HSHWU.F 
 
 I) -, 
 
 PETER GRAY,A.B^. 
 
 ND B.B. WOOD WARD, 
 
 SHILLING 
 
SEA-WEEDS, 
 SHELLS AND FOSSILS, 
 
 BY 
 
 PETER GRAY, A.B.S.EDIN.; 
 
 AND 
 
 B. B. WOODWARD, 
 
 Of the British Museum (Natural History], South Kensington. 
 
 LONDON : 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, LE BAS & LOWREY, 
 
 PATERNOSTER SQUARE, 
 

 BUTLER & TANNER, 
 
 THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORK. 
 FROME, AND LONDON. 
 
SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 BY PETER GRAY. 
 
 ALGJE, popularly known as sea-weeds, although many species 
 are inhabitants of fresh water, or grow on moist ground, may 
 be briefly described as cellular, flowerless plants, having no 
 proper roots, but imbibing nutriment by their whole surface 
 from the medium in which they grow. As far as has been 
 ascertained, the total number of species is about 9000 or 10,000. 
 Many of them are microscopic, as the Desmids and Diatoms, 
 others, as Lessonia, and some of the larger Laminarise (oarweeds), 
 are arborescent, covering the bed of the sea around the coast 
 with a submarine forest ; while in the Pacific, off the north- 
 western shores of America, Nereocystis, a genus allied to Lami- 
 naria, has a stem over 300 feet in length, which, although not 
 thicker than whipcord, is stout enough to moor a bladder, barrel- 
 shaped, six or seven feet long, and crowned with a tuft of fifty 
 leaves or more, each from thirty to forty feet in length. This 
 vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter ; and 
 where the plant exists in any quantity, the surface of the sea is 
 rendered impassable to boats. The stem of Macrocystis, which 
 "girds the globe in the southern temperate zone," is stated to 
 extend sometimes to the enormous length of 1500 feet. It is 
 no thicker than the finger anywhere, and the upper branches 
 are as slender as pack-thread ; but at the base of each leaf there 
 is placed a buoy, in the shape of a vesicle filled with air. 
 
 Although the worthlessness of Algae has been proverbial, as 
 in the "alga inutile" of Horace and Virgil's " projecta vilior 
 alga," they are not without importance in botanical economics. 
 A dozen or more species found in the British seas are made 
 use of, raw or prepared in several ways, as food for man. 
 Of these edible Algoe, Dr. Harvey considers the two species 
 of Porphyra, or laver, the most valuable. Berkeley says, " The 
 best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment, which 
 
^4 HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 is extremely wholesome, is to heat it thoroughly with a little 
 strong gravy or broth, adding, before it is served on toast, a 
 small quantity of butter and lemon juice." A species of Nostoc 
 is largely consumed in China as an ingredient in soup. A 
 similar use is made of Enteromorpha intestinalis in Japan. 
 Many species of fish and other animals, turtle included, live upon 
 sea-weed. Fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for cattle. In 
 Norway, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are largely fed upon it, 
 
 Group of Sea-\veeds (chiefly Laminarise). 
 
 and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and kindred 
 species at low water. In some northern countries, Fucus serratus 
 sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder. 
 
 All the marine Algae contain iodine; and even before the value 
 of that substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained, 
 stems of a sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants 
 of certain districts of South America where goitre is prevalent. 
 Chondrus crispus and (Gigartina) mamillosa constitute the Irish, 
 moss of commerce, which dissolves into a nutritious and delicate 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 5 
 
 i 
 
 jelly, and the restorative value of which in consumption doubtless 
 depends in some degree on the presence of iodine. The freshwater 
 Algoe not only furnisli abundant and nourishing food to the fish 
 and other animals living in ponds and streams, but by their 
 action in the decomposition of carburetted hydrogen and other 
 noxious gases purify the element in which they live, thus be 
 coming important sanitary agents. The value of aquatic plants 
 in the aquarium is well known. A Chinese species of Gigamna 
 is much employed as a glue and varnish ; and also much used in 
 China in the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies, and in 
 that country and Japan for glazing windows. Handles for 
 table knives and forks, tools, and other implements have been 
 made from the thick stems of oarweeds, and fishing lines from 
 Chorda filum. Tripoli powder, extensively used for polishing, 
 consists mainly of the silicious shells of Diatoms. On various 
 parts of our coast, the coarser species of sea-weed, now used as 
 a valuable manure, were formerly extensively burnt for kelp, 
 an impure carbonate of soda. This industry, when carried on 
 upon a large scale, became a fruitful source of income to some 
 of the poorest districts in the kingdom, bringing, in the last 
 decade of last century, nearly ^"30,000 per annum into Orkney 
 alone. Since the production of soda from rock salt has become 
 general, kelp is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine, this 
 being the easiest way of obtaining that substance. 
 
 Although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction 
 are essentially the same in all Algoe, as regards the former they 
 vary from the simple cell, through cells arranged in threads, 
 to a stem and leaves simulating the vegetation of higher 
 tribes. And although the simpler kinds are obviously formed 
 of threads, most of the more compound may also be resolved 
 into the same structure by maceration in hot water or diluted 
 muriatic acid. In substance some are mere masses of slime or 
 jelly, others are silky to the feel, horny, cartilaginous or leather- 
 like, and even apparently woody. A few species secrete car- 
 bonate of lime from the water, laying it up in their tissues ; 
 others cover themselves completely with that mineral, while 
 some coat themselves with silex or flint. Many Algse are 
 beautifully coloured, even when growing at depths to which 
 very little light penetrates. As in their vegetative organs, so in 
 their reproductive, Algae, exhibit many modifications of struc- 
 ture without much real difference. In the green sea-weeds 
 reproduction is effected by simple cell division in the unicel- 
 lular species, and by spores resulting from the union of the 
 contents of two cells in the others. The red sea-weeds have a 
 
6 HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 double system of reproduction, a distinctly sexual one, by spores 
 and antheridia, and another by tetraspores, which by some are 
 considered to be of the nature of gemmce, or buds. The spores 
 are generally situated in distinct hollow conceptacles (favellae, 
 ceramidium, coccidium). The tetraspore is also sometimes con- 
 tained m a conceptacle. It consists of a more or less globular, 
 transparent cell, which when mature contains within it four 
 (rarely three) sporules. Reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is 
 also double, by zoospores, generally considered gemmae, and by 
 spores and antherozoids, which is a sexual process. 
 
 Following the classification adopted by Professor Harvey, 
 which is that generally employed in English systematic manuals, 
 we divide the order into three sub-orders, named from the pre- 
 
 Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the Palmelleae, in various stages. 
 A becomes B, C, D, and E by repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters. 
 
 vailing colour of their spores. I. Chlorospermeae, with green 
 spores; 2. Rhodospermese, with red spores; and 3. Melano- 
 spermese, with olive-coloured spores. The entire plant in the 
 first group is usually grass-green, but occasionally olive, purple, 
 blue, and sometimes almost black ; in the second it is some shade 
 or other of red, very seldom green ; and in the third, while 
 generally olive green, it is occasionally brown olive or yellow. 
 
 The Chlorospermeze are extremely varied in form, often 
 threadlike, and are propagated either by the simple division of 
 the contents of their cells (endochrome), by the transformation 
 of particular joints, or by the change of the contents of the cells 
 into zoospores, which are cells moving freely in water by means 
 of hairlike appendages. In their lower forms they are among 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 7 
 
 the most rudimentary of all plants, and thus ot special interest 
 physiologically, as representing the component parts of which 
 higher plants are formed. They are subdivided into twelve 
 groups, as follows : 
 
 The first group, Palmelleee, are unicellular plants, the cells of 
 which are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass, and 
 they are propagated by the division of the enclochrome. One 
 of the most remarkable of the species of this family is Protococcus 
 cruentus, which is found at the foot of walls having a northern 
 aspect, looking as if blood had been poured out on the ground 
 or on stones. Protococcus nivalis, again, is the cause of the red 
 snow, of which early arctic navigators used to give such marvel- 
 lous accounts. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 The Desmideacese, together with the plants of the next succeed- 
 
 
 Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema, one of the Conjugates. 
 B, Closterium ; C, Euastrium ; two desmids. 
 
 ing group, are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by 
 the possessors of microscopes, an attention they merit from the 
 beauty and variety of their forms. They are minute plants 
 of a green colour, consisting of cells generally independent 
 of each other, but sometimes forming brittle threads or minute 
 fronds, and are reproduced by spores generated by the conjuga- 
 tion of two distinct individuals. The process of conjugation in 
 Desmids and Diatoms consists in the union of the endochrome. 
 of two individuals, each of which in these families is composed 
 of a single cell. This ultimately forms a rounded body or rest- 
 ing spore, which afterwards germinates, the resulting plant not 
 however acquiring the normal form until the third generation. 
 (Fig. 3-) 
 
 The Diatomaceje, closely allied to the preceding group in 
 structure and reproduction, are however distinguished from them 
 
8 HANDBOOK OF SEA- WEEDS. 
 
 by their flinty shells, which are often beautifully sculptured. 
 Their endochrome is a golden brown, instead of green as in the 
 Desmideacese. The latter, also, are confined to fresh water, while 
 the Diatomacese are found, though not exclusively, in the sea, 
 where their shells sometimes, microscopically minute as they are 
 individually, form banks extending several hundred miles. It is 
 stated that in the collection made by Sir Joseph Hooker in the 
 Himalayas the species closely resemble our own. 
 
 In the next group, Confervaceae, we are introduced to forms 
 more like the general notion of what a plant should be. The 
 individuals of which it consists are composed of threads, jointed, 
 either simple or branched, mostly of a grass-green colour, and 
 propagating either by minute zoospores or by metamorphosed 
 joints. They are found both in fresh and salt water, and in 
 damp situations. The number of species is very great. 
 A considerable number consist of unbranched threads; the 
 branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the 
 form of solid balls. After floods, when the water stands for 
 several days, they sometimes increase to such an extent, as to 
 form on its subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum, which while 
 decomposing is extremely disagreeable. The name Conferva 
 has been almost discontinued as a generic title, the majority of 
 British species being now ranged under Clado- and Chseto-phora. 
 The latter are branched, and require great care and attention in 
 order to distinguish them, on account of their general resem- 
 blance to each other. Good characters are however to be found 
 in their mode of branching and the form and comparative size 
 of the terminal joints. 
 
 The Batrachospermeze constitute a small but very beautiful 
 group, consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a 
 branched cylindrical frond. The branches are sometimes ar- 
 ranged, as in the British species, so that the plants appear like 
 necklaces. In colour they pass from green, through intermediate 
 shades of olive and purple, to black. In common with some of 
 the higher Algce, the threads of the superficial branches send 
 joints down the stem, changing it from simple to compound. 
 The native species are all fluviatile. 
 
 The Hydrodicteee are among the most remarkable of Algae. 
 Hydrodictyon utriculatum, the solitary British species, is found 
 in the large pond at Hampton Court, and in similar situations 
 in various parts of the country, but not very generally. It re- 
 sembles a green purse or net, from four to six inches in length, 
 with delicate and regular meshes, the reticulations being about 
 four lines long. Its method of reproduction is no less remarkable 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 9 
 
 than its form. Each of the cells forms within itself an enormous 
 mass of small elliptic grains. These become attached by the 
 extremities so as to form a network inside the cell, and, its walls 
 being dissolved, a new plant is set free to grow to the size of the 
 parent Hydrodictyon. 
 
 The Nostochinese grow in fresh water, or attached to moist 
 soil. They consist of slender, beaded threads surrounded by a 
 firm jelly, and often spreading into large, wavy fronds. The 
 larger beads on the inclosed threads are reproductive spores. 
 (Fig. 4, A.) 
 
 The Oscillatoreae are another remarkable group, on account 
 of the peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit. They occur 
 both in salt and fresh water, and on almost every kind of site 
 in which there is sufficient moisture. The threads of which they 
 are composed are jointed, and generally unbranched ; they are 
 of various tints of blue, red, and green, and, where their fructifi- 
 cation has been ascertained, are propagated by cell division. 
 
 JS 
 
 :vi: :! i.- 
 
 Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B, End of 
 a Filament of Oscillatoria. 
 
 The most curious point about them is, however, the movements 
 of their fronds. According to Dr. Harvey, these are of three 
 kinds a pendulum-like movement from side to side, per- 
 formed by one end, whilst the other remains fixed, so as to form 
 a pivot ; a movement of flexure of the filament itself, the oscil- 
 lating extremity bending over from one side to the other, like 
 the head of a worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line 
 of march ; and lastly, a simple onward movement of progres- 
 sion, the whole phenomenon being, Dr. Harvey thinks, resolv- 
 able into a spiral onward movement of the filament. Whatever 
 is the cause of this motion, it is not, as used to be supposed, 
 of an animal nature ; for the individuals of this group are un- 
 doubted plants. (Fig. 4, B.) Several species of Rivularia, 
 belonging to the Oscillatoreoe, are found both in the sea and 
 in fresh water. They are gelatinous, and have something of the 
 appearance of Nostoc, in aspect as well as in minute structure. 
 The Conjugate are freshwater articulated Algae, which repro- 
 
io HANDBOOK: OF SEA- WEEDS. 
 
 duce themselves by the union of two endochromes. They are 
 very interesting objects under the microscope, owing to the 
 spiral or zigzag arrangement of the endochrome of many of 
 them, and the delicacy of all. 
 
 The Bulbochseteos constitute a small group, some half-a-dozen 
 species being British. They are freshwater plants, composed 
 of articulate branched filaments, with fertile bulbshaped 
 branchlets. The endochrome is believed to be fertilized by 
 bodies developed in antheridia, the contents of each fertilized 
 cell dividing into four ovate zoospores. 
 
 The last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of 
 marine plants. Of these the first, Siphonese, is so called because 
 the plant, however complicated, is composed invariably of a single 
 cell. It propagates by minute zoospores, by large quiescent 
 spores, or by large active spores clothed with cilia. It includes 
 the remarkable genus Codium, three species of which inhabit 
 the British seas. In Codium Bursa the filamentous frond is 
 spherical and hollow, presenting more the appearance of a 
 round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed, and is somewhat 
 rare. Another species greatly resembles a branched sponge, 
 and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks. 
 Another genus, Vaucheria, is of a beautiful green colour, form- 
 ing a velvety surface on moist soil, on mud-covered rocks over- 
 flowed by the tide, or parasitic on other sea-weeds. The most 
 attractive plants of this family are however those of the genus 
 Bryopsis, two of which are found on the British shores. The 
 most common one is B. plumosa, the fronds of which grow 
 usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools. 
 
 The fronds of the last of the green-weed groups, the Ulvacese, 
 are membranous, and either flat or tubular. Two of them, U Iva 
 latissima, the green, and Porphyra laciniata, the purple laver, are 
 among the most common sea- weeds, growing well up from low- 
 water mark. The propagation in all of them is by zoospores. 
 An allied genus, Enteromorpha, is protean in its forms, which 
 have been classed under many species. They may, however, be 
 reduced to half a dozen. Some of them are very slender, so as 
 almost to be mistaken for confervoid plants. 
 
 With the Rhodospermerc we enter a sub-order of Algce, ex- 
 clusively marine, the plants in which have always held out great 
 attractions to the collector. In structure they are expanded or 
 filamentous, nearly always rose-coloured or purple in colour. Of 
 the fourteen groups into which they are divided by Harvey, the 
 first is Ceramiaceas, articulate Algae, constituting a large propor- 
 tion of the marine plants of our shores. Of the genus Ceramium, 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 11 
 
 C. rubrum is the most frequent, and it is found in every latitude, 
 almost from pole to pole. It is very variable in aspect, but can 
 always be recognized by its fruit. C. diaphanum is a very hand- 
 some species, growing often in rock pools along with the other. 
 There are about fifteen native species altogether, some of them 
 rare, and all very beautiful, both as displayed on paper and seen 
 under the microscope. Crouania attenuata is a beautiful plant, 
 parasitic upon a Cladostephus or Corallina officinalis. It is how- 
 ever extremely rare, being only found in England about Land's 
 
 Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion. 
 
 End. A more common and conspicuous, but equally handsome 
 plant is Ptilota plumosa (Fig. 9), which is mostly confined to our 
 northern coasts ; although P. sericea, a smaller species, or variety, 
 is common in the south, and easily distinguished from its congener, 
 which it otherwise greatly resembles, by its jointed branchlets 
 and pinnules. Callithamnion, Halurus and Griffithsia, articulate 
 like Ceramium, furnish also several handsome species. (Fig. 5.) 
 The group Spyridiaceae contains only one English plant, Spy- 
 ridia filamentosa, which is curiously and irregularly branched, the 
 branches being articulate and of a pinky red. One of its kinds 
 
12 HANDBOOK OF 
 
 of fruit, consisting of crimson spores, is contained in a transpa- 
 rent network basket, formed by the favellse, or short branches, 
 whence its name. 
 
 The Cryptonemiacece are very numerous in genera and species, 
 They all have inarticulate branches, some are thread-like. Gra- 
 teloupia filicina is a neat little plant, me.t with rarely on the 
 south and west coasts. Gigartina mamillosa, a common plant 
 everywhere, is the plant sold, along with Chondrus crispus, as 
 
 Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus. 
 
 Irish or Carrageen moss. A handsome little plant, Stenogramme 
 interrupta, is very rare, but it has been gathered both on the 
 Irish and English coasts. The Phyllophoree, one species of 
 which is frequent on all our shores, may be recognised by the 
 way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw 
 out proliferous leaves. Gymnogongrus has two British species, 
 one much resembling Chondrus crispus, already named, of 
 which it was formerly considered a congener. Their fructifica- 
 tion is however very different. Ahnfeltia plicata is a curious 
 
HANDBOOK OP SEA- WEEDS. 13 
 
 wiry, entangled plant, almost black in colour, and like horse- 
 hair when dry, and can scarcely be mistaken. Cystoclonium 
 purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most 
 
 Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata. 
 
 of our coasts. It varies in colour, but is easily distinguished 
 by the spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches. 
 Callophyllis laciniata is a handsome species, of a rich crimson 
 colour, and sometimes a foot square. It can scarcely have 
 
14 HANDBOOK OF SEA- WEEDS. 
 
 escaped the notice of the sea-side visitor, for it is widely dis- 
 tributed and often thrown out in great abundance ; one writer 
 describes the shore near Tynemouth a~s having been red for 
 upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed. Kalymenia 
 reniformis is another of the broad, flat Algoe, but it is scarcer, 
 and of a colour not so conspicuous. Among the most frequent 
 of our sea-weeds, both as growing in the rock pools and cast 
 ashore, is Chondrus crispus, already twice referred to in con- 
 nexion with its officinal uses. It is very variable in form, one 
 author figuring as many as thirty-six different varieties. (Fig. 6.) 
 Chylocladia clavellosa, which is sometimes cast ashore a fond 
 
 Wormskioldia sanguinea 
 
 and a half long, is closely set with branches, and these again 
 clothed with branchlets in one or two series. The whole plant 
 is fleshy, of a rose-red or brilliant pink colour, turning to golden 
 yellow in decay. There is another small species, confined to 
 the extreme north of Britain. Halymenia ligulata is another 
 flat red weed, but sometimes very narrow in its ramifications. 
 Furcellaria fastigiata has a round, branched, taper stem, swollen 
 at the summit, which contains the fruit, consisting of masses of 
 tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle. Schizymenia edulis, better 
 known perhaps by its old name Iridea, is a flat, inversely eg 
 shaped leaf with scarcely any stem, It is one of the edit 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA- WEEDS. 15 
 
 Algos, and pretty frequent in shady rock pools. Gloiosiphonia 
 capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant, and not common, 
 being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts. The 
 stem is very soft and gelatinous ; the spores are produced in red 
 globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments, which have 
 a fine appearance under the microscope when fresh. 
 
 The Rhodomeniaceas are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds, 
 inarticulate, membranaceous, and cellular. Among the dark- 
 coloured is Rhodomenia palmata, better known as dulse, a 
 common and edible species. (Fig. 7.) Wormskioldia sanguinea 
 is not only the most beautiful sea-weed, but the finest of all 
 
 Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa. 
 
 leaves or fronds. It is usually about six inches long, but some- 
 times nearly double that length and six inches broad, with a 
 distinct midrib and branching veins, and a delicate wavy lamina, 
 pink or deep red. The fruit is produced in winter from small 
 leaflets growing upon the bare midrib. (Fig. 8.) The com- 
 monest of all red seaweeds on our coast, one of the most elegant, 
 and much sought after by sea- weed picture makers, Plocamium 
 coccineum, belongs to this group. Calliblepharis ciliata and 
 jubata are coarser plants, the latter being the more frequent. 
 They were formerly included in the genus Rhodymenia, from 
 which they were removed when their fruit was better understood. 
 Wrangelia and Naccaria are the only British genera in 
 
1 6 HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 Wrangeliaceoe. There is only one native species in each, both 
 being rare, the latter especially. 
 
 The Helminthocladioe are also a limited group, of a gelatinous 
 structure ; so much so that on being gathered they feel like a 
 bunch of slimy worms, whence the name of the family. Hel- 
 minthora purpurea and divaricata with Nemaleon multifidum 
 and Scinaia furcellata represent them in Britain. They are 
 nearly all very rare, pretty plants, and very effective as micro- 
 scopic objects. 
 
 The Squamariae, formerly included in the Corallinacese, are a 
 small group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens, of a 
 leathery texture, and growing on rocks and shells attached by 
 their lower surface. 
 
 A single genus only, Polyides, represents the Spongiocarpeoe. 
 Polyides rotundus resembles Furcellaria fastigiata very closely, 
 but differs widely in the fruit, which consists of spongy warts 
 surrounding the frond, composed of spores and articulated 
 threads. 
 
 Of the next group represented in Britain, Gelidiaceae, we 
 have only one plant, Gelidium corneum, very common on our 
 shores, and perhaps the most variable of all vegetable species. 
 
 The Sphoerococcidse include both membranaceous and cartila- 
 ginous species. Of the latter is Sphcerococcus coronopifolius, 
 which cannot easily be mistaken, owing to the numerous berry- 
 like fruits that tip its branchlets. It is rather rare on the 
 northern, but often thrown ashore in large quantities on the 
 southern coasts. The genus Delesseria has four British species, 
 the largest being the well-known D. sinuosa, the fronds of 
 which resemble an oak leaf in outline. The handsomest are 
 D. ruscifolia and D. hypoglossum, which are more delicate and 
 of a finer colour than sinuosa. There are three British species 
 of Gracillaria, in two of which the branches are cylindrical, and 
 in the other flat. G. compressa makes an excellent preserve 
 and pickle, but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three. 
 Nitophyllum is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe. 
 There are six British species, which are amongst the most deli- 
 cate and beautiful of our native Algce. 
 
 The Corallinaceoe are remarkable for the property they 
 possess of absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues, so that 
 they appear as a succession of chalky articulations or incrusta- 
 tions. The most common is Corallina officinalis. There are 
 two British species of Corallina, and two also of the nearly 
 allied genus, Jania. Of the foliaceous group there are likewise 
 two British genera, Melobesia and Hildenbrantia. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA- WEEDS. 17 
 
 The next group, the Laurenciaceae, are cartilaginous and cylin- 
 drical or compressed, the frond in the greater portion of them 
 being inarticulate and solid. They contain several species valued 
 by collectors, although some of them are amongst our com- 
 monest plants. Their colour is, when perfect, a dull purple or 
 brownish red, but they change under the influence of light and 
 air, while fresh water is rapidly destructive to their tints. (Fig. 10.) 
 
 Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida. 
 
 The Chylocladias are curiously jointed plants, removed by 
 Agardh to a new genus, Lomentaria, and a new order Chondriae. 
 Bonnemaisonia asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of 
 the tribe. 
 
 The last tribe of red weeds, Rhodomelaceoe, varies greatly in 
 the structure of the frond, but the fruit is more uniform. Poly- 
 
 B 
 
1 8 HANDBOOK OF SEA- WE EDS. 
 
 siphonia and Dasya contain the finest of the filiform division ; 
 the leafy one, Odonthalia, a northern form, is a very beautiful 
 sea-weed both as respects form and colour. Well-grown speci- 
 mens are not unlike a hawthorn twig, and of a blood red colour. 
 
 The plants of the sub-order Melanospermeae, are, like the red 
 sea-weeds, exclusively marine. They are usually large and 
 coarse, and confined mostly to comparatively shallow water. In 
 the Laminariacese we find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly 
 referred to. Lessonia, which encircles in submarine forests the 
 antarctic coasts, is an erect, tree-like plant, with a trunk from 
 five to ten feet high, forked branches, and drooping leaves, one 
 to three feet in length, and has been compared to a weeping 
 willow. Sir Joseph Hooker says, that from a boat there may 
 on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic regions, over these 
 submarine groves, "as busy a scene as is presented by the coral 
 reefs of the ti'opics. The leaves of the Lessonise are crowded 
 with Sertularise and Mollusca, or encircled with Flustra ; on the 
 trunks parasitic Algae abound, together with chitons, limpets, 
 and other shells ; at the base and among the tangled roots 
 swarm thousands of Crustacese and Radiata, while fish of 
 several species dart among the leaves and branches." Of these 
 and other gigantic melanosperms, flung ashore by the waves, a 
 belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed, miles in extent, 
 some yards broad, and three feet in depth ; and Sir J. Hooker 
 adds that the trunks of Lessonia so much resemble driftwood 
 that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from 
 employing his crew, during two bitterly cold days, in collecting 
 this incombustible material for fuel. Macrocystis and Nereo- 
 cystis are also giant members of this sub-order. Some of the 
 Laminarise which form a belt around our own coasts not sel- 
 dom attain a length of from eight to twelve feet. The common 
 bladder-wrack (Fucus vesiculosus) sometimes grows in Jut- 
 land to a height of ten feet, and in clusters several feet in dia- 
 meter. The colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is 
 some shade of olive, but several of them turn to green in 
 drying. 
 
 The first group, Ectocarpese, is composed of thread-like 
 jointed plants, the fructification of which consists of external 
 spores, sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet. The 
 typical genus, Ectocarpus, abounds in species, a dozen or so of 
 which, very nearly allied plants, being found around our own 
 shores. One or two of them are very handsome. There 
 are also some very beautiful plants in the genus Sphacelaria, 
 belonging to this group, several of them resembling miniature 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. ig 
 
 ferns. All the Sphacelarioe are easily recognized by the 
 withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches. My- 
 riotrichia is a genus of small parasitical plants, the two British 
 species of which grow chiefly on the sea thongs (Chorda). 
 
 The Chordarise are sometimes gelatinous in structure, in other 
 cases cartilaginous. The fruit is contained in the substance of 
 the frond. The genus Chordaria consists of plants which 
 have the appearance of dark coloured twine. There are two 
 British species, one being rather common. Chorda filum, sea- 
 rope, another string-like seaweed, grows in tufts from a few 
 inches to many feet in length, and tapering at the roots to about 
 the thickness of a pig's bristle. In quiet land-locked bays with 
 
 Fig. ii. Padina pavonia. 
 
 a sandy or muddy bottom, it sometimes extends to forty feet in 
 length, forming extensive meadows, obstructing the passage of 
 boats, and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its 
 slimy cords, whence probably its other name of " dead men's 
 lines." 
 
 The Mesogloiere in a fresh state resemble bundles of green, 
 slimy worms. There are three British species, two of which 
 are not uncommon. Although so unattractive in external as- 
 pect, they, like many others of the same description, prove very 
 interesting under the microscope. One of the cartilaginous 
 species, Leathsia tuberiformis, has the appearance, when grow- 
 ing, of a mass of distorted tubers. 
 
20 HANDBOOK: OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 The species of Elachista, composed of minute parasites, are, 
 as well as unattractive like the Mesogloiese, inconspicuous, but 
 are beautiful objects when placed under the microscope. My- 
 rionemse are also parasitic, and even smaller than the plants of 
 the preceding genus. 
 
 In the Dictyotese the frond is mostly flat, with a reticulated 
 surface, which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked 
 spores or spore cysts. This tribe includes not a few of the most 
 elegant among the Algae. In structure they are coriaceous, and 
 include plants both with broad and narrow, branched and un- 
 branched fronds. In Haliseris there is a distinct midrib. The 
 largest of the British Dictyoteae is Cutleria multifida, sometimes 
 found a foot and a half long ; and the best known is doubtless 
 Padina pavonia, much sought after by seaside visitors where it 
 grows. Its segments are fan-shaped, variegated with lighter 
 curved lines, and fringed with golden tinted filaments. (Fig. 1 1.) 
 Owing to its power of decomposing light, its fronds, when growing 
 under water, suggest the train of the peacock, whence its specific 
 name. Taonia atomaria somewhat resembles Cutleria, but exhibits 
 also the wavy lines of Padina. The plant of this group most 
 often cast ashore is Dictyota dichotoma. It makes a handsome 
 specimen when well dried, and is interesting on account of the 
 manner in which it varies in the breadth of its divisions. The 
 variety intricata is curiously curled and entangled. Dictyosiphon 
 fceniculaceus, the solitary British example of its genus, is a bushy 
 filiform plant, remarkable for the beautiful net-like markings of 
 its surface. The Punctariae have flattened fronds, marked with 
 dots, which sufficiently distinguish them from all the others. A 
 small form is often found parasitic on Chorda filum, spreading 
 out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle brush. Asperococcus 
 derives its name from its roughened surface, occasioned by 
 the thickly scattered spots of fructification. 
 
 The Laminariacese are inarticulate, mostly flat, often strap- 
 shaped. Their spores occur in superficial patches, or covering 
 the whole frond. The plants of this order, as we have already 
 seen, include the giants of submarine vegetation. In point of 
 mass they constitute the larger part of our native Algae, although 
 they number only a few species. They are popularly known as 
 tangle or oarweeds, and the stems of Laminaria saccharina and 
 the midrib of Alaria esculenta are used as food. 
 
 The Sporochnaceae are a small but beautiful tribe, inarticulate, 
 and producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like 
 masses, and remarkable for their property of turning from olive 
 brown to a verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA- WE EDS. 21 
 
 They are deep sea plants, or at least grow about low water 
 mark. The largest of the group is Desmarestia ligulata, 
 which, with the other British species, D. aculeata, is often cast 
 ashore. The latter species, at an early period of its existence, is 
 
 Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse section of the Conceptacle, 
 and Antheridium with Antherozoids escaping. 
 
 clothed with tufts of slender hairs, springing from the margin of 
 the frond. Desmarestia viridis is the most delicate and also the 
 rarest of the three. Nothing like fruit has been discovered on 
 any of them. Arthocladia villosa and Sporochnus pedunculatus 
 
22 HANDBOOK OF SEA- WE EDS. 
 
 are branched sea weeds, covered also with tufts of closely set 
 hairs. Carpomitra Cabrerae, a rare species, bears, in common 
 with the two preceding species, its spores in a special receptacle. 
 In the first the receptacle is pod -like ; in the second knotted ; 
 and in the last mitriform. 
 
 The concluding group of Algae is the Fucaceoe, including the 
 universally known sea wrack (Fucus). The frond in all of them 
 is jointless. They are reproduced by means of antheridia and 
 oogonia developed in conceptacles, clustered together at the 
 apex of the branches. Both from their bulk and their decided 
 sexual distinctions, they deserve to rank at the head of the 
 order. Of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps of the 
 greatest use to man. One of the most interesting among 
 them is the Gulfweed (Sargassum bacciferum), occupying a 
 tract of the Atlantic extending over many degrees of latitude. 
 Pieces of it, and of its congener, S. vulgare, are occasionally 
 drifted to our shores, and they consequently find a place in works 
 on British Algae, although they have no claim to be considered 
 native plants. On rocky coasts the various species of Fucus 
 occupy the greater part of the space between tide-marks, the 
 most plentiful being Fucus vesiculosus. F. serratus (Fig. 12) 
 is the handsomest of the genus, the other species being F. 
 nodosus, said to be the most useful for making kelp, and 
 F. canaliculatus. Halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore 
 receptacles, which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel 
 of a flowering plant. The species of Cystoseira, chiefly con- 
 fined to the southern coasts, are also very interesting. Their 
 submerged fronds are beautifully iridescent, and the stems, of the 
 largest species at least, are generally covered with a great variety 
 of parasites, animal and vegetable, the former consisting of 
 Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, and other curious forms. Himanthalia 
 lorea is another remarkable plant. It has conspicuous forked 
 fruit-bearing receptacles ; but the real plants are the small 
 cones at the base of these, and from which they are shed when 
 ripe. 
 
 As to conditions of site and geographical distribution, Algcedo 
 not differ from land plants. Latitude, depth of water, and 
 currents influence them in the same way as latitude, elevation, 
 and station operate on the latter ; and the analogy is maintained 
 in the almost cosmopolitan range of some, and the restricted 
 habitat of others. Not many extra-European species of Desmids 
 are known, but those of Diatoms are far more widely diffused, and 
 extend beyond the limits of all other vegetation, existing wherever 
 there is water sufficient to allow of their production ; and they 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 23 
 
 are found not only in water, but also on the moist surface of the 
 ground and on other plants, in hot springs and amid polar ice. 
 They are said to occur in such countless myriads in the South 
 Polar Sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever these are 
 washed by the surge. A deposit of mud, chiefly consisting of 
 the shells of Diatoms, 400 miles long, 120 miles broad, and of 
 unknown thickness, was found at a depth of between 200 and 400 
 feet on the flanks of Victoria Land in 70 south latitude. Such 
 is their abundance in some rivers and estuaries that Professor 
 Ehrenberg goes the length of affirming that they have exercised 
 an important influence in blocking up harbours and diminishing 
 the depth of channels. The trade and other winds distribute large 
 quantities over the earth, which may account for the universality 
 of their specific distribution ; for Sir Joseph Hooker found the 
 Himalayan species to closely resemble our own. Common British 
 species also occur in Ceylon, Italy, Virginia, and Peru. The 
 typical species of the Confervaceae are also distributed over the 
 whole surface of the globe. They inhabit both fresh and salt 
 water, and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling 
 springs of Iceland, in mineral waters and in chemical solutions. 
 Some of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense. 
 Batrachospermum vagum, in the next tribe, a native of England, 
 is also found in New Zealand. An edible species of Nostochinese, 
 produced on the boggy slopes bordering the Arctic Ocean, is 
 blown about by the winds sometimes ten miles from land, where 
 it is found lying in small depressions in the snow upon the ice. 
 The common Nostoc of moist ground in England occurs also in 
 Kerguelen's Land, high in the southern hemisphere. Floating 
 masses of Monormia are often the cause of the green hue assumed 
 by the water of ponds and lakes. Certain species of Oscillatoria 
 of a deep red colour live in hot springs in India, and the Red 
 Sea is supposed to have derived its name from a species of this 
 tribe, which covers it with a scum for many miles, according to 
 the direction of the wind. The lake of Glaslough in County 
 Monaghan, Ireland, owes its colour and its name to Oscilla- 
 toria serugescens, and large masses of water in Scotland and 
 Switzerland are tinted green or purple by a similar agency. 
 A few species of Siphonese have a very wide range, two British 
 species of Codium occurring in New Zealand. The Ulvacese 
 abound principally in the colder latitudes. Enteromorpha intes- 
 tinalis, a common British species, is as frequent in Japan, where 
 it is used, when dried, in soup. The Rhodosperms are found in 
 every sea, although the geographical boundaries of genera are 
 often well-marked. Gloiosiphonia, one of our rarest and most 
 
?4 HANDBOOK OF SEA- WEEDS. 
 
 beautiful Algoe, is widely diffused. Of Melanosperms the 
 Laminarioe affect the higher northern latitudes, Sargassa abound 
 in the warmer seas, while Durvillaea, Lessonia, and Macrocystis 
 characterize the marine flora of the Southern Ocean. The 
 Fucacese are most abundant towards the poles, whera they 
 attain their greatest size. The marine meadows of Sargassum, 
 conceived by some naturalists to mark the site of the lost 
 Atlantis, and which give its name to the Sargasso Sea, extend- 
 ing between 20 and 25 north latitude, in 40 west longitude, 
 
 Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum). 
 
 occupy now the same position as when the early navigators, 
 with considerable trepidation, forced through their masses on 
 the way to the New World. Sargassum is drifted into this tract 
 of ocean by currents, the plants being all detached ; and they do 
 not produce fruit in that state, being propagated by buds, which 
 originate new branches and leaves. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 Owing to their soft, cellular structure, Algae are not likely to 
 be preserved in a fossil state ; but what have been considered 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 25 
 
 such have been found as low down as the Silurian formation, 
 although their identity has been disputed, and several of them, 
 it is more than probable, belong to other orders, and some even 
 to the animal kingdom. Freshwater forms, all of existing genera 
 and species, are believed to have been detected in the carboni- 
 ferous rocks of Britain and France ; others also of the green- 
 coloured division are said to occur from the Silurian to the 
 Eocene, and the Floridese to be represented from the Lias to the 
 Miocene. The indestructible nature of the shells of the Diato- 
 maceae has enabled them to survive where the less protected 
 species may have perished. Tripoli stone, a Tertiary rock, is 
 entirely composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this 
 tribe. It is from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use 
 in the arts, as powder for polishing stones and metals. Ehren- 
 berg estimates that in every cubic inch of the tripoli of Bilin, in 
 Bohemia, there are 41,000,000 of Gaillonella distans. Districts 
 recovered from the sea frequently contain myriads of Diatoms, 
 forming strata of considerable thickness ; and similar deposits 
 occur in the ancient sites of lakes in this and other countries. 
 
 Before setting out in search of Algae the collector ought to 
 provide himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from 
 the sharp-pointed rocks, as well as a staff or pole to balance 
 himself in rock-climbing, which ought to have a hook for draw- 
 ing floating weed ashore. A stout table-knife tied to the other 
 end will be found very useful. A basket a fishing-basket does 
 very well or a waterproof bag, for stowing away his plants, is 
 also necessary. It is advisable to carry a few bottles for the 
 very small and delicate plants, and care should be taken to keep 
 apart, and in sea-water, any specimens of the Sporochnaceae ; for 
 they are not only apt to decay themselves but to become a cause 
 of corruption in the other weeds with which they come in contact. 
 These bottles should always be carried in the bag or pocket, 
 never in the hand. 
 
 Sea-weeds, as every visitor to the coast knows, are torn up 
 in great numbers by the waves, especially during storms, and 
 afterwards left on the shore by the retiring tide. Many shallow- 
 growing species are also to be found attached to the rocks, 
 and in the rock pools, between high and low water mark. 
 There are three points on the beach where the greatest ac- 
 cumulations of floating Algae are found : high water mark, mid 
 tide level, and low water mark. Low water occurs about five or 
 five and a half hours after high water. The best time for the 
 collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low 
 
26 HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 water. He can then work to the lowest point safely, and, re- 
 tiring before the approaching tide, examine the higher part of 
 the beach up to high water mark. If the coarse weeds in the 
 rock pools and chinks are turned back, many rare and delicate 
 Algae will be found growing under them, especially at the lowest 
 level. The most effective method of collecting the plants of 
 deeper water is by dredging, or going round with a boat at the 
 extreme ebb, and taking them from the rocks and from the 
 Laminaria stems, on which a great number have their station. 
 Stems of Laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be 
 carefully examined. In all cases the weed should be well rinsed 
 in a clear rock pool before being put away in the bag or other 
 receptacle. 
 
 The next thing to be considered is the laying out and pre- 
 serving of the specimens selected for the herbarium. Wherever 
 possible these should be laid out on paper, and put under pres- 
 sure as soon as gathered, or on the same day at all events. 
 When this is impracticable, they may be spread between the 
 folds of soft and thick towels and rolled up. Thus treated the 
 most delicate plants will keep fresh until next day. Another 
 way is to pack the plants in layers of salt, like herrings ; but 
 the most usual method of roughly preserving sea-weeds collected 
 during an unprepared visit to the shore is by modei'ately drying 
 them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the sun. They 
 are then to be placed lightly in bags, and afterwards relaxed by 
 immersion and prepared in the usual way. The finer plants, 
 however, suffer more or less by this delay. If carried directly 
 home from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of 
 sea-water. A flat dish, about fourteen inches square and three 
 deep, is then to be filled with clean water. For most plants 
 this may be fresh, for some it is essential that it should be salt. 
 Some of the Polysiphonias and others begin to decompose at 
 once if placed in fresh water. The Grifnthsias burst and let 
 out their colouring matter, and a good many change their colour. 
 The appliances required are some fine \vhite paper good print- 
 ing demy, thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream, does very 
 well, an ample supply of smooth blotting paper, the coarse 
 paper used by grocers and called "sugar royal," or, best of 
 all, Bentall's botanical drying paper, pieces of well-washed 
 book muslin, a camel's hair brush, a bodkin for assisting 
 to spread out the plants, a pair of scissors, and a pair of 
 forceps. The mounting paper may be cut in three sizes : 
 5 in. by 4 in., 7^ in. by 5^ in., and 10 in. by 7^ in. Then 
 having selected a specimen, place it in the flat dish referred 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 27 
 
 to above, and prune it it necessary. Next take a piece of 
 the mounting paper of suitable size, and slip it into the water 
 underneath the plant, keeping hold of it with the thumb of 
 the left hand. Having arranged the plant in a natural manner 
 on the paper, brush it gently with the camel's hair pencil, to 
 remove any dirt or fragments, draw out ' paper and plant gently 
 and carefully in an oblique direction, and set them on end for a 
 short time to drain. Having in this way transferred as many 
 specimens as will cover a sheet of drying paper, lay them upon 
 it neatly side by side, and cover them with a piece of old muslin. 
 Four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed upon this, 
 then another layer of plants and muslin and four more sheets of 
 drying paper, until a heap, it may be six or eight inches thick, 
 is built up. Place this between two flat boards, weighted with 
 stones, bricks, or other weights ; but the pressure should be 
 moderate at first, otherwise the texture of the muslin may be 
 stamped on both paper and plant. The papers must be changed 
 in about three hours' time, and afterwards every twelve hours. 
 In three or four days, according to the state of the weather, the 
 muslin may be removed, the plants again transferred to dry 
 paper, and subjected to rather severe pressure for several 
 days. 
 
 The very gelatinous plants require particular treatment. One 
 way is to put them in drying paper and under a board but to 
 apply no other pressure, change the drying paper at least twice 
 during the first half hour, and after the second change of dryers 
 apply very gentle pressure, increasing it until the specimens 
 are fully dry. A safer and less troublesome way, for the effi- 
 cacy of which we can vouch, is to lay down the plants and dry 
 them without any pressure, afterwards damping the back of the 
 mounting papers and placing them in the drying press. Some 
 Algx will scarcely adhere to paper. These should be pressed 
 until tolerably dry, then be immersed in skim-milk for a quarter 
 of an hour, and pressed and dried as before. A slight applica- 
 tion of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to the under side of the 
 specimen is sometimes necessary. Before mounting, or at all 
 events before transference to the herbarium, care should be 
 taken to write in pencil on the back of the paper the name of 
 the plant, if known, the place where gathered, and the date. 
 The coarse olive weeds, such as the bladder-wrack, Halidrys, 
 and the like, may in the case of a short visit to the coast be 
 allowed to dry in an airy place, and taken home in the rough. 
 Before pressing, in any case, they should be steeped in boiling 
 water for about half an hour to extract the salt, then washed in 
 
28 HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 
 
 clean fresh water, dried between coarse towels, and pressed and 
 dried in the same way as flowering plants. A collection of 
 Algae may be fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium 
 size and kept in a cabinet or portfolios, or attached to the 
 leaves of an album. For scientific purposes, however, the latter 
 is the least convenient way. 
 
 There are few objects more beautiful than many of the 
 sea-weeds when well preserved ; but the filiform species, 
 especially those of the first sub-order, do not retain their 
 distinguishing characters when pressed as has been described. 
 Portions of these, however, as well as sections of stems and 
 fruit, may be usefully dried on small squares of thin mica, 
 for subsequent microscopic examination, or they may be 
 mounted on the ordinary microscope slides. This is the 
 only course possible with Desmids and Diatoms. The former 
 are to be sought in shallow pools, especially in open boggy 
 moors. The larger species commonly lie in a thin gelatinous 
 stratum at the bottom of the pools, and by gently passing the 
 fingers under them they will be caused to rise towards the sur- 
 face, when they can be lifted with a scoop. Other species form 
 a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of other 
 aquatic plants, and by stripping the plant between the fingers 
 these also may be similarly detached and secured. If they are 
 much diffused through the water, they may be separated by 
 straining through linen ; and this is a very common way of pro- 
 curing them. Living Diatoms are found on aquatic plants, on 
 rocks and stones, under water or on mud, presenting themselves 
 as coloured fringes, cushion-like tufts, or filmy strata. In colour 
 the masses vary from a yellowish brown to almost black. They 
 are difficult, both when living and dead, to separate from foreign 
 matter ; but repeated washings are effectual in both cases, and, 
 for the living ones, their tendency to move towards the light may 
 also be taken advantage of. When only the shells are wanted 
 for mounting, the cell contents are removed by means of hydro- 
 chloric and nitric acid. The most satisfactory medium for pre- 
 serving fresh Desmids and Diatoms is distilled water, and if the 
 water is saturated with camphor, or has dissolved in it a grain 
 of alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce cf water, confervoid 
 growths will be prevented. For larger preparations of Algce, 
 Thwaites' fluid is strongly recommended. This is made by 
 adding to one part of rectified spirit as many drops of creasote 
 as will saturate it, and then gradually mixing with it in a pestle 
 and mortar some prepared chalk, with sixteen parts of water ; 
 an equal quantity of water saturated with camphor is then to be 
 
HANDBOOK OF SEA-WEEDS. 29 
 
 added, and the mixture, after standing for a few days, to be 
 carefully filtered. 
 
 For authorities on the morphology and classification of the 
 Algae, students may be referred to Sachs' " Text Book " and 
 Le Maout's " System of Botany," of which there are good trans- 
 lations, and the "Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," by the 
 Rev. M. J. Berkeley; for descriptions and the identification 
 of species j to the text and figures of Harvey's "Phycologia 
 Britannica," and " Nature- Printed Sea-weeds." Both of these 
 are however costly. Among the cheaper works are " British 
 Sea- weeds," by S. O. Gray (Lo veil, Reeve & Co.), "Harvey's 
 Manual " and an abridgment by Mrs. A. Gatty, with reduced 
 but well executed copies of the figures, of the Phycologia. This 
 synopsis can often be picked up cheap at second-hand book- 
 stalls ; and there is a very excellent low-priced work suitable for 
 amateurs, Grattann's "British Marine Algae," containing re- 
 cognizable figures of nearly all our native species. Lands- 
 borough's "Popular History of British Sea- weeds," and Mrs. 
 Lane Clarke's "Common Sea- weeds," are also cheap and useful 
 manuals on the subject. 
 
SHE LLS. 
 
 BY 
 
 B. B. WOODWARD, 
 
S H ELLS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 IN the very eai'liest times, long before there was any attempt 
 at the scientific classification and arrangement of shells, they 
 appear to have been objects of admiration, and to have been 
 valued on account of their beauty, for we find that the pre- 
 historic men, who, in company with the mammoth, or hairy 
 elephant, and other animals now extinct, inhabited Southern 
 France in days long gone by, used to bore holes in them, and, 
 like the savage of to-day, wear them as ornaments. The Greek 
 physician and philosopher, Aristotle, is said to have been the 
 first to study the formation of shells, and to raise the knowledge 
 thus acquired into the position of a science ; by him shells were 
 divided into three orders an arrangement preserved, with some 
 small changes, by Linnoeus. It is possible that the world-wide 
 renown of the Swedish naturalist during the last century, and 
 the ardour with which he pursued his investigations, may have 
 given an impetus to the study of natural objects, for we find that 
 at that period large sums were often given by collectors for 
 choice specimens of shells. Nor is this to be wondered at, for 
 few things look nicer, or better repay trouble expended on them, 
 than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and named 
 collection of shells. Certainly nothing looks worse than a 
 number of shells of all descriptions, of every kind, shape, and 
 colour, thrown promiscuously into a box, like the unfortunate 
 
 . 35 
 
36 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 animals in a toy Noah's ark, to the great detriment of their value 
 and beauty ; for, as the inevitable result of shaking against each 
 other, the natural polish is taken off some, the delicate points 
 and ornaments are broken off others, the whole collection be- 
 coming in time unsightly and disappointing, and all for want of 
 a little care at the outset. 
 
 In this, as in every other undertaking, " how to set about it " 
 is the chief difficulty with beginners ; and here, perhaps, a few 
 hints gathered from experience may not be without value. One 
 thing a young collector should always bear in mind, however, 
 is, that no instructions can be of any avail to him unless, for his 
 part, he is prepared to bring patience, neatness, and attention to 
 detail, to bear upon his work. 
 
 Since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens 
 already acquired, we will, in the first place, devote a few words 
 to this point, and then proceed to describe the best means of 
 collecting specimens, and of naming, mounting, and arranging 
 the same. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A CABINET. 
 
 It is a common mistake, both with old and young, to imagine 
 that a handsome cabinet is, in the first instance, a necessity ; but 
 no greater blunder can be made : the cabinet should be con- 
 sidered merely an accessory, the collection itself being just as 
 valuable, and generally more useful, when kept in a series of plain 
 wooden or cardboard boxes. We intend, therefore, to describe 
 the simplest possible means of keeping a collection of shells, 
 leaving elaborate and costly methods to those who value the 
 case more than its contents. 
 
 The first thing required is some method of keeping the dif- 
 ferent species of shells apart, so that they may not get mixed, or 
 be difficult to find when wanted. The simplest plan of doing 
 this is to collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find, 
 throw away the cases in which they slide, and keep the trays, 
 trying to get as many of a size as possible. (The ordinary 
 Bryant & May's, or Bell & Black's, are the most useful, and 
 with them the trays of the small Swedish match-boxes, two of 
 which, placed side by side, occupy nearly exactly the same space 
 as one and a half of the larger size, and so fit in with them 
 nicely. ) In these trays your shells should be placed, one kind 
 in each tray ; but although very convenient for most specimens, 
 they will of course be too small for very many, and so the larger 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 37 
 
 trays must be made. This may easily be done as follows : cut 
 a rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than 
 the length of the match-tray, and two inches more the other way 
 than twice the width of the match-tray ; 
 then with a pencil rule lines one inch from 
 the edges and parallel with them (Fig. i); 
 next cut out the little squares (a a, act) 
 these lines form in the corners of the piece 
 of cardboard, and then with a penknife 
 cut half through the card, exactly on the 
 remaining pencil-lines, and bend up the 
 pieces, which will then form sides for your 
 tray ; and by binding it round with a piece 
 
 of blue paper, you will have one that will 
 
 Fig. i. How to cut a look neat, uniform with the others, and 
 cardboard tray. yet be just twice their size. If required, 
 you can make in the same way any size, only take care that they 
 are all multiples of one standard size, as loss of space will 
 thereby be avoided when you come to the next process in your 
 cabinet. This is, to get a large box or tray in which to hold 
 your smaller ones. 
 
 The simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes 
 (such as may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost 
 at any draper's), having a depth of from one to two inches (ac- 
 cording to the size of your shells) ; in these your trays may be 
 arranged in columns, and the boxes can be kept one above the 
 other in a cupboard or in a larger box. More boxes and trays 
 can, from time to time, be added as occasion requires, and thus 
 the whole collection may be kept in good working order at a 
 trifling cost. A more durable form of cheap cabinet may be 
 made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers' 
 shops, cleaning them with sand-paper, staining and varnishing 
 them outside, and lining them inside with paper ; or, if handy 
 at carpentering, you may make all your boxes, or even a real 
 cabinet, for yourself. 
 
 HOW TO COLLECT SHELLS. 
 
 Provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation 
 of your treasures, the next consideration is, how to set about col- 
 lecting them. Mollusca are to be found all over the globe, from 
 the frozen north to the sun-baked tropics, on the land or in 
 
38 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 lakes, rivers, or seas wherever, in fact, they can find the food 
 and other conditions suitable for their growth and development ; 
 but the collector who is not also a great traveller, must of course 
 rely for his foreign specimens upon the generosity of friends, or 
 else procure them from dealers. In most districts of our own 
 country, there are, however, to be found large numbers of shells 
 whose variety and beauty will astonish and reward the efforts of 
 any patient seeker. Begin with your own garden, search in the 
 out-of-the-way, and especially damp, corners ; turn over the 
 flower-pots and stones which have lain longest in one place, 
 search amongst the roots of the grass growing under walls, and 
 in the moss round the roots of the trees, and you will be sur- 
 prised at the number of different shells you may find in a very 
 short space of time. When the resources of the garden have 
 been exhausted, go into the nearest lanes and again search the 
 grass and at the roots of plants, especially the nettles which grow 
 beside ditches and in damp places ; hunt amongst the dead leaves 
 in plantations, and literally leave no stone unturned. All the 
 apparatus it is necessary to take on these excursions consists of 
 a few small match or pill-boxes in which to carry home the. 
 specimens ; a pair of forceps to pick up the smaller ones, or to 
 get them out of cracks ; a hooked stick to beat down and pull 
 away the nettles ; and, above all, sharp eyes trained to powers of 
 observation. The best time to go out, is just after a warm 
 shower, when all the grass and leaves are still wet, for the land- 
 snails are very fond of moisture, and the shower entices them out 
 of their lurking-places. Where the ground is made of chalk or 
 limestone, they will be found most abundant ; for as the snail's 
 shell is composed of layers of animal tissue, strengthened by 
 depositions of calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets 
 from the plants on which it feeds, and these in their turn obtain 
 from the soil it naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell 
 where that article is most abundant, as an hour's hunt on any 
 chalk-down will soon show. 
 
 When garden and lanes are both exhausted, you may then turn 
 to the ponds and streams in the neighbourhood, where you will 
 find several new kinds. Some will be crawling up the rushes 
 near the margin of the water, others will be found in the water 
 near the bank, while others may be obtained by pulling on shore 
 pieces of wood and branches that may be floating in the water ; 
 but the best are sure to be beyond the reach of arm or stick, and 
 it will be necessary to employ a net, which may be easily made 
 by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about four inches in 
 diameter, and sewing to it a small gauze bag ; it maybe mounted 
 

 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 39 
 
 either on a long bamboo, or, better still, on one of those ingenious 
 Japanese walking-stick fishing-rods. For heavier work, how- 
 ever, such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from 
 the bottom, you will require a net something like the accom- 
 
 Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails. 
 
 panying figure (Fig. 2), about one foot in diameter. This, 
 when attached to a long rope, may be thrown out some distance 
 and dragged through the water-weeds to the shore, or if made 
 with a square instead of a circular mouth, it may be so weighted 
 that it will sink to the bottom, and be used as a dredge for catch- 
 ing the mussels which live half-buried in the mud. To carry the 
 water-snails home, you will find it necessary to have tin boxes 
 (empty mustard-tins are the best), as match-boxes come to pieces 
 when wetted. 
 
 The finest collections of shells, however, are to be made at the 
 sea-side, for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and 
 more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones, and quite an 
 extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's 
 ramble along the shore ; it is necessary, however, to carefully 
 reject such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the 
 waves upon the beach, as they are not of any great value in a 
 collection ; it is better, in fact, if possible, to go down to the 
 rocks at low water and collect the living specimens. Search well 
 about and under the seaweeds, and in the rock-pools, and, when 
 boating, throw your dredge-net out and tow it behind, hauling it 
 in occasionally to see what you have caught, and to empty the 
 stones and rubbish out. 
 
 At low tide also, look out for rocks with a number of round 
 holes in them, all close together, for in these holes the Pholas 
 (Fig. 22) dwells, having bored a burrow in the solid rock, 
 though haiv he does it we do not yet quite know. 
 
 The Razor-shells and Cockles live in the sand, their presence 
 
40 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 being indicated by a small round hole ; but they bury themselves 
 so fast that you will find it difficult to get at them. Some good 
 specimens, too, of the deeper water forms are sure to be found 
 near the spots where fishermen drag their boats ashore, as they 
 are often thrown away in clearing out the nets ; moreover, if 
 you can make friends with any of the said fishermen, they will 
 be able to find and bring you many nice specimens from time to 
 time. 
 
 The reason that so much has been said about collecting living 
 specimens, is not only because in them the shell is more likely 
 to be perfect, but also because in its living state the shell is 
 coated with a layer of animal matter, sometimes thin and trans- 
 parent, at others thick and opaque, called the periostracum (or 
 spider-mis), which serves to protect the shell from the weather, 
 but which perishes with the animal, so that dead shells which 
 have lain for some time tenantless on the ground, or at the bottom 
 of the water, exposed to the destructive agencies that are con- 
 stantly at work in nature, have almost invariably lost both their 
 natural polish and their varied hues, and are besides only too 
 often broken as well. Since, however, even a damaged specimen 
 is better than none at all, such should always be kept until a 
 more perfect example can be obtained. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE THE SHELLS FOR THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 The question with which we have next to deal is, after collecting 
 a number of living mollusks, how, in the quickest and most pain- 
 less manner possible, to kill the animals in order to obtain posses- 
 sion of their shells. There is but one way we know of in which 
 this may be accomplished, and that is by placing the creatures in 
 an earthen jar and pouring boiling- water on them. With land, 
 or fresh-water snails, the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt 
 is advisable, as it acts upon them chemically, and not only puts 
 t hem sooner out of pain, but also renders their subsequent extraction 
 lar easier. Death by this process is instantaneous, and conse- 
 quently painless ; but to leave snails in cold salt water is to inflict 
 on them the tortures of a lingering death ; while for the brutality 
 of gardeners and other thoughtless persons who seek to destroy 
 the poor snail they find eating their plants by crushing it under 
 foot on the gravel path, no words of condemnation are too strong, 
 since it must always be borne in mind that snails have not, like 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 41 
 
 us, one nervous centre, but three, and are far more tenacious of 
 life ; hence, unless all the nerves are destroyed at once, a great 
 deal of suffering is entailed on the poor creature ; and if merely 
 crushed under foot, the mangled portions "will live for hours. 
 Hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove the dirt 
 which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells, and so 
 helping to prepare them better for the cabinet. As soon as the 
 water is cool enough, fish out the shells one by one and proceed 
 to extract the dead animals. This, if the mollusk is univalve 
 (i.e., whose shell is composed of a single piece), such as an 
 ordinary garden snail, can easily be done by picking them out 
 with a pin ; you will find, probably, that some of the smaller 
 ones have shrunk back so far into their shells as to be beyond the 
 reach of a straight, pin, so it will be necessary to bend the pin 
 with a pair of pliers, or, if none are at hand, a key will answer 
 the purpose if the pin be put into one of the notches and bent 
 over the edge until sufficiently curved to reach up the shell. You 
 will find it convenient to keep a set of pins bent to different 
 curves, to which you may fit handles by cutting off the heads and 
 sticking them into match stems. It is a good plan to soak some 
 of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing them, as 
 they swell out -with the water, and do not, when dead, retreat so far 
 into their shells. If you have a microscope, and wish to keep the 
 animals till you have time to get the tongues out, drop the bodies 
 into small bottles of methylated spirit and water, when they will 
 keep till required, otherwise they should of course be thrown 
 away at once. The now empty shells should be washed in clean 
 warm water, and, if very dirty, gently scrubbed with a soft nail or 
 tooth brush, and then carefully dried. 
 
 In such shells as the Periwinkle, Whelk, etc., whose inhabit- 
 ants close the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door, or 
 operculum as it is called, you should be careful to preserve each 
 with its proper shell. 
 
 If you are cleaning bivalves, or shells composed of two pieces, 
 like the common mussel, you will have to remove the animal with 
 a penknife, and while leaving the inside quite clean, be very 
 careful not to break the ligament which serves as a hinge ; then 
 wash as before, and tie them together to prevent their gaping 
 open when dry. 
 
 Sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over 
 with a vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will 
 remove it, and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may 
 be used, but very carefully, since, if too strong a solution be em- 
 ployed, the surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt, and 
 
42 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 the specimen spoilt. In some shells the 
 periostracum is very thick and coarse, and 
 must be removed before the shell itself can 
 be seen ; but it is always well to keep at 
 least one specimen in its rough state as an 
 example. In other shells the periostracum 
 is covered over with very fine, delicate 
 hairs (Helix sericea and Helix hispida> 
 
 Fig. 3. (a) Helix sericea, Fig. 3), and great care must then be taken 
 
 and (6) Helix kispida. not to brush these off> 
 
 HOW TO MOUNT THE SHELLS FOR THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 When the specimens are thoroughly cleaned, the next process 
 is to sort out the different kinds, placing each description in a 
 different tray, and then to get them ready for mounting, for no col- 
 lection will look well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be 
 seen to the best advantage, and is also carefully named. Where you 
 have a good number, pick out first the largest specimens of their 
 kind, then the smallest, then a series, as you have room for them, 
 of the most perfect ; and finally those which show any peculiarity 
 of structure or marking. Try, too, to get young forms as well as 
 adult, for the young are often very different in appearance from 
 the full-grown shell. Mark on them, especially on such as you 
 have found yourself, the locality they came from, as it is very 
 important to the shell collector to know this, since specimens 
 common enough in one district are often rare in another. Either 
 write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the shell itself, 
 or gum a small label just inside it, or simply number it, and write 
 the name of the place with a corresponding number against it in 
 a book kept for the purpose. Next select a tray large enough to 
 hold all you have of this kind ; place a piece of cotton wool at the 
 bottom, and lay your shells upon it. For small shells, however, 
 this method is not suitable, as the cotton wool acts on them like 
 a spring mattress, and they are liable on the least shock to be 
 jerked out of their trays and lost. This difficulty may be met by 
 cutting a piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray, and 
 then gumming the shells on to it in rows ; but remember that, in 
 this plan of mounting, it is impossible to take the shells up and 
 examine them on all sides as you do the loose ones, and so you 
 must mount a good many, and place them in many different 
 positions, so that they may be seen from as many points of view 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 43 
 
 as possible. The gum used should always have nearly one-sixth 
 of its bulk of pure glycerine added to it j this prevents it from 
 becoming brittle when dry, otherwise your specimens would be 
 liable after a time to break away from the card and get lost. If 
 the shells will not stay in the position you require, wedge them 
 up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry. 
 
 When the shells are mounted, you must try, if you have not 
 already done so, to get the proper names for them ; it is as 
 important to be able to call shells by their right names as it 
 is to know people by theirs. The commoner sorts you will be 
 able to name from the figures of them given in text-books, 
 such as those quoted in the list at the end of this little work ; but 
 some you will find it very difficult to name, and it will then be 
 necessary to ask friends who have collections to help you, or to 
 take them to some museum and compare them with the named 
 specimens there exhibited. When the right name is discovered, 
 your label must then be written in a yery small, neat hand, and 
 gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your specimens 
 are mounted. At the top you put the Latin name, ruling a line 
 underneath it, and then, if you like, add the English name ; next, 
 put the name of the place and the date at which it was found, 
 thus : 
 
 Helix aspersa (Common snail), 
 
 Lane near Hampstead Heath, 
 July loth, 1882. 
 
 A double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a 
 finished appearance to it. 
 
 MOW TO CLASSIFY THE SHELLS FOR THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 All the foregoing processes, except the naming of your speci- 
 mens, are more or less mechanical, and are only the means to the 
 end a properly arranged collection. For, however well a collec- 
 tion may be mounted, it is practically useless if the different shells 
 composing it be not properly classified. By classification is 
 meant the bringing together those kinds that most resemble each 
 other, first of all into large groups having special characteristics 
 
44 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 in common, and then by subdividing these into other smaller 
 groups, and so on. Thus the animal kingdom is divided, first of all, 
 into Sub-kingdoms, then each Sttb-kingdom into so many Classes 
 containing those which have further characteristics in common, 
 the Classes into Orders, the Orders into Families, the Families 
 into Genera, and these again into species or kinds. 
 
 The Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, of whose protecting shells 
 your collection consists, form a sub-kingdom, and are subdivided 
 into four classes : 
 
 1. Cephalopoda. 
 
 2. Gasteropoda. 
 
 3. Pteropoda. 
 
 4. Lamellibranchiata (or Conchifera). 
 And these again into Families, Genera, and Species. 
 
 The space at our disposal being limited, it is impossible to do 
 more than furnish some general outlines of the different forms. 
 For further details it will be necessary to refer to one of the 
 larger works, a list of which will be found on the last page. 
 
 CLASS I. The CEPHALOPODA (Head-footed) contains 
 those mollusca that, 
 like the common Octo- 
 pus, have a number of 
 feet (or arms) set 
 round the mouth, and 
 is divided into those 
 having two gills. 
 (Order I. Dibranchi- 
 ata) ; and those with 
 four (Order II. Tetra- 
 branchiata). Order I. 
 is again divided into : 
 (a.) Those with eight 
 feet like the Argonaut 
 (or Paper-nautilus, Fig. 
 4), which fable has so 
 Fig. 4. Argonaut*. Argo. long endowed wit h the 
 
 power of sailing on the surface of the ocean, (it is 
 even represented in one book as propelling itself through the 
 air !) and the common Octopus. (If) Those with ten feet, such as 
 the Loligo (or Squid, Fig. 6), whose delicate internal shell so 
 much resembles a pen in shape ; the Cuttle-fish (Sepia, Figs. 5 & 7), 
 
 Bone' 
 
 of Sef>ia offi- 
 cinalis. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 Fig. 6. Loligo viilgaris, and " Pen." Fig. 7. Sepia officinalis. 
 
 whose so-called " bone " (once largely used as an ink eraser) is 
 frequently found on our southern coasts ; and the pretty little 
 Spirula (Fig. 8). 
 
 The only representative of the four-gilled order now living 
 is the well-known Pearly Nautilus ; but in former times the 
 Tetrabrar.chiata were extremely numerous, especially the Am- 
 monites. 
 
 CLASS II. GASTEROPODA (Belly-footed) comprises those 
 mollusca which, like the common snail, creep 
 on the under-surface of the body, and with one 
 exception (Chiton, Fig. 20) their shells are uni- 
 valve (i.e., composed of one piece). But before 
 we go further, it may be well to point out the 
 names given to different parts of a univalve shell. 
 The aperture whence the animal issues is called 
 the mouth, and its outer edge the lip ; each turn 
 of the shell is a whorl ; the last and biggest, the 
 body-whorl , the whorls, from the point at the Fig. 8. Spirnla. 
 top, or apex, down to the mouth form the spire ; and the line 
 where the whorls join each other is called the suture. The axis 
 of the shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes 
 open or hollow, and the shell is then said to be umbilicaUd (as 
 in Fig. 3^) ; when closely coiled, a pillar of shell, or columella, is 
 leU (as in Fig. 9). Sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest 
 
46 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 from the spire and next the columella, is produced into a channel, 
 the anterior canal (as in Fig. 9) ; whilst where the mouth 
 meets the base of the spire there may be a kind of notch which 
 is termed the posterior canal. Most Gasteropods are dextral, 
 that is to say, the mouth is to the right of the axis as you look at 
 it ; a few, however, are sinistral, or wound to the left (like Physa); 
 whilst reversed varieties of both kinds are met with. 
 
 Gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in 
 advance of the heart, and are hence termed PROSOBRANCHIATA. 
 They are divided into two groups : (a) Siphonostomata (Tube- 
 mouthed), in which the animal has a long proboscis, and a tube, 
 or siphon, from the breathing-chamber that passes along the 
 anterior canal of the shell, which in this group is well developed. 
 They have a horny operculum, or lid, with which to close the 
 aperture, (b) Holostomata (or Whole-mouthed). In these the 
 siphon is not so produced, and does not want to be protected ; 
 accordingly the mouth of the shell is entire, i.e. has no canal. 
 
 The operculum is horny or shelly. 
 
 The former (group a) includes 
 
 several families : 
 
 1. Strombidce, comprising shells, 
 like the huge Strombtis, or 
 "Fountain-shell," which is so 
 often used to adorn the mantel- 
 piece or rockery, and from which 
 cameos are cut. 
 
 2. The Muricida, of which the 
 Murex (an extraordinary form of 
 this is the "Venus' comb," Murex 
 tennispina, Fig. 9), the Mitre- 
 shells, and the Red-Whelks(/W7/.r) 
 are examples. 
 
 3. The Biiccinid(Z) taking its 
 name from its type, the Common 
 Whelk (Buccinum nndalittn), 
 and including such other forms 
 as the Dog- Whelk (Nassa), the 
 Purpnra, the strange Magilus, 
 and the lovely Harp- Shells and 
 Olives (Fig. 10). 
 
 4. The Cassidida, or "Helmet- 
 Shells." Cassis rufa, from West 
 
 Fig. o. Murex ten-iispina. AP 1 ?*,, f 
 
 of shell for cameo engraving ; 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 47 
 
 with it are classed the " Tun " (Dolium) and the great 
 "Triton" (Triton tritonis), such as the sea-gods 
 of mythology are represented blowing into by way 
 of trumpet, and which are used by the Polynesian 
 Islanders to this day instead of horns. 
 
 5. The Conidce, whose type, the " Cone-shell " (Fig. 
 n), is at once distinctive and handsome, but which in 
 the living state is covered by a dull yellowish-brown 
 periostracum that has to be carefully removed before 
 the full beauties of the shell are displayed. 
 
 6. The Volutidce, embracing the Volutes and 
 "Boat-shells" (Cymba). 
 
 7. The Cyprceida, or Cowries (Fig. 12), which owe 
 their high polish to the size of the shell- secreting 
 organ (mantle), whose edges meet over the back of 
 the shell, concealing it within its folds. With 
 these is classed the " China-shell " (Ovuluni). 
 
 The second group, or Holostomata, is divided 
 into nineteen families, beginning with 
 
 1. The Naticida, whose type, the genus Natica, Fig< 1 . 1 - 7 . 
 is well known to all shell-collectors through the Vl 
 common Natica monilifera of our coasts. 
 
 2. The Cancellariadiz, in which the shells 
 are cancellated or cross-barred by a double 
 series of lines running, one set with the whorls, 
 and the other across them. 
 
 3. The Pyramidellida, which are high- 
 spired, elongated, and slender shells, with the 
 exception of the genus Stylina, which lives 
 attached to the spines of sea-urchins or buried 
 
 in living star-fishes and corals. p- ^ ^Cytn 
 
 4. The Solaridtfy or "Staircase-shells," ' oriiscus. 
 whose umbilicus is so wide that, as you look down it, the pro- 
 jecting edges of the whorls appear like a winding staircase. It 
 is a very short-spired shell. 
 
 5. The Scalarida, " Wentle-traps " or "Ladder-shells," 
 which may be readily recognised from their white and lustrous 
 appearance and the strong rib-like markings of the periodic 
 mouths that encircle the whorls. 
 
 6. The Cerithiadce, or "Horn-shells," which are very high- 
 spired, and whose columella and anterior canal are produced in 
 the form of an impudent little tail, the effect of which, however, 
 in the genus Aporrhais, or " Spout-shells," is taken away by the 
 expanded and thickened lip. 
 
48 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 7. In the next family, the Turritellidte, or " Tower-shells," the 
 type Turritella is spiral ; but in the allied form Vermctus, though 
 the spire begins in the natural manner, it goes off into a twisted 
 tube resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew. The mouth 
 in this family is often nearly round. 
 
 8. The Melaniada, and 9, The Paludinidce, are fresh-water 
 shells. The former are turreted, and the latter conical or 
 globular. Both are furnished with opercula, but the mouth in 
 the first is more or less oval and frequently notched in front, 
 while in the latter it is rounded and entire. 
 
 10. The lAtorinida t or Periwinkles, need no word from us. 
 
 11. The Calyptraida comprise the "Bonnet-limpet," or 
 Pikopsis, and " Cup-and-saucer-limpets " (Calyptrtzd). They 
 may be described briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left. 
 The genus Phorus, however, is spiral, and resembles a Trochus. 
 They have been called " Carriers " from their strange habit of 
 building any stray fragments of shell or stone into their house, 
 thus rendering themselves almost indistinguishable from the 
 ground on which they crawl. 
 
 12. The Turbinida, or " Top -shells," are next in order, and 
 of these the great Turbo marmoreus is a well-known example, 
 being prepared as an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece 
 by removing the external layer of the shell in order to display 
 the brilliant pearly nacre below. These mollusca close their 
 mouths with a horny operculum, coated on its exterior by a thick 
 layer of porcelain-like shelly matter. With them are classed 
 the familia-r 7'roehus and other closely allied genera. 
 
 13. The Haliotidce offer in the representative genus Haliotis, 
 or the "Ear-shell," another familiar mantelpiece ornament. 
 
 14. The Tanthinidce, or "Violet-snails," that float about in 
 mid- Atlantic upon the gulf-weed, and at certain seasons secrete 
 a curious float or raft, to which their eggs are attached, are next 
 in order, and are followed by 
 
 15. The Fissurellidcz, or "Key-hole " and "Notched limpets," 
 whose name sufficiently describes them. To these succeed 
 
 1 6. The NeritidcB, an unmistakable group of globular shells, 
 having next to no spire and a very glossy exterior, generally 
 ornamented with a great variety of spots and bands. 
 
 1 7. The Patellidce, or true Limpets, are well known to every 
 sea-side visitor ; large species, as much as two inches across, are 
 to be found on the coast of Devon, but these are pigmies com- 
 pared with a South American variety which attains a foot in 
 diameter 
 
 1 8. The Dcntal'iadcc, represented by the genus Dentalinm, or 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 49 
 
 'Tooth-shell," are simply slightly curved tubes, open at both 
 ends and tapering from the mouth downwards, and cannot be 
 mistaken. 
 
 19. Lastly, we have the Chitonidts, whose single genus Chiton 
 possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being com- 
 posed of eight plates overlapping each other, and in appearance 
 reminding one of the wood-louse. This animal is not only like 
 the limpet in form but also in habits, being found adhering to 
 the rocks and stones at low-water. 
 
 Order II. PULMONIFERA. Contains the air-breathing 
 Gasteropods, and to it consequently belong all the terrestrial 
 mollusca, though some few aquatic genera are also included. 
 The members of this order have an air-chamber instead of gills, 
 and are divided into two groups, (a) those without an operculum, 
 and (b) those having an operculum. Foremost in the first group 
 stands the great family 
 
 I. Heliddce, named after 
 its chief representative, the 
 genus Helix. It also includes 
 the " Glass-shell "( Vitrina], 
 the "Amber-shell (Sucdnea), 
 and such genera as Buliimis, 
 Achatina, Pupa, Clausilia 
 (Fig. 13), etc., which differ 
 from the typical Helix in ap- 
 pearance, possessing as they 
 do comparatively high spires. 
 2. TheZ/;;z#czYfe,or "slugs," 
 follow next; of these only 
 one, the genus Testacella, has 
 an external shell stuck on the end of its tail ; the rest have 
 either a more or less imperfect shell concealed underneath the 
 mantle, or else none at all. 
 
 3. The Oncidiadce are slug-like, and devoid of shell. 
 
 4. The Limnceidce embrace the " Pond-snails," chief of whom 
 is the well-known, high-spired Limntea stagnalis. Other shells 
 of this family associated with Limnaa are, however, very 
 different in shape ; for instance, Physa has its whorls turning to 
 the left instead of to the right ; Ancylus (Fig. 24), or the fresh- 
 water limpet, is of course limpet-like ; while Planorbis, or the 
 " Coil-shell," is wound like a watch-spring. 
 
 5. The Auriculida includes both spiral shells, such as Auricula 
 and Charychium, and a limpet-like one Siphonaria* 
 
 At the head of group b stands I, Cydostomida. Cydostoma 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 13. Clausilia biplicata. 
 
50 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 tlegans is a common shell on our chalk-downs, and well illus- 
 trates its family, in which the mouth is nearly circular. Foreign 
 examples of this genus are much esteemed by collectors. The 
 other two families are, (2) Helicinida and (3) Aciadidcc. 
 
 Order III. OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. These animals carry 
 their gills exposed on the back and sides, towards the rear of 
 the body. Only a few have any shell. I. The Tornatellidcc^ 
 which have a stout little spiral shell. 2. The 
 Bullida, in which the spire is concealed (Fig. 
 26). 3. The Aplysiada, where the shell is flat 
 and oblong or triangular in shape. The re- 
 maining families are slug-like and shell-less. 
 
 Order IV. NUCLEOBRANCHIATA. Derives 
 its name from the fact that the animals consti- 
 tuting it have their respiratory and digestive 
 organs in a sort of nucleus on the posterior 
 part of the back, and covered by a minute 
 Fig. ^i^Bulla shell- As they are pelagic, the shells are not 
 ampulla. readily to be obtained. They are divided into 
 two families, Firolida and Atlantidce. 
 
 CLASS IIL PTEROPODA. Like the last, these pretty 
 little mollusca are ocean-swimmers. The members of one 
 division of them, to which the Cleodora belongs, is furnished 
 with iridescent external shells. 
 
 CLASS IV. The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Plate- 
 gilled), or CONCHIFERA (Shell-bearing), includes the mollusca 
 commonly known as " bivalves," the animal being snugly hidden 
 between two more or less closely fitting shelly valves. The oys- 
 ters, cockles, etc, are examples of this class. The two valves are 
 fastened together near their points, or beaks (technically called 
 umbones), by a tough elastic ligament, sometimes supplemented 
 by an internal cartilage. If this be severed and the valves parted, 
 it will be found that in most cases they are further articulated by 
 projecting ridges or points called the teeth, which, when the 
 valves are together, interlock and form a hinge ; the margin of 
 the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is termed 
 the hinge-line. A bivalve is said to be equivalve when the two 
 shells composing it are of the same size, ineqnivalve when they 
 are not. If the umbones are in the middle, the shell is equila- 
 terat (Fig. 15) ; but ineqtiilateral when they are nearer one side 
 than the other (Fig. 16). If the shell be an oyster or a scallop, 
 you will find on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 centre ; this is the point to which 
 the muscles that close the valves 
 and hold them so tightly together 
 are attached. In the majority of 
 bivalves, however, there are two 
 such muscular impressions, or scars, 
 one on either side of each valve 
 of the shell. The former group 
 on this account are often called 
 Monomyaria (having one shell- 
 muscle), and the latter Dimyaria 
 (having two shell-muscles). In the 
 last named the two muscular im- 
 pressions are united by a fine groove 
 (or pallial-line), which in some runs parallel to the margin of 
 the shell (Fig. 15), whilst in others it makes a bend in (pallial- 
 sinus) on one side of the valve towards the centre (Fig. 16). 
 In Monomyaria it will be found running parallel to the margin 
 of the shell. It marks the line of attachment of the mantle or 
 shell-secreting organ 
 of the animal to the 
 shell which grows by 
 the addition of fresh 
 matter along its edges, 
 so that the concentric 
 curved markings so 
 often seen on the 
 exterior correspond 
 in their origin with 
 theperiodic mouths of 
 the Gasteropods. The 
 bivalves are all 
 aquatic, and many 
 bury themselves in 
 
 the sand or mud by Ven us plicata. 
 
 means of a fleshy, 
 
 muscular foot. These are furnished with two siphons, or fleshy 
 tubes, sometimes united, sometimes separate, through which 
 they respire, drawing the water in through one and expelling it 
 by the other. Those kinds whose habit it is to bury themselves 
 below the surface of the mud or sand are furnished with long 
 retractile siphons, and to admit of their withdrawal into the 
 shell, the mantle is at this point attached farther back, giving 
 rise to the pallial-sinus above described ; this sinus is deeper as 
 
52 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 the siphons are proportionately longer, and in many cases, too, 
 the valves do not meet at this point when the shell is closed. 
 
 Attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging 
 your bivalves, as on them their classification depends, the class 
 being divided into 
 
 a. ASIPHONIDA (Stphonless). 
 
 b. SIPHONIDA Intcgro : $allialia (with Siphons). Pallial-line 
 entire. 
 
 c. SIPHONIDA Sinu-pallialia (with Siphons). Sinus in pallial- 
 line. 
 
 DIVISION a. ASIPHONIDA is next subdivided into 
 
 1. The Ostreidfc, or oysters, which are deservedly a distinct 
 family in themselves. 
 
 2. The AnomiadcE, comprising the multiform and curiously 
 constructed Anemia, with the "Window-shells" (Placiina], 
 
 3. The Pectinidce, taking its name from the genus Pecten, or 
 " Scallop-shells," of which one kind (P. maximus) is frequently 
 to be seen at the fishmongers' shops. The " Thorney oysters " 
 (Spondylus) take rank here, and are highly esteemed by col- 
 lectors, one specimen indeed having been valued at ^25 ! 
 
 4. The Aviculidcc, or "Wing- shells," among which are num- 
 bered the "Pearl-oyster" of commerce (Meleagrina mar- 
 gar it if era). The strange T-shaped " Hammer oyster " belongs 
 to this family, as does also the Pinna. The Pinnas, like the 
 
 mussels and some 
 other bivalves, 
 moor themselves 
 to rocks by means 
 of a number of 
 
 Fig.,,. 
 
 mollusc, and termed the byssits, which in this genus is finer, 
 more silky, than in any other, and has been woven into articles 
 of dress. 
 
 5. The Mytilida, or mussels, including the Lithodomus^ or 
 "Date-shell," which bores into corals and even hard limestone 
 rocks. 
 
 6. The Arcada, or "Noah's-ark-shells," characterized by 
 their long straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth 
 (Fig. 17). The " Nut-shell" (Nitaila) belongs to this family. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 7 The Trigoniadce, whose single 
 living genus, the handsome Trigonia 
 (Fig. 1 8), is confined to the Australian 
 coast-line, whereas in times now long 
 past they had a world-wide distribu- 
 tion. 
 
 8. The Unionidce, comprising the 
 fresh-water mussels. 
 
 DIVISION b. SIPHONIDA Integra- 
 pallialia. 
 
 1. The Chamidtz, represented by 
 
 the reef-dwelling Chama. F\s.i&.Trigoniamargaritacea. 
 
 2. The Tridacnidce, whose sole genus Tridacna contains the 
 largest specimen of the whole class of bivalves, the shells some- 
 times measuring t\vo feet and more across. 
 
 3. The Cardiadfe, or cockles. 
 
 4. The Ludnida, in which the 
 valves are nearly circular, and as a 
 rule not very attractive in appear- 
 ance, though the "Basket-shell" 
 (Corbis) has an elegantly sculptured 
 exterior. 
 
 5. The Cycladidce, whose typical 
 genus Cyclas, with its round form 
 and thin horny shell, is to be found 
 in most of our ponds and streams. 
 
 6. The Astartid<z, a family of 
 shells having very strongly de- 
 veloped teeth, and the surface of 
 
 whose valves is often concentrically Fig> ig> H inge of Cardlta 
 ribbed. sinnata. 
 
 7. The Cyprinida, which have very solid oval or elongated 
 shells and conspicuous teeth (Fig. 19). The "Heart-cockle" 
 (Tsocardia) belongs to this family. 
 
 DIVISION c. SIPHONIDA Sinn-palHalia. 
 I. The Venerida. The hard, solid shells of this family are for 
 elegance of form 
 and beauty of colour 
 amongst the most 
 attractive a collec- 
 tor can posses?. 
 Their shells are 
 more or less oval 
 and have three teeth 
 in each valve (Fig. 20) 
 
 Fig. 20. Hinge of Cytherea crycina. 
 
54 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 2. The Mactrida are somewhat triangular in shape, and 
 may be at once recognised by the 
 pit for the hinge-ligament, which 
 also assumes that form, as seen in 
 the accompanying figure of Lntraria 
 pi. 21. 
 
 21). 
 
 3. The Tellinida comprise some of the most delicately tinted, 
 both externally and internally, of all shells. In some, coloured 
 bands radiate from the umbones, and well bear out the fanciful 
 name of "Sunset shells" bestowed upon them. Their valves 
 are generally much compressed. 
 
 4. The Solenidcc, or " Razor- shells," rank next, 
 and are readily recognised by the extreme length of 
 the valves in proportion to their width, and also by 
 their gaping at both ends. 
 
 J. The Myaddce, or " Gapers," have the siphonal 
 s wide apart (in the genus Mya botli ends 
 gape), and are further characterized by the triangular 
 process for the cartilage, which projects into the 
 interior of the shell. One valve (the left) is gene- 
 rally smaller than the other. 
 
 6. The Anatinidcc have thin, often inequivalve 
 pearly shells. The genus Pandora is the form most 
 frequently met with in collections. 
 
 7. The Gastrochcenidce embraces two genera (Gas- 
 trachoma and Saxicava} of boring mollusca, which 
 perforate shells and rocks, and also the remarkable 
 tabe-like "Watering-pot-shell" (Aspergilhtm] which 
 is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all. 
 
 8. The Pholadidce concludes the list of bivalves, 
 and comprises the common rock-boring Pholas 
 (Fig. 22) of our coasts and the wood-boring ship- 
 ivorm "Teredo" (Fig. 23). 
 
 Although the Brachiopoda, or " Lamp-shells," are 
 not true mollusca, they are not very far removed from 
 them, and are so often to be found in cabinets that 
 it will not do to pass them over, especially since in 
 past times they were very abundant, an enormous 
 number occurring in the fossil state. Only eight 
 genera are now living. Shells belonging to this 
 class are readily recognised by the fact of one valve 
 being larger than the other, and possessing a distinct 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 55 
 
 beak, the apex of which is perforated. The Terebratulida are 
 the most extensive family of this class. 
 
 Fi.r. 2T. Teredo navalis. 
 
 HOW TO ARRANGE THE SHELLS IN THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 When you have arranged your specimens in the order above 
 indicated, proceed to place them in your boxes, arranging and 
 labelling them after the manner shown in the accompanying 
 diagram. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Order. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Family 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Generic 
 
 Name. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Family 
 
 Name. 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 
 
 Generic 
 
 
 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 
 Species. 
 
 Generic 
 
 Name. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Generic 
 Name. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Generic 
 Name. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
56 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 On the lid, or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of 
 your columns of trays, write the class and order, with its proper 
 number (I., II., etc., as the case may be) ; then at the top of 
 your left-hand column place the family and its number, and 
 under it the name of the first genus. The species (one in each 
 tray) come next, then the name of the next genus following it, 
 succeeded by its species, and so on. 
 
 The object of the young collector should be to obtain examples 
 of as many genera as possible, since a collection in which a great 
 number of genera are represented is far more useful and instruc- 
 tive than one composed of a great many species referable to but 
 few genera. He will also find it very convenient to separate 
 the British Shells from his general collection, sub-dividing them 
 for convenience into "Land and Fresh- water," and "Marine." 
 Of these he should endeavour to get every species, and even 
 variety, making the thing as complete as possible. Or a separ- 
 ate collection may be made of all those kinds which he can find 
 within a certain distance of his own home. A collection of this 
 sort possesses, in addition to its scientific worth, an interest of 
 tis own, owing to the local associations that invariably connect 
 themselves with it. 
 
 TABLE OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA, 
 SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SPECIES 
 BELONGING TO EACH GENUS AND THEIR DISTRI- 
 BUTION. 
 
 CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 ORDER I. Dibranchiata. 
 
 Section A. Octopoda. 
 
 No. of 
 Family. Genus. Species. Distribution. 
 
 1. Argonauta 4 Tropical seas. 
 
 2. Octopus 46 Rocky coasts in temperate and tropical regions. 
 
 Section B. Decapoda. 
 
 3. Loligo 19 Cosmopolitan. 
 
 4. Sepia 30 On all coasts. 
 
 5. Spirula 3 All the warmer seas. 
 
 ORDER II. Tetrabranchiata. 
 
 6. Nautilus 3 or 4 Chinese Seas, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 57 
 
 CLASS II. GASTEROPODA. 
 ORDER I. Prosobranchiata. 
 
 Division a, Siphonostomata. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Family. Genus. Species. 
 i. Strombus 60 
 
 Pteroceras 12 
 8. Murex 180 
 
 Columbella 200 
 Mitra 350 
 
 Fusus 
 
 3. Buccinum 
 Eburna 
 Nassa 
 Purpura 
 Harpa 
 Oliva 
 
 4. Cassis 
 Dolium 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 210 
 
 140 
 
 9 
 117 
 
 34 
 15 
 
 Triton 
 
 100 
 
 Ranella 50 
 
 Pyrula 40 
 
 5. Conus 300 
 Pleurotoma 500 
 
 6. Voluta 100 
 Cymba 10 
 Marginella 90 
 
 7. Cypraea 150 
 Ovulum 36 
 
 Natica 
 
 90 
 
 Sigaretus 26 
 
 9. Cancellaria 70 
 
 10. Pyramidella 1 1 
 
 Odostomia 35 
 
 Chemnitzia 70 
 
 Eulima 26 
 
 IT. Solarium 25 
 
 12. Scalaria 100 
 
 13. Cerithium 100 
 Potamides 41 
 Aporrhais 3 
 
 Distribution. 
 W. Indies, Mediterranean, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, 
 
 Pacific low water to 10 fathoms. 
 India, China. 
 On all coasts. 
 
 Sub-tropical regions, in shallow water on stones. 
 Tropical regions, from low water to 80 fathoms. 
 On all coasts. 
 
 Northern seas, from low water to 140 fathoms. 
 Red Sea, India, Australia, China, Cape of Good Hope. 
 World-widelow water to 50 fathoms. 
 World-wide low water to 25 fathoms. 
 Tropical deep water, sand, muddy bottoms. 
 Sub-tropical low water to 25 fathoms. 
 Tropical regions, in shallo\y water. 
 Mediterranean, India, China, W. Indies, Brazil, New 
 
 Guinea, Pacific. 
 Temperate and sub-tropical regions, from low water to 
 
 50 fathoms. 
 
 Tropical regions, on rocks and coral-reefs. 
 Sub-tropical regions, in 17 to 35 fathoms. 
 Equatorial seas shallow water to 50 fathoms. 
 Almost world-wide low water to 100 fathoms. 
 On tropical coasts, from the shore to 100 fathoms. 
 West Coast of Africa, Lisbon, Straits of Gibraltar, 
 Mostly tropical. 
 
 Warmer seas of the globe, on rocks and coral-reefs. 
 Britain, Mediterranean, W. Indies, China, W. America. 
 
 Division b. Holostomata. 
 
 Arctic to tropical regions, on sandy and gravelly bot- 
 toms, from low water to 90 feet. 
 
 E. and W. Indies, China, Peru. 
 
 W. Indies, China, S. America, E. Archipelago low 
 water to 40 fathoms. 
 
 W. Indies, Mauritius, Australia, in sandy bays and 
 on shallow mud-banks. 
 
 Britain, Mediterranean, and Madeira low water to 
 50 fathoms. 
 
 World-widelow water to 100 fathoms. 
 
 Cuba, Norway, Britain, India, Mediterranean, Aus- 
 tralia 5 to 90 fathoms 
 
 Sub-tropical and tropical widely distributed. 
 
 World-wide low water to 100 fathoms. 
 
 World-wide. 
 
 Africa and India, in mud of large rivers. 
 
 Labrador, Norway, Britain, Mediterranean 20 to 100 
 fathoms. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 No. of 
 Family. Genus. Species. Distribution. 
 
 14. Turritella 50 World-wide low water to 100 fathoms. 
 Vermetus 31 Portugal, Mediterranean, Africa, India. 
 
 15. Melania 160 S. Europe, India, Philippines and Pacific Islands in 
 
 rivers. 
 Melanopsis 20 Spain, Australia, Asia Minor, New Zealand in rivers. 
 
 16. Paludina 60 Northern Hemispheres, Africa, India, China, etc. in 
 
 lakes and rivers. 
 
 Ampullaria 50 S. America, W. Indies, Africa, India in lakes and 
 rivers. 
 
 17. Litorina 40 On all shores. 
 
 Rissoa 70 World-wide in shallow water on sea-weed to 100 
 
 fathoms. 
 
 18. Calyptrea 50 World-wideadherent to rocks, etc. 
 
 Crepidula 40 West Indies, Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 Australia. 
 Pileopsis 7 Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, E. and W. Indies, 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Hipponyx 70 W. Indies, Galapagos, Philippines, Australia. 
 Phorus 9 W. Indies, India, Javan and Chinese Seas in deep 
 
 water. 
 
 19. Turbo 60 On the shores of Tropical seas. 
 Phasinella 30 Australia, Pacific, W. Indies, Mediterranean. 
 Imperator 20 S. Africa, India, etc. 
 
 Trochus 150 World-wide from low water to too fathoms. 
 Rotella 18 India, Philippines, China, New Zealand. 
 
 Stomatella 20 Cape, India, Australia, etc. 
 ao. Haliotis 75 Britain, Canaries, India, Australia, California on rocks 
 
 at low water. 
 Stomatia 12 Java, Philippines, Pacific, etc. under stones at low 
 
 water. 
 
 21. lanthina 6 Gregarious in the open seas of the Atlantic and Pacific. 
 
 22. Fissurella 120 World- wide on rocks from low water to 5 fathoms. 
 Emarginula 26 Britain, Norway, Philippines, Australia from low 
 
 water to 90 fathoms. 
 
 Nerita t 116 On the shores of all warm seas. 
 
 Neritina no In fresh waters of all warm countries, and in Britain. 
 Navicella 24 India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Australia, Pacific in 
 
 fresh water, attached to stones. 
 
 24. Patella 100 On all coasts -adhering to stones and rocks. 
 
 25. Dentalium 30 World-wide buried in mud. 
 
 26. Chiton 200 World-wide low water to 100 fathoms. 
 
 23. 
 
 Helix 
 
 Succinea 
 
 Bulimus 
 
 Achatina 
 
 Pupa 
 
 Clausilia 
 
 i, 600 
 68 
 650 
 1 20 
 236 
 400 
 
 ORDER II. Pulmonifera. 
 Division a. Inoperculata. 
 
 > World-wide on land in moist places. 
 
 World-wide burrowing at roots and bulbs. 
 World-wide amongst wet moss. 
 Europe and Asia in moist spots. 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 59 
 
 Family 
 28. 
 
 . Genus. 
 I/imax 
 Testacella 
 
 Speci< 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 29. 
 
 Oncidium 
 
 16 
 
 30- 
 
 Limnaea 
 
 So 
 
 
 Physa 
 
 20 
 
 
 Ancylus 
 Planorbis 
 
 14 
 145 
 
 31- 
 
 Auricula 
 Siphonaria 
 
 50 
 30 
 
 No. of 
 
 ^Distribution. 
 
 Europe and Canaries on land in damp localities. 
 
 S. Europe, Canaries, and Britain burrowing in gar- 
 dens. 
 
 Britain, Red Sea, Mediterranean -on rocks on the 
 seashore. 
 
 Europe, Madeira, India, China, N. America in ponds, 
 rivers, lakes, etc. 
 
 America, Europe, S. Africa, India, Philippines in 
 ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. 
 
 Europe, N. and S. America in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. 
 
 Europe, N. America, India, China in ponds, rivers, 
 lakes, etc. 
 
 Tropical in salt marshes. 
 
 World-wide between high and low water. 
 
 Division b. Operculata. 
 
 32. Cyclostoma 80 S. Europe, Africa "} 
 Cyclophorus 100 India, Philippines > on land. 
 Pupina 80 Philippines, New Guinea j 
 
 33. Helicina 150 W. Indies, Philippines, Central America, Islands in 
 
 Pacific on land. 
 
 34. Acicula 5 Britain, Europe, Vanicoro on leaves and at roots of 
 
 grass. 
 Geomelania 21 Jamaica on land. 
 
 35. Tornatella 
 
 36. Bulla 
 
 37. Aplysia 
 
 38. Pleurobran- 
 
 chus 
 
 ORDER III. Opisthobranchiata. 
 
 Division a. Tectibranchiata. 
 
 1 6 Red Sea, Philippines, Japan in deep water. 
 50 Widely distributed low water to 30 fathoms. 
 40 Britain, Norway, W. Indies low water to 15 fathoms., 
 on seaweed. 
 
 20 Britain, Norway, Mediterranean. 
 
 39-44- 
 
 Division b. Nudibranchiata. 
 All shell-less. 
 
 ORDER IV. -Nucleobranclnata. 
 
 45. Firola 8 Atlantic, Mediterranean. 
 Carinaria 5 Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 
 
 46. Atlanta 15 Warmer parts of the Atlantic. 
 
Co 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 Family 
 
 CLASS III. PTEROPODA. 
 
 Division a. Thecosomata. 
 
 No. of 
 Genus. Species. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 *' Cleodora \l } Atlantic > Mediterranean, Indian Ocean. 
 
 Limacina 
 
 2 Arctic and Antarctic Seas. 
 
 3. Clio, etc. 
 
 Division b. Gymnosomata. 
 Shell-less. 
 
 CLASS IV. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 Division a. Asiphonida. 
 
 1. Ostrea 100 World-wide in estuaries, attached. 
 
 2. Anomia 20 India, Australia, China, Ceylon attached to shells 
 
 from low water to 100 fathoms. 
 Placuna 4 Scinde, North Australia, China in brackish water. 
 
 3. Pecten 176 World-wide from 3 to 40 fathoms. 
 
 Lima 20 Norway, Britain, India, Australia from i to 150 
 
 fathoms. 
 Spondylus 70 Tropical seas attached to coral-reefs. 
 
 4. Avicula 25 Britain, Mediterranean, India 25 fathoms. 
 Perna 18 In tropical seas attached. 
 
 Pinna 30 United States, Britain, Mediterranean, Australia, 
 
 Pacific low water to 60 fathoms. 
 
 5. Mytilus 70 World-wide between high and low water mark. 
 Modiola 70 British and tropical seas low water to 100 fathoms. 
 
 6. Area 400 In warm seas from low water to 200 fathoms. 
 Pectunculus 58 West Indies, Britain, New Zealand from 8 to 60 
 
 fathoms. 
 Nucula 70 Norway, Japan from 5 to 100 fathoms. 
 
 7. Trigonia 3 Off the coast of Australia. 
 
 8. Unio 420 World-wide in fresh waters. 
 
 Anodon 100 North America, Europe, Siberia in fresh waters, 
 
 Division b. Siphon ida . 
 
 In tropical seas on coral reefs. 
 Indian and Pacific Oceans, Chinese Seas. 
 World-wide from the shore line to 140 fathoms. 
 Tropical and temperate seas sandy and muddy bot- 
 toms from low water to 200 fathoms. 
 Norway, New Zealand, California low water to 200 
 
 fathoms. 
 
 Temperate regions in all fresh waters. 
 From the Nile and other rivers to China and in man- 
 grove swamps. 
 
 (4. Astarte 20 Mostly Arctic from 30 to 112 fathoms. 
 
 Crassatella 34 Australia, Philippines, Africa, etc. 
 
 9. Chama 
 
 to. Tridacna 
 
 ii. Cardium 
 
 "2. Lucina 
 
 Kertia 
 
 13. Cyclas 
 Cyrena 
 
 So 
 7 
 
 200 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 I 3 
 
HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 6l 
 
 No, ot 
 
 t-amily. Genus. Species. 
 15. Cyprina i 
 
 21. 
 
 23. 
 
 40 
 5 
 
 54 
 176 
 113 
 100 
 
 Circe 
 Isocardia 
 Cardita 
 16. Venus 
 Cytherea 
 Artemis 
 
 Tapes 
 
 Venerupis 20 
 
 17. Mactra 125 
 Lutraria 18 
 
 18. Tellina 300 
 Psammobia 50 
 
 Sanguinolaria 20 
 
 Semele 60 
 
 Donax 68 
 
 19. Solen 33 
 Solecurtus 25 
 
 20. Mya 
 Corbula 
 
 Anatina 50 
 
 Thracia 17 
 
 Pandora 18 
 
 22. Gastrochaena 10 
 Saxicava 
 
 Aspergillum 21 
 
 Pholas 32 
 
 Xylophaga 2 
 
 Teredo 14 
 
 Distribution. 
 From Britain to the most northerly point yet reached 
 
 from 5 to 80 fathoms. 
 
 Britain, Australia, India, Red Sea 8 to 50 fathoms. 
 Mediterranean, China, Japan burrowing in sand. 
 Tropical seas from shallow water to 150 fathoms. 
 ") World-wide buried in sand, from low water to 100 
 ) fathoms. 
 Northern to tropical seas from low water to 100 
 
 fathoms. 
 Widely distributed burrowing in sand, from low water 
 
 to 100 fathoms. 
 
 Britain, Canaries, India, Peru in crevices of rocks. 
 World-wide burrowing in sand. 
 Widely distributed burrowing in sand. 
 In all seas from the shore line to 15 fathoms. 
 Britain, Pacific and Indian Oceans from the littoral 
 
 zone to 100 fathoms. 
 W. Indies, Australia, Peru. 
 Brazil, India, China, etc. 
 
 Norway, Baltic, Britain in sand near low water mark. 
 World- wide burrowing in sand. 
 Britain, Africa, Madeira, Mediterranean burrowing 
 
 in sand. 
 North Seas, W. Africa, Philippines, etc. river mouths 
 
 from low water to 25 fathoms. 
 United States, Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, W. 
 
 Africa, China from 15 to 80 fathoms. 
 India, W. Africa, Philippines, New Zealand. 
 Greenland to Canaries and China from 4 to 120 
 
 fathoms. 
 Spitzbergen, Panama, India from 4 to no fathoms, 
 
 burrowing in sand and mud. 
 W. Indies, Britain, Red Sea, Pacific Islands from 
 
 shore line to 30 fathoms. 
 Arctic Seas, Britain, Mediterranean, r Canaries and the 
 
 Cape in crevices and boring into limestone and rocks. 
 Red Sea, Java, New Zealand in sand. 
 Almost universal from low water to 25 fathoms. 
 Norway, Britain, S.America boring into floating wood. 
 In tropical seas from low water to 100 fathoms. 
 
62 HANDBOOK OF SHELLS. 
 
 SOME WORKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 MOLLUSCA IN GENERAL. 
 
 "A Manual of Mollusca." By Dr. S. P. Woodward. 
 
 "Tabular View of the Orders and Families of the Mollusca." 
 Published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 
 
 " Cassell's Natural History," latest edition, article on the 
 Mollusca. By Dr. Henry Woodward. 
 
 BRITISH MOLLUSCA. 
 
 "A History of British Mollusca and their Shells." By 
 Professor E. Forbes and S. Hanley. 
 
 " British Conchology." By J. G. Jeffreys. 
 
 " Common Shells of the Sea-shore." By Rev. J. G. Wood. 
 
 BRITISH LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA. 
 
 *' Land and Fresh- water Mollusca indigenous to the British 
 Isles." By Lovell Reeve. 
 
 "A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Fresh-water 
 Mollusca of Great Britain." By Ralph Tate. 
 
FOSSILS. 
 
 BY 
 
 B. B. WOODWARD. 
 
FOSSI LS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 GEOLOGY is of all "hobbies" the one best calculated not only 
 to develop the physical powers, but also, if pursued with any 
 degree of earnestness, to train and extend the mental faculties. 
 To study geology properly, the rocks themselves must be visited 
 and carefully observed, their appearance noted, and the fossils, 
 if any, which they contain, collected. This necessitates many 
 a pleasant walk into the open country to quarries and cut- 
 tings, or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which may be 
 worth investigating, whilst botany, entomology, or any other 
 congenial pursuit, may be followed on the way ; for natural 
 science in its different branches has so many points of connec- 
 tion that it is impossible to study one of them without increas- 
 ing one's interest in, and knowledge of, all the others. Again, 
 in arranging, classifying, and studying at home the specimens 
 collected on these expeditions, many an hour may be usefully 
 spent ; habits of exactitude and neatness are acquired ; whilst 
 in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the way in 
 which particular rocks were formed, and by what agencies 
 brought to their present position, the reasoning faculties are 
 exercised and developed. 
 
 The existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the 
 earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the 
 world's history ; the Egyptian priests were aware of the exis- 
 tence of marine shells in the hills bounding the Nile valley, 
 and from this fact Herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea 
 formerly covered the spot. The bones of the larger mammalia 
 (rhinoceros, elephant, etc.), were, however, thought by the 
 ancients to be human, and hence arose the idea of a race of 
 giants having existed at some previous period of the earth's 
 
 65 E 
 
66 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 history. It was not, however, until near the end of the last 
 century that geology began to be recognised as a science, and 
 the true bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they 
 were found was conclusively proved. William Smith in Eng- 
 land, and Werner in Germany, while working independently of 
 each other, both came to the same conclusion, viz. that the nu- 
 merous strata invariably rested on each other in a certain order, 
 and that this order was never inverted, 1 whilst William Smith in 
 addition proved that each group of rocks, and even each stratum, 
 had its own peculiar set of fossils, by which it might be recognised 
 wherever it occurred. From that time forth the study of the 
 various fossils began to be considered as a separate science 
 apart from that of the beds containing them ; this is now known 
 as Paleontology, the study of the composition of the rocks them- 
 selves being termed Petrology. 
 
 At this moment, however, we are less concerned with the 
 study of rocks and fossils than with the best and simplest way 
 of collecting, preparing, and arranging specimens as a means to 
 this study. 
 
 THE CABINET. 
 
 With regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are 
 able to collect, the same advice holds good as that given 
 in a previous Manual (The Young Collector's Shell Book), 
 namely, the simpler the cabinet the better, though of course 
 card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong enough to stand 
 the weight of the specimens, and hence it is advisable to have 
 wooden ones. The boxes in which Oakey's Wellington Knife- 
 powder is sent out (they measure about 15 in. X 10 in. X 3 
 in.) are on the whole the most convenient size, and are easily 
 obtainable at any oil and colourman's. These, when painted 
 over with Berlin Black, after first removing the external labels, 
 look very neat. The inside may be papered according to taste, 
 when the trays may be arranged in order ready for the reception 
 of your specimens. 2 
 
 IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED WHEN COLLECTING. 
 
 A certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geo- 
 logical specimens. It is necessary to break open the hard 
 
 1 Except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been displaced 
 by movements of the earth's crust. 
 
 2 For description of trays, see " The Young Collector's Shell-Book." 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 67 
 
 rocks in order to get at the fossils within, and for this purpose 
 a strong hammer is required. One end of the hammer-head 
 should be square, tapering, slightly, to a flat striking face ; 
 for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less likely to 
 break off; the other side should be produced into a rather long, 
 flat, and slightly curved pick, terminating in a chisel-edge at 
 right-angles to the handle ; the total length of the head should 
 not exceed g\ in., the striking face being 3 in. from the centre 
 of the eye in which the handle (18 in. long) is inserted ; the 
 latter should be made of the toughest ash, American hickory, 
 or "green-heart," and fixed in with an iron wedge ("roughed" 
 to prevent its coming out again), taking care that in. of the 
 handle protrudes on the other side. It is the usual practice, 
 but a mistaken one, to cut it off level with the hammer head, 
 which is likely, under these circumstances, to come off after it 
 has been in use for a time, whereas, by leaving a small portion 
 of the wedged-out end projecting, this mischance is avoided, and 
 your weapon will not fail even when used to drag its owner up 
 a stiff ascent. It is better to shape and fix the handle yourself, 
 us by this means you can not only cut it to fit your hand, but may 
 rely upon its being properly fastened in. By filing grooves 
 around it an inch apart, it will serve to take rough measure- 
 ments with, while a firm grasp may be insured by bees- waxing 
 instead of polishing it. Another and much smaller hammer 
 will also be necessary, chiefly for home use, to trim the speci- 
 mens before putting them away in the cabinet ; the head of this 
 hammer must not be more than 2^ inches long, the handle 
 springing from the centre ; one end has a flat striking face, 
 square in section, the other, instead of being formed like a pick, 
 is wedge-shaped, the sharp edge being at right-angles to the 
 handle. Next to a hammer, a cold chisel is indispensable to 
 the collector, since without its aid many a choice specimen 
 embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break 
 with the hammer would have to be left behind. There is one 
 thing, however, to beware of in using this tool it has sometimes 
 to be hit with great force, and should you chance to miss it and 
 strike your hand instead, the result may be more serious than 
 even a severe bruise. To prevent this, procure from the shoe- 
 maker or saddler a piece of thick leather, about 4 inches in 
 diameter, having a hole cut in the centre through which to pass 
 the shank of the chisel, and, thus protected, you may wield the 
 hammer with impunity. 
 
 For digging fossils out of clay, an old, stout knife, such as 
 the worn-down stump of a carver, is handy, and in sandy beds 
 
68 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 an ordinary garden trowel is very useful, whilst in a chalk- pit a 
 small saw is sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable 
 specimen. The same may be said of an ordinary carpenter's 
 wood-chisel. For picking up small and delicate specimens, a 
 pair of forceps should be carried, whilst without a pocket lens 
 no true naturalist ever stirs abroad. An ordinary stout 
 canvas satchel, such as is commonly used by schoolboys, is the 
 best thing for carrying home your specimens ; this may be 
 made much stronger by the addition of two short strips of 
 leather stitched on the back and running, one from each ring, 
 to which the strap passing over the shoulder is fastened, down 
 to the bottom of the bag ; by leaving a small portion unstitched 
 near the bottom of each of these, wide enough for the shoulder- 
 strap to pass through, the satchel may at a moment's notice be 
 slung knapsackwise on the shoulders a method of carrying it 
 which is, as all who have tried it know, by far the most con- 
 venient when it is heavily laden or not in immediate requisition. 
 A stout leather belt may be worn in which to carry all your 
 hammers, supporting it on the side where the heavy hammer 
 hangs by a band passing over the opposite shoulder. Before 
 starting on an excursion, make a practice of seeing that you 
 have everything with you, or when the critical moment comes, 
 and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne 
 off, you may find that you are without the means necessary 
 for taking it home. For ordinary hard specimens, newspaper 
 well crumpled around them is without its equal, but some of 
 the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue paper or even 
 cotton-wool, whilst the most fragile fossils should be packed 
 in tins with bran or sawdust, the particles of which fill in all the 
 corners and press equally everywhere, a useful faculty which 
 cotton wool does not possess. When neither of these are to be 
 obtained, dry sand will answer quite as well, though it is heavier 
 to carry. 
 
 Although not absolutely necessary in the field, it is often useful 
 to have a small bottle of acid in your pocket (nitric acid diluted 
 to I- 1 2th with distilled water is the best) with which to test for 
 limestones ; a drop of acid placed on a rock will, if there be 
 any carbonate of lime in it, immediately begin to fizz. Finally, 
 every young collector should carry a note-book, and carefully 
 record in it what he sees in each pit he visits, while, if it can 
 be procured or borrowed, a geological map of the district you 
 are exploring is a great help, for with its aid and that of a good 
 compass you become practically independent of much extraneous 
 assistance. 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 69 
 
 HOW TO USE YOUR IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 We will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a 
 river, on the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose 
 to visit for the purpose of putting our apparatus into practical 
 operation. When we have reached the floor of the pit, and 
 stand looking up at the section before us, we are at first 
 rather puzzled as to what the beds, which we see before us, 
 are ; for as the pit has not been worked for some time, its 
 sides are partially overgrown with grass, and in places bits 
 and pieces of the upper beds have fallen down and form a 
 heap beneath which the lower ones lie buried. We must there- 
 fore make our way to those spots where the beds are left clear, 
 and find out, if possible, what they are. By climbing up one of 
 the heaps of fallen earth (talus] we reach the top, where, first of 
 all, under the roots of the grass and shrubs, we find the mould in 
 which these grow, and which is formed of the broken up (disinte- 
 grated] rocks forming the still higher ground above, and which 
 the rains, frosts and snows, aided afterwards by the earthworms, 
 have converted into mould. This, geologically speaking, is 
 called surface soil, and is here about two feet deep. Just below 
 it we find a layer of coarse gravel ; the pebbles of which this is 
 composed are of all sorts, sizes, and shapes, and are stained a 
 deep brown by oxide of iron. Most of them are flints, and by 
 diligent search you may find casts and impressions in these of 
 sponges, shells, spines of sea urchins, etc. Flints, whether from 
 gravel or their parent rock the chalk, are easiest broken by a 
 light smart tap of the hammer, though when it is desired to 
 shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used, 
 and the piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee, 
 for when struck with a steel hammer flints splinter in all 
 directions, and often through the very portion you most desire 
 to preserve. In one spot we find a mass of sand included in 
 the gravel ; this mass is thickest in the middle, and tapers 
 away towards each end, its total length being about fifty feet. 
 Could we see the whole mass, we should probably find it to 
 be a patch lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its 
 edges ; in other words it would be shaped like a lens "lenticu- 
 lar " as geologists term it. When we examine this mass more 
 closely, we find that the layers of sand do not run parallel with 
 the bed, but are inclined in different directions, sometimes lying 
 one way, sometimes another. This false bedding is due to the 
 sand having been thrown down in waters agitated by strong 
 currents that swept over the spot, now in one direction and now 
 
70 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 in another, scattering at one moment half the sand they had just 
 piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another. 
 In the gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked 
 arrangement, owing to the larger size of its constituents, which 
 of course required a still stronger current action to wash them 
 down. 
 
 Amongst the sand we now see some shells, and set to work to 
 dig them out very carefully, for they are exceedingly brittle. 
 The best specimens are to be obtained by throwing down masses of 
 the sandy material and searching in it ; but only the stronger and 
 finer examples will bear such usage. We next notice that these 
 shells are precisely similar to those still found with living occu- 
 pants in the river below, only they are no longer of a brownish 
 colour, but owing to the loss of the animal matter of the shell 
 have an earthy, dirty-white appearance. To carry these home 
 they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as 
 follows made on a piece of paper and placed just inside " Sand 
 
 in gravel: topmost bed pit, August 2nd, 188-." Then if 
 
 you are not able to work them out at once on reaching home, 
 you will not forget whence they came. From the appearance 
 of these sands and gravels, and the presence in them of shells 
 exactly like those in the river below, it may reasonably be in- 
 ferred that they once formed a portion of the bed of that river 
 long ago, before it had scooped out its valley to the present 
 depth. There is, however, something else in this sand-bed a 
 piece of bone protruding ; clear away the sand above it, and dig 
 back until the whole is visible. It is broken through in one or 
 two places, but otherwise is in fair condition ; remove the pieces 
 carefully one by one, and wrap them in separate pieces of paper, 
 and then proceed to search for others. These bones, which are 
 plentiful in some of our river valley gravel-beds, are the remains 
 of animals that once roamed in the forests which at that time 
 covered the country ; they were probably either drowned in 
 crossing the water, or got stuck in the mud on the banks on 
 coming down to drink. A fine collection was made at Ilford 
 by the late Sir Antonio Brady, and is now in the British 
 Museum (Natural History) at South Kensington. Besides the 
 bones of animals, you may expect to find examples of all, or 
 nearly all, the different rocks in which the river has cut its 
 valley, and samples of these may be picked out and taken 
 home. Each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of 
 paper to prevent its rubbing against others, care being taken to 
 note the locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to 
 the specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 71 
 
 against the description you have written of the bed. The gravel, 
 with its accompanying bed of sand, may be traced down, by 
 scraping away the surface, for about ten feet, when you will dis- 
 cover that it rests unevenly upon the beds below, which, instead 
 of being horizontal, slope (dip} in a N.N.E. direction, making 
 an angle of about 45 with the floor of the pit ; the gravel there- 
 fore rests successively upon the upturned ends of the lower beds, 
 and, geologically speaking, is "unconformable" to them. Now as 
 these underlying rocks were of course originally deposited in an 
 horizontal position, they must have been pushed up and the upper 
 parts worn away (denuded] before the gravel was deposited on 
 them, for the accomplishment of which process an amount of 
 time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by 
 years. 
 
 When we come to examine these lower beds, we find first a 
 stratum of stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in 
 layers : those near the outer surface have been rendered so 
 brittle by the weather, that it is necessary to make use of the pick 
 end of the hammer and dig a little way into the face of the 
 section before we come upon some which will bear removal by 
 cutting them out with a knife. Pack them in a tin with bran, 
 or, where much clay still adheres to them, wrap them in paper. 
 
 The true top of this bed is not visible, being concealed 
 beneath a heap of earth in the comer of the pit, but we can see 
 and measure about six feet of it. 
 
 The next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay 
 that splits along its layers into thin pieces or " lamina" whence 
 we may describe it as a sandy, laminated clay. On the freshly 
 split surface of one piece we see scattered a number of small 
 darker brown fragments ; an examination with a pocket lens 
 clearly shows that these are little bits of leaves and stems, with 
 here and there a more perfect specimen. These beds must 
 have been deposited in the still waters just off the main stream of 
 a large river which brought the plants floating down to this spot, 
 where they became water-logged and sunk ; so, too, if you examine 
 the shells in the bed immediately above, you will see that they are 
 very like though not the same as those which at the present day 
 love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of big rivers in warmer 
 parts of the globe ; hence we discover that at some far distant 
 period a big river, but one which had no connection with that 
 running close by, once flowed over this very spot. On tracing 
 the leaf-bed down, we come all at once, at about three feet from 
 its upper surface, upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of 
 a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks 
 
72 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 closely matted together and partially mineralized. Vegetable 
 matter in this form is known as lignite, and is one of the first 
 stages towards the formation of coal out of plant remains. Below 
 this lignite band we find our leaf-bed getting sandier and 
 sandier, and losing all trace of the plants by degrees till it becomes 
 almost pure sand. Here and there, however, it contains some 
 curiously shaped masses, which, when broken through with the 
 hammer, seem composed of nothing but the same grains of sand 
 cemented together into a hard mass. In one there is, however, a 
 curiously shaped hollow, which, upon examining it closely, you 
 will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself disappeared. 
 A drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the grains 
 of sand which in this spot become loose. A mass of sand or 
 particles of clay thus cemented together, be it by iron, lime, or 
 any other substance, is termed a "nodule" or "concretion" 
 and in this particular instance has been formed as follows : The 
 rain-water falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks 
 in and filters through the bed. Now there is always a certain 
 amount of carbonic acid in rain-water, and this acid acted on 
 the carbonate of lime of which the shell was composed, dis- 
 solving and dispersing it amongst the neighbouring grains of 
 sand where it was re-deposited, cementing them together as we 
 have seen. The bottom of this bed of sand we find to be just 
 fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles 
 to the bed, and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock, which 
 requires a smart blow of the hammer to break it, but the surface 
 of which, where it has been exposed to the weather, is much 
 crumbled (" weathered"}, and breaks readily into small pieces. 
 It is easily scratched with the point of a knife, and therefore is 
 not flint ; moreover, it fizzes strongly when touched with acid 
 hence there is a great deal of carbonate of lime in it, and we 
 know that it is limestone. 
 
 Limestones are very largely, sometimes almost entirely, made 
 up of the calcareous portions of marine creatures, such as the hard 
 parts of corals, the tests of sea-urchins, the shells of mollusca, 
 etc., welded, so to speak, into one mass by the heat, pressure, and 
 chemical changes which the bed has undergone since its depo- 
 sition at the bottom of the sea. There would be every reason, 
 therefore, one might suppose, to expect a number of fossils in 
 this bed ; but, alas ! disappointment awaits the young explorer, for 
 with the exception of chalk and a few other limestones, these 
 rocks are generally of such uniform texture that on being struck 
 with the hammer they split through fossils and all, the fractured 
 surface only too frequently showing nought save a few obscure 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 73 
 
 markings. But what we fail to accomplish in our impatience, 
 nature effects by slow degrees, and if you will turn over the 
 weathered pieces and blocks lying about, you will soon find 
 plenty of fossils sticking out all over them ; by a judicious use of 
 hammer and chisel any of these may be detached and added to 
 your stock, each being separately packed in paper and the 
 locality written on the outside. Some seventy or eighty feet is 
 all that is visible of this limestone ; the rest is unexcavated. 
 
 Before leaving the pit, it will be as well to select such rock 
 specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet, trimming them 
 to the required size on the spot, for should you, as is not unlikely, 
 spoil two or three, you can readily pick a fresh one. Having 
 secured our specimens, we will take a look at our note-book, to 
 see if we have noted all the details we require. If so, our 
 entries should run something as follows : First, we have made 
 a rough sketch of the position of the beds, carefully numbering 
 each one ; then follow our notes on the individual beds, pre- 
 ceded by numbers corresponding with those in the sketch, 
 thus : 
 
 1. Surface Soil 2 ft. 
 
 2. River Gravel, including a lenticular mass of ) /-. 
 
 3. Sand, with land and fresh-water shells and bones of animals . \ 1( 
 
 4. Stiff dark -brown clay, with estuarine shells . . 6 ft. seen. 
 
 5. Light-brown sandy clay, with leaves and stems of plants . . 3 ft. 
 
 6. Band of Lignite 2 in. 
 
 7. Same as 5, passing into j re ft 
 
 8. Pure Sand, with layers of concretions containing casts of shells ) 
 
 9. Dark-Grey Limestone, with numerous fossils ... 80 ft. seen. 
 
 Beds 4 to 9 dip at an angle of 45 to the N.N.E. 
 
 Our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological Juan 
 Fernandez, but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method 
 of dealing with various rocks and fossils when met with in the 
 field, and how they may best be collected and carried home. 
 A few additional suggestions where to look for fossils may, 
 however, be given here. To begn with, inever neglect to search 
 the fallen masses, especially their weathered surfaces, or to look 
 carefully over the heaps of quarried materials, whatever they 
 may happen to be, piled on the floor of the pit. In working at 
 the beds themselves, remember that fossils frequently occur in 
 layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the 
 period ; to find these, it is necessary to follow the beds in a 
 direction at right angles to their stratification, till you arrive at 
 the sought-for layers, or zones. 
 
 Do not be surprised, when collecting from a formation you 
 have never before studied, if the fossils are not at first apparent, 
 though many are known to be present. The eye requires a few 
 
74 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 days in which to become accustomed to its fresh surroundings, 
 and when the same spot has been carefully hunted over every 
 day for a week, it is astonishing what a quantity of fossils are 
 discernible where not one in the first instance was recognised. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE THE SPECIMENS FOR THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 The first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to 
 pick out those which require the least attention, and get them 
 out of the way. These will be your rock specimens, which, if 
 they have been trimmed properly in the pit, will not need much 
 further manipulation ; a word or two, however, as to the best 
 method of proceeding when it is desirable to reduce a specimen, 
 will not be out of place. If you wish to divide it in two, or 
 detach any considerable portion, the specimen may, while held 
 in the hand, be struck a smart blow with the hammer ; as, how- 
 ever, it not frequently happens that even with the greatest care 
 the specimen under this treatment breaks in an opposite direction 
 to that required, it is advisable to adopt a somewhat surer 
 method, namely, to procure a block of tough wood, and in the 
 centre bore a hole just large enough to receive the shank of the 
 cold chisel, and thus hold it in an upright position with the 
 cutting edge uppermost ; placing the specimen on this, and then 
 hitting it immediately above with the hammer, it may be frac- 
 tured through in any required direction. To trim off a small 
 projection, hold the specimen in your hand with the corner 
 towards you and directed slightly downwards, then with the 
 edge of the striking face of the hammer hit it a smart blow at 
 the line along which you wish it to break off; the object of 
 inclining the specimen is to make sure that the blow shall fall 
 in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish to pre- 
 serve, a modus operandi which it is necessary to bear well in 
 mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen. Anything 
 beyond very general directions, however, it is impossible to give 
 in such matters as this : experience, and a few hints from those 
 who have themselves had practice in collecting and arranging 
 specimens, are worth more than any written description, how- 
 ever lengthy and elaborate. 
 
 Having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape, 
 the next thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it the 
 smaller the better stating, first the nature of the specimen, 
 secondly the geological fonfiation to which it belongs, thirdly 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 75 
 
 the locality from which it was procured, and fourthly the date 
 when acquired, thus 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Lower Carboniferous. 
 
 Quarry, I mile N. W. of 
 
 21. 8. 8- 
 
 ruling a neat line at the top and bottom (red ink lines give a 
 more finished appearance than black). When the label is dry, 
 damp it to render it more pliant, and gum it on to the flattest 
 available surface of the specimen, pressing it well into any small 
 inequalities that it may hold the firmer. A small quantity of 
 pure glycerine (about an eighth part) should be added to the gum 
 before use, in order to prevent its drying hard and brittle. The 
 specimen is now ready to place in its tray and be put away in 
 the cabinet. 
 
 In the next place, pick out the fossils which you obtained from 
 the limestone. With the cold chisel set in its block of wood, 
 and the trimming hammer, remove as much of the surrounding 
 rock (matrix] as you can without damaging the fossil, and with 
 a smaller chisel any pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring 
 it. Fossils in soft limestone, such as chalk, are best cleaned 
 with an old penknife, and needles fixed into wooden handles, 
 and finished off by the application of, water with a nail-brush. 
 Should you have the misfortune to break any specimen in the 
 process ot trimming, it should at once be mended. The most 
 effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving 
 isinglass in acetic acid, or, where the specimen contains much 
 iron pyrites, and there would be a danger in starting decom- 
 position, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine. When, however, 
 neither of these are handy, chalk scraped with a penknife into 
 a powder, and mixed with gum to the consistency of a thick 
 paste, answers admirably. Failing this, however, gum alone will 
 frequently suffice. 
 
 The next thing is to place the like kinds together in their 
 several trays, writing a label, as before, for each tray, but leaving 
 a blank space at the top for the insertion of the name when 
 ascertained. The commoner sorts may be named from the 
 figures of them given in the text-books (see list at the back of the 
 title page) ; but failing this, it will be the best plan to seek the 
 help of any friends who have collections, or to take the fossils to 
 some museum, and compare them with the named specimens 
 there exhibited. The label may be laid at the bottom of the 
 tray with the fossils loose on' the top of it, each fossil being 
 marked with a number corresponding to one on the label. 
 
76 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 Another plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side 
 of the tray ; or, if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece 
 of card fitting into the tray, it may be gummed with them to the 
 card. 
 
 Now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue 
 clay, with those and the bones from the old river bed up above. 
 Gently turn them out of the tins, in which they were packed in 
 the quarry, on to a paper or the lid of a card-board box, and 
 with a pair of forceps pick them carefully out of the bran, and 
 place them in large shallow trays, taking care not to mix those 
 from the different beds. As we found when collecting them, these 
 shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal matter, and our 
 first object is therefore to harden them by some process, so that 
 they will bear handling. To accomplish this you must get a 
 saucepan, one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when 
 boiling, or a big wire spoon, such as formerly was used for 
 cooking purposes, a packet of gelatine, and some flat pieces of 
 tin, which last are easily procured by hammering out an old 
 mustard or other tin, having previously melted in a gas flame 
 the solder wherewith it is joined. Half fill the saucepan with 
 clean water, and put in as much gelatine as when cold will make 
 a stiff jelly ; melt this over the fire, placing the fossils meanwhile 
 in a warm (not hot) corner of the fire-place ; then when the 
 gelatine is quite dissolved, pile as many of them, whole or in 
 pieces, into the egg-boiler, or spoon, as it will contain, hold them 
 for a second in the steam, and then lower them gradually into the 
 hot gelatine until it completely covers them. Little bubbles of 
 air will rise and float on the surface. As soon as these cease to 
 appear, raise the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip ; 
 then pick them up one by one with the forceps, and spread them 
 out on pieces of tin before the fire, but not too close to it. As 
 soon as their exterior surfaces become dry, and before the gelatine 
 gets hard, they should be taken up (they may be handled fearlessly 
 now), and the superfluous gelatine sticking to the surface gently 
 removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped in clean warm water ; 
 otherwise, when dry, they present an unnatural varnished appear- 
 ance, and have a tendency, on small provocation, to become un- 
 pleasantly sticky. 
 
 Small bones may be treated in like manner, but for large 
 ones, weak glue is to be preferred to gelatine, which is only 
 suitable for the finer and more delicate objects. Where it is 
 desired to harden only a few things, it is better to mix the gelatine 
 in a gallipot, which can be heated when required by standing it 
 in a saucepan of water on the fire. In any case the gelatine 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 77 
 
 need never be wasted, as it will keep almost any length of time, 
 and can therefore be put by for future use. In default of the 
 egg-boiler or wire-net spoon, an equally useful plan is to make a 
 strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges 
 all around, and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the 
 fossils into the gelatine, and raise them again. 
 
 When the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted, and those 
 which have come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement 
 (i.e. isinglass dissolved in acetic acid), and then properly labelled 
 and placed in trays, or mounted as previously described. 
 
 To the plant remains and Lignite there is little that can be 
 done beyond trimming them to suit the trays. Should there be 
 much iron pyrites in the Lignite, it is sure, sooner or later, to 
 decompose, when all that can be done is to throw it away. In the 
 case, however, of valuable fruits and seeds, such as those from the 
 London Clay of Sheppey, it is worth while to preserve them, if 
 possible, in almost the only way known, viz. by keeping them in 
 glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, or by saturating 
 them with paraffin. 
 
 Having prepared the specimens for the cabinet, the next thing 
 is to arrange them in proper order. There are several ways of 
 doing this, but for those who have not had much experience the 
 following plan will be found the best : Group the specimens 
 according to the formations to which they belong, and arrange 
 these groups in proper sequence (vide Table, p. 1 6); then take each 
 group, and arrange the specimens it comprises in columns. 
 Beginning at the top of the left-hand corner, place first the 
 specimens of the rock itself, and under it any examples of 
 minerals, concretions, etc., found in that rock ; next the fossil 
 plants, if any ; and finally, such animal remains as you have 
 arranged according to their zoological sequence, beginning with 
 the lower forms (vide Table, p. 32). Unless cramped for room, 
 each formation should begin a new box, its name being written on 
 a slip of paper and placed at the head of the columns of trays. A 
 label setting forth its contents should be fixed outside each of 
 the boxes, which can then be put away on your cupboard shelves. 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA 
 ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
 
 Quaternary, or 
 Pleistocene. 
 
 Cainozoic, or 
 Tertiary. 
 
 Cretaceous. 
 Neocomian. 
 
 I Poikilitic. 
 
 Carboniferous 
 
 Silurian. 
 
 Cambrian, 
 
 ( Alluvial Deposits, RiverValley ^ 
 
 I Gravels and Cave Deposits. \y 
 
 ^ Drift and Glacial Deposits. 
 
 /Pliocene. , 
 
 j Miocene. 
 
 v Eocene. 
 
 ( Chalk. 
 
 j Upper Greensand. 
 
 I Gault. 
 
 ( Lower Greensand. 
 
 ( Wealden. 
 
 {Purbeck. 
 Portland. 
 Kimmeridge Clay. 
 ( Coral Rag. 
 I Oxford Clay. 
 
 ICornbrash and Forest 
 Marble. 
 Great Oolite. 
 Fullers' Earth. 
 Inferior Oolite. 
 Lias. 
 
 ( Trias, or New Red Sandstone. 
 \ Permian. 
 xCoal Measures. 
 \ Millstone Grit and Yoredale 
 1 Rocks. 
 
 vCarboniferous Limestone, etc. 
 Devonian and Old Red Sand- 
 stone. 
 
 'Ludlow Beds. 
 Wenlock Beds. 
 Woolhope Beds. 
 Tarannon Shale. 
 Llandovery or May Hill 
 
 Group. 
 /Bala and Caradoc Beds. 
 
 Llandeilo Flags. 
 J Arenig Group. 
 4 Tremadoc Slates, 
 j Lingula Flags. 
 I Menevian Beds. 
 ^Longmynd and Harlech 
 
 Group. 
 
 Pre-Cambrian and Lauren- 
 tian. 
 
 . > ^ *J{ <2 
 
 n-. V 
 
 n 
 
 v/ 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 79 
 
 NOTES ON THE DIFFERENT FORMATIONS MEN- 
 TIONED IN THE TABLE. 
 
 RECENT. The alluvial deposits of most river valleys and 
 some estuaries still in course of formation, containing fossil shells 
 and mammals, all of living species. 
 
 QUATERNARY, POST-PLIOCENE, or PLEISTOCENE. i. In- 
 cluding the raised beaches around the coast, the older gravels of 
 river valleys and the cave deposits, in all of which the shells are 
 identical with those living in the rivers and seas of to-day, whilst 
 the animals are many of them extinct, only a few being now 
 found living on the spot. 
 
 2. The glacial drifts that cover all England north of the 
 Thames, and which consist of sands, gravels, and clays, full of big 
 angular stones frequently flattened on one side, scratched and 
 sometimes polished from having been fixed in moving ice and 
 forced over other rocks. A very interesting collection of these 
 "boulders," as they are called, can be easily made, for they belong 
 to almost every formation in England, and have some of them been 
 brought from great distances, whilst the number and variety ob- 
 tainable from a single pit is astonishing. 
 
 CAINOZOIC, or TERTIARY. Beds of this age, in England at 
 all events, are for the most part made up of comparatively soft 
 rocks, gravels, sands, and clays, and are found in the eastern and 
 south-eastern counties. They are divided into 
 
 I . Pliocene, mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands, 
 with abundant shell remains, and locally known as "crags." 
 The shells are very partial in their distribution, the beds in places 
 being almost entirely made up of them, whilst in others scarcely 
 one is to be found. The great majority are of the same species 
 as many still living. The Pliocene is subdivided into three 
 groups : 
 
 a. The Norwich Crag Series, sometimes called the " Mam- 
 maliferous Crag," as at its base the bones of mastodon, elephant, 
 hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and some deer have been found. 
 The shells in it are such as still abound on the beaches of the 
 eastern coast to-day whelks, scallop shells, cockles, periwinkles, 
 etc. 
 
 b. The Red or Suffolk Crag, its two names indicating its 
 characteristic colour (a dark red-brown) and chief locality. 
 From the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules 
 miscalled " Coprolites," whence is manufactured an artificial 
 manure, and with them are found the rolled and phosphatized 
 
So HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 bones and teeth of whales, sharks, etc. Amongst the shells the 
 Reversed Whelks (Fustis contrarius}, Fectenopercnlaris, Pec tun- 
 cnlus glycimeris, several kinds of Maclra and Cardinm, etc., are 
 the commonest. Walton-on-the-Naze, Felixstowe, and Wood- 
 bridge are the best known localities. 
 
 c. The White or Coralline Crag is generally of a pale buff 
 colour, and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains 
 of Polyzoa. These (formerly called Corallines, whence the 
 name Coralline Crag) are beautiful objects for a low-power 
 microscope, or pocket lens, and are easily mounted in deep cells 
 on slides. The bits of shell and sand that stick to them should 
 be carefully removed with the point of a needle. A very large 
 number of shells occur in this crag : of bivalves, the Pecten is 
 very abundant, and its valves are frequently thickly grown 
 over with Polyzoa ; Cyprina IsZandica, Cardita Senilis are also 
 plentiful ; and of univalves, the genus Natica is common. The 
 Coralline Crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of Aldborough, 
 Orford, Woodbridge, and other places in Suffolk. 
 
 2. Miocene, possibly represented in the British Isles by a small 
 patch of clays and lignites at Bovey Tracey. 
 
 3. Eocene, divided into 
 
 a. Upper Eocene, consisting of a series of very fossiliferous 
 sands, clays, and limestones, exposed in the cliffs at the eastern 
 and western ends of the Isle of Wight and on the neighbouring 
 coast of Hampshire. They are partly of fresh water origin, when 
 they contain the remains of freshwater shells such as Limnaa 
 Paludina, Planorbis, etc. ; partly of marine origin, when shells 
 belonging to such genera as Ostrea, Venus, etc., take their 
 place ; partly of estuarine, when the brackish water mollusca 
 are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles and tortoises. 
 
 b. Middle Eocene, or the Bagshot Beds, composed of sands 
 and clays. The beautiful coloured sands of Alum Bay, the sands 
 of the Surrey and Hampstead Heaths, are familiar examples 
 of the beds of this age. Very few fossils indeed have been 
 found in them. The clay-beds on the contrary as seen at Barton 
 and Hordwell on the Hampshire coast and again in the Isle of 
 Wight, abound with shells belonging to genera such as Conns, 
 Voluta and Venus, that inhabit warm seas. With them are the 
 Nummulites, looking externally very like buttons, but on the 
 inside divided into innumerable chambers in which the com- 
 plex animal that formed the nummulite dwelt. 
 
 c . Lower Eocene, the well-known London clay, may almost be 
 said to compose this division, for the underlying sands, gravels, 
 and clays are in mass comparatively insignificant. The London 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 Si 
 
 clay contains plenty of fossils, only as they are disposed in layers 
 (zones} at a considerable distance apart, they are not often hit 
 upon. Layers of Septaria or cement-stones are of. frequent 
 occurrence. Sheppy is the great locality for London clay fossils, 
 as the sea annually washes down large masses of the cliffs and 
 breaks them up on the beach. A great many 
 fossil fruits and seeds, remains of crabs, shells 
 of Nautili, Volutes, and other mollusca, besides 
 turtles, a species of snake, a bird with teeth, 
 and a tapir-like animal, have at different times 
 and in various places been found in this de- 
 posit, which sometimes attains a thickness of 
 over 400 ft. The " Bognor Rock " is a local 
 variety of the basement bed of this formation. 
 
 The MESOZOIC or SECONDARY rocks em- 
 brace a series of limestone, clays, sands, and 
 sandstones that on the whole are well con- 
 solidated. The main mass of them lies to the 
 west of a line drawn across the map of Eng- 
 land from the mouth of the Tyne, in North- 
 umberland, southwards to Nottingham, and thence to the mouth 
 of the Teign in Devonshire. In the south-eastern counties 
 they underlie the tertiary rocks of the London and Hamp- 
 shire basins, as they are called, at no great depth from the 
 surface. Outlying patches of secondary rocks occur in Scotland, 
 where they are found near Brora on the east coast, and in the 
 islands of Skye and Mull on the west. In Ireland they are scantily 
 represented round about the neigh- 
 bourhood of Antrim. The second- 
 ary rocks are divided into 
 
 I. Cretaceous. 
 
 a. The Chalk is too well known 
 to need description, though techni- 
 cally it may be described as a soft 
 white limestone chiefly built up of 
 the microscopic shells of Foramini- 
 fera, and characterized in its upper 
 part by nodules and bands of flint. 
 These flints frequently inclose casts 
 of fossils (sponges, sea-urchins, etc.), 
 and sometimes shells themselves. 
 Fossils, too, are fairly abundant, scat- 
 tered throughout the mass. Amongst Ammonites various 
 the commonsr may be noticed the sea- (from the chalk), 
 
82 
 
 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 urchins, such as the "sugar loaf" (Ananchytes) and the heart- 
 shaped Micrastcr, the Brachiopods or Lamp-shells ( Tercbratula, 
 RhyncJwnella), a " Thorny Oyster " (Spondylus spiuosus), be- 
 sides Ammonites, Belemnites (part of the internal shell of a 
 kind of cuttle-fish), and the teeth of several species of sharks. 
 Altogether the chalk is about 1,000 feet thick. 
 
 b. Upper Greensand is a series of greenish-grey sands and 
 sandstones. The green colour, on close inspection, is seen to be 
 due to the presence of innumerable small green grains of a 
 mineral called glauconite. These are frequently casts of the 
 chambers of the very same fora- 
 minifera that the chalk is so largely 
 composed of. 
 
 Nodules and layers of "chert" 
 (an impure kind of flint) oc- 
 cur in it, whilst in places it forms 
 a hard rock called "firestone." 
 The commonest fossils are Brachio- 
 pods, very similar to those in the 
 chalk, a scallop-shell with four 
 strongly marked ribs on it (Pecten 
 quodricostatus}, an oyster with a 
 
 i R oA,;,v A frrnn^TTrmpr curved beak (Exogym colitmba), and 
 (a t5r3.cniopou. trorn tnc upper , , -^ . _. . . 
 
 Greensand). a pear-shaped sponge (Siphoma py- 
 
 riformis). The Upper Greensand 
 
 is better seen at places in the southern part of the Isle of \Vight, 
 in cliffs on the Dorsetshire coast, in 
 Wiltshire, at Sidmouth, and in some 
 parts of Surrey. 
 
 c. Ganlt, a stiff blue clay abound- 
 ing in fossils : Ammonites often re- 
 taining their pearly shell ; Belem- 
 nites, a bivalve with very deep 
 furrows on it (Inoccramus sulcatits], 
 and its first cousin (/. concentricus, 
 jp. 21), in which the ridge-like mark- 
 ings correspond with the lines of 
 growth, besides many others, may 
 be obtained in abundance from it. 
 Layers of phosphatic nodules occur 
 at irregular intervals. The gault is 
 best studied at East Wear Bay, near 
 Folkstone ; it may also be seen 
 in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and 
 
 
 Ammonites mtritus 
 (from the Gault), 
 
HANDBOOK Of FOSSILS. 83 
 
 Cambridgeshire; lately it has been found as far west as 
 Exeter. 
 
 2. Neocomian. 
 
 a. The so-called Lower Green Sand, named in contradistinction 
 to the Upper Green Sand, includes a 
 
 series of iron stained sands, sandstones 
 and clays of great thickness. The 
 clayey beds are seen at Atherfield in 
 the Isle of Wight, and at Nutfield in 
 Surrey, while the sandy beds are met 
 with at Speeton, at Folkestone, and 
 near Reigate. Besides brachiopods 
 and oysters, these beds have furnished 
 a species of Perna (P. Mulleti], an 
 elongated mussel {Gervillia anceps), 
 a pretty Trigonia (71 cordata), some 
 Ammonites and Nautili, with the teeth 
 and bones of big reptiles. The cele- 
 brated " Kentish Rag " and the sponge 
 gravels of Farringdon are of this age. 
 
 b. Wealden. The main mass of 
 these rocks occupies the area inclosed 
 
 between the North and South Downs, Inoceramus concentrictts 
 and forms the Valley of the Weald, (from the Gault). 
 
 whence they take their name. They consist of a series of sands, 
 sandstones, clays, and shelly limestones that were deposited in 
 the delta and off the mouth of a big river. The shells in them 
 belong to freshwater genera, Cyrena, Unio, Paludina, etc. Bones 
 of a huge lizard that hopped along on his hind legs (Iguanodoti), 
 and those of crocodiles, etc. , are from time to time brought to 
 light. The Wealden rocks occur also on both eastern and 
 western sides of the Isle of Wight, and in Dorsetshire. 
 
 3. Oolites (or Roe-stones) are so named because the charac- 
 teristic limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of 
 a fish. The small round grains, of which the typical examples are 
 built up, when cut or broken through will be seen to be formed of 
 numerous layers of carbonate of lime, disposed like the coats of 
 an onion, around some central nucleus, generally a grain of sand, 
 a fragment of coral, or the shell of one of the Foraminifera. 
 They are divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Oolites, and 
 these again are subdivided as follows 
 
 Upper Oolite. 
 
 a. Purbeck Beds, a series of fresh-water, with a few estuarine, 
 or marine beds, which in point of fact connect the deposits we 
 
$4 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 are next coming to with the Wealden just passed. They contain 
 numerous fresh- water shells Paludina t Physa^ Limna:a t etc., 
 with the microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean 
 Cyan's, whose descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of 
 to-day. An oyster occurs in the " Cinder Bed" and Plant remains 
 in the "Dirt Beds." But the Purbecks are best known for the 
 numerous remains of small mammals (Plagianlax) allied to the 
 kangaroo rat, at present living in Australia. 
 
 b. The Portland Stone aitd Sand, which come next in order, 
 are largely quarried in the island whence they take their name. 
 The quarrymen point out fossils in the stone, which they call 
 " Horses'-heads " and "Portland screws." The former is the 
 cast of a Trigonia shell ; the latter, that of a tall spired univalve 
 (Ceritkiutfi). 
 
 In Wiltshire, a coral (Isastrea ollonga} is found in the sandy 
 beds, the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced 
 by silex. 
 
 c. KimmeriJge Clay. This, by the pressure of the rocks subse- 
 quently deposited on it, has in greater part been hardened, and 
 possesses a tendency to split in thin layers, and hence is termed 
 by geologists a shale. It is seen at various points between Kim 
 meridge on the Dorsetshire coast and the Vale of Pickering in 
 Yorkshire, and forms broad valleys. The principal fossils in it 
 are Ammonites, a triangular-shaped oyster (Ostrea deltoidca), and 
 one resembling a comma (Exogyra virguld], 
 
 Middle Oolites. 
 
 a. The Coral Rag, or Coralline Oolite, comprises a most variable 
 set of beds, but principally a series of limestone, with fossil 
 corals still in the position in which they grew, and resembling 
 in form the reef-building corals of the Pacific. They rest on 
 
 b. Oxford Clay, a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any 
 corals, but containing a great many Ammonites and Belemnites. 
 The Kelloivay Rock, a sandy limestone at the base of the Oxford 
 Clay, is well developed in Yorkshire, and furnishes amongst 
 other fossils a large belemnite and an oyster (Gryphaa dilatatd). 
 
 Lower Oolites. 
 
 a. Cornbrask, a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy, and 
 rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils. 
 The commonest are Brachiopods, Limas, oysters (Ostrea Mar shit), 
 Pholadomyas and Ammonites. It is best seen in Dorsetshire, 
 Somersetshire, and near Scarborough in Yorkshire. 
 
 b. Forest Marble and Bradford Clay. The former is an ex- 
 ceedingly shelly limestone, often splitting into thin slabs. On the 
 surfaces of some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 85 
 
 sea made countless years ago, and the tracks of worms and crabs 
 that dwelt in the mud or crawled on its surface at a time when 
 it was soft mud. The Bradford clay is a very local deposit, taking 
 its name from Bradford in Wiltshire, where it is most developed, 
 and its characteristic fossil is the pear-shaped Encrinite or "stone- 
 lily " (Apiocrinus Parkinsoni). 
 
 c. The Great or Bath Oolite, comprising a series of shelly 
 limestones and fine Oolites, or freestones. The latter are largely 
 quarried in the neighbourhood of Bath, and used for mantelpieces 
 and the stone facings of windows. The great Oolite is rich in 
 univalve mollusca, amongst which may be noted a limpet (Patella 
 rugosa) and the handsome, tall-spired Nerituza Voltzii, numerous 
 bivalves belonging to the genera Pholadomya Trigonia, Ostrea (O. 
 gregaria), and Pecten, besides Brachiopods ( Terebratula digona, 
 which looks very like a sack of flour, and T. perovalis, etc.). 
 
 At the base of the Great Oolite are the " Stoncsfield slates," 
 so-called a series of thin shelly Oolites, etc. , that split readily into 
 very thin slabs. They are principally of interest to geologists 
 on account of the discovery in them of the remains of small 
 insect-feeding and possibly pouched mammals. With these are 
 associated the bones of that big reptile the Megalosanrns ; the 
 flying lizards called Pterodactyles ; fish teeth and spines ; lamp 
 shells ; oysters, a Trigonia (T. iuipress'a) ; and the impressions 
 of insects, including a butterfly, and of plants. 
 
 d. Fullers' Earth, a clayey deposit occurring in the south- 
 western parts of England, but not in the north. It abounds with 
 a small oyster (O. acuminaia) and Brachiopods (e.g. Terebratula 
 ornithocephald), etc. 
 
 e. Inferior Oolite (including the Midford Sands). As these beds 
 are followed across the country from the south-west of England 
 to Yorkshire, they are found to change greatly in character. 
 Limestone and marine beds in the south are replaced by sandy and 
 estuarine beds in the north. Amongst other fossils from beds of 
 this agemay be found several Echinoderms, a crinkly lamp shell 
 (Terebratula frimbriata), and a spiny one(Rhynchonella spinosa), 
 bivalves belonging to the Genera Ostrea, Trigonia, Pholadomya, 
 etc., and some very handsome Ammonites (e.g. A Humphre- 
 si anus). 
 
 4. Lias. 
 
 This for the most part consists of very regular alternations 
 of argillaceous (clayey) limestone and clay, or shale. It is of 
 great thickness, and hence for convenience has been divided 
 into (a) Upper Lias, (b) Middle Lias or Marl-stone, and (c) 
 Lower Lias. A large number of fossils are to be found in it. 
 
86 
 
 HANDBOOK OP FOSSILS. 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 87 
 
 Lyme Regis and Whitby are perhaps the best known localities ; 
 
 Plesiosaitnis (from the Lias). 
 
 the former, on account of the great number of specimens obtained 
 
88 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 of the huge fish-lizard (Ichthyosaurus t p. 24), and long-necked 
 Plesiosaurus (p. 25), besides numberless fish ; whilst the latter 
 is renowned for its jet (or fossilized wood) and 
 its "snake-stones" (Ammonites)^ concerning 
 which curious old stories are told. Ammonites 
 are plentiful in the Lias, which has been sub- 
 divided into zones, or layers, named after the 
 ammonite occurring in greatest numbers in that 
 particular zone. There is one thin limestone 
 band in the Marlstone composed entirely of the 
 shells of Ammonites planicostatus. A curious 
 kind of oyster (Gryphaa incttrva), locally known 
 as the devil's toenail, a huge Lima (L. gigantca), 
 a magnificent Encrinite (Extracrinus Briarens), 
 and numerous other fossils, are also to be ob- 
 tained by patient search. 
 
 5. Rhoetic, Penarth Beds, or "White Lias. 
 
 These beds are not of any considerable thick- 
 ness, but are very persistent, and of great in- 
 terest, inasmuch as they yield the remains of 
 the oldest known mammal (Microlestes), a small 
 insect-feeder. They are composed of limestones, 
 shales and marls (i.e. limey clays), and are best 
 studied in Somersetshire and Dorsetshire. The 
 "landscape marble" belongs to this formation, 
 which also contains a bone bed, or thin layer 
 made up of the bones and teeth, etc., of fish. 
 Shells are not numerous, though the casts of 
 one species (Avicttla contorta] is plentiful. 
 
 6. Trias, or New Red Sandstone, a thick 
 series of sandstones and marls, the great mass 
 of which forms the subsoil of the western mid- 
 land counties, Birmingham being nearly in the 
 centre, thence they extend in three directions, 
 one branch passing towards the north-west, 
 through Cheshire, to the sea at Liverpool, re- 
 appearing on the coast line of Lancashire, West- 
 moreland, and Cumberland, where it also forms 
 the Valley of the Eden. Another branch extends 
 
 Behmnitas elon- through Derby and York to South Shields, 
 lias)!" ' IC whilst the third ma y be traced southwards in 
 
 isolated patches down into Devonshire. 
 
 There are scarcely any fossils in it, but in Worcestershire and 
 Warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean (Estheria 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 89 
 
 minuta) occurs in the upper beds ; whilst now and again the 
 teeth and bones of some strange amphibians (Labyrinthodon^ or 
 the impressions of their feet 
 (Cheirotheriuni) where they 
 crawled on the then soft mud of 
 the foreshore, are found. The 
 Trias is divided into Upper Trias 
 or Keuper, and Lower Trias or 
 Bunter. The middle beds 
 (Muschelkalk), which are found 
 in Germany, where they contain 
 plenty of fossils, are wanting in 
 this country. In the lower beds 
 of the Keuper, layers of rock 
 salt, sometimes of great thick- 
 ness, occur, whilst casts (called 
 pseudomorphs) of detached salt- 
 crystals are found abundantly in 
 the sandy marls. Northwich, 
 Nantwich, Di-oitwich and several 
 other towns in Cheshire and 
 Worcestershire, are famed for their salt works, the salt being 
 either mined or pumped up as brine from these beds. 
 
 PALAEOZOIC OR PRIMARY. Beds of this age generally possess 
 a more crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already 
 mentioned, are usually more highly inclined and disturbed, and 
 form for the most part more elevated ground. They are the 
 principal store-houses of our mineral wealth, containing as they 
 do coal, iron, and other metals. The Palaeozoic rocks are 
 found in England to the north and west of the secondary series, 
 beneath which they disappear when traced to the south-east. 
 Wales, and the greater part of Scotland and Ireland, consist of 
 beds of this age. 
 
 I. Permian. Under this term are included beds of red sand- 
 stones and marls, closely resembling those of Trias, and like 
 them containing but few fossils, as well as a very fossiliferous 
 limestone, known as the Magnesian Limestone, from the 
 abundance of magnesia it contains. A pretty polyzoan 
 (Femstella t-etiformis), a spiny brachiopod (Productns IiorHdus), 
 various genera of fish, chiefly found in a marl state underlying the 
 limestone, some Labyrinthodonts and plant remains, are the prin- 
 cipal forms met with in this formation. 
 
 2. Carboniferous. This, from a commercial point of view, is 
 
90 HANDBOOK OF FOSSSLS. 
 
 the most important of all the formations, comprising as it does 
 the coal-bearing strata. It is subdivided into 
 
 a. Coalmeastires, a series of sandstones and shales with which 
 are interstratified the seams of coal, varying in thickness from six 
 inches to as much in one instance as thirty feet. 
 
 Coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants, chiefly 
 ferns and gigantic clubmosses, that grew in swamps bordering on 
 the sea-coast of the period. Each coal seam is underlain by a 
 bed of clay called "under-clay," containing the roots of the 
 
 Elants that grew on it. Some of the best impressions of 
 ;rns, etc., are to be obtained in the shaley beds forming the 
 roof of the coal seam ; many good specimens, however, are to be 
 got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth. Besides 
 plants, the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of 
 shale. And in Nova Scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles 
 and land snails have been discovered. Cockroaches and other 
 insects were also denizens of the carboniferous forests. 
 The following are the principal coalfields : 
 
 1. Northumberland and Durham coalfield. 
 
 2. South Lancashire coalfield. 
 
 3. Derbyshire coalfield. 
 
 4. Leicestershire and Staffordshire coalfields, 
 
 5. South Wales coalfield. 
 
 6. Bristol and Somerset coalfields. 
 
 b. Millstone grit or Farewell-rock* The former term explains 
 itself, the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern 
 districts, because when it is reached, then good-bye to all work- 
 able coal-seams. 
 
 It consists of coarse sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with 
 a few small seams of coal. Fossils are not very common in 
 it. 
 
 c. Yoredale Rocks, a series of flagstones, gritstones, limestones 
 and shales, with seams of coal, occurring in the northern counties. 
 It is underlain by 
 
 d. Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, which in places is 
 upwards of 1,000 feet thick, and full of fossils. The stems of 
 encrinites, or "stone-lilies," corals, brachiopods (e.g. Productus, 
 Orthis, etc.), and Mollusca, including some Cephalopods, like 
 Goniatites and the straight Nautilus (Orthoceras), with fish 
 teeth, etc. , go to compose this tough, bluish-grey limestone which 
 is largely quarried for marble mantlepieces, etc. 
 
 e. The Tuedian group in the north, and Lower Limestone 
 Shale in the south, follow next, and consist of shales, sandstones, 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 91 
 
 limestones, and conglomerates, varying greatly in different 
 districts, and containing few fossils. 
 
 3. Devonian or Old Red Sandstone. To this age are assigned 
 a perplexing series of strata, the principal members of which 
 consist of (a) a thick limestone, well seen in the cliffs and 
 marble quarries of south Devon, and full of fossil-corals (e.g. 
 Favosites polymorpha [or cervicornis] ) Brachiopods, and Mol- 
 lusca, etc. 
 
 b. A series of sandstones, slates, and limestones in North Devon 
 containing Trilobites (Phacops, Bronteus, etc. ), Brachiopods, and 
 other fossils. 
 
 c. The Old Red Sandstone of Wales, the North of England, and 
 Scotland, consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds, 
 with remains of fish. 
 
 These fish, unlike most now living, were more or less covered 
 with hard external plates, and possessed merely a cartilaginous 
 skeleton. In one set of individuals, indeed (Pterichthys), the 
 armour plates formed quite a little box. These creatures pro- 
 pelled themselves by means of two arm-like flippers, rather than 
 fins. They were but a few inches long, and appear pigmies in 
 contrast to the strange half-lobster-like crustucean, Pterygotus, 
 that lived with them, and attained sometimes as much as five 
 feet in length. 
 
 4. Silurian. Named by Sir Roderick Murchison after a tribe of 
 Ancient Britons that dwelt in that part of Wales, where these rocks 
 were first observed. Some of Murchison's Lower Silurian beds 
 were included by Professor Sedgwick in his Cambrian, of which 
 we shall have to speak next ; and as these two geologists never 
 could agree on a divisional line between their respective forma- 
 tions, and since succeeding observers have followed sometimes 
 one and sometimes the other method of classification, consider- 
 able confusion has resulted. Here, however, for several reasons, 
 we propose to follow Sedgwick's arrangement ; and hence, under 
 the term Silurian, retain only Murchison's Upper beds. They 
 consist of a series of sandstones, gritstones, conglomerates, shales, 
 limestones, etc. 
 
 Amongst the more important fossils, which are very abundant 
 in the limestones, are various corals (e.g. the Chain-coral 
 ffalysites), Star-fish, Crinoids, Trilobites (Phacops, etc.), Poly- 
 zoa, Brachiopods and Mollusca, especially Cephalopoda (Ortho- 
 ceras, Nautilus, etc.). 
 
 These rocks occur principally in the border land between 
 England and Wales, and the adjacent counties ; but are also 
 
92 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 represented in Westmoreland, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 principal subdivisions are given in the Table on p. 16. 
 
 Their 
 
 TRILOBITE (Asa.ph.us candatus), 
 (from the Silurian). 
 
 Orthoceras snlannnld- 
 titm (from the Silurian) . 
 
 5. Cambrian. Under this term, derived from the old name 
 for Wales, are included many sandstones, grits, slates and flags, 
 with here and there a limestone band. They form the greater 
 part of the western counties of Wales, where they rise to a con- 
 siderable height above the sea level. The highest hills of 
 Westmoreland and more than half of Scotland are composed of 
 beds of this age. 
 
 The fossils, save in the limestone bands, are not easy to find, 
 but in places they are fairly abundant. Brachiopods are far 
 more numerous than the Mollusca properly so-called. Of these, 
 the genus Orthis was most abundant at about the close of this 
 period. Certain beds of this age have received the name of 
 Lingula Flags, owing this prevalence in them of the curious 
 Brachiopod Lingula so like the species now living in some of the 
 warm seas of the tropics. The Trilobites included several forms, 
 and one species (Paradoxides Davidis) attained the length of 
 nearly two feet. A few star-fish, some Hydrozoans (Graptolites), 
 and the tubes and casts of Annelides and tracks of Trilobites, 
 
HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 93 
 
 complete the list of more remarkable fossils. The subdivisions 
 of the Cambrian rocks will be found in the table on p. 16. 
 
 6. Pre-Cambrian. Near St. David's Head and some other 
 places in Wales, in Anglesea, Shropshire, etc., some yet older 
 rocks have been found. They are probably for the most part of 
 volcanic origin, but they have been so much changed since they 
 were first deposited, and as hitherto no fossils have been found 
 in them, little is known concerning them. 
 
 Parts of the western coast of Northern Scotland and the Heb- 
 rides are composed of a crystalline rock called Gneiss, and sup- 
 posed to be the oldest member of the British strata. No fossils 
 have been found in it. 
 
 Skull of Deinotherium giganteum, a huge extinct animal, related to 
 the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany). 
 
 VOLCANIC ROCKS. Although there are fortunately no vol- 
 canoes to disturb the peace of our country at the present day, 
 there is abundant evidence of their existence in the past. Not 
 only are some of the beds, especially those of Paleozoic age, 
 
94 HANDBOOK OF FOSSILS. 
 
 composed of the dust and ashes thrown out of volcanoes, with 
 here and there a lava flow now hardened into solid rock, but 
 the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell the tale. 
 The cones indeed are gone, carried off piecemeal by the rain and 
 frosts, and other destructive agencies, in the course of countless 
 ages : not so the once fluid rock within ; that cooled down into 
 Granite, and though originally below the surface, it now, owing 
 to the removal of the overlying softer strata, forms raised ground 
 overlooking the surrounding country. The granite masses of 
 Cornwall, of Dartmoor, in the south-west of Mt. Sorrel ; the 
 variety called Syenite at Malvern and Charnwood Forest ; the 
 Basalts of the Cheviot Hills and of Antrim ; the volcanic rocks 
 of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and of the islands of Skye.and 
 Mull, etc., are examples of this class of rock. They are of dif- 
 ferent ages, and belong to different periods of the earth's history, 
 from early Palceozoic down to Miocene times. 
 
 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE 
 ANIMAL KINGDOM, TO SHOW THE ORDER IN 
 WHICH THE FOSSILS SHOULD BE ARRANGED. 
 
 INVERTEBRATA. 
 
 Foraminifera, minute chambered shells like the Nummulite. 
 Spongida, Sponges. 
 Hydrozoa, Graptolites, etc. 
 Actinozoa, Corals. 
 
 Echinodennata, Sea-urchins, Stone-lilies, Starfish, etc. 
 Annelida, Worm tracks. 
 Crustacea, Trilobites, Crabs, etc. 
 Arachnida, Scorpions and Spiders. 
 Myriapoda, Centipedes. 
 Insecta, Beetles, Butterflies, etc. 
 Polyzoa (Bryozoa} or Moss Animals. 
 Brachiopods, Lampshells. 
 
 f Lameilibranchiatct, Bivalves. 
 Mollusca 3 Gasteropoda, Univalves. 
 
 (^Cephalopoda, Cuttlefish, Ammonites. 
 
 VERTEBRATA. 
 Pisces, Fish. 
 
 Amphibia, Labyrinthodonts, Frogs, and Newts. 
 Reptilia, Reptiles. 
 Avcs, Birds. 
 Mammalia, Mammals. 
 
WORKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 FOR NAMING COMMON FOSSILS. 
 Tabular View of Characteristic British Fossils Strati- 
 
 graphically Arranged. By J. W. LOWRY. Soc. Prom. 
 
 Christ. Knowledge. 1853. 
 Figures of the Characteristic British Tertiary Fossils 
 
 (Chiefly Mollusca) Stratigraphically Arranged. By 
 
 J. W. LOWRY and others. London (Stanford). 1866. 
 
 PALAEONTOLOGY. 
 The Ancient Life History of the Earth. By H. A. 
 
 NICHOLSON. 8vo. Edinburgh and London. 1877. 
 
 A Manual of Palaeontology. By H. A. NICHOLSON. 
 2nd edition. 2 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh and London. 1879. 
 
 PETROLOGY. 
 
 The Study of Rocks. By F. RUTLEY. (Text Books of 
 Science.) 8vo. London. 1879. 
 
 FIELD GEOLOGY. 
 
 A Text-Book of Field Geology. By W. H. PENNING. 
 With a Section on Palaeontology, by A. J. JUKES-BROWN. 
 2nd edition. 8vo. London. 1879. 
 
 GEOLOGY IN GENERAL. 
 
 The Student's Elements of Geology. By SIR CHARLES 
 LYELL, Bart. 4th edition. 8vo. London. 1884. 
 
 The Principles of Geology. By SIR CHARLES LYELL, 
 
 Bart. 1 2th edition. 2 vols. 8vo. London. 1875. 
 
 Phillip's Manual of Geology. 2nd edition. By SEELEY 
 AND ETHERIDGE. 2 vols., 8vo. London. 1885. 
 
 Tabular View of Geological Systems, with their Litho- 
 logical Composition and Palseontological Remains. 
 
 By D. E. CLEMENT. London (Sonnenschein). 1882. 
 
 BRITISH GEOLOGY. 
 
 The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. 
 
 By SIR ANDREW C. RAMSEY. <5th edition. 8vo. London. 
 1878. 
 
 The Geology of England and Wales. By HORACE B. 
 
 WOODWARD. 8vo. London. 1876. 
 Geology of the Counties of England and Wales. By 
 
 W. J. HARRISON. 8vo. London. 1882. 
 
 05 
 
POPU LAR 
 
 gCIEJWIFIC 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 
 
 UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. 
 ALL FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 BRITISH BUTTERFLIES, MOTHS, AND BEETLES. 
 
 By W. F. KIRBY (Brit. Mus.). Crown 8vo, cloth, is. 
 
 MOSSES, LICHENS, AND FUNGI. 
 
 By PETER GRAY and E. M. HOLMES. Crown 8vo, cloth, is. 
 
 ENGLISH COINS AND TOKENS. 
 
 By LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A. ; with a chapter on Greek 
 and Roman Coins, by BARCLAY V. HEAD, M.R.A.S. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, is. 
 
 FLOWERS AND FLOWER LORE. 
 
 By Rev. HILDERIC FRIEND, F.L.S. Illustrated. Third 
 Edition, demy 8vo, cloth gilt, ?s. 6d. 
 
 THE DYNAMO : How Made and How Used. 
 
 By S. R. BOTTONE, Numerous Cuts. Crown 8vo, cloth, 
 as. 6d. 
 
 A SEASON AMONG THE WILD FLOWERS. 
 
 By Rev. H. WOOD. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 2s. 6d, 
 
 HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS. 
 
 By E. NEWMAN, F.L.S. Fifth Edition, Illustrated. i2ino, 
 cloth, 2s. 
 
 THE INSECT HUNTER'S COMPANION. 
 
 By Rev. J. GREENE. Third Edition. Cuts. I2mo, boards, is. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 By Dr. E. CLEMENT. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, is. 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO,, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, 
 
Paternoster Square.'} {A$ril ist t 1886. 
 
 of 
 
 SUBJECT INDEX, * //. 27 32. 
 
 Abdy- Williams. Novels by E. M. ABDY-WILLIAMS : 
 
 Two Ifs. i vol. ed. Cr.Svo. $s.6d. I For his Friend, 3vols. Cr. 8vo 
 Forewarned ! Fcap. 8vo. is. $is. 6d. 
 
 Adams. Novels by MRS. LEITH-ADAMS. Cheap Editions. 
 Each vol. cr. 8vo, cloth extra, 3*. 6d. 
 
 Geoffrey Stirling. I Cosmo Gordon. [Shortly. 
 
 Madelon Lemoine. j Lady Deane. [Shortly. 
 
 Adams, Rev. F. A. My Man and I ; or, the 
 
 Modern Nehemiah. 8vo, cloth, Js. 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List, 
 
 Adams. Books by W. H. 
 
 A Book of Earnest Lives. 
 
 With 8 portraits and plates. 
 
 Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 
 yj. 6d. 
 
 Dean Colet, Roger Ascham, 
 Lady Mary Montagu, Robert 
 Raikes, Lord Brougham, Dr. 
 Arnold, J. F. Oberlin, Mary 
 Carpenter, Wm. Wilberforce, 
 Sir T. F. Buxton, John 
 Eliot, John Howard, Mrs. 
 Fry, Mrs. Mompesson, Sister 
 Dora, and others. 
 Battle Stories from English 
 
 and European History. Second 
 
 Edition. With 16 plates and 
 
 plans. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 
 edges, TS. 6d. 
 
 European: Byzantium, Cressy, 
 Poictiers, Navarette, Agin- 
 court, Liitzen, Blenheim, 
 Malplaquet, Pultowa, Water- 
 loo, Inkerman. English : 
 Hastings, Falkirk, Bannock- 
 burn, Bosworth Field, Flod- 
 den Field, Marston Moor, 
 Naseby, Culloden. Anglo- 
 Indian : Plassey, Haiderabad, 
 Guzerat ; and others. 
 
 DAVENPORT ADAMS : 
 
 Girlhood of Remarkable 
 
 Women. Second Edition, en- 
 larged. With 8 plates. Demy 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, >js. 6d. 
 Harriet Martineau, Fanny 
 Burney, Elizabeth Inchbald, 
 Charlotte Bronte, Sara Coler- 
 idge, Mary Somerville, Mary 
 Russell Mitford, Lady Mor- 
 gan, Lady Jane Grey, Mrs. 
 Hutchinson, Countess of 
 Pembroke. Margaret More, 
 Lady Mary Montagu, Cath- 
 erine of Siena, Jeanne d'Arc, 
 Mme. de Miramon, Eliz. 
 Carter, Caroline Herschel, 
 Lady Fanshawe, and others. 
 Celebrated Women Travellers 
 of the Nineteenth Century. 
 Second Edition. With 8 plates. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 35. 6d. 
 
 Frederika Bremer, Ida Pfeiffer, 
 Lady Stanhope, LadyBrassey, 
 Lady Morgan, Mrs. Trollope, 
 Isabella Bird, Lady Florence 
 Dixie, Miss Gordon Cumming, 
 Lady Barker, and others. 
 
 Alberg. Books by ALBERT ALBERG : 
 
 Gustavus Vasa and his Stir- 
 ring Times. Third Edition. 
 Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, 3*. 6d. 
 
 Charles XII. and his Stirring 
 Times. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 " Alert." Cruise of H.M.S. " Alert." Four Years in 
 
 Patagonian, Polynesian, and Mascarene Waters. By R. W. 
 Copp\inger, M.D. (Staff-surgeon on board). With 16 Plates and 
 several cuts in the text from drawings and photos, by the Author 
 and F. North, R.N. Fmirth Edition. 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 6s. 
 
 Allen, Grant. The Evolution of Flowers. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 Alpine Plants. See Seboth and Bennett ; and Bennett. 
 
 Althaus. See Schaible and Althaus. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Andersen, Hans. Fairy Tales Set to Music by 
 
 Annie Armstrong. 4to, cloth, is. 6d. ; paper, is. 
 
 Arabian Nights, The New. Select Tales, not included 
 in the editions of Galland or of Lane. Translated by W. F. 
 Kirby (British Museum). Second Edition. Illustrated. Cr. 8yo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 
 Armstrong, J. Birds and their Ways. Illustrated. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Arthur, T. S. Ten Nights in a Bar-Room. New 
 
 Illustrated Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 2s. 
 
 Auerbach, Berthold. Two Stories (Christian Gellert 
 
 and The Stepmother). Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Austin, Jane G. Moonfolk : A True Account of the 
 Home of the Fairies. Second Edition. Illustrated by W. J. Linton. 
 Cr. Svo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. [Fairy Library. 
 
 Axon, W. E. A. Gipsy Folk Tales. [In preparation. 
 
 Babcock, W. H. Cypress Beach : A Novel 2 vols. 
 
 Cr. Svo, cloth, i2s. 
 
 Bagnall, J. E. Handbook of Mosses. With Nume- 
 rous Woodcuts. Cr. Svo, cloth, is. 
 
 Baker, Ella. Stories of Olden Times. Drawn from 
 
 History and Tradition. Second Edition. Cr. Svo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Barras. Works by COLONEL JULIUS BARRAS. 
 
 India, and Tiger Hunting, 
 vols. cr. Svo, ea. 3^. 6d. 
 
 The New Shikari at our 
 Indian Stations. 2 vols. cr. Svo, 
 
 ea. 3-r. 6d. 
 Baxter, Right Hon. W. E., M.P. England and 
 
 Russia in Asia. Cr. Svo, cloth, is. [Imp. Parl. Ser. 
 
 Bennett, A. W., M.A., B.Sc. Tourists' Guide to 
 
 the Flora of the Alps. Edited from the work of Prof. K. W. v. Dalla- 
 Torre, and issued under the auspices of the German and Austrian 
 Alpine Club in Vienna. Elegantly printed on very thin but opaque 
 paper, 392 pp., bound as a Morocco pocket-book. Pocket size, 5^. 
 
 Best Books, The. A Classified Bibliography of the Best 
 Curren English and American Literature, with the Publishers' 
 names, the prices, and the dates of each work. 4to. [Shortly. 
 
 Bevan, J. A., M.D. The March of the Strikers, is. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Bevan. Works by G. PHILLIPS BEVAN, F.G.S., F.S.S 
 The Royal Relief Atlas of all 
 parts of the Globe, consisting of 
 31 Embossed Maps. Second 
 Edition. Royal4to, 21 s. 
 Each Map is separately framed, 
 and the whole bound in one 
 volume, half persian. 
 
 The Home Geography. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 Guide to Lichfield Cathedral. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 Guide to Westminster Abbey. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 
 Bickerdyke. Works by John BICKERDYKE, M.A. : 
 
 With the Best Intentions : A 
 
 Tale of Undergraduate Life at 
 Cambridge. Cr. 8vo, 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 An Irish Midsummer Night's 
 Dream. Frontispiece. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Birthday Book, The Floral. By FLORENCE DUDGEON. 
 With Coloured Plates. Imp. i6mo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Boger, C. G. Elfrica : An Historical Romance of the 
 Twelfth Century. 3 vols. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 31^. 6d. 
 
 Bottone, S. R. The Dynamo : How Made and How 
 Used. Numerous Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Bourne. Works by C. E. BOURNE, Barrister-at-law : 
 
 Heroes of African Discovery 
 
 and Adventure. 
 Series I. To the Death of 
 Livingstone. 
 Series II. To 1883. 
 Each series in a Second Edition. 
 With Plates and Coloured 
 Maps. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, each $s. 6d. 
 The Great Composers : Short 
 Lives of Eminent Musicians. 
 
 Second Edition. With portraits 
 
 and plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth, gilt 
 
 edges, 3J-. 6d. 
 
 Handel Bach Gluck 
 Haydn Mozart Beethoven 
 Weber Schubert Rossini 
 Mendelssohn Chopin 
 Schumann Berlioz. 
 Life of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 
 gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Bowker, J. Goblin Tales of Lancashire. Illustrated 
 
 by Charles Gliddon. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 [Fairy Library. 
 
 Bradshaw. Works by Mrs. JOHN BRADSHAW. 
 Roger North. 3 vols. Cr. 8vo, I Merevale : A Novel. I vol. 
 31.?. 6d. I 6s. 
 
 Brant, Elizabeth, Head Mistress of the Granby Schools. 
 Systematic Cutting-out for the New Code, from Units of Measure- 
 ment. With Folding Diagrams in red and black. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 Broadhurst and Reid. Leasehold Enfranchise- 
 ment. By HENRY BROADHURST, M.P., and R. T. REID, M.P. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. [Imp. Parl. Ser. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Bulow. Works by the Baroness BULOW : 
 
 The Child and Child-Nature. 
 Third Edition. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth, 3-r. 
 
 [Kindergarten Manuals. 
 
 Hand- Work and Head- Work : 
 Their Relation to One Another. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 
 
 [Kindergarten Manuals. 
 
 Burke, Ulick J. Couleur de Rose: A Novel. 2vols. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2is. 
 
 Butler, E. A. The Entomology of a Pond. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 
 Buxton, Sydney, M.P. Over-Pressure and Elementary 
 Education. Crown 8vo, 2s. ; paper, is. 
 See also Imperial Parliament Series, p. 27. 
 
 Caballero, Fernan. Book of Spanish Tales. 
 
 Third Edition. Illustrated by Chas. Harrison. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, 2s. 6d. [Fairy Library. 
 
 Caine, Hoyle, and Burns. Local Option. By W. S. 
 
 CAINE, M.P., WM. HOYLE, and Rev. DAWSON BURNS, D.D. 
 Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. [Imp. Parl. Ser. 
 
 Cambridge Examiner, The. A Monthly Edu- 
 cational Journal (except in July and August). Demy 8vo, 
 Vols. I. V. [1885], each 5*. ' [48 pages, Monthly, 6d. 
 
 Camden. Tales by CHARLES CAMDEN : 
 
 Hoity Toity, the Good Little 
 Fellow. Illustrated by J. Pettie, 
 
 The Travelling Menagerie. 
 Illustrated by J. Mahoney. Sm. 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 R.A. Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Cappel, E. S. Old Norse Sagas. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, 
 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Aslog Frithiof Ingeborg Ragnar Lodbrok Sigurd Way- 
 land Smith Hamlet and others. [Fairy Library 
 
 Chapman. Books by WILLIAM CHAPMAN : 
 
 Notable Women of the Cove- 
 nant. With portraits and plates, 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 Notable Women of the Puri- 
 tan Times. With portraits and 
 plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Notable Women of the Refor- 
 mation. With portraits and 
 plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Life of Martin Luther. Cuts 
 Cr. Svo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 is. 6d, 
 
 Life of John Wiclif. Cuts. Cr' 
 8vo, clotk gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
6 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Children's Journey, The, and other Stories. By the 
 Author of "Voyage en Zigzac," etc. Second Edition. Illustrated 
 by the Author. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3>r. 
 
 Chitty. Coloured Books by LILY CHITTY : 
 
 Harlequin Eggs. Twenty-four 
 
 In and Out. Twenty-four col- 
 oured plates by Lily Chitty. 
 With text by Ismay Thorn. 4to, 
 
 ity- 
 
 coloured plates by Lily Chitty. 
 With text by Ismay Thorn. 
 4to, 2s. 6d. 2s. 
 
 Chitty, W. Practical Beekeeping. i2mo. At press. 
 
 Churchill, Mrs. Spencer. Daisy Darling. A Novel. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, y. 6d. 
 
 Church Rambles and Scrambles. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 Clarke. Short Biographies by F. L. CLARKE. Each vol. 
 illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 A Book of Golden Friend- George Stephenson. 
 
 ships. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, Robert Stephenson. 
 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. Lives of George and Robert 
 
 Childhood of the Prince Con- Stephenson (in I vol). Cloth 
 
 sort. gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Charlemagne and his Times Sir Walter Raleigh and his 
 
 Life of William Tyndale. Times. 
 
 Claus Sedgwick. Elementary Text Book of 
 
 Zoology. By Prof. W. CLAUS, edited by ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., 
 Fellow and Lecturer of Trin. Coll., Cambridge, assisted by F. G. 
 Heathcote, B.A., Trin. Coll., Camb. Illustrated by 706 woodcuts 
 drawn by Prof. Claus. In Two Parts. Demy 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Parti. Protozoa to Insecta. 2is. \ Part II. Mollusca to Man. 16.?. 
 
 Clement, Dr. E. Tabular View of Geological 
 
 Systems. Cr. 8vo, limp cloth, is. 
 
 Cobbe, Lucy. Doll Stories. Cuts. Cloth, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 Cockburn, Dr. Samuel. The Laws of Nature and 
 
 the Laws of God : a Reply to Prof. Drummond. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 
 
 Conn, William. From Paris to Pekin over 
 
 Siberian Snows. Edited from the Travels of Victor Meignan 
 by William Conn. With 16 plates. Demy 8vo, cloth extra, i6s. 
 
 Contemporary Pulpit, The. A Monthly Homiletic 
 
 Magazine. Vols. I. IV. Royal i6mo, cloth extra, gilt top, each 6s. 
 
 [64 pages, A/onthly, 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List, 
 
 Cooke. Short Biographies by FRANCES E. COOKE. Each 
 vol. illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges. 
 
 A Boy's Ideal. [Life of 
 Thomas More.] is. 6d. 
 
 True To Himself. [Life of 
 Savonarola.] is. 6d. 
 
 Latimer's Candle. [Life of Lari- 
 mer.] is. 6d. 
 
 An English Hero. [Life of 
 Richard Cobden.] is. 6d. 
 
 Cooper, A. J. Training of the Memory. 12010.3^. 
 Corbett, Mrs. George. Cassandra : A Novel. 3 vols. 
 
 Cr. 8vd, cloth, $is. 6d. 
 
 COX, Sir GCO. W., Bart., M.A. The Little Cyclo- 
 paedia of Common Things. Fourth Edition. Illustrated. DemySvo, 
 cloth gilt, JS. 6d. 
 
 Craik, Georgiana M. Twelve Old Friends. 
 
 With 8 Plates by Ernest Griset. Obi. 4to, cloth gilt. $s. 
 
 Crawford, J. Coutts, F.G.S. The Reform of Eng- 
 lish Spelling. Cr. 8vo, 6d. 
 
 Croker, T. Crofton. Fairy Legends and Tra- 
 ditions of the South of Ireland. New Edition. [Shortly. 
 
 Cross Davidson. Stories of Great Men, taken 
 
 from Plutarch. By M. CROSS and A. J. DAVIDSON. Illustrated. 
 Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3^. 
 
 Cupples, Mrs. George. Tappy's Chicks, and other 
 
 Links between Nature and Human Nature. With nineteen illustra- 
 tions. Sm. 8vo. cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Dalton, Douglas. False Steps : a Novel. Second 
 
 Edition. Cr. 8vo, is. 
 
 Daly, J. Bowles, LL.D. Radical Pioneers of the 
 
 Nineteenth Century. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Darton. Books by J. M. DARTON : 
 
 Brave Boys who have become : Famous Girls who have be- 
 Illustrious Men of our Time, j come Illustrious Women of our 
 Fourth Edition. Plates. Cr. j Time. Twentieth Edition. 
 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, $$. 6d. 
 Thomas Carlyle Robert Mof- 
 fat Professor Ruskin 
 George Cruikshank John 
 Stuckey Reynolds Henry 
 Deane, F.L.S. William 
 Chambers, and others. 
 
 Plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth gill, gilt 
 
 edges, 3^. 6d. 
 
 Margaret Roper "Little Miss 
 Burney" Laura Bridgman 
 Felicia Hemans Harriet 
 Beecher Stowe Elizabeth Le 
 Brun Mme. de Stael 
 Frederika Bremer, and others. 
 
8 W. Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 De Portugall, Mme. Synoptical Table of the 
 
 Kindergarten. Folio, mounted on canvas, and folding into a cloth 
 case, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Dilke and Woodall. Women Suffrage. By Mrs. 
 ASHTON DILKE and W. WOODALL, M.P. Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. 
 
 [Imperial Parliament Series. 
 
 Douglas, W. Measure for Measure : a Novel. 2 vols., 
 
 cr. 8vo, 2is. 
 
 Dover. Works by Rev. T. B. DOVER, M.A., Vicar of St. 
 Agnes, Kennington. 
 
 Lent Manual : Some Quiet Lenten 
 Thoughts. With a Preface by the 
 BISHOP OF LINCOLN. Twelfth 
 
 Thousand. I2mo, 2s. 6d. 
 Cheap edition, is. 6d. 
 The Ministery of Mercy. 
 
 Eastward Ho ! A Monthly Magazine. Vols. I. III., 
 demy 8vo, cloth, each 3^. 6d. 
 
 Edwards, F. J. Rules for the Mental Calculator. 
 
 I2mo, clothy is. 
 
 Edwards, R. O. Rabbits for Exhibition, Pleasure, 
 
 and Market. By R. O. EDWARDS, assisted by several eminent 
 breeders. With eight plates. Cr. 8vo, limp cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Espin, Rev. T. H., M.A. Elementary Star Atlas, 
 
 with 12 large star-maps. Imperial 8vo, cloth, is. 6d. 
 
 Evelac, Hamilton. The Leaven of Malice : a Novel. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, 6s. 
 
 Everitt, Graham. English Caricaturists and 
 
 Graphic Humourists of the Nineteenth Century. Illustrated with 
 a large number of woodcut reproductions of rare caricatures, book 
 illustrations, etc. 4to, cloth extra, gilt top, 42$. 
 
 Ewing, R. Handbook of Agriculture. With 
 
 Preface by Prof. John Scott. I2mo, limp cloth, 6d. 
 
 jFairp library of 811 Nations* 
 
 SERIES I. TALES OF THE PEOPLE (from oral tradition). 
 Bowker's Goblin Tales of Lancashire, 2s. 6d. 
 Caballero's Book of Spanish Tales, 25. 6d. 
 Cappel's Old Norse Sagas, 25. 6d. 
 Fryer's English Fairy Tales from the North Country, 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 Geldart's Modern Greek Folklore, 25. 6d. 
 Gesta Romanorum, selected and adapted, 2s. 6d. 
 Matthews' Hiawatha and other Legends of the 
 Wigwams. \New Edition in preparation. 
 
 Rowsell's Spirit of the Giant Mountains, 25. 6d. 
 
 \See next page. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Stephens' Old Norse Fairy Tales, 2s. 6d. 
 SERIES II. ORIGINAL FAIRY TALES. 
 Austin's Moonfolk, 25. 6d. 
 Hauff's Popular Tales, 35. 6d. 
 Parker's Among the Fairies, 25. 6d. 
 Faithfull, Mrs. Century Cards : A New Method 
 
 of teaching Chronology. In box, los. 
 Fawkes. Books by F. A. FAWKES, F.R.H.S. : 
 
 Horticultural Buildings, their 
 Construction, Heating, Interior 
 Fittings, etc., with Remarks 
 on the Principles involved, 
 and their application. With 
 
 123 cuts. Second Edition. Cr. 
 
 8vo, doth> 3-r. 6d. 
 Hot-water Heating. Cuts. 
 
 I2mo, is. 
 Babies, and how to Rear them. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, limp cloth, 6d. 
 
 Fillmore, J. C. A History of Pianoforte Music. 
 
 Edited by Ridley Prentice. Roy. i6mo, cloth, 35. 6d. 
 
 Fleay, F. G., M.A. The Logical English Grammar. 
 
 Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 Forbes, Gordon S. Wild Life in Canara and 
 
 Ganjam. With Coloured Plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Fowle. Latin and Greek School Books by the Rev. EDMUND 
 FOWLE, M.A. : 
 
 A New Latin Primer. Cr. 8vo. 
 
 [Shortly. 
 
 A Short and Easy Latin Book. 
 
 New Edition. Post 8vo, is. 6d. 
 A First Easy Latin Reading 
 
 Book. New Edition. Post 8vo, 
 
 3J. 6d. 
 
 A Second Easy Latin Read- 
 ing Book. New Edition. Post 
 
 8vo, 3J. 6<t. 
 Selections fromLatin Authors: 
 
 Prose and Verse. Post 8vo, 
 
 2s. 6d. ; or in two Parts, I s. 6d. 
 
 each. 
 Short and Easy Greek Book. 
 
 New Edition. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d. 
 First Easy Greek Reading 
 
 Book. Containing Fables, 
 
 Anecdotes of Great Men, 
 Heathen Mythology, etc. New 
 Edition. Post 8vo, $s. 
 
 Second Easy Greek Reading 
 Book. Containing Extracts 
 from Xenophon, and the whole 
 of the First Book of the Iliad. 
 New Edition. Post 8vo, $s. 
 
 First Greek Reader for Use 
 at Eton. New Edition. Post 
 8vo, is. 6d. 
 
 The First Book of Homer's 
 Iliad, in Graduated Lessons, 
 with full notes and vocabularies. 
 Post 8vo, 2s. 
 
10 
 
 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Friend. Works by Rev. HILDERIC FRIEND, F.L.S. 
 
 Flowers and Flower Lore. 
 Illustrated. Third Edition. 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, JS. 6d. 
 
 The Ministry of Flowers. 
 Illustrated. Crown 8vo, cloth 
 gilt, gilt top, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Froebel, Friedrich. Selections from his Writings. 
 
 Edited by H. K. Moore, B.A., and Mme. Michaelis. [Shortly. 
 
 Fryer, Dr. A. C. Book of English Fairy Tales 
 
 from the North Country. Plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges. 
 2s. 6d. [Fairy Library. 
 
 Fuller, Thomas, D.D. 
 
 Life of Thomas Fuller, D.D., 
 the Church Historian. By the 
 Rev. J. M. FULLER, M.D. 
 Second Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 
 8vo, I2s. 
 
 Selections from the Holy and 
 
 Profane States, with a Short 
 Account of the Author and his 
 Writings. Crown 8vo, 3^. 6d. 
 
 Gaussen. Works by Professor GAUSSEN. Cr. 8vo, each 
 is. 6d. 
 
 The Iron Kingdom. 
 The King's Dream. 
 
 The Kingdom of Iron and 
 Clay. 
 
 Geldart. Works by Rev. E. M. GELBART, M.A. : 
 
 Modern Greek Folklore. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, leatherette, zs. 6d. 
 Sunday for our Little Ones : 
 
 Addresses to the Young. Cr. 
 
 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, $s. 
 
 The Doctrine of the Atone- 
 ment according to the Epistle 
 of St. Paul. Cr. 8vo, cloth. 
 '3J. 6d. 
 See also Zacher, p. 26. 
 
 Gems from the Poets. Illustrated with thirty coloured 
 designs by A. F. Lydon. Imp. 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, Js. 6d. 
 
 Geometry, Plane, The Elements of. Prepared by 
 
 the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching. 
 Part I. (corresponding to Euclid Bks. I. II.) With numerous 
 figures. Cr. 8vo, cloth, y. 6d. [Parts II. and III. at press. 
 
 George II., History of the Reign of. By Oxon. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, y. [Student's Manuals. 
 
 George III., History of the Reign of. By Oxon (an 
 
 Army Tutor). Based on Bright, Macaulay's Essays, Napier, 
 Hughes, and Burke. To which are added 240 Examination ques- 
 tions. Cr. 8vo, cloth, <\s.6d. [Student's Manuals. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. n 
 
 Gesta Romanorum. Selected and adapted. Plates. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. [Fairy Library^ 
 
 Gilbert, Books by WILLIAM GILBERT : 
 
 The History of a Huguenot 
 
 Modern Wonders of the 
 
 World, or the New Sindbad. 
 Second Edition. Illustrated by 
 Arthur Hughes. Sm. 8vo, cloth 
 
 Bible. Second Edition. Illus- 
 trated. Sm. 8vo, doth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 3-r. 
 
 gilt, gilt edges, 
 
 Goethe. Select Poems of Goethe, edited, with Intro- 
 ductions, Notes, and a Life of Goethe (in German), by Prof. E. A. 
 Sonnenschein, M.A. (Oxon), and Prof. Alois Pogatscher. Second 
 Edition. I2mo, limp cloth, is. 6d. [Annotated German Classics. 
 
 Gorman, W. Gordon. Converts to Rome : a 
 
 Classified List of nearly 4,000 Protestants who have recently become 
 converted to the Roman Church. Second Edition much enlarged 
 [1885]. Royal i6mo, cloth extra, gilt top, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Gronlund, L. The Co-operative Commonwealth. 
 
 An Exposition of Modern Socialism. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. ; paper, is.6d. 
 
 Gray, Peter. Lichens; Mosses, Scale Mosses, 
 
 and Liverworts ; Seaweeds. With cuts, I2mo. [In the press. 
 
 Greene, Rev. J. The Insect Hunter's Companion. 
 
 Third Edition. Cuts. I2mo, boards, is. 
 
 Greenwood, James (the " Amateur Casual"). 
 
 Reminiscences of a Raven. Illustrated. Fcap. 8vo, cloth gilt, is. 
 
 Grimm, Jacob. Teutonic Mythology, translated by 
 J. Steven Stallybrass. 3 vols. Demy 8vo, cloth, 45.5-. 
 
 Guizot, F. The Devoted Life of Rachel, Lady 
 
 Russell. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Gustafsson, Richard. Tea Time Tales for young 
 
 Little Folks and young Old Folks. Third Edition. Illustrated. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3*. 6d. 
 
 Guyot, Yves. Hon. member of the Cobden Club. 
 Principles of Social Economy. With numerous Diagrams. 
 Demy 8vo, cloth, $s. 
 
 Harley, Rev. Timothy. Moon Lore. Illustrated by 
 facsimiles of old prints and scarce woodblocks. 8vo, cloth extra, 
 gilt top, 7s. 6d. 
 
 Harris, Joel Chandler. Uncle Remus. Legends of 
 
 the Plantations. The Original Illust, Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6 d 
 
12 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Harting, J. E. Glimpses of Bird Life. Illustrated 
 
 with 20 coloured plates by P. Robert. Royal folio, cloth extra, 
 gilt edges, 42*. 
 
 Hauff, W. Popular Tales. Translated by Percy E. 
 
 Pinkerton. New Edition. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 35. 6d. [fairy Library. 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Biographical Stories. 
 
 Portraits. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Benj. West, Newton, Johnson, Cromwell, B. Franklin, Queen 
 Christina. 
 
 Hawthorne, Dr. Robert. The Student's Manual 
 
 of Indian History. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 3^. 6d. [Student's Manuals. 
 
 Hehn, Prof. Victor. The Wanderings of Plants 
 
 and Animals. Edited by J. Steven Stallybrass. Demy 8vo, 
 cloth, i6s. 
 
 Hein, Dr. G. A German Copy-Book. 32 pages, 
 
 each with a separate head-line, 4to, in wrapper, 6d. 
 
 Henderson, F. Leslie. Three Plays for Drawing- 
 Room Acting. Cinderella, The Lady-Help, Story of the Stars. 
 Demy 8vo, is. 
 
 Hewett, H. G. Heroes of Europe. Illustrated. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 He wet son. Works by Dr. H. BENDELACK HEWETSON : 
 
 Life of Robert Hev/etson. 
 
 Illustrated by phototypes. 
 
 Royal 4to, boards, 42^. 
 The 'influence of Joy upon 
 
 the Workman and his Work. 
 
 Illustrated by autotypes. 4to, 
 boards, %s. 6d. 
 
 The Human Eye in Perfec- 
 tion and in Error. Cuts. Demy 
 8vo, is. 
 
 Hichens, R. S. The Coastguard's Secret : a Novel. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Higginson, T. Wentworth. Common Sense about 
 
 Women. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth boards, is. 
 
 Hillocks, Rev. J. Inches. Hard Battles for Life 
 
 and Usefulness. With Introduction by Walter C. Smith, D.D., 
 and photo, of the author. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth, 3^. 6d. 
 
 Hinton, C. H., B.A. Scientific Romances, is. each. 
 
 What is the Fourth Dimen- | The Persian King, 
 sion ? 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 13 
 
 Hobson. Works by Mrs. CAREY HOBSON : 
 
 The Farm in the Karoo. Il- 
 lustrated. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 
 At Home in the Transvaal : 
 or, Boers and Boers. 2 vols. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 2U. 
 
 Howe, Cupples, Master Mariner. The Deserted Ship. 
 
 A real story of the Atlantic. Illustrated by Townley Green. 
 Fourth Edition. Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Hughan, Samuel. Hereditary Peers and Heredi- 
 tary Paupers : the two extremes of English Society. Paper, is. 
 
 Imperial Parliament Series. See page 27. 
 
 Impey, F. Three Acres and a Cow. With Preface 
 by the RT. HON. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P., and Appendix by the 
 DUKE OF ARGYLL. Cr. 8vo, paper, 6d. 
 
 Irving, Washington, The Beauties of. With 
 
 23 full-page plates by George Cfuikshank. Edition de luxe. 
 Imperial 32mo. cloth extra, gilt top, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Isocrates' Evagoras. Edited, with Introduction and 
 Notes for the use of schools, by Henry Clarke, M.A. I2mo, 
 cloth, 2s. 6d, 
 
 Jenkins, Edward, M.P. Jobson's Enemies. With 
 
 10 plates by F. Barnard. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Jewitt, Llewellynn. Handbook of English Coins. 
 
 With a Chaper on Greek Coins by Barclay V. Head (Brit. Mus.). 
 Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. 
 
 Jones, C. A. The Saints of the Prayer-Book. 
 
 6 plates, royal i6mo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Jung, Dr. K. Australia and her Colonies. Illus- 
 trated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 
 Karoly, Dr. Akin. The Dilemmas of Labour and 
 
 Education. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 3-y. 6d. 
 
 Keene, Katherine. Voiceless Teachers. Cuts. Cr. 
 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, 2s. 
 
 fittnlier Garten JHanuaI0 
 
 Billow's Child and Child Nature. 35. 
 Billow's Handwork and Headwork. 35. 
 The Kindergarten : Essays on Principles and 
 Practice [Froebel Society's Lectures]. $s. 
 
14 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Kindergarten, The : Essays on Principles and 
 
 Practice. Being a Selection of Lectures read before the London 
 Froebel Society. Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 
 
 Kirby. Works by W. F. KIRBY (Brit. Mus.) : 
 
 Handbook of Entomology. 
 Illustrated with several hundred 
 figures. 8vo, cloth gilt, i$s. 
 
 Evolution and Natural Theo- 
 logy. Crown Svo, cloth, 4$-. 6d. 
 
 Young Collector's Handbook 
 of Entomology. Fully Illus- 
 trated. Cr. Svo, cloth, is. 
 
 Kirton. Books by DR. J. KIRTON : 
 
 Happy Homes and How to 
 Make Them. 104^ Thousand. 
 Cuts. I2mo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 2s. 
 
 The Priceless Treasure : an 
 Account and History of the 
 Bible. Fourth Edition. Cuts. 
 1 2 mo, cloth gilt, 2s. 
 
 Kroeker, Kate Freiligrath. Alice thro' the Look- 
 ing-glass, and three other Plays for Children. Plates. Crown Svo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Lamb, Charles and Mary. Mrs. Leicester's School. 
 
 Illustrated. New Edition. Fcap. Svo, cloth gilt, is. 
 
 Le Free, Richard. The History of a Walking Stick, 
 
 in Ten Notches. Cr. Svo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Leith-Adams. Novels by MRS. LEITH-ADAMS. Cheap 
 editions. Each vol. cr. Svo, cloth extra, 3-y. 6d. 
 
 Geoffrey Stirling. I Cosmo Gordon. [Shortly. 
 
 Madelon Lemoine. Lady Deane. \SJiortly. 
 
 Letters of the Martyrs. Selected and abridged. 
 Portraits. Cr. Svo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 
 Letters of Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Taylor, Saunders, Philpot, 
 Bradford, Whittll, Careless, Glover, Simson, and others. 
 
 Liefde, Jacob de. The Great Dutch Admirals. 
 
 Fifth Edition. Illustrated by Townley Green. Cr. Svo, cloth 
 gilt, gilt edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Heemskerk, Hein, Marten Tromp, De With, De Ruyter, Evert- 
 sen, Cornelius Tromp. 
 
 Life at Home, at School, and at College. By an 
 
 Old Etonian. Illustrated. Cr. Svo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 15 
 
 Little. Works by J. STANLEY LITTLE : 
 
 South Africa : A Sketch Book 
 of men and manners. 2 vols. 
 
 What is Art ? Cr. 8vo, cloth, 
 J. 6d. 
 
 Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top., 2 is. 
 
 Little, Rev. H. W. A Short History of Russia 
 
 Cr. 8vo, paper, is. 
 
 Locke, John. Essay on the Human Understanding. 
 
 Book III. (On Words.) Edited by F. Ryland, M.A. Cr. 8vo, 
 
 cloth, 4-r. 6d. 
 
 Lbfving. Works by CONCORDIA LOFVING : 
 
 Physical Education, and its 
 place in a rational system of 
 
 A Manual of Gymnastics. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 
 education. Portrait. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth, is. 6d. 
 
 Lome, Marquis of, K.G., K.T. Imperial Federation. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. [Imp. Parl. Series. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Representation. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. [Imp. Parl. Series. 
 
 Maccall, William. Christian Legends of the 
 
 Middle Ages. Cr. 8vo, cloth, y. 6d. 
 McAlpine. Works by Professor D. MCALPINE : 
 
 Handbook of the Diseases of 
 
 Plants. Illustrated. Demy 
 
 Life Histories of Plants. 
 With an Introduction to the 
 Comparative Study of Plants 8vo. 
 
 and Animals on a Physiological [In preparation. 
 
 Basis. Illustrated. Roy. i6mo. 
 [In the press. 
 
 McCarthy, Sergeant T. A. Quarterstaff : A 
 
 Practical Manual. With Figures of the Positions. I2mo, boards, is. 
 
 Maitland, Agnes C. Madge Hilton; or, Left to 
 
 Themselves. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Malins, J. Shakespearean Temperance Calendar. 
 
 A Red-line Birthday Book. i6mo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Malleson, Mrs. Frank. Notes on the Early 
 
 Training of Children. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Marryat, Florence. Tom Tiddler's Ground. 
 
 [In May. 
 
 Martineau des Chesney, Baroness. Marquise 
 
 and Rosette, and the Easter Daisy. Illustrated. Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, 35-. 
 
i6 
 
 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Marvin. Works by CHARLES MARVIN : 
 
 Reconnoitring Central Asia. 
 Adventures of English and 
 Russian Explorers, Secret 
 Agents and Special Corre- 
 spondents in the Region be- 
 tween the Caspian and India 
 
 from 1863 to 1884. With 
 Illustrations and Map. Second 
 Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 Our Public Offices. Third 
 Edition. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 Matthews, C. Hiawatha, and other Legends from 
 the Wigwams of the Red American Indians. 
 
 [New Edition in preparation. 
 
 Maynard, Rev. A. Happy Wedded Life. New 
 
 Edition. Plates. I2mo, cloth gilt, 2s. 
 
 Meignan, Victor. Over Siberian Snows. Edited 
 
 by William Conn. With 16 plates. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, i6.y. 
 
 Mentone, Guide to. By an Englishman. Folding 
 Map. I2mo, cloth, is. 6d. 
 
 Miller, Rev. J. R., D.D. The 
 
 Series. 5 vols., I2mo, cloth gilt, each 6d. 
 
 Perfect Home 
 
 1. The Wedded Life. 
 
 2. The Husband's Part. 
 
 5. The Chi 
 
 3. The Wife's Part. 
 
 4. The Parent's Part. 
 
 dren's Part. 
 
 Elementary Notions of Logic, 
 
 Second Edition. Enlarged. 41 
 cuts. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Milnes. Works by ALFRED MILNES, M.A. : 
 Problems and Exercises in 
 
 Political Economy. Cr. 8vo, 
 
 cloth, 4^. 6d. 
 
 \Studenfs Manuals. 
 
 Mongan, Roscoe, B.A. Our Great Military Com- 
 manders. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Marlborough Clive Wolfe Wellington The Crimean War 
 The Indian Mutiny Wolseley Gordon. 
 
 Montague, Colonel'. Dictionary of British Birds. 
 
 New Edition. Edited by E. Newman, F.L.S. Demy 8vo, cloth 
 gilt, js. 6d. 
 
 Monteiro, H. Tales of Old Lusitania, from the 
 P'olk Lore of Portugal. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, 3^. 6d. 
 
 Moore. Works by H. KEATLEY MOORE, B.Mus., B.A. : 
 
 The Child's Pianoforte Book. I Music in the Kindergarten. 
 Second Edition. Illustrated by | I2mo, qd. 
 Kate Greenaway and others, j See also FROEBEL. 
 
 Fcap. 4to, cloth gilt, $s. 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 17 
 Moore, Nina. Manual of Kindergarten Drawing. 
 
 Plates. 4to, cloth, 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Miiller, Prof. Max. Deutsche Liebe (German 
 
 Love). Fragments from the Papers of an Alien. Cr. 8vo, vellum, 
 5-r. ; cloth gilt, $s. 6d. 
 
 Mulley Tabram. Songs and Games for Our 
 
 Little Ones. By Jane Mulley. Music by M. E. Tabram. Second 
 Edition. Cr. 8vo, is. 
 
 Naegeli Schwendener. The Microscope: Theory 
 
 and Practice. By Prof. C. Naegeli and Prof. S. Schwendener. 
 With about 300 woodcuts. Demy 8vo, cloth, 2is. [In the press. 
 
 Naturalist's "World, The. An Illustrated Monthly 
 Magazine of Popular Science. 4-to, vol. I. [1884], cloth gilt, $s. 
 
 [20 pages, Monthly, 2d. 
 
 Needlework for Ladies, for Pleasure and Profit. By 
 " Dorinda." Second Edition. Crown 8vo, boards, is. 6d. 
 
 New Crusade, A. By PETER THE HERMIT. Illustrated. 
 
 8vo, boards, 2s. 
 
 Newman. Works by E. NEWMAN, F.L.S. : 
 
 numerous Figures, is also issued. 
 Fifth Edition. I2mo, cloth, 2s. 
 See also Montague's Dictionary of 
 British Birds. 
 
 History of British Ferns. 
 
 Third Edition. Cuts. Demy 
 8vo, cloth, 1 8.r. 
 
 A " People's Edition " of the 
 same (abridged), containing 
 
 Nicholson, E. Student's Manual of German 
 
 Literature. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 3-r. 6d. [Student's Manuals. 
 
 Norton. Histories for Children, by CAROLINE NORTON: 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. For 
 children. I2ino. Illustrated. 
 is. 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. For chil- 
 dren. I2mo. Illustrated, is. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE. For 
 children. I2mo. Illustrated, is. 
 
 O'Reilly, Mrs. Robert. The Story of Ten Thou- 
 sand Homes. Second Edition. Illustrated. Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, 3*. 
 
 Orme, Temple (Teacher at University College School). 
 The Rudiments of Chemistry. With several Woodcuts. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
i8 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Parker, Joseph, D.D. (of the City Temple). Weaver 
 Stephen ; or, the Odds and Evens of English Religion. 8vo, cloth, 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 Parker, Hon. Mrs. Adamson. Among the Fairies. 
 
 Illustrated by Lily Chitty. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 {fairy Library. 
 
 Paul, Howard. Not too Funny, just Funny 
 
 Enough ! Short Stories, American and Original. Cr. 8vo, 
 boards ', is. 
 
 Percy Reliques. The Reliques of Ancient Eng- 
 lish Poetry, consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs, and other 
 Pieces. By THOS. PERCY, D.D., Bishop of Dromore. Edited, 
 with an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary, by H. B. WHEATLEY, 
 F.S.A. 3 vols., 8vo, cloth extra, 36.5-. 
 
 Perez, Bernard. The First Three Years of Child- 
 hood. With a Preface by Prof. James Sully, M.A. Cr. 8vo, 4*. 6d. 
 
 Plautus' Captivi. Edited, with Introduction, Critical 
 Apparatus and Notes, by Prof. E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. (Oxon). 
 Demy 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 School Edition of the same, with Notes. Third Edition. 3-y. 6d. 
 
 Pooley Carnie. The Common-Sense Method of 
 
 Teaching French. By H. Pooley and K. Carnie. I2mo, cloth. 
 Part I., i s. ; Part II., is. ; Memory Exercises, is. 
 
 {Other Parts in preparation. 
 
 Prantl Vines. Elementary Text Book of Botany. 
 
 By Prof. W. Prantl and S. H. Vines, D.Sc., M.A., Fellow and 
 Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fourth Edition [1885]. 
 275 woodcuts, demy 8vo, cloth, qs. 
 
 Prentice, Ridley. The Musician : A Guide for 
 
 Pianoforte Students. In six Grades. Grades I. IV. Roy. 
 i6mo, cloth, each 2s. {Other Grades in preparation. 
 
 See also Fillmore's History of Pianoforte Music. 
 Ramsay, A., F.G.S. Bibliography, Index and 
 
 Guide to Climate. Cuts. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, i6s. 
 
 Rathbone and Pell. Local Government and Tax- 
 ation. By W. RATHBONE, M.P., ALBERT PELL, M.P., and 
 F. C. MONTAGUE, M.A. Cr. 8vo, cloth, \s, [/////. Pa- 1. Si-r. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Rawnsley, Rev. H. R. Christ for To-Day : A 
 
 Series of International Sermons by Eminent Preachers of the 
 English and American Episcopal Churches. Edited by Rev. H. R. 
 RAWNSLEY, M.A., Vicar of Keswick. Imp. i6mo, doth, gilt top, 
 6s. 
 
 Reid. Novels by Capt. MAYNE REID : 
 
 The Death Shot. Illustrated. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 
 3J. 6d. 
 The Flag of Distress. Illus- 
 
 trated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 3-y. 6d. 
 
 The Child Wife. Illustrated. 
 Cr. 8vo. [In preparation. 
 
 Reynard the Fox. An old story new told. With Kaul- 
 
 bach's Illustrations. Second Edition. 4to, cloth extra, gilt top, $s. 
 
 Rich, Elihu. History of the War between 
 
 Germany and France, 1870-71. Fully Illustrated. Imp. 8vo, 2is. 
 
 Richard and Williams. Disestablishment. By 
 
 HENRY RICHARD, M.P., and J. CARVELL WILLIAMS, M.P. 
 Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth, is. [Imp. ParL Ser. 
 
 Richmond, the Rev. Legh. Annals of the Poor. 
 
 With Memoir of the Author by J. S. Stallybrass. Plates. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 " Robin." Children's Books by " ROBIN :" 
 
 The Little Flower Girl, and 
 other Stories, in verse. Illus- 
 trated by Ernest Griset. Cr. 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 Rogers. Works by Prof. J. 
 Six Centuries of Work and 
 
 Wages : the History of English 
 
 Labour. Second Edition. In 
 
 I vol., 8vo, cloth, 15-y. 
 Eight Chapters from the 
 
 History of English Work and 
 
 Wages, being a reprint of 
 
 Rooper. Books by W. and H. ROOFER : 
 
 Skippo, and other Stories, in 
 prose and verse. Illustrated 
 by Ernest Griset. Cr. 8vo, cloth 
 gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
 E. THOROLD ROGERS, M.P. : 
 certain chapters of "Six Cen- 
 turies of Work and Wages." 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 35. 6d. 
 Ensilage, and its Prospects in 
 English Agriculture. Second 
 Edition. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, limp 
 cloth, is. 
 
 An Illustrated Manual of 
 Object Lessons, containing hints 
 for Lessons in Thinking and 
 Speaking, with 20 "blackboard " 
 illustrations. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 
 
 A Manual of Collective 
 Lessons in Plain Needlework 
 and Knitting. With numerous 
 Plates and Diagrams. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth, 3.5-. 6d. 
 
 Ross, Ellen (Author of " The Candle Lighted by the 
 Lord "). Dora's Boy. Fifth Thousand. Illustrated. Small 8vo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt cages, ^s 
 
20 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Rouse, Lydia L. Sandy's Faith. A tale of Scottish 
 Life. Illustrated. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth gilt, is. 
 
 Rowe. Tales by RICHARD ROWE : 
 
 Roughing it in Van Diemen's 
 Land, and Harry Delane. Sm. 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3^. 
 
 A Haven of Rest, and Dr. 
 
 Pertwee's Poor Patients. Sm. 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3-r. 
 
 Rowsell. Books by MARY C. ROWSELL : 
 
 The Spirit of the Giant Moun- 
 tains. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 [Fairy Library. 
 
 Sweet Bells Jangled : A Novel. 
 3 vols. [At press. 
 
 Tales of Filial Devotion. Il- 
 lustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Rye, John, M.A. Kirby in the Dale. A Novel. 
 3 vols. Cr. 8vo, cloth, $is. 6d. 
 
 Schaible Althaus. Seeing and Thinking : Ele- 
 mentary Lessons and Exercises, introductory to Grammar, Com- 
 position, and Logical Analysis. By C. H. SCHAIBLE, M.D., 
 F.C.P., and T. H. ALTHAUS, M.A., Oxon. Second Edition. 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 6d. 
 
 Schiller's Cabal and Love. Translated by T. S. 
 Wilkinson. I2mo, leatherette, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Scottish Naturalist, The. Demy 8vo. Quarterly, is. 2d. 
 Scott, Redna. Edith : A novel. 3 vols. Cr. 8vo ; 315. 6d. 
 
 Seboth, J. Alpine Plants. Painted from Nature, 
 with descriptive text by A. W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc. 4 vols. each 
 with loo coloured plates. Super roy. i6mo, half persian, gilt 
 tops, each 2$s. 
 
 The whole series (four vols.) in an elegant carved cabinet, 
 6 6s. nett. 
 
 Shakespeare. The Works of WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. 
 The Text revised by Rev. ALEXANDER DYCE. In 10 volumes, 
 8vo, with Life, Portraits, Facsimile of Will, etc. Fifth Edition. 
 Beautifully printed on antique-laid paper, and handsomely bound in 
 cloth extra, gilt top, each vol, 9-r. [ Vols. /, VI. ready. 
 
 Shakspere. Othello. Edited for School Use, with 
 notes, by Roscoe Mongan, B.A. Royal i6mo, cloth. 2s. 
 
 Shakspere, The Life and Times of. Portraits. Cr. 
 
 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 21 
 
 Sherwood's, Mrs. Juvenile Library. In three 
 series. Cuts. 12010, cloth gilt, each, is. 
 
 Shields, Rev. R. J. Knights of the Red Cross : 
 
 Seven Allegorical Stories. Plates. I2mo, cloth gilt, is. . 
 
 gritting <$ift 93 0060* Illustrated. Fcap. 8vo, cloth , gilt. 
 Mrs. Leicester's School. By Charles and Mary 
 
 Lamb. 
 
 Sandy's Faith. A Tale of Scottish Life. By Lydia 
 L. Rouse. 
 
 The Knights of the Red Cross : Seven Allegorical 
 Stories. By the Rev. R. J. Shields. 
 
 Crimson Pages. A Tale of the Reformation. By W. 
 Tillotson. 
 
 Reminiscences of a Raven. By James Greenwood 
 (the "Amateur Casual"). 
 
 Shirreff. Kindergarten Books by EMILY A. SHIRREFF : 
 
 The Kindergarten : Principles 
 of Froebel's System, and their 
 bearing on the Education of 
 Women. Third Edition. Cr. 
 8vo, cloth, is. $d. 
 
 The Kindergarten and the 
 
 School. I2mo, -$d. 
 Wasted Forces. I2mo, 3^. 
 
 Sime, Novels by WILLIAM SIME. 
 
 The Red Route. 3vols. 31^. 6d. \ Cradle and Spade. 3 v. 31$, 6d. 
 
 ift 93oo&0* Illustrated. Demy 32 mo, cloth gilt. 
 
 1. Little Henry and his Bearer. 
 
 2. Cheerful Cherry ; or, Make the Best 
 
 of it. 
 
 3. The Basket of Flowers. 
 
 4. The Babes in a Basket. 
 
 5. The Prince in Disguise. 
 The Wanderer. 
 
 7. Little Goody Two-Shoes. 
 
 8. Little Dickie : a Simple Story. 
 
 9. Three Foolish Little Gnomes. 
 10. Cat and Dog Stories. 
 
 n. Story of Patient Griseldis. 
 12. Language of Flowers. 
 
22 
 
 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Solly, the Rev. Henry. Rehousing of the Indus 
 
 trial Classes, or Village Communities v. Town Rookeries. i6mo, 
 limp cloth, 6d. 
 
 Abdy- Williams, E. M. Two IFS. 
 Churchill, Mrs. Spencer. DAISY DARLING. 
 Leith-Adams, Mrs. GEOFFREY STIRLING. 
 
 MADELON LEMOINE. 
 
 Mayne Reid, Capt. THE DEATH SHOT. 
 
 ,, ,, THE FLAG OF DISTRESS. 
 
 Tytler, C. C. Fraser. JASMINE LEIGH. 
 
 ,, ,, MARGARET. 
 
 Williams, Sarah (" Sadie "). THE PRIMA DONNA. 
 
 Sonnenschein Nesbitt. Arithmetical works by A. 
 SONNENSCHEIN and H. A. NESBITT, M.A. : 
 
 The Science and Art of Arith- 
 metic. Part I., 2s. 6d. ; Parts 
 II. III., 3*. 6d. ; Parts I. 
 III. in one vol., $s. 6d. Exer- 
 cises (only), Part I., is. ; Parts 
 II. III., is. $d. Answers 
 (complete), is. 6d. 
 
 A B C of Arithmetic. Teacher's 
 Book. Part I., is. ; Part II., 
 is. Pupil's Book (Exerc. only), 
 Part I., 4flT. ; Part II., $d. 
 
 Ciphering Book. 4Opp. che- 
 quered on right-hand page, and 
 ruled on left-hand page for 
 teacher's remarks. 3-r. per doz. 
 
 Sonnenschein, A. Foreign Educational Codes 
 
 relating to Elementary Education, prescribed by Austrian, Belgian, 
 German, Italian, and Swiss Governments, with Introduction and 
 Notes. Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 6d. 
 
 Sonnenschein's Number Pictures. Fourteen folio 
 coloured sheets for teaching the rudiments of number. Fifth 
 Edition. On one roller ; Js> 6d. ; on boards varnished^ i6s. De- 
 scriptive pamphlet, 6d. 
 
 Sonnenschein's Patent Arithmometer. Box #, 
 
 5-r. 6d. ; box 3, 45. 6d. ; box c, 2os. Complete set, ^i los. 
 
 Sonnenschein's Special Merit Readers. Each well 
 
 and fully illustrated, and strongly bound in cloth. Parts I. II. at 
 press. Part III. (Standard III.), is. Part IV. (Standard IV.), 
 is. d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 23 
 
 Sonnenschein's Linear Blackboard (Outline) 
 
 Maps (rolling up). * 
 
 England and Wales. 4 ft. 9 in. 
 
 by 4 ft. 165-. 
 Europe. 5 ft. 6 in. by 4ft. 2is. 
 
 Two Hemispheres. 5 ft. 6 in. 
 by 4 ft. 21 j. {Shortly. 
 
 Others in preparation. 
 
 Stafford, Eric. Only a Drop of Water and other 
 
 tales. Third Edition. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 
 is. 6d. 
 
 Stephens, George. Old Norse Fairy Tales. Cuts. 
 
 Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. [Fairy Library. 
 
 Stories of my Pets. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, 
 is. 6d. 
 
 Strong and Meyer. A History of the German 
 
 Language. By H. A. STRONG, Professor of Latin in the Liver 
 pool University College ; and KUNO MEYER, Lecturer on Teutonic 
 Languages, Liverpool University College. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 Stubbs. Works by the REV. CHARLES W. STUBBS, M.A. : 
 
 Christ and Democracy. Cr. 
 
 8vo, cloth gilt, 3-r. 6d. 
 The Land and the Labourers. 
 
 Second edition. Cr. 8vo, is. 
 
 The Conscience and other 
 Poems. Printed on hand-made 
 >ellum, 2s. 6d. 
 ristian Morals. 
 
 [fn preparation. 
 
 paper. I2vo, vellum, 2s. 
 Anthology of Christian Morals 
 
 >ttrtietit'0 
 
 Hawthorne's Student's Manual of Indian History, 
 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Milnes' Problems and Exercises in Political Economy, 
 
 4J. 6d. 
 
 Nicholson's Student's Manual of German Literature, 
 y. 6d. 
 
 " Oxon's " Student's Manual of the Reign of George III., 
 
 The Graphic Table Book. id. ; cloth, 2d. 
 The Eclipse Table Book, isoth thousand, 
 
24 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy. Selections from the Works of. 
 
 With a Short Account of the Author and his Writings. $s. 6d. 
 
 Theal, George McCall. Kaffir Folk Lore ; with an 
 Introduction on the Mythology, Manners, and Customs of the 
 Kaffirs. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, 4*. 6d. 
 
 Thorn. Coloured books with text by ISMAY THORN : 
 
 Harlequin Eggs. A 4to colour- 
 book for children, with 24 pages 
 of pictures by Lily Chitty. 
 Illustrated boards, 2s. 6d. 
 
 In and Out. A 4to colour-book 
 for children, with 24 pages of 
 pictures by Lily Chitty. Illus- 
 trated boards, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Tillotson, W. Crimson Pages : a Story of the 
 Reformation. Plates. I2mo, cloth gilt, is. 
 
 Time. A Monthly Magazine of Current Topics, Literature 
 and Art. Medium 8vo. 
 
 Vols. I. IX., edited by EDMUND YATES. $. 
 Vols. X. XI. (1884), edited by B. MONTGOMERIE 
 RANKING. Each 6s. 
 
 New Series, edited by E. M. ABDY-WILLIAMS, com- 
 mencing with January, 1885. Vols. I 2, each, JS. 6d. 
 
 [Monthly, is. 
 
 Tiny Mite, the Adventures of a Little Girl in 
 
 Dreamland. With a large number of Illustrations. 4to, cloth, $s. 
 
 Turner, F. C., B.A. A Short History of Art. 
 
 Illustrated. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, 12s. 6d. 
 
 Tytler. Novels by C. C. FRASER TYTLER : 
 
 Jasmine Leigh. Second Edition, I Margaret. Sec. Edition, ^s. 6d. 
 $s. 6d. \ Jonathan. Sec. Edition. [Shortly. 
 
 Tytler, M. Eraser. Tales of many Lands. Illus- 
 trated. Sm. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3^. 
 
 Valvedre, A. de. Sorrowful yet Lucky. A Novel. 
 
 3 vols. Cr. 8vo, cloth, 31*. 6d. 
 
 Vernalecken, Th. In the Land of Marvels. Folk 
 
 tales of Austria and Bohemia. Edited by the Rev. Prof. E. 
 Johnson, M.A. Cr. 8vo, cloth, gilt top, $s. 
 
 Vicary, J. Fulford, J.P. Readings from the Dane : 
 
 Short Stories translated from contemporary Danish writers. Cr. 
 8vo, paper, is. 
 
 Villari, Lina. Life in a Cave. Frontispiece. Cr. 8vo, 
 cloth gilt, gilt edges, is. 6d. 
 
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List. 25 
 
 Vines, S. H., D.Sc., M.A. A School Botany. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 See also Prantl Vines. 
 
 Wagner. Works by Dr. W. WAGNER : 
 
 Asgard and the Gods. A 
 
 Manual of Norse Mythology. 
 
 Third Edition. Illustrated. 
 Demy 8vo, 7^. 6d. 
 
 Epics and Romances of the 
 
 Middle Ages. Second Edition. 
 Illustrated. DemySvo, *js. 6d. 
 
 Wallace, Cornelia. Flowers, a fantasy. With 
 
 miniature illustrations. Demy 32mo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 6d. 
 
 Wallis. Novels by A. S. C. WALLIS : 
 
 In Troubled Times. A Novel. Royal Favour. A novel. Trans- 
 Translated from the Dutch by j lated from the Dutch by E. J. 
 E. J. Irving. Third Edition \ Irving. Second edition. Cr. 
 (re-translated). Cr. 8vo, 6s. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 "Wanderer" (Author of "Fair Diana/' "Across 
 Country," etc.). Glamour: a Novel. 3 vols. Cr. 8vo, 31 j. 6d. 
 
 Weir. Works by ARCHIBALD WEIR, B.A. : 
 
 The Historical Basis of Eu- I The Critical Philosophy of 
 rope. 8vo. {Shortly. \ Kant. Cr. 8vo, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Welby, S. E. The Traveller's Practical Guide. 
 
 In four languages. A waistcoat pocket volume. Cloth, is. ; roan, is.6d. 
 
 What the Boy thought. A social satire. Sixth thou- 
 sand. Roy. i6mo, parchment wrappers, 6d. 
 
 White. Books by F. A. WHITE, B.A. : 
 
 An Unconventional English 
 Grammar. Second Edition. 
 I2mo, cloth, 4^. 
 
 The Boys of Raby. A holiday 
 book for boys. Illustrated by 
 Dinsdale. Cr. 8vo, cloth gi, 
 gilt edges, 2s. 6d. 
 
 byj. 
 gilt, 
 
 Wiebe, Prof. E. The Paradise of Childhood: 
 
 A complete manual of Kindergarten instruction. Third Edition. 
 75 plates. 4to, cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 Williams, Sarah (" Sadie"). The Prima Donna. 
 
 A Novel. I vol. edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 6d. 
 
26 Swan Sonnenschein & Co.'s List, 
 
 Wilson, Rev. John M. Nature, Man, and God. 
 
 Contributions to the Scientific Teaching of To-day. Cr. 8vo, cloth, $s. 
 
 Wood, Rev. H. A Season among the Wild 
 
 Flowers. Second Edition. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3$. 6d. 
 
 Wright, Dr. Alfred. Adventures in Servia : Ex- 
 periences of a Medical free-lance among the Bashi-Bazoucs, etc. 
 Edited and illustrated by E. Farquhar-Bernard, M.R.C.S. (late 
 Surgeon of the Servian Army). Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, IQS. 6d. 
 
 Wurtz, Dr. A. The Elements of Modern 
 
 Chemistry. Cuts. Cr. 8vo, cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 Xenophon. The Hiero. Edited, with Introduction and 
 
 Notes for the use of schools, by R. Shindler, M.A. Interleaved. 
 I2mo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Yonge. Biographical Books by Professor C. D. YONGE : 
 
 The Seven Heroines of Chris- 
 tendom. Third Edition Illus- 
 trated. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, 3^. 6d. 
 
 Our Great Naval Command- 
 ers. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo, cloth 
 gilt, gilt edges, y. 6d. 
 Drake Blake Cook Rod- 
 ney Nelson Parry. 
 
 Youthful Nobility. Plates. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges. 
 
 IT. 6d. 
 
 Zacher, Dr. B. (Assessor to the Prussian Government). 
 The Red International : An Account of Modern Socialism in 
 Germany, France, Great Britain. Ireland, Switzerland, Belgium, 
 Holland, Denmark, Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, 
 Russia, and North America. Translated by the Rev. E. M. Geldart, 
 M.A. Cr. 8vo, paper, is. 
 
 Zimmern, Helen. Tales from the Edda. Illus- 
 trated by Kate Greenaway and others. Cr. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt 
 edges, is. 6d. 
 
Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 
 27 
 
 The Imperial Parliament Series. 
 
 Written entirely by MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT. Edited by SYDNEY BUXTON, M.P. 
 In Uniform Crown 8vo Volumes, red cloth, neat, each about 150 pp. Is. 
 
 1. Marq. Of Lome. Imperial Federa- 
 
 tion. 
 
 2. Sir J. LubbOCk. Representation. 
 
 3 . W. Ratlibone, Alb. Pell, and F. C. 
 
 Montague. Local Government and 
 Taxation. 
 
 4. Rt. Hon. W. E. Baxter. England 
 
 and Russia in Asia. 
 
 5. Mrs. Ashton Dilke and W. Woodall. 
 
 Women Franchise. 
 
 The last two not yet ready. Others to follow. 
 
 6. W. S. Caine, W. Hoyle, and Rev. 
 Dawson Burns. Local Option. 
 
 7. Henry Broadhurst and R. T. Reid. 
 
 Leasehold Enfranchisement. 
 
 8. Henry Richard and Carvell Wil- 
 liams. Disestablishment. 
 
 9 J- Biyce. The House of Lords. 
 10. J. F. B. Firth. London Government 
 and City Guilds. 
 
 Historical, Political and Social Science. 
 
 Daly's Radical pioneers, 6s. 
 Gronlund's Co-op, commonwealth, 2S. 
 Guyot'S Social economy, 9$. 
 HigginSOn'S Common sense about women, 
 
 is. 
 
 Hughan'S Hereditary peers and heredi- 
 tary paupers, is. 
 
 Imperial Parliament Series, p. 27. 
 
 Karoly'S Dilemmas of labour, etc., 3$. 6d. 
 
 Milnes' Political economy, 4$. 6d. 
 Rogers' Six centuries of work and wages, 
 
 iS-y. 
 
 ,, Eight chapters from the history 
 of English work and wages, 3*. 6d. 
 Solly's Rehousing the poor, 6d. 
 Stubbs' Christ and democracy, y. 6d. 
 
 ,, Land and the labourers, 33. 6d. 
 Zacher'S Red international, is. 
 
 Agriculture, etc. 
 
 Chitty'S Beekeeping. 
 Edwards' Rabbits, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Ewing'S Agriculture, 6d. 
 
 ' Horticultural buildings, y. 6d. 
 ,, Hot water heating, is. 
 Rogers' Ensilage, is. 
 
 Natural History and Science. 
 
 "Alert," Cruise of the, by Coppinger, 6s. 
 Allen's (Grant) The Evolution of Flowers. 
 Alpine Plants, 400 coloured plates, 
 4 vols., 5. In Cabinet, 6 6s. 
 
 Bennett's Flora of Alps, 5$. 
 
 Sevan's Royal Relief Atlas, 2is. 
 ClaUS-SedgWiCk'S Text-book of zoology, 
 
 Vol. I., 2is. ; Vol. II., i6s. 
 COX'S Little cyclopaedia of common things, 
 
 7$. 6d. 
 
 Espin'S Star atlas, is. 6d. 
 Friend's Flowers and flower-lore, 7$. 6d. 
 Harting'S Glimpses of bird life, 425. 
 Hehn'S Wanderings of plants, i6s. 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE. 
 
 Armstrong's Birds and their ways, is. 6d. 
 
 Bagnall's Mosses, is. 
 
 Bottone'S The dynamo, 2s. 6d. 
 Butler'S Entomology of a pond. 
 Greene's Insect hunter's companion, is. 
 Clement's Geological systems, is. 
 
 HewetSOn'S The human eye, is. 
 Kirby'S Handbook of entomology, 15*. 
 
 ,, Evolution and nat.theology,4.y.6<7'. 
 McAlpine'S Diseases of plants. 
 
 ,, Life histories of plants. 
 
 Montague's Dictionary of British birds, 
 7.9. 6d. 
 
 Naegeli-Schwendener's The micro- 
 scope, 2IS. 
 
 Newman's History of British ferns, iBs. 
 
 Prantl- Vines' Text-book of botany, gs. 
 
 Ramsay's Bibliography of climate, i6s. 
 
 Wurtz's Elements of modern chemistry, 
 i os. 6d. 
 
 Kirby'S Young collector, is. 
 Newman's Ferns, People's edition, zs. 
 Filter's Human physiology, is. 
 Wood's Season among wild flowers, 2S. 6d. 
 Young Collect Or'S Penny handbooks, 
 8 vols., id. each. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY MAGAZINES. 
 The Naturalist's World. Monthly, -id. \ The Scottish Naturalist, quart., 
 
28 
 
 Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 
 Books of Travel, etc. 
 
 "Alert," Cruise of H.M.S. Alert, 6s. 
 Barras India, 4 vols., each 35. 6d. 
 Forbes' Canara and Ganjam, 6s. 
 HobSOn'S The farm in the Karoo, 35. 6d. 
 Little's South African sketch book, 2 vols., 
 
 2 IS. 
 
 Marryat'S Tom Tiddler's ground. 
 Marvin's Reconnoitring Central Asia, 
 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 Meignan'S Over Siberian Snows, i6s. 
 Wright's Adventures in Servia, los. 6d. 
 
 Novels and Minor Fiction. 
 
 Abdy- Williams' Two Ifs, 35. 6d. 
 
 For his friend, 3V., 3is. 6d. 
 
 ,, Forewarned, is. 
 
 Alierbach'S Two stories, 2S. 6d. 
 BabCOCk'S Cypress Beach, 2 vols., 12$. 
 BiGkerdyke'S With the best intentions, 
 
 2S. 6d. 
 
 Boger'S Elfrica, 3 vols., 3 is. 6d. 
 Bradshaw'S Roger North, 3 vols., 
 
 3is. 6d. 
 
 Burke'S Couleur de rose, 2 vols., sis. 
 Churchill's Daisy Darling. 3*. 6d. 
 Corbett'S Cassandra, 3 vols., 3 is. 6d. 
 Dalton'S False steps, is. 
 Douglas' Measure for measure,2 vols., 2is. 
 Eyelac'S Leaven of malice, 6s. 
 Hichens' Coastguard's secret, 6s. 
 LeFree'S Walking stick, 6s. 
 HobSOn'S At home in the Transvaal, 
 
 2 VOls., 2IS. 
 
 Leith-Adams' (Mrs.) Geoffrey Stirling, 
 
 3S. 6d. 
 Leith-Adams' Madelon Lemoine, ss. 6d. 
 
 Mayne Reid, The Death Shot, 3 s. 6d. 
 
 ,, ,, The Flag of Distress, 3 s.6d. 
 
 Miiller's German love, 3S. 6d. and 5$. 
 Parker, Dr. 3. Weaver Stephen, 7*. 6d. 
 Paul's Not too funny ! is. 
 RoWSell'S Sweet bells jangled, 3 vols. 
 Rye'S Kirby in the dale, 3 vols., 3 is. 6d. 
 SCOtt'S (Redna) Edith, 3 vols., 31*. 6<t. 
 Sime'S The red route, 3 vols., 3 is. 6d. 
 Tytler'S Jasmine Leigh, 3 s. 6d. 
 
 ,, Margaret, 35. 6d. 
 Valvedre'S Sorrowful yet lucky, 31*. 6d. 
 Vicary'S Reading from the Dane, is. 
 Wallis" In troubled times, 6s. 
 
 Royal favour, 6s. 
 " Wanderer's" Glamour, 3 vols., 3is. 6d. 
 Williams' (S.) Prima donna, 3 s. 6d. 
 
 Antiquities, Folk-lore, etc. 
 
 AXOn'S Gipsy folk tales. 
 BOWker'S Goblin tales of Lanes., 2S. 6d. 
 Caballero'S Book of Spanish tales, 2s. 6d. 
 Cappel'S Old Norse sagas, 2s. 6d. 
 Crpker's Irish fairy legends. 
 Friend's Flowers and flower-lore, js. 6d. 
 Fryer's English fairy tales, 2 s. 6d. 
 Geldart'S Modern Greek folk-lore, 2S. 6d. 
 
 Gesta Romanorum, 2$. 6d. 
 
 Grimm's Teutonic mythology, 3 vols.,4ss. 
 Harley'S Moon lore, ys. 6d. 
 Harris' Uncle Remus, 2s. 6d. 
 Hehn's Wanderings of plants, i6s. 
 
 MaCCall'S Christian legends, 35. 6d. 
 Matthews' Legends of the wigwams. 
 MonteiTO's Portuguese folk-lore, ss. 6d. 
 
 Percy Reliques, 3 vols., 3is. 6d. 
 
 ROWSell'S The Spirit of the Giant 
 
 mountains, as. 6d. 
 
 Stephens' Old Norse fairy tales, 2S. 6d. 
 Theal'S Kaffir folk-lore, 4S. 6d. 
 Vernalecken'S In the land of marvels, ss. 
 Wagner's Asgard and the gods, ?s. 6d. 
 ,, Epics and romances, 7s. 6d. 
 
 Zimmern'S Tales from the Edda, is. 6d. 
 
 Theological and Devotional Books. 
 
 Adams' My man and I, 7S. 6d. 
 
 Church Rambles and Scrambles, 2*. 
 
 COCkburn, Laws of nature, ss. 6d. 
 
 Contemporary Pulpit. Vols. I. IV., 
 
 each, 6s. Monthly, 6d. 
 Dover's Lent manual, 2j. 6d. and is. 6d. 
 
 ,, Ministery of mercy, 6s. 
 Fuller's Holy and profane states, 35. 6d. 
 
 ,, Life of Fuller. 2 vol., i2S. 
 Geldart'S Sunday for our little ones, 3S. 
 
 Doctrine of atonement, 3S. 6d. 
 
 Gorman's Converts to Rome, 2S. 6d. 
 
 Kirby'S Evolution and nat. theol., 4s. (.d. 
 
 Maccall'S Christian legends, 3 s. 6rf. 
 
 Miller's The perfect home. 5 vols. , ca. (d. 
 
 Rawnsley'S Christ for to-day, 6s. 
 
 Richard and Williams' Disestablish- 
 ment, is. 
 
 StUbbs' Christ and democracy, 3s. 6d. 
 ,, Anthology of Christian morals. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, Selections from, 3S. 6d. 
 
 Wilson's The Supreme Power. 
 
Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 
 29 
 
 Temperance and Cottage Books. 
 
 Miller's The perfect home. 5 vols.,each 6d. 
 
 Prize Pictorial Readings, 2*. 
 Rainbow Readings, M. 
 Sixpenny Series. 
 
 Wheeler's Drops of water, is. 
 
 Arthur's Ten nights, 2s. 
 
 Eclipse Elocutionist, i*. 
 
 Kirton'S Happy homes, 2s. 
 
 ,, Priceless treasure, zs. 
 Malin's Shakespeare temp, cal., 25. 6d. 
 Maynard'S Happy wedded life, 25. 
 
 Books on and of Music. 
 
 Andersen's Fairytales set to music, is.6d 
 Bourne's Great composers, 3*. 6d. 
 Fillmore'S Hist, of pianoforte music, 
 
 3 s. 6d. 
 Moore'S Child's pianoforte book, 3*. 6d. 
 
 MOOre'S Music in the K. G., \d. 
 Mulley'S Songs and games, is. 
 Pagi'S Number notation, is.dd. 
 Prentice's Musician, Grades I. IV., zs. 
 each. 
 
 Alpine Plants, 4 vols., each 25^. 
 Everitt'S English caricaturists, 42$. 
 Harting'S Glimpses of bird life, 42*. 
 HewetSOn'S Life of Hewetson, 42*. 
 HewetSOn'S Influence of joy, y. 6d. 
 
 Books on the Fine Arts, etc. 
 
 Irving (Wash.), Beauties of. 23 plates by 
 
 G. Cruikshank, 2$. 6d. 
 Little's What is art? y. 6d. 
 Turner's Short history of art, 125. 6d. 
 
 Buckland'S Happiness of childhood, 6d. 
 
 ,, Use of stories, -yL 
 
 BiilOW'S Child nature, 3$. 
 
 ,, Hand-work and head-work, 35. 
 DePortUgall'S Synoptical table, 25. 6d. 
 Froebel, Selections from. 
 Heerwart'S Mutterlieder, yt. 
 Kindergarten, The. Essays, etc., y. 
 
 Kindergarten Books. 
 
 Moore's (H.K.) Child's pianof.book, $s.6d 
 ,, Music in the K.G., $d. 
 
 , , (N. ) Kindergarten drawing, 3$. 6d. 
 Mulley'S Songs and games, is. 
 ShirrefTs The Kindergarten, u. \d, 
 
 Wasted forces, 3^. [ 3 ^ 
 
 The Kinderg. and the School, 
 Wiebe'S Paradise of childhood, 10*. 6d. 
 
 Books on Education. 
 
 Buxton'S Overpressure, 2s. and is. 
 Cooper's Training of the memory, -$d. 
 Crawford's Reform of spelling, 6d. 
 Fawkes' Babies ; how to rear them, 6d, 
 Hoggan'S Physical education of girls, $d. 
 Earoly'S Dilemmas of labour and educa- 
 tion, 3$. 6d. 
 
 Kindergarten Books. See special 
 
 heading above. 
 
 Locke "On words," ed. Ryland, 4^. 6d. 
 Lb'fving'S Physical education, is. 6d. 
 
 Lb'fving'S Manual of gymnastics. 
 McCarthy's Government code, 6rf. 
 Malleson'S Early training of children, 
 
 2S. 6d. 
 
 MOOre'S Selections from Froebel. 
 NiChOlSOn'S Student's manual of German 
 
 literature, 35. 6d. 
 Perez's First three years of childhood, 
 
 4*. 6d. 
 SonnenSChein'S Foreign educational 
 
 codes, 35. 6d. 
 
 School and College Books, etc. 
 
 Bevan'S Royal relief atlas, 2is. 
 
 Home geography. 
 Brant's Systematic cutting out, 25. 
 
 Glaus SedgWick. Elem. Text-book of 
 
 Zoology, 2i.y. and i6s. 
 Edwards' Mental calculator, w. 
 
Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 
 Faithfull'S Century cards. 
 
 Fleay'S Logical English grammar, 2$. 
 
 Fowle'S Short and easy Latin book, is. 6<t. 
 
 First easy Latin reader, 35. 6d, 
 
 Second easy Latin reader, 3$. 6d. 
 
 Short and easy Greek book, 2.9. 6d. 
 
 First easy Greek reader, 5*. 
 
 Second easy Greek reader, $s. 
 
 First Greek reader for Eton,is.6d. 
 
 First book of Homer's Iliad, zs. 
 
 Selections fr. Lat. authors, 2$. 6d. 
 and is. 6d- 
 
 Geometry, Plane, Elements of, 3*. 6d. 
 George II., 3*- George III., 4*. 6d. 
 
 Goethe, Select poems of, is. 6d. 
 Hawthorne's Manual of Indian history. 
 Hein'S German copy book, 6d. [y. 6d, 
 ISOCrateS, Evagoras, ed. Clarke, zs. 6d. 
 Limerick, Bishop of. Geomet. models. 
 Milnes' Political economy, 4*. 6d. 
 
 ,, Elementary notions of logic,2J. 6d. 
 Moore'S Child's pianoforte book, 3*. 6d. 
 Norton's Histories, 3 vols., is. each. 
 Orme'S Chemistry, zs. 6d. 
 Filter's Human physiology, is. 
 
 The Cambridge 
 
 PlautUS, The captivi, 6s., 35. 6d. 
 POOley-Carnie'S Com. sense French, is. 
 Prantl -Vines' Text-book of botany, gs. 
 Prentice's Musician. Grds. I. IV. ea. zs. 
 JROOper'S Manual of object lessons, 3$. 6d. 
 
 ,, Needlework and knitting, 35. 6d. 
 Schaible-Althaus' Seeing and thinking, 
 
 3J. 6d. 
 ShakSpere'S Othello, for school use, zs. 
 
 Sonnenschein's 
 
 Number pictures, js. 6d. and i6.y. 
 Blackboard maps, i6s. and 21$. 
 Patent arithmometer, 5$. 6</., 43. 64., 
 
 and 30^. 
 
 Special merit readers, is. and is. $d. 
 Science and art of arithmetic, zs. 6d., 
 
 etc. 
 
 A B C of Arithmetic, is., etc. 
 Ciphering book, 35. per dozen. 
 Strong's History of German Lang., 6^. 
 
 Student's Manuals. 
 Table Books, \d. and id. 
 
 Vines' School botany. 
 
 White's Unconventional Engl. gram., 4$. 
 
 Xenophon'8 Hiero, ed. Shindler, zs. 6d. 
 
 Examiner, Monthly 6d. 
 
 Miscellaneous and Reference Books. 
 
 Best BoOkS,The, a classified Bibliography. 
 Sevan's Guide to Westminster Abbey. 
 ,, Lichfield Cathedral. 
 
 COX'S Little cyclopaedia of common things, 
 Jewitt'S English Coins, is. [js. 6d. 
 
 McCarthy's Quarterstaff, is. 
 Marvin's Our public offices, 25. 
 
 Mentone, Guide to, is. 64. 
 
 Welby'S Traveller's pract. guide, is. 
 What the boy thought, 64. 
 
 GIFT AND PRIZE BOOKS. 
 
 Book at 6 6s. (nett.) 
 
 SebOth and Bennett's Alpine plants. 4 series, in cabinet. 
 
 Sevan's Royal Relief Atlas. 
 
 Books at i is. 
 
 Rich's The war between Germany and 
 France 1870-71. 
 
 Gift Books at 75. 6d. 
 
 Adams' Book of earnest lives. 
 
 ,, Battle stories. 
 
 ,, Girlhood of remarkable women. 
 COX'S Little cyclopaedia of common things. 
 Friend's Flowers and flower-lore. 
 
 Gems from the Poets. 
 Wagner's Asgard and the gods. 
 
 ,, Epics and romances of the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 Gift Book at 6s. 
 
 Alert. Cruise of the Alert, by Coppinger. 
 
 Mliller'S (Max), German Love, vellu 
 
 Reynard the Fox. 
 
 Gift Books at 53. 
 
 I Vernalecken'S In the land of marvels 
 
 Gift Books at 35. 6d. 
 
 Adams' Celebrated women travellers. 
 Alberg'S Gustavus Vasa. 
 Arabian Nights, the new. 
 
 Birthday Book, Floral. 
 
 Be time's The great composers. 
 
 ,, African heroes. 2 series. 
 Chapman's Notable women of the Re- 
 formation. 
 Notable women of the 
 
 Puritan times. 
 
 Clarke's Book of Golden Friendships. 
 Cooke'S Three great lives. 
 Darton'S Brave boys. 
 
 Famous girls. 
 Fuller's Holy and profane states. 
 GustafSSOn, Tea-time tales. 
 
 Hauff'S Popular Tales. 
 Hewett'S Heroes of Europe. 
 HillOCks' Hard battles. 
 HobSOn'S The farm in the Karoo. 
 Jung's Australia and her colonies. 
 Letters of the Martyrs. 
 Liefde'S Great Dutch admirals. 
 Life at home, at school, and at college. 
 MOOre'S Child's pianoforte book. 
 Mongan'S Our great military commanders. 
 MUller'S (Max) German love. 
 Reid's (Mayne) The death shot. 
 
 ,, The flag of distress. 
 
 Taylor (Jeremy), Selections from. 
 Yonge'S Seven heroines of Christendom. 
 Our great naval commanders. 
 
 Gift Books at 35. 
 
 Children's Journey, the. 
 
 Gilbert's Modern wonders of the world. 
 
 ,, History of a Huguenot Bible. 
 Keene'S Voiceless Teachers, [and Rosette. 
 
 Martineau des Chesney's Marquise 
 
 O'Reilly's Story often thousand homes. 
 Rowe'S Roughing it inVan Diemen's Land t 
 
 A haven of rest. 
 ROSS' Dora's boy. 
 Tytler'S Tales of many lands. 
 
 Gift Books at 2s. 6d. 
 
 Auerbach'S Two stories. 
 
 Austin's Moon folk. 
 
 Bowker'S Goblin tales of Lancashire. 
 
 BiCkerdyke'S With the best intentions. 
 
 Caballero'S Book of Spanish tales. 
 
 Camden'S Hoity Toity. 
 
 ,, Travelling Menagerie. 
 Cappel'S Olu Norse sagas. 
 Chapman's Notable Women of the 
 
 Covenant. 
 
 Clarke's George and Robert Stephenson. 
 Cupples' Tappy's chicks. 
 Fryer's Book of English fairy tales. 
 
 Geldart'S Modern Greek folk-lore. 
 Harris' Uncle Remus. Illust. Edition. 
 HOWe'S The deserted ship. 
 Irving (W.) Beauties of. 23 plates by G. C. 
 Kroeker'S Alice thro' the looking-glass. 
 Maitland'S Madge Hilton. 
 Parker's Among the Fairies. 
 RoWSellS Tales of filial devotion. 
 
 ,, Spirit of giant mountains. 
 
 Stephens' Old Norse fairy tales. 
 Thorn's Harlequin eggs ; In and Out. 
 White's Boys of Raby. 
 Wood's Season among the wild flowers. 
 
32 Classified List. For Full Titles see General Alphabet. 
 
 Gift Books at is. 6d. 
 
 Alberg'S Charles XII. 
 Andersen's Fairy tales set to music. 
 Armstrong's Birds and their ways. 
 Baker's Stories of olden times. 
 Bickerdyke'S An Irish midsummer 
 
 night's dream. 
 Bourne's Life of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Chapman's Life of John Wiclif. 
 
 Life of Martin Luther. 
 
 Clarke's Short biographies 
 Prince Consort. 
 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 Sir W. Raleigh. 
 Cob be'S Doll stories. 
 COQke'S A boy's ideal. 
 
 True to himself. 
 
 George Stephenson. 
 Robert Stephenson. 
 William Tyndale. 
 
 COOke'S Latimer's candle. 
 
 ,, English Hero. 
 GaUSSeu'S Iron Kingdom. 
 
 King's Dream. 
 
 ,, Kingdom of Iron and Clay. 
 GUiZOt'S Life of Lady Russell. 
 Hawthorne's Biographical stories. 
 Richmond's Annals of the poor. 
 " Robin's" The little flower-girl. 
 
 Skippo. 
 
 Shakspere, his life and times. 
 Stafford's Only a drop of water. 
 Stories of my Pets. 
 Villari'S Life in a cave. 
 Zimmern'S Tales from the Edda. 
 
 Gift Books at is. 
 
 Greenwood's Reminiscences of a raven. 
 Lamb's Mrs. Leicester's school. 
 Norton's History of Greece for children. 
 History of Rome for children. 
 History of France for children. 
 
 ROUSe'S Sandy's faith. 
 Sherwood's Juvenile library. 3 vols. 
 Shield's Knights of the red cross. 
 TillOtSOn'S Crimson pages. 
 
 Gift Books at 6d. 
 
 AnSOn'S Cat and dog stories. 
 
 ,, Three foolisn little gnomes. 
 Chapman's The wanderer. 
 CheeifUl Cherry ; or, make the best of it. 
 Little Dickie. 
 
 Goody Two-shoes. 
 
 Henry and his bearer. 
 The Babes in a basket. 
 
 The Basket of flowers. 
 The Language and sentiment of flowers. 
 The Prince in disguise. 
 The Story of patient Griseldis. 
 The Perfect home series. By Rev. Dr. 
 Miller. 5 vols., each 6d. 
 
 Wallace's Flowers. 
 
 MAGAZINES. 
 
 TIME. 128 pages, medium 8vo. Monthly. From 1885, is. 
 
 THE CONTEMPORARY PULPIT. 64 pages, roy. i6mo. 
 
 Monthly, 6d. 
 
 EASTWARD HO ! 96 pages. Monthly, 6d. 
 THE CAMBRIDGE EXAMINER. A Monthly Educational 
 
 Journal (except July and August). 48 pages, demy 8vo. Monthly, 6oT. 
 THE NATURALIST'S WORLD. Illustrated. 20 pages, fcap. 
 
 4to. Monthly, zd. 
 
 THE SCOTTISH NATURALIST. Demy 8vo. Quarterly, is. 2<i. 
 
 Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld. f London and Aylesbury. 
 
.. 
 
 OVERDUE. ====== 
 
icr. 
 / MVvex^-^