wm/x wrnmrnmi mimm/m ,imiimmxm» iimmtammmmmmmm mmmmmmmmm CALIFORNIA* STATE -SERIES i< «[ i M i (iailiW i W««ii i ri i iirtitMM * ;iiMinil > UOJi-l iiil ^ i. B i iiijM iimii L i i jii 'iii Miw LEMENTARY EOGRAPHY '^■wamii i ii r i l jiw ^ie i j ^l aM iiW JWm^ H SCH00L -TEXT -BOOKS .^■w«0Wa»WjiM«WlliMI«W WI W |lWW^^ ^ vc§^ •30 LI BR ARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIKT OK -z^^ (2i^^^^:..v^2l^^^c_^^• Accessions No.^J_'^^^t?Jr ^elf iV •^^ A'^. $ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementarygeograOOcalirich CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OR SCHLOOIv TEXT-BOOKS. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. -*^:2-^ ^ COIVLPILKD UNDKR THE DIRECTION OF THE STATK BOARD OK KDUCATION SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA. Printed at the State Printing Office. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. / /1 3^7-^ The State Board of Education desire to acknowledge the kind assistance of many prominent teachers of the state in the preparation of this book. For careful reading of the proof issued in pam- phlet form for revision, and for valuable suggestions that have been incorporated in the finished work, thanks are especially due to Prof. A. E. Kellogg, of the Boys High School, San Francisco; Prof J. B. McChesney, Principal of the Oakland High School; Mrs. ly. P. Wilson, Principal of the Training Department of the State Normal School at San Jose; Miss Emily Rice, teacher in the State Normal School at Chico; Mrs. J. N. Hughes, teacher in the State Normal School at San Jose; Mrs. Julia B. Hoitt, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction; Hon. Job Wood, County Superintendent of Schools, Monterey County; James T. Stockdale, Principal of Public Schools, Monterey; and A. Norton, teacher, Gonzales. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year i8go, By Robert W. Waterman, Ira G.Jfoitt, Charles IV. Childs, Ira More, and Edward T. Pierce, STATE BOARD OP EDUCATION Of the state of California, for tlu People of the State of California. PREFACE. Geography memorized, as words, is perhaps the least interesting and least profitable of all school studies. Geography so taught that its facts become pictures is the most engaging and attractive of all. The right study of Geography involves much exercise of the imagination, and its facts, beyond those of simple observation, can properly be presented only by calling in the agency of this faculty. No aim in the teaching of Geography can be true that does not recognize this. In the preparation of this book it has been the constant effort so to present the text, question, and illustration as to engage this most powerful function of the mind. How far the effort has been successful only use can determine, and at best it can be but partially so without the intelligent and enthusiastic cooperation of the teacher. The book can do little more than point the way. When the pupil enters upon the study of Geography two new exercises pre- sent themselves, namely: the apprehending of land and water forms and the read- ing of maps, which are pictures of these forms. That the pupil may become able to grasp the ideas presented in the terms slope, hill, mountain, plain, valley, plateau, lake, river, ocean, continent, etc., he has been asked first to see the geographical forms that are in his immediate vicinity — to see, for instance, the hill, the valley, the upland field, the pond, the brook — and, second^ to imagine the forms that these suggest — the mountain, mountain chain, broad plain, plateau, lake, river, ocean, etc. — and in this way reach an apprehension of the land and water forms of the earth. By observing the form of the ball or the orange he is led to imagine the earth as a globe. That he may be able correctly to interpret the map much exercise is given in elementary map reading, not only to make him familiar with the signs employed to represent rivers, mountains, coast lines, cities, etc., but also to enable him to tell what these indicate in slope, climate, productions, fertility, and occupations. The teacher should supplement the descriptive matter of the book by explana- tion, question, and story. To aid in this numerous references are given in connec- tion with the text. These references have, to a great extent, been furnished by teachers of the State, and are made, largely, to books already in the district libraries. Care has been taken to avoid reference to expensive books, in order that the vol- umes recommended may be available for all district libraries. 2- TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Ideas of Direction 5 Ideas of Distance — Scale 6 Elementary Map Reading, involving Direction and Distance (School Room) 8 Ideas of Surface Forms 9 Elementary Map Reading, involving Surface Forms (School Grounds) i6 Studies on County Map i6 Studies on State Map i6 The Earth as a Whole 17 Heat 21 Moisture 22 Climate 23 Zones — Vegetation — Animals 24 Occupations 26 Review Questions 27 Elementary Map Reading — State of California . . 28 PAGE. The Hemispheres 30-31 Races and Conditions of Men 32 Governments 33 North America 34 United States 46 Review Questions 62 State of California 62 British America 88 Mexico and Central America 92 South America 95 Europe 104 Asia 115 Africa 122 Oceania 127 List of Books for Supplementary Reading .... 130 Pronunciations 131 Standard Distances — Populations 132 METHODS OF AWAKENING INTEREST Very successful common school teachers have contributed the following plans, adopted by them, to awaken interest in the study of Geography: I. Setting apart, Friday afternoon, an hour or half hour, which may be called The Reading Hour, during which teacher or pupils (preferably pupils) read extracts from books, magazines, or papers that relate to the subject studied in the Geography during the preceding week. 2. Placing upon the blackboard each morning a single question for the investigation of the pupil during leisure hours, such as ' ' What plants are used to make clothing, " etc. A valuable col- lection of such questions may be found in Frye's "Child and Nature," pages 82 to 116. 3. Asking pupils to bring in some object, as a piece of bread, leather, cotton cloth, tin, etc. , and give its history, where produced, and how. ^'^^ OP THB ^' lUFIVEESITr! ELEMENTARY LESSONS. I. IDEAS OF DIRECTION. ORAL EXERCISE. (i) Where does the Sun rise? L,et pupils stand with right hand to the East. In this position teach direction of the face; of the back; of the left hand. Pupil point to the North; to the South; to the West; to the East. Face North; South; East; West. Take one step North; one step East; one step vSouth; one step West. WRITTTErsI EXERCISE. Pupils read and fill out the following skeleton with the proper words, orally, then copy and fill out in writing: ' ' When we stand with the hand to the East our faces will be to the , our will be to the — — , and our will be to the -." [PrEWMINary Orai, Course. — ^The preliminary oral course and the oral work throughout the volume consti- tute an essential part of this book. The results sought in the preparation of the Elementary Geography depend so largely upon a thoughtful and conscientious attention to the oral divisions, that their neglect will, in a consid- erable measure, defeat the objects aimed at. It is there- fore earnestly recommended that the teacher give his best efforts to the successful presentation of this depart- ment. The pleasure of the pupil in studying and of the teacher in teaching, will depend much upon this. Do not pass too hastily from one step to another. Let each be so thoroughly mastered as to become, so far as possi- ble, a part of the habitual thought of the child. The minimum of telling and the maximum of judicious questioning should mark this work. (Read Parker's "How to Study Geography," page loi.)] ORAL EXERCISE. (i) Teach semi-cardinal points as above. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Let pupils fill out the following skeleton as before: ' ' Northeast is half way between and , Northwest is between and , Southwest is between and , Southeast is between and ." ORAL EXERCISE. (3) Teach direction of the sides of the house; of the ends; of cracks in the floor; of the door from teacher's desk; of the stove from the desk; of shadows in the morning, at noon, at sunset. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Fill out the folloiving skeleton orally and in writing, as before: ' ' The sides of the house extend and , the ends extend and . The cracks in ELEMENTARY LESSONS. the floor extend and , The door is from the teacher's desk and the stove is . In the morning the shadows fall , at noon they fall , and in the evening ." ORA.Iv EXERCISE. (4) Show compass^ when possible to do so. Explain it. Show why it is a better guide to direction than the sun. Teach direction of various objects in the school room from one another; of objects near the school house as, the nearest hill, the nearest tree, the nearest house; direction in coming to school; in going home. Direction of north wind; south wind; east wind; west wind. A?VRITXEN EXERCISE. Fill out the fol- lowing skel'eton orally, and then in writing: ' 'A compass is a better guide than the sun, because "A north wind blows from the and toward the , an east wind blows from the and toward the , a west wind blows from the and to- ward the , a south wind blows from the and toward the ." II. IDEAS OF DISTANCE. [Let each pupil be provided with a foot rule divided into inches, half inches, quarter inches, and eighth inches. If this is impracticable, let each pupil make a 1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I, p. 58, Les. 25, The Com- pass; p. 52, I 0o 0o 0o 00 0o 01 0o 0o 0o 00 0o 0( ^ of an inch = i foot. which side of the school room is the bookcase? How long is it ? How far from the west wall ? From the east wall ? In what part of the room is the teacher's desk ? How far does it stand out from the wall? In what direction is desk 24 from desk i ? How far is the southeast corner of desk I from the northwest corner of desk 24? Which corners of desk 4 and desk 21 are nearest each other? IV. IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS. [In giving elementary ideas of surface forms, a relief globe or relief wall maps^ will be found of the greatest assistance. The teacher need not be discouraged, how- ever, by their absence. What was said to the famous archer will then be true of him: "Thy skill will be the greater if thou hits' t it," and the simple devices of an ingenious teacher, inspired by contact with his pupils, are often the very best illustrations possible. Have pupils illustrate their ideas of every surface form by a drawing, no matter how crude, upon the blackboard. However inartistic the result, the effort will be helpful. Ask pupils each day to bring pictures of the things taught in the following exercises. In most cases a large collection of excellent illustrations will soon be made.] ORAL EXERCISES. (i) Slopes.' Are the tops of the school desks level ? What can we say of them in respect to this ? 1 See Gypsal Relief Maps, Bay State Publishing Company, Hyde Park, Mass. 2 See Frye'S Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 52, 53, 54. /^^ OP THE ELEMENTARY LESSONS. Where have you seen a slope of land ? How many slopes can you count in the school yard? Is there more than one slope on the desk top ? Open your Geography and turn it, cover up, on the desk, like this: How many slopes now on the desk top ? By what is the longest of these slopes made ? How are the shorter ones made ? Are the slopes all in the same direction ? Does all the rain that falls sink into the ground ? Where does it go? Why? How does the rain get into pools ? Can land slope in two directions at once ? Look at all the slopes that lie in your way to and from school and see if you find any lying in more than one direction. See if you can stand your Geography on the desk in such a way that one side of the cover will slope in more than one direction at the same time. Look for large slopes of land having smaller slopes within them. Represent,^ on a modeling board, some slope that you can see. Note that, in Geography, a slope is always a descent. (2) A Hill. If a hill is within sight call atten- tion of pupils to it. If no hill is to be seen from the school house have each pupil tell where he has seen one. Is the hill higher or lower than the land around it? 1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling^ p. 29, last paragraph. Lead the pupil to observe (a) the base, (b) the top, (c) the slope. Call attention first to the part then to the name. By questions, if possible, lead pupils to define for themselves the hill as a mass of land higher than the surrounding country. Have pupils represent, on a modeling board, some hill that they can see. 'WRITTEN EXERCISE. Read the following skeleton, fillmg blanks orally with the necessary words, then in writing: ' 'A hill is -. Its parts are the , the , and the . The base of a hill is the and the slope is the . There is a hill about Distance, from the school house in a direc- tion, and another about in a direction." ORAL EXERCISES. (3) A Mountain. Observe a mountain, if one is in sight. Have the pupil mention any mountain he has seen and tell about it. Where no mountain is in sight, let pupil ob- serve a hill and lead him to imagine a mountain. Make diagram of hill and mountain on the board to illustrate compara- tive size. Note. — in the absence of a complete outfit of tables and modeling boards an oblong pie tin may be made to serve. Putty, dough, clay, or sand may be used. Where the school grounds are suitable, the representation of surface forms may be made in the earth of the school yard by the use of spade, trowel, or knife. When, later on, it becomes desirable to model school grounds, county, state, or continent, ist, mark the boundaries; 2d, build up the mountains in their proper places, shape the slopes and valleys, scratch lines for rivers, scoop out hollows for lakes, and cut out places for gulfs and bays. When the material has hardened, water may be poured in to complete the illustration. IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS. Have pupils represent, on the modeling board, some mountain that they can see, if any is in sight. See picture of volcano, p. 15. What is a vol- cano ? (4) A Mountain Range. Where practicable have pupils observe a mountain range. Illustrate by diagram, as follows: Lead the pupil by questions and observations to tell what it is himself. Have pupils represent, on a modeling board, some mountain range that they can see. If none is in sight, build a range of mountains as the diagram suggests. Teach what a Mountain System consists of. W^RITTEN EXERCISE. Write this skeleton on the board, pupils fill blanks orally, then copy. Each blank may be filled by any number of words necessary: "A mountain is of land hill. A range of mountains is of mountains. A mountain system is of mountain ranges. A volcano is ." ORAIv EXERCISE. (5) A Lake.^ Find a pond, where possible, and lead the class to describe it: (a) water, fresh or salt; (b) land on all sides. When this is done, step by step, have pupils write the description. If no pond is accessible, let a place be scooped in the yard and pour in water. 3 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, p. 55. Cut a channel from it to teach outlet. Let the pupil imagine the pond to be enlarged, first, to reach some distant point in sight and, then, to reach as far in all directions as he can see, and in this way perceive what a lake is. Ask pupils to bring into the class all the pict- ures of lakes they can find. Diagram of Pond and Lake. Let them make a shallow depression in the mountains they have modeled and sprinkle it with white sand or ashes for a lake. Have them represent, on the modeling board, some pond or pool that they have seen. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Write and complete the following; then mem- orize: A lake is a ^"^- body of , usually . It is by land. ORAL EXERCISE. (6) A River. ^ If a stream is within sight or can be seen by walking a short distance, have the pupil observe for himself: (a) The direction of its flow. (b) The direction from which it flows. (c) How the stream flows — straight or winding. (d) The edge of the river, or land that borders it. (e) Teach the term "shore," or "bank." (f) Show "right bank," "left bank," "bed." 1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 56, 57, 58. ELEMENTARY LESSONS. (g) Teach meaning of "source." (h) Meaning of "mouth." Lead the pupil, by questions, to describe all these for himself. If the stream is a brook, get the idea of a river by imagining the brook to be several times as wide as it is and having other streams flowing into it. If a real stream is inaccessible, teach from the picture on this page, having the pupil observe all the above. Have pupils represent, on the modeling board, some running stream that they can see, if there is one. WRITTETsr EXERCISE. Skeleton for pupil to fill out orally and copy. Fill each blank with as many words as are neces- sary: A river is a ^''^- winding of , the land. Its source is , its mouth is . The shore, or bank, is , the right bank is , the left bank is . The bed is . For Reading: (7) You can see that the river bed must be a slope or the water would not run. When the slope of the bed is steep the water runs very swiftly, making the surface of the river rough, and this swift and rough flowing of the river is called Rapids. IDEAS OF SURFACE FORMS. 13 Sometimes, also, the bed of the river drops suddenly downward like the side of a house, and the water plunges straight down over the edge, and is then called a Waterfall or Cataract. Where the land along the river is very low it often happens that when the water rises the land is overflowed. To prevent this a ridge of stones, earth, and timber is built along the shore to keep the water in the bed of the river. This ridge is called a Levee (lev'ee) or Dyke. When the water breaks through the levee, as it does sometimes, the break is called a Crevasse (ere vSsse'). (8) Questions on the Picture of the River. Point out the source of the river. The mouth. Right bank. Left bank. The rapids. The cat- aract. The levee. The crevasse. On which bank of the river is the village ? What name do you give to the water of the river just below the cataract ? Would you think the land on the right side of the river below the rapids high or low ? Why ? Would you think the land above the cat- aract high or low ? Below the rapids what name is given to the ridge of land along the right bank of the river? What is the opening made through it by the water called ? WRITTEM EXERCISE. Whefi the pupil has carefully studied the pre- ceding questions and answered them let him copy and fill out the following letter: Dear Cousin Emma: I send you with this letter a picture of the village where we live, and of the that runs by it, and of all the country from the of the river in the to its at the sea. You will see that our village stands on the bank of the , a little above the , and that the land on' which it stands slopes in directions, one towards the of the and the other towards its . Above the village you will see that the land on both the bank and bank slopes somewhat towards the stream. Below the the water runs ver}^ swiftly for a little distance, and, after we pass below the , the land on the is level and very low, so that the water of the will often overflow it. To prevent this a is built of to keep the water in its . Sometimes it happens that the water breaks through this , and the opening it makes is called a . The picture shows such a and a number of houses partly under water. As 3'ou see, our village is on land and in no danger. Your afiectionate cousin, Mary. ORA.Iv EXERCISE. (9) A Valley.^ If within sight of one, lead the pupil by question and conversation to observe: (a) Position of valley, as (l) the land between two hills; (2) the land along both sides of a river. (b) Upper part of river valley (toward the head- waters). (c) Lower part (toward the mouth). (d) Slopes (l) in the direction the river runs; (2) slope toward the left bank; (3) slope toward right bank. Let pupils turn to the picture of a river and point out the upper part of the valley, the lower part, and slopes. Explain and show that the large land-slopes are not regular in descent, but are usually broken by elevations, making many slopes within slopes, and that therefore there will be many slopes in various directions within the three main slopes of a valley. A?VRI'rTEN EXERCISE. Skeleton for pupil to fill out orally; then copy: A valley is hills, or a river; the upper 1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 58, 59, 60. 14 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. part of a river valley is the land , and the lower part is the land . The long slope of a river valley is the slope from to , and the short slopes are the slopes banks. (id) a River System.^ If at or near the junc- tion of two rivers, let the pupil observe that one flows into the other. Teach that a river with a number of rivers jiowing into it makes a River System. Have class draw the river system here outlined: v^r £ ifiHtfd Jj^to *i ^**u ^£^\_ k\ ^-^ ^/^-^ 3i ^ ^" — -^"l j lyi If ^ ^mWh Tr' utary S ^ ^ - J Teach that a river Jiowing into another is called a Tributary. (i I ) By questions, lead pupils to see that all the land from which the water, of a river system is received is the River Basin. Teach them to dis- criminate clearly between a river system and a river basin. Draw from them an oral statement of the diflference. Have them write the differ- ence, then put on the board the best statement of the difference given. (12) A P1.AIN. By actual observation show that it is (a) a level, or nearly level, tract of land. Where possible show also, by observation, that it may be (b) lowland, (c) upland, (d) high plain, or plateau (pla to'). Illustrate on the blackboard by outline like the following: 1 See Frye's Geography with Sand Modeling, pp. 61, 62, 63. Lowland. Upland. Questions. — Where have you seen a lowland plain ? An upland plain ? Have you ever seen a plateau? If so, tell where, and describe it. (13) An Island. If in sight, let class observ^e it. By questions, lead pupils to describe it. Let each one tell where he has seen an island. Have him make an island out of sand or clay, on the modeling board. Look for an island in the picture. Contrast and compare an island with a lake. Write upon the board the definition and have it learned. (14) A Peninsula. If within a short distance the proper projection of land can be found, go with the class and look at it. Question them until from some of them all the characteristics of a peninsula are told. Afterward write on the board the best description given and have them copy it. If there is no better way at command let them look at the picture, p. 15, and describe the projection there. If there are streams or bodies of water in the neighborhood, ask pupils to find all the peninsulas they can on the road to school and in the vicinity. Inquire for several days what they have found; stimulate emulation in this, also in the discovery of the four follow- ing divisions. (15) A Cape. Teach the child to recognize a cape as you teach a peninsula — by observation of a real cape or from the picture. (16) A Gulf. Wherever a peninsula can be seen a gulf is almost always found. Teach, through observation, and lead, by questions, the child to describe it after seeing it or a picture of it. ELEMENTARY MAP READING. 15 If (17) Isthmus (is'mus) — Strait. Pursue the same method as in teaching a gulf. Compare an isthmus with a strait. In what are they alike? In what do they differ? (18) Questions on the Picture. Make a list of all the forms of land and water rep- resented in this picture. What form is represented in the lower right hand comer? {Ans. A Promontory.') What is a prom- ontoiy? (^Ans. A high Cape.) How many peninsulas can you find in the picture? How many slopes ? How many hills ? ow many straits? V. ELEMENTARY MAP READING. Map of School Grounds.^ Procure a tape line or a string of convenient length and let pupils measure the school grounds. If the grounds are not laid with marked boundary lines, measure any convenient distance from the cen- ter of each side of the school house and set a stake. Afterward adopt some convenient scale, as 20 ft., 40 ft., or 60 ft. to the inch, and draw a bound- ary line of the grounds. In the center draw an outline to represent the school house. Measure distances of several objects (well, gate, coal or wood shed) from the school house; write them down and also note the direction. Draw outlines of these in the proper places. Note direction of other objects (a tree, stone, hill). Measure distances as before and mark the position of the objects on the map. 1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. I, p. 33, Les. 14, Drawing Plan of School Grounds. Question on distances and direction of various objects from one another. Repeat the drawing. WRITTElsr EXERCISE. Have pupils write a description of their school house and grounds on the plan below. Assist them in getting necessary information: (a) Kind of ground it stands on — hill; slope, direction of; plain; valley. (b) Faces which way. (c) Size — number of rooms, closets, etc. (d) Materials op which made — brick or stone, where procured, how; wood, different kinds, where found, how prepared. (e) Surroundings— pleasant or not, and why; trees or stones in the yard, etc. (f ) Kind of wood in pupils' desks, in teacher's desk; where obtained. (g) Walls — tinted, papered, clean, soiled, etc. i6 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. Road Fence ROAD Road Fence Scale ! Map of School Grounds. hill and the puddle? Between the hill and the river? How many slopes are shown between the creek and the river? How are they shown? Is the line that sep- arates these slopes on high ground or low ground? What is such a line called? {Ans. A Watershed.') Tell the difference between the two slopes on the opposite side of the river and the two slopes between the creek and the river. Which of the following pair of slopes represents the slopes on the oppo- site side of the river? Should you think this school house stands on level ground or on a slope? If on a slope, what is its general direction? Find eight slopes shown on this map. VI. STUDY OF COUNTY. [These questions may be ex- tended to suit the requirements of the course of study or the views of the teacher. ] If impracticable to measure grounds let ques- tions on the accompanying map be answered by the class with the book open, and let the map be copied. Questions on the Map. — Which way does the school house face? How far from the door to the front fence? To the gates? In what direction is the right gate from the school house? How wide is the road? How many feet of ground on the south side of the road are included in the map? How far from the northeast corner of the house to the center of the puddle? How far from the northwest corner to the tree? From the tree to the rock? In what direction does the land slope between the school house and the puddle? How do you tell? Between the Name of county. How bounded. Name streams. Give direction of flow. Name mountains, hills, ponds or lakes, valleys, forests, and give direction from school house; distance. L,ocality of best farming lands — on hills or plains or in valleys? Products. Mills and factories— direc- tion and distance from school house. Name of county seat— direction and distance from school house. Trace with a pointer the road by which you go. Name streams, if any crossed in going to county seat. Mount- ains crossed. VII. STUDIES ON STATE MAP. Where is San Francisco? Sacramento? Direction of county from San F'rancisco. From Sacramento. By what road would you travel from your county seat to San Francisco ? To Sacramento ? THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 17 i iiiip The Earth in Spack. VIII. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. ORAL EXERCISE. (i) Shape. Round — Show a globe, an orange, or a ball; teach that anything round like an orange is called a g/ode, a da/l, or a sphere. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Write a sentence with the word globe in it. Another with the word sphere in it. Complete the following sentence and copy it; then memorize: The Earth is like a i8 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. oral exercises. (2) Proof of Shape. Notice the fly on the top of the ball. Notice him in the nearest position toward, the right. Has he turned a comer? Does his head point in the same direction as at the start? Why? In going to the next position has he turned a comer? Is he nearer the starting point than he was before ? Why ? (3) Men have started to travel on the earth, and, without turning about and going back, have come again to the starting place. From this what should you think about the shape of the earth ? In going round the world do men walk, as in the picture ? How do they go ? Enlarge upon the last question by conversation with the class. (4) A joint of stove pipe is round in one wa5^ Could a fly come back to his starting place on the stove pipe without turning about ? If the earth were in the shape of a joint of stove pipe, only very large, as it is now, could men come back to a starting place without turning about? When men come back to the place from which they started, without turning about, does it prove that the earth is round like a ball or globe? In what shape might it be ? WRITTEN EXERCISE. Write and complete the following sentence; then memorize: ' ' The Earth cannot be , because men have traveled round it." ORAL EXERCISE. (5) Suppose you were to stand on an island in the ocean and were to look east and see the top of the mast come in sight, but could not see the ship, would you think the ship to be on a level surface or on a curved surface ? Then if you looked west and saw a mast in the same way, then north, then south, what would you think about the shape of the earth — would it be round like a stove pipe, or round like a ball? Why? ^?VRITTEN: EXERCISE. After thinking and talking about this, let the pupil write and complete the following sentence; then memorize: "The Earth must be like a or , because when we look at a ship far off" upon the sea, coming towards us from direction, we see the first." ^ ORAL e:*ercise. (6) Size of the Earth, How far do you think it is around the Earth ? If you should start to travel around it and should go twenty miles every day you would be 1,250 days in getting back to your starting point. How far is that ? 1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. II, pp. 14-18. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 19 Looking at Ships from an Island in the Ocean. The distance around tlie earth is called its Cir- cumference. The distance through it is called its Diameter, and is 8,000 miles. WRiTrrEiSr exercise. ^ Write the following, fill it out, and commit it to memory: ' ' The distance around the earth is miles, and is called its . The dis- tance through the center is miles and is called its ." Write a sentence with the word cir- cumference in it. Another with the word diameter. For Reading: (7) Motions of the Barth.'^ Think of a top spinning before a lamp. The earth spins or turns in the same way before the sun, except that it turns in the air. This is one of its motions, and is called the Rotation of the Earth on its Axis. It is this motion that gives us day and night. We go with the earth, and when the place we are on is toward the sun, we have day; when it 1 Reading Hour: World at Home, vol. IT, pp. 23-25. 2 Motions of the earth may be omitted until later, if the teacher finds it advisable. is away from the sun, we have night. It takes the earth 24 hours to turn completely round on its axis. Stop and think what 24 hours make. \VFiITTE>C EXERCISE. Write this sentence and complete it; then mem- orize: "The earth turns round on its axis once in hours, making ." For Reading: (8) Now think of a top spinning before a lamp on the edge of a table shaped like the one in the picture; then think that while it spins it is also moving around the lamp along the edge of the table. The earth moves in the same way around the sun. This is the other motion and is called ELEMENTARY LESSONS. The Revolution of the Earth around the Sun. It does not stop spinning, but it moves along the curved line at the same time. While going once around the sun it turns on its axis 365 times. Now, stop and think how many days that means. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Write this sentence and complete it; then mem- orize: * ' While going around the sun the earth turns round on its axis times, making days, which we call one ." For Reading: (9) While the earth is going around the sun, as the top goes around the lamp in the picture, it turns itself toward the sun in such a way that most places have very cold weather part of the year, then warmer weather, and then hot weather, then cooler weather, and then very cold weather again. XA^RITTEN EXERCISE. Write the following, putting only one word in the place of each set of italic words above: ' ' Most places have part of the year, then , and then , then , and then again." For Reading: (10) Can we see the whole earth from any place upon it ? Can we see a great part of it ? How, then, can we know how it looks. Men have traveled over it and made maps of it. We can see these maps, and in that way we can see where the long mountain systems are, the largest and longest rivers, the great slopes, hundreds of miles long, and the valleys, so wide that a boy on his pony would be weeks in crossing one. But the maps do not really show how these things look. You must look at the hills and small val- leys and short slopes that you can see, and try to imagine them growing and growing, hundreds of times as large as they are, to make the great mountains and large valleys and long slopes that you can not see, but which make up the earth and which are pictured on the map. (11) You can do another thing. You pan im- agine yourself to be very high above all mount- ains and to be flying like a bird, around the earth and looking down upon great bodies of land com- posed of long slopes and great river basins sep- arated by long ranges of mountains, sometimes running north and south and sometimes east and west. These great bodies of land are called Continents. You would be looking down on great bodies of water, also, much larger than the land, and these are called Oceans, and their water is salt. You would see them washing the shores on all sides. For Recitation: Continents are great bodies of land composed of long slopes and great river basins, separated by long ranges of mountains. Oceans are the large bodies of salt water that surround the continents. (12) Hemispheres. If you could go high enough and could see far enough you might see half the earth at one time. When the sun shines upon it you would find one half looking something like this: HEAT. It is called the western half-sphere, or West- ern Hemi-sJ>/iere. The large body of land in it is called the Western Continent. What do you think heini means? Which way do the great mountain ranges of the Western Continent run — north and south or east and west? Is there more water or land in this hemisphere? Now if you should wait till the other side of the earth is rolled toward the sun you would find it looking much like this: I This is called the Eastern Hemisphere, and the great body of land in it is called the Eastern Continent. Which way do the large mountain ranges of this half run — north and south or east and west? Is there more water or land in this hemisphere? If you would like to know how large part of the earth's surface is land and how large part is water, this diagram will tell you. Examine and measure it, and decide for yourself: I.and. Water, Now that you have measured it, what do you decide? IX. HEAT. For Reading:^ If you were to be asked where all the heat on the surface of the earth comes from, you would probably answer, "from the sun." Let us see how the heat behaves. In the morning, as the sun rises, the heat that comes from it glances along the surface of the earth, as you might skip your ball. It does not strike very hard, and the air does not get very warm. When the sun is nearly overhead the heat goes into the earth around us instead of glancing off. It is thrown from the sun so fast that the air does not catch much of it as it goes through, but the earth throws it back more slowly and then the air becomes heated. Did you ever stand at the side of a brick or stone or even a wood house when the sun was shining on it in summer and notice how hot the air was there ? Did you ever go a little distance away from the house and notice that it grew cooler? Why was it warmer near the house ? The earth is like the side of the house; it throws back into the air the heat received from the sun, and the air that is nearest to it receives a larger part of the heat than the air further away. If, then, you could rise in a balloon several thousand feet from a plain on the earth, would you find it warmer or cooler? If, when you were so high, your balloon should light on a mountain top, you would expect still to find the air cooler than on the plain, would you not? There are many parts of the world where the low plains are hot and the mountains and high plains, or plateaus, in the same region, are very cool, some mountains being so high that they are always covered with snow. For Recitation: I . The sun pours heat through the air into the I Articles entitled " For Reading," should be made the subject of cbnversation until the pupil thoroughly understands them. The summary, " For Recitation," may then be committed to memory. 22 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. earth and the earth gives it back to the air. The greatest heat is received where the sun is directly opposite the place on which it is shining. 2. There is more heat in the air near the surface of the earth than far away from it. High mount- ains and plateaus are cool when the plains below them are warm or hot. X. MOISTURE. For Reading: If you place a piece of ice in a basin in the sun, in a short time you will find it gone. It has be- come a liquid which we call water. We say the ice has melted. If you place a basin of water where the summer sun will shine upon it, in a few hours you will find it gone. What has become of it ? It has passed into the air in the form of vapor. We say it has evaporated. Did you ever see a fog ? Where ? Did it rise from the sea or the land ? When the sun shone hot after a rain, did you ever see steam rising from the top of a house or bam or from the sidewalk or the ground ? All this fog or steam we call vapor, or moisture, and, though enough of it to be seen does not often rise at once, this vapor is constantly going up into the air from the ground, from rivers, ponds, and lakes, and from the ocean. Why does not all the water from the soil, the rivers, and lakes, and from the sea finally go olGF in this way and leave the beds of the streams and of the ocean dry? Read a little further and you will learn why. See a pitcher of ice water in the summer with the drops of water on the outside surface. The water did not come through the pitcher. How did it get there ? The cold pitcher has turned the vapor that was in the air next to it into water drops. See the dew on the grass and the trees in the morning. The surface of the earth at night is cooler than the air next to it, and has turned the moisture in the air to water, as the surface of the cold pitcher did. Besides this, it has cooled the layer of air next to it, and the vapor that rose from the earth and from the leaves of the trees in the night has been turned into water drops by this layer of cold air before it could rise from the grass or the leaves. If the night had been cold enough the vapor would be frozen, and there would be frost instead of dew. See the clouds gather and the sky grow dark and the rain begin to fall. Whence did it come? The thin vapor that the heat of the sun carried from the ocean and the lakes and the rivers into the air has met a layer of cold air, at some dis- tance above the earth, and has been turned by it into water drops that filled the clouds and that are now falling to the earth. We say the vapor has been condensed into water. If the layer of air is cold enough the vapor that rises will become snow. When the vapor rises very rapidly so that it reaches a high and very cold layer of air before it freezes, it condenses into ice pellets called Jiail. To produce this rapid rise of the vapor, great heat is required and for this reason hail storms usually occur in the warm season of the year and in the hottest part of the day. In these ways the water that has been evaporated by the heat of the sun and carried upward in the air is condensed and returned again, in dew and rain, frost and snow, to the earth and the sea, thus preventing the streams and the ocean from drying up. The water of springs, rivers, and lakes is all first taken from the sea in vapor. When this vapor cools and the rain falls upon the earth, springs, rivers, and lakes are formed. Thus you will see that the ocean is the source of all the moisture of the earth, as the sun is the source of all the heat. CLIMA TE. 23 For Recitation: 1 . The heat of the sun takes up moisture from the sea and the earth in the form of vapor, which floats in the air. 2. The surface of the earth at night cools the air next to it, and turns its moisture to water drops, called dew. This cold air also condenses into dew the vapors that rise from the earth, and in this way part of the moisture taken up by the sun's heat is returned to the earth. 3. The cold air above our heads condenses into Tain drops the vapors that have been taken up from the earth and the sea by the sun's heat. These rain drops fall to the earth and help to keep up its moisture, and to keep its streams, lakes, and oceans from becoming dry. 4. The ocean is the source of all the moisture of the earth. Write a sentence, using the words heat, water, evaporated. Write a sentence, using the words vapor, con- densed, water. XI. CLIMATE. 3^or Reading: Climate is the name for a condition of the atmosphere with respect to the amount of heat and moisture it contains. Some places have a lot climate, others a cool climate, and still others a cold climate; some have a moist and others a •dry climate. In most places, as you have already learned, the ■climate changes with the seasons of the year. On low or very large plains in those parts of tlie world where the sun at noon is nearly or ■directly overhead, the climate is hot. On high mountains in the same region, as you have learned, it will be cool. Winds often carry air loaded with vapor a long distance into cooler currents of air, or against cold mountain sides, where the moisture is condensed into rain, thus giving countries at a distance from the sea a moist and agreeable climate. When this vapor is blown against mountains it is sometimes stopped by them, preventing countries on the opposite side of the mountains from receiving rain. Mountains sometimes stop the cold winds that blow against them, thus giving a warmer climate to countries on the opposite side. You see, therefore, that winds and mountains, though they cannot produce either heat or moist- ure, have much to do with making the climate of a place dry or moist, warm or cool. Another very interesting and important thing about climate you may learn for yourself. Take a bucket of water and a bucket of sand and place them side by side in the sun on the morning of a hot day. At noon the sand will be much hotter than the water. Why? Because the earth takes in heat much faster than the water. Now let both buckets stand till midnight or till near morning of the next day. The water will now be warmer than the sand. Why ? Because the sand throws out the heat it has taken in much faster than the water, and therefore cools quicker. Now think of the ocean as a great bucket of water and the continent as a great bucket of sand. In the summer days the continents will take in heat much faster than the ocean, and become much hotter. Therefore, if you live near the ocean, where the air from it can reach you before it is heated by the land, you will find a cooler cli- mate in summer than if you live far away from it. In the cold weather of winter the continent throws off" its heat much faster than the ocean, and therefore becomes cold, much sooner. If you now live near the ocean, which at this season /^#^2f%^ 24 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. is much warmer than the land, you will find the air around you less cold than if you lived far away. You may thus discover that the nearness of a place to the ocean, or its distance from it, has much to do with its climate. For Recitation: 1 . In those parts of the world where the sun at noon is nearly or directly overhead, the climate on low or very large plains is extremely hot. 2. Winds sometimes carry vapor from the ocean to places at a distance, where it is condensed into rain by cold currents of air or by high mountains. 3. Countries on one side of mountain ranges are sometimes without rain, because the mountains stop the vapor blown against them on the oppo- site side. 4. Countries on one side of a mountain range are sometimes much warmer than countries on the other, because the mountains have kept off the cold winds from that side. 5. Countries near the sea coast have a cooler climate in summer and a warmer climate in win- ter than those far away from it. Home Questions. — Where you live, is the cli- mate hot or cool? Moist or dry? What is the difference between the summer and winter climate, where you live ? Where you live, what winds are hottest? What winds are cool? What winds usually bring rain? Can you get any one you know to tell you why ? XII. BELTS OF CLIMATE CALLED ZONES. A strip, or belt, of the earth, very wide from north to south, and extending all the way around the globe from east to west, lies directly opposite the sun. Such a belt, you know, must be very hot. Because it is so hot it is called the Torrid Zone. (Torrid means //^e are grown, and a few pines and other hardy trees are found. Compar- atively few land animals are found in this zone, but sea fowl are very numerous, and the sea abounds with the whale, seal, and walrus. For Recitation: Questions. — Why is the Torrid Zone hot? Why are the Frigid Zones coldest? Why are the Temperate Zones neither so hot as the Torrid ZONES. 25 Zone nor so cold as the Frigid Zones ? What is said of the vegetation of the Torrid Zone ? The animals ? Vegetation of the Temperate Zones ? Animals ? Vegetation of the Frigid Zones ? Animals ? Questions on Picture of the Zones.— What is the I Where is the South Temperate Zone? The North Tem- name of the zone farthest north? Farthest south? | perate Zone? Name all the zones from south to north. From the Torrid Zone north. From the Torrid Zone I perate Zone. ) Between what zones does the Torrid Zone south. In which zone do you live? {Ans. North Tein- \ lie? The North Temperate Zone? The South Temperate 26 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. Zone? In which zone do you see fierce wild animals? In what zone do you see animals useful for food or work? Which zone looks pleasantest? Why? What do you see in the North Frigid Zone? Write a description of the zones from the picture of them. Questions on Map of the Zones.' — Is the Equator nearer the North Pole or the South Pole? Measure and see. Where, then, should you say the Equator is? What, then, should you say the B^quator is? What two lines south of the Equator? Which of them is nearer the Equator? Between what lines is the South Temper- ate Zone? The Torrid Zone? The North Temperate Zone? What line bounds the North Frigid Zone on the south? What line bounds the South Temperate Zone on the north? If you were to pass from one zone to another, would you see these lines? Why? Draw a map of the zones from memory. XIII. OCCUPATIONS. OFiAL EXERCISE. (i) Farming. What is the business of the fanD,er? Make a list of all the products of the farm and garden that you can think of. What are these products called? i^Ans. Vegetable Products.^ Are the farms you know of on slop- ing or level ground? Do you think farming 1 Reading Hour: World by the Fireside, p. 14. ' regions are generally found on hills, or in val- leys ? Why should they be found there ? (2) Mining. What does the miner do? Make a list of all the minerals you can think of. Have you ever .seen a mine? What kind of a mine? Where? What are the products of mines called? (3) Manufacturing. Name all the manu- factured articles that 3^ou can think of. What are all such articles called? Name three things that drive the machinery in factories, i. . (4) From the following list select the manu- OCCUPATIONS. 27 factured articles: Wheat, cloth, stoves, butter, iron, wool, milk, flour, cotton, rice, cheese, pud- ding, starch, wine, potatoes, grapes, raisins, horseshoes, leather, cattle, 'hides. Tell from what each is made. W^RITTEN EXERCISE. Choose from the three following subjects and write as fully as you can upon it: 1 . A description of what I have seen men doing on a farm. 2. A description of what I have seen men doing in a mine. 3. A description of what I have seen people doing in a factory. ORAL EXERCISE. (4) CoiVTMERCE. Name all the useful things you can think of that come from other states or countries. Name all the things you can think of that are produced in this state and that are taken to other states and countries to sell. How do the things that come from other countries or states get here? How are the things that we produce taken to other states and countries? What is the business of exchanging these things called? Name all the classes of people you can think of that are employed in order to make these ex- changes. Vv^RITTEN EXERCISE. Write a short composition that shall answer all the above questions and read it for the next recitation. oral exercise. (5) Things that Favor Different Occu- pations. What are fertile lands ? Barren lands ? Where the slopes are long and gradual and the rivers slow, making the valleys large, what kind of land, fertile or barren, should we expect to find ? What should we expect to find most of the people doing? Where the, slopes are shorter and steeper, and the rivers swift, with frequent rapids, what should we expect to find many people doing? Why? In what kind of country should we expect to find mining? In a country with an uneven coast line, having many inlets and harbors, what branch of industry should we expect to see flourish ? Why ? What is a harbor? What harbors do you know of in this state ? -WRITTEN EXERCISE. Write what you have learned in studying the last exercise and read it for the next recitation. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. What is a slope? A hill? A mountain? A mount- ain range? A lake? A river; right bank; left bank; bed; source; mouth; rapids; levee; crevasse? A river system; tributary? A river basin? A watershed? A plateau? 2. What is an island? A peninsula? A gulf? An isthmus? A strait? Compare an island with a lake. Compare a gulf with a peninsula. An isthmus with a strait. Define a continent. An ocean. What is the difference between lake water and ocean water? 3. What is a hemisphere? Into what hemispheres is the earth usually divided? What is the large body of land in the Western Hemisphere called? In the Eastern Hemisphere? How large a part of the earth's surface is land and how large a part is water? 4. Why is it hotter at noon than in the morning? Why is it hotter near the surface of the earth than it is several thousand feet above it? From what source does the earth receive moisture? When moisture is solid, what do we call it? When it is liquid, what do we call it? When water is evaporated, what do we call the moisture? When moisture floats in the air, is it solid, liquid, or vapor? How does it become liquid? Why is it sometimes true that the climate on one side of a mountain range is very wet, and on the other very dry? How do mountains sometimes give a warm climate to the countries on one side of them? Name the zones in their order, beginning with the most northerly. Between what lines is the Torrid Zone? What line divides it in the center? Which is the hottest zone? Why? Which are the coldest zones? Why? Which are the best zones to live in? Why? 28 ELEMENTARY LESSONS. XIV. REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY MAP READING. [In the study of this map, the knowledge to be gained of California is merely incidental, the primary object being, simply, to give additional exercise in map reading before taking up the general map studies of the book. Hold pupils to this work till they read accurately and quickly all that is called for by the questions. It is not designed that the answers should be memorized.] Questions. — Point north on the map; south; west; east. Point to water; to land. Trace, with pencil, the line of land bordering the water; what name do you give to it? Point to mountains and name them; to other mountains. Trace, with pencil, the mountains on the east side of the state; the west side. Point out three rivers and name them. Where is the source of each? Trace each to its mouth. Tell direction of mouth from source. Point out and name three lakes and tell in what part of California each is. Point to San P'rancisco; to Sacramento; to three towns near San Francisco and name them; to three towns in the southern part of the state and name them; to three towns in the northern part of the state and name them; to Mt. Shasta. Trace the Sacramento River from Mt. Shasta to Sacramento. In what direction does it flow? Do you go up hill or. down from Shasta to Sacramento? From Colusa to Sacra mento? How do you tell? From Marysville to the Sacramento River? From Placerville? F'rom Colfax? From Jackson? From Oroville? From San Andreas to Stockton? Do the rivers on the east side the Sacramento River run from the Sacramento to the n ains or from the mountains to the Sacramento? In what direction does the land slope between the eastern mountains and the Sacramento? In what direction does the land slope between the western mountains and the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers? How does the land slope between Pronunciations.— Col' fax; Los An'gel5s(lez); Pla'cerville; San An'dreas; San Ber nar di/no; San Joaquin (san wah keen'). Santa Ana and San Bernardino? Between Wilmington and Los Angeles? How can you tell by the map which way the land slopes? Is Los Angeles or San Diego on higher ground ? TOPICAL OUTLINE OF ELEMENTARY LESSONS. 29 TOPICAL OUTLINE OF ELEMENTARY LESSONS FOR USE BY THE TEACHER. , f I. Northeast, I. North I ^_ Northwest. Direction J 2. South 3. East. ^4. West. J I. Southeast. l^ 2. Southwest. T-,. ^. r I I- Wind currents — from. Direction of o ^^/i^ ''■.9*> \o f^ S w 1 C K ^ K% ^ ^•1^-7^^-^-°^^"'*' Hu^-"- VJheerif ^ ^ ATLANTIC OCEAN B.D.Servo3s, EncX N. V. 48 THE UNITED STATES. Pacific Slope. Plateau Region. Rocky Mountains. THE UNITED STATES. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. [Questions in italics to be answered from the open map, and not to be committed to memory.] 1. Position, Extent, Naturai, Divisions. — In what part of North America is the United States? Measure the distance from the mouth of the Columbia to the extreme eastern point of Maine? What is the distance on the map? How many tniles is that? Measure the distance from the extreme southern point of Texas to the tiorthern boundary of Dakota. What is the distance on the tnap? How many miles? What, then, is the extent of the United States from east to west, exclusive of Alaska? From north to south? In the same way find the distance from San Francisco to New Orleans; to Chicago; to New York. What is that part of the country that lies east of the Appalachian Mountains called? That lies between the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountains? What is that part of the country called between the Rocky and Sierra Mountains? What is that part of the country called west of the Sierras? 2. Si^oPES AND Mountains.— How many of the four great slopes of North America are found also in the United States? Which are they? What mountain ranges of North America are found also in the United States? What slope of the United States lies east of the Appa- lachian Mountains? What great divisions of the United States are separated by the Appalachian Mountains? In which of the four great slopes is the larger part of the Great Central Plain of the United States? What mount- ains bound the Gulf Slope on the west? 3. S1.0PES and Rivers.— What do the rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean form? {Ans. The Atlantic River System.'\ Natne seven rivers of this sys ton. Which of these form the boundary lines of states? Describe each. [See Model, page 34.] What slope is drained by the Atlantic River System? What do the Mississippi and its tributaries for m ? {A ns. The Mississippi River System. J Najne three eastern and three western tributaries of the Mississippi. Which of these form the boundaries of states? Describe each. What name is given to the region of country drained by the Mississippi River System? \^Ans. The Mississippi Valley. '\ In which of the four great slopes of North America does the Mississippi Val- ley lie? What river forms part of the southwest bound- ary of the United States? Beginning with the Yukon, name five rivers of the Pacific Slope. Describe each. 4. Lakes. — What chain of lakes in the northern part of the United States? Which of these lie between the United States and Canada? Which one lies wholly within the United States? What river takes the water of these lakes to the ocean? What lake in Utah? For what are most of the lakes of the Great Plateau Region noted? \_Ans. They have no outlet. '\ What becomes of the water that runs into these lakes? 5. Peninsulas and Islands. — What peninsula pro- jects from Alaska? What natural division of land forms the southeastern part of the United States? Between what two bodies of water is it? What chain of islands southwest of Alaska? Southeast of the United States? 6. Climate. — In what zone is the United States? Which are the warm states? How do you tell? Which states and territories are coldest? Which states are tieither very hot nor very cold? In which of these three groups is California? 7. Location of States. — Rule three columns on slates or paper. Write in the first column the names of fourteen states that touch the Atlantic Ocean; in the second, their capitals; in the third, the largest town of each. Model: State. Capital. Largest Town. Maine. Augusta. Portland. In the same way, write the names of five states that touch the Gulf of Mexico. Eight states touching the HISTORY. 49 Great Central Plain. Atlantic Slope. Great Lakes. Five states on the west bank of the Mis- sissippi. Five on the east bank. Three on the north bank of the Ohio. Two on the south bank. Six states touched by the Missouri River. Between which of these states does the Missouri form part of the boundary line? Which states does it cross? In which of the four great natural divisions of the United States do the last seven groups of states lie? Write the states and territories crossed by the Rocky Mountains. Three states and ter- ritories that touch the Pacific Ocean. What states are best situated for lake commerce? What for river com- merce? Through what states would you travel in a straight line to reach New York? New Orleans? 8. Location of Cities. — The following are the chief commercial cities of the Atlantic Slope; name the loca- tion of each: Portland, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston. The following are the chief commercial cities of the Great Central Plain; Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis (saint loo'i). New Or'le ans, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lou- isville, O'ma ha, Kansas City, De troit', Chicago, Mil- waukee. Locate and write the names of those situated on the Mississippi; on the Ohio; on the Missouri; on the Great Lakes. Locate the following cities of the Pacific Coast: Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los An'ge les. 9. Thought Questions. — Would you think the rivers in the northern part of the Atlantic Slope swift or slow? Why? What would you think about these rivers for water power? Would you think the rivers of the Missis- sippi Valley swift or slow? Why? Would you think the slope of the Mississippi Valley toward the Gulf of Mex- ico steep or gradual? Why? Notice the part of the Temperate Zone in which this valley lies, and the num- ber of rivers in it, and tell whether you think it a fertile or an unproductive country. If fertile, what would you judge the occupation of the people to be? Pronunciatioxs.— Aleutian (a lu' she an); Baton Rouge (bSt'un- roozh); Boi'se (boy'ze); Cheyenne (shI en'); Concord (konk'urd); Des Moines (de moin')j Gal'veston; H61e'na; Illinois (il li noi); Mich' i gan; Mon ta'na; Mont pel'ier; Raleigh (raw'ly); San'ta Fe (fa); Tah'le quah; Tucson (tu s6n'); Wy o^ming. DESCRIPTION. HISTORY.i For Reading: You need not be told that the country you are now to study is our own and is a Republic. The settlement of our country began on the Atlantic coast. There, nearly 300 years ago, people from different countries, in Europe began to make settlements. Spaniards settled in Florida, but their settle- ments did not flourish. Englishmen settled along the coast from Vir- ginia northward to Boston, wherever there were good harbors. I Reading Hour: Our World Reader^ p. i8i, How America was found. The Dutch settled in New York, but the En- glish took it from them. Although these settlers had a hard time for many years, with the cold winters and the savage Indians, the settlements grew in number until, in a little more than 150 years, they reached up into the Appalachian Mountains. All this time the settlers north of Florida were under the government of Great Britain, but they now joined in a struggle for freedom, and after a long, hard war with England they compelled her to let them go. They then formed for themselves the Government of the United States. After this they began to go over the Appala- chian Mountains into the Mississippi Valley. The 50 THE UNITED STATES. United States bought Florida from Spain, and, from France all of her country west of the Mis- sissippi. Thousands of people from Europe came to settle in the United States. Railroads began to be built to carry them westward, and so the country kept filling with people until, in less than I GO years, they had spread out to the Pacific Ocean, over new "country obtained from Mexico. By and by more will be told about the settlement of California. For Recitation: 1. The country of the United States was first settled on the Atlantic Slope nearly 300 years ago. 2. The Spaniards settled in Florida. 3. Englishmen settled along the northern part of the coast. 4. The Dutch were the first settlers of New York. 5. The settlers north of Florida remained under the government of Great Britain for a little more than 150 years, wHen, after a long war with England, they established a government of their own. 6. After the new government was established, many thousands of people, from all parts of Europe, came here, and in less than 100 years settlements and railroads had reached through the country to the Pacific Ocean. THE ATLANTIC SLOPE. I. Natural Features. For Reading: Look at the map and you will notice, by the direction of the rivers, that most of the land of the Atlantic states slopes to the southeast. You will notice, also, that in the northern part of this division the mountains come nearer to the seacoast than in the southern part, making the surface of the country more broken. For this reason the rivers of this part are more rapid than those farther south. The coast line of these northerly states is very much broken, making a large number of excellent harbors. The coast along the southern half of this great slope, and for man}^ miles inland, is low, sandy, and marshy. There are, therefore, fewer good harbors in the southern than in the northern half. Long, narrow, sandy islands line this part of the coast also, and prevent easy access to its harbors. If we ascend the rivers we shall find most of them flowing slowly through a wide, level coun- try with a rich soil. In a region extending so far north and south there must be a great variety of climate. Long, cold winters and short, hot summers are found in the north, while there is almost no winter in the south. It is warm there during the whole year. When we think of the differences in surface, coast lines, rivers, and climate, we may judge that there are also great differences in products and occupations. And this we shall find is true. For Recitation: 1. I. In what direction does the land of the Atlantic states slope? How do you tell? 2. Compare the surface of the states north and south. What difference in the character of the rivers ? 3. Coast line and harbors in the north. 4. Coast lands and harbors in the south. Islands. 5. Soil and surface in the south. 6. Compare the climate north and south. 7. Differences in surface, coast lines, rivers, and climate make different occupations. ATLANTIC SLOPE. 51 II. Manufacturing — IvUmbering — Fishing — Quarrying — Mining, in the North. For Reading: Wherever mountains are near the coast the rivers that rise in them are short and rapid. Such rivers furnish water power to drive machinery, hence manufacturing is usually one of the princi- pal occupations of the people. Nearly all the rivers in the northern part of this slope are of this kind, especially those in the six states east of New York, which are sometimes called the New Eng-land States. are employed in the great pine woods of Maine and New Hampshire, and along the Appalachian Mountains, in getting out lumber. Thousands more are catching cod, mackerel, and herring off the coast of Maine and Massachu- setts. The fisheries off these coasts yield many thousand tons a year. The marble and granite quarries of Vermont and New Hampshire also give employment for many people. The vast mines of coal and iron in the eastern sideof the Alleghan}^ Mountains, in Pennsylvania, 'The City of Spindles.' ■ One river in New Hampshire and Massachu- setts — the Merrimac — is said to move more spin- dles than any other river in the world. Lowell, the largest city situated on this river, is some- times called "The City of Spindles." Some of the most important articles manufact- ured in the states north of the Ches'a peake Bay are cotton, linen, and woolen goods, boots and shoes, firearms, locomotives, steamers, farming tools, silverware, watches, jewelry, clocks, fur- niture, pianos, all kinds of hardware, sewing machines, and paper. While so large a number of the people of this Tegion are engaged in manufacturing, thousands keep a large population busy, and yield nearly all the hard coal (anthracite) and almost half the iron used in the country. Here, too, is found nearly all the petroleum, or coal oil, of commerce, and natural gas wells are frequent. Zinc is found in New Jersey. For Recitation: II. I. The rivers in the northern part of the Atlantic Slope, and especially in New England, are short and rapid, and furnish water power for extensive manufacturing. Name the New En- gland States. 52 THE UNITED STATES. 2. The Merrimac River, in New England, fur- nishes more water power than any other river in the world. How can a river be said to move spindles ? Gloucester— A Fishing Port of Massachusetts Copy the following and fill the blanks: The largest city on the River is , and it is sometimes called ' ' . " 3. Copy the list of manufactured articles and commit it to memory. 4. Lumber — where produced. 5. Cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries off the coast of Maine and Massachusetts are important. 6. Marble and granite quarries are extensive in Vermont and New Hampshire. 7. Large quantities of coal, iron, and petroleum are found in Pennsylvania, on the eastern side of the mountains. Zinc is found in New Jersey. III. Farming and Commerce in the North. For Reading: We have found so many people engaged in the factories, forests, fisheries, quarries, and mines of the northern states of the Atlantic Slope that you will, perhaps,^ be surprised to learn that more people are engaged in farming than in any of the other employments — New England being espe- cially famous for sheep and cattle; New York for rf,,^ butter, cheese, and horses; New Jersey and Delaware for garden vegetables, berries, and orchard fruits; and Pennsylva- nia for the varied farm products of its rich valleys. What becomes of all that is made in the factories, all the fish caught from the sea, all the marble and granite cut from the quarries, all the anthracite and iron dug from the mines, all the coal oil taken from the oil wells? Are they all used by the people of these states north of the Chesapeake Bay.? No. 'Very great quantities of all these things, and some things produced on the farms, are sold to foreign countries and to other states of our own country. In exchange the people receive articles which they need, and which they do not make or raise, such as tea, coffee, sugar, molasses, spices, fruits, silks, wool, leather, tin, india rubber, and medi- cines. This work of exchange gives another occupation for a large number of the people — the occupation of commerce. We may now begin to appreciate the fine har- bors along the northeastern coast of the United States, which furnish a safe place for thousands of ships to lie at anchor while loading goods for export and unloading goods which they have brought from other countries. The largest and most important cities of the country — Boston, New York, Brooklyn, and Phil- adelphia — are built around these harbors. The Delaware River makes a harbor for the city of Reading Hour: Fox Hunting, p. iii, Red Fox. ATLANTIC SLOPE. 53 New York Shipping. Philadelphia. New York is the largest city in the United States, and is the great center of trade with foreign countries and between the states of our own country. Its trade with the states of our own country is carried on by means of canals, rivers, the Great Lakes, and almost countless railroads that extend over the Appalachian Mountains and run in all directions through the Great Central Plain and across the Plateau Region to the Pacific Slope. You will find it well to remember that the largest cities of the world, and the most thickly settled countries, are found wherever there are the hest advantages for commerce and manufactures. For Recitation: III. I. Name the farm products for which New England is chiefly noted. New York. Delaware and New Jersey. Pennsylvania. 2. Exports from states north of the Chesapeake Eay. 3. Imports. 4. The harbors along the coast of this section give it great ad- vantages for commerce, which is one of the chief occupations of the people. 5. The great cities of the country are built around these harbors. New York is the largest city in the United States and is the most important com- mercial city. 6. How is the commerce be- tween New York and the inte- rior states carried on ? 7. Where are the largest cities and the greatest population of a country found ? Elevated Railway, New York. IV. Occupations and Productions in thk South. For Reading: South of the Chesapeake Bay, on the east side of the Appalachian Mountains, some mines of coal and iron are found, but the surface of the 54 THE UNITED STATES. country, the soil, and the climate, nearer to the coast, are so different from those of the states further north that the people follow very different occupations. Most of the country is laid out in large plantations, where tobacco, com, rice, and cotton are raised. Manufactures are, however, rapidly increasing. A great number of negroes live in these states and work on the plantations. They were once slaves, but are now free. The plantations of Virginia and Maryland are very extensive, producing great crops of com and tobacco. The most extensive oyster beds in the country are found in the Chesapeake Bay, oflf the coast of these two states. Rice, though yielding large crops on the up- land, is best grown on land that Hes a part of the time under water. The low, swampy coast of South Carolina and Georgia, which is overflowed by the tide, is therefore well adapted to the culti- vation of rice, making these two the great rice states of the country. Cotton is, however, the most important crop. The best quality, called sea island cotton, is raised on the low islands near the coast. All along the seacoast, from Virginia to Flor- ida, but especially in North Carolina, are immense forests of pitch pine trees, from which are obtained turpentine, tar, pitch, and resin. These are called naval stores, because so much used in and about ships. Turpentine is the sap of the tree; resin is made from turpentine, and pitch is made by boiling down the tar, which has been obtained by burning the gummy pine trees in a close fire. Other kinds of valuable trees grow in these southern forests, such as cedar, cypress, and juniper, from which shingles and staves are made; and Hve oak and white oak, much used in building ships. The wood of the red cedar trees of the Florida swamps is the best wood known for making lead pencils. Florida is chiefly noted for its orange groves and as a resort for invalids on account of its favorable climate. Sponge fishing and the manufacture of cigars is carried on at Key West, the most southerly town of the United States, situated on one of the little islands lying to the southwest of the mainland of Florida. From what has been said of the products of this section you will readily see that the exports must be tobacco, oysters, rice, cotton, pitch, tar, tur- pentine, and oranges. The chief imports are those of the northern sec- tion, except cotton, wool, and leather. Manufact- ured goods of all kinds are also largely imported. The chief cities are Baltimore, Washington, Charleston, and Atlanta. For Recitation: IV. I . Mines of coal and iron are found in the western mountains of the states south of the THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN. 55 Chesapeake Bay. The low country raises tobacco, com, rice, and cotton. 2. Negroes do most of the work on the planta- tions. 3. Com and tobacco are the chief crops of Vir- ginia and Maryland. Oyster fishing is important in Chesapeake Bay. 4. Rice and cotton are leading productions in South Carolina and Georgia. 5. Immense forests of pitch pine trees in North Carolina yield large supplies of turpentine, pitch, tar, and resin. What is turpentine? Resin? Pitch? Tar? What are they sometimes called? 6. Name four things that distinguish Florida. 7. Name the exports of the southern states of the Atlantic Slope. 8. Why should these states import manufact- ured goods ? Why should they not import cotton? Wool? Leather? 9. Name the leading cities of these states. THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN. I . Position — Extent — Surface — Soil — Climate. You have already learned that the Great Cen- tral Plain which we are now to study lies between the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west, and that it extends north and south between the Dominion of Can- ada and the Gulf of Mexico. From the crest of one of these mountain ranges to the crest of the other this plain takes up more than half the coun- try occupied by the whole United States except Alaska. You must not think, because it is called a plain, that this great region is all one level stretch of country. While it has mostly a level surface, you will see that its eastern side, where it rises up into the Appalachian Mountains, must be mountainous, and so must be the western side where it runs up the sides of the still higher Rocky Mountains. Besides this, a line of low, scattered mountains runs east and west through the southern part of the plain, along the northern border of Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and into the state of Mis- souri. Because nearly all the country of this plain inclines toward the Gulf of Mexico, it is some- times called the Gulf Slope. It is also frequently spoken of as the Mississippi Valley, because it is made up of slopes, nearly all of which incline toward the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Nearly all the level country north of the south- em line of Kansas, Missouri, and Kentucky is prairie, that is, country with a grassy turf and without trees. The soil throughout nearly the entire extent of the Mississippi Valley and the states lying on the Gulf of Mexico is the richest in the United States. The climate, like that of the Atlantic Slope, is warm and winterless in the south, with ver>' heavy rainfalls, growing colder toward the north as we approach the Canadian line. For Recitation: 1. I. Bound the Great Central Plain. How does it compare in size with the rest of the United States except Alaska ? 2. This region is mostly level, but is mount- ainous on the east and west borders. Low mount- ains cross the southern part. 3. What other names are sometimes given to the Great Central Plain? Why is it sometimes called the Gulf Slope? Why, sometimes, the Mississippi Valley? 4. What is a prairie? What part of this Great Plain is prairie? 56 THE UNITED STATES. 5. What can you say of the soil of the Great Central Plain ? The climate ? II. Productions. For Reading: In looking at the productions of the Great Cen- tral Plain, let us begin with those that were there before white men came. We shall find rich mines of coal and iron all along the western side of the Alleghany Mountains, especially in western Penn- sylvania, for we must not forget that a part of Pennsylvania is in the Central Plain. We shall find the great coal beds extending over a large part of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois; and coal and iron in large quantities in Missouri. Copper is found along the southern coast of Lake Superior. Large quantities of lead are found in a consid- erable region of country where Illinois, Wiscon- sin, and Iowa come together; also in Missouri, southern Kansas, and the Rocky Mountains. The richest mines of lead are in the mountains of southern Colorado. Salt is found in many places. The eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains con- tain rich mines of gold and silver. Besides the minerals that abound, there are, along the sides of the eastern mountain ranges, and for scores of miles among the hills that extend from the mountains into the low land, and on much of the low land itself, fine forests of chest- nut, cherry, and walnut trees, so greatly prized for the manufacture of household furniture. Away to the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, extensive forests of pine supply lumber for dwellings, stores, warehouses, and factories. In the western part of this plain, wherever the prairies have not been plowed for cultivation, a tall and nutritious wild grass grows, furnishing pasture for thousands of cattle and horses in the summer and hay for them in the winter months. But the chief source of the wealth of this region is found in the crops raised by tilling the soil. It is easy to make farms, because so many thou- sands of miles are prairie land, and all ready for THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN. 57 place to cotton fields and sugar plantations, the chief source of the wealth of this section. Texas, the most southern and the largest state in the Union, is most noted for its immense herds of cattle. the plow. Corn is the principal grain and yields large crops all the way from north to south. It is also the chief grain used to fatten cattle and hogs, which, with horses and mules, are raised in great numbers in all parts of this plain. Kentucky is the most famous state in the Union for its fine breeds of horses. North of the line of the Ohio River great crops of wheat are raised, Dakota and Minnesota being the most important wheat- growing states. This northern section is also rich in all the orchard fruits of the Temperate Zone — apples, peaches, cherries, plums, and pears — as well as in the common grains, hay, and veg- etables, such as oats, rye, barley, potatoes, beets, turnips, etc. Sheep and wool, also, add much to the wealth of this section. As we go south, into the warmer and moister climate, we shall find, in the states that border on the gulf, the wheat fields and orchards giving ■For Recitation: II. I. Rich mines of iron, coal, copper, lead, and silver are found in different parts of the Great Central Plain. Look at the map and tell where each is found. Write three uses of lead. 2. Cherry, chestnut, and walnut trees are found in the eastern part of this plain, and pine forests Cotton Field. in the north. Which for furniture ? Which for building ? 3. A rich wild grass grows in the prairies that have not been plowed. 4. Corn is the principal grain, and yields well everywhere from north to south. What is its chief use.^ 5. Cattle, hogs, horses, and mules are raised in 58 THE UNITED STATES. great numbers in all parts of the Great Central Plain. Kentucky is especially famous for its horses, 6. North of the line of the Ohio River large crops of wheat and other common grains, orchard fruits, and vegetables are raised. Dakota and Minnesota are the great wheat-growing states. Sheep and wool are sources of large wealth. 7. In the states on the gulf, ^cotton and sugar are the chief productions. Texas has immense herds of cattle. III. Occupations — Cities. For Reading: When we know the productions of a country we can tell the occupations of the people, can we not? What, then, would you say the people of this Great Central Plain are doing ? If you have read attentively what has been told of its produc- tions your answer will be: Mining for coal, iron, copper, lead, gold, and silver; timber cutting for lumber to make furniture, and other lumber to build houses; hay cutting on the prairies and the meadows; grain farming; raising stock; raising fruit; and growing cotton and sugar. What is done with all this vast production? The iron is made into locomotives, steam engines, farming tools, and countless other things; the lumber is worked into furniture and buildings; the cattle and hogs are made into beef and pork; the milk into butter and cheese; the wheat into flour; the cotton and wool into cloth — and this gives for thousands of people a new business, the business of manufacturing. Can the people who live in this region use so much? And if not, what will they do with their surplus ? And do they need nothing except what they raise and manufacture? If they do, how are they to get it? When we think of these questions we shall find a great call for men to engage in trade, or commerce. Is commerce easy in this country ? Look on the map and see. See that chain of great lakes at the north which ships and steamers may traverse through the St. Lawrence River and the canals to the Atlantic Ocean. See the long Mississippi River, large enough for the passage of steamers from the gulf almost to Canada; and the Missouri River, that can take them into the northwest; and the Ohio, the Ar- kansas, and the Red Rivers, each furnishing a channel for multitudes of these craft of commerce. As the country has a level surface, railroads are easily built, and you will find them everj' where throughout this region, where there is produce to be taken to market. You will remember that great cities are built up by commerce and manufactures, and, therefore, when studying the map, you found in this rich country, on the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Missouri Rivers, and on the Great Lakes, some of the largest and most prosperous cities of the United States. Chicago is the largest grain and pork market in the world. Cincinnati and St. Louis are noted for their great wealth, manufactures, and com- merce. St. Paul and Minneapolis are extensive milling and flouring cities. Kansas City is dis- tinguished for its beef packing, and Denver is the commercial center of the gold and silver region. For Recitation: III. I. Make a list of the chief occupations of the people of the Great Central Plain. 2 . The chief manufactures are locomotives, farm machinery, hardware, furniture, beef and pork, butter and cheese, flour, and woolen goods. 3. The Great Lakes, long, navigable rivers, and THE GREAT PLATEAU REGION. 59 numerous railroads make the Central Plain an important commercial region. Grain, flour, beef, pork, cattle, horses, butter and cheese, and woolen goods are the chief exports. 4. Name the cities of this region mentioned in the map questions and tell where they are located. For what is Chicago distinguished? Cincinnati and St. lyouis ? St. Paul and Minneapolis ? Kan- sas City? Denver? THE GREAT PLATEAU REGION. For Reading: The region that we are now to study is that lying between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains. The country, which is wild and mountainous, is celebrated for its fine scenerj'^, and abounds in great table lands, ^ or plateaus. In Colorado there are four famous elevated nat- ural parks, surrounded by high mountains which have not less than 200 peaks reaching a height of two and a half miles. Some of these parks are as large as the state of New Jersey. Near the center of this division lies a great basin whose rivers either sink into the soil or flow into lakes that have no outlet. Of these rivers the Humboldt, in Nevada, is the most important, and of the lakes. Great Salt Lake, in Utah, is the largest. Salt Lake City, with streams of pure mountain water running constantly along the sides of its wide, clean streets, stands near this lake. But while the country" is generally mountainous, it must be remembered that there are some very prett3' and fertile valleys and some broad and pro- ductive plains. Much of Utah and eastern Idaho ofiers ver>' good farming land, and is quite well cultivated. This land is usually supplied with moisture by carrying water upon it through ditches cut from streams that flow through the country. 1 Reading Hour« Scribner's Geographical Reader, pp. 66-70, On the Table I,and. Templh and Taberxacle, S\lt I,^k In eastern Washington are wide stretches of plain, upon which large crops of wheat are annu- ally raised. Much of the country is also well adapted to grazing, and cattle raising is an im- portant industry. The great wealth of the Plateau Region, how- ever, is in its mines of gold and silver, the richest and most extensive in the world. The richest sil- ver mines ever known have been found at Virginia City, Nevada. A little boy called this region the "Natural National Bank of the United States." 'For Recitation: 1 . What is the country between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains called? What is a plateau ? 2. Four great natural parks are found in the plateau region of Colorado. 3. Near the center of the Great Plateau Region lies a basin whose rivers sink into the ground or flow into lakes that have no outlet. 4. Small strips of fertile land are found in this region. Where? There is also much good graz- ing country. To what industry does it give rise? 5. In what does the chief wealth of this coun- 6o THE UNITED STATES. try consist ? What of the mines at Virginia City ? What did a httle boy call the Plateau Region ? THE PACIFIC SLOPE. I. Position — Surface — Climate — Coast Line — Seaports. For Reading: The states of this division are Oregon, Wash- ington, and California. A part of each of these states lies in the great interior region that we have just studied, but the richest and most populous portions are found west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Three celebrated farming valleys lie in this division; the valley of Pii'get Sound, at the ex- treme north in Washington ; further south, in Oregon, the fertile valley of the Will Sm'ette; and still further south the California Basin, or the val- ley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The climate of these states does not vary so much from north to south as that of the Atlantic states. From west to east, however, there is con- siderable variation in moisture, much more rain falling near the coast than farther inland, and especially east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The coast line of these states does not give many good harbors. San Francisco Bay, on whose shores the great city of San Francisco stands, is the best of these, and one of the best in the world. Puget Sound also affords good harborage, Tacoma and Seattle being the princi- pal ports; and a fine harbor is found in San Diego Bay. The Columbia River carries ocean steamers about I GO miles into the state of Oregon. These steamers find harbor at the city of Portland, on the Willamette River, twelve miles from its mouth. For Recitation: I. I. What states are found in the Pacific Slope? In what other division do they partly lie ? In which division are the richest and most pop- ulous portions of these states ? 2. Name the three great farming valleys of this division. Tell where each lies. 3. The climate varies less from north to south than in the states of the Atlantic Slope. More rain falls near the coast than farther inland. 4. What of the coast line? Name the three harbors on the coast and their ports. Where is Portland harbor? How far from the seacoast? II. Productions — Manufactures — Com- merce. For Reading: The mineral wealth of this region is very great. The mountains of eastern and southern California yield millions of dollars in gold and silver every year, while the coal mines along the shores of Puget Sound supply the cities and manufactories of the Pacific states with fuel. The forests of western Washington, bordering on Puget Sound, are the most valuable in the United States, furnishing timber for masts and spars of ships. Very valuable forests of fir and pine are also found in Oregon, and of redwood and pine in California. In farm products Oregon and Washington are chiefly distinguished for the large quantity and excellent quality of wheat raised, though the com- mon orchard fruits yield well and are of fine qual- ity. Oregon apples are much sought in California markets. California is by far the richest of the states of this division in the products of the soil. It is famous throughout this country and Europe for its wheat, orchard fruits, grapes, oranges, limes, and olives. Cattle and sheep raising are important indus- tries in California and Oregon, the wool crop PACIFIC SLOPE— ALASKA. 6i especially giving these states great prominence. Oregon is famous also for its salmon fisheries. More salmon are caught in the Columbia River than anywhere else in the world. In California much attention is given to manu- factures, especially to the manufacture of wines, raisins, flour, woolen cloth, canned and dried fruits, and refined sugars. The exports of this region will be seen from its productions. From the ports of the north the exports are wool, ship timber, and canned goods — chiefly salmon ; from San Francisco go wheat, flour, wines, lumber, woolen goods, fresh, dried, and canned fruits. The imports through San Francisco from China, Japan, and Europe are very great. Only three cities in the United States have a larger foreign commerce. For Recitation: II. I. Mines — Gold and silver, coal. 2. Forests — Where? What? 3. Washington and Oregon — Farm products. 4. California — Farm products. 5. Cattle and sheep. Wool. Fisheries. 6. Name the manufactures of California. 7. Name the exports from the northern ports of this division. From the southern. 8. How does San Francisco rank as a commer- cial city ? ALASKA. For Reading: Though Alaska is neither a state nor a terri- tory, we must not forget that it is now the prop- erty of the United States. It formerly belonged to Russia, and is about one sixth the size of the United States. One third of Alaska is in the Frigid Zone. The part that lies in the Arctic Slope consists of frozen ^^^^^^^^^rf ^^^^^^.^ ^H ^=^^*iSs5s^Jfc^ t ~~ ^^^^S^^^^^H^^Bh^^^^^Et^^^^^^^^ An Alaskan Grave. swamps ; that part bordering on the Pacific Ocean has a mild and moist climate. The Yukon River, in Alaska, is one of the longest in the United States, and its sides are covered with evergreen forests. The chief seal fisheries of the world are on the islands of Alaska. The seals are killed by club- bing them on the head. The skins taken are from the young males onl}'. The fur of the seal is of a dark gray color, and is dyed before being made into clothing. There are but few white people in Alaska. Most of the inhabitants are Indians. For Recitation: 1 . Alaska formerly belonged to Russia, and is about one sixth as large as the United States. 2. The climate along the Pacific Ocean is mild and moist. The Yukon River is one of the longest in the United States. 62 THE UNITED STATES. 3. Seal fishing is the chief occupation of the people of Alaska, who are mostly Indians. REVIEW QUESTIONS. North America. 1. Name the four Natural Divisions of North America. Give the location of each, beginning with the eastern division. Into what two slopes is the Great Central Plain divided? By what is it divided? Where is the ■chain of Great Lakes located? 2. Who inhabited North America before the European .■settlers? Give the location of each class of the original inhabitants. How long ago were the first European set- tlements made? Where, in North America, is the French language chiefly spoken? Where does the English lan- guage prevail? The Spanish? 3. In what part of North America are iron and coal chiefly found? What is the advantage of their being found near together? Where shall we find copper and lead? Where are the gold and silver and quicksilver mines? What is the advantage in finding gold and