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CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OR SCHLOOIv TEXT-BOOKS.
ELEMENTARY
GEOGRAPHY.
-*^:2-^ ^
COIVLPILKD UNDKR THE DIRECTION
OF THE
STATK BOARD OK KDUCATION
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.
Printed at the State Printing Office.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
/ /1 3^7-^
The State Board of Education desire to acknowledge the kind assistance of many prominent
teachers of the state in the preparation of this book. For careful reading of the proof issued in pam-
phlet form for revision, and for valuable suggestions that have been incorporated in the finished work,
thanks are especially due to Prof. A. E. Kellogg, of the Boys High School, San Francisco; Prof J.
B. McChesney, Principal of the Oakland High School; Mrs. ly. P. Wilson, Principal of the Training
Department of the State Normal School at San Jose; Miss Emily Rice, teacher in the State Normal
School at Chico; Mrs. J. N. Hughes, teacher in the State Normal School at San Jose; Mrs. Julia B.
Hoitt, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction; Hon. Job Wood, County Superintendent of
Schools, Monterey County; James T. Stockdale, Principal of Public Schools, Monterey; and A.
Norton, teacher, Gonzales.
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year i8go,
By Robert W. Waterman, Ira G.Jfoitt, Charles IV. Childs, Ira More, and Edward T. Pierce,
STATE BOARD OP EDUCATION
Of the state of California, for tlu People of the State of California.
PREFACE.
Geography memorized, as words, is perhaps the least interesting and least
profitable of all school studies. Geography so taught that its facts become pictures
is the most engaging and attractive of all.
The right study of Geography involves much exercise of the imagination, and
its facts, beyond those of simple observation, can properly be presented only by
calling in the agency of this faculty. No aim in the teaching of Geography can be
true that does not recognize this.
In the preparation of this book it has been the constant effort so to present
the text, question, and illustration as to engage this most powerful function of the
mind. How far the effort has been successful only use can determine, and at best
it can be but partially so without the intelligent and enthusiastic cooperation of the
teacher. The book can do little more than point the way.
When the pupil enters upon the study of Geography two new exercises pre-
sent themselves, namely: the apprehending of land and water forms and the read-
ing of maps, which are pictures of these forms.
That the pupil may become able to grasp the ideas presented in the terms
slope, hill, mountain, plain, valley, plateau, lake, river, ocean, continent, etc., he has
been asked first to see the geographical forms that are in his immediate vicinity —
to see, for instance, the hill, the valley, the upland field, the pond, the brook — and,
second^ to imagine the forms that these suggest — the mountain, mountain chain,
broad plain, plateau, lake, river, ocean, etc. — and in this way reach an apprehension
of the land and water forms of the earth. By observing the form of the ball or
the orange he is led to imagine the earth as a globe.
That he may be able correctly to interpret the map much exercise is given in
elementary map reading, not only to make him familiar with the signs employed
to represent rivers, mountains, coast lines, cities, etc., but also to enable him to
tell what these indicate in slope, climate, productions, fertility, and occupations.
The teacher should supplement the descriptive matter of the book by explana-
tion, question, and story. To aid in this numerous references are given in connec-
tion with the text. These references have, to a great extent, been furnished by
teachers of the State, and are made, largely, to books already in the district libraries.
Care has been taken to avoid reference to expensive books, in order that the vol-
umes recommended may be available for all district libraries.
2-
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Ideas of Direction 5
Ideas of Distance — Scale 6
Elementary Map Reading, involving Direction and
Distance (School Room) 8
Ideas of Surface Forms 9
Elementary Map Reading, involving Surface Forms
(School Grounds) i6
Studies on County Map i6
Studies on State Map i6
The Earth as a Whole 17
Heat 21
Moisture 22
Climate 23
Zones — Vegetation — Animals 24
Occupations 26
Review Questions 27
Elementary Map Reading — State of California . . 28
PAGE.
The Hemispheres 30-31
Races and Conditions of Men 32
Governments 33
North America 34
United States 46
Review Questions 62
State of California 62
British America 88
Mexico and Central America 92
South America 95
Europe 104
Asia 115
Africa 122
Oceania 127
List of Books for Supplementary Reading .... 130
Pronunciations 131
Standard Distances — Populations 132
METHODS OF AWAKENING INTEREST
Very successful common school teachers have
contributed the following plans, adopted by them,
to awaken interest in the study of Geography:
I. Setting apart, Friday afternoon, an hour or
half hour, which may be called The Reading
Hour, during which teacher or pupils (preferably
pupils) read extracts from books, magazines, or
papers that relate to the subject studied in the
Geography during the preceding week.
2. Placing upon the blackboard each morning
a single question for the investigation of the
pupil during leisure hours, such as ' ' What plants
are used to make clothing, " etc. A valuable col-
lection of such questions may be found in Frye's
"Child and Nature," pages 82 to 116.
3. Asking pupils to bring in some object, as a
piece of bread, leather, cotton cloth, tin, etc. , and
give its history, where produced, and how.
^'^^ OP THB ^'
lUFIVEESITr!
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
I. IDEAS OF DIRECTION.
ORAL EXERCISE.
(i) Where does the Sun rise?
L,et pupils stand with right hand to the East.
In this position teach direction of the face; of
the back; of the left hand.
Pupil point to the North; to the South; to the
West; to the East.
Face North; South; East; West.
Take one step North; one step East; one step
vSouth; one step West.
WRITTTErsI EXERCISE.
Pupils read and fill out the following skeleton
with the proper words, orally, then copy and fill
out in writing:
' ' When we stand with the hand to the East
our faces will be to the , our will
be to the — — , and our will be to the -."
[PrEWMINary Orai, Course. — ^The preliminary oral
course and the oral work throughout the volume consti-
tute an essential part of this book. The results sought
in the preparation of the Elementary Geography depend
so largely upon a thoughtful and conscientious attention
to the oral divisions, that their neglect will, in a consid-
erable measure, defeat the objects aimed at. It is there-
fore earnestly recommended that the teacher give his
best efforts to the successful presentation of this depart-
ment. The pleasure of the pupil in studying and of the
teacher in teaching, will depend much upon this. Do
not pass too hastily from one step to another. Let each
be so thoroughly mastered as to become, so far as possi-
ble, a part of the habitual thought of the child. The
minimum of telling and the maximum of judicious
questioning should mark this work. (Read Parker's
"How to Study Geography," page loi.)]
ORAL EXERCISE.
(i) Teach semi-cardinal points as above.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Let pupils fill out the following skeleton as
before:
' ' Northeast is half way between and ,
Northwest is between and ,
Southwest is between and ,
Southeast is between and ."
ORAL EXERCISE.
(3) Teach direction of the sides of the house;
of the ends; of cracks in the floor; of the door
from teacher's desk; of the stove from the desk;
of shadows in the morning, at noon, at sunset.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Fill out the folloiving skeleton orally and in
writing, as before:
' ' The sides of the house extend and ,
the ends extend and . The cracks in
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
the floor extend and , The door is
from the teacher's desk and the stove is . In
the morning the shadows fall , at noon they
fall , and in the evening ."
ORA.Iv EXERCISE.
(4) Show compass^ when possible to do so.
Explain it. Show why it is a better guide to
direction than the sun.
Teach direction of various objects in the school
room from one another; of objects near the school
house as, the nearest hill, the nearest tree, the
nearest house; direction in coming to school; in
going home.
Direction of north wind; south wind; east
wind; west wind.
A?VRITXEN EXERCISE.
Fill out the fol-
lowing skel'eton
orally, and then
in writing:
' 'A compass is a
better guide than
the sun, because
"A north wind
blows from the and toward the , an
east wind blows from the and toward the
, a west wind blows from the and to-
ward the , a south wind blows from the
and toward the ."
II. IDEAS OF DISTANCE.
[Let each pupil be provided with a foot rule divided
into inches, half inches, quarter inches, and eighth
inches. If this is impracticable, let each pupil make a
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I, p. 58, Les. 25, The Com-
pass; p. 52, I<es. 23, The Weather Cock.
rule of pasteboard, or strong brown paper, from the
measure stamped on the cover of the Geography.]
ORAL EXERCISES.
(i) Using the ruler, draw a line a foot long on
the blackboard. Let each pupil do the same.
Erase and let each pupil draw a line that he
judges to be a foot long. Measure each.
Draw again; measure.
Repeat a number of times.
(2) I<et pupils each draw a line an inch long.
Erase.
Let pupils draw lines judged to be an inch long.
Measure.
Teach that 1 2 of these lines make a foot.
Let pupils draw 12 such lines.
Measure and see if they make a foot.
Repeat a number of times.
(3) Pupils draw 3 lines each judged a foot long.
Measure.
Teach that 3 such lines make a yard.
Draw 3 lines each judged a yard. Measure.
Judge the length of the school room in feet.
Measure.
Judge the width. Measure.
Judge the length of desks, blackboard, and other
objects. Measure.
(4) Let each pupil take one natural step.
Measure the step.
Let pupils judge the length of the school lot.
Let each measure it by stepping.
Do the same with the width.
Let both length and width be measured by tape
line. If you have no tape line take a string or
make a yard stick from a piece of lath.
(5) Name the distance to your own home.
The direction and distance of the nearest post-
office; the nearest church; the nearest creek.
IDEAS OF DISTANCE.
How many yards wide is the nearest road?
Measure.
If the moon is just rising as the sun is setting
what is the direction of a straight line joining
them?
If a river runs S.E. and a railroad runs squarely
across it, in what direction does the railroad run ?
A ship sails north and is struck squarely on the
left by a steamer and sunk; in what direction is
the steamer going ?
(6) Distance represented by arbitrary length —
Scale} If a well is 20 feet deep can I draw,
downward on the blackboard, a line as long as the
well is deep? Why?
If I draw a line 20 inches long, to stand for the
well, how much will i inch stand for ?
The teacher's table is 4 feet long; if I draw a
picture of it only 4 inches long what will stand for
I foot?
If I inch stands for i foot and the side of the
house is 40 feet long, how long a line must I draw
to represent the side of the house?
Introduce numerous examples, like the forego-
ing, of scale I inch to the foot.
Let pupils see how many they can make.
WRITTEN EXKRCISE.
Let each pupil write an original example of a
scale I inch to the foot.
ORAIv EXKRCISKS.
(7) Scale I inch to the mile. Suppose i inch
to stand for a mile how much will two lines, each
an inch long (draw them on the board), stand for?
Draw an inch line. Suppose that is the distance
to the nearest house — how far is it ?
Add an inch. That is the distance to the
nearest church — how far?
Add 3 inches. That is the distance to the
nearest town — how far?
The distance to the seashore is 7 miles. How
many inches shall represent it ?
The distance to the nearest stream is 3^ miles.
How long a line must we draw for that ?
Continue exercises like the preceding.
(8) Let each pupil draw a line 6 inches long;
call each inch 2 miles; measure the distances and
mark them, as on line below:
Vil.
"T"
Ch.
Mountain. Flume. Village.
Brook. Orchard.
Let pupils determine distances from home to
tree, to church, from church to village, to orchard.
See that they measure the line for themselveg
in each case. Get from them, in the same way,
a dozen or more of the distances represented on
the line.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Pupils copy the following skeleton story and fill
the blanks with the appropriate distances. In
doing this ascertain the distances by measuring
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I, p. 68, L,es. 29, The Master's
Portrait.
the line above, and not the road as seen in the
picture.
One sunny Saturday morning my brother
Charles and I mounted our ponies at home for a
trip to the great mountain, miles distant.
miles out we stopped at an orchard and filled
our pockets with apples which the owner kindly
gave us, and miles further on sat down upon
the steps of a church to eat them. We then
climbed upon our ponies again, when, without
our saying a word, the spirited little animals set
off on a lope, never stopping to walk until they
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
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reached the top of a distant hill miles away.
Here we stopped to let them breathe while we
looked around us. Just below lay a pretty village
which we guessed to be about a mile off, but
which we were told, when we reached it, was
as far. Here we ate our lunch and fed our
ponies and counted up the distance we had come.
We were surprised to find that we had passed
over miles of our journey, while the mount-
ain, though still miles away, seemed to be
almost at our feet. further on we
stopped to look at a new timber flume. When
we reached the mountain we tied our ponies in
the bushes and wandered about until we saw that
the sun was getting low. Hastening to our
ponies we sprang into the saddles and were off on
a run. We flew through the village and galloped
on to the hill. ' ' miles gone and to
go," shouted Charles, while the ponies still kept
up their speed. We drew up a few minutes at
the church, however, which we called the
way house, because it was miles from the
mountain and miles from home. Once more
we were ofi", and miles further we rattled
across the bridge over the brook, saying to each
other, ' ' Only miles more ! " At 8 o'clock we
trotted through the bam yard gate. Our ponies
had traveled the entire distance of miles with-
out seeming a bit fatigued, though Charles and I
were glad to get to bed as quickly after supper as
we could.
ORAL EXERCISE.
(9) When the foregoing work is done easily let
a line be divided into inch spaces each represent-
ing 3 miles.
Mark it and question on it as before.
Then into inch spaces each line representing 4,
6, or 8 miles, and question.
[Before passing from this, see that the pupil is
thoroughly familiar with the meaning of "scale" and
its application to the measurement of lines. In this
book, extent of country in lengths and breadths, wherever
practicable, is taught by requiring the pupil to measure
the map and apply the scale, and is not stated in the text. ]
III. ELEMENTARY MAP READING.
(i) Direction and Distance on a Map.
Draw diagram like the following. Use the
north board.
Teach that the top is north; bot-
tom, south; right hand, east; left
hand, west. They have already
learned names of points between
these.
Form many questions, as: Direction of 5 from
I, I from 9, 9 from 5, 4 from i, i from 7, 4 from
8, 6 from 2; direction of boundary lines, etc.
Let pupils form questions.
(2) Map of School Room.^ (a) Let pupils
measure side of school room. Teacher write on
1 Reading Hour: IVorld at Home, vol.
Plan of School Room.
p. 27, Les. II, Drawing
ELEMENTARY MAP READING.
the board the number of feet. Measure end of
the room — write number of feet on the board.
(b) Have pupils draw line on slates or paper for
the side of the room, drawing i inch in length for
every 4 feet. (If the side is 24 feet long how many
inches in the line? If 30? If 27?) Draw line
for the end in the same way; draw line for the
other side, the other end.
(c) Have pupils measure the space from one
corner of room along the side to the first window,
write distance on the board; measure the window,
write distance on the board; measure next space
along the wall and record it as before till all
spaces and windows and doors are measured and
the measures written on the board.
(d) Have pupils then measure the proper dis-
tance on the lines of their map and draw double
lines for the walls, leaving single lines of the
right length for windows and doors.
(e) By similar measurements get position of
teacher's desk, chair, and waste basket, of stove,
of the two outside rows of desks, and draw them
in the manner shown below. Enlarge the scale
four times and draw map on the board. Ask
questions of the class on the large map, as:
Direction of stove from the door, from the
teacher's desk, etc.
Let pupils ask similar questions.
Have pupils measure from corner to comer on
the map, diagonally, and tell the real distance.
On the map measure from teacher's desk to door,
tell the real distance; make other measurements
in same way.
Have pupils reproduce the map they have made
till they can do it readily and understand all its
points.
If impracticable to produce an original map,
question pupils on the following map and let them
copy it.
Questions on Map of School Room.—
Which way does this school house front? On
o
IH^ 00 0o Qo 00
[Tjo [7]o 00 0o 00 0>
0o 0o 0o 00 0o 01
0o 0o 0o 00 0o 0(
^ of an inch = i foot.
which side of the school room is the bookcase?
How long is it ? How far from the west wall ?
From the east wall ? In what part of the room
is the teacher's desk ? How far does it stand out
from the wall? In what direction is desk 24
from desk i ? How far is the southeast corner of
desk I from the northwest corner of desk 24?
Which corners of desk 4 and desk 21 are nearest
each other?
IV. IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS.
[In giving elementary ideas of surface forms, a relief
globe or relief wall maps^ will be found of the greatest
assistance. The teacher need not be discouraged, how-
ever, by their absence. What was said to the famous
archer will then be true of him: "Thy skill will be the
greater if thou hits' t it," and the simple devices of an
ingenious teacher, inspired by contact with his pupils,
are often the very best illustrations possible. Have
pupils illustrate their ideas of every surface form by a
drawing, no matter how crude, upon the blackboard.
However inartistic the result, the effort will be helpful.
Ask pupils each day to bring pictures of the things
taught in the following exercises. In most cases a
large collection of excellent illustrations will soon be
made.]
ORAL EXERCISES.
(i) Slopes.' Are the tops of the school desks
level ?
What can we say of them in respect to this ?
1 See Gypsal Relief Maps, Bay State Publishing Company, Hyde
Park, Mass.
2 See Frye'S Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 52, 53, 54.
/^^ OP THE
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
Where have you seen a slope of land ?
How many slopes can you count in the school
yard?
Is there more than one slope on the desk top ?
Open your Geography and turn it, cover up, on
the desk, like this:
How many slopes now on the desk top ?
By what is the longest of these slopes made ?
How are the shorter ones made ?
Are the slopes all in the same direction ?
Does all the rain that falls sink into the ground ?
Where does it go? Why?
How does the rain get into pools ?
Can land slope in two directions at once ?
Look at all the slopes that lie in your way to
and from school and see if you find any lying in
more than one direction.
See if you can stand your Geography on the
desk in such a way that one side of the cover will
slope in more than one direction at the same time.
Look for large slopes of land having smaller
slopes within them.
Represent,^ on a modeling board, some slope
that you can see.
Note that, in Geography, a slope is always a descent.
(2) A Hill. If a hill is within sight call atten-
tion of pupils to it.
If no hill is to be seen from the school house
have each pupil tell where he has seen one.
Is the hill higher or lower than the land around
it?
1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling^ p. 29, last paragraph.
Lead the pupil to observe (a) the base, (b) the
top, (c) the slope.
Call attention first to the part then to the name.
By questions, if possible, lead pupils to define
for themselves the hill as a mass of land higher
than the surrounding country.
Have pupils represent, on a modeling board,
some hill that they can see.
'WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Read the following skeleton, fillmg blanks
orally with the necessary words, then in writing:
' 'A hill is -. Its parts are the , the
, and the . The base of a hill is the
and the slope is the . There is a hill about
Distance, from the school house in a direc-
tion, and another about in a direction."
ORAL EXERCISES.
(3) A Mountain. Observe a mountain, if one
is in sight.
Have the pupil mention any mountain he has
seen and tell about it.
Where no mountain is in sight, let pupil ob-
serve a hill and lead him to imagine a mountain.
Make diagram of hill and mountain on the
board to illustrate compara-
tive size.
Note. — in the absence of a complete outfit of tables
and modeling boards an oblong pie tin may be made
to serve. Putty, dough, clay, or sand may be used.
Where the school grounds are suitable, the representation
of surface forms may be made in the earth of the school
yard by the use of spade, trowel, or knife. When, later
on, it becomes desirable to model school grounds, county,
state, or continent, ist, mark the boundaries; 2d, build
up the mountains in their proper places, shape the slopes
and valleys, scratch lines for rivers, scoop out hollows
for lakes, and cut out places for gulfs and bays. When
the material has hardened, water may be poured in to
complete the illustration.
IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS.
Have pupils represent, on the modeling board,
some mountain that they can see, if any is in
sight.
See picture of volcano, p. 15. What is a vol-
cano ?
(4) A Mountain Range. Where practicable
have pupils observe a mountain range. Illustrate
by diagram, as follows:
Lead the pupil by questions and observations to
tell what it is himself.
Have pupils represent, on a modeling board,
some mountain range that they can see. If none
is in sight, build a range of mountains as the
diagram suggests.
Teach what a Mountain System consists of.
W^RITTEN EXERCISE.
Write this skeleton on the board, pupils fill
blanks orally, then copy. Each blank may be
filled by any number of words necessary:
"A mountain is of land hill. A
range of mountains is of mountains. A
mountain system is of mountain ranges.
A volcano is ."
ORAIv EXERCISE.
(5) A Lake.^ Find a pond, where possible,
and lead the class to describe it: (a) water, fresh
or salt; (b) land on all sides.
When this is done, step by step, have pupils
write the description.
If no pond is accessible, let a place be scooped
in the yard and pour in water.
3 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, p. 55.
Cut a channel from it to teach outlet.
Let the pupil imagine the pond to be enlarged,
first, to reach some distant point in sight and,
then, to reach as far in all directions as he can
see, and in this way perceive what a lake is.
Ask pupils to bring into the class all the pict-
ures of lakes they can find.
Diagram of Pond and Lake.
Let them make a shallow depression in the
mountains they have modeled and sprinkle it
with white sand or ashes for a lake.
Have them represent, on the modeling board,
some pond or pool that they have seen.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Write and complete the following; then mem-
orize:
A lake is a ^"^- body of , usually . It
is by land.
ORAL EXERCISE.
(6) A River. ^ If a stream is within sight or
can be seen by walking a short distance, have the
pupil observe for himself:
(a) The direction of its flow.
(b) The direction from which it flows.
(c) How the stream flows — straight or winding.
(d) The edge of the river, or land that borders it.
(e) Teach the term "shore," or "bank."
(f) Show "right bank," "left bank," "bed."
1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 56, 57, 58.
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
(g) Teach meaning of "source."
(h) Meaning of "mouth."
Lead the pupil, by questions, to describe all
these for himself.
If the stream is a brook, get the idea of a
river by imagining the brook to be several
times as wide as it is and having other
streams flowing into it.
If a real stream is inaccessible, teach
from the picture on this page, having the
pupil observe all the above.
Have pupils represent, on the modeling
board, some running stream that they can
see, if there is one.
WRITTETsr EXERCISE.
Skeleton for pupil to fill out orally and copy.
Fill each blank with as many words as are neces-
sary:
A river is a ^''^- winding of ,
the land. Its source is , its mouth is .
The shore, or bank, is , the right bank is
, the left bank is . The bed is .
For Reading:
(7) You can see that the river bed must be a
slope or the water would not run. When the
slope of the bed is steep the water runs very
swiftly, making the surface of the river rough,
and this swift and rough flowing of the river is
called Rapids.
IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS.
13
Sometimes, also, the bed of the river drops
suddenly downward like the side of a house, and
the water plunges straight down over the edge,
and is then called a Waterfall or Cataract.
Where the land along the river is very low it
often happens that when the water rises the land
is overflowed. To prevent this a ridge of stones,
earth, and timber is built along the shore to keep
the water in the bed of the river. This ridge is
called a Levee (lev'ee) or Dyke. When the water
breaks through the levee, as it does sometimes,
the break is called a Crevasse (ere vSsse').
(8) Questions on the Picture of the River.
Point out the source of the river. The mouth.
Right bank. Left bank. The rapids. The cat-
aract. The levee. The crevasse. On which
bank of the river is the village ? What name do
you give to the water of the river just below the
cataract ? Would you think the land on the right
side of the river below the rapids high or low ?
Why ? Would you think the land above the cat-
aract high or low ? Below the rapids what name
is given to the ridge of land along the right bank
of the river? What is the opening made through
it by the water called ?
WRITTEM EXERCISE.
Whefi the pupil has carefully studied the pre-
ceding questions and answered them let him copy
and fill out the following letter:
Dear Cousin Emma:
I send you with this letter a picture
of the village where we live, and of the
that runs by it, and of all the country from the
of the river in the to its at the
sea. You will see that our village stands on
the bank of the , a little above the
, and that the land on' which it stands
slopes in directions, one towards the of
the and the other towards its . Above
the village you will see that the land on both the
bank and bank slopes somewhat
towards the stream. Below the the water
runs ver}^ swiftly for a little distance, and, after
we pass below the , the land on the is
level and very low, so that the water of the
will often overflow it. To prevent this a is
built of to keep the water in its .
Sometimes it happens that the water breaks
through this , and the opening it makes is
called a . The picture shows such a
and a number of houses partly under water. As
3'ou see, our village is on land and in no
danger.
Your afiectionate cousin,
Mary.
ORA.Iv EXERCISE.
(9) A Valley.^ If within sight of one, lead
the pupil by question and conversation to observe:
(a) Position of valley, as (l) the land between
two hills; (2) the land along both sides of a river.
(b) Upper part of river valley (toward the head-
waters).
(c) Lower part (toward the mouth).
(d) Slopes (l) in the direction the river runs;
(2) slope toward the left bank; (3) slope toward
right bank.
Let pupils turn to the picture of a river and
point out the upper part of the valley, the lower
part, and slopes.
Explain and show that the large land-slopes are
not regular in descent, but are usually broken by
elevations, making many slopes within slopes, and
that therefore there will be many slopes in various
directions within the three main slopes of a valley.
A?VRI'rTEN EXERCISE.
Skeleton for pupil to fill out orally; then copy:
A valley is hills, or a river; the upper
1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 58, 59, 60.
14
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
part of a river valley is the land , and the
lower part is the land . The long slope of a
river valley is the slope from to , and
the short slopes are the slopes banks.
(id) a River System.^ If at or near the junc-
tion of two rivers, let the pupil observe that one
flows into the other.
Teach that a river with a number of rivers
jiowing into it makes a River System.
Have class draw the river system here outlined:
v^r
£
ifiHtfd
Jj^to
*i
^**u
^£^\_
k\
^-^
^/^-^
3i ^ ^"
— -^"l
j
lyi
If
^
^mWh
Tr' utary
S
^
^
- J
Teach that a river Jiowing into another is called
a Tributary.
(i I ) By questions, lead pupils to see that all the
land from which the water, of a river system is
received is the River Basin. Teach them to dis-
criminate clearly between a river system and a
river basin. Draw from them an oral statement
of the diflference. Have them write the differ-
ence, then put on the board the best statement
of the difference given.
(12) A P1.AIN. By actual observation show
that it is (a) a level, or nearly level, tract of land.
Where possible show also, by observation, that it
may be (b) lowland, (c) upland, (d) high plain, or
plateau (pla to'). Illustrate on the blackboard by
outline like the following:
1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 61, 62, 63.
Lowland.
Upland.
Questions. — Where have you seen a lowland
plain ? An upland plain ? Have you ever seen a
plateau? If so, tell where, and describe it.
(13) An Island. If in sight, let class observ^e
it. By questions, lead pupils to describe it. Let
each one tell where he has seen an island. Have
him make an island out of sand or clay, on the
modeling board. Look for an island in the picture.
Contrast and compare an island with a lake.
Write upon the board the definition and have it
learned.
(14) A Peninsula. If within a short distance
the proper projection of land can be found, go
with the class and look at it. Question them
until from some of them all the characteristics of
a peninsula are told. Afterward write on the
board the best description given and have them
copy it. If there is no better way at command
let them look at the picture, p. 15, and describe
the projection there. If there are streams or
bodies of water in the neighborhood, ask pupils
to find all the peninsulas they can on the road to
school and in the vicinity. Inquire for several
days what they have found; stimulate emulation
in this, also in the discovery of the four follow-
ing divisions.
(15) A Cape. Teach the child to recognize a
cape as you teach a peninsula — by observation of
a real cape or from the picture.
(16) A Gulf. Wherever a peninsula can be
seen a gulf is almost always found. Teach,
through observation, and lead, by questions, the
child to describe it after seeing it or a picture
of it.
ELEMENTARY MAP READING.
15
If
(17) Isthmus (is'mus) —
Strait. Pursue the same
method as in teaching a gulf.
Compare an isthmus with a
strait.
In what are they alike?
In what do they differ?
(18) Questions on the
Picture. Make a list of all
the forms of land and water rep-
resented in this picture. What
form is represented in the lower
right hand comer? {Ans. A
Promontory.') What is a prom-
ontoiy? (^Ans. A high Cape.)
How many peninsulas can you
find in the picture? How
many slopes ? How many hills ?
ow many straits?
V. ELEMENTARY MAP READING.
Map of School Grounds.^ Procure a tape
line or a string of convenient length and let
pupils measure the school grounds. If the
grounds are not laid with marked boundary lines,
measure any convenient distance from the cen-
ter of each side of the school house and set a
stake.
Afterward adopt some convenient scale, as 20
ft., 40 ft., or 60 ft. to the inch, and draw a bound-
ary line of the grounds. In the center draw an
outline to represent the school house. Measure
distances of several objects (well, gate, coal or
wood shed) from the school house; write them
down and also note the direction. Draw outlines
of these in the proper places.
Note direction of other objects (a tree, stone,
hill). Measure distances as before and mark the
position of the objects on the map.
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I, p. 33, Les. 14, Drawing
Plan of School Grounds.
Question on distances and direction of various
objects from one another. Repeat the drawing.
WRITTElsr EXERCISE.
Have pupils write a description of their
school house and grounds on the plan below.
Assist them in getting necessary information:
(a) Kind of ground it stands on — hill;
slope, direction of; plain; valley.
(b) Faces which way.
(c) Size — number of rooms, closets, etc.
(d) Materials op which made — brick or
stone, where procured, how; wood, different
kinds, where found, how prepared.
(e) Surroundings— pleasant or not, and why;
trees or stones in the yard, etc.
(f ) Kind of wood in pupils' desks, in teacher's
desk; where obtained.
(g) Walls — tinted, papered, clean, soiled, etc.
i6
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
Road Fence
ROAD
Road Fence
Scale !
Map of School Grounds.
hill and the puddle? Between the
hill and the river? How many
slopes are shown between the
creek and the river? How are
they shown? Is the line that sep-
arates these slopes on high ground
or low ground? What is such a
line called? {Ans. A Watershed.')
Tell the difference between the two
slopes on the opposite side of the
river and the two slopes between
the creek and the river. Which
of the following pair of slopes
represents the slopes on the oppo-
site side of the river? Should
you think this school house stands
on level ground or on a slope?
If on a slope, what is its general
direction? Find eight slopes
shown on this map.
VI. STUDY OF COUNTY.
[These questions may be ex-
tended to suit the requirements
of the course of study or the views
of the teacher. ]
If impracticable to measure grounds let ques-
tions on the accompanying map be answered by the
class with the book open, and let the map be copied.
Questions on the Map. — Which way does the school
house face? How far from the door to the front fence?
To the gates? In what direction is the right gate from
the school house? How wide is the road? How many
feet of ground on the south side of the road are included
in the map? How far from the northeast corner of the
house to the center of the puddle? How far from the
northwest corner to the tree? From the tree to the rock?
In what direction does the land slope between the school
house and the puddle? How do you tell? Between the
Name of county. How bounded.
Name streams. Give direction
of flow. Name mountains, hills,
ponds or lakes, valleys, forests,
and give direction from school
house; distance. L,ocality of best
farming lands — on hills or plains
or in valleys? Products. Mills and factories— direc-
tion and distance from school house. Name of county
seat— direction and distance from school house. Trace
with a pointer the road by which you go. Name
streams, if any crossed in going to county seat. Mount-
ains crossed.
VII. STUDIES ON STATE MAP.
Where is San Francisco? Sacramento? Direction
of county from San F'rancisco. From Sacramento.
By what road would you travel from your county seat to
San Francisco ? To Sacramento ?
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
17
i
iiiip
The Earth in Spack.
VIII. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.
ORAL EXERCISE.
(i) Shape. Round — Show a globe, an orange,
or a ball; teach that anything round like an orange
is called a g/ode, a da/l, or a sphere.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Write a sentence with the word globe in it.
Another with the word sphere in it.
Complete the following sentence and copy it;
then memorize:
The Earth is
like a
i8
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
oral exercises.
(2) Proof of Shape.
Notice the fly on the top
of the ball. Notice him
in the nearest position
toward, the right. Has
he turned a comer?
Does his head point in
the same direction as
at the start? Why?
In going to the next position has he turned a
comer? Is he nearer the starting point than he
was before ? Why ?
(3) Men have started to travel on the earth, and,
without turning about and going back, have come
again to the starting place. From this what should
you think about the shape of the earth ? In going
round the world do men walk, as in the picture ?
How do they go ?
Enlarge upon the last question by conversation
with the class.
(4) A joint of stove pipe is round in one wa5^
Could a fly come back to his starting place on the
stove pipe without turning about ?
If the earth were in the shape of a joint of stove
pipe, only very large, as it is now, could men come
back to a starting place without turning about?
When men come back to the place from which
they started, without turning about, does it prove
that the earth is round like a ball or globe?
In what shape might it be ?
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Write and complete the following sentence;
then memorize:
' ' The Earth cannot be , because men have
traveled round it."
ORAL EXERCISE.
(5) Suppose you were to stand on an island in
the ocean and were to look east and see the top of
the mast come in sight, but could not see the ship,
would you think the ship to be on a level surface
or on a curved surface ?
Then if you looked west and saw a mast in the
same way, then north, then south, what would you
think about the shape of the earth — would it be
round like a stove pipe, or round like a ball?
Why?
^?VRITTEN: EXERCISE.
After thinking and talking about this, let the
pupil write and complete the following sentence;
then memorize:
"The Earth must be like a or ,
because when we look at a ship far off" upon the
sea, coming towards us from direction, we
see the first." ^
ORAL e:*ercise.
(6) Size of the Earth, How far do you
think it is around the Earth ? If you should start
to travel around it and should go twenty miles
every day you would be 1,250 days in getting
back to your starting point. How far is that ?
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. II, pp. 14-18.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH.
19
Looking at Ships from an Island in the Ocean.
The distance around tlie earth is called its Cir-
cumference.
The distance through it is called its Diameter,
and is 8,000 miles.
WRiTrrEiSr exercise.
^ Write the following, fill it out, and
commit it to memory:
' ' The distance around the earth is
miles, and is called its . The dis-
tance through the center is miles
and is called its ."
Write a sentence with the word cir-
cumference in it. Another with the
word diameter.
For Reading:
(7) Motions of the Barth.'^ Think of a top
spinning before a lamp. The earth spins or turns
in the same way before the sun, except that it
turns in the air. This is one of its motions, and
is called the Rotation of the Earth on its Axis.
It is this motion that gives us day and night.
We go with the earth, and when the place we
are on is toward the sun, we have day; when it
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. IT, pp. 23-25.
2 Motions of the earth may be omitted until later, if the teacher
finds it advisable.
is away from the sun, we have night. It takes
the earth 24 hours to turn completely round on
its axis. Stop and think what 24 hours make.
\VFiITTE>C EXERCISE.
Write this sentence and complete it; then mem-
orize:
"The earth turns round on its axis once in
hours, making ."
For Reading:
(8) Now think of a top spinning before a lamp
on the edge of a table shaped like the one in the
picture; then think that while it spins it is also
moving around the lamp along the edge of the
table. The earth moves in the same way around
the sun. This is the other motion and is called
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
The Revolution of the Earth around the Sun.
It does not stop spinning, but it moves along the
curved line at the same time. While going once
around the sun it turns on its axis 365 times.
Now, stop and think how many days that means.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Write this sentence and complete it; then mem-
orize:
* ' While going around the sun the earth turns
round on its axis times, making days,
which we call one ."
For Reading:
(9) While the earth is going around the sun,
as the top goes around the lamp in the picture, it
turns itself toward the sun in such a way that
most places have very cold weather part of the
year, then warmer weather, and then hot weather,
then cooler weather, and then very cold weather
again.
XA^RITTEN EXERCISE.
Write the following, putting only one word
in the place of each set of italic words above:
' ' Most places have part of the year, then
, and then , then , and then
again."
For Reading:
(10) Can we see the whole earth from any
place upon it ? Can we see a great part of it ?
How, then, can we know how it looks. Men
have traveled over it and made maps of it. We
can see these maps, and in that way we can see
where the long mountain systems are, the largest
and longest rivers, the great slopes, hundreds of
miles long, and the valleys, so wide that a boy on
his pony would be weeks in crossing one. But
the maps do not really show how these things
look. You must look at the hills and small val-
leys and short slopes that you can see, and try to
imagine them growing and growing, hundreds of
times as large as they are, to make the great
mountains and large valleys and long slopes that
you can not see, but which make up the earth
and which are pictured on the map.
(11) You can do another thing. You pan im-
agine yourself to be very high above all mount-
ains and to be flying like a bird, around the earth
and looking down upon great bodies of land com-
posed of long slopes and great river basins sep-
arated by long ranges of mountains, sometimes
running north and south and sometimes east and
west. These great bodies of land are called
Continents. You would be looking down on
great bodies of water, also, much larger than the
land, and these are called Oceans, and their
water is salt. You would see them washing the
shores on all sides.
For Recitation:
Continents are great bodies of land composed
of long slopes and great river basins, separated
by long ranges of mountains.
Oceans are the large bodies of salt water that
surround the continents.
(12) Hemispheres. If you could go high
enough and could see far enough you might see
half the earth at one time. When the sun
shines upon it you would find one half looking
something like this:
HEAT.
It is called the western half-sphere, or West-
ern Hemi-sJ>/iere. The large body of land in it is
called the Western Continent.
What do you think heini means? Which way do the
great mountain ranges of the Western Continent run —
north and south or east and west? Is there more water
or land in this hemisphere?
Now if you should wait till the other side of the
earth is rolled toward the sun you would find it
looking much like this:
I
This is called the Eastern Hemisphere, and the
great body of land in it is called the Eastern
Continent.
Which way do the large mountain ranges of this half
run — north and south or east and west? Is there more
water or land in this hemisphere?
If you would like to know how large part of
the earth's surface is land and how large part is
water, this diagram will tell you. Examine and
measure it, and decide for yourself:
I.and.
Water,
Now that you have measured it, what do you
decide?
IX. HEAT.
For Reading:^
If you were to be asked where all the heat on
the surface of the earth comes from, you would
probably answer, "from the sun." Let us see
how the heat behaves.
In the morning, as the sun rises, the heat that
comes from it glances along the surface of the
earth, as you might skip your ball. It does not
strike very hard, and the air does not get very
warm. When the sun is nearly overhead the heat
goes into the earth around us instead of glancing
off. It is thrown from the sun so fast that the air
does not catch much of it as it goes through, but
the earth throws it back more slowly and then the
air becomes heated.
Did you ever stand at the side of a brick or stone
or even a wood house when the sun was shining
on it in summer and notice how hot the air was
there ? Did you ever go a little distance away from
the house and notice that it grew cooler? Why
was it warmer near the house ?
The earth is like the side of the house; it throws
back into the air the heat received from the sun,
and the air that is nearest to it receives a larger
part of the heat than the air further away. If,
then, you could rise in a balloon several thousand
feet from a plain on the earth, would you find it
warmer or cooler? If, when you were so high,
your balloon should light on a mountain top, you
would expect still to find the air cooler than on
the plain, would you not? There are many parts
of the world where the low plains are hot and
the mountains and high plains, or plateaus, in the
same region, are very cool, some mountains being
so high that they are always covered with snow.
For Recitation:
I . The sun pours heat through the air into the
I Articles entitled " For Reading," should be made the subject of
cbnversation until the pupil thoroughly understands them. The
summary, " For Recitation," may then be committed to memory.
22
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
earth and the earth gives it back to the air. The
greatest heat is received where the sun is directly
opposite the place on which it is shining.
2. There is more heat in the air near the surface
of the earth than far away from it. High mount-
ains and plateaus are cool when the plains below
them are warm or hot.
X. MOISTURE.
For Reading:
If you place a piece of ice in a basin in the sun,
in a short time you will find it gone. It has be-
come a liquid which we call water. We say the
ice has melted.
If you place a basin of water where the summer
sun will shine upon it, in a few hours you will
find it gone. What has become of it ? It has
passed into the air in the form of vapor. We say
it has evaporated.
Did you ever see a fog ? Where ? Did it rise
from the sea or the land ? When the sun shone
hot after a rain, did you ever see steam rising from
the top of a house or bam or from the sidewalk or
the ground ? All this fog or steam we call vapor,
or moisture, and, though enough of it to be seen
does not often rise at once, this vapor is constantly
going up into the air from the ground, from rivers,
ponds, and lakes, and from the ocean.
Why does not all the water from the soil, the
rivers, and lakes, and from the sea finally go olGF in
this way and leave the beds of the streams and of
the ocean dry? Read a little further and you
will learn why.
See a pitcher of ice water in the summer with
the drops of water on the outside surface. The
water did not come through the pitcher. How
did it get there ? The cold pitcher has turned the
vapor that was in the air next to it into water
drops.
See the dew on the grass and the trees in the
morning. The surface of the earth at night is
cooler than the air next to it, and has turned the
moisture in the air to water, as the surface of the
cold pitcher did. Besides this, it has cooled the
layer of air next to it, and the vapor that rose
from the earth and from the leaves of the trees in
the night has been turned into water drops by this
layer of cold air before it could rise from the grass
or the leaves. If the night had been cold enough
the vapor would be frozen, and there would be
frost instead of dew.
See the clouds gather and the sky grow dark
and the rain begin to fall. Whence did it come?
The thin vapor that the heat of the sun carried
from the ocean and the lakes and the rivers into
the air has met a layer of cold air, at some dis-
tance above the earth, and has been turned by it
into water drops that filled the clouds and that are
now falling to the earth. We say the vapor has
been condensed into water. If the layer of air is
cold enough the vapor that rises will become snow.
When the vapor rises very rapidly so that it
reaches a high and very cold layer of air before it
freezes, it condenses into ice pellets called Jiail.
To produce this rapid rise of the vapor, great heat
is required and for this reason hail storms usually
occur in the warm season of the year and in the
hottest part of the day.
In these ways the water that has been evaporated
by the heat of the sun and carried upward in the
air is condensed and returned again, in dew and
rain, frost and snow, to the earth and the sea,
thus preventing the streams and the ocean from
drying up.
The water of springs, rivers, and lakes is all
first taken from the sea in vapor. When this
vapor cools and the rain falls upon the earth,
springs, rivers, and lakes are formed. Thus you
will see that the ocean is the source of all the
moisture of the earth, as the sun is the source
of all the heat.
CLIMA TE.
23
For Recitation:
1 . The heat of the sun takes up moisture from
the sea and the earth in the form of vapor, which
floats in the air.
2. The surface of the earth at night cools the
air next to it, and turns its moisture to water
drops, called dew. This cold air also condenses
into dew the vapors that rise from the earth, and
in this way part of the moisture taken up by the
sun's heat is returned to the earth.
3. The cold air above our heads condenses into
Tain drops the vapors that have been taken up
from the earth and the sea by the sun's heat.
These rain drops fall to the earth and help to
keep up its moisture, and to keep its streams,
lakes, and oceans from becoming dry.
4. The ocean is the source of all the moisture
of the earth.
Write a sentence, using the words heat, water,
evaporated.
Write a sentence, using the words vapor, con-
densed, water.
XI. CLIMATE.
3^or Reading:
Climate is the name for a condition of the
atmosphere with respect to the amount of heat
and moisture it contains. Some places have a
lot climate, others a cool climate, and still others
a cold climate; some have a moist and others a
•dry climate.
In most places, as you have already learned, the
■climate changes with the seasons of the year.
On low or very large plains in those parts of
tlie world where the sun at noon is nearly or
■directly overhead, the climate is hot. On high
mountains in the same region, as you have
learned, it will be cool.
Winds often carry air loaded with vapor a long
distance into cooler currents of air, or against cold
mountain sides, where the moisture is condensed
into rain, thus giving countries at a distance from
the sea a moist and agreeable climate.
When this vapor is blown against mountains
it is sometimes stopped by them, preventing
countries on the opposite side of the mountains
from receiving rain.
Mountains sometimes stop the cold winds that
blow against them, thus giving a warmer climate
to countries on the opposite side.
You see, therefore, that winds and mountains,
though they cannot produce either heat or moist-
ure, have much to do with making the climate of
a place dry or moist, warm or cool.
Another very interesting and important thing
about climate you may learn for yourself. Take
a bucket of water and a bucket of sand and place
them side by side in the sun on the morning of a
hot day. At noon the sand will be much hotter
than the water. Why? Because the earth takes
in heat much faster than the water.
Now let both buckets stand till midnight or till
near morning of the next day. The water will
now be warmer than the sand. Why ? Because
the sand throws out the heat it has taken in much
faster than the water, and therefore cools quicker.
Now think of the ocean as a great bucket of
water and the continent as a great bucket of sand.
In the summer days the continents will take in
heat much faster than the ocean, and become
much hotter. Therefore, if you live near the
ocean, where the air from it can reach you before
it is heated by the land, you will find a cooler cli-
mate in summer than if you live far away from it.
In the cold weather of winter the continent
throws off" its heat much faster than the ocean,
and therefore becomes cold, much sooner. If
you now live near the ocean, which at this season
/^#^2f%^
24
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
is much warmer than the land, you will find the air
around you less cold than if you lived far away.
You may thus discover that the nearness of
a place to the ocean, or its distance from it, has
much to do with its climate.
For Recitation:
1 . In those parts of the world where the sun at
noon is nearly or directly overhead, the climate on
low or very large plains is extremely hot.
2. Winds sometimes carry vapor from the ocean
to places at a distance, where it is condensed into
rain by cold currents of air or by high mountains.
3. Countries on one side of mountain ranges are
sometimes without rain, because the mountains
stop the vapor blown against them on the oppo-
site side.
4. Countries on one side of a mountain range
are sometimes much warmer than countries on the
other, because the mountains have kept off the
cold winds from that side.
5. Countries near the sea coast have a cooler
climate in summer and a warmer climate in win-
ter than those far away from it.
Home Questions. — Where you live, is the cli-
mate hot or cool? Moist or dry? What is the
difference between the summer and winter climate,
where you live ? Where you live, what winds are
hottest? What winds are cool? What winds
usually bring rain? Can you get any one you
know to tell you why ?
XII. BELTS OF CLIMATE CALLED ZONES.
A strip, or belt, of the earth, very wide from
north to south, and extending all the way around
the globe from east to west, lies directly opposite
the sun. Such a belt, you know, must be very
hot. Because it is so hot it is called the Torrid
Zone. (Torrid means //<?/, and zone means belt
of country.)
The parts of the earth farthest north and south
from the Torrid Zone are the coldest regions. This
is because the sun's rays strike them obliquely,
that is, slantingly, as you see in the picture.
They are called Frigid Zones. (Frigid means
very cold.)
Between the Torrid and the Frigid Zones are
broad belts of country neither extremely hot nor
extremely cold, called Temperate Zones.
The Torrid Zone is distinguished for the size
and beauty of its trees and flowers, for its spices
and rich fruits, and the strong odor of its plants.
The mahogany, palm, coffee, and cinnamon trees,
the banana, pineapple, and sugar cane flourish in
this zone. The largest animals are found amid its
luxuriant vegetation, and the forests swarm with
birds of brilliant plumage, insects, and reptiles.
The Temperate Zones are distinguished for
their abundance of the fruits and grains most
useful to man, for forests producing timber best
adapted to the building of houses and ships and
the manufacture of furniture, and for plants
adapted for clothing, such as cotton, flax, and
hemp. In this zone wild animals are less numerous
than in the Torrid Zone, but the more useful ani-
mals, such as the horse, cow, sheep, and deer, are
abundant.
The Frigid Zones produce nothing but mosses
and lichens, except in the more temperate parts,
where a little barley and r>^e are grown, and a few
pines and other hardy trees are found. Compar-
atively few land animals are found in this zone,
but sea fowl are very numerous, and the sea
abounds with the whale, seal, and walrus.
For Recitation:
Questions. — Why is the Torrid Zone hot?
Why are the Frigid Zones coldest? Why are
the Temperate Zones neither so hot as the Torrid
ZONES.
25
Zone nor so cold as the Frigid Zones ? What is said
of the vegetation of the Torrid Zone ? The animals ?
Vegetation of the Temperate Zones ? Animals ?
Vegetation of the Frigid Zones ? Animals ?
Questions on Picture of the Zones.— What is the I Where is the South Temperate Zone? The North Tem-
name of the zone farthest north? Farthest south? | perate Zone? Name all the zones from south to north.
From the Torrid Zone north. From the Torrid Zone I perate Zone. ) Between what zones does the Torrid Zone
south. In which zone do you live? {Ans. North Tein- \ lie? The North Temperate Zone? The South Temperate
26
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
Zone? In which zone do you see fierce wild animals?
In what zone do you see animals useful for food or work?
Which zone looks pleasantest? Why? What do you see
in the North Frigid Zone?
Write a description of the zones from the picture of them.
Questions on Map of the Zones.' — Is the Equator
nearer the North Pole or the South Pole? Measure and
see. Where, then, should you say the Equator is?
What, then, should you say the B^quator is? What two
lines south of the Equator? Which of them is nearer
the Equator? Between what lines is the South Temper-
ate Zone? The Torrid Zone? The North Temperate
Zone? What line bounds the North Frigid Zone on the
south? What line bounds the South Temperate Zone on
the north? If you were to pass from one zone to another,
would you see these lines? Why? Draw a map of the
zones from memory.
XIII. OCCUPATIONS.
OFiAL EXERCISE.
(i) Farming. What is the business of the
fanD,er? Make a list of all the products of the
farm and garden that you can think of. What
are these products called? i^Ans. Vegetable
Products.^ Are the farms you know of on slop-
ing or level ground? Do you think farming
1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 14. '
regions are generally found on hills, or in val-
leys ? Why should they be found there ?
(2) Mining. What does the miner do?
Make a list of all the minerals you can
think of. Have you ever .seen a mine?
What kind of a mine? Where? What are the
products of mines called?
(3) Manufacturing. Name all the manu-
factured articles that 3^ou can think of. What
are all such articles called? Name three things
that drive the machinery in factories, i. .
(4) From the following list select the manu-
OCCUPATIONS.
27
factured articles: Wheat, cloth, stoves, butter,
iron, wool, milk, flour, cotton, rice, cheese, pud-
ding, starch, wine, potatoes, grapes, raisins,
horseshoes, leather, cattle, 'hides. Tell from
what each is made.
W^RITTEN EXERCISE.
Choose from the three following subjects and
write as fully as you can upon it:
1 . A description of what I have seen men doing
on a farm.
2. A description of what I have seen men doing
in a mine.
3. A description of what I have seen people
doing in a factory.
ORAL EXERCISE.
(4) CoiVTMERCE. Name all the useful things
you can think of that come from other states or
countries. Name all the things you can think of
that are produced in this state and that are taken
to other states and countries to sell. How do the
things that come from other countries or states
get here? How are the things that we produce
taken to other states and countries? What is
the business of exchanging these things called?
Name all the classes of people you can think of
that are employed in order to make these ex-
changes.
Vv^RITTEN EXERCISE.
Write a short composition that shall answer
all the above questions and read it for the next
recitation.
oral exercise.
(5) Things that Favor Different Occu-
pations. What are fertile lands ? Barren lands ?
Where the slopes are long and gradual and the
rivers slow, making the valleys large, what kind
of land, fertile or barren, should we expect to
find ? What should we expect to find most of the
people doing?
Where the, slopes are shorter and steeper, and
the rivers swift, with frequent rapids, what should
we expect to find many people doing? Why?
In what kind of country should we expect to
find mining?
In a country with an uneven coast line, having
many inlets and harbors, what branch of industry
should we expect to see flourish ? Why ? What
is a harbor? What harbors do you know of in
this state ?
-WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Write what you have learned in studying the
last exercise and read it for the next recitation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
1. What is a slope? A hill? A mountain? A mount-
ain range? A lake? A river; right bank; left bank; bed;
source; mouth; rapids; levee; crevasse? A river system;
tributary? A river basin? A watershed? A plateau?
2. What is an island? A peninsula? A gulf? An
isthmus? A strait? Compare an island with a lake.
Compare a gulf with a peninsula. An isthmus with a
strait. Define a continent. An ocean. What is the
difference between lake water and ocean water?
3. What is a hemisphere? Into what hemispheres is
the earth usually divided? What is the large body of
land in the Western Hemisphere called? In the Eastern
Hemisphere? How large a part of the earth's surface is
land and how large a part is water?
4. Why is it hotter at noon than in the morning?
Why is it hotter near the surface of the earth than it is
several thousand feet above it? From what source does
the earth receive moisture? When moisture is solid,
what do we call it? When it is liquid, what do we call
it? When water is evaporated, what do we call the
moisture? When moisture floats in the air, is it solid,
liquid, or vapor? How does it become liquid? Why is
it sometimes true that the climate on one side of a
mountain range is very wet, and on the other very dry?
How do mountains sometimes give a warm climate to the
countries on one side of them?
Name the zones in their order, beginning with the most
northerly. Between what lines is the Torrid Zone?
What line divides it in the center? Which is the hottest
zone? Why? Which are the coldest zones? Why?
Which are the best zones to live in? Why?
28
ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
XIV. REVIEW
OF ELEMENTARY MAP
READING.
[In the study of this map, the knowledge to be
gained of California is merely incidental, the primary
object being, simply, to give additional exercise in
map reading before taking up the general map studies
of the book. Hold pupils to this work till they read
accurately and quickly all that is called for by the
questions. It is not designed that the answers should
be memorized.]
Questions. — Point north on the map; south; west;
east. Point to water; to land. Trace, with pencil,
the line of land bordering the water; what name do
you give to it? Point to mountains and name them;
to other mountains. Trace, with pencil, the
mountains on the east side of the state; the
west side. Point out three rivers and
name them. Where is the source of
each? Trace each to its mouth. Tell
direction of mouth from source.
Point out and name three lakes
and tell in what part of
California each is. Point
to San P'rancisco; to
Sacramento; to
three towns
near San
Francisco and
name them; to three
towns in the southern
part of the state and name
them; to three towns in the
northern part of the state and
name them; to Mt. Shasta. Trace
the Sacramento River from Mt. Shasta
to Sacramento. In what direction does
it flow? Do you go up hill or. down from
Shasta to Sacramento? From Colusa to Sacra
mento? How do you tell? From Marysville to
the Sacramento River? From Placerville? F'rom
Colfax? From Jackson? From Oroville? From San
Andreas to Stockton? Do the rivers on the east side
the Sacramento River run from the Sacramento to the n
ains or from the mountains to the Sacramento? In what direction
does the land slope between the eastern mountains and
the Sacramento? In what direction does the land slope
between the western mountains and the Sacramento and
San Joaquin Rivers? How does the land slope between
Pronunciations.— Col' fax; Los An'gel5s(lez); Pla'cerville; San
An'dreas; San Ber nar di/no; San Joaquin (san wah keen').
Santa Ana and San Bernardino? Between Wilmington
and Los Angeles? How can you tell by the map which
way the land slopes? Is Los Angeles or San Diego on
higher ground ?
TOPICAL OUTLINE OF ELEMENTARY LESSONS.
29
TOPICAL OUTLINE OF ELEMENTARY LESSONS FOR USE BY THE TEACHER.
, f I. Northeast,
I. North I ^_ Northwest.
Direction J
2. South
3. East.
^4. West.
J I. Southeast.
l^ 2. Southwest.
T-,. ^. r I I- Wind currents — from.
Direction of <! ,,, ■' ,
2. Water currents — toward.
Guides to Direction
1. Sun.
2. Compass.
Actual
1. Measuring.
2. Judging.
Distances <^
1^ 2. Arbitrary, ScaL
-Computing.
Map Reading
fori
I. Direction.
[ 2. Distance.
Surface Forms <
I. Slope. 2. Hill.
3. Mountain.
4. Mountain Range.
5. Mountain System.
I. Lands 6. Valley — Basin.
7. Plain — Plateau.
8. Island.
9. Peninsula.
. 10. Cape. II. Isthmus.
V2.
Water
1. Lake.
2. River
1. Rapids.
2. Cataract.
^ 3. Crevasse.
3. River System.
4. Gulf. 5. Strait.
Map Reading for — Surface Forms.
( I. Shape — proof.
Circumference.
2. Size
[l
Diameter.
The Earth J
asa Whole 1
1. Daily — how J
3. Motions \ 1 2- Night.
2. Yearly— //(^w— Seasons.
__ . , ,1. Eastern.
14- Hemispheres (^_^^3^^^„_
Climate
I!
Heat.
2. Moisture.
Zones <^
{I. Location.
2. Vegetation.
3. Animals.
I. North — location.
Temperate \ 2. South — location.
3. Vegetation. 4. Animals.
{I. ISloTth.— location.
2. South — location.
3. Vegetation. 4. Animals.
I. Farming — Conditions of .
Occupations <| 2. Mining — Conditions of.
3. Manufacturing — Conditions of.
Map Reading for
1. Direction.
2. Distance.
3. Surface Forms.
^ 4. Towns and Cities.
THE NEW WORLD— WESTERN HEMISPHERE.
The lines that run north and
south on this map are called
MERIDIANS.
The lines that run east and
west are called parai,i<ei<s
of latitude.
Questions on
THE Map. — i. How
many oceans do you find
in this hemisphere? Write
their names. Which is farthest
north? In what zone is it? Which farthest
south? In what zone? Which lies in the eastern
part of the hemisphere? In the western part? What
strait connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific? In
what direction is the continent of this hemisphere longer
— north and south or east and west? On which side of
the Equator is the larger part of it? Into what two Grand
Divisions is it divided? What isthmus joins them?
Which of these Grand Divisions do you think is the
warmer? Why? The longest range of mountains in the
world lies along
the western coast of
this continent. What is
the part of it in North Amer-
ica called? In South America?
2. Write the name of a river in North America that
flows north. That flows south. That flows west. In
what zone is the mouth of the Mackenzie River? Would
you think the river navigable? Why? In how many and
what zones is North America? Write the name of a river
in South America that flows south. That flows east.
Abbreviations.— I., Island; Is., Islands; R., River; Pt., Point; Sd.,-
Sound; Str., Strait; C, Cape; G., Gulf.
Pronunciations.— An' des (diz); Bearing; Pan' a ma.
THE OLD WORLD— EASTERN HEMISPHERE.
Questions on
THE Map. — I. Write
the names of the oceans
you find in this hemisphere.
Which of these did you find in
the Western Hemisphere? What ocean is
wholly in the Eastern Hemisphere? What bay and seas
cut into the land from this ocean? Through what strait
does the Red Sea cut into the land? What gulf, bay, and
seas cut into the land from the Atlantic Ocean? What
sea passes in through the Strait of Gib raF(rawl)tar?
What seas cut into the land from the Pacific Ocean?
2. What are the three Grand Divisions of the Eastern
Continent? By what water is Europe separated from
Africa ? What
water between Eu-
rope and Asia (a'she-a)?
Between Africa and Asia?
Write the names of four islands
between Asia and Australia.
3. Write the name of a river in Europe that flows north.
That flows east. That flows south. Write the same of
rivers in Africa. Write the names of three rivers of Asia
that flow north. Three that flow east. Two that flow
south.
Pronunciations.— Ben ^aV(gawl); BSb el man^deb; Bdr'ne o;
C61/ebes; Ja'va; Su(soo) ma''tra.
32
RACES AND CONDITIONS OF MEN.
Questions on Both Hemispheres. — Which Grand
Division of the world extends farthest north? Which
farthest south? Which is longest from east to west?
Which from north to south? Which extends farther
south, North America or Asia? Which extends farther
north, South America or Africa? Which two Grand
Divisions have the smoothest coast line?
In what direction from North America is South Amer-
ica? Europe? Asia? Africa? In what direction from
South America is Europe? Asia? Africa? In what
direction from Africa is Europe? Asia?
Reverse each question in the last paragraph.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Review the first group of questions on the map
of the Western Hemisphere; then copy and fill
out the following outline with the i?iformation
obtabted:
"I find oceans in the Western Hemi-
sphere, the -
is farthest —
the is farthest
the is on the -
the on the —
the , , . Of these
and lies in the zone;
- and Hes in the zone;
side of the hemisphere and
The continent is longest
from to and the greater part lies
of the Equator. It is divided into the
of and , which are joined by
the . is the warmer of these
because . The long range of mount-
ains along the western coast receives the name of
mountains in and mountains
in ."
In a similar way, write a short composition to
tell what you have learned from answers to ques-
tions in the second group.
RACES AND CONDITIONS OF MEN.
For Reading:
People in different parts of the globe differ in
color of skin and in general appearance. Those
alike in these respects are said to belong to the
same Race.
There are five races^ of men — the Caucasian
(cauca'sian), or white race; the Mongolian (mon-
golian), or yellow race; the Malay', or brown
race; the Ethiopian, or negro race; the Indian,
or copper-colored race.
The Caucasian is found nearly everywhere, but
is most numerous in Europe and America, where
it is the ruling race. The Mongolian lives mostly
in eastern Asia; the Malay in Australia and the
islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans; the
Ethiopian in Africa, and the copper-colored race
in America.
1 Reading Hour: World at Large, p. 74, 1,es. 32, The Ethiopian: p.
99, Les. 42, The Indian.
In different parts of the globe, also, people live
in very different ways. These ways of living are
sometimes spoken of as Savage, Half Civilized,
and Civilized.
In the Savage condition men do not read or
write or live in houses. They have only the
rudest huts, and sometimes not even so much as
those. The African negroes and the American
Indians are of this sort.
In the Half Civilized state mankind know
little of such things as telegraphs, railroads, and
steamboats, and have but few books. Many of
them lead a wandering life with flocks of sheep
and herds of cattle. This state of society pre-
vails throughout most of Asia.
We find among Civilized people well built
houses, railroads, steamboats, telegraphs, schools,
colleges, and' many books. Civilization prevails
in the society of Europe and America and in the
GOVERNMENTS.
33
British possessions in Asia, and in other parts of
the world where Europeans have settled.
3. In what part of the world does each chiefly
belong? How many of these races make up the
population of Cahfomia ? Which are they ? Which
have you seen? Describe them.
4. Name the three different conditions of society.
5. Describe the Savage condition. What peo-
ple are in this condition?
6. Describe the Half Civilized
condition. In what part of the
globe is it found ?
For Recitation:
1. When are people said
to belong to the same race ?
2. How many races are there and what are
their names?
7. What are the marks of a Civilized state, and
where does it exist?
GOVERNMENTS.
H
For Reading:
Most of the Governments of the world are
either Republics or Monarchies.
The place where the chief officers reside and
where the laws are made is called the Capital.
In republics the people choose the men who are
to govern them. The chief ruler is usually called
a President.
In monarchies the chief ruler is not chosen by
the people, but is the son or heir of a former
ruler.
In some monarchies the laws are made by men
34
NORTH AMERICA.
who are chosen by the people, and the monarch
simply sees that they are obeyed.
In other monarchies, whatever the sovereign
decrees is law. When this is the case the gov-
ernment is called a Despotism.
When the chief ruler of a monarchy is called
a King or Queen, the country is called a King-
dom; when the chief ruler is called an Emperor
the country is called an Empire.
The greatest progress in knowledge, invention,
and comfortable ways of living is made in repub-
lics and in monarchies whose people have a large
share in the government.
NORTH AMERICA.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map and not
committed to memory.]
1. Position, Form, and Extent. — In what hemi-
sphere is North America? In what part? Start east
from the Arctic Ocean, pass around North America atid
name all the waters that wash its shores. Name the
waters that cut into the land. The peninsulas and capes
that project into the water. Is the coast line regular or
irregular? What part of North America is widest? For
how many miles does an inch on this map stand? Meas-
ure the map from Cape Prince of Wales to the Isthmus of
Panama. How far is it by your rule? For how many
tniles does that stand? Measure the map frojn the north-
ern point of Queen Charlotte's Island to St. fohns, New-
foundland (new'fund land). How far is it by your rule?
For how many miles does that stand? What, then, is the
greatest length of North America? What is its greatest
width?
2. Mountains. — In what part of North America do you
find mountain ranges ? In what direction does the eastern
range run? The western ranges? Which of the western
ranges is farthest east? Which two lie nearest the Pacific
coast? What range between these and the Rocky
Mountains?
Write a short composition to tell iv hat y on have
learned from the answers to questions in the last
group.
3. Si,OPES, Rivers, Lakes. — How can you tell, on the
map^ which way the land slopes?
By following the rivers, we shall find all the land in
North America included in four great land slopes: The
Arctic Slope; The Atlantic Slope; The Gulf Slope; and
The Pacific Slope. Within each of these great slopes we
shall also find many smaller ones.
In which of these great slopes does each of the follow-
ing rivers lie: The Mississippi; The Ohio; Missouri;
Arkansas (ar'kan saw) ; Red. — Colora'do ; Columbia;
Yu'kon. — Mackenzie; Nelson. — St. Lawrence.
Describe each of the above by the following
Model: The Mississippi River lies in the Southern, or
Gulf, Slope of North America. It rises in the northern
part of the United States and flows in a southerly direc-
tion to the Gulf of Mexico. Its eastern tributary is the
Ohio, and its western tributaries are the Missouri, the
Arkansas, and the Red Rivers.
Is it up hill or down from the eastern mountains to the
Mississippi? From the Mississippi to the Rocky Mount-
ains? In what direction does the land slope on each side
of the Mississippi? Name and locate five large lakes
connected with one another.
4. Zones and Climate. — In how many zones does
North America lie? In what zone is the greater part of
North America? In what zone is the northern part?
The central part? The southern part? What varieties
of climate will you, therefore, find in North America?
5. Countries of North America. — Beginning at the
north, name the four principal countries of North Amer-
ica. Bound the United States; British America; Mex-
ico; Central America. Name the capital of each. The
chief city.
Model: The United States is bounded on the north by
British America, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on
the south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, on the
west by the Pacific Ocean; capital, Washington; chief
city. New York.
6. Give the location of the following islands: Green-
land; Iceland; Newfoundland; Bermuda Islands; Ba-
hama Islands; Cuba; Hay'ti; Porto Ri'co; Jamaica.
Model: Greenland is an island lying in the Atlantic
Ocean northeast of North 'America. Iceland is east of
Greenland.
To what group of islands do the last four named be-
long?
Pronunciation.— Car ib bean.
^TT
Loiii^itude "West
^ -Y^
Greenwich ,?
^
^^
,.'--<i)\
^
o.^/er
<
>o
^^/i^
''■.9*><C£R I 'Vl \.
NOHTH
AMERICA ^
SCALE, 700 MILES TO ONE INCH.-
SCALE OF MILES
200 400 000 800
^ Capital.
® Ijirgest Town or City.
@ Capital and Largest City.
20,000 Feet
16.000 Feet
10,000 Feet
6,000 Feet
Jl,D.S«rTOM.Eiig'r.N.T.
36
NORTH AMERICA.
Description of Animals Shown in the
Picture.
For Reading Only:
The Seal lives mostly in the water, though spending
some months of each year on land. The organs by
which it moves are neither legs nor fins, but resemble
both, and its motions on land are very awkward and
laughable. It is found chiefly in the polar regions and
never in the tropics. The different kinds vary in length
from five to twelve feet, and are large in proportion.
Its fur is of the highest value. Seals are very intelli-
gent animals with soft, beautiful eyes. Many amusing
anecdotes are told of their behavior, when tamed.
The Walrus belongs to the same family as the seal,
inhabiting only the polar regions. It is an enormously
large animal, being from twelve to fifteen feet in length.
Its tusks furnish a good ivory. It is valuable for its skin,
teeth, and oil. The Polar, or White, Bear is a pow-
erful animal, living on fish and seals, which it captxu-es,
but is able to go a long time without food. It is a good
swimmer, sometimes crossing a strait forty miles in
width. It has been said to bury itself under the snow in
winter, remaining during the entire season. This is true,
however, only of the female. The male roams at large
in winter as well as in summer. The Grizzly Bear,
which inhabits the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountain
region, is more dreaded than any other animal of North
America. This bear is about eight feet long, eight feet
around the body, and weighs about 800 pounds. Its
strength is enormous, it runs swiftly, its claws are
sharp, and its anger is terrible. Other wild animals live
in such fear of this bear that even a hungry wolf will
rapidly leave the locality marked by the print of the
grizzly's feet. The Rocky Mountain Sheep is about
three and a half feet high at the shoulders and is found
in troops of twenty or thirty inhabiting the region of
the most inaccessible rocks, timid, and fleeing from the
approach of man. The Moose is the largest of the
deer tribe, is seven feet high, with large, flat, branching
horns. It does not reach its full size till about fourteen
years of age. The Beaver is an animal belonging to
the tribe o{ gnawers, social in disposition, living in col-
onies, and building houses and dams out of trees, brush,
and stones, stuck together with mud. It has been
thought that the beaver plasters on the mud with its
broad tail, as a mason plasters with a trowel, but this is
denied by those who have observed the creature's opera-
tions. The beaver employs its teeth in felling and cut-
ting up the trees used in its structures, which are built
in the clear streams of British America and the northern
part of the United States. The Virginia Deer is a
beautiful and active creature whose flesh, called venison
(vSn^izn), is much prized for food, and whose skin is
used by the Indians for clothing. The horns of the
male are large and branching, and grow and fall off" every
year. While in the early stages of grov^rth, they are
burning hot, owing to the fierce flow of the blood through
them necessary to build up the bone so rapidly. The
Antelope is a graceful little animal with slender legs, a
split hoof, and short tail, resembling the deer. It is
found on the unsettled western prairies. — r-The Bison
travels in herds on the treeless plains of the temperate
zone, and is fast disappearing. Great numbers have been
slaughtered for their hides only, and their bodies left to
the wolves and birds. The flesh is of good quality for
food. The Panther is an animal of the cat tribe, and is
found almost everywhere in the wild forests of the Tem-
perate Zone. It is a fierce and cruel creature, quick of
motion, with sharp teeth and claws, and is more than a
match for almost any dog. The Peccary, found in the
warm climates of North America, is a kind of wild pig,
weighing only fifty or sixty pounds. It has little intelli-
gence, a fierce disposition, and no fear. A herd of these
animals has been known to put to rout a party of hunters
and dogs in the utmost confusion. — <— The Alligator be-
longs to the crocodile tribe of reptiles. It is found mostly
in the rivers and lakes of the states bordering on the Gulf
of Mexico, and is a powerful creature about ten feet in
length. The alligator is a hard creature to kill. When
pierced by bullets and stuck full of spears it still writhes
and struggles, snapping its jaws and lashing its tail with
great fiury. The Eagle of North America is a bird of
lofty and fierce bearing, of keen sight, and swift wing—
a bird dreaded by all the rest of the feathered tribe that
inhabit the same locality. Though, on account of its
covurage and strength, it was selected as the emblem of
our nation, yet Benjamin Franklin objected to the selec-
tion, because it is "a bird of bad moral character and
does not get its living honestly." The Wild Turkey
inhabits the forest regions of the central part of the
United States, where it is much sought by hunters and
valued as food. It bears a close resemblance to the
domestic turkey. The tame Parrot is well known. In
its wild state the favorite food of the North American
parrot is cockle-burs. It is affectionate in disposition
and often manifests its tenderness in a touching manner.
Reading Hour: Wood's Mammalia, p. 509, The Seal; p. 513, The
Walrus; p. 409, The Polar Bear: p. 400, The Grizzly Bear; p. 683,
The Rocky Mountain Sheep; p. 688, The Moose; p. 566, The Beaver;
p. 701, The Virginia Deer; p. 605, The Antelope; p. 630, The Bison;
p. 163, The Panther; p. 751, The Peccary.
Wood's Reptiles, p. 31, The Alligator.
Wood's Birds, p. 46, The Eagle; p. 620, The Wild Turkey; p. 526,
The Parrot. .
What wild animals have you seen in your own neigh borhooa ?
lfe"each pupil take some animal of the picture, learn its habits,
and, Friday afternoon, impart his information.
ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA.
37
38
NORTH AMERICA.
DESCRIPTION.
NATURAL DIVISIONS OF NORTH AMERICA.
[The Reading Hour: As the study of North America
proceeds ask pupils to look in such books of those re-
ferred to for supplementary reading as may be at com-
mand, or any books, magazines, or newspapers that touch
the matter in hand, and find some brief extract suitable
to read in class. ]
I. Atlantic Slope.
For Reading:
If you have studied the map questions well, you
have learned the size of North America by meas-
uring the map. You have noticed the chain of
mountains on the east and the ranges on the west,
and you have followed out the rivers to the sea
in four directions — have you not? — east, north,
south, and west.
Now, look again at the map and notice once
more the Appala'chian (eastern) range of mount-
ains. The country east of these, as you see by
the short rivers, slopes rapidly down to the Atlan-
tic Ocean, and this slope along the whole eastern
side of North America is called the Atlantic Slope,
or Atlantic Plain, and is the most thickly settled
part of this Grand Division.
Many fine rivers flow down from the mountains
through this plain. The largest cities of North
America are built on these rivers and on the bays
that cut into the land. Vessels pass up and down
their channels, carrying the articles of an exten-
sive trade.
Many smaller streams also run down from the
hills of this slope and furnish water power to turn
the machinery of factories to make cotton cloth,
woolen cloth, shoes, paper, railroad cars, furniture,
and almost everything that people use.
For Recitation:
I. I. The land of North America east of the
Appalachian Mountains is called the Atlantic
Slope. The Atlantic Slope is more thickly peopled
than any other division of North America.
2. The largest cities of North America are built
on the rivers of this slope and on the bays of the
Atlantic coast.
3. Many small streams furnish water power for
mills and factories.
Note. — In the sections, "For Recitation," a variety
of method has been suggested. In some instances a
brief statement of the leading points of the text has
been made for the pupil to memorize. This has been
done, mainly, to show him how to summarize for him-
self in answer to questions, and is confined chiefly to the
earlier lessons of the book. In other cases questions are
asked, and in others, still, the topic, merely, is suggested.
The teacher can vary these methods as the ability of the
class may suggest.
II. The Great Central Plain.
For Reading:
Now let us look once more at the map and
imagine ourselves to be upon the top of the Appa-
lachian Mountains. If we turn toward the west
we shall be looking down upon the most important
region of this Grand Division. It is called the
Great Central Plain of North America, and ex-
tends westward from the Appalachian Mountains
to the Rocky Mountains, and north and south
from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico.
In this Great Central Plain, about half way
from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf, Hes a strip of
high land that crosses it from east to west, and
which is called the Height of Land.
This strip divides the Great Central Plain into
two parts, so that all the large rivers on the south
of the strip, except the St. Lawrence, which breaks
out eastward from the Great Plain to the Atlantic
Ocean, flow south toward the Gulf of Mexico,
and all on the north flow toward the Arctic Ocean.
These two parts of the Great Central Plain are
THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.
39
two of the four great slopes of North
America. Five of the largest and most
important lakes in the world lie on the
southern side of this Height of Land.
They are connected with one another by
narrow straits and short rivers, like links,
and are, therefore, often called "the
chain of Great Lakes."
Lake Superior is the farthest west,
and is the highest of these lakes, which
flow down, one into another, until they
reach Lake Ontario, whose waters flow
through the St. Lawrence River to the
sea. The waters of Lake Erie, when
flowing through Niag'ara River into
Lake Ontario, fall over a great precipice.
OuTLixE OF North America.
1 60 feet down, making the famous Falls
of Niagara. The roar of the falling
water is sometimes heard for fifty miles,
and a cloud of vapor rises constantly
from the foot of the falls.
Nearly all of the Great Central Plain
Progressive Map Drawing. — Four draw-
ings of North America by Charles Boehme, a
pupil in the fifth year of the schools of Sac-
ramento, are given to illustrate a valuable
means of impressing the essential facts relat-
ing to a country upon the mind of the pupil.
These maps are drawn from inspection — no
measurements being taken. The series should
be carried to a fifth map, adding the leading
cities. The child who does it clumsily is
helped as much as the more skillful. A simi-
lar progressive series should be drawn of all
maps given in the book.
40
NORTH AMERICA.
lying south of the Height of Land is in the Gulf
Slope, and consists mainly of the Mississippi
Valley.
It is the largest fertile tract of land in North
America. If you look at the map and notice its
great extent, and what part of the Temperate
Zone it is in, and thfe g^eat number of rivers that
run through it, you would guess this without
being told.
The part of the Great Central Plain
that lies north of the Height of
Land is called the Arctic Slope.
It is well watered, as
wiU see by the map, and
that part of the slope
lying near the Great
Lakes is fertile. Far-
ther north, however,
though the rivers are
abundant, but little
can be raised, and
therefore the inhabit-
ants are few. Look at
the map and give the
reason for this.
For Recitation:
II. I. The region of country between the Appa-
lachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains, all
the way from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of
Mexico, is called the Great Central Plain of
North America.
2. The Height of Land is a strip of country,
slightly elevated, which crosses the Great Central
Plain from east to west, about half way from the
Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico.
3. Most of the country south of this strip slopes
toward the Gulf of Mexico, and that on the north
toward the Arctic Ocean.
4. Five of the largest lakes in the world lie on
the southern side of this Height of Land.
5. The waters of these lakes flow eastward
through the St. Lawrence River to the ocean.
6. Nearly all of the Great Central Plain lying
south of the Height of Land is in the Gulf Slope.
7. The Gulf Slope is the largest fertile tract of
land in North America.
8. The part of the Great Central
Plain lying north of the Height
of Land is called the Arctic
Slope.
9. The southern part
of the Arctic Slope is
fertile, the northern
part unproductive.
III. Plateau Region
AND Pacific Slope.
For Reading:
As we go westward
from the Missouri
River, across the Great
Central Plain, we begin
slowly to ascend the
eastern side of the
Rocky Mountains. The ascent is so gradual that
travelers are often surprised to be told that they
are on the top of the mountains, when they seem
all the time to have been crossing a plain.
Between the Rocky Mountains and the Si er'ra
Neva'da Range, a region of high land, sometimes
called the Great Plateau Region, stretches on to
the west for nearly 1,000 miles. Here and there
in this region some mountain streams ripple
through narrow valleys that can ' be cultivated,
but the general surface is rugged and rocky, some
of its peaks rising nearly three miles above the
level of the sea.
PEOPLE, PRODUCTIONS, AND ISLANDS.
41
In the Rocky Mountain system are
found some of the greatest of those
wonderful cuts through mountains,
called canons (kan'yon). These canons
seem like great chasms, or splits, in the
earth, but in reality they are deep chan-
nels, worn by streams of water flowing
for thousands and thousands of years.
The most remarkable of these chan-
nels is the canon of the Colorado River, ^
whose sides, or walls, rise, in some
places, straight up nearly a mile and a
half. If you can think of some place a
mile and a half away, and then imagine
that place to be lifted up overhead,
keeping all the time at the same dis-
tance, you would get a good notion of
the depth of one of these canons.
This Plateau Region, though rough,
is full of interest, and the journey
across it brings us at last to the Pacific
Slope. Here verdure and beauty spring
up again, and rich valleys, bearing
nearly all kinds of grains and fruits,
spread out before us.
For Recitation:
III. I. Describe the ascent of the Rocky
Mountains from the eastern side.
2. That part of North America lying Ijetween
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada
Range is a highland, called the Great Plateau
Region, and is nearly 1,000 miles wide. What
about streams and valleys in the Plateau Region ?
3. Many great canons are found in the Plateau
Region. A caiion is a deep channel worn in the
earth by a stream of water flowing for thousands
of years.
4. Write a description of the Colorado Canon.
5. The country west of the Plateau Region is
1 Reading Hour: King' fi Met /tods and Aids in Geography, pp. 281,
282, Caflons of the Colorado.
OuTLiXE, Mountains, and Drainage.
called the Pacific Slope, and is a rich and fertile
region, producing a great variety of grains and
fruits.
PEOPLE, PRODUCTIONS, ISLANDS.
I. Original Inhabitants.
For Reading:
But few of the inhabitants now remain who
occupied North America when the whites first
came. The Esquimaux^ (es'ke moz) still dwell
along the northeastern and northern shores in
their round topped huts, and subsist by hunting
and fishing. They are clothed with seal skins in
winter and reindeer* skins in summer.
1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 27, Esquimaux Houses.
Seven Little Sisters, p. 9, The Esquimaux Sister.
Scribner's Geographical Reader and Primer, pp. 79-82.
2 Easy Steps for Little Feet, p. 12, The Reindeer.
42
NORTH AMERICA.
^ M..
A few of the Red m&n, or Indians,* yet remain
in the western part of the Central Plain and in
the Rocky Mountain region. When the whites
came the Indians occupied all of North America
except the southern part and the country of the
Esquimaux. Huts of bark, or tents, called
wigwams, like those you see in the pict
ure, formed their dwellings; and game
taken in the hunt, with fish from
the rivers, were their food. ItJiiJi
The Zuni (zti'ni) and the
Aztec (az'tec) people formerly
occupied the country south of
these. A few hundred Zunis
(niz) may still be found in Ari-
zona and New Mexico, but the
Aztecs have
disappeared.
The pict-
ure shows
the sort of
dwellings
they occu-
pied. In
many pla-
ces some
portions
of the ru-
l^fc^
ms
stand.
vet
f""^ g ^ )Tiriyw^^fyi||U P!il^ ^«y
^^w
i J i
II. European (eii ro-
pe an) SETTI.ERS.
IVorld by ike Fireside, p. 56, Stories of the Medicine Bag.
For Reading:
The first settlers in
the Dominion of
Canada, nearly 300
years ago, were
from France, and
their descendants,
who occupy the
eastern part of the coun-
try, still speak the French
language. A little more
than 100 years afterward
England conquered Cana-
da, and Englishmen settled
the central and western
portion of the territory,
where the English lan-
guage is now spoken.
In the United States the
inhabitants are mostly of
English descent, the English having been
most active in the early settlement of the
country. People of many nations, however,
are now settled in all parts of the country,
but the English language is the prevailing
speech.
In Mexico the Aztec tribes were conquered by
the Spaniards more than 300 years ago, and,
PRODUCTS— MINERAL, VEGETABLE. ANLMAL.
43
although Mexico has long been an inde-
pendent country, the people are mostly
descendants of Spaniards, and still speak
the Spanish language.
For Recitation:
I. What three classes of people occu-
pied North America when the whites
came? Tell about
1. Esquimaux (a) where, (b) dwell-
ings, (c) subsistence, (d) clothing.
2. Indians (a) former territory, (b)
present location, (c) dwellings, (d) sub-
sistence.
3. Zunis and Aztecs (a) former loca-
tion, (b) what about them now.
II. I. Canada — Time of settlement;
first settlers; conquerors; languages
spoken; in what parts.
2. United States — Descent of most
of the people; other settlers; prevailing
language.
3. Mexico — Original tribes; conquer-
ors; time of conquest; present inhabitants; Ian
guage.
III. Products — Mineral, Vegetable, An-
imal.
For Reading:
Nearly all the products of the globe are found
in the Grand Division of North America.
The mountain regions are rich in Minerals.
In the eastern range men have found immense
beds of iron ore, and, near by, mines of coal,
which is needed to melt the ore. . Here, too, are
found the most productive wells of a mineral oil
called petro'/etim, though both coal and oil occur
Outline, Mountaixs, Drainage, Products.
in various places all the way from the Atlantic to
the Pacific Ocean.
Beds of copper and lead are found near the cen-
tral part of the Height of Land.
In the western ranges have been found great
quantities of gold and silver. Quicksilver is
needed to separate the gold from the dross, and
to provide for this necessity Nature has placed
near the gold mines beds of quicksilver, just as,
in the eastern range, coal was supplied to separate
the iron from the ore.
Great forests occupy the highlands of a wide
belt of country through the central part of North
44
NORTH AMERICA.
America from east to west, and afford abundant
supplies of lumber both for building and furnish-
ing. The principal varieties are pine,^ fir, red-
wood, ash, cherry, oak, chestnut, and maple.
In the central part of the Gulf Slope are great
forests of walnut. Forests of cedar and cypress
abound in the low plains and swamps of the At-
lantic Slope toward the south, and rosewood and
mahogany in the southwest and extreme south.
The Atlantic Slope, the Central Plain, and the
Pacific Slope, in the middle and northern parts,
yield the products of a temperate climate — corn,
wheat, oats, rye, potatoes,' tobacco,^ apples,
peaches, plums, cherries, grapes, though in the far
north only the hardiest of these are found. In the
south a tropical climate produces cotton, sugar,
oranges, pineapples, and ba na'nas.
The Animals of all zones are found in North
America. The fur bearers, such as the seal, white
bear, and beaver, are found in the north; those
best suited for food, as the bison, deer, elk, and
turkey, are found in the central or temperate belt,
also the grizzly bear, the Rocky Mountain sheep,
the wolf, and the fox; while in the tropical re-
gions we see the monkey, the parrot, the alligator,
and the pec'cary.
For Recitation:
III. I . Describe any mines that you have seen.
Where in North America are the chief supplies of
iron and coal? Of petroleum? Of copper and
lead? Of gold and silver? Of quicksilver? Name
and write three uses of iron. Of coal. Of petro-
leum. Two uses of gold. Three of silver. Three
of quicksilver. Two of copper.
iLet each pupil take one of these woods and learn all he can
about it— where it grows, its peculiarities, what it is used for, etc.
He may get his knowledge from any source and impart it to the
class Friday afternoon.
2 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 74, Story of the Potato
Plant.
3 World by the Fireside, p. 73, Story of the Tobacco Plant.
2. Which of the trees named are chiefly used
in building? Which to make furniture? Oppo-
site the name of each kind of wood write a list of
the things you have seen made of it.
3. Where is walnut chiefly found ? Cedar and
cypress ? Rosewood and mahogany ?
4. Write, in a column, all the products men-
tioned of the farm and orchard, and opposite each
one write all the articles of food, clothing, medi-
cine, or drink, made from that product.
Model:
Product.
Food.
Clothing.
Medicine.
Drink.
Corn.
Bread.
Mush.
Cakes.
Whisky.
5. Animals (a)///r bearers — what, where, (b)
food animals — what, where, (c) what other ani-
mals, (d) tropical animals.
IV. Islands of North America.
Some of the islands of North America belong
to European nations, and some have independent
governments.
Greenland' and Iceland belong to Denmark,
a country of Europe. Greenland is about one
fourth as large as the United States, but nothing
can grow more than twenty miles back from the
shore. Beyond that all is ice and snoW.^ Most
of the people are Esquimaux. Along the western
coast, however, are a few European trading posts.
Iceland,^ though milder in climate than Green-
1 Reading Hour: Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, p. 306,
traits of character and food; p. 307, houses; p. 308, dress; pp. 309,
310, occupation; p. 312, burial.
World by the Fireside, p. 27, The Greenlander.
2 Reading Hour: Scribner's Geographical Reader and Primer, pp. 76,
77, 78, Arctic Days.
3 Reading Hour: Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, p. 196,
education; p. 197, winter occupation; p. 204, food; p. 206, houses; p.
54, geyser; p. 67, day and night.
World by the Fireside, p. 46, Icelanders' Ways.
ISLANDS— TOPICAL REVIEW.
45
land, is yet a cold and barren country. Volcanoes are numer-
ous. Springs of boiling water, called Geysers (gi'zer), spout
from the earth. Hardy ponies, cattle, and sheep live on the
wild grass that grows in the valleys. The people are indus-
trious, intelligent, and hospitable in character, though un-
cleanly in their habits.
Newfoundland belongs to Great Britain, though not to the
Dominion of Canada, and has an English population, mostly
engaged in fishing.
The most important group of islands is the West Indies,
lying between North and South America. In passing to
them from Greenland and Iceland we go from the barren-
ness of the Frigid Zone to the rich vegetation of the tropics.
In these islands we travel through plantations of coffee, cot-
ton, sugar, pineapples, oranges, bananas, tobacco, and spices.
We see forests of mahogany, rosewood, and palm, and meet
an indolent people, made up of Spaniards and their descend-
ants, and negroes. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain,
Hayti is independent, and Jamaica is under the government
of Great Britain. Havana, in Cuba, is the chief seaport.
For Recitation:
IV. I. Greenland — Belongs to what nation; size; extent
of cultivation; Esquimaux; Europeans,
2. Iceland — Climate; fertility; volcanoes; gey-
sers; domestic animals; people.
3. What of Newfoundland?
4. West Indies — Locality as to zone; produc-
tions; forests; people. Why are the people indo-
lent?
TopicAiv Review of North America.
Write, in your own language, all of the geog-
raphy of North America that you know, using,
as a guide, the following topics:
Position.
Extent.
Coast Line.
Mountains.
Drainage:
(Slopes and Rivers.)
Climate.
People.
Productions:
(Mineral, Vegetable, Ani
mal.)
Cities and Towns:
(Location, for what noted,
etc.)
Note. — This exercise in review gives the pupil an
opportunity to tell, in orderly form, what he knows of
the subject. One test of this kind in connection with
each of the Grand Divisions should be made. A collec-
tion of questions to be answered often reveals less of
what a pupil knows than of what he does not know.
Should the pupil at first need assistance in bringing his
faculties to bear upon this kind of work, questions can
be asked that will aid him. If what he writes in these
reviews is copied in a blank book, he will have, at the
end of the course, a very complete little Geography of his
own composition.
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ATLANTIC OCEAN
B.D.Servo3s, EncX N. V.
48
THE UNITED STATES.
Pacific Slope.
Plateau Region.
Rocky Mountains.
THE UNITED STATES.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map, and not to
be committed to memory.]
1. Position, Extent, Naturai, Divisions. — In what
part of North America is the United States? Measure
the distance from the mouth of the Columbia to the extreme
eastern point of Maine? What is the distance on the
map? How many tniles is that? Measure the distance
from the extreme southern point of Texas to the tiorthern
boundary of Dakota. What is the distance on the tnap?
How many miles? What, then, is the extent of the
United States from east to west, exclusive of Alaska?
From north to south? In the same way find the distance
from San Francisco to New Orleans; to Chicago; to New
York. What is that part of the country that lies east of
the Appalachian Mountains called? That lies between
the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountains? What is
that part of the country called between the Rocky and
Sierra Mountains? What is that part of the country
called west of the Sierras?
2. Si^oPES AND Mountains.— How many of the four
great slopes of North America are found also in the
United States? Which are they? What mountain ranges
of North America are found also in the United States?
What slope of the United States lies east of the Appa-
lachian Mountains? What great divisions of the United
States are separated by the Appalachian Mountains? In
which of the four great slopes is the larger part of the
Great Central Plain of the United States? What mount-
ains bound the Gulf Slope on the west?
3. S1.0PES and Rivers.— What do the rivers that flow
into the Atlantic Ocean form? {Ans. The Atlantic River
System.'\ Natne seven rivers of this sys ton. Which of
these form the boundary lines of states? Describe each.
[See Model, page 34.] What slope is drained by the
Atlantic River System? What do the Mississippi and its
tributaries for m ? {A ns. The Mississippi River System. J
Najne three eastern and three western tributaries of the
Mississippi. Which of these form the boundaries of
states? Describe each. What name is given to the region
of country drained by the Mississippi River System?
\^Ans. The Mississippi Valley. '\ In which of the four
great slopes of North America does the Mississippi Val-
ley lie? What river forms part of the southwest bound-
ary of the United States? Beginning with the Yukon,
name five rivers of the Pacific Slope. Describe each.
4. Lakes. — What chain of lakes in the northern part
of the United States? Which of these lie between the
United States and Canada? Which one lies wholly
within the United States? What river takes the water
of these lakes to the ocean? What lake in Utah? For
what are most of the lakes of the Great Plateau Region
noted? \_Ans. They have no outlet. '\ What becomes of
the water that runs into these lakes?
5. Peninsulas and Islands. — What peninsula pro-
jects from Alaska? What natural division of land forms
the southeastern part of the United States? Between
what two bodies of water is it? What chain of islands
southwest of Alaska? Southeast of the United States?
6. Climate. — In what zone is the United States?
Which are the warm states? How do you tell? Which
states and territories are coldest? Which states are tieither
very hot nor very cold? In which of these three groups
is California?
7. Location of States. — Rule three columns on
slates or paper. Write in the first column the names
of fourteen states that touch the Atlantic Ocean; in the
second, their capitals; in the third, the largest town of
each.
Model:
State.
Capital.
Largest Town.
Maine.
Augusta.
Portland.
In the same way, write the names of five states that
touch the Gulf of Mexico. Eight states touching the
HISTORY.
49
Great Central Plain.
Atlantic Slope.
Great Lakes. Five states on the west bank of the Mis-
sissippi. Five on the east bank. Three on the north
bank of the Ohio. Two on the south bank. Six states
touched by the Missouri River. Between which of these
states does the Missouri form part of the boundary line?
Which states does it cross? In which of the four great
natural divisions of the United States do the last seven
groups of states lie? Write the states and territories
crossed by the Rocky Mountains. Three states and ter-
ritories that touch the Pacific Ocean. What states are
best situated for lake commerce? What for river com-
merce? Through what states would you travel in a
straight line to reach New York? New Orleans?
8. Location of Cities. — The following are the chief
commercial cities of the Atlantic Slope; name the loca-
tion of each: Portland, Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Charleston.
The following are the chief commercial cities of the
Great Central Plain; Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis
(saint loo'i). New Or'le ans, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lou-
isville, O'ma ha, Kansas City, De troit', Chicago, Mil-
waukee. Locate and write the names of those situated
on the Mississippi; on the Ohio; on the Missouri; on the
Great Lakes.
Locate the following cities of the Pacific Coast:
Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los An'ge les.
9. Thought Questions. — Would you think the rivers
in the northern part of the Atlantic Slope swift or slow?
Why? What would you think about these rivers for
water power? Would you think the rivers of the Missis-
sippi Valley swift or slow? Why? Would you think the
slope of the Mississippi Valley toward the Gulf of Mex-
ico steep or gradual? Why? Notice the part of the
Temperate Zone in which this valley lies, and the num-
ber of rivers in it, and tell whether you think it a fertile
or an unproductive country. If fertile, what would you
judge the occupation of the people to be?
Pronunciatioxs.— Aleutian (a lu' she an); Baton Rouge (bSt'un-
roozh); Boi'se (boy'ze); Cheyenne (shI en'); Concord (konk'urd); Des
Moines (de moin')j Gal'veston; H61e'na; Illinois (il li noi); Mich'
i gan; Mon ta'na; Mont pel'ier; Raleigh (raw'ly); San'ta Fe (fa);
Tah'le quah; Tucson (tu s6n'); Wy o^ming.
DESCRIPTION.
HISTORY.i
For Reading:
You need not be told that the country you are
now to study is our own and is a Republic.
The settlement of our country began on the
Atlantic coast. There, nearly 300 years ago,
people from different countries, in Europe began
to make settlements.
Spaniards settled in Florida, but their settle-
ments did not flourish.
Englishmen settled along the coast from Vir-
ginia northward to Boston, wherever there were
good harbors.
I Reading Hour: Our World Reader^ p. i8i, How America was
found.
The Dutch settled in New York, but the En-
glish took it from them.
Although these settlers had a hard time for
many years, with the cold winters and the savage
Indians, the settlements grew in number until, in
a little more than 150 years, they reached up into
the Appalachian Mountains.
All this time the settlers north of Florida were
under the government of Great Britain, but they
now joined in a struggle for freedom, and after a
long, hard war with England they compelled her
to let them go. They then formed for themselves
the Government of the United States.
After this they began to go over the Appala-
chian Mountains into the Mississippi Valley. The
50
THE UNITED STATES.
United States bought Florida from Spain, and,
from France all of her country west of the Mis-
sissippi. Thousands of people from Europe came
to settle in the United States. Railroads began
to be built to carry them westward, and so the
country kept filling with people until, in less than
I GO years, they had spread out to the Pacific
Ocean, over new "country obtained from Mexico.
By and by more will be told about the settlement
of California.
For Recitation:
1. The country of the United States was first
settled on the Atlantic Slope nearly 300 years ago.
2. The Spaniards settled in Florida.
3. Englishmen settled along the northern part
of the coast.
4. The Dutch were the first settlers of New
York.
5. The settlers north of Florida remained under
the government of Great Britain for a little more
than 150 years, wHen, after a long war with
England, they established a government of their
own.
6. After the new government was established,
many thousands of people, from all parts of
Europe, came here, and in less than 100 years
settlements and railroads had reached through
the country to the Pacific Ocean.
THE ATLANTIC SLOPE.
I. Natural Features.
For Reading:
Look at the map and you will notice, by the
direction of the rivers, that most of the land of
the Atlantic states slopes to the southeast.
You will notice, also, that in the northern part
of this division the mountains come nearer to the
seacoast than in the southern part, making the
surface of the country more broken. For this
reason the rivers of this part are more rapid than
those farther south.
The coast line of these northerly states is very
much broken, making a large number of excellent
harbors.
The coast along the southern half of this great
slope, and for man}^ miles inland, is low, sandy,
and marshy. There are, therefore, fewer good
harbors in the southern than in the northern half.
Long, narrow, sandy islands line this part of the
coast also, and prevent easy access to its harbors.
If we ascend the rivers we shall find most of
them flowing slowly through a wide, level coun-
try with a rich soil.
In a region extending so far north and south
there must be a great variety of climate. Long,
cold winters and short, hot summers are found in
the north, while there is almost no winter in the
south. It is warm there during the whole year.
When we think of the differences in surface,
coast lines, rivers, and climate, we may judge
that there are also great differences in products
and occupations. And this we shall find is true.
For Recitation:
1. I. In what direction does the land of the
Atlantic states slope? How do you tell?
2. Compare the surface of the states north and
south. What difference in the character of the
rivers ?
3. Coast line and harbors in the north.
4. Coast lands and harbors in the south.
Islands.
5. Soil and surface in the south.
6. Compare the climate north and south.
7. Differences in surface, coast lines, rivers,
and climate make different occupations.
ATLANTIC SLOPE.
51
II. Manufacturing — IvUmbering — Fishing
— Quarrying — Mining, in the North.
For Reading:
Wherever mountains are near the coast the
rivers that rise in them are short and rapid. Such
rivers furnish water power to drive machinery,
hence manufacturing is usually one of the princi-
pal occupations of the people. Nearly all the
rivers in the northern part of this slope are of
this kind, especially those in the six states east
of New York, which are sometimes called the
New Eng-land States.
are employed in the great pine woods of Maine
and New Hampshire, and along the Appalachian
Mountains, in getting out lumber.
Thousands more are catching cod, mackerel,
and herring off the coast of Maine and Massachu-
setts. The fisheries off these coasts yield many
thousand tons a year.
The marble and granite quarries of Vermont
and New Hampshire also give employment for
many people.
The vast mines of coal and iron in the eastern
sideof the Alleghan}^ Mountains, in Pennsylvania,
'The City of Spindles.'
■ One river in New Hampshire and Massachu-
setts — the Merrimac — is said to move more spin-
dles than any other river in the world. Lowell,
the largest city situated on this river, is some-
times called "The City of Spindles."
Some of the most important articles manufact-
ured in the states north of the Ches'a peake Bay
are cotton, linen, and woolen goods, boots and
shoes, firearms, locomotives, steamers, farming
tools, silverware, watches, jewelry, clocks, fur-
niture, pianos, all kinds of hardware, sewing
machines, and paper.
While so large a number of the people of this
Tegion are engaged in manufacturing, thousands
keep a large population busy, and yield nearly all
the hard coal (anthracite) and almost half the iron
used in the country. Here, too, is found nearly
all the petroleum, or coal oil, of commerce, and
natural gas wells are frequent. Zinc is found in
New Jersey.
For Recitation:
II. I. The rivers in the northern part of the
Atlantic Slope, and especially in New England,
are short and rapid, and furnish water power for
extensive manufacturing. Name the New En-
gland States.
52
THE UNITED STATES.
2. The Merrimac River, in New England, fur-
nishes more water power than any other river in
the world. How can a river be said to move
spindles ?
Gloucester— A Fishing Port of Massachusetts
Copy the following and fill the blanks:
The largest city on the River is , and
it is sometimes called ' ' . "
3. Copy the list of manufactured articles and
commit it to memory.
4. Lumber — where produced.
5. Cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries off the
coast of Maine and Massachusetts are important.
6. Marble and granite quarries are extensive
in Vermont and New Hampshire.
7. Large quantities of coal, iron, and petroleum
are found in Pennsylvania, on the eastern side of
the mountains. Zinc is found in New Jersey.
III. Farming and Commerce in the North.
For Reading:
We have found so many people engaged in the
factories, forests, fisheries, quarries, and mines of
the northern states of the Atlantic Slope that you
will, perhaps,^ be surprised to learn that more
people are engaged in farming than in any of the
other employments — New England being espe-
cially famous for sheep and cattle; New York for
rf,,^ butter, cheese, and horses;
New Jersey and Delaware for
garden vegetables, berries, and
orchard fruits; and Pennsylva-
nia for the varied farm products
of its rich valleys.
What becomes of all that is
made in the factories, all the
fish caught from the sea, all the
marble and granite cut from the quarries,
all the anthracite and iron dug from the
mines, all the coal oil taken from the oil
wells? Are they all used by the people
of these states north of the Chesapeake Bay.?
No. 'Very great quantities of all these things,
and some things produced on the farms, are sold
to foreign countries and to other states of our
own country.
In exchange the people receive articles which
they need, and which they do not make or raise,
such as tea, coffee, sugar, molasses, spices, fruits,
silks, wool, leather, tin, india rubber, and medi-
cines. This work of exchange gives another
occupation for a large number of the people — the
occupation of commerce.
We may now begin to appreciate the fine har-
bors along the northeastern coast of the United
States, which furnish a safe place for thousands
of ships to lie at anchor while loading goods for
export and unloading goods which they have
brought from other countries.
The largest and most important cities of the
country — Boston, New York, Brooklyn, and Phil-
adelphia — are built around these harbors. The
Delaware River makes a harbor for the city of
Reading Hour: Fox Hunting, p. iii, Red Fox.
ATLANTIC SLOPE.
53
New York Shipping.
Philadelphia. New York is the largest city in
the United States, and is the great center of trade
with foreign countries and between the states of
our own country.
Its trade with the states of our own country is
carried on by means of canals, rivers, the Great
Lakes, and almost countless railroads that extend
over the Appalachian Mountains and run in all
directions through the Great Central Plain and
across the Plateau Region to the Pacific Slope.
You will find it well to remember that the
largest cities of the world, and the most thickly
settled countries, are found wherever there are the
hest advantages for commerce and manufactures.
For Recitation:
III. I. Name the farm products for which New
England is chiefly noted. New York. Delaware
and New Jersey. Pennsylvania.
2. Exports from states north of the Chesapeake
Eay. 3. Imports.
4. The harbors along the coast
of this section give it great ad-
vantages for commerce, which
is one of the chief occupations
of the people.
5. The great cities of the
country are built around these
harbors. New York is the
largest city in the United States
and is the most important com-
mercial city.
6. How is the commerce be-
tween New York and the inte-
rior states carried on ?
7. Where are the largest cities
and the greatest population of a country found ?
Elevated Railway, New York.
IV. Occupations and Productions in thk
South.
For Reading:
South of the Chesapeake Bay, on the east side
of the Appalachian Mountains, some mines of
coal and iron are found, but the surface of the
54
THE UNITED STATES.
country, the soil, and the climate, nearer to the
coast, are so different from those of the states
further north that the people follow very different
occupations. Most of the country is laid out in
large plantations, where tobacco, com, rice, and
cotton are raised. Manufactures are, however,
rapidly increasing.
A great number of negroes live in these states
and work on the plantations. They were once
slaves, but are now free.
The plantations of Virginia and Maryland are
very extensive, producing great crops of com and
tobacco. The most extensive oyster beds in the
country are found in the Chesapeake Bay, oflf the
coast of these two states.
Rice, though yielding large crops on the up-
land, is best grown on land that Hes a part of the
time under water. The low, swampy coast of
South Carolina and Georgia, which is overflowed
by the tide, is therefore well adapted to the culti-
vation of rice, making these two the great rice
states of the country. Cotton is, however, the
most important crop. The best quality, called
sea island cotton, is raised on the low islands near
the coast.
All along the seacoast, from Virginia to Flor-
ida, but especially in North Carolina, are immense
forests of pitch pine trees, from which are obtained
turpentine, tar, pitch, and resin. These are called
naval stores, because so much used in and about
ships. Turpentine is the sap of the tree; resin
is made from turpentine, and pitch is made by
boiling down the tar, which has been obtained by
burning the gummy pine trees
in a close fire.
Other kinds of valuable trees
grow in these southern forests,
such as cedar, cypress, and
juniper, from which shingles
and staves are made; and Hve
oak and white oak, much used
in building ships. The wood
of the red cedar trees of the
Florida swamps is the best
wood known for making lead
pencils.
Florida is chiefly noted for its
orange groves and as a resort for invalids on
account of its favorable climate. Sponge fishing
and the manufacture of cigars is carried on at
Key West, the most southerly town of the United
States, situated on one of the little islands lying
to the southwest of the mainland of Florida.
From what has been said of the products of this
section you will readily see that the exports must
be tobacco, oysters, rice, cotton, pitch, tar, tur-
pentine, and oranges.
The chief imports are those of the northern sec-
tion, except cotton, wool, and leather. Manufact-
ured goods of all kinds are also largely imported.
The chief cities are Baltimore, Washington,
Charleston, and Atlanta.
For Recitation:
IV. I . Mines of coal and iron are found in the
western mountains of the states south of the
THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.
55
Chesapeake Bay. The low country raises tobacco,
com, rice, and cotton.
2. Negroes do most of the work on the planta-
tions.
3. Com and tobacco are the chief crops of Vir-
ginia and Maryland. Oyster fishing is important
in Chesapeake Bay.
4. Rice and cotton are leading productions in
South Carolina and Georgia.
5. Immense forests of pitch pine trees in North
Carolina yield large supplies of turpentine, pitch,
tar, and resin.
What is turpentine? Resin? Pitch? Tar? What are
they sometimes called?
6. Name four things that distinguish Florida.
7. Name the exports of the southern states of
the Atlantic Slope.
8. Why should these states import manufact-
ured goods ? Why should they not import cotton?
Wool? Leather?
9. Name the leading cities of these states.
THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.
I . Position — Extent — Surface — Soil —
Climate.
You have already learned that the Great Cen-
tral Plain which we are now to study lies between
the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the
Rocky Mountains on the west, and that it extends
north and south between the Dominion of Can-
ada and the Gulf of Mexico. From the crest of
one of these mountain ranges to the crest of the
other this plain takes up more than half the coun-
try occupied by the whole United States except
Alaska.
You must not think, because it is called a plain,
that this great region is all one level stretch of
country. While it has mostly a level surface, you
will see that its eastern side, where it rises up into
the Appalachian Mountains, must be mountainous,
and so must be the western side where it runs up
the sides of the still higher Rocky Mountains.
Besides this, a line of low, scattered mountains
runs east and west through the southern part of
the plain, along the northern border of Alabama,
Mississippi, Arkansas, and into the state of Mis-
souri.
Because nearly all the country of this plain
inclines toward the Gulf of Mexico, it is some-
times called the Gulf Slope. It is also frequently
spoken of as the Mississippi Valley, because it is
made up of slopes, nearly all of which incline
toward the Mississippi River and its tributaries.
Nearly all the level country north of the south-
em line of Kansas, Missouri, and Kentucky is
prairie, that is, country with a grassy turf and
without trees.
The soil throughout nearly the entire extent of
the Mississippi Valley and the states lying on the
Gulf of Mexico is the richest in the United States.
The climate, like that of the Atlantic Slope, is
warm and winterless in the south, with ver>' heavy
rainfalls, growing colder toward the north as we
approach the Canadian line.
For Recitation:
1. I. Bound the Great Central Plain. How
does it compare in size with the rest of the United
States except Alaska ?
2. This region is mostly level, but is mount-
ainous on the east and west borders. Low mount-
ains cross the southern part.
3. What other names are sometimes given to
the Great Central Plain? Why is it sometimes
called the Gulf Slope? Why, sometimes, the
Mississippi Valley?
4. What is a prairie? What part of this Great
Plain is prairie?
56
THE UNITED STATES.
5. What can you say of the soil of the Great Central Plain ?
The climate ?
II. Productions.
For Reading:
In looking at the productions of the Great Cen-
tral Plain, let us begin with those that were there
before white men came. We shall find rich mines
of coal and iron all along the western side of the
Alleghany Mountains, especially in western Penn-
sylvania, for we must not forget that a part of
Pennsylvania is in the Central Plain. We shall
find the great coal beds extending over a large
part of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois;
and coal and iron in large quantities in Missouri.
Copper is found along the southern coast of
Lake Superior.
Large quantities of lead are found in a consid-
erable region of country where Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, and Iowa come together; also in Missouri,
southern Kansas, and the Rocky Mountains.
The richest mines of lead are in the mountains
of southern Colorado.
Salt is found in many places.
The eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains con-
tain rich mines of gold and silver.
Besides the minerals that abound, there are,
along the sides of the eastern mountain ranges,
and for scores of miles among the hills that extend
from the mountains into the low land, and on
much of the low land itself, fine forests of chest-
nut, cherry, and walnut trees, so greatly prized
for the manufacture of household furniture.
Away to the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin,
and Minnesota, extensive forests of pine supply
lumber for dwellings, stores, warehouses, and
factories.
In the western part of this plain, wherever the
prairies have not been plowed for cultivation, a
tall and nutritious wild grass grows, furnishing
pasture for thousands of cattle and horses in the
summer and hay for them in the winter months.
But the chief source of the wealth of this region
is found in the crops raised by tilling the soil. It
is easy to make farms, because so many thou-
sands of miles are prairie land, and all ready for
THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.
57
place to cotton fields and sugar
plantations, the chief source of
the wealth of this section.
Texas, the most southern
and the largest state in the
Union, is most noted for its
immense herds of cattle.
the plow. Corn is the principal grain and yields
large crops all the way from north to south. It
is also the chief grain used to
fatten cattle and hogs, which,
with horses and mules, are
raised in great numbers in all
parts of this plain. Kentucky is
the most famous state in the
Union for its fine breeds of horses.
North of the line of the Ohio
River great crops of wheat are
raised, Dakota and Minnesota
being the most important wheat-
growing states.
This northern section is also
rich in all the orchard fruits of the Temperate
Zone — apples, peaches, cherries, plums, and pears
— as well as in the common grains, hay, and veg-
etables, such as oats, rye, barley, potatoes, beets,
turnips, etc.
Sheep and wool, also, add much to the wealth
of this section.
As we go south, into the warmer and moister
climate, we shall find, in the states that border
on the gulf, the wheat fields and orchards giving
■For Recitation:
II. I. Rich mines of iron,
coal, copper, lead, and silver
are found in different parts of
the Great Central Plain. Look
at the map and tell where each is
found. Write three uses of lead.
2. Cherry, chestnut, and walnut trees are found
in the eastern part of this plain, and pine forests
Cotton Field.
in the north. Which for furniture ? Which for
building ?
3. A rich wild grass grows in the prairies that
have not been plowed.
4. Corn is the principal grain, and yields well
everywhere from north to south. What is its
chief use.^
5. Cattle, hogs, horses, and mules are raised in
58
THE UNITED STATES.
great numbers in all parts of the Great Central
Plain. Kentucky is especially famous for its
horses,
6. North of the line of the Ohio River large
crops of wheat and other common grains, orchard
fruits, and vegetables are raised. Dakota and
Minnesota are the great wheat-growing states.
Sheep and wool are sources of large wealth.
7. In the states on the gulf, ^cotton and sugar
are the chief productions. Texas has immense
herds of cattle.
III. Occupations — Cities.
For Reading:
When we know the productions of a country
we can tell the occupations of the people, can we
not? What, then, would you say the people of
this Great Central Plain are doing ? If you have
read attentively what has been told of its produc-
tions your answer will be: Mining for coal, iron,
copper, lead, gold, and silver; timber cutting for
lumber to make furniture, and other lumber to
build houses; hay cutting on the prairies and the
meadows; grain farming; raising stock; raising
fruit; and growing cotton and sugar.
What is done with all this vast production?
The iron is made into locomotives, steam engines,
farming tools, and countless other things; the
lumber is worked into furniture and buildings;
the cattle and hogs are made into beef and pork;
the milk into butter and cheese; the wheat into
flour; the cotton and wool into cloth — and this
gives for thousands of people a new business, the
business of manufacturing.
Can the people who live in this region use so
much? And if not, what will they do with
their surplus ? And do they need nothing except
what they raise and manufacture? If they do,
how are they to get it? When we think of
these questions we shall find a great call for men
to engage in trade, or commerce. Is commerce
easy in this country ? Look on the map and see.
See that chain of great lakes at the north which
ships and steamers may traverse through the St.
Lawrence River and the canals to the Atlantic
Ocean.
See the long Mississippi River, large enough
for the passage of steamers from the gulf almost
to Canada; and the Missouri River, that can take
them into the northwest; and the Ohio, the Ar-
kansas, and the Red Rivers, each furnishing a
channel for multitudes of these craft of commerce.
As the country has a level surface, railroads are
easily built, and you will find them everj' where
throughout this region, where there is produce to
be taken to market.
You will remember that great cities are built
up by commerce and manufactures, and, therefore,
when studying the map, you found in this rich
country, on the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the
Missouri Rivers, and on the Great Lakes, some
of the largest and most prosperous cities of the
United States.
Chicago is the largest grain and pork market
in the world. Cincinnati and St. Louis are noted
for their great wealth, manufactures, and com-
merce. St. Paul and Minneapolis are extensive
milling and flouring cities. Kansas City is dis-
tinguished for its beef packing, and Denver is the
commercial center of the gold and silver region.
For Recitation:
III. I. Make a list of the chief occupations of
the people of the Great Central Plain.
2 . The chief manufactures are locomotives, farm
machinery, hardware, furniture, beef and pork,
butter and cheese, flour, and woolen goods.
3. The Great Lakes, long, navigable rivers, and
THE GREAT PLATEAU REGION.
59
numerous railroads make the Central Plain an
important commercial region. Grain, flour, beef,
pork, cattle, horses, butter and cheese, and woolen
goods are the chief exports.
4. Name the cities of this region mentioned in
the map questions and tell where they are located.
For what is Chicago distinguished? Cincinnati
and St. lyouis ? St. Paul and Minneapolis ? Kan-
sas City? Denver?
THE GREAT PLATEAU REGION.
For Reading:
The region that we are now to study is that
lying between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada
Mountains. The country, which is wild and
mountainous, is celebrated for its fine scenerj'^,
and abounds in great table lands, ^ or plateaus.
In Colorado there are four famous elevated nat-
ural parks, surrounded by high mountains which
have not less than 200 peaks reaching a height
of two and a half miles. Some of these parks
are as large as the state of New Jersey.
Near the center of this division lies a great
basin whose rivers either sink into the soil or flow
into lakes that have no outlet. Of these rivers
the Humboldt, in Nevada, is the most important,
and of the lakes. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, is the
largest. Salt Lake City, with streams of pure
mountain water running constantly along the
sides of its wide, clean streets, stands near this
lake.
But while the country" is generally mountainous,
it must be remembered that there are some very
prett3' and fertile valleys and some broad and pro-
ductive plains. Much of Utah and eastern Idaho
ofiers ver>' good farming land, and is quite well
cultivated. This land is usually supplied with
moisture by carrying water upon it through ditches
cut from streams that flow through the country.
1 Reading Hour« Scribner's Geographical Reader, pp. 66-70, On the
Table I,and.
Templh and Taberxacle, S\lt I,^k
In eastern Washington are wide stretches of
plain, upon which large crops of wheat are annu-
ally raised. Much of the country is also well
adapted to grazing, and cattle raising is an im-
portant industry.
The great wealth of the Plateau Region, how-
ever, is in its mines of gold and silver, the richest
and most extensive in the world. The richest sil-
ver mines ever known have been found at Virginia
City, Nevada. A little boy called this region the
"Natural National Bank of the United States."
'For Recitation:
1 . What is the country between the Rocky and
Sierra Nevada Mountains called? What is a
plateau ?
2. Four great natural parks are found in the
plateau region of Colorado.
3. Near the center of the Great Plateau Region
lies a basin whose rivers sink into the ground or
flow into lakes that have no outlet.
4. Small strips of fertile land are found in this
region. Where? There is also much good graz-
ing country. To what industry does it give rise?
5. In what does the chief wealth of this coun-
6o
THE UNITED STATES.
try consist ? What of the mines at Virginia City ?
What did a httle boy call the Plateau Region ?
THE PACIFIC SLOPE.
I. Position — Surface — Climate — Coast
Line — Seaports.
For Reading:
The states of this division are Oregon, Wash-
ington, and California. A part of each of these
states lies in the great interior region that we have
just studied, but the richest and most populous
portions are found west of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains.
Three celebrated farming valleys lie in this
division; the valley of Pii'get Sound, at the ex-
treme north in Washington ; further south, in
Oregon, the fertile valley of the Will Sm'ette; and
still further south the California Basin, or the val-
ley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers.
The climate of these states does not vary so
much from north to south as that of the Atlantic
states. From west to east, however, there is con-
siderable variation in moisture, much more rain
falling near the coast than farther inland, and
especially east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
The coast line of these states does not give
many good harbors. San Francisco Bay, on
whose shores the great city of San Francisco
stands, is the best of these, and one of the best
in the world. Puget Sound also affords good
harborage, Tacoma and Seattle being the princi-
pal ports; and a fine harbor is found in San Diego
Bay. The Columbia River carries ocean steamers
about I GO miles into the state of Oregon. These
steamers find harbor at the city of Portland, on the
Willamette River, twelve miles from its mouth.
For Recitation:
I. I. What states are found in the Pacific
Slope? In what other division do they partly lie ?
In which division are the richest and most pop-
ulous portions of these states ?
2. Name the three great farming valleys of this
division. Tell where each lies.
3. The climate varies less from north to south
than in the states of the Atlantic Slope. More
rain falls near the coast than farther inland.
4. What of the coast line? Name the three
harbors on the coast and their ports. Where is
Portland harbor? How far from the seacoast?
II. Productions — Manufactures — Com-
merce.
For Reading:
The mineral wealth of this region is very great.
The mountains of eastern and southern California
yield millions of dollars in gold and silver every
year, while the coal mines along the shores of
Puget Sound supply the cities and manufactories
of the Pacific states with fuel.
The forests of western Washington, bordering
on Puget Sound, are the most valuable in the
United States, furnishing timber for masts and
spars of ships. Very valuable forests of fir and
pine are also found in Oregon, and of redwood
and pine in California.
In farm products Oregon and Washington are
chiefly distinguished for the large quantity and
excellent quality of wheat raised, though the com-
mon orchard fruits yield well and are of fine qual-
ity. Oregon apples are much sought in California
markets.
California is by far the richest of the states of
this division in the products of the soil. It is
famous throughout this country and Europe for
its wheat, orchard fruits, grapes, oranges, limes,
and olives.
Cattle and sheep raising are important indus-
tries in California and Oregon, the wool crop
PACIFIC SLOPE— ALASKA.
6i
especially giving these states great prominence.
Oregon is famous also for its salmon fisheries.
More salmon are caught in the Columbia River
than anywhere else in the world.
In California much attention is given to manu-
factures, especially to the manufacture of wines,
raisins, flour, woolen cloth, canned and dried
fruits, and refined sugars.
The exports of this region will be seen from its
productions. From the ports of the north the
exports are wool, ship timber, and canned goods —
chiefly salmon ; from San Francisco go wheat,
flour, wines, lumber, woolen goods, fresh, dried,
and canned fruits.
The imports through San Francisco from China,
Japan, and Europe are very great. Only three
cities in the United States have a larger foreign
commerce.
For Recitation:
II. I. Mines — Gold and silver, coal.
2. Forests — Where? What?
3. Washington and Oregon — Farm products.
4. California — Farm products.
5. Cattle and sheep. Wool. Fisheries.
6. Name the manufactures of California.
7. Name the exports from the northern ports
of this division. From the southern.
8. How does San Francisco rank as a commer-
cial city ?
ALASKA.
For Reading:
Though Alaska is neither a state nor a terri-
tory, we must not forget that it is now the prop-
erty of the United States. It formerly belonged
to Russia, and is about one sixth the size of the
United States.
One third of Alaska is in the Frigid Zone. The
part that lies in the Arctic Slope consists of frozen
^^^^^^^^^rf
^^^^^^.^ ^H
^=^^*iSs5s^Jfc^
t ~~ ^^^^S^^^^^H^^Bh^^^^^Et^^^^^^^^
An Alaskan Grave.
swamps ; that part bordering on the Pacific Ocean
has a mild and moist climate. The Yukon River,
in Alaska, is one of the longest in the United
States, and its sides are covered with evergreen
forests.
The chief seal fisheries of the world are on the
islands of Alaska. The seals are killed by club-
bing them on the head. The skins taken are
from the young males onl}'. The fur of the seal
is of a dark gray color, and is dyed before being
made into clothing. There are but few white
people in Alaska. Most of the inhabitants are
Indians.
For Recitation:
1 . Alaska formerly belonged to Russia, and is
about one sixth as large as the United States.
2. The climate along the Pacific Ocean is mild
and moist. The Yukon River is one of the longest
in the United States.
62
THE UNITED STATES.
3. Seal fishing is the chief occupation of the
people of Alaska, who are mostly Indians.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
North America.
1. Name the four Natural Divisions of North America.
Give the location of each, beginning with the eastern
division. Into what two slopes is the Great Central
Plain divided? By what is it divided? Where is the
■chain of Great Lakes located?
2. Who inhabited North America before the European
.■settlers? Give the location of each class of the original
inhabitants. How long ago were the first European set-
tlements made? Where, in North America, is the French
language chiefly spoken? Where does the English lan-
guage prevail? The Spanish?
3. In what part of North America are iron and coal
chiefly found? What is the advantage of their being
found near together? Where shall we find copper and
lead? Where are the gold and silver and quicksilver
mines? What is the advantage in finding gold and
<juicksilver near together?
4. Name the largest three islands off the northeastern j
•coast of North America. Where are the West India
Islands? Name the four most important of these islands.
United States.
I. What are the four Natural Divisions of the United
^States ? What difierence in the occupations of the people
north and south in the Atlantic Slope? Why should this
-difference exist? What difference in occupations north
.and south in the Great Central Plain? Why? What
makes commerce easy in this Plain? In which part of
Ihe Plain are the commercial facilities greatest?
2. Name two things that chiefly distinguish the Great
Plateau Region.
3. Name the three largest farming valleys of the Pacific
Slope? Where is each located? Name the best three
harbors on the Pacific Coast. Where are gold and silver
chiefly found? Coal? Salmon? What are the chief
exports of this region?
Thought Questions. — Why should Minneapolis,
rather than New Orleans, be distinguished for the num-
ber of its flouring mills? Why Chicago rather than
Boston for its pork and beef packing? Why Kansas
City rather than Denver? Why should San Francisco
rather than Chicago or St. Louis have a United States
mint?
Topical Review of the United States.
Write, in your own language, all of the geog-
raphy of the United States that you know, using,
as guides, the following topics:
Position.
Extent.
Mountain Systems.
Drainage.
(Slopes, Lakes, and
Rivers.)
Climate.
People.
Products.
(Mineral, Vegetable, and
Animal.)
Occupations.
(Farming, Manufacturing,
Mining, Commerce.)
States.
Cities and Towns.
(Location, for what noted,
etc.)
CALIFORNIA.
•Questions on the Picture of California.
I. The Great Valley of Northern California.
Name the great valley of Northern California. In what
direction is it longest? What mountains bound it on the
east? What on the west? What great mountain stands
^\. its northern extremity? What mountain pass opens
from it into Southern California? Name the two chief
rivers that flow through this valley. Describe them.
Describe the Pitt River. The American River. The
Merced River. Beginning at the north, name the towns
marked on the picture in the Sacramento and San Joa-
quin Valley.
2. Smaller Valleys. — Name the three smaller val-
CALIFORNIA.
63
^41
^^ast\.vt
San Franciscoi
Monterey,
leys in the Coast
Range Mountains
north of San Fran-
cisco Bay. In what
direction does each ex-
tend? Name the three
-valleys of this range south
of San Francisco Bay. In
what direction does each ex-
tend? Name the towns in
Napa Valley. Santa Rosa Val-
ley. Santa Clara Valley. Salinas
Valley.
ifornia mainly extend? In which of
these is Los Angeles located? Pasa-
dena? San Bernardino? Anaheim
(an'ahime)? Santa Ana? What
desert lies east of the Coast
Range of mountains? What
desert at the southern
end of the state?
5. Mountain Ranges.
Name two mountain
peaks of the Sierra Ne-
vada Range. In what
part of the range? Two
of the Coast Range. In
what part?
6. Lakes. — Name and
locate the lakes of the
Great Central Valley. Of
the Sierra Nevada Mount-
ains.
i^i.
i:
San Ijuis Bay
W^m,
Santa Barbara^
San Bueiiaventun
,^0*
3. Resorts.
The Gey'sers?
-Where is Lake Ta hoe'?
Yo semd te Valley?
iPvttt^
4. Southern California. — Name the five principal
valleys of Southern California, beginning with the Santa ^^
Ma r?a. In what direction do the valleys of Southern Cal-^
Abbreviations.— N. V., Napa Valley; S. V., Sonoma Valley; S. B., Suisun
Bay; S. P., San Pablo Bay; S. R., Santa Rosa.
San Diego Bay^
7.
64
CALIFORNIA.
NORTHERN CALIFORNIA— NATURAL FEAT-
URES.
I. The Great Valley and its Mountain
Boundaries.
For Reading:
We have all seen a part of the state of Cali-
fornia, but no one of us has seen the whole of it.
If we were to go up in a balloon from one of the
little valleys nestled in the mountains that extend
along the eastern side of the state, all the objects
below us would grow smaller and smaller as we
ascend, the boys and girls would look no bigger
than ants, and the school house about as large as
a dog kennel. Soon we should be able to see
beyond the mountains surrounding our valley.
Hundreds of other mountains would come into
view with ravines and small fertile valleys between
them, and towns and mines on their sides.
Now, if an east wind should spring up, our
balloon would move westward, carrying us out
over the center of a great valley. Here, if we
could go high enough and see far enough, we
could get a view of the whole of the northern
part of the state. We should see below us a val-
ley more than fifty miles wide from east to west,
and stretching hundreds of miles north and south.
This valley is so large that five of the smallest of
the United States could lie in it side by side. The
whole northern part of the state would now look
something as you see it in the picture on the pre-
ceding page — made up of high and low land,
with lakes and rivers sparkling in all directions.
Extending along the whole length of the valley
on the east we should see the high range of
mountains from among which our balloon first
rose. Another range would be seen to bound
the valley on the west. Both ranges curve
toward each other at the north. Mount Shasta
seeming to hold them together where they meet.
In the south they bend together, too, and
would meet, but for narrow passes which seem to
be gates to let people out of the valley into the
country beyond.
For Recitation:
1. I. A great valley 50 miles wide from east
to west and about 400 miles long from north to
south, lies in the central part of California.
2. A long chain of mountains bounds this val-
ley on the east and another on the west.
3. At the north these two chains of mountains
come together in Mount Shasta.
4. At the south they nearly meet, leaving only
narrow passes through them.
II. The Rivers of the Great Valley.
For Reading:
With our balloon hanging over the center of
this great valley we may look toward the north
more than 200 miles away and see where the
Sacramento River rises in a big spring not far
from the foot of Mount Shasta, and where it is
joined by the Pitt River, which winds down from
the northeast corner of the state.
Looking north and south we should see, also, a
line of water all through the middle of the great
valley below us. At first it might be mistaken
for one stream, but looking carefully we should
see that a few miles north of the center of the
valley the Sacramento makes a turn toward the
west, and that what at first seemed to be a
part of it is really a separate stream flowing
northward from the mountains of the south.
This stream from the south is the great San
Joaquin River, and we may observe that just
before it reaches the Sacramento it, too, turns off
MOUNTAINS AND SMALLER VALLEYS.
65
toward the west, and that both rivers are lost in a
narrow bay called the Suisun. The great valley
is named for these rivers — The Sacramento and
San Joaquin Valley^
All along the valley many small rivers would
be seen flowing into these large ones, but most
of them come down from the mountains on the
eastern side.
It is a beautiful sight to see the yellow grain
fields all through this valley, dotted with green
orchards and vineyards and bordered with forests
on the mountain sides.
This is the richest farming land in the world,
and gives homes and work to thousands of happy,
busy people.
For Recitation:
II. I. The Sacramento River starts from a
spring near the foot of Mount Shasta, and flows
south through the center of the great valley of
California.
2. The Pitt River comes into the Sacramento
near its source from the northeastern part of the
state.
3. The San Joaquin River starts from the
mountains in the southern part of the valley and
flows north till it almost meets the Sacramento,
when they both turn west and flow into Suisun
Bay.
4. Many small rivers flow into the Sacramento
and San Joaquin, most of them coming down
from the mountains on the eastern side.
5. This valley contains the richest farming land
in the world.
III. The Mountains and Smaller Valleys.
For Reading:
A view of the mountains and the small valleys
that lie among them would be very interesting,
as well as the view of the great valley we have
just seen. We should find the eastern range of
mountains much higher and rougher than the
western. It is called the Sierra Nevada Range.
The highest group of mountains in the state is in
this chain, almost east of Lake Tulare. Mount
Whitney and Mount Tyndall are each nearly
three miles high. Many peaks in the range are
covered with snow, and along the sides of the
mountains, below the snow level, stand magnifi-
cent forests. Along its whole length the range
is spangled with beautiful lakes.
The western chain is called the Coast Range,
because it lies along the seashore. About mid-
way from north to south the ocean breaks through
this range and cuts a channel, which permits the
waters of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers
to escape.
This opening is called the Golden Gate, and
the water that comes through makes the San
Francisco, San Pablo, and Suisun Bays.
North of these bays, instead of running on as
one chain, the Coast Range splits apart into sev-
eral little rows running nearly north and south,
with long, narrow valleys between them. The
Santa Rosa, Sonoma, and Napa Valleys are three
rich valleys lying north and south among these
mountains.
South of these bays the mountains are split
apart in the same way, making the Salinas, the
Santa Clara, and the Livermore Valleys.
The most noted mountains in this range are
Mount Diablo and Mount Hamilton.
»
For Recitation:
III. I. The Sierra Nevada Mountains lie on
the eastern side of the state, and are higher and
rougher than the western chain. How high are
Mount Tyndall and Mount Whitney ?
66
CALIFORNIA.
2. Fine forests stand on the sides, and many
beautiful lakes lie in the hollows of this range.
3. The mountain chain along the seashore is
called the Coast Range.
4. The sea breaks through the Coast Range
and spreads out into broad inland bays,
5. The opening through which the sea breaks
is called the Golden Gate, and the larger bays are
named San Francisco and San Pablo.
6. Name three valleys that lie between the
rows of the Coast Range on the northern side of
these bays. Three on the southern side. Name
the most noted mountains of this range.
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.
I. Coast Range and Deserts.
For Reading:
Now let us imagine ourselves hovering in a bal-
loon over Mount San Bernardino — the highest
mountain in the southern part of the state. We
shall see a very different view from the one in the
north.
South of the passes that lead into Southern
California but one high range of mountains ap-
pears, although much of the country is mount-
ainous.
This range seems to be a continuation of the
Coast Range, though it soon leaves the coast and
turns toward the southeast corner of the state.
The line of the coast here changes its direction,
curving also toward the southeast. Look at the
pichire and you will see the change. Different
parts of this mountain range have different names,
but the ranges of San Gabriel and San Bernardino
are the most important of these divisions.
Northeast of this range we look upon one of the
most cheerless parts of the earth's surface — the
Mohave Desert. This desert extends eastward
far beyond the eastern edge of California, and
northward on the eastern side of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains as far as Lake Mono, nearly
opposite the center of the Great Valley — a deso-
late, barren region, bearing occasional ridges of
high rocky peaks, called the Lost Mountains.
West of this mountain chain, extending in a.
line from Mount San Bernardino to the southeast
corner of the state, we may see a long, narrow
tract of land in some places three hundred feet
below the level of the sea. This tract is known
as the Colorado Desert. The Gulf of California
once filled the basin, and this barren hollow is
the dry bed left by the water.
II. West of the Coast Range.
For Reading:
West of the Coast Range and the Colorado
Desert there are many fertile valleys with beau-
tiful mesas between them.
The direction of these valleys is very different
from that of the valleys in the Coast Range at
the north, for, as you see in the picture, instead of
running north and south with the great mountain
chain, like the northern valleys, they lie in an
east and west direction, extending toward the sea
nearly at right angles with the principal mountain
chain. Of course you must understand that there ,
are some low mountain ranges running east and
west, or there could be no east and west valleys.
The most northerly of these valleys is the one
drained by the Santa Maria River. South of this
valley are the valleys drained by the Santa Inez
and Santa Clara. These valleys slope to the
ocean in a line almost directly westward.
Still further south are the valleys drained by
the San Gabriel and the Santa Ana, whose waters
flow to the sea by southwesterly courses.
All through Southern California, to the south-
em limit of the state, short rivers run toward the
PLEASURE RESORTS.
67
ocean, watering the land and making it pro-
ductive.
The region drained by these rivers is a country
green with beautiful orange and olive groves and
vineyards, while here, as in the north, thrifty
cities and pretty farm- and school-houses dot the
fruitful land.
For Recitation:
1. I . South of the passes through the mount-
ains into Southern California the Coast Range
runs southeast, and is the only great range.
2. The San Gabriel and San Bernardino Ranges
are the most important divisions of the Coast
Range in the southern part of the state.
3. The country northeast of the Coast Range
in Southern California is a great desert, called
the Mohave Desert.
4. The Colorado Desert is a long and narrow
basin, in some places three hundred feet below
the level of the sea. It lies west of the San Ber-
nardino Range of mountains and extends to the
southeast corner of the state.
5. The Gulf of California once occupied the
basin of the Colorado Desert.
II. I , West of the mountains and the Colorado
Desert, fertile valleys reach to the ocean.
2. The principal valleys of Southern California
<ixtend nearly east and west, instead of north and
south, as in Northern California.
3. The most northerly of the valleys of South-
<im California is drained by the Santa Maria River;
the next one south by the Santa Inez; the third
by the Santa Clara; the fourth by the San Gabriel;
iind the fifth by the Santa Ana.
4. What do we see in the southern valleys ?
FAMOUS CALIFORNIA RESORTS.
I. Lake Tahoe.
For Reading:
Now that we have a picture of our whole state,
you will be interested to know something of the
resorts for which it is famous throughout the
country. One of these is Lake Tahoe, six
thousand feet high, among the Sierra Nevada
Mountains. To visit it let us start from San
Francisco in the morning. We shall cross the
San Francisco Bay by steamer and take the cars
on the eastern side. Riding toward the north-
east we shall reach Sacramento about noon and
get dinner. From there the road grows steeper
and the train climbs more slowly through the
foothills and over the summit of the Sierra Ne-
vada Mountains.
In these mountains we shall pass the famous
Cape Horn, where we make so sharp a turn
around the mountain side that at one time both
the engine and rear car are hidden from those
who sit near the middle of the train, while one
thousand feet below runs the American River.
Beyond Cape Horn we pass among mountains
whose sides and summits have been washed away
by the gold miners, but we lose sight of these
when we enter the snowsheds.
These sheds are dismal passages, miles long,
made of heavy planks, to keep the snow, which
often falls from twenty to forty feet deep, from
blockading the railroad track.
After stopping over night at Truckee, early the
next morning we take the stage for Tahoe, which
lies fifteen miles to the south, partly in California
and partly in Nevada.
We ride along the winding Truckee River,
which has its source in Lake Tahoe, past many
lumber camps, and after a few hours' journey we
suddenly come in sight of the lake, with its rim
of purple and gray mountains.
68
CALIFORNIA.
How beautiful the water is! It seems so blue
that the sky looks pale by contrast with it.
An Inlet of I,ake Tahoe.
When sailing upon its surface we find that, in
places, the color changes to a golden green, like
that of a ripening grain field, but everywhere it is
so clear that we can see the brown bowlders and
the polished pebbles and the speckled trout a
hundred feet below us.
All around the edges of the lake are the reflec-
tions of the lofty mountains and the tall trees
upon their sides and summits. All are upside
down, of course, but the bark and branches and
cones of the trees are distinct in form and color.
This beautiful lake is twenty miles long and
ten miles wide, and, in some places, over a quar-
ter of a mile deep. It is a lake of ice-cold water,
supplied from the melting snows of the high
mountains above it.
From Mount Tallac, the highest peak near the
lake, can be seen fourteen smaller lakes in a cafion
region that leads into Tahoe.
In the summer many people go there to breathe
the pure air and amuse themselves by rowing and
trout-fishing. Many hotels are built on the lake
shore for the accommodation of these pleasure
seekers.
In winter the snow falls very deep, sometimes
burying the houses, and no one tries to live there
then.
For Recitation:
1. I. Trip to Tahoe. — Copy the following
outline and fill out as indicated in the model.
Trace the route on the picture:
Direction from San Francisco. — Northeast.
First mode of conveyance. — By steamer.
Second mode of conveyance. — By cars. .
Noon station. —
Character of road beyond. —
Point of interest on the way, describe. —
Snowsheds, ^escribe. — \
Night station. —
Third mode of conveyance. —
Distance to the lake.
2. Description of Lake. — Arrange the fol-
lowing topics in a column, as in the above models
and fill out:
Color of water; Transparency; Appearance of trees
and mountains in the water; Extent and depth; Source
of supply; Visitors; Objects of visits; Accommodations;
Condition in winter.
II. The Geysers.
For Reading:
The Geysers are a remarkable collection of hot
springs about a hundred miles north of San
Francisco, in a caiio;i of the Coast Range. Great
numbers of people from other parts of the coun-
try visit them every year. At San Francisco,
about nodn, we may take a steamer and sail
northeast across the bay, leaving Mount Diablo
on our right and Mount Tamalpais far to our left.
Late in the afternoon we shall reach Vallejo*
(val la'ho) and take the train north for Calistoga.
Here our route lies through the grain fields and
vineyards of the fertile Napa Valley, and at dark
we come to the end of the railroad, where we
remain over night.
Next morning we climb into the six-horse stage
and begin to dash along the steep, narrow road
1 What is the common way of going to Vallejo from San Francisco?
PLEASURE RESORTS.
69
which leads over the mountain ridge to the Pluton
Canon, in the branches of which the geysers are
situated.
Here all kinds of vile smells seem mixed, and
at every step we may pick up alum, sulphur, soda,
magnesia, and other things that we have never
seen before except in a drug store.
There is a constant sound of hissing, bubbling,
and roaring. Steam comes whistling out of every
hole. Hot water boils from behind the rocks and
flows along the canon. Our canes sink in steam-
ing sand, and the rocks are as hot as if heated by
fire.
The springs, of which there are over one hun-
dred, are mostly in the bottoms of the ravines
and the blow-holes are on the hillsides.
A large spring, called the Steamboat Geyser,
sends off loud blasts of steam, so hot that it does
not cool enough to be seen until it has passed six
feet from the opening where it escapes.^
One spring, laden with sulphur and black as
ink, is called the Witches' Cauldron.
We may come home by another route. We
can take a stage west to Cloverdale, and from
Cloverdale we may take the cars south along the
Santa Rosa Valley to San Francisco Bay. Here
a steamer will be found waiting, in which we may
cross to San Francisco.
For Recitation:
II. The Geysers. — What are the geysers?
Distance and direction from San Francisco?
Where located ? Repeat the first sentence of the
Reading Lesson.
Write a short story from each of the two fol-
lowing outlines:
I. Trip to the Geysers.— First mode of conveyance;
direction; to what point; mountains on either side; sec-
ond mode of conveyance; direction; through what val-
1 Why should the great heat of the steam make it invisible?
ley; to what point; third mode of conveyance; character
of road.
2. Description of Geysers.— Situation; odors; min-
erals; number of springs; location of springs; of blow-
holes; Steamboat Geyser, describe; Witches' Cauldron.
3. Describe the return trip.
III. The Yosemite Valley and Big Trees.
For Reading:
But of all our resorts the one most sought by
visitors is the Yosemite Valley. By flying
directly east from San Francisco, a bird would
find this valley 150 miles distant, in the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. If we start from San Fran-
cisco we cross the bay by steamer to Oakland and
take a train southeast to Berenda. After a night's
rest we set out northeast, traveling a short dis-
tance by railroad, and then taking a stage for a
day and a half over the mountain ridges that lie
between Raymond and the Merced River, whose
headwaters flow through the Yosemite Cafion.
As we approach the valley our first view of it
is from Inspiration Point. We pass from dark
forests into an open glade, and all at once the
picture is before us, obscured only by a floating
lilac haze. Far beneath us flows the Merced
River, its waters widening out into a mirror-like
little pool.
A green lawn borders the stream, and along the
sides of the caiion rise towering walls of granite
nearly a mile high, with peaks and domes upon
their summits.
El Capitan stands out boldly at the front. Fur-
ther up the valley rise the Three Graces, and far
away are seen the faint outlines of Cloud's Rest.
Waterfalls, looking in the distance like white
threads and ribbons tossing and trailing down the
sides of the canon, come to join the Merced River
at the bottom of the valley.
Descending from Inspiration Point we enter the
70
CALIFORNIA.
valley, which lies east and west. Here, pouring
over the walls, are some of the falls that we saw
On the Road to Yosemitk Falls.
from the distance. The Bridal Veil comes down
from the wall on the right, and the Virgin's Tears
from the one on the left.
Passing up the valley towards the east, we stand
between El Capitan on the north and Cathedral
Spires on the south. El Capitan has two sides,
each half a mile across, meeting as the walls of a
house meet on the outside. It is more than 3,000
feet high. Thirty hotels like the Palace, in San
Francisco, might be built in front of it, one on top
of the other, before reaching to its summit.
Half way up the valley, pouring over the wall
of the north side, are the Yosemite Falls, leaping
down 2,600 feet in three jumps. This is the
highest cataract in the world, though it has not the
greatest amount of water. Sometimes the wind
spreads the water out into a fan three hundred
feet wide, and swings it as if it were a pendulum.
There are many other wonderful sights, and we
may spend whole days at a single place without
becoming tired of the view.
Though so famous, this valley is not large. It
is only about eight miles long and one mile wide.
The floor of the valley is 4,000 feet higher than
San Francisco Bay, and its walls in some places
rise almost straight up 4,000 feet more.
No one can own any part of it. The United
States government long ago gave this valley and
the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees^ to California for
a perpetual pleasure ground, and the state has
done much to add to its attractions and to provide
comfortable stopping places for travelers.
On our way home we may visit the Big Trees.
One tree, called the Grizzly Giant, requires a
string nearly one hundred feet long to encircle it.
One, called Abraham lyincoln, is 320 feet high.
Just think how many men each six feet tall would
have to stand one on another's shoulders to pick
a cone from the top!
These trees are a kind of redwood. The name
is a long one, but it is worth learning — Sequoia
gigantea.
The Calaveras Grove of Big Trees is another
group of Sequoia gigantea. It stands about sev-
enty miles north of the Mariposa grove, and con-
tains larger trees. One, called the Mother of the
Forest, is 325 feet high. A tree of this grove
has been felled. It took five men three weeks
to cut it down. Parties sometimes dance on the
stump of one of these trees as if it were the floor
of a hall. A school could easily be seated upon
it if it were near. A hole has been made through
a standing tree large enough for the passage of a
stage coach.
I Reading Hour: Johonnot's Geographical Reader, p. 165, The Big
Trees.
MINING.
71
For Recitation:
III. The Yosemite Vai^ley. — Write a short
story from each of the three following outlines:
1. Trip to Yosemite.— Air line direction from San
Francisco; first mode of conveyance; to what point;
second mode of conveyance; direction; to what point;
direction from that point; mode of conveyance; time
required.
2. Description of Yosemite.— First view from what;
at which end of valley; walls of the cafion; points seen,
I , 2 , 3 ; direction of valley; waterfalls on the
south side; on the north side, i , 2 ; BU Capitan,
describe ; Yosemite Falls, describe ; extent of valley;
elevationof the bottom; height of the walls; ownership;
settlement.
3. Description of Big Trees.— Nearest grove; direc-
tion from Yosemite; Grizzly Giant, size; Abraham Lin-
coln, height; kind of trees; second grove; direction and
distance from Mariposa group; size of trees.
Why should the highest tree be named Abraham Lin-
coln?
MINING IN CALIFORNIA.
I. Discovery of Gold — Early Mining.
For Reading:
When you think of the occupations of the peo-
ple of Cahfomia you may perhaps think first of
what those in your own neighborhood are doing,
but old settlers would be likely to think first of
Mining, because it was through the mining of
gold that California first became much known to
the world.
Before gold was discovered very few settlers
had come to California. A few monks had estab-
lished missions to convert the Indians, and these
had been followed by a few Spanish and Mexican
settlers, California having first belonged to Spain
and then to Mexico. About two years before
gold was discovered some Americans, also, had
begun to come in; California about that time hav-
ing become a possession of the United States.
As soon, however, as gold was found, people
came from all directions — from Mexico, South
America, Europe, and Asia — but mostly from the
eastern part of the United States, and in two
years the population had increased from only a
few Spaniards on the coast and woodsmen in the
interior to 100,000 people, and California was
made a state at once.
Gold was first found near Coloma, which is
northeast of Sacramento, in the foothills, or lower
slopes, of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. A man.
named Sutter had a sawmill there, and early in
January, 1848, one of his hired men, named Mar-
shall, saw some gold in the sands of the stream
which turned the mill. The two men and their
friends tried to keep the discovery a secret; but
no news ever before went around the world so
quickly, and soon people were on their way from
every land in search of California gold.
At first they thought that gold was to be found
only in the beds of streams, but they afterwards
learned that it was all along the western slopes
of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. It was in the
rocks of the hills and ravines, and in the gravel
that had been made out of these rocks by the
action of the water for many thousand years.
The work of the miners was to separate the gold
from the rock or the gravelly soil.
The first mining was done by loosening the
gravel with picks and shovels and then putting
it into pans or rockers, or some other contrivance,
and shaking and draining it till only the gold,
which always falls to the bottom, remained. This
was called Placer mining.
72
CALIFORNIA.
For Recitation:
1. I. The discovery of gold in California
•brought the first large numbers of people.
2. Before that some monks had established
missions, a few Spaniards and Mexicans had
settled in the country, and a few people from the
United States.
3. A man named Marshall first discovered gold
in a stream of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, a
little northeast of Sacramento.
Read carefully the second and third paragraphs and
tell in what year California was made a state. What are
foothills?
4. Gold was afterward found all along the
western slope of the mountains in the rocks and
in the gravel.
5. To make the gravel the rocks had been worn
for thousands of years by water.
6. How was the first mining done, and what
was it called?
II. Hydraulic Mining.
For Reading:
In Hydraulic mining water takes the place of
the pick and shovel. The water is led through
an iron pipe down a steep slope, so that it will
acquire great speed and force. At the beginning
the pipe is four feet or more in circumference, but
it gradually narrows until it is not more than six
inches at the end where the water is discharged.
The water bursts out with terrible force, and
tears down the gravel, clay, and bowlders of the
bank against which it is thrown. The stream
washes out and carries ofi" more earth than many
thousand men could remove in the same time
with picks, shovels, and barrows.
This hydraulic mining has been followed all
along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains.
When the ground is hard, the miners often dig
a passage into the bank and put in kegs of powder
and explode it to loosen the soil and rocks, so
that it will be easier for the water to wash away j
the mass. I
When the water is turned on, it carries with it
gravel and bowlders, rumbling and tumbling
through a cut into a sloping channel lined with
plank. This channel is called a flume, and leads
off to a river or ravine. Gold always sinks to
the bottom of this stream of debris, as its particles
are heavier than the particles of earth or rock.
At the bottom of the flume are cross-bars of
iron, called riffles, to hold the gold. Quicksilver
is scattered here to catch the fine particles. It
seems to try to hide the gold, for it covers every
speck and makes it look silvery like itself.
After a certain number of days the water is
turned out of the flume, and what has settled in
the bottom is scraped out. The gold is then
washed from the dirt in pans, and the mass, cov-
ered with quicksilver, is put into buckskin bags,
through which all the quicksilver possible is
squeezed.
Some still clings to the gold, and the mixture is
called amalgam. This amalgam is heated hot
enough to drive off the quicksilver as vapor.
The vapor is then caught and cooled, thus becom-
ing quicksilver again, and may be used in this
way many times. The clean gold is now melted,
run into molds, and sent to the mint for coining.
For Recitation:
II. I. Hydraulic mining is done by throwing
powerful streams of water against the mountains,
thus tearing away the soil, gravel, and bowlders,
among which the gold is hidden.
2 . The soil and rock are sometimes first loosened
by exploding powder in a chamber dug in the
earth for that purpose.
MINING,
73
3. The streams of water wash the loosened
masses into a channel called a flume.
4. The gold settles in the bottom of the flume
and is caught by quicksilver that has been placed
there for that purpose.
5. The gold and dirt that have settled at the
bottom are scraped up and the dirt is washed out.
6. The gold, enveloped in quicksilver, is then
put into buckskin bags, and as much quicksilver
as possible is squeezed through.
7. What is amalgam? How is the quicksilver
in the amalgam got rid of? What is then done
with the pure gold?
III. Quartz Mining.
For Reading:
But little hydraulic mining is now done.
Quartz mining is more common. • This is carried
on by digging and blasting drifts and shafts under
the earth.
The drifts are passages that run horizontally
into the sides of the mountain, following a shelf
of gold-bearing rock called quartz. The shafts
run perpendicularly down, like wells.
In the drifts the air is not very pure, and the
miners have to work in cramped positions, often
stooping, sometimes on their knees, sometimes
lying on their backs picking at the rocks above.
Almost always there is water dripping on them,
and they stand in mud. Their only light comes
irom a sputtering candle stuck in the side of the
drift, or passage.
The quartz is brought out in hand cars, and
(^rushed into powder by solid iron pillars called
stamps. Some of these stamps weigh five hun-
dred pounds each, are driven by steam, and strike
forty of their terrible blows in one minute.
The powdered rock is washed along a flume by
Interior of a Quicksilver Mine at New Almaden.
a stream of water and passes through a sieve, the
gold being caught by quicksilver, which is
sprinkled all along its passage way. Then it is
put through buckskin bags, as in hydraulic min-
ing.
The quicksilver, so necessary in gold mining,
comes chiefly from the New Almaden mine, near
San Jose, though it is found in small quantities
all along the Coast Range. It is found in beds
of slate rock, and is mined by means of shafts
and drifts, as in quartz mining.
The ore looks very much like common brick.
It is put into an oven and heated until the quick-
silver goes off" as vapor. When cooled, the vapor
is condensed into pure quicksilver, which is very
heavy, and is kept and sold in iron flasks.
For Recitation:
III. I. In quartz mining the rock containing
gold is broken up by digging and blasting.
2. After the rock is broken, it is taken out and
crushed to powder by great hammers, called
stamps, which are worked by steam power.
3. The powdered rock is washed along a flume
by a stream of water, and the gold is caught by
74
CALIFORNIA.
quicksilver, from which it is then separated, as in
hydrauHc mining.
4. Quicksilver is mostly found in a mine at
New Almaden, near San Jose.
5. Quicksilver ore looks hke common brick.
6. The ore is put into an oven and heated till
* the quicksilver goes off in vapor.
FARMING IN CALIFORNIA.
Oral. — What kind of grain have you seen
growing? Where? On whose farm? What
farming work have you ever seen? Tell how it
was done. Where have you seen fruit growing ?
What kinds ? For what is each kind used ?
I. Irrigating — Grain Raising.
For Reading:
Grain raising is now a leading pursuit in Cal-
ifornia. It has not always been so. When gold
was first discovered the country was only a graz-
ing ground for cattle.
At first it was feared that good crops could not
be raised because of the lack of summer rains,
but it was soon found that the ground could be
plowed in spring, and by sowing the seed after
the first rains in the fall a fine harvest could be
reaped the next year.
In some parts of the state . farmers do not
depend wholly upon rain to water their land.
Ditches have been dug and connected with the
rivers, by means of which they can flood the land
with water whenever they wish.
In other places wells have been bored, through
which streams of water gush up constantly, and
these are conducted upon any land that needs
moisture. Wells of this kind are called artesian
wells, and these methods of watering are called
irrigation.
The lasting prosperity of California began with
farming. In the early mining days nothing was
permanent. Men lived in rude cabins, ready to
move to a new mine any day, or return to their
old homes in the east as soon as they had grown
rich.
Now, when they found that farming would
jdeld as rich returns as mining, many resolved to
devote their attention to that. They sent for
their families and began to build homes and
school houses and towns, and now California pro-
duces almost as much grain as any state in the
Union — wheat and barley being the principal
kinds.
The great wheat and barley fields of the state
are in the valley of the Sacramento and San Joa-
quin Rivers. Large crops of barley are also raised
in the southern part of the state.
The farmers of California raise much more
grain than can be used at home, and the surplus
is sold to all parts of the world. In one year
enough grain was raised to give i , 500 pounds to
every one living in the state.
Some men own vast farms, ^ and it is an inter-
esting sight to see their workmen breaking the
surface of the ground with gang plows, each plow
drawn by eight or more horses, and ten plows
often working almost side by side, all of them
together cutting a strip of land forty feet or more
wide, and sometimes going a mile before turning.
Some machines cut the grain and thrash it at
the same time. With such a machine four men
and twenty horses can easily harvest thirty acres
in a day, leaving the grain sewed up in sacks, in
great piles, in the field.
Sometimes the thrasher works by steam, and
the fire of the engine is fed by the straw from
which the wheat has been thrashed. These
machines cost so much that not every farmer can
own one. Many hire a thrasher to do their work,
I Reading Hour: King's Methods and Aids in Geography, p. 302, A
California Farm.
FARMING AND FRUIT GROWING.
75
and the machiner}^ with a kitchen
on wheels, is hauled from farm to
farm. A cook accompanies the party
to prepare meals for the workers, and a
cow follows to furnish milk.
For Recitation:
1. I. In California ground
is usually plowed in spring
and the seed sowed
after the first rains
in the fall.
2. In many places
ditches have been dug
leading from rivers or
reservoirs to farming land,
and the water is carried
through them out upon the
land.
3. Artesian wells have been
bored in some places, and the
water run off upon the land
through pipes.
4. What is irrigation
5. What are the prin-
cipal grain products
of California?
6. What is the
principal grain pro-
ducing region of Cali-
fornia ?
7. Grain is often har-
vested by machines that cut
it and thrash it at the same time
8. Describe the way of work
ing with a steam thrasher.
II. Fruit Growing.
For Reading:
In Fruit raising California surpasses any
other part of the world.
Nearly every kind of fruit
may be found in the or-
chards of the great valley
of the Sacramento and San
Joaquin; but peaches, pears,
figs, grapes, nectarines, plums,
and cherries are the principal
fruits.
The foothills yield the most
luscious fruits of every descrip-
tion. Here the best apples
grow.
The vineyards and orchards
in the valley of the Sacra-
mento and San Joaquin
Rivers are larger than
in the smaller valleys
of Santa Clara,
Napa, Sonoma,
Santa Rosa,
and Livermore,
though not so nu-
merous. Picking fruit
gives employment to
many boys and girls in all
parts of the state.
In the valleys of Southern
California the apricot, orange,
lemon, olive, fig, and grape
grow in large quantities.
The grape is found in
nearly all parts of
the state, and its
cultivation employs
many people.
76
CALIFORNIA.
The largest vineyard in the world is in the
northern part of the Sacramento Valley. It is so
large that it would take a man a half day to walk
around it, though going ver>^ briskly. More than
three hundred men and boys are sometimes out
among the vines of this vineyard picking grapes.
The pickers come from San Francisco, Sacra-
mento, and many other places.
For Recitation:
II. I. What are the chief fruits of the Sacra-
mento and San Joaquin Valley ? Where do the
best apples grow? What smaller valleys of
Northern California are distinguished for fruit
raising ?
2. Where are the largest orchards and vine-
3-ards ?
3. Name the principal fruits in the valleys of
Southern California.
4. The largest vineyard in the world is in the
northern part of the Sacramento Valley.
III. Marketing and Preserving Fruit.
For Reading:
Every year, California sends thousands of tons
of fruit to the eastern states and other parts of
the world, where it is eagerly bought. At Sac-
ramento, Los Angeles, San Jose, and some other
towns, many men are kept busy every day dur-
ing the fruit season loading fruit cars, which are
sent east by the fastest trains.
Besides, we have establishments for drying and
canning the fruit to preserve what we do not use
or sell while fresh.
In the Santa Clara Valley, near San Jose, the
canneries furnish work for many boys and girls.
as well as men and women. In most canneries
children perform a large part of the work.
When drying apricots, plums, and peaches in
the sun, the fruit is split, and the pieces laid care-
fully on shallow trays. Apples and pears are
sliced to dry. Fruit is also dried by machines
in a quicker and cleaner way than it can be dried
by the sun.
One process, called evaporating^ will, in a few
hours, take enough moisture from the fruit to dry
it properly, and still leave the fine flavor.
Most of the grapes are made into wine. In the
great vineyard mentioned in the last lesson the
grapes as they are picked are laid in large boxes,
and afterwards carried in wagons to a great build-
ing, where there are machines to crush them, and
large tubs, called vats, to hold the juice, which
pours into them all day in steady streams from the
crushers. This juice soon ferments and becomes
wine, which is stored in casks so large that, even
if they were Ijdng on their sides, a man might
stand upright in one.
In many vineyards the grapes are made into
raisins. The largest raisin vineyard in the world
is near Sacramento, but raisins are chiefly made
in the country around Fresno, about two hundred
miles south of this.
Many children help at the raisin making. The
grapes are picked and placed on trays, and in
about nine days the bunches are turned over and
left a week longer. After this they are boxed
and put into an air-tight or steam-heated room to
sweat. This makes the stems and raisins soft,
and they are then ready for market.
For Recitation:
III. Tell what you can of the following topics:
1. Shipping fruit. 4. Wine making.
2. Canning fruit. 5. Raisin making.
3. Drying fruit.
MANUFA CTURING.
77
MANUFACTURES IN CALIFORNIA.
Oral. — Have you ever seen a saw-mill? A
blacksmith shop? A fiouriug-mill ? A machine
shop? A woolen mill? A shoe shop? A car-
penter shop? A printing office? What was
made in each? Tell, as well as yoii can, how it
was done.
I. Manufacture of Food Products.
For Reading:
The Manufactures of CaHfomia are very im-
portant. The most valuable of them are Butter
and Cheese.
The principal dairies are among the foothills of
the mountains and near the coast, where the grass
is good.
A dairy about fourteen miles south of San
Francisco employs one hundred men. There are
18,000 acres in the tract, and it is divided into nine
fields. Each field has in it a certain number of
cows, and is well supplied with water.
In the center of each pasture is the milking
place, and near it a platform on which stands a
great double strainer. The milk is poured through
this and carried off by pipes to the milk house,
where it is placed in pans. The cream is skimmed
every thirty-six hours, and churned by horse
power.
One hundred pounds of butter are worked and
salted in one mass, which is then divided and
packed in rolls of two pounds each.
Across the bay, a few miles north of San Fran-
cisco, are many dairies famous for their fine butter.
The largest cheese dairy is near the coast,
southwest of Lake Tulare. One thousand cows
are milked there.
Next in importance is the manufacture of
Flour. In the state are nearly 200 flouring-mills.
Some work by water and some by steam. San
]?rancisco has a greater number of mills than any
other city of the state.
The largest flouring-mill in the state is on the
northern side of San Pablo Bay. Vessels can sail
up on one side of it for cargoes, and a side-track
from the railroad runs on the other side to bring
wheat from the valleys and carry away flour.
This mill often makes 1,700 barrels of flour in
one day. What a mountain of flour that would
make in a year!
California Sugar making chiefly consists in tak-
ing raw sugar, obtained from other places, and
purifying it in our refineries.
Raw sugar is a coarse, brown sugar made by
boiling the juice of the sugar cane. Our supply
is mostly obtained from the great plantations of
the Sandwich Islands.
In refining it the raw sugar is dissolved in hot
water, and pumped into the upper part of the
building. Here it is heated very hot in pans, and
a little lime added to destroy any acid matter that
may be in the mixture. From these pans it is
strained, still hot, through two bags — one coarse
and one fine — and it drips out red, like wine.
Next, it is filtered through a substance called
bone-black, which catches all impurities, and the
liquid becomes perfectly clear. It is then allowed
to settle and harden into sugar. The part that
does not harden is made into syrup.
Besides the sugar produced in this way, consid-
erable attention is given to the manufacture of
beet sugar. A large factory for this purpose is
located in Santa Cruz County, and the raising of
beets to supply it is a constantly growing industry.
For Recitation:
1. I. The most valuable manufactures of Cali-
fornia are butter and cheese, and the next is flour.
2. Where are the principal butter and cheese
dairies ?
78
CALIFORNIA.
3. Describe butter making in a large
dairy, and tell where such a dairy is.
4. In what part of the state are
famous butter dairies found?
5. Where is the largest cheese dairy
in the state ?
6. How many flouring-mills has Cali-
fornia, and how are they run ?
7. What city of the state has most
flour mills ?
8. Where is the largest flouring-mill,
and how much flour can it make in one
day?
9. In what does the manufacture of
sugar in California consist ?
10. Describe raw sugar. Where obtained?
11. Describe the first step in refining sugar;
the second; the third; the fourth.
II. Leather and Iron.
For Reading:
Leather and Ironware are also among the large
manufactures of California.
You do not need to be told from what leather
is made. In its manufacture the hides are first
soaked in water twenty-four hours, to clear them
of blood. Then they are kept in lime for a week,
to loosen the hair and flesh. At the end of this
time they are taken out and scraped clean, after
which they are piled up, with layers of bark be-
tween them, in large, deep, square tubs, called
vats. They are then covered with water and left
to stand for a number of days. There is some-
thing in the bark which soaks into the hide and
makes it heavier and softer, and it comes out
leather.
Union Iron Works, San Francisco.
The bark used in the California tanneries is sup-
plied from the Chestnut Oak, which grows along
the coast mountains. This oak is found mostly
in the north, but is becoming quite scarce, as the
tree dies when its bark is taken off.
Iron manufactures are produced chiefly in the
foundries of San Francisco, and consist princi-
pally of mining and agricultural implements and
saws for the lumber mills.
One of these foundries also builds steel and iron
ships. Other iron works make barbed wire for
fences and cables for street cars, for bridges, and
for mines.
The iron products of the railroad shops at Sac-
ramento are also very extensive. Two thousand
men work there, and the buildings cover thirty-
six acres of ground. In these shops are also
made the desks and tables for hundreds of rail-
road ofiices and the woodwork and furniture for
cars.
Extensive shops for repairing railroad cars are
located in Los Angeles.
A COMMERCIAL CITY.
79
For Recitation:
II. I. Leather and iron goods are largely man-
ufactured in California.
2. Tell what is done with hides to make them
into leather.
3. What bark is used in tanning, and where
found ?
4. Where are most of the iron manufactures of
the state produced, and in what do they chiefly
consist ?
5. What other manufactures of iron are pro-
duced ?
6. Describe the railroad shops at Sacramento.
What articles besides those of iron are made there ?
III. Lumber — Woolen Goods — Clothing.
For Reading:
We have said nothing about the Lumber mills.
To find these we must leave the cities.
These mills are near the forests. The chief
timber regions of California are the redwood for-
ests of the Coast Range, from Monterey north-
ward, and the sugar pine forests of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains.
Logs are cut high up in the mountains, and if
';oo far away to be hauled by teams are sent down
';o the mills by slides, or flumes, which are built
<iown the mountain sides. Some of these flumes
are more than twenty miles long, and the logs
whiz down so fast that you can hardly see them
go by. Sometimes they are floated down the
streams, and lie in great piles till the mill men
are ready to saw them.'
We must not forget the Woolen mills. The
best blankets manufactured anywhere in the
United States are made in California, and great
t[uantities of other woolen goods, such as flannels
and cloth for men and boys' clothing, are also
produced.
Other manufactures are considerable. If we
were to visit San Francisco, we should find a
great many rooms, in the upper stories of large
buildings, where hundreds of sewing machines
are clicking all day long in the manufacture of
clothing. Many others are filled with men
making saddles and harnesses. In others as
many as one hundred men may be found engaged
in making boots and shoes.
For Recitation:
IV. I. Saw-mills for making lumber are near the
redwood forests of the Coast Range and the sugar
pine forests of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
2. Logs are often sent from the forests down
the mountain sides to the mills by long flumes.
3. California is celebrated for its manufacture
of blankets, flannels, and woolen cloth for clothing.
4. Clothing, saddles and harness, and boots
and shoes are largely manufactured in San Fran-
cisco.
5. Write a list, to read in class, of all the things
not mentioned in these lessons, that you know are
manufactured in California.
A COMMERCIAL CITY.
For Reading:
"What is commerce?" said Ned, as the teacher
told the class that upon the following day they
would talk of a city noted for its commerce.
Reuben raised his hand as a request to speak,
and the teacher nodded consent.
' ' I think Ned would know what commerce is
if he had remembered what we studied on the
twenty- seventh page of our Geography," said he.
8o
CALIFORNIA.
v^
B
At the Wharf in San Francisco.
As it was found that several of the children
had forgotten, they all took their Geographies,
and the teacher talked with them again of com-
merce.
The next day, after this was understood, the
class came together again to talk about the things
to be found in a great commercial city. Several
of the boys had visited San Francisco, and could
tell what they had seen.
Upon alighting at the wharf they had joined
in the moving crowd and had been hurried along
to the street cars, which were standing on iron
tracks that extended into the city for miles along
the streets.
Some of the cars were drawn by horses, some
were fastened to underground ropes of wire, called
cables, and drawn by steam. These, full of
people, followed one another through many streets
along the iron tracks.
Going out in these cars, they saw for miles
along the streets very large and very high build-
ings, filled with goods of various kinds for sale.
There were warehouses and stores filled with
dry goods, hardware, boots and shoes, furniture,
drugs, carriages, stoves, grates and mantels, hats
and caps, millinery, groceries, cured fish, leather,
salted and smoked meat, crockery, pianos
and organs, and with manj^ other things —
all to be sent out to other towns in ex-
change for money. When the money
was received it was to be sent out again
for more goods.
They saw many things besides — things
that are always to be seen where these
great exchanges are made.
They saw hundreds of large and heavy
wagons, some drawn by two horses, some
by four, some by six, driven in all direc-
tions, carrying loads from these ware-
houses and stores to ships or railroad
cars, and bringing loads from ships and
cars to the warehouses and stores.
On some streets were seen vegetable and fruit
markets filling up whole blocks. On others there
were markets for the sale of meat, fish, eggs, but-
ter, cheese, and other articles of food.
The stores were full of clerks. Some were sell-
ing goods, and others writing at desks. In some
stores more than a hundred clerks were occupied
in this way.
In one very high building they found, on the
upper floor, nearly a hundred people all working
at the same time on telegraph instruments, mak-
ing a noise that was almost deafening, while a
great many boj-^s in blue uniforms were seen hur-
rying along the streets with messages for the
people who live in the city.
In every block in some parts of the city were
found banks, express offices, insurance offices, and
real estate offices, filled with a busy lot of pro-
prietors and clerks.
The boys began to count the hotels, but stopped
when told that there were several hundred of
them. In a large commercial city there must
always be many hotels to accommodate the peo-
ple who visit the city to buy and sell goods.
Some of these hotels are very large and beautiful.
CITIES AND TOWNS.
8i
and richly funiislied. The picture shows you the
open space that may be seen on the interior of
one of them. Such a space is called a court.
Before night the boys had grown tired with
sight-seeing, with the din of wagons on the
streets, and the rush of people on the pavements;
but they had learned some things about a com-
mercial city that they would never forget.
For Recitation:
1. What is commerce?
2. After reading this lesson through carefully,
close the book ahd write, in your own language,
what you can remember of the things to be seen
in a commercial city. Bring this to the class to
read.
3. From the open book, write, in a column, all
the articles of commerce that are mentioned in the
lesson. In another column write all the other
articles of commerce that you can think of Bring
this, also, to the class to read.
4, Name all the classes of people that you can
think of who help in the business of commerce,
such as merchants, clerks, etc.
CITIES AND TOWNS.
[Have pupils write a description of their own town or
neighborhood. Include the direction and distance from
San Erancisco and Sacramento by the usual routes of
travel. Many of the descriptions below were written
for this book by the pupils of schools in the towns
described. The distances from San Francisco are the
distances by rail, except where otherwise stated. The
map questions should be studied before the description
of towns. It is not intended that these descriptions
shall be memorized.]
I. San Francisco and Suburban Towns.
San Francisco is situated at the northern end
of a peninsula which is washed on the west by
the Pacific Ocean, on the north by the Golden
Gate, and on the east by San Francisco Bay.
The city stands on the eastern side of the penin-
sula, though the unoccupied land belonging to
it extends westward to the Pacific Ocean and
embraces the whole county of San Francisco.
The first settlement was made here in 1777, by
the Spaniards, who gave it the name of Yerba
Buena (bwa'na) {good herb). Seventy years after-
ward the name was changed to San Francisco.
The city is chiefly distinguished as a commercial
city, and, though ninth in population among
the cities of the United States, it ranks fourth in
commerce. Its importance as a manufacturing
CALIFORNIA
A View in Golden Gate Park.
city is also great, tlie larger part of the manu-
factures of the state, except lumber, flour, and
liquors, being produced here. The principal
business streets are Market, Kearny, Montgom-
ery, and Sansome.
Golden Gate Park is the chief resort for pleas-
ure. This park contains more than i,ooo acres
of land, most of which is laid out in beautiful
grass plats, flower beds, little groves of trees and
shrubs, shady walks, and fine roads for driving.
Lately, a deer park has been added, and a large
space fitted up as "children's quarters," where
the little folks amuse themselves with games,
ride on the merry-go-rounds or on the donkeys,
drive the goat-carts, and enjoy the swings, see-
saws, spring-boards, or the May-pole. The park
is reached from the city by several lines of cable
railways.
Over 40,000 pupils attend the excellent public
schools of San Francisco, and more than 12,000
are in attendance upon the private schools. In
one of the high schools of the city the pupils are
taught drawing, and modeling in cla3^ The
boys of this school work in wood and iron, and
the girls are taught sewing. Drawing, modeling,
and sewing are taught to some extent in nearly
all the schools of the city.
The population in 1880 was 234,000. It is now
estimated at 315,000. Oakland, Alameda, and
Berkeley are suburban cities lying across the bay
to the east, in the county of Alameda. San
Rafael, another suburban town, is in Marin
county, on the north side of the bay. 1
Oakland, 6 miles from San Francisco, is its most im-
portant suburb. From early morning till late at night, I
ferry-boats and trains of cars carry passengers every fif-
teen minutes between the two cities. A large number
of people who do business in San PVancisco reside in
Oakland. The climate, like that of most of the cities
of the state on the seacoast, is cool and pleasant in sum-
mer and without excessive cold in winter. The city is
noted for its healthfulness, the beauty of its streets and
homes, its parks of live oaks, its excellent public and
private schools, including a public high school of the first
rank, and its well sustained churches. It is the seat, also,
of considerable trade and manufacture. The site of the
CITIES AND TOWNS.
85
city is generally level. The population in 1880 was 34,-
555. It is now (1890) estimated at 60,000.
Alameda, 9 miles from San Francisco, lies on the east
side of San Francisco Bay, south of Oakland. The cli-
mate of Alameda is warmer in summer than that of Oak-
land, though cooler in winter. It has half-hourly trains
and ferry-boats to San Francisco. It is chiefly a city of
residences, many of which are very handsome. It has
good public schools, good streets, stone sidewalks, and
is lighted by electricity. Its water supply is derived
from artesian wells. The population in 18S0 was 5,000.
It is now (1890) estimated at 11,000.
Berkeley, 10 miles from San Francisco, lies north of
Oakland, on the same side of San Francisco Bay, and
directly opposite Golden Gate. It is a rapidly growing
town, and contains the University of California, nu-
merous academies, and excellent public schools. The
state asylum for the blind and the deaf and dumb is also
located in Berkeley. Like Alameda, Berkeley is con-
nected with San Francisco by half-hourly trains. The
population in 1880 was 2,334. It is now (1890) estimated
at about 5,000.
San Rafael, 15 miles from San Francisco, is a favorite
summer resort, and has one of the finest hotels in the
state. It is three miles from San Pablo Bay, and is noted
especially for its excellent water and fine climate. It
has many fine residences and excellent public schools.
It is connected with San Francisco by two railroad lines
and ferries, which make frequent trips during the day.
The population in 18S0 was 2,300. It is now (1890) esti-
mated at 3,300.
II. Thk Capital op the State.
Sacramento, 90 miles from San Francisco,
is situated on the left bank of the Sacramento
River, just below the entrance of the American
River into the Sacramento. It stands in the
midst of an extensive, fertile, and highly culti-
vated plain, producing orchard fruits, grapes,
grain, and hops. Railroads extend from it in five
directions. Steamers of considerable size also
ascend the river to this point. Manufactures are
extensive and growing. The car shops of the
Central Pacific railroad, covering, with their
yards, thirty-six acres of ground, are located
here. Other important manufactures are of flour,
carriages, and malt liquors. Sacramento has good
public schools and a college. The capitol is one
of the most beautiful public buildings in the
United States. The population in 1880 was 21,-
420. It is now (1890) estimated at 30,000.
III. Towns and Cities North and North-
east FROM San Francisco.
Santa Rosa, 51 miles from San Francisco, is situated
on the San Francisco and North Pacific railroad, in a
region producing a great variety of fruits and grain. It
has an important trade in fruits and wine. It is also
noted for its excellent public and private schools. The
population in 1880 was 3,616. It is now (1890) esti-
mated at 7,000.
Eureka, 216 miles (by sea) from San Francisco, is a
seaport situated on Humboldt Bay. Its chief importance
arises from its trade in lumber, lumber products, wool,
and butter. The immense redwood forests of Humboldt
County furnish most of its lumber. The population in
1880 was 2,639. It is now (1890) estimated at 6,000.
Vallejo (valla'ho), 25 miles by water {2,}) by railroad)
from San Francisco, and the largest town in Sola'no
County, is at the junction of Carquinez (kar kee'nez)
Strait and Napa River. Vallejo is finely located on roll-
ing land, and has, on Mare (ma'ra) Island, in front of
the town, a United States navy yard, whose operations
employ many workmen. Great quantities of wheat and
flour are shipped to all parts of the world from its
extensive flouring-mills. Excellent pressed brick and
terra cotta ornaments for fronts of buildings are sent
from the manufactory there. The population in 1880
was 6,000. It is now (1890) about the same.
Napa City, 46 miles from San Francisco, is situated in
the southern part of one of the most important grape-
growing regions of the state. It is located on Napa
River at the head of tide water, and connects with San
Francisco both by water and rail. It communicates also
by telegraph and telephone. It has a mild climate, and
is the center of an extensive fruit and berry region.
Napa is about six miles from Soda Springs, and one
mile from one of the state asylums for the insane. The
Veterans' Home, an institution for the care of disabled
soldiers, is located eight miles from Napa City, in Napa
County. The important industries are tanning, manu-
facture of flour, woolen goods, glue, and wine. The
manufacture of wine is the chief of these. The popula-
tion in 1880 was 3,731. It is now (1890) estimated at
5,500.
86
CALIFORNIA.
Woodland, 86 miles from San Francisco, lies about six
miles west of the Sacramento River, in a beautiful grove
of natural oaks. Large vineyards, wheat fields, and
clover meadows are the chief features of the surround-
ing country. The chief trade is in wheat, and the prin-
cipal manufactures are woolen goods, flour, malt liquors,
wine, and brandy. The buildings are generally handsome
and the streets wide and clean. The town is lighted by
electricity. The population in 1880 was 2,257. It is now
(1890) estimated at 4,500.
Marysville, 142 miles from San Francisco, is a pleasant
town, situated in a fertile region between the Yuba and
Feather Rivers at their junction. Most of the grain
from the surrounding country is shipped from this point,
which is also the center of quite an extensive fruit pro-
ducing region. The manufactures are chiefly of woolen
goods, flour, and machinery. The canning of fruit is
also an important industry. The Feather River is nav-
igable to this place, all the year, for light draught
steamers, which run between this city and San Francisco.
The streets are broad and well graded. The city is
lighted by electricity. The population in 1880 was
4,341. It is now (1890) estimated at about 6,000.
Chico, 186 miles from San Francisco, is the largest
town in Butte County. It is located on the California
and Oregon railroad, about six miles east of the Sacra-
mento River. It is a beautiful, well built city, in the
center of a fertile region of great extent. It has a large
trade in lumber, which is brought from the Sierra Nevada
Mountains in a flume forty miles long. Its manufactur-
ing establishments are foundries, wagon shops, flouring-
mills, and fruit canneries. It has a large trade in wheat
and fruit. Chico has excellent public and private
schools. Here, also, is located one of the three State
Normal Schools. The population in 1880 was 3,300. It
is now (1890) estimated at 6,000.
Redding, 234 miles from San Francisco, the largest
town in Shasta County, is situated on the west bank of
the Sacramento River, and on the line of the California
and Oregon railroad. The town is chiefly supported by
the industries of agricultm-e and of placer and quartz
mining. The last is rapidly increasing in importance.
The population in 1880 was 900. It is now (1890) esti-
mated at 3,000.
Nevada City, 166 miles from San Francisco, is a
pleasant mountain town, situated on a clear stream of
running water. It was formerly an important mining
town, and still possesses rich mineral resources. The
public schools have an excellent reputation. The pop-
ulation in 1880 was 4,022.
Grass Valley, 161 miles from San Francisco, is
situated in Nevada County, about five miles from the
county seat. Its quartz mines are the most productive
in the state, and are the chief source of its wealth.
Much attention is given to public schools. The popu-
lation in 1880 was 4,500.
IV. Towns South, East, and Southeast
FROM San Francisco.
San Jose, 46 miles from San Francisco, is located in
the rich valley of Santa Clara. This valley was among
the first in the state to be put into cultivation, and is now
very highly improved. The country about San Jos^ is
covered with orchards and vineyards. Prunes, apricots,
peaches, pears, cherries, grapes, and berries are raised
in abundance and of excellent quality. The ground on
which the city stands is level, and the buildings are
attractive. It is situated about six miles from the south-
ern end of San Francisco Bay, which removes it from
the fogs of the seacoast, but not beyond the cooling airs
of the ocean. It has, therefore, one of the most delight-
ful climates in the state, and is celebrated for its pleasant
homes and beautiful private gardens. It is the seat of
the oldest Normal School of California. The population
in 1880 was 12,567. It is now (1890) estimated at 21,000.
Santa Clara, 43 miles from San Francisco, lies three
miles west of San Jose, in the same county. It is the
seat of Santa Clara College and of the University of the
Pacific. A wide and beautiful avenue, called The Ala-
meda, lined with shade trees, connects it with San Josd,
Santa Cruz, 121 miles from San Francisco, situated
on the north side of Monterey Bay, is a popular summer
resort for pleasure. It has fine sea bathing and charming
drives in the mountains, and is surrounded by a well
timbered country. The population in 1880 was 3,900.
It is now (1890) estimated at 6,000.
Monterey, 125 miles from San Francisco, is a celebrated
pleasure resort, and is situated on the south side of Mon-
terey Bay, in Monterey County, having one of the best
harbors in the state. An eighteen-mile drive along an
avenue bordered by cypress trees is one of its chief
attractions to visitors. It is one of the oldest towns in
the state, and was the capital of California under both
Spanish and Mexican rule. It is also the seat of the
old California Mission of Mt. Carmel. The population
in 1880 was 1,400. It is now (1890) 2,000.
San Luis Obispo, 248 miles from San Francisco, is sit-
uated nine miles from the bay of the same name, in the
midst of a picturesque country made up of steep hills
and fertile valleys. The climate is agreeable, not being
subject to extremes of heat or cold. The town is lighted
TOWNS AND CITIES.
87
"by electricity, has telegraph and telephone communica-
tions, and street railways. Its seaport is Port Harford,
-with which it is connected by rail. The city is built on
the site of the old Mission of San Luis Obispo de Tolosa,
which was founded in 1772. The population in 1880 was
2,500. It is now (1890) estimated at 3,800.
Santa Barbara, 285 miles (by sea) from San Francisco,
is situated upon a channel of the same name. It is noted
for its mild climate, which attracts many people who wish
to escape cold winters and hot summers. It has a safe
liarbor, easy of access, and is connected with San Fran-
cisco by a line of steamers and by the Southern Pacific
railroad. Near the city are found the most celebrated
■olive orchards in the state, and the largest bearing wal-
nut orchard in America. Lima beans are a leading
-product of the surrounding country, and over 1,000,000
pampas plumes are sent from here annually. The pop-
ulation in 1880 was 3,460. It is now (1890) estimated at
^bout 9,000.
Stockton, 91 miles from San Francisco, is situated on
•Stockton Slough, a short branch of the San Joaquin
River. This slough is navigable for steamers, which
Ascend the river from San Francisco. Stockton is sur-
Tounded by a fertile wheat and fruit region, and has a
large trade in wheat and wool. Its manufacturing inter-
ests are of the first importance. Natural gas, recently
discovered, supplies abundant light and fuel. One of the
state asylums for the insane is located here. The public
schools, including an excellent high school which pre-
pares students for the State University, are among the
Tsest in the state. Stockton is rapidly growing. The
population in 1880 was 10,000. It is now (1890) esti-
anated at 15,000.
Modesto, 114 miles from San Francisco, is a clean,
pleasant town, situated in a large and fertile plain, mostly
•devoted to raising wheat. It is important as the ship-
ping point for the products of the rich country that lies
around it. The population in 18S0 was 1,700. It is now
{1890) estimated at 3,500.
Fresno, 207 miles from San Francisco, in the valley
of the San Joaquin River, is the center of the chief raisin
growing region of the state, and is also noted for the
manufacture of flour. The country around Fresno has
been largely settled by colonies, whose members own
and cultivate small tracts of land. In this way it has
become thickly settled and highly productive. P'or a
number of years Fresno has had a rapid growth in pop-
ulation and prosperity. The site of the town is level,
and the climate in summer is very warm. The popula-
tion in 1880 was 2,000, It is now (1890) estimated at
10,000.
Visalia, 248 miles from San Francisco, is a flourishing
town situated in the midst of a rich farming region.
The leading occupations of the surrounding country are
fruit culture, stock raising, wheat growing, and lumber-
ing. The population in iS8owas 1,412. It is now (1890)
estimated at 3,000.
Bakersfield, 314 miles from San Francisco, is situated
in the midst of a fertile region of country, in which the
principal industries are stock raising, dairying, and fruit
growing, the principal fruits being grapes, prunes, apri-
cots, almonds, and oranges. The rainfall is light, and
the land is chiefly watered by irrigation from Kern River.
It has a fine water power and considerable mineral re-
sources. The population in 1880 was 1,500. It is now
(1890) estimated at 3,000.
Los Angeles, 482 miles from San Francisco, was first
settled more than one hundred years ago by a few
Spanish families from the Mission of San Gabriel, a few
miles distant. The city is built on a gentle slope of the
Sierra Madre Mountains, about 350 feet above the sea,
and midway between the sea and the mountains, being
about fourteen miles distant from each. The Los Angeles
River flows south through the city, dividing it nearly in
the center. The climate of Los Angeles is famed for its
agreeableness. In summer the cool breezes from the
Pacific Ocean relieve it from excessive heat, and in win-
ter the surrounding mountains protect the city from the
cold winds of the north. Orchards of the orange, lemon,
lime, banana, pomegranate, and all kinds of deciduous
fruit trees are found in the suburbs. Thousands of orange
trees and grapevines are scattered through the city, and
flowers bloom here all the year round. The chief ex-
ports are dried and fresh fruits, wool, and hides. During
the orange season seventy-five cars loaded with oranges
often leave the city in one day. Many lines of railway
diverge from Los Angeles, making it the central com-
mercial point for Southern California and much of Ari-
zona and New Mexico. Its nearest seaport is San Pedro,
twenty-five miles distant. The city has several cable
systems of street railroad, one electric railway, and more
than fifty miles of horse-car road. It is the seat, also, of
one of the State Normal Schools. Since 1884 the varied
advantages of Los Angeles have attracted a large immi-
gration of people, chiefly from the Eastern States. Most
of its handsome public buildings, business blocks, and
private residences have been erected, and its many miles
of street railway constructed, since that time. The popu-
lation in 1880 was 11,000. It is now (1890) estimated at
60,000.
Pasadena, 492 miles from San Francisco, is a flourish-
ing town of Los Angeles County, situated about seven
miles from the city of Los Angeles. It is connected
with Los Angeles by a line of street cars and two lines
88
BRITISH AMERICA.
Bee Farm near San Diego.
of railroad. Though laid out since 1880, it has grown
into a well built and beautiful town. The country about
Pasadena, as well as generally through Los Angeles
County, is rich, highly improved, and well watered by
irrigation. The population of Pasadena is now (1890)
estimated at 7,000.
San Bernardino, 542 miles from San Francisco, has a.
beautiful situation on a high plain, which slopes gently
toward the southwest at the foot of the San Bernardino
Mountains. It is one of the oldest towns in the state.
Gardens, orchards, and vineyards surround the town,
which is, also, the center of a considerable mining
region. Its trade in wine, wool, and barley is consider-
able. The population in 1880 was 1,600. It is now
(1890) estimated at 7,000,
Riverside, 554 miles from San Francisco, is an impor-
tant town of San Bernardino County, about twelve miles
south of San Bernardino, and was founded in 1870. The
country about Riverside is particularly adapted to the
cultivation of the orange, and Riverside oranges are
widely known. Figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical
fruits also flourish here. As in most California towns,
much interest is taken in the public schools. The popu-
lation in 1880 was about 500. It is now (1890) estimated
at 6,000.
San Diego, 608 miles from San Francisco, is the most,
important town on the seacoast south of San Francisco.
It is situated on San Diego Bay, which furnishes an ex-
cellent harbor. It is an old city, having been founded
in 1835, and within the last few years has had a rapid
growth. It is a favorite resort for invalids, and its
hotels furnish attractive quarters for tourists. The
great honey producing region of the state is in the
vicinity of San Diego. Productive mines of gold and
silver have been recently opened in the county. The
population in 1S80 was 2,700. It is now (1890) estimated,
at 20,000.
BRITISH AMERICA.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map.]
1. Position and Extent. — In what part of North
America is the Dominion of Canada? Between what
ocean north and what country south does it lie? What
ocean east? What ocean and land west? Name all the
waters that form part of the southern boundary of the
Dominion of Canada. What part of the St. Lawrence
lies wholly in the Dominion of Canada — the upper part
or lower part?
2. Mountains. — What mountain system of the United
States is found also in the Dominion of Canada? In
what part of the Dominion? In what direction does it
extend?
3. Slopes and Rivers. — In traveling from Lake
Nlp'igon to Toronto by land would you go mostly up hill
or down? Why do you think so? In traveling by
land from Toronto to Quebec would you go mostly up
hill or down? Why do you think so? How many
river valleys lie between the St. Lawrence and the
Height of Land? Of what large river valley^ or basin,
do all these form a part? In going from the St. Law-
rence River along any of these valleys toward the Height
Government Buildings at Ottawa.
DESCRIPTION.
For Reading:
If you should travel northward beyond our own
country you would enter the Dominion of Can-
ada. Here, along the Great Lakes and the upper
part of the valley of the St. Lawrence, . may be
seen populous cities, well cultivated farms, and
thrifty farmers. Nearly all varieties of grain and
vegetables and many excellent fruits thrive here.
Schools and colleges flourish in this part of the
Dominion, especially in the province of Ontario.
Away to the southeast of the Dominion, in the
valley of the lower St. Lawrence and along the
shores of the Atlantic Ocean, a hardy and indus-
trious people are chiefly engaged in lumbering.
Still further to the southeast, in the province
of Nova Scotia, mines of coal and iron give
employment to large numbers of the inhabitants
and add much to the wealth of the people.
The Great Lakes, which lie on the southern
boundary of the Dominion, together with the St.
Lawrence River, give to Canada fine natural
advantages for commerce with other countries.
The largest ocean steamers ascend the river to
Montreal. Above this city are swift rapids, so
that steamboats are compelled to go through a
canal on their trips up the river. On their down
trips they "run" the rapids — an exciting and
sometimes perilous adventure. In addition to
these natural advantages the Canadians have
built a system of railroads reaching from Halifax,
in Nova Scotia, to the Pacific Ocean. Canada is
thus a country of great commercial importance.
"Running" the Lachine Rapids.
As you go northward beyond the Height of
Land and enter the Arctic Plain the cHmate grows
severely cold, and the farmer rapidly gives way to
the hunter and trapper. For more than 200 years
these hardy and adventurous people have roamed
BRITISH AMERICA.
91
over that part of British America lying between
the Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay, tempted
by the rich furs of the otter, mink, beaver, and
other animals that, in cold countries, contribute
so much to the comfort of mankind.
Fur Trader's House.
West of the Rocky Mountains, in the province
of British Columbia, there are extensive coal
fields and rich gold mines. They are found on
and near Vancouver Island, in the southwest
comer of the province. Nearly the entire popu-
lation of the province is found in this part of it.
The attractive city of Victoria is its capital.
Montreal is the largest and wealthiest city of
the Dominion. Toronto ranks second in size and
wealth. Quebec is the oldest city, and has a his-
tory of greater interest than that of any other.
The provinces of the Dominion of Canada are
united under a government of their own, but all
Ijelong to Great Britain. The chief ruler is called
a Governor-General, and is appointed by the
Crown of Great Britain. Ottawa, in the province
of Ontario, is the capital of the United Provinces
of the Dominion. The buildings erected here
for the Canadian parliament are the finest in
North America. The government is in many
respects like that of the United States.
Just northeast of Nova Scotia lies the province
of Newfoundland. This is also a British prov-
ince, though not belonging to the Dominion of
Canada. The waters of the surrounding sea are
the chief source of wealth to the people of this
island. Upon these waters may be seen the white
sails of hundreds of fishing vessels engaged in
catching herring, which are taken in immense
quantities.
For Recitation:
1. Where are the cities, farms, schools, and
colleges of Canada chiefly found?
2. What grows abundantly in the valley of the
lower St. Lawrence and on the Atlantic coast?
Why do you think so ?
3. Where are mines of coal and iron found?
4. The commerce of Canada is important, and
is carried on by means of the St. Lawrence River
and the Great Lakes, and by a system of railroads
that reaches from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Pacific.
5. North of the Height of Land the climate is
extremely cold, and the occupation of the people
is chiefly hunting and trapping.
6. British Columbia is rich in coal and gold.
The mines are on or near Vancouver Island, in
the southwest part.
7. Give the chief distinction of Montreal,
Toronto, Quebec, Ottawa.
8. The provinces of British America, except
Newfoundland, are united under one govern-
ment, called the Dominion of Canada. The
chief officer is a Governor-General, appointed by
the Crown of Great Britain. What is meant by
the "Crown" of Great Britain?
9. Newfoundland is a British province, but
does not belong to the Dominion of Canada. It
depends for its wealth mainly upon its herring
fisheries.
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MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
93
shores of Central America? What waters surround the
West Indies?
Mountains. — Name the mountains running through
Mexico and Central America. Of what mountain sys-
tem are they an extension? [See Map of North America.]
Climate. — In what zones is Mexico? In what part of
these zones? In what zone are its principal cities? In
what zone are the Central American states? Would you
think it warmer near the coast or in the mountains?
Why?
States and Cities. — What is the capital of Mexico?
In what part of the country? Where is the city of Vera
Cruz (va'ra kroos)? On what waters would you sail,
and in what direction from New Orleans to Vera Cruz?
Beginning with Guatemala, write, in a column, the
names of the Central American states. In another col-
umn, opposite each, write its capital. Do the same with
the four largest islands of the West Indies.
Pronunciations.— CSs'ta Ri-ca ; Hon du'ras ; Madre ; Ma na'
gua; Nic ar a'gua; Po po ca ta pStl'; Ri'o Grau'de; Yu ca tan^
MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
For Reading:
Let us sail from New Orleans and enter Mexico
at Vera Cruz. This is its principal seaport. It
is a strange looking city. Yellow domes and
steeples, with patches of green, pink, scarlet, and
blue upon them, first attract our attention. Most
of the houses have flat roofs, and are painted white
or yellow, and grass grows in the cracks of the
pavements.
Along this eastern coast of Mexico the land,
for sixty or seventy miles back, is low, and the
climate, as we should expect to find it in the
Torrid Zone, is hot. As we travel up and down
this narrow strip we find the half naked people
engaged in the cultivation of sugar cane, cotton,
coifee, indigo, bananas, oranges, and pineapples.
Going west across this narrow strip, so low and
hot, we enter the interior of the country by climb-
ing the mountain side to the height of a mile and
1 half above the level of the sea. If we start
from Vera Cruz we go in railroad cars, but from
other points on the coast our way will be by mule
])aths. At this height we find a great plain, or
table -land, ^ stretching out before us, which oc-
1 Reading Hour: Mexico and Her Lost Provinces, p. 32, Mexican
I'lateau Products and Laborers; p. 175, Climbing PopocatapeU.
cupies nearly all of Mexico, and here we find
most of its population.
Here, although still in the Torrid Zone, the
climate becomes temperate and agreeable. The
reason for this you have already learned. Here
we shall see great fields of com and other prod-
ucts of the Temperate Zone, and laborers, in
white cotton, plowing with wooden plows such as
were used by the Egyptians thousands of years ago.
A strange bug is one of the important produc-
tions of this region. These bugs feed on a cactus
plant, and finally become so numerous as to cover
the leaves. The Mexicans then brush them off
into bags, kill them in hot water, dry them, grind
them, and the powder is the beautiful cochineal
that we buy at the drug stores for dyeing.
In the southern part of this great plain is the
beautiful City of Mexico, the capital of the coun-
try. Gardens and orange groves surround it
and, outside of these, charming lakes sparkle in
the sun, and still further off lofty mountains rise,
with snowy tops.
Going west from the City of Mexico, across this
plateau, with great mountains rising all around
us, we gradually descend again to a low, narrow
plain which skirts the Pacific Ocean.
94
MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
The mountain regions of Mexico contain many
volcanoes, of whicli Popocatapetl is the most
famous. Among the mountains rich mines of
gold and silver have been worked for hundreds
of years.
The country of Mexico is a Republic, of
twenty»seven states.
The people are
mostly descend-
ants of the early
Spanish settlers,
with some native
Indians, and a
mixture of the
two, called Mes-
ti'zog.
Cathedral,
Central America
consists of small
states, unimportant
and often at war
wnth each other,
lying between Mex-
ico and the Isthmus
of Panama. In character the people much resemble
the Mexicans. Most of the work is done by the
Indians and Mestizos under the direction of an over-
seer, who would lose caste were he, himself, to do
even so much as to carry a letter to the post office.
2. The cHmate of the eastern strip is hot and
moist, of the plateau region temperate and agree-
able.
3. Sugar cane, cotton, coffee, indigo, bananas,
oranges, and pineapples flourish on the low,
hot plain of the east, while the usual produc-
tions of the Temperate Zone are found on the
plateau.
4. The cochineal bug is found on the Mexican
plateau in such quantities as to be a leading
article of commerce.
5. The capital of Mexico is a beautiful city,
surrounded by orange groves, gardens, lakes, and
mountains.
6. The mountain regions of
Mexico contain many volcanoes,
and are famous for their mines of
gold and silver.
7. The government of Mexico
is republican. The people are
mainly of Spanish descent, with
some Indians and Mestizos.
Square of Santa Domingo.
For Recitation:
I . The countrj^ of Mexico consists of a strip of
low land along the Atlantic coast, a great body
of very high land all through the center from
north to south, and a very narrow strip of low
land along the Pacific.
National Palace.
8. Central America consists of a few small
and unimportant states. What is the character
of the people, and how is the work done ? What
kind of coffee is named for a state of Central
America ?
SOUTH AMERICA.
95
SOUTH AMERICA.
[Before taking the reading lessons let the map on the next page be carefully studied.
I. Naturai. Divisions and Andes Region.
For Reading:
South America consists of the Andes Mountain
region on the west and a vast plain, with here and
there a short, low mountain range, sloping east-
ward to the Atlantic Ocean. This plain consists
chiefly of the Amazon, Orinoco, and La Plata
valleys.
Start on the map at the southern end of the
Andes Mountains and trace them northward.
Until you reach the northern part of Chili you
find them narrow, consisting of only a single chain.
Then they begin to spread out into a number
of chains, that run through Bolivia and Peru, and
have great table-lands between them.
In Ecuador they all come together again and
make a line of high volcanoes, the famous Coto-
])axi being the highest.
Once more they divide into ranges, one of which
runs on through the Isthmus of Panama, and the
other to the Gulf of Venezuela.
These mountains are the second highest in the
^vorld, and are very steep. Sharp ridges and lofty
peaks frequently project from the table-lands, and
between these are chasms of frightful depth.
The only roads^ are narrow paths, and the
chasms are crossed by rope bridges. x\ single
misstep on one of these dangerous paths would
send the traveler down the precipice.
Where animals can be used, they are mules and
r..a'ma§, the latter being among the native ani-
mals of this region. Often, however, travelers
nmst be carried in chairs strapped to the backs
of native Indians.
I Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 142, Crossing the Andes.
Owr IVorld Reader, p. 65, Travel in the Andes.
Like the western mountains of North America,
the Andes contain large quantities of gold and
silver and other valuable minerals.
The climate of the countries bordering on the
Pacific Ocean is what the Andes Mountains make
it. Though much of the country lies in the very
center of the Torrid Zone, the climate is cool and
agreeable, except in some places at the foot of
the mountains, where it is hot and moist, as in
the low lands of Mexico.
But little rain falls anywhere except northward
from Peru.^ Do you wonder what the mountains
have to do with the rainfall? The winds of this
region are all from the east, and the mountains
south of Ecuador are so high that the clouds,
loaded with rain, cannot get across; nevertheless,
a fog that rises from the Pacific carries consider-
able moisture over the narrow strip of land at the
western foot of the Andes, and this gives great
fertility to its soil.
For Recitation:
1. I. Copy and learn the first paragraph.
2. Of what do the Andes Mountains consist in
the southern part of South America? Describe
them in Bolivia and Peru. In Ecuador. North
of Ecuador.
3. Describe the mountain roads. How is
travel on them conducted ?
4. What of minerals in the Andes?
5. Upon what does the climate of the Pacific
countries depend ? How do the mountains affect
the rainfall in the countries south of Peru ? How
do these countries get their moisture?
1 Reading Hour: On the Amazons (Camping Out Series), p. 21, Why
Peru is really an Atlantic state.
ItD.ServoM.Jiijgr.If.y.
THE VALLEY OF THE AMAZON.
97
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map.]
Position and Extent. — In which hemisphere is
South America? How are North America and South
America joined? If we sail from Aspinwall around
South America to Panama, what ocean would we leave
in passing around Cape Horn? What ocean would we
enter? What bay would we enter at the end of our voy-
age? How many miles does an inch of this map stand
for? Measure the distance from Cape Gallinas to Cape
Horn. What is the distance on the map ? How many
miles of country is that? Measure the distance from
Cape St Rogue to Cape Blanco. What is the distance on
the map ? How many miles of country is that ? How
long, then, is South America from north to south?
How long from east to west?
Mountains. — What is a mountain system? What is
a mountain chain? Where do you find the great mount-
ain system of South America? What is its name?
Where do you find other mountains in South America?
Si^oPES, Rivers, and River Vai^i^eys. — What is a
river system? What is a river valley, or basin? How
can you tell on the map which way a valley slopes? On
which side of the Andes Mountains do the great rivers
of South America rise? To what ocean do they find
their way?
Describe the Amazon River. (See model, P34.) On
which side of the Amazon are its tributaries longest?
What reason do you see for this? What is the region
lirained by the Amazon and its tributaries called? In
what direction does the valley of the Amazon slope?
In what direction do the valleys of its southern trib-
utaries slope? With your pencil trace a line around the
valley of the Amazon. In the large valley of the Ama-
.zon find six smaller river valleys^ and write their
names. Point out and give the direction of ten slopes in
the valley of the Amazon. Is the mouth of the fapura
(hapoo'ra) River in the upper or lower part of the val-
ley? Why do you think so? Is the mouth of the Xinju
{shinggoo) in the upper or lower part of the valley?
Why do you think so? Which is higher, the mouth of the
Orinoco, or the mouth of the Amazon? hi going from
Manaos to Obi'dos, would you go up hill or down?
Describe the Orinoco River. What country does the
river drain ? On which side of the Equator is the Orinoco
Valley. Trace a line around the valley of the Orinoco.
What are the principal tributaries of the La Pla'ta?
Near what parallel of latitude does the valley begin? In
which direction does it slope? Trace a line around the
valley of the La Plata.
Climate. — In what zones is South America? In what
zone-is the larger part of it? In what zone is the valley
of the Amazon? Of the La Plata?
Countries and Towns. — What countries lie mainly
in the Andes System? What large country lies mostly
in the valley of the Amazon? What countries are found
chiefly in the valley of the La Plata? Beginning at the
north, write in a column the names of all countries
bordering the Pacific Ocean, and opposite each, in
another column, the name of its capital. Do the same
with the countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The
same with the countries that have no seacoast. Read
from the map the boundaries of all the coutttries whose
names you have written. In sailing around South
America from Aspinwall to Panama, what important
seaports should we pass on the Atlantic Ocean? What
on the Pacific? What is usually the chief occupation of
people in large seaport towns?
Thought Que.stions. — In the valley of the Ama-
zon would you expect to find the vegetation large and
strong, or thin and weak? Why? The wild animals
harmless, or fierce and dangerous? Why? In what
part of river valleys would you expect to find the land
most fertile?
Pronuxciations.— Ar'gen tine; Bahia (ba e'a) Bo go ta'; Bra zil';
Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz); Cal la o; Ca ra'cas; Cayenne'; Chili;
Ec ua dor'; Guayaquil (gwi a keel'); Gui(ghe)a'na; Li'ma; Mon ter
vid' e o; Paramaribo: Qui'(ke)to; Ri'o Ja nei'(ne)ro; San ti a'go;
Val pa rai'(ri)so; Ven ez ue'(we)la; Uruguay (00 roo gui').
II. The Valley of the Amazon.
For Reading:
Travelers have always been much interested in
';he Valley of the Amazon.^ For one thing, it
:'s the largest river valley in the world. The
great river itself rises within sight of the Pacific
Ocean, flows across the whole width of the Grand
Division, and finally empties into the Atlantic
Ocean more water than runs from any other
river in the world. The rivers, also, that flow
1 Reading Hour: Brazil, Amazons, by Smith; p. 2, Water of the
Amazon; p. 4, Moisture; pp. 82-86, Rubber gathering; pp. 140-144,
United States settlers in the Valley of the Amazon.
On the Amazons (Camping Out Series), p. 22, Gales on the river;
pp. 19, 20, Scenery along the Amazon; p. 163, Cannibal Indians.
Afloat in the Forest, p. 123, Monkeys.
98
SOUTH AMERICA.
into the Amazon are long, and drain very large
regions of country.
For anoth-
er thing, no
other river
valley in the
world has
forests so
thick and
vast; climb-
ing and flow-
ering plants,
with foliage
and blossoms so bright in
color; birds so strange
and numerous and so
brilliant in plumage; and
no other forests are so
filled with chattering
monkeys, ferocious beasts,
and poisonous reptiles as
these forests of the
Amazon Valley, called
selvas.
So great are these for-
ests in extent that if
taken up and placed in
the United States they
would cover the whole
country from the At-
lantic Ocean nearly to
the Rocky Mountains.
Let us enter the valley through the mouth of
the Amazon. We shall sail up a stream that
spreads out over its low banks into marshes and
side channels many miles in width; along by the
rubber trees, with their white trunks and shining
green leaves; through great orchards of ca ca'o
trees, from whose fruit chocolate is made, and in
sight of the great mahoganies, forty feet high and
four or five feet in diameter, that stand on the
Monkeys Stealing Eggs.
higher land back from the river. Through all '
this region no day in the year is without rain,
and in the upper part of the valley the air is so
damp that a gun kept loaded over night can not
be fired off.
For Recitation:
II. I. The Amazon is the largest river valley
in the world.
2. More water flows through the Amazon River
than through any other.
3. Vast forests, called selvas, cover a large part
of the valley.
4. In the lower part of the valley the river is
many miles wide, containing multitudes of low
islands.
5. India rubber trees and cacao trees are found
in great numbers on the Imnks. Mahogany trees
grow further back from the river.
6. Thought Questions. — Would you think
the air that blows into this valley from the sea a
moist or a dry air? Why?. A warm or a cool
air? Why? As it goes on up the mountains
does it become cooler or warmer? Why? If it
becomes cooler what is the effect upon the moist-
ure ? Then, in what part of the valley, the up-
per or lower, would you expect to find the greater
rainfall?
III. VALI.EYS OF THE ORINOCO AND LA PlATA.
For Reading:
If you do not remember where the Valley of
the Orinoco is, look once more at the map. You
will see that, like the valley of the Amazon, it
slopes to the east.
It is separated from the Amazon Valley only
by the low Pari'me(ma) Mountains. Indeed, in
the western part of the valley, toward the source
of the Orinoco River, it is not separated at all, the
water at some seasons flowing from the Orinoco
into the Amazon, and at others from the Amazon
VALLEYS OF THE ORINOCO AND LA PLATA.
99
into the Orinoco, through a river that connects
them.
In Vegetation and Climate this valley differs
from the Amazon. Its plains, instead of being
covered with forests, are grassy, and are called
llanos (lla'nog).^ Instead of daily rains there is
a wet season and a dry season. In the wet sea-
son the grass is green and luxuriant; in the dry
season the earth becomes hard and baked.
South of the valley of the Amazon you have
found the Valley of the La Plata.'' This valley,
you will see from the direction of its rivers, slopes
to the south. Only a slight elevation of land
separates it from the Amazon Vallej^ so that the
Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata Valleys are really
one great plain reaching from the Andes to the
Atlantic, except where the scattered ranges of
mountains in eastern Brazil rise from them.
The Seasons in this southern valley are two —
a wet and a dry; dry when it is wet in California,
and wet when it is dry here. The plains of this
valley are covered with a coarse grass called
pampas (pam'pag).
For Recitation:
III. I, Direction of the Orinoco Valley from
the Amazon Valley.
2. Direction of its slope.
3. How separated from the Amazon Valley;
how united with it,
4. Vegetation — climate.
5. Direction of the valley of the La Plata from
that of the Amazon.
6. Direction of its slope.
7. Separation from the Amazon Valley.
8. Union of the three valleys.
1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 114, Electric Eel of the
llanos; p. 137, Stories of the llanos.
Our World Reader, p. 82.
2 Our World Reader, p. 85.
9. Seasons of the La Plata Valley.
10. Vegetation,
IV, The Countries of the Andes,
The countries of South America may be divided
into the Countries of the Andes and the Countries
of the Plains. The Countries of the Andes are
those that border on the Pacific Ocean, including,
also, Bolivia, You will notice that the eastern
part of Bolivia and Peru lies also in the valley
of the Amazon, and that the eastern part of the
United States of Colombia is drained by both the
Amazon and the Orinoco,
Though these countries contain many rich
mines of gold, silver, and copper, which have been
worked for hundreds of years, the principal occu-
pation of their people is agriculture, and the grains
and vegetables and other products of the Temper-
ate Zone are raised here.
All the qui'nine^ in the world comes from the
bark of a tree in Bolivia and Peru, and nearly all
the guano (gwa'no), a valuable manure much used
in Europe and the United States, is taken from the
shores and islands of Peru, The dress goods that
we call al p^c'a are made from the wool, or hair,
of the alpaca, a species of llama found only in
Peru.
The exports of this region are sent to market
mostly from the seaports of Guayaquil, Callao,
and Valparaiso.
For Recitation:
IV. I. Groups of countries — how many?
What?
2. Situation of the Countries of the Andes,
3. Mines of these countries.
4. Principal occupation and products. "Why
1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 121, A Quinine story.
SOUTH AMERICA.
do we find products of the Temperate Zone in
the Torrid Zone?
5. Quinine. 6. Guano. 7. Alpaca.
8. Seaports.
V. The Countries of the Plains.
For Reading:
The six Countries of the Plains, with the ex-
ception of Venezuela, are those that lie wholly-
east of the Andes Mountains. Except the
traders and merchants, their inhabitants are
almost wholly engaged in agriculture and stock
raising. The common productions [See page 102.]
Animals of South America.
For Reading Only:
Though The Llama belongs to the camel family, it
has no hump and is small. . The hair is very woolly, so
that a llama looks much more like a long-legged, long-
necked sheep than like a camel. It is used as a beast
of burden in the Andes, and can carry one hundred
pounds fourteen or fifteen miles a day. The alpaca is
a species of llama. The Armadillo is so named from
its covering of bony scales, which it presents to an
assailant by rolling itself into the shape of a ball, with
its armor outside. It is a night prowler, sleeping in
the day time. Its legs are very short and strong,
and it has been seen running easily about with three
monkeys seated upon its mail-clad back. The Tapir
moves mostly at night, feeding on young branches, fruit,
and melons. Its hide is thick and tough, and not easily
injured by the branches of trees among which it pushes.
Its great enemy is the jaguar. When this terrible animal
has fastened itself upon the tapir's back, the poor creat-
ure's only defense is a rush through the thick brushwood,
which frequently dislodges his foe. If this fails, and the
tapir can reach the bank of a river or pond, he plunges
in and the jaguar is obliged to let go to escape drown-
ing. The Ant-eater is a curious creature, sleeping by
day and prowling by night. It lives on trees, and feeds
upon insects found in the bark. These it gathers
with its tongue, which, when protruded, looks like a
great, red earth-worm, and coils and twists itself about
as if it were some separate thing alive. The Jag u ar'
is a beast of the cat family, much resembling the leopard,
and is noted for its ferocity and strength. It has been
known to kill a horse, drag it sixty yards to a river,
swim the river with it, and drag it up the bank on the
opposite side and into the wood. It feeds on a variety
of animals and birds, but its favorite food is the flesh of
the monkey and peccary. Its fur is fine and beautifully
spotted. The Boa Constrictor is a magnificent rep-
tile, formerly held sacred and worshipped with divine
honors. It is often more than twenty feet in length, and
kills its prey by winding itself around it, squeezing it to
Reading Hour: Wood's Mammalia, p. yoo, The Llama; p. 767, The
Armadillo; p. 743, The Tapir; p. 774, The Ant-eater; p. 172, The
Jaguar.
Wood's Reptiles, p. 122, The Boa Constrictor; p. 5, The Tortoise; p.
75. The Iguana.
Woods Birds, p. 13, The Condor; p. 507, The Toucan; p. 745. The
Penguin.
ANIMALS.
JTJL
death. The skin of
the boa has a
wonder-
ful power
of expan
sion, which en-
ables the reptile
to swallow ani
mals much
larger than it-
self. The skin
is sometimes
stretched so
thin, when the
creature is
swallowing its
prey, that the
shape of its vic-
tim can be distinctly
traced beneath it.—
Unlike other reptiles,
The Tortoise (tor'tis)
a creature with the skeleton ~'^.;_,
outside and the soft parts inside.
The backbone and ribs grow out
together into large flat bones, which
form the upper part of the shell of the
tortoise, and are united like the bones
of the head in man. The breast bone
grows out in the same way, and fornix
the shell on the lower side of the crea-
ture. It closely resembles the com-
mon turtle. Its flesh and eggs, which
are a little larger than pigeon's eggs,
are excellent food. The Iguana is
a reptile of the lizard family, and is
found only in the western hemisphere.
It is covered with scales, and lives
almost wholly in the branches of trees,
although also quite at home in the
water. Its flesh has a very delicate
flavor, not unlike that of a spring
chicken. The Condor is the most
distinguished of the birds of prey,
being a very giant among them. From
tip to tip of its wings it often measures
eleven feet. It is seldom found below
the line of perpetual snow in the Andes,
and comes down only when driven by
hunger. In strength, even when wounded
it is more than a match for a man. In flight
the wings of the condor are never seen to
flap after it is once up. With wings extended, it
sails for hours in the sea of air above the mountain
tops, turning and wheeling by a simple motion of
-The Toucan belongs to the group of
birds called climbers. The most
extraordinary part of these birds
is the enormous beak. They are
very social in disposition, keep-
ing up among themselves
an incessant and
noisy chat-
tering.
Though
without
beauty of
^^ their own,
I^WA^Dl'-^""' ^jjgy neverthe-
less have a great hatred
of birds they deem uglier
than themselves, and will
often surround and mob
them. The Nandu is the
American species of ostrich.
(See description of ostrich in Ani-
mals of Africa.) The Penguin
belongs to the family of birds called
swimmers. It lives by the seashore in
great flocks of thirty thousand or forty
thousand. The organization of this great
army is very curious. The young birds are
placed in one position, the moulting birds in
another, the sitting hens in a third, and the
clean, or moulted birds, in a fourth, and should a
moulting bird come among the last named it is at once
driven out. Except when in a hurry, the penguin
walks erect, but when frightened, drops at once for-
ward, using its wings as forelegs, and running with
great swiftness.
Reading Hour: Animal Memoirs,
Condor; p. 7, The Fish Hawk.
The Giant
SOUTH AMERICA.
of the Torrid Zone — sugar, coflfee, cotton — are
found in Venezuela, Guiana, and Brazil. Nearly
all the coffee used in the world comes from Brazil.
Diamonds are found in her eastern mountains and
are exported in large quantities. Hides from
numberless herds, in both Brazil and Venezuela,
are also sent abroad to market.
From Brazil,^ also, comes nearly all the India
rubber that we see in waterproofs, shoes, erasers,
balls, bands, and other things. Along the banks
of the Amazon the Indians, half-breeds, and
poorer whites gather the creamy juice of the
India rubber tree, which is a native of the forests.
When gathered it is dried, hardened by fire into
crude rubber, and sold to the traders and mer-
chants of that country, who send it to the mar-
kets of the world.
Another large occupation along the Amazon
banks is the cultivation of the cacao tree, and
the shipping of its berries to foreign countries to
manufacture into chocolate.
The Argentine Confederation produces mostly
cattle and sheep, sending abroad hides, horns, and
wool.
Paraguay and Uruguay are unimportant coun-
tries.
The leading seaport towns of the countries of
the plains are Georgetown, Rio Janeiro, Monte-
video, and Buenos Ayres, though there are others
of some importance.
For Recitation:
V. I . Situation of the Countries of the Plains.
2. Occupations of the people.
3. Products of the northern countries.
1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 113, India Rubber.
On the Amazons (Camping Out Series), p. 24, Character of Bra-
zilians; p. 38, Custard Apple; pp. 56, 57, 58, Rubber Tree Forests; p.
61, Smoking Rubber; p. 131, Ant-eaters.
Afloat in tlu Forest, p. 116, Brazil Nuts; p. 159, Vegetable Cow; p.
168, Ants; p. 185, Ant-eaters; p. 196, Fish Cow.
4. Coffee. 5. Diamonds. 6. Hides. 7. India
rubber. 8. Cacao. 9. Seaports.
VI. People — Religion — Government — Edu-
cation.
For Reading:
The ruling People of South America, except
in Guiana, are descendants of early Spanish and
Portuguese settlers — of Portuguese settlers in
Brazil and of Spanish settlers elsewhere. The
Spanish and Portuguese languages prevail.
Great numbers of the native tribes still remain,
however, and are employed in the rougher and
more disagreeable occupations. Negroes are nu-
merous in Brazil, many of them being held as
slaves.
The Roman Catholic Religion prevails.
The countries of South America, except Guiana,
are independent republics. Guiana consists of
three European colonies — one Dutch, one French,
and one English.
Of these countries. Chili and the Argentine
Confederation are the most advanced in Educa-
tion and commercial enterprise.
Brazil is the largest and most powerful coun-
try of South America, and has more trade with
the United States than all the rest. One half of
all its coflfee crop is sold in this country.
For Recitation:
of
VI. I. Nationality of the ruling people
South America. 2. Exception.
3. Portuguese — where. 4. Spanish — where.
5. Native tribes — employment. 6. Negroes —
condition. 7. Religion. 8. Governments.
9. Education and commerce.
10. Commerce with the United States.
EUROPE.
103
Topical Review of South America.
Climate.
Occupations:
Wi'ite, in yo2ir own language, all of the geog-
raphy of South America that yon know, using, as
a guide, the following topics:
People.
Countries.
(Farming, manufacturing,
mining, commerce.)
Animals.
Position. Mountain Systems.
Extent. Drainage:
(Slopes and rivers.)
Products:
(Mineral, vegetable,
mal.)
Cities and Towns:
ani- (Location, for what noted,
etc.)
EUROPE.
[Before taking the lessons, " For Reading," the map on the next page should be carefully studied.
I. Why we are Interested in Europe.
For Reading:
The Grand Division of the Old World that has
most in it to interest us is Europe. Perhaps you
wonder why.
In the first place,' we have more trade with
Europe than with any other Grand Division.
Nearly all of the wheat, com, cotton, coal oil,
beef, and other products that we export goes to
Europe, and the fine goods for use or for ornament
that we import come chiefly from Europe. Be-
sides this, 30,000,000 of Europeans speak and
write the same language that we do.
More Americans visit Europe than any other
Grand Division. At some seasons of the year
you may find more Americans visiting in a single
city of Europe than there are people in some of
our states.
More Europeans come to settle here among us
than any other people. All the Irish, Germans,'
French, Spanish, Italian (itaryan), English, and
Scotch people that we know came from Europe.
But more than all the rest, this country was
settled by Europeans, and all the white people
1 Reading Hour: Seven Little Sisters, p. 104, Louise, the Child of
the Western Forest.
now in it either came from Europe, or are the
descendants of those who did. So you see we
have good reason to feel interested in Europe.
For Recitation:
1. I. Europe interests us more than any other
Grand Division, because we have more trade with
it, and because so many people of Europe speak
our language. How many ?
2. More Americans visit Europe than visit any
other Grand Division, and more Europeans than
any other people settle in the United States.
3. The most important reason for our interest
in Europe is that this country was first settled by
Europeans, and is now governed by their descend-
ants.
II. Coast Line — Mountains — Glaciers.
For Reading:
In your study of the map of Europe you saw
that the water of the sea cuts into the land,
making numerous bays and gulfs and leaving
many peninsulas, thus giving greater advantages
COAST LINE, MOUNTAINS, GLACIERS.
105
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map.]
Position, Extent, and Form. — In what hemisphere
is Europe.!" In what part of the hemisphere? In what
direction from the United States? How reached from
New York? From San Francisco? In sailing from
Hammerfest, at the north of Norway, to Odessa in south-
ern Russia, on what oceans and through what straits and
seas must you sail? If you were to sail so as to touch all
seaport towns that you find on the map, on what waters
would you sail? What Grand Division east of Europe?
How many miles on this map does an inch represent?
Apply your ruler and tell how many inches it is from
Cape St. Vincent to the extreme northeast of Russia.
From the most northerly point of Norway to the most
southerly point of Greece. What, then, is the length of
Europe, in miles, from northeast to southwest? FYom
north to south?
What is a coast line? Is the coast line of Europe
smooth or irregular? What occupation does such a
coast line favor?
Mountains. — What is a mountain system? A mount-
ain chain? In Europe do the mountain systems gen-
erally run east and west, or north and south? In what
part of Europe are the chief mountain systems? Are the
ranges longer or shorter than those of South America?
In what part of Europe is the country least mountainous?
* Describe the position of the Can ta'bri an Mountains.
The Pyr'en ees Mountains. The Alps. The Appenines.
The Carpathian Mountains. The Cau cas'us Mountains.
The Ural Mountains. The Scandinavian Mountains.
Slopes and Rivers. — How do you tell on the map
which way the land slopes? How many general land
slopes do you see in F ranee f In what direction does each
He? Name the rivers that drain each slope. What is
the general direction of the slope in Germany? How do
you tell? What are the principal rivers of this slope?
In what general direction do the Austrian plains slope?
Which is the largest river of these plains? What three
important rivers have their source near together in the
Swiss Alps? In what direction does each flow? In what
general direction does the south half of Russia (rtish'e a}
slope? The north half? Name the largest three rivers.
of southern Russia, and the waters that receive each of
them.
Climate. — In what zones does Europe lie? How do
you tell?
Countries. — Bound the countries of Europe and
name their capitals.
Thought Questions. — Point out the countries that
you think are warm. How do the mountains that ex-
tend east and west across Europe affect the climate of
the countries that lie south of them? Is the Mediter-
ranean a warm or a cold sea? Why? What do you sec
on the map that helps you to tell any thing of the climate ?'
Would you think the winter climate of Great Britain
warmer or colder than that of Moscow? Why? The
summer climate? Why? In what climate do oats,,
wheat, corn, and other food grains grow best? In what
part of Europe would you expect to find these? In
what climate grapes, oranges, olives, figs, and lemons?
In what part of Europe would you expect to find these?'
Is Europe likely to have many or few good harbors?'
Why? Many or few important seaports? Why? What
are likely to be the chief occupations of people in sea-
port towns? '
Pronunciations.— Bal'(bawl)tic; Belgrade'; Ber'lin; B6rn; BOs'
porus; Bu cha(ko)rest' ; Cat'tegat; Chris ti a'ni(ne)a; Dardanelles'
(nelz); Edinburgh (ed'in bur ruh); Loire (Iwar); Madrid'; R/4ine;.
RAone; Seine (sane); Sophia (so fe'a); SkSg'er Rack; The Hague
(hag); ViSn'na.
lor commerce to this Grand Division than to any
other.
You saw that the chief mountain systems run
c;ast and west, through the countries nearest the
Mediterranean, and that to the north of these the
country is mostly a vast plain.
You saw, also, that the three most important
rivers of Europe, the Rhine, the Rhone, and the
Danube, though flowing in different directions,
liave their sources near together in the Alps of
Switzerland; indeed, so near are they that they
can all be seen from the same point.
The Alps, though not the highest mountains in.
the world, are the most celebrated. They attract
more visitors than all others, and travelers have
written many thrilling accounts of their adven-
tures among the lakes, snows, and glaciers (gla'
seer) of these mountains.
The glaciers^ are vast masses of ice which move
slowly along between the facing sides of mount-
ains. They are sometimes called ice rivers.,
although they never move more than 240 feet in a
year, and usually much slower. As the glacier
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. V., p. 49, Glaciers.
io6
EUROPE.
passes through the mountain range to a lower
level the ice melts slowly away, and forms a clear
mountain stream bordered with green grass and
flowers.
A Glacier.
For Recitation:
II. I. The water of the sea cuts into the land
of Europe, making commerce with other coun-
tries easy.
2. The chief mountain systems of Europe run
east and west, through the southern part. North
of these mountains the country is mostly level.
3. The Alps are the most celebrated mountains
in the world, and are most visited by travelers.
4. A glacier is a mass of slow-moving ice
formed on the slopes of the mountain sides that
face each other. As it moves down .to a warmer
level, it melts into a mountain stream.
III. Great Britain.
For Reading:
The wealthiest, most populous, and most pow-
erful nations of Europe are Great Britain, France,
Germany, Austria, and Russia. These nations
are so strong and great that they are sometimes
called "The Five Great Powers."
The kingdom of Great Britain, including Ire-
land, though smaller than the state of California,
has a population of 30,000,000 of people,
you wonder how they can be supported ? Thei
land, though very carefully tilled, does not yiel(
enough for them to live on from year to yeai
Yet Great Britain is probably the richest count:
in the world. How can this be ?
Far below the surface are vast beds of coal,
Near by them are also rich mines of iron. Thi
means that iron for steam engines, locomotiv(
hardware, and all the machinery needed for
sorts of factories, is easily got and is cheap. It
means that the coal to melt the iron ore and to
feed the furnaces of thousands of factories is
cheap, also.
So it has happened that the British people are
employed in mining for coal and iron and in
manufacturing the iron into ships, locomotives,
and rails for railroads, machinery for factories,
and all kinds of hardware, to sell.
Then they use part of their machinery for
manufacturing other things to sell — woolen cloth,
cotton cloth, linen goods, cutlery, hosiery, and
many other articles. It requires a great number
of people to carry on this work, and therefore
large towns have grown up all over the kingdom.
The farming country between these towns is also
very thickly settled.
The business of buying these manufactures
and shipping and selling them to foreign nations,
and taking their products in exchange, furnishes
occupation to many thousands of people, and
builds up great commercial cities, like London —
the largest city in the world — lyiverpool, and
Glasgow. The British are, therefore, the great-
est nation of manufacturers and traders in the
world. On one river of Scotland 40,000 men are
engaged in building ships to enable England to
carry on her commerce. Many ships are also
built for the merchants of other nations.
Though there is but little farming country,
much attention has been given to raising fine
1
GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE.
107
horses, cattle, and sheep. Some of the finest
breeds of these animals in the United States have
been brought from England.
Shepherd Scene in Scotland.
The English nation has possessions in all parts
of the world. It has been said that "the sun
never sets on British soil." Nearly half of North
America, all of British India, and the whole of
Australia, besides many smaller possessions, be-
long to Great Britain.
For Recitation:
III. I. Name The Five Great Powers. In what
three things do they surpass other nations of
Europe?
2. What is the language of the people of Great
Britain? Size of Great Britain? Population?
Wealth?
3. What of iron? Coal? Why are they
cheap?
4. What industry does the cheapness of iron
and coal in Great Britain foster? Make as long
a list as you can of articles that are called hard-
ware.
5. What is cutlery? Hosiery? Why are there
many large towns in Great Britain ?
6. What business makes the great commercial
cities of Great Britain? Name three of these
cities. In what two great occupations do the
British surpass all other nations ?
7. Raising of live stock — exported to what
country ?
8. What is the government of Great Britain?
What is meant by the sun's never setting on
British soil? Name the chief British possessions.
IV. France.
For Reading:
Go next across the English Channel into the
republic of France. {What is the direction?')
There you will find an active, intelligent, polite,
and economical people. Such a people is always
prosperous.
Though the whole country is only about one
third larger than the state of California, it con-
tains a population of 36,000,000 of people, and
as the climate is favorable, the soil fertile, and as
many of the inhabitants are engaged in cultivat-
ing it, enough is raised to support them all. On
their small farms, generally not more than five
acres each, the French raise all the kinds of grain
and vegetables that we do in this country.
In addition to these, in the northern part of the
country they raise large crops of flax and sugar
beets; and the famous Norman work horses that
we see in this country come from the north of
France.
As we travel farther south we come into the
region of vineyards, and find on the hillsides
men and women and children cultivating or
gathering the grapes.
Still farther south the mulberry trees appear
and the silkworm^ is reared, and here the fig and
the olive are produced in large quantities.
France is also rich in mines as well as in soil,
1 Reading Hour: California Second Reader, p. 286, Silk.
io8
EUROPE.
especially in mines of lead. Coal and iron are
found in the eastern and central parts of the coun-
try, but in much less quantities than in England.
Fine quarries of marble also abound.
Though five times as many people are at work
on the farms as in the factories, we shall, never-
theless, find many thousands of the most skilled
workmen in the world engaged in the factories
of the large towns.
These factories are noted for fine goods of all
kinds — broadcloths, flannels, laces, carpets, iron
and brass wares — but we should especially notice
the great quantities of linen goods and beet sugar
manufactured in the north, the wines and brandies
of the middle section, and the silks in the south,
at Lyons and the neighboring towns.
It will be interesting, also, to remember that the
chinaware most famed for its beauty and delicacy
is made in France from a fine clay found only
there.
The French have done much to encourage
manufactures. Among other things, they have
established in many cities, but chiefly in Paris,
free schools, in which boys and girls are taught
trades.
In the many large towns of France we cannot
fail to notice the signs of vast trade. A country
producing so much from its soil and so much
from its factories will always have thousands of
people engaged in commerce.
To make commerce easy we shall find, in
France, railroads running across the country in
every direction, and canals connecting the head-
waters of the principal rivers, the Seine, the Loire,
the Rhone, and the Rhine. By this means you
could, if you wished, enter France in a boat by
the Seine River, at Havre (hav'r), travel all about
the interior of the country, and go out of it into
the Mediterranean Sea by the Rhone, or into the
Bay of Biscay by the Loire, or into the North Sea
by the Rhine, and never set foot on land from the
time you started. Look on your map, and see
where these canals must be.
Paris, the capital of France, is the best built,
gayest, and most attractive city in the world. Its
streets are kept almost as clean as a house floor,
and its public gardens, where ever>' one is free to
walk or ride, abound in flowers and fountains.
Animals of Europe.
For Reading Only:
The Reindeer is the most useful animal known to the
inhabitants of the extreme north of Europe. It pulls a
load of 250 pounds in a sledge over the snow, at the rate
of nine or ten miles an hour. The female furnishes milk
for food. The number of reindeer owned by a Lap-
lander determines his wealth; if a thousand, the owner
is one of the rich men of the country; if a few hundred,
he is respectable; if only forty or fifty, he is poor and a
servant. The food of the reindeer in winter is a coarse,
moss-like plant called lichen (liken), for which it digs
in the snow with its hoofs and horns. The Wolf is
an animal of the dog kind, a cruel and cowardly beast
of prey, even sometimes attacking and devouring one of
its own kind. It does not get its prey by springing upon
it, like the panther or tiger, but by running it down.
When trapped it displays the most abject cowardice. A
wolf that had fallen into a pit dug for it was so fright-
ened that it made no attempt to injure an old lady who
accidentally fell into the same trap. Several species of
wolf also live in North America. The Brown Bear,
common in Russia and northern Europe, is, like his
American cousin, the Grizzly, a tough fellow to meet.
He is hard to kill, even with bullets, and is so quick and
powerful in the use of his paws that a hunter once within
reach has little chance of escape. When captured young,
however, the bear becomes much attached to its owner
and friends. The bear often continues to grow till it is
twenty years old, reaching a weight of 600 to 800 pounds.
The fur of the Common Fox is of a reddish fawn
color, intermixed with black and white hairs. The ani-
mal is about one foot high and two and a half feet long.
It gives out a very powerful and disagreeable odor, and it
seems to be aware that the dogs, in chasing it, are guided
by this odor, for it resorts to many cunning tricks to
throw them off the scent. So ingenious are many of
these devices that "as cunning as a fox" is a common
saying. In England a fox chase by the owners of the
forests, together with their friends, is a celebrated sport.
ANIMALS.
109
The Musk Deer is an agile, sure-footed mountain dweller. It is chiefly valuable for a
perfume which it carries, called musk, and which is so powerful that a small piece will
a room with its odor for years. The Hare is a game animal, and is hunted for sport
as well as for its flesh, which is prized as a delicacy. Its average
weight is about eight or nine pounds. The favorite mode of
hunting the hare is with a band of horsemen and a pack of
dogs, the swiftness of the animal making the sport exciting.
The hare feeds on grass, vegetables, and tender plants, and
is often very troublesome to orchards and gardens.
The Chamois (sham'my) is often called a goat, but is
in reality a species of antelope. Hardy hunters pursue
it among the cliffs and precipices of the Alps, but only
those who can tramp and climb for days in the ice
and rocks and snow can hope to come within even
long rifle shot of the little leaper. L,ike
the American antelope, the
chamois lives and travels .^^ ',« j^ ^^
in herds. The Ibex '— ■
is another Alpine ani-
mal, but of the goat
family. It is
fully as active
and wary as the
chamois, and
addition, will some-
times, if closely
pressed, turn upon the
hunter and strike him
from the rock or cliff
on which he stands.
The ibex
lives in
bands
sack of
fill
of five or ten individuals. The Cretan Sheep is a
S])lendid animal of southern Europe and western Asia.
It is covered by a soft, woolly undercoat, protected by
long, drooping hairs. The wool is extremely fine in
quality, and is employed in the manufacture of warm
cloaks, almost impenetrable by the cold.
Reading Hour: Wood's Mammalia, p. 690, the Reindeer; p. 325,
The Wolf; p. 391, The Brown Bear; p. 332, The Fox; p. 703, The Musk
Deer; p. 581, The Hare; p. 650, The Chamois; p. 668, The Ibex.
no
EUROPE.
For Recitation:
IV. I. What is the government of France?
What is the character of the people of France?
2. Size; population; climate; soil; variety of
product.
BH|B|ll|ULn^s|^^^BF^^
M
55^^^^^^^'T^''^ ^"^f
^
Public Garden near Paris.
3. Copy and fill out this diagram with the
products of France:
Northern Section ,
Middle Section
Southern Section
4. Name the minerals of France. What of
coal and iron?
5. Compare the number of people on farms
with the number in factories.
6. For what are the factories generally noted ?
Make a diagram like the above for the manufact-
ures of Southern, Middle, and Northern Sections
of France. Why do we not find the manufacture
of wines and brandies in the Northern Division ?
Why not of linens in the south of France ?
7. Chinaware.
8. How are manufactures encouraged?
9. What makes France a commercial country?
10. Tell how commerce is made easy in France.
If you enter France by the Seine River, and go
out by the Loire, what water do you leave when
you enter, and into what water do you go when
you leave? If you go out by the Rhone, into
what water do you go ? If by the Rhine?
11. What of Paris?
V. Germany.
For Reading:
Directly east of ' ' Sunny France " lies the most
powerful country of Central Europe — the Empire
of Germany. If we enter it upon its southern
side, from France, we shall find ourselves upon
its highest mountains. Turning our steps north-
ward, we shall come upon lower mountain ranges,
and then upon lower ones still, till we come down
upon the broad plains sloping to the North Sea
and the Baltic Sea.
As we go northward the climate changes also.
In the mountains the valleys are warm and the
winters short, while on the northern plains the
cold in winter is so intense that for several months
in the year the rivers are covered with ice so thick
as to bear loaded wagons. The climate is health-
ful, however, and the Germans are a strong, hardy
race of industrious people.
Their country" is a little larger than France,
and they have about 6,000,000 more people.
Their soil is less fertile, and their climate less
favorable for field culture. Nevertheless, by
their great industry and by good methods of
working their land, they raise enough of the
grains, vegetables, and fruits common in the Tem-
perate Zone to supply nearly all their food, though
most of the laboring people live very poorly.
Sugar beets are more extensively raised, and beet
sugar more largely manufactured, than in any
other country. Horses, cattle, hogs, and sheep
GERMANY, AUSTRO-HUNGARY, RUSSIA.
are raised in immense numbers ; and the valley of
the Rhine,' the most beautiful valley of Europe,
is famous for its vineyards and its wines.
Next to England, Germany, in mines and man-
ufactures, is the richest country in Europe. It
has a large trade with foreign nations, mostly
with England. Besides the great variety of its
other products, it has, like California, large
■quantities of wine and hops to sell to other coun-
tries.
The people' of Germany are especially distin-
guished for two things — their great army, and
their common schools. More attention is given
to education than in any other country of Europe.
Berlin, the capital of Germany, is the third city
of Europe in population. It is a handsome city,
and is distinguished for its schools, its public
libraries and museums, and its manufactures.
For Recitation:
V. I . The surface of Germany is mountainous
in the south and level in the north.
2. The valleys in the mountains have warm
summers and short winters. The winters on the
northern plain are cold and long. The climate
is healthful.
3. Germany is a little larger than France, but
is less fertile. Nearly enough is raised in Ger-
many for the food of the people. What of live
stock? The valley of the Rhine?
4. In mines and manufactures how does Ger-
many compare with other countries? In what
does it resemble California ?
5. For what are the Germans especially distin-
guished ?
1 Reading Hour: Seven Little Sisters, p. 89, IvOuise, the Child of the
Beautiful Rhine.
Our World Reader, p.86, The Rhine.
2 Reading Hour: Life Among the Germans, p. 21, Birthdays; pp.
194-195, A School Kxaniination; p. 199. How Girls Study Sewing; pp.
"♦-55> A. German Kitchen; p. 139, A New Year's Party.
6. Write six facts about Berlin, and number
them.
VI. AUSTRO-HUNGARY.
For Reading:
Starting from southern Germany and going
eastward we pass into another of The Five Great
Powers — the empire of Austro-Hungary. This
is the most mountainous country of Europe, ex-
cept Switzerland.
We shall find Austria covered with heavy for-
ests, and fields of such grain as is usually found
in the Temperate Zone.
Like most mountainous countries, she is rich
in mines, especially in salt' mines. The largest
of these, near Cracow, consists of four under-
ground floors, one below another, each nearly two
miles long and more than half a mile wide. On
these floors are numerous lofty aisles and galleries,
hewn out of rock salt. One of the chambers in
this mine is fitted up as a chapel, with pulpit,
altars, columns, and statues, of salt. The mine
has been worked for more than 700 years.
As in most old and wealthy countries, the
people are busy, also, with manufactures, and
the cities contain many very elegant buildings,
both public and private, as well as interesting
ancient castles, cathedrals, and universities.
Vienna, the capital, is the fourth city of Europe
VII. Russia.
For Reading:
Russia, the largest of The Five Great Powers,
comprises half of Europe and a large part of Asia,
and six Russias would cover all the land in the
world.
It is mostly lowland plain. The pine forests
1 Reading Hour: Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard, p. 92, The Story
of Salt.
EUROPE.
of the nortli contain many wild animals, and the
people there are chiefly engaged in cutting wood
and producing tar, pitch, and potash.
In the south rich lands yield, beside other crops
of the Temperate Zone, vast quantities of wheat,
most of which is exported through the port of
Odessa, on the Black Sea. In the export of wheat
Russia ranks next to the United States.
A Russian Coachman.
The Russians are large in stature. In character
they are strong and rather fierce. The govern-
ment is a despotism. The chief ruler is called a
Czar. His winter palace in St. Petersburg^ will
accommodate 6,000 people. The poorer classes
are much degraded.
For Recitation:
VI. I . Austria is the most mountainous coun-
try of Europe, except Switzerland.
2. Heavy forests and large fields of grain cover
much of the country.
3. Tell what is said of the mines.
4. With what shall we find the Austrians busy?
What sort of countries are usually busy in this
1 Reading Hour: Ttu World; its Chief Cities and People, p. 226,
Russia.
way? What of Austrian cities? What should
you think the exports are ? Why ?
VII. I. In what Grand Divisions is Russia?"
Compare it in size with Europe. With the land
of the earth.
2. Surface. Occupations and products of the;
north. [Find in the dictionary what potash is.'\
3. Soil in the south. Principal product. Wheat
in Russia and the United States.
4. Size and character of the Russian people.
Chief ruler.
VIII. Sweden and Norway — Denmark —
Holland — Belgium.
For Reading:
Lying to the north of The Five Great Powers
are the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway,
Denmark, Holland, and Belgium.
The people of Norway live chiefly by the prod-
ucts of their forests, fisheries,^ and mines. The
country is too cold and barren to produce large
crops. Sweden has more land fit for cultivation
than Norway, and raises grain and potatoes for
export. Swedish iron and steel are the finest iai
the world, and are exported to other countries^]
Both countries are under one king.
The people of Denmark, called Danes, live
chiefly by hunting and fishing.
A large part of Holland^ was once under the^
sea. Great walls of earth, called dikes, which
have been built along the seashore, now keep the
ocean from overflowing the land. Holland is
famous for its beautiful meadows, its cows, butter
and cheese, and its fine breeds of cattle. The
Holstein cows, of which there are many in Cali-
fornia, were first brought to this country frora^
Holland.
1 World at Home, vol. V., p. 13, Curious Things about Fisheries.
2 Reading Hour: Holland, by de Amicis.
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE FIVE GREAT POWERS.
"3
Belgium is a little country full of busy people.
It is so thickly settled as to be almost one great
city. It is especially famous for its carpets and
Norwegian Farm Houses.
laces. There are in Belgium 900 schools to teach
the art of lace making, and some of the finest
laces of Brussels sell for $350 a yard.
For Recitation:
VIII. I. Name the countries lying north of The
Five Great Powers. What is their form of gov-
ernment ?
2. How do the people of Norway live? Ex-
ports of Sweden. Both countries are under one
king.
3. Who are the Danes, and how do they live?
4. What is a dike? How is Holland saved
jrom the sea ? For what famous ? Describe any
Holstein cattle 3''OU have seen.
5. Belgium is the most thickly settled country
of Europe, and is famous for carpets and laces.
IX. Countries South of the Great Powers.
For Reading:
The remaining countries of Europe, except
Switzerland, are found in the three peninsulas
that project southward from The Five Great
Powers.
Spain^ and Portugal, two kingdoms of the
western peninsula, were once powerful nations,
with large possessions. They are now feeble
governments, and their people are not pros-
perous. They produce for export, wool, silk,
olives, oranges, figs, and wine. Cork is obtained
in the southern part of Spain from the bark of a
kind of oak. There are still in Spain some relics
of its old grandeur. The capital, Madrid, is said
to contain the finest picture gallery in the world.
Italy, which occupies the central peninsula of
southern Europe, was once a powerful empire.
Here the ancient Romans lived. Americans now
visit Italy mainly for the sake of what is to be
seen in its famous old cities. Rome is interesting
as the seat of the ancient empire of the Roman
people and the home of the Pope, the head of the
Roman Catholic church throughout the world.
Venice is built on islands, and has canals for
streets. Florence is the most celebrated city for
its works of ancient art, and Genoa was the birth-
place of Columbus. The industries of Italy are
not important. The products consist chiefly of
olive oil, rice, wheat, silk, and macaroni.
Making Macaroni.
The empire of Turkey occupies, with Greece,
I Reading Hour: Spain, by de Amicis, p. 231, Toledo.
114
EUROPE.
the eastern peninsula of southern Europe. The
manners and customs of the Turks more resemble
those of Asiatic countries than those of European
nations, and a large part of the Turkish Empire
lies in Asia. The people are mostly poor and
miserable, and g]»eatly oppressed by their govern-
ment. The soil is fertile, and the products are
the same as those found in the other peninsulas
of southern Europe. The chief ruler is called a
Sultan.
Constantinople,^ the capital, looks from a dis-
tance very bright and gay with its religious tem-
ples, slender, shining spires, and large cypress
trees, but its streets are merely crooked, narrow,
dirty, unlighted lanes, and its houses are low and
small. Dogs are regarded as almost sacred.
Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, and Monte-
negro were until recently under the rule of the
Turks. They are now independent.
Greece, though never having large possessions,
was, in ancient times, the most celebrated country
in the world for the braver^', learning, and oratory
of its people. The temples and public buildings
of the old Greeks have ever since their time been
the models used by civilized nations in building.
This country, once so famous, is now unimpor-
tant. Athens, the capital, is now noted only for
its ruins.
Between the southern peninsulas and The Five
Great Powers we find Switzerland. This is a
romantic little country situated among the highest
mountains^ of Europe. It has been for many
hundred years the home of a brave, hard working
people, who have held their mountain homes
against the strongest nations that have sought to
invade them. It is too broken in surface to be a
rich country, but in its valleys are fine pastures
where many cattle are raised, making butter and
cheese the chief products of -the farm. Switzer-
land is also famous for its manufacture of watches
1 Reading Hour: Constantinople, by de Amicis, p. io8, Dogs.
iOur World Reader, p. 70, The Alps and their People.
and toys, the latter employing the peasants during
the long winter evenings. The government is.
republican.
For Recitation:
IX. I. Name all the countries of Europe south.]
of The Five Great Powers. In what natural^
divisions are most of them? What exception?
2. Spain and Portugal — kind of government;!
situation; former condition; present condition;;
exports; cork.
3. Where is Italy situated? Write in one col-
umn a list of its famous cities, and opposite each]
write for what it is famous. Products of Italy.
4. What six countries make the southeastern.]
peninsula of Europe? Character and condition.]
of the Turks. Chief ruler.
5. For what was ancient Greece famous? What!
of its present condition?
6. Switzerland — situation; character of people;
chief farm products; winter employment.
Write the names of all the countries of EuropCy j
and the names by which their people are called^\
thus:
England Englishmen.
Spain Spaniards.
TopicAiv Review of Europe.
Write, in your own language, all of the geog
raphy of Europe that you know, using, as
guide , the following topics :
Position. Products:
TA - . (Mineral, vegetable, ani-
mal.)
Mountain Systems. ^
Occupations:
Drainage: (Farming, manufacturing^
(Slopes and rivers.) mining, commerce.).
Climate. Countries.
- Cities and Towns:
^ ' (Location, for what note
Animals. etc)
NATURAL FEATURES.
115
ASIA.
[Before taking the lessons, " For Reading," let the map on the next page be carefully studied.]
I. SizK — Surface — Climate — People.
For Reading:
We now come to the largest of the Grand Di-
visions, that of Asia. It is about twice as large
as North America, and four times as large as
Europe. There are many reasons why we should
be curious to know something of Asia. In the
first place, it is supposed that the human race had
its beginning there. Every great religion in the
world, also, began in Asia. Another interesting
fact is that the domestic animals — the horse, the
cow, the sheep, the goat, the hog, and the "barn-
yard fowls" — were first known in Asia.
In surface and climate Asia is divided into three
belts, extending east and west across the Grand
Division.
The most northerly of these belts consists of
the vast plain that slopes to the Arctic Ocean,
and possesses, through nearly its whole extent,
a climate of excessive cold.
The central belt consists, for the most part, of
the great plateau region upon which the lofty
mountains of Asia stand, and its climate is marked
by cold winters and hot, dry summers. From the
plateaus of this region rise mountains with peaks
higher than any bird can fly — the highest mount-
ains of the world. Mt. Everest, a peak of the
Himalaya, is five and a half miles high.
The southern belt, which lies south of the great
central mountain system, embraces the peninsulas
of southern Asia, and is mostly a level country,
with a hot and moist climate.
Asia contains more than half of all the people
of the globe, and nearly the whole of this popu-
lation is crowded into the southeastern part.
Here, in the countries of British India, Indo-
China, Japan, and the eastern half of the Chinese
Empire, are nearly 800,000,000 of people. In
the east the inhabitants are mostly of the Mon-
golian race; in the west they are of the Caucasian.
For Recitation:
1. I . Comparative size of Asia.
2. Three things that make Asia of interest to
us.
3. How is Asia divided in surface and climate?
4. Surface and climate of northern belt.
5. Of central belt.
6. Of southern belt. Of what natural divisions
does southern Asia consist? Compare it with
Europe in this respect.
7. Population of Asia.
8. Races of Asia and their locality.
II. Siberia and the Chinese Empire.
For Reading:
Siberia, the most northerly country of Asia, is
a Russian possession. It is larger than the whole
of Europe or the United States. The northern
part consists of a mossy plain, frozen solid the
greater part of the year, and even in the short
summer thawing out only a few inches below the
surface. Here the reindeer, white bear, and black
fox are found.
South of this plain is a belt of heavy forest,
with narrow, fertile strips along the rivers. Sable,
beaver, ermine, marten, and other fur-bearing ani-
mals abound, and people live mostly by hunting,
trapping, and fishing.
Still further south lie grassy plains, called
SIBERIA AND CHINESE EMPIRE.
117
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map.]
1. Position, Extent, and Form. — In what hemi-
sphere is Asia? How would you reach it from San
Francisco? What oceans wash its northern, eastern,
and southern shores, and what Grand Division consti-
tutes its western boundary? Passing along the coast of
Asia from the Isthmus of Suez to Bering Strait^ name
the gulfs ^ seas, straits, and bays that border it.
What is the scale of this map of Asia? Is it drawn on
a larger or smaller scale than the map of Europe, p. 104?
Asia is longest from southwest to northeast; measure the
map and find the length of Asia from the Strait of Babel-
mandeb to Bering Strait. Measure from North East
Cape to Cape Roumania and find the width from north
to south. Compare these extents with those of Europe.
Name the five peninsulas partly surrounded by the
waters that wash the shores of Asia, Is the coast line
of Asia smooth or irregular? Is it more or less so than
that of Europe?
Write all the information you have gained
from a study of the preceding questions.
2. Mountains. — What is a mountain system? What
is the general direction of the Hindoo Koosh, Himalaya
(him a'la ya), Thian Shan (te an' shan), and Altai (al'ti)
Ranges — east and west, or north and south? In what
part of Asia are they?
3. Sl^OPES AND Rivers. — What is a slope? How is
l|
sie
steppes, inhabited by roving bands of Tartars,
with their flocks and herds. Some fertile val-
leys, in the southern part, produce the usual
crops of the Temperate Zones. In the mountain
regions of the east and south there are rich mines
of gold, silver, and other minerals. These give
to Siberia its chief value. They are owned by
the Russian Government, and are worked chiefly
by exiles condemned to this service. Nearly all
the inhabitants of Siberia are exiles from Russia,
or their descendants.
In the Chinese Empire^ nearly the entire pop-
ulation lies south and east of the great wall that
you see on the map. This is the most fertile
the direction of a slope told on a map? Study the map
and tell how many great ocean slopes Asia has. What
is the direction of each slope? In what part of Siberia
is the land highest?
What is a river system? Which is the principal river
of any river system? What is a river basin? What are
the three principal river systems of the Arctic, or Sibe-
rian Slope? Of the Pacific, or China Slope? Four of the
Indian Slope? Describe the principal river of each sys-
tem.
Write a short composition to tell what you have
learned from answers to questions under ''Slopes
and Rivers." Omit the last question.
4. CwMATE. — In how many zones does Asia lie? In
which zone is the greater part of Asia? How do you
tell? Which of the great slopes of Asia do you think are
warm, and which cold? What climate should you expect
to find in the high mountain regions of the central part?
5. ISI.ANDS. — What country of Asia consists of islands?
In what direction is it from the mainland? What group
of islands southeast of Asia? What large island south-
east of Indo-China? What island south of the Malay
Peninsula?
Bound Siberia, China, India, Arabia, Per'sia {she a'),
Afghan is tan', Bel 00 chis tan'. Locate the following
cities: Tobolsk', Yo ko hd'ma, To'ki b, Pekin, Canton,
Shang'hai (hi), Calcutta, Mecca, Muscat, Damascus.
Which of these are capitals? Of what countries?
Pronunciations.— A moor'; Brah ma poo'tra; Cam bo' di a; Co-
re'a; GSn'ges; Ho ang ho'; Kam chat'ka; O'bii; O k/45tsk': Per'
si an; PhU'ip pine; Suez'; T5n quin' (keen); Yang tse ki ang';
Yen e se'i (sa'e).
II
Reading Hour: Our World Reader, p. 138, About China.
part of the empire. Although less than half as
large as the United States, it contains about one
fourth of the entire population of the globe.
The wall, which separates it from the rest of the
empire, was built by the Chinese 2,000 years ago,
to keep out their old enemies, the Tartars. It is
twenty-five feet high, and so wide that six horse-
men can ride abreast on it. Over mountains, into
deep valleys, across rivers and every obstacle, this
wall extends for more than 1,200 miles.
The Chinese^ are a well educated and indus-
trious people, but not inventive in machinery.
Nearly all their beautiful wares are made by hand.
1 Reading Hour: Seven Little Sisters, p. 59, The Story of Pense;
When I was a Boy in China, p. 26, China Cookery; p. 50, China Schools.
Ii8
ASIA.
More than 2,000 years ago they knew the art of
printing, of making silks, gunpowder, and paper,
and had invented the mariner's compass and
A Chinese Village.
clocks. The manufacture of silk, linen, porcelain,
and a multitude of fancy articles, is extensive,
but the Chinese are mainly engaged in farming,
producing, chiefly, tea,^ rice,'^ cotton, and silk-
worms. Next to rice and silk, the bamboos of
China bring the largest revenue to the country.
Farming is held in high reverence. Once a year
the Emperor and the nobles plow a furrow, as an
example to the workmen. The Empress raises
silkworms and spins the silk, that other women
may not be too proud to labor. The country is so
1 Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard, p. 45, The Story of the Tea.
2 Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard, p. 117, The Story of the Rice.
crowded with people that the hillsides are terraced
and the rocks covered with earth to gain ground
for cultivation, and the bottoms of the rivers are
planted with roots for food, while millions of
people live on rafts on the rivers. The Chinese
are great traders. The rivers and numberless
canals are crowded with vessels of all sizes, en-
gaged in carrying articles of traffic from one
province to another. The chief foreign trade of
China is with Great Britain. The trade with the
United States is next in importance. China has
also a large trade with Russia, which is conducted
by great caravans passing over the mountains
into Siberia and on through to Russia in Europe.
Shanghai and Canton are the chief commercial
cities. Pekin, the capital, is the largest city, and
the one of which the Chinese are most proud.
For Recitation:
II. Describe Siberia by copying the following
outline and filling it out as the first two items
are filled:
1. Government. — Governed by Russia.
2. Comparative Size. — It is larger than the
whole of Europe or the United States.
3. Northern Belt. 5. Southern Belt.
1. Surface. — ... i. Surface. — . . .
2. Climate. — ... 2. Tartars. — . . .
3. Animals. — ... 3. Crops. — ....
4. Middle Belt. 6. Mines.
1. Kind of country. — i. What. — ....
2. Animals. — ... 2. Where. — ....
3. Occupation. — . . 3. How worked. —
7. In what part of China is most of the popu-
lation? Extent of population.
8. Describe the Chinese wall.
9. Character of the Chinese. Manufactures.
Chief occupations. Trade. Chief cities.
JAPAN AND INDIA.
119
III. Japan and India.
For Reading:
As we sail from San Francisco to Asia we shall
land first in the Island Empire of Japan, in the
harbor of Yokohama. Ships of all nations, gay
with flags, will greet us here, for the Japanese,
unlike the Chinese, welcome the foreigner. The
Japanese are also much more enterprising, and
have introduced railroads, telegraphs, and many-
other foreign inventions. The productions of the
soil are about the same as those of China, and the
same may be said of the manufactures. In the
populous parts not a foot of land is allowed to go
to waste. In the wooded sections camphor, pine,
cypress, live oak, cedar, maple, bamboo, and yew
trees abound. The bamboo is used in every art,
and is the most important tree in the country.
The traveler in Japan has many interesting
things to tell of his observations among the
people. Everywhere he goes along the streets of
the cities, he finds the doors of the houses open
and the amusements and employments of the
family going on in full view. The Japanese^
make much of their homes, and fill their leisure
liours with games. If the traveler stops to enjoy
the scene the host steps to the door and politely
invites him in and makes him welcome. Educa-
tion receives much attention in Japan, even more
than in China, the methods of American schools
having been introduced within the last few years.
British India is about half the size of the
United States, and is under the government of
Oreat Britain. Its population is nearly equal to
that of all Europe. The native inhabitants,
though of dark complexion, belong to the Cau-
casian race.
India is the home of the fiercest animals and
reptiles known. The tiger, lion, leopard, and
crocodile are found in great numbers. The tiger
1 Reading Hour: Young Americans in Japan, p. 98.
hunt is a famous sport, and is conducted on the
backs of elephants, which are also natives of
India.
The productions of the country are, chiefly, rice,
cotton, opium, indigo, and sugar. Rice is the
chief article of food. India is also rich in min-
erals and precious stones. The wonderful banyan
tree is found here. The branches of this tree
bend over to the ground and take root, and in
time a grove of considerable size is formed from a
single tree.
The leading manufactures are silk, articles of
ivory, and the famous cashmere shawls. These
shawls are made from the hair of the cashmere
goat, and are the most beautiful and durable
shawls in the world. They are also the costliest,
three or four men sometimes spending a whole
year in weaving a pair of them.
Many odd and amusing manners and customs
prevail among the people, but the most remark-
able feature of Hindoo society is the division
of the people into four castes or classes — Brah'-
mins or priests, soldiers, merchants, and laborers.
None of these can intermarry, or even eat and
drink together. Those who have been expelled
from their caste are called pa'ri ahs, or outcasts
from society.
For Recitation:
III. I. In what do the Japanese resemble the
Chinese? In what do they differ? Useful trees
of Japan.
2. Japanese homes. Education.
3. Comparative size of British India.
4. Animals.
5. Chief vegetable productions. Chief food
products. Minerals.
6. Three leading manufactures. Cashmere
shawls.
ASIA.
7. Name the four castes of Hindoo society.
Rules that govern them. What is a pariah ?
IV. The Remaining Countries of Asia.
For Reading:
The peninsula east of Hindostan was formerly
called Farther India. The people, however, with
the exception of those of the Malay Peninsula,
are of the MongoHan race, like the Chinese, while
the inhabitants of India are Caucasians. For
this reason the country is now called Indo-China.
The climate and products are about the same as
those of India,
West of the three great eastern countries of
Asia are the wild tribes of Afghanistan and
Beloochistan. Next beyond these come the Per-
sians, a gay, polite, and hospitable people, and
formerly a powerful nation. They carry on large
manufactures in silks, carpets, and brocades.
Two thirds of the people are engaged in rearing
herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. The sheep
of Persia are famous for their great size.
West of Persia lies Turkey in Asia/ under
the rule of the Sultan at Constantinople. The
Turks eat with their fingers instead of forks, sit
on the floor, and smoke long pipes. They are
fond of coffee and opium. They are Mo h^m'
me dans, and believe in the Koran instead of the
Bible. Smyrna is the largest city, and is famous
for its export of dried figs. The Smyrna figs are
1 Reading Hour: Dead Sea Expedition, p. 260, Jordan; p. 307, Pillar
of Salt.
Animals of Asia.
The Sable is a little, slender animal of the weasel kind,
which inhabits the forests of the extreme north of Asia.
Its fur is very valuable, commanding a high price in Eu-
ropean markets. The hunter who pursues this creature
exposes himself to great peril amid the Arctic snows,
frequently losing his life. The sable, like other weasels,
lives chiefly by catching birds and small animals and
sucking their blood. The Wolverene is a small, fero-
cious creature, whose voracious appetite has earned for
it the name of glutton. The sable hunters detest it, for
the wolverene is in the habit of following them round
and stealing the bait from their traps. Should a sable
be found caught, it, too, is carried off by the wolverene.
The Camel of Arabia is an animal of but one hump,
and is superior to the two-humped camel in almost every
respect. Its hump is mostly fat, and on long journeys,
when poorly fed, the hump gives up its fat for the sup-
port of the beast. The camel is able, also, when drink-
ing, to lay in a quantity of water against the day of future
thirst, and, being thus provided with food and water for
a long journey, it has been called "the ship of the des-
ert." The pace of the common camel used in the carry-
ing of merchandise is only about three miles an hour,
though the Arabian camel, or drom'(drum)edary, will
carry its rider from eight to ten miles an hour, and keep
up the speed for twenty-four hours. The Orang Ou-
tang belongs to the monkey tribe, and of all that tribe
it most resembles man. Its hair is of a reddish chestnut
color. It lives mostly in the trees of dense forests,
swinging itself from branch to branch by its long arms,
which reach, when the creature stands on its hind legs,
nearly to the ground. The orang is very powerful, and
the male is a creature of hideous appearance. When
tamed it soon learns to drink tea and coffee, and becomes
fond of spirituous liquors. The African chimpanzee is
a species of orang outang. Unlike the domestic ass, or
donkey, the Wild Ass is fleet of foot, and cannot be over-
taken by a swift Arabian horse. Not even a greyhound
can follow it with any hope of success on hilly or rocky
ground. It lives in troops, occupying the hills in sum-
mer and the plains in winter. Its flesh is esteemed a del-
icacy. The Gazelle is a species of antelope, swift,
graceful, and, like other antelopes, living in herds. It
is celebrated by poets for its soft and lustrous eyes.
The Yak is a. species of wild ox, capable of being
tamed and used for work. When overloaded, it vents
its discontent in continuous, loud, melancholy grunts,
and is therefore called the Grunting Ox. The Ele-
phant inhabits the deep forest regions of tropical Asia
and Africa, and is the largest animal now living on the
earth. The Asiatic elephant can be distinguished from
the African by the shape of the head and by the ears.
The head of the Asiatic is long, the forehead dished, and
the ears small. The African elephant has a short head,
a bulging forehead, and enormous ears. Both Asiatic and
African elephants live in herds. The elephant, when
drinking, first sucks up water into its trunk, then turning
the trunk into its mouth, it shoots the contents into its
stomach, making a splash that can be distinctly heard
by one standing near. The Tiger and Lion are the
ANIMALS.
> ^ cS IS to
AFRICA.
the finest in the world. Damascus, in Turkey,
is the oldest city in the world.
Five things about Arabia^ will especially in-
terest us:
1. Deserts form the greater part of its surface,
and its climate is one of the hottest in the world.
2. The finest coffee in the world, the M5'cha,^
is raised in Arabia.
3. The swiftest and most beautiful horses are
the Arabian steeds.
4. The Mohammedan religion was founded
there by Mohammed, a native of Mecca, and his
followers make annual journeys to that city in
honor of the event.
5. A large number of the inhabitants have no
fixed residence, but wander over the country with
flocks and herds. Such people are called mm' ads.
We may learn, also, that Arabia exports drugs,
dates, raisins, and wheat.
For Recitation:
IV. I. Former name of Indo-China. Why
changed? Climate and products.
1 Seven Little Sisters, p. 24. The Child of the Desert.
2 Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard, p. 75, The Story of Coffee.
2. Characteristics of the Persians. Manufact-
ures, Chief pursuits.
3. Habits of the Turks. Religion. Damascus.
4. Surface of Arabia. Climate. What of coffee
in Arabia? Horses? Who founded the Moham-
medan religion? Where? Habits of life in Ara-
bia. Exports.
Topical Review of Asia.
Write, in your own laitguage, all of the geog-
raphy of Asia that you know, using, as a guide ^
the following topics:
Products:
(Mineral, vegetable, ani-
mal.)
Position.
Extent.
Mountain Systems.
Drainage:
(Slopes and rivers.)
Climate.
People.
Animals.
Occupations:
(Farming, manufacturing,
mining, commerce.)
Countries.
Cities and Towns:
(Location, for what noted,
etc.)
AFRICA.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
[Questions in italics to be answered from the open map.]
Position, Extent, and Form. — In what hemisphere
is Africa? Passing along the coast of Africa from the
Isthmus of Suez through the Red Sea and around to
Alexandria in Egypt, name the seas, straits, gulfs, and
oceans that border it.
What is the scale of this map of Africa? Is it drawn
on a larger or smaller scale than the map of Asia?
Measure the map from Cape Bon to Cape Agulhas
(a gobl'yas) and find the length of the Grand Division
from north to south. Measure the map from Cape
Guardafui (gwar da fwee') to Cape Verde and find the
width from east to west.
What is a coast line? Is the coast line of Africa regu-
lar or irregular? More, or less irregular than the coast
line of Asia? Than the coast line of Europe? Of North
America? Which of the Grand Divisions does Africa
most resemble in coast line? In shape?
Mountains. — Where do you find most of the mountain
ranges of Africa — in the interior, or near the coast?
What is their general direction? Where are the Atlas
Mountains, and what is their direction? The Kong
Mountains?
Rivers and Slopes. — Describe the Nile River. De-
scribe the Niger, the Congo, and the Zdm be' [b a) zi Rivers.
At what point do the White and Blue Rivers unite to
form the Nile? From Khartoum (kar tdbm') to Cairo
(ki'ro) do you go mostly up hill or down? _
^elC' SOCOTRA I.
10-1
£. D. StrK>sa,Jj>ti.S.^
124
AFRICA.
Climate. — In what zone does the most of Africa lie?
Would you expect to find its climate warmer or colder
than that of South America? Why?
Countries and Towns. — Bound each of the following
countries and name the capital : Morocco, Algeria, Tunis,
Trip'o li, Egypt, Abyssinia, Cape Colony. In what
part of Africa is Transvaal (trSns val')? Orange Free
State? Zululand? Natal? Sou dan'? The Desert of
Sahara?
DESCRIPTION.
I. Size — C1.IMAT15 — Naturai. Fkatures —
Inhabitants.
For Reading:
In size, Africa is the second Grand Division
Restixg in the Desert.
of the earth. It is three times as large as Europe,
but it is the least important of all the Grand
Divisions. It consists of a vast table-land, with
narrow strips of low plain along the coast. The
principal mountain ranges are on the edges of this
table-land.
On the north a narrow strip of country border-
ing the Mediterranean Sea has a temperate cli-
mate, and yields cotton, dates, grain, mulberries,
grapes, and olives.
South of this lies the great Desert of Sahara,'
nearly as large as the United States. Though a
large part of it is heated sand and rock, there are
1 Reading Hour: Bancroft's Fourth Reader, p. 202, Sahara.
here and there quite extensive oa'seg, on which
many thousand people have their homes. Across
this burning tract caravans of camels go, bearing
cotton cloth and trinkets for the negro tribes that
inhabit the country south of the desert, and
bringing back from them, for the people of Eu-
rope and America, ivory, gold dust, and ostrich
feathers.
South of the great desert lies a country but
little cultivated, which stretches to the southern
extremity of the Grand Division. Heavy forests,
overgrown with vines, cover the greater part of
this region. One tree, the ba'obab, has been
found, measuring in some instances ninety feet
around the trunk. It is estimated that some of
these trees haye been growing for 5,000 years.
The lower branches sometimes grow out horizon-
tally sixty feet in length and then droop to the
ground, concealing the trunk.
Large and fierce wild animals are found here in
Animate of Africa.
The Leopard is a beautiful and graceful creature of the'
cat kind, much dreaded by the inhabitants of the region
in which it lives, on account of the depredations made
upon their domestic animals. The skin of the leopard
rivals that of the tiger in beauty, and is equally prized
for rugs and robes. The Gorilla is the most powerful
of the ape family, and is greatly feared by the negroes
of the countries that it inhabits. It is strong, ferocious,
and pitilessly cruel, killing for the enjoyment of it, never
eating its victim. The negroes regard the gorilla as em-
bodying the spirit of their dead kings. Young gorillas
have been taken by Europeans, but they do not live long
in captivity. The Hippopotamus (sea horse) and the
Rhinoceros are both of the elephant family, the large
teeth of the hippopotamus furnishing a very white and
delicate ivory. The hippopotamus lives mostly in the
water; the rhinoceros, on land. The latter animal sleeps
in the daytime, and makes long night journeys in search
of food. The hippopotamus is a comparatively good
tempered animal, but the rhinoceros is fierce and dan-
gerous, more feared by the natives than even the lion.
The Hyena is a most disgusting creature, living on
carrion in preference to fresh food. It is a great coward,
I
ANIMALS.
125
and will attack nothing that does not run away from it.
The Arabs express their contempt for the hyena by
throwing mud into its eyes, gagging it, and turning it
over to the women and children
to stone to death. -
The Zebra, of all
the ass tribe, is
far the most
beautiful. Its
general col-
or is a
The crocodile of the Nile is called the true crocodile,
that of the Ganges, which is the largest known reptile,
and the alligator of North America, being varieties of
the well known crocodile of Egypt. The Horned
Viper is a reptile of northern Africa, about two feet in length,
whose bite is extremely poisonous, only less so than that of the
cobra. It can endure long
''k:^ fasts without injury, and has
" been known to be kept in
a glass jar for two years,
L without food, seeming
all the time perfectly
lively, and shedding
its skin as usual.
The Ostrich belongs
to the group of
birds called run-
ners, and is the
creamy white, '^°=°'«^^ - -
marked all over
its body with velvety black stripes. It
is untamable, and, like the wild ass,
lives in hilly districts and mountain
ranges. The Gnu is a creature
classed among the antelopes, and so
peculiar in form that at first sight the
spectator may be in doubt whether it is a
horse, an antelope, or a bull. When alarmed
it becomes exceedingly wild and fantastic in
its movements and maneuvers, earning for
itself from the Dutch settlers in southern =
Africa the name of Wildebeest. The fcs |
Giraffe holds its head high above that of any ^^
C)ther living creature, being, when full grown,
from eighteen to twenty feet in height. It is
peaceable in disposition, living in herds aver-
aging about sixteen in number. Its taste is
very nice, rejecting everything but the most
delicate vegetation. In a wild state it feeds ^
chiefly upon the leaves of trees, being able to bring
i';s mouth to the ground only with great difl&culty.
It has never been known to utter a sound of any
kind, even when severely wounded and struggling
ii the agonies of death. The Crocodile, though
a much dreaded reptile, is of considerable use in the region
of the Nile in devouring putrefying flesh, which would
otherwise spread disease. It is covered with horny
plates so hard as to turn steel weapons and even bullets.
■
largest and
strongest of
the group, being
from six to eight
feet in height. The
ostrich lives on wild
melons, grass, and
grain. Its nest is a
shallow hole scooped
in the sand, in which
eggs are set upright,
with other eggs placed
around the margin. The
eggs are hatched mainly by
the heat of the sun, though
covered by the parent birds at
night, the male bird doing his
share. Bach egg weighs about
fe^^i^ three pounds. The shells are so thick
"^ and hard that the eggs may be safely
carried in sacks thrown over the back of
horse. The value of this bird to com-
merce lies in its feathers, which are familiar to all.
Reading Hour: Wood's Mammalia, p. 166, The L,eopard; p. 15, The
Gorilla; p. 759, The Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros; p. 218, The
Hyena; p. 730, The Zebra; p. 658, The Gnu; p. 684, The Giraffe.
Wood's Reptiles, p. 29, The Crocodile; p. 107, The Horned Viper.
Wood's Birds, p. 644, The Ostrich.
GWU^
126
AFRICA.
\
greater numbers than anywhere else in the world.
Crocodiles abound in the lakes and rivers. It is
said that more than a thousand elephants are
sometimes seen in one herd. They are not tamed
and taught to work as in Asia, but are killed for
their flesh and tusks.
Throughout the great desert and the countries
of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean and
Red Seas the inhabitants are of the Caucasian
race. South of the Sahara they are nearly all
negroes/ and most of them are savages. In
Soudan there are some half civilized people, and
in southern Africa the Zulus and some others are
intelligent tribes, having flocks and herds and cul-
tivating corn, rice, and other plants. One of the
tribes in the south of Africa is said to live in the
tree tops. The Hottentots are a degraded people.
The Bushmen, a tribe of Hottentots, have neither
homes nor tents. They sleep in any shelter that
offers — a bush, a hole in the ground, a cleft in
the rock — and subsist on grasshoppers, roots,
and worms.
desert. South of the desert — negroes. Describe
the Zulus. The Hottentots.
For Recitation:
1. I. Commit to memory the first paragraph.
2. In the northern part of Africa a narrow strip
of productive country with a temperate climate
borders on the Mediterranean Sea.
3. The Desert of Sahara lies south of this strip.
Some fertile tracts in the desert, called oases, are
inhabited by a considerable population. Com-
merce across the desert is carried on by means
of camels.
4. South of the Desert of Sahara the country
is overgrown with great forests. Large and fierce
land and water animals abound.
5. The Caucasian race inhabits the countries
of the Mediterranean Sea and the oases of the
1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I., p. 77, Les. 34, The Black
Man at Home.
Seven Little Sisters, p. 74, The LitUe Dark Girl.
II. The Countries of Africa.
For Reading:
The states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and
Tripoli are called the Barbary States. All ex-
cept Morocco are subject to foreign powers.
Water Merchants of Kgypt.
Egypt is the only countr>^ of Africa possessing
much interest. Thousands of years ago it was
the home of a great and populous nation that built
magnificent temples and massive pyramids of
stone for the burial of their kings and great men.
Some of these pyramids were twenty years or
more in building, and employed 100,000 men at a
time. One of them is 460 feet high, and covers
thirteen acres of ground.
Egypt is a very productive country, made so
by the River Nile.^ For several hundred miles
1 Reading Hour: Parker's Hoiu to Study Geography, p. 170, The
Story of the Nile.
OCEANIA.
127
above the mouth of the river it never rains, and
yet in the month of June the river in this part of
the country begins to rise, and continues to do so
for several months, overflowing the whole valley.
This rise is due to the heavy rains that flood the
streams in the upper part of the valley. When
the water goes down, the whole valley is covered
with a rich soil, in which the farmer plants his
seed.
The dwellings of the farmers stand back from
the river on the high ground above the flood.
Canals are dug from the river to water the fields
in the dry season, and at this season men and
women carry water in huge bottles, made of the
skins of animals, to distant villages, to sell for
household use.
The remaining countries along the seacoast are
of but little importance.
Some Dutch and English colonies are in the
southern part.
On the west the colony of Sierra Leo'ne,
under the government of Great Britain, was
founded as a home for negroes liberated from
slave ships.
Liberia is a republic established for negroes
who were once slaves in the United States.
Madagascar is a kingdom with several millions
of inhabitants of the Malay race, but professing
Christianity.
For Recitation,:
II. I. Commit to memory the first paragraph.
2. Egypt is interesting on account of the great-
ness of its ancient government, its wonderful
pyramids, and its rich soil. Its productiveness
comes from the yearly overflow of the Nile.
3. Except the Mediterranean countries and
Eg>'pt, the countries of Africa are unimportant.
Topical Review op Africa.
Write, in your own language, all of the geog-
raphy of Africa that you know, tising, as a guide,
the following topics:
Animals.
Position.
Extent.
Coast Line.
Mountains.
Drainage: Occupations.
(Slopes and rivers. )
Climate.
People.
Products:
(Mineral, vegetable, ani-
mal.)
Countries.
Cities and Towns.
OCEANIA.
For Reading:
Oceania differs from the other Grand Divis-
ions in consisting wholly of islands.
Those of Malaysia, lying entirely within the
Torrid Zone, are large, populous, and productive.
They have a hot, moist climate, and are subject
to destructive earthquakes and violent wind
storms, called monsoons. Hurricanes sometimes
sweep over the seas. For the most part, the soil
is fertile and the vegetation is rich and rank.
The wild animals and reptiles are of the same
kind as those found in southern Asia. They are
large and fierce, and the reptiles poisonous. The
native race is the Malay, or Brown Race.^ The
chief products of the soil are rice, sugar, nut-
meg, cloves, cinnamon, cotton, and sago. Date,
cocoanut, and camphor trees are seen almost
1 Reading Hour: Seven Little Sisters, p. 5, The Little Brown Baby.
OCEANIA.
29
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
1. Into what three divisions is Oceania divided?
Which division lies nearest to Asia? In what direction
from Asia is Malaysia? In what ocean does it lie? In
what zone? Which is the largest island of this division?
\Borneo.'\ Give the direction of the following islands
from Borneo: Philippine Islands; Celebes; Java; Suma-
tra. Which island of the division lies nearest to Asia?
2. In what waters does Australasia lie? In what
zones? Which is the largest island of this division?
What large island north of it? What island south of the
eastern part? What large island southeast? What
group of islands east of New Guinea? What large group
of small islands north of the Solomon Islands? Name
the divisions of Australia and their capitals. Tell in
what part of Australia each division is. In sailing from
San Francisco, which side of Australia will you first
reach?
3. In what ocean is Pol y ne'sia (she a) ? In what zone?
In what direction from North America? In what part
of Oceania?
ever>'where. Valuable minerals are also found,
the chief of which are gold, antimony, and dia-
monds.
The Philippine Islands belong to Spain. Ex-
cept some very small possessions by the Portu-
guese and English, the remaining islands belong
to Holland. The bamboo is much used for
houses, and the chief towns are often built over
the water on stakes driven into the ground.
Stakes driven into the ground in this way are
called///^ J.
Borneo is as large as Texas, and has mines of
gold and antimony.
The natives of Java are more civilized than
those of the other islands. We know of Java
especially as a coffee country. Sugar is also an
important product.
Gold mines, petroleum, and dense forests dis-
tinguish Sumatra.
Australasia contains the largest island in the
world — Australia — which is sometimes called a
continent. It has no high mountains and much
desert land. Much of the vegetation and many
of the animals are natives of no other part of the
world, Eu ca lyp'tus trees, commonly cultivated
in California, grow wild only in Australia and a
few adjacent islands, where there are about 150
kinds. Some strange animals, called Marsu'pi-
als,' are natives chiefly of this country. The
1 Reading Hour: Animal Memoirs, p. 164, Wallaby Joe.
Fliers, Creepers, and Swimmers , p. 186, Stories of Marsupials.
kangaroo is the largest of these animals, and is
often six feet high when standing on its hind
legs. ' Though timid, it will sometimes turn on its
pursuers, clasp a dog or a man in its arms, and
leaping quickly to a water hole, plunge its enemy
in and drown him.
l^he richest gold mines in the world are said to
be in Australia. The usual crops of Europe and
America are raised, but wool is the chief article
of export. Excellent horses are also reared and
shipped to India. The natives are a degraded
race, and are fast disappearing. The island be-
longs to Great Britain.
Of New Guinea but little is known. The
natives are hideous creatures. The Dutch have
some settlements there.
New Zealand also belongs to Great Britain. It
has a delightful climate, and its products resemble
those of Australia.
Polynesia (many islands) consists of an im-
mense number of small islands. The natives of
Polynesia are more finely formed than those of
the other divisions of Oceania. The climate of
these islands is generally agreeable.
All of the islands are volcanic. Sonje of them
have sunk beneath the sea, and left above the sur-
face only a fringe of eSr'al that surrounded them
near the water's edge. This fringe of coral is
like a ring, with one or two breaks in it, through
which the sea enters. The land is called an a toll\
II
I30
BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING.
and the water inside is called a la goon' . The
coral is the lime left from bodies of millions of
small creatures when they die. These creatures
are called /o/'//i". They begin their work at the
bottom of the sea, near the shore where the water
is shallow. As the volcanic island, through many
centuries, gradually sinks, these little creatures as
gradually build to the surface by depositing the
limestone that makes the solid part of their bodies.
Then weeds and seeds are washed upon it by the
sea. The weeds decay and make soil; the seeds
grow and become plants and trees.
Cocoanut and banana trees grow almost every-
where. Sugar cane and cotton are largely culti-
vated. The Hawaiian (ha wi'an) group, or
Sandwich Islands, are under the government of
a native king. They raise a variety of crops, of
which sugar is the chief. Many of the sugar
plantations are owned by citizens of the United
States. They have a large trade with the United
1 Reading Hour: Builders of the Sea, p. 9, Corals.
States, and especially with California. Raw
sugar is the chief article of export. The Samoan
Islands are under the united protection of the
United States, Germany, and England, and civili-
zation is more advanced there than elsewhere in
Polynesia.
For Recitation:
1. How does Oceania differ from the other
Grand Divisions ?
2. Select the statement that most interests you
in paragraph two, and learn it. Also the state-
ment that you think most important.
3. Do the same in paragraph three.
4. In the description of Australasia select the
two statements that most interest you, and learn
them. Also two that you think the most im-
portant.
5. Do with the description of Polynesia as with
that of Australasia.
LIST OF BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING.
[Authors' names in italics; Publishers', inroinan.']
How to Study Geography Parker.
World at Home, six vols. . . . Thos. Nelson & Sons.
Gypsal Relief Maps . . . Bay State Publishing Co.
Geography with Sand Modeling Frye.
World by the Fireside Kirby.
World at Large.
Mammalia Wood.
Reptiles Wood.
Birds Wood.
Methods and Aids in Geography King.
Geographical Reader Scribner.
Seven Little' Sisters Lee & Shephard.
Easy Steps for Little Feet Swinton.
Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands Harper Bros.
Fox Hunting.
Geographical Reader Johonnot.
Our World Reader HaltX
Mexico and her Lost Provinces Bishop\
On the Amazons.
Brazil, Amazons Smith\
Afloat in the Forest.
Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard Kirby.
The World; its Chief Cities and People.
Holland de AmicisA
Spain and the Spaniards de AmicisX
Constantinople de Amta's.^
Dead Sea Expedition.
Bancroft's Fourth Reader.
Animal Memoirs, Parts I., II LocAwood.l
Fliers, Creepers, and Swimmers .... Johonnot.\
Builders of the Sea.
Life Among the Germans Parry. \
California Second Reader.
When I was a Boy in China .... Yan Phou Lee.\
PRONUNCIA TIONS.
131
PRONUNCIATIONS.
Af ghan is tan'.
Agulhas (a gobl'yas).
A leu'ti an(she an),
Al ma den'.
Al'tai(ti).
A moor'.
An'a h^im.
Ani'des(diz).
Ap pa la'chi an.
Ar'gen tine.
Ar'kan sas(saw).
Asia (a'shg a).
Az'te€.
Bab el man'deb.
Ba ha'ma.
Bahia (ba e'a).
Bal'tic.
Baton Rouge(ba.t'unroozh).
Bel 00 chis tan'.
Ben gal'.
Be'ring.
Ber'lin.
Bgrn.
Bo go ta'.
Boi'ge.
Bor'ne o.
Bos'po rus.
Brah ma poo'tra.
Bra zil'.
Bu cha(ko) rest'.
Buenos Ayres (bo nus a'riz).
Bill ga'ri a.
Cairo (ki'ro).
Cal la'o.
Cam bo'di a.
Can ta'bri an.
Ca ra'cas.
Car ib be'an.
Carquinez (kar kee'nez),
Cat'te gat.
Cau ca'sian.
Cau'ca sus.
Ca yenne'.
Cgl'e be§.
Cheyenne (shi en').
ChSs'a peake.
Chil'i.
Chris ti a'ni a.
Col'fax.
Col o ra'do.
Concord (konk'urd.)
C6s'ta Ri'ca.
Co re'a.
Dar da nelles'(nelz).
Dei' Moinej'.
De troit',
Di a'blo.
Ec ua dor'.
Edinburgh (ed'in bur ruh).
Esquimaux (gs'ke moz).
Eu ro pe'an.
Gal H'nas.
GSn'ggg.
Gal'ves ton.
Gib ral'tar.
Guardafui (gwar da fwee').
Gua(gaw)te ma'la.
Guayaquil (gwi a keel')
Gui(ghe)a'na.
Hawaiian (ha wi'an).
Hay'ti.
Hel e'na.
Him a'la ya.
Ho ang ho'.
Hon dii'ras.
II li noLy'.
i ngz'.
Ja ma/'ca.
Japura (ha pob'ra).
Ja'va.
Kam cha.t'ka.
Khar toum'.
Li'ma.
lyoire (Iwar).
Los an'ge leg.
Ma'dre.
Ma drid'.
Ma lay'.
Ma na'gua.
Ma na'os.
Ma're.
Ma ri'd.
Mich'i gan.
Mon go'li an.
Mon ta'na.
Mon te vid'e o.
Mont perier(yer).
Newfoundland (new'fund
land).
New Or'le ang.
Ni 3.g'a ra.
Nic ar a'gua.
Nip'i gon.
O'bi.
O bi'dos.
O khotsk'.
O'ma ha.
On la ri'o,
Pan'a ma.
Par a mar'i bo.
Pa ri'me(ma).
Per'sia(she a).
Per'sian.
Phil'ip pine.
Pla'cer ville.
Pol y ne'sia(she a).
Po po cat a petl'.
Por'to Ri'co.
Pu'get.
Pyr'en ee§.
Quito (ki'to).
Ra'leigh(ly).
Riine.
R/?6ne.
Ri'o Gran'de(da).
Ri o Ja nei'(ne)ro.
Russia (rush'e a).
Saguenay (sag a na').
Sa li'nas.
San An'dreas.
San Ber nar di'no.
San Joaquin(wah keen')
San Jos^(ho za').
San'ta Fe.
San'ta I nSz'.
San'ta Ma ri'a.
San ti a'go.
Se at'tle.
Seine (sane).
Si er'ra Le o'ne.
Si er'ra Ne va'da.
Skag'er Rack.
So la'no.
Sophia (so fe'a).
Sou dan'.
Su ez'.
St. Louis (saint Idb'i).
Suisun (soo e soon').
Su ma'tra.
Tah'le quah.
Ta hoe'.
Ta mal'pais(pice).
Te hach'a pi.
The Hague (hag).
Thian Shan (te an'shan).
To bolsk'.
To'ki o.
Ton quin(keen).
Transvaal (trans val').
Trip'o li.
Tucson (tii s6n').
Tu lar'e.
Uruguay (00 roo gwi').
Val la'ho.
Val pa rai(ri)so.
Ven ez ue'(we)la.
Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos).
Vi gn'na.
Will am' ette.
Wy o'ming.
Xingu (shing'goo).
Yang tse Ki ang'.
Yen e se'i(sa'e).
Yer'ba Bwa'na.
Yo ko ha'ma.
Yo sSm'i te.
Yu ca tan'.
Yvj'kon.
Zam be'zi.
Zu'ni.
I
132
AREAS AND POPULATIONS.
AREAS AND POPULATIONS.
Asia . . .
Sq. Miles.
16,428,954
Population.
662,613,553
Africa . . .
Sq. Miles.
11,000,000
Population.
268,000,000
Europe . .
Sq. Miles.
• 3,807,115
Population.
359,941,636
N. America .
8,155,438
79,375,532
S. America .
7,410,042
31,753,932
Oceania
• 5,198,151
42,315,347
D. of Canada
• 3,470,392
4,324,810
United States
. 3,605,000
56,785,456
Mexico
751,157
10,460,703
What three Grand Divisions taken together nearly
equal Asia in extent? What two? How does Asia com-
pare in extent with the Western Continent? What two
countries of North America are nearly equal in extent?
How many times larger is the Dominion of Canada than
Mexico? About how many times larger is the popula-
tion of Mexico than that of Canada? What Grand
Division do the United States, Europe, and Africa,
taken together, nearly equal in population?
POPULATION OF THE LARGEST CITIES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
NORTH AMERICA.
Canada.
Montreal 140,000
United States.
(Atlantic Plain.)
New York 1,300,000
Philadelphia 875,000
Brooklyn 604,000
Boston 390,000
(Great Central Plain.)
Chicago 950,000
St. Ivouis 450,000
New Orleans 235,000
(Pacific Coast.)
San Francisco 315,000
Mexico.
Mexico 242,000
West Indies.
Havana 205,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentine Confederation.
Buenos Ay res . . . . . 398,000
Brazil.
Rio Janeiro 357,ooo
EUROPE.
Great Britain.
London 4,083,000
France.
Paris 2,344,000
Germany.
Berlin 1,315,000
Austro- H ungary .
Vienna ....... 1,103,000
Russia.
St. Petersburg 929,000
Turkey.
Constantinople .... 873,000
Italy.
Naples 463,000
ASIA.
China.
Peking 1,600,000 1
Canton 1,300,0001
Japan.
Tokio 1,288,000
Hindostan.
Calcutta 795,000
AFRICA.
Egypt.
Cairo 327,000
OCEANIA.
Australia.
Melbourne 283,000
Name, locate, and give the population of the following I What two cities of Asia have each nearly the same popula-
cities: Largest city in the world. In North America.
In South America. In Asia. In Africa. In Australia.
In the order of their population, give the name, location,
and population of the largest six cities of the globe.
tion as New York? What city of Asia is nearest in popu-
lation to Philadelphia? What city of the world has more
than 4,000,000 of people? What city between 2,000,000 and
4,000,000? What cities between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000?
(ufiversitt))
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FEB 7 1
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APR 25 1917
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