in Italia contra rempublicam collocata. Cic. A camp has been set up in Italy against the republic, Gels a sedet Aeolus arce. VEKG. Aeolus is seated on his high citadel. Medio sedet insula ponto. Ov. The island lies in mid ocean. 269 Place whither is in the Accusative with a Preposition ; but in poetry the Preposition is sometimes omitted : Caesar in I tali am magnis itineribus contendit. CAES. Caesar hastened with long marclies into Italy. Jtaliam fato profugus Lavinaque venit litora. VEBG. Driven by fatf he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores. 270 Place whence is in the Ablative with ab, ex, or de : Ex Asia transis in Europam. CUET. Out of Asia you cross into Europe. 271 In names of towns and small islands, also in donnas and rus, Place where, whither, or whence is expressed by the Case without a Preposition. 272 (a) Place where, by the Locative : Quid Eomae faciam? Juv. What am I to do at Borne ? Is habitat Mile ti. TEB. He lives at Miletus. Philippus Neapoli est, Lentulus Puteolis. Cic. Philip is at Naples, Lentulus at Puteoli. Si domi sum, foris est animus; sin foris sum, animus est domi. PLAUT. If I am at liome, my mind is abroad : if I am abroad, my mind is at home. PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE 141 273 (6) Place whither, by the Accusative : Regulus Carthaginem rediit. Cic. Regulus returned to Cartilage. Vos ite d o m u m ; ego r u s ibo. Go ye home ; J will go into the country. 274 (c) Place whence, by the Ablative : Video rure redeuntem senem. TEB. J see the old man returning from the country. Demaratus fugit Tarquinios Corinth o. Cic. Demaratus fled from Corinth to Tarquinii. Note. The Locative doini is used with a Genitive of the Possessor ; domi Caesaris, at the house of Caesar ; or with the Possessive : domi meae, at my house. 275 The road by which one goes is in the Ablative : Ibam forte Via Sacra. HOR. I was going by chance along the Sacred Way. Time. 276 Time at which, in answer to the question When ? is ex- pressed by the Ablative : hieme, in winter; solis occasu, at sunset : Ego Capuam veni eo ipso die. Cic. I came to Capua on that very day. 277 Time within which, generally by the Ablative : Quicquid est biduo sciemus. Cic. Whatever it is, we shall know in two days. 278 Time during which, generally by the Accusative : Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis. Cic. Pericles was leader of Athens forty years. Note 1. Often by per with the Accusative : per triduum, for three days. Note 2. Age is expressed by the participle uatus, born, used with the Accusative, sometimes with the Ablative : Cato quinque et octoginta annos natus excessit e vita. Cic. Cato died aged eighty-Jive yean. 142 SYNTAX 279 How long ago, is in the Accusative or Ablative with abhinc : Hoc f actum est ferine abhinc biennium. PLAUT. This was done about two years ago. Comitia jam abhinc triginta diebus habita. Cic. The assembly was held thirty days ago. 280 To express How long before, How long after, the words ante, before, post, after, are used either with the Abla- tive as Adverbs, or with the Accusative as Prepositions, followed by quam : Numa annis permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras. Cic. Nunia lived very many years before Pythagoras. (or, Numa ante permultos annos fuit quam.) Post diem tertium gesta res est quam Clodius dixerat. Cic. The affair took place three days after Clodius liad spoken. (or, Die tertio post gesta res est quam.) Space. 281 Space over which motion takes place, is in the Accusative : Mili a turn pransi tria repimus. Hon. Then having had luncheon we crawl three miles. 282 Space which lies between, is in the Accusative or in the Ablative : Marathon abest ab Athenis circiter m i 1 i a passuum decem. NEP. Marathon is distant from Athens about ten miles. Aesculapii templum quinque milibus passuum ab Epidauro distat. Lrv. The temple of Aesculapius is five miles distant from Epidaurus. 283 Space of measurement, answering the questions how high ? how deep ? how broad ? how long ? is generally in the Accusative : Erant muri Babylonis ducenos pedes alti. PLIN. The walls of Babylon were two hundred feet high. PREPOSITIONS 143 PKEPOSITIONS. 284 Prepositions, like the case-endings, shew the relations of Nouns to other words, and they are used where these relations cannot be clearly expressed by the case-endings alone. Almost all Prepositions take the Accusative or the Ablative case ; they are usually placed before the Noun. 285 Prepositions with Accusative. Ad, to, towards, with Accusative of Motion to ; at: ad urbem ire, to go to the city ; ad summam senectutem, to extreme old age ; ad octingentos caesi, tliere were slain to the member of 800 ; pugna ad Alliam, Hie battle at the Allia; ad primam lucem, at daybreak; ad hoc, moreover; ad tempus,/or a time ; ad verbum, word for word ; nihil ad Atticum, nothing to (in comparison with) Atticus ; nihil ad rem, nothing to the purpose. Adversus, Adversum, towards, against, opposite to : adversum Antipolim, opposite to Antipolis ; reverentia adversus senes, respect towards the aged. Apud, at, near (used chiefly with persons, rarely with places) : apud me, at my house ; apud veteres, among tlie ancients ; apud Homtrum, in Homer's works ; but in Iliade Homeri, in Homer's Iliad. (ante oculos, before one's eyes ; ante meridiem, before Ante, before : j. 7 j f* 1 noon ; ante aliquem esse, to surriass someone ; post Post, behind, after : , , , . , ., V , { terga, behind tlie back ; post mortem, after death. Pone, behind : pone nos, behind us. Clrcum, Circa, around, about (in Place). Circa, Circiter, about (in Time, Number). Circum caput, round tlie, head ; circa forum, around the forum. Circa primam lucem, about daybreak ; circa, circiter triginta, about thirty. Cls, Citra, on this side of: cis Alpes, on this side of the Alps. Trans, across : trans Bhenum ducere, to lead across the Rhine ; trans Alpes, on thejurt/ier side of the Alps. Ultra, beyond : ultra Euphratem, beyond the Euphrates ; ultra vires, beyond their powers. Contra, against, opposite to: contra hostem, against the enemy; contra arcem, opposite to the citadel. Erga, towards (not used of Place) : erga aliquem benevolus, feeling kindly towards someone. Extra, outside of, without : extra muros, outside the walls ; extra culpam, free from blame. Zntra, within : intra muros, within the walls ; intra viginti dies, within twenty days. Inter, between (in Place): during (in Time), among; inter urbem et Tiberim, between tJie city and tlie Tiber ; inter silvas, among the woods ; inter cenandum, during dinner ; constat inter omnes, all are agreed ; inter nos, between ourselves ; inter se amant, they love each other. 144 SYNTAX Infra, under, beneath : infra caelum, under the sky ; infra dignitatem, beneath one's dignity. Supra, over, above : supra terram, above the ground ; supra milia viginti, more tJutn twenty tliousand. Juxta, adjoining to, beside : juxta viam, adjoining tlie road ; juxta decs, next to the gods. Ob, over against, on account of: mihi ob oculos, before my eyes ; quam ob rem, wherefore. Penes, in the power of: penes me, in my power; penes te es? are you in your senses ? Per, through (by) : per vias, through the streets ; per vim, by force ; per me licet, I give leave ; per te deos oro, J pray you by the gods ; per exploratores certior fio, I ascertain through scouts. Praeter, beside, past, along : praeter ripam, along tJte bank ; praeter omnea, beyond all others ; praeter me, except me ; praeter opinionem, contrary to expectation. Prope, near : prope amnem, near tlie river ; prope lucem, towards day- break. Propter, on account of, (rarely of Place) near, close to : propter aquam, close to the water's edge ; propter hoc, on that account. Secundum, next, along, according to (following) : secundum voa, next to (behind) you ; secundum litus, along the shore ; secundum legem, in accordance with the law ; secundum nos, in our favour. Versus, towards (following the Noun) : Italiam versus, towards Italy. 286 Prepositions with Ablative. A, ab, from, by : ab eo loco, from that place ; ab ortu ad occasum, from East to West ; procul a patria, far from one's country ; prope abesse ab, to be near ; a tergo, in t)ie rear ; a senatu stetit, he took the side of the senate ; hoc a me est, this is in my favour ; ab urbe condita, from the foundation of Rome ; servus ab epistulis, secretary ; non ab re fuerit, it will not be irrelevant ; ab ira facere, to do in anger. Absque, without (rare) : absque vobis esset, if it were not for you. Clam, unknown to : clam vobis, unknown to you. Clam sometimes takes the Accusative : clam patrem. Palam, in sight of : palam omnibus, in sight of all. Coram, in the presence of : coram populo, in the presence of the peovle. Cum, with : cum aliquo congruere, certare, to agree, strive with someone ; magno cum periculo, with great danger; with me, te, nobis, vobis, often with quo, quibus, cum follows the Pronoun ; mecum, with me. Sine, without : sine regibus, without kings ; sine dubio, witJunit doubt. TDe,from (down from), concerning: de monte, down from the mountain; de die, in the daytime ; de die in diem, from day to day ; unus de rnultis, one out of many ; de marmore signum, a marble bust ; de pace, con- cerning peace ; quid de nobis fiet, what will become of us ? de in- dustria, on purpose ; de more, according to custom ; de integro, anew. PREPOSITIONS 145 Ex, 33, out of, from : ex urbe, out of the city : e longinquo, from far ; ex equis pugnant, they fight on horseback ; diem ex die, from day to day ; ex eo audivi, I heard it from him ; unus ex illis, one of those ; ex quo, front the time when ; e republica, for the good of the State ; ex sententia, satisfactorily ; ex parte, in part ; ex occulto, secretly. Prae, before, in front of (for) (Place rarely, chiefly used in idioms) : prae se fert speciem viri boni, he wears the semblance of a good man ; prae nobis beatus es, you are happy compared with us ; prae gaudio ubi sim nescio, I do not know where I am for joy. Pro, before, for : pro foribus, before the door ; pro patria mori, to die for one's country (in defence of) ; mihi pro parente fuit, he was in the place of a parent to me ; pro certo hoc habui, I held this for certain ; pro rata parte, in proportion ; pro re, according to circumstances. Note. Prae means in advance of; pro, standing for, defending. Tenus, as far as (always following the Noun) : verbo tenus, so far as the word goes Sometimes with Genitive : Corcyrae tenus, as far as Cor- cyra ; especially with a plural Noun : crurum tenus, as far as the legs. 287 Prepositions with Accusative or Ablative. In, into, to, towards, against ; with Accusative : ibo in Piraeum, I will go into the Piraeus ; in orbem ire, to go round ; liberalis in milites, liberal towards the troops ; Cicero in Verrem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres ; in aeternum, for ever; in vicem, in turn; in poenam dare, to deliver to punishment ; venire in conspectum, to come into sight. Xn, in, among, on ; with Ablative : in urbe Boma, in the city of Rome ; in oculis esse, to be before one's eyes ; in tempore, at the right time ; in dicendo, while speaking ; in bonis habere, to count among blessings ; in Ganymede, in the case of Ganymede ; in eo reprehendere quod, to blame on the score that. Sub, up to ; with Accusative : sub montem venire, to come close to the foot of i\ie mountain ; sub lucem, towards daybreak ; sub haec dicta, just after these things were said. Sub, under ; with Ablative : sub terra, underground ; sub monte esse, to be beneath the mountain ; sub poena, under penalty of. Subter, underneath : with Ace., subter murum venire, to come close to tlie wall. Abl., subter litore esse, to be close to the shore. Super, over; with Accusative: super terram, over the ground; super omnia, above all. Super, upon; with Ablative: super foco, on the hearth; super Hectore. about Hector. L I 4 6 SYNTAX IMPERSONAL VERBS. Case Construction. 288 The following verbs of feeling take an Accusative of the person with a Genitive of the cause: miseret, piget, paenitet, pudet, taedet : Miseret te aliorum, tui te nee miseret nee pudet. PLAUT. You pity others, for yourself you have neither pity nor shame. Me civitatis morum piget taedetque. SALL. I am sick and weary of the morals of the state. 289 Decet, dedecet take an Accusative of the person with an Infinitive : Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non dedecet. Cic. It by no means becomes an orator to feel anger, it is not unbecoming to feign it. Si me gemmantia dextra sceptra tenere decet. Ov. If it befits me to hold in my right liand the jewelled sceptre. 290 Libet, licet, liqnet, contingit, convenit, evenit, expedit, take a Dative : Ne libeat tibi quod non licet. Cic. Let not that please you which is not lawful. Licet nemini contra patriam dueere exercitum. Cic. It is not lawful for anyone to lead an army against his country. 281 Interest, it is of importance, it concerns, is used with the Genitive of the person or thing concerned, but with the feminine Ablatives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra of the Possessive Pronouns : Interest omnium recte facere. Cic. It is for the good of all to do right. Et tua et mea interest te valere. Cic. It is of importance to you and to me that you should be well. IMPERSONAL VERBS 147 292 Refert, it concerns, it matters, is also used with the feminine Ablatives of the Possessive Pronouns : Quid mea refert cui serviam? PHAED. What does it matter to me wliam I serve ? Note 1. Rarely with a Genitive : quorum nihil refert, QUINT., whom it does not at all concern. Note 2 The Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, are often joined with interest and refert : Ulud mea magni interest te ut videam. Cic. It is of great importance to me tliat I sliould see you. Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cribrum geras. I "LAUT. This avails no more than if you pour rain-water into a sieve. 293 Pertinet, attinet take an Accusative with ad : Nihil ad me attinet. TER. It does not concern me at all. 294 Oportet is used with the Accusative and Infinitive clause, or with the Conjunctive alone ; rarely with the Prolative Infinitive (369) : Legem brevem esse oportet. Cic. It behoves that a law be brief. Me ipsum ames oportet, non mea. Cic. You ought to love me, not my possessions. Vivere naturae si convenienter oportet. HOB. If it behoves to live agreeably to nature. 295 Note. Coepit, debet, desinit, potest, solet are used impersonally with an Impersonal Infinitive : Pigere eum facti coepit. JUST. It began to repent him of his deed. Perveniri ad summa sine industria non potest. QUINT. One cannot reach tlie higliest without industry. 296 PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION. When a sentence is changed from the Active to the Passive form : (a) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject ; the Subject becomes the Agent in the Ablative with the Preposition a or ab : fNuma leges dedit. Cic. Numa gave laws. lA.Numa leges datae sunt. Laws were given by Nima. r.2 I 4 8 SYNTAX 297 (&) Factitive Verbs and Verbs of saying and thinking become Copulative : Clodium plebs tribunum The plebs elected Clodius tribune. creavit. Clodius a plebe ere at us Clodius was elected tribune by the est tribunus. plebs. 298 (c) Transitive Verbs which have two Objects in the Accusative, the Person and the Thing, keep the Ac- cusative of the Thing in the Passive form : (Rogas me sententiam. You ask me my opinion. [ Rogor a te sententiam. I am asked by you my opinion. 299 Intransitive Verbs are used impersonally in the Passive, 300 (a) The Subject of an Intransitive Verb in Passive con- struction becomes the Agent in the Ablative : Nos currimus. A nob is curritur. 301 or the Agent may be omitted : Sic imu s ad astra. ) ., . ., , , 7 ! Thus we go to the stars, Sic itur ad astra. VEKG. j Acriter utrimque usque ad vesperum pugnatumest. CAES. Tliere was fierce fighting on both sides until the evening. 302 (6) Intransitive Verbs which take the Dative keep it in the Passive : Mihi isti nocere non possunt. | Mihi ab istis nocerinonpotest. Cic. j Nihil facile persuadetur invitis. QUINT. The unwilling are not easily persuaded of anything. Note. The Ablative of the Agent is used with Quasi-Passive Verbs : Malo a cive spoliari quam ab hoste venire. QUINT. I would rather be despoiled by a citizen tlian be sold by a foe. ADJECTIVES 149 ADJECTIVES. 304 Some Adjectives are used as Substantives to express persons or things : sapiens, a icise man ; boni, the good ; Eomani, the Romans ; omnia, all things ; multa, many things ; bona, goods. Bonos boni diligunt. Cic. The good love the good. Aiunt multum legendum esse, non multa. Cic. They say that much slwuld be read, not many things. 305 Neuter Adjectives are used for Abstract Substantives : verum or vera, the truth. Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci. HOR, He who has combined the useful with the pleasing has won every vote. 306 Some Adjectives, when used as Substantives, can be qualified by other Adjectives : amicus, friend ; vicinus, neighbour ; dextra, right hand ; majores, ancestors. Vetus vicinus ac necessarius. Cic. An old neighbour and intimate acquaintance. 307 Medius, middle, and superlatives of position in place and time, as summus, imus, primus, ultimus, are used with a partitive force : medio ponto, in mid ocean ; ad imam quercum, at the foot of the oak : Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur. CAES. At dawn of day the mountain top was lield by Labienus. Note. The singular forms of ceteri, tlie rest (of which the masc. nom. sing, is wanting), are similarly used with collective nouns : cetera turba, the rest of the crowd ; a cetero exercitu, by the rest of the army. 308 Adjectives are used adverbially when they qualify the Verb rather than the Substantive : Socrates laetus venenum hausit. SEN. Socrates drank the poison cheerfully. Matutinus ara. VERQ. i Vespertinus pete tectum. HOB Plough at morn. I At eventide go home. ISO SYNTAX Hannibal primus in proelium ibat, ultimas excedebat. Liv. Hannibal was the first to go into battle, tlie last to withdraw. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. 309 Superlatives often express a very high degree, and not the highest : Ego sum miserior quam tu, quae es miserrima. Cic. I am more wretclied than you, wlw are very wretcJied. 310 Comparatives may also express a certain degree, without special comparison : longior, rather long ; senior, elderly. After a Comparative with quam, a second Comparative is often used : Aemilii contio fuit verier quam gratior populo. Liv. The liarangue of Aemilius was more truthful than popular. Note. Comparatives and Superlatives are often strengthened by adverbs and adverbial phrases : multo carior, much dearer ; longe carissimus. far dearest ; vel minimus, the very least ; quam maximus, the greatest possible. Numeral Adjectives. 811 Cardinals : Unus, apart from other Numerals, is used only to give emphasis ; it often means the one of all others : Demosthenes u n u s eminet inter omnes oratores. Cic. Demosthenes is pre-eminent among all orators. Mille is used as an indeclinable Adjective; sometimes as a Substantive taking the Genitive after it ; milia is always used as a Substantive, followed by a Genitive : Mille greges illi. Ov. Mille annorum. PLAUT. He had a thousand flocks. A thousand years. Quattuor milia hominum Capitolium occupavere. Lrv. Four thousand men seized the Capitol. If a smaller number is added to milia, the compound number becomes adjectival : tria milia et sexcenti homines, three thousand six hundred men. 312 Ordinals are used in expressing time : but in compound numbers unus is used for primus : uno et octogesimo anno, in the eighty-first year : Octavus annus est ex quo Britanniam vicistis. TAC. It is the eighth year since you conquered "Britain. PRONOUNS 151 Note. Unus, alter, tertius, &c., are used for a first, a second, a third, where the order is of no importance, as distinguished from the regular ordinals, primus, secundus, tertius, which can only mean the first, the second, &c. 313 Distributives express how many each or at a time : Militibus quini et viceni denarii dati sunt. Liv. Twenty-five denarii were given to each soldier. Note 1. With a Substantive of plural form Distributives are used, but the plural of unus is used instead of singuli : Una castra jam facta ex binis videbantur. CAES. One camp now seemed to have been formed from two. Note 2. Bini is used for a pair : Pamphilua binos habebat scyphos sigillatos. Cic. Pamphilus had in use a pair of embossed cups. * 314 After plus, amplius, minus, quam is often left out before Numerals : Bomani paulo plus sexcenti ceciderunt. Lrv. Rather more than six hundred Romans fell. PRONOUNS. 315 The Personal Pronoun is usually expressed only by the Verb ending, but is sometimes added for emphasis : Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis. Cic. I expelled kings, ye are bringing in tyrants. Note. Nos is often used for ego, and noster for meus, but vos is not used for tu, nor vester for tuus. 316 The Reflexive Pronoun se, sese, BTU, sibi, refers to the Subject hi a Simple Sentence (464) : Fur telo se defendit. Cic. | Ira sui impotens est. SEN. The thief defends himself with a weapon. Anger is not master of itself. 152 SYNTAX I r a t u 8 cum ad s e rediit, s i b i turn irascitur. PUBL. SYR. Wlien an angry man has come to himself he is angry with himself. Deforme est de se ipso praedicare. Cic. It is bad taste to boast of oneself. Note 1. There is no [Reciprocal Pronoun in Latin ; se with Inter Is used reciprocally: inter se amant, they love each other. Note 2. In the First and Second Persons, me, te, are used reflexively withipse; me ipse consolor, I console myself. 317 The Possessive suns, formed from the Beflexive, is used to express his own, their own, when emphasis is required, and usually refers to the Subject of the Verb : Nemo rem suam emit. No one buys wliat is his own. sometimes to other cases if the context shows that it cannot be referred to the Subject : S ui s flammis delete Fide n as. Lrv. With its own flames destroy Fidenae. Suus is especially used in combination with quisque : Suus cuique erat locus attributus. CAES. To each man his own place had been assigned. 318 Ejus is the Possessive used of the Third Person where no emphasis is required, and does not refer to the Subject. Chilius te rogat, et ego ejus rogatu. Cic. Chilius asks you, and I at his request. Note. The Possessive Pronouns are often omitted when the meaning is clear without them : fratrem amat, he loves his brother. 319 Hie, ille are often used in contrast : hie usually meaning the latter, ille the former: Quocumque adspicio, nihil est nisi pontus et aer, nubibushic tumidus, fluctibus ille minax. Ov. Wfiithersoever J look, there is nought but sea and sky, the latter heaped with clouds, the former threatening with billows. Note. Iste is sometimes contemptuous : quid sibi i s t i miseri volunt ? What do those wretched ones want ? Ille may imply respect : philosophus ille, that famous philosopher. Is often is the antecedent to qui: is cujus, he whose; eum cui, him to whom. PRONOUNS 153 320 Ipse, self, is of all the three Persons, with or without a Personal Pronoun : ipse ibo, / icill go myself. Note. Ipse sometimes means of one's own accord : ipsi veniunt, they come of their own accord. Ipse, ipsa, also stand for the chief person (master, mistress) : the scholars of Pythagoras used to say 'Ipse dixit,' The master himself said it. Sometimes a superlative is formed : i p s i s- sima verba, the very exact words. 321 Idem, the same, is of all the three Persons ; with qui it expresses the same . ... as. It may often be translated at the same time ; also : Ego vir fortis, idemque philosophus. Cic. J a brave man, and also a philosopher. 322 Of the Indefinite Pronouns Quis, siquis, numquis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, the most definite is quidam, the least so quis. Quis, qui, any, cannot begin a sentence ; they often follow si, num, ne. Si mala condiderit in quern quis carmina jus est. HOB. If anyone lias composed malicious verses on anotJier, tJiere is a remedy at law. Si quid te volam, ubi eris? PLAUT. If I want anything of you, wJiere will you be ? Aliquis means some one: dicat aliquis, suppose some one to say; si vis esse aliquis, if you wish to be somebody. Quidam means a certain person (known but not named) : Accurrit quidam, notus mihi nomine tantum. HOB. A certain man runs up, known to me only by name. Nescio quis, some one or other (I know not who), used as if one word, forms an Indefinite Pronoun : Nescio quid mihi animus praesagit mali. TEB. My mind forebodes I know not what evil. 154 SYNTAX 323 Quisquam (Substantive), ) rm ,AJ- L- [ any at all, VUus (Adjective) : j are often used after a negative word, or a question ex- pecting a negative answer : Nee amet quemquam nee ametur ab ullo. Juv. Let him not love anyone nor be loved by any. Non ullus aratro dignus honos. VERG. Not any due honour (is given) to the plough. Note. Quisquam and ullus are used after si when negation is implied, or with comparatives : Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit. Cic. Either no man was wise, or, if any, Cato was. 324 Quivis, quilibet, any you like : Quivis homo potest quemvis de quolibet rumorem pro* ferre. Cic. Any man can put forth any report of anybody. Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum. HOB. It does not happen to every man to go to Corinth. 325 Quisque, each (severally), is often used with se, suus : Sibi quisque habeant quod suum est. PLAUT, Let tJiem have each for himself what is his own. With Superlatives it expresses every : Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit. Cic. All the most learned men despise tlie Epicureans. It also distributes Ordinal numbers : Quinto quoque anno Sicilia tota censetur. Cic. A census of all Sicily is taken every fifth year. 326 Uterque, each (of two), both, can be used with the Genitive of Pronouns ; but with Substantives it agrees in case : Uterque parens. Ov. Both father and mother. Utroque vestrum delector. Cic. I am delighted with both of you. 327 liter, which (of two), is Interrogative: utermelior? which is the better ? Uter utri insidias fecit ? Cic. Which of the two laid an ambush for which ? Note. Utri, plural, is used for which of two parties, utrique for both parties. So alteri . . . alteri, one party, the other party. PRONOUNS 155 328 Alter, the one, the other (of two), die second, is the Demon- strative of uter: alter ego, a second self. Quicquid negat alter, et alter; affirmant pariter. HOR. IVhatever the one denies, so does the other ; they affirm alike. 329 Alius, another (of any number), different : Fortuna nunc mihi, nunc alii benigna. HOB. Fortune, kind now to me, now to another. Alius, alius, repeated in two clauses, mean one . . . another-, alii, alii (plural), some . . . others : Aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare. Cic. It is one thing to speak evil, another to accuse. Alii Demosthenem laudant, alii Ciceronem. Some praise Demostlienes, others Cicero. Note 1. Alius repeated in different cases in the same sentence, or with one of its derived adverbs, has an idiomatic use : Alii alia sentiunt. Some think one thing, some another. Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus judicant. Cic. They judge differently, at different times, about the same things. Note 2. Alius expresses comparison and difference : nil aliudquam. nothing else tlian ; alius Lysippo, HOK., other tlian Lysippus. 330 The Relative qui, quae, quod, is of all three Persons, and when the Antecedent is a Noun either expressed or understood, it may be regarded as standing between two Cases of the same Noun, and agreeing with the second Case. (a) Sometimes both Cases are expressed : Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent. CAES. TJiere were two roads by which they might go forth. (fy usually the second is omitted : Animum rege qui, nisi paret, imperat. HOB. Rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands. (c) sometimes the first, in poetry : Sic tibi dent nymphae quae levet u n d a sitim. Ov. So may the nymphs give thee water to assuage thirst. 156 SYNTAX (d) sometimes both are omitted : Sunt quibu s in satira videor nimis acer. HOR. There are some to whom I seem too keen in satire. 331 The following scheme shows this principle fully : (1) vir quern virum vides rex est (both Cases expressed). (2) vir quern vides rex est (second Case omitted) (usual form). (3) ...quern virum vides rex est (first Case omitted). (4) . . . quem vides rex est (both Cases omitted). 332 Note 1. If the Eelative is the Subject of a Copulative Verb, it often agrees in Gender and Number with the Complement : Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est. Lrv. Thebes, which is the capital of Boeotia. Note 2. When an Adjective qualifying the Antecedent is emphatic, as unus, solus, or is a Superlative, it is often attracted to the Clause of the Eelative, agreeing with it in Case : Si veniat Caesar cum copiis quas habet firmissimas. Cic. Should Caesar come with tJie very strong forces that lie lias. Note 3. If the Antecedent consists of two or more Nouns, or is a Collective Noun, the rules for the Agreement of the Eelative are the same as for the Agreement of Adjectives with the Composite Subject (see 198, 199). Note 4. If the Eelative refers to a Sentence or Clause it is Neuter; sometimes id quod is used, id being in apposition to the Clause : Diem consumi volebat, id quod est factum. Cic. He wished the day to be wasted, which came to pass. Note 5. The Eelative clause sometimes comes first : Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat. Cio. Let everyone practise the art which he knows. (For other uses of the Eelative see 403, 450, 451.) CORRELATION. 333 Pronouns and Pronominal Adverbs are said to be Correlatives when they correspond to one another as Antecedent and Eelative (102). 334 The Pronoun Antecedent to qui is usually the Demon- strative is ; sometimes hie, ille, idem : Is minimo eget qui minimum cupit. PUB. STB. He wants for least wJio desires least. TENSES 157 335 Tails . . . qualis, means of such a kind . . . as ; tantus . . . quantus, as much or as great ... as : tot ... quot, as many . . . as: Talis estqualem tu eum esse scripsisti. Cic. He is such as you wrote word that he ivas. Tan to brevius omne, quanto felicius tempus. PLIN. Tlie Imppicr a time is, so much the sJiorter is it. Quot homines, tot sententiae. TEK. So many men, so many minds. Tarn . . . quam, means so ... as or as ... as ; ut . . . ita, means as ... so : Tarn ego ante fui liber quam gnatus tuus. PLAUT, I was formerly as free as your son. Ut optasti, ita est. Cic. As you wislied, so it is. TENSES. 336 The Present expresses : (1) What happens at the present moment : jacio, 7 throw. (2) What is going on at the present time : scribo, 1 am writing. (3) What is habitually or alwa}< s : quod semper movetur aeternum est, that which is always in motion is eternal. 337 The Historic Present is used for a Past by orators, historians, and poets, to give variety, or call up a vivid picture : Dimisso senatu decenrviri prodeuntin contionem abdicantque se magistratu. Liv. WJien tJie senate was dismissed the decemvirs go forth to the assembled people and resign office. 338 Note. Dum, while, is used with the Historic Present in speaking of Past Time: Dum Romani consultant, Saguntum oppugnabatur, Lrv., }Vhile the Romans were consulting, Saguntum was being besieged (see 430). With jam, jamcliu (dudum, pridem) the Present expresses what has long been and still continues: Jamdudum video, Hon., I have seen it this long time. 158 SYNTAX 339 The Perfect expresses : As Primary, from the point of the present moment what has just been done : scripsi, I have written. As Historic, simply a past action, which happened at some indefinite time : scripsi, I wrote. Note. The Perfect is used in poetry to express past existence which has ceased: Fuimus Troes ; fuit Ilium, VEBG., We Trojans were (i.e. are no longer) ; Troy was (exists no longer), 340 The Imperfect expresses what was continued or repeated in past time, as opposed to the completed or momentary past: Aequi se in oppida receperunt murisque se tenebant. Lrv. The Aequi retreated into their towns and remained within their walls. Carthagine quotannis bini reges creabantur. Nep. At Carthage two rulers were elected annually. 341 The Future Simple is used in Latin where in English the Present is used with Future meaning : Ut voles me esse, ita ero. PLAUT. As you wish me to be, so I shall be. 342 The Future Perfect expresses action to be completed in the future ; if two actions are spoken of, one of which will take place before the other, the prior one is in the Future Perfect : Ut sementem feceris, ita metes. Cic. As you shall have sown, so will you reap. 343 Note. The Romans, in writing letters, often speak of the time of writing in a Past Tense, because it would be past when a letter would be received. Kes, cum haec scribebam, erat in extremum adducta dis- crimen. Cic. At the time I write, the affair has been brought to a crisis. MOODS 159 MOODS, 344 The Indicative is the Mood which makes a statement with regard to a fact, or to something which is dealt with by the speaker as a fact. 345 Note. Verbs expressing duty, fitness, possibility, as possum, debeo, decet, licet, oportet, are often used in the Indicative tenses of past time, to express that it was proper or possible at that time to do something which in fact was not done. Phrases such as necesse est, f uit ; aequum, iongum, melius, satius est, fuit, are similarly used in the Indicative (440 c) : Hie tamen hanc mecum p o t e r a s requiescere noctem. VEBG. Yet you might have rested here with me this night. Et vellem et fuerat melius. VERG. I should liave wislied, and it would have been better. Longum est ea dicere : sed hoc breve dicam. Cic. It would be tedious to speak of those things, but this little I will say. Compare with these : Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit. Cic. Murena should not liave been reproaclied with tlie mention of Asia. 346 The Imperative is the Mood of positive command or direct request : I, sequere Italiam. VEBG. Pergite, adulescentes. Cic. Go, seek Italy. Proceed, youths. 347 Prohibitions in the second person are expressed by noli with the Infinitive ; or, more peremptorily, by ne with the Perfect Conjunctive: Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest. Cic. Do not wisJi ivhat cannot be. Ne feceris quod dubitas. PLIX. Never do anything about which you are doubtful. 348 but in poetry ne is often used with the Imperative : Equo ne credit e, Teucri. VERG. Do not trust the horse, O Trojans. SYNTAX 349 The forms in -to, -tote are specially used in laws ; but they are also often used for emphasis. Eegio imperio duo sun to, iique consules appellantor. Cic. Let there be two with royal power, and let them be called consuls. 350 Not 6 1- The following Imperatives are joined with the Infinitive or Conjunctive of other Verbs to form Imperatives ; fac, fac ut, cura ut, with the Conjunctive ; memento with Infinitive or Conjunctive. In prohibitions fac ne, cave, take the Conjunctive ; and in poetry fuge, mitte, parce, take the Infinitive : Magnum fac animum habeas. Cic. Mind you have a lofty spirit. Note 2. For a courteous Imperative the Future Indicative is often used : facies ut sciam, Cic., you will please let me know. 351 The Conjunctive Mood makes a statement or asks a question, not so much with regard to a fact as with regard to something thought of or imagined by the speaker, often with some condition expressed or implied. It expresses a modified or conditional command or desire. Note. The Conjunctive is so called because it joins with the other moods and adds to their power of expression. The Conjunctive has two general uses : 352 Pure or Independent : velim, I could wish ; vellem, I could have wished. 353 Subjunctive or Dependent on another Verb : cura ut facias, take care that you do it. 354 The Pure Conjunctive must generally be rendered in English with auxiliaries, may, might, could, would, should. Note. The Conjunctive makes a Statement : 355 ( a ) With a condition expressed or implied (Conditional use) : Ita amicos pares. Cic. Thus you may get friends. Crederes victos. Liv. You would have supposed them conquered (from their appearance). 356 () O r i n a modified tone, to avoid positiveness (Potential use) : Dub it em haud equidem. VEBG. For my part I should not hesitate. MOODS. 161 The Perfect Conjunctive is especially so used : Forsitan quispiam dixerit. Cic. Perhaps someone may say. 357 ( c ) Conveying an admission or supposition (Concessive use): Haec sint falsa sane. Cic. Fuerit malus civis. Cic. Granting this to be quite Suppose he was a bad citizen, untrue. 358 It asks a Question (Deliberative use) : Faveas tuhosti? Cic. Quid facerem? VEEQ. Would you befriend an WJiat was I to do? enemy ? It expresses a Desire or Command : 359 (a) A Wish or Prayer (Optative use) : often with utinam, Oh tJiatl Sis felix. HOB. Utinam potuissem. May you be happy. Oh that I had been able. Doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas. VERG. Pray shew me tlie road and open the sacred doors. 360 (&) An Exhortation (Hortative use) chiefly in the 1st Person Plural Amemus patriam, pareamus senatui. Cic. Let us love our country, let iis obey the senate. 361 (c) A modified Command (Jussive use) in the 3rd Person : Sit sermo lenis. Cic. Let speech be calm. Vilicus ne sit ambulator. CATO. Let not a steward be a loiterer. 362 From the Jussive use comes a further use of the Conjunctive, by which the expression of a wish is conveyed into past time. This use is chiefly in the 2nd Person, but extends also to the others .' Bern tuam curares. TEB. You should Jiave been minding your own business. Eestitisses, repugnasses, mortem oppetisses. Cic. You sliould have resisted, fought against it, braved death. 363 The use of the 2nd Person in the Pres. Conj. is often indefinite,, not addressed to anyone in particular, but expressing a generai maxim : Agere decet quod agas considerate. Cic. Whatever you do, it is proper to do it with consideration. M 162 SYNTAX THE VERB INFINITE. 364 The parts of the Verb Infinite have some of the uses of Verbs, some of the uses of Nouns. THE INFINITIVE. 365 The Infinitive as a Verb has Tenses, Present, Past, or Future, it governs cases and is qualified by Adverbs ; as a Noun it is neuter, indeclinable, used only as Nominative or Accusative. 366 The Infinitive in the Nominative may be the Subject of Impersonal Verbs, or of verbs used impersonally : Juvat ire et Dorica castra visere. VERG. It is pleasant to go and view tlie Doric camp. Ipsum philosophari nunc displicet. Cic. The very study of philosophy now displeases. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. HOB. To die for one's country is sweet and seemly. Non vivere bonum est sed bene vivere. SEN. It is not living which is a good, but living well. Note. Occasionally the Infinitive is the Complement : Homo cui vivere est cogitare. Cic. Man to whom to live is to think. 367 The Infinitive is often one of the two Accusatives depending on an Active Verb of saying or thinking : Errare, nescire, decipi et malum et turpe ducimus. Cic. To err, to be ignorant, to be deceived, we deem both unfortunate and disgraceful. 368 Note. Sometimes, though rarely, it is a simple Object : Hoc rider e meum nulla tibi vendo Hiade. PEBS. This laughter of mine I won't sell you for an Hia&, THE INFINITIVE 163 369 The Prolative Infinitive is used to carry on the construc- tion of Indeterminate and some other Verbs (190) : Verbs of possibility, duty, habit : possum, queo, nequeo, debeo, soleo ; of wishing, purposing : volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, statuo; ,, of beginning, ceasing, endeavouring, continuing, hastening ; coepi, begin ; desino, cease ; conor, try ; pergo, proceed ; of knowing, teaching, learning : scio, disco, doceo. Ego plus quam f eci f a c e r e non possum. Cic. I cannot do more than I Jiave done. Solent diu cogitare qui magna volunt gerere. Cic. They are wont to reflect long who wish to do great things. Praecedere coepit. Hon. He begins to walk on. Sapere aude. HOB. Dare to be wise. Note. The Infinitive of a Copulative Verb used Prolatively is followed by a Complement in the Nominative : Socrates par ens philosophiae jure dici potest. Cic. Socrates may rightly be called tlie parent of philosophy. Vis f ormosa videri. HOK. You wish to seem beautiful. 370 The Prolative Infinitive is also used with the Passives of Verbs of saying and thinking : Barbara narratur venisse venefica tecum. Ov. A barbarian sorceress is said to have come with tnee. Aristides unus omnium justissimus fuisse traditur. Cic. Aristides is recorded to liave been the one man of all most just. Note. This construction is called the Nominative with Infinitive, and is used with most Passive Verbs of saying and thinking. A few, however, narror, nuntior, trador, are used Impersonally always in the Perfect, and often in the Present and Imperfect : Galbam et Africanum doctos fuisse tr adit um est. Cic. It has been handed down that Galba and Africanus were learned. 164 SYNTAX S71 With an Infinitive Perfect Passive esse is often omitted : Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur. CAES. The bridge over the Ebro was announced to be nearly finished. Titus Manlius ita locutus fertur. Lrv. Titus Manlius is reported to have thus spoken. 372 The Historic Infinitive is the Present Infinitive used by historians in vivid description for the Imperfect In- dicative : Multi sequi, fugere, occidi, capi. SALL. Many were following, flying, being slain, being captured. 373 An Infinitive often follows an Adjective Prolatively, chiefly in poetry : Audax omnia perpeti. HOB. Insuetus vinci. Liv. Bold to endure all things. Unused to be conquered. Figere doctus erat sed tendere doctior arcus. Ov. He was skilled in piercing (with a dart), but more skilled in bending the bow. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 374 The Genitive, Dative, and Ablative of the Gerund, and the Accusative with a Preposition, are used as Cases of the Infinitive. 375 The Accusative of the Gerund follows some Prepositions, especially ad, ob, inter : Ad bene vivendum breve tempus satis est longum. Cic. For living well a short time is long enough. Mores puerorum se inter ludendum detegunt. QUINT. The characters of boys show themselves in their play. 376 The Genitive of the Gerund depends on some Abstract Substantives, and Adjectives which take a Genitive : Cupidus te audiendi sum. Cic. Ars scribendi discitur. Tlie art of wiiing is learnt. I am desirous of hearing you. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 165 377 The Dative of the Gerund follows a few Verbs, Adjec- tives, and Substantives implying help, use, fitness : Par est disserendo. Cic. He is equal to arguing. Dat operam legendo. He gives attention to reading. Note. Observe the phrase : solvendo non est, lie is insolvent. 378 The Ablative of the Gerund is of Cause or Manner, or it follows one of the Prepositions ab, de, ex, in, cum : Fugiendo vincimus. We conquer by flying. De pugnando deliberant. TJiey deliberate about fighting. 379 If the Verb is Transitive, the Gerundive is more often used than the Gerund, agreeing with the Object as an Adjective. It takes the Gender and Number of the Object, but the Object is drawn into the Case of the Gerundive. The following examples show how the Gerundive takes the place of the Gerund. Gerund Ad petendum pacem Petendi pacem Petendo pacem Petendo pacem Ad mutandum leges : Mutandi leges Mutando leges Gerundive ad petendam pacem petendae pacis petendae paci petenda pace ad mutandas leges mutandarum legum mutandis legibus in order to seek peace. of seeking peace. for seeking peace. by seeking peace. in order to change laws of changing laws. for or by changing laws. Note 1. In order to seek peace may also be rendered by the Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive with causa or gratia : pacem petendi causa or petendae pacis causa. (See 423, note 3.) 380 Note 2. The Dative of the Gerundive is used with names of office to chow the purpose of the office : Comitia regi ere an do. Liv. An assembly for electing a king. Tres viri agris dividendis. FLORUS. Three commissioners for dividing lands. 166 SYNTAX 381 ' The Gerund and Gerundive are often used to express that something ought or is to be done, the Dative of the Agent being expressed or understood (222). 382 If the Verb is Intransitive the Gerund is used imper- sonally : Eundum est. Mihi eundum est. One must go. I must go, Suo cuique judicio est utendum. Cic. Each must use his own judgment. 383 If the Verb is Transitive the Gerundive is used in agreement : Caesari omnia uno tempore erant agenda. CAES. All things had to be done by Caesar at one time. Principio s e d e s apibus statioque p e t e n d a. VEHO. First of all a site and station must be sought for the bees. Note 1. If an Intransitive Verb has an Object in the Dative, the Agent is in the Ablative with the preposition a or ab : patriae est a te con- Bulendum, you must consult for your country. 384 Note 2. After some Verbs, as do, trado, euro, the Gerundive is used in the Accusative to express that something is caused to be done : Caesar pontem faciendum curat. CAES. Caesar causes a bridge to be made. SUPINES. 385 The Supines are also used as Cases of the Infinitive : 386 The Supine in -urn is an Accusative after Verbs of motion, expressing the purpose : Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego. HOB. Maecenas goes to play, I to sleep. Athenienses miserunt Delphos consultum. NEP. The Athenians sent to Delphi to consult. 387 with the Infinitive iri, used impersonally, it forms a Future Passive Infinitive : Aiunt urbem captum iri. They say that the city will be taken. Note. Literally, they say there is a going to take the city. PARTICIPLES 167 388 The Supine in -u (Dative and Ablative) is used with some Adjectives, such as facilis, dulcis, turpis, and the Substan- tives fas, nefas : turpe factu, disgraceful to do. Hoc fas est dictu. It is lawful to say this. ' Libertas, dulce auditu nomen. Liv. Freedom, a name sweet to hear. Nee visu facilis, nee dictu affabilis ulli. VERQ. One not easy for any to gaze on, or to address. PAKTICIPLES. 389 The Present and Perfect Participles of some Verbs are used as Adjectives : Homo frugi ac dili gens. Cic. A thrifty and industrious man. d o r a t a cedrus. VERG. The fragrant cedar. 390 Most Participles which can be used as Adjectives have Comparison : pietate praestantior, more excellent in piety nocentissima victoria, a very hurtful victory. 391 A Participle, agreeing with a Noun in any Case, often expresses within one sentence what might be expressed by a dependent or a co-ordinate clause : Saepe sequens agnam lupus est a voce retentus. Ov. Often, when following a lamb, the wolf has been held back by his voice. Elephantes, amnem transituri, minimos praemittunt. PLIN. Elephants, intending to cross a river, send forward the smallest ones. Timotheus a patre acceptam gloriam multis auxit virtutibus. NEP. Timotheus increased by many virtues the glory which lie had received from his fatlier. Sacras jaculatus arces terruit urbem. HOR. He has smitten the sacred towers and terrified the city. Caesar milites hortatus castra movit. CAES. Caesar addressed the soldiers, and moved his camp. '68 SYNTAX 392 Note 1. Only Deponent Verbs have an Active Perfect Participle ; in other Verbs its place is supplied either by a Finite Verb Active with the Belative or a Particle, or by the Ablative Absolute Passive : The enemy, liaving thrown away their arms, fled, can be expressed in Latin by Iqui arma abjecerant \ cum arma abjecissent hterga verterunt. armis abjectis i 393 Note 2 Sometimes when a Substantive has a Perfect Participle in agreement, the Substantive must be rendered in English by a Genitive, the Participle by a Substantive : ademptus Hector, the removal of Hector ; ante urbem conditam, before the foundation of the city, Terra mutata non mutat mores. Lrv. Change of country does not change cltaracter. Note on the Verb Infinite. 394 The Infinitive, the Gerund, the Supine in -um and the Participles govern the same Cases as the Finite Verbs to which they belong. Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores. Ov. To have truly learned the liberal arts refines the diameter. Cupio satisfacere reipublicae. Cic. I desire to do my duty to the republic. Bomae privatis jus non erat vocandi senatum. Lrv. At Rome private persons Iwd not the right of summoning the senate. Ast ego non Graiis servitum matribus ibo. VEBO. But I will not go to be a slave to Greek matrons. Ausi omnes immane nefas, ausoque potiti. VERO. All having dared monstrous impiety and having accomplisJied what they dared. ADVEBBS. 395 Adverbs show how, when, and where the action of the Verb takes place; they also qualify Adjectives or other Adverbs : recte facere, to do rightly ; hue nunc venire, to come hither now ; facile primus, easily first ; valde celeriter, very swiftly. Many words are both Adverbs and Prepositions, as ante, before, post, after : Adverbs : multo ante, long before ; paullo post, shortly after. ADVERBS 169 Prepositions : ante oculos, "before one's eyes; post tergum, behind one's back. Joined with quam they form Conjunctions : antequam, before that . . . postquam, after that (see 428, 431). 396 Negative Adverbs are non, baud, ne. Non, not, is simply negative : Nives in alto mari non cadunt. PLIN. No snow falls on the high seas. Haud, not, is used with Adjectives, with other Adverbs, and a few Verbs of knowing and thinking : baud aliter, baud secus, not otherwise ; res baud dubia, no doubtful matter ; haud scio an verum sit, 7 am inclined to think it is true. Ne is used with the second person of the Perfect Con- junctive for prohibitions (347) : ne transieris Hiberum (Liv.), do not cross the Ebro. "With the second person of the Present Conjunctive ne often means lest : ne forte credas (HoR.), lest by chance you believe, or that you may not by chance believe. 397 Two Negatives make an Affirmative, as in English : non sum nescius, / am not unaicare, that is I am aware. Non nemo means, somebody ; nemo non, everybody ; non-nihil, something ; nihil non, everything. In ipsa curia non nemo hostis est. Cic. In the very senate-house there is some enemy. Nemo Arpinas non Plancio studuit. Cic. Every citizen of Arpinum teas zealous for Plancius. Note 1. Neque, nee, nor (Conjunction) is used for and not ; Eapimur in errorem, neque vera cernimus. Cic. We are hurried into error, and do not perceive truth. So also are generally rendered : and no one, nee quisquam, nee ullus ; and nothing, nee quidquam ; and never, nowhere, nee umquam, nee usquam. 170 SYNTAX 398 Note 2. Ne is used with quidem to express not even, and the word or words on which emphasis is laid comes between them : Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo. Cic. Not to Cato even will I appeal. 1 Not only not . . ., but not even' is non modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem (or ne . . . quidem, non modo non). Non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum. Cic. J am not only not angry with you, but do not even blame your act. If the predicate of both clauses is the same, it is often expressed only in the second clause with ne . . . quidem, and also the negative is omitted in the first clause i.e. non modo is used rather than non modo non. Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digna est. Cic. Flattering is unworthy, not only of a friend, but even of a free man. CONJUNCTIONS. 399 Conjunctions connect words, sentences, and clauses. 400 (1) Co-ordinative Conjunctions connect two or more Nouns in the same case : Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum. VEBO. He marvels at the gates and the noise and the pavements. E t nostra respublica e t omnia regna. Cic. Both our own republic and all kingdoms. Sine imperio nee domus ulla nee civitas stare potest. Cic. Without government neither any house nor any State can be stable. Or they join two or more Simple Sentences (402) : Note 1. Ant . . . ant are used to mark an emphatic distinction ; vel . . . vel where the distinction is of little importance : Aut Caesar aut nullus. Either Caesar or nobody. Vel magna, vel potius maxima. Cic. Great, or rather very great. Note 2. Sed distinguishes with more or less opposition, or passes to a fresh point ; while antem corrects slightly or continues : Non scholie sed vitae discimua. SEN. We learn not for the school but for life. INTERJECTIONS 1 7 1 Note 3. Autem, enim, quldem, vero, never begin a sentence : Neque enim tu is es qui quid sis nescias. Cic. For you are not the man to be ignorant of your own nature. 401 (2) Subordinative Conjunctions join Dependent Clauses to the Principal Sentence. (See Compound Sentence.) Co-ordination. 402 "When two or more Sentences are joined together by Co-ordinative Conjunctions, so as to form part of one Sen- tence, they are said to be Co-ordinate Sentences, and each is independent in its construction. Et mini sunt vires et mea tela nocent. Ov. J too am not powerless, and my weapons hurt. Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat. Cic. Gyges was seen by no one, but Jie himself saw all things. 403 The Eelative Pronoun with a Verb in the Indicative often forms a Co-ordinate Sentence : Ees loquitur ipsa, q u a e semper valet plurimum. Cic. The fact itself speaks, and this always avails most. Constantes amici sunt eligendi, cujus generis magna est penuria. Cic. Firm friends are to be cJwsen, but of such there is great scarcity. INTERJECTIONS. 404 Interjections are apart from the construction of the sentence. 0, ah, eheu, heu, pro, are used with the Voca- tive, Nominative, or Accusative ; en, ecce, with the Nomina- tive or Accusative ; ei, vae, with the Dative only : Oformosepuer, nimium ne crede colori. VERO. O beautiful boy, trust not too much to complexion. O fortunatam Bomam 1 Cic. O fortunate Rome t En ego vester Ascanius ! VEBO. Lo liere am I your Ascanius I 172 SYNTAX Ei misero mihi ! Alas I wretched, me. Vaevictis! LIT. Woe to the vanquished I QUESTION AND ANSWER. 405 () Single Questions are asked by : nonne, expecting the answer yes. num, ,, no. -ne, expecting either answer. an, expressing surprise and expecting answer no. Canis nonne similis lupo est ? Cic. 7s not a dog like a wolf ? Num negare audes? Cic. Potesne dicere? Cic. Do you venture to deny ? Can you say ? An tu me tristem esse putas ? PLAUT. Do you think I am sad ? Note. Questions are also asked by Interrogative Pronouns (95, 100, 102, 327) and Adverbs (167, 168). 106 (&) Alternative Questions are asked by : utrum . . . .an (or). num an (or). -ne an (or). an, anne (or). Haec utrum abundantis an egentis signasunt? Cic. Are these the tokens of one who abounds or lacks ? Num duas habetis patrias an est ilia patria communis ? Cic. Have you two countries, or is that your common country ? Romamne venio, an hie maneo, an Arpinum fugio ? Cic. Do I come to Borne, or stay here, or flee to Arpinum ? Note. A single question is sometimes asked without any particle : Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum fodit ? SEN. Is Fabricius unhappy because he digs his land? QUESTION AND ANSWER 173 407 For Deliberative Questions the Present or Imperfect Conjunctive is used : Quid faciam? roger anne r o g e m ? Ov. What shall I do? Shall I be asked or ask ? Tibi ego irascerer, mi f rater? tibi ego possem irasci? Cic. Should I be angry with you, my brother ? Could I be angry with you? 408 Answer Affirmative is expressed : (a) By repeating the emphatic word of the question, sometimes with vero, sane, inquam. Estne? . . . est. LIT. ] Dasne? . . . Do sane. Cic. Is it? . . . it is. I Do you grant ? . I grant indeed. (6) By ita, ita est, etiam, sane, sane quidem . . . : Visne potiora tantum interrogem ? . . . Sane. Cic. Would you have me ask only the principal matters ? . . . Certainly. 409 Answer Negative is expressed : (a) By repeating the emphatic Verb with non. Estne f rater intus? .. Non est. TER. Is my brother within ? . . No. (fy By non, non ita, minime, minime vero : Venitne? . . . .Non. PLATJT. Did he come ? . . . No. Non pudet vanitatis ? . . . . .Minime. Are you not ashamed of your folly ? . . . Not at all. Note. Immo, nay rather, yes even, is used in answers to correct or modify, either by contradicting, or by strengthening : Ubi fuit Sulla, num Eomae ? . . . Immo longe afuit. Cic. Wliere was Sulla ? at Borne ? . . . Nay, lie was far away from fa Tenaxneest? Immo pertinax. PLACT. Is lie tenacious ? . . . . Yes even pertinacious. 174 SYNTAX 41O THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. A Compound Sentence consists of a Principal Sentence with one or more Subordinate Clauses. Subordinate Clauses depend in their construction on the Principal Sentence. They are divided into : I. Substantival. II. Adverbial. III. Adjectival. I. A Substantival Clause stands, like a Substantive, as Sub- ject or Object of a Verb, or in Apposition. II. An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence like an Adverb, answering the questions how ? why ? when ? Adverb- ial Clauses are introduced by Subordinative Conjunctions, and are (1) Consecutive (so that] ; (2) Final (in order that) ; (3) Causal (because, since) ; (4) Temporal (when, while, until) ; (5) Condi- tional (if, unless) ; (6) Concessive (although, even if) ; (7) Com- parative (as if, as though). III. An Adjectival Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence like an Adjective. It is introduced by the Kelative qui or by a Kelative Particle, as ubi (where), unde (ivhence), quo (whitherl '75 411 Sequence of Tenses. The general rule for the Sequence of Tenses is that a Primary Tense in the Principal Sentence is followed by a Primary Tense in the Clause, a Historic Tense by a Historic Tense. PRIMARY. Simple Pres. rogo J ask \ Act. quid agas ) what you are Pres. Perf. rogavi I liave Pass. quid a te agatur j doing. asked I Act. quid egeris } what you have Simple Put. rogabo Pass. quid a te actum sit ) done. Fut. Perf. rogavero J Act. quid acturus sis what you are going to do. Imperf. Perf. rogabam rogavi I asked \ Act. 1 Pass. I Act. Pluperf. rogaveram Pass. 1 Act. HISTORIC. quid ageres 1 what you were quid a te ageretur ) doing. quid egisses } what you had quid a te actum esset j done. quid acturus esses what you were going to do. Note. The Historic Present and Historic Infinitive are generally used with Historic Sequence. The Primary Perfect Indicative has Primary Sequence in most writers, but Cicero often gives it Historic Sequence. The Perfect Conjunctive in its Pure use is always Primary ; in its Dependent use, it is generally Primary, sometimes Historic. 412 Tenses of the Infinitive in Oratio Obliqua. If the time of the Clause is the same as that of the Principal Verb, the Present Infinitive is used. If the time is before that of the Principal Verb, the Perfect Infinitive. If the time follows that of the Principal Verb, the Future Infinitive. Scio I know Sciebam eum amare that lie is loving copias mitti tliat forces are being sent eum amare that }ie was amavisse lias loved missas esse have been sent amavisse liad loved amaturum esse will love missum iri will be sent amaturum esse would love I knew copias mitti missas esse missum iri that forces were being sent had been sent would be sent e. For the Supine in -um with iri, may be substituted fore or futurum ut with the Conjunctive : fore (futurum esse), ut copiae mittantur ut copiae mitterentur. J76 SYNTAX I. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 413 Substantival Clauses are Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua). Their forms correspond to the three direct forms of the Simple Sentence. 1. Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). Scis me valere. You know that I am well. Sentimus calere ignem. We feel that fire is hot. 2. Indirect Command or Bequest (Petitio Obliqua). Cura ut valeas. Take care that you keep well. Oro maneas in sententia. I beg that you keep firm in your opinion. 3. Indirect Question (Interrogatio Obliqua). Quaero an valeas. I ask whether you are well. Incertum est quis sit. It is doubtful who he is. 1. Direct Statement. Valeo. I am well . Calet ignis. Fire is hot. 2. Direct Positive Command or Bequest. Vale. Farewell. Mane in sententia. Keep firm in your opinion. 3. Direct Question. Valesne ? Are you well ? Quis est ? Who is he ? 1. Indirect Statement. 414 The Accusative with. Infinitive is the most usual form of Indirect Statement. It may stand : (a) As the Subject of an Impersonal Verb, or of est with an Abstract Substantive or Neuter Adjective : Constat leges ad salutem civium i n v e n t a s esse. Cic. It is agreed that laws were devised for the safety of citizens. Nuntiatum est Scipionem adesse. CAES. It was announced that Scipio was at hand. Bern te valde bene gessisse rumor erat. Cic. Tliere was a report tJiat you had conducted the affair very well' Verum est amicitiam nisi inter bonos esse non posse. Cic. It is true that friendship cannot exist except between the good. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES 17? (b] As Object, after Verbs of saying, thinking, feeling, perceiving, knowing, believing, denying : Democritus dicit innumerabiles esse mundos. Cic. Democritus says tJiat there are countless worlds. Pompeios desedisse terrae motu audivimus. SEN. We have lieard that Pompeii has perished in an earthquake. (c) In Apposition : Illud temere dictum, sapientes omnes esse bonos. Cic. It was rashly said that all wise men are good. Note. Verbs of lioping, promising, swearing, threatening generally take the Accusative with Future Infinitive : Sperabam id me assecuturum. Cic. I hoped to attain this. Pollicebatur pecuniam se esse redditurum. Cic. He promised that he would return the money. 415 A Clause formed by Ut with the Conjunctive is used as Subject with Impersonal Verbs or phrases which express fact or occurrence ; it is also used in Apposition, but it seldom stands as Object: Expedit u t civitates sua jura h a b e a n t. Liv. That states should have tlieir own laws is expedient. Mos erat ut in pace Jani templum clauderetur. Liv. It was the custom that in time of peace tlie temple of Janus was shut. Extremum illud est ut te obsecrem. Cic. The last thing is for me to beseech you. Note. The Accusative with Infinitive, or the Ut Clause, used Inter- rogatively, sometimes expresses indignation : Mene incepto desistere victam? VERO. What ! J to be vanquished and abandon my design t Te ut ulla res frangat ? Cic. Can anything break your pride ? 416 A Clause formed by Quod with the Indicative is used as Subject, or in Apposition, where a fact is to be dwelt on : Accedit hue q u o d postridie ille venit. Cic. Add to this thai lie came the next day. Hoc praestamus maxime feris, quod loquimur. Cic. We excel beasts most in this respect, that we speak. 178 SYNTAX Earely as Object, after Verbs such as addo, mitto, omitto, praetereo : Adde quod idem non horam tecum esse potes. Hoa. Add moreover that you cannot keep your own company for an hour. It is also used with Verbs of rejoicing and grieving : Dolet mihi quod tu stomacharis. Cic. It grieves me that you are angry. Gaude, quod spectant oculi te mille loquentem. HOB. Rejoice, that a thousand eyes behold you speaking. Note. With Verbs of rejoicing and grieving, the Accusative with Infini- tive or the Quod Clause may be used : Salvum te ad venire gaudeo (PLAUT.), I rejoice that you arrive in health ; might be, ' Gaudeo quod salvus advenis.' 2. Indirect Command, Request or Prohibition. 417 A Clause depending on a Verb of commanding, wishing, exhorting, entreating, is in the Conjunctive : if positive, with lit ,' if negative, with ne. The Clause may stand (a) as Subject ; (b) as Object ; (c) in Apposition : (a) Postulatur ab amico ut sit sincerus. Cic. It is required of a friend tliat he be sincere. Nuntiatum est Antonio ne Brutum obsideret. Cic. An order was sent to Antony that he should not besiege Brutut, (b) Etiam atque etiam te rogo atque oro ut eum juves. Cic. I urgently beg and pray you to help him. Mihi ne abscedam imperat. TEB. He commands me not to go away. (c) Hoc te rogo, ne dimittas animum. Crc. This I beg you, not to lose heart. Note 1. With oro, rogo, moneo, suadeo, sino, impero, euro, volo, nolo, malo, and some other verbs, ut is often omitted. With licet oportet it is not used. Idque sinas oro ; and I pray that you grant that. Haec omnia praetermittas licet. Cic. It is allowable to omit all these things. Note 2. Verbs of willing and desiring, volo, nolo, cupio, also jubeo and many others, frequently take the Accusative with Infinitive : Eas res jactari nolebat. CAES. He was unwilling to have those things discussed. Eos suum adventum exspectare jussit. CAES. He desired them to await his arrival- SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES Note 3. Verbs of taking care, effecting , causing, are used \vitn ut ; verb* of guarding against, with ne: Cura et provide ut nequid ei desit. Cic. Take care and provide that nothing be wanting to Mm. Sol efficit ut omnia floreant. Cic. Tlie sun causes all things to bloom. Cave, beware lest, with ne or without a Conjunction ; cave, take care tliat, is used with ut : Cave ne portus occupet alter. HOB. Beware lest another forestall you in occupying tlie harbour. Note 4. Verbs of fearing take the Conjunctive : with ne to express fear that something will happen ; with ut or ne non to express fear that some- thing will not happen : Metuo ne faciat. I fear he may do it. Metuo ut faciat (or ne non faciat). I fear lie may not do it. 418 ftuominus, that not (literally by which the less), with the Conjunctive, forms a Clause depending on a Verb or phrase which expresses hindrance or prevention : Senectus non impedit quominus litterarum studia teneamus. Cic. Age does not prevent our continuing literary pursuits. Neque repugnabo quominus omnia legant. Cic. Nor will I oppose tneir reading all things. Per Af ranium stetit quominus proelio dimicaretur. CAES. It was owing to Afranius that no battle was fought. 419 ftuin, that not, with the Conjunctive, follows many of the same Verbs, and phrases of similar meaning : Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus. Cic. Nothing is wanting to my being most miserable. Aegre sunt retenti quin oppidum irrumperent. CAES. They were hardly withheld from bursting into the city. Note 1. The sentence on which quominus depends is generally negative or interrogative, but it may be positive ; the sentence on which quin depends is always negative, or virtually negative. Note 2. Many of these Verbs take ne : Atticus, ne qua sibi statua poneretur, restitit. NEP. Atticus opposed having any statue raised to him. .Prohibeo takes quominus or ne, veto more often ne, and both take Accusative with Infinitive. N2 i8o SYNTAX 3. Indirect Question. 420 Indirect Question is formed by a dependent Interrogative Pronoun or Particle with a Verb in the Conjunctive. The Clause of the Indirect Question may be (a) Subject or (b) Object or (c) in Apposition, and the Question may be single or alternative : (a) Videndum est, quando, et cui, et quemadmodum, et quare demus. Cic. Care must be taken, when, to wlwin, how, and why we give. Demus, necne demus, in nostra potestate est. Cic. Whether we give or do not give is in our own power. (b) Fac me certiorem quando adfuturus sis. Cic. Let me know when you will be fare. Haud scio an quae dixit sint vera omnia. TEB. I am inclined to think that all lie has said is the truth. (e) Ipse quis sit, utrum sit, an non sit, id quoque nescit. CATULL. He knows not even this, who he himself is, whether lie, is or is not. II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 1. Consecutive Clauses. 421 Consecutive Clauses define the consequence of what is stated in the Principal Sentence. They are introduced by ut, with a Verb in the Conjunctive ; if negative, by ut non, ut nihil, ut nullus, &c. Ut, in Consecutive Clauses, usually follows a Demonstrative, adeo, eo, hue, ita, tarn, sic, tantus, tot : Non sum ita hebes ut istud dicam. Cic. I am not so stupid as to say that. Quis tarn demens est ut sua voluntate maereat? Cic. Who is so mad as to mourn of his own free will ? Nemo adeo ferus est ut non mitescere possit. HOB. No one is so savage that he cannot soften. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 18% Note. Sometimes the Demonstrative is omitted : Arboribus consita Italia est, u t tota pomarium videatur. VABKO. Italy is planted with trees, so as to seem one orcJiard. Clare, etut audiat hospes. PERS. Aloud, and so tliat a bystander may hear. Ut is used in a restrictive sense after ita : Litterarum ita studiosus erat ut poetas omnino neglegeret. Cic. He was fond of literature, with tlie reservation that he cared nothing for poetry. TJt Consecutive sometimes follows quam with a Comparative : Isocrates majore ingenio est quam ut cum Lysia compare- tur. Cic. Isocrates is of too great genius to be compared with Lysias. 422 ftuin, but that, with the Conjunctive, follows phrases and questions such as non, or haud dubium est ; quis dubitat ? Non dubium erat quin totius Galliae pluriinum Helvetii pos- 5 cut. CAES. There was no doubt ttiat in the whole of Gaul tlie Helvetii were the most powerful. Quis dubitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint? Cic. Who would doubt that riclies consist in virtue ? Note 1. A Consecutive ut clause sometimes depends on the phrase tantum abest followed by a Substantival ut clause, the meaning being so far from .... that . . . Tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes. Cic. So far am I from admiring my own productions, that Demosthenes himself does not satisfy me. Note 2. In Consecutive Clauses the Sequence of Tenses sometimes varies from the general rule. If it is intended to mark the consequence a? something exceptional, the Primary Perfect in the Clause may follow the Imperfect or Historic Perfect in the Principal Sentence. Non adeo virtutum sterile erat saeculum ut non et bona ex- empla prodiderit. TAC. The age was not so bare of virtues tliat U has not furnished some good examples. (For Consecutive Clauses with Qui, see 452.) 182 SYNTAX 2. Final Clauses. 423 Final Clauses express the aim or purpose of the action of the Principal Sentence. They are formed by at, or, if negative, by ne, ut ne, with the Conjunctive : Venio ut videam. Abii ne viderem. I come that I may see. I went away that I might not see. Ut jugulent homines surgunt de nocte latrones. Juv. Robbers rise by night that they may kill men. Scipio rus abiit ne ad causam dicendam adesset. Cic. Scipio went into the country that he might not be present to defend his cause. Ut, with a Final Clause, often corresponds to the Demon- stratives eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob earn rem : Legum idcirco servi sumus ut liberi esse possimus. Cic. We are the bondmen of the law in order that we may be free. Note 1. A Final Clause with ut or ne is used parenthetically in such phrases as : ut ita dicam, so to say ; ne longus sim, not to be tedious. Note 2. Nedum, much less (not to say), may take a Verb in the Con- junctive : Mortalia facta peribunt, Nedum sermonum s t e t honos et gratia vivax. HOB. Mortal deeds will perish, much less can the honour and popularity of words be lasting. Note 3. The purpose of action is expressed in many ways, all equiva- lent to ut with a Final Clause. He sent ambassadors to seek peace may be rendered : Legates misit ut pacem peterent. qui pacem peterent. ad petendam pacem. petendi pacem causa. ,, petendae pacis causa. petitum pacem. Note!. The Sequence of Tenses in Final Clauses always follows the general rule. (For Final Clauses with Qui, see 453.) ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 183 3. Causal Glauses. 424 Causal Clauses assign a reason for the statement made in the Principal Sentence. 425 "When an actual reason for a fact is given, quod, quia, quo- niam, quando, quandoquidem, quatenus, siquidem, are used with the Indicative : * Adsunt propterea quod officium sequuntur; tacent quia peri- culum m e t u u n t. Cic. They are present because they follmo duty ; tJiey are silent because they fear danger. Vos, Quirites, quoniam jam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite. Liv. Since it is already night, depart, ye Quirites, to your tents. Geramus, dis bene juvantibus, quando itavidetur, bellum. Liv. Let us wage war, the gods helping us, since so it seems good. Note. Quod, quia, quoniam correspond to eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea ; ideo quia uxor ruri est (TEK.) ; for tJie reason that my wife is in the country. 426 Cum, since, with a Causal Clause takes the Conjunctive ; Quae cum ita sint, ab Jove pacem ac veniam peto. Cic. Since tliese things are so, I ask of Jupiter peace and pardon. Note 1. After gratulor, laudo, gaudeo, doleo, cum, for the reason that, takes the Indicative, if the Verb is in the first person : Gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam. Cic. I congratulate you tJiat you liave so much weight with Dolabella. Note 2. Non quod, non quia take the Indicative when they refer to the actual cause of a fact ; if they refer to a cause thought of, not actual, they take the Conjunctive, and a following clause, with sed, gives the true reason : Non quia salvos vellet, sed quia perire causa indicta nolebat. Liv. Not because he wished them to be saved, but because he did not wish them to die witJiout trial. (For Causal Clauses with Qui, r.ee 454.) " Clauses in Oratio Obliqua must be all following rules for the use of the Indi- understood to te excepted from this and cative. 184 SYNTAX 4. Temporal Clauses. 427 Temporal Clauses define the time when anything has happened, is happening, or will happen. The Mood of a Temporal Clause is Indicative if its Con- nexion with the Principal Sentence is one of time only, and if the time of each is independent of the other ; but, if the time of the Clause is thought of as depending on the time of the Principal Sentence, the Mood of the Clause is Conjunctive. 428 ^^ u *' P 08 t ( l uam > simulac, quando, quotiens, cum primum are generally used with the Indicative : Olea ubi matura erit quam primum cogi oportet. CATO. When the, olive is (sliall be) ripe, it must be gathered in as soon as possible. Ut Hostus cecidit, confestim Komana inclinatur acies. Liv. When Hostus fell, immediately the Roman line gave way. Eo postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides, anna poposcit. CAES. After Caesar had arrived there, he demanded hostages and arms. 429 Dum, donee, quoad, while, as long as, take the Indicative : Homines dum decent discunt. SEN. Men learn while they teach. Dum haec Veiis agebantur, interim Capitolium in ingenti periculo fuit. Liv. While these things were being done at Veil, the Capitol was mean- while in dire peril. Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit. NEP. Cato increased in the renown of virtue as long as he lived. 430 Dum is used with the Historic Present, the Verb of the Principal Sentence being in a Historic tense : Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est equites accedere. CAES. While this parley was being carried on, it was announced to Caesar that the cavalry were approaching. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 185 431 Dum, donee, quoad, until, and antequam, priusquam, before that, take the Indicative when the only idea conveyed is that of time : Milo in senatu fuit eo die, quoad senatus dimissus est. Cic. On tliat day Milo was in tlie Senate until tlic Senate was dismissed. Priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam. Cic. Before I ansiver about other matters, I will say a few things abmit friendship. 432 But when the idea of expecting or waiting for something comes in, they take the Conjunctive : Exspectate dum consul aut dictator fiat Kaeso. Lrv. Wait till Kaeso become consul or dictator. 433 Cum, if it expresses only the time when something happens, is used with the Indicative : De te cum quiescunt probant, cum t a c e n t clamant. Cic. Concerning you, when they are quiet they approve, when they are silent they cry aloud. Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant Haedui, alterius Sequani. CAES. WJien Caesar came into Gaul, tlic Haedui were chiefs of one faction, the Segimni of anotlier. The addition of the Demonstratives turn, tune, marks that the times of the Principal Sentence and Clause correspond more exactly : Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit. Cic. Eomulus marked out the districts with a staff at the time when he founded the city. Turn cum in Asia res am is erant, scimus Eomae fidem conci- disse. Cic. At the time when they had lost their power in Asia, we know tliat credit sank at Eome. i86 SYNTAX 434 If the action of the Clause with cum takes place while that of the Principal Sentence is continuing, or if it quickly follows it, the Clause sometimes contains the main statement, while the Principal Sentence defines the time (inverse cum) : Jam ver appetebat cum Hannibal ex hibernis movit. Liv. Spring was already approaching when Hannibal moved out of his winter quarters. Commodum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius. Cic. Hilarus had just departed, when the letter-carrier came. Note. Gam with the Indicative sometimes expresses what has long been and still continues : Multi anni sunt cum Fabius in aere meo est. Cic. For many years past Fabius IMS been in my debt. 435 Cum is used in narrative with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Conjunctive, the Verb of the Principal Sentence being in the Perfect or the Historic Present (historic cum) : Note. It is used with the Imperfect for contemporary time, with the Pluperfect for prior time. Cum triginta tyranni oppressas tenerent Athenas, Thrasybulus his bellum indixit. NEP. Wlien the thirty tyrants were oppressing Athens, Thrasybulus declared war against them. Cum Pausanias de templo elatus esset, confestim animam efflavit. NEP. When Pausanias Jiad been carried down from the temple, lie immediately expired. Cum hostes adessent, in urbem pro se quisque ex agris d emi- grant. Liv. On the approach of the enemy, they move, each as he best can, from the country into the city. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 187 436 Note. In and after the Augustan age the Conjunctive is used in Tem- poral Clauses for repeated action like the Greek Optative : Id fetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in fines hostium mittebat. Liv. As soon as a fetial had thus spoken, lie used to fling a spear within the enemy's boundaries. Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum ami- culuin dedit. NEP. Often when he saw someone ill dressed, he gave him his own cloak. But cum is used down to the time of Cicero and Caesar (inclusive) with the Indicative for repeated action ; in reference to present time with the Perfect, in reference to past time with the Pluperfect : Verres cum rosam vide rat, turn ver esse arbitrabatur. Cic. WJienever Verres had seen a rose, he considered that it was spring. 5. Conditional Clauses. 437 Conditional Statements consist of a Clause introduced by si, nisi, containing the preliminary condition, which is called the Protasis, and a Principal Sentence, containing that which follows from the condition, which is called the Apodosis. They have two chief forms : (1) where the Indicative is used in both Protasis and Apodosis ; (2) where the Conjunctive is used in both. A Primary tense in the Protasis is usually followed by a Primary in the Apodosis, and a Historic by a Historic. 438 (1) The Indicative is used in the si-Clause and in the Principal Sentence when the truth of the one statement depends on the truth of the other ; if one is a fact, the other is also a fact : Si vales, bene est. Cic. If you are in good health, all is well. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi. Cic. Arms are of little avail abroad, unless there is counsel at home. Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam. Cio. If you shall Jiave done what you offer, I shall be very grateful. 88 SYNTAX Siquod erat grande vas, laeti afferebant. Cic. If there was any large vessel, they gladly produced it. Si lieu it, patris pecuniam recte abstulit filius. Cic. If it was lawful, the son rightly took his father's money. Note 1. A si-Clause with the Indicative is often used with the Imperative: Si me am as, paullum hie ades. HOR. If you love me, stand by me liere a short time. Causam investigate, si poteris. Cic. Search out the cause if you can. Note 2. A si-Clause with the Indicative also follows a Conjunctive (Optative use) : Moriar, si vera non loquor. Cic. May I die if I am not speaking the truth. 439 (2) The Conjunctive is used both in the si-Clause and in the Principal Sentence when the condition is imaginary : (a) The Present Conjunctive is used when the state- ments are thought of as possible, more or less probable : Sexcenta mem or em, si sit otium. PLAUT. I could mention endless things, liad I leisure. Si a corona relictus sim, non queam dicere. Cic. If I were forsaken by my circle of hearers I should not be able to speak. (b) The Historic Conjunctive is used when the statements are purely imaginary ; when there is no possibility of their becoming actual : Si foret in terris, rider et Democritus. HOB. Democriius would be laughing, if he were upon earth. Si id scissem, numquam hue tulissem pedem. TEB. If I had known that, I should never Jiave come hither. Magis id diceres, si adfuisses. Cic. You would have said so all the more, had you been present. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 189 440 Note. The Indicative may be used in the Principal Sentence with a si-Clause in the Conjunctive, (a) When the truth of the statement in the Principal Sentence is less closely dependent on the si-Clause : Te neque debent adjuvare si possint, neque possunt si velint. Cic. Tliey neither ought to help you if tJiey could, nor can if tliey would. (b) When the Principal Sentence expresses action begun, but hindered by the condition in the si-Clause : Numeros memini si verba tenerem. VERG. I remember the measure if I could recall the words. (c) With the past tenses of Verbs of duty and possibility : Poterat utrumque praeclare fieri, si esset fides in hominibus consularibus. Cic. Both might have been done admirably if there had been lumour in men of consular rank. (d) With the past tenses of esse, especially in Periphrastic conjugation : Si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit. Liv. If you liad delayed a single day, you must all have died. Et factura fuit, pactus nisi Juppiter esset . . . Ov. And she would have done it, if Jupiter had not agreed . . . 441 Note 1. Si is sometimes omitted : Ait quis, aio ; negat, nego. TER. If anyone affirms, I affirm ; if anyone denies, I deny. Note 2. Nisi forte, nisi vero are ironical. Si non throws the emphasis of the negative on a single word : Si non feceris, ignoscam. If you have not done it, I will pardon. Note 3. Sive . . . sive, sen . . . sen, whether . . . or, or if, are used for alternative conditions : Sive retractabis, sive properabis. Whether you delay or hasten (it). 442 Bum, dummodo, modo, if only, provided that, take the Con- junctive : Oderint dum metuant. SUET. Let tliem hate provided they fear. Modo ne laudarent iracundiam. Cic. If only they did not praise wrath. 190 SYNTAX 443 Note 1. The following table shows how to convert Conditional Sentences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infinitive Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it. After a Primary Tense. 1. Si peccas (peccasti), doles. ,1. si pecces (peccaveris), dolere. 2. Si peccabis, dolebis. ] (2. | pecces, j , ,., esse. fc 3. Si peccaveris, dolueris. [ 3. si \ peccaveris, 4. Si pecces, doleas. . * , Aio te. 5. Si peccares, doleres. 6. Si peccavisses, \ A , - 7. Si peccares, | d luisses. 8. Si peccavisses, doleres. 4. I peccaturus sis, 5. si peccares, doliturum esse. 6. . f peccavisses, | doliturum 7. ( peccares, j fuisse. 8. si peccavisses, doliturum fore. After a Historic Tense. (1. si peccares (peccavisses), dolere. 2. ( peccares, 3. si I peccavisses, I doliturum esse. 4. [ peccaturus esses, J The other four forms remain unchanged. Note 2. Si peccavisses, doluisses is equivalent to si peccavisses, doli- turus fuisti ; and this may either be converted, as above, into the Infinitive Clause, or into the Conjunctive : Aio te, si peccavisses, doliturum fuisse. Haec talia sunt ut, si peccavisses, doliturus fueris. 6. Concessive Clauses. 444 Concessive Clauses are introduced by etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet. Note. A. Concessive Clause is so called because it concedes, or allows, an objection to the statement in the Principal Sentence. The rule for mood is the same as in Conditional Clauses. 445 Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi are used (a) with the Indicative, (6) with the Conjunctive : (a) Etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt. Cic. Even if they are silent, they say enough. (b) Etiamsi non is esset Caesar qui est, tarn en ornandus videretur. Cic. Even if Caesar were not wJiat he is, yet lie would be considered worthy of honour. 446 Quamquam is used with the Indicative : Quamquam f estinas, non est mora longa. HOR. Although you are in haste, tlie delay is not long. 447 Quamvis, licet are used with the Conjunctive : Quamvis non fueris suasor, approbator fuisti. Cic. Although you did not make the suggestion, you have given your approval. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 191 Licet vitium sit ambitio, frequenter tarn en causa virtutum e s t. QUINT. Granted that ambition be a fault, yet often it is a cause of virtues. 448 Note 1. Quamquam is used by later writers with the Conjunctive, and quamvis is often found in poets with the Indicative. Note 2. Ut, ne, cum are occasionally used in a Concessive sense, and take the Conjunctive : Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ov. Though strength be wanting, yet must the will be praised. Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est. Cic. Granted that pain be not the greatest evil, it surely is an evil. His, cum facere non possent, loqui tamen et scribere honeste et magnifice licebat. Cic. These, tJiough they could not so act, were yet at liberty to speak and write virtuously and loftily. Note 3. Concessive Clauses are sometimes formed without Conjunctions. Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. HOE. Though you drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet she will always come back. 449 7. Comparative Clauses. In Comparative Clauses the action or fact of the Principal Sentence is compared with a supposed condition ; they are formed by quasi (quamsi), tamquam, tamquam si, ut si, velut si, ac si with the Conjunctive : Assimulabo quasi nunc ex earn. TER, I will pretend to be just going out. Tamquam de regno dimicaretur ita concurrerunt. Lrv. They joined battle as if it were a struggle for the kingdom. Tamquam si claudus sim, cum fusti est ambulandum. PLAUT. J must walk with a stick as if I were lame. Ejus negotium sic velim cures, ut si essetresmea. Cic. I would wish you to care fnr his business just as if it were my affair. Note. The Demonstratives are ita, sic, perinde, proinde, aeque, Bimiliter. 192 SYNTAX III. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 450 The Relative qui in its simple use takes the Indicative : Est in Britannia flumen, q u o d appellatur Tamesis. OAES. There is in Britain a river which is called the Thames. Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses? Ov. Who was (the man) who first invented terrible swords ? Note. This rule applies to Correlatives, qualis, quantus, quot, and to Universals, quisquis, quicumque, &c. Non sum qualis eram. HOB. I Quidquid erit, tibi erit. Cic. I am not what I was. Whatever there is will be for you. 451 But the Relative often introduces a Clause Consecutive, Final or Causal, with the Conjunctive, corresponding to the Adverbial Clauses with similar meaning. 452 ftui with the Conjunctive forms a Consecutive Clause with the meaning of such a kind that : (a) After a Demonstrative : Non sum is qui his rebus delecter. Cic. I am not one to delight in these things. Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat. Liv. The Roman race is such that it knows not how to rest quiet under defeat. Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram et libertatem. Cic. Nothing was of such value that we should sell for it our faith and freedom. (b) After Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns, or Negatives, nemo, nihil, nullus : Est aliquid quod non op or teat, etiamsi licet. Cic. There is something which is not fitting, even if it is lawful. Quis est cui non possit malum evenire? Cic. Who is there to whom evil may not happen ? Nihil est quod tarn dec eat quam constantia. Cic. Nothing is so becoming as consistency. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 193 Note. Qnin for qui non is similarly used : Nemo est quin audierit quemadmodum captae sint Syracusae. Cic. There is no one who has not heard Juno Syracuse was taken. (c) After Impersonal est, there is, sunt, there are : Sunt qui duos tan turn in sacro monte creates tribunes esse dicant. Liv. There are who say that only two tribunes were elected on the sacred mount. but est qui, sunt qui take the Indicative if they refer to Definite Antecedents : Sunt item quae appellantur alces. CAES. There are also (some animals) which are called elks. (d} After Comparatives with quam : Majora deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset. LIT. They had committed greater offences than could be pardoned. (e) After dignus, indignus : Dignus est qui imperet. Cic. He is worthy to govern. Q,ui with the Conjunctive forms a Final Clause, in order that : Clusini legatos Bomam, qui auxilium a senatu peterent, misere. Liv. T)ie Clusini sent ambassadors to Rome to seek aid from the senate. Quo with a Comparative introduces a Final Clause, and takes the Conjunctive : Solon f urere se simulavit, quo tutior ejus vita e s s e t. Cic. Solon pretended to be mad in order that his life might be the safer. Qui introduces a Causal Clause, and usually takes the Con- junctive : Miseret tui me qui hunc facias inimicum tibi. TEB. I pity you for making this man your enemy. Note 1. Qui causal is sometimes strengthened by quippe, ut, utpote. Note 2. Non quo is sometimes used for non quod : non quo quemquam plus am em, eo feci (TEB.), I have not done it because I love anyone more. Note 3. Qui with the Indicative forms a Causal Clause as a paren- thesis : Qua es p r u d e n t i a, nihil te f ugiet. Cic. Such is your prudence, nothing will escape you. 194 SYNTAX 455 The rules for the use of qui with Indicative or Conjunctive apply also to the Eelative particles quo (whither), qua (where, in what way], ubi (where), uncle (whence). Locus, quo exercitui aditus non erat. CAES. A place whither there was no approach for the army. Colles, unde erat despectus in mare. CAES. The hills, from which there was a view over tlie sea. Qua ducitis, adsum. VEBO. Where you lead, I am present. Ne illi sit cera, ubi f acere p o s s i t litteras. PLAUT. Let him have no wax on which to write. A clause introduced by a Eelative particle may be adverbial, unless the clause distinctly qualifies a noun in the Principal Sen- tence : Antonius quo se verteret non habebat. Cic. Antony had no place whither he could turn. 456 Note. Qui with the Conjunctive sometimes limits a statement : quod sciam, so far as I know ; omnium, quos quidem cognoverim, of all those at least whom I have known. 457 .Note. The Kelative is often used at the beginning of a Principal Sentence to show the connexion with something which has gone before ; quo facto, this being done ; qua de causa, for which reason ; quod dicis, 05 to that which you say. OKATIO OBLIQUA. 458 Oratio Obliqua is used in reports, whether short or long, of speeches, letters, &c. Indirect Statement, Command, and Question are often contained in the report of one speech by historians, especially by Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. 459 In Indirect Statement the Principal Verbs are changed from the Indicative to the Infinitive in the same tense : Direct. Bomulus urbem condidit. Romulus founded the city. Indirect. Narrant Eomulum urbem con- didisse. They say that Romulus founded the city. 460 Note. If the actual words of the speaker or writer are quoted, they are often introduced with Inquit, he says, following the first word : Eomulus haec precatus, 'hinc,' inquit, 'Komani, Juppiter iterare pugnam jubet.' Lrv. When Romulus had thus prayed, ' Hence,' he says, ' Romans, Jupiter commands (you) to renew the battle.' ORATIO OBLIQUA. 195 461 In Indirect Commands, the Conjunctive (usually in the Imperfect, but sometimes in the Present Tense) takes the place of the Imperative of Direct Commands : Direct Ite, inquit, create consules ex plebe. Go, he says, and elect consuls from the plebs. Indirect. (Hortatus est :) irent crearent consules ex plebe. 462 In Indirect Questions in the Second Person, the Verbs are in the Conjunctive (usually in the Imperfect or Pluperfect Tense, but sometimes in the Present or Perfect) : Indirect. Quid ageret? Cur non antea pugnam commisisset? Direct. Quid agis? inquit. Cur non antea pugnam commisisti? Wliat are you about ? he says. Why have you not joined battle before ? 463 Indirect Questions in the First or Third Person are generally expressed by the Accusative and Infinitive :* Indirect. Cur se pro hominibus ignavia sanguinem profudisse? Num sem- per hostes ad pugnam cessaturos? Direct. Cur ego pro hominibus ignavis sanguinem profudi? Num semper hostes ad pugnam cessabunt? Why Jiave I sJied my blood for cowards? Will the enemy always be slow to fight ? 464 The Pronouns ego, me, nos, meus, noster of Oratio Recta are converted in Oratio Obliqua into se, suus ; tu, te, vos, tuus vester, are converted into ille, ilium, illi, illos, illius, illorum : Ego te pro hoste habebo; socii quoque nostri amicitiam tuam exuent. I sJiall regard you as an enemy ; our allies also will throw off your friendship. Such Questions are really Statements put for rhetorical effect in an Interrogative form. 'Why have I shed my blood for cowards?' means, 'I have shed my blood for cowards why ? ' I have shed my blood Se ilium pro hoste habi- turum; socios quoque suos illius amicitiam exuturos. for cowards to no purpose. 'Will the enemy always be slow to fight ? ' means, 'The enemy will not always be slow to flglit.' O 2 196 SYNTAX 465 The Keflexive Pronoun, se suns, in Compound Sentences is often used to refer, not to the Subject of the Principal Sentence (316), but to the Subject of the Clause in which it stands : Nervios hortatur ne sui liberandi occasionem dimittant. CAES. He urges the Nervii that they should not lose the opportunity of freeing themselves. Bex supplicem monuit ut consuleret sibi. The king warned the suppliant that he should take heed to himself. 466 Sometimes ipse is used for the sake of clear distinction. Caesar asked the soldiers : Quid tandem vererentur aut cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent? CAES. What cause had they to fear, why did they despair either of their own bravery or of his carefulness ? SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN OBATIO OBLIQUA. 467 Substantival Clauses may have Clauses subordinate to them ; if the Verb in such Clauses is Finite, it is generally in the Conjunctive Mood, and the construction is called Suboblique. This construction is seen in the following examples : Caesar ad me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim. Cic. Caesar has written to me that it is very pleasing to him tliat I liave remained quiet. Ais, quoniam sit natura mortalis, inimortalem etiam esse oportere. Cic. You say that, since there is a mortal nature, there must also be an immortal one. Quotiens patriam videret, totiens se beneficium meum videre dixit. Cic. He said that, as often as he saw his country, so often did he see my service. Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem ; proximo accedere ilium, q u i alterius bene inventis obtemperet. Cic. They say that the wisest man is he to wlwse mind whatever is needful occurs ; that the next to him is he who turns to account the useful discoveries of another. ORAT10 OBLIQUA ,97 Note 1. A Relative Clause in Oratio Obliqua, if added merely by way of explanation, may be in the Indicative : Xerxem certiorem feci id agi ut pons, quern in Hellesponto f ecerat, dissolveretur. NEP. I sent Xerxes word that a plot ivas being arranged that tlie bridge (which lie had made over tlie Hellespont) might be broken down. The words ' which lie had made over the Hellespont ' were not part of the message to Xerxes, but are added by the writer for explanation. Note 2. Dum,while, is used with the Indicative, even in Oratio Obliqua : Vident se, dum libertatem sectantur, in servitutem prolapses. They see tliat, while striving for liberty, they have tJiemselves fallen into slavery. 468 A Finite Verb subordinate to a Conjunctive is usually in the Conjunctive : Miraris si nemo praestet quern non merearis amorem? HOR. Are you surprised if no one sJiows you the love which you do not deserve ? Utinam tune essem natus quando Eomani dona accipere coepissent. SALL. Would that I liad been born wlien tlie Romans began to receive gifts. 469 A Clause may be virtually oblique, with the Verb in the Conjunctive (Virtual Oratio Obliqua), when it contains the speaker's statement of another person's words or opinions, for which he does not make himself responsible. If the speaker made the statement his own, as being one of fact, the Verb would be in the Indicative : Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. Cic. Panaetius praises Africanus because (as lie says) lie was temperate. Caesar Haeduos f rumentum, quodpolliciti essent, flagitabat. CAES. Caesar demanded of the Haedui tlie corn which (hereminded them) they had promised. Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset. Cic. Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he could not sleep. Alium rogantes regem misere ad Jovem, Inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus. PHA.EDR. Tluy (the frogs) sent envoys to Jupiter to ask for another king, since (as they complained) tlie one who had been given was useless. SYNTAX NARRATIVE IN ORATIO OBLIQUA. 470 Direct Statement. (1) Ars earum rerum est qu&e soiuntur; oratoris autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia, con- tinetur; nametapudeosdicimus qui nesciunt, et ea dicimus quae nescimus ipsi. Cic. Art belongs to tlie things which are "known ; but the whole splure of an orator is in opinion, not in know- ledge ; for we both speak in the pre- sence of those wlw know not, and speak of that which we ourselves know not. (2) Cum Germanis Haedui semel Atque iterum armis contenderunt; magnam calami tatem pulsi acce- perunt, omnem nobilitatem, omnem equitatum amiserunt. Sed pejus victoribus Sequanis quam Haeduis victis accidit; propterea quod Ariovistus, rex Germanorum, in eorum finibus consedit, tertiamque partem agri Sequani, qui est opti- mus totius Galliae, occupavit. Ariovistus barbarus, iracun- dus, temerarius est.nonpossunt ejus imperia diutius sustineri. Indirect Statement. (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet :) Artem earum rerum esse quae sciantur; oratoris autem omnem actionem opinione , non scientia, contineri; quia et apud eos dioat qui nesciant: et ea dicat quae ipse nesciat. (Antonius teacJies in Cicero :) Tliat art belongs to tJie things which are known ; but tlwt the whole sphere of an orator is in opinion, not in knowledge ; because he both speaks before those loho know not ; and speaks of that which he himself knows not. Locutus est pro Haeduis Divitia- cus : Cum Germanis H a e d u o s semel atque iterum armis eontendisse; magnam calamitatem pulsos acce- pisse, omnem nobilitatem, omnem equitatum amisisse. Sed pej us victoribus Sequanis quam Haeduis victis accidisse; propterea quod Ariovistus, rex Germanorum, in eorum finibus consedisset, tertiamque partem agri Sequani, qui esset opti- mus totius Galliae, occupavisset. Ariovistum esse barbarum, iracundum, temerarium, non posse ejus imperia diutius sustineri. O RATIO OBLIQUA 199 The Haedui have repeatedly fought with tlie Germans ; tliey have been defeated and have suffered great mis- fortune ; tliey have lost all their nobles and all their cavalry. But worse Jias befallen the conquering Sequani than the conquered Haedui, for Ariovistus, king of the Germans, has settled in their dominions and occupied a third part of their terri- tory, which is the best in all Gaul. Ariovistus is barbarous, passionate and violent; his commands can no longer be endured. (3) Consules scripta ad Caesarem mandata remittunt, quorum haec erat summa : 'In Galliam revertere, Arimino excede, exercitus dimitte; quae si feceris, Pompeius in Hispanias ibit.' The Consuls sent back to Caesar written instructions, of which this was the sum total : ' Return into Gaul, quit Ariminum, and disband your armies ; when you have done tlwe things, Pompey will go into Spain.' (4) Thrasybulus, cum exercitus triginta tyrannorum fugeret, magna voce exclamat : ' Cur me victorem f ugitis? Ci- vium hanc mementote aciem,non hostium esse ; triginta ego dominis, non civitati, bellum infer o.' Thrasybulus, when the army of the thirty tyrants was in flight, cried aloud : ' Wliy do you fly from me as your conqueror? Remember that this is an army of fellow-citizens, not of foreign enemies ; I am waging war on the thirty tyrants, not on the community.' Divitiacus said on behalf of the Haedui : ' That the Haedui had fought repeatedly with the Germans ; that, having been defeated, they had suffered great misfortune (and) had lost all tJieir nobles, all their cavalry. But that worse had befallen the con- quering Sequani than the conquered Haedui, for Ariovistus, king of the Germans, had settled in their do- minions and had occupied a third part of their territory, which was the best in all Gaul. Ariovistus was barbarous, passionate, violent ; his commands could no longer be en- dured.' In Galliam reverteretur, Ari- mino excede ret, exercitus dimit- teret; quae si fecisset, Pom- peium in Hispanias iturum. Cur se victorem fugiant? Civium illam meminerint aciem, non hostium esse; triginta se dom- inis, non civitati, bellum inf erre. 200 SYNTAX (5) Oro vos, Veientes (inquit), ne m e extorrem egentem, ex tanto modo regno cum liberis adolescenti- bus ante oculos vestros perire sina- tis. Alii peregrein regnum Bomam acciti sunt; ego rex, augens bello Bomanum imperium, a proxi- mis scelerata conjuratione pulsus sum. Patriam regnumque meum repetere, et persequi ingratos cives volo. Ferte opem, adjuvate; vestras quoque veteres injurias ultum ite, totiens caesas legiones, agrum ademptum. I entreat you, men of Veii (said Tarquin), not to let me with my young children die before your eyes, banished in destitution from a king- dom lately so great. Others were fetched to Rome from abroad to reign. I, their king, while enlarging by war the Roman empire, was expelled by a wicked conspiracy of my nearest kins- men. I wish to reclaim my country and my kingdom, and to punish un- grateful citizens. Give me lielp, assist me : hasten to avenge also your own old wrongs, your legions so often slaughtered, your land taken from you. Orat Tarquinius Veientes ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno cum liberis adolescentibus ante oculos s u o s perire sinerent: alios peregre in regnum Bomam a c c i t o s ; se regem augentem bello Boma- num imperium, a proximis scelerata conjuratione pulsum: . . patriam se regnumque suum repetere et per- sequi ingratos cives velle: ferrent opem, adjuvarent; suas quoque veteres injurias ultum irent, totiens caesas legiones, agrum ademptum. Lrv. PROSODY. 471 PROSODY treats of the Quantity of Syllables and the Laws of Metre. I. GENERAL KULES OF QUANTITY. 1. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a simple consonant or by another vowel : as pater, deus. 2. A syllable is long when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : frater, caedes, nemo. 3. A vowel short by nature becomes long by position when it is followed by two consonants, or by x or z : canto, simplex, oryza. Exception. A short vowel before a mute followed by a liquid becomes doubtful : lugubre, tenebrae, triplex. 4. A long vowel or diphthong becomes short before another vowel, or before h followed by a vowel : proavus, traho, prieesse. But in Greek words the vowel or diphthong keeps its length: aer, Aeneas, Enyo, Meliboeus. Exceptions. In flo, Gaius, Ponipei, dius, diei, Ehea (Silvia), the vowel remains long. Note. Prae in compounds is the only Latin word in which a diph- thong occurs before a vowel. 5. A syllable is called doubtful when it is found in poetry to be some- times long, sometimes short : Diana, fidei, rei, and genitives in -ius, as illius. except alius, alterius. 6. The quantity of a stem syllable is kept, as a rule, in compounds and derivatives : cado occldo, ratus irrltus, flumen flummeus. Exceptions to this rule are numerous, luceo, lucerna. 472 II. RULE FOR MONOSYLLABLES. Most monosyllables are long : da, des, me, ver, si, sis, sol, nos, tii, VIC N mus. Exceptions : Substantives : cor, fel, mel, os (bone), vir. Pronouns : is, id, qua (any), quis, quid, quod, quot, tot. Verbs : dat, dot, it, scit, sit, stat, stet, fac, fer, es (from sum). Particles : ab, ad, an, at, bis, cis, et, in, nee, ob, per, pol, sat, sed, sub, ut, vel. and the enclitics -ne,-que, -ve. 202 PROSODY III. BULES FOB FINAL SYLLABLES. 1. A final is short. Exceptions. Ablatives of decl. 1. mensa, bona; Vocative of Greek names in as, Aenea ; and of some in es, Anchisa ; Indeclinable Numerals, triginta ; Imperatives of conj. 1. ama (but puta) ; most Particles in a ; frustra, interea (but ita, quia, short). 2. E final is short : lege, timete, carere. Exceptions. Ablatives of declension 5. re, die, with the deriva- tives quare, hodie. Cases of many Greek nouns ; also fame. Adverbs formed from Adjectives ; misere ; also fere, ferme (but bene, male, facile, impune, temere, short). Imperatives of conj. 2. mone (but cave is doubtful). Also the Interjection ohe. 3. I final is long : did, plebl, doll. Exceptions. Vocatives and Datives of Greek nouns ; Chlori, Thyrsidi ; but Datives sometimes long : Paridl. Particles ; sicubi, necubi, nisi, quasi. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ubi, and ibi are doubtful. 4. final is long : virgo, multo, juvo. Exceptions. Duo, octo, ego, modo, cito, and a few verbs : puto, scio, nescio. In the Silver age o was often shortened in Verbs and Nouns. 5. U final is long : cantu, dictu, diu. 6. Finals in c are long : illic ; except nee and donee. 7. Finals in 1, d, t are short : Hannibal, illud, amavit. 8. Finals in n are. short : Ilion, agmen. Exceptions. Many Greek words : Hymen, Ammon. 9. Finals in r are short : calcar, amabitur, Hector. Exceptions. Many Greek words : aer, crater ; and compounds of par : dispar, impair. 10. Finals in as are long : terras, Menalcas. Exceptions. Greek nouns of decl. 3. Areas (gen. -adis) and ace. pi. lampadas ; anas, a duck. 11. Finals in es are long : nubes, videres. Exceptions. Cases of Greek nouns : Arcades, Naiades. Nomi- natives of a few substantives and adjectives with dental stems in 2t, It, or Id : seges, pedes, obses ; also penes. Compounds of es : ades, potes. 12. Finals in is are short : diceris, utilis, ensis. Exceptions. Datives and Ablatives in is, including gratis, foris. Accusatives in is : navis ; some Greek Nouns in Is : Salamls. Sanguis, pulvis, are doubtful. 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. conj. 4. audis ; compounds of vis, sis ; also veils, malls, noils. In 2nd Pers. Sin . Fut. Perf . the ending is doubtful : dixerls. PROSODY 203 13. Finals in os are long : ventos, custos, sacerdos. Exceptions. Greek words in os (os) : Delos, Arcados ; also compos, impos, exos. 14. Finals in us are short : holus, intus, amamus. Exceptions. Nominatives from long stems of decl. 3. are long : virtus, tellus, incus, juventus ; the contracted cases of decl. 4. : artus, gradus ; and a few Greek words : Didus, Sapphus (genitive). 15. The Greek words chelys, Tiphys, Erinys have the final syllable short and the vocative ending y. ATI A IV. ON THE LAWS OF METRE. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of Feet. A Foot consists of two or more syllables, of which one has the ictus or principal accent, said to be in arsis ; the other syllable or syllables are said to be in thesis. The principal feet in Latin poetry are the following : Iambus, one short and one long syllable (^-), eaxo. Trochee, one long and one short syllable (-^), anna. Dactyl, one long and two short syllables (-^~), litora. Anapaest, two short and one long syllable (^^-), patulae. Spondee, two long syllables ( ), fato. Tribrach, three,short syllables (wwi/), temere. The Spondee often takes the place of the Dactyl in Dactylic verse. It may also take the place of the Iambus or Trochee in certain parts of an Iambic or Trochaic verse. The Tribrach can take the place of the Iambus or the Trochee in any place but the last, but is more rarely used. Note. A short syllable in versification constitutes one ' mora,' or ' time.' A long syllable ( = two short) constitutes two ' morae,' or ' tunes.' The Iambus, Trochee, Tribrach are feet of three ' times ; ' Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, are feet of four ' times.' A vowel is cut off at the end of a word if there be a vowel at the beginning of the next word : ' Phyllid' am' ant' alias,' for ' Phyllida amo ante alias ; ' this is called Elision (Synaloepha). A vowel and m are cut off at the end of a word if there be a vowel at the beginning of the next word : ' curas homin' quant' est in rebus inane,' for ' hominum,' ' quantum.' This is called Ecthlipsis. A vowel unelided in such a position is said to be in Hiatus. Ter sunt|c6najti Im!ponere[PeliolOssam. 204 PROSODY 475 V. METRE AND EHYTHM. A. Metre (metrum, measure) is used in two different senses. i. It means any system of versification : which may take its name either (1) from the Foot which prevails in it : Dactylic (Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic) metre ; or (2) from the subjects of which it treats : Heroic (Elegiac) metre ; or (3) from the musical instrument to which it was sung : Lyric metres ; or (4) from the poet who is said to have invented or chiefly used it : Alcaic metre (from Alcaeus), Sapphic (from Sappho), etc. ii. Some part of a Verse is called ' a metre.' In Dactylic and some other verses each foot constitutes ' a metre.' In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses, two feet constitute ' a metre.' Note. Hence a verse gains a name from the number of such metres. A verse with two metres is called Dimeter. three Trimeter. ,, four Tetrameter. five Pentameter. ,, ,, six ,, Hexameter. A verse which has its metres complete is said to be acatalectic (unclipt). If its metres are incomplete, it is catalectic (clipt). 476 B. Harmonious order of words is called Ehythm. Prose has rhythm as well as verse ; but that of verse is called Poetic Ehythm. The dividing of a verse according to rhythm is called sca/ming or scansion. The method of scansion may be shown by two Dactylic Hexameters of Vergil : 123 4 56 (a) Tityre | tu n patu]lae n recu[bans n sub | tegmine | fagl (b) Formo|sam n resojnare |, do|ces n Ama|ryllida | silvas. Note. The numerals and single strokes show the six feet or metres of the Hexameter. Caesura means the division of a word before the ending of a foot. There are three caesuras in each of the verses (a), (b), marked by a short double stroke. A verse without caesura is unrhythmical and inadmissible. Caesura after a long syllable is called strong, and is most frequent. Caesura after a short syllable is called weak, as that in the third foot of (b) after -nare. (See ' Dactylic Hexameter.') The ending of word and foot together is called Dialysis : Tityre, tegmine. VI. DACTYLIC, IAMBIC AND SOME LYRIC SYSTEMS OF VERSE. 477 A. Dactylic Hexameter: This Metre has six feet. The first four may be Ductyls or Spondees. The fifth must be a Dactyl (rarely a Spondee). The sixth a Spondee or Trochee (the last syllable in a verse being doubtful). PROSODY 205 Scheme. 3 4 (See the Examples, a, b, 476). Note. A verse called Hypermeter (a syllable over-measure) is occasionally found, the syllable in excess being elided before the initial vowel of the next line : 5erea cui gradlbus surgebant llmina nexae]que Acre trabes . . . The Caesura by far most common in Dactylic Hexameters is that in the third foot (called Penthemimeral), which is generally strong, as in (a) after patulae, but occasionally weak, as in (b) after resonare. Next in importance is that in the fourth foot, called Hephthemimeral, which is sometimes the chief caesura of the verse : as (c) clamor | es simul | horren|dos ,, ad | sidera | tollit. The Trihemimeral Caesura in the second foot often contributes to the i-hythra usefully, as after clamores (c). Note. Hemimeris means ' a half.' Hence ' Trihemimeral ' means ' after three half-feet ' : cla-mor-es ; ' Penthemimeral ' means ' after five half -feet ' : hie il-lum vi-di ; ' Hephthemimeral ' means ' after seven half-feet ' : quam Juno fertur terns. This notation counts two short syllables as one half- foot : Tltyre tu patu-l&e reczt-bans. The Heroic Measure of Epic poets, Vergil, Lucan, &c., consists of Dactylic Hexameters only. 478 B. Dactylic Pentameter : This Verse consists of two parts, called Penthemimers, which are kept distinct. The first Penthemimer contains two feet (Dactyls or Spondees) and a long syllable. The second contains also two feet (both Dactyls) and a long syllable. Scheme. 12 12 Example. tu domi|nus tu|vlr II tu mihl | frater e|ras. This Verse is. not used alone, but follows an Hexameter in the Elegiac Distich : Donee eris felix, multos numerabis amicos, TempSra si fuerlnt nublla, solus eris. The chief Elegiac poets are Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius. 479 C' ^ am ^i Trimeter or Senarius : This Metre has six feet. Each may be an Iambus : Suis | et l[psa Bojma vljribus | ruit. 206 PROSODY But a Spondee may stand in the first, third, and fifth foot ; and (rarely) a Dactyl or Anapaest in the first. A Tribrach sometimes takes the place of an Iambus, except in the two last feet. 1 \J 2 w " Scher 3 ^ ne. 4 *> 5 w ~ V W w s/ labunjtur aljtis n in|terim | rlpis | aquae. Canidl[a brevijbus n im|plica|ta vi|peris. positosjque ver|nas n dl|tis ex | amen | domus. The usual Caesura is after the first syllable of the third foot. Another less usual, is after the first syllable of the fourth foot ; as, Ibe[ricis | perusjte N fu|nibus | latus. The Trimeter may form a distinct measure. 4L80 D. Iambic Dimeter : This Verse leaves out the third and fourth feet of the Trimeter, with which it is used to form an Iambic Distich : paterjna rujra bojbus ex|ercet | suis, solu|tus 6m|ni fe|nore. Horace uses this Distich oftener in his Epodes than any other measure. 481 E. Strophic Metres : The lyric poets Horace and Catullus have used more than twenty metres. But we shall notice here only the Sapphic and Alcaic Stanzas, each of four lines. Note. Anacrusis is a short or long syllable, which introduces the scansion of a verse. Base is a foot of two syllables (Spondee, Iambus or Trochee) which introduces the scansion. These may be represented in English : Anacrusis 12 3 | Mari Jon's a | bonnie | lass Base 12 3 my | Mari on's a | bonnie ] lass A double base means two feet, each of two syllables, introducing the scansion. PROSODY 207 432 ! The Sapphic Stanza : The Stanza is scientifically scanned in Latin by three verses of this form : Double Base Dactyl Trochee Trochee followed by a verse called Adonius, Dactyl Trochee 1. Terrult gen|tes grave" | ne re|dlret 2. Saeculum Pyr|rhae nova | monstra | questae 3. Omne cum Pro|teus pecus | egit | altos 4. Visere | montes. Sappho used two Trochees as the double base ; but Latin poets always lengthened the fourth syllable. The strong Caesura after the fifth syllable is most frequent, but the weak Caesura after the sixth is occasionally used for variety. Non semel dlcemus n lo trlumphe. The Adonian verse is so closely united with the third line that Hiatus at the close of this line is unusual, and words are sometimes divided between the two : Thraclo bacchante magis sub inter- lunla vento. Note. A Hypermeter also occurs (477, note). Dlssidens plebl numero beato | rum Exlmit virtus. 483 2. The Alcaic Stanza: Anacr. Double Base Dactyl Troch. L j. w . |j. ww Anacr. Troch. Spond. Troch. Troch. 1. Qui | r<5re puro | Castall [ Se 15|vifc 2. Cri|nes solutos | qui Lycijae telnet 3. Dujmeta | natajlemque | silvam 4. Dellus | et Pata|reus AJpoilo. 208 PROSODY. Boles for the Rhythm of the Alcaic Stanza. (a) First and Second Lines. (1) A short syllable at the beginning is rare. (2) The fifth syllable generally ends a word ; but an Elision often occurs after it : as Quo Styx et mvls|i horrida Taenari. (3) The fifth and the last syllables are rarely monosyllables. (b) Third Line. (1) The first syllable is seldom short. (2) The line rarely begins with a word of four syllables, and only when Elision follows : as Funalia et vectes et arcus. never with two dissyllables. (3) The line should not end with a word of four syllables : rarely with two dissyllables. (4) No monosyllable should end the line except (rarely) et or in, with an Elision : Cum flore Maecenas rosarum, et Incude dlfflngas retusum in (c) Fourth Line. (1) If the first Dactyl ends a word, the second should end in the middle of a word. (2) A weak Caesura in the second Dactyl should be avoided, but is sometimes justified by the sense of the passage : Juppiter Ipse ruenstumultu. Stesichorique graves Camenae. Note. Hypermeters occur only twice in Horace : Sors exitura, et nos in aeter|num Exilium imposltura cymbae. Cum pace delabentis Etru]scum In mare. But in his third and fourth books he avoids ending a verse with a vowel or m before a verse in the same stanza beginning with a vowel. APPENDIX L 209 APPENDIX I. DERIVED AND COMPOUNDED WORDS. SUBSTANTIVES are derived from Verbs, Adjectives and other Substan- tives. The chief classes of Substantives derived from Verbs are the following : From the Verb-Stem: With Suffix -a, denoting the agent : scriba, notary (scribo) ; advena, new comer (ad- venio) ; conviva, guest (con-vivo). -or, abstract words denoting action or feeling : amor, love (amo) ; timor, fear (timeo) ; clamor, outcry (clamo) ; terror, terror (terreo). -ium, denoting action or effect : gaudium, j'oy (gaudeo) ; ingenium, mind (ingigno) ; judicium, judgment (judico, for jus-dico) ; naufragium, shipwreck (naufragio, formed from the Stems of navis, ship, and frango, break). -ies, denoting a thing formed : acies, line of battle (aceo) ; facies, face, form (facio) ; effigies, likeness (effingo) ; species, appearance (specie) ; series, order (sero). es : sedes, seat (sedeo) ; nubes, cloud (nubo). io, denoting the thing acted on : regio, region (rego) ; legio, legion (lego); opinio, opinion (opinor). -men, denoting the instrument or the thing done : agmen, column (ago) ; tegmen, covering (tego) ; unguen, ointment (unguo). -mentum : documentum, document (doceo) ; instrumentum, instrument (instruo). bulum, -brum, denoting the instrument or object : vocabulum, name (voco) ; venabulum, hunting-spear (venor) ; flabrum, blast (flo, Stem fla-). -culum, -crum : curriculum, course (curro) ; spectaculum, spectacle (specto) ; sepulcrum, tomb (sepelio). -ile, denoting the instrument : sedile, seat (sedeo) ; cubile, couch (cubo). From the Supine Stem: -tor, -sor, denoting the agent : arator, ploughman (aro) ; auctor, author (augeo) ; victor, victor (vinco) ; auditor, hearer (audio) ; dictator, dic- tator (dicto) ; sponsor, surety (spondeo) ; cursor, runner (curro). A few Nouns in -tor form a feminine in -trix, as victrix. P 210 APPENDIX I. With Suffix -tus, -SUB, denoting action : eventus, event (e-venio) ; motus, motion, (moveo) ; sonitus, sound (sono) ; cursus, running (curro) ; plausus, clapping (plaudo) ; lusus, game (ludo). tura, -sura, denoting function or result of action : dictatura, dictatorship (dicto) ; cultura, culture (colo); pictura, picture (pingo) ; tonsura, tonsure (tondeo) ; caesura, dividing (caedo). -tio, -sio, abstract : actio, action (ago) ; cogitatio, thought (cogito) ; relatio, relation (refero) ; visio, sight (video) ; pensio, payment (pendo). Substantives derived from Adjectives : -ia : memoria, memory (memor) ; concordia, peace (concors) ; sapientia, wisdom (sapiens) ; divitiae, pi., riches (dives). -itia : laetitia, joy fulness (laetus) ; amicitia, friendship (amicus) ; mollitia, also mollities, softness (mollis). -tas : libertas, freedom (liber) ; veritas, truth (verus) ; felicitas, Jiappiness (felix). tudo : fortitude, valour (fortis) ; multitude, multitude (multus). -monia : acrimonia, sliarpness (acer) ; sanctimonia, sanctity (sanctus) ; parcimonia, parsimony (parcus). Substantives derived from Substantives: tor : viator, traveller (via) ; janitor, doorkeeper (janua) ; balneator, bath- keeper (balneum). The feminines janitrix, balneatrix are used. -atus: senatus, senate (senex) ; magistratus, magistracy (magister) ; con- sulatus, consulship (consul). -io, -o : ludio, player (ludus) ; pellio, furrier (pellis) ; centurio, captain of a hundred (centum, centuria) ; praedo, robber (praeda). -arius : aquarius, water-carrier (aqua) ; tabularius, registrary (tabula). A secondary derivative is tabellarius, letter-carrier (tabella). -arium: granarium, granary (granum) ; tabularium, archives (tabula), -etum, -turn : olivetum, olive-grove (oliva) ; rosetum, rose-garden (rosa) ; arbustum, shrubbery ; also the later form arboretum (stem arbos-, arbor-) ; salictum, willow-ground (salix). -ina, -inum: textrina, weaver's shop (textor) ; pistrinum, bakehouse (pistor). -ulus -olus, -a, -urn : anulus, little ring (annus) ; gladiolus, little sword (gladius) ; formula, little form (forma) ; lineola, little line (linea) ; scutulum, little shield (scutum) ; palliolum, little cloak (pallium), -ellus, -a, -um: agellus, small field (ager); fabella, short story (fabula) ; flagellum, little whip (flagrum) ; corolla, chaplet (corona). -nlus, -a, um : versiculus, little verse (versus) ; matercula, little mother (mater) ; reticulum, little net (rete). APPENDIX I. 211 Adjectives derived from Verbs : With Suffix -ax : audax, daring (audeo) ; rapax, grasping (rapio) ; tenax, tenacious (teneo) ; ferax, fruitful (fero). -bundus, -cundus : f uribundus, raging (furo) ; moribundus, dying (morior) ; jucundus, pleasant (juvo). -uus : continuus, continuous (con-tineo) ; vacuus, empty (vacuo) ; assiduus, persevering (assideo). -ulus : tremulus, trembling (tremo) ; querulus, complaining (queror) ; cre- dulus, trustful (credo), -idus, -idis : calidus, liot (caleo) ; pavidus, timid (paveo) ; viridis, green (vireo). -ilis: utilis, useful (utor) ; facilis, easy (facio) ; docilis, teacliable (doceo). -bilis : penetrabilis, penetrable (penetro) ; flebilis, lamentable (fleo) ; but sometimes active ; penetrabile frigus, penetrating cold. -ivus, joined to the Supine Stem : captivus, captive (capio) ; nativus, native (nascor) ; fugitivus, fugitive (fugio). Adjectives derived from Nouns : ius : regius, royal (rex) ; plebeius, plebeian (plebs) ; egregius, out of the common (grex). -icus : bellicus, warlike (bellum) ; barbaricus, barbarous (barbarus) ; Gallicus, Gaulish ; civicus, civic (civis). -ticus : rusticus, belonging to the country (rus) ; domesticus, domestic, (domus). -anas, -ianus: humanus, human (homo); urbanus, urban (urbs) ; Bomanus, Roman (Roma); Africanus, African; praetorianus, prae- torian (praetor). -nus : fraternus, fraternal (frater) ; aeternus, eternal (aetas) ; externus, external (exter) ; alternus, alternate (alter), -inus : marinus, marine (mare) ; Latinus, Latin ; palatinus, belonging to the palace (palatium). -estis : caelestis, heavenly (caelum) ; agrestis, rural (ager). -ensis : f orensis, belonging to the forum ; castrensis, belonging to the camp (castra). -alis, -aris : naturalis, natural (natura) ; generalis, general (genus) ; regalis, kingly (rex) ; vulgaris, common (vulgus) ; salutaris, "healthful (salus). (See 20.) -osus : formosus, beautiful (forma) ; gloriosus, glorious (gloria), -lentus : fraudulentus, deceitful (fraus) ; turbulentus, noisy (turba). -bris, -cris: funebris, funereal (funus) ; mediocris, middling (medius). -eus : aureus, golden (aurum) ; ferreus, iron (ferrum). -ulus : parvulus (parvus). ellus : misellus (miser). rl APPENDIX I. With Suffix -tus : modestus, moderate (modus) ; robustus, strong (robur) ; vetustus, aged (vetus). tinus : crastinus, of to-morrow (eras) ; diutinus, lasting (diu). DERIVED VERBS. Verbs derived from Nouns. A-Stems euro, take care (cura) ; onero, burden (onus) ; paco, pacify (pax). Deponents : moror, delay (raora) ; dignor, deem worthy (dignus) ; miseror, pity (miser). E-Stems floreo, bloom (flos) ; luceo, shine (lux) ; flaveo, am yellow (flavus). U-Stems mctuo, fear (metus) ; minuo, diminish (minus). I-Stems finio, limit (finis) ; servio, am a slave (servus) ; largior, bestow (largus). VERBS COMPOUNDED WITH PREPOSITIONS. a, ab, abs- a-verto, turn away ; ab-sum, am absent ; abs-terreo, frighten away. ad ad-eo, goto; ad-spicio, look at; accipio, accept; affero, carry to ' T alloquor, address ; appono, place near ; arripio, seize ; assentior, agree ; attraho, attract. ambi amb-io, go around. con con-traho, contract ; compono, compose ; committo, commit; colligo, collect ; corripio, seize violently ; confido, rely on. de de-cedo, depart ; decipio, deceive ; descendo, come down. 6, ex e-duco, lead forth ; e-loquor, utter ; e-voco, evoke ; effundo, pour out ; ex-eo, go forth ; ex-pello, expel. in in-fero, bring into ; impero, command ; immineo, overhang ; illigo, bind on ; irrigo, water ; induro, make hard. inter inter-sum, am among ; interrogo, question ; intellego, understand. ob ob-tineo, maintain; offero, offer; oppono, oppose; occurro, meet, occur. per per-mitto, let go, permit ; pereo, perish ; pelluceo, sliine through, am transparent ; perterreo, frighten greatly. post post-pono, put after. prae prae-cedo, go before ; praefero, prefer ; praesto, excel. praeter : praeter-eo, pass by. pro, prod- : prod-eo, go or come forth ; pro-cedo, proceed ; pro-pono, propose ; promo, produce. red-, re- : red-eo, return ; re-cordor, remember ; re-fero, refer ; restituo, restore. sed-, se- : sed-eo, sit ; se-cerno, se-paro, separate ; se-cludo, shut up, seclude. ub sub-do, subdue ; sub-mergo, submerge ; suc-curro, succour ; suf-fero, suffer ; sug-gero, suggest ; sup-plico, supplicate ; sur-ripio, steal ; suspicio, look up at, suspect. trans, tra-: trans-mitto, transmit; trans-porto, transport; traduco, lead across ; traiicio, throw across. APPENDIX I. 213 A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, as : benedico, commend (bene dico) ; benefacio, benefit (bene facio) maledico, speak ill (of) (male dico) ; rnalefacio, do evil (to) (male facio). satisfacio, satisfy (satis facio) ; satisdo, give bail (satis do). The following are a few specimens of compound words : Noun and Verb. auceps, birdcatcher (avis avi-, capio). agricola, husbandman (ager agro-, colo). fidicen, lute-player i fides fidi- \ tibicen, flute-player \ tibia tibia- [ cano tubicen, trumpeter I tuba tuba- / artifex, artisan (ars arti-, facio). Lucifer, morning star (lux luc-, fero) ; frugifer, -a, -am, fruit-bearing (frux frug-, fero). Grajugena, Greek (Graius Graio-, gigno). armiger, armour-bearer (arma armo-, gero). jusjurandum, oath (jus-, juro). eenatusconsultum, decree of the senate (senatus senatu-, consultum consulto-, from consulo). Two Substantives, or Substantive and Adjective. paterfamilias, father of a family (pater, familias, an old genitive). respublica, state, republic (res, publicus). bipes, two-footed (bis, pes). tridens, three-pronged, trident (tres, dens). 214 APPENDIX 1L APPENDIX II. EOMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TIME. MONET. a. The As (Libra), or pound of 12 ounces (unciae), was thus divided : Uncia = 1 oz. or i of the As. Septunx = 7 oz. or ^ of the As. Sextans =2 | Bes = 8 Quadrans = 3 \ Dodrans = 9 f Triens = 4 i Dextans =10 " J 77 ' O Quincunx = 5 ^ Deunx =11 ,. ii . Semissis =6 | b. Unciae usurae = i per cent, per month = 1 per cent, per annum. Sextantes = | ,, = 2 etc. etc. etc. . Asses usurae = 1 per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum. Asses usurae were also called centesimae : binae centesimae = 2 per cent, per month = 24 per cent., probably. Unciarium fenus was 1 uncia yearly per as = 8 per cent, per annum for the year of 10 months. c Heres ex asse . . . means heir to the whole estate. Heres ex semisse, or . . > Heres ex dimidia parte .) ^ir to | of the estate, etc. etc. d. The Sestertius (Nummus), or Sesterce, was a silver coin equal to more than 2 asses, being \ of the Denarius (coin of 10 asses). Its symbol is HS (for IIS., duo et semis, 24 asses). The Sestertium ( = 1,000 sestertii) was not a coin, but a sum, and is only used in the Plural number. Sestertia, in the Plural (also represented by HS.) joined with the Cardinal or Distributive Numbers, denotes so many 1,000 sestertii. The Numeral Adverbs, joined with (or understanding) sestertii (Gen. Sing.), se&tertium, or HS., denote so many 100,000 sestertii '. Thus HS.X = Sestertii decem, 10 sesterces. HS.Y = Sestertia decem, 10,000 sesterces. HS.X = Sestertium deciens, 1,000,000 sesterces. APPENDIX II. 215 e. Fractions might also be expressed by the Ordinals as Deno- minators and the Cardinals for Numerators (above 1). Thus, is dimidia pars', j tertia pars, etc.; % sexta or diinidia tertia ( x ^) ; ^ octava pars or dimidia quarta ( x ^), etc. So ^j was tertia septima ($ x i). Again, f is either duae tertiae, or duae paries, or dimidia et sexta ( + & - ij). And f is res quartae, or re partes, or dimidia et quarta ( + i = |). WEIGHT. The unit or ' as ' of weight was the ' libra,' or Roman pound (the supposed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally extended). It was divided duodecimally, the ' uncia ' (ounce] being its 12th part ; the ' scripulum ' (scruple] the 24th part of an uncia. Some authorities rate the libra at 5-044 English grains nearly. LENGTH. The unit or 'as' of length was 'pes' (foot), also divided duo- decimally, the ' uncia ' (inch] being its 12th part. ' Cubitus ' (cubit) was 1 J foot. ' Ulna ' (ell) was variously measured, sometimes = cubit. Land was measured out by the ' decempeda' (rod of 10 feet). In roads the unit was ' passus,' a pace or double step (5 feet). Mille passus (5,000 feet) were the Roman mile; of which was called ' stadium ' (furlong]. The exact measure of the ' pes ' is a difficult point. High authorities make it less than the English foot by j 3 5 of an inch. SURFACE. The 'as' of surface was 'jugerum' (the Roman acre), about $ of an English acre. ' Scripulum,' or ' decempeda quadrata ' (ten square feet) was its most important subdivision. CAPACITY. 1. Liquid measure. The ' as ' was ' sextarius ' (less than a pint), divided into 12 ' cyathi,' one of which (its ' uncia ') was not quite half an ordinary wine, glass. 24 sextarii were 1 ' urna,' and 2 urnae were an ' amphora,' a vessel of 10 cubic Roman feet. 2. Dry measure. Here too the ' as ' was ' sextarius ' and the ' cyathus ' its ' uncia ; ' 16 sextarii made the ' modius,' which approached 2 gallons English (\ bushel). TIME. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. Every Roman month had three chief days : Kalendae (Calends) Nonae (Nones), Idus (Ides). The Calends were always the 1st day of the month ; the Nones were usually on the 5th ; the Ides on the 13th ; but in four months the Nones were on the 7th, the Ides on the 15th. 216 APPENDIX II. March, May, July, October ; these are they Make Noo.es the 7th, Ides the 15th day. These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as points, from which the other days were counted backwards. That is, the Eomans did not say, such and such a day after, etc., but such and such a day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides. They reckoned inclusively, counting in the days at both ends ; therefore the rules are : (1) For days before the Calends subtract the day of the month from the number of days in the month increased by two. (2) For days before the Nones or Ides subtract from the day on which they fall, increased by one. Examples. May 31, Pridie Kalendas Junias. 30, Ante diem tertium (a.d. III.) Kal. Jun. 11, quintum (a.d. V.) Id. Mai. 2, sextum (a.d. VI.) Non. Mai. * MARTnrs, MAIUS, JAXUARIUS, AUGUS- APRILIS, Juxius, FEBP.UARJTS, 28 Tila JULIUS, OCTO- TUS, DECEMBER, SEPTEMBER, NO- Days in every %X BER, 31 Days. 31 Days. VEMBER, 30 Days. fourth Year 29. I Kalendis \ Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis i 2 ad. VI. 1 g a.d. IV. ) 3 \ L, a.d. IV. ad. VHI. p ad. VIII. % M 7 Nonis \ a.d. VII. > ^ ad. VII. I . ad. VII. 8 ad. VIII. . f a.d. VI. Z a.d. VI. _ DO a.d. VI. . % 9 10 11 a.d. VII. ad. VI. ad. V. i H ad. V. a.d. IV. a.d. III. hH t a.d. V. ad. IV. a.d. in. .| 3 O c* ad. V. ad. IV. ad. III. 1 12 a.d. IV. "s Pridie / " Pridie ' 1 S Pridie ' 13 ad. III. 9 Idibus Idibus Idibus 14 Pridie ' / y a.d. XIX. a.d.XVIII.N \ ad. XVI. \ \ 15 Idibus a.d. XVinA 1 ad. XVII. ^ ad. XV. 16 a.d. XVII. \ \ a.d. XVII. ad. XVI. B a.d. XIV. 17 a.d. XVI. a.d. XVI. a.d. XV. r" ad. XIII. 18 a.d. XV. ^ a.d. XV. ^j ad. XIV. ad. XII. 19 ad. XIV. o a.d. XIV. a.d. XIII. ad. XI. g 20 a.d. Xm. a.d. XIII. ad. XII. S .- a.d. X. 1-51!? 21 ad. XH. e-i a.d. XII. CS ad. XI. i c I ad. ix. rs ra 22 a.d. XI. 3 E a.d. XI. t? OQ L A \ A a.d. X. 'M f o ad. VIII. 3 '" 23 a.d.X. Co V" ad. X. fs, /"a a.d. IX. g; ad. VII. w 24 a.d. IX. 3 r ad. IX. o! . ad. VIII. rf a.d. VI. 25 a.d. VIII. H a a.d. Vm. ad. VII. a.d. V. 26 a.d. VII. T5 a.d. VII. ^ ad. VI. e ad. IV. 27 ad. VI. ad. VI. B a.d. V. P a.d. III. / ) 28 a.d. V. ad. V. a.d. IV. Pridie. 29 a.d. IV. < a.d. IV. a.d. m. / j 30 a.d. HI. ad. III. 1 , Pridie 31 Pridie / J Pridie [In Leap-year, Feb. 24th (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart.) was twice reckoned, hence this day was called DIES BISSEXTUS, and leap-year itself ANNUS BISSEXTUS.] APPENDIX II. 217 Note 1. Ante diem tertium (a.d. III.) Kal. Jun., means ' on the third day before the Kalends of June,' or ' before the Kalends of June by three days.' Diem tertium, being placed between ante and Kalendas, is attracted to the Accusative Case. This mode of expression became so purely idiomatic that it was used with Prepositions : ante diem tertium, ante diem sextum, &c. Note 2. The names of the months are adjectives used in agreement with mensis, m. expressed or understood, Januarius, Aprilis, September, &c. The old names of July and August were Quintilis, Sextilis, but later they were called Julius and Augustus after the two Caesars. A. Aulus C. Gaius Cn. Gnaem D. Decimus K. Kaeso L. Lucius ABBREVIATIONS. (1) PRAENOJIINA. M. Marcus M'. Manius Mam. Mamercus P. Publius Q. Quintus S. (Sex.) Sextus Ser. Servius Sp. Spurius T. Titus Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius Note. A Eoman of distinction had at least three names : the Praenomen, individual name ; the Nomen, name showing the Gens or clan ; and the Cognomen, surname showing the Familia or family. Thus, Lucius Junius Brutus expressed Lucius of the Gens Junia and Familia Brutorum. To these were sometimes added one or more Agnomina, titles either of honour (as Africanus, Macedonicus, Magnus, etc.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from another Gens : as Aemilianus, applied to the younger Scipio Africanus, who was the son of L. Paulus Aemilius, but adopted by a Scipio. The full name of the emperor Augustus (originally an Octavius) after he had been adopted by his uncle's will and adorned by the Senate with a title of honour, was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus. A. D. Ante diem A. U. C. Anno urbis conditae Aed. Aedilis Cal. (Kal.) Calendae Cos. Consul Coss. Consules D. Divus Des. Designatus Eq. Rom. Eques Eo- manus (2) VAEIA. F. Filius HS. Sestertius, Ses- tertium Id. Idus Imp. Imperator L. Libra LL. Dupondius Non. Nonae 0. M. Optimus Maximus P. C. Patres Con- scripti P. M. Pontifex Maximus P. R. Populus Romanus PI. Plebis Proc. Proconsul S. Senatus S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Romanus S. C. Senatusconsultum S. D. P. Salutem dicit plurimam Tr. Tribunua Zi8 APPENDIX III. APPENDIX III. FIGUEES OP SPEECH; OE PECULIAB FORMS FOUND IN SYNTAX AND IN KHETORIC. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. Ellipsis (omission). Words are left out which can be supplied from the sense. Thus are used : (1) An Adjective without its Substantive: Gelida, calida (aqua); dextra, sinistra (man us). (2) A Genitive without the word on which it depends: Caecilia Metelli (filia), Faustus Sullae (filius). (3) A Verb without its Object: obire (mortem) ; movere (castra). (4) A Sentence without its Verb : Suus cuique mos. Quid multa ? (dicam). Pleonasmus (redundance). Use of needless words : Sic ore locuta est. VEKG. Zeugma. Connexion of a Verb or Adjective with two words or clauses to both of which it does not equally belong ; therefore Zeugma is a sort of Ellipsis : Ex spoliis et torquem et cognomen i n d u i t ; put on the necklace and assumed the surname. Agreement with one only of two or more Subjects is also called Zeugma. Syllepsis. Connexion of a Verb or Adjective with a Composite Subject. Synesis. Agreement with meaning not with form : 1 Gender. Capita conjurationis virgis caesi sunt. Lrv. Capita, though Neuter in form, is Masculine in meaning, therefore caesi. 2. Number. A Collective Noun or a Phrase implying more than one, though Singular in form, may take a Plural Verb : Cetera classis ...fugerunt. Lrv. Optimus quisque jussis paruere. TAC. Attraction. Words are drawn by the influence of others to take irregular constructions : (1) attraction of Copulative Verb (196) ; (2) attraction of Belative and of Adjective to Relative Clause (332). Attraction of Case happens after Copulative Verbs, especially the Dative (224), and especially with licet esse : Vobis licet esse beat is. HOB. Licuit esse otioso Themistocli. Cic. APPENDIX III. 219 Asyndeton. Omission of Conjunctions : Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. Cic. Polysyndeton. Redundance of Conjunctions: Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque procellis Africus. VERO. Hendiadys. Use of two Substantives coupled by a Conjunction for a Substantive and Adjective: Pateris libamus et auro (for patens aureis). VERO. Hyperbaton. Alteration of natural order of words : Per te deos oro (for per deos te oro). The four following figures belong to Hyperbaton : (1) Anacoluthon. Passing from one construction to another before the former is completed: Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Eomulus bar- barorum rex fuerit. Cic. (2) Hysteron-proteron. When, of two things, that which naturally comes first is placed last : Moriamur et in media arma ruamus. VERG. (3) Anastrophe. Placing a Preposition after its Case : quos inter for inter quos. HOR. (4) Parenthesis. Interpolation of one sentence within another: At tu (nam divum servat tutela poetas), praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro. TIBULL. Tmesis. Separation of the parts of a compound word : Quae me cumque vocant terrae. VERG. (for quaecumque). Enallage. Use of one word for another : (1) One Part of Speech for another: aliud eras (alius dies cras- tinus). (2) One Case for another : Matutine pater, seu Jane libentius audis. HOR. (for Janus.) (3) One Number for another : n o s f or ego ; miles for milites. Hypallage. Interchange of Cases : Dare classibus Austros. VERG. (for dare classes Austris.) Also attraction of Adjectives to Sub- stantives to which they do not properly belong : Fontium gelidae perennitates. Cic. (for fontium gelidorum perenni- tates.) FIGURES OF RHETORIC. Metaphora. One expression put for another which has some resemblance to it in a different kind, generally a concrete for an abstract ; portus for refugium ; sen tin a (dregs) reipublicae for turpissimi cives : exulto for gaudeo. A strong metaphor is often qualified by quasi, tamquam, quidam, or ut ita dicam : In una philosophia quasi taber- naculum vitae suae allocarunt. Cic. Scopas, ut ita dicam, mihi videntur dissolvere. Cic. 220 APPENDIX III. Metonymia. A related word conveying the same idea is put for another. Mars for bellum; cedant arma togae (Cic.) forcedat bellum paci ; juventus for juvenes ; Graecia for Graeci ; aurum for vasa aurea. Synecdoche. The part stands for the whole : Caput for homo; tectum for domus ; carina for na vis. Allegoria. A chain of metaphors : Claudite jam rivos, pueri, sat prata biberunt. VERG. Cease to sing, sliepherds, recreation enough IMS been taken. Hyper bole. E xaggeration. Litotee. Less is said than is meant : Non laudo for culpo. Ironla. One thing is said while the contrary is meant, but so that the real meaning may be understood : E g r e g i a m vero laudem et spolia a m p 1 a refertis tuque puerque tuus. VERG. (ignoble praise and paltry spoils). Climax. A high point of effect led up to gradually : Quod libet iis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent. Cic. Polyptoton. Cases of the same Noun are brought together : Jam clipeus clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo; enseminax ensis, pede pes et cuspide cuspis. STAT. Paronomasia. A play upon the sound of words : Tibi parata sunt verb a, huic verbera. TER. Antithesis. Contrast of opposites: Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere jubemus ruris amatores. HOR. Oxymoron. Union of seeming contraries: Temporis angusti mansit con- cordia discors. LUCAN. Periphrasis. Description of a simple fact by various attending circum- stances. Instead of ' Now night is approaching,' Vergil says Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, majoresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii. Simile. Illustration of a statement by an apt comparison, as : Per urbes Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas. HOR. Apostrophe. An appeal to some person or thing: Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra fames? VERG. Aposiopesis. The conclusion of a thought is suppressed: Quos ego ... sed motos praestat componere fluctus. VERG. Prosopopoeia. Personification. An abstract idea, as faith, hope, youth, memory, fortune, is addressed or spoken of as a person : Te Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno. HOB. APPENDIX IV. APPENDIX IV. MEMORIAL LINES ON THE GENDER OF LATIN SUBSTANTIVES. I. General Rules. The Gender of a Latin Noun by meaning, form, or use is shown. 1. A Man, Month, Mountain, Eiver, Wind, and People Masculine we find : Bomulus, October, Pindus, Padus, Eurus, Achlvi. 2. A Woman, Island, Country, Tree, and City, Feminine we see : Penelope, Cyprus, Germania, laurus, Athenae. 3. To Nouns that cannot be declined The Neuter Gender is assigned : Examples fas and nefas give And the Verb-Noun Infinitive : Est summum nefas fallere: Deceit is gross impiety. Common are: sacerdos, dux, priest (priestess), leader vates, parens et conjux, seer, parent, wife (husband) clvis, comes, custos, vindex, citizen, companion, guard, avenger adulescens, infans, index, youth (maid), infant, informer judex, testis, artlfex judge, witness, artist praesul, exsul, opifex, director, exile, worker heres, miles, incohl, heir (heiress), soldier, inliabitant auctor, augur, advena, autlwr, augur, new-comer hostis, obses, praeses, ales, enemy, hostage, president, bird patruelis et satelles, cousin, attendant munlceps et interpres, burgess, interpreter juvems et antistes, young person, overseer aurlga, princeps : add to these charioteer, chief bos, damma,talpa, serpens, sus, ox (cow), deer, mole, serpent, swine camelus, cams, tJgrls, perdix, grus. camel, dog, tiger, partridge, crane (For exceptions see p. 15.) 222 APPENDIX IV. paunch, Great Bear, linen distaff, ground, vine-leaf winnowing -fan, pear-tree sapphire sea, poison common people II. Special Rules for the Declensions. Decl. 1 (A-Stems). Rule. Feminine in First a, e, Masculine as, es will be. Exc. Nouns denoting Males in a are by meaning Mascula : and Masculine is found to be Hadria, the Adriatic Sea. Decl. 2 (0-Stems). JRule. -nouns in us and er become Masculine, but Neuter um. Exc. Feminine are found in MS, alvus, Arctus, carbasus, colus, hunms, pampmus, vannus : also trees, as p I r u s ; with some jewels, as sapphlrus ; Neuter pelagus and virus. Vulgus Neuter commonly, rarely Masculine we see. Decl. 3 (Consonant and I-S terns). Rule 1. T h i r d-N o u n s Masculine prefer endings o, or, os, and er; add to which the ending es, if its Cases have increase. Exc. (a) Feminine exceptions show Substantives in do and go. But llgo, ordo, praedo, cardo, spade, order, pirate, hinge Masculine, and Common margo. margin (b) Abstract Nouns in To call Femlnina, one and all : Masculine will only be things that you may touch or see, (as curculiO, vespertllio, weevil, bat pfigio, sclpio, and papllio) dagger, staff, butterfly with the Nouns that number show, such as ternio, senio. 3, 6 ^c) Echo Feminine we name : echo caro (carnis) is the same. flesh APPENDIX IV. 223 (d) Aequor, marmor, cor decline Neuter ; arbor Feminine. (e) Of the Substantives in os, Feminine are cos and dos ; while, of Latin Nouns, alone Neuter are os (ossis), bone and os (oris), mouth : a few Greek in os are Neuter too.* (/) Many Neuters end in er, slier, acer, verber, ver, tuber, uber, and cadaver, piper, Iter, and papaver. (g) Feminine are compes, teges, merces, merges, qules, seges, though their Cases have increase ; with the Neuters reckon aes. sea, marble, heart tree wJietstone, dowry withy, maple, stripe, spring hump, udder, carcase pepper, journey, poppy fetter, mat fee, sheaf, rest, corn copper Rule 2. Third-Nouns Feminine we class ending is, x, aus, and as, s to consonant appended, es in flexion unextended. Exc. (a) Many Nouns in is we find to the Masculine assigned : amnis, axis, caulis, collls, clunis, crinis, fascis, follis, fustls, ignis, orbis, ensls, panis, piscis, postis, mensis, torris, unguis, and canalis, vectls, vermis, and natalls, sanguis, pulvis, ciicumis, lapis, casses, Manes, glis. (6) Chiefly Masculine we find, sometimes Feminine declined, callis, sentis, funis, finis, and in poets torquis, cinis. (c) Masculine are most in ex : Feminine are forfex, lex, nex, supellex : Common, pumex, imbrex, obex, sllex, rumex. river, axle, stalk, hill hind-leg, Jiair, bundle, bellows bludgeon, fire, orb, sword bread, fish, post, month stake, nail, canal lever, worm, birtJiday blood, dust, cucumber stone, nets, ghosts, dormouse path, thorn, rope, end necklace, cinder sliears, law death, furniture, pumice tile, bolt, flint, sorrel As mS15s. melody, 6p5s, epic poem. 224 APPENDIX IV. (d) Add to Masculines in ix, fornix, phoenix, and calix. (e) Masculine are adamas, elephas, mas, gigas, as : vas (vadis) Masculine is known, vas (vasls) is a Neuter Noun. arch, , cup adamant elephant, male, giant, as surety vessel (/) Masculine are fons and mons, fountain, mountain chalybs.hydrops.gryps, andpons, iron, dropsy, griffin, bridge rudens, torrens, dens, and cliens, cable, torrent, tooth, client fractions of the as, as triens. four ounces Add to Masculines tridens, trident oriens, and occidens, east, west bidens (fork) : but bidens (sheep), with the Feminines we keep. (g) Masculine are found in es verres and acinaces. Bule 3. Third-Nouns Neuter end a, ar, ur, us, c, I, n, and t. Exc. (a) Masculine are found in ur furfur, turtur, vultur, fur. (b) Feminine in us a few keep, as virtus, the long u : servitus, juventus, salus, senectus, tellus, incus, palus. (c) Also pecus (pecudis) Feminine in Gender is. (d) Masculine appear in us lepus (leporis) and mus. (e) Masculines in Z are mugil, consul, sal, and sol, with pugil. (/) Masculine are ren and splen, pecten, delphin, attagen. (g) Feminine are found in on Gorgon, sindon, halcyon. Decl. 4 (U-Stems). Rule. Masculines end in us : a few boar, scimetar bran, turtle-dove, vulture, thief virtue slavery, youth, safety old-age, earth, anvil, marsh hare, mouse mullet ' consul, salt, sun, boxer kidney, spleen comb, dolphin, grouse Gorgon, muslin, king-fisher are Neuter nouns, that end in u. APPENDIX IV. 225 Exc. Women and trees are Feminine, with acus, domiis, and manus, tribus, Idus, porticiis. Decl. 5 (E-Stems). Rule. Feminine are Fifth in es, Except meridies and dies. Exc. Dies in the Singular Common we define : But its Plural cases are always Masculine. needle, house, hand, tribe, the Ides, porch noon, day List of Prepositions. With Accusative : Ante, apud, ad, adversus, Circum, circa, citra, cis, Contra, inter, erga, extra, Infra, intra, juxta, oh, Penes, pone, post, and praetor, With Ablative : A, a\ absque, coram, de, Palam, clam, cum, ex, and e, Sine, tenus, pro, and prae : Prope, propter, per, secundum, Supra, versus, ultra, trans ; Add super, subter, sub and in, When 'motion' 'tis, not 'state] they mean. Add super, subter. sub and in. When ' state,' not ' motion,' 'tis they mean. INDEX I. SUBJECTS. [TJie reference is to Sections.] ABB ANA Abbreviations, App. II. Ablative Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of, 228 sqq. Absolute, 237 of Agent, 239, 296, 300 of Association, 233 of Cause, 241 of Comparison, 231 English rendering of, 30 (n. 2) in -i and -e (3rd decl.), 45, 46 (n. 2) ; 74, n. 2 (Adj.) ; in -ubus (4th decL), 55 (n. 1) of Instrument, 240 Locative, 246 of Manner, 236 of Measure, 244 of Origin, 230 of Place where, 268; whence, 270, 271, 274 of Price, 245 of Quality, 234 of Respect, 235 of the Road by which, 275 of Separation, 229 of Space, 282 of Time, 276, 277, 279, 280 with contentus, diguus (indignus), fretus, opus est, usus est, 243 with fruor, fungor, potior, utor, vescor, 242 ; dignor, 243 Abstract Substantives, 27 Accent, 9 Accusative Case, definition of, 30; uses of, 203 sqq. Adverbial, 213 Cognate, 212 double, 206, 208, 298 in exclamations, 209 (n.) of Extent, 278, 281-3 in -im (3rd decl.), 45 (nn.) ; in -is or -es (pi.), 45-^7, 49 (n. 1) with Infinitive, 207, 414 of Nearer Object, 204 sqq., 215 of Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, as Adverbs, 213 (n. 2) after Passive Verbs, 210, 296 Of Place whither, 211, 269, 371, 27? Accusative Case with Prepositions, 285, 287 of Respect, 213 Active Voice, definition of, 108 Adjectival Clauses, 410, 450 sqq. Adjectives used adverbially, 308 Agreement of, 193 Comparative, 310 Comparison of, 76 sqq. ; irregular, 88 Declension of, 70 sqq. Definition of, 25 taking Genitive or Dative, 218 (n.) Numeral, 88 sqq. used as Substantives, 304-6 Superlative, 307, 309, 310 (n.) Adonius (versus), 482 Advantage, Dative of, 221 Adverbial Clauses, 410, 421 sqq. Adverbs of Affirmation, 170 of Cause, 166 Comparison of, 85 sqq. of Degree, 165 of Doubt, 170 Formation of, 163 of Limitation, 170 of Manner, 164 of Negation, 170 Numeral, 88, 90 of Order, 169 of Place, 167 of Question, 170 of Time, 168 use of, 395-398 Adversative Conjunction?, 177 Affirmation, Adverbs of, 170 Age : how expressed, 278 (n.2) ; Genitive of, 25ti Agent, Ablative of, 239, 296, 300 ; Dative of, 222, 381 Agnomen, App. n. Agreement (the Four Concords), 192 sqc. Alcaic Stanza, 483 Allegoria, App. III. Alphabet, the Latin, 2 Anacoluthon, App. III. Anacrusis, definition of, 481 (n.) Q2 228 INDEX I. ANA Analytic languages, meaning of, 24 (n. 1) Anapaest, 474, 479 Anastrophe, App. in. Answers : Affirmative, 408 ; Negative, 409 Antecedent, 195, 330 sqq. Antithesis, App. III. Aorist, Greek : no corresponding separate tense in Latin, 105 (n.) Apocope, 16 Apodosis, 437 ; in Oratio Obliqua.., 443 Aposiopesis, App. m. Apostrophe, App. III. Apposition, 191, 184, 197 Arabic numerals, 90 Aryan family of languages, 1 Assimilation, vowel change by, 13 ; con- sonant change by, 20 Association, Ablative of, 233 Asyndeton, App. III. Attraction, 196, 224 (n.), 332, App. in. Attributive Genitive, 249 Author, Genitive of, 250 Base (in verse), definition of, 481 Caesura, 476, 477,479,482,483; Hephthem- imeral, Trihemimeral, Penthemimeral, 477,478 Calendar, Latin, App. II. Capacity (liquid and dry), Roman mea- sures of, App. II. Cardinal Numerals, 88 sqq., 311 Case, definition of, 30 Case-endings, table of, 32 Cases, definition of the, 30 Causal Clauses, 424 sqq. ; with qui, 454 Causal Conjunctions, 177, 178 Cause, Ablative of, 241 ; Adverbs of, 1 66 Character, definition of, 24 ; of Noun Stem, 32, 33 ; of Verb Stem, 111 Climax, App. III. Cognate Accusative, 212 Cognomen, App. II. Collective Noun, 27 ; as Subject, 199 Common Gender, 31 (n. 3), App. IV. Comparative Adjectives, 77, 310; Con- junctions, 177, 178 Comparative Clauses, 449 Comparison, Ablative of, 231 Comparison of Adjectives, 76 sqq. ; irregu- lar, 80 sqq. Comparison of Adverbs, 85 ; irregular, 86, 87 Compensation, vowel lengthening due to, 17 Complement, 186, 187, 189 Composite Subject, 198 ; notes on, 199 Compounded Words, App. I. Compound Numbers, order of, 89 ; Pro- nouns, 100, 322 sqq. Compound Sentence, the, 410 sqq. Concessive Clauses, 444 sqq. Concessive Conjunctions, 178 Concessive Conjunctive, 357 Conclusive Conjunctions, 177 DEN Concords, rules of the four, 192 sqq. notes on, 196, 197 Conditional Clauses, 437 sqq. ; conversion of Apodosis and Protasis in Oratio Obliqua, 443 Conditional Conjunctions, 178 Conditional Conjunctive, 355 Concrete Substantives, 27 Conjugations of Verbs : system by which they are arranged. Ill, 112 ; Paradigms, 115-124. 133-139 Conjunctions, definition of, 25 ; uses of, 399-401 ; Co-ordinative and Subordina- tive, 176 sqq., 400, 421-449 Conjunctive Mood, definition of, 106 ; uses of, 351-363 Connective Conjunctions, 177 Consecutive Clauses, Adverbial, 421 sqq. ; with Relative Pronouns, 452 Consecutive Conjunctions, 178 Consonant Change, 18-23 Consonants, 6, 7 ; table of, 7 Consonant Stems : Adjectives, 75 ; Greek Nouns, 69 ; Substantives, 32, 36, 38-43 ; Verbs, 111, 112, 118, 122 (Paradigm), 154, 159 (Table of Perfects) Consonant Substantives, Syllabus of, 37 Contraction, vowel change by, 14 Contractions in some Verb-forms, 113 Co-ordinate Sentences, 402, 403 Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 176, 177, 400 Copulative Verbs, Syntax of, 187, 188, 201 Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs, 102, 333-335 ; Conjunctions, 179 Dactyl, 474, 477, 481, 482, 483 ; Dactylic Hexameter, 476, 477 ; Pentameter, 478 Dative Case, definition of, 30; uses of, 214 sqq. with Adjectives, 218 of Advantage, 221 with Adverbs, 219 of the Agent, 222 double, 224 (n.) English rendering of, 30 (n. 1) Ethic, 223 after a Personal Passive, 222 (.) of Person interested, 225 of Place towards which, 227 of the Possessor, 224 of Purpose, 220 of Remoter Object, 215 sqq. with Substantives, 219 Declension, definition of, 28 ; of Substan- tives, 32 sqq. ; of Greek nouns, 67-69 ; of Adjectives, 70-75; of Numerals, 89; of Pronouns, 92 sqq. Defective Substantives, 59 sqq. ; Verbs, 142 sqq. Definition, Genitive of, 248 Definitive Pronouns, 95, 320, 321 Degree, Adverbs of, 165 Deliberative Conjunctive, 358, 407 Demonstrative Pronouns, 94, 102, 318, 319 Dentals, Dental-Spirant, 6, 36, 37, 39 INDEX /. 229 DEP Dependent (Subjunctive) Conjunctive, 353 Deponent Verbs, definition of, 109 ; Para- digms of, 124, 125 Derivation of Verbs from the three Tense- Stems, 147 Derived Words, App. I. Desiderative Verbs, 132 Dialysis, 476 Dimeter, 475 ; Iambic, 480 Diphthongs, 5 Dissimilation, vowel change by, 13 ; con- sonant change by, 20 Distich : Elegiac, 478 ; Iambic, 480 Distributive numerals, 88, 90, 313 ; Pro- nouns, 102, 325, 326 Doubt, Adverbs of, 170 Dry measure, Roman, App. II. Ecthlipsis, 474 Elegiac Distich, 478 Elision (Synaloepha), 474, 483 Ellipsis, A~pp. 111. Euallage, App. III. English language, origin of the, 1 Enuntiatio Obliqua, 413 Epicene nouns, meaning of, 31 (n. Z) Epistolary uses, 343 Ethic Dative, 223 Factitive Verbs, Syntax of, 187, 207, 367, 414 (6) Figures of Speech (Syntax and Rhetoric), App. III. Final Clauses, 423 ; with qui, 453 Final Conjunctions, 178 Final syllables, rules for the quantity of, 473 Finite Verb, definition of, 103 ; agreement of, 192 Flexion 24, 26 Foot, definition of, 474 Fractions, Roman methods of expressing, App. II. Frequentative Verbs, definition of, 131 Future Perfect Tense, 342 ; Future Simple, 341 ; as a courteous Imperative, 350 (.) Gender, rules of, 31 ; in 1st decl., 34 ; 2nd decl., 35 ; 3rd decl., 37, 51-54 ; 4th decl., 55 ; 5th decl., 57 ; memorial lines on, App. IV. Genders, different, in a Composite Subject, 198 (3, 4) Genitive Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of, 247 sqq. Attributive, 249 of Author, 250 of Definition, 248 of the Gerund, 376, 379 (n. 1) of Number and Age, 256 Objective, 261 tqq. Partitive, 258-260 Possessive, 254 of Quality, 255 IND Genitive Case Subjective, 261 4 understood ' in a Possessive Pronoun, 264 (n.) of (indefinite) Value, 257 with Verbs aud Adjectives of accus- ing, condemning, &c., 252 ; imply- ing want and fulness, 253 ; of remembering, forgetting, &c., 265 ; of refraining, &c., 267 with Verbs of pitying, 266 = 'it is the part, &c., of,' 251 Gerund, definition of, 107; uses of, 274-378, 381, 382, 394 Gerundive, definition of, 107 ; Periphrastic use of, 114 ; Syntax, 379-381, 38i, 384 Greek Nouns, declension of, 67 sqq. Gutturals, 6, 36, 37, 38 Hendiadys, App. III. Hephthemimeral, 477 Heroic Measure, 475, 477 Hexameter, 475 ; Dactylic, 476, 477 Hiatus, 474 Historic Conjunctive in Conditional Clauses, 437, 439 (.6) Historic cum, 435 Historic Infinitive, 201 (n.), 372 ; Sequence of, 411 (n.) Historic Perfect, use of, 339 ; Sequence of. 411 (n.), 422 (n. 2) Historic Present, 337, 338 ; with dum, 430; with dum in Oratio Obliqua, 467 (n. 2) ; with cum-Clause, 435 ; Sequence of, 411 (n.) Historic Sequence, 411 Historic Tenses, definition of, 105 ; Se- quence of, 411, 422 (n. 2), 435, 437 Hortative Conjunctive, 360 Hypallage, App. III. Hyperbaton, App. III. Hyperbole, App. III. Hypermeter, 477, 482, 483 Hysteron-proteron, App. III. Iambus, 474, 481; Iambic Dimeter, 480; Distich, 480 ; Trimeter (Senarius), 479 Imperative Mood, definition of, 106 ; uses of, 346 sqq. Imperfect Indicative Tense, 340 ; Con- junctive, in Indirect Commands aud Questions, in Oratio Obliqua, 461, 462 Impersonal Verbs, definition of, 143 ; list of the principal, 144-146; Syntax of, 288-295 Inceptive Verbs, definition of, 130, 149 (V.) Indefinite Pronouns, 99, 102 ; Syntax of, 322-324 Independent (Pure) Conjunctive, 352, 354 tqq. Indeterminate Verbs, 190, 369 Indicative, definition of, 106, 344 ; uses of, 345, 403, 416, 425-431, 433, 434, 438, 440, 445, 446, 448, 450, 452 (c;, 455, 469 230 INDEX 1. IND Indirect Command, Request, or Pro- hibition : with ut or ne and Conjunctive, 413, 417 tqg. : in Oratio Obliqua, 461, 462 Indirect Question, 420 ; in Oratio Obliqua, 462, 463 Indirect Statement : Accus. with Infin., 414, 415 (n.) ; ut with Conjunctive, 415 ; quod with Indie., 416 ; in Oratio Obliqua, 459 Infinite, Verb, definition of, 103, 364 Infinitive, definition of, 107 ; Prolative, 190; nses of, 183, 365-373, 394; Tenses of, 412 ; Accusative with, 207, 414 ; in Oratio Obliqua, 459 Instrumental Ablative, 238 tqq. Instrumental Case, the, 30 (n. 3), 238 Interjections, definition of, 25, 180 ; uses of, 404 Interrogatio Obliqua, 413 Interrogative Conjunctions, 177 ; Pro- nouns, 98, 100, 102, 327 Intransitive Verbs, definition of, 110 ; with Accusative, 210 ; with Cognate Accusative, 212 ; with Dative, 217, 220 ; impersonal in Passive, 299-302 Inverse cum, 434 Ironia, App. III. Irregular comparison of Adjectives, 80 sqq. ; of Adverbs, 86, 87 Irregular Verbs, 134 tqq. Jussive Conjunctive, 361-363 Labials, 6, 36, 37, 40; Labial-Spirant, Labio-Dental Spirant, 6 Latin Alphabet, the, 2 Latin language, the, 1 Laws of sound, 3 tqg. Length, Roman measures of, App. II. Limitation, Adverbs of, 170 Liquid measure, Roman, App. II. Liquids (sounds), 6, 36, 37, 42 Litotes, App. III. Locative Case, 30 (n. 3), 34 (n. 2), 35 (n. 2), 49 (n. 3), 56, 67 (n. 2), 246, 271, 27J, 274 (n.) Manner, Ablative of, 236 ; Adverbs of, 164 Measure of difference, Ablative of, 244 Measures, Latin, App. II. Metaphora, App. III. Metathesis, consonant change by, 21 Metonymia, App. III. Metre, the laws of, 474 ; definition and kinds of metre, 475 Mobilia, 31 (n. 2) Money, Roman, App. II. Monosyllables, rule for the quantity of, 472 Moods, definition of, 106 ; uses of, 344 tqq. Mora (in Prosody), 474 Multiplicatives (numerals), 90 (n. 1) Mutes, 6, 36 PEB Nasals, 6, 36, 37, 43 Nasalised Verb Stems, 149 (IV.) Nearer Object, Accusative of, 204 tqq., 215, 368 Negation, Adverbs of, 170, 396-398 Nomen, Cognomen, Agnomen, App. II. Nominative Case, definition of, 30 ; use of, 200,201 Number, Genitive of, 256 Numbers, the, 29 Numeral Adjectives, 88, 89 ; uses of, 311-313 ; quam omitted before Nume- rals, 314 Numerals, table of, 90 Objective Genitive, 92 (n.), 261 tqq. Old forms in Verbs, 113 Optative use of Conjunctive, 359, 438 (n. 2) Oratio Obliqua, Tenses of the Infinitive in, 412 ; conversion of Apodosis and Protasis in, 443 ; uses of, 458 ; State- ment in, 459 ; Commands in, 461 ; Ques- tions in 2nd person in, 462 ; Questions in 1st or 3rd person in, 463 ; changes of Pro- nouns in, 464-466 ; Relative Clauses in, 467 (n. 1); dum(irWte) with Indicative in, 467 (n. 2) ; Suboblique construction, 467; Virtual Oratio Obliqua, 469: Narrative in Oratio Obliqua, 470 Order, Adverbs of, 169 Ordinal Numerals, 88, 90 ; use of, 312 Origin, Ablative of, 230 Oxymoron, App. III. Paradigms of Verbs, 115-124, 133-141 Parenthesis, App. III. Paronomasia, App. III. Participles, definition of, 107 ; of Deponent Verbs used passively, 126 ; Perfect, with Active meaning, 129 ; Dative of Agent with, 222 ; Genitive after, 262 ; uses of, 389-394 ; compared like Adjectives, 79, 390 Particles, 25, 162 tqq. Partitive Genitive, 92 (n.), 258-260 Parts of Speech, 25 Passive Construction, 296 tqq. Passive Voice, definition of, 108 Patronymics, Greek, 67 Pentameter, 475 ; Dactylic, 478 Penthemimer, Penthemimeral, 477, 478 Perfects and Supines, table of, 152 tqq. Perfect Stem, Tenses derived from, 147 (II.) Perfect Tense, 105 ; formation of the, 150 ; use of Perfect Indicative, 339 ; Perfect Conjunctive, 347, 356, 396, 422 (n. 2); Sequence of, 411, 422 (n. 2) Periphrasis, App. III. Periphrastic Conjugation, 114 Person and Number in Verbs, 104 Personal Passives with Dative, 222 (n.) ; with Infinitive, 370 Personal suffixes of Verbs, 104, 148 INDEX 1. 231 rn Personal Pronouns, 92 ; use of, 264, 315 Petitio Obliqua, 413 Place, Adverbs of, 167 Place to which (Accus.), 211; (Dative), 227 ; where, whither, whence, 268-275 Pleonasmus, App. III. Polyptoton, App. III. Polysyndeton, App. III. Possessive Genitive, 254 Possessive Pronouns, 93 ; use of, 264, 317, 318 Possessor, Dative of, 224 Potential Conjunctive, 356 Predicate, 182, 184 tqq. Prefix, definition of, 24 (n. 2) Prepositions, definition of, 25, 171 ; with Ablative, 173, 286 ; with Ablative or Accusative, 174, 287; with Accusative, 172; with Genitive (tenus), 286; used only in Verb compounds, 175 Present-Stem formation, 149 ; Tenses de- rived from, 147 (I.) Present Tense, 105, 336; Historic, 337, 338, 430, 435 ; Sequence of, 411 Price, Ablative of, 245 Primary Perfect, 105, 339, 411, 422 (n. 2) Primary Sequence, 411 Primary Tenses, 105, 411 Prohibition in the 2nd person, 347, 348, 350 Prolative Infinitive, definition of, 190 ; use of, 369-370, 373 Pronouns, 25, 91 sgg., 315 sqq^ 464-466 Pronominal Adjectives, 101, 328, 329; suffixes, 96, 100 (n.), 101 (n.) Proper names, 27 Proportionals (numerals), 90 (n. 2) Prosody, 471 tqq. Prosopopoeia, App. III. Protasis, 437 ; in Oratio Obliqua, 443 Pure Ablative, 229 sqq. Purpose, Dative of, 226 Quality, Ablative of, 234 ; Genitive of, 255 Quantity, 8, 17 ; general rules of, 471 ; of monosyllables, 472 ; of final syllables, 473 Quasi-Passive Verbs, 128, 303 Question, Adverbs of, 170 Questions : Alternative, 406 ; Delibera- tive, 358, 407 ; Indirect, 420 ; Indignant, 415 (n.); Single, 405; Indirect in Oratio Obliqua, 462, 463 Reduplication in Verb-Stems, 149 (II.), 150 Reflexive Pronoun, 92 ; use of, 316 ; how used for a Reciprocal, 316 (n. 1); in Oratio Obliqua, 465 Relative Particles, 410, 455 Relative Pronoun, declension of, 97 ; Agreement of, 195 ; uses of, 330-382 ; in Co-ordinate Sentences, 403 ; in Adjec- tival Clauses, 410, 460 sqq. ; limiting use, 456 ; connecting use, 457 Remoter Object, Dative of, 216-220 TEN Respect, Ablative of, 235 ; Accusative of. 213 Rhythm, definition of, 476 ; of the Alcaic Stanza, 483 Roman Numerals, 90 Root, definition of 24 Sapphic Stanza, 482 Scansion, 476 Semi-Consonants, 6 Semi-Deponent Verbs, 127 Senarius (versus), 479 Sentence, Compound, 410 tgq. ; Simple, 182 sqq. ; Co-ordinate, 402, 403 Separation, Ablative of, 229 Separative Conjunctions, 177 . Sequence of Tenses, 411 ; of infinitive in Oratio Obliqua, 412 ; in Consecutive Clauses, 422 (n. 2) Sibilant, 6 Simile, App. III. Simple Sentence, the, 182 sqq. Sociative Case, the old, 232 Space of measurement, 283 ; over which, 281 ; which lies between, 282 Spirants, 6, 36, 37, 41 Spondee, 474, 477, 478, 479 Stem, definition of, 24 Stem formation in Verbs, 148-151 Strong Formation of the Perfect, 150 Strophic Metres, 481 sqq. Subject^ 182 sqq., 192, 200; composite, 198> 199 Subjective Genitive, 261 Subjunctive use of Conjunctive, 353 Suboblique Construction, 467 Subordinate Clauses, 410 ; in Oratio Ob. liqua, 467 sqq. Subordinative Conjunctions, 178, 401, 421 Iff. Substantival Clauses, 410, 413-420 Substantives, Declension of, 32 sqq. ; De. fective and Variable, 59 tqq. ; in Apposi- tion, 194, 197 ; as Composite Subject, 198 Suffix, definition of, 24 (n. 2) Superficial measures, Roman, App. II. Superlative Adjectives, 78 sqq., 307, 309, 310 Supine Stem, formation of, 151 Supines, definition of, 107 ; uses of, 385 ; table of, 152 ; in -um, 386, 387, 394 ; in -u, 388 Syllables, 8, 23 ; Quantity of, 472, 473 Syllepsis, App. III. Synaloepha (Elision), 474, 483 Synecdoche, App. III. Synesis, App. III. Syntax, definition of, 181 Synthetic languages, meaning of, 24 (n.l) Temporal Clauses, 427-438 Temporal Conjunctions, 178 Tense-Stems, derivation from the three, 147 ; formation of, 148 sqq. INDEX I. TEN Tenses, 105 ; uses of, 336 sqq. ; Sequence of, 411 ; of Infinitive in Oratio Obiiqua, 412 Tetrameter, 475 Thematic Verbs, 148, 149 Time, Adverbs of, 168 Time at which, 276 ; during which, 278 ; how long after, 280 ; ago, 279 ; before, 280 ; within which, 277 Time, Roman, App. H. Tmesis, App. III. Transitive Verbs, definition of, 110 ; Syn- tax of, 204, 215, 220 Tribrach, 474, 479, 481 Tribemimeral, 477 Trimeter, 475 ; Iambic, 479 Trochee, 474, 477, 481, 482, 483 Cniversal Relatives. 102, 450 (n) Unthematic Verbs, 148 Value (indefinite), Genitive of, 257 Variable Substantives, 59 sqq. Variant Verb-forms, 113, 118 (n.) Verbal Substantives, Objective Genitive with, 262 Verbs (Accidence), 103 tqq. Verbs (Syntax) with Ablative, 229, 230, 233, 241-245 with Accusative, 204-210, 212, 213 Agreement of, 192 ZED Verbs (Syntax) with Composite Subject, 198, 199 Copulative, 187, 188, 196, 201, 251, 297, 369 (n.) with Dative, 215-217, 219 (n.) ease with Dative, 224 Factitive, 187, 206 ; Passive Construc- tion, 297 Finite, 184, 200 with Genitive, 250, 252, 253, 257, 265- 267 Impersonal, Case Construction of, 288 sqq. Indeterminate, 190, 369 Infinite, 364, 394 Infinitive, the, 365 -373, 394 Intransitive, 205, 209, 212, 216, 220 ; Passive Construction, 299 sqq. Passives with Accusative, 210 as Predicate, 184 sqq. Verse, definition of, 473 Vocative Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of, 202 Voices of Verbs, 108 Vowels, 3 ; quantity of, 4 Vowel Change, 10-17 Weak Formation of the Perfect, 150 Weights, Roman, App. II. Zeugma, App. III. INDEX II. LATIN WORDS. \T1ie reference is to Sections.] A, AB a, ab, abs, absque, 173, 270, 286 ; ab in compounds, 220 abdo, 154 aboleo, 153 abolesco, 154 absum, 115 abuudo, 233 accedit (irnpers.), 146 accidit (impers.), 1*6 accipiter, 4'J acer, 73 Acliilleus (Achilles), 69 acies, 57 aciuaces, 54 acuo, acui, 150, 154 acus, 55 ad, 172, 285 ; in compounds, 220 addo, 154, 41G adeo (Adv.), 164, 421 adnuo, 154 adolesco, 154 adsum, 115 adultus (Adj.), 154 (n.) adversus, adversum, 172, 285 aedes, 61 aeger, 71 : aegre, 165 Aeneas, 67 aequalis, 73 aequor, 37, 42, 51 aequus,82(n. 1) ; aeque, 164, 449 ; aequum est, 345 aer, 69 aes, 37, 53 aetas, 37, 39 aether, 69 Aetna, 31 affinis, 218 (.) affligo, 154 ager, 35 ago, 24, 149, 150, 154 ; age, agite, 142 (n.) agricola, 34 (n. 3) aio, 142 alacer, 73 ales, 31 (n. 3) algeo, 153 alias (Adv.), 168 alibi, 167 alicubi, alicunde, aliqua, aliquando, aliquantus, aliquis, aliquo, aliquot, aliquotiens, alteruter, 102 ; aliquanto, 244 alienus, 218 (n.) aliter, 164 alius, 101, 329 Allia, 31 alo, 149. 154 ALP CAN Alpes, 31 arr, 46 alter, 101, 102, 312 (.), 328 ; as (assis), 41 (n. I), 52 altero, 244 asper, 71 alteruter, 101 (.), 102 assentior, 161 alvus, 35 at (ast), at enim, atqui. amans (amantior, aniantis- attamen, 177 simus), 74, 79 ater, 71 amarier (=amari), 113 Athos, 68 ambi, 175 atque, 177 ambio, 138, 175 Atrides, 67, 69 arnbo, 89 amicio, amixi (amicui), 155 attinet (impers.), 146, 293 auceps, 37, 40 aniicus, 35 ; (Noun), 305 audax, 74, 76 ; audacter, 85 amnis, 45, 54 audeo, 127, 158 amo, amavi, 116, 120, 150, audio, 119, 123 ; audibo, 113 ; 152 ; aiuasti, 113 = am called, 187 amor, 42 augeo, 153 amphora, 34 (n. 3) aut, autem, 177, 400 (nn. 2, amplector, 159 . 3) ; aut . . . aut, 400 (n. 1) amplius, 311 auxilium (auxilia), 61 an, 177, 405, 406 ave (have), avete, 142 anas, 37 avis, 44 ango, 154 axis, 54 animal, 48 auimi (pendere animi, anxius aniini), 246 (n.) annus, 35 auser, 37 ante (Adv.), 168, 280 ; Prep., 172, 280, 285, 395 ; in compounds, 220 antequam, 178, 395, 431 baccar, 47 (n.) Bacchanalia, 60 baculus (baculum), 63 bellum, 35 ; belli (Loc.), 35 (. 2) bene, 86 ; in compounds, 220 beneflc-us, -entior, -entissi- mus 81 aiitiquus, 82 (.) apage, 142 aperio, 155 benevol-us, -entior, -entis- simus, 81 bibo, 149 (II.), 154 apis, 49 apiscor, aptus sum, 159 bideus, 54 bini (pi.), 313 (. 2) blandior, 161 appareo, 187 apparet (impers.), 146 bonus, 71, 80 ; boni (Noun), 304 uppellor, 187 aptus, 218 (n.) apud, 172, 285 Boreas, 67 bos, 50 aquila, 31 (n. 3), 34 Arbela, 31 Bucollcou (Gen.), 68 arbiter, urbitra, 31 (n. 2) arbor, 31 (n. 1), 51 ; arbos, cadaver. 51 arboses, 41 (//. 2) cado (cecidi), 150, 154 arceo, 153 caedo, 154 arcesso, 154 caelebs, 75 arctus, 35 calcar, 48 arcus, 55 (n. 1) caleo, calesco, 149 ardeo, arsurus, 153 t calix, 52 argentum, 59 callis, 54 arguo, 154 campester, 72 anna, 60 canalis, 45, 54 armiger, 35 cancer, 35 ars, 47 Canephoroe, 68 artus, 55 (n. 1), 60 cam's, 31 (n. 3), 37, 49 234 INDEX II, CAN COM DUB cano, 154 comperio, 155 decet, dedecet (impers.), canto, 131 compes, 51 144, 289, 345 capesso, 154 compesco, 154 declarer, 187 capio, 133, 149, 154 compingo, 150 (II.) dedo, 154 caput, 37, 39, 53 compos, 75 degener, 75 carbasus (carbasa), 35, 61 concessu, 65 deinceps, deinde, 169 career, 42 conclave, 47 delecto, 217 ; delectat (im- cardo, 62 concors, 74 pers.), 146 carmen, 43 concutio, 154 deleo, 153 caro (carnis), 37, 51 condo, 154 Delos, 68 carpo, 154 confiteor, 126 Delphi, 31, 60 Carthagina (Loc.), 60 (.) cougelasco, 149 demo, 154 carus, 71 congruo, 154 demum, 168 casses, 54 coniveo, 153 denique, 169 castrum (castra), 61 conjunx, 37 dens, 46, 54 caulis, 54 couor, 190, 369 deses, 75 causa, 263, 379 (n. 1) censors, 74 (n. 1) deaina, 369 ; desinit (im- cautes, 45 constauter, 85 pers.), 295 caveo, 150, 153 ; cave with constat (impers.), 146 desum, 115 Conjunctive, 350 ; cave consul, 37, 42 deterior, deterrimus, 84 (n.) ne,cave ut, 417 (n. 3) consulo, 154 deus, dea, 31 (n. 2), 34 (.4), cedo, cessi, 149 (I.), 154 conteutus, 243 35 cedo, cedite (cette), 142 coutiugit (iinpers.), 146 dexter, 71 (.n.); dexterior, celeber, 73 contra, 172, 285 dexterrimus, 84 (n.) ; celer, 73 (n.), 78 ; celeriter, convenit (impers.), 146, 290 dextra (Noun), 305 164 copia (copiae), 61 dico, 149, 154 ; die (dice), 118 celo, 208 coquo, 154 Dido, 69 -cendo, 154 cor, 37, 51 dies, 57 ; die (Loc.), 246 ceiio, 129 coram, 173, 286 difflcilis, 78 ceueo, 153 Corcyrae (Loc.) 246 digne, 85 ; dignus, 243 cera (cerae), 61 Corioli, 31 digiior, 243 Ceres, 37 cornu, 55 dili&o, 154 cerno, 149 (IV. ), 154 corpus, 41 dimidio, 244 certe, 170 cos, 61 dirigo, 175 certo, 219 (.) crebro, 168 disco (didici), 149 (V. a.\. ceterum (Couj.), 177 ; cetera credo, 154, 219 (.) 150, 154, 369 (Adv. Ace.), 213 (.); creor, 187 dissimilis, 78 with partitive force, 307 crepo, 152 dissolve, 175 (.) cresco, 149 (V.), 154 diu, jam diu, quam diu, ceu, 177, 178 crimiue (on the charge of), tarn diu, 65, 87, 168 cieo, 153 252 (n.) dives (dis), divitior (di- Cimon, 09 crinis, 54 tior), divitissituus (ditis- ciugo, 154 ; cingor, 210 cms, 37, 41 simus), 75, 80 (. 2) cinis, 37 cubile, 47 divide, 154 circa, circiter, circum, 172, cube, 152 divitiae, 60 285 cudo, 150, 154 do (dare), 148, 152; with cis, citra, 172, 285 cum (icten), 102, 178, 433 Gerundive, 384 citerior, citimus (citra), 84 sqq. ; (since), 426 ; con- doceo, 153, 208, 369 civis, 31 (n. 3), 44 cessive, 448 (n. 2) domiuus, 35 ci vitas. 49 cum (irith), 173, 286 domo, domui (Verb), 150, clam, 173, 286 cunae, 60 152 elanuo. 154 cupio, 133, 369, 417 (n. 2) domus, 56, 271 ; domi claudo, 149 (1.;, 154 cupressus, 55 (*. 2) (Loc.), 246, 274 (n.) clavis, 44 (n. 1) cur, 170 donee, 178, 429, 431, 432 cluuis, 54 euro (with Gerundive), dono, 233 (n.) coactu, 65 384 ; cura ut, 350 dos, 49, 51 coepi, eoaptus, 142, 369 ; curro, 154 drachma, 34 (n. 3) coepit (impers.), 295 custos, 37 dubius, 71, 82 cognosce, 154 Cybele, 67 duco, 149 (1.), 150, 154 ; due, rollis, 54 118 eolo, cultum, 151, 164 dapis, 37, 64 dulcis, 388 color (coles'), 41 (n. 2) de, 173, 270, 286 ; in com- dum, dummodo, 178, 429- colus, 35, 55 (n. 2) pounds, 220 432, 442; with Hist. comes, 31 (n. 3) debeo, 190, 345, 369 ; debet 1-res., 338, 430, 467 (n. 2] commiseror, 266 (.) (impers.), 295 duo, 89 commuuis, 2tl8 (n.) December, 73 duplex, 74 ; duplo, 244 t oiuo, 154 decemvir, 35 (n. I) duresco, 149 (V. b) INDEX II. 235 DUB FAB 1MB durus, 71, 76 fari, 142 fundo, fudi, 150, 154 dux, 31 (n. 3), 37, 38, 52 fas, 52, 66, 388 fungor, 159, 242 fascis, 54 fun is, 54 fasti, 60 fur, 37 e, ex, 173, 270, 286 fateor, 157 furfur, 53 e4(Adv.), 102, 167 fatiscor, 169 fustis, 54 ebur, 37, 42 faveo, fari, 150. 153 ecce, 180, 404 fax, 37 echo, 51 febris, 44 (n. 1) Gadibus (Loc.), 50 (n.) ecquis, 100 felix, 74 gaudeo, 127, 158 etlo (edidi), 154 fendo, 149 (I.), 154 gemo, 154 ; gemisco, 149 edo(esse), 140, 148,150 fere, ferine, 165 gener, 35 egenus, 81 feriae, 60 genius, 35 (n. 1) egeo (with Gen.), 253 fero, 136, 148 ; feror, 187 genus, 41 ego. 92 ferveo, ferbui (fervi), genu, 55 egregius, 82 (?/.) 153 gero, gessi, 150, 154 eheu, heu, ei, 180, 404 fides, 57 gigno, 149 (11.), 154 Eleates, 67 fido, fisus sum, 127, 149 (I.), glacies, 57 elephas (elephantus), 69 160, 219 (n.) glis, 49 emo, emi, emptum, 150, 151, figo, 154 gracilis, 78 154 films, filia, 31 (n. 2), 34 (n. gradior, 133, 159 en, 180, 404 4V 35 gradus, 55 enim, enimvero, etenim, flndo, 149 (IV. 6.), 154 gratia (gratiae), 61 ; gratis, 177, 400 (n. 3) fingo, 154 263, 379 (n. 1) ensis, 54 finis, 54 ; fines, 61 gratulor, 219 (n.) ; gratulor eo, ire, 137, 148, 211 fio, 128, 141, 187 . . . cum, 426 (n. 1) eo, eodem, 102, 167,259 (n.) flagito, 208 grex, 37, 38 Epirotes(-ota), 67 flecto, 149 (III.), 150, 154 grus, 50, 53 equester, 73 fleo, 153 guberno, 217 equidem, 170 fiocci, 257 erga, 172, 285 flos, 41 ergo, 177 fluo, 154 hac (Adv.), hie, hinc, hue, esurio, 132 fodio, 133, 154 167 et, et . . . et, 179 ; etiam, follis, 54 haereo, 150, 153 170, 177; etiamsi, etsi, fons, 54 baud, haudquaquam,! 70,396 178,444,445 forceps, 40 haurio, hausi, 150, 155 evado ( = turn out\ 187 fore (futurum esse) ut, 412 Helene, 67 Evander (-dros), 68 () heres, 31 (n. 3) evenit (impers.), 146, 290 forfex, 52 heros, 69 eventum (eventus), 62 fornix, 37, 52 heu, 180, 404 excello, 154 forsan, forsitan, 170 hie (Pron.), 94; hie, ille exemplar, 47 fortasse, forte, 170 (in contrast), 319; hoc, existo (= turn out), 187 fortiter, 85 244 expedit (impers.), 146. 290 foveo, fovi, 150, 153 hiemps, 37, 43 expergiscor, 159 fraugc, 149 (IV. 6), 154 homo, 37, 43 experior, 161 frater, 42, 49 honor (honos), 37, 41 exstinguo, 154 fraus, 53 hostilis, 73 exterior, extremus, erti- fremo, 154 humilis, 78 mus (extra), 84 frenum (pi. freni, frena), humus, 35, 59 ; humi (Loc.), extra, 172, 285 63 35 (n. 2) exulo, 128 fretus, 243 exuo, 154 ; eruor, 210 frico, frictum (fricatum), ibi, ibidem, 102, 167 152 ico, 150, 154 frigeo, 153 idem, 95, 321 faber, 35 (n. 3) frigo, 154 identidem, 168 facies, 57 Irons (frondis), 46 ; (fron- ideo, idcirco, 166, 423, 425 facilis, facile, 73, 78, 388; tis), 46 (n.) (Adv.), 85, 164 fructus, 55 Idus, 55 ; Idibus (Loc.), facio, T33, 141, 149 (VI.), frugi, 80 ; frugis, 37, 64 246 154 ; fac, 118 ; fac ut, fac frugifer, 71 igitur. 177 ne, 350 fruor, 159, 242 ignis. 44, 54 fallit (impers.), 146 fallo, 149 (IV.), 154 fugio, 133, 150, 154 ; fuge (withlnfin.), 350 Ilion, 31, 68 iliac, illic, illinc, illuc, 167 falso, 164 fugit (impers.), 146 ille, 94, 319 fauiilia, familias, 34 (n. 1), fulcio, fultum, 155 illustris, 73 50 fulgeo, fulsi, 150, 153 imber, 44 far, 37, 47 (n.) t ulgurat (impers.), 145 imbuo, 154 236 INDEX II. IMI JUN MIS imitor, 126 jungo, 149 (IV. 6), 154 lugeo, 153 immemor, 265 Juppiter, 50 lugubris, 73 ininio, 409 (?) juro, 129 lima, 34 impedimentum (impedi- jus, 41 ; jusjurandum, 50 ; luo, -lutum, 154 uieuta), 61 jure ( = by right), 236 (n ) lux, 37 impingo, 150 jussu, 65 lynx, 69 impleo (with Gen.), 253 justitia, 59 in, 174, 287 ; in compounds, juvat (impers.), 146 220 juvenis, 37, 49; junior, 80 magister, 35 iucesso, 154 juvo, juvi, juvatum, 150, magnopere, 86, 165 ; magis, incus, 37 152, 217 maxinie, 86 mde, 102, 167 ; indidem, juxta, 172, 285 magnus, 71 ; major, maxi- 167 mus, 80 ; majores (Nouu), indigeo (with Gen.), 253 iudignus, 243 indulgeo, 153 Kalendae, 60 ; Kalendis (Loc.), 246 305 ; magni, 257 male, 86 ; in compounds, 220 ; maledic-us, -eutior. iudtio, 154 ; induor, 210 -entissimus, 81 iudutiae, CO labor, lapsus sum, 159 malo, 139, 148, 369 iufans, 54 lac, 37, 53 mains, 71, 80 inferior, inflmus, imus (in- lacer, 71 manceps, 52 fra), 84 lacesso, 154 maudo, 154 infitias ire, 211 (.) lacio <,obsol.), 133 maneo, mausi, 150, 15, 187 infra, 84, 172, 285 lacus, 55 (n. 1) manes, 54, 60 iiigens, 74 laedo, 154, 217 manus, 5ft iujuria ( = wrong/ulJy), 336 lampas, 69 aiare, 47 (.) () lapis, 37, 39 margo, 52 injussu, 65 lar, 53 marmor, 51 inquam, 142 ; inquit, 460 largior, 161 ruas, 49 insidiae, 60 Latium, 31 mater, 37, 49; mater- iustar, 66 latro, 43 faniilias, 34 (n. 1), 50 insum, 115 laus, 37, 53 ; laudi vertere materia (and materies), 57 iusuper, 169. alicui", 226 (n.) (ii. 1) intellego, 154 lavo, lavatum (lautum, me (Ueflexive with ipse). inter, 172, 285 ; in com- lotum), lavaturus, 150, 316 (. 2) pounds, 220 ; interdiu, 65 ; 151, 152 medeor, 157 interdum, 168 interest (impers.), 146, 291 lego, legi, 150, 154 ; legor, 187 mel, 37 ; mella (pi.), 59 (.) melior, 80 ; melius, 86 ; interior, intimus t,intra), 84 lente, 164 meaus est, 345 intersum, 115 leo, 37, 43 meuiini, 142, 265 ; memento intra, 84, 172, 285 lepus, 31 (n. 3), 53 (with liifin. or Conjiuic.), intus, 87 Lethe, 31 350 ipse, 95, 320 lex, 52 memor, 74 (n. 1), 265 irascor, 159, 219 (n.) liber, 71,229 ; liberi (Noun), meusa, 34 iri (Impers. with Supine), 35,60 mensis, 4 9, 54 387, 412 liber, 35 nierces, 37, 51 Iris, 69 libet (impers.), 144, 290 mereor, 126, 157 is, 94, 102, 319 (.), 334 ; id liceo, 128 ; liceor, 157 merges, 51 (Adv. Accus.), 213 (n.) ; licet (impers.), 144, 290, rnergo, mersi, 150, 154 ejus (Possessive), 318 ; 345,417 (n. 1), 444, 447 meridies, 57 eo,244 ligo (Noun), 52 metior, 161 iste, 94, 319 (n.) lino, levi (livi), 149 (IV. a). nieto, 154 istic, 96 (n.) 154 metuo, 154 ita, 164; itaque, 177 linquo, 154 meus, 93, 64 item, 177 linter. 44 mico, micui (micavi), 152 iter, 50, 51 liquet, 144, 290 mille, milia, 89, 311 iterum, 168 liquor (Verb), 159 miles, 37, 39 itidem, 164 lis, 49 Mileti (Loc.), 35 (n. 2) littera (litterae), 61 -miniscor, 159 locus (pi. loci, loca), 63 minor (Verb), 219 jacio, 133, 154 lougum est, 345 minor, minimus, 80 ; mi- jam, jamdiu, 168, 338 loquor, 159 nime, 86 ; minoris. mi- jecur, 50 lotos, 68 nimi, 257 ; minus, 314 jocus (pi. joci, joca), 63 luceo, 153 minuo, 154 jtibar, 37, 47(n.) lucescit, 145 misceo, 153 jubeo, 153, 217, 417 (n. 1) lucifer, 35 miser, 71 judex, 31 (n. 3), 37, 38 ludo, 154 misereor, miseretur, miseri- augerurn ([juger]is), 62 ludus (ludi), 61 tum est, 144 (n.), 266; INDEX II. 23? MIS NEQ PEC miseritus(misertus) sum, nequam, nequior, nequissi- olim, 168 157 ; miseresco, 266 ; mus, 80 omnis, 73 miseror, 266 (.) nequeo, 138, 369 omnino, 170 miseret (impers.), V4, 288 nescio quis, 322 opem, 61, 64 ; opes, 61 ; mitto, misi, 150, 1^4, 416 ; neuter, 101 opis, 37 mitte (with Infin.) 350 neutiquam, 170 opera (pi. operae), 61 moderor, 217 nex, 37, 52 operio, 155 modo (Adv.). 168, 170, 442 ; niger, 71, 78 opperior, 161 (Conj.), 178 nigresco, 130 oportet, 144, 294, 345, 417 moenia, 60 uihil, nihilum, nil, 66 ; (n. 1). moles, 45 nihili, 257; nihilo, 244; opto, 369 molior, 161 nihil non, non nihil, 297 optimus, 80 ; optime, 86 molo, 154 nimis, nimium, 165 ; niinio, opus, 37, 41, 66 : opus est, moneo, 117, 121 244 243 (n). mons, 46, 54 ningit (ninguit), 145, 154 orator, 42 mordeo, momordi, 150, 153 nisi, ni, 178, 437 sqq- '> n i g i orbis, 54 more majorum, 236 (;i. ) forte, nisi vero, 441 ordior, 161 morior, moriturus, 133, 159 (n.2) ordo, 52 moveo. 153 nitor, nisus (nixus) sum, oriens, 64 mox, 168 159 orior, 161 mugil, 37, 53 nir, 37, 59 (n.) oro, 208 mulceo, 153 noctu, 65 Orpheus, 69 mulgeo, 153 nolo, 139, 148, 417 (n. 1), os (oris), 51 ; os (ossis), 41 multus, 80 ; multum, 86, 369 ( 1), 51 165, 213