UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ■■" "■■ Ill III II III ( 182201701 6064 w UiRARY UHlVtRSfTY Of CALIFORNIA ^ I i^n i/iow^ f Central University Library University of California, San Diego Please Note: This item is subject to recall. Date Due MAV x4 ..^. JUN 2 199A CI 39 (7/93) UCSD Lib. llilll)lflirilMIII?,^n?,^V,^pf'fl'A, SAN DIEGO ^ 1822 01701 6064 The Oxford Degree Ceremony By J. ^ells Fellow of Wadham College Oxford At the Clarendon Press 1906 HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE L'NIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH NEW YORK AND TORONTO PREFACE The object of this little book is to attempt to set forth the meaning of our forms and ceremonies, and to show how much of University history is involved in them. It naturally makes no pretensions to indepen- dent research ; I have simply tried to make popular the results arrived at in Dr. Rash- dalPs great book on the Universities qftJie Middle Ages, and in the Rev. Andrew Clark's invaluable Register of the University of Oxford (published by the Oxford His- torical Society). My obligations to these two books will be patent to all who know them ; it has not, however, seemed necessary to give definite references either to these or to Anstey's Munimenta Academica (Rolls Series), which also has been constantly used. I have tried as far as possible to introduce the language of the statutes, whether past or present ; the forms actually used in the degree ceremony itself are given in Latin and translated ; in other cases a rendering has usually been given, but sometimes the original has been retained, when the words A 2 iv PREFACE were either technical or such as would be easily understood by all. The illustrations, with which the Clarendon Press has furnished the book, are its most valuable part. Every Oxford man, who cares for the history of his University, will be glad to have the reproduction of the portrait of the fourteenth-century Chancellor and of the University seal. I have to thank Dr. Rashdall and the Rev. Andrew Clark for most kindly reading through my chapters, and for several sugges- tions, and Professor Oman for special help in the Appendix on ' The University Staves \ J. W. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PACE The Degree Ceremony .... 1 CHAPTER n The Meaning of the Degree Ceremony . 19 CHAPTER in The Preliminaries of the Degree Cere- mony ....... 34 CHAPTER IV The Officers of the University . . 50 CHAPTER V University Dress . . . . .64 CHAPTER VI The Places of the Degree Ceremony . 79 APPENDIX I The Public Assemblies of the University of Oxford . . . . .93 APPENDIX II The University Staves . . . .94 INDEX 97 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The Original Sheldonian . Frontispiece The University Seal . . To face p. 1 (The seal dates from the fourteenth century and is kept by the Proctors.) The Chancellor receiving a Charter FROM Edward III . . To face p. 19 (From the Chancellor's book, circ. 1375.) Master and Scholar . . To face p. 34 (From the title-page of Burley's Tra- ciahis de naUira et forma.) The Bedel of Divinity's Staff To face p. 50 Proctor and Scholars of the Restora- tion Period . . . To face p. 64 (From Habilus Academicorum, attributed to D. Loggan, 1674.) The Interior of the Divinity School To face J). 79 CHAPTER I THE DEGREE CEREMONY The streets of Oxford are seldom dull in term time, but a stranger who chances to pass through them between the hours of nine and ten on the morning of a degree day, will be struck and perhaps perplexed by their un- wonted animation. He will find the quads of the great block of University buildings, which lie between the ' Broad ' and the Rad- cliffe Square, alive with all sorts and condi- tions of Oxford men, arrayed in every variety of academic dress. Groups of undergraduates stand waiting, some in the short commoner's gown, others in the more dignified gown of the scholar, all wearijig the dark coats and white ties usually associated with the 'Schools' and examinations, but with their faces free from the look of anxiety incident to those occasions. Here and there are knots of Bachelors of Arts, in their ampler gowns with fur-lined hoods, some only removed by a brief three years from their undergraduate days, others who have evidently allowed a much longer period to pass before returning 2 THE DEGREE CEREMONY to bring their academic career to its full and complete end. From every college conies the Dean in his Master's gown and hood, or if he be a Doctor, in the scarlet and grey of one of the new Doctorates, in the dignified scarlet and black of Divinity, or in the bold blending of scarlet and crimson which marks Medicine and Law. College servants, with their arms full of gowns and hoods, will be seen in the background, waiting to assist in the academic robing of their former masters, and to pocket the ' tips ' which time-honoured custom pre- scribes. Presently, when the hour of ten has struck, the procession of academic dignity may be seen approaching across the Quad, the Vice- Chan celior preceded by his staves as the symbol of authority, the Proctors in their velvet sleeves and miniver hoods, and the Registrar (or Secretary) of the University. Already most of those concerned are wait- ing in the room where degrees are to be given : others still lingering outside follow the V^ice- Chancellor and the Proctors, and the cere- mony of conferring degrees begins. Should our imaginary spectator wish to see the ceremony, he will have no difficulty in gaining admittance to the Sheldonian, even if he have delayed outside till the pro- ceedings have commenced ; but if the degrees THE DEGREE CEREMONY S are conferred in one of the smaller buildings, it is well to secure a seat beforehand, which can be done through any Master of Arts. The ceremony will well repay a visit, for it is picturesque, it should be dignified, it is sometimes amusing. But it is more than this ; in the conferment of University Degrees are preserved formulae as old as the Uni- versity itself, and a ritual which, if under- stood, is full of meaning as to the oldest University history. The formulae, it is true, are veilea in the obscurity of a learned language, and the ritual is often a mere survival, which at first sight may seem trivial and useless ; but those who care for Oxford will wish that every syllable and every form that has come down to us from our ancient past should be retained and understood. It is to explain what is said and what is done on these occasions that this little book is written. Degrees at Oxford are conferred on days Notice of appointed by the Vice-Chancellor, of which ceremony. notice is now given at the beginning of every term, in the University Gazette ; the old form of giving notice, however, is still retained, in the tolling of the bell of St. Mary's for the hour preceding the ceremony (9 to 10 a.m.) ^. ^ In 1619 a B.A. candidate from Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), who failed to present him- other busi- ness beside Degree giving. 4 THE DEGREE CEREMONY The assembly at which degrees are conferred is the Ancient House of Congregation (p. 93). The old arrangement of the Laudian Statutes is still maintained, by which the proceedings commence with the entrance of the Vice- Chancellor and Proctors, while one of the Bedels ' proclaims in a quiet tone ', ' Intretis in Congregationem, magistri, intretis.' The Vice-Chancellor, when he has formally taken his seat, declares the ' cause of this Congre- gation \ It will be noticed that both the Vico-Chancellor and the two Proctors, as representing the elements of authority in the University (as will be explained later), wear their caps all through the ceremony. Degree giving, however, is sometimes pre- ceded and delayed by the confirmation of the lists of examiners who have been 'duly nominated ' by the committees appointed for this purpose ; it is of course natural that the same body which gives the degree should appoint the examiners, on whose verdicts the degree now mainly depends. A less reason- able cause of delay is the fact that the * Congregation ' is sometimes preceded by a 'Convocation' for the dispatch of general business, as a rule (but not always) of a self for his ' grace ', was excused ' because he had not been able to hear the bell owing to the remoteness of the region and the wind being against him '. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 5 formal character ; the two bodies, Convoca- tion and Congregation, are usually made up of the same persons, and are the same in all but name ; the change from one to the other is marked by the Vice-Chancellor''s descending from his higher seat, with the words ' Dissol- vimus hanc Convocationem ; fiat Congre- gatio \ The degree ceremony itself begins with the The Regis- declaration on the part of the Registrar that Declaration. the candidates for the degrees have duly received permissions (gratiae) from their Colleges to present themselves, and that their names have been approved by him ^ ; he has already certified himself from the University Register that all necessary examinations have been passed, and has been informed officially that all fees have been paid. The names have been already posted outside the door of the House ; it is said that this is done to enable a tradesman to find out when any of his young debtors is about to leave Oxford, so that he may protest, if he wish, against the degree. The posting, however, is natural for many reasons, and no such tradesman's * Till recently the whole list of candidates for all degrees was read by the Registrar, as well as by the Proctors afterwards when 'supplicating' for the graces of the various sets of candidates. Time is now economized by having the names read once only. The College Grace. Order of Degrees. 6 THE DEGREE CEREMONY protest has been known for years ; nor is it easy to see how it could be made by any one not himself a member of the University. The form of the college ' grace ' states that the candidate has performed all the University requirements ; that for the B. A. may be given as a specimen : — ' I, A. B., Dean of the College C. D., bear witness that E. F. of the College C. D., whom I know to have kept bed and board continu- ously within the University for the whole period required by the statutes for the degree of B.A., according as the statutes require, since he has undergone a public examination and performed all the other requirements of the statutes, except so far as he has been dispensed, has received from his college the grace for the degree of B.A. Under my pledged word to this University. A. B., Dean of the College C. D.' The words as to residence, that ' bed and board have been kept continuously "* are derived immediately from the Laudian statute, but are in fact much older : the other clauses have of course been changed. The various degz'ees are then taken in the following order : — Doctor of Divinity. Doctor of Civil Law or of Medicine. Bachelor of Divinity. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 7 Master of Surgery. Bachelor of Civil Law or of Medicine (and of Surgery). Doctor of Letters or of Science.^ Master of Arts. Bachelor of Letters or of Science. Bachelor of Arts. Musical degrees. It sometimes happens, however, that a candidate is taking two degrees at once (i. e. B.A. and M.A.) ; this * unusual distinction \ as local newspapers admiringly call it, is generally due to the unkindness of examiners who have prolonged the ordinary B.A. course by repeated ' ploughs \ In these cases the lower degree is conferred out of order before the higher. The same forms are observed in granting all degrees ; they are fourfold, and are repeated for each separate degree or set of degrees. Here they are only described once, while minor peculiarities in the granting of each degree are noticed in their place ; but it is important to remember that the essentials recur in each admission ; this ex- plains the apparently meaningless repetition of the same ceremonies. This repetition was once a much more prominent feature ; within ' If the Doctor be not an M.A., then his admission to the Doctorate follows the admission of the M.A.s. 8 THE DEGREE CEREMONY living memory it was necessary for each ' grace "* to be taken separately, and the Proctors ' walked ^ for each candidate. Degree ceremonies in those days went on to an inter- minable length, although the number gradu- ating was only half what it is now. ^sup^kat. The first form is the appeal to the House for the degree. One of the Proctors reads out the supplicat, i. e. the petition of the candidate or candidates to be allowed to graduate; this is the duty of the Senior Proctor in the case of the M. A.s, of the Junior Proctor in the case of the B.A.s ; for the higher degrees, e. g. the Doctorate, either Proctor may ' supplicate \ The form of the supplicat is the same, with necessary variations, in all cases ; that for the M.A. may be given as a specimen : — ' Supplicat venerabiliCongregationi Doctorum et Magistrorum regentium E. F. Baccalaureus facultatis Artium e collegio C. qui complevit omnia quae per statuta requiruntur, (nisi quatenus cum eo dispensatum fuerit) ut haec sufficiant quo adraittatur ad incipienflum in eadem facultate.' (* E. F. of C. College, Bachelor of Arts, who has completed all the requirements of the statutes (except so far as he has been excused), asks of the venerable Congregation of Doctors and Regent Masters that these things may THE DEGREE CEREMONY 9 suffice for his admission to incept in the same faculty.') This form is at least as old as the sixteenth century, and probably much older ; but in its original form it set forth more precisely Avhat the candidate had done for his degree (cf. cap. ii). After each supplicat has been read by the Proctor, he with his colleague walks half-way down the House ; this is in theory a formal taking of the votes of the M.A.s present. When the Proctors have returned to their seats, the one of them who has read the supplicat, lifting his cap (his colleague imitating him in this), declares ' the graces (or grace) to have been granted ' (' Hae gratiae concessae sunt et sic pronuntiamus concessas '). The Proctors'' walk is the most curious feature of the degree ceremony ; it always excites surprise and sometimes laughter. It should, however, be maintained with the utmost respect ; for it is the clear and visible assertion of the democratic char- acter of the University ; it implies that every qualified M.A. has a right to be consulted as to the admission of others to the position which he himself has attained. But popular imagination has invented a meaning for it, which certainly was not contemplated in its institution ; it is currently believed that the Proctors walk in order to 10 THE DEGREE CEREMONY give any Oxford tradesman the opportunity of 'plucking' their gown and protesting against the degree of a defaulting candidate. ' Verdant Green ' ^ was told that this was the origin of the ominous * pluck', which for centuries was a word of terror in Oxford ; in the last half-century, it has been super- seded by the more familiar ' plough \ There is a tradition that such a protest has actually been made within living memory and certainly it was threatened quite recently ; a well- known Oxford coach (now dead) informed the Proctors that he intended in this way to prevent the degree of a pupil who had passed his examinations, but had not paid his coach's fee. The defaulter, in this case, failed to present himself for the degree, and so the * plucking ' did not take place. ' Verdant Green was published in 1853, and this is the oldest literary evidence for the connexion of 'plucking' and the Proctorial walk. The earliest mention of 'plucking' at Oxford is Hearne's bitter entry (May, 1713) about his enemy, the then Vice- Chancellor, Dr. Lancaster of Queen's — 'Dr. Lan- caster, when Bachelor of Arts, was plucked for his declamation.' But it is most unlikely that so good a Tory as Hearne would have used a slang phrase, unless it had become well established by long usage. ' Pluck ', in the sense of causing to fail, is not unfre- quently found in English eighteenth century literature, without any relation to a university; the metaphor from 'plucking' a bird is an obvious one, and may be compared to the German use of ' rupfen '. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 11 The second part of the ceremony is the (2) The Pre- presentation of the candidates to the Vice- ^*"'* '°°* Chancellor and Proctors ; this is done in the case of the higher degrees, Divinity, Medicine, &c., by the Professor at the head of the faculty ^ in the case of the M.A.s and B.A.s by the representative of the college. The candidates are placed on the right hand of the presenter, who with 'a proper bow ' (' debita reverentia **) to the Vice-Chan- cellor and the Proctors, presents them with the form appropriate to the degree they are seeking ; that for the M.A. is as follows :— ' Insignissime Vice-CancellariCj vosque egre- gii Procuratores, praesento vobis hunc Bacca- laureum in facultate Artium, ut admittatur ad incipiendum in eadem facultate.' (' Most eminent Vice-Chancellor, and excellent Proctors, I present this B. A. to you for admission to incept in the faculty of Arts.') The old custom was that the presenter should grasp the hand of each candidate and present him separately ; some senior members of the University still hold the ' The old principle is that no one should be pre- sented except by a member of the University who has a degree as high or higher than that sought ; this is unfortunately neglected in our own days, when an ordinary M.A., merely because he is a professor, is appointed by statute to present for the degree of D.Litt. or D.Sc. 12 THE DEGREE CEREMONY hand of one of their candidates, though the custom of separate presentation has been abolished ; there was an intermediate stage fifty years ago, Avhen the number of those Avho could be presented at once was limited to five ; each of them held a finger or a thumb of the presenter"'s right hand. (3) The The third part of the ceremony is the Charge."* charge which is delivered, usually by the Junior Proctor, to the candidates for the degree. Each receives a copy of the New Testament from the Bedel, on which to take his oath. The charge to all candidates for a doctorate or for the M.A. is : — ' Vos dabitis fidem ad observandum statuta, privilegia, consuetudines et libertates istius Universitatis. Item quod quum admissi fueritis in domum Congregationis et in domum Convo- cationis, in iisdem bene et fideliter, ad honorem et profectum Universitatis, vos gei-etis. Et specialiter quod in negotiis quae ad gratias et gradus spectant non impedietis dignos, nee in- dignos promovebitis. Item quod in electionibus habendis unum tantum semel et non amplius in singulis scrutiniis scribetis et nominabitis ; et quod neminem nominabitis nisi quern habilem et idoneum certo sciveritis vel firmiter credi- deritis.' {' Y'ou will swear to observe the statutes, privileges, customs and liberties of your Uni- versity. Also when you have been admitted THE DEGREE CEREMONY 13 to Congregation and to Convocation, you will behave in them loyally and faithfully to the honour and profit of the University. And especially in matters concerning graces and degrees, you will not oppose those who are fit or support the unfit. Also in elections you will write down and nominate one only and no more at each vote ; and you will nominate no one but a man whom you know for certain or surely believe to be fit and proper.') To this the candidates answer ' Do fidem \ The charge to candidates for the B.A. or other lower degrees is much simpler : — ' Vos tenemini ad observandum omnia statuta, privilegia, consuetudines, et libertates istius Universitatis, quatenus ad vos spectent ' (as far as they concern you). This charge, which is of course the first part of the charge to M.A.s, goes back to the very beginnings of University ceremonial ; the latter part of the charge to M.A.s is modern, and takes the place of the more elaborate oaths of the Laudian and of still earlier statutes. By these a candidate bound himself not to recognize any other place in England except Cambridge as a ' university ', and especially that he ' would not give or listen to lectures in Stamford as in a university \^ * This delightful piece of English conservatism was only removed from the statutes in 1827. It refers to R 2 U THE DEGREE CEREMONY There was also a special direction that each candidate should within a fortnight obtain the dress proper for his degree, in order that ' he might be able by it to do honour to our mother the University, in processions and in all other University business'. It is a great pity that this latter part of the old statutes was ever omitted. The candidates for a degree in Divinity, whether Bachelors or Doctors, are charged by the Senior Proctor ; the senior of them makes the following declaration, taken from the thirty-sixth canon of the Church of England (as revised and confirmed in 1865) : ' I, A. B., do solemnly make the following declaration. I assent to the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion and to the Book of Common Prayer .ind of the ordering of bishops, priests, and deacons, and I believe the doctrine of the United Church of England and Ireland, as therein set forth, to be agreeable to the Word of God.' The Senior Proctor then says to the other candidates : — ' Eandem declarationem quam praestitit A. B. the foundation of a university at Stamford in 1334 by the northern scholars who conceived themselves to have been ill-treated at Oxford ; the attempt was crushed at once, but only by the exercise of royal authority. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 15 in persona sua, vos praestabitis in personis vestris, et quilibet vestrum in persona sua.' (' The declaration which A. B. has made on his part, you will make on your part, together and severally.') \Mien the candidates have duly taken the (4)Tiie oath, the last and most important part ofbyu'ic'* the ceremony is performed. ceUor '^*" The candidates for any Doctorate, except the new 'Research' ones, or for the M.A., kneel before the Vice-Chancellor ; the Doctors are taken separately according to their facul- ties, then the M.A.s in successive groups of four each ; the Vice-Chancellor, as he admits them, touches them each on the head with the New Testament, while he repeats the following form : — ' Ad honorem Domini nostri Jesu Christi, et ad profectum sacrosanctae matris eeclesiae et studii, ego auctoritate mea et totius Universitatis do tibi (vel vobis) licentiam incipiendi in facultate Artium (vel facultate Chirurgiae, Medicinae, Juris, S. Theologiae) legendi, dis- putandi, et caetera omnia faciendi quae ad statum Doctoris (vel Magistri) in eadem facul- tate pertinent, cum ea completa sint quae per statuta requiruntur ; in nomine Domini, Patris, Filii, et Spiritus Sancti.' (' For the honour of our Lord Jesus Cln-ist, and for the profit of our holy mother, the 16 THE DEGREE CEREMONY Church, and of learning, I, in virtue of my own authority and tliat of tlie wliole University, give you j)ermission to incept in the Faculty of Arts (or of Surgery, &c.), of reading, disputing, and performing all the other duties which belong to the position of a Doctor (or Master) in that same faculty, when the requirements of the statutes have been complied with, in the Name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.') This venerable form goes back (p. 26) to the beginning of the fifteenth century, and is probably much older ; the only change in it is the omission at the berjinnin<; of ' et Beatae Mariae Virginis'. Modern toleration has provided a modified form for use in cases of candidates for whom the full form is theo- logically inappropriate, but this is rarely used. Change of The ceremony of the licence is now com- plete ; but before the B.A.s are admitted, the Doctors first, and then the Masters in their turn, retire outside, and don 'their appropriate gowns and hoods '. They receive these from those who were once their college servants, and the right of thus bringing gown and hood is strictly claimed ; nor is this sur- prising, as unwritten custom prescribes that the gratuity nmst be of gold. The newly created Doctors or Masters then come back, Gowns. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 17 with the Bedel leading the procession, and *make a bow' to the Vice-Chancellor, who usually shakes hands with the new Doctors ; they are then conducted to a place in the raised seats behind and around his chair, from which they can watch the rest of the proceedings. The M.A.s either leave the house or join their friends among the spec- tators. The ceremony of admitting B.A.s is much simpler. As in the case of the Masters, they are presented by their college Dean ; the form of presentation is : ' Insignissime Vice-Cancellarie, vosque egre- gii Procuratores, praesento vobis hunc meum scholarem {vel hos meos scholares) in facultate Artiuni, ut admittatur {yel admittantur) ad gradum Baccalaurei in Artibus.' The charge is then given by the Junior Proctor (see pp. 12 and 13). After this the candidates are, without kneeling, admitted by the Vice-Chancellor, in the following words : ' Domine {vel Domini), ego adniitto te {vel vos) ad gradum Baccalaurei in Artibiis; insuper auctoritate mea et totius Universitatis, do tibi {vel vobis) potestatem legendi, etreliqua omnia faciendi quae ad eundem gradum spectant.' This form also is old, but has been cut down from its former fullness; e.g. in the 18 THE DEGREE CEREMONY Laudian Statutes the candidate was admitted, among other things, to .' read a certain book of the Logic of Aristotle \ The B.A.s, when admitted, are allowed to disperse as they please, and the ceremony is over. It is unfortunate that the form of admission to the degree which is most frequently taken, and which (speaking generally) is the most real degree given, should be such an unsatis- factory and bare fragment of the old cere- monial. Degrees in It may be noticed that degrees 'in absence*" incorpora- are announced by the Vice-Chancellor after *'°"^' each set of degrees has been conferred, e.g. an 'absent"" M.A. is announced after the M. A.s have made their bow. The University only allows this privilege to those who are actually out of the country, and to them only on stringent conditions ; an extra pay- ment of £5 is required. The proceedings terminate sometimes with the admission to 'ad eundem' rank at Oxford, of graduates of Cambridge or of Dublin ; this privilege is now rarely granted, though it was once freely given. When all is over, the Vice-Chancellor rises, announces 'Dissolvimus banc Congregationem ', and solemnly leaves the building in the same pomp and state with Avhich he entered. CHAPTER IT THE MEANING OF THE DEGREE CEREMONY For the last 500 years certainly, for nearly The Oatu of 200 longer probably, the candidate presented ^^^ '^' for ' inception ' in the Faculty of Arts (i. e. for the M.A. degree) has sworn that he will observe the ' statutes, privileges, customs and liberties' of his university.^ It is difficult to know what the average man now means when he hurriedly says ' Do fidem ' after the Junior Proctor's charge ; but there is no doubt that when the form of words was first used, it meant much. The candidate was being admitted into a society which was maintaining a constant struggle against encroachments, religious or secular, from without, and against unruly tendencies within. And this struggle gave to the University a vivid consciousness of its unity, which in these * The form is found in the two ' Proctors' books ', of which the oldest, that of the Junior Proctor, was drawn up (in 1407) by Richard Fleming, afterwards Bishop of Lincoln and founder of Lincoln College ; but it was then already an established form, and prob- ably goes back to the thirteenth century, i. e. to the reign of Henry in. 20 THE MEANING OF (lays of peace and quiet can hardly be conceived. What is a The essential idea of a university is a University? jig|.i,ij.tiy mediaeval one ; the Middle Ages were above all things gifted with a genius for organization, and men were regarded, and regarded themselves, rather as members of a community than as individuals. The student in classical times had been free to hear what lectures he pleased, Avhere he pleased, and on what subjects he pleased, and he had no fixed and definite relations with his fellow students. There is little or no trace of regular courses of study, still less of self-governing bodies of students, in the ' universities ' of Alexandria or Athens. But with the revival of interest in learning in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the real formation of universities begins. The students formed themselves into organized bodies, with definite laws and courses of study, both because they needed each other s help and protection, and because they could not conceive themselves as existing in any other way. These organized bodies were called ' univer- sitates ' ^, i. e. guilds or associations ; the ' It is perhaps still necessary to emphasize the fact that the name * University' had nothing to do with the range of subjects taught, or with the fact that THE DEGREE CEREMONY 21 name at first had no special application to bodies of students, but is applied e. g, to a community of citizens ; it was only gradually that it acquired its later and narrower meaning ; it finally became specialized for a learned corporation, just as ' convent ' has been set apart for a religious body, and 'corps' for a military one. When these organized bodies were first The origin formed is a question which it is impossible univmity to discuss at length here, nor could a definite answer be given. The University of Oxford is, in this respect, as in so many others, characteristically English ; it grew rather than was made, like most of our institutions, and it can point to no definite year of foundation, and to no individual as founder. Here it must suffice to say that references to students and teachers at Oxford are found with growing frequency all through the twelfth century ; but it is only in the last quarter of that century that either of those features which differentiate a university from a mere chance body of students can be clearly traced. These two features are organized study and the right of self-government. instruction was offered to all students ; the latter point is expressed in the earlier name 'studium generale' borne by universities, which is not completely super- seded by ' universitas ' till the fifteenth century. 22 THE MEANING OF The first mention of organized study is about 1184, when Giraldus Cambrensis, having written his Topographia Hihenik-a and ' desiring not to liide his candle under a bushel,' came to Oxford to read it to the students there; for three days he ' entertained' his audience as well as read to them, and the poor scholars were feasted on a separate day from the ' Doctors of the different faculties \ Here we have definite evidence of organized study. Much more important is the record of 121 4* (the year before Magna Carta ^), when the famous award was gi\en by the Papal Legate, which is the oldest charter of the University of Oxford. In this the ' Chancellor ' is mentioned, and we have in this office the beginnings of that self-govern- ment which, coupled with organized study, may justify us in saying that the real university was now in existence. It is quite probable that the first Doctor of Divinity whom we find 'incepting' in Oxford, is the learned and saintly Edmund Rich, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury ; he seems to have ' The coincidence is not accidental. Magna Carta was wrested from a king humiliated by his submission to the Pope, and the University Charter was given to redress an act of violence on the part of the Oxford citizens, who had been stimulated in their attack on the * clerks ' of Oxford by John's quarrel with the Pope. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 23 taken this degree in the reign of John, but he had been ah-eady teaching secular subjects in the preceding reign (Richard Ts). It is significant of mediaeval Oxford's position as a pillar of the Church and a champion of liberty, that her first traceable graduate should be the last Archbishop of Canterbury who was canonized, and one of the defenders of English liberties against the misgovern- ment of Henry HI. The ' University ' of Oxford, like the great The sister (or might we say mother ?) school of a Gufid or Paris, was an association of Masters of Arts, m-^-s- and they alone were its proper members. In our own days, when not more than half of those who enter the University proceed to the M.A. Degi'ee, and when only about ten per cent, of them reside for any time after the B.A. course is ended, this state of things seems inconceivable ; but it has left its trace, even in popular knowledge, in the well-known fact that ^I.A.s are exempt from Proctorial jurisdiction ; and our degree terminology is still based upon it. It is the M.A. who is admitted by the Vice-Chancellor to ' begin ', i. e. to teach (ad incipiendwn), when he is presented to him, and at Cambridge and in American Universities the ceremonies at the end of the academic year are called ' Com- mencement'. What seems an Irish bull is 24 THE MEANING OF The mean- ing of the 'Degree'. A Bachelor of Arts. really a survival of the oldest university arrangements. As then the University is a guild of Masters, the degree is the ' step ^ by which the distinction of becoming a full member of it is attained. Gibbon wrote a century ago that ' the use of academical degrees is visibly borrowed from the mechanic corpora- tions, in which an apprentice, after serving his time, obtains a testimonial of his skill, and his licence to practise his trade or mystery \ This statement, though accurate in the main, is misleading ; the truth is that the learned body has not so much borrowed from the ' mechanic "" one, as that both have based their arrangements independently on the same idea. This connexion may be illustrated from the other degree title, ' Bachelor."' If the etymology at present best supported may be accepted, that honourable term was originally used for a man who worked on a ' cow-strip ' of land, i, e. who was assistant of a small cultivator; whether this be true or not, it at any rate soon came to denote the appren- tice as opposed to the master-workman ; in fact the ' Bachelor' in the university corre- sponded to the 'pupil-teacher' of more humble associations in our own days. In this sense of the vord, as Dr. Murray quaintly says, THE DEGREE CEREMONY 25 a woman student can become a ' Bachelor ' of Arts. It was natural that the existing members Two eie- of the * university "■ or guild should be con- the Decree suited as to the admission of new members ; fi^/conse^nt their consent was one element in the degree of existing giving. The means by which the fitness of ' applicants for the degree was tested will be spoken of later, and also the methods by which the existing Masters expressed their willingness to admit the new-comer among them. But there is quite a different element in (2) Outside the degree from that which has so far been that of'the mentioned. That was democratic, the consent Church. of the community ; this is autocratic, the authority conferred by a head, superior to, and outside of the community. The Vice- Chancellor of Oxford represents this second principle ; he gives the degree in virtue of ' his own authority ' as well as of that ' of the University'. This authority is origin- ally that of the Church, to which, in England at any rate, all mediaeval students ipso facto belonged ; the new student was admitted into the 'bosom' (matricula) of the Univer- sity by receiving some form of tonsure, and for the first two centuries of University existence, no other ceremony was needed. Matriculation examinations at any rate were 26 THE MEANING OF ill those happy days unknown. Hence the autliority which the cathedral chancellor, representing the bishop, had exercised over the schools and teachers of the diocese, was extended as a matter of course to the teachers of the newly-risen Universities. The fitness of the applicant for a degree was tested by those who had it already, but the ecclesiastical authority gave the ' licence ' to teach. This ecclesiastical origin of the M.A. degree is \\ell shown in the formula of admission (pp. 15, 16). The new Master is admitted ' in honorem Domini nostri Jesu Christi ' and ' in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost'. The Pope The close connexion of the Church and Universities, higher education is further illustrated by the view of the fourteenth-century jurists that a bull from the Pope or from the Holy Roman Emperor was needed to make a teaching body a ' Studium Generate \ and to give its doctors the J tis vhique docendi^. ' Oxford never received this Papal ratification ; but as its claim to be a 'studium generale' was indis- putable, it, like Padua, was recognized as a ' general seat of study ' ' by custom '. The University of Paris, however, at one time refused to admit Oxford gradu- ates to teach without re-examination, and Oxford retorted (the Papal bull in favour of Paris notwith- standing) by refusing to recognize the rights of the Paris doctors to teach in her Schools. THE DEGREE CEREMONY n A curious survival of the same idea still remains in the power of the Archbishop of Canterbury, as English Metropolitan, to recommend the Crown to grant ' Lambeth degrees' to deserving clergy ; this is probably a survival of the old rights of the Arch- bishop as 'Legatus Natus' in England of the Holy See. There were then two elements in the con- Survivals in n • n 1 . 11 1 1 /» 1 the uiodeni lerrmg oi a mediaeval degree, the lormal Degree approval of the candidate by the already ^«^'"""^- existing Masters and the granting of the ' licence ' by the Chancellor. Of these the 'licence' is fully retained in our present ceremony ; tlie new AI, A. receives permission (licentia) from the Vice-Chancellor to ' do all that belongs to the status of a Master', when 'the requirements of the statutes have been fulfilled'. This condition is now meaningless, for he has already ful- filled all 'the requirements'; but in mediaeval times it referred to the second (and what was really the most important) part of his qualifi- cations, his appearance at the solemn 'Act' or ceremony which was the chief event of the University year. At it Masters and Doctors formally showed that they were able to perform the functions of their new rank, and were then 'admitted' to it by investiture with the 'cap' of authority, with the 'ring', 28 THE MEANING OF and with the 'kiss^ of peace; the kiss was given by the Senior Proctor ; the ring was the symbol of the inceptor's mystical )narriage to his science. The 'Act' in our day only survives as giving a name to one of our two Summer Terms, which still have a place in the University Calendar, and in the require- ments of ' twelve terms of residence "*, although only nine real terms are kept. Its disappear- ance was gradual ; already in 1654, when John Evelyn attended the ' Acf at St. Mary's, he expresses surprise at 'those ancient cere- monies and institution {su) being as yet not wholly abolished ' ; but tlie ' Act ' survived into another century, although becoming more and more of a form ; it is last mentioned in 1733. With the ceremony disappeared the formal exhibition of the candidate's fitness for the degree he is seeking. Tiic Master But in the mediaeval University it had rammar. j^^^j^ ^^^ otherwise. The idea that a degree was formally taken by the applicant showing himself competent for it, may be well illus- trated from the (juaint ceremony of admitting a Master in Grammar at Cambridge, as described by the Elizabethan Esquire Bedel, Mr. Stokys : 'The Bedel in Arts shall bring the Master in Grammar to the Vice- Chancellor, delivering him a palmer with a rod, which the Vice-Chancellor shall give THE DEGREE CEREMONY 29 to the said Master in Grammar, and so create him Master. Then shall the Bedel purvey for every Master in Grammar a shrewd boy, whom the Master in Grammar shall beat openly in the Schools, and he shall gi\e the boy a groat for his labour, and another groat to him that provideth the rod and the palmer. And thus endeth the Act in that faculty.' It may be added that the Vice-Chancellor and each of the Proctors received a ' bonnet ', but only one, however many ' Masters "■ might be incepting. In Oxford likewise the ' Master in Gram mar "* was created ^ferula (i.e. palmer) et virgis\ The Oxford M.A. had to show his qualifi- TheDispu- cations in a way less painful, though as the Act.** practical, by publicly attacking or defending theses solemnly approved for discussion by Congregation. These theses were themselves by no means always solemn, e.g. one of those appointed in 1600 was 'an uxor perversa humanitate potius quam asperitate sanetur '? ' ('whether a shrew is better cured by kindness or by severity'). This question, obviously suggested by Shakespeare's Taviing of the Shrew, which was written soon after 1594, was answered by the incepting M.A.s in the opposite sense to the dramatist. It need hardly be said that all the disputations were in Latin. The Doctors too of the different c a 30 THE MEANING OF faculties were created at the ' Act \ after dis- putations on subjects connected with their faculty. Something resembling these dis- putations still survives in a shadowy form at ()xford, in the requirements for the degrees of B.D. and D.D. A candidate for the B.D. has to read in the Divinity School two theses on some theological subject approved by the Regius Professor, a candidate for the D.U. has to read and expound three passages of Holy Scripture ; in both cases notice has to be given beforehand of the subject, a custom which survives from the time when the candi- date might expect to have his theses disputed; but now the Kegius Professor and the candi- date generally have the Divinity School to themselves. All the ceremonies of the ' Acf have passed away from Oxford completely.^ They are only referred to here as serving to illustrate the idea that a new Master was not admitted till he had performed a 'masterpiece', i.e. done a piece of work such as a Master might be expected to do. There was till quite recently one last trace of them in our degree arrangements ; a new M.A. was not admitted '■ In the Scotch Universities Doctors are still created by ' hiret(atio\ the laying on of the cap, and I believe this is still done at many ' Commencements ' in America. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 31 to the privileges of his office till the end of the term in which he had been ' licensed to incept ' ; although the University, having given up the ' Act ', allowed no opportunity of ' incepting ', an interval was left in which the ceremony might have taken place. Now, however, for purposes of practical conveni- ence, even this form is dropped, and a new M.A. enters on his privileges, e. g. voting in Convocation, &c., as soon as he has been licensed by the Vice-Chancellor. Strictly speaking an Oxford man never takes his M.A., for there is no ceremony of institution ; he is 'licensed' to take part in a ceremony which has ceased to exist. And yet in another form the ' Acf survives The in our familiar Commemoration ; the relation ^^c^"'"- of this to the ' Act ' seems to be somewhat as follows. The Sheldonian Theatre was opened, as will be described later (p. 81), with a great literary and musical performance, a ' sort of dedication of the Theatre ' ; this was called ' Encaenia \ ^ So pleased was the University with the performance that the Chancellor next year (1670) ordered that it should be repeated annually, on the Friday before the ' Act \ From the very first there was a tendency to confuse the two ceremonies ; ' Compare St. John x. 22, iyHaivia = ' The Feast of the Dedication '. 32 THE MEANING OF even the accurate antiquarian, Antony Wood, speaks of music as part of ' the Act \ which was really performed at the preliminary gathering, the Encaenia. The new function gradually grew in importance, and additions were made to it ; the munificent Lord Crewe, prince-bishop of Durham, who enjoys an unenviable immortality in the pages of Macaulay, and a more fragrant if less lasting memory in Besanfs charming romance Dorothy Forste)\ left some of his great wealth for the Creweian Oration, in which annual honour is done to the University Benefactors at the Commemoration. Hence, while the customs of the ' Act "* became more and more meaningless and neglected, the Encaenia became more and more popular, until finally the older cere- mony was merged in the newer one. In our Commemoration degree-giving still takes place, along with recitation of prize poems and the paying of honour to benefactors. The degrees arc all honorary, but they are submitted to the House in the same way as ordinary degrees ; the Vice-Chancellor puts the question to the Convocation, just as the Proctor submits the ' grace ' to Congregation, and in theory a vote is taken on the creation of the new U.C.L.s, just as in theory the Proctors take the votes as to the admission of new M. A.s. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 33 Commemoration may be, as John Richard Green said, 'Oxford in masquerade*'; there may be 'grand incongruities, Abyssinian heroes robed in literary scarlet, degrees con- ferred by the suffrages of virgins in pink bonnets and blue, a great academical cere- mony drowned in an atmosphere of Aristo- phanean {sir) chaff'. But the chaff is the legitimate successor of the burlesque per- formance of the Terrae Filius at the old 'Act', and the degrees are submitted to the House with the old formula; even the presence of ladies would have been no surprise to our predecessors of 200 years ago, ho\ve\ er much they would have astonished our mediaeval founders and benefactors ; in the Sheldonian from the first the gallery under the organ was always set apart for ' ladies and gentle- women'. 'Oxford', to quote J. R. Green once again, 'is simply young', but when he goes on to say 'she is neither historic nor theological nor academical ', he exaggerates ; the charm of Oxford lies in the fact that her youth is at home among survivals historic, theological, and academical ; and the old survives while the new flourishes. CHAPTER III THE PRELIMINARIES OF THE DEGREE CEREMONY The Pre- liminaries of the Degree Ceremony. (1) Resi- dence. It is needless to describe the requirements of our modern examination system, for those who pre.sent themselves for degrees, and their friends, know them only too well. And to describe completely the requirements of the mediaeval or the Laudian University would be to enter into details which, however interesting, would yet belong to anticjuarian history, and which have no relation to our modern arrangements. But there are certain broad principles which are common to the present system and to its predecessors, and which well deserve attention. The first and most important of these is that Oxford has always required from those seeking a degree, as she requires now, 'residence' in the University for a given time. It is declared in the Proctors' books (mediaeval statutes used picturesque lan- guage), that ' AV^hereas those who seek to THE DEGREE CEREMONY 35 mount to the highest places by a short cut, neglecting the steps {gracUbus) thereto, seem to court a fall, no M.A. should present a candidate (for the B.A.) unless the person to be presented swear that he has studied the liberal arts in the Schools, for at least four years at some proper university \ There was of course a further three years required of those taking the M.A. degree, and a still longer period for the higher faculties. Resi- dence, it may be added, was required to be continuous ; the modern arrangement which makes it possible to put in a term, when- ever convenient to the candidate, would have seemed a scandal to our predecessors. It will be noticed that much more than our modern ' pernoctation "* was then required for residence, and that migration from other universities was more freely permitted than is now the case. This freedom to studv at more than one university is still the rule in Germany, and Oxford is returning to it in the new statute on Colonial and Foreign Universities, which excuses members of other bodies who have complied with certain con- ditions, from one year of residence, and from part of our examinations. The University in old days, however, was Relaxations more prepared to relax this requirement than den^!' it is in modern times ; the sons of knights 36 THE PRELIMINARIES OF and the eldest sons of esquires ^ were per- mitted to take a degree after three years, and * graces' might be granted conferring still further exemptions ; e. g. a certain G. More was let off' with two years only, in 1571, because being ' well born and tlie only son of his father \ he is afraid that he ' may be called away before he has completed the appointed time\ and so may 'be unable to take his degree conveniently \ The University is less indulgent now. (2) Lectures. The old statute (juoted above also implies that there were special lectures to be heard during the four years of residence ; some of them had to be attended twice over. The old Oxford records give careful directions how the lectures were to be given ; the text was to be closely adhered to and explained, and digressions were forbidden. There are, however, none of those strict rules as to the punctuality of the lecturer, the pace at which he was to lecture, &c., which make some of the mediaeval statutes of other universities so amusing^. ' This custom has left its trace in our matriculation arrangements. Candidates are still required to state the rank of their father, and their position in the family, though birth and primogeniture no longer carry any privileges with them at Oxford. '■' The University authorities at Paris and elsewhere had a great objection to dictating lectures ; on the THE DEGREE CEREMONY 37 The list of subjects for a mediaeval degree is too long to be given here ; it may be mentioned, however, that Aristotle, then as always, held a prominent place in Oxford's Schools.^ This was common to other universities, but the weight given to Mathe- matics and to Music was a special feature of the Oxford course. The lectures were of course University and not college lectures ; the latter hardly existed before the sixteenth century, and were as a rule confined to members of the college. As there were no ' Professors ' in our sense, the instruction was given by the ordinary Masters of Arts, among whom those who w^ere of less than two years"' standing were compelled to lecture, and were styled * necessary regents ' (i. e. they ' governed the Schools '). They were paid by the fees of their pupils {Collecta, a Avord familiar in a different sense in our 'Collections"'). There was keen competition in early days to other hand the mediaeval undergraduate, like his modern successor, loved to *get something down', and was wont to protest forcibly against a lecturer who went too fast, by hissing, shouting, or even organized stone-throwing. ' It is amusing to notice that the irreducible mini- mum of the Ethics at Paris in the fourteenth century consists of the same first four books that are still almost universally taken up at Oxford for the pass degree (i.e. in the familiar ' Group A. I '). Cutting Lectures. Graces. 38 THE PRELIMINARIES OF attract the largest possible audience, but later on the University enacted that all fees should be pooled and e(|ually divided among the teachers. For this (and for other reasons) the lectures became more and more a mere form, and no real part of a student's educa- tion. There had been from time inmiemorial a fixed tariff for 'cutting'^ lectures, and there was a further fine of the same amount for failing to take notes. But the University from time to time tried actually to enforce attendance. A curious instance of this occurs toward the close of the reign of Elizabeth ; a number of students were solemn- ly warned that ' by cutting ' lectures, they were incurring the guilt of perjury, because they had sworn to obey the statutes which required attendance at lectures. They ex- plained they had thought their ' neglect' to hear lectures only involved them in the fine and not in ' perjury ', and after this apology they seem to have proceeded to their degrees without further ditticulty. In fact there was a growing separation after the fifteenth century, between the ' It was only 2d., a sum which has been im- mortalized by Samuel Johnson's famous retort on his tutor : * Sir, you have sconced me 2d. for non-attend- ance at a lecture not worth a penny.' THE DEGREE CEREMONY 39 formal requirements for the degree, and the actual University system ; sometimes irrecon- cilable difficulties arose, e. g. when two students were (in 1599) summoned to explain why they had not attended one of the lectures required for the degree, and they presented the unanswerable excuse that the teacher in question had not lectured, having himself been excused by the University from the duty of giving the lecture. In fact the whole system would have been unworkable but for the power of granting 'graces' or dispensations, which has already been referred to : how necessary and almost universal these were, may be seen from the fact that even so conscientious a disciplinarian as Archbishop Laud, stern alike to himself and to others, was dispensed from observing all the statutes when he took his D.D. (1608) 'because he was called away suddenly on necessary busi- ness'. We can well believe that Laud then, as always, was busy, but there were other students who got their 'graces' with much less excuse. Modern students may well envy the good fortune of the brothers Carey from Exeter College, who (in 1614) were dispensed because ' being shortly about to depart from the University, they desired to take with them the B.A. degree as a benediction from their Alma Mater, the University \ 40 THE PRELIMINARIES OF The New One curious development of the old system Priv^fege. o^ 'graces' survived in one of the most prominent of Oxford colleges almost till within living memory.^ William of Wyke- ham had ordained that his students should perform the a\ hole of the University require- ments, and not avail themselves of dispensa- tions. AVhen the granting of these became so frequent that they were looked upon as the essential part of the system, the idea grew up that New College men were to be exempt from the ordinary tests of the University. Hence a Wykehamist took his degree with no examination but that of his own college, both under the Laudian Statute and after the great statute of 1800, which set up the modern system of examinations. What the four.der had intended as an en- couragement for industry was made by his degenerate disciples an excuse for idleness. (•5) Examina- So far only the qualifications of residence tions. ' It was resigned voluntarily by New College in 1834; but the distinction is still observed (or should be) that a Fellow of the College needs no grace for his degree, or if one is asked, ' demands ' it as a right {postulat is used instead of the usual supplical). I have adopted Dr. Rashdall's explanation of the origin of this strange privilege. It is curious to add that King's College, Cambridge, copied it, along with other and better features, from its great predecessor and model, New College. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 41 and attendance on lectures have been spoken of. The great test of our own times, the examination, has not even been referred to. And it must certainly be admitted that the terrors of the modern written examina- tions were unknown in the old universities ; such testing as took place was always viva voce. That the tests were serious, in theory at any rate, may be fairly inferred from the frequent statutes at Paris against bribing examiners, and from the provision at Bologna that at this 'rigorous and tremendous ex- amination', the examiner should treat the examinee * as his own son \ Robert de Sor- bonne, the founder of the famous college at Paris, has even left a sermon in which an elaborate comparison is drawn between university examinations and the Last Judge- ment ; it need hardly be said that the moral of the sermon is the greater severity of the heavenly test as compared with the earthly ; if a man neglects his prescribed book, he will be rejected once, but if he neglect 'the book of conscience, he will be rejected for ever \ Such a comparison was not likely to have been made, had not the earthly ordeal possessed terrors at least as great as those that mark its modern successors. It may be added at once, however, that we Respon- hear very little about examinations in old "°"*' 42 THE PRELIMINARIES OF Oxford ; but still there were some. Then as now the first examination was Responsions, a name which has survived for at least 500 years, whatever changes there have been in its meaning. The University also still retains the time-honoured name of the 'Masters of the Schools'" for those who conduct this exann'nation (though there are now six and not four, as in the thirteenth century), and candidates who pass are still said as of old to have 'responded in Parviso'.^ In the fifteenth century a man had to be up at least a year before he entered for this examination, in the sixteenth century he could not do so before his ninth term, i. c. only a little more than a year before he took his B.A. The examination is now generally taken before coming into residence, and the most patriotic Oxford man would hardly apply to it the enthusiastic praises of the seventeenth-century Vice-Chancellor (1601) who called it ' gloriosum illud et laudabile in parviso certamen, (juo antiquitus inclaruit nostra Academia \ ' i.e. in the Parvis or Porch of St. Mary's, where the disputations on Logic and Grammar, which formed the examination, took place : this was probably a room over the actual entrance, such as was common in mediaeval churches ; there is a small example of one still to be seen in Oxford, over the south porch of St. Mary Magdalen Church, THE DEGREE CEREMONY 43 At the end of four years, as has been said, other ex- a man ' determined "", i.e. performed the Jig. *'^''^^'°"^ putations and other requirements for the degree of B.A., and after this ceremony there were more 'lectures and disputings' to be performed in the additional three years' residence required for a Master's degree. Nothing, however, is said of definite exami- nations as to the intellectual fitness of candidates for the M.A. Hearne (early in the eighteenth century) quotes from an old book, that the candidate ' must submit him- self privately to the examination of everyone of that degree, whereunto he desireth to be admitted \ But the terror of such a multi- plied test was no doubt greatly softened by the fact that what is everybody ""s business is nobody's business. The stress laid on the course followed (^)^Charac- rather than on the final examination brings out the great idea underlying the old degree ; it sought its qualifications on all sides of a man's life, and not simply in his power to get up and reproduce knowledge. Hence it is provided that M.A.s should admit to 'Determination' (i.e. to the B.A.) only those who are 'fit in knowledge and character'; 'if any question arises on other points, e.g. as to age, stature, or other outward quali- fications (cor/)or? /->\, \ r trimmed with lamb s Surgery (B.Ch ) , Music (B.Mus.) ) ^^''''^^ The gown of all the above Bachelors has laced sleeves fitting to the arm, like those of the M.A.s, but slit ; the bag is straight and also trimmed with lace. Arts (B.A.). — The hood is trimmed with lamb's wool ; the gown has full sleeves, with strings to fasten back. CHAPTER VI THE PLACES OF THE DEGREE CEREMONY The University of Oxford confers its degrees in three rooms, the Sheldonian Theatre, the Divinity School, and the Con- vocation House ; the choice rests with the Vice-Chancellor, and now that, in the last year or so, degree-days have been made less frequent, and there are consequently more candidates on each occasion, the place is often the Sheldonian. This is a great im- provement on old custom, for it is the only one of the three buildings which was de- signed for the purpose, and it is also the only one which gives room for the proper conduct of the ceremony, when the number of candidates is large. The Sheldonian, therefore, commonly The known in Oxford as ' The Theatre ', will be spoken of first, although it is the last in date of construction. It is a memorial at once of the munificence of one of the greatest among Oxford's many episcopal benefactors. 80 THE PLACES OF and also of the architectural skill of her most eminent architect, Sir Christopher AVren. Down to the time of the Civil "War, the ceremony of the ' Act ' (cf. p. 27 seq.) at which degrees were conferred, had taken place in St. Mary's ; but the influence of the Puritans was beginning to affect all parties, and was causing the growth of a feeling that religious buildings should not be used for secular purposes. John Evelyn, who gives us our fullest account of the opening ceremony at the Sheldonian, notes that it might be thought 'indecent' that the Act should be held in a 'building set apart for the immediate worship of God ' ^, and this was ' the inducement for building this noble pile '. Wren had shown his design to the Royal Society in 1663, and it had been much commended ; he was only a little more than thirty years of age, and it was his first public building, but he was already known as that ' miracle of a youth ' and that ' pro- digious young scholar', and he fully justified the Archbishop's confidence in him. So great was this that Sheldon told Evelyn that he had never seen the building and that he ^ The buffooneries of the Terrae Filius, who was a recognized part of the ' Act ', would be even more shocking in a consecrated building than merely secular business. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 81 never intended to do so. Wren showed his boldness alike in the style he chose — he broke once for all with the Gothic tradition in Oxford — and in the skill with which he de- signed a roof w hich was (and is) one of the largest unsupported roofs in England. The construction of it was a marvel of ingenious design. The cost of the whole building was its Dedi £25,000, as Wren told Evelyn, and archi- '''"°"- tects, even the greatest of them, do not usually over-estimate the cost of their de- signs ; but other authorities place it at £16,000, or even at a little over £12,000. At any rate, it was felt to be, as Evelyn writes, ' comparable to any of this kind of former ages, and doubtless exceeding any of the present, as this University does for colleges, libraries, schools, students and order, all the universities in the world.' We may pardon the enthusiasm of one who was himself an Oxford man, after a day on which ' a world of strangers and other com- pany from all parts of the nation ' had been gathered for the Dedication. The ceremonies lasted two days (July 9 and 10, 1669), and on the first day extended 'from eleven in the morning till seven at night ''; we are not told how long they lasted on the second day. They consisted of speeches, poems, 82 THE PLACES OF disputations, and all the other forms of learned gaiety wherein our academic pre- decessors took such unwearying delight ; there was ' music too, vocal and instrumental, in the balustrade corridor opposite to the Vice-Chancellor's seat". And those who took part had among them some who bore famous names ; the great preacher, South, was Public Orator ; among the D.D.s in- cepting were Tillotson, afterwards Arch- bishop of Canterbury, one of the first to introduce Modern English into the style of the pulpit, and Compton, who, as Bishop of London, took so prominent a part in the Revolution. The Roof Not the least conspicuous feature in the Paintings. ^^^^ building was the paintings by Robert Streater, which had been especially executed for it. Li accordance with the idea of Wren, who wished to imitate the uncovered roofs of Greek and Roman theatres, the building, ' by the painting of the flat roof within, is represented as open.'' Pepys, who went to see everything, records how he went to see these pictures in Streater's studio, and how the 'virtuosos' who were looking at them, thought ' them better than those of Rubens at Whitchair; 'but,' Pepys has taste enough to add, 'I do not fully think so.' This unmeasured admiration was, however, out- THE DEGREE CEREMONY 85 done by the contemporary poetaster, White- hall, who ends his verses on the paintings. That future ages must confess they owe To Streater more than Michael Angelo, lines in which the grammar and the connois- seurship are about on an equality. The paintings are on canvas fixed on stretchers, and hence have been removed for cleaning purposes more than once ; this was last done only a few years ago (1899-1901). There are thirty-two sections, and the whole painting measures 72 feet by 64. Unfortu- nately the subject is rendered difficult to understand, because the most important section, which is the key of the whole, representing ' The Expulsion of Ignorance \ is practically concealed by the organ ; the present instrument was erected in 1877. Sheldon's building was designed for a The Sheido- dou])le use. It was to be at once the "'^" ^'■"''• University Theatre and the University Printing Press, and it was used for the latter purpose till 1714, when the Oxford Press was moved across the quadrangle to the Clarendon Building, designed by Sir John Vanbrugh. The actual printing was done in the roof, on the floor above the painted ceiling. The Theatre is for this reason the mark on all Oxford books printed during 84 THE PLACES OF the first half-century of its existence. In one respect Archbishop Sheldon was so unlike most Oxford benefactors that his merit must be especially mentioned. Men are often willing enough to give a handsome sum of money down to be spent on buildings ; they too often leave to others the charge of maintaining these ; but Sheldon definitely informed the University that he did not wish his benefaction to be a burden to it, and invested £2,000 in lands, out of the rents of which his Theatre might be kept in repair. The Sheldonian, thanks to its original donor and to the ever liberal Dr. Wills of Wadham, who supplemented the endowment a century later, has never been a charge on the University revenues. TheRestora- Unfortunately these repairs have been tionofthe • j , •.V, i j.i, j- ■• Sheldonian. carried out With more zeal than discretion. Even in Wren's lifetime the alarm was raised that the roof was dangerous (1720), but the Vice-Chancellor of the time was wise enough not to consult a rival architect but to take the practical opinion of working masons and carpenters, who reported it safe. Nearly 100 years later the same alarm was raised, whether with reason or not we do not know, for no records were left ; all we do know is that the 'restorers' of the day took Wren's roof off", removed his beautiful THE DEGREE CEREMONY 85 windows, inserted a new and larger cupola, and generally did their best to spoil his work. It is only necessary to compare the old pictures of the Sheldonian with its present state to see how in this case, as in so many others, Oxford's architectural glories have suffered from our insane unwillingness to let well alone. The Sheldonian was not in existence The History during the period when University history sheldonian. was most picturesque. Its associations there- fore are nearly all academic, and academic functions, however interesting to those who take part in them, do not appeal to the great world. Perhaps the most romantic scene that the Sheldonian has witnessed was the Installation of the Duke of Wellington as Chancellor in 1833, when the Avhole theatre went mad with enthusiasm as the writer of the Newdigate, Joseph Arnould of Wadham, declaimed his lines on Napoleon, — And the dark soul a world could scarce subdue Bent to thy genius, chief of Waterloo. The subject of the poem was 'The Monks of St. Bernard \ But the enthusiasm was almost as great, and the poetry far superior, when Heber 86 THE PLACES OF recited the best lines of the best Newdi- gate on record : — No hammer fell, no ponderous axes swung ; Like some tall palm the mystic fabric sprung. Majestic silence. This happy reference to the manner of building of Solomon''s Temple was suggested by Sir Walter Scott. Another almost historic occasion in the Sheldonian was when, at a Diocesan Con- ference, the late Lord Beaconsfield made his well-known declaration, ' I for my part prefer to be on the side of the angels."* But these scenes only indirectly touch Oxford. More intimately connected with her history are the famous Proctorial Veto of 1845, when Dean Church and his colleague saved Tract No. 90 from academic condemnation, and the stormy debates of twenty years ago, when the per- mission to use Vivisection in the University Physiological Laboratory was only carried after a struggle in which the Odium Scienti- ficum showed itself capable of an unruliness and an unfairness to opponents which has left all displays, previous or subsequent, of Odium Theologicum far behind. Com- There is no doubt that the organized s«neT*''*" medical vote on that occasion holds the record for noise in the Theatre. And the THE DEGREE CEREMONY 87 competition for the record has been and is still severe ; every year at Commemoration, we have a scene of academic disorder, which can only be called ' most unbecoming of the gravity of the University', to use John Evelyn's words of the performance of the Terrae Filius at theopeningof the Sheldonian. It is true that the proceedings of the Encaenia have been always able to be completed, since the device was hit on of seating ladies freely among the undergraduates in the upper gallery ; this change was introduced in 1876. The disorder of the undergraduates' gallery had culminated in 1874, and in 1875 the cere- mony was held in the Divinity School. But the noise is as prevalent as ever, and it must be confessed that undergraduates' wit has suffered severely from the feminine infusion. However, our visitors,distinguished and undistinguished alike, appreciate the disorder, and it certainly has plenty of precedent for it in all stages of tJniversity history. But the Sheldonian has more harmonious associations. Music was from the first a regu- lar feature of the Encaenia, and compositions were written for it. The most famous occa- sion of this kind was in July, 1733, when Handel came to Oxford, at the invitation of the Vice-Chancellor, to conduct the perform- House. 88 THE PLACES OF ance of some of his works ; among these was the Oratorio Aihaliah^ especially written for the occasion. Handel was offered the degree of Doctor of Music, but (unlike Haydn) de- clined it, because he disliked 'throwing away his money for dat de blockhead wish '. Convocation Till quite recently the degree ceremony was usually held in the Convocation House, which lies just in front of the Sheldonian, under the northern end of the Bodleian Library (the so-called Selden Wing). This plain and unpretentious building, which was largely due to the munificence of Archbishop Laud, was begun in 1635 and finished two years later. It cost, with the buildings above, about £4,200. Its dreary late-Gothic windows and heavy tracery, and the Spartan severity of its unbacked benches, are char- acteristic of the time of transition, alike archi- tectural and religious, to which it belongs. It has been from that time to this the Parliament House of the University, where all matters are first discussed by the Congre- gation of resident Doctors and Masters ; it is only on the rare occasions when some great principle is at stake, and when the country is roused, that matters, whether legislative or administrative, are discussed anywhere else ; a Sheldonian debate is fortu- nately very rare. THE DEGREE CEREMONY 89 The building is well suited for the purpose its Historj-. for which it w^as erected, and so has not unnaturally been used as the meeting-place of the nation's legislators, when, as has several times happened, Parliament has been gathered in Oxford. Charles Ts House of Commons met here in 1643, when Oxford was the royalist capital of England ; and in 1665, when Parliament fled from the Great Plague, and in 1681, when Charles II fought and defeated the last Exclusion Parliament, the House of Commons again occupied this House. It was on the latter occasion just preparing to move across to the Sheldon ian, and the printers there were already packing up their presses to make room for the legisla- tors, when Charles suddenly dissolved it, and so completed his victory over Shaftesbury and Monmouth. A less suitable use for the Convocation House was its employvnent for Charles Fs Court of Chancery in 1643-4. For the reasons given above, degree days are now much more important functions than they used to be, and the Convocation House, never very suitable for the ceremony, is now seldom used. But the Divinity School, which lies at a Divinity right angle to the Convocation House, under ^ °°^ the Bodleian Library proper, is a room which 90 THE PLACES OF by its beauty is worthy to be the scene of any University ceremony, for which it is large enough, and degrees are still often conferred there as well as in the Sheldonian. The architecture of the School makes it the finest room which the University possesses. It was building through the greater part of the fifteenth century, which Professor Free- man thought the most characteristic period of English architectui*e ; and certainly the strength and the weakness of the Perpendicu- lar style could hardly be better illustrated elsewhere. The story of its erection can be largely traced in the Eputolae Academicae, published by the Oxford Historical Society ; they cover the whole of the fifteenth century, and though they are wearisome in their con- stant harping on the same subject — the Uni- versity's need of money — they show a fertility of resource in petition-framing and in the returning of thanks, which would make the fortune of a modern begging-letter writer, whether private or public. The earliest reference to the building of the proposed new School of Divinity is in 1423, when the University picturesquely says it was intended 'ad amplianda matris nostrae ubera' (so many things could be said in Latin which would be shocking in English). In 1426 the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, Chichele, is approached THE DEGREE CEREMONY 91 and asked 'toopen the torrents of his brotherly kindness'. Parliament is appealed to, the Monastic Orders, the citizens of London, in fact anybody and everybody Avho was likely to help. Cardinal Beaufort gave 500 marks, William of Waynflete lent his architectural engines which he had got for building Mag- dalen — at least he was requested to do so — (1478), the Bishop of London, by a refinement of compliment, is asked to show himself ' in this respect also a second Solomon'. [The touch of adding 'also' is delightful.] The agreement to begin building was signed in 1429, when the superintendent builder was to have a retaining fee of 40.s'. a year, and 4*. for every week that he was at work in Oxford; the work was finally completed in 1489. And the building was worthy of this long travail ; its elaborate stone roof, with the arms of benefactors carved in it, is a model at once of real beauty and of structural skill. The Divinity School, as its name implies. History of was intended for the disputations of the schTOh'"''^ Theological Faculty, and perhaps it was this special purpose which prevented it being used so widely for ordinary business, as the other University buildings were. At any rate it was this connexion which led to its being the scene of one of the most picturesque events in Oxford history ; it was to it, on WKLLS G 92 PLACES OF DEGREE CEREMONY April 16, 1554, that Cranmerwas summoned to maintain his theses on the Blessed Sacra- ment against the whole force of the Roman Doctors of Oxford, reinforced by those of Cambridge. Single-handed and without any preparation, he held his own with his oppo- nents, and extorted their reluctant admiration by his courtesy and his readiness. ' Master Cranmer, you have answered well,' was the summing up of the presiding Doctor, and all lifted their caps as the fallen Archbishop left the building. It was the last honour paid to Cranmer. In the eighteenth century, when all old uses were upset, the Divinity School was even lent to the City as a law court, and it was here the unfortunate Miss Blandy was condemned to death. But as a rule its associations have been academic, and it is still used for its old purpose, i. e. for the reading of the Divinity theses. It is only occasionally that Univer- sity functions of a more general kind are held there, e.g. the famous debates on the admission of women to degrees in 1895. So splendid a room ought to be employed on every possible occasion, and happy are they who, when the number of candidates is not too large, take their degrees in suri'oundings 9o characteristic of the best in Oxford. APPENDIX I THE PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD I. Degrees are given and examiners appoint- ed by the Ancient House of Congregation. This corresponds to the ' Congregation of Regents' of the Laudian Statutes. Its members are the University officials, the professors, the heads and deans of colleges, all examiners, and the ^necessary regents', i. e. Doctors and Masters of Arts of not more than two years' standing ; it thus includes all those who have to do with the conduct, the instruction, or the examination of students. The ' necessary regents ' are added, because in the mediaeval University the duty of teaching was imposed on Doctors and Masters of not more than two years' standing ; others might ' rule the Schools ' if they pleased, but the juniors were bound to discharge this duty unless dispensed. II. Congregation consists of all those members of Convocation who reside within two miles of Carfax, along with certain officials. This body has nothing to do w^ith degrees ; it is the chief legislative body of Oxfoi'd. III. Convocation is made up of all Doctors and Masters whose names are on the Uni- versity's books. It confirms the appointment of examiners, and confers honorary degrees at Commemoration. It is also the final legislative body of the University, and controls all expenditure. G 2 APPENDIX II THE UNIVERSITY STAVES THr: old University staves, which are now in the Ashmolean Museum at the University Galleries, seem to date from the reign of Elizabeth ; they have no hall-marks, but the character of the ornamentation is of that period. No doubt the mediaeval staves perished in the troubles of the Reformation period, along with other University property, and the new ones were procured when Oxford began to recover her prosperity. Two of the old staves were discovered in 1 895 in a box on the top of a high case in the Archives ; their very existence had been for- gotten, and they were covered with layers of dust. The legend that they had been con- cealed there by the loyal Bedels must be given up ; no doubt they were put away when the present staves were procured in 1723. The third staff was in the keeping of the Esquire Bedel, and was brought to the Univei'sity Chest, when that office ceased to exist. The j)resent staves are six in number, three silver and three silver-gilt. The three former are carried by the Bedel of Arts and the two sub-bedels, the three latter are carried by the Bedels of the three higher faculties. Divinity, APPENDIX II 95 Law, and Medicine. All of them date (as is proved by the hall-marks) from 1723, except one of the silver staves, which seems to have been renewed in 1803. The three silver staves bear the following inscriptions : — No. I. On the top ' Ego sum Via ' ; on the base ' Veritas et Vita '. No. II. On the top ^ Aequum et Bonum ' ; on the base ' lustitiae Columna '. No. III. On the top 'Scientiae et Mores ' ; on the base ' Columna Philosophiae '. The inscriptions are the same on the silver- gilt staves, except that the staff of the Bedel of Divinity has all the mottoes on it—' Ego sum \'ia ', ' Veritas et Vita ' on the top, and the others on the base. The letters on the bases of all the staves are put on the reverse way to those on the tops ; this is because the staves are carried in different ways ; before the King and the Chancellor they are carried upright, before the \ ice- Chancellor always in a reversed position, with the base uppermost. It should be noted that they are staves and not maces, as the University of Oxford derives its authority from no external power, but is independent. The arms on the tops of three of the staves present a very curious puzzle ; one roundel bears those of Neville and Montagu quarterly, and seems to be a reproduction of the arms of the Chancellor of 1455. George Neville, the 96 APPENDIX II Archbishop of York ; another bears the old Plantagenet ' England and France quarterly ' as borne by the sovereigns from Henry IV to Elizabeth ; a third the Stuart arms as borne from James I to Queen Anne ; yet the work of all three roundels seems to be seventeenth century in character, and does not match that of the rest of the fabric of the staves. INDEX 'Act,' meaning of, 27; term, 28; confused with En- caenia, 31-2. Aristotle, portions read of, 18, 37. Arnould, J., 85. Bachelor (of Arts), etymology of, 24 ; ill France, 47 ; dress of, 69, 78; hood of, 66, 71, 78 ; when taken, 35, 43. —of Divinity, qualification for, 30 ; dress of, 77. Bands worn, 68. Beaeonsfield, Lord, 86. Beaufort, Cardinal, 91. Bedels, history of, 5t seq. ; caps of, 72; at degrees, 4, 17. Bodleian, 88, 89. Boots to be worn, 65. Caius, Dr., 61. Cambrensis, G., 22. Cambridge, dress of Vicc- Chaneelior at, 69 ; degree ceremonies at, 28-9; King's College, 40 Ji. ; gowns at, 68. Candidates (for degrees), dress of, 1 ; presentation of, 11 ; oath of, 13; admission of, 15, 17. Cap, 71 seq. Cappa, 69, 70. Chancellor, origin of, 22, 26 ; authority of, 50 ; non-re- sident, 51. Chichele, Archbishop, 90. Church and University, 25. Church, Dean, 86. Circuitus, 44. CoUicta, 37. ' Commencement ' in American Universities, 23. Commemoration, origin of, 31; description of, 32-3 ; noise at, 86-7 ; music at, 87. Compton, H., 82. Congregation, 88, 93. — Ancient House of, 93; de- grees conferred in, 4, 5; nominates examiners, 4. Convocation, 93 ; business in, 4. — House, 88 seq. Cranmer, Archbishop, 92. Crewe, Lord, 32 ; oration of, 32. Degrees, meaning of, 24 ; order of taking, (5-7 ; elements in, 27 ; requirements for, 34 seq. ; in absence, 18; ad eundem, 18 ; Lambeth, 27 ; honorary, 32. — ceremony, admittance to, 2 ; notice of, 3. D.C.L., 32 ; dress of, 75. D.D., first, 22; qualifications for, 30; dress of, 69, 75-6; cap of, 72 ; theses for, .30, 92. Depositio, 45. Divinity School, 87, 89 seq. D.M., dress of, 75. D.Mus., dress of, 76 ; Haydn, 76; Handel, 87; Richter, 76. Doctorate, German, 47 ; quali- fications for, 76 ; presentation for, 11, 63. Eglesfield, R., 68, 70 «. Encaenia, see Commemoration; etjTnology of, 31 n. Evelyn, J., 28, 80, 81, 87. Examinations, mediaeval, 41 seq. ; control of, 52. Fell, Dr., 53. Friars at Oxford, 46. Gibbon, E., quoted, 24. Gowns, 69, 75 seq. ; proposed abolition of, 54. 'Graces,' college, 5, 6; Uni- versity, 38 seq., 59. Green, J. R., quoted, 33. Heber, R., 83. Hoods, 70-1, 75 seq. 'Inception,' 19, 29, 31. Key, T., 60. 98 INDEX Laud, 'Grace* for, 39; and Troctorial election, 59 ; por- trait of, 72 ; munilicence of, 88. Laudian Statutes, quoted, t, 6, 18, 40 ; oath in, 13 ; greater strictness of, 67. Lectures required for degree, 36; rules as to, 36-7 ; fees for, 37 ; cutting of, 38 ; college, 37. 'Licence,' origin of, 26; con- ferred, 27. London, J., 60. Margaret, the Lady, 55. Master of Arts, admission of, 15; association of, 23 ; old quali- fications for, 29, 43, -47 ; mod- ern, 49; privileges of, 31; M.A.s term, 48; gowns of, 64, 69, 77 ; hood of, 71, 74, 77. Master in Grammar, 28. Masters of the Schools, 42. Matriculation, 25. ' Nations," divisions into, 58. Neville, G., Cliancellor, 51 ; arms of, 95. New College, privilege of, 40. Paris, Lfniversity of, 23 ; exam- inations at, 41 ; Oxford and, 26 w. Parliaments at Oxford of Charles 1 and Charles II, 89. Parvis of St. Mary's, Exam- inations in, 42. Pepys, S.,82. Pig Market, the, 57 «. 'Plucking,' 10. Pope and universities, 26. Printing Press, 83, 89. Proctors, history of, 57 seq.; walk of, 9 ; charge by, 12, 14, 17 ; ' books ' of, 19 ». ; dress of, 77. Professor, original meaning of, 75 II. ; jjrcsentations bv, 11 K., 6'2-3. Queen's College, customs of, 70 «. Rashdall, Dr., quoted, 40/i., 55. Registrar, history of, 60 seq. ; duties of, 5, 61. Residence for degree, 34 ; re- laxations as to, 35, 47. Respoiisions, 42. Rich, E., 22-3. St. Mary's, 80 ; bell of, 3. Scott, Sir W., 86. Sheldon, G.,80, 84. Sheldonian, history of, 79 seq. ; dedication of, 31, 81 ; roof of, 82; organ, 83 ; alteration of, 84. Sophisters, 65. South, R., 82. Staves, description of, 94; Puritan 'Visitors', 55-6. Streater, R.,82. Sludiiim Geiierak; 21 "., 26. Supplicat, 8, 9. Tailors, Oxford, 66, 74; statute as to, 64. Terrae Filius at 'Act ', 33, 54, 80*) . 7'estamur, 61. Tillotson, J., 82. Tom Brown, quoted, 48. Tract No. 90, 86. Tufts on caps, 72; tuft-hunt- ing, 73. University, meaning of, 20; oldest charter of, 22 ; colonial and foreign, 35. Vanbrugh, Sir J., 83. Verdant Green, quoted, 10. Vice-Chancellor, liistory of, 51 seq. ; admission by, 17, 25. Vivisection, debate on. 86. Wellington, Duke of, 85. White ties, 68. Wills, J., 84. Wood, A., quoted, 53, 54. Wren, Sir C, 80, 81,84. Wykeham, W. of, 40. Oxford : Printed at the Clarendon Press by Hoba.ce Haet, M.A. 38'?43