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REESE- LIBRARY
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UNIVERSITY OF. CALIFORNIA.
^eceiveJ APR 22 1893
,.
^Accessions No. ^ ^
THE
STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
OP
EIVETED JOINTS
BY
BINDON B. $TONEY, LL.D., F.K.S., M.K.I.A., M.E.D.S.
MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS AND OF THE INSTITUTION OF
NAVAL ARCHITECTS J
ENGINEER TO THE DUBLIN PORT AND DOCKS BOARD.
E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND, LONDON,
NEW YORK: 35, MURRAY STREET.
1885.
PREFACE.
THE subject of riveting is by no means so simple as might
at first sight be supposed, and the author, having had much
trouble in collecting and arranging the various experiments
which have been published on the subject and drawing
thence practical conclusions for his own guidance, thinks that
other Engineers, who have neither time nor opportunity for
traversing the same ground, may, perhaps, find the following
paper a useful resume of our present knowledge on the sub-
ject of riveting. It was originally read at the Institution of
Civil^Engineers in Ireland, and the author is indebted to the
Council of the Institution for their kind permission to publish
the paper in a separate form from the " Transactions."
CONTENTS.
PART I.
IRON PLATES AND IRON RIVETS.
ART. PAGE
1. Shearing strength of bar iron, - 3
2. Shearing strength of iron rivets in the joint, - 5
3. Size and pitch of iron rivets Proportions of joints Boilermakers'
practice Shipbuilders' practice, - - - 11
4. Tensile strength of perforated plates, - - 21
5. Lap of plates and pitch of rivets, - 24
6. Lap joints, effect of bending, - - 26
7. Single-riveted lap joints Reduction of unit-strength of plate
Efficiency of joints, -28
8. Double riveted lap joints, 31
9. Butt joints Crushing pressure of rivets, - - 32
10. Contraction of rivets and resulting friction of plates, - 34
11. Bearing area of iron rivets, - - 38
12. Strength of iron rivets in tension, - - 40
13. Efficiency of riveted iron joints, - 40
14. Theoretic proportions of joints, - 41
PART II.
STEEL PLATES AND STEEL RIVETS.
15. Shearing strength of bar steel by direct experiments, - 45
16. Shearing strength of steel rivets in the joint, - 46
17. Tensile strength of perforated steel plates (not riveted), - - 55
18. Tensile strength of plates in the joint, - - 63
19. Margin and lap of plates, - - 73
20. Friction of steel joints and slip of plates, - - - 74
21. Bearing pressure of rivets, - - - 77
22. Efficiency of steel joints, - 78
23. Proportions of joints Boilermakers' practice Shipbuilders' practice
G-irderwork, ....... 79
24. Theoretic proportions of steel joints, - - 85
THE
STEENGTH AND PBOPOKTIONS
OF
RIVETED JOINTS
PART I.
IRON PLATES AND IRON RIVETS.
1. Shearing Strength of Bar Iron. On the subject of
shearing, Professor Unwin makes the following remarks:*
" In Wohler's researches (in 1870) the shearing strength of
iron was found to be f of the tenacity. Later researches
of Bauschinger confirm this result generally, but they show
that for iron the ratio of the shearing resistance and tenacity
depends on the direction of the stress relatively to the
direction of rolling. The above ratio is valid only if the
shear is in a plane perpendicular to the direction of rolling,
and if the tension is applied parallel to the direction of
rolling. The shearing resistance in a plane parallel to the
direction of rolling is different from that in a plane perpen-
dicular to that direction, and again differs according as the
plane of shear is perpendicular or parallel to the breadth of
the bar. In the former case the resistance is 18 to 20 per
cent, greater than in a plane perpendicular to the fibres, or is
* Proc. I. M. E., 1881, p. 327.
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
equal to the tenacity. In the latter case it is only half as
great as in a plane perpendicular to the fibres."
Table I. gives the shearing strength of iron derived from
direct experiments on rolled bars. Clark's experiments were
made with a bent lever, the fulcrum of which was a round bar
in place of a knife edge, and it is probable that the apparent
shearing strength in his experiments was in excess of the real
strength, in consequence of the friction of the apparatus and
the uncertainty as to the exact leverage.
TABLE I. Tensile and Shearing Strengths of Bar Iron.
Authority.
Diameter
of bar.
Tensile
strength
per
sq. inch.
Shearing strength per
square inch.
Observations.
Single shear.
Double shear.
Inch.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Clark, -
Greig &
Eyth,
Shock, -
1
1
1
1
3.
4
24
22-23
24-15
19-68 \
17-41 5
*
17'61 \ ^
221
19-0]
18-32
17-23
17-76
o
rH
(^
Rivet iron of excellent
quality.
Taylor's Yorkshire rivet
iron.
Ordinary round bar of
commerce.
Do.
Do.
if
7
8
18-50 ||
16-88
a
Do.
n
Harkort -
Lavalley -
1
26-4
25-4
17-90,
16-78
Do.
Not stated whether in
single or double shear.
Do.
16-5
20-2
Dick, -
1
26-0
21
Rivet bars, Do.
n
1
1
1
23-8
24-2
24-1
,1 20
| 20-2
19.4 *
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Clark ; Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, p. 390.
Greig & Eyth ; Proc. I. M. E., 1879, pp. 292, 293.
Shock ; Clark's Manual of Rules, &c., for Mechanical Engineers, p. 587.
Harkort & Lavalley ; Proc. I. M. E , 1881, p. 327.
Dick ; Trans. Inst. of Eng. and Shipbuilders in Scotland, Vol. XXV., p. 67.
OF RIVETED JOINTS 5
2. Shearing Strength of Iron Rivets in the Joint. Professor
Unwin has made a valuable report on riveted joints to the
Kesearch Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engi-
neers, from which, as well as from the original accounts
of the experiments, Tables II., V., and VI. have been
derived.*
TABLE II. Shearing Strength of Iron Rivets in Single Shear, derived
from Experiments on SINGLE-RIVETED LAP JOINTS, with DRILLED
Holes, broken ly the Rivets Shearing.
Mode of
riveting.
Tensile strength
of solid plate,
Tons per sq. in.
Stress in joint at moment of
fracture,
Tons per square inch.
Size and
number of
rivets.
Remarks and source
of experiments.
Tensile,
on net
plate
area.
Shearing.
Crush-
ing.
Hand,
22-00
1510
00
18-63 ]
00
29-63
five f"
Stoney, f" plates.
5>
n
17-75
17-90 >^
28-84
Do.
Do. do.
JJ
20-90
18-30 ]g
28-75
Do.
Do. do.
Machine, -
18-51 ]
84"
Fairbairn.
Hand,
Machine, -
__
,
20-34 ["I
19-58 )|
82"
84"
Do.
Do. Countersunk.
Steam,
22-25
19-48
18-44 1
26-56
Greig and Eyth.
19-63
18-61 I
26-77
Do.
Hydraulic,
Steam, -
M
20-43
21-29
19-35 (%
17-31 p
27-86
29-59
-r
Do.
Do.
Mean shearing strength \
of rivets in single f
rivetedlap joints with f
drilled holes, )
18-70
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, pp. 341 to 344. Trans. Roy. Irish Ac., Vol. XXV,
p. 451. Pro, Roy. So,, 1873, p. 261.
6
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
TABLE HI. Shearing Strength of Iron Eivets in Single Shear, derived
from Experiments on SINGLE-RIVETED LAP JOINTS, with PUNCHED
Roles, broken by the Rivets Shearing.
Mode of
riveting.
Tensile strength
of solid plate,
Tons per sq. in.
Stress in joint at moment of
fracture,
Tons per square inch.
Size and
number of
rivets.
Remarks and source
of experiments.
Tensile,
on net
plate
area.
Shearing.
Crush-
ing.
Hand,
22-00
11-97
17-78
S
00
iH
27-94
fivef"
rivets.
Stoney, f " plates.
22-00
14-75
19-90
|
32-60
Do.
Do. do.
Machine, -
19-53 1$
84"
Eairbairn.
Hand, -
20-61
^J
.
a
82"
Do.
21-20
1
82"
Do. Countersunk.
Mean shearing strength
of rivets in a single
riveted lap joint with
punched holes,
19-80
TABLE IV. Shearing Strength of Iron Rivets in Single Shear,
derived from Experiments on DOUBLE-RIVETED LAP JOINTS, with
PUNCHED Holes, broken by the Rivets Shearing.*
Mode of
Riveting.
Tensile strength
of solid plate,
Tons per sq. in.
Stress in joint at moment of
fracture,
Tons per square inch.
Size and
number of
rivets.
Remarks and source
of experiment.
Tensile,
on net
plate
area.
Shearing.
Crush-
ing.
?
21-6
19-8
18-6
?
Four
H"
rivets.
Knight, &' B. B.
boiler plates.
Hand,
18-25
14-23
19-35
29-9
Two
3."
4
rivets.
Stoney, f " plates.
Mean shearing strength
of rivets in double-
riveted lap joints with
punched holes,
18-98
-
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 720. Trans. Roy. Irish Ac., Vol. XXV, p. 451.
OF KIVETED JOINTS.
TABLE V. Shearing Strength of Iron Rivets in Single Shear, derived
from Experiments on SINGLE-RIVETED and SINGLE-COVERED BUTT
Joints, with PUNCHED Holes, broken ly the Rivets Shearing.
u*
Stress in joint at moment of
fracture,
.
Mode of
!
Tons per square inch.
M
Remarks and source
riveting.
s^s
Tensile,
aj 2?
of experiment.
"00
H H
on net
plate
area.
Shearing.
Crush-
ing.
|*
Steam, -
24-08
13-87
17-92
20-06
( Kirkaldy, single
( cover.
Steel is harder than iron, and iron rivets are shorn by steel
plates with a lower unit-stress than occurs with iron plates,
in the ratio of 16J tons to 19J tons per square inch of rivet
section, i.e., about 14 per cent, less, according to Admiralty
experience.*
Table VI. gives the results of several other experiments on
the shearing strength of iron rivets connecting steel plates, f
Mr. Denny inferred from his experiments (Table VI.) that
the shearing strength of iron rivets is 19 tons per square
inch.J It will be observed that his experiments were made
on single rivets in double shear, and the shearing unit-strength
of a single rivet is probably somewhat greater than that of
several rivets shorn together. In the discussion on Mr.
Denny's paper, Mr. Parker says : u In an iron joint the
strength of the rivets to resist shearing will not probably be
more than 18 or 19 tons per square inch," and it will be
observed in the experiments recorded by Mr. Parker (Table
VI.) that the shearing strength per square inch of the small-
sized rivets in inch plates was much greater than that of
the larger rivets in the thicker plates.
* Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1884, p. 274, and 1885, p. 189.
fProc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 350. Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1878, pp. 13,
14, and 1880, p. 204.
J Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1880, p. 192.
Idem, p. 222.
THE STKENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
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I
I
OF EIVETED JOINTS. 9
Brunei made experiments on double-riveted and double-
covered butt joints with punched holes, in one of which the
rivets (in double shear) were sheared with a stress of 20*6
tons per square inch,* and, many years since, Mr. Doyne made
experiments on riveted joints, no doubt with punched holes,
and he states that the average shearing strength of rivets
is 18*82 tons per square inch in single shear in a single-
riveted lap joint, and 17*55 tons per square inch in double
shear, f
Sir Edward Reed states, as the results of carefully con-
ducted experiments at Chatham Dockyard, that the mean
shearing strength of a f inch rivet of Lowmoor or Bowling
rivet iron in single shear was 10 tons, and when shorn in two
places 18 tons. As, however, he does not give the exact
diameters of the rivets after they filled the holes, these
experiments do not throw much light on the subject, except
to show that the shearing unit-strength of iron rivets is
greater in single than in double shear. J
From these various experiments, and having regard to the
fact that riveting for experiments is probably done more
carefully than the average run of actual work, we are not
warranted in assuming higher standards for the shearing
strength of iron rivets in single shear than 19 tons per
square inch in punched iron plates, and 18, or at most 18*5
tons in drilled plates, the rivets in the latter being weaker,
probably, as Maynard suggests, because the sharp edges of
drilled holes have a tendency to shear off the rivet cleaner
than those of punched holes. Adopting 4 as the usual factor
of safety, this makes the working shearing stress of iron rivets
in iron plates from 4'5 to 4*75 tons per square inch, though
5 tons is the standard adopted by some engineers. Mr. Milton,
* Clark's Manual for Mech. Engineers, p. 640.
+ Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. IX., p. 357.
Eeed on Shipbuilding, p. 351.
10 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
one of Lloyd's surveyors, states that Lloyd's rules for boilers
practically credit " rivets either in punched or drilled holes
with a strength of 18 tons per square inch."* The calculations
in the Board of Trade rules for marine boilers are apparently
based on a shearing strength of 21 tons per square inch,
but their minimum factor of safety is 5, and this does not
allow the working shearing stress to exceed 4 - 25 tons per
square inch. Mr. Shaler Smith, the distinguished American
engineer, adopts 4*46 tons per square inch for the work-
ing shearing stress of pins, bolts, and rivets.f Other Ameri-
can engineers, however, specify that the shearing stress
of rivets and bolts shall not exceed 2*68 tons per square
inch.J The balance of evidence seems to show that the
shearing unit-strength of iron rivets is greater in single than
in double shear, and probably also it is greater in double-
riveted than in single -riveted lap joints. Lloyd's and the
Board of Trade rules for marine boilers recognise this, and
they direct that the shearing area of rivets in double shear
shall be calculated at only 1*75, in place of twice the shear-
ing area of rivets in single shear. Machine riveting is
generally stronger than hand riveting, and experiments by
Messrs. Greig and Eyth indicate an improvement in rivets
made by the quickly applied stroke of a steam riveter, or
a hydraulic riveter with a quick moving accumulator, over
that done by one with a slow moving accumulator. They
found, however, " that the plate, especially if soft, is much
less injured by hydraulic riveting, and that this method
has, therefore, a decided advantage where the plate is the
weaker part ; but that the rivet itself is stronger when put in
by the steam riveter, owing probably to the greater compact-
* Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1882, p. 115.
f Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. X., p. 139.
Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXXVIL, p. 263.
Proc. Inst. M. E., 1879, p. 271.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 11
ness of the rivet material obtained by the sudden shock."*
Experiments by Mr. Kirk seem to show that a tighter joint
may be obtained with thick plates if the pressure on the
head of the rivet is sustained for a sensible period, so that the
plates may be pressed together while the rivet is cooling ; it
then maintains its contractile grip on the plates without any
risk of their springing apart while the rivet is still hot and
ductile, f
3. Size and Pitch of Iron Rivets Proportions of Joints
Boilermakers' Practice Shipbuilders' Practice. The diameter
of iron rivets in boiler work is generally about twice the thick-
ness of the plate when the latter does not exceed f inch ; after
this the proportion is gradually reduced until the diameter of
the rivet nearly equals the thickness of the plate, the limit of
diameter being about 1J inches, as this is the largest rivet
that can be conveniently worked in practice.
Tables VII., VIII., and IX., give Boilermakers' propor-
tions for riveting. Table VII. shows the practice of various
manufacturers for riveted iron joints. It has been compiled
by Mr. Tweddell, who says "With rivets up to 1-inch
diameter it seems to be the universal practice to make the
4 margin,' or distance from outside of rivet to edge of plate,
equal to the diameter of rivet. With very large rivets,
l"lV I~B> or IJ-hich diameter, some makers allow rather less
margin namely, 1, ly^, l-J-in."J
Table VIII. is copied from Beaton's Manual of Marine
Engineering, p. 348, and for Table IX. the author is indebted
to Mr. Aspinall, President of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers of Ireland.
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1879, p. 278.
-\-Idem, 1881, p. 329.
J Idem, p. 293.
12
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
TABLE VII. Boilermakers' Proportions for Lap joints. Iron Plates
and Iron Rivets (Tweddell).
Thickness
of pla'o.
Lap joints, single-riveted.
Lap joints, double-riveted.
Diameter of
rivet,
(nominal).
Pitch of
rivets.
Diameter of
rivet,
(nominal).
Pitch of
rivets.
Distance between
pitch lines of
two transverse
rows of rivets.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
!
H
.
A
*
It
1
21 to 2
11 to If
t*>i
If to 2
* to |
2 to 2j
1ft to 2
i
f to !
2 to 21 *
1 to!
21 to 31
, 1? to 21
f to 1
21 to 2f
1 to 1
2f to 3f
2 to 21
i
1 to 11
21 to 2f
1 to 11
3 to 41
2 to 21
i
1 to If
21 to 3
1*
31 to 3f
2f
i
1 to 11
21 to 2|
H to 11
3^
21 to 2|
*i
11 to If
2f to 3
If
3|
21
TABLE VIII. Boilermakers' Proportions for Butt Joints, Double
Straps, Double-riveted Zigzag; Iron Plates and Iron Rivets
(Seaton).
Thickness of
plate.
Diameter of
rivets,
(nominal).
Pitch of rivets.
Breadth of
straps.
Thickness of
straps.
inch,
f
inch.
I
inch.
inch.
85
inch.
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13
OF RIVETED JOINTS.
13
Remarks.
Eivets and plates, both steel
made by L. & N. W. Ey.
Holes punched and annealed.
Heads of rivets snap.
Eivets and plates, both steel
made by Landore Siemens
Co. Holes punched. Heads
of rivets snap.
Plates, iron made by Monk-
bridge Co. Eivets, York-
shire iron. Holes drilled after
bending. Eivets, cup for lap
joints and countersunk for
butt joints.
Plates, principally iron, either
Lowmoor or Bowling or
Cooper. Eivets, Yorkshire
iron by same makers as
plates. Holes drilled and
punched. Heads of rivets
snap.
Plates, steel made by Bolton
Iron and Steel Co. Eivets,
Lowmoor. Holes drilled
%%". Heads of rivets snap.
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Form of joint.
Lap for circular
seams, double -co-
vered and single-
riveted butt for
horizontal seams.
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14
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
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OF RIVETED JOINTS. 15
M. Antonie gives the following empirical formula for the
diameter of iron rivets in shipbuilders' practice.*
d = l'lV~t (1)
where d = diameter of rivet,
I = thickness of plate.
Tables X., XL, and XIII. , give Shipbuilders' proportions
for riveting, copied from the rules of the Underwriters of
Lloyd's, Liverpool, and Bureau Yeritas.
Lloyd's Rules. " The butts of outside plating to be chain-
riveted. All double and treble riveting, except in the keel,
stem, and stern-post, is recommended to be chain riveting.
In chain-riveted butts, a space equal to twice the diameter of
the rivet to be between each row ; where treble riveting is
adopted, a space equal to twice the diameter of the rivet to
be between each row, with half the number of rivets in the
back row. The overlaps of plating, where chain riveting is
adopted, are not to be less than six times the diameter of
the rivets; and, where single riveting is admitted, to be
not less than three and a half times the diameter of the
rivets. The rivets are not to be nearer to the butts or
edges of the plating, butt straps, or of any angle iron, than
a space equal to their own diameter; and, in edge rivet-
ing, the space between any two consecutive rows of rivets
must not be less than once and a half their diameter. The
rivet holes to be regularly and equally spaced and care-
fully punched from the faying surfaces opposite each' other
in the adjoining parts, laps, lining pieces, butt straps, and
frames; and countersinking to extend through the whole
thickness of the plate or angle bar. They are to be spaced
not more than four diameters of the rivet apart from centre
to centre in the butts of the plating, and not more than from
four to four and a half diameters apart in the edges of the
* Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. XXII., p. 200.
16
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
plating and at other parts, excepting in the keel, stem, and
stern-post, where they may be five diameters, and through
the frames and outside plating, and in reversed angle iron on
frames, where they may be eight diameters apart from centre
to centre. The rivets in the flanges of the gunwale angle irons
to be spaced not more than four and a half diameters apart
from centre to centre, and those connecting iron decks and
stringer plates to the beams to be spaced from seven to eight
diameters apart. The rivets are to be of the best quality, and
to be in diameter as per Table X., and to be increased in
size under their heads to fill the rivet holes. When riveted
up, the rivets are completely to fill the holes, their heads are
to be * laid up,' and their points or outer ends are not to be
below the surface of the plating."
TABLE XI. Liverpool Proportions for Ship Riveting (Iron).
Thickness of Plates,
in sixteenths of
an inch,
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Diameter of Rivets,
in sixteenths of
an inch,
10
10
12
12
13
14
14
16
16
16
17
18
Breadth of Lap in
Seams, in inches.
Single riveting,
2 J
2*
3
3
Double riveting,
3f
3f
4*
H
5
fc
5*
6
6
6
*
*f
Breadth of Butt
Strip, in inches.
Double riveting,
8
8
10
10
10f
Hi
11*
13
13
13
13!
14i
Treble riveting,
12
12
14*
14*
15f
17
17
19
19
19
19f
2U
^Quadruple riveting,
16
16
19
19
20J
22|
22J
25
25
25
26|
28
Liverpool Rules. " Rivets to be 4 diameters apart from
centre to centre, longitudinally in seams and vertically in
butts, except in the butts where treble or quadruple rivet-
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 17
ing is required, when the rivets in the row farthest from
the butt may be spaced eight diameters apart, centre to
centre. Rivets in framing to be eight times their diameter
apart from centre to centre, and to be of the size required
by table. Rivets in shell plating, in deck ties and stringers,
in centre plate, and in flat keels and keelsons, are to have
their necks bevilled under their heads, so as to fill the
countersink made in punching, and their heads should not
be thicker than two-thirds of the diameter of the rivet,
and it is recommended that the necks of all rivets be
bevilled under the heads. The rivet holes in outside plating,
deck stringers and ties, gunwale and gutter angle-irons and
iron decks, to be carefully countersunk quite through the
plate or bar. The face, or largest diameter of the counter-
sink, should not be less than one and a half times the diameter
of the rivet. All butts of plates to be chain riveted. All
butt and seam holes must be punched from the surfaces which
are placed together, so that the taper of the holes shall be
in opposite directions. The holes to be punched fair, and
opposite each other; unfair holes will render the piece of
work badly punched liable to rejection. Where holes cannot
be truly punched they must be drilled through fair. Butts to
be closely fitted, either by planing or jumping; when jumped,
the ridge formed by jumping to be chipped off the inside, in
order that the butt strips may fit closely. The ridge outside
to be hammered into the joint. Butt strips to have grain of
iron in the same direction as, and to be of not less thickness
than, the plates which they connect. When double butt
strips are fitted, they may each be two-thirds the thickness of
the plates united by them. Treble riveted strips to be at
least ten per cent, thicker than the plates they connect.
Treble riveted strips on sheer strakes of and over twelve-
sixteenths thick, to be at least fifteen per cent, thicker than
the plates they connect. Quadruple riveted strips on sheer
18
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
strakes of and over fourteen-sixteenths thick, to be at least
twenty per cent, thicker than the plates they connect."
TABLE XII. Bureau Veritas, Proportions for Ship Riveting (Iron).
Thick-
ness
of
Plates.
Diameter of Rivets
Breadth of Laps for
Width of Butt Straps and
Thickness for
for
Plates
and
Angle
Irons.
for bar
Keels,
Stem,
and
Sternposfc.
Single
Rivet-
ing.
Double
Zigzag
Riveting.
Double
Chain
Riveting.
Double
Riveting.
Treble
Riveting.
16ths.
16ths.
16ths.
In.
In.
In,
In. 16ths.
In. 16ths.
4
8
12
If
2|
3
6| X 4
9| X 5
5
9
13
2
31
N
7X5
lOf X 6
6
10
14
2|
3f
3f
n x 6
11| X 7
7
11
15
2|
3f
H
8i X 7
12| X 8
8
12
16
03
-"4
4
^
9X8
13J X 9
9
13
17
4 T 7 e
41
9| X 9
14| X 10
10
13
17
4 T V
4|
9| X 10
14| X 12
11
14
18
4f
3i
101 x n
15| X 13
12
14
18
4f
H
lOf X 12
16 X 14
13
15
19
5
5f
11 X 13
16| X 15
14
16
20
5 T 7 e
6
12f X 14
18| X 16
15
17
20
6|
6|
19J X 17
16
18
21
8|
6|
20^ X 18
Bureau Veritas, Rules. "The rivets to be of the best
description of fibrous iron, and in size according to the table.
The holes to be regularly pitched, and carefully punched
opposite each other from the joint surfaces. The countersink-
ing of the outside plating and stringers to extend through
two-thirds of the thickness of the plate; the holes not to be
nearer to the edge of any plate or angle bar than the diameter
of the rivet. Eivets in the outside plating to be laid up
OF KIVETED JOINTS. 19
round the heads, to fill the holes and countersink, and be
finished flush on the outside. The keel rivets may be left
full or convex. The longitudinal spacing of rivets in seams
of plating, bulkheads, and for all water-tight parts not to
exceed four diameters from centre to centre for single riveting,
and four and a half diameters for double riveting. The
riveting of butts for the two first rows to be four diameters
from centre to centre, and eight diameters for the third row.
The spacing of rivets in keel, stem, and sternpost not to
exceed five diameters from centre to centre. In chain rivet-
ing the distance from centre to centre between the rows to
be equal to three times, and in zigzag riveting to be equal to
twice the diameter of the rivet. The diameter of rivets and
system of riveting to be determined by the thickest plate."
The rivets in girder work are generally the same size as
those adopted by boiler makers, but, as girders do not require
caulking like a boiler, the pitch, or distance of rivets from
centre to centre, is much greater, and usually varies from 3 to
5 inches, but it should not exceed ten to twelve times the
thickness of a single plate, as otherwise damp may get between
the plates and cause rust, which in time swells and bursts them
asunder. In girder work, also, the tension joints are generally
triple or quadruple riveted, to enable sufficient rivet area
to be obtained without weakening the plates by numerous
transverse perforations ; and Mr. Milton has lately drawn
attention to a matter which, though previously known, was
seldom acted on namely, that the shearing strength of rivets
in triple and quadruple riveting is theoretically less than in
single or double riveting, in consequence of the unequal stress
and unequal stretching of the plates between the several rows
of rivets.* This brings an undue stress on the outer rows of
rivets, and it seems therefore desirable to provide an excess
of rivet area, say 10 per cent., in triple or quadruple riveted
* Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885.
20 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
joints to compensate for this unequal distribution of stress
among the rivets. This remark probably applies with con-
siderable force to joints in the flanges of girders when they
are formed with piles of plates, but is of less importance in
ordinary cases, for in Kirkaldy's experiments for the Board of
Trade on triple-riveted lap joints with steel plates and steel
rivets, the shearing strength of the latter does not appear to
have been at all diminished by the unequal stress in the plates
referred to by Mr. Milton.*
Mr. Moberly informs me that the practice at the works
of Messrs. Easton and Anderson of Erith is to make the
punch about ^g- inch (that is, from 5 to 12 per cent.) larger
in diameter than the rivet (the larger percentage being used
with the smaller rivets), and to make the die larger than
the punch at the rate of ^ inch for 1 inch thickness of plate.
Hutchinson also says the difference between the punch and
the die may be taken as not much less than ^ of an inch to the
inch in thickness;! thus, in punching for a 1-inch rivet in a
plate 1 inch thick, the punch will be lyg- inch and the die will
be 1 T 3 ^ inch in diameter, and for the same rivet in a ^ inch
plate the punch will be 1 T ^ inch and the die will be 1 J inch
in diameter. This clearance of the die outside the punch
equals 12*5 per cent, of the thickness of the plate, or say
6 per cent, of the nominal diameter of the rivet for plates
not exceeding J inch in thickness, but increasing up to about
10 per cent, of the nominal diameter of the rivet when the
latter reaches the larger sizes above 1 inch in diameter. As
the punched hole is conical, its diameter at the top being
equal to, or slightly larger than that of the punch, and
at the bottom equal to the diameter of the die, the mean
diameter of the punched hole is found by adding the nominal
diameter of the rivet to half the clearances of the punch
* Merchant Shipping Experiments, pp. 83, 85.
t Hutchinson's Girdermaking, p. 53.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 21
and die added together. Taking a J inch rivet with f inch
plates as an average example, we find that the clearance
of the punch is -fa inch, or nearly 8 per cent, of the nominal
size of the rivet ; and the hole in the die is / inch larger
again than the punch, that is, its clearance is -^ inch, or 14
per cent, of the nominal size of the rivet. The mean clear-
ance of the punched hole for a f inch rivet is therefore about
11 per cent, of the nominal size of the rivet, or even more if
the die be somewhat worn by use. In boiler work the plates
are put together with the larger, or countersunk, ends of the
holes outwards, and the shearing diameter of the finished rivet
is equal to, or a little greater than that of the punch, which
in the case of our f inch rivet is 8 per cent, larger than the
nominal size of the rivet. The following table will illustrate
this example more clearly:
Inch. Inch. Inch.
Nominal size of | inch rivet, if = -Jf = 0'75
Diameter of punch, ... jf = || = 0-8125
Diameter of hole in die, ... |f = O8594
Diameter of conical hole ) at top O8125 ) g
produced by punching, ) at bottom O8594 J g
Wilson says that " the allowance made in the length of a
rivet for forming the head should be about 1J times the
diameter for snap and conical heads, and about equal to the
diameter for countersunk heads. In machine riveting the
length requires to be to J inch more than the above."*
This affords an additional reason for machine riveting being
somewhat stronger than hand riveting, inasmuch as more
metal is squeezed into the rivet by the machine than by hand.
4. Tensile Strength of Perforated Plates. The theoretic
percentage of the strength of a perforated plate at any joint,
as compared with that of the solid plate, is as follows :
* Wilson on Steam Boilers, p. 55.
22 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
Theoretic percentage =^ - x 100 (2)
where p = pitch of rivets (in inches),
d = diameter of rivets (in inches).
This theoretic percentage is, however, rarely or never obtained
in practice with iron plates, as will appear below. Nearly all
experimenters on the subject agree that punching generally
reduces the tenacity of iron and steel plates to a greater
degree than the area of the metal punched out, and a close
examination of the border of each hole shows that it has
been subject to a certain degree of violence, which in most
cases has reduced the ductility of the metal, and made it
locally crystalline in fracture, and, as some suppose, caused
incipient cracks round the edge of the hole ; but this latter
seems doubtful, as Mr. Beck-Gerhard, of the Poutiloff works
at St. Petersburg, instituted " an investigation as to whether
there was any foundation for the very generally received
opinion that the edges of a punched hole on the die side
are injured by a ring of minute incipient cracks. For
this purpose a large number of specimens, 5 inches by 3
inches by ^ inch of all kinds of steel were prepared. The
edges were planed, the surfaces polished, holes were pierced
in various ways, and the metal surrounding them was care-
fully examined with a microscope, but no trace whatever of
cracks could be found, though the nature of the steel ranged
from O'l to 0'6 per cent, of carbon."* Owing to its hardness
and inability to stretch, this annulus of strained material round
the punched holes, when the specimen is under tension, takes
a higher proportion of the stress than the other more yielding
parts, and hence it reaches the breaking-point sooner that is,
the punched plate breaks in detail : first the annulus of
hard metal gives way, and afterwards the more ductile portion
between the holes. Bimering, or boring out, a zone of metal
*Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXXVIL, p. 450.
OF KIVETED JOINTS. 23
ith inch wide round the punched hole removes the annulus
of strained material and neutralises the effect of punching.
Countersinking has also the same effect,* and annealing after
punching also restores the ductility and original tenacity of the
metal, but it is seldom or never considered necessary to anneal
iron plates, though this is often done with thick steel ones. In
numerous experiments on the subjectf the loss of tenacity in
iron plates from punching varied from 5 to 23 per cent, of
the original strength of the solid plate, but the percentage
in any particular case will doubtless depend 1. On the
diameter of the holes. 2. On their pitch. 3. On the width
of the strip punched, for wide plates are apparently less injured
than narrow strips, perhaps because it is difficult to centre the
holes accurately in the latter. 4. On the condition of the
punching tool i. e., the sharpness of its cutting edges, and
the maintenance of the proper proportion of size between the
punch and the die. 5. On the quality and thickness of the
metal, hard iron generally suffering more than ductile iron,
and thin plates less than thick ones.J Probably, the most
accurate method for making an allowance for the injurious
effect of punching would be to add a certain percentage, say
one-tenth to one-fifth of its diameter to each hole, when calcu-
lating the effective net area of a punched plate. Mr. White
states that "in making their estimate for riveted work in
the Eoyal Navy, they were accustomed to allow 4 tons off
the very best iron for punching 4 tons off 22 tons."
Civil Engineers, however, rarely make any similar allow-
* The Admiralty practice in countersinking steel plates is to punch the hole
-i-inch less than the smaller end of the countersink, which is carried through
the full thickness of the plate, and thus removes all the strained material.
Wildish, Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885.
+ Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 323.
J In Mr. Sharp's experiments on steel plates, the reduction of tenacity due
to punching was greater the harder the material of the plates, but annealing
restored them to their original strength. Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 307.
Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXIX., p. 36.
24 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
ance in riveted girder work, perhaps because the rivet holes
are generally pitched farther apart in girders than in ships.
Drilling does not strain or damage the metal surrounding
the hole, and it is, therefore, to be preferred for first-class
work. Some experiments seem to show that the unit-strength
of a drilled iron plate is greater than that of the solid plate,
owing, it is supposed, to the flow of the metal between the
holes, and consequent contraction of area during the last
stages of testing, being restrained by the adjoining solid
parts or, in other words, the drilled plate does not con-
tract sideways and stretch lengthwise in the line of trans-
verse holes as much as a solid plate would from the same
unit-stress, and the contraction of area at the line of
fracture is thus less in the perforated than in the solid
plate. With punched plates, however, as already explained,
the action of the punch causes initial stresses in the annulus
of metal around each hole and thus alters its power of
stretching, so that at the crisis of fracture this strained
part gets an excessive proportion of the load and breaks
before the other parts of the plate are strained to their full
capacity. This increase of strength from drilling, however,
is so extremely doubtful with iron that it cannot be depended
on for increasing the tenacity of a drilled plate. With mild
steel, however, it is more important. Mr. Longridge states
that in a long series of experiments on perforated iron
plates, whether the holes were punched or drilled, there
was an absolute loss of unit-strength from perforation. In
some few of the drilled plates there was a gain, but only a
slight one.* In the author's experiments on drilled iron plates,
though some of them showed a gain from perforation, the
majority showed an absolute loss.f
5. Lap of Plates and Pitch of Eivets. A joint may fail
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 267.
f Trans. Roy. I. A., 1875, p. 454.
OF KIVETED JOINTS. 25
from the holes being too close to the edge of the plate, in
which case the rivet splits or bursts open the margin of the
plate in front of itself. Experiments indicate that the margin
of single-riveted lap joints need not exceed one diameter of
the rivet ( 3) that is, the lap of single-riveted lap joints need
not exceed three times the nominal diameter of the rivet for
plates; with bars, however, the lap should not be less than
from 3J to 4 diameters of the rivet, as the end of a narrow
bar is evidently more liable to split open than the edge
of a wide plate, where the adjoining parts hold the margin
up to its work.* In boiler work the lap is generally three
nominal diameters of the rivet for single-riveted lap joints
and about five nominal diameters for double-riveted lap
joints; if the lap much exceeds five diameters the plates
are not close along their edges, and it is difficult to make
the seam steam-tight by caulking. In shipbuilding, how-
ever, the lap is somewhat greater than in boilerwork (see
Tables X., XI., XII.), and in girder work, where the
edges of the plate are often roughly shorn, the margin,
or distance between the rivet holes and edge of the plates,
is seldom less than l times the diameter of the rivet.
Browne observes that, " as the effect of punching is to weaken
the plate to some distance all round the punched hole, the
result will be that in the space between any two successive
holes in the straight line of rivets the plate is weakened twice
the distance that the punching affects, but in the zigzag line
between the same two holes the plate is weakened to the extent
of four times the same distance," and he recommends the longi-
tudinal distance between the pitch lines in zigzag riveting to be
two-thirds of the transverse pitch. " In chain riveting, how-
ever, the rivets in the second row, being opposite to those in
the first row, are in the same position with respect to the first
row as the rivets in a single-riveted joint to the edge of the
* Trans. Koy. I. A., Vol. XXV., p. 453'.
26 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
lap. Hence, by the same rule as before, the distance between
the rivet holes in the two rows will be one diameter, making
the distance between the pitch lines 2 diameters ; but as the
plate between the holes will be injured at both sides by
punching, it will be safer to make the distance 2J diameters
between the pitch lines."* The rules thus obtained by
Browne for double-riveted lap joints with punched holes are
briefly as follows :
Diameter of rivet = 2 times thickness of plate.
Pitch - = 41 diameters of rivet, f
y f = 5J diameters in chain riveting.
1 = 6 diameters in zigzag riveting.
Wilson says that the width of the strap for double-riveted
butt joints in boiler work should be at least nine times the
diameter of the rivet, and may with thick plates be ten times. J
In shipbuilding the width of the strap is much greater (see
Tables X., XI., and XIL).
6. Lap joints, effect of bending. Single-riveted lap joints
bend considerably under severe stress, and the plates are then
liable to tear, not only from bending along the line of holes, but
because they are subject to an unequally distributed crushing
stress, in consequence of the rivets pressing more on the inner
than on the outer edge of each plate. The unit-strength of
the plate is thus much less in single-riveted lap joints than
in perfectly straight joints, such as double-covered butt joints,
or joints where they are bent but slightly, such as double
and triple-riveted lap joints. Indeed, Fairbairn concludes
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1872, pp. 62, 63, 64.
t This pitch is rather large for steam-tightness. The pitch in double-riveted
lap joints in boiler work seldom exceeds 3|, or at most 4, diameters of the rivet.
J Wilson on Steam Boilers, p. 85.
OF RIVETED JOINTS.
27
from his experiments that the unit-strength of the iron
between the holes of double-riveted lap joints is equal to that ,
of the solid plate. * It will also be observed that the rivets
in the bent joints are in tension as well as in shear, and if
their heads are too small they are sometimes pulled off in
testing the joint.
TABLE XIII. Experiments showing the Reduction of Unit-strength of
the Plates in Single-riveted Lap joints compared with their original
Unit-strength before Perforation.
Ratio of tensile
unit-strength
of net area of
plate in the
joint to the
unit-strength
of the original
solid plate.
Experimenter.
Remarks.
per cent.
71
Stoney
f in. plates and five f in. rivets,
hand riveted.
J
95
Do. do.
,4
101
1
Do. do.
"d
o
3
76
I
Do. do.
2
100-5
9*
Oi
Do. do.
1
00
m
86
oT
S-Tn
1
Do. do.
."s
Of)
99
M
Do. do.
84
,
Greig & Eyth
f in. plates and four in. rivets,
steam riveted.
97
f in. plates and four f in. rivets.
79
Stoney
| in. plates and five f in. rivets,
hand riveted.
J
65
.
Do. do.
rt
96
h
Do. do.
1
92
Do. do.
^
> 6i
P<
75
^*
5>
Do. do.
rM
oT
S
bo
^
78
I
Do. do.
03
B
fl
*o
76
^
Do. do..
1-5
75-5
Greig & Eyth
| in. plates and four f in. rivets,
steam riveted.
* Fairbairn's Useful Information for Engineers, 1st Series, p. 283.
28 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
7. Single-riveted Lap joints Reduction of Unit-strength
of Plate Efficiency of Joints. Table XIII. contains the
results of 14 experiments by the author, and 3 by Messrs.
Greig and Eyth, on single-riveted lap-joints of fairly good
proportions.*
.Reducing these results to a simple standard, we have
Tensile unit-strength of the solid plate, - - 100
,, of the plate remaining between
the holes in single-riveted lap
joint with drilled holes, - 90
,, ditto with punched holes, - 80
We thus see that from the mechanical treatment i.e.,
drilling or punching and from the joints bending under
severe stress, the iron which remains between the holes in a
single-riveted lap joint with -inch plates of fair proportions
loses 10 per cent, of its original unit-strength when the holes
are drilled, and 20 per cent, when they are punched. This
result agrees closely with Fairbairn's conclusion, from his
experiments on thinner punched plates, that the unit-strength
of the iron between the holes of single-riveted joints is 79
per cent, of that of the original plate.f To obtain the actual
strength of the joint we must make a farther reduction for
tho metal cut out by the holes, which reduces the strength
of the joint to little more than one-half of the foregoing
percentages, as shown by the following abstract, which has
been derived from experiments by the author and others on
well-proportioned single-riveted lap joints in which the tensile
strength of the plates and the shearing strength of the rivets
were pretty fairly balanced :J
* Trans. Roy. I. A., Vol. XXV., p. 451, and Proc. Inst. M. E., 1879, p. 297.
+ Useful Information for Engineers, 1st Series, p. 283.
J Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, pp. 340, 341 ; Trans. Roy. I. A., Vol. XXV,
p. 451.
OF KIVETED JOINTS.
TABLE XIV. Experiments showing the Efficiency of Single-riveted
Lap joints in percentages of the strength of the original solid plate.
PUNCHED HOLES.
DRILLED HOLES.
Experimenter.
Efficiency
of joint,
?per cent.
Broken by rivets
shearing or by
plates tearing.
Experimenter.
Efficiency
of joint,
per cent.
Broken by rivets
shearing or by
plates tearing.
Fairbairn -
46
Plates torn -
Stoney, |-in.
45
Plates torn.
plates.
N
46
n
pi
55
n
44
H
50
M
44
Rivets sheared
44
H
Kirkaldy -
54
Plates torn
H
50
M
Stoney, f -in.
50
M
?J
50
M
plates.
11
44
44
II
M
47
II
46
Rivets sheared.
45
50
M
45
Greig&Eyth
50-4
Plates torn.
47
It
n
46-5
ii
n
37
n
H
50-8
n
38
Rivets sheared
,,
53-9
Rivets sheared.
j
46
H
57-6
Greig&Eyth
40.6
Plates torn -
*
Mean, 44-9
Mean, 49-5
The efficiency of a joint is the ratio of the strength of the
joint to the strength of an equal width of solid plate, and
from the foregoing table we may infer that the average
efficiency of single-riveted lap joints, with f-inch iron plates
and with drilled holes, does not exceed 50 per cent, of the solid
plate, and that with punched holes it does not exceed 45 per
cent, of the solid plate. This view is strengthened by the
following table, showing the calculated efficiency of single-
riveted lap joints of ordinary boilermakers' proportions.
30
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
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OF RIVETED JOINTS. 31
The table has been calculated from the following data, which
are based on the experiments and deductions already described
in this paper :
1. The holes are punched.
2. The shearing strength of rivets = 19 tons per sq. inch.
3. The tensile strength of the solid plate = 22*5 tons per
square inch.
4. The tensile strength of the plate between the holes, in
consequence of punching and bending, in a single-
riveted lap joint = 80 per cent, of the tensile strength
of the solid plate, = 18 tons per square inch.
In the experiments in Table XIV. on single-riveted lap
joints the difference of strength in favour of drilled over
punched work is about 10 per cent. x>f the latter; but experi-
ments are still wanting to show what is the corresponding
difference in double-riveted lap joints or double-covered butt
joints. In these latter the relative advantage derived from
drilling is probably less than in single-riveted lap joints, in
consequence of the pitch of the rivets being wider.
8. Double-riveted Lap joints. The unit-strength of the
plate in a double-riveted is considerably higher than in a
single-riveted lap joint, in consequence of there being fewer
perforations in each transverse row of rivets, and also in
consequence of the double rows keeping the joint from
bending through so great an angle as the single-riveted joint,
and the average efficiency of double-riveted lap joints, with
iron plates not exceeding"^ inch in thickness and designed
for strength (not for steam-tightness), is probably about 60
per cent, of that of the solid^ plate, as shown by the experi-
ments in Table XVI. :
32
THE STEENGTH AND PROPOKTIONS
TABLE XVI. Experiments on Efficicwy of Double-riveted Lap joints.
Mode of
riveting.
Punched
or
Drilled.
Efficiency of
joint i.e.,
ratio of
strength of
joint to that
of solid plate
of same width.
Remarks.
Experi-
menter.
Authority.
Punched
per cent.
58 to 60
Fairbairn
Unwin.
Proc. I. M. E.,
3881, p. 345.
60-3
Plates mostly
4", and rivets
1" to 1".
Mean of 10
experiments.
Kirkaldy
Longridge.
Engineer, Feb.,
1877.
Machine
53-8
Kirkaldy
Fletcher.
Proc. I. M. E.,
1881, p. 275.
Machine
64-5
Kirkaldy
Moberly.
(Communicated.)
Machine
Punched
60
Mean of 3
experiments.
Unwin.
Proc. I. M. E.,
1881, pp. 345, 346.
Machine
Punched
62-8
Kirkaldy
Unwin.
Proc. I. M. E.>
1881, p. 345.
Drilled
61-9
Plates |", and
rivets f "
and f".
Mean of 2
experiments.
Greig & Eyth.
Proc. I. M. E.,
1879, p. 297.
The efficiency of double-riveted lap joints with thick iron
plates, however, probably does not exceed 55 per cent, of the
strength of the solid plate.
9. Butt joints Crushing Pressure of Rivets. Single-covered
butt joints, with covers of the same thickness as the plates,
are merely modifications of lap joints, and the few experi-
ments on the subject indicate that their efficiency is nearly,
but not quite, the same as that of similarly riveted lap joints.
If, however, the cover of a single-covered butt joint be made a
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 33
good deal thicker than the plate, the bending of the joint will
be restrained by the stiffness of the cover, and the strength
of the joint will be somewhat increased. The Board of Trade
rules for marine boilers specify that, " when single butt-straps
are used and the rivet holes in them punched, they must be
one-eighth thicker than the plates they cover," and that when
double butt-straps are used they should be at least f ths the
thickness of the plates they cover. Professor Unwin states
that in some experiments butt-straps of equal thickness with,
the plates proved weaker than the latter, and he recommends
that single butt-strips should be made 1J- times the thickness
of the plate and double butt-straps, each f ths of the thick-
ness of the plate.* Mr. T. Aveling, who has had much
experience in boiler-making, states that when the strap for
butt joints with single covers was made 25 per cent, thicker
than the boiler plate itself, that would be found to be the
best method of forming the longitudinal seams, as well as of
coupling the rings of the boiler together, f In double-covered
butt joints the rivets are in double shear, and the bearing
pressure of each rivet against the central plate is twice as
great as in a lap joint, provided the shearing unit-stress of
the rivet be the same in both cases. In lap joints this bearing
pressure rarely exceeds 30 tons per square inch when the
joint is tested to fracture that is, assuming that the pres-
sure is uniformly distributed over the bearing surface, which
in reality is not the case on account of the bending of
the joint (see 6), and there seems some reason for supposing
that when the bearing pressure of a rivet in single shear
much exceeds this, the tenacity of the plate is reduced.^
There is also reason for supposing that when the bearing
pressure of a rivet in double shear that is, its bear-
* TJnwin's Machine design, p. 87-
fProc. Inst. M. E., 1879, p. 315.
Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 333. Trans. Koy. I. A., Vol XXV., p. 453.
C
34 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
ing pressure against the middle plate of a double-covered
butt joint, exceeds 40 tons at the crisis of fracture, the
tenacity of the plate is somewhat reduced, and Professor
Kennedy concludes from his experiments that the shearing
strength of rivets is also reduced by severe bearing pressure.
However this may be, the efficiency of a well-proportioned
single-riveted butt joint with double covers is, judging from
the few experiments on the subject, somewhat less than that
of a double-riveted lap joint say 55 per cent, of the strength
of the solid plate, and that only when the rivets are pitched
so that the joint will break indifferently by shearing the rivets
or tearing the plate. The efficiency of double-riveted and
double-covered butt joints, if well proportioned, may probably
be calculated at about 66 per cent, of the strength of the solid
plate, unless the plates exceed f inch in thickness, when the
efficiency of the joint will be somewhat less. The joints in the
tension flanges and tension bracing of girders are generally
triple or quadruple-riveted, and the transverse pitch of the
rivets generally ranges from 3 to 6 inches, so that the
efficiency of the joints varies according to the design ; but it
can scarcely exceed 80 per cent, of the strength of the solid
plate, and hence it happens in girder-work that the increased
width of flange in consequence of the rivet holes adds seldom
less than 20 per cent., and sometimes much more, to the
theoretic weight of a tension flange that is, its weight calcu-
lated on the imaginary hypothesis that it is made of solid
iron without joints or perforations. As the covers are gene-
rally triple or quadruple-riveted, their length is considerable,
and their weight forms an important addition, in many cases
over 12 per cent., to that of the theoretic solid flange.
10. Contraction of Rivets and resulting Friction of Plates.
Rivets contract in cooling and draw the plates together with
such force that the friction produced between their surfaces
is generally sufficient to prevent them from sliding over each
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 35
other so long as the stress lies within limits which are not
exceeded in ordinary practice, and in this case the rivets are
not subject to shearing stress. From experiments made
during the construction of the Britannia Tubular bridge it
appears that the amount of this friction is rather variable.*
In one experiment, with a J-inch rivet passing through three
plates, and therefore in double shear, it amounted to 5' 6 tons,
in another, with a J-inch rivet and two plates lap-jointed, with
-j^-inch washers next the rivet heads, it reached 4'73 tons,
while in a third experiment, with three plates and J-inch
rivet, with ^-inch washers next the rivet heads, making the
shank of the rivet 2J- inch long, the middle plate supported
7*94 tons before it slipped. In these experiments the hole
in one or both plates was oval, and the slipping took place
suddenly. In subsequent experiments made by the Admi-
ralty,! one plate was riveted between two others, and
the friction with J-inch plates and f-inch rivets amounted
to 4*6 tons per rivet, and with -J plates and 1-inch rivets, it
amounted to 5'6 tons per rivet. In these experiments, rivets
with pan heads and conical points had the advantage over
snap points, and countersunk riveting caused much less friction
than other systems. This agrees with the author's experience,
and Hutchinson also says it is well known among practical
boiler makers that iron rivets finished with a cup-shaped snap
are not so tight as those hammered until they are nearly cold,
and finished off without the use of the snap.J Later Admi-
ralty experiments, however, made at Pembroke Dockyard
with steel rivets, do not agree with the above, for they showed
" that on the whole the friction is greatest for the counter-
sunk rivets." In Professor Kennedy's experiments on f-inch
* Clark's Tubular Bridges, p. 393.
f Wilson on Steam Boilers, p. 58.
\ Hutchinson's Girder-making, p. 62.
Wildish, Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885, p. 190.
36 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
steel plates, 11 inches wide, lap-jointed and single-riveted with
seven f-inch steel rivets and hand-riveted, the mean at which
visible slipping occurred was about 23*5 per cent, of the
breaking load of the joint, but in some cases it was visible
very much sooner than this ;* and other experiments by Prof.
Kennedy on double-riveted steel joints, and some made by the
Admiralty officials also,| indicate that the friction of joints
made with machine riveting is much greater than that of
joints made with hand riveting. Thus, in Professor Kennedy's
experiments the friction of double-riveted steel joints made
with hydraulic riveting varied from 34 to 57 per cent, of the
breaking load, and was nearly double that of similar joints
made with hand riveting. J The hammers used in his experi-
ments, however, were rather light only 4 Ibs. weight, and
steel rivets require heavier hammers than iron rivets, in
order to knock them down quickly and finish the points
before they become black. For instance, 8 Ib. hammers are
used for hand riveting in the ship yard of Messrs. Harland and
Wolff. Notwithstanding the lightness of his hammers, the
ultimate strength of the hand-riveted steel joints in Pro-
fessor Kennedy's experiments was quite as great as that of
joints hydraulic-ally riveted. The friction of the plates is an
important factor in the staunchness of boilers and, as it is
usual to test them hydraulically to double their working
pressure, the joints should be designed so that this water
test, as well as the expansion and contraction due to
changes of temperature, will not cause the joints to slip.
Though the friction of riveted plates may be sufficient to
convey the normal working load without subjecting the rivets
to a shearing stress, it does not follow, nor do experiments
indicate, that the ultimate strength of a riveted joint is
*Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, p. 228.
f Wildish, Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885, p. 190.
J Proc. Inst. M. E., 1885.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 37
increased by this friction. On this subject the following
instructive remarks occur in the memorandum issued by the
Board of Trade for the use of their surveyors in connection
with steel riveting:*
" It has been usual in some quarters when considering the
ultimate stress borne by riveted joints to attribute considerable
importance to the friction between the plates caused by the
force with which they are held together by the rivets.
Whatever value may justly be attached to this at the ordinary
working stress, an inspection of the riveted joint when being
tested to destruction effectually dispels all idea of the ultimate
stress being in the slightest degree affected by it, owing to
the extent to which the joint gapes, as shown in the annexed
sketch :
C /D
" It is interesting to note that the higher the stress sus-
tained, as in the case of riveted joints with drilled holes, the
greater the amount of opening is observed at A. In the case
of some 1-inch treble-riveted lap-joints which have been tested
for the Board of Trade, the opening has in some cases been
as much as T 5 g-inch. It is scarcely necessary to insist upon
the fact that under such conditions the ultimate stress of the
material either at C or D, where fracture occurs, cannot be
increased by any amount of friction which existed at the time
f construction. It may not be amiss to remark that even in
the case of riveted joints fitted with double butt-straps the
bending of the rivets causes the butt-straps to open, and
apparently destroys all friction between the plates and butt-
straps." When several plates are riveted together with
numerous rivets, as in the piled flanges of girders, this slipping
*Merchant Shipping Experiments on Steel, p. 32.
38 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
does not occur, for Mr. Baker experimented on two wrought-
iron girders, with 5 and 8 plates respectively in their flanges,
each of 20 feet span and 2 feet deep, which he tested to
failure.* There was no movement in the rivets, and the pile
of plates behaved almost like a welded mass of iron, and
Mr. Baker states " that he had invariably found that badly
punched girders, with the holes partly blind and the rivets
tight but not filling the holes, deflected neither more nor less
than the most accurately drilled work."
11. Bearing Area of Iron Rivets. Fox's experiments on
the eye -bars of suspension bridges indicate that the bar will
tear across the eye when the bearing pressure of the pin
reaches 40 tons per square inch ; t but, as already stated, there
seems some evidence to show that when the crushing pres-
sure of a rivet in single shear, that is, its pressure against
the plate in a lap joint, exceeds 30 tons per square inch, it
reduces the tenacity of the plate ; and this, if correct, places
a superior limit to the proper diameter of rivets, for when the
thickness of the plate remains constant, the shearing area of
the rivets increases much faster than their bearing area.J
Latham says " If one-inch rivets in half-inch plates be
subjected to a calculated average testing stress of 7 tons to
the square inch of effective bearing area, some will be found
marked by the plates cutting them in a few days," and he
adopts 5 tons per square inch of bearing surface as the safe
working pressure of rivets against plates. It seems probable,,
however, as Professor Unwin suggests, || that some of the
rivets in Latham's experiments bore at first harder than the
others, and that a minute yielding of one or two rivets merely
* Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXT., p. 194.
f Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XIV, p. 139.
J The bearing area of a rivet is measured by the product of its diameter by
the thickness of the plate against which it bears.
Latham on Bridges, pp. 18, 24.
H Un win's Iron Bridges, p. 105.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 39
brought the rest to a bearing, thus equalising the stress
throughout the joint, for Fairbairn's experiments for the Iron
Plate Committee show that iron plates are not indented with a
less pressure than 11 tons per square inch,* and in later experi-
ments by Tangye no impression was made on Low Moor iron
by a pressure of 20 tons per square inch.f Latham's rule for
bearing pressure agrees closely with the usual American practice
with pinned girders, as engineers in the United States generally
limit the bearing pressure of wrought-iron pins in eye-bars
to from 10,000 to 12,000 Ibs. (4*46 to 5'36 tons) per square
inch on the projected area of the pin. J American engineers,
however, frequently adopt a much lower shearing stress for
rivets than is usual in English practice, for they often limit
the shearing stress of rivets to from 6,000 to 6,500 Ibs. (2*68
to 2*9 tons) per square inch, with the same bearing pressure
as they allow for pins. Other American engineers, however,
follow English practice closely, and specify that the area
of rivets shall not be less than the sectional area of the
joined pieces, || and Shaler Smith adopts 4'46 tons per square
inch for the shearing stress of pins, bolts, and rivets.^f
When a rivet is in double shear, the bearing pressure is
frequently much greater than Latham's rule allows, unless,
indeed, the friction of the plates prevents this bearing pres-
sure from coming into action. If, for example, a butt-joint
be made by riveting f -inch plates between double covers with
rivets exactly |-inch in diameter, the rivet shearing area on
each side of the central plate = 0'44 square inches, and its
* Unwin's Iron Bridges, p. 103.
f Clark's Manual of Rules for Engineers, p. 582.
JProc. Inst. C. E., VoL LIV., p. 197, and Bender on Pins used in Bridges,
p. 15.
Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXXVIL, p. 263 ; Thurston's Materials of Eng.,
Part II., p. 641 ; and Dubois' Strains on Framed Structures, p. 376.
|| Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LIV., p. 197.
IT Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1880, p. 139.
40 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
bearing area against the central plate = j" X f " = 0*28
square inches nearly. Consequently Latham's rule would
permit a working pressure of only 5 X 0*28 = 1/4 tons,
whereas the working stress (calculated from the shearing area
according to the usual English limit of 4*5 tons shearing stress
per square inch in single shear and If times as much in.
double shear) = 0'44 x 1*75 X 4'5 = 3-46 tons, or more than
twice what Latham's rule allows. The bearing pressure of the
links of a common chain against each other often far exceeds
the bearing pressure of rivets by any of the foregoing rules.
12. Strength of Iron Rivets in Tension. Rivets are sometimes
used for supporting weights, or for holding pieces together
by their heads and points, in which case the rivets are subject
to tensile in place of shearing stress, and their strength depends
on the force required to pull off the rivet heads. In some
experiments made by the author with f-inch iron rivets with
pan heads and hand-made snap points in punched holes, the
heads or points flew off with an average pull of 7 tons per
rivet, or 12*32 tons per square inch of rivet area, and he
adopts a factor of safety of 5 for this class of work in girders.
Shaler Smith limits the stress on rivets in tension to 2*23
tons per square inch.*
13. Efficiency of riveted Iron Joints. The following is a
summary of the conclusions already formed respecting the
efficiency of riveted joints with iron plates varying from -^
to | inch in thickness. With thicker plates the efficiency will
probably be much less. Calling the total tensile strength of
the original solid plate 100, the efficiency of various joints are
as follows, and that only, provided the pitch of the riveting
is so arranged that the joint is on the point of giving way
from the tearing of the plate or the shearing of the rivets
indifferently. Otherwise from 10 to 20 per cent, may be
taken off the percentage of efficiency given in the table. It
* Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1880, p. 139.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 41
will also be recollected that the covers of single-covered butt
joints should be thicker than the plates they connect ( 9).
TABLE XVII. Relative Efficiency of Iron Joints of various kinds.
Efficiency, per cent.
Original solid plate, 100
Lap joint, single -riveted, punched, 45
Do. do. drilled, 50
Do. double-riveted, - 60
Butt joint, single cover, single-riveted, - 45 to 50
Do. do. double-riveted, - 60
Do. double cover, single-riveted, - 55
Do. do. double-riveted, - -66
Tension flanges of girders, triple or quadruple riveted, - 70 to 80
Future experiments may modify the foregoing percentages,
which have been deduced from experiments by various persons
differing widely in their individual results.
Ex. What is the strength per running inch of a single -riveted lap joint with
4 inch plates and punched holes if the tensile strength of the iron is 21 tons
per square inch ? Here the tensile strength of the solid plate is 10 '5 tons per
running inch, and we have,
Answer. Strength of joint per inch run = '45 X 10'5 = 4'7 tons, of which, if
a marine boiler, one-fifth, = 0'94 tons, will be the safe working stress.
14. Theoretic Proportions of Joints. The theoretic pro-
portions of riveted joints may be found as follows:
Let d the diameter of the rivet hole in inches,
t = the thickness of the plate in inches,
p = the transverse pitch in inches,
/ = the tensile strength per square inch of the net
plate area between the holes,
s = the shearing strength per square inch of the rivet's
section in single shear,
c = the crippling pressure per square inch of the rivet
against the plate i.e., the pressure of the rivet
that reduces the capacity of the rivet to resist
shearing or that of the plate to resist tearing
(see 9 and 11).
42 THE STKENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
(a). To find the theoretic diameter of a rivet in single or
in double shear. Equate the crippling pressure of the rivet
to its shearing strength as follows :
For single shear, cdt = *7S54d 2 s,
whence, d = -* and ^ = -=JU- (3)
*7854s t '7854s
Ex. 1. What is the theoretic diameter of the rivet hole in a inch punched
iron plate in a lap joint, either single or double riveted ?
Here, c = 30 tons per square inch (see 9),
t = % inch,
s = 19 tons per square inch for punched holes (see p. 9).
d = = = H>06 inches.
For double shear, the shearing strength of an iron rivet
1*75 times that in single shear (p. 10), and we have
cdt = 1-75 X '7854d 2 s
Whenc6 ' rf = 1.75X. 7854.
Ex. 2. What is the theoretic diameter of the rivet hole in a inch punched
iron plate in a butt joint with double covers ?
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 9),
t = % inch,
s = 19 tons per square inch for punched holes.
= . 77 inches.
(b). To find the theoretic pitch in single-riveted joints,
either in single or double shear. Equate the crippling pres-
sure of one rivet to the tearing strength of the net plate area
between two holes as follows :
cdt = ft (p d)
whence, p = C -^ d and 2 = ^ (5)
Aliter.
Equate the shearing strength of one rivet to the tearing
strength of the net plate area between two holes, as follows :
OF KI VEXED JOINTS. 43
For single shear, '7854d 2 s = ft (p d)
, ,~
whence, p = ~ ' (b)
For double shear, 1-75 X '7854d 2 s -ft (p - d)
l-374d a a + /fcZ / 7 \
whence, p = - , ' <7 (<)
ft
Ex. 3. What is the theoretic pitch for a inch punched iron plate in a
single-riveted lap joint, the tensile strength of the solid plate being 22 tons per
square inch, but reduced 20 per cent, by punching and the bending of the
joint ? (see 7.)
Here, e = 30 tons per square inch (see 9),
t = \ inch,
d = 1 inch (see ex. 1),
s = 19 tons per square inch for punched holes,
/= 0-8 X 22 tons = 17'6 tons per square inch (see 7).
Answer (eq. 5). p = C ~^d = 3 +^ 7 ' 6 = 27 inches.
^,(eq.6). Answer. p = ^^ + ftdj'l^ X 19) + qy-6 X -5) =2 . y ^
jt 17 D X
Ex. 4. What is the theoretic pitch for a ^ inch punched iron plate in a
single -riveted butt joint with double covers, the tensile strength of the solid
plate being 22 tons per square inch, but reduced by punching to 20 tons per
square inch in the perforated plate ?
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 9),
t = % inch,
d = '77 inches (see ex. 2),
s = 19 tons per square inch for punched holes,
/= 20 tons per square inch.
Answer (eq. 5). p = C -? d = ^^ X '77 = 2-3 inches.
Aliter(ec. L .7). Answer. p=s
(1-374 X 77| 2 X 19) + (20 X -5x77) =g . 31 incheg
20 X '5
(c). To find the theoretic pitch in double-riveted joints,
either in single or double shear. Equate the crippling pres-
sure of two rivets to the tearing strength of the net plate area
between two holes as follows :
whence, p = d and = (8)
44 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
Aliter.
Equate the shearing strength of two rivets to the tearing
strength of the net plate area between two holes, as follows :
For single shear, 2 X '7854
jj
jj
1
grain
21-84
23-59
I
jj
>j
29-97
2912
1663
35-01
17-29
36-18
jj
jj
1
24-31
39-64
Plates Landore SS steel.
Rivets Landore mild
jj
>j
3
29-91
29-03
22-01
35-83
rivet steel. The shear-
ing strength of the
jj
-
"
21-37
3518
/ rivet steel by direct
experiment varied from
jj
7
jj
29-33
5J
21-46
33-17
23-4 to 26'63 tons per
square inch (see table
jj
jj
jj
*
JJ
18-23
31-00
XVIIL).
jj
jj
jj
jj
JJ
22-84
33-46
jj
jj
jj
jj
jj
JJ
22-08
35-56
jj
jj
jj
M
JJ
20-62
3170
jj
jj
jj
-
'
JJ
2209
39-71
t
Mean
21 "03, or 22 "02 omitting experiments 4, 5
and 10, in which the steel seems excep-
tionally soft.
This table seems to indicate that the shearing strength of
large-sized steel rivets (1 inch and upwards) is somewhat less
than that of smaller sizes. In experiments mad6 at Pembroke
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, pp. 248, 251, 254, 256, 717.
48 THE STKENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
Dockyard, the shearing strengths of f , |, and 1-inch rivets
were substantially in proportion to their respective areas.*
Comparing Tables XIX. and XX., we find that the shearing
strength of steel rivets in drilled holes is less than in punched
holes, in this respect agreeing with iron rivets. It would be
desirable, however, to repeat the experiments with the same
rivet steel in both punched and drilled holes, as the shearing
strengths of different specimens of rivet steel vary greatly.
Professor Kennedy found that the size of the rivet heads
and points played a most important part in the strength of
single-riveted lap joints, an increase of about one-third in
the weight of the rivets, going to the heads and points,
increasing their shearing strength in some of his experiments
from a little over 20 tons to over 22 tons per square inch.
This additional strength he attributes to the prevention of
so great tensile stress in the rivets through distortion of the
plates.f Mr. Webb also likes to have deep heads to the rivets
in locomotive steam boilers, so that they should not give way,
or curl up round the edge. Mr. Moberly tried some experi-
ments on single-riveted lap joints made with punched curved
plates, similar to the ring seams of a boiler, and he found
that the curvature greatly prevented the bending of the joint
and increased the shearing strength of the rivets from 23-28
to 24 tons, that is about 3 per cent. if
Table XXI. contains the results of experiments made for
Lloyd's Committee and described by Mr. Martell, and others
made by Kirkaldy for Mr. Moberly, on double-riveted lap
joints with punched holes, and it will be observed that both
the tensile and shearing strengths of the rivets in Mr.
Moberly 's experiments were above their average strengths
in the other tables.
* Wildish, Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885, pp. 187, 189.
t Proc. Inst. M. E., 1885.
J Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXIX., p. 353.
OF RIVETED JOINTS.
49
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Table XXII. contains the results of various experiments
on double and triple-riveted lap joints with drilled holes, and
it corroborates the inference that the shearing strength of
large-sized steel rivets is slightly less than that of smaller
sizes. It also proves that the shearing strength of rivet
steel varies greatly.
50
THE STRENGTH AND PKOPORTIONS
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OF KIVETED JOINTS.
67
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68
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
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OF EIVETED JOINTS.
69
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p be the straight pitch and d the diameter of the rivet-hole.
To find the proper breadth of lap for a double-riveted joint,
it is probably best to proceed by first setting this pitch off,
and then finding from it the longitudinal pitch, or distance
between the centres of the lines of rivets."*
20. Friction of Steel Joints and Slip of Plates. The
friction of two plates held together by a single rivet is
theoretically nearly equal to the contractile strength of the
rivet multiplied by the coefficient of friction of one plate
pressing on another, and in a joint it is theoretically pro-
portional to the sectional area of the rivets in the joint.
From experiments made by the author, the coefficient of
friction for ordinary steel plates pressing on each other is
about 0'6, and it has been shown in 12 that the contractile
strength of hand-made (nominal) f-inch iron rivets does not
exceed 7 tons per rivet, or 12-32 tons per square inch of rivet
area, as this stress will pull the heads off. Consequently, the
theoretic friction of two steel plates held together by a f-inch
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1885.
OF RIVETED JOINTS- 75
iron rivet cannot much exceed O6 X 7 = 4*2 tons, or say 7- 4
tons per square inch of rivet area. Sir E. Reed describes
some experiments in which one plate was single-riveted with
3 rivets in a row between two other plates, so that the rivets
were in double shear, and both sides of the middle plate were
thus subject to friction against the covers. With iron plates
and iron rivets slipping took place at a mean pull of 4*6 and
5'6 tons per rivet for f-inch and 1-inch rivets respectively.
With corresponding steel plates and steel rivets slipping took
place at mean pulls of 4-1 and 5*5 tons respectively for f-inch
and 1-inch rivets, or with very slightly less friction than with
the iron.* Mr. Wildish describes later experiments with
steel rivets and steel plates made at Pembroke Dockyard, the
middle plate being riveted as before with 3 rivets in a row
between two other plates, so that the rivets were again in
double shear. The 1-inch rivets were used in J-inch steel
plates and the | inch rivets in -|-inch plates. The following
mean frictional resistances per rivet were obtained with hand
riveting :
1-in. rivet. |-in. rivet,
tons. tons.
With snap head and point, - - 6*4 4*72
With pan head and boiler point, - 7'36 4'52
With pan head and countersunk point, 8*55 6*25
With countersunk head and point, - 9 '04 4*95
These results are not in proportion to the sectional area of the
rivets, but they indicate that on the whole the friction is
greatest for the countersunk rivets, in this respect differing
from the earlier Admiralty experiments, in which countersunk
rivets caused less friction than rivets with pan heads and
conical points (see 10). Some other experiments were
made with machine riveting with snap heads and points,
and the mean friction per rivet was 9 '6 tons for the 1-inch
* Wilson on steam boilers, p. 58.
76
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
rivets and 5*9 tons for the f -inch rivets, or a good deal higher
than for the corresponding "hand" rivets with snap heads
and points, but very little superior to "hand" rivets with
countersunk heads and points.*
It might be supposed that the friction per rivet of double-
covered butt joints would be nearly twice as great as that of
corresponding lap joints, but this does not appear to have been
the case in Professor Kennedy's experiments, in several of
which the friction per rivet in the butt joints scarcely exceeded
that in the corresponding lap joints, and in others it was about
one-third greater, and he gives the following approximate
table, derived from his experiments with steel rivets and
drilled steel plates, of the loads per rivet at which a joint will
commence to slip visibly, and he adds the following rule :
" To find the probable load at which a joint of any breadth
will commence to slip, it is only necessary to multiply the
number of rivets in the given breadth by the proper figure
taken from the last column of the table. It will be under-
stood that the figures are not given as exact." f
TABLE XXXVII. Approximate Loads per rivet at which a joint will
commence to slip visibly (Kennedy).
Rivet diameter.
Type of joint.
Riveting.
Slipping load
per rivet.
inch.
tons.
3
4
Single-riveted,
Hand,
2'5
Double-riveted,
n
3-0 to 3-5
>
j>
Machine,
7
1
Single-riveted,
Hand,
3-2
Double-riveted,
4-3
>
Machine,
8 to 10
* Wildish, Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885, p. 190.
+ Proc. Inst. M. E., 1885.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 77
It will be observed in Professor Kennedy's experiments
that the friction with machine riveting was twice as great as
with hand riveting, and this friction, as has been already
mentioned in 10, is an important factor in the staunchness
of boilers, the working and proof stresses of which should,
whenever practicable, not exceed the stress at which incipient
slipping of the joint occurs.
21. Bearing Pressure of Rivets. In Professor Kennedy's
experiments on single-riveted lap joints with bearing pressures
of 50 to 55 tons per square inch the rivets sheared in most
cases at stresses varying from 16 to 18 tons per square inch,
and he concludes that the bearing pressure in lap joints should
probably not exceed 42 to 43 tons per square inch, and that
in double-covered butt joints a pressure of from 45 to 50 tons
will cause shearing to take place at from 16 to 18 tons per
square inch. High bearing pressure also seemed to have
prevented the full excess tenacity of the drilled plate (of 10
to 12 per cent.) from being reached, although it did not
actually weaken the plate below its normal resistance.*
Mr. Moberly states that in his experiments " the bearing
pressure per square inch of surface on the rivets varied
a good deal, and it does not appear to have borne any
relation to the shearing of the rivets, or to the yielding of
the joint in any other way. As far as these experiments go,
it appears that it may reach 50 tons per square inch at the
moment of fracture." t Perhaps we may adopt provisionally
as standard crippling pressures for steel rivets 40 tons per
square inch for lap joints, and 50 tons for the middle plate of
double-covered butt joints, inasmuch as the bearing pressure
of the rivet against the middle plate in the butt is evidently
more uniformly distributed than it is in a lap joint which
bends under severe stress.
* Proc. Inst. M. E. 1885.
f Proc. Inst. C. E. Vol. LXXIL, p. 241.
78
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
22. Efficiency of Steel Joints. The following table gives
the estimated efficiency of steel joints, deduced chiefly from
the experiments described in the previous pages, and which
were made by Kirkaldy for the Board of Trade and for Mr.
Moberly, and by Professor Kennedy for the Research Com-
mittee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Calling
the total tensile strength of the original solid plate 100, the
approximate efficiency of various joints are as follows, provided
the pitch of the riveting is such that the joint is on the point
of giving way from the tearing of the plates or the shearing
of the rivets indifferently, and provided that the punched
plates are as mild and ductile as those made by the Landore
Siemens Steel Company, and provided that in double riveting
the longitudinal pitch is sufficient to prevent the plates
tearing along a zigzag line.
TABLE XXXVIII. Approximate Efficiency of steel joints of various
kinds compared with that of the solid plate (=. 100).
Efficiency per cent.
Thickness of plates.
inch.
|to|
inch.
fttQf
inch,
ftol
Original solid plate,
100
100
100
Lap joint, single-riveted, punched,
50
45
40
Do. do. drilled, -
55
50
45
Do. double-riveted, punched,
75
70
65
Do. do. drilled,
80
75
70
Butt joint, double-covered, double-riveted, punched,
75
70
65
Do. do. do. drilled, -
80
75
70
Future experiments may modify the foregoing percentages,
and it will be recollected that extra soft rivet steel will
seriously reduce the efficiency of a joint whose proportions
OF EIVETED JOINTS.
79
are based on the supposition that its shearing strength is up
to the usual standard, and that in the commoner kinds of
steel, such as those used in girderwork and shipbuilding, the
excess strength due to drilling is less likely to be attained
than with boiler plates, and the efficiency of joints with such
plates will probably be (say 10 per cent.) less than those
given in the table.
23. Proportions of Joints Boilermaker^ Practice Ship-
builders' Practice Girderwork. The author is indebted to
Mr. Moberly for the following tables of the proportions he
adopts for the riveting of steel boilers at the Engineering
Works of Messrs. Easton and Anderson at Erith, the holes
being punched and the plates not, annealed after punching,
and he has added in each table the efficiency he calculates for
the joints thus proportioned.
Let d diameter of rivet,
d = diameter of punch,
t = thickness of plate,
p = pitch of rivets transversely,
m = pitch of rivets longitudinally, that is, distance
apart of transverse pitch lines in double-riveted
joints,
L =. lap of plates,
d 1 + > = diameter of die.
o
80
THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
TABLE XXXIX. Proportions of single-riveted lap joints for steel
boilers (Moberly).
-
1st series for maximum strength.
2nd series with d= 2 1 (generally).
Thick-
ness of
plates.
d
4
P
*
Calculated
efficiency.
d
tf,
P
z
Calculated
efficiency.
inch.
in.
inch.
inch.
inch.
per cent.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
percent.
A
T'a
.47
i|
1ft
60-0
f
4
I
1
55-5
*
A
61
1 T 7 6
1*
59-3
i
54
ift
ift
55-9
ft
I
81
2
2ft
60-0
f
68
i*
if
54-4
1
*
94
2ft
2f
59-5
3
4
81
i
2
54-8
ft
1
1-06
2|
2*
58-0
1
94
2i 3 a
2^
54-8
i
1J
1-19
3
3
56-7
1
1-06
21
2f
537
ft
u
1-315
*ft
31
53-5
1ft
112
M
2|
50-6
N.B. 1st series should be generally used, except for circular seams of
boilers with horizontal double-riveted lap joints, for which use 2nd series.
TABLE XL. Proportions of double-riveted lap joints for steel boilers
(Moberly).
Thickness of
plates.
d
rfl
P
w
Z
Calculated
efficiency.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
per cent.
ft
I
4
14
i
2i
74-4
i
i
54
2
IlV
H
76-0
tV
1
68
2|
H
H
74-0
i
I
81
3
if
**
74-4
^6
t
94
N
2
4}
71-8
i
1
1-06
4
2A
5^
69-8
1\
liV
1-12
*i
21
5|
67-4
OF RIVETED JOINTS.
81
TABLE XLI. Proportions of double-riveted and double-covered butt
joints for steel boilers (Moberly).
Thickness of
Thickness of
plates.
covers.
d
ef,
P
TO
Z
Calculated
efficiency.
Outer.
Inner.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
inch.
per cent.
*
ft
1
68
3
if
78-5
ft
ft
W
tt
74
3*
2
5
777
I
1
1
81
4
2A
51
75-9
r 9 6
ft
ft
H
87
4*
2*
6f
74-0
On these tables Mr. Moberly makes the following obser-
vations : " The tables of proportions here given are calculated
from data furnished by experiments actually made with 2^"
double-riveted, double-covered, butt joints, in 1881,* and with
T V and T y double-riveted lap joints, in 1882.f The plates
were of Landore S quality, with a tensile strength of 30 tons
per square inch, and the strength of the plates in the joints,
between the rivet holes, along the straight line is taken
For tViiplrnpoa nf Wlafo 3 " 1" S '/ 3" 7 If Iff 9 "
H plate, T^ > 4 IF > F > T6" 2 1%
Strength per sq. inch in tons, 32, 32, 31, 31, 30, 29, 28.
The shearing strength of the rivets has been taken at 23 tons
per square inch for single-riveted lap joints, and at 25 tons
per square inch for all others. The diameter of the die is
one-fifth the thickness of the plate greater than the diameter
of the punch i.e., diameter of die = d^ + T As the strength
of the plate in tJie joint varies greatly with its thickness, the
above experiments do not warrant any conclusion as to the
strength of plates over -^g-" thick, and the tables have, therefore,
* Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXIX.
t Idem, Vol. LXXII.
82 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
not been carried above that thickness. If the holes are punched
small and rimered, or drilled out of the solid, the strength cf
the plate in the joint is increased, especially with the thicker
plates, but it is uncertain as yet to what extent. It would
probably have the effect of raising the efficiency of all the
double-riveted lap joints to 75 per cent., and that of all the
double-riveted, double-covered butt joints to 80 per cent.,
and might therefore be worth doing for the thicker plates,
but not for the thinner ones. As the rivets have an excess
of strength in most cases, especially in the thicker plates, the
proportions would probably not require altering for holes thus
punched." It will be observed that in punching steel Mr.
Moberly makes the diameter of the die equal to that of the
punch, plus 20 per cent, of the thickness of the plate, whereas
in punching iron the usual allowance is only 12*5 per cent,
(p. 20). In punching the holes for the Board of Trade's
experiments, already described, the dies were larger than the
punches by about one-fifth of the diameter, this proportion
being adopted as affording a moderate degree of clearance to
the punch.* In the discussion on Professor Kennedy's paper
on riveted joints, at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, in
1885,Mr.Moberly said "that in order to get good riveted joints
the rivet must be properly put in, and must fill the hole when
cold, but as a matter of fact this is really never the case in
consequence of the rivets contracting laterally in cooling.
This is not so much the case with steel rivets, as they are, or
should be, worked at a dull red heat. The practice of his
firm had been originally to work the rivets at a higher tem-
perature, but they found a great advantage in not going
above a dull red. The most perfect joint would be one in
which drilled holes were used and the rivets turned and closed
quite cold." f
* Merch. Ship. Expts. on Steel, p. 18.
t Engineering, May, 1885, p. 524.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. OO
Mr. F. W. Webb, Locomotive Superintendent of the
London and North Western Railway, describes his method
of dealing with steel boiler plates as follows :
" He first punched all the holes by a template machine,
using a large bolster; he then raised the plates just to a
blood-red heat, and put them on one side to cool ; and then
did all the other work cold. When the plates were cold, they
were bent into the proper circle, sponged with sal-ammoniac,
and put together. After the boilers were made, the whole of
the scale was taken off inside with sal-ammoniac and water ;
and as soon as they were dry they were given a coating of
glycerine, if the boiler was likely not to be used at once, in
order that corrosion might not go any further. The small
ends of the two punched holes were put together; and he
liked to have a very deep head for the rivets, so that they
should not give way. Rivet heads were sometimes so flat that
they actually curled up round the edge, and so caused leak-
age. In the longitudinal joints he put the rivets in double
shear by using a thin cover-plate outside and inside. In
that case, and that only, he punched the hole about J smaller
than the finished size, and then put a rimer through the
three thicknesses together, and they came as true as possible.
On this method he was making boilers at the rate of four
every week locomotive boilers working at 140 Ibs. pressure,
and they gave no trouble whatever." Mr. Webb finds that
sponging the two inside surfaces of a joint with hot water and
sal-ammoniac, before putting together, eats off the magnetic
(black) oxide, which, if left on, gets pounded to powder in
the act of riveting, and is thus left in the joint, causing
leakage and corrosion. He also finds that this process saves
in a great measure the necessity of caulking, as his boilers
are practically tight at 160 Ibs. pressure when they come out
of the shop, without anything further being done.* Mr. Webb,
Proc. Inst. M. E., 1881, pp. 261, 263.
84 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
after trying various proportions of rivets and distances apart,
"had arrived at a single-riveted butt joint with double
cover-plate, the dimensions being, for a T 7 ^-inch plate, rivets
j inch diameter, 2-inch pitch, distance from edge of plate
about 1 inch, cover-plates f inch thick, 5 inch wide." The
efficiency of this joint was stated to be 71*6 per cent, of the
strength of the solid plate.*
Mr. Wildish describes the Admiralty practice in the use of
steel for shipbuilding in the following terms : " With regard
to the treatment of the steel plates in working them into the
hull, it may be well to remark that as long ago as 1878 it
was decided not to anneal them after punching, as a means of
making good the injury to the material due to the punching.
All the butt straps, however, to the plating forming an import-
ant feature in the general structural strength, such as the out-
side plating, deck plating, stringers, &c., were ordered to have
the holes drilled in them, or to be annealed after the holes were
punched. The countersunk holes in the outside plating were
at the same time ordered to be punched about Jth of an inch
smaller in diameter than the full size required, the enlarge-
ment of the holes being made in countersinking, which was
to be carried through the whole thickness. Countersunk
riveting was also to be adopted in the stringers, deck-plating,
and other parts subject to considerable tensile stress, the
holes being treated similarly to those in the outside plating.
This practice is now (1885) followed in the service, and the
annealing, both of the frame bars as well as the plates, is only
carried out in very exceptional instances, and in order to
relieve the tensions set up in the material in bending it to
shape." f Mr. Baker states that " in proportioning the
riveted joints of the tubes and other members (of the Forth
Bridge), the shearing area is generally made one and a-half
* Proc. Inst. M. E., 1879, p. 304.
t Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1885, p. 181.
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 85
times the net sectional area of the plates connected if in
tension, and half that for planed and butted joints in com-
pression only." The specified minimum strengths of the steel
used for compression and tension members are 34 and 30 tons
respectively, and the shearing strength of the rivet steel varies
from 22 to 24 tons per square inch.*
24. Theoretic Proportions of Steel Joints. The theoretic
proportions of steel joints may be found in the manner
already described in 14, p. 41, and, using the same symbols
as before, we have the following rules :
a. To find the theoretic diameter of a steel rivet in single
shear, we have from equation 3 (p. 42),
d c
t - -7854s
(11)
Example 1. What is the ratio in a single-riveted lap joint with drilled holes ?
t
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 21),
s = 22 tons per square inch (see p. 55).
Answer. ^ = ^ _ = 2'31
t '7854x22
With J-inch plates, for instance, d = 116 inch.
Example 2. What is the ratio - in a double-riveted lap joint with drilled
t
holes ?
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 21),
s = 23][tons. per square inch (see p. 55).
Answer. g = * ^ =2'2
t -7854x23
With -inch plates, for instance, d = 11 inch.
b. To find the theoretic diameter of a steel rivet in double
shear, the shearing strength of a steel rivet in double shear
being twice that in single shear (p. 54), we have from
equation 11,
d - c c
t 2 X '7854s l-57s
* Engineering, Sept., 1884, p. 224.
86 THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS
Example 3. What is the ratio - in double-covered butt joints, either single
t
or double-riveted, with drilled holes ?
Here, c = 50 tons per square inch (see 21),
s = 23 tons per square inch (see p. 55).
With -inch plates, for instance, d = '7 inch.
c. To find the theoretic pitch in single-riveted joints, either
in single or double shear. From equation 5 (p. 42),
(13)
Example 4. What is the ratio ^ in a single-riveted lap joint with drilled
d
holes, the tensile unit-strength of the solid plate being 28 tons per square inch,
but increased by drilling to 30 tons in the perforated plate ?
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 21),
f = 30 tons per square inch.
Answer. = = 2'33
d 30
With |-inch plates, for instance (see ex. 1), p = 2'33 X T16 = 2'7 inches.
Example 5. What is the ratio ^ in a single-riveted and double-covered butt
d
joint with drilled holes, the tensile unit-strength of the solid plate being 28
tons per square inch, but increased by drilling to 30 tons in the perforated
plate (p. 72) ?
Here, c = 50 tons per square inch (see 21),
f = 30 tons per square inch.
Answer. ?= 50 + 30 = 2'67
d 30
With -inch plates, for instance (see ex. 3), p = 2'67 X '7 = 1'87 inches.
d. To find the theoretic pitch in double-riveted joints, either
in single or double shear. From equation 8 (p. 43),
P = Ze +f (U)
d f
Example 6. What is the ratio in a double-riveted lap joint with drilled
holes, the tensile unit-strength of the solid plate being 28 tons per square inch,
but increased by drilling to 29 tons in the perforated plate, the excess being less
than in the two previous examples in consequence of the increased pitch (p. 72) ?
OF RIVETED JOINTS. 87
Here, c = 40 tons per square inch (see 21),
/= 29 tons per square inch.
With -mch plates, for instance (see ex. 2), p = 3 "76 X I'l = 4'14 inches.
Example 7. What is the ratio 2- in a double-riveted and double- covered butt
d
joint with drilled holes, the tensile strength of the solid plate being 28 tons per
square inch, but increased by drilling to 29 tons in the perforated plate ?
Here, c = 50 tons per square inch (see 21),
/= 29 tons per square inch.
Answer. P = 10 + 29 = 4-45
d 29
With i-inch plates, for instance (see ex. 3), p = 4 '45 X '7 = 312 inches.
1892.
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Titanium,
Didymium.
Nickel.
Tungsten.
Electrics.
Niobium.
Uranium.
Enamels and Glazes.
Osmium.
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Zirconium.
Gold.
Rhodium.
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26
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Cotton Manufactures, 62
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Floor-cloth, 1 6 pp. 21
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Food Preservation, 8 pp.
Fruit, 8 pp.
Fur, 5 pp.
Gas, Coal, 8 pp.
Gems.
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Graphite, 7 pp.
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Hair Manufactures.
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Honey. Hops.
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Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs.
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Abacus, Counters, Speed
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Founding, Moulding and
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Gas, Manufacture of.
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Heat. Horse Power.
Hydraulics.
Hydro-geology.
Indicators. Iron.
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Lighthouses, Buoys, and
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Ores, Machinery and
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Paeumatic Transmis
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Pumps.
Pyrometers.
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