UC-NRLF 
 
 1DM SSb 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 FROM THE LIBRARY OF 
 COUNT EGON CAESAR CORTI 
 
 
 MAIN LIB. -AGRI. 
 
THE 
 
 FLAX INDUSTRY; 
 
 ITS 
 
 IMPORTANCE AND PROGRESS: 
 
 ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT, 
 
 AND 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN THE VARIOUS BELGIAN METHODS OF 
 GROWING AND PREPARING IT FOR MARKET ; 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ROYAL IRISH 
 
 FLAX SOCIETY, AND A WORD ON CHEVALIER CLAUSSEN'S 
 
 INVENTION OF COTTONIZING FLAX. 
 
 BY E. F./ DEM AN, 
 
 LATELY TECHNICAL INSTRUCTOR TO THE ROYAL FLAX SOCIETY IN IRELAND. 
 
 " Omnium rerum ex quibus aliquid acquiritur, nihil est Agricultura melius, 
 nihil uberius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine libero Dignius." 
 
 Cicero de Ojfic. ic. 42. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 JAMES RIDGWAY, 169, PICCADILLY; 
 EFFINGHAM WILSON, 11, ROYAL EXCHANGE. 
 
 JAMES M'GLASHAN, SACKVILLE STREET, DUBLIN. 
 JOHN MENZIES, 61 & 63, PRINCES' STREET, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1852. 
 
MAIN LIB. -AGRI, 
 
 PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET. 
 
THE 
 
 FLAX INDUSTRY; 
 
 ITS 
 
 IMPORTANCE AND PROGRESS: 
 
 WITH 
 
 THE VARIOUS BELGIAN METHODS OF GROWING AND 
 PREPARING IT FOR MARKET. 
 
 a 2 
 
 M74&S69 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 TO THE 
 
 LANDLORDS AND FLAX-GROWERS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 London, 1852. 
 
 a 3 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN whatever capacity it may be, every individual 
 must feel gratified in finding himself in a position 
 able to embrace a mission in which he can make 
 himself useful to society. 
 
 The character of my task is of such a nature 
 that I feel confident that I can do justice to the 
 cause I am advocating, my principles being not 
 so much based upon theory as upon a long and 
 practical experience, and therefore what I shall 
 advance in this present little work in support of a 
 branch of industry is based upon facts so evident, 
 so palpable, and so much in harmony with the 
 exigencies and circumstances of the state of 
 things in this country, and especially in Ireland, 
 that I feel very confident that my efforts and 
 exertions will meet with the expected success. 
 
CONTENTS OF FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 Page 
 
 INTRODUCTION ........ . v i 
 
 I. The Origin and urgent Reasons for having introduced the 
 modern improved Method of growing and preparing the 
 
 Flax Plant in Ireland ...... 6 
 
 II. The Aspect, Agriculture, and Soil of Ireland . . 9 
 
 III. Defects in the Preparation of the Flax Plant and its ori- 
 
 ginal Qualities 12 
 
 IV. Defect in the Flax Scutching 15 
 
 V. Suggested Improvements in the Scutching Machinery and 
 
 handling of the Flax 18 
 
 VI. First Flax-pulling under the Society's directions . . 22 
 
 VII. Flax Factorship * 28 
 
 VIII. Preparation of the Land to grow Flax in Ireland . . 29 
 
 IX. Sowing Season ........ 38 
 
 X. The Merits of the Flax Plant in its Agricultural Forms . 43 
 XI. The favourable State of Agriculture for the Flax Culture 
 
 in England ........ 48 
 
 XII. Exhaustation of the Flax Plant . . i b 53 
 
 XIII. Suggestions for facilitating, promoting, and improving 
 
 the Flax Industry of England and Scotland . . 63 
 
 XIV. The Flax Plant in a social and moral point of view . 88 
 XV. Yield and Strength of British Flax ... * 93 
 
 XVI. Flax-spinning increase in Ireland since 1841, when the 
 
 Flax Society was established . . . ". . 96 
 
 XVII. Schenck's System of Steeping , , ,'\ . ... 98 
 
 XVIII. Belgian Flax fabrication . . ;. . . .- . . , 110 
 
 XIX. Hartismere Flax Association . .. . . . . 117 
 
 Continued, 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FLAX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction . . . . . . .127 
 Growth of flax cleanses and fertilizes the land . . .129 
 Different methods of preparing Flax for market . . . 130 
 Value of an acre of Flax in the Blue districts . . .131 
 Expenses for growing an acre of Flax in the Blue districts . 131 
 Value of an acre of Flax in West Flanders . . .132 
 
 Expenses for growing an acre of Flax in West Flanders . 132 
 
 Value of an acre of Flax manufactured. (Blue system) . 132 
 
 Expenses of manufacturing an acre of Flax (Blue system) . 133 
 Value of an acre of Flax. (Courtrai system.) Summer 
 
 bleaching . . , , 133 
 
 Expenses of manufacturing an acre of Flax. (Courtrai system.) 
 
 Summer bleaching . . . . . . . 133 
 
 Value of an acre of Flax. (Courtrai system.) March 
 
 bleaching . V . . . . . .134 
 
 Expenses of manufacturing an acre of Flax. (Courtrai system,) 
 
 March bleaching . . '. . . 134 
 Land-rents in Belgium . . . . . 134 
 Soil requisite to grow Flax - * . . ' . . -* .135 
 
 Preparation of the soil . . . -. -_ , . . 135 
 
 Sowing the seed . .136 
 
 Weeding ' . .137 
 
 Courtrai System (pulling) . . . . . .137 
 
 Setting up to dry 139 
 
 Tying up and single stacking . . ... .139 
 
 Taking off the seed .140 
 
 Steeping . . ..... 140 
 
 Taking Flax out of water . . . ... .141 
 
 Drying . . . 143 
 
 Summer bleaching . 143 
 
 March bleaching 144 
 
 Turning ......... 145 
 
 Lin Rame " (sticked Flax) 145 
 
CONTENTS. x i 
 
 Page 
 
 BLUE SYSTEM (pulling) ....... 148 
 
 Rippling ........ 148 
 
 Blue Steeping . . . . . . . .150 
 
 Spreading ........ 151 
 
 Turning 152 
 
 Lifting 152 
 
 Dew-retting . . . . . . . .152 
 
 Scutching . . . . . . . .353 
 
 Discoveries and inventions in steeping . . .153 
 
 Factorship of Flax 155 
 
 Consumption and cultivation of Flax in the United Kingdom 158 
 New modes of steeping . . . . . . .160 
 
 Unsteeped fibre 161 
 
 Chevalier Claussen's Invention of Cottonizing Flax . .162 
 Flax-growers' Experiments ...... 168 
 
 APPENDIX 171 
 
 Table of rotations in a poor sandy soil . . . .177 
 Table of rotations for the richest kind of light soil . . 177 
 Table of rotations for a good strong loam . . .177 
 Implement Drawings ...... 178 
 
THE FLAX INDUSTRY, 
 
 ire. jr. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 STRONG, energetical demonstrations and evident 
 facts have been of late brought forward to over- 
 come the prejudice which the agricultural public, 
 especially in England, had for some time past 
 entertained against the flax culture. The task, 
 therefore, of advocating and supporting the flax 
 industry at so critical a moment was not a very 
 agreeable enterprise, considering the many op- 
 ponents it had to contend with. But in justice 
 it must be confessed that through the exertions 
 of a few individuals the former prejudices have 
 faded away, and the flax culture has now become 
 the topic of inquiry and of general interest, as 
 well in the agricultural as in the commercial 
 circle, and must necessarily ere long take its rank 
 among the most profitable staple commodities of 
 British agriculture and manufacture. 
 
 After having passed over almost every county 
 in England and Ireland, and having analysed 
 
2 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 different sorts of soil and water, I can confidently 
 assert that this beautiful country is capable of 
 producing as good and even better qualities of 
 flax than those countries from whence the finest 
 flax is actually imported ; and it is a fact beyond 
 all dispute that its geographical position as well 
 as the elementary properties of the soil and water 
 are most admirably well adapted for the growth 
 and preparation of this valuable plant ; in fact, so 
 remarkable a combination of facilities for this in- 
 dustrial success is rarely to be met with. Let us, 
 therefore, avail ourselves of the advantages Pro- 
 vidence has favoured our soil and climate with. 
 Bor to America we have to look for our raw ma- 
 terial of cotton, for wool and silk we have to look 
 to other countries ; but in point of flax it is quite 
 different, having every facility and advantage 
 given us to produce it in abundance. 
 
 The flax plant is without contradiction (sans 
 contredit) by far the most lucrative, productive, 
 and profitable plant that the soil can produce. 
 The flax plant is not only an agricultural plant, 
 but assumes at one and the same time the name 
 of commercial plant (plante commerciale). 
 
 In its agricultural form the flax plant produces 
 already infinitely more profit to the agriculturist 
 than any other agricultural plant. 
 
 However, it is only when the flax plant begins 
 to assume her commercial form, that at every 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 stage of process the value increases with an 
 amazing rapidity, and in accumulating the merits 
 of the plant of both agricultural and commercial 
 character, the benefits derived from her produc- 
 tions are immense. Not forgetting that the social 
 and moral advantages derived from this wonderful 
 plant are not less worthy of serious and earnest 
 consideration. No ; there is not a stage in the 
 progress of this delicate plant, from the sowing 
 of the seed to the bringing forth of the exquisite 
 lace and cambric, which has not given rise to 
 admiration and the most refined investigation and 
 controversy. 
 
 The flax plant in point of producing articles of 
 luxury and ornament (for the fashionable world) 
 nothing, decidedly, will surpass the exquisite 
 Brussels lace, called dentelle point de Bruxelles.* 
 With this evident arid wonderful fact before us of 
 what the flax plant can produce through the agency 
 of human skill and art, must we not look with 
 some jealous eye to our neighbour friends, and 
 
 * Mademoiselle Emma Reallier, of Brussels, has exhibited at our 
 Great Exhibition a Pocket-Handkerchief, No. 309, " Mouchoir en 
 Dentelle, point de Bruxelles, en fil de lin travailld entierement," 
 which has been sold in London at 500 fr., or 20?. This handker- 
 chief did not weigh more than 16 dwt. troy weight ; thus, in value, 
 surpassing gold by eight times (calculated by weight). One acre of 
 flax can produce 1600 handkerchiefs of that kind, which, at 20?. 
 each, shows a sum of 32,000?. Enormous as the amount produced 
 from an acre of flax may appear, I can assure and prove that there 
 is no exaggeration in this statement, nor in any other statement 
 made in this little work. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 inspire ourselves with the confidence that what- 
 ever they can produce in this branch of industry, 
 we can also ; the more when positively assured 
 that the plant which produces such articles as 
 just alluded to finds in our soil all the nutri- 
 ment requisite (and even in a much higher 
 degree than in many other countries) to produce 
 all what is exquisite, in fact, of flax. 
 
 Prompted, therefore, and encouraged by the 
 most evident facts, let us profit of the favours be- 
 stowed upon this country, favours which human 
 power neither can give nor take away. 
 
 It is therefore needless further to point out in 
 the form of an Introduction how earnestly com- 
 mon efforts should be directed to the introduction 
 and extension of a branch of industry, which in its 
 various departments affords, from a given surface 
 of land, employment to a greater variety of indi- 
 viduals than any other branch of human occu- 
 pation : the agriculturist, the manufacturer, the 
 machinist, and chemist all are equally occupied 
 in its cultivation and preparation. 
 
 Since the flax culture has been taken up with 
 so much spirit, numerous applications have been 
 made to me from agriculturists of all parts of the 
 United Kingdom for information upon the best 
 modes of growing and preparing the flax plant ; 
 and in order to answer those numerous questions 
 at once. I came to the conclusion of writing 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 a few pages in the form of a pamphlet,* in 
 which I have illustrated the different processes 
 connected with the flax industry, and especially 
 those modes which are so successfully adopted in 
 that famous flax-growing country, Belgium. My 
 instructions and information have been sought 
 for with much avidity through the medium of 
 my little work. 
 
 Having thus shown in my former little work 
 how the flax plant is to be grown and treated in 
 its after processes, I shall now endeavour to show 
 what great advantage this country will derive 
 from the culture and manufacture of this valuable 
 plant. 
 
 * ' Flax : its Cultivation and Management.' Published by Ridg* 
 way, Piccadilly. 
 
6 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 I. 
 
 The Origin and urgent Reasons for having intro- 
 duced the modern improved Methods of growing 
 and preparing the Flax Plant in Ireland. 
 
 The flax spinning and linen manufacture, the 
 most profitable staple commodity of the north of 
 Ireland, could scarcely for some time past hold 
 up competition in yarn and linen with foreign 
 nations owing to their inferior raw material 
 (flax), inferiority which was chiefly caused 
 through the mismanagement of the flax plant. 
 The evil consequence had become of such nature 
 that the linen manufacture and yarn spinning in 
 the north of Ireland was upon the point of losing 
 its rank in the commercial world. This state of 
 things could not last, or the flax spinners and 
 linen manufacturers must come to the conclusion 
 of entirely giving up the use of Irish flax, and 
 depend altogether upon the foreign raw material 
 (flax), or take some prompt and decisive steps to 
 improve their own flax. 
 
 This was the position in which the most pro- 
 fitable staple commodity of the north of Ireland 
 
IRISH FLAX SOCIETY. 7 
 
 was placed in 1841. The chief manufacturers, 
 so well known for their commercial spirit, genius, 
 and enterprise, were well aware from whence the 
 cause of their commercial degeneration origin- 
 ated ; they had ample means to judge, from the 
 nature of their flax fibre, that their soil and cli- 
 mate were most admirably adapted for the flax 
 plant ; they had, indeed, already often meditated 
 upon the means by which this progressing evil 
 could be remedied ; but it was not altogether in 
 their reach to do so. The steps must be con- 
 jointly taken by the landlord, manufacturer, and 
 flax grower, and it consequently required a sort 
 of national association. 
 
 The most spirited gentlemen among the flax- 
 spinners and linen manufacturers made, there- 
 fore, an energetical demonstration to some of 
 the leading landed proprietors, showing them 
 the urgent necessity of coming to some measures 
 to improve the culture and preparation of the 
 flax plant in the north of Ireland. It was with 
 that great object that in March, 1841, a society 
 was established at Belfast under the title of the 
 " Royal Flax Society for the Promotion and Im- 
 provement of the Growth of Flax in Ireland." 
 
 Permit me on this occasion to say, that a few 
 months after this I was chosen to be the tech- 
 nical instructor of this society ; and although the 
 task was a very laborious one, I considered it my 
 
8 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 duty to lend my humble services to promote so 
 important a national cause. 
 
 In hereafter quoting the first leading features 
 connected with the progress and the improve- 
 ments which were made during the first years of 
 the Flax Society 's existence, I shall avoid, as much 
 as possible, to bring in my name and proceedings, 
 from fear that the public may think that by so 
 doing I am attempting to attribute to myself a 
 great share of the credit which is naturally due 
 to those individuals who have so earnestly ex- 
 erted themselves to promote this great branch of 
 industry. The most interesting and important 
 progress connected with the flax industry which 
 have taken place for the last ten years in the 
 United Kingdom are decidedly those that were 
 accomplished in 1841 and 1842 in the north of 
 Ireland. I feel therefore rather anxious to give, 
 in the commencement of this little work, a brief 
 sketch of some of the most striking improve- 
 ments which occurred during the two years that 
 I had the pleasure of lending my humble services 
 to the Royal Flax Society, 
 
ASPECT OF IRELAND. 9 
 
 II. 
 
 The Aspect, Agriculture, and Soil of Ireland. 
 
 I should deviate from my task in entering 
 upon agricultural or other matters further than 
 those connected with the flax plant; but in pass- 
 ing I cannot refrain from expressing a notion 
 upon the aspect, soil, and Irish agriculture. 
 
 My native country, some parts of France and 
 Germany, being the only countries in which I 
 had travelled, and having read a good deal of the 
 picturesque views and fertile soil of Ireland, I 
 felt naturally very anxious to see something from 
 which I had a favourable imaginary notion, the 
 more so because the country where I was brought 
 up, Flanders, is exceedingly low, flat, and un- 
 picturesque. 
 
 The coast before arriving at Dublin seemed to 
 me most charming ; the picturesque views, espe- 
 cially at that season (June), made really a capti- 
 vating effect upon me. I remained in Dublin 
 for some days, and paid a few visits to the neigh- 
 bourhood, which appeared to me also most beau- 
 tiful, and the aspect of the country altogether I 
 admired much. 
 
 But in travelling from Dublin to Belfast, when 
 
10 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 I began to give my attention to the agricultural 
 department, 1 could see nothing but oats, not 
 having yet reached more than eight inches in 
 height; the potatoes had only begun to show 
 themselves ; the few fields of wheat I could see 
 looked very poorly ; the fourth part of the land 
 was in pasture and lea ;* and the weeds appeared 
 to be pretty predominant amongst all those crops. 
 Having but a few days previous left Belgium, 
 I had yet before me in imagination the wheat, flax, 
 rye, barley, oats, rape, &c., most of which crops had 
 already reached the height of a man ; indeed the 
 contrast between the crops of the two countries 
 was immense, and yet the good crops stood on 
 a poor soil (the Flanders), the others stood on a 
 soil rich enough to manure the soil of the Flan- 
 ders. Besides, the one country had to struggle 
 against powerful elements, the other country, on 
 the contrary, was protected by those elements. 
 Unwillingness and neglect must therefore be the 
 only cause of this state of agriculture. Stupified 
 as I was, I questioned myself and said, Were 
 such lands in the hands of the Flemish farmer, 
 would he not make 5/. more of each acre ? f I 
 
 * There is a great deal too much of pasture and lea in Ireland. 
 It is a very easy way of farming to keep a large portion of a farm 
 under grass, but the soil should be almost in constant motion ; this, 
 at least, is a term used among the most active agriculturists. 
 
 f I regret to say that three-fourths of the Belgian farms range 
 from 20 to 60 acres, and this class of farmers, notwithstanding all 
 their industry, care, and good husbandry, can seldom raise an inde- 
 
AGRICULTURE OF IRELAND. 1 1 
 
 was fully convinced that he would do so, and in 
 consulting my memorandum-book I found that 
 Ireland had about 13,000,000 acres of arable land ; 
 this multiplied by 5 showed me the enormous sum 
 of 65,000,000^. If such immense losses of na- 
 tional wealth were caused through evils over 
 which human power has no control, as is the 
 case in some countries, either from its geogra- 
 phical position, soil, or climate ; but Ireland, 
 so favoured in that respect, besides being go- 
 verned by the most enterprising nation of nations, 
 cannot be excused for not setting a better example 
 to the agricultural world.* This state of things 
 may perhaps more or less be caused through in- 
 ternal affairs ; this, however, I shall not attempt 
 to discuss, but shall only say that, whatever might 
 have given rise to such, it ought not to exist- 
 Between Lisburn and Belfast a few acres of flax, 
 the first I saw in Ireland, attracted my attention, 
 and in a few minutes we arrived in the latter town. 
 
 pendency, in consequence of their small occupation. It is only 
 those that farm from 130 to 150 acres that can do themselves some 
 good ; but this class of farmers often raise a capital of 20,OOOZ. 
 in the course of fifteen or twenty years. There is a sort of farmers 
 who farm from 60 to 100 acres of their own property, who are gene- 
 rally also pretty well of. 
 
 * In giving a straightforward opinion on Irish agriculture I do 
 not wish to hurt the feelings of any individual. One thing I shall 
 say is, that I feel satisfied that many of the landlords, in the north 
 especially, give every inducement and example for improvement to 
 their tenants. The numerous model farms I have seen during my 
 residence in Ireland are decidedly so systematically constructed that 
 nothing better can be suggested. 
 
12 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 III. 
 
 Defects in the Preparation of the Flax Plant and 
 its original Qualities. 
 
 Being now upon the spot where I had to begin 
 my task, it was rather an interesting moment for 
 me, yet I could not exactly satisfy my curiosity 
 so well as I should have wished, Captain Skinner 
 being for the moment in Belgium, where he had 
 gone with a few young gentlemen farmers to ac- 
 quire some notion of the treatment of the flax 
 plant ; but being most anxious to see some flax 
 fibre, I called at the extensive flax-spinning mill 
 of Mr. Mulholland, a member of the committee 
 of the Flax Society. One of the partners of the 
 firm was kind enough to accompany me in the 
 flax warehouse, where at least 300 tons of Irish 
 flax were piled up and tied in bundles. 
 
 Nothing surprised me more than to see the 
 manner in which it was brought to market* 
 Before having touched any flax fibre I could see 
 the slovenly and neglectful manner in which 
 Irish flax was brought to the spinners ; but it was 
 only when the gentleman who accompanied me 
 
 * In Belgium the flax, after it is scutched and ready for market, 
 is packed up in bales the same as are raw silks. 
 
DEFECTIVE PREPARATION. 13 
 
 began to give me some samples in my hands 
 that I was quite aware of the complete mismanage- 
 ment of the fibre. My first expression I shall 
 always recollect was, C'est fait par fantaisie, au- 
 trement cest impossible. Some samples were 
 steeped to such a degree that the fibre had com- 
 pletely lost its natural strength ; it could not 
 therefore be expected to produce a strong, durable, 
 manufactured article from a raw material which 
 was much deteriorated. 
 
 This was one cause of the decrease of the linen 
 manufacture in Ireland. 
 
 Another sample was shown me for inspection 
 which I found not watered enough, a defect 
 which causes the flax fibre to be of coarse, fra- 
 gile nature : thus the articles manufactured of 
 such raw materials are also of a coarse, fragile 
 texture fabric, another great cause of the dege- 
 neration of the flax and linen manufacture. 
 Other samples shown me were mixed with blue, 
 grey, and black colours ; and very badly cleansed 
 and handled. These different colours, when spun 
 and woven up together, must necessarily produce 
 linen texture of a very inferior quality, through 
 the slovenliness of which the spinning and linen 
 manufacture had also to suffer considerably* 
 
 My great anxiety to see some flax fibre was to 
 insure myself of the original quality of the Irish 
 flax. Had its original quality not been good, 
 
1 4 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 the improvements we were about to make should 
 have been very limited, and consequently would 
 have lost much of their merits and importance ; 
 because, whatever superior treatment may be 
 given to the flax fibre, it is impossible to bring it 
 to a great superiority if the flax do not possess 
 some good original qualities : of course a com- 
 mon quality of flax can be improved to a certain 
 degree by a superior treatment.* 
 
 I have now justly, and in a few words, depre- 
 cated the Irish flax fibre in several of its modes 
 of preparation ; but one great feature connected 
 with this important branch of national industry 
 is, that I had convinced myself, after a most 
 subtle and careful examination, that I had traced 
 in the Irish flax fibre submitted to my inspection 
 some original qualities, the value of which is 
 incalculable. Upon this great fact all the future 
 improvements and success of the enterprise were 
 based. 
 
 * Inferior qualities of Belgian flaxes, by their superior treatment, 
 often assume a good appearance ; but these are partly artificial 
 qualities, by which the fabricant makes good profits, and by which 
 the manufacturer is often a loser, as those flaxes will not spin the 
 number for which they were intended. It is, therefore, in the in- 
 terest of the flax-spinners to send good judges to the Belgian flax 
 markets. 
 
DEFECTIVE SCUTCHING. 15 
 
 IV. 
 
 Defect in the Flax scutching. 
 
 Captain Skinner had now returned from 
 Belgium with the deputation of young gentle- 
 men farmers and some Belgian labourers who 
 were brought over ready for the pulling cam- 
 paign, the time of which was near at hand ; but 
 I was very anxious before this busy time arrived 
 to visit some scutching-mills, in order to intro- 
 duce without delay some improved machinery, 
 being well aware, from the flax I had just ex- 
 amined, that the existing flax-scutching ma- 
 chinery must be of the most pitiable description. 
 I therefore strongly impressed upon the secretary 
 to urge the committee to take some prompt and 
 decisive steps to improve the scutching ma- 
 chinery, proving that, amongst the numerous 
 defects I had found in the preparation of the 
 flax fibre, the slovenly manner in which the 
 scutching operation was performed was decidedly 
 one of the greatest defects, an evil which fell 
 entirely and directly upon the flax spinner, and 
 was one of the chief causes of the languishing 
 state of the staple manufacture of the north of 
 Ireland. 
 
16 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 The committee, therefore, desirous to accelerate 
 by every possible means any improvement which 
 was strongly recommended, came at once to the 
 conclusion to despatch me, accompanied with an 
 interpreter, to some of the most intelligent 
 owners of scutching-mills, and to suggest any 
 improvement in machinery which I thought 
 proper. At the same time the committee came 
 also to the conclusion of offering 100/. for the 
 best invented scutching machinery, as will be 
 seen by an extract from the report of 1842, 
 alluding to the subject as follows: "As to the 
 effect of premiums offered last year by your So- 
 ciety for the improvement of machinery, your 
 Committee assure the meeting that through the 
 United Kingdom it has awakened attention to 
 the subject and aroused a great spirit of compe- 
 tition, for everywhere around us, and even from 
 abroad, have reports reached your Secretary of 
 preparations made by individuals to compete. 
 Several models of considerable merit have, how- 
 ever, now been exhibited, two in particular, one 
 for breaking and one for scutching flax, by Mr. 
 Montgomery, Grove Mills, Belfast, which the 
 Committee can recommend to the public as 
 being calculated from its simplicity, comparative 
 cheapness, from its doing work well, and giving 
 from the straw a higher yield than mills now in 
 general use, so much as to average above 24 Ibs. 
 
DEFECTIVE SCUTCHING. 17 
 
 of cleaned flax from the 100 Ibs. of straw ; they 
 have also adjudged it worthy of the 25/. pre- 
 mium at present ; for as several machines have 
 been reputed to be in progress, they deemed it 
 expedient to keep open the higher premiums of 
 100/. for yet another year, when, should none 
 superior in its qualities be offered to the public 
 than Mr. Montgomery's, it will become entitled 
 to the higher reward offered by your Society.*' 
 
 The new-constructed scutching mill from Mr. 
 Montgomery was decidedly a wonderful improve- 
 ment upon the old machinery. Several expe- 
 riments were tried under my own superinten- 
 dence ; the saving in the quantity of flax was 25 
 per cent, and in the quality about 20 per cent. 
 I have had great pleasure in recommending this 
 new machinery to the public in my pamphlet 
 published last year bearing the title of ( Flax, its 
 Cultivation and Management.' 
 
18 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 V. 
 
 Suggested Improvements in the Scutching Ma- 
 chinery and Handling of the Flax. 
 
 The flax-scutching mills about Londonderry, 
 Coleraine, and Ballymoney were completely con- 
 structed to destroy to a great amount both the 
 quality and quantity of the flax fibre. The im- 
 provements that I have suggested in that part of 
 the country in machinery, and especially in skil- 
 ful handling, may be estimated at 40 per cent, 
 upon the old, slovenly, and destructive method. 
 This great saving in one single process must give 
 an idea in what state the flax fibre was brought 
 to market at that period. 
 
 I was really astonished to see this neglectful 
 state of things, the more so when I saw those 
 powerful waterfalls which cause so much eco- 
 nomy to this process (scutching), for it is re- 
 markable to meet so many combinations of 
 facilities all pointing out immense advantages 
 which Ireland possesses in favour of a rapid pror 
 gress in the flax industry. 
 
 The following extract from my journal will 
 prove that the flax -growers and mill-owners were 
 
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS. 19 
 
 eager in some districts to receive my instructions 
 and information : 
 
 " Bushmills, May 9th. Mr. Deman has attended this day 
 at a public meeting in the court-house, Sir F. W. Macnaghten 
 in the chair ; when, previous notice having been given, there 
 was a very respectable attendance, and all present were exceed- 
 ingly well pleased with the valuable information and instruc- 
 tions afforded by him. A great variety of questions were put 
 to him by several of the company, to which he gave most satis- 
 factory answers. It would be most desirable that he should 
 come to this neighbourhood at the time of the pulling, as 
 that is a very important stage of the process of managing flax. 
 
 " Sir F. Macnaghten having been obliged to leave the 
 meeting, Mr. Trial was voted into the chair, when the above 
 testimony in Mr. Deman's favour was passed unanimously. 
 (Signed) William Trial." 
 
 " Monsieur le Secretaire Capitaine Skinner. 
 " MONSIEUR, Coloraine, le 11 Mai. 
 
 " JE trouve la machinerie des moulins a teiller le lin 
 d'une construction de'sastrepse et miserable. La perte causee 
 par le systeme actuel n'est pas moins de 25 per cent., et celle 
 causee dans la qualite n'est guere moins que 25 per cent. II 
 faudra une reformation complete dans la machinerie, et il 
 sera aussi indispensable que des ouvriers Beiges soierit envoyes 
 pour instruire les ouvriers d'ici a manier le lin d'une ma- 
 niere plus adroite et gentille ; car le mal reste encore plus dans 
 la maladresse des ouvriers que dans la machinerie. Plusieurs 
 cultivateurs paraissent disposes a suivre mes avis et conseils. 
 Je leur ai fortement recommande la machinerie de Mr. Mont- 
 gomery, Grove Mill, Belfast. 
 
 " Je suis, votre tout devoue, 
 
 "E. F. DEMAN." 
 
 So early as 1844 the Society in its annual 
 report gave the following favourable account of 
 
 c 2 
 
20 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 the improvements which had been accomplished 
 in the scutching department during the last two 
 years : 
 
 " Amongst the most pleasing features in the progress of 
 improvement which your Committee have to notice, are the 
 strides towards perfection that have been made during the 
 past years in the adoption of machinery to the breaking and 
 scutching of flax. The prices offered for machinery by the 
 Society last year gave an impetus to the ingenuity of ma- 
 chinists, which continues still in full force. Your Committee 
 have heard with pleasure of new inventions or improvements 
 on former adaptations which have been very successful when 
 practically applied ; and the most marked superiority in the 
 manner in which flax is at present handled is the consequence. 
 Several large landed proprietors have at great cost erected 
 scutch-mills on their estate for the benefit of their tenantry, 
 containing the most approved machinery ; and they have thus 
 conferred a boon which does honour to themselves, and is 
 fully appreciated by their tenants. Your Committee have 
 every reason to hope that in a short time flax-breaking and 
 scutching machinery will be brought to a high state of per- 
 fection, and that the Society will no longer have to lament 
 the inefficiency and waste which characterised the Irish scutch- 
 mills before the commencement of the Society's labours/' 
 
 On my return to Belfast from a tour in several 
 counties I was requested by the Secretary to call 
 upon the President of the Flax Society, the Mar- 
 quis of Downshire, at Hillsborough, to whom 
 I had a letter of introduction. His Lordship 
 availed himself of my visit by putting to me 
 numerous and interesting questions, which indi- 
 cated that his Lordship took a considerable in- 
 terest in the improvements of the flax industry. 
 
SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS. 21 
 
 His Lordship observed that the Irish farmer was 
 slow in adopting innovations, and said, he gave 
 me this warning in order that I may not be dis- 
 appointed when I met some difficulties in my way. 
 His Lordship also observed that he was quite 
 aware that it would require several years before 
 the great reformations and improvements which 
 the Society had in view could be accomplished. 
 His Lordship gave me a list of some of his most 
 intelligent tenant farmers, requesting me to call 
 upon them. He advised me in all circumstances 
 to make the first attempt upon clever, intelligent 
 farmers, because, his Lordship observed, that on 
 the success of the first experiment much would 
 depend. His Lordship requested me to write a 
 short treatise expressing my opinion upon the 
 qualifications of Irish soil and climate, and espe- 
 cially as to its suitableness for the growth of flax. 
 The treatise was appended to the first annual 
 Report of the Flax Society of 1841. 
 
22 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Flax-puUing in 1841. 
 
 Here the great moment for action is arrived. 
 A few weeks will suffice to save 480,000. to the 
 Irish flax-growers! 60,000 acres of flax are 
 thrown for the first time upon the care and 
 discretion of the Flax Society. Half-a-dozen of 
 intelligent young Irish farmers and a few Belgian 
 labourers are placed under my superintendence, 
 and with this small body I must set out to save to 
 the flax-growers the sum alluded to.* For more 
 than two centuries flax has been extensively 
 grown* in Ireland, and thus each year the sum 
 of 480,000^. has been thrown away. This un- 
 doubtedly has contributed to some extent to the 
 present state of things in Ireland. But now at 
 least while the means are given to you,f put a 
 stop to one of these evil causes. 
 
 Farmers, flax-growers, I come to announce to 
 you that I bring you on each acre of flax that 
 you have grown this season 41. more than ever 
 you made before from your flax-crop.f Save your 
 
 * I speak in my capacity of technical instructor of the Society, 
 t To the flax-growers. 
 
 J The seed is worth 41 per acre for feeding cattle and pigs ; this, 
 upon 60,000 acres, amounts to 240,OOOZ. 
 
FLAX-PULLING IN 1841. 23 
 
 flax-seed, it will give good food for your cattle 
 and abundance to yourself! Nay, 1 must offer you 
 more ; follow my further instruction, and I will 
 give you another 41. more for each acre of this 
 year's flax-crop.* Will you accept this offer, or 
 will you refuse it ? Flax-growers, agriculturists, 
 show at least that you are not ungrateful to those 
 who are watching so closely for your interests, f 
 But know that art and skill are the agents who 
 will pay you this reward. 
 
 Notwithstanding the facilities given to the Irish 
 .flax-growers, three-fourths of them have remained 
 indifferent for the last ten years to the generous 
 appeal of the Flax Society ; but of all the great 
 defects which still exist in the various processes 
 connected with the flax industry, none are so 
 lamentable, so evidently absurd, and so much 
 opposed to every good sense and economy, as to 
 throw away such a valuable article as the flax- 
 seed, and for no other purpose than to cause dis- 
 eases.;}; The matter is indeed grave enough for 
 
 * In following the directions and instructions of pulling, steeping, 
 spreading, and turning the flax, at least 41. more would be gained 
 upon each acre ; this, upon 60,000 acres, amounts" to 240,000?., 
 which together with saving the seed amounts to 480,000?. 
 
 t The committee of the Flax Society, landlords, and others, who 
 support the Society. 
 
 J When the seed is taken from the flax, steeping is a most plea- 
 sant process ; but, on the contrary, when the seed is thrown in the 
 water together with the flax, the process becomes disagreeable, and 
 may in some instances cause diseases. 
 
24 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 the Legislature to interfere and to put a stop to 
 such a wilful waste of property. 
 
 The flax question has often, and from early 
 times, been under legislative consideration. A 
 writer on flax says, 
 
 " The question of flax culture is one which is not now for 
 the first time brought before the public. On the contrary, its 
 importance has been recognised from the earliest times ; and 
 it has formed the subject of repeated legislative enactments 
 at various periods, from the time of the 24th of Henry VIII., 
 when it was enjoined that every person occupying land apt 
 for tillage, should, for every sixty acres, sow one rood at least 
 with flax," 
 
 down to the year 1809, when a sum of 20,000. 
 was appropriated to encourage the saving of 
 flax seed in Ireland. The subject has also been 
 repeatedly before the public during the last 
 ten years, in the annual Reports of the Royal 
 Irish Flax Society, and in the various publica- 
 tions of Mr. Warnes and other persons who have 
 applied themselves to its cultivation. 
 
 Again, the Royal Flax Society, in its last 
 annual Report, alluding to the saving of the flax- 
 seed, demonstrates, in convincing terms, the im- 
 portance of this economy, alluding to the subject 
 as follows : 
 
 " Year after year the annual Reports have contained 
 earnest recommendations that the seed of the Irish flax -crop, 
 instead of being set with the stems in the pools, should be 
 taken off by rippling, to be employed for sowing, sold to the 
 oil-mills, or used by the farmer as food for his live stock. 
 
FLAX-PULLING IN 1841. 25 
 
 The Society's instructors have constantly endeavoured to in- 
 culcate the importance of this economy ; but so deeply rooted 
 is the prejudice against saving the seed, that as yet it is only 
 to a limited extent that farmers have attended to this advice. 
 It has been repeatedly stated, that in all the flax-growing 
 countries of the world the seed is saved ; and that the finest 
 of Flemish flax, rarely equalled in Ireland, is produced from 
 plants from which the seed has been taken. Many farmers 
 will not be convinced, and still continue to throw away a part 
 of the produce for which the crop is alone cultivated in some 
 countries, where the straw is used as thatch. Your Com- 
 mittee are, however, not without hope that a more rational 
 practice will creep in by degrees ; and they are pleased to 
 learn that this year about 8000 bushels of rippled seed have 
 been purchased at the Belfast oil-mills, from a few districts in 
 the county of Down. When it is calculated that at least 
 100,000 acres of flax have been steeped in Ireland this year, 
 without the seed having been taken off, and that the latter, at 
 mere crushing prices, would be worth 300,000/., this lament- 
 able loss of national wealth, which would alone be sufficient 
 to feed 100,000 paupers annually, must be deeply deplored." 
 
 The flax-straw, in the course of four weeks, 
 passes through four successive processes pulling, 
 rippling, steeping, and grassing. There was great 
 defect in each and all of those processes. The 
 flax was pulled very unevenly ; the short and 
 long were pulled together ; coarse and fine, and 
 portions of the fields that were lying, were also 
 mixed together in the pulling. Instead of which, 
 all these different qualities must be separated, 
 as each sort requires a different time of steeping. 
 This method gives decidedly more trouble ; but 
 when the people are skilfully instructed, the extra 
 expenses are but trifling, considering the advan- 
 
26 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 tages this new method has upon the wasteful 
 manner in which it was before done. Hence it 
 is from this pitiable neglect that results the un- 
 equal strength and quality of the fibre, so very 
 deteriorating to the texture fabric. . 
 
 To the enormous loss of not taking off the seed 
 I have already alluded. 
 
 The steeping is a process of much importance, 
 and yet requires nothing but care and proper 
 attention to have the flax steeped in all its natural 
 strength. This process was also much neglected, 
 by which, in some instances, the flax fibre lost 
 half its value. The grassing : In this process 
 the flax must be spread equal and regularly on 
 the grass, and turned over every two or three 
 days, instead of which the Irish farmers spread 
 it on the grass almost like hay, in one place 
 thick, in another thin, and without turning it at 
 all: consequently one part of the flax was ex- 
 posed to the atmosphere during ten or twelve 
 days, but quite the contrary was the other side. 
 From this resulted unequal colour, and in many 
 instances a loss of 20 per cent, upon its value. 
 
 Almost all the supporters of the Society, and 
 the advocates of the cause of improvements, were 
 anxious to be visited by one of our instructors. 
 Indeed it was a pleasure to call upon those who 
 were prepared to follow the advice of the Society, 
 because every man of good sense must evidently 
 
FLAX-PULLING IN 1841. 27 
 
 see that the superiority of the Belgian methods 
 were immense. It attracted, in many instances, 
 large bodies of people to the fields where the dif- 
 ferent processes were performed. In fact, some 
 gentleman or other gave generally notice that on 
 such a day one of the Society's instructors was to 
 arrive, and that the various processes then in 
 train would be illustrated. This indeed was a 
 capital plan to instruct the whole neighbourhood 
 at once, it being impossible to call at every flax- 
 field, the applications to the Society for instructors 
 being so very numerous that all could not be 
 attended to, the time during which those four suc- 
 cessive processes are performed being very short. 
 
 The amount of good, however, that has been 
 already accomplished during the first season of 
 the Society's existence is immense ; and one im- 
 portant feature connected with the great enter- 
 prise is, that it has been evidently proved that 
 the original quality of Irish flax is superior to 
 that of several other flax-growing countries; 
 and when the improvements are accomplished in 
 all their extent, Irish flax will necessarily have 
 increased to 100 per cent, in value. 
 
28 THE FLAX INDUSTKY. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Flax Fact or ship. 
 
 In order to introduce the growth of flax more 
 systematically, and as a great encouragement to 
 the farmers to increase the growth of flax, I re- 
 commended strongly to the Committee the esta- 
 blishment of the flax factorship. The Committee 
 approved much of my proposal, as will be seen 
 by a passage extracted from the Society's annual 
 Report of 1842:- 
 
 " The introduction of such a system would thus perma- 
 nently establish amongst us the fullest amount of improvement 
 that our soil and climate may be capable of; and your Com- 
 mittee have sanguine hopes that the period is not far distant 
 when this branch of business will be taken up with spirit. 
 Useful suggestions were given on this subject by Mr. Deman, 
 who was himself a factor of long experience, in the treatise 
 last published by him, to the public, and which was appended 
 to the first annual Report, and has been exemplified most 
 satisfactorily and successfully by him this season, in the treat- 
 ment of a small quantity of flax which he had purchased on 
 the foot, on his own account, in the neighbourhood of Mayo. 
 This flax turns out equal to the finest qualities of Courtrai 
 flax imported, as proved by the price actually obtained for it, 
 being at the rate of 18*. per stone, or 140/. per ton." 
 
PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 29 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Preparation of the Land to grow Flax in Ireland. 
 
 Since my arrival in Ireland, the different pro- 
 cesses connected with flax which I had to super- 
 intend came in a course of succession, and therefore 
 I had not had an opportunity of suggesting im- 
 provements in the preparation of the land and 
 the sowing of the flax-seed ; and having now 
 visited almost every district in the north of Ire- 
 land, I was convinced that, in order to lay a 
 good foundation for the further rapid progress 
 of improving the flax industry, another im- 
 portant step was required from the agriculturists 
 flax-growers. The first defects in the flax fibre 
 were caused through the bad management of 
 the land. Short arid long, coarse and fine flax, 
 in one and the same field, are decidedly the con- 
 sequences of the land being ploughed in furrows,* 
 and the seed being sown unevenly.*)" In Belgium 
 the land is always ploughed twice, sometimes 
 more, according to the state which the land is 
 
 * The flax that grows in and near the furrow will be short ; land 
 for flax should be properly drained and sown flat. 
 
 f The spots where the seed is thin will produce a coarse plant ; 
 where the seed is thick it will produce a fine plant. It must be 
 understood that a coarse branchy plant produces always coarse fibre, 
 and the delicate fine plant produces fine silky fibre. 
 
30 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 in. Great care is taken to sow the seed very 
 evenly, and to select the best seed.* It is almost 
 impossible to form an idea of the care and atten- 
 tion the Belgian farmer takes in preparing his 
 land and selecting good seed for the culture of 
 this plant, knowing that such is indispensable to 
 secure a good crop. In a word, it must be said 
 that it is upon the proper preparation of the land, 
 sowing good seed, and sowing evenly, that the 
 whole success of the flax improvements in its after 
 processes are based. 
 
 It was under such considerations that I advised 
 Captain Skinner, the Secretary, to impress upon 
 the Committee the great necessity to send a few 
 young intelligent farmers to Belgium, in order 
 that they may acquaint themselves with the prac- 
 tical knowledge of the manner in which the land 
 was prepared and the flax-seed was sown in that 
 country. 
 
 The Committee, always ready to avail itself 
 of any suggestion by which the views of the So- 
 ciety could be accelerated, sent over to Belgium 
 four young men. Two of them I had great plea- 
 sure in recommending to a near relative of mine, 
 
 * The seed sown in Belgium is partly imported from Riga, and 
 partly from their own growth. The seed sown in Ireland is gene- 
 rally bad foreign seed, and full of weeds, the extraction of which 
 never was thought of. It is easy to conceive that an accumulation 
 of those weeds, together with those already rooted in the soil, must 
 be pernicious to this delicate plant. 
 
PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 31 
 
 with a request to give them every information 
 respecting flax. The numerous letters written 
 from Belgium by those young men were all pub- 
 lished by the Committee; and I give hereafter the 
 first letter of each of them, dated from the dif- 
 ferent quarters where they were sent: 
 
 " At the committee meeting of this Society for the month 
 of April, it was adjudged that a summary of Jhe proceedings 
 since the issuing of the Report of last December would prove 
 highly interesting at this moment, and especially so the ex- 
 tracts from the journals and letters of the young farmers 
 lately sent out to Belgium to take a practical lesson on the 
 preparation of the soil for the flax crops and the sowing of 
 the seed. To farmers generally it will prove instructive, 
 marking the impression made on the deputation by the care 
 and labour given in the tillage of the land by the Belgian 
 farmer, the admirable system of agriculture everywhere insti- 
 tuted in that country, which includes all the modern improve- 
 ments of draining, subsoiling, green cropping, and judicious 
 rotation, which our agricultural societies are universally en- 
 deavouring to introduce amongst us; and the very active, 
 diligent, and industrious habits of the people, with their extra- 
 ordinary frugality and management of manures, collecting it 
 from sources, preserving it with care, and applying it with a 
 consideration and judgment never calculated on by us. To 
 the landed proprietors, from a perusal of the shrewd remarks 
 made by these practical parties, it will be obvious that 
 advantages must accrue to those districts of country from 
 which these young men are from time to time selected : being 
 intelligent, and the most highly recommended of the candi- 
 dates offering, and having facilities afforded them whilst tra- 
 velling under the Society's auspices, and with such suitable 
 introductions abroad as few individuals could command, these 
 young farmers have opportunities of seeing and acquiring 
 more than the public would generally infer from the limited 
 
32 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 period during which they are absent ; and on their return, 
 labouring, as they are called on to do, as agriculturists for the 
 Society ; to introduce the improvements the} have been wit- 
 nessing, they are stimulated to an exertion which, were they 
 left to themselves, they would not have the opportunities, and 
 might soon lose the inclination to keep up ; and as the no- 
 velty and first impressions wore off, old habits and views might 
 gradually be resumed. But in their present case, the objects 
 of an influential Association are to be promoted, as well as 
 the individual credit and interest of the parties being at stake ; 
 and having the occasional visits and association of the Belgian 
 superintendent-agriculturist (Mr. Deman), and the labourers 
 brought over from time to time to assist him, ensure under 
 all these circumstances a progressive improvement, and a 
 ripening of conviction that will effectually guard against re- 
 trograding into former opinions. The good likely to arise to 
 the country from these measures must be readily admitted, 
 and that much may be effected through the agency of this 
 Society, if its efforts are but adequately supported for a few 
 years, and it but meets with the co-operation from all parties 
 (but especially landed proprietors) which the importance of 
 its ends in view so well merit. 
 
 " In January, 1842, the committee determined on sending 
 a deputation out in spring to witness the preparation of the 
 soil and the sowing of the seed. 
 
 " Two to be of those who visited last year, and two fresh 
 parties, who were selected from the list of the former candi- 
 dates." 
 
 " SlR, "Duffel, Monday, March 21, 1842. 
 
 " I am sorry it is not in my power to give you any infor- 
 mation respecting the subject of the deputation as yet, as here 
 they have not commenced to lay down the crops, nor will 
 they for a week to come. However, we are instructing our- 
 selves in their art of tillage ; and I can confidently assure 
 you, that until I came here I had only heard of agriculture ; 
 but now I have seen it. It is very easy indeed to draw a 
 
PKEPARATION OF THE LAND. 33 
 
 line of demarcation between the Belgian and Irish farmers. 
 The one is vigilant, industrious, and completely master of his 
 business ; the other is no tradesman, and a sluggard, who 
 knows not what labour is, nor does he know how to convert 
 his land to a good purpose. He would scarcely believe it, if 
 he were told, that here they take two crops off the same 
 ground in the same year, nor could he be brought to think it 
 practicable. However, it is a fact that, by sowing green 
 crops, such as carrots, with his wheat, rye, or oats, and on 
 stubble, he will put in turnips, or plant rape ; and in this way 
 secures to himself an abundance of green crops, which serves 
 to feed his cattle in the house (for they never get out here). 
 We have seen some ground which is in preparation for flax, 
 and I never saw ground for garden seeds prepared with more 
 care and attention. Might I take the liberty of requesting 
 you to write to my friends, to say we are well? 
 
 " I remain, Sir, yours, 
 G. M. Skinner, Esq." " ROBERT BUNTING. 
 
 " SIR, " Hamme, March 26, 1842. 
 
 " I arrived here yesterday evening, after having been tra- 
 velling for the last three days with Mr. D . Mr. Haslett 
 
 was with us. We were forty miles above Louvain, in the 
 Walloon country, seeing a scutching machine, which Mr. 
 
 D strongly recommended, and which I am convinced 
 
 would suit the Irish farmer well ; it is on the same principle 
 as our thrashing-machines, and is worked by two horses; 
 eight men can scutch at once, and each man can clean 45 Ibs. 
 
 of flax per day, and it is done so well that Mr. D assures 
 
 me that flax will bring 101. per ton more in the market than 
 the same done by hand.* This machine does the work well 
 
 * I have every reason to think Mr. D. means to say that it is 
 worth 10Z. less than the flax scutched by hand. If the Belgian 
 factor was oifered to have his flax scutched gratis by the scutching- 
 mills he would refuse the offer, knowing too well the great waste it 
 causes, and the inferior quality it produces. So long as there are 
 hands enough to scutch the flax by hand, it will be done so in that 
 
 D 
 
34 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 without the least waste, and the expense of putting one up 
 would be very trifling, as all the machinery in it is very 
 simple ; and I am sure a large farmer would save all the ex- 
 pense of putting it up in one year, or two at most ; to any one 
 having a thrashing-mill it would be still cheaper. 
 
 " No flax sown here yet, the weather is so backward ; but 
 all are ready to commence. The ground everywhere is pre- 
 pared, and has more the appearance of a garden plot than 
 anything else I know of; it has been ploughed three times, 
 and in some instances (where the land is any way heavy) 
 four times. The crops here look remarkably well, particularly 
 the wheat, which certainly looks better here, and is further 
 forward, than ours in May. If such weather as we have to-day 
 continues, flax sowing will be general, and over in a week. 
 
 " The kindness and attention of your friend Mr. D 
 
 surpass anything I could believe ; he has dedicated three days 
 to us entirely, and must have put himself to considerable ex- 
 pense. As soon as I see any sowing, I will write again. 
 " I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 " THOMAS HARDY." 
 
 " SlR, " Duffel, March 29, 1842. 
 
 " The instructions which I received previous to setting 
 out on my present mission included, among others, one item 
 with which I shall attempt to comply, viz. to write to the 
 secretary, although I have little to communicate that may be 
 regarded as having any particular reference to the great object 
 contemplated by the Society in sending out the deputation to 
 this country. 
 
 " On first view of this country I was struck with wonder 
 at the difference which exists between the modes of agricul- 
 ture pursued here and those followed in Ireland ; here the 
 rotation system is fully understood, and practised to its fullest 
 extent ; in fact, this country, as far as I have seen of it yet, 
 
 country ; it is a slow process, but it does not signify so long as it is an 
 economical one, and gives employment to the labouring class. 
 
PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 35 
 
 may justly be compared to a garden on a large scale, in which 
 all the different divisions are laid out and cultivated with the 
 utmost precision and exactness. Indeed, I am convinced that 
 the Belgian farmer manages his fields with far more care and 
 attention than the generality of Irish bestow on their gardens ; 
 but if the farmers here regard one kind of crop with more 
 interest than another, and bestow more care and attention 
 on its culture, it is the flax crop. Although, owing to the 
 wetness of the weather, farming operations of all kinds have 
 been considerably retarded, yet throughout this neighbour- 
 hood lands intended for flax are in different stages of forward- 
 ness ; but no flax has been sown as yet in this neighbourhood. 
 I have also paid attention to their mode of hand-scutching, an 
 operation in which they display wonderful skill and ingenuity 
 indeed. I am led to think that a good deal of the difference 
 which there is between the Belgian and Irish flax is to be 
 traced to the difference which there is between their modes of 
 scutching; and I am fully of opinion that, were the hand- 
 scutching system introduced into Ireland, and the same care 
 and attention bestowed there that the people of this bestow 
 in the operation, the superiority of the Belgian flax over the 
 Irish would in a little time cease to exist, and would only be 
 known as matter of history ; nor would Ireland then be an- 
 nually drained of those vast sums which are now sent to this 
 country for an article which our country would then supply 
 in as great perfection as it is found here at present.* I am 
 glad to be able to say that the weather appears to have taken 
 a turn for the better, and, should it continue favourable for 
 some time, I hope to be able in my next letter to treat more 
 definitely on matters connected with my mission to this coun- 
 try, such as the preparation of ground for sowing of the seed, 
 together with the subsequent processes with which the people 
 of this country treat the culture of this very interesting crop. 
 
 * If half of the flax grown in Ireland was scutched by hand it 
 would create employment to thousands which are now idle through 
 want of employment. Besides, the flax would fetch a much higher 
 price in the market ; a remark justly made by this Mr. Lawson. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 " I cannot allow myself to finish this letter without giving 
 expression to feelings of gratitude and esteem, which the kind- 
 ness of these people have inspired within me. On my land- 
 ing at Ostend, on first view of the natives I was very much 
 prepossessed in their favour, and I can now say, after a re- 
 sidence of nearly a fortnight among them, that for honest 
 simplicity and unaffected kindness they could not be surpassed 
 by those of any country. They are cleanly in their persons, 
 polite in their manners, and generally well educated. I hope, 
 Sir, on receipt of this, that you will favour me with a line, 
 containing any further instructions which you may deem ne- 
 cessary to give me. 
 
 " I am, Sir, your obedient humble servant, 
 
 " JOSEPH LAWSON. 
 " C. M. G. Skinner, Esq., Belfast." 
 
 " SIR, "Hamme, March 30, 1842. 
 
 " I mentioned in my last that I had come to Antwerp, for 
 
 the purpose of going to Louyaine with Mr. D , and from 
 
 that to the Walloon district. He was to have gone on Tues- 
 day, but business prevented him going before Thursday. 
 One principal object in going was to see a flax-mill ; but we 
 found a great deal more worth seeing than we expected. The 
 mill I think calculated, in every respect, to meet the views of 
 the Society, and I am almost sure, were they to get one put 
 up on the same principle (with some improvements), that 
 they would save the 100/. offered as a premium. The whole 
 machinery is driven by two horses, and has stocks for eight 
 men to work at. Enclosed you have a draft, as like it as I 
 can draw it. The only thing I saw wanting was rollers. 
 Three men were bruising the flax with crigs, the same as we 
 do : the stocks are exactly like what you got from Courtrai, 
 only stronger, and firmly screwed down. The handles are 
 not so sharp, nor near so heavy, as what we use in our mills. 
 The farmer let us see flax dressed by the mill, and the same 
 
 flax dressed by hand, and Mr. D decided in favour of 
 
 that dressed by the mill. One of the farmers we visited 
 
PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 37 
 
 always dew-riped his flax till last year, when he steeped a 
 little to try it, and he says the difference is so great that he 
 will steep it all for the future. We visited four different 
 farmers, and saw all the land they intended for flax this season. 
 It had all received a third ploughing, and had been very 
 highly manured. Some of them said it would require a 
 fourth ploughing, on account of so much rain having fallen. 
 Wheat is always sown after flax, and gets a great quantity of 
 lime. Flax is generally sown the second year after potatoes, 
 and very often after white clover, being one year lea. Flax 
 sowing in the Walloon district does not commence before the 
 middle of April ; nor is the flax sown at Hamme yet, except 
 on very sandy land, and I believe their principal object in 
 sowing it so early is to have it above ground before the 
 drought sets in to prevent it from braiding, and to keep the 
 sun from burning up the land. All the best of the land is to 
 sow yet, and a great deal of it to plough. The weather is 
 still very wet, and some of the land, I am sure, less than 
 eight days of good weather will not dry it for the seed. The 
 light sandy land is all ploughed in January and February, six 
 inches deep. It remains in this state till seed-time, when it 
 is well harrowed before the seed is sown. The teeth of the 
 harrow is not more than 2% inches long. Between harrowing 
 for the seed and the sowing, the liquid manure is put on when 
 the land requires it. The preparation of the good land is 
 what I wanted to see most. The sandy land is fit for sowing 
 after the plough, it is so loose ; but the other turns up some- 
 thing like our own, and requires more pulverising. I would 
 like to know what kind of weather you have in Ireland. I 
 think, if it be as bad as here, I will be home time enough by 
 the middle of April. Planting potatoes is the only thing that 
 can be done here in the sandy land. 
 
 " Your obedient servant, 
 
 " HENRY HASLETT. 
 " C. G. M. Skinner, 
 
 " Secretary to the Flax Society." 
 
38 THE FLAX INDUSTKY. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Sowing Season. 
 
 The amount of knowledge which those young 
 men had acquired during their sejour in Bel- 
 gium was of incalculable value, especially for 
 the sowing seasons. Those young men could 
 now give evidence of what they had witnessed 
 respecting the culture of the flax plant in a re- 
 nowned flax-growing country. 
 
 The season of sowing the flax seed being now 
 arrived in Ireland,* a small body of eight young 
 men (all of whom had been over to Belgium) 
 besides myself were now again deputed to those 
 flax growers who had expressed a wish to have 
 the services of an instructor. I was specially 
 requested by the Committee to pay particular 
 attention to the flax growers in the county of 
 Tyrone, where it was considered that the greatest 
 ignorance prevailed respecting the preparation of 
 the soil and the sowing of the seed. 
 
 At my arrival in that county, I found 
 many fields ready, as the farmers told me, for 
 sowing the seed ; but what must be my surprise 
 when I saw the land in such a coarse, slovenly, 
 unprepared state ! the smallest lumps upon 
 several fields were larger than a fist, some so 
 
 * 1842. 
 
SOWING SEASON. 39 
 
 large as a head, besides weeds in abundance.* 
 I asked if this was the manner in which they 
 had always sown their flax seed ; the answer 
 was Yes, saying that they thought their land 
 was very well prepared, and did not see what 
 could be done more to it. I asked them if 
 they thought that this delicate flax seed was 
 likely to penetrate through those large stiff' 
 lumps of earth, and if the seed would thrive 
 well amongst all those pernicious weeds. Upon 
 my remarks their answer was as follows : We 
 have grown flax in this neighbourhood for many, 
 many years, and it often pays us better than any 
 other crop, and we should grow more of it if the 
 sowing-seed did riot come so expensive. f I re- 
 marked, then, as they found the seed for sowing 
 so expensive, why did they not save their own, 
 that the seed saved from one acre would give 
 them sowing-seed for eight acres ; J but they 
 
 * I would have recommended to plough their fields over again, 
 and to bring some moisture to the top, which would have given 
 great facility to bring it to a fine tilth, but they were not disposed 
 to put themselves to any extra trouble. 
 
 t Here I asked to see the seed they were about to sow. It was 
 bad foreign seed, a fourth of which was weeds. I told them that 
 they must clean that seed, otherwise that this seed would for ever 
 strive in their fields and make their land still worse than it actually 
 was. But how were they to extract those weeds ? They had never 
 seen a sieve by which this process is performed. 
 
 $ Twenty tmshels would be about the produce of the seed, or 
 perhaps more ; consequently, that the seed of one acre could supply 
 sowing-seed for eight acres. Is not this abuse a matter of surprise ? 
 
40 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 thought that taking of the seed injured the flax ; 
 but yet, they said, they had never tried it. I 
 observed that I should call next season at the 
 pulling time, and bring rippling combs and men 
 to show them how to take off the seed, and that 
 this seed was worth 41. per acre ; but for the 
 present I must advise them to roll their fields 
 intended for flax with a very heavy roller ; after 
 that, harrow it up, roll it again, and repeat the 
 harrowing ; that this was the only means to break 
 the lumps,* besides requesting them to pick up 
 tha weeds carefully : in so doing I assured them 
 that their flax crop would realise much more 
 money than it did before. Upon this remark I 
 received the following reply : We have no objec- 
 tion to pick up some of the largest weeds, but we 
 cannot roll, because we have no such things as 
 rollers, nor are there any in this neighbourhood. 
 I must confess that it is rather a melancholy 
 task I have imposed upon myself to hint, from 
 time to time, upon the extraordinary, wilful 
 ignorance in Irish husbandry, and the indolent, 
 wasteful, slovenly habits which are to be met in a 
 great portion of the Irish peasantry. If in common 
 agriculture and husbandry there was something 
 very scientific or above the reach of those people, 
 
 * The land is very stiff and heavy in that part.of Ireland. In 
 such lands, after the last ploughing, the harrowing and rolling should 
 immediately follow, it being much easier in so doing to bring the 
 land to a fit condition for sowing; 
 
SOWING SEASON. 41 
 
 they could be excused ; but everything connected 
 with common agriculture and husbandry is so 
 plainly pointed out in itself, of what is to be done 
 and what is not to be done, in order to create them 
 better comfort and ease ; but really those people 
 seem to be quite indifferent to any suggestions 
 which tend to improve their social position.* 
 
 However, this unwillingness and wilful igno- 
 rance do not prevail everywhere ; on the con- 
 
 * The following letter from ' The Times ' of January last very 
 much corresponds with my statements and opinion ; and although I 
 rather deviate from my task in publishing the same, I cannot help 
 doing so on this occasion : 
 
 MEN AND MANNERS IN IRELAND. The following sketch of " men 
 and manners " in the South of Ireland is given by the Rev. Mr. 
 Townsend, a Protestant clergyman in Cork : " They (the farmers) 
 still adhere to the old system of agriculture, which under protection 
 enabled them to live, as they were content, in the poorest way ; 
 and whether it is mental inability or pecuniary inability, they cannot 
 be got to change for better. There is nothing here but poverty, the 
 result of idleness. Those in possession of land are unable to pay 
 for labour, although abundance can be got for Qd. per day for the 
 best labourers women for anything ; I doubt not that 2d. per day 
 would gladly be taken. There is imbecility in all classes in the 
 gentry class no mind for business, no turn of mind for anything but 
 frivolous amusement this descends from them to others. This is 
 not my own opinion, but that, I may say, of every one capable of 
 giving an opinion. Until there is a change of proprietors to show 
 a better example, there is no prospect of a happy result. Here, in 
 my district, there is all the appearance of prosperity in the upper 
 classes. I could as soon raise the amount of the national debt as 
 the small sum for the mistress of a school ; but if I started a ball, 
 a horse or a boat race, or such like, money would readily be found. 
 I am getting, not faint-hearted, but hopeless, seeing that no per- 
 manent good can be done by a single individual. My life for the 
 last five years here, I trust, has proved that I am willing to do my 
 utmost." 
 
42 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 trary, in some districts the farmers were quite 
 disposed to adopt the improvements recom- 
 mended by the Society, feeling convinced that 
 the consequences must necessarily lead to the 
 most happy and beneficial results, and the good 
 spirit of the farmers of some districts is fully 
 manifested in the following letter from an intel- 
 ligent farmer near Newry : 
 
 " gjKj " Loughbrickland, 18th April, 1842. 
 
 " I feel much pleasure in informing you that your 
 visit at our agricultural dinner has done much good, and that 
 the circulation of your reports has turned the attention of 
 farmers to the necessity of improvement in the treatment of 
 the flax-crops, and the first good effect has been the care and 
 attention paid to the preparation of the ground for the seed. 
 I never saw it so well done ; in fact, the farmers are vying 
 with each other who shall have the best prepared and neatest 
 finished field. Mr. Deman can tell you this also. *He sowed 
 mine, and some five bushels for another person here. He is 
 the best sower I have seen ; many persons come to see him in 
 every field ; they seem quite surprised he gets on so quickly, 
 and express surprise that he can do so, and yet sow so evenly. 
 " I have also pleasure in stating that every person who has 
 joined the Society here is quite willing, in fact anxious, to 
 give the Courtrai system a fair trial on a small scale, and 
 follow out Mr. Deman's direction in every respect. I do 
 trust that, from the interest which your excellent Society has 
 been the means of exerting, and the consequent attention 
 which is being paid to the flax-crops, that if the season be 
 favourable, you will have at all events a much better crop 
 than formerly. 
 
 " Your obedient servant, 
 
 '* THOMAS MARSHALL. 
 " C. G. Macgregor Skinner, Esq., 
 Flax Society, Belfast." 
 
AGRICULTURAL MERITS OF FLAX. 43 
 
 X. 
 
 The Merits of the Flax Plant in its Agricultural 
 Forms. 
 
 The Committee had now announced to the 
 public, in her annual Report of 1842, that it 
 had been proved to the flax-growers and the 
 public at large, that some Irish flax had been 
 improved from 50/. to the enormous increase of 
 140/. per ton. This were not only words, but 
 facts realised by myself, and illustrated by an 
 acre of flax purchased in the green state at Mayo, 
 near Armagh.* Such a fact, once established, suf- 
 fices to show to what amount Irish flax could be 
 improved. Indeed these are features which will 
 undoubtedly be worthy of a page in Ireland's 
 history. The Society could now, with every in- 
 surance of success, continue her labours. The 
 great difficulties which enterprises of such a 
 nature have to contend with, especially at first, 
 were now overcome. 
 
 The Committee was quite aware that it would 
 require several years before such extraordinary 
 improvements could be generally accomplished, 
 and to that effect perseverance and support were 
 necessary ; but the landed proprietors especially 
 
 * The passage of the Annual Report of the Flax Society alluding to 
 this fact I have already given under the head of " Flax Factor-ship." 
 
44 TIIE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 had already appreciated the striking facts before 
 them, and the great amount of good which was 
 likely to arise through the agency of the Society. 
 Indeed as early as 1842, the second year of the 
 Society's existence, the 30,000 tons of flax which 
 were brought to market from that year's growth 
 had already assumed, through the labours of the 
 Society, 10/. per ton more, value than formerly, 
 and this first fruits of the flax improvements were 
 enjoyed by the flax -grower. The flax- plant 
 figures only here in her form of agricultural 
 plant ; but, as I have observed in my introduc- 
 tion, the merits of the flax-plant, in her agricul- 
 tural forms, are of a most beneficial nature. 
 Besides the marked superiority of paying better 
 than any other crop, it brings the grower the 
 amount of his production in his pocket in a much 
 shorter period than any other crop ; and it neces- 
 sarily induces or obliges the farmer to bring his 
 land under good condition, if he wish to secure 
 a good crop, in spite of his adverse or unwil- 
 lingness to improvements in agriculture. The 
 farmer, indifferent as he may be to improvements, 
 must evidently, under such circumstances, see 
 that he cannot bestow any extra labour upon his 
 fields without being triply paid for; arid it may 
 therefore be hoped that, through the medium of 
 the flax-culture, a more careful mode of agricul- 
 ture and husbandry may insensibly creep into 
 
AGRICULTURAL MERITS OF FLAX. 45 
 
 Ireland, and ultimately be the means of a general 
 reformation in the rotations of crops and a mo- 
 dern system of agriculture. 
 
 On every occasion I have strongly demon- 
 strated to the Secretary, Captain Skinner, the 
 necessity of urging the agriculturist flax-growers 
 to adopt a better preparation of their ground, 
 being convinced that, without better draining and 
 subsoiling, the other improvements in the flax 
 industry will retrograde in proportion, and suffer 
 in its march. 
 
 The speeches delivered by Lord Lurgan and 
 Mr. Ross, M.P., at the Society's general meeting 
 of 1842, will show how much interest the landed 
 proprietors had already taken in the improvement 
 of the flax culture in Ireland. 
 
 The Right Honourable Lord Lurgan, in taking 
 the chair, said, 
 
 " He did so with feelings of great happiness ; and he as- 
 sured the meeting that he felt it a high honour to be allowed 
 to preside over them on that occasion, and also to preside over 
 that great undertaking. That Society was still in its infancy ; 
 but when he read over the names the list of landed pro- 
 prietors, noblemen, gentlemen, farmers, and manufacturers in 
 connection with it he felt that the greatest man alive might 
 feel proud of having his name enrolled amongst those who had 
 taken a part in carrying out a scheme so very laudable. It 
 was a practical and sensible scheme one whose object was to 
 benefit the country, to promote industry, and give employ- 
 ment to the working classes. (Hear, hear.) Though the 
 time was, he conceived, past when it was necessary to point 
 out the advantages of such a Society, yet he could not deny 
 
46 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 himself the privilege of saying a few words on the subject. 
 It had been stated, he believed, on that platform, that they 
 were in the habit of importing no less a quantity than 80,000 
 tons of flax annually, and that no less a sum than from 
 5,000,000/. to 6,000,000/. were drained from the country to 
 procure that supply. Now he was sure they would all agree 
 with him that Ireland was not sufficiently wealthy to part 
 with such a sum ; but then the question arose, how were they 
 to keep it amongst themselves? Why, it appeared on un- 
 doubted authority that their soil was at least as good as that 
 of their competitors. In fact, Mr. Deman, the Belgian super- 
 intendent agriculturist, at once took the bull by the horns ; 
 for he told them that he had seen no land in Ireland, not even 
 the worst, that was not capable of producing a good flax-crop, 
 if industry and attention were brought into practical opera- 
 tion. (Hear, hear.) His Lordship proceeds further in urging 
 the farmers to adopt a better mode of preparing their land 
 for the culture of flax," &c. &c. 
 
 Mr. Ross, M.P., in the course of his speech at 
 the same meeting, said, 
 
 " If, as the Report of the Committee stated, they were un- 
 able to compete with foreigners in the growth of flax, and if, 
 as they found that the country could produce it, how im- 
 portant, then, must be the advantage to the country their 
 producing even a portion of the immense quantity of 80,000 
 tons they were now obliged to import ; and if, at the same 
 time, their soil and climate were superior to the growth of 
 the article to that of those countries whose hostile tariffs were 
 meeting us in every quarter ; and if, according to Mr, Deman 
 and other authorities, it only required some painstaking, and 
 a right system of cultivation and management, to produce as 
 good an article, and as much as would not only supply our- 
 selves, but enable us to export it also, he trusted the public 
 would not stand so far in their own light as not to embrace 
 the opportunity this Society offered of effecting these great 
 ends; and so to teach our continental neighbours a great 
 
AGRICULTURAL MERITS OF FLAX. 4? 
 
 lesson on political economy. He was determined to give the 
 subject his most earnest attention and consideration ; and in 
 future not only to be a speaker, but a worker with them in 
 the promotion of the Society's interests." 
 
 The following is a passage taken from the 
 Report of the Committee from the same annual 
 meeting : 
 
 " Mr. Deman, the technical instructor of the Flax Society, 
 has now been sixteen months in the Society's employment ; 
 and having visited every district in the north, and made him- 
 self thoroughly conversant with the habits of the people, is 
 since last Report more and more convinced that the grossest 
 ignorance in the preparation of the land, rotation of cropping, 
 and after-treatment of the flax-crop, alone prevent this country 
 from producing, both in the qualities and quantities, crops for 
 which the soil and climate seem to him better adapted than 
 those of any country of Europe. Agriculture, especially 
 amongst the small farmers, was so little understood in Ireland, 
 compared to Belgium, that until the land be better drained, 
 super-tilled, more laboured, and better cleansed from its 
 weeds, flax could not be brought to great perfection in Ireland. 
 
 " The following opinion of Mr. Deman's qualifications, as 
 given by one of the cleverest men in the flax trade, who is 
 employed in the purchase of the article for the extensive house 
 of Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, together with a number of 
 others, must prove most satisfactory to the public." 
 
 To enumerate here the numerous testimonies 
 alluding to my humble services would be absurd, 
 although it may throw some light upon several 
 interesting subjects. They are given at some 
 length in the Committee's Reports, which were 
 printed and largely circulated. 
 
48 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 XI. 
 
 The favourable State of Agriculture for the Flax- 
 Culture in England. 
 
 Mr. Warnes, the famous Norfolk flax-grower, 
 came to Belfast at the Flax Society's annual 
 meeting in November, 1842, and through this cir- 
 cumstance became slightly acquainted with him. 
 A society having been formed in Norfolk, in the 
 beginning of 1843, to promote, or rather to intro- 
 duce, the growth of flax, Mr. Warnes, acting as 
 secretary to that Society, requested my humble 
 services. The idea of coming over to England, 
 together with Mr. Warnes's generous offer, induced 
 me to accept the task ; and after having terminated 
 my engagement with the Irish Flax Society, I 
 came to Norfolk in February, 1843, where I have 
 exerted myself during three years to promote the 
 flax culture. For the last few years I have con- 
 stantly occupied myself in the promotion of the flax 
 industry, and of late I have had the opportunity 
 of visiting almost every extensive flax-grower in 
 England. If, therefore, I advance something in 
 support of the cultivation of flax in Great Britain, 
 it is not without being fully convinced that this 
 
FACILITIES FOR FLAX-CULTURE. 49 
 
 country is in every respect suitable for the 
 growth and preparation of the flax-plant. 
 
 England possesses great advantages over Ire- 
 land for the culture of flax, in consequence of her 
 high state of agriculture compared with the neg- 
 lectful state of agriculture of the latter country ; 
 and if the English agriculturist will but go to work 
 with his usual energy, he will from the first year 
 grow flax to at least the same perfection as they 
 actually do in Ireland ; and this owing to their 
 slovenly and neglectful state of agriculture. The 
 flax-plant, it is true, although a delicate plant,, 
 will grow in almost any soil, but with very un- 
 equal success; and, considering the merits of the 
 flax-plant, it would be against the order of things 
 if it could be grown so well in an indifferent cul- 
 tivated as in a proper cultivated soil. It must not 
 be concealed that the flax-plant, in order to grow 
 to great perfection, requires a careful preparation 
 of the soil, but the consequences of this extra 
 trouble are nothing less than amelioration, pul- 
 verization, and fertilization of the land.* More- 
 over, since agriculture has assumed a more sci- 
 entific character than formerly, the peculiarity 
 connected with the culture of the flax-plant will 
 not in any w y deter the enlightened agricul- 
 turist; on the contrary, it will only tend to 
 
 * The introduction of the flax-culture in the rotation of cropa 
 must indispensably lead to improvement in agriculture. 
 
 E 
 
50 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 create a fresh impulse to evince some further 
 scientific improvements or discoveries in agri- 
 culture ; and if under the present system of agri- 
 culture, scientific aid can be successfully applied 
 to almost any agricultural plant, it must do so 
 tenfold to flax, there being scarcely any limits to 
 the great display and development of art and 
 science that can be attributed to that wonderful 
 plant, and especially when considered under its 
 agricultural as well as under its commercial 
 forms. In short (en resume}, such is evidently 
 proved by the great variation in its different 
 qualities of raw productions. Peruse the Belgian 
 flax-markets, and you there find flaxes from 30/. 
 to 3501. per ton. In Irish flaxes the variation 
 will be from 30/. to 150Z. per ton.* 
 
 What must be the reason of the immense dif- 
 ference in the price of these flaxes ? Of course it 
 is in consequence of the different qualities. And 
 from whence does this great difference in qualities 
 result ? The question is easily solved. In one in- 
 stance, all that art and skill can suggest has been 
 applied to the flax-plant ;f in the other instance, 
 
 * The variation in the quality of all the produce of agricultural 
 plants is very insignificant, compared with the produce of the flax- 
 plant ; for instance, when the best quality of wheat is 60s., the 
 worst is at least 40s. per quarter, and so it is in proportion with 
 most other agricultural productions. It is therefore only upon the 
 flax-plant that agricultural science can make such wonderful eifect. 
 
 f 350J. was decidedly not obtained without having taken extra 
 pains to secure so superior an article ; but when so much can be 
 
FACILITIES FOR FLAX-CULTURE. 51 
 
 everything connected with the various processes 
 of the plant has been neglected. This single illus- 
 tration shows what considerable room there is for 
 applying industrial genius (gdnie industriel) to this 
 lucrative plant ; and it is exactly because the flax 
 assumes in its various forms so much merit in 
 which art and skill can find infinite development, 
 that its growth and preparations are so well 
 adapted for England. Strange, that but few 
 countries will acknowledge the necessity of 
 coupling scientific knowledge with practical know- 
 ledge in agricultural matters, a notion being 
 entertained that agriculture is so simple in all its 
 bearings that it does not require scientific aid : let 
 therefore the agriculturist of this country teach 
 our continental neighbours a lesson in agricul- 
 tural science, and in accomplishing such the flax- 
 plant can be instrumental in it to a great extent. 
 
 If ever there was a time when all those who 
 lived by agriculture were called on to pay par- 
 ticular attention to it, and if there was one branch 
 more than another that should engage our minds, 
 that was the time and flax the branch. 
 
 Looking for a moment at the flax industry en- 
 gained by art and skill upon the raw material, what must be gained 
 through the same medium upon the texture fabric ? The difference, 
 indeed, between a coarse rope and yarn worth 2000 francs per Ib. is 
 great, but still greater is the difference between a yard of coarse 
 linen and a yard of the best Brussels lace ; and yet all these articles, 
 are the production of the flax-plant. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 tirely in a national point of view what would be 
 the situation of this country in the event of a war 
 breaking out with those nations that supply us 
 at present with flax ? and if their ports should just 
 now be closed against us, the results would be 
 most disastrous to our flax spinners and linen 
 manufacturers. 
 
EXHAUSTATION OF THE FLAX-PLANT. 53 
 
 XII. 
 
 Exhaustation of the Flax-Plant. 
 
 Formerly, when flax was grown in England 
 and Scotland, it appears that before it was pulled 
 it had attained the same degree of maturity as 
 wheat or any other cereal crop. If the flax was 
 exclusively grown for nothing but the seed, of 
 course it was a seed-crop ; and it was in the in- 
 terest of the grower to have it ripened till it had 
 attained its last degree of maturity. I quite 
 agree that flax when grown for a seed-crop is at 
 least as exhausting as (colza) rape, and it is an 
 established fact that most all agricultural seed- 
 crops are more exhausting than cereal crops ; if, 
 therefore, the flax be grown solely for the seed, it 
 must be ranked amongst the seed-crops, and as 
 such it is decidedly more exhausting than any 
 cereal crop. It is well known that all plants are 
 more or less exhaustive to the soil ; but to give 
 some idea of the different degrees of exhaustatiori 
 caused by the various agricultural plants which 
 enter in the common rotation of crops, it may be 
 laid down as a rule (however not without excep- 
 tion) that green crops are less exhaustive than 
 
54 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 cereal crops, and that cereal crops are less ex- 
 haustive than seed-crops. My method of growing 
 flax is to pull it green/* consequently consider it 
 as a green crop, and is therefore the least exhaus- 
 tive in the rotation of crops.. If flax be grown 
 for fibre and for seed, but with a view to make 
 so much of the seed than of the fibre, its exhaus- 
 tation must be considered like that of a wheat- 
 crop ; but if flax be cultivated solely for the seed, 
 it becomes undoubtedly an exhaustive crop, at 
 least so exhaustive as (colza) rape, which is con- 
 sidered the most exhaustive among the seed-crops. 
 The flax-plant, therefore, assumes the two extreme 
 degrees of exhaustation ; in the one instance it is 
 the least exhaustive plant, in the other instance 
 it is the most exhaustive of plants. 
 
 Writers on flax all endeavour to prove that 
 flax is not a very exhaustive crop, but none seem 
 to attempt to show the degrees of exhaustation 
 caused by the different modes in which the plant 
 is cultivated. 
 
 The following opinion respecting the exhausta- 
 tion of the flax-plant is given by an Irish gentle- 
 man farmer of considerable experience. He says, 
 " As the result of many years' experience I con- 
 sider that flax when grown in its regular rotation 
 is far from being exhaustive, and that it tends 
 
 * When I say green pulling, it is from 12 to 16 days before it is 
 quite ripe. 
 
EXHAUSTATION OF THE FLAX-PLANT. 55 
 
 greatly to improve the soil and the character of 
 the other crops in the rotation." 
 
 Lord Monteagle, at the council meeting of the 
 Koyal Agricultural Society on the 26th of Febru- 
 ary, 1851, states " That some of the land where 
 flax had been sown had been previously in an 
 exhausted condition ; but by attention to the 
 cultivation of the flax-crop that land had become 
 better than any other on his estate ;" adding, 
 " that no meadow yielded such excellent grass 
 as the soil on which flax had been grown." 
 
 The foregoing observations by two Irish gen- 
 tlemen are very justly made, and it is almost my 
 constant motto that the flax-culture must neces- 
 sarily cleanse and improve the soil, inasmuch as 
 it requires more tillage and subsoiling for flax 
 than for any other crop, and is therefore a 
 powerful medium by which improvements may 
 be introduced in agriculture. Flax is pulled in 
 Ireland rather in a green state, and is conse- 
 quently but little exhaustive to the soil, the seed 
 being not an object worthy of the attention of the 
 Irish agriculturist.* 
 
 * It must be exceedingly strange to the reader, whether ac- 
 quainted with the flax-culture or not, to find that in one country 
 (England) the flax-plant is almost exclusively grown for the seed, and 
 in another country (Ireland) that the seed is thrown away, although 
 it is worth at least 41. per acre ; consequently, that it causes to the 
 latter country annually a waste of national wealth of at least 
 240,0007. Besides this immense loss, it causes u great annoyance 
 to the public. 
 
56 THE FLAX INDUSTKY. 
 
 Mr. Digby Seymour, in his work, * Beet-Sugar, 
 Flax, and Chicory,' quotes my opinion on the 
 subject, and says : 
 
 " There has been and there still exists, says Mr. Deman, 
 a prejudice against the cultivation of the flax, a prevalent 
 idea being entertained that it is an exhausting crop ; but 
 since flax (to secure a fine silky fibre) should be taken from 
 the land (pulled) in a very green state, it follows that flax 
 can only be considered as a green crop ; and as the prepara- 
 tion for the flax requires more ploughing, subsoiling, and 
 cleansing than for any other crop, it consequently becomes a 
 fact that the growth of flax, instead of exhausting, cleanses 
 and fertilises the soil. 
 
 " In Belgium a better wheat-crop is obtained after flax 
 than after any other crop. 
 
 " Besides, there is no crop that comes to maturity in a 
 shorter period than flax, it being sown in April and pulled in 
 the latter part of June, and thus with the aid of a small quan- 
 tity of liquid manure a crop of turnips is obtained the same 
 season ; a strong proof that the soil has not been exhausted by 
 the flax. Moreover, the land will improve by bringing flax 
 in the rotation of crops, as the soil cannot be cultivated by 
 too great a variety of productive and useful plants."* 
 
 Flax cultivated on my system improves the 
 soil, and produces a remunerative price, which no 
 other plant whatever can produce ; yet there 
 appears to be some objection to pulling the flax- 
 plant rather green, in consequence of losing in so 
 doing a little seed, the English flax-grower feel- 
 ing always inclined towards the seed; but recol- 
 lect, that whatever is gained upon the seed by 
 leaving the flax-plant stand longer than is re- 
 
 * ' Flax : its Cultivation and Management,' pp. 11, 12. 
 
EXHAUSTATION OF THE FLAX-PLANT. 57 
 
 quired for the benefit of the fibre,* is more than 
 lost by the extra exhaustation during that time, 
 because the more the flax-plant approaches to its 
 maturity, the more powerful becomes the exhaus- 
 tation of the plant. But the objection brought 
 forward again is, that, in pulling the flax so early, 
 there is but a small produce of seed, and conse- 
 quently little or nothing can be returned to 
 the soil. Strange calculation indeed ! Which is 
 preferable, an acre of flax worth 20., with little 
 or no seed ;f or an acre of flax, the straw of which 
 is worth 61. and the seed 6/., making together 
 121. ? Now, if the flax-grower cannot go on 
 without flax-seed, let him take 61. to purchase 
 seed from the acre grown for the fibre, and thus 
 he will have the same quantity of seed, besides 
 141. for his pocket ; recollecting at the same time, 
 again, that the acre grown for the fibre has but in 
 the slightest degree exhausted the soil, whereas 
 the acre grown for seed and fibre draws as much 
 from the soil as a wheat-crop. 
 
 * By leaving the flax-plant a few days too long in the soil, 6/. 
 per acre can be lost upon the fibre. 
 
 f When I say no seed, I mean that the Belgian flax-grower does 
 not much depend on what he can make of the seed, although the 
 seed is always worth from 17. to 3/. per acre, except when Lin 
 rame ; in this case the seed is entirely sacrificed. But then an acre 
 of flax is by chance worth from 50/. to 607. per acre. 
 
 t The foreign seed may not be so good for cattle food as the 
 home grown, as I must confess that I never saw heavier flax seed in 
 my life than the English growth ; but in this case let the farmer 
 purchase for 11. or SI. of foreign seed to make up for the inferiority. 
 
58 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 After what I have said of growing flax for the 
 seed alone, it should now be left as a question 
 disposed of, feeling satisfied that my demon- 
 stration against this mode of growing the flax- 
 plant would fully suffice to convince the flax- 
 grower of its being a very exhausting crop, be- 
 sides not being a remunerative one. But before 
 leaving the serious question to the appreciation 
 of the agricultural public, I must quote the 
 opinion of a few others on the subject. A passage 
 from Chevalier Claussen's work, * The Flax 
 Movement,* is as follows : 
 
 " In the case in which he may elect to dispose of his flax 
 in the straw, the farmer would derive the full value of his 
 <jrop-seed, and the straw would be worth to him 41. per ton, 
 the produce being about two tons per statute acre. He will 
 not require, as is the case at present, to pull his flax before it 
 is perfectly ripe, or before the seed has been fully and com- 
 pletely formed. Indeed the coarser and more developed is 
 the stem of the plant, the more valuable will it be for the 
 purpose of adaptation for the woollen and cotton machinery, 
 and the full gossamer threads can be produced from it with 
 greater certainty and precision than when pulled in an early 
 stage of its growth. The grower, therefore, need be under 
 no fear as to the fineness of his crop, and he may obtain from 
 it as large an amount of seed as his land will produce."* 
 
 * The Chevalier would, in my opinion, better not meddle with 
 the flax-plant in its agricultural forms ; he would find it perhaps 
 more profitable to keep himself in the cottonizing department, that 
 being his invention. Mr. Claussen can purchase tow in Ireland at 
 12/. per ton, which he can convert into flax-cotton worth, according 
 to his statement, from 35/. to 40/. per ton; in this respect, and 
 for the conversion of very inferior qualities of flax into cotton, 
 Mr. Claussen's invention is of the greatest merit. 
 
EXHAUSTATION OF THE FLAX-PLAKT. 59 
 
 Agriculture in England will readily admit 
 in her rotations of crops those crops to which 
 scientific aid can be most extensively and pro- 
 fitably applied ; but the resources for manure are 
 yet too limited in this country for introducing 
 with advantage very exhaustive crops, such as 
 the flax-plant, when grown solely as a seed-crop. 
 
 The Chevalier Claussen, in another page of his 
 work, ' The Flax Movement,' writes as follows : 
 
 " A very general belief appears to prevail amongst our 
 agriculturists that flax is an exceedingly exhaustive crop. 
 The opinion is one which has been handed down almost from 
 time immemorial, and the clauses which in many cases are 
 introduced into the agreements and leases for agricultural 
 tenancy, forbidding the culture of flax, hemp, and woad, have 
 no doubt tended to strengthen this conviction in the minds of 
 those who have not possessed the opportunity of practically 
 testing the truth of the very current opinion. It is most un- 
 doubtedly true that flax in itself, like all other crops whether 
 cereal or other, is certainly an exhaustive one. Few crops 
 are, however, more exhaustive than wheat; but the farmer 
 does not refuse to grow it on that account, as he knows that 
 a great portion of the crop is usually returned to the soil. 
 Now there are two modes of testing the accuracy of the 
 opinion with respect to the injurious effect of the flax-crop, 
 viz., by chemical analyses of the constituents of the plant, 
 and by that still more satisfactory and convicting test the 
 result of practical experience.* Tried by either or both of 
 
 * Practical experience has proved to me that flax is an exhaustive 
 crop when grown solely for seed, and nobody will make me believe 
 the contrary. I cannot do justice to my task without giving a 
 straightforward and impartial opinion upon the different modes 
 connected with the growth and preparation of the flax-plant ; and 
 therefore trust that, in so doing, it will not for a moment be sup- 
 posed that I am guided by any interest or personal feelings. 
 
60 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 those it will be found, under a judicious mode of treatment, 
 analogous to that pursued by the grower with respect to his 
 other crops, that flax, so far from being an injurious, will be 
 found to be, independently of its other advantages, of greater 
 value than any other crops in keeping the land in a profit- 
 able state of productiveness, and preventing the possibility of 
 its deterioration. 
 
 " If the construction of the plant be closely examined, it 
 will be found that those portions of it which absorb the 
 alkalies and the nutritive properties of the soil, are those 
 which are not required for the purpose of manufacture, viz., 
 the woody part of the plant, the resinous matter, and the 
 seed. The capsules of the seeds, the husks of the capsules, 
 and the seeds, contain a very large proportion of nitrogen and 
 phosphoric acid, and may consequently be advantageously 
 employed for the purpose of manure and for the feeding of 
 cattle. The fibre of the plant, which is that portion required 
 for manufactures, consists of about 47 parts of carbon in 100, 
 united to the elements of water in fact, oxygen, hydrogen, 
 and carbon are its principal constituent parts, and they are 
 derived not from the soil but from the atmosphere. 100 Ibs. 
 of flax fibre has been found by recent experiments to contain 
 not more upon an average than 2 Ibs. of mineral matters, in- 
 cluding lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, carbonic, phosphoric, 
 and sulphuric acids, and silica." 
 
 Mr. G. Nicholls, who has also written un flax 
 in a work * The Farmer,' says : 
 
 " It has often been said that flax was a very exhausting 
 crop, but it certainly is not more so than any of the usual 
 grain-crops, neither does it require a very rich soil. Indeed, 
 a rich or highly manured soil is injurious, causing the plant 
 to grow too strong and luxuriant, and rendering the fibre 
 coarse and less valuable. Flax is grown on light poor land in 
 Belgium and Holland, and I have seen it grown on mere bog 
 in Ireland." 
 
 1 must give credit to Mr. Nicholls for his just 
 
EXHAUSTATION OF THE FLAX-PLANT. 61 
 
 remark respecting the exhaustation of the soil by 
 the flax-plant. The soil is decidedly not exhausted 
 in Belgium and Holland, because there the flax 
 is pulled before the plant is in its full vigour of 
 exhaustation. 
 
 Sir R. Kine observes : 
 
 " The agriculturist should steadily bear in mind that the 
 fibre which he sells to the flax-spinner has taken nothing from 
 the soil. All that the crop took out of the soil, he has still 
 in the steep water and in the chaff of the scutched flax, and if 
 after suitable decomposition these be returned to the land, the 
 fertility of the latter will be restored, and thus materials at 
 present utterly neglected, and even a source of inconvenience, 
 may be converted into a most valuable manure." 
 
 Whatever the opinion of others may be on the 
 subject of Exhaustation, my long and practical 
 experience has proved to me that the flax-plant 
 causes in the soil different degrees of exhaustation 
 in proportion to its mode of cultivation. Of the 
 three modes of cultivating the flax-plant, two 
 modes I recommend ; the third I deprecate without 
 reserve.* The mode I recommend most strongly is 
 to grow the plant on the modern Belgian method, 
 that is, to let the plant ripen to a certain degree 
 without injuring the fibre. f This mode of culti- 
 vating the flax-plant is better adapted for Eng- 
 land than for any other country ; and a few fair 
 experiments would soon induce the English flax- 
 
 * Growing the flax as a seed crop alone. 
 
 f Trying to favour the seed as much as possible without injury 
 at all to the fibre. 
 
62 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 grower to give this method the preference. How- 
 ever, I am quite aware that for a commencement 
 the second best mode of growing this plant will 
 better please the English agriculturist, fibre and 
 seed being the object of this mode. To conclude 
 the question of exhaustation, let me again assure 
 the agricultural public, that growing the flax- 
 plant on the modern Belgian method is the least 
 exhaustive of plants, and to grow it for fibre and 
 seed is not more exhaustive than a common corn- 
 crop. Let, therefore, without hesitation enter 
 this plant into the rotation of crops in this 
 country, with the assurance that its introduction 
 is the introduction, under present circumstances, 
 of the most essential and beneficial improvement 
 which modern agriculture can suggest. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 63 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Suggestions for facilitating, promoting, and im- 
 proving the Flax Industry in England and 
 Scotland.* 
 
 One great important advantage which facilitates 
 the immediate introduction of the flax culture in 
 this country is, that those preliminary prepara- 
 tions which are required in many other countries 
 for cleansing the soil must not be in many in- 
 stances resorted to in this country, since I am 
 convinced from my own evidence that the land 
 of every county that I have visited is in a state 
 of culture fit to grow the flax to a very good 
 perfection. Directions for the preparation of the 
 soil, sowing the seed, &c., were shortly given by 
 me last year in a pamphlet, * Flax ; its Cultiva- 
 tion and Management/ published by Mr.Ridgway, 
 Piccadilly, and Mr. Effingham Wilson, Royal 
 Exchange. However, I feel desirous to suggest 
 here again the urgent necessity of having good 
 
 * What I say of England, with reference to flax, may in many 
 instances be attributed to Scotland with this difference, that most 
 of what I say. of England emanates from practical knowledge, 
 having myself grown and manufactured flax in this country to 
 some extent, a practice which I have not had in Scotland. 
 
64 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 and cleansed sowing-seed. Nothing can be more 
 neglectful than not to extract those numerous 
 pernicious weed-seeds which are generally mixed 
 with the foreign flax-seeds. In one hour's time 
 one man will extract with a sieve all the weeds 
 that are to be found in four bushels of flax- 
 seed, yet it would perhaps require twenty days' 
 work to extract these weeds out when once 
 grown amongst the flax-crop ; and this cannot 
 be done without more or less injuring the tender 
 flax-plant. I must confess I feel rather a deli- 
 cacy in bringing such simple, evident things 
 under notice, knowing the carefulness of the 
 British agriculturist in such matters ; yet whilst 
 in Ireland, notwithstanding our demonstrating 
 the injurious effect it made of not cleansing the 
 flax-seed, it was seldom done. 
 
 For sowing, good Riga seed is the best; from 
 this the plant grows generally longer and with 
 more delicacy than from other seeds. I cannot 
 say that Riga sowing-seed has yet been imported 
 direct in this country, but as the growth of 
 flax is yearly increasing, it is to be hoped that 
 direct importation will take place shortly in those 
 sorts of seeds. For the present season this seed 
 could be had from Ireland or Belgium,* but this 
 is not an economical market. 
 
 * At my arrival in Norfolk, in February 1843, I could not see 
 any seed suitable for sowing, consequently I made every inquiry in 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 65 
 
 I cannot too much impress the urgent neces- 
 sity of selecting good flax-seed for sowing, be- 
 sides strongly recommending a very careful pre- 
 paration of the soil, knowing that the success of a 
 good quality of flax greatly depends upon laying 
 good foundation ; and it is but just that nothing 
 should remain untouched by which the progress 
 and success of this great enterprise may be retro- 
 graded or endangered ; the more so, when seeing 
 the earnest spirit and enterprise with which land- 
 lord and tenant seem to unite to accelerate its 
 success. Undoubtedly the accomplishment of an 
 object so very desirable as that of the cultivation 
 of flax would be attended with the most salutary 
 effect, by affording employment for an increased 
 population, and materially lessening our depend- 
 ence upon foreign countries ; indeed, the mass 
 of combinations and efforts daily displayed by 
 men of almost all ranks evidently shows that the 
 establishment of the culture and industry of flax 
 is about to become one of the most profitable 
 
 London for Riga sowing linseed. There were quantities of foreign 
 seed to be had, but no real Riga ; I was, therefore, under the 
 necessity of importing 40 barrels of Riga linseed from Belgium. 
 This seed, I am happy to say, produced a very superior crop of flax, 
 especially when compared with what had been grown before ; the 
 fact was that the fibre of what had been grown in the two preceding 
 years was worth nothing, it having been grown as a seed-crop. 
 Farmers in sowing one acre with Riga seed every year can provide 
 sowing-seed for at least six or seven acres : the part of the crop 
 intended for sowing-seed is allowed to ripen a little more than 
 ordinary. 
 
 F 
 
66 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 staple commodities of British agriculture and 
 manufacture. 
 
 To this effect societies or associations are con- 
 tinually formed. Landlords are giving every 
 inducement to their tenants to grow the plant ; 
 other individuals are preparing a market to the 
 former for the article in its raw state (the straw). 
 An invention to convert flax into cotton will alone 
 create a market for 1,400,000 acres of flax (ac- 
 cording to calculation) ; and in accumulating the 
 different movements, it must decidedly give a 
 strong impulse to the advocates of the cause, and 
 accelerate its progress and success. 
 
 In pursuance of a circular signed by Mr. 
 Matthew Brown, agent for Sir James Graham, a 
 meeting was held on Monday, 12th January last, at 
 the Graham's Arms, Longtown, Cumberland, for 
 the purpose of taking into consideration the pro- 
 priety of introducing the cultivation of the flax- 
 crop into this district, and also to endeavour to 
 come to some arrangement with Mr. Rome, of 
 Carlisle, to secure the establishment of a flax- 
 mill at Longtown. This circular was addressed 
 more immediately to the tenantry of the Right 
 Honourable Baronet, but many gentlemen from 
 a distance attended who were interested in 
 agricultural matters, and some of whom had 
 considerable experience in the cultivation of flax. 
 
 Sir James Graham addressed the meeting at 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 67 
 
 some length. The modes of growing and dis- 
 posing of the flax-crop he advocates are, with a 
 few exceptions, those which I have for the last 
 ten years recommended to be adopted in this 
 country. Sir James Graham, after having made 
 some remarks not immediately connected with 
 the object of the meeting, proceeded in making 
 some very just and valuable suggestions upon the 
 advantages of the introduction of the flax-culture 
 in that part of the country, and said : 
 
 " It has been strongly forced upon me that the time had 
 arrived when, with great advantage to the farmer, the culti- 
 vation of flax may be introduced into the rotation of our crop- 
 ping in this neighbourhood (hear, hear). About three years 
 ago I went to the north of Ireland, where I was trustee to a. 
 considerable estate, the property of my nephew, Lord Dufferin, 
 in the neighbourhood of Belfast,, It is impossible to travel in 
 Ireland any length of time without being struck with the vast 
 superiority of the people of Ulster as contrasted with the con- 
 dition of the people of any other part of that country ; and 
 when you visit Belfast you are still more strongly impressed 
 with the comparative ease, comfort, and wealth of the inha- 
 bitants of that particular district as contrasted with the con- 
 dition of the population in any other part of Ireland ; and if 
 you investigate the cause you are at once convinced it is be- 
 cause Belfast is the seat of the linen-trade of that country, 
 and because Ulster is much engaged in the cultivation of flax. 
 To these circumstances the prosperity so remarkable in that 
 district is to be traced (hear, hear). I investigated at the 
 time what had been the progress of the cultivation of flax in 
 that neighbourhood, and that increasing progress (for it is an 
 increase which is progressive) is to be traced to the improve- 
 ment in the manufacture of flax. While the conversion of 
 flax when grown in the hands of the farmer by the rude pro- 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 cess of steeping in cold water* some of the older of us may 
 well remember that cold water steeping was once the only 
 mode of converting the flax when grown into tow used in the 
 manufacture of the article known to the farmer while that 
 process was in the hands of the farmer it was improperly 
 done, but the progress of science and manufacturing skill had 
 been brought to bear in that country as elsewhere, and there 
 is now a process I think it is a patent process in the hands 
 of the Messrs. Schenck, of Belfast, by which the flax is con- 
 verted into tow readily and with comparative ease ; and this 
 warm water process has greatly increased the demand and im- 
 proved the linen trade ; and consequent upon that there is an 
 increased demand for the raw material (hear, hear). It can 
 hardly be believed that such was the improvidence of the Irish 
 farmer that they were quite content to be satisfied with the profit 
 of the straw and the fibre only when used for manufacturing 
 purposes, without reference to the seed, which is the most im- 
 portant ingredient to them in its cultivation. I need not tell 
 you that, independently of all manufacturing purposes, the seed 
 is a valuable part, for when boiled it is the best food that can 
 be given to cattle, and stilt more when converted into oil- 
 cake ; and not only is it the best food for cattle, but it ranks 
 among the best manures that can be applied to the land 
 (hear, hear). The effect of the double operations of convert- 
 
 * I cannot see why the cold water steeping should be called a 
 rude way of steeping ; it is decidedly by this method of steeping 
 that the most costly flaxes are produced, from which the elegant 
 and ornamental fabrics are manufactured ; besides being the most 
 superior, it is also the most economical method of steeping that 
 exists. The great objection to this water-steeping in England is, 
 because in Ireland the steeping causes some smell, which indeed is 
 not very agreeable ; but this is caused in consequence of throwing 
 the seed in the water ; it is the decomposition of the seed that 
 brings forth Jris inconvenience. Such a thing is not to be met 
 with on the banks of the Lys, in Belgium ; on the contrary, the 
 odour caused from the flax-plant is very pleasant and wholesome. 
 A similar remark I have already made in another page respecting 
 the annoyance caused by the steeping of the flax-seed in Ireland. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 69 
 
 ing the fibre into flax by the new processes of Messrs. 
 Schenck's warm water steeping, and the conversion of the seed 
 into oil-cake, at Belfast, has led to the increased cultivation 
 of flax, a more certain market to the farmer for his produce, 
 and increased prosperity to that portion of Ireland (hear, 
 hear). I naturally considered whether there was anything 
 peculiar in the soil or climate of that particular portion of 
 Ireland which gave it an advantage over the south of Scotland 
 and that part of England which we inhabit, and deliberate 
 considerations lead me to the conclusion that neither the soil 
 nor climate was superior to ours (hear, hear). The softness 
 or humidity of their climate is identical with our own. They 
 have perhaps more rain, or at least an equal quantity of it, 
 and their soil appears to me to be no better suited to the 
 growth of the fibre than ours. This was about three years 
 ago. I then thought it my duty to investigate the subject 
 not only as connected with Ireland, but also to extend my in- 
 quiry to different parts of England (hear, hear). In the south 
 also I found, pursuing my inquiries as far as Wiltshire, Essex, 
 and into Wales, there was a strong impression that the time 
 had arrived when the attention of the agriculturist must be 
 directed to the growth of flax." 
 
 I do not agree with Sir James Graham when 
 he says that it is owing to Schenck's patent hot- 
 water steeping that the improvements of the 
 linen manufacture in Ireland must be attributed; 
 on the contrary, the linen manufacture would 
 have done much better without flax steeped in 
 hot water. 
 
 Ireland has many natural good water-streams 
 in which they could steep on the Courtrai system, 
 which renders the flax of a bright white colour, 
 and is worth 50 per cent, more in the market 
 
70 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 than the flax steeped on Schenck's patent system. 
 Great improvements indeed have been made in 
 Irish flax since the last ten years, but those im- 
 provements do not consist in the hot-water steep- 
 ing*, but in the introduction of modern modes, 
 as well in the preparation of the soil as in all 
 the after processes connected with the flax-plant ; 
 and the improvements thus made are owing to 
 the establishment of the Belfast Flax Society. I 
 recommend Schenck's steeping in England in some 
 instances, but under no circumstances in Ireland, 
 because the latter country possesses sufficient 
 rivers and water-streams to steep 300,000 acres 
 of flax, of which they ought to make use. The 
 resources for industrial economy in flax are im- 
 mense in Ireland, and the circumstances of that 
 country require that they should be made pro- 
 fitable. 
 
 I agree with Sir James that there is great eco- 
 nomy in extracting the oil from the flax-seed, and 
 merely give the powder of the seed to the cattle ; 
 the oil can be used for a nobler purpose. This 
 is practised in Belgium, and is considered a very 
 careful and profitable branch of husbandry, much 
 more economical than to give the linseed mixed 
 with barley, such as is practised in this country. 
 
 I also quite agree that the Irish soil is not supe- 
 rior to British soil for the culture of the flax- 
 plant, and as to the climate I should give the 
 preference to England. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 71 
 
 Sir James Graham, after having referred to a 
 statement of some five acres of flax grown last 
 year by Mr. Samuel Druce, of Eynsham, pro- 
 ducing a net profit of SI. 6s. 2d. per acre, con- 
 tinues saying : 
 
 " Now I wish to call your attention to the remarkable co- 
 incidence between what is now in progress in agriculture 
 generally as referable also to the inducement to couple that 
 progress of agriculture with the growth of flax. Three great 
 requisites are indispensable to its proper cultivation : the land 
 must be dry, the land must be deep ploughed, and the land 
 must be clean (hear, hear). Now you are all aware that, 
 especially in this wet climate, we have discovered that sur- 
 face-draining by that I mean shallow draining is an insuf- 
 ficient mode of draining that deep draining is necessary in 
 this district, and I am happy to say that great progress has 
 latterly been made in such effectual deep draining. Then, 
 again, that draining in itself has proved to be ineffectual un- 
 less with it is combined deep ploughing. Shallow ploughing 
 is merely scratching the soil, whilst the land in reality re- 
 mains as hard as a turnpike road, and the hard crust that re- 
 mains is fatal to vegetation or the growth of the cereal crops. 
 It is ineffectual, I say, unless that crust be thoroughly broken 
 and pulverized. It is then quite clear that, as a general rule, 
 independently of the growth of flax, effectual draining and 
 deep ploughing are absolutely necessary (hear). That is in 
 progress throughout the district, and the beneficial result is 
 exemplified in the increased return of the produce of the soil. 
 Then the potato crop, I am grieved to say, has become an uncer- 
 tain and precarious crop. There is also every reason to think 
 that the present processes in the growth of wheat offers not 
 the inducement it used to do, and the wetness of this climate 
 is a great objection to its general cultivation. That is like- 
 wise common to Ireland. But that very humidity of climate, 
 with deep draining and deep ploughing, is not incompatible 
 with the successful cultivation of flax." 
 
72 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 Sir James Graham most justly considers the 
 introduction of the flax-culture in the rotation of 
 crops as being in full harmony with the present 
 required progress of improving the soil. It is 
 gratifying to learn that landlords should have 
 inquired and understood the great importance 
 that must be attached to the proper preparation 
 of the land intended for flax. I have not had 
 the pleasure to visit any estates in Cumberland, 
 but it appears from the remarks before me, and 
 other practical information I have been favoured 
 with, that the soil is rather stiff and wet in Cum- 
 berland. If so, it requires the more pulverizing 
 and deep ploughing. The suggestions, therefore, 
 made by the honourable speaker respecting the 
 preparation of the land for flax-culture must be 
 considered valuable to the farmer who intends to 
 grow that plant. 
 
 Sir James Graham, in the course of his expla- 
 nation, refers again to Schenck's system of hot 
 water steeping, and says : 
 
 " Schenck's system of steeping in hot water is carried out 
 successfully in Ireland ; and though manufacturers prefer the 
 rich silky-like appearance peculiar to flax prepared on the old 
 system to that prepared in the hot water, which looked dull 
 and hairy like an old wig (I quote from a letter lately re- 
 ceived from a manufacturer of many years' and very extensive 
 experience), yet its ready sale and the good prices it fetched 
 in the market, together with the increased breadth of flax 
 grown this year, sufficiently prove the benefits arising from 
 the introduction of this system." 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 73 
 
 Here it is said by the speaker that the manu- 
 facturer prefers the rich silky-like flax prepared 
 by the cold-water steeping; that the hot-water 
 steeped flax looks dull and hairy like an old wig. 
 What does this prove? It proves from the ac- 
 count given by the manufacturer that the prin- 
 ciple of hot-water steeping is to a great extent 
 injurious to the texture fabrics made from such 
 flaxes. If, therefore, the flax-spinner and linen 
 manufacturer use it, it is because they cannot 
 find their full supply of the flax steeped in the 
 natural water. Notwithstanding its inferiority, 
 I concur that the hot-water steeping is the means 
 by which the flax-culture will be extended in 
 England, and so long as it will pay the farmer 
 to grow it for that purpose, it is his interest to 
 do so ; and it rests further with the manufacturer 
 to know what his interests are. 
 
 Sir James Graham refers also to the discovery 
 of Chevalier Claussen of converting flax into 
 cotton, and says : 
 
 " Mr. Claussen hopes by the conversion of flax-straw into 
 what he calls ' flax-cotton,' two great results will be effected, 
 namely, that the flax-cotton may be intermixed with foreign 
 cotton in the manufacture of cotton goods, and still more that 
 it may be intermixed with wool in the manufacture of woollen 
 goods ; so that the material of which a tweed coat or trousers 
 are composed, which is now one shilling a pound, will not 
 cost more than sixpence per pound, and the manufactured 
 article will consequently be correspondingly cheaper (hear, 
 hear). This would effect a diminution of price in the dearer 
 
74 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 article, and an increased demand for the manufacture of 
 clothing amongst the great body of the people (hear, hear). 
 With regard to the admixture of flax with cotton I am not so 
 sanguine on that point. The price of cotton is at present very 
 low in the market, not more than sixpence per pound, and 
 flax could not be manufactured at a less price ; therefore the 
 intermixture of the two would not be profitable to the manu- 
 facturer, whilst it would diminish the value of the cotton 
 goods. With regard to wool I entertain more sanguine ex- 
 pectation (hear, hear). Although it is a very hopeful experi- 
 ment if properly carried out, I by no means rely upon the 
 success of this movement to show the value of the cultivation 
 of flax,* but if successful it will be an inducement to others 
 to follow our example. If we look at the great success which 
 has attended it in Belgium, there is ample inducement for the 
 cultivating of flax on a very extended scale in Great Britain 
 and Ireland (hear)." 
 
 The views which the Honourable Baronet takes 
 of the flax industry in this country are cautious and 
 sound, besides well calculated to give a fair and just 
 idea of its merits, and to prompt the agricultural 
 public to set at work at once to try at least the 
 experiment. In reality, in perusing the proceed- 
 ings of this meeting, I find that everything that 
 has been suggested, or is about to be settled, to 
 induce the farmer to grow flax, is almost in every 
 instance in harmony with my opinion respecting 
 the general measures required for the introduction 
 of the flax-culture in this country at large ; and 
 I cannot help therefore giving at some length 
 the most interesting passage of what was ex- 
 
 * A very wise and cautious warning. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 75 
 
 plained and stated on this occasion. At the 
 same meeting at Langtown, Sir James Graham 
 goes on saying : 
 
 " In the course of my attendance at the meetings of the 
 Agricultural Society of London I had opportunities of con- 
 versing with the great body of the gentry and farmers from 
 the different parts of England ; among others a friend of 
 mine, Mr. Long, one of the members for Wiltshire, who has 
 considerable property in North Wales. The soil and climate 
 in North Wales are in no respect better than ours ; it is very 
 similar, but not superior. Mr. Long stated to me two years 
 ago, which would be in I860, that he grew flax for the first 
 time in North Wales, and he gave me an account of the re- 
 sult of his first experiment there> which I will read to you : 
 1 At the meeting of the Melksham Agricultural Society, held 
 on the 2nd of December last, Mr. Long, M.P., in directing 
 the attention of agriculturists to the cultivation of flax in that 
 district, stated that he himself had had some little experience 
 of it. He had grown it for two years in Wales. Last year 
 he had made 10/. an acre of it, after paying all expenses. He 
 had sold the produce of two acres for 307. , the expenses 
 against the crop being 10/. He had sold the straw for 31. 10s. 
 per ton to a firm in Bristol, who were ready to take several 
 thousand tons at that price' (hear, hear). Encouraged by 
 what I thought was a promising aspect with reference to the 
 growth of flax, I myself tried a small experiment. I was not 
 so fortunate in my first attempt as Mr. Long was, nor as I 
 might have been. This (pointing to a sample-bag full of 
 linseed) is the seed raised, and here (holding up the straw 
 already mentioned) is some of the flax produced by that ex* 
 periment. My profit, as stated, was 41. 13s. per acre, a de- 
 tailed account of which has already been in print, and I will 
 not trouble you with those particulars again. I may state, 
 however, that in that account nothing has been exaggerated, 
 and everything has been brought to charge with the utmost 
 care, taking in the price of the seed at 6s. per bushel, which 
 was then the market price, though it is now 8*. per bushel. 
 
76 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 The total produce amounted to 231. 2s., the cost of produc- 
 tion to 13/. 4s., leaving a total profit of 91. 18s. To myself 
 has resulted a profit on the experiment of last year of 41. 13s. 
 per acre (hear). I am quite satisfied I committed a mistake, 
 and I could have greatly improved that crop with my present 
 knowledge on the subject. I failed to plough my land as 
 deeply as I ought to have done. It was clean (it was after 
 turnips), but I did not give the land that second furrow which 
 it ought to have had ; and if I had, the quality of fibre would 
 have been greatly improved and the quantity increased. I tried 
 guano. That, I am satisfied, is an imprudent mode of treat- 
 ment ; it adds to the luxuriance of the crop, but weakens the 
 fibre, which falls down and is injured. It increases the sti- 
 mulus, and it is altogether unwise to add stimulants to the 
 growth of flax (hear). There is no necessity for it, and should 
 never be resorted to.* It has been said that flax is an exhaust- 
 ing crop, and great stress has been laid upon it on this point. 
 Now I, as a landlord, cannot be supposed to wish to encou- 
 rage the growth of any crop which would be permanently 
 injurious to the land occupied by the farmer (hear, hear, and 
 a laugh), and I would not wish to grow a crop if it impo- 
 verished the land (hear, hear). I do not wish to fetter those 
 with whom I am connected with any stipulations whatever, 
 but at present I should be perfectly willing that they should 
 introduce flax into their rotation, either before or after the 
 turnip-crop, only on condition that the quantity grown should 
 not bear more than a fixed proportion to all the land under 
 cultivation ; they should not grow more than five acres to the 
 hundred (hear, hear, and applause). With that single reser- 
 vation I should not be at all afraid to see my tenants sell their 
 flax-straw from their ground (hear, hear, and cheers). 1 think 
 I can give no more satisfactory proof of my sincere and con- 
 scientious belief that it is not an exhausting crop (hear, hear). 
 As to the demand, it is hardly credible what is the increase 
 of demand that may be expected if we calculate by com- 
 parison. What is the tendency of manufactures with refer- 
 
 * This is a very valuable remark. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 77 
 
 ence to the linen trade in the spring of the year ? For the 
 eleven months of 1851 the almost incredible amount of 
 1,085,000 cwt. of flax was imported from foreign countries. 
 The imports of flax-seed for the same period \vere 514,000 qrs., 
 and oilcake 48,000 tons. This amount is a matter of cer- 
 tainty, but must be estimated according to the quality of the 
 crop. What would be the real value of that 1,085,000 cwt. ? 
 As to the seed it would be about 64s. per qr., or 48/. a-ton 
 for the 48,000 tons (hear, hear). With regard to oilcake it 
 is very well known that with every precaution on the part of 
 the buyer there is the greatest exposure to imposition accord- 
 ing to the present system (hear, hear). In fact there is no 
 article which the farmer uses in which there is a greater vari- 
 ation of quality than in oilcake, and to purchase it where the 
 party who manufactures it is known to the farmer is of the 
 greatest importance (hear, hear). If I measure these im- 
 portant items, the flax-seed and oilcake, in cash, I cannot put 
 them down at less than eight millions of money which is paid 
 to foreigners for these three articles in the course of eleven 
 months in the year ending in 1851 (hear, hear). That is the 
 state of the imports. Now let us look at our manufactures. 
 In the year 1850 the exports amounted to 110,730,000 yards 
 of manufactured linen. One would suppose tha* it was 
 hardly possible there could be an increase upon that enor- 
 mous quantity. But if we take the year 1851, we find that 
 so far from there being any diminution, it rose in that year 
 to 117,403,000, being an increase of 6,673,000 in eleven 
 months (hear, hear). Let us see what is the total value of 
 the linen manufactures exported from this country. The de- 
 clared value of the linen manufacture exported in the year 
 1850 was 3,579,000/. ; in 1851 3,750,000/. ; being an in- 
 crease in eleven months of 171,000 (hear). What was the 
 amount of the linen yarn exported within the same period of 
 1850? It was 16,700,000 Ibs. in weight, the value being 
 816,101/.; for the eleven months of 1851, 16,975,000 Ibs. ; 
 value 863,441/., being an increase of 275,000 Ibs. in weight, 
 and 27,340/. in value. To meet this consumption, both for 
 home use as tested by import and a large amount exported, 
 
78 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 the estimated growth is at least 700,000 acres, and we have 
 a perfect knowledge that in Great Britain and Ireland not 
 more than 150,000 acres of flax are cultivated (hear, hear). 
 Therefore, even with the present demand for the raw material, 
 we may with safety add 600,000 acres of land under the 
 plough for the growth of flax (hear, hear). I have told you 
 the opinions of strangers. Now hear a gentleman whose 
 letter I believe I am at liberty to use, though it is addressed 
 to Mr. Rome. He combines the double character of heir to 
 a great agricultural estate and proprietor of a large manufac- 
 turing concern as a flax-spinner ; I allude to the eldest son of 
 Sir Wastell Brisco, a great landed proprietor in this country 
 (hear, hear). I will read to you shortly extracts from his 
 letter. He says, in answer to some inquiries of Mr. Rome's : 
 
 " ' It is out of my power to inform you what was the quan- 
 tity produced per acre, as I have not yet scutched it all, and 
 the crop was made so various by numbers of experiments 
 tried in small quantities, that the result would be of little 
 value for your object, even had it all been scutched. I found, 
 among other things, that so small a quantity as 1 cwt. of 
 guano to the acre very much reduced the money value of the 
 fibre, though it appeared to increase the weight of the crop 
 on the ground. The inferior quality I sold at 477. per ton ; 
 for the best I was offered 120/. per ton, but as it was only a 
 small quantity from a small experiment, of course I made 
 no sale/ 
 
 " Now, I would not recommend the farmer in the first 
 instance to grow with reference to the quality of the fibre. 
 
 " That is a question requiring very peculiar skill and scien- 
 tific knowledge, and until there be experience I do not think 
 he can safely anticipate the growth of very fine fibre. You 
 can alone asceitain the difference in the quality of the fibre 
 by experience. As Mr. Brisco states very truly, it ranges 
 from 40/. to 120/. per ton, thereby affording the farmer a 
 large margin for increased skill and application to cultivation 
 of superior flax, when he can command such a large price if 
 he be judicious in the selection of his soil, and careful in the 
 cultivation of his crop (hear, hear). But Mr. Brisco goes on 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 79 
 
 to say : * The result of my experiments brought my mind to 
 the conclusion, generally, that we can grow flax in Cumber- 
 land of very fine quality, varying with soil and management ; 
 that the fibre and seed will yield more profit than any grain- 
 crop, that it may probably on every soil for fibre, except 
 poor gravel and sand.' " 
 
 " In which opinion I agree with him, and differ from the 
 Essex farmer with regard to gravel and sand, and Mr. Brisco 
 continues ' That on the latter soil it may be grown as a 
 seed-crop only, to yield more profit than any grain crop ; 
 that it is the best crop to show grass and clover seed with ; 
 that such grasses have all the appearance of an old pasture on 
 dry land (I mean not to compare with an old meadow) ; 
 that after the flax is pulled you get more feed that autumn 
 than from the aftermath of seeds with wheat the second year ; 
 that seeds sown with flax give a greater produce the next 
 year by double than if they had been sown with wheat or 
 barley ; that the immense gathering obtained from seeds the 
 same year they are sown, and after the flax is pulled, should 
 be added to the value of the crop.' J1 
 
 Flax will grow on gravels and sands, but the 
 quality and quantity will be less advantageous 
 than when grown in better soils. Flax will grow 
 on soils where nothing else can be grown, and if 
 flax should be grown at all for the seed only, or 
 on speculation to sell the fibre to the cottonizers, 
 let it be grown on such soils. While in Norfolk, 
 Mr. Marsham, of Stratton Strawless, grew three 
 acres of flax on broom-land. The first crop after 
 the land was brought into cultivation was oats, but 
 were not worth harvesting ; the second year was 
 tried with flax ; for this flax I offered 15/. for the 
 straw of the three acres, but Mr. Marsham having 
 fine water-streams for steeping, I advised to pre- 
 
80 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 pare it himself for the market, from the fibre of 
 which he made 19/., all expenses deducted, and 
 from the seed 101. together, 291. This was 
 grown on land where nothing else could be grown. 
 
 Clover, grass, and carrots cannot be recom- 
 mended to be sown with flax ; when the crop is 
 solely cultivated for fibre, it gives in wet seasons 
 an impure colour to the lower part of the plant ; 
 but when the crop is grown for fibre and seed, it 
 is then of less consequence to the fibre, and cer- 
 tain it is that clover and grass will thrive better 
 when sown with flax-seed than with any other 
 crop. The Flemish farmer, although he knows 
 that it is in many cases injurious to the fibre to 
 sow other seed with the flax-seed, can often not 
 help doing so, for the sake of securing a good 
 clover crop. I have often seen clover mown in 
 the latter part of September from two feet long.* 
 It should be recollected that either half a crop of 
 clover, turnips, or carrots, is generally obtained in 
 Flanders after the flax harvest, arid what is ob- 
 tained there can be obtained here with proper 
 management, and this undoubtedly must add 
 materially to the value of the flax crop. 
 
 The Honourable Baronet continues 
 
 " And I may state that in the best sample of flax grown by 
 me I did accompany it with sowing out with it grass seeds, 
 
 * It is understood that this was the season the flax had heen 
 grown. I call this half a crop, because they have always two or 
 three good cuts of clover in a season. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 81 
 
 and I agree with Mr. Brisco, that I never saw flax so well 
 grown as when those seeds were sown with that crop. 
 
 " Thus I have stated briefly my candid opinion and belief 
 of the flax crop. I shall now give you my view of the crop 
 as applied to the general introduction of it into Cumberland. 
 My father was wishful to introduce it among his tenantry, 
 they also applied to me for my opinion and advice. Having 
 some time previously weighed it carefully over, as a grower 
 and a spinner, and my family being possessed of large landed 
 property, I came to this conclusion that to grow flax for 
 fibre profitably, it must be viewed as a scientific crop ; but 
 to grow it for seed reduced it to merely an agricultural crop. 
 Our farmers, not knowing the nature of the plant, or even 
 the appearance of it, could not possibly have a chance of 
 growing it when great skill and experience were required, 
 both in the masters and hands. My advice, therefore, was, 
 let it be grown as a seed-crop only * till they become 
 acquainted with the nature of it, and what lands and manage- 
 ment suit best ; if by this method they fail to grow it in the 
 best way, it yet will pay them as well as another crop. By this 
 means it will become familiar to them ; they will adopt it as 
 a friendly crop of their own, after which they may be drawn 
 on to experiment in a small way for fibre when a failure will 
 not hurt them.' 
 
 " There is one other passage which I should like to read 
 to you from this very sensible letter. He now speaks as a 
 manufacturer : < We flax spinners, as a body, see the neces- 
 sity of having flax grown in England, and are determined to 
 push it forward : as a landed proprietor as well as a spinner, 
 I see we must grow it ; of all crops it is the one to save us. 
 We must make an exchange with the foreigner, and as he 
 has taken our wheat crop from us, because he can grow it 
 cheaper, we likewise must take the flax crop from them, be- 
 cause we can grow it cheaper, and which, as far as value is 
 concerned, will balance the account.' 
 
 " This letter I have read to you exactly in the terms in 
 
 * I expect that Mr. Brisco means fibre and seed. 
 
 G 
 
82 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 which it is written, and it contains the opinion of a gentle- 
 man who is intimately concerned in the land of Cumberland, 
 and, as I have already stated, honourably connected with the 
 manufacture of this very article (applause). I don't wish 
 to encumber my statement with any unnecessary details. I 
 felt that it was of the utmost importance to you, under these 
 circumstances, to introduce the cultivation of flax in your 
 rotations of crops ; it is what I shall do in reference to the 
 land which I farm myself, and my firm conviction is that its 
 general adoption will be most advantageous to both owner 
 and occupier (hear, hear). The difficulty is where to find a 
 manufacturer in the immediate neighbourhood of the grower 
 who will undertake the purchase and conversion of the seed 
 into oilcake, and of the straw into fibre (hear). I told you 
 that I, for one, would not have any concern in a joint stock 
 affair of this kind, nor would I recommend the farmer to be- 
 come speculative to that extent (hear, hear). It is enough for 
 them to grow the raw material. But when I felt it was due 
 to caution the farmer upon this point, I inquired in my own 
 immediate neighbourhood whether there was any gentleman 
 of spirit, skill, capital, and enterprise ready to undertake the 
 experiment (hear, hear). Well, gentlemen, the result was 
 that in Mr. Rome I found what I sought for, and he ex- 
 pressed himself perfectly willing to undertake the enterprise 
 if the growers would give him some encouragement (hear, 
 hear, and applause). I said to him at the same time, ' Now, 
 don't be rash, don't do anything without looking well what 
 you are about, and calculating all the chances of success.' 
 I advised him to go to Ireland and learn what was going on 
 there. I said, ' I will give you the best introductions you 
 can have with regard to opportunities of seeing the growth and 
 manufacture of flax. I am not unknown there, and every 
 facility will be afforded you of acquiring all the information 
 you can possibly obtain ; and, moreover, if you like to go, 
 my agent, Mr. Brown, will accompany you (applause). You 
 shall visit my friend, the agent for the Duke of Hamilton, 
 who has to deal with a wetter climate than our own, and you 
 shall hear what he has to say about the cultivation of flax in 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 83 
 
 Scotland ; you shall then go on to Ireland and see what I 
 saw in Belfast, and in the neighbourhood of the counties of 
 Down and Antrim.' I said politics had nothing to do with 
 this, and on that point I will ask what is the case in the north 
 of Scotland ? In Glasgow a Society has been formed which 
 has the cordial support of the Duke of Montrose and the 
 Duke of Hamilton, who are diametrically opposed to each 
 other in political matters, and by all the merchants of Glas- 
 gow, thinking that they had a common interest in introducing 
 that which was profitable to the land of the United King- 
 dom, and in improving the growth of flax as an article of 
 our manufacture (hear, hear). Mr. Rome went accordingly, 
 and returned home very much confirmed in his previous 
 opinion that there was so much superiority in the mode 
 adopted by Belgium and in Ireland, that he was not unwill- 
 ing to proceed at once, if the growers of this neighbourhood 
 will only give him some certainty with regard to the supply 
 of the raw material (hear and applause). Hearing this, I 
 naturally wrote off to my two great neighbours, all power- 
 ful on each side of the border, Lord Carlisle and the Duke 
 of Buccleuch, to learn what they had to say on the subject. 
 They were of my opinion, that if this cultivation could be 
 introduced with the aid of a couple of manufactories, inde- 
 pendent of the land, it was a great opportunity which ought 
 not to be neglected." 
 
 Really, the steps taken by the honourable 
 baronet to accelerate and establish the flax cul- 
 ture upon firm footing in Cumberland are of a 
 most energetical and decisive nature, and if acted 
 upon by a few leading landed proprietors in 
 each county the flax-culture would be for ever 
 established all over Great Britain, and in the 
 course of a few years this would have become 
 an exporting instead of an importing flax 
 
 G 2 
 
84 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 country.* But, as I have already observed, with- 
 out establishing the flax factorship, and thus pre- 
 paring a market for the farmer's flax-straw, the 
 flax-culture will never become general in England. 
 It is therefore to be hoped that, where the way 
 is now so clearly traced, the agriculturists will 
 not stand so much in their own light as to let 
 this favourable opportunity escape without taking 
 advantage of those great facilities given to them. 
 The flax-culture, under present circumstances, 
 cannot any longer he objected to on the ground 
 of not having a market for the article, or of being 
 a troublesome crop, because, since the farmer can 
 dispose of his flax in the green state, it is the least 
 troublesome plant that can enter in the rotation 
 of crops. 
 
 The farmer has but to grow the plant to the 
 utmost perfection that good culture, the par- 
 ticularities of his soil, seed, and season will admit 
 of, and everything respecting the flax crop is 
 over for him ; it must therefore be said that, when 
 the seed is sown in April, the farmer has nothing 
 
 * It is satisfactory to state that many large landed proprietors 
 have taken the flax-culture under their earnest and serious con- 
 sideration. Last season I had a short interview on the subject 
 with the Duke of Richmond, the Earl of Willoughby d'Ereshy, 
 the Earl Zetland, Lord Sondes, the Earl Chichester, the Agent 
 of the Duke of Sutherland, Lord Faversham, Lord Walsingham, 
 Lord Kinnaird, Lord Colhorne, and others, all of whom were 
 about to try some experiments. The Earl of Talbot and Lieut.- 
 G-eneral Kirrison, whose estates I had the pleasure to visit, were 
 large growers last season. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 85 
 
 more to look for except to receive the amount of 
 his crop in the latter part of July. Can so much 
 be said from any other crop? 
 
 Sir James Graham, after having made some 
 remarks and suggestions of less importance, refers 
 to a letter from the Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, 
 the extensive flax spinners. It appears from this 
 letter that the farmers near Patrington are now 
 growing flax on their own account, and sell the 
 crop to the Messrs. Marshall, when ready for 
 pulling, at from 71. to 1 ll. per acre; but to in- 
 troduce the flax-culture in that part of the coun- 
 try, the Messrs. Marshall were at the first outset 
 obliged to take the land from the farmers at a 
 price, and take the whole management of the 
 crop upon themselves, but it seems that the far- 
 mers at present have come to better senses. As 
 the agriculturists in this country will always 
 attach much price to their seed and trash, it 
 would be more profitable for them to have the 
 seed taken off on their own premises ; then they 
 would have their own husks, chaff, and leaves, 
 all of which can be economically used on the 
 farm ;* when the farmer cannot find a favourable 
 
 * The flax-seed should decidedly be kept by the farmer, it being 
 much more valuable to him than to the party that purchases the 
 straw, it being nothing but an incumbrance to the latter ; besides, 
 the farmer can more economically use the husks, the chaff, and 
 leaves of the plant, it being a most valuable manure for clover and 
 grass; nobody without trying can form an idea of what rapid 
 
86 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 market in the green state : the flax afterwards is 
 to be disposed of by weight ; the present average 
 price is from 21. 10s. to 41 per ton ; the average 
 weight is 2 tons per English acre. 
 
 Sir James Graham then read the following 
 statement of the cost of production and value of 
 2 acres and 20 perches of flax grown on Crofthead 
 last year : 
 
 "Cost of Production and Value of 2 acres 20 perches of 
 Flax on Crofthead Farm. Season 1851. 
 
 PRODUCE. 5 d 
 
 To 38 bushels of seed at 6s. per bushel . . 11 8 
 3 tons 18 cwt. of straw at 60s. per ton . . 11 14 
 
 23 2 
 
 COST. 
 
 
 x-rrrr-. 
 
 MOM 
 
 :=*-< 
 
 By two ploughings, harrowing, sowing, rolling, 
 
 &c., at 16s. per acre 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 6 bushels of seed at 10s. per bushel 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weeding, cost 9s. Sd. per acre . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pulling, harvesting, thatching, &c., cost 21s. 
 
 per acre .... 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Rent of land, rates, &c., 26s. per acre . 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 Housing and thrashing seed at 12s. 
 Carriage of straw to Carlisle at 6s. 
 
 per acre . 
 per ton 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Produce .... 
 
 23 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 13 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Net profit 
 
 9 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 Profit 41. 13s. per acre." 
 
 effect this refuse makes upon the growth of grass and clover. 
 In Belgium, although the farmer sells his flax crop green on the 
 field, he nevertheless keeps the seed to himself. 
 
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING FLAX INDUSTRY. 87 
 
 Sir James said that he had committed two 
 mistakes in trying the experiment ; first, he had 
 grown it after turnips, and the land had only 
 had one ploughing, and not a deep one. 
 
 If such a quality of flax can be grown on tur- 
 nip land having only had one ploughing, and 
 not a deep one, what will be the consequence 
 when the plant will be grown on the proper land, 
 and shall have had all the pulverization and fer- 
 tilization required ? 
 
 Agriculturists, the suggestions, statements, and 
 facts just laid before you, respecting the flax-cul- 
 ture, are decidedly of the most encouraging 
 nature, and cannot fail to inspire you with confi- 
 dence in the future success of the flax cultivation. 
 
88 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 The Flax-Plant in a Social and Moral 
 Point of View. 
 
 I have said that the flax-plant possesses also 
 incalculable advantages when considered in a 
 social and moral point of view, and will give a 
 few extracts from good authority in support of 
 my advancement. 
 
 At the annual meeting of the Royal Flax 
 Society in Belfast in November, 1846, Mr. Shar- 
 man Crawford, M.P., in moving the adoption of 
 the report, made the following remarks : 
 
 " It will he desirable now to consider what the resources 
 of the country will admit of, and to take a review of the pro- 
 duction of flax, which may be created from the lands of 
 Ireland, properly managed on a rotation system. In the 
 report of the Commissioners for the return of the population 
 they found that the portions of the land of Ireland fit for the 
 purposes of agriculture, exclusive of all other descriptions, 
 amount to 13,464,320 acres. Instead of one-eighth, which 
 has been shown is perfectly consistent with good farming, 
 let us suppose only one-sixteenth appropriated to flax, we 
 should have 841,518 acres. 6 cwt., or about one-third of 
 a ton, is considered a fair average produce by the acre ; that 
 would give no less than 252,455 tons, and, at 45/. per ton, 
 the value would be 11,360,475/. ; then, with regard to the 
 employment which the cultivation of the plant gives, and 
 which is a most important consideration, it has been shown 
 
SOCIAL AND MORAL VIEW OF FLAX. 89 
 
 that, independently of spinning, an acre of fine flax gives em- 
 ployment for a year to nineteen persons in manufacturing 
 it into pocket handkerchiefs ; and, if spinners be added, 
 there would be an addition of forty-four women, making 
 altogether sixty-three persons. 
 
 " But some people may think that an exaggerated state- 
 ment ; therefore, let it be supposed that one acre of flax 
 would be equal to the employment and support of one family 
 for the year ; then the result would be, supposing that one- 
 sixteenth only of the lands of Ireland to be in flax, there 
 would be 841,518 families so supported; and taking each 
 family at the usual average of five, the number of individuals 
 sustained would be 4,207,590, equal to about one-half of the 
 whole population of Ireland. Let us consider in how small 
 a degree the manufacture of flax has hitherto advanced, and 
 then look at the means and capabilities of Ireland the immense 
 water-power, for instance, which was wasted. But I hope 
 that there will be a change that will induce the men of 
 Ireland to look to the water-power, for, if they do, the 
 remunerative prices of flax will be greatly increased. 
 
 " Mr. William Blakely, a tenant of the Dean of Dromore, 
 in the townland of Coreelany, near Waringstown, grew last 
 season (1843) three statute acres (about 1 acre 3 roods 16 poles 
 Irish measure) of flax, which he managed strictly according 
 to the directions of the Society for the Promotion and Im- 
 provement of the Growth of Flax in Ireland. The produce 
 of this field has been recently purchased at 15s. per stone by 
 Messrs. M 'Murray and Henning, of Waringstown, the emi- 
 nent cambric manufacturers, who say it is equal, if not su- 
 perior, to any flax they ever saw before, and that they have 
 given 36s. per stone for foreign flax of an inferior quality. 
 
 " A large portion of this flax has been delivered to Messrs. 
 M'Murray arid Co., but some still remains to be dressed by 
 the celebrated machinery of Mr. Henry, of Keady. Should 
 this part be as productive as that already furnished, the entire 
 produce of the three acres will be 120 stone, which at los. 
 will give to the farmer 90/. ; but he has a certainty of 100 
 stone, which will realise him 75/. 
 
90 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 " This flax is now in process of conversion into cambric 
 pocket handkerchiefs; it is capable of being spun to thirty 
 hanks to the pound, and is to be spun by hand. Mark, now, 
 the employment this will give. 
 
 " It will give constant employment, for twelve months, 
 to 158 women to spin it; 18 weavers will be occupied a like 
 period in weaving ; and it will employ 40 women for a year 
 to hemstitch (or vein) the handkerchiefs, thus giving con- 
 stant employment for twelve months to 210 persons. 
 
 " It is curious to trace the result of the process which this 
 flax is now undergoing; it will produce 210 webs of cambric, 
 each web containing five dozen handkerchiefs ; each dozen 
 will be worth 50s., and the entire when finished will be worth 
 2600/." 
 
 However much the production of an acre of flax, 
 when manufactured in superior Irish fabrics, may 
 appear, it is not to be compared with the superior 
 productions of the Belgian and French fabrics. 
 A fact which I have already mentioned, and can 
 be proved, is, that one acre of flax of extraordi- 
 nary fineness and quality has produced in some 
 instances from 20,000/. to 30,000^., when con- 
 verted into Brussels lace called Dentelles Point 
 Bruxelles, travaillees a la main, en fil de lin, and 
 other superior articles. The social and moral 
 benefits the flax and linen manufacture have made 
 in East and West Flanders during the last twenty 
 years, and especially during the last few years, 
 are incalculable. My native village is actually 
 enjoying the most happy and beneficial results 
 from the manufacture of mouchoirs, batistes, 
 linons, and toiles, established a few years since 
 at Wevelghem, near Courtrai, by my friend, 
 
SOCIAL AND MORAL VIEW OF FLAX. 9 ] 
 
 M. Van Ackere. The articles exhibited by him at 
 the London Great Exhibition were much admired 
 by all competent judges, and to which the jury 
 has awarded an honourable mention. Indeed, 
 this precious branch of industry should not be 
 lost sight of, the more so because the flax-spinning 
 machinery can only, up to the present day, spin 
 No. 260, whilst the finest yarns spun by hand 
 for the superior Brussels lace are No. 1200 
 (devides a 1'Anglaise) ; thus, that this yarn is 
 about five times as fine as that produced by ma- 
 chinery. We all know that the hand-spinning 
 is totally superseded by the machinery, except 
 for those lucrative articles the demand for which 
 has considerably increased for the last few years ; 
 and it is not likely that machinery will ever 
 be brought to such perfection as to spin those 
 very fine numbers of yarns, and, therefore, this 
 branch of industry will ever be precious, and con- 
 tinue to provide employment of the most genteel 
 description for the more delicate sex. Indeed, 
 the making of lace is one of the most elegant and 
 remunerative occupations that a female can per- 
 form. Such a branch of precious industry ought 
 to be introduced in England (on the same footing 
 as it exists in France and Belgium), where thou- 
 sands of females are in want of genteel and delicate 
 employment. This would no doubt contribute in 
 creating comfort and social and moral benefits. 
 The following fact is a fair specimen of the 
 
92 THE FLAX INDUSTKY. 
 
 beneficial effect which the flax industry has 
 already made upon morality and social comfort 
 through the exertions of Mr. Warnes. 
 
 Chevalier Claussens, in his pamphlet ' Flax 
 Movement/ says, 
 
 " One word upon the social advantages which must result 
 from an extended cultivation of flax, and my remarks will 
 have been brought to a close. Upon this point I cannot do 
 better than quote a few words from the report of one of the 
 special correspondents of the Morning Chronicle, who visited 
 the small village of Trimingham, where Mr. Warnes has for 
 several years most sedulously and successfully devoted him- 
 self to the cultivation and preparation of the plant. 
 
 " ' The condition of the inhabitants of the village,' he says, 
 ' was a few years since most deplorable, and the amount of 
 pauperism exceeded that of the adjoining parishes. 
 
 " ' Since the introduction of flax-culture, this state of things 
 has passed away. There is not a pauper in the parish ; the 
 poor-rates are nominal ; there is not an able-bodied labourer 
 or any portion of his family who may not obtain constant em- 
 ployment throughout the whole of the year ; and the moral 
 and social state of the village will bear comparison with most. 
 If the growth of flax can produce results elsewhere similar to 
 those which I have witnessed at Trimingham, there can be 
 no doubt that the sooner it is cultivated to a great extent in 
 this country, the sooner will the enormous burden of pau- 
 perism decrease, and happiness and contentment be more 
 generally diffused among the large masses of our labouring 
 population.' 
 
 " The communication was received with considerable ap- 
 plause." 
 
 Having myself resided near the village for 
 several years, I can but corroborate the foregoing 
 statement. 
 
YIELD AND STRENGTH OF BRITISH FLAX. 93 
 
 XV. 
 
 Yield and Strength of British Flax. 
 
 One feature connected with the flax-culture in 
 this country should not be overlooked, since the 
 following facts assume the most paramount im- 
 portance. 
 
 During the course of my practical experiments 
 in the culture and manufacture of flax in Nor- 
 folk, I have convinced myself that one of the 
 most important characteristic qualities which the 
 flax-plant derives from British soil and climate is 
 yield and strength. 
 
 The strength is a most essential quality, and 
 abundant yield is generally coupled with good 
 strength, the same as little yield and weak flax 
 are generally coupled together. Little yield and 
 weak flax is oftentimes caused through over 
 steeping. The greatest yield I have heard of 
 since the ten years that I am in this country is 
 that from an acre of flax grown by the Honour- 
 able Captain Rons, of Worstead House, near 
 Norwich, it being 7 cwt. 34 Ibs. of clean flax 
 per English acre. The next is the yield of 3 acres 
 grown by Sir Henry Durrant, of Scottow Hall, 
 near Norwich, which produced 1 ton 20 Ibs. of 
 
94 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 clean flax. One acre grown by Mr. Charles 
 Utting, of Heverton St. John, near Norwich, 
 produced 6 cwt. 68 Ibs. of clean flax. The latter 
 was the finest of the three lots. This flax was 
 prepared by myself, and the greatest part of it 
 was sold to the Messrs. Marshall and the Messrs. 
 Haves and Atkinson, of Leeds, and was found 
 above the usual strength of flaxes. This flax 
 fetched then (1844) 601. per ton, but would now 
 realise 751. This statement may perhaps appear 
 exaggerated respecting the great yield just alluded 
 to, and must therefore once more, and once for 
 all, say, that I have no interest in any exaggera- 
 tion, having not for the moment the slightest 
 personal interest in the flax industry of this 
 country, nor in that of any other country. If I 
 take an interest in it, it is for the public good, 
 and because I feel partial to a branch of in- 
 dustry in which many of my family have been 
 profitably engaged since more than half a cen- 
 tury. But to return to the subject of the yield of 
 the flax-plant. 
 
 I shall now refer to two statements which have 
 already been brought under the notice of the 
 public. Mr. Druce, of Eynsham, near Oxford, 
 grew, in 1850, 5 acres 2 rods 36 perches, which 
 have produced, according to Mr. Druce's own 
 statement, 12 tons 2 cwt. 2 qrs. of flax-straw, 
 which would give 2 tons of clean flax. 
 
YIELD AND STRENGTH OF BRITISH FLAX. 95 
 
 Sir James Graham's experiment of last year, 
 of 2 acres 20 perches grown on Crofthead farm, 
 yielded 3 tons 1 8 cwt. of flax-straw, which would 
 produce 13 cwt. of clean flax ready for market. 
 The yield of the different foregoing statements is 
 at least 30 per cent, more than the average pro- 
 duce of the flax-crop in Ireland. 
 
 In the Report of the Royal Flax Society of 
 1849, a statement was made of the quantity of 
 fibre per acre produced in fourteen districts of the 
 north of Ireland, according to returns made by 
 the local farming societies. This statement shows 
 the average to be a little under 5 cwt. per statute 
 acre, the lowest being 3i cwt., and the highest 
 7 cwt. In the provinces of Connaught and 
 Munster the returns do not exceed 4 cwt., 
 making a total average for Ireland of about 
 4i cwt. to the statute acre- In England, parti- 
 cularly in Yorkshire and Norfolk, 5| cwt. may 
 be taken as the mean produce, and in Belgium 
 the average is 7 cwt. per English acre. 
 
 The produce in raw flax or in flax straw has 
 been ascertained in several parts of Ireland to be 
 40 to 45 cwt, per statute acre (65 to 73 cwt. per 
 Irish acre), weighed when quite dry and before 
 seeding. In Yorkshire, it appears from published 
 statements that 50 to 55 cwt. per statute acre 
 (80 to 89 cwt. per Irish acre) are commonly 
 grown. 
 
96 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Flax-spinning increase in Ireland since 1841, 
 when the Flax Society was established. 
 
 In the Annual Report to the Committee of the 
 Royal Flax Society for the year 1850 we find 
 the following : 
 
 " When this society was founded, in 1841, the Irish flax- 
 spinning trade consisted of about 250,000 spindles. With 
 the increase which has since taken place, and that now making, 
 nearly 390,000 spindles will be in operation next year. The 
 consumption of flax in Irish factories in 1841 was estimated 
 at 16,000 tons; on the same data it will be, next year, about 
 25,000, being an increase of 9000 tons. Taking 5 cwt. of 
 flax as the average produce per statute acre, this increase 
 would alone require an additional breadth of 36,000 acres, 
 being more than one half of the entire Irish growth ; while, 
 to supply the Irish flax spinners would take 100,000 acres, 
 being 30,000 more than the present average sowing. 
 
 " To extend the comparison over the United Kingdom, we 
 find that, while the import of foreign flax in the years 1840, 
 1841, and 1842 averages annually 62,500 tons, in 1848, 1849, 
 and 1850, to the 10th of October in each year, it averaged 
 83,800, an increase of 21,300 tons ; that increase alone being 
 nearly equal to the production of 84,600 acres. If, there- 
 fore, the large extent of the imports of foreign flax was dwelt 
 upon in 1841, when the society was formed, it is evident that 
 the arguments in favour of increasing the extent of flax cul- 
 tivation in Ireland are strengthened in the ratio of the in- 
 crease which has since taken place. Your committee would 
 
INCREASE OF FLAX-SPINNING IN IRELAND. 97 
 
 beg your attention to a fact which cannot be too frequently 
 enforced on public attention, viz. that, while Ireland at 
 present produces only about 60,000 acres of flax, to supply 
 the existing demand in the United Kingdom for the different 
 products of the crop nearly 500,000 acres would be annually 
 required ; and also, that, with the exception of a smaller 
 proportion of the finer flaxes of Belgium, the entire of the 
 foreign import could be replaced with Irish, to the great ad- 
 vantage of the linen trade, from the superiority of the latter. 
 Nor, in the event of a greatly increased production of flax in 
 Ireland, is the market limited to the quantity required by 
 the British Isles, for France, Belgium, Spain, the United 
 States of America, and other countries, might be calculated 
 upon as customers to a considerable extent." 
 
 This extract indicates nothing less than that 
 Ireland seems to be destined to be one of the 
 greatest producing countries for flax and linen in 
 the world. The trade is one whose connection 
 with agriculture renders its success a matter of 
 the most vital importance, for not only does it 
 employ a large number of male and female ope- 
 ratives, but it is at the same time capable of 
 being made a source of vast wealth to the rural 
 population. 
 
 n 
 
98 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 Schenck's System of Steeping. 
 
 I have already said that without the flax- 
 factorship be established in this country, the 
 farmer will never feel strongly inclined to grow 
 flax ; but let factors establish themselves, and 
 the farmers will extensively grow the crop ; but 
 as the conveniences of water for steeping the 
 plant (although numerous) are not perhaps 
 exactly so general in England as in Ireland, 
 Schenck's system will in many instances be pre- 
 ferred by the factors, and will undoubtedly be 
 the means of increasing and accelerating the flax- 
 culture in this country. 
 
 Messrs. Bernard and Koch, in their pamphlet 
 on Schenck's system of steeping, recommend 
 that 
 
 " Parties desirous to enter into this new branch of business 
 in districts where flax has not been usually grown, should 
 ascertain 
 
 " Whether the general character of the land is suitable 
 for the growth of flax ; 
 
 " Whether a sufficient quantity is likely to be grown in 
 the immediate neighbourhood say ten miles round ; 
 
 " The quality of the water, and if a constant supply for 
 the retting process can be had during the whole of the year. 
 
SCHEXCK'S SYSTEM OF STEEPING. 99 
 
 " They should also engage a person who thoroughly under- 
 stands the flax-growing to select the land in the first instance, 
 and to give the general directions as to the management of 
 the "crop up to the harvesting. By doing this, they will 
 introduce at the onset the best method, and avoid the risk of 
 trials made without practical knowledge. This remark applies 
 chiefly to England, in many parts of which the flax-crop is 
 not generally understood, and where prejudices still exist 
 against it." 
 
 The following explanations on Schenck's patent 
 system will afford practical information on the 
 subject : 
 
 " LOCALITY OF A RETTERY. 
 
 " In the selection of a site for a rettery the following 
 requisites, which are all of importance, must be kept in view. 
 They are 
 
 " An open space of four to eight statute acres, according 
 to the proposed size of the establishment, accessible by good 
 roads, and unsheltered by either hills or plantations, to ensure 
 quick drying. 
 
 " A constant supply of pure soft water for retting, having, 
 if possible, a fall of six feet, by which pumping is avoided. 
 
 " A good outlet for the waste water. 
 
 " The vicinity of a village, or of cottages, from which a 
 sufficient number of hands can be obtained. 
 
 " If the machinery is to be driven by water-power it is 
 absolutely necessary that the supply of water be never failing. 
 Great inconveniences and serious losses would be caused by 
 a partial stoppage of the work during the best season ; it 
 would then be found necessary to erect a steam-engine, which 
 would cause an additional outlay." 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF A RETTERY. 
 
 To explain the construction of a rettery build- 
 ing I cannot do better than give almost an ex- 
 
 H2 
 
100 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 tract from the work of Messrs. Bernard and 
 Koch, who write as follows : 
 
 " The manner of laying out the buildings of a rettery must 
 vary according to local circumstances ; but there are some 
 principles which must in all cases be kept in view. Economy 
 of labour is aimed at in all manufacturing establishments, and 
 in a rettery this point is of paramount importance. Flax is 
 very bulky, and has to undergo so many manipulations in its 
 dry and wet state, that the arrangements must be such as to 
 save all unnecessary handling, carrying, and labour of any 
 kind. 'For this purpose the different operations must be 
 carried on in distinct places contiguous to each other, and, in 
 order to avoid any confusion, they should follow each other 
 in onward direction. Ample space must be given in each 
 department, want of room being of great disadvantage." 
 
 According to Messrs. Bernard and Koch's ex- 
 planation, the buildings consist of the following 
 compartments : 
 
 " The seeding room with loft above. 
 
 "The vat-house and spreading room. 
 
 " The drying sheds. 
 
 " The desiccating house. 
 
 " The store sheds. 
 
 " The scutching mill and engine or waterwheel house. 
 
 " The seeding room must be of large size, so as to allow 
 ample room for the manipulation, and to contain a stock of 
 flax. For the greater facility of bringing the flax in, it 
 should be on the ground-floor, be lofty enough, and have 
 doors sufficiently large to admit loaded carts or trucks. It 
 should be so situated that a shaft can be brought in and 
 driven from the main power, and so that it be in commu- 
 nication with the vat-house. 
 
 " The loft is used for cleaning and storing the seed, and 
 for various other purposes: it should have a good strong 
 floor. 
 
SCHENCK'S SYSTEM OF STEEPING. 101 
 
 " The vat -house and spreading room consist of a ground 
 floor only. They can be built together, with a valley-roof 
 resting on pillars* The portion of roof over the vats should 
 have covers to give ventilation and to allow the free escape 
 of the vapours which arise from the vats. Asphalta makes 
 a good floor for the spreading room. All the doors should 
 be at least six feet wide. Hooped wooden vats, oval shape, 
 having been found to answer best ; they resist the pressure 
 caused during the fermentation, and are not liable to fre- 
 quent leakage; they are also handy to work, and can be 
 easily repaired. Wooden square vats, however strongly made, 
 do not keep stanch for a long time. 
 
 " The drying sheds are to be erected on an open space, 
 well exposed to the winds, and not far distant from the 
 spreading room. They must be placed at right angles with 
 the prevailing wind, and at fifty or sixty feet distance from 
 each other. 
 
 " The desiccating house is divided into two separate rooms, 
 each to contain the flax of one day's work. A fire-proof con- 
 struction is to be preferred. 
 
 " The store-sheds are necessary for housing the dried flax 
 previous to its being scutched. They should be erected near 
 the scutching mill, and made so as to allow carts to go under. 
 
 " The scutching mill must be immediately adjoining to the 
 power, whether steam or water ; it must be dry and well 
 lighted, and of sufficient dimensions to contain besides the 
 machinery a stock of flax-straw, and to give plenty of room 
 to the workers. 
 
 " The stack-yard should be situated as near as possible to 
 the main work, and facing the seeding house. 
 
 " WORKS PERFORMED IN A RETTERY. 
 
 " The seeding is done by a machine made expressly for 
 the purpose and acting by means of rollers, between which 
 the seed-end of the flax is passed sidewise two or three times, 
 the capsules or bolls are crushed, and the seed falls out 
 uninjured, the flax-straw being neither crushed nor put out of 
 
102 THE FLAX INDUSTEY. 
 
 shape. After the buts have passed through the machine, they 
 are lashed to shake out the loose seed and the broken bolls. 
 
 " As the flax requires to be in a dry state for that operation, 
 a stock equal to several days' work should always be kept in 
 the seeding house. This stock to be renewed whenever the 
 state of the weather permits. 
 
 " The seed and bolls are then passed through a dressing 
 machine fitted for the proper sieves. Seed intended for sow- 
 ing should receive a double cleaning to remove all light 
 pickle. The clean seed should be kept on a well- ventilated 
 loft, and be allowed to remain some time exposed to the air, 
 receiving, occasional turnings before it is put into bags 
 barrels are better. 
 
 " The bolls or chaff are excellent food for cattle when 
 steamed and mixed with turnips. 
 
 " Several other methods of seeding have been resorted to, 
 but they are all open to objections. 
 
 " Threshing machines cause a great waste, and damage 
 the ends of the flax, and part of the seed is left in the centre 
 of the but. Rippling requires a large space and numerous 
 hands ; is too slow and expensive ; besides, in this case, as 
 with the threshing machine, the bolls have to be crushed 
 afterwards. Beating seed off by hand is less objectionable, 
 but it is only applicable on a smaller scale. 
 
 " SORTING. 
 
 " This work must be done very carefully, and requires ex- 
 perienced hands. The sorters have to separate the different 
 qualities, according to colour and length, forming new buts 
 containing but one quality.* They pass these new buts to 
 
 * The object of sorting is not only to separate the different 
 colours and lengths, but it is of much more consequence to sepa- 
 rate the coarse and fine and the parts that have teen lying, as these 
 three different sorts, if steeped together, will cause great waste in 
 the scutching ; besides, when scutched together and intermingled 
 with the better part of the fibre, it makes it altogether of an inferior 
 quality. 
 
SCHENCK'S SYSTEM OF STEEPING. 103 
 
 the binders, who tie them singly, as handed to them, keeping 
 the roots square. Rush bands are preferable. It is a good 
 plan to cut off the roots by a machine like a chaff-cutter, as it 
 facilitates the after handling ; the buts are now selected and 
 piled up according to quality. The object of seeding is to 
 have every vat filled with the same description of flax, which 
 ensures a more uniform retting and more even quality. The 
 flax is now ready to go into the vat. 
 
 " RETTING OR STEEPING. 
 
 " In order to have in every vat as nearly as possible the 
 same relative proportions of flax and water, it is well to weigh 
 the flax before putting it into the vat : the buts must be 
 placed carefully upright, the roots resting on the false bot- 
 toms, and pressed slightly together by the workman as he goes 
 on filling, care being taken that all be straight to facilitate 
 a free upward circulation of the heated water and the gases. 
 When the vat is filled with flax, the covers are put on and 
 secured with cross-bars, so as to keep the flax 4 or 5 inches 
 immersed in the water. The vats are then filled up with cold 
 water, and enough steam is turned on to raise the heat to 
 90 degrees in about eight hours ; the temperature of the 
 water is not to exceed at any time 90 degrees, but must be 
 kept uniformly at that degree day and night during the whole 
 retting process. This is easily effected by letting in steam 
 whenever the temperature begins to fall. The flax must not 
 be left any length of time in the cold water, as it would 
 retard the fermentation ; therefore the vats must not be filled 
 with cold water long before the time the steam is to be put on. 
 
 "The number of hours for the retting are to be reckoned 
 from the time the steam is turned on first. The duration of 
 the process averages about sixty -six hours, but varies ac- 
 cording to circumstances such as the following :* 
 
 * If flax can be considerably deteriorated in strength by being 
 half a day too long in cold water, what must it be when left a few 
 hours too long in hot water ? The effect of an hour in hot water 
 
104 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 " The Quality of the Water. That which is soft and more 
 suitable for fermenting purposes will produce a more active 
 and quicker retting, 
 
 " The Description of Flax. Good sound well -matured 
 and well-saved flax requires more retting than unripe, green 
 pulled, or otherwise damaged flax. 
 
 " Quality aimed at. If the object is to bring the fibre to 
 great fineness, the retting must be carried on longer than for 
 obtaining a stronger but coarser article. 
 
 " In some cases a temperature of 80 and 85 degrees may 
 be advantageously used, but the retting will then require a 
 longer time than with the water at 90 degrees. 
 
 "One of the best tests for ascertaining when flax is pro- 
 perly retted is to take a few stalks of average fineness, which 
 are broken in two places, about three inches apart ; if the 
 wood so broken separates easily on being drawn downwards, 
 without tearing the fibre or retaining any part of it, the flax 
 is sufficiently retted, and the water may be run off. 
 
 " It may answer in some cases to give two successive 
 rettings to some flax. Strong hearty flax will be improved 
 by this double operation, but of course it increases the ex- 
 penses. After the first retting, flax must be thoroughly 
 dried before it is put again in the water for the second ope- 
 ration. 
 
 " DRYING. 
 
 " It is important that flax should be dried as quickly as 
 possible, to prevent any further decomposition. For this 
 purpose, it is spread between the holders which are suspended 
 under the drying sheds. These holders consist of a double 
 wooden rod, fastened together with a wire staple and bag in 
 the centre, and by metal rings at each end. The under-rod 
 is placed on a table, flax is spread evenly over it, and the 
 
 makes more than half a day in cold water ; it therefore necessarily 
 follows that the hot water system of steeping must be a peculiar 
 mode of steeping, and if great attention is required in the cold 
 water steeping, it must be so ten-fold in the hot water steeping. 
 
SCHENCK'S SYSTEM OF STEEPING. 105 
 
 upper rod is put on and fastened, as mentioned above. 
 It takes fifty holders for each cwt. of flax, weighed when 
 dry. 
 
 " The flax has to remain three days under the drying-sheds, 
 in favourable weather it will be quite fit for being tied and 
 stacked ; but if the atmosphere is damp, the drying must be 
 completed by means of artificial heat, which should not ex- 
 ceed 90 to 100 degrees. This last process must be watched 
 very carefully, for if the flax be overdried its quality may be 
 considerably impaired. Flax must in no case be scutched 
 immediately after drying ; it should first be put into stacks, 
 or under open sheds, where it has to rest. Six weeks is 
 considered to be of sufficient time to bring it to its scutching 
 point. 
 
 " SCUTCHING. 
 
 " Flax can be scutched either by hand or by machinery. 
 Hand-scutching, although productive of good results when 
 performed by a skilful workman, is not practicable on a very 
 large scale, owing to the difficulty of procuring the number 
 of trained hands necessary for the work ; machinery must ne- 
 cessarily be resorted to. With that at present in use the opera- 
 tion of scutching requires, on the part of the workman, 
 practice and experience; in fact, it is a profession of itself ; 
 a description would be quite inadequate to convey a correct 
 idea of it, and would in no case enable a person to do the 
 work who had not learned it practically. Machines have 
 been brought out lately, calculated to dispense with skilled 
 labour, and there is every probability that they will be brought 
 to work satisfactorily. 
 
 " The shoves, or woody part, produced at the scutching 
 mill are used as fuel, three tons of which are equal to one ton 
 of coals in raising steam. 
 
 " CLASSING. 
 
 " On leaving the scutching mill, flax has finally to be 
 classed according to its value and quality, and to be made up 
 into bundles, after which it is ready for market. Each ret- 
 
106 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 tery should adopt a regular classification for the different 
 qualities, each being always represented by the same mark and 
 denomination. This will facilitate the sale. 
 
 " In order to give an approximate idea of the outlay in- 
 volved in the erection of a rettery, and of the cost of labour, 
 the following estimates for the establishment of two different 
 sizes have been carefully calculated, and a statement of the 
 number of hands required by each is also subjoined. 
 
 " RETTERY CALCULATED TO CONSUME THE PRODUCE OF Two 
 HUNDRED ACRES.* 
 
 " Plant. 
 
 " Six vats, of 3000 gallons, with steam- . s. d. . $. d. 
 
 pipes, cocks, &c. - - - - 140 
 Main steam-pipe and main cock - - 10 
 Water-pipe and 4 cocks or valves - 12 
 
 5000 drying-rods and rings - - - 55 
 
 Seeding machine - - - - - 1500 
 Root-cutting machine - 400 
 
 Dressing machine and sieves - - - 800 
 
 Desiccating apparatus - 60 
 
 Weighing-bridge ----- 20 00 
 
 Sundry implements tables, barrows, &c. 36 
 
 360 
 
 Twelve-horse boiler, and eight-horse high- 
 pressure steam-engine - 160 
 Shafting ------- 15 00 
 
 Scutching machinery - - - - 140 
 
 315 
 
 " Buildings. 
 
 " Seeding-house 2 stories, 80 by 25 feet, 
 walls 20 feet high, slated roof, ground- 
 floor asphalted, upper floor 3-inch plank 300 
 
 Carried forward - 300 675 
 
 * A plan of these buildings is added to the work on flax by 
 A . Bernard and Koch, 
 
SCHENCK'S SYSTEM OP STEEPING. 
 
 107 
 
 Brought forward - 
 Vat-house and spreading-room 80 by 36 
 } feet, walls 10 feet high, felt roof, 
 
 asphalted floor in spreading-room - 
 Scutching-mill 45 by 25 feet, walls 11 
 
 feet high, slated roof, asphalted floor - 
 Engine-house and chimney - - - 
 Desiccating-house 20 by 20 feet, brick 
 
 walls, plastered inside and ceiled, slated 
 
 roof, or iron beams and brick arches, to 
 
 be fire-proof ------ 
 
 Drying-sheds eight sheds, 84 by 12 feet, 
 
 all wood ------- 
 
 Store-sheds two sheds, 60 by 16 feet, all 
 
 wood -_-.-_-_ 
 
 Total 
 
 " In case of water-power being employed instead of a 
 steam-engine, a portable upright boiler will be sufficient, the 
 cost of which is 50/. This, riot requiring a masonry chimney, 
 will effect a saving of about 100/. 
 
 " Hands employed. 
 
 . 
 
 300 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 d. . 
 
 675 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 110 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 OOA 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 1,495 
 
 
 
 
 Men 
 
 
 fHrla 
 
 
 
 
 
 " General work . . t 
 
 Manager . ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 Day- fireman . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 Night-fireman. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 Watchman . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 Man 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Man . . 
 
 Q 
 
 7 
 
 Retting and drying . . 
 
 Man . . . 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Scutching .... 
 
 Foreman :-.*. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 Scutchers . 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 Maker-up . . 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 17 
 
 g 
 
 25 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 * For six months of the year only. 
 
108 THE FLAX INDUSTEY. 
 
 " KETTEBY CALCULATED TO CONSUME THE PRODUCE OF FOUR 
 HUNDRED ACRES. 
 
 " Plant. 
 
 * Twelve vats of 3000 gallons, with steam- . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 pipes, cocks, &c. ----- 280 
 
 Main steam-pipe and main cock - - 10 
 
 Water-pipe and 8 cocks - 24 
 
 10,000 drying-rods and rings - 110 
 
 Two seeding machines - - - 30 
 
 Root-cutting machine - - - 400 
 
 Dressing-machine and sieves - 800 
 
 Desiccating apparatus - 90 
 
 Weighing-bridge _____ 20 00 
 
 Sundry implements tables, barrows, &c. 54 
 
 630 
 
 Sixteen-horse boiler and twelve-horse 
 
 high-pressure steam-engine - 240 
 
 Shafting ------- 20 00 
 
 Scutching machinery - 240 
 
 500 
 
 " Buildings. 
 
 " Seeding-house 84 by 36 feet, 2 stories, 
 
 walls 20 feet high, slated roof, ground 
 
 floor asphalted, upper floor 3-inch plank 400 
 Vat-house and spreading-room 84 by 56 
 
 feet, walls 10 feet high, felt roof, with 
 
 valley and iron columns, asphalted floor 
 
 in spreading-room ----- 200 
 Scutching-mill 50 by 36 feet, walls 11 
 
 feet high, slated roof, asphalted floor - 100 
 Engine-house and chimney - - - 100 
 Desiccating-house 40 by 20 feet, brick 
 
 walls, plastered inside and ceiled, slated 
 
 roof, or with iron beams and arches, to 
 
 make it fireproof ----- 100 
 Drying-sheds 8 sheds, 84 by 12 feet, all 
 
 wood ------- 200 
 
 Store-sheds 4 sheds, 60 by 16 feet, all 
 
 wood _______ 100 
 
 1260 
 
 Total - 2390 
 
SCHENCK'S SYSTEM OF STEEPING. 
 
 109 
 
 " Hands employed. 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 " General work i 
 
 1 Manager . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 1 Day -fireman . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 1 Night-fireman . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 1 Watchman. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto .... 
 
 2 Men . . . 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Seeding* 
 
 1 Foreman . 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 Men 
 
 o 
 
 14 
 
 Ketting and drying . 
 
 2 Men . . . 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 Scutching .... 
 
 1 Foreman . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 Scutchers . . 
 
 o 
 
 12 
 
 Ditto ..... 
 
 2 Makers-up . . 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 30 . . 
 
 9 
 
 46 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 " The patentees are anxious to afford to parties entering 
 into this business the information and advice which their 
 experience enables them to give. "Whenever the erection of 
 a rettery has been decided upon, they will, if it is required, 
 visit the intended locality, so as to assist in laying out the 
 establishment ; and they will contribute as much as lies in 
 their power to place each new concern on such a footing as 
 will ensure success. 
 
 " Communications to be addressed A. Bernard and Koch, 
 Belfast." 
 
 * For six months of the year only. 
 
110 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Belgian Flax-Factor ship. 
 
 The establishment of a rettery on Schenck's 
 system, with all the requisites to set at work, 
 comprising a stock of 400 acres of flax, would 
 require a capital of from 6000/. to 70001. Many 
 individuals of enterprise are quite ready to lay 
 out this sum and to embark in this business, if a 
 few starters could but show that capital can be 
 thus profitably invested, but, until this be evi- 
 dently proved, it is doubtful whether parties will 
 be forthcoming with the speed which the urgency 
 and importance of the flax-culture demands ; yet 
 it is upon the establishment of the flax-factorship 
 that the flax-growers of this country are looking 
 up for a market ; and as only but a few will start 
 this season to establish retteries on Schenck's 
 system, I should strongly recommend for the 
 present the adoption of the Belgian flax-factor- 
 ship system. 
 
 The expenses for buildings to establish a flax 
 manufacture for the fabrication of 100 acres of 
 flax would not be more than 200/., there being 
 nothing else wanted than a scutching-place for 
 
BELGIAN FLAX-FACTOR8HIP. 1 1 1 
 
 25 men. There can, therefore, be no risk to run 
 in beginning the flax-factorship on the Belgian 
 system ; moreover, it furnishes ample means to 
 acquaint the parties thus engaged to become 
 familiar with the various modern processes of 
 preparing the flax for market ; and when tho- 
 roughly master of the business, the factor can 
 then make a better calculation, and see how far 
 it would answer his purpose to embark largely in 
 the business; and it is but just to observe here, 
 that, if the Belgian system of flax-factorship 
 should not answer, certain it is that Schenck's 
 system will much less do so. My long ex- 
 perience in this country of the produce of flax 
 and its expenses of fabrication enables me to 
 give an account of what profits this branch of 
 business would realise to the flax-factor, if pro- 
 perly engaged in it. 
 
 It should be recollected that the flax is sold in 
 FJanders to the factor a few days before the crop 
 is ready for pulling ; the farmer sells the flax- 
 straw to the factor and retains the seed. The 
 moment the flax is sold, the farmer has no more 
 to do with the management of the crop ; the only 
 thing the farmer does in favour of the factor is to 
 give him his barns to take off the seed, his horses 
 and waggons to remove his flax, and the use of 
 his meadows and waters. The price of the flax 
 is generally paid down the moment that the pur- 
 
112 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 chase takes place ; thus, the farmer receives often 
 the amount of his crop while yet growing. 
 
 A flax-factor who has everything to learn 
 in this country could not pay more on an 
 average than 8/. per English acre;* the fabri- 
 cation of 100 acres of flax would require about 
 20 men during the whole year, and 10 boys or 
 girls during the months of June, July, August, 
 and September. During these four months the 
 whole body, men and boys or girls, would be 
 employed in pulling, steeping, grassing, &c. : after 
 these processes are all over, which is then the 
 latter part of September or the beginning of 
 October, the 20 men begin the hand-scutching, 
 a process which can only be properly and profit- 
 ably performed during eight months of the year, 
 the scutching during the drought of summer being 
 very injurious to the flax, it reduces quality and 
 quantity to a considerable extent. The expenses 
 of labour may differ, perhaps, a little in some 
 counties in England ; labour in Norfolk may, 
 perhaps, be a trifle lower than in the manu- 
 facturing districts, but this cannot make a ma- 
 terial difference. The average price of what I 
 made of about 100 acres of flax was 60/. per ton. 
 But the present flax price is 20 per cent, higher 
 than in 1845 ; besides, I need not say that there 
 
 * It is understood without the seed. 
 
BELGIAN FLAX-FACTORSHIP. 113 
 
 is a fluctuation in the flax market, as in all other 
 articles, through scarcity or other circumstances, 
 although the price of flax does not fluctuate so 
 much in the middle quality as in the superior 
 and inferior qualities. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF 100 ACRES OF FLAX-STRAW. 
 
 . i. d. 
 100 acres of flax-straw produce 30 tons of clean 
 
 scutched flax, ready for market, at 65/. per ton - 1950 
 
 7 tons of tow, at 15/. per ton ----- 112 10 
 
 110 tons of shoves, at 6s. per ton - 33 
 
 Total - - -2095 10 
 
 THE COST PRICE AND EXPENSES OF THE FABRICATION OF 
 100 ACRES OF FLAX. 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 100 acres of flax-straw at 8/. per acre - 800 
 
 Pulling, at 15s. per acre ------ 75 00 
 
 Tying-up and stacking, at 12s. per acre - 60 
 
 Taking off the seed, at 8s. per acre - - - - 40 
 
 Steeping, at 20s. per acre ------ loo 
 
 Grassing, at 10s. per acre - - - - - ^ 50 00 
 
 Turning, at 5s. per acre ------ 25 00 
 
 Tying-up and carting to the scutching establishment, 
 
 at 15s. per acre ------ Ji *. - 75 o 
 
 Sorting before scutching, &t 5s. per acre - 25 
 
 Scutching 30 tons, at 154 per ton - 450 
 
 Interest of building (200/.), at 5 per cent. - 10 
 
 Total - - 1710 
 
 Produce, brought forward - - 2095 10 
 Expenses - - 1710 
 
 Net Profit hand-scutching - 385 10 
 
 The scutching under the Belgian modes of 
 
 I 
 
] 14 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 preparing the flax for market is all done by hand, 
 a process which is considerably more expensive 
 than when done by machinery, but the hand- 
 scutching is doubly compensated by the extra 
 yield and superior quality that it produces. 
 
 Besides, the expenses of the implements for 
 the hand-scutching of 20 men would not be 
 more than 20L, they being exceedingly simple ; 
 instead of which, a flax-scutching mill, to scutch 
 from 400 to 500 acres of flax per year, would 
 cost from 200/. to 500/., as the machinery must 
 be driven either by water, horse, or steam power. 
 
 The difference in the produce upon 100 acres of 
 flax of the same quality, scutched by machinery, 
 would be as follows : 
 
 PRODUCTION OF 100 ACRES OF FLAX-STRAW, SCUTCHED BY 
 MACHINERY. 
 
 . s. d. 
 100 acres of flax-straw produce 27 tons of clean 
 
 scutched flax, at 551. per ton ----- 1485 
 
 10 tons of tow, at 15/. per ton - - - - - 150 
 
 110 tons of shoves, at 6s. per ton - 33 
 
 Total- - - -1668 
 
 EXPENSES OF THE FABRICATION OF 100 ACRES OF FLAX-STRAW. 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 100 acres of flax-straw, at 81. per acre - 800 
 
 Pulling, at 15s. per acre ----- ""- 75 
 
 Tying-up and stacking, at 12s : per acre - - - 60 
 
 Taking off the seed, at 8s. per acre - 40 
 
 Carried forward - 975 
 
BELGIAN FLAX-FACTORSHtP. 1 15 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 Brought forward - - - 975 
 
 Steeping, at 20s. per acre ------ 100 
 
 Grassing, at 10s. per acre ------ 50 00 
 
 Turning, at 5s. per acre ------ 25 00 
 
 Tying-up and carting to the scutching-mill, at 14s. 
 
 per acre --------- 70 00 
 
 Scutching 27 tons, at 8/. per ton - 216 
 
 Total- - - -1436 
 
 Produce, brought forward - - - 1668 
 Expenses ------ 1436 
 
 Net profit (mill-scutching) - 232 
 
 The two foregoing statements will show a ba- 
 lance of 153/. 10s. in favour of the hand-scutching, 
 although 1 do not pretend to say that the hand- 
 scutching, notwithstanding its great superiority, 
 could always be practised on a very large scale 
 in this country;* but I venture to suggest that 
 it would be prudent to begin the flax fabrication 
 on the methods adopted in Belgium, and I feel 
 satisfied that any individual, with a small capital 
 of from 15001. to 20001. y and accustomed to a 
 rural life, would find the flax fabrication a most 
 pleasant and remunerative business. 
 
 * Having the scutching establishment in the neighbourhood of a 
 populous place is the means of carrying it on more largely. Boys 
 from 15 to 17 years of age are the best to become expert in the 
 hand-scutching. The flax fabrication from 100 to 150 acres will 
 generally pay better than to carry it on more extensively ; more- 
 over, the more numerous the factors are the more competition there 
 is in the market, and it shortens the transportation of the bulky 
 article. 
 
 i 2 
 
116 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 Before going to such considerable expenses 
 as a rettery on Schenck's system demands, why 
 not first make use of the natural economical 
 facilities which this country possesses in water- 
 streams for steeping the flax ? It is pretty well 
 proved and known that the flax steeped in the 
 Belgian method is of much greater value than 
 that steeped on any other mode. , 
 
 Chevalier Claussens, notwithstanding the great 
 opinion he entertains of his own method of 
 steeping, says, in his pamphlet, ' The Flax Move- 
 ment,' 
 
 "Probably the best mode of steeping the flax is that 
 of placing it in running streams, according to the mode 
 adopted in Courtrai, the principal flax-growing district in 
 Belgium/* 
 
 Among the numerous water-streams and rivers 
 which this country possesses, many are, perhaps, 
 as well qualified for steeping flax as the river Lys, 
 in Belgium : to put this to the test in submitting 
 them to the examination of a competent person 
 would be prudent. 
 
HAET1SMERE FLAX ASSOCIATION. 117 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Hartismere Flax Association. 
 
 Last season, 1851, several of the tenant farm- 
 ers of Sir E. Kerrison, in the neighbourhood of 
 Eye, Suffolk, had expressed a wish to grow flax. 
 Mr. Edward Kerrison therefore took prompt 
 steps to promote the wishes of his father's tenant 
 farmers, and requested me to accompany him to 
 Oakley Park, and passed in the course of a few 
 days over a great portion of the estate, which I 
 found in a very high state of cultivation, and 
 most admirably adapted for the flax culture. 
 During the few days that I was there an associa- 
 tion was formed to introduce the growth of flax 
 on the estate of Sir E. Kerrison, in Suffolk, and 
 it is satisfactory to see, by the second public 
 meeting of that association, that already great 
 progress has been made by a few flax-growers, 
 and that decisive steps are about to be taken to 
 secure a market for the farmers' flax-straw. 
 
 " A meeting of the Hartismere Flax Association was held 
 at the White Lion Hotel, on Monday last, Edward C. Kerri- 
 son, Esq., in the chair. 
 
 " The CHAIRMAN, in opening the meeting, pointed out, in 
 the most able manner, the many advantages that would result 
 
118 THE FLAX INDUSTRY. 
 
 from a general cultivation of flax, showing it would be remu- 
 nerative to the growers, and a means of employment for the 
 poor. He also congratulated them upon the proposed erection 
 of a rettery and scutching-mill this spring, and thus esta- 
 blishing a home market, the want of which, up to the present 
 time, has been the great obstacle to the growth of that inva- 
 luable plant. 
 
 " Mr. F. STANFORD, of Darsham-hall, stated, for the 
 information of the meeting, the result of his cultivation of 
 four acres of flax last year. He obtained seven coombs of 
 seed per acre, now worth 30s. per coomb, and more than two 
 tons of fibre per acre, for which he had been offered 31. 
 per ton. 
 
 " After statements from several other gentlemen, the fol- 
 lowing resolution was unanimously agreed to: 'That, Mr. 
 Ludolf having signified his intention of purchasing all flax 
 grown in this district at a fair price, in due season, and of 
 establishing a rettery in this neighbourhood, this meeting are 
 of opinion that they may safely recommend farmers in this 
 district to commence preparing land for the growth of the 
 crop.' 
 
 " The CHAIRMAN stated that he could not allow the meet- 
 ing to separate without proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. 
 Henry Bishop, Mr. Henry Wells, and Mr. Robert Chase, 
 for the great assistance they have rendered the Association, 
 and in directing the attention of the farmers to the advantages 
 of cultivating flax. 
 
 " After which a vote of thanks was given to the Chair- 
 man, who, in reply, stated the pleasure he should have on 
 every occasion of promoting the object for which they had 
 met." 
 
 When about going to press I received the fol- 
 lowing communication : 
 
HARTISMERE FLAX ASSOCIATION. 119 
 
 Hartismere Flax Association, Eye, 
 DEAR SIR, 23rd February, 1852. 
 
 ENCLOSED I send you the Resolution agreed to on 
 the 2nd of February : since then Mr. Ludolf has been at Eye 
 for the purpose of looking out a spot to erect his mill. 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 Mr. E. F. Deman, HENRY BISHOP, 
 
 26, George Street, Secretary. 
 
 Portman Square, London. 
 
 AT a Meeting held at the White Lion Hotel, Eye, on Monday, 
 February 2nd, 1852, the following resolution was agreed to : 
 
 " That MR. LUDOLF having, signified his intention of purchasing 
 all flax grown in this district at a fair price in due season, and of 
 establishing a rettery in this neighbourhood, this meeting are of 
 opinion that they may safely recommend farmers in this district 
 to commence preparing land for the growth of the crop." 
 
 Growers of flax wishing to avail themselves of the Association's 
 Instructor, MB. SAMUEL NEIL, who is retained for a fortnight, are 
 requested to apply immediately to the Secretary, MB. HENBY 
 BISHOP. 
 
 N.B. Flax will succeed after oats, wheat, barley, or potatoes, but 
 not after a turnip crop. 
 
 From the foregoing communication of the 
 Secretary of the Hartismere Flax Association it 
 will be seen that the flax-culture is also esta- 
 blished on a firm footing in some parts of Suffolk. 
 
( 120 ) 
 
 THE following pages on the Cultivation and Manage- 
 ment of Flax were not on their original publication 
 designed to form part of the present volume, but such 
 an arrangement has been thought desirable on account 
 of the correspondence of subject with that which precedes. 
 
FLAX; 
 
 ITS 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT, 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 TO THE 
 
 LANDLORDS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 AS A SMALL TOKEN OF GRATITUDE FOR THE ACTS OF KINDNESS AND 
 
 FRIENDSHIP RECEIVED FROM SEVERAL 
 
 PERSONAGES OF DISTINCTION, 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 London, 1852. 
 
 K 2 
 
( 125 ) 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 IT is hoped that this little work, notwithstanding its many 
 defects, will be found useful, as offering the only exact 
 instructions yet given of the improved methods to grow 
 and prepare Flax for spinning ; and although but little 
 acquainted with the English language, I have not thought 
 it proper to subject it to the revision of a person well 
 versed in it, from fear that perhaps, by altering my ex- 
 pressions, the real meaning of my instructions might be 
 misunderstood. My sole object has been to explain, in 
 my own brief and plain terms, the different modern pro- 
 cesses by which can be obtained a crop superior in value 
 to any that the soil can otherwise produce. 
 
( 126 ) 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE first important step which I considered indispensable 
 to introduce and promote properly the Flax culture in 
 this country, was to publish a few pages illustrating 
 those various methods of growing and preparing Flax for 
 market which are so successfully adopted in that country 
 (Belgium), so renowned for all that is exquisite in fact of 
 flax. My information and instructions thus given have 
 been sought for with much avidity through the medium 
 of my little work ; and the patronage, support, and con- 
 gratulations I have received are very gratifying ; and 
 have naturally induced me to publish a Second Edition, 
 which I have augmented with interesting extracts from 
 the last Annual Report of the Royal Irish Flax Society ; 
 I have also added some satisfactory authentic state- 
 ments of recent experiments made by clever English 
 Flax-growers. 
 
( 127 ) 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 A NATIVE of Belgium, and from my younger years 
 engaged as an extensive flax-grower and manufacturer, I 
 was requested to render my humble services to the Royal 
 Irish Flax Society, and was engaged during the years 
 1841 and 1842 as the technical instructor of that Society ; 
 and, in passing, it is scarcely needful for me to add, that 
 those services have been acknowledged with gratitude by 
 those who have benefited by my exertions. 
 
 In the above situation, and with the experience of 
 many years in my own country in this important branch 
 of agriculture and native industry, it will readily be un- 
 derstood how my advice, on many practical points in con- 
 nexion with the growth and management of flax, has 
 been continually sought by experimenting agriculturists 
 from all parts of the kingdom, and which I hope, even in 
 this age of book-making, will be considered a fair apology 
 for my publishing a few pages to simplify and practically 
 instruct the flax-growers of this country in " the various 
 Belgian methods of growing and preparing flax for the 
 market." 
 
 After having visited several counties in England, and 
 having analysed different sorts of soils and water, I can 
 confidently assert that this beautiful island is capable of 
 producing as good, and, even better, qualities of flax than 
 those countries from whence the finest flax is actually im- 
 
128 FLAX: 
 
 ported ; and it is a fact beyond all dispute, that its geo- 
 graphical position, as well as the elementary properties of 
 the soil and water, are most admirably adapted for the 
 growth and preparation of this valuable plant, which with 
 an abundance of capital and a good market at home (two 
 important advantages which this country possesses) might 
 become the most profitable staple commodity of British 
 agriculture and manufacture ; for both ancient history* 
 and modern experience testify to the truth that the flax 
 plant is the most profitable known, which may be proved 
 by the striking fact, that one acre of flax, when manufac- 
 tured into that precious article, Brussels lace, is worth 
 20,0007., most of which indeed is labour and profit. 
 
 It is needless for me to point out how strenuously the 
 efforts of the most zealous and scientific agriculturist 
 should be directed to the introduction and extension of a 
 branch of industry, which, in its various departments, 
 affords, from a given surface of land, employment to a 
 greater number and a greater variety of individuals than 
 any other branch of human occupation. The agricul- 
 turist, the mechanist, and chemist, are all equally occupied 
 in its cultivation and preparation. 
 
 It is surprising that some continental people are still 
 surpassing the British in several important branches of 
 agriculture, yet they have the same facilities and advan- 
 tages to excel in every branch of agriculture as they now 
 
 * Flax is of the greatest antiquity, coequal with the Bible : there 
 are several allusions to flax in that sacred volume, for we find that 
 " Rahab hid the spies with the stalks of flax, that were laid in 
 order on the roof of her house." " Solomon had horses brought out 
 of Egypt, and linen yarn ; the king's merchants received the linen 
 yarn at a price." Job complained that his " days were swifter than 
 the weaver's shuttle." Fine linen is also frequently mentioned as 
 one of the most precious ornaments of the Temple. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 129 
 
 do in almost every branch of manufactures. In short, 
 what is agriculture but a manufacture, in which, through 
 the agency of the soil, the raw materials of seed and 
 manure are worked up into produce ? 
 
 Recent discoveries have shown that, with scientific aid, 
 there is scarcely any limit to the obtainable produce of 
 the soil *, and if these remarks apply to crops in general, 
 they do so to flax tenfold ; however, taking the growth of 
 flax, and its various after processes, in a certain point of 
 view, it should be considered as consisting of two distinct 
 branches, the one a branch of agriculture, and the other a 
 branch of manufactures. 
 
 THE GROWTH OF FLAX CLEANSES AND FERTILIZES 
 THE LAND. 
 
 There has been, and there still exists, a prejudice 
 against the cultivation of flax, a prevalent idea being 
 entertained that it is an exhausting crop ; but since flax 
 (to secure a fine silky fibre) should be taken from the 
 land (pulled) in a very green state, it follows that flax can 
 only be considered as a green crop ; and as the prepara- 
 tion of the land for flax requires more ploughing, sub- 
 soiling, and cleansing than for any other crop, it conse- 
 quently becomes an indisputable fact that the growth of 
 flax, instead of exhausting, cleanses and fertilizes the 
 soil. 
 
 In Belgium a better wheat crop is obtained after flax 
 than after any other crop. 
 
 Besides, there is no crop that comes to maturity in a 
 shorter period than flax, it being sown in April and pulled 
 in the latter part of June, and thus, with the aid of a 
 
130 FLAX: 
 
 small quantity of liquid manure, a crop of turnips is 
 obtained the same season, a strong proof that the soil has 
 not been exhausted by the flax ; moreover, the land will 
 improve by bringing flax in the rotation of crops, as the 
 soil cannot be cultivated by too great a variety of pro- 
 ductive and useful plants. 
 
 DIFFERENT METHODS OF PREPARING FLAX FOR 
 MARKET. 
 
 In Belgium there are two methods of preparing the flax 
 for market. The one is practised in the West Flanders 
 and in the French Flanders, and is called the Courtrai 
 System, or white steeping and bleaching. This system is 
 admirably adapted for this country, as it can be carried 
 on on a large scale much better than the Blue System. 
 It also requires more capital on the part of the manufac- 
 turer, as the flax is not ready for market before it is 
 two or three years old ; however, this system can only be 
 practised where there is the convenience of good running 
 water. 
 
 The Blue System is practised in different parts of 
 Belgium, there being no difficulty under this method of 
 finding steeping-places. The flax is manufactured and 
 brought to market the same year that it is grown. 
 
 The following statements are the average value of flax 
 in Belgium, in its green state, and also when manufac- 
 tured for market; but let it not be understood that I 
 pretend to say that the same money will be realized by 
 the young flax-grower on his first attempt such an 
 assertion would be quite ridiculous and absurd, as it 
 would require a few years to bring the article to market 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 131 
 
 in such perfection as the Belgians, even should the flax- 
 grower follow my instructions in the strictest manner ; 
 but let him be satisfied that he will, from the first attempt, 
 realize more money from an acre of flax than from any 
 other crop. 
 
 It wilt be readily understood that although my instruc- 
 tions are simple, clear, and correct, yet there are peculi- 
 arities in every process connected, especially with the 
 manufacture of flax, that can hardly be ascertained with- 
 out some experience ; and although, as I have observed, 
 my instructions are simply and clearly laid down, they 
 will, in many instances, vary, according to circumstances 
 from the actual practice required. 
 
 Value of an Acre of Flax in the Blue Districts ; in its 
 green state, when ready to pull. 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 One English acre, fair quality . . 12 
 Seed 200 
 
 14 
 
 Expenses for Growing an Acre of Flax in the 
 Blue Districts. 
 
 Rent and taxes of one acre " ^ / 
 Ploughing and sowing v ... \%> .- .*'* 
 Seed . ... 
 Manure . '* ,7 .... 
 
 Weeding 
 
 600 
 
 Leaving profit to the grower . 8 
 
 It should be understood, that the seed is seldom sold 
 to the manufacturer, but only the flax, the seed being 
 much more valuable to the farmer than to the manu- 
 facturer. 
 
132 FLAX: 
 
 Value of an Acre of Flax in the West Flanders and 
 Environs of Tournay ; in its green state, when ready 
 for pulling* 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 One acre of good quality . . 16 
 
 Seed of 1 acre of good quality . . 1 15 - 
 
 , 17 15 
 
 Expenses for Growing an Acre of Flax in 
 the West Flanders and Environs of Tour- 
 nay. 
 
 Rent and taxes .... 
 
 Ploughing and sowing 
 
 Manure , .... 
 
 Seed 
 
 Weeding ..... 
 
 7 15 
 
 Leaving profit to the grower . 10 
 
 ON THE BLUE SYSTEM. 
 
 Value of an Acre of Flax when Manufactured ready for 
 Market, i.e. when Scutched. 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 7 cwt. of Flax, at 80s. per cwt. . . 28 
 2 cwt. of Tow, at 10s. per cwt. . .100 
 
 Value carried forward . . . 29 
 
 * When the flax-grower misses his market of selling his crop 
 green on the field, he seldom thinks of manufacturing it himself, 
 and holds it over till a more favourable time, when he then sells by 
 the weight, the value of which varies from 6/. to 9/. per ton. The 
 produce of an acre is from two to two and a half tons. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 133 
 
 Expenses of Manufacturing an Acre of Flax ready for 
 
 Market. 
 
 d. . s. d. 
 
 Value brought forward . . -- 29 
 Price of 1 acre . . . . . 
 
 Pulling . . . . . 
 
 Rippling ..... 
 
 Steeping and carting . . . . 
 
 Spreading . . . . 
 
 Turning . . . . . . 
 
 Scutching 7 cwt. at 12*. . . . 
 
 Profit to the manufacturer 9 1 1 
 
 ON THE COURTRAI SYSTEM. SUMMER BLEACHING. 
 
 Value of an Acre of Flax when Manufactured ready for 
 Market (Scutched). 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 7 cwt. of Flax, at 61. per cwt. . . 42 
 2 cwt. of fine Tow, at 15s. per cwt. . 1100 
 
 43 10 
 
 Expenses of Manufacturing an Acre of Flax 
 
 ready for Market. 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 Cost price of 1 acre . . .1600 
 Pulling . ... . . 0150 
 
 Stacking . ^ ..":.' . , ; " 
 Tying-up and stacking ,; . 
 Taking off the seed . . ' -, '" , 
 Steeping, capping, &c. v . 
 Turning caps, &c. * >fj^ v 
 Tying-up, &c. . . <..,.. 
 Bleaching and turning 
 Tying-up and carting home . 
 Scutching 7 cwt. at 20s. 
 
 Profit to the manufacturer 1 3 1 5 
 
134 FLAX: 
 
 ON THE COURTRAI SYSTEM. MARCH BLEACHING. 
 
 Value of an Acre of Flax when Manufactured for Market 
 (Scutched). 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 7 cwt of Flax at 8/. per cwt. . . 56 
 2 cwt. of fine Tow, at 20s. . . .200 
 
 58 
 
 Expenses of Manufacturing an Acre of Flax 
 
 for Market. 
 
 . s. d. 
 Cost price of 1 acre of Flax of the best 
 
 quality 20 
 
 Pulling 15 
 
 Stacking 050 
 
 Tying-up and stacking . . . 0150 
 Taking off the seed . . . .080 
 Steeping, capping, &c. . . . 1 10 
 Turning the caps . . . .050 
 Tying-up and stacking . . . 0150 
 Bleaching, turning, &c. . . .400 
 Tying-up and carting . . ,,.,, 1 10 
 
 Scutching 7 cwt. at 25s. . ,..,, .,-. 8 15 
 
 38 18 
 
 Profit to the manufacturer 19 2 
 
 LAND RENTS IN BELGIUM. 
 
 In the flax districts of Belgium the rents have been, of 
 late years, considerably augmented ; and I believe, from 
 information I have received, that an acre of flax may, at 
 the present time, be grown as cheap in England as in 
 Belgium. The manufacture would cost a little more in 
 this country than in Belgium, but this would be compen- 
 sated in having a market at home ; instead of which, the 
 Belgian flax manufacturer must seek a market in this 
 country for his production. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 135 
 
 SOIL REQUISITE TO GROW FLAX. 
 
 Good flax can be grown on various soils, even on land 
 where scarcely anything else can be grown. However, 
 the best soil to produce a fine strong silky fibre is a 
 sound dry deep loam with a clay subsoil. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 It is of great importance, in the culture of flax, that 
 the land be well drained, and repeatedly and carefully 
 cleansed from weeds, and thus rendered of the finest, 
 deepest, and cleanest nature, in order to facilitate the 
 penetration of the roots, which often go to a depth equal 
 to the length of the plant above ground. A light 
 ploughing immediately after harvest is required for all 
 sorts of soils, but heavy stiff soils require to be laid in 
 ridges before winter, and to remain till a fortnight before 
 sowing, when it requires a very deep ploughing. But 
 light soils must have their last ploughing in October, or 
 before winter sets in. If the land is not sufficiently rich, 
 liquid manure, or rape-cake powder, should be spread 
 over the land before sowing the seed.* The land should 
 
 * Such artificial manures as guano, bone-dust, &c., cannot be 
 recommended. Recent experiments have proved that such manures 
 will cause the plant to grow rapidly, but producing a very weak and 
 coarse fibre. It should be understood that strength is the most 
 indispensable quality that the fibre must possess ; without a certain 
 strength, the other qualities are of very little value, and it will be 
 satisfactory and encouraging to the English flax-grower to know, 
 that in 1843 I manufactured, on my own account, several parcels of 
 flax grown in Norfolk, some of which were heckled and spun by the 
 Messrs. Marshall and Co., of Leeds. 
 
 These gentlemen, in a correspondence, stated that this flax pos- 
 sessed a strength almost surpassing that of any other country. 
 
136 FLAX: 
 
 be harrowed and rolled, so that it may have all the 
 appearance of a garden. 
 
 SOWING THE SEED. 
 
 Riga seed is particularly adapted to produce a good 
 quality of fibre.* Dutch and American seed are apt to 
 bring forth a branchy coarse stem. 
 
 Sift the seed clear from all weed-seeds ; it will save a 
 great deal of trouble afterwards. The seed is sown in 
 the beginning of April. 
 
 Home-saved seed, the produce of Riga, will produce 
 finer and better fibre than the direct Riga seed ; but to 
 use it more than two successive years will not be profitable 
 for sowing. Three bushels of Riga, or two and a half 
 bushels of home-saved, is the necessary quantity of seed 
 required for an English acre. 
 
 It is better to sow too thick than too thin, as with thick 
 sowing the plant grows long and fine, instead of which, 
 thin sowing produces a coarse branchy stem with much 
 seed, but a very inferior quality of fibre. It is of the 
 
 * The botanical name of the flax produced from this seed is 
 Linum usitatissimum, and it bears the following marks : 
 
 Stem, slender, from 30 to 36 inches high ; lower leaves, short 
 
 and blunt. 
 Flowers, several, in a corympose pannicle, large petals, sky 
 
 blue. 
 
 Filaments, united at the base. 
 Styles, blue, thinner towards the top. 
 Seeds, elliptical, polished. 
 
 There is a great variety of different flax-plants, such as Linum 
 angustifolium, Linum perenne, &c. ; all of which differ much in 
 stem, leaves, flowers, &c., from Linum usitatissimum, this being the 
 only sort which produces all the required qualities in the fibre. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 137 
 
 greatest importance that the seed should be sown very 
 even, the thin spots producing coarse fibre and the thick 
 spots fine fibre ; the separation of which causes difficulty 
 and expense in the pulling, and, unless the coarse and 
 fine be separated, the quality will be very inferior. 
 However, by even sowing, all these difficulties can be 
 avoided. After sowing the seed, cover it across with a 
 seed-harrow, as this makes it spread more equally, and 
 avoids the small drills made by the teeth of the harrow. 
 Lastly, roll it with a light roller. The seed should be 
 covered about an inch deep. 
 
 When the land is properly drained, it should be sown 
 quite flat, without any furrows. 
 
 Sowing clover and grass seed with flax is always inju- 
 rious to the flax-plant. 
 
 WEEDING. 
 
 If care has been taken to cleanse the land and the 
 seed, few weeds will appear ; but if there be any, they 
 must be carefully pulled, or weeded out. It is done in 
 Belgium by women and children, who, with coarse cloths 
 round their knees, creep along on all fours. This injures 
 the plant less than when walking or trampling upon the 
 tender young plant. Care should be taken that this 
 process be completed before the plant has reached three 
 inches in height. 
 
 COURTRAI SYSTEM. PULLING. 
 
 In Belgium the seed is often totally or partly sacrificed 
 to secure a pure fine silky fibre. However, flax must 
 have come to a certain maturity before it has obtained its 
 
 L 
 
13$ FLAX: 
 
 natural strength (the strength of the fibre being a most 
 essential quality). If pulled too earl y, the fibre mil not 
 possess its natural strength, and, if pulled too late, the 
 fibre will lose its silky-like texture. When the stalk or 
 plant begins to appear yellow as far as about half its 
 height from the ground, it is about time to pull the flax ; 
 but no fixed sign or rule can be given with surety, to test 
 tibe pullmg-time. For at the pulling-time the plant is 
 sometimes affected by a sort of spot, which is most perni- 
 cious ; it is called in Flemish, hmwg daatm ; in French, 
 midhtre. There are black and reddish spots, the latter 
 giving a tint to the fibre that never will bleach out ; and 
 the whiter the yarn and linen from such flax are bleached, 
 the more distinctly these spots will show themselves upon 
 the manufactured article : and, to give an idea of the 
 great loss that can be caused by having the flax affected 
 by these spots, it may be stated that one yard of cambric 
 or fine linen that might have been worth 5*. per yard, 
 would not be worth half that price if stained in this manner. 
 The spots first make their appearance on the top of 
 the plant; and immediately that is the case, no time 
 should be lost in pulling the flax, without regarding the 
 other signs by which tibe pulling-time is indicated. Let 
 there be a distinction made between the reddish and 
 black spots, as the latter are very little injurious ; they 
 will be removed by die screper or heckle.* 
 
 Tneenonmms prices obtained for flax in Belgian the last 2ft 
 flax-growers to force die growth of ft, by 
 
 by dead stalks ox> dajsfeZ7it is fit for 
 paffing, and this also accelerates the palEIngr time, when the dying is 
 it amass an imparity of colour to the fibre 
 be icnoicil or e& In netted without nacii diiliciJty and 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AXD MANAGEMENT. 139 
 
 When any of the crop is lying and goffering from wet, 
 it should be pulled a few days sooner and kept by it=el 
 Also, if fine and coarse flax be found in the same field, 
 pull and steep it separately ; as the coarse flax, and what 
 has been lying, will not endure the water so long as a fine 
 straight flax. 
 
 It is of great importance that flax, should be pulled 
 evenly, like a brush at the root ends ; the difference there 
 is in the expense of doing this process neatly and care- 
 fully, to that of roughly, is but trifling in proportion to 
 the benefit there is derired by the manufacturer and 
 spinner in doing this process with every care and 
 attention. 
 
 Hie flax is pulled in handfuls and laid flat on the 
 ground, the top ends being laid by the root ends, in order 
 to prevent the entangling of the bolls : there it remains 
 for seven or eight hours. 
 
 SETTING UP TO DRY. 
 
 Two men begin to set up closely together the handfuls 
 in the form of the letter A. The handfuls are handed to 
 the men by little boys or girls ; as the men must go on 
 setting up on each side in the manner described, without 
 leaving till they have set up a length of about eight feet. 
 This process is called in Flemish rfa* Itagen. 
 
 TYING UP AND SEXGLB STACKING. 
 
 The flax, after having stood in that position for seven 
 or eight days, is sufficiently dry to be tied up in bundles 
 of about 20 indies in circumference, yet the seed will not 
 be sufficiently dry to be stacked or brought into the barn. 
 
 L 2 
 
140 FLAX: 
 
 But the reason for tying it up before it is fit to go in a 
 large stack or barn, is to preserve its bright colour. The 
 bundles are, therefore, laid flat upon wood in single rows, 
 about 6 feet high and 10 feet long. The top is covered 
 with straw. This is a process called in Flemish Ivas 
 mitten. After the flax has remained a fortnight longer in 
 the field in that position, the seed and flax are then in a 
 good state to be taken into a barn or large stack. 
 
 TAKING OFF THE SEED, 
 
 This process is often performed in the winter months : 
 it is done with flat beetles, called in Flemish boot hamers. 
 The sheaves are untied and spread upon the floor in a 
 double row ; the top ends coming close together, in order 
 that the ends may always remain in their even condition ; 
 the men then strike the bolls with a beetle till they are 
 broken : the sheaves are then turned and the same opera- 
 tion repeated. 
 
 The flax is then well shaken, a few stalks at once, to 
 cleanse it from its leaves and dust, and is then again tied 
 up as before, in bundles. 
 
 STEEPING. 
 On the Courtrai System. 
 
 This process requires the greatest attention and care. 
 To obtain a white bright colour, flax must be steeped in 
 running water ; river water is the best. On this system 
 flax is either steeped in September the year it is grown, 
 or in June the year after. The commonest quality is 
 steeped the same season, and the best quality is kept over 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 141 
 
 for the next year. Much nicety is required in preparing 
 the flax for this peculiar process. The sheaves are untied; 
 the flax is shaken over, a few stalks at a time, in order to 
 remove all dust, leaves, or weeds that remain or have 
 accumulated in it since the time the seed was taken off. 
 If this be neglected it will injure the bright colour. Two 
 sheaves are then tied together with three ties ; one sheaf 
 being tied with the top end to the root end of the other, 
 that the bundles may come even for stowage in the crates. 
 The bundles are set erect in the crates, and as close as 
 possible, in order that the current of the water may not 
 wash away the fibre. The crate when filled is flooded in 
 the water or river. It is then covered with boards, and 
 sunk with stones two or three inches below the surface. 
 In two or three days there is fermentation, and more stone 
 must be laid upon it, to keep it below the surface. After 
 a few more days the flax will daily sink in proportion as 
 it is going on steeping, and, consequently, stone must be 
 taken off in proportion ; and the flax should always be 
 kept two or three inches under water. The crates or 
 frames used in Belgium are about 10 feet long, eight feet 
 wide, and three feet high, and they are made from wooden 
 laths ; consequently this method of steeping can only be 
 practised where the water has about five feet of depth. 
 
 TAKING THE FLAX OUT OF THE WATER. 
 
 This is the most peculiar process connected with the 
 preparation or manufacture of flax for the market. If 
 left a few hours too long in the water, the strength, the 
 most essential quality of the fibre, will be lost ; if taken 
 out too soon, it diminishes the quality of the fibre, and a 
 great difficulty is experienced in the scutching. Flax can 
 
142 FLAX : 
 
 be sufficiently steeped in six days, but sometimes it will 
 require twenty days ; it entirely depends on the tempe- 
 rature of the air, and the quality of the flax : for instance, 
 flax that is very coarse, or has been lying, will not endure 
 the water so long as a fine, straight, good quality of flax. 
 Also, when flax has been pulled greener than is usually 
 done, through circumstances described in the "pulling 
 instructions," it will not bear the water so long as flax 
 that has arrived at its proper maturity. 
 
 When the stones are nearly all removed, and the flax 
 keeps a level with the water, it is a sign that it is almost 
 steeped enough ; and the best test to discover whether it 
 is sufficiently steeped is the following : 
 
 Break a stalk of average thickness about four inches 
 from the root end : pull the fibre gently towards the top 
 end, and if it pulls off freely for a length of 10 inches 
 without the fibre adhering, or at least very little, to the 
 wooden part, it is a sign that it is sufficiently steeped. 
 
 Make this trial every two hours; for sometimes the 
 change is rapid. There are other signs by which persons 
 of long experience are guided in this delicate point ; but 
 they are so numerous and complicated, that even the 
 clearest explanation of them would only tend to puzzle 
 the grower or manufacturer, and perhaps lead him astray. 
 When sufficiently steeped it is brought upon the bank one 
 bundle at a time, and set up as erect as possible, the 
 same as it stood in the crate. The fibre is exceedingly 
 tender when in a wet state ; it must therefore be handled 
 with great care, as great damage may be done by 
 handling it roughly. 
 
 After being thus taken out of the water, it remains 
 there for six or eight hours. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 143 
 
 DRYING. 
 
 The bundles are now removed to the next meadow or 
 pasture ; the flax being still in a wet state, everything 
 must be done with great care. 
 
 The bundles are laid out in the meadow, and separated 
 in about eight handfuls, and, for regularity, laid in rows. 
 Women follow and set it up in caps, called " Kapellen ;" 
 after two days the caps are turned inside -out, and after 
 two more days it is fit (if the weather be fine) to be tied 
 up again, and stacked till the following March, when it is 
 bleached. However, when the quality is not very supe* 
 rior, it is bleached immediately after hay-season is over. 
 
 SUMMER BLEACHING. 
 
 Short, thick, clean pasture-grounds are required for 
 this operation. The flax is spread in straight lines, 
 leaving a distance of about four inches between each line. 
 The flax is spread about a quarter of an inch thick; 
 bearing in mind that everything must be done with the 
 greatest care, to lay it nicely, and to keep the root ends 
 as even as a brush. In dry weather it remains on the 
 grass from twelve to fourteen days. In wet and warm 
 weather it remains sometimes for only four or five days. 
 In dry weather it is turned every three days, in wet 
 weather every day. The object of bleaching is to obtain 
 a bright white yellow colour ; and in very warm weather, 
 a few hours too long on the grass may entirely spoil its 
 colour. The moment, therefore, a few blue spots make 
 their appearance on the fibre, it is quite time to lift it 
 from the grass, arid set it up in caps to dry, the same as 
 when it came from the steep. But in very dry weather it 
 
144 FLAX: 
 
 can be taken from the grass and tied up at once, without 
 setting it up in caps ; in this case, however, it should be 
 turned on the morning of the day in which it is to be 
 lifted ; but, if not perfectly dry, let it be set up in caps 
 till a very fine day comes, to tie it up in a very dry con- 
 dition. It must be understood, that once the flax is lifted 
 from the ground, the colour will not be affected by the 
 wet weather, if even it had to stand for several days 
 before it could be tied. 
 
 It is tied very evenly and neatly into bundles, with 
 two ties, and is carried to the establishment, it being 
 ready for scutching. The flax intended for summer 
 bleaching should be steeped a little more than the portion 
 intended for March bleaching ; because, in summer, it 
 cannot remain long enough on the grass to soften without 
 spoiling the colour ; whilst, in March, it can remain on 
 the grass sometimes seven or eight weeks without in- 
 juring the colour at all ; and, during that time, flax 
 steeped too little will become properly soft for scutching. 
 
 MARCH BLEACHING. 
 
 It is the best quality of flax which is kept to go 
 through this process ; it is spread on the grass two years 
 after it has been grown. One year after it has been 
 steeped it is spread very regularly, and is turned every 
 four or five days. It remains on the grass from four to 
 six weeks, and lifted when it has attained a bright, whitish, 
 yellow colour ; and as soon as any small blue spots are 
 seen upon the fibre, no time should be lost in lifting it 
 from the ground, and setting it in caps till it is perfectly 
 dry, to be tied up in bundles and carried to the establish- 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 145 
 
 ment. Another process is sometimes necessary to secure 
 it an even bright colour, and it is to spread it over again 
 after it has been eighteen or twenty days on the grass. 
 By this is understood, to shake it over without lifting it 
 from the grass, but making the same movements as when 
 first spreading. The object in so doing is to lift it up in 
 order that it may be more regularly exposed to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 This process is performed with a slightly curved rod, 
 about nine feet long, and an inch and a half in diameter. 
 The rod is passed under the flax towards the top end, 
 and then gently turned over, thus going along the whole 
 of the lines. This process should be performed about 
 the evening, in order that the night-dew may press it 
 down a little, and thus it will not be so liable to be taken 
 up by the wind and thrown into an irregular condition, 
 which is often the case. Turning it after rain, when 
 partially dry, is a good plan, but not immediately after 
 rain, when it is thoroughly wet. 
 
 LIN RAME (Sticked Flax). 
 
 In the environs of Tournay, Belgium, there is a sort of 
 flax grown of a most superior and exquisite quality. In 
 favourable seasons it is sold (in the green state, before 
 pulling) at from 50/. to 607. per acre. It is from this 
 quality of flax that is made the very superior Brussels 
 lace. To obtain such a quality of flax, no trouble nor 
 expense is spared ; although the expense is nothing, when 
 compared with its great increase of value. 
 
146 FLAX: 
 
 The land for this purpose is prepared like a garden 
 plot, having been fertilized and enriched for several 
 seasons previously. The seed used for this purpose is 
 the best Riga. Five bushels are sown to an English 
 acre. After the seed is sown it is then " Rame" 
 (sticked) ; that is to say, the field is overspread with 
 branches" of wood. 
 
 .This process is done in the following manner : 
 
 A series of four or more short props, having two sprays 
 or prongs, are driven into the ground, forming squares ; 
 upon these small props, poles are laid at a height of 
 about eight inches from the ground ; and again, on these 
 poles, thus disposed, branches of small- wood are placed ;* 
 the object of which extraordinary process is to keep the 
 flax from falling upon the ground ; which must inevitably 
 be the case without this precaution, in consequence of the 
 great pliancy and delicacy of the plant, which often grows 
 to a great height. 
 
 The flax is .pulled as soon as the seed begins to form 
 itself, and therefore the seed is entirely sacrificed. The 
 handfuls, when pulled, are set in circles about five feet in 
 circumference. Poles are previously driven into the 
 ground, forming centres, around which the handfuls are 
 
 * I believe that there would be great economy and saving of 
 trouble by having thin ropes spread across the field instead of the 
 wooden branches. 
 
 In April last I was invited by the Earl Talbot to look over 
 several fields then in preparation to sow flax near Ingestrie Hall, 
 and on a very small garden plot we tried an experiment in covering 
 it over with coarse nets ; but single ropes crossed over the field, 
 forming as it were a sort of net, would be better, as it would be 
 easier to place and remove these ropes than heavy large nets. 
 Certain it is, that flax could be extensively grown on this peculiar 
 method if it were not from the great inconvenience that is experi- 
 enced in procuring large quantities of these small branches of wood. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 147 
 
 set erect ; upon the top of the poles are placed caps of 
 straw, which, spreading downwards, cover the whole of 
 each circle from exposure to the atmosphere, thus forming^ 
 as it were, a series of small huts. In five or six days it is 
 tied in small bundles. Although the flax has been pulled 
 very green, yet it has always a little half-formed seed 
 which must be taken off not for its value, but because 
 the flax must be cleansed from all its chaff, dust, and 
 leaves ; and in order to remove with greater facility 
 every particle of dust, &c., it is exposed on fine days to 
 the sun, either in caps or laid on the ground, and rubbed 
 a few stalks at a time, and then bleached on the grass 
 three or four days immediately before steeping. It is 
 steeped when the water is at least 50 degrees of heat 
 When taken from the water it is set up in caps to dry, 
 and, when dry, it is again spread on the grass for three or 
 four days, after which it is tied up in bundles and sent to 
 the establishment to be scutched and screped. 
 
 The latter process is one of the greatest nicety and 
 peculiarity : it is first half scutched, and then screped with 
 an iron screper, and finally brushed. 
 
 This flax is worth from 3007. to 350/. per ton. There 
 is only a small quantity grown and manufactured by this 
 peculiar method ; and there is often a great scarcity of it. 
 It is estimated that, when one ton of this flax is manufac- 
 tured into superior Brussels lace, it produces 60,OOOZ. 
 
 Gentlemen farmers would find it a matter of great 
 amusement to try experiments in growing small quantities 
 of this beautiful plant, and especially so when the above 
 process is adopted. The experiment on a small scale 
 would also be the means of practically acquainting those 
 who feel inclined to become extensive growers with its 
 nature and manifold advantages. 
 
148 FLAX: 
 
 BLUE SYSTEM. 
 Pulling in the Blue Districts. 
 
 The Flax in the Blue Districts is not generally pulled 
 so early as in the West Flanders and French Flanders, 
 where it is intended to come . under the Courtrai system. 
 Not so much attention is paid to obtain that purity of 
 colour in the blue flax as is for the white. Yet, although 
 the impurity of colour does not show itself so much on 
 blue flax as on the white, it will be visible when the 
 manufactured articles are bleached, should the fibre have 
 been affected by those spots mentioned in the directions 
 for pulling on the Courtrai system. 
 
 The flax under this system is pulled when the bolls 
 begin to change from green to a pale-brown colour, and 
 the stalk has become yellow for about half its height from 
 the ground, and when the plant begins to lose its leaves 
 from about the third part of its height from the ground. 
 In fine bright weather the flax will not be so soon affected 
 by any impure colour as in foggy or wet weather. 
 
 Coarse and lying flax should also be kept separately, 
 for the same reasons stated under the directions for the 
 Courtrai system, bearing in mind that the greatest care 
 and attention are paid to keep the ends as even as a 
 brush in pulling. 
 
 RIPPLING, 
 
 %< W hich should be carried on at the same time, and in 
 the same field, with the pulling. 
 
 " If the only advantage to be derived from the rippling 
 was the comparative ease with which rippled flax is 
 handled, the practice ought always to be adopted. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 149 
 
 " But besides this, the seed is a valuable part of the 
 crop, being worth, if sold to the oil-mill, 31. per acre, and 
 if for feeding stock of all kind, at least 3/. per acre. 
 
 " The apparatus is very simple : the ripple consists of 
 a row of iron teeth screwed into a block of wood. 
 
 " This implement is to be taken to the field where the 
 flax is being pulled, and screwed down to the centre of a 
 9-inch plank resting on two stools. The ripplers may 
 either stand or sit aside at opposite ends, and be at such 
 a distance from the comb as to permit of their striking it 
 properly and alternately. A winnowing cloth or sheet 
 must be placed under them to receive the bolls as they 
 are rippled off, and then they are ready to receive the flax 
 just pulled. The handfuls being placed diagonally and 
 bound up in a sheaf, the sheaf is laid down at the right 
 hand of the rippler and untied. He takes a handful with 
 one hand about six inches from the root, and a little 
 nearer from the top with the other. 
 
 " He then spreads the top of the handful like a fan, 
 draws the half of it through the comb, and the other half 
 past the side ; and by a half turn of the wrist, the same 
 operation is repeated with the rest of the bunch. 
 
 " Thus the flax can be rippled without being passed 
 more than once through the comb. 
 
 " He now lays the handful down at his left side, each 
 handful crossing the other, when the sheaf should be 
 carefully tied up and removed. The object of crossing 
 the handful so carefully after rippling, when tying up for 
 the steep, is, that when taken to be spread out on the 
 grass, they may part freely from each other, and not inter- 
 lock and be put out of their regular order, as otherwise 
 would be the case. 
 
 " If the weather be dry, the bolls should be kept in the 
 
150 FLAX: 
 
 field, spread on winnow cloths, or other contrivances for 
 drying ; and if turned from time to time, they will win. 
 Passing the bolls first through a coarse riddle, and after- 
 wards through fanners, to remove straw and leaves, will 
 facilitate the drying. If the weather is damp, they should 
 be taken in-doors and spread out thinly and evenly on a 
 barn floor, or in a loft ; leaving windows and doors open 
 to allow a thorough current of air, and turned twice a 
 day. When nearly dry they may be taken to a warm 
 kiln (taking care not to raise it above summer heat) and 
 carefully turned until no moisture remains. By the 
 above plan of slow drying, the seed has time to imbibe 
 all the juices that remain in the husk, and become per- 
 fectly ripe. If it be taken at once from the field, and 
 dried hurriedly on the kiln, the juice will be burned up, 
 and the seed will become shrivelled and parched, little 
 nutritious matter remaining. In fine seasons the bolls 
 should be always dried in the open air, the seed thrashed 
 out, and the heaviest and plumpest used for sowing or 
 crushing. 
 
 " The light seeds and chaff form a wholesome and 
 nutritious feeding for cattle. 
 
 " Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field. 
 It should be rippled as soon as possible and carried to the 
 water at once." 
 
 BLUE STEEPING. 
 
 " The process of blue steeping also requires great care 
 and attention. River water is the best. If spring water 
 is to be used, let the pond be filled some weeks previous, 
 that the sun and air may soften the water. That con- 
 taining iron, or other mineral substances, should never be 
 used. The flax must be placed in the pool in one layer, 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 151 
 
 somewhat sloped, and in regular rows, with the root end 
 uppermost. Cover with stone or moss sod." 
 
 The test to ascertain if the flax be sufficiently steeped 
 is the same as resorted to on the Courtrai system. 
 Under this system, however, there are various other signs 
 and tests by which experienced fabricators are guided, 
 but they are too numerous and complicated. The best, 
 the simplest, the safest criterion, is the one before stated. 
 Make this trial every two hours after fermentation sub- 
 sides, for sometimes the change is rapid. Have the flax 
 carefully handed upon the banks by men standing in the 
 water, always recollecting that the fibre is exceedingly 
 tender when in a wet state, and that great damage may 
 be done to it by rough handling. 
 
 SPREADING. 
 
 Select also, if possible, clean, short, thick pasture -land 
 for this operation. Spread the flax very evenly and 
 equally about half an inch thick on the ground. When 
 it has been spread two or three days on the grass, it is 
 very easy to discern if it has been steeped too much, suffi- 
 ciently, or not enough. 
 
 If steeped rather too much, five or six days on the grass 
 are sufficient. If steeped properly, about ten days on the 
 grass is the required time. However, much depends on 
 the weather. If not sufficiently steeped, twenty or twenty- 
 five days will generally obviate this ; and should this long 
 period on the grass not have brought it to its proper 
 softness, it must be steeped again, remaining in the water 
 as long as before, unless the water possesses a greater 
 degree of heat or cold. The same method of testing the 
 
1 52 FLAX : 
 
 steeping must again be applied, and after being taken out 
 of the water a second time, must undergo the same 
 process of spreading, &c., and be left again on the grass 
 from six to ten days. 
 
 In many cases flax improves considerably in softness 
 and colour by a shower or two of rain, and should, in 
 many instances, be left on the grass till it has been washed 
 in that manner. 
 
 TURNING. 
 
 This process is done with a rod about eight feet in 
 length, and one inch and a half in diameter. The flax is 
 to be turned every two or three days in wet weather (but 
 never turned immediately after rain). In fine weather 
 every four or five days is sufficient. 
 
 LIFTING. 
 
 u A good test as to its being ready to lift is to rub a 
 few stalks from the top to the bottom, and when it breaks 
 easily and separates from the fibre, leaving it sound, it 
 has been long enough on the grass. But the most certain 
 way is, to dry a handful, and to scutch it. In lifting, 
 keep the lengths straight, and the ends even, otherwise 
 great loss will occur in the scutching. Let it be turned 
 the day that it is to be lifted, as it cannot be too dry 
 before it is tied up in bundles and taken to the establish- 
 ment to be scutched." 
 
 DEW RETTING. 
 
 There is another way of preparing flax for scutching 
 without steeping. After the seed is taken off, the flax is 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 153 
 
 taken to a grass-field, and spread about half an inch 
 thick, in December, where it remains from six to eight 
 weeks, according to the weather ; the wet decomposing 
 the wooden particles sooner than dry weather. During 
 this period it is turned several times. This process is 
 particularly recommended for a coarse quality of flax, the 
 expense being much less than steeping in water. 
 
 SCUTCHING. 
 
 In Belgium the flax is all scutched by hand, it being 
 far superior to that scutched by mills. 
 
 However, through the premium granted by the Irish 
 Belfast Flax Society, many improvements have been intro- 
 duced in the machinery of scutching-mills. The best 
 machinery that was invented during my engagement with 
 the Royal Flax Society was that of Mr. Montgomery, 
 Grove Mill, Belfast; and that of Mr. Hutchinson, of 
 Market-hill, which can be very much recommended. 
 
 DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS IN STEEPING. 
 
 Since the last two years I have devoted my leisure time 
 to making new experiments and discoveries in steeping 
 and bleaching flax by a chemical process, and I have thus 
 far succeeded that I have steeped and bleached flax in 
 the short time of two days, an operation which otherwise 
 lasts from twenty to forty days ; yet the advantages of 
 this invention would not seem to compensate for the extra 
 expenses connected with this new process ; besides, it is a 
 question whether it would be practicable on a large scale, 
 and I do not wish, therefore, to recommend or to give any 
 
 M 
 
154 FLAX: 
 
 information upon a subject which is likely not to answer 
 the purpose of the flax-growers. 
 
 The best practical and methodical invention for steep- 
 ing flax that I ever saw is the establishment of the 
 Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, lately erected at Patrington, 
 near Hull. 
 
 On this method the flax undergoes almost all the same 
 preparations for steeping as at Courtrai, but, when stowed 
 in the boxes, the flax is then overflown with water heated 
 by boilers, which water is constantly passing through the 
 boxes, like the stream of a river. 
 
 Having been requested by Mr. Arthur Marshall to 
 examine some flax steeped on this new method, I shall 
 only say, that the flax, although steeped in water of 70 
 degrees of heat (if I recollect right), yet possessed all its 
 natural strength ; and its colour was pretty fair. 
 
 This establishment is decidedly admirable for its sys- 
 tematical arrangements and extensiveness, and the greatest 
 advantages of it are, that flax can be steeped as well in 
 winter as in summer. 
 
 The " Times," in its agricultural report of January 
 the 2nd, gives the following account of what is going on 
 at Patrington with regard to flax : 
 
 " At the entrance to the farm Mr. Arthur Marshall, of 
 Leeds, has erected extensive works for the retting and 
 scutching of flax. In these he at present manufactures 
 the crop of 300 acres, but the works are sufficient for 500. 
 The farmers of Holderness, however, do not seem to go 
 very readily into flax culture, and Mr. Marshall is there- 
 fore obliged to hire the land, sow the seed, provide people 
 to weed and pull the crop, and the farmer then carts it 
 to the works, where it is stacked till required. For the 
 use of the land Mr. Marshall pays SL an acre, the farmer 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 155 
 
 undergoing no risk of failure of crop, and no outlay for 
 seed or labour. The average yield of dressed flax per 
 acre is five hundredweight, at present worth 70s. a 
 hundredweight, besides two quarters of seed, worth 50s. 
 a quarter. The employment given in these works, and in 
 the extensive improvements at the farm, has raised the 
 rate of wages for men, women, and children, in the parish 
 of Patrington, from 12 to 15 per cent, above that of the 
 surrounding district." 
 
 FACTORSHIP OF FLAX. 
 
 During my engagement with the Irish Flax Society I 
 was requested by the President, the Marquis of Down- 
 shire, to give my opinion on the Irish soil as to its capa- 
 bilities for the growth of flax : and, moreover, what other 
 means and exertions (besides and above those made use of 
 by the Society) there could be adopted or introduced to 
 promote the improvement and extension of the growth of 
 flax in Ireland. 
 
 In my short Treatise, which was appended to the First 
 Annual Report of the Society, I expressed my opinion that 
 I was convinced that it was the system of " Flax Factor- 
 ship " that was alone needed to consummate the views of 
 the Society ; and which would be much more applicable 
 to, and practicable in, England. 
 
 In fact, it is my firm opinion that, unless the farmer can 
 sell his flax in a green state to factors or merchants, it 
 never will be extensively grown in England, the farmer 
 being too independent to give his attention to so many 
 after processes which are required to prepare it for 
 market. 
 
 But there exists no doubt that the farmers would at 
 
 M 2 
 
156 FLAX: 
 
 once grow large quantities if they could be assured of 
 finding a market in the green state. For no other crop 
 could be grown with less trouble, or be brought to market 
 in less time ; the seed being sown in April, and the flax 
 coming to market in the latter part of June. I am, 
 therefore, of opinion that nothing else is wanting to induce 
 the agriculturist to grow flax extensively, but a market 
 for it in its green state. And to show the importance the 
 Royal Flax Society attaches to this subject, i.e. to the in- 
 troduction and establishment of flax factorship in Ireland, 
 I will give an extract from the Committee's Second 
 Annual Report : 
 
 " In reference to measures alluded to in the foregoing 
 paragraph, one appears to your committee of such para- 
 mount importance to the ultimate success of the Society's 
 views, that they beg leave to lay the details of it before 
 the meeting, to urge its adoption most strenuously, and to 
 advise the public to embrace such opportunities of aiding 
 the introduction of it as may be afforded by the several 
 parties who refer to it, or who bring it forward for their 
 support. This measure is to establish a new branch of 
 business in the flax trade, such as exists in Belgium, 
 termed " Factorship" of flax. It is carried on by joint- 
 stock companies, or individuals possessing capital, who 
 either rent land laboured by the farmer, and ready for 
 the seed, or, when the plant is in flower, purchase the 
 flax-crop on the foot, and at once relieve the farmer of all 
 further responsibilities respecting it, giving him his cash 
 in hand, or approved bills at three months ; receiving no 
 further aid from the farmer than such accommodation as 
 may be required. 
 
 " The farmer thus has but to grow the crop to the 
 utmost perfection that good culture, the peculiarities of 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 157 
 
 his soil, seed, and seasons will admit of. The flax factor's 
 attention is then exclusively devoted to its after- manage- 
 ment ; and the gangs of labourers employed by him soon 
 become expert under his skilful superintendence in their 
 peculiar branch of business, from the right system of 
 pulling to that of the last handling required, which never 
 can be performed or generally understood by the farmer 
 himself; as we learn by the fact that, even in Belgium 
 and Holland, those individuals who outstand their market, 
 and who attempt there to treat the crops on their own 
 account, as frequently fail as otherwise. 
 
 " The introduction of such a system would thus per- 
 manently establish among us the fullest amount of im- 
 provement that our soil and climate are capable of ; and 
 your committee have sanguine hopes that the period is not 
 far distant when this branch of business will be taken up 
 with spirit. Useful suggestions on this subject were given 
 by Mr. Deman, who was himself a factor of long experi- 
 ence, in the Treatise last year submitted by him to the 
 public (which was appended to the Society's First Annual 
 Report), and have been exemplified most satisfactorily 
 and successfully by him, this season, in the treatment of a 
 small quantity of flax, which he had purchased on the 
 foot, on his own account, in the neighbourhood of Moy. 
 This flax turns out equal to the first quality of Courtrai 
 flax imported, as proved by the price actually obtained 
 for it, being at the rate of 18s. per stone, or 140/. per ton. 
 
 " This flax factorship (vlas verwerker) is called in 
 French 'fabricant de lin. 9 It is a very remunerative 
 business ; almost invariably realizing, when the business 
 is properly conducted, 25 per cent." 
 
158 FLAX: 
 
 CONSUMPTION AND CULTIVATION OF FLAX IN THE 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 The consumption of flax fibre in the United Kingdom 
 is at present about 150,000 tons per annum ; of this not 
 more than one fourth is grown at home ; thus, about 
 112,500 tons are imported from different foreign countries, 
 which, taken at 607. per ton, amounts to 6,750,0007. 
 Writers on flax all agree that a sum of not less than 
 12,000,0007. is sent annually out of this country for flax 
 fibre, hemp fibre, linseed, and oil -cake. Mr. James 
 H. Dickson, in one of his letters to the editor of " Ed- 
 do wes' Journal," published in the year 1846, writes as 
 follows : 
 
 " It appears from the * Irish Farmer's Journal' that the 
 foreigner has been drawing annually from us between ten 
 and twelve millions sterling for flax, oil-cake, and oil- 
 seed ; and it appears by the parliamentary returns up to 
 the 5th of January, 1844, that this sum drawn by our 
 continental friends is very little short of the whole value 
 of manufactured cotton goods exported by us to all parts 
 of the globe, 16,249,2687. ; b\ the same returns, I 
 observe that the whole amount of our exports in linen and 
 flax and tow yarns, was 3,603,0797. ; so that it follows we 
 consume the agricultural produce from Belgium, &c., to 
 the amount of seven to nine millions sterling, and this 
 sum may and ought to be kept in this country, if landlords 
 and tenants will but study their own interests. I would 
 just say to the calculating farmer, consider the population 
 of Great Britain, 18,800,000; deduct the inhabitants of 
 cities, towns, and villages, who are merchants, manufac- 
 turers, and traders ; then, on seeing what number you may 
 allow to be farmers, ask yourselves how much of this 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 159 
 
 12,000,000/. your own share may be, and do not forget 
 the example you have before you in the North of 
 Ireland, where flax-spinners declare that some of them, 
 who have paid 40,000/. per annum to the Belgians, 
 French, and Russians, for flax, now distribute those large 
 sums annually amongst the farmers in their immediate 
 districts." 
 
 If, however, the cultivation of flax can increase at the 
 rate it has done for the last two years in the United 
 Kingdom, and especially in Ireland, the happy and de- 
 sired wish to keep such large sums at home will soon be 
 accomplished ; and the following extract from the last- 
 Annual Report of the Royal Irish Flax Society will prove 
 that the epoch is not far distant when this country will 
 grow sufficient flax for all the supply of linen and cotton 
 manufactures in the United Kingdom. 
 
 " It is again satisfactory to note the continued increase 
 of the flax cultivation in Ireland. From the valuable 
 and accurate returns of Irish agricultural produce, com- 
 piled by Government, your committee learn that, in 1848, 
 there were 53,863 acres under flax crop ; in 1849, 60,01 4 ; 
 and, in 1850, 91,040. The returns for 1851, though 
 not as yet published, have, through the kindness of the 
 Lord- Lieutenant, been specially made out for the Society, 
 by the Census Commissioners, and show the very great 
 breadth of 138,619 acres ; so that the extent of the crop 
 is, this year, nearly two and three-quarter times what it 
 was three years ago, and probably much the greatest ever 
 sown in Ireland. 
 
 " The average yield of fibre per statute acre, throughout 
 Ireland, has been, on the authority of the returns, a frac- 
 tion under five cwts. in each of the last three years. 
 This year the produce is admitted to be considerably over 
 
160 FLAX: 
 
 an average ; and, taking it at five and a quarter cwts., the 
 entire quantity of fibre on the Irish flax crop of 1851, 
 138,611 acres, would be 36,388 tons, which, at 457. per 
 ton, would give an amount of 1 ,637,4607. To this may 
 be added the value of the seed that has been saved, either 
 in the straw dried for the retteries, or by rippling, pro- 
 bably the produce of 20,000 acres, which, at crushing 
 value, would be 31. per acre, or 60,000/., thus giving a 
 gross total of about 1,700,0007. sterling as the amount 
 realized for the Irish flax crop of this year. The quality 
 of the fibre is much superior to that of the preceding crop, 
 and the growers have been generally well remunerated 
 where proper attention has been paid It is interesting to 
 observe that, owing to the large quantity and good quality 
 of the home-grown crop, the imports from Russia this 
 year are greatly less than for many previous years ; and 
 the English and Scotch spinners have been purchasing 
 extensively in our markets." 
 
 NEW MODES OF STEEPING. 
 
 " The great interest at present excited by the culture 
 and preparation of flax, not only in this country, but in 
 most of the continental states, has caused persons of ex- 
 perience and intelligence to direct their attention to im- 
 provements of various kinds, more especially in the sepa- 
 ration of the fibre.* Sir G. R. Farmer, Bart., of Bideford, 
 
 * There is indeed a great field open for improvement in th e 
 separation of the flax fibre and straw, and if some invention could 
 be discovered to effect this peculiar process properly, by chemical 
 aid, a great obstacle to the extension of flax culture would be over- 
 come. We find that by having recourse to chemical means the 
 strength of the fibre is more or less injured, and this deteriorates 
 much the quality of the best flax fibre, and consequently lessens 
 the value considerably. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 161 
 
 Devonshire, has, for some time past, been in communica- 
 tion with your committee relative to a discovery by which 
 he proposes to ret flax in ten hours. As yet, enough is 
 not known of his process to warrant an expression of 
 opinion on its merits, but the subject is receiving all 
 necessary attention. Mr. Bower, of RaweclifFe, near 
 Selby, has also submitted a very curious plan of retting in 
 metal cylinders, by exhaustion of the atmospheric air and 
 subsequent saturation of the straw with hot water. This 
 is also under consideration, and your committee hope soon 
 to be in a position to report upon it. The advantages 
 which Schenck's system has been found to possess have 
 not for a moment induced your committee to neglect any 
 new invention likely to be of service ; on the contrary, 
 they have always courted such suggestions, and have 
 given every encouragement and facility to inventors to 
 explain their views. It is most satisfactory to find that so 
 much attention is now being directed to this subject, and 
 they feel strongly, that, notwithstanding all the improve- 
 ments that have been carried out, much remains to be 
 done before the preparation of flax shall have reached 
 perfection. Most happy and important results may natu- 
 rally be anticipated for the linen manufacture from the 
 amount of skill and ingenuity which are now being 
 brought to bear upon the treatment of the raw material." 
 
 UNSTEEPED FIBRE. 
 
 " It has been stated that some of the spinners of yarns 
 adapted to the coarser fabrics, at Dundee and elsewhere, 
 could employ the fibre of flax separated by mechanical 
 means, without steeping. Although it is evident that a 
 much greater value can be given to the fibre by the ordi- 
 
162 FLAX: 
 
 nary process of steeping, it may be well that the grower 
 should have the option of preparing it in this way, either 
 where the fibre is naturally of an inferior quality, or 
 where, as is in some instances the case this year, no 
 scutching machinery exists in the neighbourhood for pre- 
 paring the steeped flax, and no rettery for the purchase of 
 the straw. The cost of a machine to separate the fibre 
 from the straw without steeping the flax is not more than 
 10/., and such a machine could be profitably employed in 
 the South and West of Ireland, where large quantities of 
 flax have been grown last season, expecting to find a ready 
 market for their produce through Chevalier Claussen's 
 
 CHEVALIER CLAUSSEN'S INVENTION OF COTTONIZING 
 FLAX. 
 
 After several careful researches on the subject of cot- 
 tonizing flax, I have now become in some measure, and 
 to some extent, an advocate instead of an opponent to flax 
 cotton, inasmuch as it appears that inferior, as well as 
 superior qualities of flax, can equally be converted into an 
 article of the same value and quality (called flax-cotton). 
 If this be a fact, and that flax-cotton can be spun upon 
 the ordinary cotton machinery, the invention of Chevalier 
 Claussen is indeed of the greatest value, merit, and im- 
 portance ; and with such an invention flax-growers need 
 not be under any apprehension of not finding a market for 
 their produce ; because the quantity that could be con- 
 sumed of flax-cotton, as a substitute for foreign cotton, is 
 immense. But notwithstanding what I here advance in 
 favour of flax-cotton, I must urge and strongly recom- 
 mend all who are disposed to cultivate flax to adopt as 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 163 
 
 near as possible the methods prescribed in this little work, 
 in order that it may be suitable for the linen manufacture ; 
 remembering, that even in following these instructions 
 one-third of all the flax grown in the United Kingdom 
 will always fall in the class of inferior qualities, and thus 
 be fit for cottonizing.* 
 
 I have no hesitation in stating that, if the Chevalier's 
 new invention possesses all the expected advantages, 
 2,000,000 acres of flax will not suffice in future to supply 
 the linen and cotton manufacturers of the United King- 
 dom. In making a partition and classification for the 
 different manufactures, I allot and select 300,000 acres of 
 superior quality, possessing all the delicacy necessary to 
 manufacture such precious articles as cambric, damasks, 
 fine linen, &c.:f besides, I select 300,000 acres for the 
 manufacture of sewing-thread, shoemaker's thread, sail- 
 cloth, canvas, and all sorts of strong and useful articles. \ 
 The 2,000,000 acres are now reduced to 1,400,000 acres, 
 which would find a ready market in the cotton-spinners, as 
 it appears from M. Claussen's statement that the cotton 
 
 * This remark must not lead the flax-grower to any disappoint- 
 ment, it being almost the same case in Belgium, where every peculiar 
 attention is paid to secure a good crop. But what I call inferior 
 quality is worth from 45/. to 50/. per ton ; and this crop pays gene- 
 rally also pretty well. 
 
 t The qualify of flax used for the manufacture of this article is 
 generally worth from 150/. to 180/. per ton. It should be observed 
 that no exertions are spared by the Belgium flax-grower to obtain 
 that superior quality of flax, and yet he considers it lucky when he 
 obtains one acre in four of this superior quality, which he generally 
 sells before pulling at from 20/. to 25/. per acre (for the straw). 
 The seed is reserved by the grower, but is sometimes partly sacrificed 
 for the sake of the fibre, and in many instances is not worth more 
 than 2l. per acre, in consequence of the crop being pulled rather 
 green to secure a silky fibre. 
 
 J The quality of flax suitable for the manufacture of tb,ese articles 
 is worth about GO/, per ton. 
 
164 FLAX: 
 
 manufacturers of the United Kingdom would consume 
 400,000 tons of flax-cotton annually in substitution of 
 foreign cotton.* Lancashire and Yorkshire alone would 
 require 200,000 tons. 
 
 The great advantage which the new invention of the 
 Chevalier possesses is, that however inferior the quality of 
 flax may be, it can be converted into an article that can 
 be spun instead of foreign cotton. 
 
 In a treatise on Irish soil and climate, in reference to 
 flax, written for the committee, during my engagement 
 with the Irish Royal Flax Society, I stated that, during 
 fifteen years that I had extensively grown flax in Belgium, 
 through excessive droughts, the crop, in four different 
 seasons, did not reach more than from 10 to 12 inches in 
 length ; consequently the crop was totally lost, it being so 
 inferior that it was quite unsuitable for the Belgian manu- 
 facture.t But since the invention of the Chevalier exists, 
 such a crop as just alluded to could now be made useful 
 and profitable; there is, therefore, no exaggeration in 
 saying that the severeness of seasons, which often proves 
 so disastrous to this delicate plant, is now checked by this 
 invention ; and it may be once more repeated, that the 
 
 * I do not see that the cottonizer could pay more than 35/. per 
 ton for flax fibre, but even then I think that flax would still pay 
 better than wheat. However, the agricultural public are anxious 
 to know what price the cottonizers will afford to give for flax straw, 
 or fibre ; and it is to be hoped that the most sanguine advocates of 
 cottonizing flax will soon show themselves in the market. Thousands 
 of acres have been grown last season in the south and west of 
 Ireland, in consequence of statements put forward in support of the 
 scheme ; and many farmers are now anxious to see those statements 
 realized in finding a good market for their flax. 
 
 f I strongly recommend to those who intend growing flax for the 
 sole purpose of flax-cotton to grow it on very poor soil, where 
 scarcely nothing else can be grown ; such soils could be very profit- 
 ably cultivated since the present invention exists. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 165 
 
 greatest advantage of Chevalier Claussen's discovery con- 
 sists in having found a market for an article which had no 
 value previous to the invention. 
 
 It is but just that I should here state that, when the 
 first notion of cottonizing flax was intimated to me, I 
 constituted myself, without reserve, an opponent to it, 
 saying, " How can 1 Ib. of good flax, worth Is. 6c?., be 
 converted into 1 Ib. of flax-cotton, which is only worth 
 6d. ? " and without further consideration or comment, 
 I addressed the following letter to the * Morning 
 Chronicle :' 
 
 " To the Editor of the Morning Chronicle. 
 (l SIR, I have lately seen with much pleasure in your 
 valuable columns that you have taken a great interest in 
 the introduction and extension of the flax industry in this 
 country, but I really think that you would have done 
 much more good to this important national cause, had 
 you not advocated with so much partiality the new system 
 of transforming flax into a substitute for cotton; in 
 short, converting flax into cotton is nothing more or less 
 than reducing a good, substantial, strong article into an 
 artificial one of 50 per cent, less value. If cotton could 
 be converted into flax, it would be one of the greatest dis- 
 coveries invented up to the present day. But to convert 
 flax into cotton is one of the greatest reductios ad dbsurdams 
 ever heard of. If you are impartial in this matter, you 
 will have no objection to bring these few remarks before 
 the public, that they may judge for themselves. 
 " I have the honour to be, Sir, 
 
 " Your most obedient servant, 
 
 " E. F. DEMAN, 
 
 "Late Technical Instructor to the 
 
 " 26 George Street, Portman Square, Royal Flax Society. 
 
 3 March, 1815." 
 
166 FLAX : 
 
 The ' Morning Chronicle' made the following interpre 
 tation of my letter : 
 
 " The remarks put forward by Mr. Deman in the above 
 letter, and which would go to the complete extinction of 
 flax culture in this country,* and the entire substitution 
 of foreign cotton for home-grown produce, as well as the 
 objection urged against the invention of Chevalier Claus- 
 sen, by the Royal Irish Flax Society, and other persons 
 connected either with the linen manufacture or the present 
 mode of preparing flax, are, to our minds, most effectually 
 disposed of in an article which appeared a few days since 
 in the * Cork Reporter/ The following is an extract of 
 the article in question : 
 
 " ' Another course may very legitimately and forcibly 
 operate with them (the Royal Flax Society) to the dispa- 
 ragement of a process like that of M. Claussen. Some of 
 the objections urged against that process may be though 
 we by no means say they are just, and these objections 
 may be considered very serious by the Belfast flax-spinners 
 and linen-manufacturers, and yet be in reality of no prac- 
 tical importance as affecting the system of Chevalier 
 Claussen. For instance, we may assume that the strength 
 of the flax fibre is impaired by the Chevalier's treatment. 
 This would doubtless be considered a fatal objection by 
 the northern manufacturers, who look solely for the pro- 
 duction of linen, one of the peculiar advantages of which 
 is its durability. But if the new preparation can be made 
 to supplant cotton, by being equally durable and cheap 
 with that article, the objection becomes quite unimportant. 
 
 * The ' Morning Chronicle ' has taken a wrong notion of my 
 letter, when he thinks that I am about extinguishing the flax culture 
 in this country ; from my exertions the contrary must be sufficiently 
 proved. But that I recommend and give the preference to the 
 culture of flax for the linen manufacturers is a fact ; and a fact based 
 upon sound and well-founded principles. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 167 
 
 If M. Claussen's method could not produce a fibre fit for 
 the linen manufacturer at all, of what consequence would 
 be the fact, provided it produced a fibre capable of being 
 made the staple of a great manufacture, call it by what 
 name we may ? The Royal Flax Society appear to regard 
 flax solely as the raw material for making linen or cambric. 
 They seem to think that any preparation of it which does 
 not best adapt it for the manufacture of these fabrics is to 
 be discountenanced. We take quite a different view of 
 the subject. We care not what sort of fabric may be 
 made of the flax fibre, provided it only create sufficient 
 demand for flax at sufficiently remunerative rates, and 
 that it shall in itself be a great and profitable manu- 
 facture.* The products in our possession appear to us fit 
 to be the material for several beautiful textile articles ; 
 they seem quite capable of being made to take the place 
 of cotton, to combine with it and with silk or wool, and it 
 is very absurd, in our opinion, to treat of them solely with 
 reference to the linen manufacture. This our northern 
 neighbours seem to do, and on this account, more than 
 any other, we attach little value to their objections.' " 
 
 The * Cork Reporter ' appears to take a sound view of 
 the flax industry, and it is to be regretted that public 
 correspondence and intercourse should have been ex- 
 changed between the contending parties which tend more 
 to decrease than to increase the flax culture ; yet each 
 
 * Here the ' Cork Reporter ' cut close to the great question con- 
 nected with the Chevalier's invention, and in this single question lies 
 the whole affair Will the cottonizers be able to pay a remunerative 
 price for flax ? If they can, plenty will be grown for them ; if they 
 cannot, the affair loses much of its importance, as they will only 
 have very inferior qualities of flax, such as are of no use to the 
 other manufactures ; but even then, the invention will be of some 
 importance, it will give value, as I have already observed, to an 
 article which, before this invention was known, had no value whatever. 
 
168 FLAX: 
 
 and all of us have for object in our exertions to promote 
 the flax industry in the United Kingdom. 
 
 FLAX-GROWERS' EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 At a moment when the culture of flax is looked up to 
 with so much interest, those who intend growing this plant 
 will undoubtedly look forward with some eagerness to 
 recent experiments made by clever flax-growers. 
 
 In March last I had the pleasure to be introduced to 
 the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 
 by one of the extensive Leeds flax-spinners, Mr. Marshall, 
 M.P., and on that occasion the following interesting 
 statements were made : 
 
 Mr. Samuel Druce, of Ensham, whose property lies on 
 the Oxford clay formation, cultivated last year 5 A. 2 R. 
 36 P. on a deep red loam. 
 
 Sale of Produce. 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 
 Sale of flax-seed, 116J bushels, at 8s. . 46 10 
 
 Sale of flax-straw, 12 tons 2 cwts. 2 qrs. 
 
 at SI. per ton , . 
 Sale of chaff, at 5s. per acre . 
 
 Expenses of Cultivation. 
 
 . s. d. 
 
 One ploughing, at 10s. per acre . . 2 17 3 
 Sowing and harrowing, at Is. 6d. per acre 087 
 Weeding, at 2s. per acre . . . 0115 
 
 Flax-seed, 13 bushels, at 9s. . . . 616 
 Rent of land, at 48s. per acre . . . 13 14 9 
 Taxes, at 6s. per acre . . . 1 14 4 
 
 Pulling flax, at 14s. per acre . . .401 
 Carting and stacking, at 4s. per acre . 1 2 10 
 
 Threshing . ..571 
 
 Winnowing 12 6 
 
 36 10 4 
 
 Leaving net profit to the grower . . 47 15 9 
 Being at the rate of 8/. 6s. 2</. per acre. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 169 
 
 Mr. Druce concluded his statement by expressing his 
 conviction that the flax crop was not an exhausting crop 
 at all ; in fact, that his son had found a piece of wheat 
 after flax one of the best wheat crops he had grown. He 
 thought, at all events, that it would be found a good thing 
 for every farmer to grow some flax on his farm, if only for 
 the purpose of working up his inferior hay with a paste of 
 beans and flax-seed, as food for his cattle. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be interesting to add, that Arthur 
 Young, some fifty years ago, refers to the cultivation of 
 flax in Mr. Druce's neighbourhood in the following 
 terms : " Eight or nine years past there was a consider- 
 able quantity of flax raised in Oxfordshire, at Water- 
 Eaton, Hampton, and Yardington, on boggy land ; and 
 good wheat got after it by Mr. Cocks, &c. ; but at present 
 there is none. A very singular husbandry, however, in 
 this vicinity, has been the culture of this plant for the 
 object of seed, for the sole purpose of fattening bullocks." 
 
 The high price of linseed cake occasioned this manage- 
 ment, which answered well ; the flax was watered and 
 dressed, as in the common way ; but the object of the 
 cultivation was the seed for live stock.* 
 
 Mr. Beale Brown made also a statement and expla- 
 nation before the Council, respecting the culture and 
 management of flax, and illustrated in a most satisfactory 
 
 * Mr. Samuel Druce, of Ensham, Oxford, has shown, at the last 
 Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in Baker-street, a short-horned Here- 
 ford heifer, bred by himself, to which the gold medal has been 
 awarded. An important feature in connexion with this animal is, 
 that one of the principal ingredients of the food upon which it was 
 fed was linseed compound. At the time when the attention of the 
 agriculturist is so generally directed to the extension of flax culture^ 
 it is a matter of great importance to know how successfully and pro- 
 fitably the seed of this plant can be used. I have myself carefully 
 inspected Mr. Druce's heifer, and it may be said that the greatest 
 credit is due to the breeder. 
 
170 FLAX: 
 
 manner a series of important advantages resulting from 
 the flax culture ; and Mr. Brown, it appears, has neither 
 spared trouble, energy, nor perseverance, to promote the 
 growth of flax in his neighbourhood, and the amount of 
 skill and ingenuity he has evinced in this branch of agri- 
 culture and industry will undoubtedly bear its fruits. 
 
 Mr. Warnes states, that the profit upon fourteen acres 
 of flax grown and prepared by him in 1850 was upwards 
 of 6/. per acre over that of his wheat. 
 
 His figures are 
 
 . s. d. . s. d. 
 Prepared flax sold at Leeds . . . 238 16 
 
 Value of seed 126 
 
 364 16 
 
 Deduct cost of preparing . . . . 140 
 
 Gross profit 224 16 
 
 Value of produce of 14 acres of wheat at 38 bushels 
 
 to the acre, at 40s. per quarter .... 133 
 Total balance in favour of flax over wheat, not including 
 
 6 tons 6 cwts. of husks, equal to hay, 26 cwts. of tow, 
 
 and many loads of refuse for littering cattle . . 91 16 
 
 I feel great pleasure in giving the above statement, the 
 more so, because I had the pleasure of having been invited 
 by Mr. Warnes to render my humble services to a Flax 
 Society which was established in Norfolk in 1843, and to 
 which Mr. Warnes acted as honorary Secretary. 
 
 Accounts from Scotland respecting the flax culture are 
 also of a most encouraging nature. 
 
 The 'Morning Chronicle' of the 8th January last, under 
 the head of " Flax Culture " says, 
 
 "We understand that several farmers in this neigh- 
 bourhood have resolved to lay out a portion of their fields 
 for raising flax next season ; in some instances, where the 
 crop was raised last year, and that not from very fair 
 land, the price realised was about 147. per acre." 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 171 
 
 A PPENDIX. 
 
 THE following short Treatise was written by me the first year 
 that I was in this country, and then very ignorant of the 
 English language ; I trust, therefore, that my readers will 
 overlook its indifferent composition. But the Society thought 
 proper to publish it verbatim from my manuscript, in order 
 that the sense of my observations might not be altered. I 
 have appended it to the present work in its original form. 
 
 A TREATISE, by M. DEMAN, on the SUITABLENESS of IRISH 
 SOIL and CLIMATE for FLAX. 
 
 As to the Soil. 
 
 Now that I have travelled in every direction through the 
 North of Ireland, I believe I may assert as a fact, that, in 
 every part I have visited, flax might be grown, and I saw 
 scarce any land on which it might not be raised. I would 
 wish, however, that trial were made in those lands the farmer 
 judged too bad for it, as my opinion is, if the proper system 
 of cultivation was adopted, and such land duly prepared, flax 
 would succeed on it, and thus the most sceptic would be 
 convinced. 
 
 As to the suitableness of Climate. 
 
 The next advantage that I observe you possess in Ireland 
 over the people of the Continent is climate : I scarce would 
 venture this assertion, fearing you would suppose I was exag- 
 gerating, but that your secretary is known among you, and 
 can vouch for the truth of the remarks I am about to make. 
 
 The flax crops in Belgium are usually sown about the 
 
 O 
 
172 FLAX: 
 
 beginning of April, at which period we have too generally 
 very dry weather, so that we have much trouble and difficulty 
 to get the land sufficiently fine moulded or broken down. 
 Now seed, when sown on land well prepared, will spring in 
 six days, whilst that on rough land will not grow without rain 
 (or should there be moisture in the ground, very uneven) ; 
 thus often the first crops spoken of will be three inches above 
 ground before the other shows at all, as it waits the rain. 
 During such dry weather in Belgium a kind of insect, called 
 " springers," is sure to injure the crops, and a bad harvest 
 necessarily follows. But in this country, so favoured by 
 Heaven, you have not the inconvenience to fear, as you are 
 sure of fertile showers at this season, which are so indispen- 
 sable to the well braiding of the crop, as every one who 
 understands the nature of it will well know. Droughts in 
 the months of April and May often deteriorate the crops, and 
 during my experience as an agriculturist, and latterly as a 
 factor or merchant of flax (purchasing it on the foot from the 
 farmers, and preparing it on my own account), I have known 
 four seasons at different times that the crops, from the heat 
 and the dryness of the summer, did not exceed eight inches in 
 length. 
 
 Thus you possess advantages of incalculable value for the 
 culture of flax from climate. 
 
 It is, however, true and proper that I should here state, 
 that you also have disadvantages in your climate for this crop, 
 for at the pulling-time, and for the succeeding operations, wet 
 weather is much against the preparation of the flax, and is, 
 undoubtedly, one of the principal causes of its inferior qua- 
 lities. But this may be all counteracted, as Mr. S., the 
 secretary, now understands, by the Courtrai system in this 
 country, viz. by drying the flax in shock in the field and 
 stacking it, and holding it over to the following spring for 
 steeping, and thus the inconvenience in the climate, and its 
 unsuitableness for steeping, and grassing, and drying may be 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 173 
 
 avoided. But as I am persuaded many of the small farmers 
 cannot adopt this system, they should endeavour to sell their 
 crops on the foot while yet green, some days before it is fit for 
 pulling, as is so generally done in Belgium ; and factors might 
 be established here and there who would thus buy the crops 
 and carry it through all the after processes on their own 
 account, and to their profit ; and thus the farmer would realise 
 in August the value of the crop which he had laid down in 
 April. And by this plan, with a seventh, or even a tenth 
 part of his farm in flax, he would have the amount of his rent 
 in pocket at once. In Belgium a farmer considers himself 
 safe, and is at his ease, when his flax promises well, and, on the 
 contrary, that all goes wrong when it turns out badly. 
 
 With reference to the foregoing observations, I feel con- 
 vinced that, if the system is adopted in this country, flax of the 
 first qualities may be produced, and perhaps superior to that 
 of Belgium. 
 
 For I again assert you have the soil and climate to produce 
 it, but you can never have any great improvement if the above 
 project is not put in execution. It is true that some farmers 
 of intelligence and in good circumstances may follow out the 
 good system of Belgium, but the most part will not give 
 themselves so much trouble (even when instructed in it) : 
 besides, it is impossible to unite all in a general system without 
 constituting the management of flax as a separate branch of 
 business, to be altogether conducted by persons who can en- 
 tirely and devotedly dedicate themselves to it. In Belgium 
 the management of the flax-crops, after it is grown, is reckoned 
 quite unsuitable for farmers; even the most intelligent and 
 better circumstanced declare it to be so for the following 
 reasons : they cannot give the care and attention it requires 
 throughout the summer and autumn, when they have so much 
 on hand to attend to, and they are assured that without most 
 particular care the result is worth nothing to them, and there- 
 fore they are induced to sell the crops green on the foot to the 
 
 o2 
 
174 FLAX: 
 
 manufacturers or factors, who make it their sole business, and 
 thus can do it better than them. With large or small farmers 
 the motives must be the same, as other produce of his farm 
 must demand his attention and disqualify him from doing 
 justice to this particular crop. 
 
 The Belgian farmer, should he even miss his market, never 
 thinks of treating his flax himself, further than pulling, drying, 
 and stacking it ; and he will have it sometimes two or three 
 years by him before he sells it, and yet it preserves very well, 
 and even improves. 
 
 I hope I have said enough to lead some individuals to make 
 the experiment of this system ; as to myself, if a fair oppor- 
 tunity were offered me to engage in the business, either with a 
 firm or a joint-stock company, I would not hesitate to do it, 
 well assured it would succeed here as well as on the Continent 
 if properly engaged in. 
 
 E. F. DEMAN, 
 
 Belgian Agriculturist employed by the 
 Royal Flax Society. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 175 
 
 BELGIAN ROTATIONS OP CROPS. 
 
 The following tables of rotations on different soils will be 
 useful, not only to the flax-grower, but to agriculturists in 
 general. 
 
176 
 
 FLAX: 
 
 No. 1. TABLE of ROTATIONS 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Fourth Year.- Fifth Year. 
 
 
 
 
 Buckwheat. Carrots. 
 
 
 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes, Peas 
 and Carrots. 
 
 Oats and Rye. 
 
 
 
 
 Spurrey and Buckwheat. 
 Turnips. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Flax and Clover. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Oats or Spurrey, 
 or Peas. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 No. 2. TABLE of ROTATIONS 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Rye or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 
 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Flax and Clover 
 or Carrots. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Rye and Carrots, 
 or Barley and 
 Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 
 Barley and 
 Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Carrots. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 No. 3. TABLE of ROTATIONS 
 
 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Carrots or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beans. 
 
 
 Clover. Barley and 
 Turnips. 
 
 Rape and Carrots, 
 or Beans. 
 
 WJieat. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 
 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Oats and Clover, 
 or Potatoes. 
 
 Clover, Rape, and 
 Turnips. 
 
 
 Rape and Turnips. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye and Turnips, 
 
 Oats. 
 
ITS CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 in a poor Sandy Soil. 
 
 177 
 
 Sixth Year. 
 
 Seventh Year. 
 
 Eighth Year. 
 
 Ninth Year. 
 
 Tenth Year. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 
 
 Barley and 
 Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Rye or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Ditto, Oats, and 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 
 
 Oats or Buckwheat 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 Carrots. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 
 
 Buckwheat or 
 Potatoes, or 
 Carrots. 
 
 Barley and 
 Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Oats. 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 Flax. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 for the richest kind of Light Soil. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 Rye or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Barley and Tur- 
 nips, or Oats. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Flax and Carrots. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 for a good Strong Loam. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Rape and Carrots. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Oats or Flax. 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Rye and Turnips 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Rape and Turnips. 
 
 Oats or Flax. 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye and Turnips. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye or Barley, 
 and Turnips. 
 
 Oats or Flax. 
 
 
178 FLAX: ITS CULTIVATION, ETC. 
 
 IMPLEMENT DRAWINGS, &c. 
 
 Drawings of the implements requisite for the use of the 
 different processes connected with the preparation of flax can 
 be obtained by application to Mr. Deman. 
 
 Mr. Deman will also feel pleasure in corresponding with 
 those who are desirous to obtain further information, which he 
 can either give by writing, or in some cases by paying a short 
 visit, and thus enable him to give verbal and practical instruc- 
 tion on the most scientific points. 
 
 LONDON : PRINTED B* W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET. 
 
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, 
 
 &c., &e., 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 JAMES RIDGWAY, 
 
 169, PICCADILLY. 
 
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